The Statesman's Yearbook: 1987–1988 [124th ed., Reprint 2021] 9783112420683, 9783112420676

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THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1987-1988

Man hat behauptet, die Welt werde durch Zahlen regiert: das aber weiss ich, dass die Zahlen uns belehren, ob sie gut oder schlecht regiert werde. GOETHE Editors Frederick Martin Sir John Scott-Keltie Mortimer Epstein S. H. Steinberg John Paxton

1864-1883 1883-1926 1911/27-1946 1946-1969 1963/69-

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL A N N U A L OF THE STATES OF THE WORLD FOR THE YEAR

1987-1988 EDITED BY

JOHN PAXTON

W G_ DE

WALTER DE GRUYTER

© The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1987 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission ofthis publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions ofthe Copyright Act 1956 (as amended). Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Published annually since 1864 124th edition first published 1987 by T H E MACMILLAN PRESS L T D London and Basingstoke and WALTER DE GRUYTER & CO. Berlin Typeset in Great Britain by MB GRAPHIC (TYPESETTING) SERVICES Dunstable, Bedfordshire Printed in Great Britain by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press) Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk

ISBN 311 011379 1

TO THE MEMORY OF

HAROLD MACMILLAN FIRST EARL OF STOCKTON O.M., P.C. 1894-1986

PREFACE The 124th edition of T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, is dedicated to the memory of Harold Macmillan, the first Earl of Stockton. Five generations of the Macmillan family have taken an active interest in the publication; Alexander (who commissioned the first edition which was published in 1864), Sir Frederick, Harold, Maurice and again Alexander, the second Earl of Stockton. Harold Macmillan knew and gave helpful advice to four of the five editors in the publication's 124-year history. A new departure for T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK is the inclusion of an index of names, which, it is hoped, will act as a who's who of prominent currently-active personalities. In the 1983-84 edition the editor reported that in the Albanian elections there were 8 spoiled papers and 1 vote against. The results of the-1987 elections show that once again there was 1 vote against but he cannot report any record of spoiled papers. As usual the editor is very grateful for the enormous help from all his hundreds of correspondents and would remind readers that T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK WORLD GAZETTEER, now in its third edition, is available for those who require more details about individual regions, cities and towns. J.P. THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK OFFICE, THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD, LITTLE ESSEX STREET, LONDON, W C 2 R 3 L F

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES On 1 Jan. 1960 following an agreement between the standards laboratories of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the USA, an international yard and an international pound (avoirdupois) came into existence. 1 yard=91-44 centimetres; 1 lb.=453-59237 grammes. The abbreviation'm' signifies 'million(s)' and tonnes implies metric tons.

LENGTH

Centimetre Metre Kilometre

DRY MEASURE

0-394 inch 1 -094 yards 0 • 621 mile

Litre Hectolitre WEIGHT—

Gramme Kilogramme Quintal ( = 100 kg) Tonne (= 1,000 kg)

LIQUID MEASURE

Litre Hectolitre

1-75 pints 22 gallons

SURFACE MEASURE

Square metre Hectare Square kilometre

0-91 quart 2-75 bushels -AVOIRDUPOIS

15-42 grains 2-205 pounds 220-46 pounds i 0-984 long ton 11-102 short tons

WEIGHT—TROY

10 • 76 sq. feet 2-47 acres 0-386 sq. mile

Gramme Kilogramme

15-43 grains i 32 • 15 ounces 1 2-68 pounds

BRITISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

LENGTH

1 foot 1 yard 1 mile (= 1,760 yds)

WEIGHT

0-305 metre 0-914 metre

1 ounce (= 437-2 grains) 28-350 grammes lib. (=7,000 grains) 453-6 grammes 1 cwt. (= 112 50-802 kilolb.) grammes 1 long ton (= 1-016 tonnes 2,2401b.) 1 short ton (= 2,0001b.) 0-907 tonne

1 -609 kilometres

SURFACE MEASURE

1 sq. foot 1 sq. yard 1 acre 1 sq. mile

LIQUID MEASURE

9 • 290 sq. decimetres 0-836 sq. metre 1 pint 0-405 hectare 1 gallon 2 • 590 sq. kilometres 1 quarter viii

0-568 litre 4-546 litres 2-909 hectolitres

CONTENTS Comparative Statistical Tables WHEAT

XV

MILLET

xvi xvii xviii xix

RYE BARLEY OATS MAIZE RICE

SUGAR PETROLEUM LIFE EXPECTANCY

XX

T E R R I T O R I A L SEA LIMITS

CHRONOLOGY

Parti:

XXI

SORGHUM

xxii xxiii xxiv xxvi xxix

XXXÜi

International

Organizations

The United Nations GENERAL ASSEMBLY

3

SECURITY C O U N C I L

4

ECONOMIC A N D SOCIAL C O U N C I L

5

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

6

I N T E R N A T I O N A L C O U R T OF JUSTICE

6

SECRETARIAT

7

BUDGET

7

MEMBER STATES OF THE UN

7

U N I T E D N A T I O N S SYSTEM

9

Specialized Agencies International Atomic Energy Agency (i AEA) International Labour Organisation (i LO) Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Health Organization (WHO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (i B R D ) International Development Association (i D A ) International Finance Corporation (i FC ) ' International Civil Aviation Organization (ic AO) Universal Postal Union (UPU) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) International Maritime Organization (i MO) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) World Intellectual Property Organization (w i PO) International Fund for Agricultural Development (i F AD) Other International Organizations

12 12 14 15 16 18 20 21 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 26 27

THE C O M M O N W E A L T H W O R L D C O U N C I L OF C H U R C H E S

27 31

ix

X

CONTENTS

INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNIONISM

32

EUROPEAN ORGANIZATIONS

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Western European Union (WEU) Council of Europe European Communities European Free Trade Association (EFT A) The Warsaw Pact Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)

COLOMBO PLAN ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN) ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES (OAS) LATIN AMERICAN ECONOMIC GROUPINGS CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM) SOUTH PACIFIC FORUM ARAB LEAGUE ORGANIZATION OF THE PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC)

34 35 38 39 41 46 47 48 49 51 51 53 54 55 56 57

ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU)

57

DANUBE COMMISSION

58

Part II: Countries of the World A-Z AFGHANISTAN ALBANIA ALGERIA ANDORRA ANGOLA ANGUILLA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA ARGENTINA AUSTRALIA

Territories Australian Capital Territory Northern Territory Australian External Territories States New South Wales Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria Western Australia AUSTRIA BAHAMAS BAHRAIN BANGLADESH BARBADOS BELGIUM

61 66 72 77 79 83 85 88 95 119 120 124 128 136 142 147 152 159 168 174 179 184 190 193

BELIZE BENIN BERMUDA BHUTAN BOLIVIA BOTSWANA BRAZIL BRITISH

ANTARCTIC

TERRITORY B R I T I S H INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY BRUNEI BULGARIA BURKINA FASO BURMA BURUNDI CAMBODIA CAMEROON CANADA

Provinces Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Nova Scotia • Ontario

203 207 211 214 217 223 227 237 237 238 242 249 253 258 261 265 269 294 295 299 302 305 309 313 316

CONTENTS

Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Territories Northwest Territories Yukon Territory

320 321 324 327 329

C A P E VERDE

333

CAYMAN I S L A N D S

336

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

338

CHAD

341

CHILE

344

C H I N A , P E O P L E ' S R E P U B L I C OF 3 5 0 TAIWAN COLOMBIA COMOROS CONGO COSTA RICA CÔTE D ' I V O I R E CUBA CYPRUS

'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' CZECHOSLOVAKIA DENMARK DJIBOUTI DOMINICA DOMINICAN REPUBLIC ECUADOR EGYPT EL SALVADOR EQUATORIAL GUINEA ETHIOPIA F A L K L A N D ISLANDS FIJI FINLAND FRANCE

Overseas Departments Guadeloupe Guiana Martinique Réunion Territorial Collectivities Mayotte St Pierre and Miquelon Overseas territories Antarctic territories New Caledonia French Polynesia Wallis and Futuna

363 368 374 377 381 386 390 396 401 403 411 426 429 431 436 442 449 454 457 462 465 469 479 495 497 498 500 502 504 506 506 509 511

GABON

513

GAMBIA

517

GERMANY

520

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC R E P U B L I C (EAST)

521

GERMANY, FEDERAL R E P U B L I C OF ( W E S T )

Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Berlin (West) Bremen Hamburg Hessen Lower Saxony North Rhine-Westphalia Rhineland-Palatinate Saarland Schleswig-Holstein

527

539 540 542 543 544 546 547 549 550 552 554

GHANA

556

GIBRALTAR

561

GREECE

564

GRENADA

571

GUATEMALA

574

GUINEA

579

GUINEA-BISSAU

582

GUYANA

585

HAITI

590

HONDURAS

595

HONG KONG

600

HUNGARY

607

ICELAND

615

INDIA

622

States and Territories Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh • Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab

644 645 647 647 649 650 652 653 654 656 658 660 663 665 666 667 667 669 671

xii

CONTENTS

Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Delhi Goa, Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Pondicherry INDONESIA IRAN IRAQ IRELAND ISRAEL ITALY JAMAICA JAPAN JORDAN KENYA KIRIBATI K O R E A , R E P U B L I C OF

North Korea KUWAIT LAOS LEBANON LESOTHO LIBERIA LIBYA LIECHTENSTEIN LUXEMBOURG MADAGASCAR MALAWI MALAYSIA

Peninsular Malaysia Sabah Sarawak M A L D I V E S , R E P U B L I C OF MALI MALTA MAURITANIA MAURITIUS

672 674 676 678 680 681

851 859 861 866 868 874 878 880 884 896 898 901 920 925 928 934 946

MEXICO MONACO MONGOLIA MONTSERRAT MOROCCO MOZAMBIQUE

683 684 685 686 687 688 688 690 697 703 708 723 731 743 748 756 761 766 769 774 779 783 787 792 795 799 804 807 811 815 819 824 827 829 833 835 838 844 847

NAURU NEPÂL NETHERLANDS

Aruba Netherlands Antilles NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA NIGER NIGERIA NORWAY

Dependencies

949 954 964 970 976 982 988 994 995 1005 1011 1014 1017 1025

OMAN PAKISTAN PANAMA PAPUA NEW GUINEA PARAGUAY PERU PHILIPPINES PITCAIRN POLAND PORTUGAL

Macao QATAR ROMANIA RWANDA ST C H R I S T O P H E R ( K I T T S ) NEVIS ST HELENA ST L U C I A ST V I N C E N T SAN M A R I N O SÄO TOMÉ S A U D I ARABIA SENEGAL SEYCHELLES SIERRA LEONE SINGAPORE SOLOMON I S L A N D S SOMALIA

-

1028 1030 1032 1034 1037 1039 1041 1048 1052 1055 1060 1067 1070

CONTENTS SOUTH AFRICA, R E P U B L I C OF

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA 1073

South-West Africa/Namibia Bophuthatswana Transkei Venda Ciskei

1091 1094 1097 1098 1100

SOUTH GEORGIA AND THE SOUTH SANDWICH ISLANDS

1102

SPAIN

Western Sahara SRI L A N K A

1103

1115 1116

SUDAN

1124

SURINAME

1129

SWAZILAND

1133

SWEDEN

1137

SWITZERLAND

1153

SYRIA

1164

TANZANIA

1168

THAILAND

1173

TOGO

1180

TO N G A

1184

T R I N I D A D AND TOBAGO

1187

TUNISIA

1191

TURKEY

1196

T U R K S A N D CAICOS I S L A N D S

1204

TUVALU

1206

UGANDA

1208

U N I O N OF SOVIET SOCIALIST R E P U B L I C S

Russia Ukraine Belorussia Azerbaijan Georgia Armenia Moldavia Estonia Latvia Lithuania Central Asia Kazakhstan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Tadzhikistan Kirghizia U N I T E D ARAB EMIRATES UNITED KINGDOM

Great Britain Northern Ireland Isle of Man Channel Islands

1212

1241 1251 1253 1254 1257 1260 1262 1263 1265 1266 1268 1269 1271 1272 1275 1277 1280 1285

1285 1351 1360 1362

States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Outlying Territories Guam Freely-Associated States Republic of Palau Samoa Other Pacific Territories Puerto Rico Virgin Islands

1367

1423 1424 1427 1430 1432 1434 1437 1440 1442 1444 1446 1449 1451 1453 1455 1458 1461 1463 1465 1467 1470 1473 1475 1478 1481 1484 1486 1489 1491 1494 1497 1499 1501 1503 1507 1509 1511 1514 1517 1521 1524 1526 1528 1531 1533 1536 1538 1540 1542 1545 1547 1551 1553 1554 1556 1557 1558 1560 1560 1563

CONTENTS

XIV URUGUAY

1566

VANUATU

1571

VATICAN CITY

STATE

1574

VENEZUELA

1577

VIETNAM VIRGIN

1584

ISLANDS,

WESTERN

BRITISH

SAMOA

YEMEN ARAB R E P U B L I C YEMEN,

1590 1592 1595

PEOPLE'S DEMO-

CRATIC

REPUBLIC

OF

1598

P L A C E AND I N T E R N A T I O N A L PRODUCT

YUGOSLAVIA

Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Kosovo Vojvodina Slovenia

1602 1610 1611 1611 1612 1612 1613 1614 1614

ZAÏRE

1615

ZÀMBIA

1620

ZIMBABWE

1624

ORGANIZATIONS

INDEX 1631

INDEX 1677

NAME I N D E X 1 6 8 5 A D D E N D A XXXX

I

I

I

XV

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#

•

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The aircraft carrier Independence, ex- Warrior, purchased from the U K in 1958 was withdrawn from service in 1971. 2 E x - K a r e l Doorman, purchased from the Netherlands in 1968, ex-Venerable, purchased from U K in 1948. J The cruiser General Belgrano, ex-Phoenix, purchased f r o m the USA in 1951 was sunk by the British fleet submarine Conqueror in May 1982. Sister ship Nueve de Julio (ex-USS Bloise) was withdrawn from service in 1980. The cruiser La Argentina was stricken from the list in 1975.

There are 2 modern German-built diesel powered submarines, 2 older Germanbuilt smaller diesel-driven submarines, 4 modern German-built destroyers, 2 modern British-built destroyers (Type 42), 2 m o d e m German-designed medium frigates, 3 modern French-built small frigates, 2 old training frigates, 4 coastal minesweepers, 2 minehunters, 5 patrol vessels (armed ocean tugs), 2 fast patrol vessels, 2 torpedo boats, 6 patrol craft, 3 survey ships, 2 survey launches, 2 training ships, 4 transports, 2 oilers, 2 tank landing ships, 20 minor landing craft, 60 auxiliary amphibious craft, 2 polar ships, 20 ancillary vessels and service craft and 10 tugs. The new construction programme includes 4 diesel-powered patrol submarines (one building and three projected), and 4 fast frigates. The diesel-powered submarine Sante Fe, ex-USS Catfish, was damaged and beached during the Falklands invasion in April 1982, and was later sunk in deep water. The active personnel of the Navy in 1987 comprised 24,000 (2,000 officers and 14,000 ratings, and 8,000 conscripts). The Marine Corps numbered 4,500.

ARGENTINA

91

The Prefectura Naval Argentina (PNA) for Coast Guard and rescue duties comprises five new 910-ton corvettes with helicopter and hangar, an ex-whaler of 1,000 tons, 7 patrol vessels, 41 coastal patrol craft and a training ship. The Naval Aviation Service has some 100 fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters with 3,000 personnel, in 6 wings. Aircraft include 14 Super Entendard fighters, 5 A-4Q Skyhawk attack bombers, 16 Aermacchi M.B. 326 and 10 M.B.339A light jet armed trainers, 6 Lockheed Electra maritime surveillance aircraft and 6 S-2E ship-based Tracker anti-submarine aircraft, and a dozen types of training, transport and general purpose aircraft, plus 2 types of helicopters. A variable mix of Super Entendards, Skyhawks, Trackers and Sea King and Alouette helicopters operated from the aircraft carrier. Air Force. The Air Force, founded on 10 Aug. 1912 and autonomous since 4 Jan. 1945, is organized into Air Operations, Air Regions, Materiel and Personnel Commands. Air Operations Command, responsible for all operational flying, is made up of air brigades, each with 1 to 4 squadrons, usually operating from a single base. No. I Air Brigade is a military air transport service, with responsibility also for LADE (state airline) operations into areas of Argentina not served by civilian companies. Its equipment includes 7 C-130E/H Hercules and 10 F.27 Friendship/ Troopship turboprop transports, 2 K.C-130H Hercules tanker/transports, 5 twinturbofan F.28 Fellowship freighters, 5 Twin Otters, 15 Guaraní lis, the Presidential Boeing 707-320B and 707-320C, 4 more 707s, 2 VIP Fellowships, and many older or smaller types. No. II Air Brigade has 5 Canberra twin-jet bombers and 2 Canberra trainers; a photographic squadron with Guarani lis and Leaijets. No. Ill Air Brigade has 2 squadrons of IA 58 Pucara twin-turboprop COIN aircraft. No. IV Air Brigade comprises 2 ground attack squadrons equipped with about 30 Paris light jet combat and liaison aircraft. No. V Air Brigade comprises 2 squadrons with a total of about 30 A-4P Skyhawk strike aircraft. No. VI Air Brigade has 40 Dagger (Israeli-built Mirage III) fighters, equipping 2 squadrons. No. VII Air Brigade has 2 COIN, general-purpose, and search and rescue squadrons with 12 armed Hughes 500M, 5 Lama, 5 Sikorsky S-58T/S-61, 8 Bell 212 and 9 Bell UH-1 helicopters. No. VIII Air Brigade has 1 squadron with 14 Mirage IIIE fighter-bombers and 2 Mirage IIID trainers. No. X Air Brigade has 2 squadrons of Mirage IIIC fighters. There is a flying school at Córdoba, equipped with piston-engined T-34 Mentors and Paris jets. There were (1987) about 15,000 personnel and 180 combat aircraft. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Argentina is a member of UN, OAS and LAIA (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY

Budget. The financial year commences on 1 Nov. Budget receipts in 1985 6,517m. australes and expenditure 8,811 m. australes. Currency. The monetary system is on a gold-exchange standard, the unit for foreign transactions being, nominally, the peso oro (gold peso) and for domestic transactions, the A ustral (paper peso), legal tender for all domestic debts. The gold peso weighs 1-6129 grammes of gold 0-900 fine; it is divided into 100 centavos, but gold is not in circulation. Circulation consists chiefly of paper notes (issued since 1897) ranging from lOOausfra/esdownto 10 cents. The coins actually circulating, 1985, were steel-nickel, 5,1 and Vi cents. In March 1987, US$1 = 1-396 austral; £1=2-171 austral. Banking. In 1984 there were 35 government banks, 141 private banks and 33 foreign banks. The total foreign debt at 31 Dec. 1984 was US$48m. Weights and Measures. Since 1 Jan. 1887 the use of the metric system has been compulsory. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power production (1985) was 40,500m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz.

92

ARGENTINA

Oil. Crude oil production (1986) 93-lm. tonnes from 1,013 oil wells. Investment of US$ 10,000m. is envisaged by 1985 in the oil industry with the aim of achieving self-sufficiency. Gas. Natural gas production (1983) 13,500,000m. cu. metres. Minerals. Argentina produced 600,000 tonnes of washed coal in 1983. Gold, silver and copper are worked in Catamarca, where there are also 2 tin-mines, and gold and copper in San Juan, La Rioja and the south-western territories. Iron ore (90,000 tonnes in 1983), tungsten, beryllium, mica, uranium (30 tonnes in 1983), lead (32,000 tonnes in 1983), barites, zinc (43,500 tonnes in 1972), tin (l-8m. tonnes in 1972), manganese and limestone are produced. Agriculture. Argentina has an area of about 670,251,000 acres, of which about 41% is pasture land, 32% woodland and 11% (73-73m. acres) cultivated. Livestock (1985): Cattle 54-8m.; sheep, 29m.; pigs, 3-8m.; horses, 3 1 m . The Province of Buenos Aires has 38% of the cattle. Wool production, 1983, was 126,000 tonnes. Total grain harvest (1984) 42-5m. tonnes. Wheat production (1985) 8-5m. tonnes from 5 • 3m. hectares. Argentina's meat exports, are calculated in terms of actual weight; not 'carcase weight', as is the international practice. In 1983, 84-16m. tons of meat were exported. Cotton, potatoes, vine, tobacco, citrus fruit, olives, rice, soya, and yerba maté (Paraguayan tea) are also cultivated. There are 36 cane-sugar mills and 1 beet-sugar factory; cane-sugar production, 1985, 1 lm. tonnes. Potato harvest, 1985, amounted to 2m. tonnes. The area under tobacco, 1985, was 50,000 hectares; output 61,000 tonnes. Sunflower seed, first grown by Russian immigrants in 1900, now furnishes the country's most popular edible oil. There are more than 10m. olive trees, of which 48% are in Mendoza. 229,000 tonnes of groundnuts were produced in 1985 (mainly in Córdoba). Argentina is the world's largest source of tannin. Fisheries. Fish landings in 1983 amounted to 550,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production (1983 in tonnes) Paper, 873,000; steel, 2-95m.; sulphuric acid (1979), 279,066; cement (1979), 6-7m. Motor vehicles produced (1981) totalled, 172,350; television receivers, 262,000. Commerce. Import values include charges for carriage, insurance and freight; export values are on a f.o.b. basis. Real values of foreign trade (in US$ 1 m.), exclusive of coin and bullion: Imports Exports

1979 6,300 7,750

1980 10,541 8,021

1981 9,430 9,146 ' Provisional.

1982 5,337 7,625

1983 4,504 7,836

1984' 4,585 8,107

Total trade between Argentina and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 58,728 37,349

1983 194 4,472

1984 65 5,232

1985 2,032 3,815

1986 28,635 10,115

Tourism. In 1983,950,000 tourists visited Argentina. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1978 there were 207,630 km of national and provincial highways. The 4 main roads constituting Argentina's portion of the Pan-American Highway were opened to traffic in 1942. In 1985 there were 5-08m. cars and commercial vehicles. Railways. The system based on the 1949 amalgamation of 18 government, British and French-owned railways, comprises 7 railways with a total route-km in 1985 of

ARGENTINA

93

33,807 km (210 km electrified) on metre, 1,435 m m and 1,676 m m gauges. In 1984 railways carried 17 -6m. tonnes of freight and 345m. passengers. Aviation. There were (1980) 10 international airports. Commercial airlines flew a total of 94m. km in 1980, with 1 l , 1 0 4 t o n n e - k m a n d 10,469 passenger-km. Shipping. The merchant fleet, 31 Dec. 1976 (registered with Lloyd's), consisted of 1,869,662 G R T ; traffic during 1971: vessels of 13 -27m. G R T entered ports; 14m. tonnes of goods were unloaded and 10 • 6m. tonnes were loaded. Post and Broadcasting. In 1949 the telephone service was nationalized; instruments numbered 3,250,000 in 1984. There were (1984) 122 radio stations and 4 television channels in Buenos Aires. In 1984 there were 8m. radio receivers and 6 -5 m. television receivers. Cinemas (1972). Cinemas numbered 1,650, with seating capacity of611,400. Newspapers (1984). Daily newspapers numbered 297. Buenos Aires had (1984) 11 daily newspapers with a circulation of 2 -5m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by federal and provincial courts. The former deal only with cases of a national character, or in which different provinces or inhabitants of different provinces are parties. The chief federal court is the Supreme Court, with 5 judges at Buenos Aires. Other federal courts are the appeal courts, at Buenos Aires, Bahía Blanca, La Plata, Córdoba, Mendoza, Tucumán and Resistencia. Each province has its own judicial system, with a Supreme Court (generally so designated) and several minor chambers. Trial by jury is established by the Constitution for criminal cases, but never practised, except occasionally in the provinces of Buenos Aires and Córdoba. The death penalty was re-introduced in 1976 for the killing of government, military police and judicial officials, and for participation in terrorist activities. The police force is centralized under the Federal Security Council. Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is supported by the State and membership was 26m. in 1986. There are several Protestant denominations with a total congregation (1983) of500,000. The Jewish congregation numbered 300,000 in 1983. Education. In 1981 the primary schools had 218,294 teachers and 4,218,992 pupils; secondary schools had 191,096 teachers and 1,366,444 pupils. There are National Universities at Buenos Aires (2), Córdoba (2), La Plata, Tucumán, Santa Fé (Litoral), Rosario, Corrientes (Nordeste,), Mendoza (Cuyo), Bahía Blanca (Sur), Catamarca, Tandil, Neuquén (Comahue), San Salvador de Jujuy, Salta, Santa Rosa (La Pampa), Mar del Plata, Comodoro Rivadavia (Patagonia), Río Cuarto, Entre Ríos, Resistencia, San Juan and Santiago del Estero. There are also private universities in Buenos Aires (6), Mendoza (3), Córdoba, Comodoro Rivadavia, La Plata, Morón, Tucumán, Salta, Santa Fé and Santiago del Estero. In 1981 universities had 525,688 students and 54,039 lecturers. Health. Free medical attention is obtainable from public hospitals. Many trade unions provide medical, dental and maternity services for their members and dependants. A Ministry of Social Welfare was set up in 1966. In 1971 there were 2,864 hospitals with 133,847 beds and in 1975 there were 48,693 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Diplomatic links with Argentina were broken by Great Britain in April 1982 following the invasion of the Falkland Islands. Of Argentina in the USA (1600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Dr Enrique J. Candiotti. Of the USA in Argentina (4300 Colombia, Palermo, Buenos Aires) Ambassador: Theodore Gildred.

94

ARGENTINA

Of Argentina to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Marcelo E. R. Delpech.

Books of Reference Boletín del comercio exterio Argentino y estadísticas económicas retrospectivas. Annual A nuario de comercio exterior de la República Argentina. Annual Economic Review, Banco de ta Nación. Buenos Aires Síntesis Estadística Mensual. Dirección General de Estadística. Buenos Aires, 1947 fT. Boletín Internacional de Bibliografía Argentina. Ministry of Foreign Relations. Buenos Aires. Monthly Geografía de la República Argentino. Ed. by the Sociedad Argentina de Estudios Geográficos. 7 vols. Buenos Aires. 1945-53 Bridges, E. L., Uttermost Part ofthe Earth [Tierra del Fuego], New York, 1949 Crawley, E„ A House Divided: Argentina 1880-1980. London, 1984 Ferns, H. S., Britain and Argentina in the 19th Century. OUP, 1960.—The Argentine Republic 1516-1971. Newton Abbot, 1973 Graham-Yooll, A., The Forgotten Colony: A History of the English-Speaking Communities in Argentina. London, 1981 Rock, D., Argentina 1516-1982. London, 1986 Santillán, Diego A. de (ed.), Gran Enciclopedia Argentina. 9 vols. 1956-64 Simpson, J., and Bennett, J., The Disappeared: Voices from a Secret War. London, 1985 Wynia, G. W., Argentina. Hoddesdon, 1986

AUSTRALIA

Capital: Canberra Population: 15-45m. (1983) GNP per capita: US$11,172(1984)

H I S T O R Y . On 1 Jan. 1901 the former British colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania were federated under the name of the 'Commonwealth of Australia', the designation of 'colonies' being at the same time changed into that of'states'—except in the case of Northern Territory, which was transferred from South Australia to the Commonwealth as a 'territory' on 1 Jan. 1911. In 1911 the Commonwealth acquired from the State of New South Wales the Canberra site for the Australian capital. Building began in 1923 and Parliament was opened at Canberra on 9 May 1927 by HRH the Duke of York (afterwards King George VI). A further area at Jervis Bay was acquired in 1915. Territories under the administration of Australia in Jan. 1987, but not included in it, comprise Norfolk Island, the territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and the Australian Antarctic Territory (acquired 24 Aug. 1936), comprising all the islands and territory, other than Adelie Land, situated south of 60° S. lat. and between 160° and 45° E. long. The Coral Sea Islands became an External Territory in 1969. The British Government transferred sovereignty in the Heard Island and McDonald Islands to the Australian Government on 26 Dec. 1947. Cocos (Keeling) Islands on 23 Nov. 1955 and Christmas Island on 1 Oct. 1958 were also transferred to Australian jurisdiction. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Australia, including Tasmania but excluding external territories, covers a land area of 7,682,300 sq. km, extending from Cape York (10° 41' S) in the north some 3,680 km to Tasmania (43° 39' S), and from Cape Byron (153° 39' E) in the east some 4,000 km west to Western Australia (113° 9' E). Growth in Census population has been: 1891 1901 1911 1921

3,177,502 3,774,310 4,455,005 5,435,734

1933 1947 1954 1961

6,629,839 7,579,358 8,986,530 10,508,186

1966 1971 1976 1981

Area and resident population (estimate), 31 Dec. 1983: States and Territories (capitals in brackets) New South Wales (Sydney) Victoria (Melbourne) Queensland (Brisbane) South Australia (Adelaide) Western Australia (Perth) Tasmania (Hobart) Northern Territory (Darwin) Aust. Cap. Terr. (Canberra) Total

Area (sq. km) 801,600 227,600 1,727,200 984,000 2,525,500 67,800 1,346,200 2,400

Males 2,679,200 2,011,800 1,249,500 667,300 693,800 215,900 72,400 120,000

Females 2,699,100 2,041,600 1,238,500 679,700 679,900 218,700 64,400 120,000

7,682,300

7,710,0'

7,741,900

11,599,498 12,755,638 13,915,500 15,053,600 Per 100 sq. Total km 5,378,300 671 4,053,400 1,781 2,488,000 144 1,347,000 137 54 1,373,700 434,700 641 136,800 10 240,100 10,004 15,451,900

201

Resident population (estimate) in State capitals and other major cities, 30 June 1983 (preliminary): Statistical district State Estimate 1983 Statistical division Stale Estimate 1983 NSW NSW Sydney 3,332,600 Newcastle 414,300 Melbourne Vic. 2,864,600 Canberra 1 ACT 255,900 NSW Brisbane Qld. 1,138,400 Wollongong 234,800 1 Adelaide SA 969,200 Gold Coast Qld. 192,000 Perth WA 159,000 969,100 Lake Macquarie NSW Hobart Tas. 173,700 Geelong Vic. 142,900 ' Darwin NT 63,400 Townsville Qld. 99,560 1 1 3 Includes Queanbeyan (20,450). Includes Tweed Heads. Estimate at 30 June 1982.

95

96

AUSTRALIA

At 30 June 1984 the age-group distribution was: under 15, 3,730,100; 15-44, 7,289,600; 45-64,2,968,900; 65 and over, 1,567,400. Australians born overseas (30 June 1984), 3-28m., of whom 1 -2m. came from the UK and Ireland; l-2m. from continental Europe; 481,400 from Asia and 183,400 from New Zealand. At the 1981 census there were 144,665 Aboriginal Australians and 15,232 Torres Straits Islanders. Vital statistics for 1985: . , . States and Territories New South Wales 1 Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Aust. Cap. Terr.

Marriages 41,183 29,810 17,810 10,148 10,398 3,520 791 1,833

Divorces 11,871 9,688 6,816 4,216 4,039 1,169 301 1,730

Births 87,786 61,555 40,437 19,790 23,109 7,249 3,315 4,107

Deaths 44,264 31,353 18,629 10,496 8,836 3,693 641 896

247,348 118,808 Total 115,493 39,830 15-7 7-5 Rate1 7-3 2-5 1 Includes late registration from 1984, ofbirths, marriages and deaths. 2 Resident (estimate). ' Per 1,000 live births registered.

deaths 991 757 487 248 247 101 58 45 2,934 11-8

Overseas arrivals during 1983 numbered 2,317,100 and departures 2,282,400. Of these 153,580 were long-term and permanent arrivals and 100,512 were longterm and permanent departures. Of these 78,390 came to Australia intending to settle. There were 25,870 Australian residents departing permanently. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Demographic Statistics. Quarterly. Canberra, June 1979 to date National Population Inquiry, Population and Australia: Recent Demographic Trends and their Implications. Canberra, 1978

C L I M A T E . Over most ofthe continent, four seasons may be recognised. Spring is from Sept. to Nov., Summer from Dec. to Feb., Autumn from March to May and Winter from June to Aug., but because of its great size there are climates that range from tropical monsoon to cool temperate, with large areas of desert as well. In Northern Australia there are only two seasons, the wet one lasting from Nov. to March, but rainfall amounts diminish markedly from the coast to the interior. Central and southern Queensland are subtropical, north and central New South Wales are warm temperate, as are parts of Victoria, Western Australia and Tasmania, where most rain falls in winter. Canberra. Jan. 68°F (20"C), July 42°F (5-6°C). Annual rainfall 23" (629 mm). Adelaide. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 52°F (11-rC). Annual rainfall 21" (528 mm). Brisbane. Jan. 77°F (25°C), July 58°F (14-4°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,153 mm). Darwin. Jan. 83"F (28-3°C), July 77"F (25°C). Annual rainfall 59" (1,536 mm). Hobart. Jan. 62°F (16-7°C), July 46°F (7-8°C). Annual rainfall 24" (629 mm). Melbourne. Jan. 67°F(19-4°C), July 49°F (9-4°C). Annual rainfall 26" (659 mm). Perth. Jan. 74°F (23-3°C), July 55°F (12-8°C). Annual rainfall 35" (873 mm). Sydney. Jan. 71°F (21-7°C), July 53°F (11 • 7°C). Annual rainfall 47" (1,215 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Federal Government: Under the Australian Constitution legislative power in Australia is vested in a Federal Parliament, consisting of the Queen, represented by a Governor-General, a Senate and a House of Representatives. Under the terms of the constitution there must be a session of parliament at least once a year. The Senate comprises 64 Senators (10 for each State voting as one electorate and as from Aug. 1974,2 Senators respectively for the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory). Senators representing the States are chosen for 6 years. The terms of Senators representing the Territories expire at the close of the day next preceding the polling day for the general elections ofthe House of Representa-

AUSTRALIA

97

tives. In general, the Senate is renewed to the extent of one-half every 3 years, but in case of disagreement with the House of Representatives, it, together with the House of Representatives, may be dissolved, and an entirely new Senate elected. The House of Representatives consists, as nearly as practicable, of twice as many Members as there are Senators, the numbers chosen in the several States being in proportion to population as shown by the latest statistics, but not less than 5 for any original State. The numerical size of the House after the election in 1980 was 125, including the Members for Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. The Northern Territory has been represented by 1 Member in the House of Representatives since 1922, and the Australian Capital Territory by 1 Member since 1949 and 2 Members since May 1974. The Member for the Australian Capital Territory was given full voting rights as from the Parliament elected in Nov. 1966. The Member for the Northern Territory was given full voting rights in 1968. The House of Representatives continues for 3 years from the date of its first meeting, unless sooner dissolved. Every Senator or Member of the House of Representatives must be a subject of the Queen, be of full age, possess electoral qualifications and have resided for 3 years within Australia. The franchise for both Houses is the same and is based on universal (males and females aged 18 years) suffrage. Compulsory voting was introduced in 1925. If a Member of a State Parliament wishes to be a candidate in a federal election, he must first resign his State seat. Executive power in Australia is vested in the Governor-General advised by an Executive Council. The Governor-General presides over the Council, and its members hold office at his pleasure. All Ministers of State, who are members of the party or parties commanding a majority in the lower House, are members of the Executive Council under summons. A record of proceedings of meetings is kept by the Secretary to the Council. At Executive Council meetings the decisions of the Cabinet are (where necessary) given legal form, appointments made, resignations accepted, proclamations, regulations and the like made. The policy of a ministry is, in practice, determined by the Ministers of State meeting without the Governor-General under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister. This group is known as the Cabinet. There are 11 Standing Committees of the Cabinet comprising varying numbers of Cabinet and non-Cabinet Ministers. In Labour Governments all Ministers have been members of Cabinet. In Liberal and National Country Party government, only the senior ministers. Cabinet meetings are private and deliberative and records of meetings are not made public. The Cabinet does not form part of the legal mechanisms of Government; the decisions it takes have, in themselves, no legal effect. The Cabinet substantially controls, in ordinary circumstances, not only the general legislative programme of Parliament but the whole course of Parliamentary proceedings. In effect, though not in form, the Cabinet, by reason of the fact that all Ministers are members of the Executive Council, is also the dominant element in the executive government of the country. The legislative powers of the Federal Parliament embrace trade and commerce, shipping, etc.; taxation, finance, banking, currency, bills of exchange, bankruptcy, insurance; defence; external affairs, naturalization and aliens, quarantine, immigration and emigration; the people of any race for whom it is deemed necessary to make special laws; postal, telegraph and like services; census and statistics; weights and measures; astronomical and meteorological observations; copyrights; railways; conciliation and arbitration in disputes extending beyond the limits of any one State; social services; marriage, divorce etc.; service and execution of the civil and criminal process; recognition of the laws, Acts and records, and judicial proceedings of the States. The Senate may not originate or amend money bills; and disagreement with the House of Representatives may result in dissolution and, in the last resort, a joint sitting of the two Houses. No religion may be established by the Commonwealth. The Federal Parliament has limited and enumerated powers, the several State parliaments retaining the residuary power of government over their respective territories. If a State law is inconsistent with a Commbn wealth law, the latter prevails. The Constitution also provides for the admission or creation of new States.

98

AUSTRALIA

Proposed laws for the alteration of the Constitution must be submitted to the electors, and they can be enacted only if approved by a majority of the States and by a majority of all the electors voting. The Australia Acts 1986 removed residual powers of the British government to intervene in the government of Australia or the individual states. The 34th Parliament was elected in Dec. 1984. House of Representatives (following 1 Dec. 1984 elections): Australian Labor Party, 82 seats; Liberal Party, 45; National Party, 21. Governor-General: The Rt Hon. Sir Ninian Stephen, AK, GCMG, GCVO, KBE. The following is a list of Governors-General of the Commonwealth: Earl ofHopetoun Lord Tennyson Lord Northcote Earl of Dudley Lord Denman Viscount Novar Lord Forster Lord Stonehaven Sir Isaac Isaacs Earl Gowrie

1901-02 1902-04 1904-08 1908-11 1911-14 1914-20 1920-25 1925-31 1931-36 1936-45

HRH the Duke of Gloucester Sir William McKell Viscount Slim Viscount Dunrossil Viscount De L'Isle Lord Casey Sir Paul Hasluck Sir John Kerr Sir Zelman Cowen Sir Ninian Stephen

1945-47 1947-53 1953-60 1960-61 1961-65 1965-69 1969-74 1974-77 1977-82 1982-

National flag: The British Blue Ensign with a large star of 7 points beneath the Union Flag, and in the fly 5 stars of the Southern Cross, all in white. The cabinet of the Labour administration in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Robert Hawke. Deputy Prime Minister and Attorney-General: Lionel Bowen. Industry, Technology and Commerce: John Button. Community Services: Don Grimes. Employment and Industrial Relations: Ralph Willis. Treasurer: Paul Keating. Special Minister of State: Michael Young. Finance: Peter Walsh. Foreign Affairs: Bill Hayden. Education: Susan Ryan. Resources and Energy: Gareth Evans. Trade: John Dawkins. Primary Industry: John Kerin. Housing and Construction: Stewart West. Defence: Kim Beazley. Immigration and Ethnic Affairs: Chris Hurford. Social Security: Brian Howe. Transport and Aviation: Peter Morris. Sport, Recreation and Tourism: John Brown. Health: Dr Neal Blewett. Science: Barry Jones. Territories: Gordon Scholes. Communications: Michael Duffy. Arts, Heritage and the Environment: Barry Cohen. Aboriginal Affairs: Clyde Holding. Veterans' Affairs: Arthur Gietzelt. Local Government and Administrative Services: Tom Uren. The Acts of the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia Passed from 1901 to 1973. 12 vols. Annual volumes, 1974 to date The Australian Constitution Annotated. Attorney-General's Department, Canberra, 1980 Parliamentary Handbook ofthe Commonwealth of Australia. Canberra, 1915 to date

AUSTRALIA

99

Commonwealth of Australia Directory [1921-1958 The Federal Guide; 1961-72 Commonwealth Directory; 1973-75 Australian Government Directory], Prime Minister's Department. Canberra, 1924 to date Crisp, L. F., Australian National Government. 3rded. Melbourne and London, 1975 Hughes, C. A., and Graham, B. D., A Handbook of Australian Government and Politics. Canberra, 1968 Odgers, J. R., Australian Senate Practice. 5 th ed. Canberra, 1976 Paton, Sir George (ed.), The Commonwealth of Australia: its Laws and Constitution. London, 1952 Pettifer, J. A., House of Representatives Practice. Canberra, 1981 Sawer, G „ Australian Federal Politics and Law 1901-1929, 1929-1949. 2 vols. Melbourne, 1974.—Australian Government To-day. 11th ed. Melbourne, 1973 Wynes, W. A., Executive and Judicial Powers in A ustralia. 5 th ed. Sydney, 1976

State Government: In each of the 6 States (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania) there is a State government whose constitution, powers and laws continue, subject to changes embodied in the Australian Constitution and subsequent alterations and agreements, as they were before federation. The system of government is basically the same as that described above for the Commonwealth—i.e., the Sovereign, her representative (in this case a Governor), an upper and lower house of Parliament (except in Queensland, where the upper house was abolished in 1922), a cabinet led by the Premier and an Executive Council. Among the more important functions of the State governments are those relating to education, health, hospitals and charities, law, order and public safety, business undertakings such as railways and tramways, and public utilities such as water supply and sewerage. In the domains of education, hospitals, justice, the police, penal establishments, and railway and tramway operation, State government activity predominates. Care of the public health and recreative activities are shared with local government authorities and the Federal Government, social services other than those referred to above are now primarily the concern of the Federal Government, and the operation of public utilities is shared with local and semi-government authorities. Administration of Territories. Since 1911, responsibility for administration and development of the Australian Capital Territory has been vested in Federal Ministers and Departments. The ACT House of Assembly has been accorded the forms of a legislature, but continues to perform an advisory function for the Minister for the Capital Territory. On 1 July 1978 the Northern Territory of Australia became a self-governing Territory with expenditure responsibilities and revenue-raising powers broadly approximating those of a State, although the Territory is not a State under the Constitution. Local Government. The system of municipal government is broadly the same throughout Australia, although local government legislation is a State matter. Each State is sub-divided into areas known variously as municipalities, cities, boroughs, towns, shires or district councils, totalling about 900. Within these areas the management of road, street and bridge construction, health, sanitary and garbage services, water supply and sewerage, and electric light and gas undertakings, hospitals, fire brigades, tramways and omnibus services and harbours is generally part of the functions of elected aldermen and councillors. The scope of their duties, however, differs considerably, for in all States the State Government, either directly or through semi-government authorities, also carries out some or all of these types of services. In some instances, e.g., in New South Wales, a number of local government authorities combine to conduct a public undertaking such as the supply of water or electricity. D E F E N C E . The Minister for Defence has responsibility under legislation for the control and administration of the Defence Force. The Chief of Defence Force Staff is vested with command of the Defence Force. He is the principal military adviser

100

AUSTRALIA

to the Minister. The Secretary, Department of Defence is the Permanent Head of the Department. He is the principal civilian adviser to the Minister and has statutory responsibility for financial administration of the Defence outlay. The Chief of Defence Force Staff and the Secretary are jointly responsible for the administration of the Defence Force except with respect to matters falling within the command of the Defence Force or any other matter specified by the Minister. The Chief of Naval Staff, the Chief of the General Staff and the Chief of the Air Staff command the Navy, Army and Air Force respectively. They have delegated authority from the Chief of Defence Force Staff and the Secretary to administer matters relating to their particular Service. The structure of Defence is characterized by 3 organizational types: (i) A Central Office comprising 5 groups of functional orientated Divisions: Strategic Policy and Force Development; Supply and Support; Manpower and Financial Services; Management and Infrastructure Services; and, Defence Science and Technology; (ii) the 3 Armed Services of the Defence Force, each having a Service Office element in addition to the command structure; and (iii) a small number of outrider organizations concerned with such specialist fields as intelligence and natural disasters. Defence Support. The Department of Defence Support purchases goods and services for defence purposes; provides technical expertise and other assistance to the defence industry; involves Australian industry in defence equipment to the maxim u m practical extent; administers the Australian Offsets Program so as to stimulate technological advancement and broaden the capabilities of strategic industries; within overall defence policies helps the capacity, efficiency and capability of Australian industry to design and export defence materiel; manages the Government's munitions and aircraft factories, and dockyards; markets defence and allied products and services to help maintain strategic industries. The Department employs approximately 15,000 people (under the Public Service Act, the Supply and Development Act and the Naval Defence Act) in five states. This workforce includes some 2,100 professional and technical staff, 4,200 tradesmen and 1,500 apprentices. Army. Overall organization and financial control of the Australian Army is vested in the Chief of General Staff. Under the Defence Force Reorganisation Act, which received the Royal Assent on 9 Sept. 1975, the Military Board, which was previously the controlling body of the Army, was abolished. The Act became effective on 1 Feb. 1976. A ftinctional command structure, Headquarters Field Force Command, Headquarters Logistic Command, and Headquarters Training Command, with Headquarters in military districts, was introduced in 1973. The strength of the Army was 32,116 as at 30 June 1986. The field force organization emphasises the combat element and high-priority logistic units to meet the requirements for limited war and tropical warfare with light air-portable formations. The Field Force is organized in divisions; 6 battalions organized in 3 brigades each with combat and logistic support. The Army Aviation Corps has 13 N22 Nomad and 14 Turbo-Porter transports, and 50 JetRanger helicopters. The effective strength o f t h e Army Reserve at 30 June 1986 was 26,112. Staff and command training is carried out at the C o m m a n d and Staff College, Queenscliff, Victoria, and the Land Warfare Centre, Canungra, Queensland. In Jan. 1986 the Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, accepted its first officer cadets for the 3 Services. Cadets will study at the academy for degrees in arts, science and engineering. During semester breaks they will carry out military training with their particular Services. At the end of 3 years at the academy, army officer cadets will undertake a year of military training at the Royal Military College, Duntroon. This will culminate with commissioning as a lieutenant. From 1986 the Royal Military College have taken officer cadets for commissioning who previously would have attended the Officer Cadet School, Portsea, and the Women's Officer Cadet School, Sydney.

AUSTRALIA

101

Navy. The Chief of Naval Staff is assisted by the Deputy Chief of Naval Staff with the Chief of Naval Personnel, the Chief of Naval Technical Services, the Chief of Naval Material and the Chief of Naval Operational Requirements and Plans. On 1 Feb. 1976 the Naval Board was abolished. The command, operation and administration of the Fleet is by the Flag Officer Commanding HM Australian Fleet while materiel support of the fleet is by the Flag Officer Naval Support Command. There are 6 UK-built Oberon class diesel-driven patrol submarines, four commissioned 1967-69 and two commissioned 1977-78; 3 US-built guided missile destroyers, commissioned 1965-67; 4 US-built guided missile frigates, commissioned 1981-84; 6 destroyer escorts; 1 destroyer parent ship, 1 fleet replenishment ship, 2 training ships (ex-liner and ex-destroyer), 3 survey ships; 1 minehunter; 1 landing ship; 20 patrol boats; 6 landing craft; 1fleetoiler; 90 auxiliaries and service craft, and 7 tugs. Two inshore minehunters are being built and 2 guided missile frigates scheduled at Williamstown, Victoria. The Fleet Air Arm lately operated 37 Sea King, Wessex, Iroquois, Squirrel and Bell 206B helicopters and 2 HS748 fixed wing aircraft. Other fixed wing naval aviation ended on 30 June 1984. The serving strength in 1987 totalled 15,000 personnel including women. The main training establishments are in Victoria, Sydney, Nowra and Jervis Bay. Navy estimates 1983-84, $A 1,172,744,000; 1984-85, $A 1,240,743,000; 1985-86, $A1,394,000,000. Air Force. Command of the Royal Australian Air Force is vested in the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS) assisted by the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff, Chief of Air Force Operations and Plans, Chief of Air Force Materiel, Chief of Air Force Personnel, Chief of Air Force Technical Services, Director-General Supply—Air Force and Assistant Secretary Resources Planning. The CAS administers and controls RAAF units through two commands: Operational Command and Support Command. Operational Command is responsible to the CAS for the command of operational units and the conduct of their operations within Australia and overseas. Support Command is responsible to the CAS for training of personnel, and the supply and maintenance of service equipment. Flying establishment comprises 16 squadrons, of which 2 are equipped with 24 F-l 11 strike/reconnaissance aircraft. Of the others, 2 are equipped with missilearmed Mirage III-O Mach 2 fighters, 2 with F-18 Hornet interceptors, 2 with Orion maritime reconnaissance aircraft. There are eight transport squadrons, 2 with Hercules turboprop transports, 1 with Caribou STOL transports, 1 with a mix of Ecureuil and Iroquois helicopters, 1 with Boeing Vertol CH-47C medium lift helicopters, 1 with Iroquois helicopters, and a special transport squadron equipped with BAC One-Eleven, Mystere 20 and HS 748 aircraft. There is also one squadron operating B707 aircraft. Training aircraft include piston-engined Airtrainers, built in New Zealand, Aermacchi MB 326H jets for pilot training, and HS 748 aircraft for navigator training. A training unit has F-l8 Hornets for crew conversion. Training for commissioned rank is carried out at the RAAF Academy and Officers' Training School, both located at Point Cook, Victoria. Other major training activities which lead to commissioned rank include basic aircrew training and technical and commercial cadet schemes. Basic ground training to tradesman level is conducted at RAAF technical training schools. Higher command and staff training is, in the main, carried out at the RAAF Staff College, Fairbairn, ACT. Personnel (1987) 22,787. There is also an Australian Air Force Reserve. Long, G. (ed.), Australia in the War of1939-45.22 vols. Canberra, 1952 ff. O'Neil, R., and Homer, D. M., Australian Defence Policy for the 1980s. Univ. of Queensland Press, 1983

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Australia is a member of the UN, the Commonwealth, OECD, Colombo Plan, the South Pacific Commission and the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation.

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AUSTRALIA

ECONOMY Financial relations with the States. Since 1942 the Federal Government alone has levied taxes on incomes. In return for vacating this field of taxation, the State Governments are reimbursed by grants from the Federal Government out of revenue received. Payments to the States represent about one-third of Federal Government outlays, and in turn the payments State Governments receive from the Federal Government account for nearly half of their revenues. The Financial Agreement of 1927 established the Australian Loan Council which represents the Federal and six State Governments, and co-ordinates domestic and overseas borrowings by these governments, including annual borrowing programmes. The Federal Government acts as a central borrowing agency in raising loans to finance the major part of those programmes. The Loan Council in 1984 agreed upon arrangements for the co-ordination of borrowings by semigovernment and local authorities and government-owned companies. Budget. In 1929, under a financial agreement between the Federal Government and States, approved by a referendum, the Federal Government took over all State debts existing on 30 June 1927 and agreed to pay $A15 - 17m. a year for 58 years towards the interest charges thereon, and to make substantial contributions towards a sinking fund on State debt. The Sinking Fund arrangements were revised under an amendment to the agreement in 1976. Receipts, Financing Transactions and Outlays of the Federal Government for years ending 30 June (in $ A1 m.): Receipts: Income tax Gross PAYE Companies Sales tax Excise Oil and LP gas and products Other Customs Total taxation Interest from States and Northern Territory Interest from non-Budget authorities Rent, Dividends, etc. Total non-tax receipts Total Receipts Outlays: Defence Forces manpower Equipment, stores, etc. Education Universities Schools and pre-schools Student assistance Health Medical services and benefits Hospital services and benefits Pharmaceutical services and benefits Nursing home and domiciliary benefits

1983-84 29,649 22,024 4,383 4,165

1984-85 35,334 24,476 5,505 4,966

1985-86 39,345 27,575 6,089 5,728

1986-87 44,805 30,245 7,020 6,434

5,624 4,083 2,395 44,439

6,409 4,352 2,987 52,422

6,900 2,306 3,339 58,399

6,960 2,566 3,336 64,885

2,083

2,227

2,330

2,431

722 1,082 4,060 48,499

782 1,373 4,571 56,993

819 2,348 5,792 64,191

785 2,872 6,376 71,261

5,301 1,667 2,143 4,085 1,163 1,495 308 4,392

5,941 1,749 2,609 4,519 1,250 1,654 353 6,114

6,673 1,948 2,620 4,914 1,375 1,762 422 6,850

7,415 2,003 3,032 5,204 1,424 1,823 510 7,307

1,628

2,547

2,934

3,232

839

1,415

1,552

1,535

573

656

724

787

960

1,069

1,136

1,190

AUSTRALIA Outlays (continued) Social Security and Welfare Aged Veterans and dependants Handicapped Widows and single parents Families Unemployed and sick Housing Assistance to States and Northern Territory Urban and Regional Development n.e.s. environment, sewerage and sanitation Culture and Recreation Transport and Communication Industry, assistance and development Labour and employment Public Services Administration Foreign affairs and overseas aid Payments to or for States, NT and local governments Total outlay 1

103

1983-84

1984-85

1985-86

1986-87

16,410 5,445

17,833 5,795

19,192 6,094

20,760 6,583

2,024 1,462

2,323 1,710

2,575 1,946

2,778 2,195

1,719 1,634

1,956 1,681

2,162 1,749

2,320 1,639

3,341 989

3,449 1,328

3,622 1,406

4,076 1,510

690

954

1,033

1,191

98 613 1,744

33 757 1,900

11 903 1,793

52 950 1,702

1,074 1,087 3,871 1,708

1,193 1,133 4,426 1,976

1,397 1,040 4,836 2,184

1,218 1,084 5,317 2,484

1,154

1,280

1,327

1,301

12,658 63,739

13,587 69,917

14,328 74,764

12,253 56,460 Estimate.

The following table shows Government securities on issue on account of the Commonwealth Government and States, at 30 June 1985: Repayable in A ustralian currency Treasury bonds Australian savings bonds Treasury notes Total (includingother categories) Repayable in foreign currency (Australian currency equivalent)

Total (SAIm.) 21,288 -6 3,914-7 2,894-7 28,718-7 9,845-2

Debt per head of population at 30 June 1984 was $A3,019, while the annual interest charge amounted to $A329 per head. Australian National Accounts. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1953-54 to date Public Authority Finance: Commonwealth Government Finance, Australia. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1962-63 to date Public Authority Finance: State and Local Government Finance, Australia. Australian Bureau ofStatistics, 1971-72 todate Public Authority Finance: Government Financial Estimates. Australian Bureau ofStatistics, 1975-76 todate National Income and Expenditure. Australian Bureau ofStatistics. Canberra, 1946 to date Treasury Information Bulletin (and Supplements). Canberra Treasury Dept., 1956 to date (quarterly) Hagger, A. J., A Guide to Australian Economic and Social Statistics. Sydney, 1983

Currency. On 14 Feb. 1966 Australia adopted a system of decimal currency. The currency unit, the dollar ($) is divided into 100 cents. The transition period ended on 31 July 1967. Decimal notes are issued in denominations of $2,5,10,20,50 and 100. Coins are issued in denominations of 1,2,5,10,20 and 50 cents and $ 1. Australian notes, issued by the note-issue department of the Reserve Bank, are legal tender throughout Australia. The total value of notes in circulation on 30 June 1984 was $A7,205m., of which $A6,418m. was held by the public. In Feb. 1987, US$1 = 1 -50 dollars-,£ 1 =2-30 dollars.

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Banking. The banking system in Australia comprises: (a) Tne Reserve Bank of Australia. This is the central bank which in addition to its central banking business (including the note-issue department) provides special finance through the rural credits department for the processing, manufacture and marketing of primary produce. The Reserve Bank's functions and responsibilities derive from the Reserve Bank Act 1959 and the Banking Act 1959, and the Financial Corporations Act 1974. (b) Four major trading banks: (i) The Commonwealth Bank of Australia; (ii) 3 private trading banks: The Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd, Westpac Banking Corporation and the National Commercial Banking Corporation of Australia Ltd. (c) Other trading banks: (i) 3 State Government banks—The State Bank of New South Wales, The State Bank of South Australia, and the Rural and Industries Bank of Western Australia; (ii) one joint stock bank—The Bank of Queensland Ltd, formerly The Brisbane Permanent Building and Banking Co. Ltd, which has specialized business in one district only; (iii) The Australian Bank Ltd; (iv) branches of 17 overseas banks—the restrictions on foreign banks operating in Australia, and on foreign investment in the merchant banks, were lifted in 1984-85. (d) The Commonwealth Development Bank of Australia. (e) The Australian Resources Development Bank Ltd opened on 29 March 1968, to assist Australian enterprises in developing Australia's natural resources, through direct loans and equity investment or by re-financing loans made by trading banks. The bank is jointly owned by the 4 major Australian trading banks. (j) The Primary Industry Bank of Australia Ltd commenced operations on 22 Sept. 1978. The equity capital of the bank consists of eight shares. Seven shares are held by the Australian Government and the major trading banks while the eighth share is held equally by the 4 State banks. The main objective of the bank is to facilitate the provision of loans to primary producers on longer terms than are otherwise generally available. The role of the bank is restricted to re-financing loans made by banks and other financial institutions. (g) Savings banks, of which the leader is the Commonwealth Savings Bank: total savings account deposits, 30 June 1985, $A12,004m. The Bank is the main source of housing loans. For history of the Reserve Bank see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 , p. 104. At 30 June 1984 the capital of the Reserve Bank totalled $A49-4m. and reserve funds (including a special reserve for IMF special drawing rights) $A4,521m. The capital was distributed as follows: Central banking business, $A40m.; rural credits department, $A9m. Reserve funds held were: Central banking business, $A2,025m.; rural credits department, $A100m.; note issue department, $A2,396m. Profits for the year ended 30 June 1984 (including all departments) amounted to $A1,029m. At 30 June 1984 the 11 trading banks operating in Australia provided full banking facilities at 5,032 branches and 1,087 agencies all over Australia. At 30 June 1984, 11 savings banks were operating in Australia. These are the 4 major savings banks being wholly owned subsidiaries of the trading banks; the Bank of New Zealand Saving Bank Ltd; the Bank of Queensland Saving Bank Ltd; the State Bank of Victoria and the Savings Bank of South Australia; the Rural and Industries Bank of Western Australia, and 2 Trustee Savings Banks in Tasmania. At 30 June 1984 these savings banks had 5,592 branches and 10,533 agencies throughout Australia. The following table is a summary of banking business (in $Alm.) in the several States of the Commonwealth: Australia NSW Particulars Vic. Q'ld S/l WA All trading banks: 1 Fixed deposits 10,961 5,876 4,013 1,225 2,052 3,295 Current deposits 5,686 752 2,055 1,027 Advances 13,148 6,388 4,879 2,840 2,966 2 Savings bank deposits 9,532 12,916 4,709 3,327 2,214 1 1 Weekly averages for June 1984. At June 1984.

Tas. 344 231 445 1,103

(including ACT. and N. T.) 24,891 13,494 31,743 34,328

105

AUSTRALIA

Treasury Information Bulletin. Department of the Treasury. Canberra, 1956 to date (quarterly)

Weights and Measures. Conversion to the metric system is in progress. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production 1985,110,000m. kwh. Supply 240 and 250 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. The mineral output was valued ex-mine as follows (in $A1,000): Mineral 1981-82 Copper concentrate 231,952 1 Gold bullion 200,408 Iron ore 2 1,131,186 Lead concentrate 252,136 Tin concentrate 141,716 Zinc concentrate Black coal 2,926,883

1982-83 264,144

133,405 220,546 3,519,010

Mineral Brown coal ' Total (value of minerals and construction materials)

1981-82 137,138

1982-83 150,788

9,089,128

10,519,699

2 ' Includes alluvial gold. Includes iron ore for pellet production. Excludes value of brown coal used in making briquettes.

3

Gold production (metallic content) based on assay (kg), in 1978-79, 19,584; 1979-80,18,273; 1980-81,15,991; 1981-82,22,328; 1982-83,25,825. Black coal (1,000 tonnes) mined in 1978-79,81,197; 1979-80,81,249; 1980-81, 96,074; 1981-82,99,560; 1982-83,107,768. Agriculture. In 1983, of a total Australian area of 768m. hectares, 641-5m. hectares (83-5%) were Crown lands; private lands formed the remainder, of which 126 • 7m. hectares (16- 5%) were alienated or in the process of alienation. Area and production of the principal crops in 1984-85: Total area (1,000 hectares) 12,039 1,060 3,503 238 38 306 63 90 118

Crops Wheat (grain) Oats (grain) Barley (grain) Hay (cereal) Potatoes(ordinary) Sugar-cane (for crushing) Vineyards Fruit Rice

Total production (1.000 tonnes) 18,635 1,395 5,559 808 25,448 837 777

The following summary shows the production and gross value of the most important items or classes of production, classified by States: Vic.

Q'ld

SA

WA

Tas.

Ausi1

5,708

2,660

3,010

2,893

6,721

99

20,997

5,813

2,660

1,540

2,038

6,580

4

18,635

275-1

170-2

67-9

109

170-3

21 9

815-1

All meat (tonnes, carcase weight)

628,508 618,269 653,738 219,916 216,545

60,280

2,085,863

Total Agriculture (value $Alm.)

4,406-9

382-2

15,650-5

1984-85 Area of crops (1,000 hectares) Production of wheat (1,000 tonnes) Total wool production (1,000 tonnes)

NSW

3,273-4

3,157-8

1,660-3

2,678-4

Includes Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory.

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AUSTRALIA

Livestock (in 1,000) at 31 March 1985: Caule Sheep Pigs

NSW 5,226 55,498 814

Vic. 3,576 26,471 410

Q'ld 9,413 14,042 563

SA 846 17,263 402

IVA 1,674 31,574 274

Tas. N. Terr. 554 1,484 4,780 — 47 3

ACT 11 118 —

Australia 22,784 149,747 2,512

Forestry. At 31 March 1981 there were 741,000 hectares of coniferous plantations. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Statistics of the manufacturing industries in Australia in 1984-85: Number of establishments, 27,647; workers employed, 1,018,700; salaries and wages paid, $A18,779-9m.; value-added, $A38,253-5m. (excludes small singleestablishment enterprises employing less than 4 persons). Manufacturing by sector, 1984-85: Sector Food, beverages and tobacco Meat products Textiles Clothing and footwear Wood and products Printing and allied Chemical, petroleum and coal products Basic metals and products Fabricated metal Transport equipment Other machinery

Employment 167,800 44,500 33,000 74,300 45,000 78,700 55,100 76,900 92,900 119,800 127,000

Value Added ($Am.) 6,847-7 1,311-5 1,014-5 1,667-2 1,465-7 3,019-3 3,397-6 4,022-5 2,901-2 3,816-6 4,383-0

Labour. The majority of wage and salary earners in Australia have their minimum wages and conditions of work prescribed in awards of industrial arbitration authorities established under federal and State legislation. However, in some States, some conditions of work (e.g., normal weekly hours of work, long-service leave, annual leave) are set down in State legislation. In May 1985 it was estimated that the average weekly earnings of adult males (other than managerial, professional and higher supervisory staff) in full-time private and government employment was $A413 -90 and average weekly hours 39. Employees in all States are covered by workers' compensation legislation and by certain industrial award provisions relating to work injuries. During 1985 industrial disputes involving stoppages of work of 10 man-days or more accounted for 1,256,200 working days lost. In these disputes 570,500 workers were involved. The following table shows estimates (in 1,000) of the civilian population, by labour force status. The estimates are derived by the ABS from the population survey which is based on a sample of dwellings, carried out by personal interview, covering about two-thirds of 1 % of the population. May 1982 6,894-7 6,440-9 453-8 4,449-8

In the labour force Employed Unemployed Not in the labour force Civilian population aged 15 years and over 11,344-5

May ¡983 6,993-3 6,272-8 720-5 4,561-1

May 1984 7,127-5 6,490-5 637-0 4,622-3

May 1985 7,238-6 6,631-8 606-7 4,704-0

11,554-4

11,744-8

11,942-6

The following table shows population survey estimates (in 1,000) of employed persons in Australia classified by industry:

107

AUSTRALIA Industry 1 Agriculture, forestry and logging, fishing and hunting Mining Manufacturing Food, beverages and tobacco Metal products Other manufacturing Electricity, gas and water Construction Wholesale and retail trade Transport and storage Communication Finance, property and business services Public administration and defence Community services Recreation, personal and other services

May 1982

May 1983

•May 1984

May 1985

410-2 970 1,249 1 183-5 223-7 841-8 125-3 472-5 1,280-2 368-4 142-1 577-7 287-2 1,028-2 403-0

418-9 98-0 1,148-9 190-8 198-2 759-9 142-4 418-7 1,251-3 355-7 133-5 575-2 300-2 1,034-5 395-3

397-4 100-0 1,148-0 181-4 191-7 774-9 150-3 433-4 1,281-2 367-2 136-8 615-0 325-0 1,115-7 420-7

393-7 93-7 1,1370 175-4 203-2 758-4 132-9 485-1 1,318-5 365-8 146-9 652-2 323-9 1,140-9 441-8

6,490-5

6,631-8

Total employed 6,440-9 6,272-8 ' Australian Standard Industrial Classification.

The following table shows the number of unemployed persons (from the population survey), job vacancies (from the ABS Job Vacancies survey) and the number of persons in receipt of unemployment benefit: May May May May 1982 1983 1984 1 985 Persons unemployed 453,800 720,500 637,000 606,700 Job Vacancies 25,300 17,500 34,800 2 56,600 Unemployment benefit recipients' 390,700 635,000 584,500 561,400 1 1 Data relates to the month of June Not strictly comparable with earlier surveys.

Trade Unions. At the end of June 1985 there were 323 trade unions reporting in Australia with an estimated membership of 3,154,200. About 57% of wage and salary earners were estimated to be members of unions. In 1985 there were 35 unions with fewer than 100 members and 10 unions with 80,000 or more members. Many of the larger trade unions are affiliated with central labour organizations, the oldest and by far the largest being the Australian Council of Trade Unions formed in 1927. Labour Statistics. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Canberra, 1982 Isaac, J. E.,and Ford,G. W., Australian Industrial Relations. Melbourne, 1971 Portus, J. H., The Development of Australian Trade Union Law. Melbourne, 1958 Rawson, D. W., A Handbook of Australian Trade Unions and Employees' Associations. Canberra, 1977

Commerce. Throughout Australia there are uniform customs duties, and trade between the States is free. For 1982-83 the gross revenue collected from customs duties amounted to $A2,065 -9m. and from excise $A6,906 -6m. Value of the total imports and exports for years ending 30 June, in $A 1,000: Imports

1981-82 1982-83 1983-84'

Exports (excluding ships' and aircraft stores) Australian produce Re-exports Total 23,004,930 18,816,343 758,863 19,575,206 1,303,258 22,060,306 21,806,179 20,757,048 1,254,866 24,805,243 24,062,896 23,550,377 1 Preliminary, subject to revision.

The Australian customs tariff provides for preferences to goods produced in and shipped from certain specified countries sucn as UK, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland. Preferences occur as a result of reciprocal trade agreements between Australia and these countries. Australia also has bilateral agreements with a number of other countries guaranteeing reciprocal treatment in matters of trade. The Australia-New Zealand free-trade agreement came into force on 1 Jan. 1966 in certain scheduled goods. In addition, Australia is a signatory to the multilateral General Agreement on T a r i f f s a n d T r a d e (GATT).

108

AUSTRALIA

Principal commodities exported and imported from Australia (in $ A 1,000) in 1984-85 Exports Imports 39,782 Live animals 248,458 1,374,266 20,163 Meat Dairy products 418,522 69,042 Fish 402,786 304,109 4,138,824 Cereals 60,088 Fruit and vegetables 259,820 281,552 Sugar, etc., and honey 610,568 23,668 Coffee, tea, etc. 37,955 344,412 121,302 Food for animals 40,423 Miscellaneous food 26,629 63,154 Beverages 57,262 137,901 14,667 Tobacco 87,481 3,121 Hides, skins, etc. 322,420 Oil-seeds, nuts, kernels 31,290 18,216 Crude rubber 1,929 72,195 Wood, timber and cork 223,392 325,760 Pulp and waste paper 10,399 100,493 Textile fibres and their waste 2,617,009 120,965 Crude fertilizers and 144,558 204,554 minerals Metalliferous ores and metal scrap 4,598,749 23,228 Crude animal & vegetable materials, n.e.s. 59,240 63,967 Coal, coke & briquettes 4,615,245 7,151 Petroleum and products 2,395,145 2,292,476 Petroleum gases 399,235 680 105,410 1,239 Animal oils and fats Fixed vegetable oils and 57,112 fats 9,975 Animal and vegetable oils and fats 8,595 53,723 Organic chemicals 50,309 672,316 63,265 189,208 Inorganic chemicals Dyeing, tanning and colouring materials 25,315 115,504 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products 122,068 293,908 Essential oils and perfumes, etc. 39,987 170,319 Fertilizers, manufactured 3,930 180,765 Explosives and pyrotechnic products 7,630 25,400 Plastic materials 136,716 568,504 Chemical materials and products, n.e.s. 99,061 337,853 Leather manufactures, 68,524 110,512 n.e.s. Rubber manufactures, n.e.s. 14,611 385,362 Wood and cork manufactures (except furniture) 6,451 149,694 Paper and paperboard 68,694 838,302 Textile yarn, fabrics, etc. 166,034 1,443,599 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s. 123,672 539,471 Iron and steel 486,269 547,211 Non-ferrous metals 1,869,515 123,394 Manufactures of metal, n.e.s. 175,767 782,102 ' Preliminary.

2

Power generating machinery and equipment Machinery specialized for particular industries Metalworking machinery General industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s. and machine parts, n.e.s. Office machines and automatic data processing equipment Telecommunications and sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment Electrical machinery, apparatus and appliances, n.e.s. and electrical parts thereof (including nonelectrical counterparts n.e.s.,ofelectrical household type equipment) Road vehicles (including air cushion vehicles) Other transport equipment Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures and fittings, n.e.s. Furniture and parts thereof Travel goods, handbags and similar containers Articles of apparel and clothing accessories Footwear Professional, scientific and controlling instruments and apparatus, n.e.s. Photographic apparatus, equipment and supplies and optical goods, n.e.s.; watches and clocks Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s. Commodities and transactions of merchandise trade, not elsewhere classified 2

Exports

imports

192,728

682,399

175,506 28,235

1,651,689 222,587

167,120

1,382,153

163,644

1,667,153

59,003

1,167,124

157,393

1,472,439

298,972

3,087,708

240,285

566,522

8,963

67,964

16,050

193,530

6,011

137,046

17,539 5,101

538,994 178,605

171,230

641,837

177,266

511,329

190,655

1,596,486

952,107

1,000,109

Total merchandise trade 29,809,273 29,055,754 Commodities and transactions not included in merchandise trade

830,233

970,610

Total recorded trade 30,639,506 30,026,364 Industrial petroleum gases.

109

AUSTRALIA

Total trade in ($A1,000) with the more important countries, according to origin (imports) and consignment (exports): From or to Belgium-Luxembourg Canada China-excl. Taiwan Province Egypt, Arab Republic of France Germany, Fed. Republic of Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Italy Japan Kuwait Malaysia Netherlands New Zealand Pakistan Papua New Guinea Saudi Arabia Singapore, Republic of Sri Lanka Sweden Switzerland USSR UK USA

1983-84 Imports Exports 161,613 163,658 315,277 459,518 311,623 608,435 176 350,853 514,167 482,422 8,581 720,509 612,004 552,176 119,376 140,758 299,741 395,877 3,499 293,085 748,526 479,440 6,570,041 5,366,190 437,024 129,791 257,182 469,332 336,278 329,219 1,400,821 921,748 31,280 54,867 76,679 494,387 679,923 391,596 470,172 951,515 12,804 25,149 342,686 37,511 229,166 57,900 12,094 581,756 1,740,161 1,134,210 5,188,392 2,704,744

Imports 216,654 619,274 376,577 637,085 1,851,534 658,273 169,426 367,298 2,656 884,110 6,644,509 339,581 314,851 376,121 1,116,312 28,505 114,353 638,092 776,570 21,437 523,020 359,894 28,877 2,011,886 6,819,311

1984-85

Exports 182,497 302,403 8,620 446,161 679,694 792,607 844,108 233,775 419,872 459,608 584,045 8,066,118 139,672 607,597 481.901 1,5917)26 134,968 560,896 522,596 948,741 82,732 52,500 54,302 873,383 1,017,672 3,584,062

Imports and exports for particular State ($ A1,000): States, etc. New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Aust. Cap. Terr.

1982-83 Imports Exports 8,610,870 5,433,293 4,321,674 6,989,588 1,994,645 4,463,889 1,244,243 1,237,564 2,523,046 5,133,317 179,819 773,133 239,856 565,153 11,512 8,286

1983-84 Imports Exports 5,771,969 10,027,948 5,132,526 8,186,719 2,086,980 5,442,927 1,318,396 1,638,908 5,342,384 1,936,945 771,709 202,781 279,941 590,735 23,186 3,976

Total 21,806,015 24,805,243 22,060,306 24,062,896 In this table the value of goods sent from one state to another for transhipment abroad has been included in the State from which the goods were finally dispatched. Overseas Trade. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Canberra, 1906 to date

Total trade between U K and Australia (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 m 3 ] m m 5 m 6 ImportstoUK 493,196 Exports and re-exports from UK 1,043,615

552,642 612,087 736,986 643,238 940,279 1,186,521 1,373,184 1,227,647

Tourism. During 1983, 943,900 overseas visitors arrived in Australia intending to stay for less than 12 months, and international tourism receipts were $ A 1,187m. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra: Rural Industries. 1962-63 to date.—Manufacturing Establishments: Details of Operations. 1968-69 to date.—Non-rural Primary Industries. 1967-68 and 1968-69— Value of Production. 1964-65 to 1968-69.—Manufacturing Industry. 1963-64 to 1967-68 —Manufacturing Commodities. 1963-64 and 1964-65.— Building and Construction. 1964-65 to date Quarterly Review of Agricultural Economics. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Canberra, 1948 to date Developments in Australian Manufacturing Industry. Department of Trade. Melbourne, 1954-55 to date (annual) The Australian Mineral Industry Review. Department of National Development—Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics. Canberra, 1948 to date

110

AUSTRALIA

Australian Economy. Department o f t h e Treasury. Canberra, 1956 to date Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Proceedings: New Series. Melbourne, 1912 to date

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The length of roads in Australia for general traffic (1985) is 804,753 km, of which 266,686 is sealed, 200,862 of gravel, crushed stone or other improved surface, and 337,179 of cleared or formed surface only. At 30 June 1984,8,832,800 motor vehicles, including 6,636,200 cars and station wagons, 1,798,200 utilities, panel-vans, truck type vehicles and buses and 398,400 motor cycles, were registered in Australia. New motor vehicle registration figures for 1984—85 include 510,893 cars and station wagons, 100,089 utilities and panelvans, 63,848 truck type vehicles and buses and 45,879 motor cycles. Railways. Government railways for the year ended 30 June 1984:

System

State: New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia J Western Australia Australian National 1

2

Routekm open4

Revenue train-km run. 1,000

Passenger journeys. 1,000

9,884 5,783 10,381 130 5,623 7,450

61,659 30,702 33,303 3,697 10,333 10,238

202,253 84,599 37,652 69,680 8,665 357

Goods and livestock. carried, Gross 1,000 earnings, tonnes SAI,000 46,594 10,486 53,150 19^870 12,083

823,055 305,283 717,956 50,277 228,339 227,063

Working expenses, SAI,000 1,234,053 717,447 725,059 126,127 246,552 325,170

' The Australian National Railways operates services of the former Commonwealth Railways, the non-metropolitan South Australian Railways and the Tasmanian Railways. 1 Excludes Adelaide metropolitan rail passenger services and the Tasmanian Region. ' The South Australian State Transport Authority operates services in the Adelaide metropolitan area. 4 Inter system traffic is included in the total for each system over which it passes.

The State railway gauges are: New South Wales, 1,435 mm; Victoria, 1,600 mm (325 km 1,435 mm); Queensland, 1,067 mm (111 km 1,435 mm); South Australia, 1,600 mm for 2,533 km, 1,824 km 1,435 mm and the rest 1,067 mm; West Australia, 137 km, 1,435 mm and the rest 1,067 mm, and Tasmania, 1,067 mm. Of the Australian National Railways, the gauge of the Trans-Australian and Australian Capital Territory is 1,435 mm, and for the Central Australia 1,067 mm for 869 km and 1,435 mm for 350 km. Under various Commonwealth-State standardization agreements, all the State capitals are now linked by 1,435 mm gauge track. The Central Australia railway extends as far north as Alice Springs (now standard gauge on new alignment from Tarcoola to Alice Springs). Aviation. All civil flying in Australia and its Territories is subject to legislative control by the Australian Government. In some cases intrastate air services are also subject to legislative control by the relevant State Government. The administration of the Air Navigation Act and Regulations and other Commonwealth aviation legislation is a function o f t h e Commonwealth Department of Aviation under the Minister for Aviation. All Australian-owned airlines, except Qantas Airways, operate regular internal air services. During 1984-85 hours flown numbered 250,779; paying passengers carried nuipbered 11,359,700; weight of goods carried was 153,181 tonnes, and gross weight of mail was 18,467 tonnes. During 1983 hours flown by Australian regular overseas services which are operated by or onbehaif of Qantas numbered 89,952; km flown, 71 m.; paying passengers, 2,449,596; freight, 90,357 tonnes; mail, 4,744 tonnes. Expenditure by the Aviation Portfolio on air transport for the year 1983-84 was $A448-8m. Aviation related expenditure by other Australian Government Departments for the same period was $A71 -6m.

AUSTRALIA

111

At 30 June 1984 there were 441 licensed aerodromes and 71 governmental aerodromes in Australia. Shipping. As at 30 June 1983 the Australian merchant marine (vessels of 150 tons gross and over) consisted of 74 coastal vessels of 1,146,505 tons gross and 30 overseas vessels of924,037 tons gross. Entrances and clearances of vessels (with cargo and in ballast) engaged in overseas trade: 1982-83 1983-84

Entrances No. DWT 9,998 315,465,880 6,131 263,614,000

Clearances No. DWT 9,914 316,847,814 6,026 267,264,000

The following summary shows shipping activity by States, 1983-84: Particulars Overseas vessel arrivals Calls DWT(1,000tonnes) Overseas cargo: Discharged 1,000 gross weight tonnes Overseas vessel departures Calls DWT(1,000tonnes) Overseas cargo Loaded 1,000 gross weight tonnes

NSW

Vic.

Q'ld

SA

WA

Tas. N.T.

Ausl.

2,607 1,903 2,142 853 2,621 469 268 10,863 78,331 43,407 71,325 19,651 133,714 12,591 7,839 366,859 6,324

4,321

2,413 2,326

4,928

476 1,208

22,859

2,599 1,865 2,132 846 2,599 470 268 10,779 79,663 42,283 72,950 19,487 135,124 12,556 7,906 369,968 37,475

7,236 40,506 5,264

94,651

5,026 4,742 197,048

Post and Broadcasting. Business, year ended 30 June 1985. Postal services revenue, $Al,211-3m., of which mail services earned $Al,080-5m.; expenditure $ A1,186 • 8m., of which labour cost $A911 • 8m. At 30 June 1985, there were 6,187,947 telephone services. Telecommunications revenue, $A4,764-8m., of which telephone calls earned $A2,($40-4m.; expenditure, $A4,379-7m., of which marketing and operations cost $A890 1m. and interest $A898-9m. The National Broadcasting and Television Service is provided by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, which at 30 June 1983 operated 95 medium-wave, 25 frequency modulation and 6 high-frequency radio stations, and 10 high-frequency radio stations for overseas services. In addition, 130 medium-wave, and 7 frequency modulation, commercial broadcasting stations plus 38 public radio stations (both M W and FM) were operating. Television services are provided in each State, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory by the ABC and by commercial television stations. There were 272 national stations (including translators) and 50 commercial television stations in 1983. The Overseas Telecommunications Commission (OTC), established by the Overseas Telecommunications Act 1946, is responsible for the establishment, maintenance, operation and development of all public telecommunications' services between Australia and other countries, between Australia and its external territories and with ships at sea. Cinemas (1971). There were 976 cinemas including 241 drive-in cinemas, with a total seating capacity of about 478,000. Newspapers (1981). There was 1 national newspaper (average daily circulation 126,000) and 14 metropolitan daily newspapers in Australia with a combined daily circulation of 3-6m. Of these, 3 papers published in Melbourne accounted for 1 -3m. and 4 published in Sydney for 1 -2m. Australian Transport. Sydney, InstituteofTransport, 1937todate(quarterly)

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia is vested in the High Court of Australia (the Federal Supreme Court), in the Federal courts created

112

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by the Federal Parliament (the Federal Court of Australia and the Family Court of Australia) and in the State courts invested by Parliament with Federal jurisdiction. High Court. The High Court consists of a Chief Justice and.6 other Justices, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. The Constitution confers on the High Court original jurisdiction, inter alia, in all matters arising under treaties or affecting consuls or other foreign representatives, matters between the States of the Commonwealth, matters to which the Commonwealth is a party and matters between residents of different States. Federal Parliament may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the High Court, inter alia, in matters arising under the Constitution or under any laws made by the Parliament. It has in fact conferred jurisdiction on the High Court in matters arising under the Constitution and in matters arising under certain laws made by Parliament. The High Court may hear and determine appeals from its own Justices exercising original jurisdiction, from any other Federal Court, from a Court exercising Federal jurisdiction and from the Supreme Courts of the States. It also has jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from the Supreme Courts of the Territories. The right of appeal from the High Court to the Privy Council was abolished in 1986. Other Federal Courts. Since 1924,4 other Federal courts have been created to exercise special Federal jurisdiction, i.e. the Federal Court of Australia, the Family Court of Australia, the Australian Industrial Court and the Federal Court of Bankruptcy. The Federal Court of Australia was created by the Federal Court of Australia Act 1976 and began to exercise jurisdiction on 1 Feb. 1977. It exercises such original jurisdiction as is invested in it by laws made by the Federal Parliament including jurisdiction formerly exercised by the Australian Industrial Court and the Federal Court of Bankruptcy, and in some matters previously invested in either the High Court or State and Territory Supreme Courts. The Federal Court also acts as a court of appeal from State and Territory courts in relation to Federal matters. Appeal from the Federal Court to the High Court will be by way of special leave only. The State Supreme Courts have also been invested with Federal jurisdiction in bankruptcy. State Courts. The general Federal jurisdiction of the State courts extends, subject to certain restrictions and exceptions, to all matters in which the High Court has jurisdiction or in which jurisdiction may be conferred upon it. Industrial Tribunals. The major Federal industrial tribunal in Australia is the Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, constituted by presidential members (with the status of judges) and commissioners. The Commission's functions include settling industrial disputes, making awards, determining the standard hours of work, wage fixation, etc. Questions of law, the judicial interpretation of awards, imposition of penalties, etc., in relation to industrial matters, are now dealt with by the Federal Court. Australian Digest of Reported Decisions of the Australian Courts and of Australian Appeals to the Privy Council. 2nd ed. Sydney, Law Book Co. 1963—Supplements 1964 ff. Baalman, J., Outline ofLaw in Australia. 4th ed. Sydney, 1979 Bates, N., Introduction to Legal Studies. 3rd ed. Melbourne, 1980 Benjafield, D. G., and Whitmore, H., Principles of Australian Administrative Law. 3rd ed. Sydney, 1966 Cowen, Z., Federal Jurisdiction in Australia. 2nd ed. Melbourne, 1978 Fleming, J. G., The Law of Torts. 5th ed. Sydney, 1977 Gunn, J. A. L., Australian Income Tax Law and Practice. 9th ed. by F. C. Bock and E. F. Mannix, Sydney, 1969, and Butterworth's Taxation Service to date Howard, C., Criminal Law. 3rded. Sydney, 1975 Mills, C. P., and Sorrell, G. H., Federal Industrial Law. (Nolan and Cohen.) 5th ed. Sydney, 1975 O'Connell, D. P. (ed.), International Law in Australia. Sydney, 1966 Paterson, W. E., and Ednie, H. H., Australian Company Law. 2nd ed. Sydney, 1976, and Butterworth's Company Service to date Sawer,G., The Australian and the Law. Melbourne, 1976 Twyford, J., The Layman and the Law in Australia. 2nd ed. Sydney, 1980 Wynes, A., Legislative, Executive and Judicial Powers in Australia. 5 th ed. Sydney, 1976 Yorston, R. K.,andFortescue, E. E., Australian Mercantile Law. 14th ed. Sydney, 1971

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Religion. Under the Constitution the Commonwealth cannot make any law to establish any religion, to impose any religious observance or to prohibit the free exercise of any religion, nor can it require a religious test as qualification for office or public trust under the Commonwealth. The figures in the table refer to those religions with the largest number of adherents at the census of 1981. The census question on religion was not obligatory, however. Religion Persons Christian Baptist 190,259 Brethren 21,489 1 Catholic 3,786,505 89,424 Churches of Christ Church of England 3,810,469 Congregational 23,017 Jehovah's Witness 51,815 Orthodox 421,281 Lutheran 199,760 Methodist, inc. Wesley 490,767 Presbyterian 637,818 Salvation Army 71,570 Seventh-day Adventist 712,609 Protestant (undefined) 220,679 Other (including Christian undefined) 250,188 Total Christian 1

Religion Non-Christian Hebrew Muslim Other Total Non-Christian Indefinite No religion No reply Grand Total

Persons 62,126 76,792 23,577 197,568 73,551 1,576,718 1,595,195 14,576,330

11,133,298 Includes 'Catholic' and 'Roman Catholic'.

Education. The Governments of the Australian States and the Northern Territory have the major responsibility for education, including the administration and substantial funding of primary, secondary, and technical and further education. In most States, a single Education Department is responsible for these three levels, but in New South Wales and South Australia there is a separate department responsible solely for technical and further education and in Victoria, a Technical and Further Education Board. Furthermore, in New South Wales an Education Commission advises the Minister on primary, secondary and post-secondary education. The Australian Government is directly responsible for education services in the Australian Capital Territory, administered through an education authority, and for services to Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. The Australian Government provides supplementary finance to the States and is responsible for the total funding of universities and colleges of advanced education. It also has special responsibilities for student assistance, education programmes for Aboriginal people and children from non-English-speaking backgrounds, and for international relations in education. The Australian Constitution empowers the Federal Government to make grants to the States and to place conditions upon such grants. There are two national Education Commissions which advise the Federal Government on the financial needs of educational institutions. The Commonwealth Schools Commission, established in 1973, advises on financial assistance to the States for schools. The Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission advises on providing the States with total funding for universities and colleges of advanced education, and supplementary assistance for their institutions of technical and further education. In 1984 legislation was passed to reactivate the national Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) within the framework of the Commonwealth Schools Commission. The CDC's functions are to concentrate on co-ordination and dissemination and on sponsoring the development of materials through contract arrangements with other agencies. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15 years (16 years in Tasmania), at either a government school or a recognized non-government educational institution. Many Australian children attend pre-schools for a year before entering school (usually in sessions of 2-3 hours, for 2-5 days per week). Government schools are usually co-educational and comprehensive. Non-government

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schools have been traditionally single-sex, particularly in secondary schools, but there is a trend towards co-education. Tuition is free at government schools, but fees are normally charged at non-government schools. The following is a summary at July 1985 of primary and secondary school education: 2 Schools

States and Territories New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory Aust. Cap. Terr. 1 2

Government 2,239 2,118 1,282 708 724 256 137 97

Nongovernment 841 734 405 175 224 70 17 36

Teachers ' NonGovern- government ment schools schools 46,846 15,555 44,321 15,505 22,752 6,504 14,204 3,201 12,567 3,455 5,011 1,069 1,845 336 2,838 1,122

Pupils

Government schools 761,017 558,764 374,533 196,236 207,629 66,863 25,948 39,843

7,561 2,502 150,383 46,747 2,230,833 Full-time teachers plus the full-time equivalent of part-time teaching. Full-time pupils only.

Nongovernment schools 264,297 245,176 115,067 51,246 57,688 17,050 5,044 19,768 775,336

In post-secondary education, tuition fees were abolished in 1974 and student allowances are provided for full-time students subject to a means test. Universities are autonomous institutions, as are the substantial majority of colleges of advanced education. While both offer degree courses, colleges also offer diploma and associate diploma courses; these tend to be vocational or of applied learning. Students enrolled at university (1984) 172,678 as follows: Type ofCourse Doctorate Master Bachelor Non-degree

7,485 16,488 135,605 13,100

Type of Enrolment Full-time internal Part-time internal External

106,019 50,682 15,977

University teaching staff, full-time and full-time equivalent in 1984,10,454. Other advanced education (1984) 185,820 students enrolled and 10,607 staff. Type of institution and enrollment: College ofadvanced education Institute of advanced education within a university Technical and further education institution Other Commonwealth institution Other institution Full-time internal Part-time internal External

175,120 2,759 4,959 295 2,687 90,852 67,679 27,289

Teacher education usually takes place in colleges of advanced education, though a substantial number of secondary teachers and a few primary teachers receive their pre-service education in a university. Government school teachers are recruited by the State and Northern Territory departments of education, and in the Australian Capital Territory by the ACT Schools Authority and the Public Service Board. Non-government schools recruit their own teachers. The Australian Government provides assistance for students. The Secondary Allowances Scheme aims to help parents with a limited income to keep their children at school for the final 2 years of secondary education. The Assistance for Isolated Children Scheme provides special support to families whose children are isolated from schooling or are handicapped. The Adult Secondary Education Assistance Scheme provides assistance for mature-age students undertaking a fulltime one-year matriculation level programme or a two-year programme if studies beyond the tenth year in the Australian secondary school system have not previously been undertaken. The Tertiary Education Assistance Scheme is a means-

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tested scheme to assist students enrolled for full-time study in approved courses at post-secondary institutions. Allowances are also available for post-graduate study and overseas study. Aboriginal students are eligible for assistance under the Aboriginal Secondary Grants Scheme and the Aboriginal Study Grants Scheme. The States also offer various schemes of assistance, principally at the primary and secondary levels. National bodies with a co-ordinating, planning or funding role include: the Australian Education Council, comprising the Federal and State Ministers of Education, the Conference of Directors-General of Education and an advisory body, the National Aboriginal Education Committee. Total expenditure on education in Australia (public and private sectors) in 1983-84 was estimated at $A 10,805m. Austin, A. G., Australian Education 1788-1900. Melbourne, 1961 Australian Education Directory. Canberra, 1983 Directory of Higher Education Courses 1982. Canberra, 1982 Primary and Secondary Schooling in Australia. Canberra, 1977 Schools Commission, Triennium 1982-84. Report for 1982. Canberra, 1981 Tertiary Education Commission, Report for 1982-84, Triennium Vol. 2: Recommendations for 1982. Canberra, 1981

Social Security and Welfare. All Commonwealth Government social security pensions, benefits and allowances are financed from the Commonwealth Government's general revenue. In addition, assistance is provided for welfare services. Expenditure on main programmes, 1984-85: Age pensions, $A5,638-9m.; invalid, $Al,469-7m.; family allowances, $Al,504-95m.; single parents, $A1,066-2m.; widows' pensions, $A889-4m. The following summarizes the rates and conditions of the major benefits provided at June 1985. Age and invalid pensions—age pensions are payable to men 65 years of age or more and women 60 years of age or more who have lived in Australia for a specified period and, unless permanently blind, also satisfy an income test. Persons over 16 years of age who are permanently blind or permanently incapacitated for work to the extent of at least 85% may receive an invalid pension. There is no residence qualification for an invalid pension if the permanent incapacity or blindness occurred within Australia or during temporary absence from Australia. An income test must be satisfied for an invalid pension unless permanently blind. The maximum rates are SA89.40 a week in the case of the 'standard' rate pension, and in the case of the 'married' rate pension, SA149.10 a week (SA74.55 each). Additional amounts are paid to pensioners with dependent children. Supplementary assistance of up to $A10 a week for 'standard' rate pension and $A5 for each 'married' rate person may be paid to a pensioner paying rent or private lodging subject to an income test. Remote area allowance is payable to pensioners living in income tax zone A, except for those aged 70 or more receiving the special rate of age pension. Supplementary assistance, additional pension for children, mother's/guardian's allowance and remote area allowance are not taxable. Wife's pension—payable to the wife of an age or invalid pensioner if she is not eligible for a pension in her own right. The maximum rate and the income test are identical to those for age and invalid pensioners. Spouse carer's pension—payable to the husband of an age or invalid pensioner who is providing constant care and attention at home for his wife if he is not eligible for pension in his own right. The maximum rate and the income test are identical to those for age and invalid pensions. Widow's pension—widows, divorcees, certain deserted wives, women who have been the dependant of a man for 3 years immediately prior to his death and women whose husbands have been convicted of an offence and have been imprisoned for not less than 6 months may, if they satisfy a residence requirement and an income test, receive a widow's pension. Such women may be paid a pension of up to SA89.40 a week. If they have any dependent children they also receive a mother's/ guardian's allowance of $A8 a week plus an additional allowance of$A12 for each

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child. Persons who pay private rent may also receive supplementary assistance of up to $A10 a week subject to an income test. Pensions are subject to income tax, but not mother's allowances, additional pension for children, supplementary assistance, or remote area allowance. Supporting parents benefit—sole parents who have custody, care and control of any dependent children may, if they satisfy a residence requirement and an income test, receive supporting parents benefit. It is payable at the same rate as the widow's pension and is subject to the same income test. Mother's/guardian's allowance, additional pension for each dependent child, supplementary assistance and remote area allowance are also payable. Sheltered employment allowance—is payable to disabled persons under age— pension age engaged in approved sheltered employment who are qualified to receive invalid pension. The rates of payment and allowances and income test are the same as invalid pension. Rehabilitation allowance—persons undertaking a rehabilitation programme with the Commonwealth Rehabilitation Service who are eligible for a social security pension or benefit are eligible to receive a non taxable rehabilitation allowance during treatment or training and for up to 6 months thereafter. The allowance is equivalent to the invalid pension and is subject to the same income test. Family Allowance—is paid without income test to assist families with children under 16 years or dependent full-time students aged 16 years to under 25 years. It is not subject to income tax. Monthly rates payable are: first child, SA22.80; second child, SA32.55; third child, $A39; fourth child, $A39 and SA45.55 for each subsequent child. For each child or eligible student in an approved institution, the rate is $A39 per month. Family income supplement—payable subject to an income test to families with one or more children eligible for family allowances so long as they are not in receipt of any Commonwealth pension, benefit or allowance which provides additional payment for dependent children. The maximum rate per child is $ A12 a week and this is not taxable. Handicapped child's allowance—payable to parents or guardians of severely physically or mentally handicapped children in the family home and needing constant care and attention. The allowance is $A85 per month and is free of an income test but is subject to a residence qualification similar to that for family allowance. It may also be paid, subject to an income test, in cases where the child is handicapped but not severely, and requires marginally less care and attention. Double orphan's pension—the guardian of a child under 16 years of age or of a fulltime student under 25, both of whose parents are dead, or one of whose parents is dead and the whereabouts of the other parent unknown, and for refugee children where both parents are outside Australia, may receive double orphan's pension of SA55.70 a month per child. The payment is not subject to an income test nor is it taxable. Unemployment and sickness benefits—are paid, subject to an income test, to persons between the ages of 16 and age pension age who are unemployed, able and willing to work and making efforts to obtain work, or temporarily unable to work because of sickness or injury. The maximum weekly rates of benefit are for unemployment benefits $A45 (single, under 18 years), SA78.60 (single 18 and over without dependents), SA89.40 (single, 18 and over with dependents), SA149.10 (married); and for sickness benefits $A45 (single, under 18), SA89.40 (single, 18 and over), SA149.10 (married). To be granted benefit a person must have resided in Australia for at least 12 months preceding his claim or intend to remain in Australia permanently. For unemployment benefit purposes unemployment must not be due to industrial action by that person or by members of a union to which that person is a member. Service Pension is a Social-Welfare type payment paid by the Department of Vet-

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erans' Affairs, similar to the age and invalid pensions provided by the Department of Social Security. Male Veterans who have reached the age of 60 years or are permanently unemployable, and who served in a theatre of war, are eligible for service pension subject to an income test. Female Veterans who served abroad or embarked for service abroad, and who have reached the age of 55 or are permanently unemployable, are also eligible. Wives of service pensioners are also eligible provided that they do not receive a pension from the Department of Social Security. Disability pension is a compensatory payment in respect of incapacity attributable to war service. It is paid at a rate commensurate with the degree of incapacity suffered from service-related disabilities and is free of any income test. A separate allowance may be paid to dependents. In addition to cash benefits, welfare services are provided either directly or through State and Local government authorities and voluntary agencies, for people with special needs. Medicare. On 1 Feb. 1984 the Commonwealth Government introduced the new universal health scheme known as Medicare. This covers: Automatic entitlement under a single public health fund to medical and optometrical benefits of 85% of the Medical Benefits Schedule fee, with a maximum patient payment for any service of $A10 where the Schedule fee is charged; access without direct charge to public hospital accommodation and to inpatient and outpatient treatment by doctors appointed by the hospital; the restoration of funds for community health to approximately the same real level as 1975; the reduction in charges for private treatment in shared wards of public hospitals to $A80 per day, and increases in the daily bed subsidy payable to private hospital to an average of $A30. The Medicare programme is financed in part by a 1% levy on taxable incomes, with low income cut-off points. The tax rebate formerly paid for basic health insurance contributions ceased from 30 June 1983. In addition, the Commonwealth's annual contribution to the Health Benefits Reinsurance Trust Fund was reduced from $A100m. to $A20m. from 1 July 1983. Under the provisions of the National Health Act, the Commonwealth Government subsidises registered health insurance organizations by contributing to the Reinsurance Trust Fund for payments of benefits to patients with hospital treatment in excess of 35 days. Medicare benefits are available to all persons ordinarily resident in Australia with the exception of members of foreign diplomatic missions and their dependants; visitors staying more than 6 months. Medical Benefits. The Health Insurance Act provides for a Medical Benefits Schedule which lists medical services and the Schedule (standard) fee applicable in each State in respect of each medical service. Schedule fees are set and updated by an independent fees tribunal appointed by the Government. The fees so determined are to apply for Medicare benefits purposes. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Australia in Great Britain (Australia House, Strand, London, WC2B 4LA) High Commissioner: Douglas McClelland. Of Great Britain in Australia (Commonwealth Ave., Canberra) High Commissioner: Sir John Leahy, KCMG. Of Australia in the USA (1601 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: F. Rawdon Dalrymple. Of the USA in Australia (Moonah PI., Canberra) Ambassador: Laurence W. Lane, Jr. Of Australia to the United Nations Ambassador: Richard A. Woolcott.

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Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Australian Bureau of Statistics (Cameron Offices, Belconnen, A.C.T., 2616) was established in 1906. All the activities of the Bureau are covered by the Census and Statistics Act, which confers authority to collect information and contains secrecy provisions to ensure that individual particulars obtained are not divulged. Under the provisions of the Statistics (Arrangements with States) Act which became law on 12 May 1956, the statistical services of all the States have been integrated with the Australian Bureau. An outline of the development of statistics in Australia is published in the Official Year Book, No. 51, 1965. Australian Statistician: Dr R. J. Cameron. The principal publications of the Bureau are: Official Year Book of Australia. 1907 to date Pocket Year Book Australia. 1913 to date Monthly Summary of Statistics Australia. Oct. 1937 to date Digest of Current Economic Statistics Australia. Aug. 1959 to date Catalogue of Publications, 1976 to date

Other Official Publications Atlas of Australian Resources. Dept. ofResources and Energy, Division ofNational Mapping Climatological Atlas of Australia. Bureau of Meteorology. Melbourne, 1940 Norfolk Island—Annual Report. Dept. ofTerritories and Local Government Cocos (Keeling) Islands—Annual Report. Dept. ofTerritories and Local Government Christmas Island—Annual Report. Dept. ofTerritories and Local Government Australian Books: Select List of Works About or Published in Australia. National Library of Australia, Canberra, 1934 to date Australian National Bibliography. Canberra, 1936 to date Historical Records of Australia. 34 vols. National Library, Canberra, 1914-25 Australia Handbook. Dept. of Administrative Services. Australian Information Services Annual Report. Dept. of Foreign Affairs, Canberra, 1932 to date Australian Foreign Affairs Record. Dept. of Foreign Affairs, Canberra, 1936 to date Australian Treaty List. Dept. of Foreign Affairs, Canberra, consolidated volume from Federation to 1970 with supplements to date Coxon, H., Australian Official Publications. Oxford, 1981 Documents on Australian Foreign Policy ¡937-49. Vols. I-VI. Dept. of Foreign Affairs, Canberra, 1975-83 Diplomatic List. Dept. of Foreign Affairs, Canberra. 1949 to date Consular and Trade Representatives. Dept. of Foreign Affairs, Canberra. 1936 to date

Non-Official Publications Australian Encyclopadia. 12 vols. Sydney, 1983 Australian Quarterly: A Quarterly Review of Australian Affairs. Sydney, 1929 to date Ball, D., and Langtry, J. O., Civil Defence and Australia's Security in a Nuclear Age. Sydney, 1984 Blainey, G., The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History. Melbourne, 1982 Byrt, W. J., The Framework of Consensus: Government, Business and Trade Unions. Sydney, 1985 Caves, P. E. and Krause, L. B., The Australian Economy: A Viewfrom the North. Sydney, 1984 Clark, M., A Short History of Australia. Melbourne, 1981 Deery, S. and Plowman, £>., Australian Industrial Relations. Sydney, 1985 Dixson, M., The Real Matilda: Women and Identity in Australia ¡788 to the Present. Melbourne, 1984 Hancock, Sir Keith, Australia. Brisbane, 1961 Howard, C.,Australia s Constitution. Melbourne, 1985 Hurst, J., Hawke P. M. Sydney, 1983 Inglis, K., This is the ABC: The Australian Broadcasting Commission. Melbourne, 1983 Jupp, J., Party Politics: Australia, 1966-1981. Sydney, 1982 Kepars, I., Australia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Lucy, R., The Australian Form of Government. Melbourne, 1985 Moore, D., and Hall, R., Australia: Image of a Nation. London, 1983 Serle, P., Dictionary of Australian Biography. 2 vols. Sydney, 1949 Solomon, D., Australia's Government and Parliament. Melbourne, 1981 Spann, R. N., Government Administration in Australia. Sydney, 1979 Who's Who in A ustralia. Melbourne, 1906 to date Wilson, R. K.., Australia's Resources and their Development. Univ. of Sydney, 1980 National Library: The National Library, Canberra, A.C.T. Director-General: Harrison Bryan.

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A U S T R A L I A N TERRITORIES A U S T R A L I A N CAPITAL TERRITORY HISTORY. The area, now the Australian Capital Territory, was first visited by white men in 1820 and settlement commenced in 1824. Until its selection as the seat of government it was a quiet pastoral and agricultural community. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Australian Capital Territory is 2,432 sq. km (including Jervis Bay area). The population (estimate) at 30 June 1984 was 244,500. Previous census population: 1911 1921 1933 1947 1954

Total Males Females Males Females 1,714 992 722 1961 30,858 27,970 1,567 1,005 2,572 1966 49,991 46,041 4,142 70,474 4,805 8,947 1971 73,589 9,092 7,813 16,905 1976 100,103 95,519 16,229 14,086 30,315 1981 110,415 111,194 (Figures before 1961 exclude particulars offull-blood Aborigines.)

Total 58,828 96,032 144,063 197,622 221,60?

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of Australia provided (Sec. 125) that the seat of government should be selected by parliament and that it should be within New South Wales, distance not less than 160 km from Sydney. The present area was surrendered by New South Wales and accepted by the Australian Government from 1 Jan. 1911. In 1915 an additional 73 sq. km at Jervis Bay was transferred from New South Wales to the Commonwealth. In 1911 an international competition was held for the city plan. The plan chosen was that of W. Burley Griffin, of Chicago. Construction was delayed by the First World War, and it was not until 1927 that, with the transfer of parliament and certain departments, Canberra became in fact the seat of government. Most Australian Government departments now have their headquarters in Canberra. The general administration of the Territory lies with the Department of Territories and Local Government, but certain specific services are undertaken by other Federal Government Departments and Authorities. Since June 1979 the Minister has been advised on matters of local concern by the ACT House of Assembly consisting of 18 elected members. Prior to that date this function was performed by the ACT Legislative Assembly (from 1974), replacing the ACT Advisory Council which had been in existence since 1930 and consisted of both nominated and elected members. The Australian Capital Territory Representation (House of Representatives) Act, 1973, provided for the representation of residents of the Territory by 2 elected members in the House of Representatives. The Senate (Representation of Territories) Act 1973 provided for the election of 2 Senators from the Territory. Elections took place on 1 Dec. 1984. F I N A N C E . The receipts and outlay of the Australian Capital Territory cover the transactions of the Australian Government in the Consolidated Revenue and other funds. They also include details of the ACT public corporations. Receipts and outlay ($A1,000) for years ended 30 June: 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Receipts 98,716 102,297 97,795 113,500 152,500

Capital 166,360 139,947 78,901 66,700 84,100

Outlay Current 227,021 260,248 297,206 348,600 392,800

Total 393,381 400,195 376,107 4.15,300 476,900

The chief sources of receipts in 1982-83 were taxes, fees and fines, $A90-3m.; and interest and rent, $A38 -2m. Capital outlay comprised gross capital formation, $A80-9m., and net transfers and advances to other sectors, $A3 -2m. P R O D U C T I O N . Outside Canberra the Territory is predominantly pastoral.

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Livestock, 31 March 1984: 9,944 cattle, 108,696 sheep and lambs. A considerable amount of reafforestation (mostly pine) has been undertaken, the total area of commercial plantations at 30 June 1981 being 15,600 hectares. There is no secondary industry of any importance. E D U C A T I O N . In 1974 education in government schools became the direct responsibility of the Commonwealth Government. A Schools Authority was established to administer the Australian Capital Territory government school system. In July 1984 there were 95 government schools comprising 64 primary schools, 25 secondary schools and colleges and 6 special schools. Non-government schools numbered 35 in total of which there were 22 primary schools, 5 secondary schools and 8 schools with both primary and secondary enrolments. Students enrolled fulltime in government schools in 1984 numbered 22,428 and 17,094 in primary and secondary school levels respectively. Enrolments at non-government schools comprised 10,311 primary school students and 8,758 secondary school students. Preschool education is provided at 73 centres with a total enrolment of 4,670 (1984). The Canberra, Woden and Bruce Colleges of Technical and Further Education with a total enrolment of about 25,300 in 1983 provide trade, post-trade certificate, associate diploma, craft and leisure courses. The Canberra School of Music, opened in 1965, had 736 students in 1983. The Canberra School of Arts had 1,161 students in 1983. The Canberra College of Advanced Education commenced operation in 1970. Enrolments (1984) 5,129. The Australian National University is situated in Canberra. Enrolments (1984) 6,194. Books of Reference A.C.T. Statistical Summary. A u s t r a l i a n Bureau of Statistics. F r o m 1960 Tomorrow's Canberra. N a t i o n a l C a p i t a l D e v e l o p m e n t C o m m i s s i o n , 1970 W i g m o r e , L., Canberra: A History of Australia's National Capital. 2 n d e d . C a n b e r r a , 1971

N O R T H E R N TERRITORY H I S T O R Y . The Northern Territory, after forming part of New South Wales, was annexed on 6 July 1863 to South Australia and in 1901 entered the Commonwealth as a corporate part of South Australia. The Commonwealth Constitution Act of 1900 made provision for the surrender to the Commonwealth of any territory by any state, and under this provision an agreement was entered into on 7 Dec. 1907 for the transfer of the Northern Territory to the Commonwealth, and it formally passed under the control of the Commonwealth Government on 1 Jan. 1911. For details of Constitutional development until 1978 see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R BOOK 1980-81 pp. 123-24. The Commonwealth Government retained responsibility until Self-Government was granted on 1 July 1978. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Northern Territory is bounded by the 26th parallel of S. lat. and 129° and 138° E. long. Its total area is 1,346,200 sq. km. The coastline is about 6,200 km in length, the principal port being Darwin. The greater part of the interior consists of a tableland rising gradually from the coast to a height of about 700 metres. On this tableland there are large areas of excellent pasturage. The southern part of the Territory is generally sandy and has a small rainfall, but water may be obtained by means of sub-artesian bores. The total population of the Territory (1984) is about 139,000. The capital and seat of Government, Darwin, is situated on the north coast. Darwin had a population of63,900 in June 1984. Other main centres include Katherine (4,300), 330 km south of Darwin; Alice Springs (22,000), in Central Australia; Tennant Creek (3,200), a rich mining centre 500 km north of Alice Springs; Nhulunbuy (3,900), a bauxite mining centre on the Gove Peninsula in eastern Arnhem Land; and Jabiru, a model town being built to serve the rich Uranium Province in eastern Arnhem Land with a planned population of 6,000. There also are a number of large selfcontained Aboriginal communities. Aboriginals were 29,087 of the 1981 Census

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population (123,324). On 31 July 1984, 26,692,400 hectares were designated Aboriginal Land under the Aboriginal Land Rights (N.T.) Act 1976. Vital statistics for 1983: Births, 3,127; deaths, 727; marriages, 776; divorces, 371. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Northern Territory (SelfGovernment) Act 1978 established the Northern Territory as a body politic as from 1 July 1978, with Ministers having control over and responsibility for Territory finances and the administration of the functions of government as specified by the Federal Government by regulations made pursuant to the Act. Regulations have been made conferring executive authority for the bulk of administrative functions. Proposed laws passed by the Legislative Assembly in relation to a transferred function require the assent of the Administrator. Proposed laws in all other cases may be assented to by the Administrator or reserved by the Administrator for the Governor-General's pleasure. The Governor-General may disallow any law assented to by the Administrator within 6 months of the Administrator's assent. The Northern Territory has federal representation, electing 1 member to the House of Representatives and 2 members to the Senate. F I N A N C E . Budgets since the introduction of self-government in 1978 i n $ A l m . : 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-851 Revenue Expenditure

656 656

744 850 746 851 1 Estimate.

972-8 970-4

1,095-7 1,081-3

The revenue available in 1984-85 comprised $A945-7m. in payments to the Northern Territory from the Commonwealth, as established by agreement at the time of self-government, together with $A150m. raised by the Northern Territory which included $A52 -9m. through state-like taxes. Expenditure during 1984-85 included $A189m. for education; $A86m. for lands and housing; $A116-2m. for health; $A71-9m. for law, order and public safety; $A38 • 8m. for local government and $ A371 -9m. for economic services. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Oil and Gas. Significant oil and gas reserves have been discovered in the Amadeus Basin. In 1981 the Territory's first petroleum leases were granted at Mereenie. There are estimated recoverable reserves of 28m. bbls of oil. Estimated gas reserves at Mereenie are 23,000m. cu. metres. A pipeline has been constructed from Palm Valley to carry natural gas 150 km to Alice Springs where it is providing fuel for the local power station. Proven reserves are 1,400m. cu. metres of gas. Minerals. The Northern Territory's most important natural resources are minerals. In the financial year 1983-84 the mining industry, by far the largest commercial industry in the Northern Territory, produced a value added of $A454m. Gross value of output,$A716m. in 1983. At present there are five major mining organizations extracting bauxite, manganese, uranium, gold and copper; in addition, one firm is producing uranium oxide from stockpiled ore. There are also several smaller mining operations recovering tin, tantalum, gold, lead and silver. Significant amounts of rock, sand and gravel are also being produced for construction materials. Gove Peninsula bauxite reserves are estimated at 250m. tonnes with an average alumina content of 50%. Over 4m. tonnes of bauxite were mined in 1982. Alumina is exported to Europe, the USA, Africa and Asia. More than half the bauxite goes to Japan. One of the world's largest high-grade manganese mines is located on Groote Eylandt, which is Australia's largest known manganese deposit. In 1982 there were 1 m. tonnes of manganese ore processed, much of which was shipped to Japan. Copper, gold and bismuth are mined in the Tennant Creek area. Warrego Mine has a proven copper/gold ore resource of 4-8m. tonnes and Gecko Mine has a proven ore resource of 3-3m. tonnes. Nobles Nob has been producing gold since

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1938 and currently mills 8,000 tonnes of ore per month. Gold bullion and concentrates with a total value of more than $A32m. were produced in the Territory in 1982. The Alligator Rivers region is possibly the most prospective area in the world for high-grade uranium deposits. Four world-class deposits have been located to date. Of these, Ranger and Nabarlek are producing uranium oxide. The combined output from these two mines in 1981 was 2,622 tonnes, with a value of about $A175m. Agriculture. Cattle production, valued at $A65m. in 1983-84, constitutes the largest primary industry in the Northern Territory. Buffalo are also produced ($A5m.), many exported live to Indonesia. There are 283 pastoral stations in the Northern Territory which produce cattle for Australian and overseas markets. They vary from small stations of 383 sq. km. to huge properties like Wave Hill Station which runs cattle over 12,380 sq. km. In 1982, five export abattoirs in the Territory supplied 13,728 tonnes of beef, veal and fancy meats to more than 20 countries. The USA is the largest importer of Territory beef, followed by Japan, Taiwan, Saudi Arabia and Hong Kong. Total value of export beef was more than $A28m. in 1983-84. Processed buffalo meat for human consumption overseas is supplied by two export abattoirs in the Territory's Top End. In 1982 their combined exports of buffalo meat products was more than 2,800 tonnes. General agriculture is conducted on a small scale. Fruit, vegetables, eggs, dairy produce, poultry and cereals are produced. Properties in the Katherine and Douglas-Daly districts produce the Territory's four main crops - sorghum, maize, mung beans and peanuts. Value of grain production, 1983-84, $A1 -2m.; of horticultural produce, $A3m. Forestry. A forest development programme which commenced in 1970 has continued the multiple use management of Northern Territory forested areas; this included a softwood programme of400 hectares per year, the introduction of additional suitable tree species in both arid and higher rainfall areas, conservation and management of native forests for production and recreational purposes, survey and assessment of resources, fire control activities and the creation of training opportunities for Aboriginals in forestry and allied saw-milling activities. Local production of sawn timber, mainly Cypress pine, amounted to 870 cu. metres of pine in 1975-76. This was supplemented by 35,500 cu. metres of timber imported from interstate and overseas. Local production of treated poles and rails amounted to 115 cu. metres. Only 280 hectares of plantation were established during the year because of complications arising from cyclone 'Tracy'. During 1975-76 the Forestry Section of the Department of the Northern Territory redeveloped parks and open-space areas on behalf of the Darwin Reconstruction Commission. Fisheries. The fishing industry is second only to beef cattle in Northern Territory primary industries. The total value (ex-vessel) of commercial fish products landed in the Northern Territory in 1983-84 was $A20-65m. Of this, prawns contributed $A17-58m. and barramundi $A1 -62m. Threadfin salmon, spanish mackerel, mud crabs, reef fish, squid and bay lobsters made up most of the remainder. Prawns and barramundi provide an employment base for a large number of Territorial - not just in fishing, but in processing, distribution and ancillary services. Almost all products undergo some processing by land-based establishments before reaching the consumer. Some 95% of prawns landed in the Northern Territory are exported to Japan. The value of prawn exports in 1981-82 exceeded $A14-5m., mainly headless uncooked prawns. The bulk of barramundi and threadfin salmon is consigned in frozen packs to southern Australian markets. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E . In 1983-84 value added in the manufacturing industry, from 113 factories (with 4 or more persons employed) was $A108m.

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2,402 persons were employed in these factories. In 1984, 75 trade unions had 20,300 members. Tourism. Tourism is the second most important industry (after mining), contributing about $A172m. to the economy in 1983-84. National Parks and Reserves. About 43,000 sq. km have been set aside as wildlife sanctuaries under the Wildlife Conservation and Control Ordinance. They are controlled by the Chief Inspector of Wildlife who is an officer of the Department of the Northern Territory. 236,000 sq. km of Aboriginal reserves are also wild-life protected areas. The Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory administers some 53 national parks and reserves covering an area of over 5,800 sq. km. The Commission is responsible under the National Parks and Gardens Ordinance for the care, control and management of these reserves, and its functions include the preservation and protection of natural and historical features and the encouragement of public use and enjoyment of land set aside in such reserves. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are now (1985) 5,289 km of sealed road and 5,350 km of gravel and crushed stone road within the Northern Territory. They include three major interstate links: the Stuart Highway from Darwin to the South Australian border, the Barkly Highway, Tennant Creek to Mt. Isa, 444 km of which is in the Northern Territory, and the Victoria Highway, Katherine to the Western Australian border, a distance of 468 km. In addition to this there are 4,814 km of formed roads and 4,627 km of unformed roads or tracks, totalling approximately 20,080 km of roads within the Northern Territory. In 1984—85 registrations of new motor vehicles included 4,504 cars, 2,248 utilities etc., 294 trucks, 82 buses and 1,092 motor cycles. Railways. Alice Springs is linked to the Trans-continental network by a new standard (1,435 mm) gauge railway to Tarcoola (831 km), opened in 1980. This replaced the largely narrow gauge line to Port Augusta. The standard gauge railway is to be extended to Darwin, providing Australia with its first north-south rail link. Aviation. Darwin is the first port of arrival in Australia for some aircraft from Europe and Asia. In 1983, 335,112 passengers were carried and 2,908 tonnes of freight. There are regular inland services connecting Darwin with all the State capitals and many inland towns. Shipping. Regular freight shipping services connect Darwin with Western Australia, the eastern States and overseas. Passenger vessels also call at Darwin at irregular intervals. The ports of Melville Bay (Gove) and Milner Bay (Groote Eylandt) are connected with Darwin, the eastern States and overseas by regular shipping freight services. The inland and coastal communities around the coast are provided with regular freight barge services from Darwin. Some of these communities also receive a barge freight-transhipment service out of a Brisbane vessel which calls at Melville and Milner Bays, where the transhipment is effected. Radio and Television. In 1984 there were 8,658 radio-communication stations, 8 radio broadcasting stations and 5 television stations. EDUCATION AND WELFARE Education. In June 1984 there were 139 government schools. Teachers totalled 1,788 and pupils 28,091. There were 18 private schools with 269 teachers and 5,078 pupils. Health. In 1984 there were 5 hospitals with 650 beds. Community health services are provided from 9 urban Health Centres and 62 rural Health Centres including mobile units.

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Books of Reference The Northern Territory: Annual Report. Dept. of Territories, Canberra, from 1911. Dept. of the Interior, Canberra, from 1966-67. Dept. of Northern Territory, from 1972 Australian Territories, Dept. of Territories, Canberra, 1960 to 1973. Dept. ofSpecial Minister of State, Canberra, 1973-75. Department of Administrative Services, 1976 Northern Territory Statistical Summary. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra, from 1960 Donovan, P. F., A Land Full of Possibilities: A History of South Australia's Northern Territory 1863-1911. 1981.-/1» the Other End of Australia: The Commonwealth and the Northern Territory 1911-1978. Univ. of Queensland Press, 1984 Heatley, A., The Government of the Northern Territory. Univ. ofQueensland Press, 1979 Mills, C. M., A Bibliography of the Northern Territory. Canberra, 1977 Powell, A., Far Country: A Short History of the Northern Territory. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1982

A U S T R A L I A N E X T E R N A L TERRITORIES A U S T R A L I A N ANTARCTIC T E R R I T O R Y . An Imperial Order in Council of 7 Feb. 1933 placed under Australian authority all the islands and territories other than Adelie Land situated south of 60° S. lat. and lying between 160° E. long, and 45° E. long. The Order came into force with a Proclamation issued by the Governor-General on 24 Aug. 1936 after the passage of the Australian Antarctic Territory Acceptance Act 1933. The boundaries of Adelie Land were definitively fixed by a French Decree of 1 April 1938 as the islands and territories south of 60° S. lat. lying between 136° E. long, and 142° E. long. The Australian Antarctic Territory Act 1954 declared that the laws in force in the Australian Capital Territory are, so far as they are applicable and are not inconsistent with any ordinance made under the Act, in force in the Australian Antarctic Territory. In 1968 responsibility for the administration of this Act was transferred from the Minister for External Affairs to the Minister for Supply; in 1972 responsibility was transferred to the Minister for Science. On 13 Feb. 1954 the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) established a station on Mac. Robertson Land at lat. 67° 37' S. and long. 62° 52' E. The station was named Mawson in honour of the late Sir Douglas Mawson. Meteorological and other scientific research is conducted at Mawson, which is the centre for coastal and inland survey expeditions. A second Australian scientific research station was established on the coast of Princess Elizabeth Land on 13 Jan. 1957 at lat. 68° 34' S. and long. 77° 58' E. The station was named Davis in honour of Capt. John King Davis, Mawson's second-in-command on 2 expeditions. The station was temporarily closed down in Jan. 1965 and re-opened in Feb. 1969. In Feb. 1959 the Australian Government accepted from the US Government custody of Wilkes Station, which was established by the US on 16 Jan. 1957 on the Budd Coast of Wilkes Land, at lat. 66° 15' S. and long. 110° 32' E. The station was named in honour of Lieut. Charles Wilkes, who commanded the 1838-40 US expedition to the area, and was closed in Feb. 1969. Operations were then transferred to the new station, Casey. Construction commenced on Casey station in Jan. 1965 and was continued, mainly during summer visits, until Feb. 1969, when it was opened. The station, specially designed to withstand blizzard winds and prevent inundation by snow, is situated 2-4 km south of Wilkes at lat. 66° 17' S. and long. 110° 32' E. The Antarctic Division has also operated a station, since March 1948, at Macquarie Island, about 1,370 km south-east of Hobart. Macquarie Island is a dependency of the State of Tasmania. On 1 Dec. 1959 Australia signed the Antarctic Treaty with Argentina, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the USSR, the UK and the USA. Poland, Czechoslovakia, German Democratic Republic, Netherlands, Romania, Brazil, Denmark, Bulgaria, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, India, People's Republic of China, Spain, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Hungary and Uruguay have subsequently acceded to the Treaty. Poland became a full member of the Antarctic Treaty in 1977 and the Federal Republic of Germany in 1981 and

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125

India and Brazil in 1983. The Treaty reserves the Antarctic area south of 60° S. lat. for peaceful purposes, provides for international co-operation in scientific investigation and research, and preserves, for the duration of the Treaty, the status quo with regard to territorial sovereignty, rights and claims. The Treaty entered into force on 23 June 1961. Since then the Antarctic Treaty powers have held 12 consultative meetings. The 13th is scheduled to be held in Brussels, Belgium, in 1985. COCOS ( K E E L I N G ) I S L A N D S . The Cocos(Keeling) Islands are 2 separate atolls comprising some 27 small coral islands with a total area of about 14-2 sq. km, and are situated in the Indian Ocean at 12° 05' S. lat. and 96° 53' E. long. They lie 2,768 km north-west of Perth and 3,685 km west of Darwin, while Colombo is 2,255 km to the north-west of the group. The main islands in this Australian Territory are West Island (the largest, about 10 km from north to south) on which is an airport and an animal quarantine station, and most of the European community; Home Island, occupied by the Cocos Malay community; Direction, South and Horsburgh Islands, and North Keeling Island, 24 km to the north of the group. Although the islands were discovered in 1609 by Capt. William Keeling of the East India Company, they remained uninhabited until 1826, when the first settlement was established on the main atoll by an Englishman, Alexander Hare, with a group of followers, predominantly of Malay origin. Hare left the islands in 1831, by which time a second settlement had been formed on the main atoll by John Clunies-Ross, a Scottish seaman and adventurer, who began commercial development of the islands' coconut palms. In 1857 the islands were annexed to the Crown; in 1878 responsibility was transferred from the Colonial Office to the Government of Ceylon, and in 1886 to the Government of the Straits Settlement. By indenture in 1886 Queen Victoria granted all land in the islands to George Clunies-Ross and his heirs in perpetuity (with certain rights reserved to the Crown). In 1903 the islands were incorporated in the Settlement of Singapore and in 1942-46 temporarily placed under the Governor of Ceylon. In 1946 a Resident Administrator, responsible to the Governor of Singapore, was appointed. On 23 Nov. 1955 the Cocos Islands were placed under the authority of the Australian Government as the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands. An Administrator, appointed by the Governor-General, is the Government's representative in the Territory and is responsible to the Minister for Territories and Local Government. The Cocos (Keeling) Islands Council, established as the elected body of the Cocos Malay community in July 1979, advises the Administrator on all issues affecting the Territory. In 1978 the Australian Government purchased the Clunies-Ross family's entire interests in the islands, except for the family residence. A Cocos Malay cooperative has been established to take over the running of the Clunies-Ross copra plantation (160 tonnes of copra were exported in 1983-84) and to engage in other business with the Commonwealth in the Territory, including construction projects. The population of the Territory at 30 June 1984 was 584, distributed between Home Island (376) and West Island (208). The islands are low-lying, flat and thickly covered by coconut palms, and surround a lagoon in which ships drawing up to 7 metres may be anchored, but which is extremely difficult for navigation. An equable and pleasant climate, affected for much of the year by the south-east trade winds. Temperatures range over the year from 68° F (20° C) to 88° F (31 1 ° C) and rainfall averages 80" (2,000 mm) a year. The Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act 1955 is the basis of the Territory's administrative, legislative and judicial systems. Under section 8 of this Act, those laws which were in force in the Territory immediately before the transfer continued in force there. T h e Singapore

Ordinances

Application

Ordinance

1979 repealed all those con-

tained Ordinances and re-applied the provisions of 95 Ordinances of Singapore.

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These Ordinances can be amended, repealed or substituted by Ordinances made by the Governor-General. Administrator: E. H. Hanfield. C H R I S T M A S I S L A N D is in the Indian Ocean, lat. 10° 25' 22" S„ long. 105° 39' 59" E. It lies 360 km S„ 8" E. of Java Head, and 417 km N. 79° E. from Cocos Islands, 1,310 km from Singapore and 2,623 km from Fremantle. Area about 135 sq. km. The climate is pleasant and healthy with temperatures varying little over the year at 74-79° F (23-26° C). The wet season lasts from Nov. to April with an annual total of about 81" (2,040 mm). The island was formally annexed by the UK on 6 June 1888, placed under the administration of the Governor of the Straits Settlements in 1889, and incorporated with the Settlement of Singapore in 1900. Sovereignty was transferred to the Australian Government on 1 Oct. 1958. The population (estimate, 1983), 3,000 (Europeans, 350; Chinese, 1,820; Malays, 750 and 90 others). The legislative, judicial and administrative systems are regulated by the Christmas Island Act, 1958-73, which is administered by the Minister for Territories and Local Government with an Administrator, responsible for the local administration. The laws of Singapore which were in force before the transfer have been continued but can be amended, repealed or substituted by ordinances made by the Governor-General. Extraction and export of rock phosphate dust is the island's only industry. In Dec. 1948 Australia and New Zealand bought the lease rights of the Christmas Island Phosphate Co. and set up the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission (CIPC), which conducted the mining operation until mid-1981. The Phosphate Mining Co. of Christmas Island Ltd (PMCI) acted as managing agents for the CIPC until the Commission was wound up and now mines in its own right. The export of phosphate rock during 1983-84 was 1,112,800 tonnes, which is shipped to Australia and New Zealand and other Asian nations. There is direct radio communication with Australia and Singapore. Regular air charter flights commenced in 1974 to South-east Asia. At 31 May 1983 there were 621 primary and secondary pupils at the Christmas Island Area School. There is a technical school which provides commercial, apprenticeship and adult education courses, with (1979) some 701 students. Medical, dental and hospital services are provided free of charge by the Phosphate Mining Co. of Christmas Island Ltd. Administrator: T. F. Paterson. N O R F O L K I S L A N D . 29° 04' S. lat. 167° 57' E. long., area 3,455 hectares, population, approximately 1,800. The island was formerly part of the colony of New South Wales and then of Van Diemen's Land. It has been a distinct settlement since 1856, under the jurisdiction of the state of New South Wales; and finally by the passage of the Norfolk Island Act 1913, it was accepted as a Territory of the Australian Government. The Norfolk Island Act 1957 is the basis of the Territory's legislative, administrative and judicial systems. An Administrator, appointed by the Governor-General and responsible to the Minister for Territories and Local Government, is the senior government representative in the Territory. The Norfolk Island Act 1979 equips Norfolk Island with responsible legislative and executive government to enable it to run its own affairs to the greatest practicable extent. Wide powers are exercised by the Norfolk Island Legislative Assembly and by an Executive Council, comprising the executive members of the Legislative Assembly who have ministerial-type responsibilities. The Act preserves the Commonwealth's responsibility for Norfolk Island as a Territory under its authority, with the Minister for Territories and Local Government being the responsible Minister, and indicates the Parliament's intention that consideration will be given to an extension of the powers of the Legislative Assembly and the political and administrative institutions of Norfolk Island within 5 years. The Executive Council has executive authority over a prescribed range of matters.

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The island's Supreme Court sits as required and a Court of Petty Sessions exercises both civil and criminal jurisdiction. The Territory Administration is financed from local revenue which for 1983-84 totalled $A3,846,000; expenditure, $A3,617,000. Public revenue is derived mainly from tourism, the sale of postage stamps, customs duties, liquor sales and company registration and licence fees. Residents are not liable for income tax on earnings within the Territory, nor are death and personal stamp duties levied. In 1983-84 imports totalled $A15-lm. and exports $ A2 • 1 m. An estimated 16,220 visitors travelled to Norfolk during 1982-83. Descendants of the Bounty mutineer families constitute the 'original' settlers and are known locally as 'Islanders', while later settlers, mostly from Australia, New Zealand and UK, are identified as 'mainlanders'. Over the years the Islanders have preserved their own lifestyle and customs, and their language remains a mixture of West Country English and Tahitian. The Administration subsidises a public hospital and dispensary, and health services, together with free dental services for children, are provided by qualified government officers. Norfolk Island's public school is staffed by the New South Wales Department of Education and follows the State's education system. A bursary scheme' is available to provide students with secondary education on the mainland. A radio telephone service between the island and Sydney is maintained by the Overseas Telecommunications Commission, and there is a local automatic telephone service. Number oftelephones(1982) 987. Administrator: Air Vice-Marshal R. E. Trebilico, DFC. H E A R D AND M c D O N A L D I S L A N D S . These islands, about 2,500 miles south-west of Fremantle, were transferred from UK to Australian control as from 26 Dec. 1947. Heard Island is about 43 km long and 21 km wide; Shag Island is about 8 km north of Heard. The total area is 412 sq. km (159 sq. miles). The McDonald Islands are 42 km to the west of Heard. TERRITORY O F A S H M O R E AND CARTIER I S L A N D S . By Imperial Order in Council of 23 July 1931, Ashmore Islands (known as Middle, East and West Islands) and Cartier Island, situated in the Indian Ocean, some 320 km off the north-west coast of Australia (area, 5 sq. km), were placed under the authority of the Commonwealth. Under the Ashmore and Cartier Islands Acceptance Act, 1933, the islands were accepted by the Commonwealth under the name of the Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, and the effective date was proclaimed by the Governor-General to be 10 May 1934. It was the intention that the Territory should be administered by the State of Western Australia, but owing to administrative difficulties the Territory was annexed to and deemed to form part of the Northern Territory of Australia (by amendment to the Act in 1938) with relevant laws of the Northern Territory, applying to the Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands. Responsibility for the administration of Ashmore and Cartier Islands rests with the Minister for Territories and Local Government. On 16 Aug. 1983 a national nature reserve was declared over Ashmore Reef and the area so declared is now known as Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve. The islands are uninhabited but Indonesian fishing boats, which have traditionally plied the area, fish within the Territory and land to collect water in accordance with an agreement between the governments of Australia and Indonesia. Periodic visits are made to the islands by ships of the Royal Australian Navy, and aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force make aerial surveys of the islands and neighbouring waters. TERRITORY O F CORAL SEA I S L A N D S . The Coral Sea Islands became a Territory of the Commonwealth of Australia under the Coral Sea Islands Act 1969. It comprises scattered reefs and islands over a sea area of about lm. sq.

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km. The Territory is uninhabited apart from a manned meteorological station on Willis Island.

NEW SOUTH WALES HISTORY. New South Wales became a British possession in 1770; the first settlement was established at Port Jackson in 1788; a partially elective Council was established in 1843, and responsible government in 1856. New South Wales federated with the other Australian states to form the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. AREA A N D POPULATION. New South Wales is situated between the 28th and 38th parallels of S. lat. and 141st and 154th meridians of E. long., and comprises 309,433 sq. miles (801,428 sq. km), inclusive of Lord Howe Island, 6 sq. miles (17 sq. km), but exclusive of the Australian Capital Territory (911 sq. miles, 2,359 sq. km) and 28 sq. miles (73 sq. km) at Jervis Bay. Lord Howe Island, 31° 33' 4" S., 159° 4' 26" E., which is part of New South Wales, is situated about 702 km north-east of Sydney; area, 1,654 hectares, of which only about 120 hectares are arable; resident population, estimate (30 June 1984), 300. The Island, which was discovered in 1788, is of volcanic origin. Mount Gower, the highest point, reaches a height of866 metres. The Lord Howe Island Board manages the affairs of the Island and supervises the Kentia palm-seed industry. Census population of New South Wales (including full-blood Aboriginals from 1966): Average 1901 1911 1921 1933 1947 1954 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981

Males 710,264 857,698 1,071,501 1,318,471 1,492,211 1,720,860 1,972,909 2,126,652 2,307,210 2,380,172 2,548,984

Females 645,091 789,036 1,028,870 1,282,376 1,492,627 1,702,669 1,944,104 2,111,249 2,293,970 2,396,931 2,577,233

Population persq. km Persons 2 1,355,355 2 1,646,734 3 2,100,371 3 2,600,847 2,984,838 4 4 3,423,529 5 3,917,013 5 4,237,901 4,601,180 6 6 4,777,103 5,126,217 6

annual increase % since previous census 1 -86

1 -97 2-46 1 -76 0-99 1 -98 1-94 1-58 1 -66

0-75 1-42

At 30 June 1985 the resident population (estimate) of New South Wales was 5,474,300 (1984, 5,412,000). Sydney (Statistical Division), 3,391,650 (3,358,550); Newcastle (Statistical District), 423,300 (419,100); Wollongong (Statistical District), 236,750 (235,900). Population of principal country municipalities: Albury, 39,800 (39,150); Armidale, 19,750 (19,600); Bathurst, 25,700 (24,900); Broken Hill, 26,950 (27,200); Casino, 10,600 (10,500); Dubbo, 31,100 (30,500); Goulburn, 22,650 (22,450); Grafton, 17,450 (17,350); Hastings, 41,900 (40,100); Lake Macquarie, 162,800 (161,000); Lismore, 37,950 (37,050); Lithgow, Greater, 21,450 (21,200); Orange, 32,450 (32,200); Queanbeyan, 21,650 (21,000); Shellharbour, 46,650 (46,000); Shoalhaven, 59,000 (56,600); Tamworth, 33,600 (33,350); Taree, Greater, 35,950 (34,950); Wagga Wagga, 50,100(49,650). Vital statistics for calendar years: Deaths Infantile Live births Marriages 1983 83,307 39,995 1984 77,994 33,938 1985 87,786 41,183

Divorces 14,023 13,203 11,871

(excluding still-births) 40,547 39,302 44,264

mortality per 1,000 live births 9-9 9-2 9-8

The annual rates per 1,000 of mean resident population (estimate) in 1985 were: Births, 15-2; deaths, 7-7; marriages, 7-2.

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C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Within the State there are three levels of government: the Commonwealth Government, with authority derived from a written constitution; the State Government with residual powers; the local government authorities with powers based upon a State Act of Parliament, operating within incorporated areas extending over almost 90% of the State. The Constitution of New South Wales is drawn from several diverse sources; certain Imperial statutes such as the Colonial Laws Validity Act (1865) and the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (1900); the Australian States Constitution Act (1907); the Letters Patent and the Instructions to the Governor; an element of inherited English law; amendments to the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act; the (State) Constitution Act; the Australia Acts of 1986 and certain other State Statutes; numerous legal decisions; and a large amount of English and local convention. The Parliament of New South Wales may legislate for the peace, welfare and good government of the State in all matters not specifically reserved to the Commonwealth Government. The State Legislature consists of the Sovereign, represented by the Governor, and two Houses of Parliament, the Legislative Council (upper house) and the Legislative Assembly (lower house). Australian citizens, and other British subjects who were enrolled at 25 Jan. 1984, men and women aged 18 years and over, are entitled to the franchise. Voting is compulsory. The optional preferential method of voting is used for both houses. The Legislative Council has 45 members elected for a term of office equivalent to three terms of the Legislative Assembly, with 15 members retiring at the same time as the Legislative Assembly elections. The whole State constitutes a single electoral district. In Oct. 1986, the Council consisted of the following parties: Labor, 24; Liberal, 11; National Party, 6; Australian Democrats, 1; Independents, 3. The President of the Legislative Council has an annual salary (1986) of $A69,089; the Leader of the Opposition members, the Chairman of Committees and the Deputy Leader of the Government members (if not a Minister), $A51,370 each; the Deputy Leader of the Opposition members and Government and Opposition Whips, $A47,328 each. The President is paid an annual expense allowance of $A10,381; the Leader of the Opposition members, the Chairman of Committees, the Deputy Leader of the Government members (if not a Minister) and the Deputy Leader of the Opposition members (when a leader of a party), $ A5,706 each; the Deputy Leader of the Opposition members (when not a leader of a party) and Government and Opposition Whips, $A2,289 each. Other members who are not Ministers receive an annual salary of $A42,129. All members receive an annual electoral allowance of$A13,601. Special expenses allowances ($A5,659, $A7,051 or $A8,510) are paid to members who are not Ministers and reside in outlying electorates. Tne Legislative Assembly has 99 members elected in single seat electoral districts for a maximum period of 4 years. The Legislative Assembly, elected on 24 March 1984, consisted in Oct. 1986 of the following parties: Labor, 56; Liberal, 23; National Party, 15; Independents, 4; vacancy, 1. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Leader of the Opposition members receive a salary of (1986) $A69,089 each; the Chairman of Committees, Deputy Leader of the Opposition members and Leader of the National Party, $A51,370 each; Government and Opposition Whips, $A48,246 each. The Speaker and the Leader of the Opposition members also receive an expense allowance of $A10,381 each; the Chairman of Committees, Deputy Leader of the Opposition members and Leader of the National Party, $A5,706 each; Government and Opposition Whip», and Deputy Leader of the National Party, $A2,694 each. Members who are not Ministers receive an annual salary of $A42,129. All members receive an annual electoral allowance ranging from $A13,601 to $A24,203 according to the location of their constituencies. Special expenses allowances ($A5,659, $A7,051 or $A8,510) are paid to members who are not Ministers and represent outlying electorates. Executive power is vested in the Governor, who is appointed by the Crown, and an Executive Council consisting of members of the Cabinet. Ministers receive the following annual salaries (1986): Premier, $A86,575; Deputy Premier, $A77,942;

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the Leader of the Government members in the Legislative Council, $A78,820; Deputy Leader of Government members in the Legislative Council, $A75,076; other Ministers, $A73,593. Ministers also receive an expense allowance (Premier, $ A22,221; Deputy Premier, $ A11,110; other Ministers, $ A10,381 each). Ministers also receive an electoral allowance ranging from $A13,601 to $A24,203 to members of the Legislative Assembly, according to the location of their electorate; and $A13,601 to each member of the Legislative Council. A special expenses allowance of $A8,510 is paid to Ministers who represent or reside in outlying electorates. Governor: Air Marshal Sir James Anthony Rowland, KBE, DFC, AFC (sworn in 20 Jan. 1981). The Labor Party Cabinet, in Oct. 1986, was as follows: Premier, Minister for State Development and Minister for Ethnic Affairs: The Hon. B. J. Unsworth, MLC. Deputy Premier and Minister for Transport: The Hon. R. J. Mulock, LLB, MP. Minister for Housing and Minister for the Arts: The Hon. F. J. Walker, QC, MP. Minister for Public Works and Ports and Minister for Roads: The Hon. L. J. Brereton, MP. Minister for Industrial Relations and Minister for Employment: The Hon. P. D. Hills, MP. Ministerfor Health and Minister for the Drug Offensive: The Hon. P. T. Anderson, MP. Treasurer: The Hon. K. G. Booth, MP. AttorneyGeneral and Minister Assisting the Premier: The Hon. T. W. Sheahan, BA, LLB, MP. Minister for Industry and Small Business and Minister for Energy and Technology: The Hon. P. F. Cox, MP. Minister for Agriculture, Minister fir Lands and Vice-President of the Executive Council: The Hon. J. R. Hallam, MLC. Minister for Education: The Hon. R. M. Cavalier, MP. Minister for Sport and Recreation, Minister for Racing and Ministerfor Tourism: The Hon. M. A. Cleary, MP. Minister for Police and Emergency Services: The Hon. G. Paciullo, MP. Minister for Local Government and Minister for Water Resources: The Hon. J. A. Crosio, MP. Minister for Finance, Minister for Co-operative Societies and Assistant Minister for Education: The Hon. R. J. Debus, BA, LLB, MP. Minister for Corrective Services and Assistant Minister for Transport: The Hon. J. E. Akister, MP. Minister for Planning and Environment and Minister for Heritage: The Hon. R. J. Carr, MP. Minister for Youth and Community Services and Assistant Ministerfor Ethnic Affairs: The Hon. J. J. Aquilina, MP. Minister for Mineral Resources ana Minister for Aboriginal Affairs: The Hon. K. G. Gabb, LLB, MP. Minister for Consumer Aflairs and Assistant Minister for Health: The Hon. D. M. Grusovin, MLC. Agent-General in London: The Hon. K. J. Stewart (66 Strand, WC2N 5LZ). Local Government. A system of local government extends over most of the State, including the whole of the Eastern and Central land divisions and almost threequarters of the sparsely populated Western division. At 1 Jan. 1986 there were 62 municipalities, and 113 corporate bodies called shires. A number of the municipalities and shires have combined to form 42 county councils, which administer electricity or water supply undertakings or render other services of common benefit. ECONOMY Budget. State Consolidated Fund: statement of receipts and expenditure (in $A 1 m.) for financial years ending 30 June: Receipts: Recurrent Capital

1982-83 6,119 619

1983-84 6,812 595

1984-85 7,348 654

1985-86 8,220 659

Total Receipts

6,737

7,407

8,002

8,879

Expenditure: Recurrent Capital

6,301 477

6,955 486

7,511 491

8,305 573

Total Expenditure

6,777

7,441

8,002

8,879

-40

-34

—

—

Surplus/deficit

NEW SOUTH WALES

131

State Government receipts (in $A1 m.) for 1985-86 included receipts from loan raisings, 325; Commonwealth general revenue grant, 3,013; and state taxation, 3,729. Expenditure included capital works and services, 563; education, 2,426; health, 1,185; and public debt charges, 724. Public Debt. In terms of the financial agreement between the Commonwealth and State Governments, the Commonwealth Government has assumed responsibility for debts of the Australian States, and contributes towards the interest thereon and sinking funds established for redemption of the debts. Loans for the States are raised by the Commonwealth Government in accordance with decisions of the Australian Loan Council. The public debt of New South Wales at 30 June 1986 was $A5,999m. Interest liability for 1985-86 amounted to $A677m. Contributions to the sinking fund for New South Wales debt, $A85m., includes $A16m. contributed by the Commonwealth Government. The net cost of securities redeemed in the year was $A79m. Banking. There were 26 trading banks operating in New South Wales at 30 June 1986, including the Commonwealth Bank of Australia and the State Bank of New South Wales (Government banks). The trading bank business is transacted chiefly by the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, the State Bank of New South Wales and 3 private banks. Seventeen of the private banks have their head offices in Sydney, New South Wales, with the remaining 7 banks having their head offices in other States of Australia. At 30 June 1986 the 26 banks operated 1,885 branches and 419 agencies in New South Wales. The weekly average amount of deposits held in New South Wales by the 26 banks was $A22,996- l m . in June 1986, consisting of $A18,107-7m. bearing interest and $A4,884-4m. not bearing interest. Bank advances, overdrafts, bills digcounted, etc., amounted to $A22,950-4m. A statement of other assets and liabilities of the banks in New South Wales is of little significance, as banking business is conducted on an Australia-wide basis. Savings bank deposits at the end of June 1986 amounted to $A12,945-2m., representing $A2,352 per head of population. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. New South Wales contains extensive mineral deposits. The most important minerals mined are: Coal (which accounts for 73% of the value of the State's mineral production); silver-lead-zinc (12%); construction materials (sand, gravel, stone, etc., 11%); and mineral sands (rutile, zircon, etc., 1%). At 30 June 1985, there were 573 mining establishments with an average employment of 26,525. During 1984-85, wages and salaries paid were $A817m., and value added was $ A 1,709m. Mine production of coal and metallic minerals (gross content) is shown below: 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 A n t i m o n y (tonnes) C a d m i u m (tonnes) Coal (1,000 tonnes) Cobalt (tonnes) Copper (tonnes) Gold (kg) Lead (tonnes) Silver (kg) Sulphur (tonnes) Tin (tonnes) Titanium dioxide (tonnes) Zinc (tonnes) Zircon (tonnes)

1,218 1,378 60,172 57 22,915 612 253,031 307,508 273,956 1,668 80,454 357,185 88,479

769 1,424 66,297 92 26,878 606 237,437 322,390 298,850 1,576 47,612 374,783 55,588

718 1,339 66,823 60 25,541 966 213,154 304,314 220,203 1,388 41,392 330,940 59,181

1,409 1,735 70,034 66 23,038 1,464 251,595 355,827 248,681 1,306 41,283 385,075 47,113

The value of output in mining and quarrying in 1984-85 was $A2,684m. Land settlement. The total area of land alienated or in process of alienation from the Crown on 30 June 1985 was 33,789,384 hectares; land resumed or reverted to the Crown was 2,908,147 hectares, with 30,881,237 hectares remaining alienated. 40,038,626 hectares (including 30,581,072 hectares of the Western Division) were held under lease from the Crown.

132

AUSTRALIA

Agriculture. The area under cultivation in New South Wales during 3 years (ended 31 March) and the principal crops (in tonnes) produced were as follows: 1983 1984 1985 Area of crops 5,307,063 6,942,321 5,963,038 Value (farm) ofall crops $A878m. $A2,176m. $Al,851m. 1983 1984 1985 Principal crops Hectares Production Hectares Production Hectares Production Grain 3,161,659 1,499,406 3,999,275 8,960,784 3,602,630 5,804,702 wneatlH 13,440 39,008 29 340 43 692 22 462 8 4 290 B 1 /Grain 386,555 189,398 554,154 941,131 604,815 914,974 arey lHay 1,722 2,735 2,001 6,044 1,535 2,631 r , • JGrain 394,356 134,899 812,578 1,120,377 311,687 401,787 ts ° lHav 35,452 45,636 60,734 212,570 21,591 56,500 GrainSorghum 167,873 191,644 177,414 489,480 205,896 318,587 Potatoes 7,010 108,799 6,807 129,564 6,601 109,258 Lucerne (hay) 46,098 230,724 79,579 413,083 64,691 310,726 Rice 79,821 525,488 114,627 610,551 117,780 845,119 Cotton 69,615 205,501 104,523 292,444 131,237 534,039 Oilseeds 77,992 47,546 123,606 98,578 201,731 184,964

In 1984-85,14,869 hectares of sugar-cane were cut for crushing, the production being 1,540,456 tonnes. The total area under grapes was 12,778 (including 680 not bearing) hectares; the production of table grapes was 7,353 tonnes; of wine, 132,032 tonnes; of dried'vine fruits, 9,101 tonnes. In 1984-85, 5,245 hectares of banana plantations; production from 4,709 hectares, 62,665 tonnes; there were 29,208 hectares of orchard fruit. At 31 March 1985 the State had 55m. sheep and lambs, 5,225,529 cattle and 813,563 pigs. The production of wool in 1984-85 was255-6m. kg (greasy). In the year ended 30 June 1986 production of butter was 1,220 tonnes; cheese, 13,048 tonnes, and bacon and nam, 20,575 tonnes. Forestry. The estimated area of Crown and private lands is 15m. hectares. The total area of State forests amounts to 3 • 1 m. hectares, and 237,000 hectares have been set apart as timber reserves. In 1984-85,3,620,000 cu. metres of timber (excluding firewood) were produced, including 1,225,000 cu. metres of forest hardwoood and 1,400,000 cu. metres of pulpwoods. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Approximately 20% of employed persons in New South Wales are employed in manufacturing industries. A very wide range of manufacturing activities is undertaken in the Sydney area, and there are large iron and steel works and associated metal fabrication works in operation in proximity to the coalfields at Newcastle and Port Kembla. The following table shows a summary of manufacturing industries' statistics for 2 1984-85:

Establishments' Industry No. Food, beverages and tobacco 972 Textiles 210 Clothing and footwear 790 Wood, wood products and furniture 1,365 Paper, paper products, printing and publishing 1,251 Chemical, petroleum ana coal products 400 Non-metallic mineral products 556 Basic metal products 194 Fabricated metal products 1,661 Transport equipment 421 Other machinery and equipment 1,553 Miscellaneous manufacturing 843 Total manufacturing

10,218

Employment Males Females (No.) (No.) 35,796 15,971 5,495 3,959 4,617 16,847 19,517 3,758

Wages and salaries' (SAlm.) 997-7 176-5 279-6 365-8

Value added ($Alm.) 2,175 -1 328-6 476-7 718-5

24,258

11,752

722-5

1,514-1

17,651 11,623 36,790 28,990 29,591 40,264 14,329

8,224 1,480 2,900 6,574 2,837 14,492 7,090

602-8 274-7 908-6 628 -4 640-0 1,014-3 375-4

1,629-6 603-9 1,856-5 1,118 -9 1,022 -4 1,900-0 715-5

268,921

95,884

6,998-3

14,059-8

'Operating at 30 June 1985. Excludes single-establishment manufacturing enterprises with less than 4 persons employed. 1 Persons employed—average over whole year, including working proprietors. 3 Excludes drawings of working proprietors.

NEW SOUTH WALES

133

Some of the principal articles manufactured in 1985-86 were: Article Quantity Flour (1,000 tonnes) 533 Woven fabric (1,000 sq. metres) 82,878 Raw steel (1,000 tonnes) 5,606

Article Quantity Ready mixed concrete (1,000 cu. metres) 4,587 Clay bricks (lm.) 747 Electricity (lm.kwh.) 47,137

During 1984-85 the value of all building jobs commenced in New South Wales was $A4,400m. (of which jobs valued at $A745m. were being built for government ownership), jobs completed were valued at $ A3,946m. ($A625m. for government ownership), and jobs under construction at the end of the pteriod were valued at $A4,11 lm. ($A1,347m. for government ownership). Labour. Two systems of industrial arbitration and conciliation for the adjustment of industrial relations between employers and employees are in operation—the State system which operates within the territorial limits of the State, and the Commonwealth system, which applies to industrial disputes extending beyond State borders. The industrial tribunals are authorized to fix minimum rates of wages and other conditions of employment. Their awards may be enforced by law, as may be industrial agreements between employers and organizations of employees, when registered. The principal State tribunal is the Industrial Commission of New South Wales. The Commission is empowered to exercise all the arbitration and conciliation powers conferred on subsidiary tribunals, and has in addition authority to determine any widely defined 'industrial matter', to adjudicate in case of illegal strikes and lockouts, etc., to investigate union ballots when irregularities are alleged and to hear appeals from subsidiary tribunals. Subsidiary tribunals are Conciliation Committees for various industries, each having an equal number representing employers and employees and a Conciliation Commissioner as chairman. The chief industrial tribunals of the Commonwealth are the Industrial Division of the Federal Court of Australia, composed ofjudges, and the Australian Conciliation and Arbitration Commission, composed of presidential members, and commissioners. Most State awards and agreements prescribe a basic wage. However, since 1974, the State Industrial Commission has also specified a minimum wage in line with Commonwealth awards. In July 1986, the minimum wage payable in Sydney for a full week's work by an adult male or female was $A172.80 under both State and Commonwealth awards. For May 1986, average weekly earnings were SA478 00 for full-time adult males and $ A364 • 70 for full-time adult females. The standard working week is still regarded as 40 hours for employees under both Commonwealth and State awards. However, some awards prescribe less than 40 hours per week and, since early 1981, a campaign by trade unions has resulted in the extension of shorter working hours to more industries. Overtime is permitted under prescribed conditions. Trade Unions. Registration of trade unions is effected under the New South Wales Trade Union Act 1881, which follows substantially the Trade Union Acts of 1871 and 1876 of England. Registration confers a quasi-corporate existence with power to hold property, to sue and be sued, etc., and the various classes of employees covered by the union are required to be prescribed by the constitution of the union. For the purpose of bringing an industry under the review of the State industrial tribunals, or participating in proceedings relating to disputes before Commonwealth tribunals, employees and employers must be registered as industrial unions, under State or Commonwealth industrial legislation respectively. At 30 June 1985, there were 183 trade unions with a total membership of 1,148,900. Approximately 60% (estimate) of wage and salary earners were members of trade unions. Commerce. The external commerce of New South Wales, exclusive of interstate trade, is included in the statement of the commerce of Australia (see pp. 107-9). The overseas commerce of New South Wales is given in $A 1,000 ending 30 June:

134 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

AUSTRALIA Imports 7,951,545 9,235,716 8,610,870

Exports 4,104,221 4,188,394 4,963,957

1983-84 1984-85 1985-86

Imports 10,027,696 12,707,157 15,130,137

Exports 5,240,042 6,717,850 7,329,298

The main exports from New South Wales of Australian produce in 1985-86 were coal (28-7%), cereals (11 -8%), wool (10%), iron and steel (41%), petroleum (3 -9%), meat (3 -9%), metalliferous ores and metal scraps (2 • 7%). Principal imports were office machines (11 -7%), chemicals (9-1%), road vehicles (7 1%), electrical machinery, apparatus and appliances (5-5%), telecommunications equipment (4-8%), textiles (4 -4%), petroleum and petroleum products (4%). Principal destinations of all exports from New South Wales in 1985-86 were Japan (26-3%), EEC countries (12 -9%), Republic of Korea (7 -7%), New Zealand (6%), USA (5-8%), China (5 -6%), ASEAN countries (5%). Major sources of supply were EEC countries (24-1%), Japan (24%), USA (22%), New Zealand (4-9%), Taiwan (3 -2%), ASEAN countries (3 • 1 %) and Hong Kong (2%). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 31 Dec. 1984 there were 195,428 km of roads and streets open for general traffic in New South Wales (excluding unincorporated and Lord Howe Island), comprising 74,076 km bitumen or concrete, 64,848 km gravel, crushed stone or other improved surface, 36,032 km earth formed and 20,472 km natural surface. The principal bus services in Sydney and Newcastle are operated by the State Government. The number of registered motor vehicles (excluding tractors and trailers) at 30 June 1986 was 3,023,550, including 1,889,529 cars, 368,108 station wagons, 179,644 utilities, 211,660 panel vans, 202,248 trucks, 48,104 buses and 124,527 motorcycles. Railways. At 30 June 1985, 9,908 km of government railway were open. The revenue (including supplements) in 1984-85 was $Al,534m.; the expenditure from revenue, $Al,534m.; the number of passengers carried, 200-2m. and 48m. tonnes of freight carried. Also open for traffic are 325 km of Victorian Government railways which extend over the border; 68 km of private railways (mainly in mining districts) and 53 km of Commonwealth Government-owned track. Aviation. Sydney is the major airport in New South Wales and Australia's principal international air terminal. During the year ended 30 June 1984 scheduled aircraft movements at Sydney totalled 91,253. Passengers totalled 5,501,492 on domestic services and 2,401,210 on international services. Freight handled on domestic and international services was 60,469 tonnes and 111,087 tonnes respectively. Shipping. Arrivals of vessels engaged in overseas trade in the ports of New South Wales in 1984-85 numbered 2,984 and clearances numbered 2,987. The revenue tonnage of cargo discharged and loaded was 9-4m. and 44-4m. respectively. Sydney Harbour is the principal port of Australia. The number of overseas vessels which entered in 1984—85 was 1,440. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Legal processes may be carried on in Local Courts presided over by magistrates, or in higher courts (District Court or Supreme Court) presided over by judges. There is also an appellate jurisdiction. Persons charged with the more serious crimes must be tried before the higher court. Children's Courts have been established with the object of removing children as far as possible from the atmosphere of a public court. There are also a number of tribunals exercising special jurisdiction, e.g., the Industrial Commission and the Compensation Court. At 30 June 1986 there were 3,859 persons (3,661 males; 198 females) in prison custody in New South Wales.

NEW S O U T H WALES

135

Religion. There is no established church in New South Wales, and freedom of worship is accorded to all. The following table shows the statistics of the religious denominations in New South Wales at the census in 1981, and of ministers of religion registered for the celebration of marriages in 1985: Denomination Ministers Adherents Denomination Ministers Adherents Church of England 973 1,569,374 Other Christian 1,395 388,887 Roman Catholic 1,659 1,424,499 Muslim 12 25,176 Presbyterian 195 252,725 Hebrew 28 38,527 UnitingChurch 588 179,271 Other Non-Christian 17 25,408 Orthodox 78 171,427 Others ... 954,564' Baptist 405 64,663 Lutheran 41 31,696 Total 5,391 5,126,217 'Comprises 443,159 'no religion' and 511,405 'religion not stated' or 'inadequately described' (this is not a compulsory question in the census schedule).

Education. The State Government maintains a system of primary and secondary education, and attendance at school is compulsory from 6 to 15 years of age. In all government schools education is free. Non-government schools are subject to government inspection. In July 1985 there were 2,239 government schools, comprising 1,677 primary and infant schools, 69 combined primary and secondary schools, 374 secondary schools and 119 special-purpose schools. In July 1985 the effective enrolment was 761,017 students, comprising 443,976 receiving primary instruction and 317,041 receiving secondary instruction. There were 46,846 teachers (including the fulltime equivalent of part-time teachers) in 1985. In June 1985 there were 841 non-government schools with 15,555 teachers (including the full-time equivalent of part-time teachers) and an effective enrolment of 264,415 students, including 600 Roman Catholic schools, having 11,652 teachers and 209,432 students, and 34 Anglican schools with 1,368 teachers and 19,390 students. The University of Sydney, founded in 1850, had 18,255 students in 1985. There are 7 colleges providing residential facilities at the university. The University of New England at Armidale, previously affiliated with the University of Sydney, was incorporated in 1954, and in 1985 had 8,800 students. The University of New South Wales was established in 1949. Enrolments in 1985 numbered 18,350. There are 7 colleges providing residential facilities at the university. The University of Newcastle, previously affiliated with the University of New South Wales, was granted autonomy from 1965, and in 1985 had 5,236 students. The University of Wollongong, also previously associated with the University of New South Wales, became autonomous in 1975, and in 1985 had 4,534 students. Macquarie University in Sydney, established in 1964, had 11,573 students in 1985. Advanced education courses at Colleges of Advanced Education and other institutions provide tertiary training with a vocational emphasis. In 1985 there were 52,278 students (including 27,601 part-time and external students) enrolled in these courses. Post-school technical and further education is provided at State technical and further education colleges. Enrolments in 1985 totalled 391,721 (86% being parttime). State Government expenditure (including capital expenditure and federal grants) on education in 1984-85 was $ A3,605m. Social Welfare. The Commonwealth Government makes provision for social benefits, such as age and invalid pensions, widows' pensions, supporting parents' benefits, family allowances, and unemployment, sickness and special benefits. The number of age and invalid pensions (including wives' and carers' pensions) current in New South Wales on 30 June 1986 was: Age, 488,956; invalid, 120,495. Expenditure for the year ended 30 June 1986 was $A2,175m. for age pensions and $A555m. for invalid pensions. Commonwealth Government widows' pensions current in New South Wales at 30 June 1986 numbered 55,203, the expenditure for 1985-86, $A331m.

136

AUSTRALIA

Supporting parents' benefits at 30 June 1986 numbered 66,011; expenditure in 1985-86 was $A478m. Under the Family Allowance scheme, which commenced in 1976, payments to families and approved institutions for children under 16 years and full-time students under 18 years (under 25 in some circumstances) during 1985-86 amounted to $A550m. The scheme covered 1,426,724 children and students at 30 June 1986. Unemployment, sickness and special benefits commenced in 1945. During the year 1985-86 claims totalling $Al,456m. were paid in New South Wales. At 30 June 1986 unemployment benefit was being paid to an estimated 214,553 persons, and sickness and special benefits to 36,194 persons. Direct State Government social welfare services are limited, for the most part, to the assistance of persons not eligible for Commonwealth Government pensions or benefits and the provision of certain forms of assistance not available from the Commonwealth Government. The State also subsidizes many approved services for needy persons. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The NSW Government Statistician's Office was established in 1886, and in 1957 was integrated with the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics (now called the Australian Bureau of Statistics). Deputy Commonwealth Statistician: John Wilson. Its principal publications are: NewSouth Wales Year Book (1886/87-1900/01 under the title Wealth and Progress of New South Wales): latest issue, 1986 Regional Statistics: latest issue, 1986 NewSouth Wales Pocket Year Book. Published since 1913; latest issue, 1986 Monthly Summary of Statistics. Published since May 1931 NewSouth Wales in Brief. 1986 New South Wales Dept. of Industrial Development and Decentralisation, New South Wales Handbook for Industrialists. Sydney, 1983 State Planning Authority, Sydney Region 1970-2000 A.D.: Outline Plan. Sydney, 1968 New South Wales Planning and Environment Commission, Review: Sydney Region Outline Plan. Sydney, 1980 New South Wales Government Information Service, New South Wales Government Directory. 4th ed. Sydney, 1985 State Library: The State Library of NSW, Macquarie St., Sydney. State Librarian: R. F. Doust, BA, M.Lib, FLAA.

QUEENSLAND AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Queensland comprises the whole northeastern portion of the Australian continent, including the adjacent islands in the Pacific Ocean and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Estimated area 1,727,000 sq. km. The increase in the population as shown by the censuses since 1901 has been as follows: Year 1901 1911 1921 1933 1947 1954 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981

Males 277,003 329,506 398,969 497,217 567,471 676,252 774,579 849,390 ' 921,665 1 1,024,611 1 1,153,404 1

Census counts Females 221,126 276,307 357,003 450,317 538,944 642,007 744,249 824,934 ' 905,400 1 1,012,586' 1,141,719 1 1 Including

Total 498,129 605,813 755,972 947,534 1,106,415 1,318,259 1,518,828 1,674,324 1 1,827,065 ' 2,037,197 1 2,295,123 1 Aboriginals.

Intercensalincrease Numerical Rate per annum —

107,684 150,159 191,562 158,881 211,844 200,569 144,857 152,741 ' 210,132 ' 257,926 '

—

1 -98 2-24 1-86 111 2-53 2-04 1 -84 1 -76 1 2-20 1 2-41 '

Since the 1981 census, official population estimates are according to place of usual residence and are referred to as estimated resident population. Estimated

QUEENSLAND

137

resident populations at the census dates of 1971,1976, and 1981 were 1,851,500; 2,092,400; and 2,345,200; respectively. Statistics on birthplaces from the 1981 census are as follows: Australia, 1,932,810 (84-2%); UK and Ireland, 147,083 (6-4%); other countries, 183,067 (8%); at sea and not stated, 32,163(1-4%). Vital statistics (including Aboriginals) for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Total births 42,085 40,446 40,437

Marriages 18,645 19,039 17,810

Divorces 7,474 8,056 6,816

Deaths 17,056 17,405 18,629

The annual rates per 1,000 population in 1985 were: Marriages, 7; births, 15-9; deaths, 7• 3. The infant death rate was 10• 2 per 1,000 births. Brisbane, the capital, had on 30 June 1985 (estimate) a resident population of 1,157,210 (Statistical Division). The resident populations of the other major centres (Statistical Districts) at the same date were: Gold Coast, 183,550; Townsville, 101,680; Sunshine Coast, 85,600; Cairns, 67,320; Rockhampton, 57,020; Mackay, 49,040 and Bundaberg, 42,280. Other cities included Toowoomba, 74,560; Gladstone, 25,450; Mount Isa, 24,440; and Maryborough, 22,240. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Queensland, formerly a portion of New South Wales, was formed into a separate colony in 1859, and responsible government was conferred. The power of making laws and imposing taxes is vested in a Parliament of one House—the Legislative Assembly, which comprises 82 members, returned from 4 electoral zones for 3 years, elected for single-member constituencies at compulsory ballot. Members are entitled to $A42,544 per annum, with individual electorate allowances for travelling, postage, etc., offrom $A10,422 to $A26,878. At the general election of 22 Oct. 1983 there were 1,458,206 persons registered as qualified to vote under the Elections Act 1983. This Act provides franchise for all males and females, 18 years of age and over, qualified by 6 months' residence in Australia and 3 months in the electoral district. The Legislative Assembly, following the elections of 22 Oct. 1983, was composed of the following parties: National, 41; Liberal, 8; Australian Labor, 32; Independent, 1; total, 82. Subsequently, 2 Liberal Party members changed to the National Party of Australia. Governor of Queensland: Sir Walter Benjamin Campbell, QC (assumed office 22 July 1985). The Executive Council of Ministers, at 6 Feb. 1986 consisted of the following members: Premier and Treasurer: Sir Johannes Bjelke-Petersen, KCMG (National). Deputy Premier and Assisting the Treasurer and Police: William Angus Manson Gunn (National). Local Government, Main Roads and Racing: Russell James Hinze (National). Works and Housing: Claude Alfred Wharton (National). Mines and Energy: Ivan James Gibbs (National). Industry, Small Business and Technology: Michael John Ahem (National). Transport: Donald Frederick Lane (National). Lands, Forestry, Survey and Mapping: William Hamline Glasson (National). Health and Environment: Brian Douglas Austin (National). Education: Lionel William Powell (National). Primary Industries: Neil John Turner (National). Employment and Industrial Affairs: Vincent Patrick Lester (National). Water Resources and Maritime Services: Martin James Tenni (National). Justice and Attorney-General: Neville John Harper (National). Corrective Services, Administrative Services and Valuation: Geoffrey Hugh Muntz (National). Tourism, National Parks, Sport and the Arts: Peter Richard McKechnie (National). Northern Development and Community Services: Robert Carl Katter (National). Welfare Services, Youth and Ethnic Affairs: Yvonne Ann Chapman (National). Each Minister has a salary of $A69,580, the Premier receives $A88,251, the Deputy Premier, $A75,762, and the Leader of the Opposition, $ A60,119.

138

AUSTRALIA

Agent-General in London: J. F. S. Brown (392-3 Strand, WC2R0LZ). Local Government. Provision is made for local government by the subdivision of the State into cities, towns and shires. These are under the management of aldermen or councillors, who are elected by all persons 18 years and over. Local Authorities are charged with the control of all matters of a parochial nature, such as sewerage, cleansing and sanitary services, health services, domestic water supplies, and roads and bridges within their allotted areas. In addition to Government grants and subsidies, Local Authority revenue is derived from general rates, paid by landowners on the unimproved capital value of land, and by charging for some specific services. For the year ended 30 June 1985, the receipts and expenditure (including loans) for the 134 Local Authorities were $Al,628m. and $Al,592-5m. respectively and their rateable values amounted to $A12,463 -6m. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure of the Consolidated Revenue Fund of Queensland during 5 years ending 30 June (in $ A1,000): Revenue Expenditure

1981-82 3,276,756 3,276,926

1982-83 3,690,187 3,690,956

1983-84 4,212,842 4,211,919

1984-85 4,681,674 4,682,431

1985-86 5,190,941 5,190,727

Total receipts of the Queensland Government Authorities in 1984-85 were $A6,626-6m., of which Taxation and Federal Government grants amounted to $A4,633 1m. Expenditure from these funds included: Education, $Al,643-9m.; fuel and energy, $A495-5m.; transport and communications, $A768m.; health, $A900-8m. Revenue and expenditure of Commonwealth Government departments on account of Queensland are not included. Debt. The gross public debt of the State at par rates of exchange amounted, on 30 June 1986, to $A2,459m. The annual interest charge on the public debt at 30 June 1986 was $A253-7m. Banking. The major national trading and savings banks dominate banking operations in Queensland. The Bank of Queensland, which is a privately owned bank with its head office in Queensland, and several recently licensed foreign banks also provide trading and savings bank facilities. In June 1986 the average of weekly deposits held in trading banks in Queensland amounted to $A7,645 • 1 m. while the average of advances owing to the banks was $A6,823-8m. The total depositors' balances held in savings banks in Queensland at 30 June 1986 was SA5.238 -4m. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. During 1985-86,96-5% of the State's generation of 19,792m. kwh was derived from coal-fuelled steam power stations. The hydro-electric stations located in north Queensland provided 3% of the State's electricity needs with the remainder being produced by gas turbine and internal combustion generation using light fuel oil and natural gas. Minerals. Principal minerals produced during 1984-85 were: Copper, 180,000 tonnes; coal, 54,288,000 tonnes; lead, 193,000 tonnes; zinc, 224,000 tonnes; silver, 532,000 kg; tin, 1,952 tonnes; gold, 4,394 kg; bauxite, 8,360,000 tonnes; mineral sands concentrates, 273,000 tonnes; nickel, 25,000 tonnes; liquid petroleum, 1 -25m. kilolitres. Value of output, at the mine, was $A3,500m. The chief mines are Mount Isa (copper, silver, lead, zinc), Weipa (bauxite), Mount Morgan and Kidston (gold), Moreton and Bowen Basin (coal), Greenvale (nickel) and CooperEromanga Basin (petroleum). Land Settlement. At 30 June 1985, of the 172-7m. hectares of the State, 124-3m. hectares was Crown leasehold, 24-6m. hectares was in process of freeholding and the remaining 23-7m. hectares was roads, reserves, freehold, mining tenures and vacant land.

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139

In the western portion of the State water is comparatively easily found by sinking artesian bores. At 30 June 1984,3,524 such bores had been drilled, of which 2,425 were flowing. Agriculture. Livestock on farms and stations at 31 March 1985 numbered 9-41m. cattle, 14-04m. sheep and 563,000 pigs. The wool production (greasy) was, in 1984-85, 68m. kg, valued at $A217m. The total area under crops during 1984-85 was 3m. hectares. Area (hectares) Yield (tonnes) 1983-84 1983-84 1984-85 Crop 1984-85 22;722,'774 Sugar-cane, crushed 297,765 23,909,855 291,973 921,007 1,922,417 1,579,146 Wheat 1,005,879 206,890 Maize 55,081 81,151 174,815 1,043,189 Sorghum 549,726 514,027 1,387,370 704,310 Barley 261,025 328,787 541,750 Oats 19,491 12,365 19,391 14,311 6,254 117,194 Potatoes 6,033 123,983 32,574 Pumpkins 4,397 3,875 34,308 Tomatoes 3,555 3,457 74,746 77,089 Peanuts 29,145 46,144 40,981 31,790 3,204 2,932 7,685 7,000 Tobacco 33,892 Apples' 3,363 3,227 24,688 1,341 5,132 Grapes! 1,358 4,033 Citrus' 1,873 1,692 48,457 43,587 1 2,800 67,714 72,856 Bananas 2,719 3,754 114,734 124,344 Pineapples 2 3,603 1 Green fodder 320,505 337,730 Hay (all kinds) 42,115 36,521 238,336 213,067 Cotton (raw) 51,932 32,903 51,895 38,580 1 2 For 1984-85, area oftrees 6 years and over. Bearing area only. 1 Excluding lucerne and other pastures.

Forestry. A considerable area consists of natural forest, eucalyptus, pine and cabinet woods being the timbers mostly in evidence; a large quantity of ornamental woods is utilized by cabinet makers. The amount of timber processed, including plantation and imported, in 1984-85 was (in cu. metres): Conifers, 541,519; hardwoods, structural timbers and cabinet woods, 692,911. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The 1970s created a milestone in the State's industrial progress when the value added in production by the manufacturing sector exceeded the value of production in the agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting sector. In 1984-85, there were 3,392 establishments, with four or more workers, employing 87,593 males and 22,347 females, and producing goods and services worth $A12,921m. The value added was $A4,385m. The manufacturing establishments contributing most to the overall production during 1984-8 5 were those predominantly engaged in the processing of food, beverages and tobacco. The gross value of Queensland agricultural commodity production (in $ A 1,000) during 1984-85, amounted to 3,157,789, which included crops, 1,711,786; livestock disposals, 1,045,121 ; livestock products, 400,882. Labour. Of the total population of 2-6m., 1,089,600 were in employment in Aug. 1986, 139,400 in manufacturing. Industrial wages and conditions are controlled partly by Federal and partly by State authorities. A State Industrial Commission is empowered to determine all industrial matters in relation to employers and employees, to fix minimum wage-rates and other conditions of employment. An Industrial Court hears appeals and decides points of industrial law. The Federal Court of Australia and the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission are superior within their jurisdictions. In Queensland most employees (67%) work under State awards; 25% under Federal awards. Rates of wages for each occupation are prescribed by these courts. The minimum weighted average award rate of pay for adult male wage and salary earners was SA334-30 and for adult females SA305-70, at 30 June 1986, while for the June

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quarter 1986, average weekly earnings were SA442-40 for full-time adult males and $A353 -40 for full-time adult females. (Average earnings include award, overaward and overtime payments.) A standard working week of either 38 or 40 hours is prescribed for most awards. Trade Unions. Unions both of employees and employers must be registered with the State or Australian Commission. There were 69 employees' and 39 employers' unions registered with the State Commission at 31 Dec. 1984, the former comprising 384,746 and the latter 37,418 members. Commerce. The overseas commerce of Queensland is included in the statement of the commerce of Australia (see pp. 108-10). Total value of the direct overseas imports and exports of Queensland (in $A 1,000) f.o.b. port of shipment for both imports and exports: 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 Imports Exports

1,882,815 4,501,290'

2,179,752 4,414,452'

1,994,608 4,470,870'

1

2,086,861 5,473,718'

2,319,651 6,602,512'

2,649,806 7,636,648'

State of origin.

In 1985-86 interstate exports totalled $A2,463-4m. and imports $A5,898-2m. The chief exports overseas are minerals including alumina, coal, meat (preserved or frozen), sugar, wool, cereal grains, copper and lead, and manufactured goods. Principal overseas imports are machinery, motor vehicles, mineral fuels (including lubricants, etc.), chemicals and manufactured goods classified by material. Chief sources of imports in 1985-86 were Japan ($A772-6m.), USA ($A554-8m.), Federal Republic of Germany ($A129m.); exports went chiefly to Japan ($A2,902-3m.), USA ($A633 1m.), UK ($A406-6m.), EEC, excluding UK ($A881-5m.). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 30 June 1984 there were 164,170 km of roads; ofthese, 143,728 km were formed roads, of which 51,564 km were surfaced with sealed pavement. At 30 June 1985 motor vehicles registered in Queensland totalled 1,546,057, comprising 1,082,142 cars and station wagons, 209,879 utilities, 87,249 panel vans, 9,473 buses, 73,056 trucks and 84,258 motor cycles. Railways. Practically all the railways are owned by the State Government. Total length of line at 30 June 1985 was 10,231 km. In 1984-85, 38 -9m. passengers and 65 • 5m. tonnes of goods and livestock were carried. Aviation. Queensland is well served with a network of air services, with overseas and interstate connexions. Subsidiary companies provide planes for taxi and charter work, and the Flying Doctor Service operates throughout western Queensland. Shipping. In 1984-85, cargo discharged was 2-9m. revenue tonnes and cargo loaded was 51 -2m. revenue tonnes. Broadcasting. At 30 June 1984,62 broadcasting and 43 television stations were in operation throughout Queensland. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court, District Court, Magistrates' Court and Children's Court. The Supreme Court comprises a Chief Justice, a senior puisne judge, 18 puisne judges and 2 masters; the District Court, 22 district court judges. Stipendiary magistrates preside over the Lower Courts, except in the smaller centres, where justices of the peace officiate. A parole board may recommend prisoners for release. The total number of persons convicted of serious offences by the superior courts in 1984-85 was 2,212; summary convictions and proven offences in lower courts numbered 124,949. There were, at 30 June 1985, 5 prisons, 2 prison farms conducted on the honour system and 1 prison for criminally-insane patients, with

QUEENSLAND

141

1,925 male and 74 female prisoners. The total police force was 4,984 at 30 June 1985. Religion. There is no State Church. Membership, census 1981: Anglican, 601,537; Roman Catholic and Catholic (not further defined), 554,912; Uniting Church, 146,898; Presbyterian, 132,525; Methodist, 86,750; Lutheran, 50,401; Baptist, 34,323; other Christian, 166,611; Buddhist, 2,967; Muslim, 2,457; Hebrew, 2,021; all others (including not stated and no religion), 513,721. Education. Education in Queensland ranges from pre-school level through to tertiary level. In addition, child care, kindergarten and adult education facilities are available. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15 years and is provided free in government schools. Expenditure on education by State and local government authorities for 1983-84 was $ A1,464m. At July 1985, pre-school education and child care was provided at 1,229 centres with 3,882 stafTand 67,294 children. Primary and secondary education comprises 12 years of full-time formal schooling and is provided by both the government and non-government sectors. At July 1985, the State administered 1,047 primary, 82 primary/secondary, and 153 secondary schools with 237,780 primary students, 136,753 secondary students and 22,756 teachers. Special education, which is included in the above figures, was provided to 5,462 children at 64 special schools and 75 primary and primary/ secondary schools with special classes. Non-government enrolments at July 1985 were 58,210 primary students and 55,793 secondary students taught by 7,060 teachers at 235 primary, 63 primary/secondary and 81 secondary schools. Special education in the non-government sector, which is excluded from the above figures, was provided to 1,149 students by 147 teachers at 28 special schools. Post-secondary education in Queensland involves technical and further education, advanced education and university education. In 1984, enrolments in TAFE courses totalled 166,404, while 27,631 students were enrolled in advanced education courses. At 30 April 1984 there were 23,670 university students. Social Welfare. Public hospitals are maintained by State and Federal Government endowment, supplemented by fees from patients not in standard wards. Welfare institutions providing shelter and social care for the aged, the handicapped, and children, are maintained or assisted by the State. A maternal and child welfare service is provided throughout the State. Age, invalid, widows', disability and war service pensions, family allowances, and unemployment and sickness benefits are paid by the Federal Government. Age pensioners in the State at 30 June 1985 numbered 207,583; invalid pensioners, 36,977; disability pensioners, 146,077 (including dependants). There were 23,121 widows' pensions current at 30 June 1985, and at the same date family allowances were being paid to 357,916 families in respect of 718,130 children under 16 years or students aged 16 or more but under 25. In addition, family allowances were paid to 2,646 children and students in institutions. Housing. In 1985-86, 26,696 dwelling units in new residential buildings valued at $ A1,249m. were approved for construction. This total comprised 21,296 houses and 5,400 dwelling units in new other residential buildings comprising flats, semidetached units, home units, villa units, town houses, etc. In 1984-85, 31,480 dwelling units in new residental buildings were completed and 8,090 were being built at 30 June 1985. The Queensland Housing Commission, financed by Federal and State Government loans, builds dwellings for sale and for rental. Building and co-operative housing societies are assisted by Federal and State Government loans. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Statistical Office (313 Adelaide St., Brisbane) was set up in 1859. Deputy Commonwealth Statistician: D. N. Allen. A Queensland Official Year Book was issued in 1901, the annual ABC of Queensland Statistics from 1905 to 1936 with exception of 1918 and 1922. Present publications include: Queensland Year Book. Annual, from 1937 (omitting 1942,1943,1944).—Queensland Pocket Year Book. Annual from 1950.—Monthly Summary of Queensland Statistics. From Jan. 1961

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Australian Sugar Year Book. Brisbane, from 1941 Endean, R., A ustralia 's Great Barrier Reef. Brisbane, 1982 Johnston, W. R., A Bibliography of Queensland History. Brisbane, 1981.—The Call of the Land: A History of Queensland to the Present Day. Brisbane, 1982 Johnston, W. R . , a n d Z e m e r , M., Guide to the History of Queensland. Brisbane, 1985 Queensland State Public Relations Bureau, Queensland Resources Atlas, Brisbane, 1980 Queensland D e p a r t m e n t of Commercial and Industrial Development, Resources and Industry of Far North Queensland, Brisbane, 1980 State Library: The State Library of Queensland, William St., Brisbane. Stale Librarian: Ryan.

S. L.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The total area of South Australia is 380,070 sq. miles (984,377 sq. km). The settled part is divided into counties and hundreds. There are 49 counties proclaimed, covering 23m. hectares, of which 19m. hectares are occupied. Outside this area there are extensive pastoral districts, covering 76m. hectares, 43m. of which are under pastoral leases. Census population (exclusive of full-blood Aboriginals before 1966): 1901 1911 1921 1933 1947

Males 180,485 207,358 248,267 290,962 320,031

Females 177,861 201,200 246,893 289,987 326,042

Total 358,346 408,558 495,160 580,949 646,073

1961 1966 1971 1976 1981

Males 490,225 550,196 586,051 620,162 635,696

Females 479,115 544,788 587,656 624,594 649,337

Total 969,340 1,094,984 1,173,707 1,244,756 1,285,033

The number of Aboriginals (as reported on Census schedules) in the State at the Census of 30 June 1981 was 9,476. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live Births 19,830 20,052 19,790

Marriages 10,550 10,643 10,148

Divorces 4,431 4,114 4,216

Deaths 9,869 10,099 10,496

The infant mortality rate in 198 5 was 9 • 50 per 1,000 live births. The Adelaide Statistical Division had 987,080 inhabitants at 30 June 1985 in 22 cities and 10 municipalities and other districts. Cities outside this area (with populations at the 1981 Census) are Whyalla (31,820), Mount Gambier (18,880), Port Augusta (15,880), Port Pirie (15,970) and Port Lincoln (11,670). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . South Australia was formed into a British province by letters patent of Feb. 1836, and a partially elective Legislative Council was established in 1851. The present Constitution bears date 24 Oct. 1856. It vests the legislative power in an elected Parliament, consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. The former is composed of 22 members. Every 4 years half the members retire, and the resulting vacancies are filled at a general election on the basis of proportional representation with the State as one multi-member electorate. The qualifications of an elector are, to be an Australian citizen, or a British subject who on 25 Jan. 1984 was enrolled on a Commonwealth electoral roll and/or at some time between 26 Oct. 1983 and 25 Jan. 1984 inclusive was enrolled on an electoral roll for a South Australian Assembly district or a Commonwealth electoral roll in any State. The person must be of at least 18 years of age and have lived continuously in Australia for at least 6 months, in South Australia for at least 3 months and in the sub-division for which he is enrolled at least 1 month. War service may substitute for residential qualifications in some cases. By the Constitution Act Amendment Act, 1894, the franchise was extended to women, who voted for the first time at the general election of 25 April 1896. The qualifications for election as a member of both Houses are the same as for an elector. Certain persons are ineligible for election to either House. The House of Assembly consists of 47 members elected for 4 years, representing

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

143

single electorates. Election of members of both Houses takes place by preferential secret ballot. Voting is compulsory for those on the Electoral Roll. The House of Assembly, elected on 6 Nov. 1982, consists of the following members: Liberal Party of Australia, 22; Australian Labor Party, 23; National Party of Australia, 1; Independent, 1. The Legislative Council consists of 11 Liberal Party of Australia, 9 Labor and 2 Australian Democrat members. Each member of Parliament receives $A39,937 per annum with allowances of $A7,785-28,800 according to location of electorate, a free pass over government railways and superannuation rights. Electors enrolled (Sept. 1986) numbered 910,643. The executive power is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown and an Executive Council, consisting of the Governor and the Ministers of the Crown. The Governor has the power to dissolve the House of Assembly but not the Legislative Council unless that Chamber has twice consecutively with an election intervening defeated the same or substantially the same Bill passed in the House of Assembly by an absolute majority. Governor: Lieut.-Gen. Sir Donald Dunstan, KBE, CB. The South Australian Labor Ministry, in Sept. 1986 was as follows: Premier, Treasurer and Minister for the Arts: John Charles Bannon, MP. Deputy Premier, Minister of Environment and Planning, Chief Secretary, Minister of Emergency Services and Minister of Water Resources: Donald Jack Hopgood, MP. Attorney-General, Minister of Consumer Affairs, Minister of Corporate Affairs and Minister of Ethnic Affairs: Christopher John Sumner, MLC. Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister of Marine and Minister of Repatriation: Roy Kitto Abbott, MP. Minister of Health and Minister of Community Welfare: John Robert Cornwall, MLC. Minister of State Development, Minister of Employment and Further Education and Minister for Technology: Lynn Maurice Ferguson Arnold, MP. Minister of Transport: Gavin Francis Keneally, MP. Minister of Mines and Energy: Ronald George Payne, MP. Minister of Education, Minister of Children's Services and Minister of Aboriginal Affairs: Gregory John Crafter, MP. Minister of Housing and Construction and Minister ofPublic Works: Terence Henry Hemmings, MP. Minister of Labour, Minister of Correctional Services and Minister Assisting the Treasurer: Frank Trevor Blevins, MLC. Minister of Tourism, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Youth Affairs and Minister Assisting the Minister for the Arts: Barbara Jean Wiese, MLC. Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Fisheries and Minister of Recreation and Sport: Milton Kym Mayes, MP. Ministers are jointly and individually responsible to the legislature for all their official acts, as in the UK. Agent-General in London: G. Walls (50 Strand, WC2N 5LW). Local Government. The closely settled part of the State (mainly near the sea-coast and the River Murray) is incorporated into local government areas, and subdivided into district councils (rural areas only), municipal corporations (mainly metropolitan, but including larger country towns) and cities (more densely populated areas with a qualification of 15,000 residents in the Adelaide metropolitan area, and 10,000 in the country). The main functions of councils are the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges, sport and recreational facilities and garbage collection and disposal. The number and area of the sub-divisions, together with expenditure (in $ A1,000) for the year ended 30 June 1985, were:

Adelaide statistical division Other municipal corporations and district councils Total

No. 30

Area (1,000 hectares) 188-7

Roads and bridges 48,460

Recreation and culture 53,038

All other 155,921

Total expenditure 257,419

95

15,173 -9

48,809

18,458

81,987

149,254

125

15,362-6

97,269

71,496

237,908

406,673

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ECONOMY Budget. Recurrent revenue and expenditure (in $ A1,000) for years ended 30 June: Revenue Expenditure

1981 1,548,299 1,554,884

1982 1,705,499 1,766,772

1983 1,923,808 2,032,765

1984 2,160,679 2,190,399

1985 2,639,937 2,626,240

1986 2,966,345 2,955,350

The public debt of the State amounted, on 30 June 1986, to $ A1,970 • 6m. Banking. Deregulation of the Australian Banking System has seen an additional 7 trading banks operating since June 1985. In June 1986 the average weekly balance of deposits held by all 14 trading banks was $A3,749-7m. The average weekly balance of loans, advances and bills discounted was $A4,160- 5. The 7 savings banks on 30 June 1986 had deposits amounting to $A2,970-8m. or $A2,172 per head of population. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The value of minerals produced in 1984-85 was $A962-2m. The principal minerals produced are opals, natural gas, iron ore, copper, gypsum, salt, talc, clays, limestone, dolomite and sub-bituminous coal. Agriculture. Of the total area of South Australia (984,377 sq. km), 258,335 sq. km were alienated, 496,207 sq. km were held under lease and 229,835 sq. km were unoccupied. Area used for agricultural purposes, at 31 March 1985, was 627,400 sq. km. Soil Conservation. Under the direction of special officers in the Department of Agriculture, determined efforts are made to deal with the problems of erosion and soil conservation. Included in the programme are the planting of cereal rye, perennial rye and other grasses to check sand drifts; contour-furrowing and contour banking; contour planting with vines and fruit trees and several water-diversion schemes. Irrigation. For the year ended 31 March 1984,88,721 hectares were under irrigated culture, being used as follows: Vineyards, 18,213; orchards, 12,806; vegetables, 6,480, and other crops and pasture, 51,222. Most of these areas are along the river Murray. Gross value of agricultural production (in $A1,000), 1984-85: Crops, 982,275; livestock slaughtering, 281,377; livestock products, 394,171. Total gross value; 1,657,823; local value(i.e. less marketing costs), 1,491,102. Chiefcrops Wheat Barley Oats Hay Vines

Hectares 1,563,988 1,103,848 153,370 188,917 ...

1983-84

Tonnes 2,843,002 1,816,872 180,481 585,880 233,307,000'

Hectares 1,377,589 1,121,921 127,846 161,092 ...

1984-85

Tonnes 2,030,939 1,836,387 132,316 507,332 259,094,000'

' Litres of wine.

Fruit culture is extensively carried on, and in 1984-85,256,620 tonnes of fresh fruit were produced. Other products, in addition to all kinds of root crops and vegetables, are grass seeds and oil seeds. Livestock, March 1985: 846,354 cattle, 17,262,691 sheep and 401,777 pigs. In 1984-85, 108,463 tonnes of wool and 372m. litres of milk were produced. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The turnover for manufacturing industries for 1984-85 was $A7,847m.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA Establishments (No.) 349 124 329

Industry sub-division Food, beverages and tobacco Textiles, clothing and footwear Wood, wood products and furniture Paper, paper products, printing and publishing 213 Chemical, petroleum and coal products 47 Non-metallic mineral products 139 Basic metal products •38 Fabricated metal products 336 Transport equipment 125 Other machinery and equipment 317 Miscellaneous manufacturing 179 Total

2,196

Persons employed (No.) 15,284 7,011 7,519

145 Wages and salaries (SAlm.) 248 99 116

Turnover ($Alm.) 1,695 383 527

Value added (SAlm. 529 163 224

7,311 2,499 3,254 7,270 6,942 16,162 12,538 6,415

125 55 66 160 106 310 215 104

522 346 407 809 494 1,395 817 451

279 139 182 287 214 490 396 192

92,205

1,604

7,847

3,095

Practically all forms of secondary industry are to be found, the most important being, motor vehicle manufacture, saw-milling and the manufacture of household appliances, basic iron and steel, meat and meat products, and wine and brandy. Labour. Two systems of industrial arbitration and conciliation for the adjustment of industrial relations between employers and employees are in operation—the State system, which operates when industrial disputes are confined to the territorial limits of the State, and the Federal system, which applies when disputes involve other parts of Australia as well as South Australia. The industrial tribunals are authorized to fix minimum rates of wages and other conditions of employment, and their awards may be enforced by law. Industrial agreements between employers and organizations of employees, when registered, may be enforced in the same manner as awards. In July 1986 the minimum wage under State awards was $A 172.40. Commerce. The commerce of South Australia, exclusive of inter-state trade, is comprised in the statement of the commerce of Australia given under the heading ofthe Commonwealth, see pp. 108-10. Overseas imports and exports in $ A1 m. (year ending 30 June): Imports Exports

1981-82 1,337-3 1,275-9

1982-83 1,244-2 1,227-1

1983-84 1,318-7 1,635-8

1984-85 1,603-2 1,921-4

1985-86 1,736-7 1,998-0

Principal exports in 1985-86 were (in $Alm.): Wheat, 311-3; barley, 235-7; wool, 231 -4; lead, 80-6; meat, 101 -9; petroleum and petroleum products, 176-4. Principal imports in 1985-86 were (in $A1 m.): Transport equipment (including motor vehicles), 432 • 1; petrol and products, 204 • 1; machinery, 404. In 1985-86 the leading suppliers of imports were (in $Alm.): Japan (670-8), USA (264-4), Saudi Arabia (146-8), UK (81-9); main exports went to Japan (362-5), Saudi Arabia (189-1), USSR (150-5), USA (136), China (122-7), New Zealand(103-9). Tourism. In June 1986 there were 296 hotels and motels with 8,182 rooms; 166 caravan parks had a total of.19,409 sites. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 30 June 1985, of the roads customarily used by the public, there were 2,527 km of national roads, 10,813 km of arterial roads and 89,460 km of local roads, totalling 102,800 km. Lengths of road classified by surface were as follows: Sealed, 22,393 km; unsealed, 80,407 km. Costs of construction and maintenance are shared by the State and Commonwealth governments and by the councils ofthe local areas. Motor vehicles registered at 30 June 1986 included 542,951 cars, 108,598 station wagons, 148,206 commercial vehicles and 36,086 cycles.

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Railways. At June 1985, there were more than 5,800 km of railway, including the South Australian portion of the Trans Australian line operating between Kalgoorlie in Western Australia and Broken Hill in New South Wales. With various State lines this connexion completes a transcontinental railway between Brisbane on the north-east coast and Fremantle on the west coast. The above figure includes the South Australian portion of the Australian National Railways from Tarcoola to the Northern Territory and private railways from Iron Knob to Whyalla and Coffin Bay to Port Lincoln and 152 km of railway which is operated by the State Transport Authority in the metropolitan area of Adelaide. All public freight and non-metropolitan passenger services are operated by Australian National Railways. Aviation. For the year ended 30 June 1985 there were 1,868,107 passengers and 22,324 tonnes of freight handled by 23,692 aircraft movements at Adelaide, South Australia's principal airport (including Adelaide International). On 30 June 1985 there were 7 government and 29 licensed aerodromes. Shipping. There are several good harbours, of which Port Adelaide is the principal one. In 1984^-85, 884 vessels conducting overseas trade entered South Australia with 2,334,092 import tonnes of cargo and left with 5,842,673 export tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. At 30 June 1985, there were 585 post offices. Telephone services connected totalled 591,448 on 30 June 1985. There were 27 radio and 32 television stations (including 13 translator and 4 satellite fed) at 1 Jan. 1985. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court, which incorporates admiralty, civil, criminal, land and valuation, and testamentary jurisdiction; district criminal courts, which have jurisdiction in many indictable offences; local courts and courts of summary jurisdiction. Circuit courts are held at several places. In the year ended 31 Dec. 1983,1,935 criminal matters were proven in higher courts. During the year ending 30 June 1984 there were 817 sequestrations and schemes under the Bankruptcy Act. There were 3,768 prisoners received under sentence in 1983-84 with an average prison population of700. Religion. At the Census of 1981 the religious distribution of the population (as reported on Census schedules) was as follows: Anglican, 260,919; Roman Catholic and Catholic (so described), 255,332; Uniting Church, 108,857; Methodist, 85,935; Lutheran, 63,860; Baptist, 22,287; Presbyterian, 21,725; other Christians, 138,350; non-Christian, 7,128; indefinite, 6,529; no religion, 178,136; no reply, 135,970.

Education. Education is secular and is compulsory for children 6—15 years of age. Primary and secondary education at government schools is free. In 1985 there were 708 government schools, comprising 518 primary, 6 7 primary and secondary, 101 secondary schools and 22 special schools. There were 196,236 full-time students. The Department of Technical and Further Education is responsible for technical, adult and vocational education. In 1985 there were 22 colleges of technical and further education, among the facilities are an adult migrant education service, a centre for performing arts and schools of music, maritime and external studies. Tertiary education, including teacher education, is provided by the 2 universities and 3 colleges of advanced education. There were 175 non-govemment schools and colleges, most of which are associated with religious denominations (51,246 students). In 1985 there were 412 pre-school centres with an enrolment of approximately 21,300 pre-school children. Social Welfare. Age, invalidity, war, etc., pensions are paid by the Commonwealth Government. The number of pensioners in South Australia at 30 June 1985 was: Disability and service, 77,967; age, 134,012; invalid, 26,834. There are schemes for family allowances, widows, supporting parents, unemployment and sickness and hospital and pharmaceutical benefits.

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TASMANIA

Books of Reference Statistical Information: The State branch of the Australian Bureau of Statistics is in Capita Centre, 10-20 Pulteney St., Adelaide ( G P O Box 2272). Deputy Commonwealth Statistician: G . C. Sims. Although the first printed statistical publication was the Statistics of South Australia, 1854 with the title altered to Statistical Register in 1859, there is a written volume for each year back to 1838. These contain simple records of trade, demography, production, etc. and were prepared only for the use of the Colonial Office; one copy was retained in the State. The publications of the State branch include the South Australian Year Book, the Pocket Year Book of South Australia and a Monthly Summary of Statistics, a quarterly bulletin of building activity, a quarterly bulletin of tourist accommodation and approximately 40 special bulletins issued each year as particulars of various sections of statistics become available. South Australia: Premier's D e p a r t m e n t , Adelaide, 1980 Douglas, J., South Australia from Space. Adelaide, 1980 Finlayson, H. H., The Red Centre: Man and Beast in the Heart of Australia. 2 n d ed. Sydney, 1952 Gibbs, R. M., A History of South Australia: From Colonial Days to the Present. Adelaide, 1984 Whitelock, D., Adelaide, 1836-1976: A History of Difference. Univ. o f Q u e e n s l a n d Press, 1977 Slate Library: The State Library of S.A., North Terrace, Adelaide. State Librarian: Miller, M A (Hons), Dip. NZLS, A N Z L A , A L A A .

E. M.

TASMANIA H I S T O R Y . Abel Janzoon Tasman discovered Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) on 24 Nov. 1642. The island became a British settlement in 1803 as a dependency of New South Wales; in 1825 its connexion with New South Wales was terminated; in 1851 a partially elective Legislative Council was established, and in 1856 responsible government came into operation. On 1 Jan. 1901 Tasmania was federated with the other Australian states into the Commonwealth of Australia. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Tasmania is an island separated from the mainland by the Bass Strait with an area (including islands) of 68,331 sq. km, or 6-83m. hectares, of which 6,441,000 hectares form the area of the main island. The population at 10 consecutive censuses was: 1911 1921 1933 1947 1954 1

Population 191,211 213,780 227,599 257,078 308,752

Increase % per annum 104 112 0-52 0-87 2-65

Resident population.

2

1961 1966 1971 1976 1981

Population 350,340 371,436 398,100' 412,300' 427,200'

Increase % per annum 1-82 118 0-99 0-70 2 0-72 2

Not comparable with previous censuses.

The resident population (estimate) on 30 June 1985 was 442,111 (males, 219,449). At the census of 30 June 1981,2 -8% were bom in the British Isles, 5 -5% in other European countries and 88-7% in Australia. The last full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal died in 1876. Vital statistics for calendar years: Natural 1983 1984 1985

Marriages 3,644 3,704 3,520

Divorces 1,359 1,185 1,169

Births 7,028 7,098 7,215

Deaths 3,311 3,548 3,658

increase 3,718 3,549 3,557

The state's largest cities and towns (with populations at the 1981 Census) are Hobart (128,603), Launceston (64,555), Devonport (21,424) and Burnie (20,368). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Parliament consists of the Governor, the Legislative Council and the House of Assembly. The Council has 19 members, elected by adults with 6 months' residence. Members sit for 6 years, 3 retiring annually and 4 every sixth year. There is no power to dissolve the Council.

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Vacancies are filled by by-elections. The House of Assembly has 35 members; the maximum term for the House of Assembly is 4 years. Members of both Houses are paid a basic salary of $A37,728 (July 1986), plus an electorate allowance, according to the division represented. The annual allowance payable is calculated as a percentage of basic salary. The amounts vary from $A5,659 (11%) to $A13,205 (35%). Women received the right to vote in 1903. Proportional representation was adopted in 1907, the method now being the single transferable vote in 7-member constituencies. Casual vacancies in the House of Assembly are determined by a transfer of the preference of the vacating member's ballot papers to consenting candidates who were unsuccessful at the last general election. A Minister must have a seat in one of the two Houses; all present Ministers are members of the House of Assembly. In addition to the salary paid to Ministers as members of either House, the following allowances are payable: Premier, in conjunction with a ministerial office, $A47,160; Deputy Premier, in conjunction with a ministerial office, $A32,069; other Ministers, $A26,410. The Leader of the Opposition in the House of Assembly receives an allowance of $A26,410. The holders of some other offices receive allowances ranging from $A2,264 to $ A12,576. An election in Feb. 1986 resulted in the Liberal Party retaining government. The composition of the new House of Assembly was Liberal, 19 seats, Labor, 14 and 2 Independents. The Legislative Council is predominantly independent without formal party allegiance; 1 member is Labor-endorsed. Governor: Sir James Plimsoll, AC, CBE. The Liberal Party Cabinet was composed as follows in Feb. 1986: Premier, Treasurer, Minister for State Development and Small Business andfor Energy: R. T. Gray. Deputy Premier, Tourism, Licensing, Police and Emergency Services, Road Safety, Gaming: G. A. Pearsall. Attorney-General, Lands, National Parks, Sport and Recreation: J. M. Bennett. Employment and Training, Housing, Labour and Industry, Consumer Affairs: R. J. Beswick. Main Roads, Local Government, Water Resources, Racing: I. M. Braid. Public Administration, Primary Industry, Transport: N. C. K. Evers. Health, Community Welfare and the Elderly, Ethnic Affairs: F. R. Groom. Forests, Mines, Sea Fisheries: R. J. Groom. Construction, Administrative Services, Environment, Inland Fisheries: P. C. L. Hodgman. Education and the Arts, Industrial Relations, Deregulation, Technology:P. E. Rae. Local Government. For the purposes of local government, the State is divided into 47 municipal areas comprising the cities of Hobart, Launceston, Glenorchy and Devonport and 43 municipalities. The number of municipalities was reduced from 45 in May 1985 because of the amalgamation of 2 municipalities with the City of Launceston. The cities and municipalities are managed by elected aldermen and councillors, respectively, with reference to local matters such as sanitation and health services, domestic water supplies and roads and bridges within each particular area. The chief source of revenue is rates (based on assessed annual value) levied on owners of property. Tasmanian Islands. Three inhabited Tasmanian islands (Bruny, King and Flinders) are organized as municipalities. Nearly 1,600 km south-east lies Macquarie Island, part of the State, and used only as an Australian research base and meteorological station. ECONOMY Budget. The revenue is derived chiefly from taxation (pay-roll, motor, lottery and land tax, business franchises and stamp duties), and from grants and reimbursements from the Commonwealth Government. Customs, excise, sales and income tax are levied by the Commonwealth Government, which makes grants to Tasmania for both revenue and capital purposes. Commonwealth Government grants

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to Tasmania in 1984-85 totalled $A820m. These included General Purpose Revenue Funds, $A417m.; Specific Purpose Grants, $A307m.; Capital Grants, $A37m.; and Health Grants, $A59m. Specific Purpose Grants are mainly used to provide essential services such as hospitals, housing, roads and educational services, while General Purpose Revenue Funds have been paid since 1942 to compensate the State for the loss of income tax to the federal government. Consolidated Revenue Fund receipts and expenditure, in $A1,000, for financial years ending 30 June: Revenue Expenditure

1979-80 560,192 563,917

1980-81 620,307 627,441

¡981-82 683,231 717,628

1982-83 764,990 772,735

1983-84 853,107 855,006

1984-85 953,209 952,922

The public debt at current exchange rates amounted to $ A 1,201m. at 30 June 1985. In 1985-86 State taxation revenue amounted to $A237m., of which pay-roll tax provided $A68 -4m.; motor tax, $A18 -2m.; stamp duties, $A48 -4m.; business franchises, $A27-8m., and lottery tax, $A6-2m. Banking. Trading bank activity in Tasmania is divided between 3 private banks and the Commonwealth Trading Bank. For the month of June 1986 liabilities represented by depositors' balances averaged $A778m. and assets represented by advances, $A656m. The 6 savings banks operating in Tasmania are the Commonwealth Savings Bank, 2 trustee savings banks and 3 private savings banks operated by trading banks. At 30 June 1985 total savings bank deposits were $A1,256m. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Tasmania has good supplies of hydro-electric power because of assured rainfall and high level water storages (natural and artificial). The Hydro-Electric Commission, Tasmania's sole commercial supplier of electricity, has been surveying water power resources of the State for many years and it is estimated that about 3m. kw. can be economically developed. With the addition of the Reece Dam, 2,055,800 kw. of generating plant was in commission in 1985-86. In 1985-86 the peak loading was 1,319,400 kw. The Pieman River Power Development, comprising 3 stations, was scheduled for completion in 1986. The Gordon River Power Development Stage 2 (the Gordon-below-Franklin scheme) was halted by a High Court decision. Minerals. The assayed content of principal metallic minerals contained in locally produced concentrates for 1984-85 was (in tonnes): Zinc, 94,621; iron pellets, 1,504,000; copper, 26,500; lead, 35,995; tin, 3,474; gold, 2,182 kg; silver, 106,484 kg. Coal production, 453,288 tonnes. Primary Industries. The estimated gross value of recorded production from agriculture in 1984-85 was (in $Alm.): Livestock products, 1351; livestock slaughterings and other disposals, 115-3; crops, 131-7; total gross value, 382-2. Estimated gross value of fisheries was $A47m. Agriculture. The area occupied by the 5,500 holdings in 1984-85 totalled 2,119,862 hectares, of which 1,017,344 were devoted to crops and sown pasture. TTie following table shows the area and production, in tonnes, of the principal cr

°Ps:

1982-83 Hectares Production Wheat 928 1,489 Barley 12,358 21,925 Oats 7,965 8,912 Green peas 8,008 31,098 Potatoes 4,749 173,147 Hay 51,329 165,906 Hops (bearing) (dry) 889 1,589

1983-84 Hectares Production 1,142 2,841 15,059 34,119 13,978 24,729 7,639 33,243 5,203 213,090 66,255 283,493 896 1,902

1984-85 Hectares Production 2,456 4,389 12,352 29,700 9,851 15,855 7,042 31,400 5,209 203,472 51,667 212,543

Livestock at31 March 1985: Sheep,4-8m.;cattle,654,600; pigs,47,300.

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Wool produced during 1984-85 was 22m. kg, valued at $A73m. In 1984-85 butter production was 7,693 tonnes; cheese, 12,602 tonnes. Forestry. Indigenous forests cover a considerable part of the State, and the sawmilling and woodchipping industries are very important. Production of sawn timber in 1984-85 was 314,500 cu. metres. 844,200 cu. metres of logs were used for milling in 1984-85 and a further 3,594,700 cu. metres were used for chipping, grinding or flaking. Newsprint and paper are produced from native hardwoods, principally eucalypts. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The most important manufactures for export are refined metals, newsprint and other paper manufactures, pigments, woollen goods, fruit pulp, confectionery, butter, cheese, preserved and dried vegetables, sawn timber, and processed fish products. The electrolytic-zinc works at Risdon near Hobart treat large quantities of local and imported ore, and produce zinc, sulphuric acid, superphosphate, sulphate of ammonia, cadmium and other by-products. At George Town, large-scale plants produce refined aluminium and manganese alloys. During 1984-85,3,650,700 tonnes (green weight) of woodchips were produced. In 1984-85 the average employment in manufacturing establishments employing 4 or more persons was 24,494; wages and salaries (excluding proprietors' drawings), $A443m.; turnover, $A2,423m.; value added, $A938m.; and number operating at 30 June 1985,575. Labour. The Commonwealth Industrial Court (judicial powers) and Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission (arbitral powers) have jurisdiction over federal unions, i.e., with interstate membership. Most Tasmanian employees are covered by federal awards. State Industrial Boards, established for the various trades by resolution of Parliament or proclamation of the Governor, cover most of the remaining employees. Each Board consists of a Chairman appointed by the Governor with equal representation of employers and employees. The Boards have authority over minimum rates for wages or piecework, number of working hours for which the wage is payable, conditions of apprenticeship, annual leave and adjustment of wage and piecework rates. Industrial Boards follow to a large extent the wage rates fixed by the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. Commerce. Trade by sea and air in $ A1 m. for years ending 30 June: 1980S1 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 Imports Exports

1,207 1 1,540-2

1,258-5 1,574-6

1,339 1 1,728-9

1,461-7 1,907-2

1,895-3 2,093-1

In 1984-85 exports by sea and air comprised $A1,251 -8m. to other Australian states and $A841 -3m. to overseas countries. The principal countries of destination (with values in $A1 m.) for overseas exports were: Japan, 295-6; USA, 87 -3; Malaysia, 81-9; Indonesia, 52-8; and China (excluding Taiwan), 67-3. Imports totalled $Al,462m.; comprising $Al,259m. from other Australian states and $A203m. from overseas countries. The principal countries of origin (with values in $Alm.) for overseas imports were: Japan, 51-7; USA, 159-6; New Zealand, 23-9; Canada, 23-3;Taiwan l l - 4 ; C h i n a , 1-4 and Malaysia, 1-1. The main commodities by value (with values in $ A l m . ) exported during 1983-84 were: Ores and concentrates (mainly iron, copper, lead, tin and tungsten), 197; refined zinc, 201; timber, 85; vegetables, 85; and greasy wool, 46. Other main exports, for which details are not available for separate publication were woodchips, newsprint, printing and writing papers, refined aluminium, ferro-alloys and chocolate confectionery. The main imports (with values in $ A l m . ) were: Petroleum products, 295; ores and concentrates, 135; new motor vehicles, 127; and machinery, clothing and wood-pulp. Tourism. In 1984 (estimate) 274,344 adult visitors spent at least one night in Tasmania.

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151

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total road length at 30 June 1983 was 22,210 km, consisting of a classified road system of 3,967 km maintained by the State Department of Main Roads, and the remainder maintained by local government authorities, the Forestry Commission and the Hydro-Electric Commission. Motor vehicles registered at 30 June 1984 comprised 195,000 cars and station wagons, 54,800 other vehicles and 6,100 motor cycles. Railways. There is an 851-km network of 1,067-mm gauge lines linking Hobart and Launceston with coastal and country areas, formerly operated by Tasmanian Government Railways, but since 1 July 1975 worked by the Australian National Railways Commission. A private railway of 134 km, operated by the Emu Bay Railway Co. Ltd, connects Burnie with the mining settlements on the west coast. Aviation. Regular daily passenger and freight air services connect the south, north and north-west of the State with the mainland of Australia. In 1985 there was a total of 32,763 scheduled aircraft movements at Tasmanian airports; a total of 1 17m. passengers and 42,714 tonnes of freight, including mail, was carried. Shipping. In 1982-83 overseas vessels made a total o f 4 3 8 calls to Tasmanian ports discharging 362,716 revenue tonnes of cargo; departures numbered 421 with total cargo of4,815,555 revenue tonnes. For posts and telegraphs, see p. 111. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. The Supreme Court of Tasmania, with civil, criminal, ecclesiastical, admiralty and matrimonial jurisdiction, established by Royal Charter on 13 Oct. 1823, is a superior court of record, with both original and appellate jurisdiction, and consists of a Chief Justice and 6 puisne judges. There are also inferior civil courts with limited jurisdiction, licensing courts, mining courts, courts of petty sessions and coroners' courts. During the year 1985,21,024 matters were finalized in the lower courts, 1,05 3 in the Supreme Court and 3,323 in the children's courts. The total police force on 30 June 1985 was 1,019. There was 1 gaol,with241 inmates at the end of June 1984. Religion. There is no State Church. At the census of 1981 the following numbers of adherents of the principal religions were recorded: Anglican C h u r c h R o m a n Catholic Methodist Uniting C h u r c h Presbyterian Baptist

151,207 78,143 19,906 17,668 11,575 7,965

Other religions N o religion Not s t a t e d ' Total1

32,213 36,222 64,058 418,957

' 'As counted' Census results.

Education. Education is controlled by the State and is free, secular and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. At 1 July 1985 government schools had a total enrolment of 66,863 pupils, including 28,733 at secondary level; private schools had a total enrolment of 17,050 pupils, including 8,049 at secondary level. Technical and further education is conducted at technical and community colleges in the major centres throughout the state. In 1984 there were 20,166 students enrolled in the Division of Technical and Further Education, 19,515 students in the Division of Adult Education. Teaching staff was made u p of 518 full-time and 2,641 part-time teachers. Tertiary education is offered at the University of Tasmania in Hobart, the Tasmanian State Institute of Technology and the Australian Maritime College, in Launceston. The University (established 1890) had (1985) 3,397 full-time and 2,050 part-time students, and 376 full-time teachers. There were 1,468 full-time and 1,456 part-time students enrolled in advanced education courses in 1985. Social Welfare. Old Age, Invalid, War Service and Widows' Pensions are paid by the Commonwealth Government. The number of pensioners in Tasmania on 30

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June 1984 was: Age, 39,970; invalid, 7,266; war (disability), 16,783; widows, 5,009. Benefit payments totalled $A254-4m. (including payments to wives). Books of Reference Statistical Information: The State Government Statistical Office (Commonwealth Government Centre, Hobart), established in 1877, became in 1924 the Tasmanian Office of the Australian Bureau of Statistics, but continues to serve State statistical needs as required. Deputy Commonwealth Statistician and Government Statistician of Tasmania: G. D. Cocking. Main publications: Annual Statistical Bulletins (e.g., Demography, Courts, Agricultural Industry, Finance, Manufacturing Establishments etc.).—Pocket Year Book of Tasmania. Annual (from 1913).—Tasmanian Year Book. Annual (from 1967).—Monthly Summary of Statistics (from July 1945). Tasmanian Development Authority, Tasmanian Manufacturers Directory. Hobart, 1985 Angus, M., The World of Olegas Truchanas. Hobart, 1975 Green, F. C. (ed.), A Century of Responsible Government. Hobart, 1956 Phillips, D., Making more Adequate Provisions: State Education in Tasmania 1839-1985. Hobart, 1985 Robson, L., A History of Tasmania. Votume 1: Van Diemen's Landfrom the Earliest Times to 1855. Melbourne, 1983 Townsley, W. A., The Government of Tasmania. Brisbane, 1976 State Library: The State Library of Tasmania, Hobart. Stale Librarian: D. W. Dunstan.

VICTORIA A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The State has an area of227,600 sq. km, and a resident population (estimate) of4,121,500 at 30 June 1985. The resident population (estimate) of the Melbourne Statistical Division at 30 June 1985 was 2,916,600 or 71% of the population of the State. The resident population (estimate) of each statistical district in Victoria at 30 June 1985 was: Ballarat, 77,500; Bendigo, 63,730; Geelong, 147,070; Morwell, 18,230; Shepparton-Mooroopna, 38,860. The census population (exclusive of full-blood aboriginals prior to 1961 ) was: Dale of census enumeration 5 April 1891 31 March 1901 3 April 1911 4 April 1921 30 June 1933 30 June 1947 30 June 1954 30 June 1961 30 June 1966 30 June 1971 30 June 1976 30 June 1981

Males 598,222 603,720 655,591 754,724 903,244 1,013,867 1,231,099 1,474,536 1,614,240 1,799,486 1,900,488 1,958,717

Population Females 541,866 597,350 659,960 776,556 917,017 1,040,834 1,221,242 1,455,830 1,605,977 1,801,866 1,909,938 1,988,200

Total 1,140,088 1,201,070 1,315,551 1,531,280 1,820,261 2,054,701 2,452,341 2,930,366 3,220,217 3,601,352 3,810,426 3,946,917

On previous census Numerical Increase increase % 278,522 32-33 60,982 5-35 114,481 9-53 215,729 16 40 288,981 18-87 234,440 12-88 397,640 19-35 478,025 19-49 289,851 9-89 11-84 381,135 209,074 5-81 136,491 3-58

The population of urban Melbourne (capital city) on 30 June 1981 was 2,578,759. The population of urban Geelong was 125,279; urban Ballarat, 62,641; urban Bendigo, 52,741. Other urban centres: Shepparton-Mooroopna, 28,373; Warrnambool, 21,414; Moe-Yalloum, 18,159; Traralgon, 18,057; Morwell, 16,491; Wangaratta, 16,202; Mildura, 15,763; Sale, 12,968; Horsham, 12,034; Colac, 10,587; Hamilton, 9,751; Bairnsdale, 9,459; Portland, 9,353; Swan Hill, 8,398; Ararat, 8,336; Benalla, 8,151; Maryborough, 7,858; Warragul, 7,712; Castlemaine, 7,583. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Births 59,911 59,763 61,726

Marriages 28,974 28,931 29,810

Divorces 10,663 10,501 9,688

Deaths 29,309 29,491 31,257

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The annual rates per 1,000 of the mean resident population (estimate) in 1985 were: Marriages, 7-2; births, 14-9; deaths, 7-6; divorces, 2-4. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Victoria, formerly a portion of New South Wales, was, in 1851, proclaimed a separate colony, with a partially elective Legislative Council. In 1855 responsible government was conferred, the legislative power being vested in a parliament of two Houses, the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. At present the Council consists of 44 members who are elected for 2 terms of the Assembly, one-half retiring'at each election. The Assembly consists of 88 members, elected for 3 years from the date of its first meeting unless sooner dissolved by the Governor. Members and electors of both Houses must be aged 18 years and Australian citizens or those British subjects previously enrolled as electors, according to the Constitution (Qualification of Electors) Act 1982. No property qualification is required, but judges, members of the Commonwealth Parliament and undischarged bankrupts may not be members of either House. Single voting (one elector one vote) and compulsory preferential voting apply to Council and Assembly elections. Enrolment for Council and Assembly electors is compulsory. The Council may not initiate or amend money bills, but may suggest amendments in such bills other than amendments which would increase any charge. A bill shall not become law unless passed by both Houses. Private members of both Houses receive salaries of $A45,043 per annum, additional allowances rising from $ A12,709 to $ A18,413. Members holding the following offices receive the salaries and allowances specified: The President of the Council, $A78,825 salary and $A4,955 expense allowance; the Speaker of the Assembly, $A78,825 salary and $A4,955 expense allowance; the Chairman of Committees of the Council, $A59,457 salary and $ A 1,802 expense allowance; the Chairman of Committees of the Assembly, $A59,457 salary and $A1,802 expense allowance; the Leader of the Opposition in the Assembly, $A78,825 salary and $A8,108 expense allowance; the Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the Assembly, $A59,457 salary and $A2,703 expense allowance; the Leader of the Third Party, $A59,457 salary and $A2,703 expense allowance; a member of either House who is the Parliamentary Secretary of the Cabinet, $A59,457 salary and $A2,703 expense allowance; the Government Whip in the Assembly, $A53,151 salary; the Whip of any recognized Party which consists of at least 12 members of Parliament, of which Party no member is a responsible Minister, $A49,998 salary. Members receive electorate allowances and allowances for attending Parliament and Parliamentary Committees The Legislative Assembly, elected on 2 March 1985, is composed as follows: Labor Party, 47; Liberal Party, 31; National Party, 10. Governor: Dr Davis McCaughey. In the exercise of the executive power the Governor is advised by a Cabinet of responsible Ministers. Section 50 of the Constitution Act 1975 provides that the number of Ministers shall not at any one time exceed 18, of whom not more than 6 may sit in the Legislative Council. No Minister may hold office for more than 3 months unless he or she is or becomes a member of the Council or the Assembly. Responsible Ministers receive the following amounts: The Premier, $A90,086 salary and $ A18,918 expense allowance; the Deputy Premier, $ A83,3 30 salary and $A9,459 expense allowance; 16 other Ministers, $A78,825 salary and $A8,108 expense allowance. The President, Speaker, Chairman of Committees in the Assembly and in the Council, Parliamentary Secretary of the Cabinet, Leader and Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the Assembly, Leader of the Opposition in the Council and Leader in the Assembly of the Third Party, also receive a travelling allowance when travelling on official business. Members of Committees receive attendance fees and certain travelling expenses when on Committee duties. The Labor Party Government (first appointed 8 April 1982) was as follows on 6 Oct. 1986: Premier: John Cain, MP.

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Deputy Premier, Minister for Industry, Technology and Resources: R. C. Fordham, MP. Agriculture and Rural Affairs: E. H. Walker, MLC. Health: D. R. White, MLC. Education: I. R. Cathie, MR Labour: S. M. Crabb, MR Community Services: C. J. Hogg, MLC. Treasurer: R. A. Jolly, MR Attorney-General, Planning and Environment: J. H. Kennan, MLC. Conservation, Forests and Lands: J. E. Kirner, MLC. Arts, Police and Emergency Services: C. R. T. Matthews, MP. Water Resources, Property and Services: A. McCutcheon, MP. Transport: T. W. Roper, MP. Local Government: J. L. Simmonds, MP. Consumer Affairs, and Ethnic Affairs: P. C. Spyker, MP. Sport and Recreation: N. B. Trezise, MP. Public Works and Minister assisting the Minister for Labour: R. W. Walsh, MP. Housing: F. N. Wilkes, MP. Parliamentary Secretary of the Cabinet: Dr K. A. Coghill, MP. Agent-General in London: K. A. Finnen (Victoria House, Melbourne Place, Strand, London, WC28 4LG). Local Government. With the exception of Yallourn Works area (26 -9 sq. km) and the unincorporated areas—French Island (154 sq. km), Lady Julia Percy Island (1 • 3 sq. km), the Bass Strait Islands and part of Gippsland Lakes (312 • 8 sq. km) and Tower Hill Lake Reserve (5 sq. km), the State is divided (at 30 June 1986) into 210 municipal districts, namely 66 cities, 5 towns, 6 boroughs and 13 3 shires. The constitution of cities, towns, boroughs and shires is based on statutory requirements concerning population, rate revenue and net annual value of rateable property. ECONOMY Budget. The receipts and payments (in $Alm.) of the Consolidated Fund in the years shown (ended 30 June) were: Receipts Payments

1981-82 5,466 5,473

1982-83 7,203 7,209

1983-84 7,781 7,752

1984-85 8,827 8,828

The Consolidated Fund is divided into two sectors: the Current Account and the Works and Services (capital account). Total receipts for 1984-85 of the Current Account sector were 7,202. Principal receipt items were: State taxation, 2,826; Commonwealth tax sharing, 2,020; other Commonwealth payments, 801 and public authorities, 371. The Works and Services sector contributed 1,625. Principal receipt items were: Commonwealth payments, 642; loan raisings, 262 and the State Development Account (an investment account receiving deposits from various State Authorities), 133. Of total Consolidated Fund payments during 1984-85 7,207 was paid through the Current Account sector. Principal payment items were: Debt charges, 684; education, 2,335; health, 1,470 and transport, 1,430. The remaining 1,621 paid through the Works and Services sector was appropriated into the Works and Services Account, from which the Victorian Government makes its capital expenditure. Principal payment items were: Education, 233; housing, 203; transport, 705 and water supply, 163. The public debt ofVictoria at 30 June 1985 was4,385. Victoria had other liabilities due to the Commonwealth Government of 1,336 largely being advances for housing. Banking. The State Bank ofVictoria, the largest bank in the State, joined with the State Banks of New South Wales, South Australia and Western Australia to form the State Banks Association in Feb. 1984. The Bank provides a full range of domestic and international banking services for both business and personal customers and is the largest supplier of housing finance in Victoria, with approvals for owneroccupied dwellings totalling $A853m. in the year to June 1985. There are 4 major trading banks in Victoria (Commonwealth Bank of Australia, Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd, Westpac Banking Corporation

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and National Australia Bank) with a total of 1,201 branches and 236 agencies between them at 30 June 1985, and 4 other trading banks. Private savings banks had 1,049 branches and 483 agencies at 30 June 1984. On 30 June 1986 there were 8-8m. operative accounts (excluding school bank accounts) in savings banks in Victoria. The total credit due to depositors amounted to $A 16,586m., made up of State Savings Bank, $A8,059-8m.; Commonwealth Savings Bank, $A2,635m.; private savings banks, $A5,891 • 3m. The weekly average of deposits and advances of trading banks operating in Victoria during June 1986 were as follows: Deposits, not bearing interest, $A3,145-5m.; deposits, bearing interest, $A9,961-6m.; total deposits, $A13,107- lm.; loans, advances, and bills discounted, $A12,684-9m. The weekly average of debits to customers' accounts (excluding debits to Federal and State Government accounts at City branches in State capitals) for the same period totalled $A26,514m. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. All electricity in this State for public supply is generated by the largest electricity supply authority in Australia, the State Electricity Commission of Victoria. Through its network of 116,000 km of power lines the SEC supplies more than 1,424,000 customers. Another 277,800 customers take SEC power from 11 metropolitan councils which buy in bulk and distribute electricity through their own systems. Electricity demand has almost doubled in 10 years and is now over 25,000 megawatt/hours a year. Generating capacity at 30 June 1985 was 6,603 megawatts compared with 3,863 in 1973. This includes capacity within Victoria and that available from New South Wales. About 80% of the power generated for the state system is supplied by brown-coal fired generating stations, Yallourn, Morwell, Hazelwood and Loy Yang, located in the La Trobe Valley on one of the largest single brown coal deposits in the world 140 to 180 km east of Melbourne in Central Gippsland. There are 2 other thermal stations and 3 hydro-electric stations in north east Victoria. Victoria is also entitled to approximately 30% of the output of the Snowy Mountains hydro-electric scheme and half the output of the Hume hydro-electric station, both of which are in New South Wales. Oil and Natural Gas. Crude oil in commercially recoverable quantities was first discovered by the Esso/BHP partnership in 1967 in 2 large fields offshore in East Gippsland in Bass Strait between 65 and 80 km from land. These fields, Halibut and Kingfish, with 10 other fields since discovered—Marlin, Snapper, Barracouta, Mackerel, Tuna, Cobia, Flounder, Fortescue, Bream and Seahorse have been assessed as containing initial recoverable reserves of more than 2,930m. bbls of treated crude oil. Gippsland crude now supplies approximately 72% of Australia's refinery requirements, and during 1984 a total of 159m. bbls were produced. Depletion of production from the 2 major fields, Kingfish and Halibut and the smaller Barracouta field, is now expected to occur in the late-1980s. Natural gas was discovered offshore in East Gippsland in 1965. The initial recoverable reserves of treated gas are 220,400m. cu. metres. Reserves are sufficient for at least 30 years. Following an extensive development and distribution programme, natural gas was first connected to homes and industry in Victoria in April 1969. All gas consumers in Melbourne, Geelong, Ballarat, Bendigo, Shepparton, Euroa, Benalla, Wangaratta, Wodonga, Albury and a number of towns near Melbourne, in the La Trobe Valley and in East Gippsland, are now using natural gas. At 30 June 1985 a total of 1,013,455 consumers were being supplied with it. During the period 1 July 1982 to 30 June 1983 a total volume of 5,646m. cu. metres of gas was consumed in Victoria, including commercial sales and plant usage. Natural gas and crude oil are conveyed from the producing fields to a large treatment plant at Longford in East Gippsland from where both hydrocarbons are

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distributed by a network of transmission lines to tank farms and city gate distribution points. The crude oil is then distributed to refineries in Victoria by pipeline and to other States by seagoing tankers. Natural gas is distributed to residential and industrial consumers through a network of approximately 20,289 km of mains. Liquefied petroleum gas is now being produced after extraction of the propane and butane fractions from the untreated oil and gas. Brown Coal. Major deposits of brown coal are located in the Central Gippsland region and comprise approximately 94% of the total resources in Victoria. The resource is estimated to be 202,000 megatonnes, of which about 31,000 megatonnes are regarded as readily accessible reserves. It is young and soft with a water content of 60% to 70%. In the Latrobe Valley section of the region, the thick brown coal seams underlie an area from 10 to 30 km wide extending over approximately 70 kilometres from Yallourn in the west to the south of Sale in the east. It can be won continuously in large quantities and at low cost by specialized mechanical plant. About 54% of the resources occur in areas where the overburden over the uppermost seam is less than 30-5 metres while 95% is in areas with less than 91-4 metres of overburden. The current primary use of these reserves is to fuel the major base load electricity generating stations located at Morwell and Yallourn. Land Settlement. Of the total area of Victoria (22 -76m. hectares), 13,973,915 hectares on 30 June 1984 were either alienated or in process of alienation. The remainder (8,786,085) constituted Crown land as follows: Perpetual leases, grazing and other leases and licences, 2,160,352; reservations including forest and timber reserves, water, catchment and drainage purposes, national parks, wildlife reserves, water frontages and other reserves, plus unoccupied and unreserved including areas set aside for roads, 6,625,733. Establishments with agricultural activity at 31 March 1985 numbered 45,884. Minerals. The recorded production of certain metals and minerals raised in Victoria for the year 1982-83 was: Gold, 115,000 grammes, value $A1,370,000; coal, brown, 35m. tonnes, value $A150 -8m. Agriculture. The following table shows the area under the principal crops and the produce of each for 3 seasons (in 1,000 units):

Total crop area Wheat Oats Barley Potatoes Hay Hec- HecHecHecHecHecSeason tares tares Tonnes tares Tonnes tares Tonnes tares Tonnes tares Tonnes 1982-83 2,236 1,327 394 213 98 278 75 14 291 348 1,065 1983-84 2,655 1,614 3,862 324 495 403 759 13 362 718 3,032 1984-85 2,569 1,523 2,666 228 343 486 638 15 379 387 1,516

In 1984-85 there were 20,484 hectares of vines, yielding 96,807 tonnes of grapes for wine-making and 255,632 tonnes of grapes for drying or for table use. The area cut for green feed and silage covered 83,700 hectares, and orchards and vegetables, including potatoes and onions, occupied 48,408 hectares. At March 1985 there were in the State 3-6m. head of cattle, 26,470,688 sheep and 409,538 pigs. In 1984-85, 618,268 tonnes of fresh meat was produced. The wool produced in the season 1984—85 amounted to 170m. kg, valued at $A502m. The quantity ofbutter produced in 1984-85 was95-5m. kg. The gross value of Victorian primary production (rural and non-rural) in 1984-85 was $A3,274m. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. From the 1975-76 Census of Manufacturing Establishments onwards only a limited range of data—employment and wages and salaries—has been collected from single-establishment manufacturing enterprises with less than 4 persons employed. This procedure significantly reduces the statistical reporting obligations of small businesses. Data in respect of the larger manufacturers pro-

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vides reliable information for the evaluation of trends in the manufacturing sector of the economy. From 1983-84, the classification of census units to industry is based on the 1983 edition of the Australian Standard Industrial Classification. The following data relates to manufacturing establishments owned by multi-establishment enterprises, and single-establishment manufacturing enterprises with 4 or more persons employed. The total number of manufacturing establishments in Victoria in 1984-85 (figures for 1983-84 in brackets) was 8,499 (8,404). Persons employed, including working proprietors, on the last pay day in June were males 250,513 (249,139) and females 106,174 (104,109). Salaries and wages paid were $A6,55 lm. ($A6,059m.), excluding drawings of working proprietors. The cost of purchases, transfers in, and selected expenses was $A20,782m. ($A18,405m.) and sales, transfers out and other operating revenue were $A33,463m. ($A30,081 m.). The preceding figures exclude gas and electricity producing and distributing establishments. In terms of persons employed the most important manufacturing activities were: Transport equipment, 54,549 (52,441); food, beverages and tobacco, 49,651 (49,883); other machinery and equipment, 42,834 (42,133); clothing and footwear, 42,816 (42,436). Trade Unions. There were 177 trade unions with a total membership of 858,500 operating in Victoria in June 1985. Commerce. The commerce of Victoria, exclusive of inter-state trade, is included in the statement of the commerce of Australia, see pp. 000-00. The total value of the overseas imports and exports of Victoria, including bullion and specie but excluding inter-state trade, was as follows (in $A 1,000): Imports Exports 2

1980S1 5,929,278 3,989,429

1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 7,175,776 6,989,815 8,185,717 10,084,483 4,177,187 4,321,674 5,059,996 6,382,293 1 ' Preliminary. Includes re-exports.

1985-86' 12,409,575 6,810,680

The chief exports in 1985-86 were: Petroleum products and gases; textile fibres and their wastes; cereals and cereal preparations; dairy products; meat and meat preparations; road vehicles, and power generating machinery. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 30 June 1984 there were 157,311 km of road open for general traffic consisting of 64,728 km of bituminous seal, etc., 47,397 km of waterbound macadam, gravel, etc., 23,415 km formed, but not paved, and 21,771 km not formed. The number of registered motor vehicles (other than tractors) at 30 June 1985 was 2,437,700. Railways. All the railways are the property of the State and are under the management of the State Transport Authority and the Metropolitan Transit Authority, responsible to the Victorian Government. At 30 June 1985, 5,760 km of government railway were open. During the year 1984-85 the gross revenue amounted to $A360,357,000 and the total working expenses to $A887,888,000. 11,859,000 tonnes of freight and 13,000 tonnes of livestock were carried. Aviation. During the year ended 31 Dec. 1984 there were 57,488 aircraft movements at Melbourne (Tullamarine) airport. Passengers totalled 4-7m. on domestic flights (international, 1,043,546). Freight handled, 91,160 tonnes, domestic flights (international, 54,547). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and 21 puisne judges. There are a county court, magistrates' courts, a court of licensing, and a bankruptcy court, etc. Criminal matters proven for 1985 in the children's court were 13,504; magi-

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strates' courts, 70,802; and higher (judges') courts, 2,795 (excluding driving and traffic offences). There are 12 gaols in Victoria. At 30 June 1985 there were 1,878 persons confined in these prisons. Religion. There is no State Church in Victoria, and no State assistance has been given to religion since 1875. At the date of the 1981 census the following were the enumerated numbers of each of the principal religions: Catholic,1 524,612; Church of England, 371,873; Uniting, 97,611; Orthodox, 87,119; Presbyterian, 83,223; Protestant (undefined), 46,403; Methodist, 43,030; other Christian, 34,361; Moslem, 15,666; Hebrew, 14,668; no religion, 258,249; no reply, 231,821. 1

So described on individual census schedules.

Education. Education establishments in Victoria consist of 4 universities, established under special Acts and opened in 1855, 1961, 1967 and 1977; Colleges of Advanced Education; government schools (primary, primary-secondary, high and secondary technical, and further education colleges), and non-government schools. The University of Melbourne, founded in 1853, had, in 1985, 15,789 students and 1,342 academic staff. Monash University, founded in 1958 in an eastern suburb of Melbourne, had, in 1985,13,586 students and 1,130 teaching and research staff. La Trobe University, founded in 1964 in a northern suburb of Melbourne, had 9,520 students and 591 academic staff in 1985. Deakin University (1974) near Melbourne had 6,698 students and 249 academic staff in 1985. Primary education of children of the ages of 6 to 15 years inclusive is free, secular and compulsory. On 1 July 1985 there were 1,609 government primary schools, 79 special schools, 22 combined primary-secondary schools and 408 secondary schools (including both junior technical schools and high schools). There were 20,797 teachers with an enrolment of 310,461 pupils in primary and special grades, and 24,353 teachers with an enrolment of 248,303 pupils in secondary grades. In 1984 there were 179,265 students (excluding adult education programmes) enrolled in technical and further education schools and colleges. Non-government Schools. There were at 1 July 1985, 734 non-government schools, excluding commercial colleges, with 17,382 teachers and 245,176 pupils enrolled. Ofthese schools, 500 were Roman Catholic. Social Services. Victoria was the first State of Australia to make a statutory provision for the payment of Age Pensions. The Act providing for the payment of such pensions came into operation on 18 Jan. 1901, and continued until 1 July 1909, when the Australian Invalid and Old Age Pension Act came into force. The Social Services Consolidation Act, which came into operation on 1 July 1947, repealed the various legislative enactments relating to age (previously old-age) and invalid pensions, maternity allowances, child endowment, and unemployment, and sickness benefits and while following in general the Acts repealed, considerably liberalized many of their provisions: it has since been amended. On 30 June 1985 there were 352,989 aged and 72,277 invalid pensioners in Victoria, and the amount paid in pensions, including payments to wives of invalid pensioners, during 1984-85 was$Al,860-2m. The number of disability pensions (members of the forces and their dependants) payable in Victoria on 30 June 1986 was 100,245, and the number of service pensions was 97,517. The amount paid in war and service pensions by the Federal Government during 1985-86 was $A638m. Under the Australian Unemployment and Sickness Benefit Act 1944, there were 106,807 persons receiving benefits at June 1985 (excluding migrants in accommodation centres) and the amount paid in benefits totalled SA689-6m. in the year ended 30 June 1985. The number of widows' pensions in force in Victoria at 30 June 1985 was 44,219, and the total amount paid in allowances during the year was SA243 • 1 m. The number of family allowances in force in Victoria at 30 June 1985 was

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1,138,718 (including students). In addition (in 1985), endowment was being paid in respect of 1,880 children who were being maintained in approved institutions. The total amount paid in endowment in Victoria during the year ended 30 June 1985 was$A398-7m. State Housing. The various State housing authorities were consolidated under the control of the Ministry of Housing early in 1973. These authorities then included the Housing Commission, the Government Employee Housing Authority and the Co-operative Housing registry. The Housing Act 1983, proclaimed in Dec. 1983, abolished the Housing Commission and the Home Finance Trust, replacing these bodies by a Body Corporate under the name of the Director of Housing. The Commonwealth State Housing Agreement (CSHA) came into effect as of 1 July 1984. This Agreement established the framework for the provision of Commonwealth funds to the States to support all forms of tenure. The agreement expires on 30 June 1994. Since the inception in 1938 of the Housing Commission, public housing stock has been provided both through the Commission and the Director efHeusmg. As at 30 June 1986, public rental housing stock consisted of 51,007 units, of which 64% were located within the Melbourne metropolitan area. 3,096 of these units were produced/acquired during 1985-86. At 30 June 1986 the waiting list for public rental housing was 32,644. The Housing Advisory Council was abolished at this time. Rental charges for the year ended 30 June 1986 were $A168-8m., against which $A55m. was allowed in rent rebates to tenants on low incomes, including pensioners. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Australian Bureau of Statistics (Commonwealth Banks Building, comer of Elizabeth and Flinders Streets, Melbourne, 3000). Deputy Commonwealth Statistician: Erie Bourke. Victorian Year Book. (Annually since 1873) Victorian Pocket Year Book. (Annually since 1956) Victorian Statistical Register. (Annually from 18 54 to 1916) Monthly Summary of Statistics (from Jan. 1960) Historical Records of Victoria. Victorian Government Printing Office, Melbourne (From 1981) Victoria: The First Century. Official History of Victoria. Melbourne, 1934 Victorian Municipal Directory. Melbourne, (From 1866). Melbourne, Amall and Jackson Broome, R., The Victorians: Arriving. New South Wales, 1984 Christie, M. F., Aborigines in Colonial Victoria, 1835-86. Sydney Univ. Press, 1979 Dingle, T., The Victorians: Settling. New South Wales, 1984 Dunstan, D., Governing the Metropolis: Politics, Technology, and Social Change in a Victorian City: Melbourne 1850-1891. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1984 Grant, J., and Serle, G., The Melbourne Scene 1803-1956. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1956 Pratt, A., The Centenary History of Victoria. Melbourne, 1934 Priestley, S., The Victorians: Making Their Mark. Melbourne, 1984 State Library: The State Library of Victoria, 328 Swanston St., Melbourne, 3000. State Librarian: W. Horton, BA, ALAA.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA HISTORY. In 1791 Vancouver, in the Discovery, took formal possession of the country about King George Sound. In 1826 the Government of New South Wales sent 20 convicts and a detachment of soldiers to King George Sound and formed a settlement then called Frederickstown. In 1827 Captain (afterwards Sir) James Stirling surveyed the coast from King George Sound to the Swan River, and in May 1829 Captain (afterwards Sir) Charles Fremantle took possession of the territory. In June 1829 Captain Stirling, newly appointed Lieut.-Governor, founded the colony now known as the State of Western Australia. On 1 Jan. 1901 Western

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Australia became one of the 6 federated States within the Commonwealth of Australia. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Western Australia lies between 113° 09' and 129° E. long, and 13° 44' and 35° 08' S. lat.; its area is 2,525,500 sq. km. The population at each census from 1933 was as follows ': Males 1933 233,937 1947 258,076 1954 330,358 1961 375,452 1 1961 and earlier

Females Tola! Males Females Total 204,915 438,852 1966 432,569 415,531 848,100 244,404 502,480 1971 534,100 509,000 1,043,100 309,413 639,771 1976 596,800 573,100 1,169,800 361,177 736,629 1981 656,400 642,700 1,299,100 exclude full-blood Aboriginals; from 1966 figures refer to total population (i.e., including Aboriginals).

Of the census population in 1981,910,666 were born in Australia. Married persons numbered 585,465 (285,224 males and 283,241 females); widowers, 10,088; widows, 45,465; divorced, 16,180 males and 19,171 females; never married, 318,273 males and 267,761 females. The number of males under 21 was 240,210 and of females 228,155. Perth, the capital, had an estimated resident population of 1,001,580 at June 1985. Of this, the area administered by the City of Perth had a population of82,760 while the population in the area for which the City of Fremantle is responsible (which includes the chief port of the State) was 23,590. Principal urban centres outside the metropolitan area, with population at 30 June 1985 (estimate): Bunbury, 24,510; Geraldton, 20,060; Kalgoorlie-Boulder, 22,630; Albany, 14,050; Northam, 7,050; Narrogin, 5,220. Vital statistics for calendar years ': Ex-nuptial Births births Marriages Divorces Deaths 1982 22,236 3,316 10,455 3,842 8,187 1983 23,046 3,642 10,519 3,822 8,359 1984 21,625 3,489 9,920 4,069 8,503 1985 2 23,109 3,886 10,398 4,039 8,836 ' Figures prior to 1984 are on State of registration basis; those from 1984 are on State of usual 2 residence basis. Provisional.

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . In 1870 partially representative government was instituted, and in 1890 the administration was vested in the Governor, a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council was, in the first instance, nominated by the Governor, but it was provided that in the event of the population of the colony reaching 60,000, it should be elective. In 1893 this limit of population being reached, the Colonial Parliament amended the Constitution accordingly. The Legislative Council consists of 34 members, 2 members representing each of the 17 electoral provinces. Each member is elected for a term of 6 years, one-half of the members retiring every 3 years. There are 57 members of the Legislative Assembly, each member representing one of the 57 electoral districts of the State. Members are elected for the duration of the Parliament, normally 3 years. The qualifications applying to candidates and electors are identical for the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. A candidate must have resided in Western Australia for a minimum of 12 months, be at least 18 years of age and free from legal incapacity, be an Australian citizen, and be enrolled, or qualified for enrolment, as an elector. A judge of the Supreme Court, the Sheriff of Western Australia, an undischarged bankrupt or a debtor against whose estate there is a subsisting order in bankruptcy may not be elected to Parliament. No person may hold office as a member of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council at the same time. An elector must be at least 1.8 years of age, be an Australian citizen free from legal incapacity, must have resided in the Commonwealth of Australia for 6 and in Western Australia for 3 months continuously and in the electoral district for which he claims enrolment for a continuous

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period of 1 month immediately preceding the date of his claim. Enrolment is compulsory for all qualified persons except Aboriginal natives of Australia, who are entitled but not required to enrol. Voting at elections is on the preferential system and is compulsory for all enrolled persons. Ordinary members of the legislature are paid a salary of $A43,324 a year, with an additional electorate allowance, ranging from $A11,342 to $A27,560 according to location of electorate. Members are entitled to free travel on Western Australian government railway, bus and ferry services, and, by arrangement, once every year on government railways in other States. All members of Parliament contribute to superannuation benefits. The Premier receives a salary, including an electorate allowance, of $A101,760, the Deputy Premier $A90,501, the Leader of the Government in the Legislative Council $A87,305, and all other Ministers $A81,281—93,086 according to location of electorate. The Legislative Assembly, elected on 18 Feb. 1986, is composed as follows: Australian Labor Party, 32; Liberal Party, 19; National Party of Australia, 6. The Legislative Council, one-half of which was elected on the same day, is composed of 16 Australian Labor Party, 13 Liberal Party, 4 Independent, 1 National Party of Australia. Governor: Gordon Reid. The Australian Labor Party Cabinet was, at 30 June 1986: Premier, Treasurer, Minister co-ordinating Economic and Social Development, Women's Interests: Brian Thomas Burke, MLA. Deputy Premier, Industry and Technology, Defence Liaison, Communications, Parliamentary and Electoral Reform: Malcolm John Bryce, MLA. Works and Services, Water Resources, Minister with special responsibility for the America's Cup, Leader of the Government in the Legislative Council: Desmond Keith Dans, MLC. Attorney-General, Budget Management, Prisons, Deputy Leader of the Government in the Legislative Council: Joseph Max Berinson, MLC. Local Government, Regional Development: Jeffrey Phillip Carr, MLA. Education, Planning, Police and Emergency Services, Leader of the House in the Legislative Assembly: Robert John Pearce, MLA. Conservation and Land Management, Environment: Barry James Hodge, MLA. Minerals and Energy, The Arts, Minister assisting the Minister co-ordinating Economic and Social Development: David Charles Parker, MLA. Agriculture, The South West, Fisheries, The North West: Julian Fletcher Grill, MLA. Housing, Sport and Recreation, Consumer Affairs, Aboriginal Affairs: Keith James Wilson, MLA. Employment and Training, ,Industrial Relations: Peter M'Callum Dowding, MLA. Health, Lands: Ian Frederick Taylor, MLA. Tourism, Racing and Gaming, Community Services, The Family, Youth, The Aged, Multicultural and Ethnic Affairs, Minister assisting the Minister for Women's Interests: Elsie Kay Hallahan, MLC. Transport, Small Business: Gavan John Troy, MLA. Honorary Minister assisting the Minister for Water Resources, The North West, Aboriginal Affairs: Emest Francis Bridge, MLA. Honorary Minister assisting the Ministers for Police and Emergency Services, Multicultural and Ethnic Affairs: Gordon Leslie Hill, MLA. Agent-General WC2R0AJ).

in London: R. Davies (Western Australia House, 115 Strand,

Local Government. The only unincorporated area in mainland Western Australia is King's Park, a public reserve of about 403 hectares in Perth. Including the lordmayoralty of Perth there were 13 cities, 12 towns and 114 shires at 30 June 1985. The executive body in each of these districts is normally an elective council, presided over by a mayor (city and town) or a president (shire), but in certain circumstances it may be a commissioner appointed by the Governor. Their functions include road construction and repair, the provision of parks and recreation grounds, the administration of building controls and local services such as health and library services. Finance is derived largely from rates levied on

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property owners as well as charges for services and government grants (mainly for road construction). ECONOMY Budget. The revenue and expenditure (in $A) of Western Australia in years ended 30 June, are given as follows: Revenue Expenditure

1983 2,324,874,369 2,339,070,164

1984 2,660,758,263 2,659,761,394 ' Estimates.

1985 2,843,079,541 2,842,267,768

1986' 3,095,500,000 3,094,500,000

Main items of revenue in 1984-85: Railways ($A235,502,053), taxation ($A677,301,566), lands, timber and mining ($A 175,175,209), public utilities other than railways ($A72,466,245), from Federal funds ($A1,340,978,893). Western Australia had a net loan liability of $A1,597,996,696 on 30 June 1985, the charge for the year being SA195,655,099. Banking. There are 17 trading banks in Western Australia including the Commonwealth Trading Bank and The Rural and Industries Bank of Western Australia. In the June quarter, 1986, the average of customers' balances was $A4,916m. and svcr^^c advances $A4 228 *9m At 30 June 1986, thè 7 savings banks held deposits of$A2,649-9m., in 2,153,457 accounts. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mining industry has been for many years of considerable significance in the Western Australian economy. Until the mid-1960s the maior mineral produced was gold. However, in recent years gold has been displaced by iron ore in terms of value, and has at various times fallen behind nickel concentrates, bauxite, oil, mineral sands and salt. The total ex-mine value of minerals from mining and quarrying in the State in 1984-85 was $A3,203-8m. Principal minerals produced in 1984—85 were: Iron ore, 87-7m. tonnes, value $Al,480-2m.; crude oil, 1 -38m. kilolitres; gold bullion, 45-2m. grammes, value $A507-7m.; bauxite, 18-4m. tonnes; mineral sands, 1-56m. tonnes, value, $A115-2m.; black coal, 3-7m. tonnes, value $A1091m.; salt, 4-8m. tonnes, value $A84-5m.; tin concentrates, 628 tonnes, value $A5-53m.; nickel concentrates, 486,491 tonnes; natural gas, 1,912 -3m. kilolitres; diamonds, 5-6m. carats, value $A45 1m.; copper concentrates, 45,274 tonnes and zinc concentrates, 52,128 tonnes. Land Settlement. Up to 31 Dec. 1984, of the entire area of the State (252-55m. hectares) 17-45m. hectares had been alienated; on that date l-52m. hectares were in process of alienation; the area alienated and in process of alienation thus amounting to 18-97m. hectares. There were in force 97m. hectares of pastoral leases, 362,000 hectares of timber reserves and 17-31m. hectares of mining tenements comprising: Mining leases (including general purpose), 318,000 hectares; exploration leases (including prospecting and miscellaneous licences), 13-73m. hectares; claims and holdings, 315,000 hectares, and leases under special Acts, 2-95m. hectares. Agriculture. 1983-84 1984-85 Crop Wheat Oats Barley Hay Potatoes Cauliflower

Area 1.000 hectares 4,746 448 771 238 2 1

Crop Apples Pears Oranges

No. Trees (1,000) 692 108 203

Production 1,000 tonnes 4,316 456 797 676 70 14

1983-84 Production Tonnes 38,167 6,247 7,782

Area 1,000 hectares 4,652 351 965 225 2 1

No. Trees (1,000) 737 114 200

Production 1,000 tonnes 6,580 460 1,431 746 70 26

1984-85 Production Tonnes 59,128 7,592 7,970

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Irrigation has been established by the Government along the south-western coastal plain and in the north of the State. Reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of 6,207m. cu. metres provided irrigation water for 19,000 hectares in 6 districts during 1984-85. The livestock at 31 March 1985 included 1,674,000 cattle, 31,574,000 sheep and 274,000 pigs. The wool clip in 1984-85 was 165,900 tonnes; the overseas exports for 1983-84, greasy wool, 108,739 tonnes; degreased wool, 14,488 tonnes. ' Forestry. The area of State forests and timber reserves at 30 June 1985 was 2,260,424 hectares; 1984-85 production of sawn timber was 313,315 cu. metres, principally Jarrah and Karri hardwoods. Fisheries. The catch of fish, crustaceans and molluscs in Western Australia in 1984-85 totalled 31,250 tonnes for a gross value of $A163-3m. Of this, rock lobsters, with a total catch of 9,001 tonnes accounted for $ A120 • 6m. Value' of Agricultural Commodities Produced. The estimated gross value?, of Western Australian agricultural commodities during 1984-85 were: Crops and pastures, $A1,721 -34m.; livestock slaughterings and other disposals, SA374-71 m.; livestock products, $A582-36m. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Perhaps the most significant change in Western Australian manufacturing came when the basis for an integrated industrial complex was established with the opening of a large oil refinery at Kwinana in 1954. Two of the plants in the Kwinana complex are directly concerned with metals processing. An alumina refinery commenced operations in 1964 and a nickel refinery commenced operations in 1970. Major mineral processing plants outside Kwinana also contribute to Western Australia's manufacturing industry. A plant at Australind, near Bunbury, which extracts titanium dioxide from ilmenite has been in operation since 1963. A nickel smelter commenced operations at Kalgoorlie in 1973 and another alumina refinery, at Pinjarra, began operating in 1972. In addition, two new alumina refineries are now in operation, one at Wagerup and the other at Worsley. Besides providing for heavy industry directly associated with minerals processing, the mining development of recent years, especially on the North West Shelf, has also given impetus to other manufacturing activity, particularly to industries associated with the provision of capital equipment and other manufactured goods for the major mining projects. The following table shows manufacturing industry statistics for 1984-85 Number of establishments operating at Persons Industry sub-division employed1 30 June Food, beverages and tobacco 369 11,990 Textiles 38 987 Clothing and footwear 60 1,452 Wood, wood products and furniture 417 7,863 Paper, paper products, printing and publishing 221 '7,091 Chemical, petroleum and coal products 69 3,029 Non-metallic mineral products 199 4,462 Basic metal products 40 6,081 Fabricated metal products 395 6,731 Transport equipment 150 4,802 Other machinery and equipment 325 7,146 Miscellaneous manufacturing 168 2,608 Total 1 2

2,451

64,242

Wages and salaries $Am. 195 3 14-8 17-8 106 7

Turnover S Am. 1,494-3 75-1 50-3 479-2

Value added SAm. 453-7 31-4 29-7 224-1

120 6

402-8

214-3

62-9 861 162-7 1121 920 1260 40-6

516-7 459-0 1,836-5 531-9 251-7 485-7 205-5

169-2 197-7 578-2 194-4 126-4 210-9 83-1

1,137-6

6,788-5

2,513-2

Excludes single establishment enterprises with less than 4 persons employed. Annual average. Includes working proprietors.

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Labour. A Court of Arbitration was established in Western Australia in 1901 under the provisions of the 'Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1900'. The Court of Arbitration was replaced, with effect from 1 Feb. 1964, by the Western Australian Industrial Appeal Court and The Western Australian Industrial Commission, authorities constituted in terms of the Industrial Arbitration Act 1912. These authorities continue to operate under the provisions of the Industrial Arbitration Act 1979 which was proclaimed on 1 March 1980. The Western Australian Industrial Appeal Court consists of 3 Judges, one of whom is the Presiding Judge. The members are nominated by the Chief Justice of Western Australia. An appeal lies to the Court from decisions of the President of the Western Australian Industrial Commission, the Full Bench or the Commission in Court Session but only on the ground that the decision is erroneous in law or is in excess ofjurisdiction. The Western Australian Industrial Commission consists of a President, a Chief Industrial Commissioner, a Senior Commissioner, and 'such number of other Commissioners as may, from time to time, be necessary'. There were 5,'other Commissioners' at 1 Jan. 1985. A person shall not be appointed as President unless he is qualified to be a Judge, and on appointment he is entitled to the status of a Puisne Judge. The President or a Commissioner sitting or acting alone constitutes the Commission and may exercise the appropriate powers of the Commission. The Commission can inquire into any industrial matter and make an award, order or declaration relating to such matter. 'Industrial matter' means any matter affecting or relating to the work, privileges, rights, or duties of employers or employees in any industry and includes any matter relating to the wages, salaries, allowances, or other remuneration of employees or the prices to be paid in respect of their employment; the hours of employment, sex, age, qualification or status of employees and the mode, terms and conditions of employment including conditions which are to take effect after the termination of employment. The Commission may also make inquiries where industrial action has occurred or is likely to occur. The Commission in Court Session is constituted by not less than 3 Commissioners sitting or acting together, and may make General Orders, hear matters referred by the Commission, and hear appeals from decisions of Boards of Reference. The Full Bench is constituted by not less than 3 members of the Commission, 1 of whom is the President, and may hear matters referred by the Commission on questions of law, and appeals from decisions of the Commission and Industrial Magistrates. The following table shows details of the number of industrial awards, unions and members registered with The Western Australian Industrial Commission. At 30 June Awards in force Unions of workers: Number Membership Unions of employers: Number Membership

1981 459

1982 483

68 170,414

69 171,912

14 2,139

14 2,142

1983 488 -

1984 491

1985 630

66 176,065

67 174,330

70 185,061

14 2,138

14 2,144

15 2,535

' Named as 'Industrial agreements' prior to 1980.

Commerce. The external commerce of Western Australia, exclusive of interstate trade, is comprised in the statement of the commerce of Australia, see pp. 107-9. The total value of imports and exports, including interstate trade, but excluding interstate value of horses, in 5 years (30 June) is, in $A 1 m., as follows: Imports Exports

1980-81 4,504-5 4,604-1

¡981-82 1982-83 5,676-2 5,683-8 4,796-1 5,922-3' ' Including ships' stores.

1983-84 5,574-4 6,464-5'

1984-85 6,446-5 7,577-4'

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165

Selected overseas exports (in $A) for 1984-85: Iron ore and concentrates, 1,762,100,342; wheat, 850,089,712; wool, 523,350,126; petroleum and petroleum products, 162,791,739; gold bullion, 308,424,316; live sheep and lambs, 82,429,586; beef and veal, 77,403,372; rock lobster tails, 100,725,323; salt, 91,896,593; mutton and lamb, 33,807,963; barley, 156,868,608; prawns, 28,487,974; zirconium, 42,487,907; rutile, 25,704,434; ilmenite and leucoxene, 36,473,265; hides and skins (including fur skins), 28,074,714; whole rock lobsters, 25,647,234; fruit and nuts (fresh or dried), 10,365,712; animal oils and fats, 526,754; oats, 21,839,700. Selected overseas imports (in $A) for 1984-85: Petroleum and petroleum products, 547,992,192; machinery, 405,382,616; transport equipment, 296,062,311; iron and steel, 36,200,900; chemicals, 136,364,097; food, 65,611,787; crude fertilizer, 32,489,165; rubber manufactures, 44,584,094; paper and paperboard, 37,129,648. The chief countries exporting to Western Australia in 1984-85 were (in $A): Japan, 397,001,735; USA, 343,286,189; Singapore, 200,366,217; UK, 156,408,913; UAE, 106,855,855; Saudi Arabia, 105,010,262; Federal Republic of Germany, 92,731,012. Western Australia's exports in 1984-85 (in $A) went chiefly to: Japan, 1,865,380,170; USA, 888,511,743; Hong Kong, 253,672,503; China, People's Republic of, 235,680,611; Republic of Korea, 206,339,276; USSR, 197,422,536; Federal Republic ofGermany, 185,867,287. Tourism. In 1984-85, 148,800 international visitors contributed $A126m. to the economy; 361,000 interstate tourists contributed $187m.; 5,170,000 intrastate tourists contributed $A833m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 30 June 1985 there were 119,569 km of prepared and formed roads in Western Australia, 39,086 km of bituminous surface, 37,532 km other constructed surfaces and 42,952 km formed but not metalled or otherwise prepared. In addition, there are 20,765 km of roads unprepared except for clearing which are used for general traffic. New motor vehicles registered in Western Australia during the year ended 30 June 1986 were 59,671. Railways. At 30 June 1985 the State had 5,563 km of State government railway and 731 km of Federal line, the latter being the western portion of the Trans-Australian line (Kalgoorlie-Port Pirie), which links the State railway system to those of the other States of the Commonwealth. At 30 June 1985, mining companies operated 1,285 km of private railways for the transport of ore to ports on the north-west coast. In 1984-85 state railways carried 22m. tonnes and 360,000 passengers. Perth suburban lines, controlled by a separate authority, carried 9-3m. passengers. Aviation. An extensive system of regular air services operates in Western Australia for the transport of passengers, freight and mail. During the year ended 31 Dec. 1984, Perth Airport handled 17,518 aircraft movements, 37,154 tonnes of freight (excluding mail) and 1,530,032 passengers on domestic and international services. Shipping. In 1984-85, the number of overseas direct vessels through the major ports was: Port of Fremantle, 1,018 entered, 1,016 cleared; Dampier, 506 entered, 504 cleared; Port Hedland, 448 entered, 424 cleared; Port Walcott, 109 entered, 106 cleared. The gross weight (in tonnes) of overseas cargo through those ports was: Port of Fremantle, 3,446,589 discharged, 5,152,806 loaded; Dampier, 98,547 discharged, 39,797,735 loaded; Port Hedland, 193,791 discharged, 30,758,100 loaded; Port Walcott, 4,509 discharged, 14,229,407 loaded, Post and Broadcasting. Postal, telephone and telegraph facilities are afforded at 411 offices. Telephone services connected totalled 540,574 at 30 June 1985. There were 55 radio broadcasting and 86 television stations, including translator stations, in operation at 30 June 1985.

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JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In Western Australia justice is administered by a Supreme Court, consisting of a Chief Justice, 8 puisne judges and 2 masters at 30 June 1986; a District Court comprising a chief judge and 11 other judges and Magistrates' Courts exercising both civil and criminal jurisdiction. The lower courts are presided over by justices of the peace, except in the more important centres, where the court is constituted by a stipendiary magistrate. Juvenile offenders may be dealt with either by the Children's (Suspended Proceedings) Panel or by the Children's Court. The Panel is comprised of 1 representative from the Department for Community Services and 1 from the Police Department. It is empowered to deal with certain offences involving first offenders under the age of 16 years who have pleaded guilty. Other young offenders are dealt with by the Children's Court, which is presided over by a Magistrate. Offences against law 1980 1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 Charges 126,012 122,176 ... 109,580' 2 Lower Court convictions 115,787 116,930 ... 101,241' Higher Court convictions ... 1,759 1,857 2,581 3,369 ' Excludes Perth and East Perth Lower Courts. 2 Includes convictions for traffic offences: 56,310 in 1979; 54,734 in 1980; 55,325 in 1981; 42,654 in 1983-84. In addition, small fines were imposed for minor traffic offences as follows: 1979,333,545; 1980,335,241; 1981,348,452; 1982,358,395; 1983,348,009; 1984,373,662.

Persons in prison at 30 June 1986 numbered 1,524 males and 92 females. Religion. There is no State Church, and freedom of worship is accorded to all. At the census, 30 June 1981, the principal denominations were: Church of England, 375,848; Roman Catholic and Catholic, 316,337; Methodist, 51,225; Presbyterian, 32,033; Baptist, 15,859; Church of Christ, 14,163;other Christian, 131,637; Hebrew, 3,156; all other, including not stated and no religion, 333,368. Education. School attendance is compulsory from the age of 6 until the end of the year in which the child attains 15 years. Pre-school education is provided by a kindergarten system partly financed from government subsidy. In 1985 there were 728 government primary and secondary schools providing free education to 207,565 students and 225 non-govemment primary and secondary schools providing education, for which fees are charged, to 57,613 students. Technical education is available at a number of technical colleges, schools and centres, which are staffed and controlled by the Education Department. Tertiary Education at 30 April 1985: Teaching Staff' Students Enrolled University of Western Australia 689 9,465 Murdoch University 205 3,987 Western Australian Institute of Technology 679 12,022 Western Australian College of Advanced Education 478 10,090 ' Comprises full-time teaching staff and part-time staff on the basis of equivalent full-time staff.

State Government expenditure from consolidated revenue on education during the year ended 30 June 1986, amounted to $A818,911,968. Social Welfare. At 30 June 1985 there were 47 general hospitals and 8 nursing homes maintained wholly by public funds and 43 general hospitals and 9 nursing homes partly assisted therefrom. In addition, there are numerous private hospitals. The Health Department of Western Australia Psychiatric Services comprises 3 approved hospitals, 9 outpatient clinics for adults, 10 general rehabilitation units, 7 psychiatric extended care units and 1 rehabilitation hostel. Specifically for children are: 4 outpatient clinics and 3 residential units. The division for the intellectually handicapped comprises 42 units. The Department for Community Services is responsible for the provision of welfare and community services throughout the State. There are 10 directorates in the Department. Six are regionally based, with 3 being in the Perth metropolitan area and 3 in the country. These are concerned with direct service delivery, which is provided through a total of 16 divisional and 34 district offices. Four support direc-

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torates have responsibility for Community Planning and Public Affairs, Programmes, Human Resources, and Management and Finance. Direct services provided to the community include emergency financial assistance, family and substitute care, and counselling and psychological services. The Department supervises children's Day Care Centres. There is a 24-hour emergency welfare service provided through the Crisis Care Unit. Specialist units work in the areas of child abuse, adoptions, youth activities and Family Court counselling. The Department provides residential facilities for the temporary accommodation, care and training of children. These include 9 community support hostels, 20 hostels mainly for Aboriginal children, 9 group homes and 6 hostels for children released from secure institutions. Two centres, 1 residential and 1 non-residential, cater for children with serious behavioural and emotional problems. The Department is also responsible for young offenders recommended for detention or remand by a Court. Age, invalid, widows', disability and service pensions are paid by the Federal Government. The number of pensioners in Western Australia at 30 June 1985 was: Age, 105,065; invalid, 31,102; widows, 12,977; disability, 34,952 and service, 34,815. Housing. In 1984-85, 14,000 new houses and 3,705 new other dwellings were completed in Western Australia. Of these, the State Housing Commission provided 1,256 new dwelling units for sale and for rental. The value of dwellings completed during this period was $A699-2m. Additions and alterations valued at $ A10,000 or more to dwellings, were valued at $ A51 • 9m. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The State Government Statistician's Office was established in 1897 and now functions as the Western Australian Office of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (Merlin Centre, 30 Terrace Road, Perth). Deputy Commonwealth Statistician and Government Statistician: W. M. Bartlett. Its principal publications are: Western Australian Year Book (new series, from 1957). Western Australian Pocket Year Book (from 1919). Monthly Summary of Statistics (from 1958) Battye, J. S., Western Australia: A History from its Discovery to the Inauguration of the Commonwealth. Oxford, 1924.—The Cyclopedia of Western Australia. Adelaide, Vol. 1 (1912), Vol. 2(1913) Crowley, F. K., Australia's Western Third: A History of Western Australia from the First Settlements to Modern Times. (Rev. ed.). Melbourne, 1970 Kimberly, W. ft., History of Western Australia: A Narrative of Her Past. Melbourne, 1897 Stannage.C. T. (ed.) A New History of Western Australia. Perth, 1980 Stephenson, G., and Hepburn, J. A., Plan for the Metropolitan Region: Perth and Fremantle. Perth, 1955 State Library: Alexander Library Building, Perth. State Librarian: R. C. Sharman, BA, FLAA.

Capital: Vienna Population: 7 • 55m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$8,739 (1985)

AUSTRIA Republik Österreich

HISTORY. On 27 April 1945 a provisional government restored the Republic of Austria and was recognized by the Allied Control Council on 20 Oct. 1945. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . For the boundaries of Austria according to the Treaty of St Germain, signed in Sept. 1919, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1920, pp. 674-75. The population at census, 12 May 1981, was 7,555,338. Area sq. km 415 19,172 3,965 11,980 7,154 16,387 9,533 12,647 2,601

Federal Provinces Vienna (Wien) Lower Austria (Niederösterreich) Burgenland Upper Austria (Oberösterreich) Salzburg Styria (Steiermark) Carinthia (Kärnten) Tirol Vorarlberg

Population (1985) 1,489,153 1,423,741 267,686 1,285,955 456,502 1,183,383 540,342 601,618 309,287

Percentage °f population 19-7 18-8 3-5 17-0 60 15-7 7-1 8-0 4-1

Population per sq. km 3,588 74 68 107 64 72 57 48 119

100-0

90

83,855 1 7,557,667 ' 32,376 sq. miles.

Total

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1982 1983 1984 1985

Live births 94,840 90,118 89,234 87,440

Still births Deaths 1 Marriages 47,643 469 91,339 93,041 481 56,171 409 88,466 45,823 407 89,578 44,867 ' Excluding still births.

Divorces 14,298 14,692 14,869 15,460

The populations of the principal towns (excluding Vienna), according to the census of 12 May 1981 (area, 1 Jan. 1986) were as follows: Graz Linz Salzburg Innsbruck Klagenfurt Villach Wels St Pölten

243,166 199,910 139,426 117,287 87,321 52,692 51,060 50,419

Steyr Dornbirn Wiener Neustadt Leoben Wolfsberg Kapfenberg Bregenz

38,942 38,641 35,006 31,989 28,097 25,716 24,561

Feldkirch Baden Kxemsa.d.D. Klosterneuburg Amstetten Traun Leonding

23,745 23,140 23,056 22,975 21,989 21,464 19,389

Mödling Lustenau Braunau am Inn Temitz Hallein Bruck an der Mur

19,276 17,401 16,318 16,104 15,377 15,068

C L I M A T E . Climate ranges from cool temperate to mountain type according to situation. Winters are cold, with considerable snowfall, but summers are very warm. The wettest months are May to August. Vienna, Jan. 28°F (-2°C), July 67°F (19-5°Q. Annual rainfall 25-6" (640 mm). Graz, Jan. 28'F (-2°C), July 67°F (19-5°Q. Annual rainfall 34" (849 mm). Innsbruck, Jan. 27°F (-2 TQ, July 66°F (18-8°C). Annual rainfall 34-7" (868 mm). Salzburg, Jan. 28°F (-2-OX), July 65°F (18-3°C). Annual rainfall 50-6" (1,266 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Austria recovered its sovereignty and independence on 27 July 1955 by the coming into force of the Austrian State Treaty between the UK, the USA, the USSR and France on the one part and the Republic of Austria on the other part (signed on 15 May). 168

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On 12 March 1938 Austria was forcibly absorbed in the German Reich until it was liberated by the American, British, French and Soviet armies in spring 194S. Already in the Moscow Declaration of Oct. 1943, UK, the USA and the USSR had resolved upon the re-establishment of a free and independent Austria. On 27 April 1945 Dr Karl Renner set up a provisional government which restored the Republic of Austria in the spirit of the Constitution of 1920-29, and was recognized by the Four-Power Allied Control Council on 20 Oct. 1945. The last occupation forces left Austria in Oct. 1955. President of the Republic: Dr Kurt Waldheim, elected on 8 July 1986. On 23 Nov. 1986 the elections were held for the National Assembly, which returned 80 Socialists, 77 People's Party, 18 Freedom Party, Ecology Party, 8. The Coalition government between the Socialist Party and the People's Party, which was formed in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Chancellor: Dr Franz Vranitzky. Vice Chancellor and Foreign Affairs: Alois Mock. Finance: Ferdinand Lacina. Social Affairs: Alfred Dalinger. Interior: Karl; Blecha. State Industry: Rudolf Streicher. Education: Hilde Hawlicek. Women's Affairs: Johanna Dohnal. Chancellery: Franz Ldschnak, Heinrich Neisser, Johannes Ditz. Defence: Robert Lichal. Agriculture: Josef Riegler. Science: Hans Tuppy. Trade: Robert Graf. Youth and Environment: Marielies Fleming. Justice: Egmont Foregger. The Federal Council (Bundesrat) which represents the federal provinces has 63 members and (1987) the Socialist Party had 30 members and the People's Party 33. The Nationalrat and Bundesrat together form the National Assembly. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, red. National anthem: Land der Berge, Land am Strome (words by Paula Preradovic; tune by W. A. Mozart). The official language is German. Local Government. The Republic of Austria comprises 9 Federal States (Vienna, Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Tirol, Vorarlberg, Burgenland). There is in every province an elected Provincial Assembly. Every community has a Council, which chooses one of its number to be head of the Community (burgomaster) and a committee for the administration and execution of its resolutions. D E F E N C E . Conscription is for a 6-month period, with liability for 60 days reservist refresher training spread over 15 years. Army. The Army consists of an alert force (Bereitschafi truppe), mainly the 1st Armoured Division organized in 3 armoured infantry brigades; a mobile militia, comprising 8 motorized infantry brigades; and a stationary militia, comprising 26 regiments and security companies^ The country is divided into 2 corps areas, I (Graz) and II (Salzburg). Strength was (1987) 50,000 (25,000 conscripts). Army Aviation. (Heeresfliegerkrafte): The Army Air Division comprises 10 squadrons with about 4,700 personnel and 166 aircraft, organized in three Aviation Regiments each of which including air defence battalions. About 30 SAAB-105 Oe strike/trainer aircraft equip a surveillance wing of one squadron responsible for defence of Austrian airspace and a fighter-bomber wing of two squadrons. Helicopters equip six squadrons for transport/support, communications, observation, search and rescue duties. Types in service include Alouette III, armed Kiowa, JetRanger and Agusta-Bell AB.204s and AB.212s. Fixed-wing transports comprise two Skyvans and 11 Turbo-Porters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Austria is a member of UN, OECD and EFTA.

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ECONOMY Budget. The budget for calendar years provided revenue and expenditure (ordinary and extraordinary) as follows (in 1 m. schilling): Revenue Expenditure

1980 259,028 306,492

1981 287,791 339,456

1982 1983 300,955 316,673 372,774 407,791 1 Provisional.

1984 344,901 435,136

1985 372,895 464,673

1986 < 388,845 495,386

External debt. The budgetary external debt was (1985) 118,718m. schilling. Currency. The Austrian unit of currency is the schilling of 100 groschen. The rate of exchange in March 1987, £1 = 19-84 schilling, US$1 = 12-81 schilling. Banking. The National Bank of Austria, opened on 2 Jan. 1923, was taken over by the German Reichsbank on 17 March 1938. It was re-established on 3 July 1945. At 31 Dec. 1986 foreign exchange amounted to 75,513m. and note circulation to 93,900m. schilling. Principal banks with total assets (in lm. schilling 1985): Creditanstalt, 348,224; Girozentrale Und Bank der Österreichischen Sparkassen, 250,559; Österreichische Länderbank, 188,193; Zentralsparkasse Und Kommerzialbank, 180,328; Österreichische Kontrollbank, 174,552; Bank Für Arbeit Und Wirtschaft, 161,170; Österreichische Postsparkasse, 146,707; Genossenschaftliche.. Zentralbank, 146,605; Die Erste Österreichische Spar-Casse-Bank, 123,303; Österreichische Volksbanken, 50,115; Österreichische Investitionskredit, 38,607; Bank Für Oberösterreich Und Salzburg, 37,049; Österreichisches Creditinstitut, 36,411. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is in use. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electric energy produced (lm. kwh.): 1985, 44,534; 1984, 42,382; 1983,42,625. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The commercial production of petroleum began in the early 1930s. Production of crude oil (in tonnes): 1960, 2,448,391; 1971, 2,798,237; 1983, 1,268,573; 1984,1,205,430; 1985,1,146,958. Minerals. The mineral production (in tonnes) was as follows: Lignite Iron ore Lead and zinc ore 1 Rawmagnesite 1

1984 2,927,913 3,600,000 836,628 1,183,409

1985 3,081,071 Pig-iron 3,270,000 Rawsteel 643,255 Rolled steel 1,255,043 Tungstenore 1 Including recovery from slag.

1984 3,745,315 4,869,841 3,842,063 531,558

1985 3,703,992 4,660,426 3,759,595 538,306

Austria is one of the world's largest sources of high-grade graphite. Production, which averaged 20,000 tonnes yearly from 1929 to 1944, dropped to 246 in 1946, but rose to 102,237 in 1964, and fell again to 23,992 in 1970, 37,199 in 1980, 23,807 in 1981, 24,451 in 1982, 40,418 in 1983, 43,789 in 1984 and 30,764 in 1985. Agriculture. In 1985 the total area sown amounted to 1,430,495 hectares. The chief products (area in hectares, yield in tonnes) were as follows: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes

1983 Area Yield 312,664 1,415,119 93,424 348,323 338,858 1,442,437 82,738 291,843 40,753 1,014,955

1984 Area Yield 315,126 1,501,005 93,525 380,722 328,579 1,516,981 77,457 292,024 41,322 1,138,097

1985 Area Yield 319,837 1,562,770 88,131 338,700 344,079 1,521,408 75,247 283,893 37,719 1,042,196

Production of raw sugar in 1949,66,700; 1955,219,300; 1960,308,000; refined sugar: 1970, 298,000; 1980, 419,800; 1981, 446,900; 1982, 563,472; 1983, 350,216; 1984,417,437; 1985,422,591 tonnes. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 2,650,574; pigs, 3,925,935; sheep, 244,861; goats, 32,595; horses, 44,858; poultry, 14,439,835.

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Forestry. Felled timber, in cu. metres: 1960, 10,015,925; 1970, 11,122,896; 1980, 12,732,507; 1984,12,110,980; 1985,11,625,732. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. On 26 July 1946 the Austrian parliament passed a government bill, nationalizing some 70 industrial concerns. As from 17 Sept. 1946 ownership of the 3 largest commercial banks, most oil-producing and refining companies and the principal firms in the following industries devolved upon the Austrian state: River navigation; coal extraction; non-ferrous mining and refining; iron-ore mining; pigiron and steel production; manufacture of iron and steel products, including structural material, machinery, railroad equipment and repairs, and shipbuilding; electrical machinery and appliances. Six companies supplying electric power were nationalized in accordance with a law of 26 March 1947. In 1985, 9,116 industrial establishments (including 2,130 sawmills) employed 573,851 persons, producing a gross output of658m. schillings. Commerce. Imports and exports are as follows (excluding coined gold): Quantity (1,000 tonnes) Value(lm.sch.)

1983 32,906 348,339

Imports 1984 37,657 392,094

1 985 39,238 430,469

1983 16,505 277,139

Exports 1984 18,198 314,504

1 985 18,279 353,962

The total trade between Austria and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 m j m 4 } m l m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

404,318 251,032

438,445 273,702

529,620 320,901

630,586 381,047

705,732 403,000

Tourism. Tourism is an important industry. In 1984, 21,540 hotels and boardinghouses had a total of 657,647 beds available; 15,110,233 foreigners visited Austria; of these 821,998 came from the UK and 931,505 from the USA. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 Dec. 1985 federal roads had a total length of 9,661 km, 1,234 km autobahn; provincial roads, 23,369 km. On 31 Dec. 1985 there were registered 3,801,531 motor vehicles, including 2,530,800 passenger cars, 206,746 lorries, 364,327 tractors and 262,913 trailers. Railways. Austrian railways have been nationalized since before the First World War. Length of route (Dec. 1985), 5,808 km, of which 3,131 km were electrified. Nineteen private railways have a total length of 563 km. Passengers in 1985 numbered 172m. and 65m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. Austria has 6 airports in Vienna (Schwechat), Linz, Salzburg, Graz, Klagenfurt and Innsbruck. In 1985, 85,609 commercial aircraft arrived and departed at Austrian airports. Shipping. Austria has no sea frontiers, but the Danube is an important waterway. Goods traffic (in tonnes): 6,622,486 in 1982; 6,533,730 in 1983; 8,093,854 in 1984; 7,619,115 in 1985. Ore and metal, coal and coke and iron ore comprise in bulk more than two-thirds of these cargoes. The Danube Steamship Co. (DDSG) is the main Austrian shipping company. Post and Broadcasting. All postal, telegraph and telephone services are run by the State. In 1985 there were 2,729,000 telephones. The 'Österreicher Rundfunk' transmits 2 national and 9 regional programmes. In the local area of Vienna there is an additional special service in English and French; there is also a 24 hour foreign service (short wave). All broadcasting is financed by licence payments and advertisements. There were 2 -6m. registered listeners in Jan. 1984. Television was inaugurated in summer 1955 and 2 programmes are transmitted, both in colour. Cinemas (1985). There were 507 cinemas.

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Newspapers (1983). There were 33 daily newspapers (6 of them in Vienna) with a combined circulation of 2 • 7m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court of Justice (Oberster Gerichtshof) in Vienna is the highest court in the land. Besides there are 4 higher provincial courts (Oberlandesgerichte), 20 provincial and district courts (Landes- und Kreisgerichte) and 205 local courts (Bezirksgerichte). Religion. In 1981 there were 6,372,645 Roman Catholics (84-3%), 423,162 Protestants (5-6%), 118,866 others (1 -6%), 452,039 without religious allegiance (6%) and 79,017 (1%) unknown. The Roman Catholic Church has 2 archbishoprics and 7 bishoprics. Education (1985-86). There were in Austria 5,164 elementary and special schools with 67,827 teachers and 676,470 pupils. Of all kinds of secondary schools there were 1,557 with 544,147 pupils. There were also 111 commercial academies with 37,215 students and 4,602 teachers. There were 231 schools of technical and industrial training (including schools of hotel management and catering) with 5,875 teachers and 61,098 pupils; 49 higher schools of women's professions (secondary level) with 14,180 pupils; 9 training colleges of social workers with 637 pupils. 139 trade schools had 19,489 pupils. Austria has 12 universities and 6 colleges of arts maintained by the State: Universities at Vienna (2,970 teachers, 56,851 students), Graz (1,125 teachers, 21,191 students), Innsbruck (1,243 teachers, 18,121 students) and Salzburg (500 teachers, 9,146 students). There are also technical universities at Vienna (1,018 teachers, 13,709 students) and Graz (571 teachers, 7,496 students), a mining university at Leoben (194 teachers, 1,631 students), an agricultural university at Vienna (230 teachers, 4,747 students), a veterinary university at Vienna (173 teachers, 2,180 students), a commercial university at Vienna (236 teachers, 14,800 students), a university for social and economic sciences at Linz (343 teachers, 8,254 students) and a university for educational science at Klagenfurt (140 teachers, 2,587 students). There is an academy of fine arts at Vienna (148 teachers, 457 students), a college of applied arts at Vienna (199 teachers, 884 students), 3 colleges of music and dramatic art at Vienna (471 teachers, 2,219 students), 'Mozarteum' Salzburg (314 teachers, 1,243 students) and Graz (259 teachers, 1,056 students); the college for industrial design at Linz (118 teachers, 406 students). Health. In 1985 there were 21,513 doctors, 333 hospitals and 84,125 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Austria in Great Britain (18 Belgrave Mews, London, SW1X 8HU) A mbassador: Dr Reginald Thomas (accredited lOMarch 1982). Of Great Britain in Austria (Reisnerstrasse 40,1030 Vienna) Ambassador: M. O'D. B. Alexander, CMG. Of Austria in the USA (2343 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Thomas Klestil. Of the USA in Austria (Boltzmanngasse, 16, A-1091 Vienna) Ambassador. S. E. Ronald S. Lauder. Of Austria to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Karl Fischer. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Austrian Central Statistical Office was founded in 1829. Address: Hintere Zollamtsstrasze, 2b, 1033 Vienna. President: Dr Josef Schmidl. Main publications: Statistisches Handbuch für die Republik Österreich. New Series from 1950. Annually Statistische Nachrichten. Monthly Beiträge zur österreichischen Statistik (812 vols.)

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173

Ergebnisse der Volkszählung vom 12 Mai 1981 Ergebnisse der Häuser- und Wohnungszählung vom 12 Mai 1981 HA-Taschenbuch 75. Annually from 1971 Bobek, H. (ed.), Atlas der Republik Österreich. 3 vols. Vienna, 1961 ff. Salt, D., Austria. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 SotrifTer, K., Greater Austria: 100 Years of Intellectual and Social Life from 1800 to the Present Time. Vienna, 1982 Waldheim, K.., In the Eye of the Storm. London, 1985 National Library: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna. Librarian: Dr ZessnerSpitzenberg.

THE COMMONWEALTH OF THE BAHAMAS

Capital: Nassau Population: 235,000 (1986) GNP per capita: US$7,9 50(1984)

HISTORY. The Bahamas were discovered by Columbus in 1492 but the Spanish did not make a permanent settlement. British settlers arrived in the 17th century and it was occupied by Britain, except for a short period in the f8th century, until it gained independence. Internal self-government with cabinet responsibility was introduced on 7 Jan. 1964 and full independence achieved on lOJuly 1973. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Commonwealth of the Bahamas consists of 700 islands and more than 1,000 cays off the south-east coast of Florida. They are the surface protuberances of two oceanic banks, the Little Bahama Bank and the Great Bahama Bank. Land area, 5,353 sq. miles (13,864 sq. km). The areas and populations of the major islands are as follows: Sq. km G r a n d Bahama Abaco Bimini Islands Berry Islands New Providence Andros Hleuthera Cat Island Exuma Islands

1,373 1,681 23 31 207 5,957 518 388 290

1980

33,102 7,271 1,411 509 135,437 8,307 10,631 2,215 3,670

San Salvador R u m Cay Long Island Ragged Island Crooked Island Long Cay Acklins Island Mayaguana Inagua Islands

Sq. km 163 1 78 / 448 23 238 23 389 110 1,671

1980 ÖZ3

3,404 164 518 33 618 464 924

The capital is Nassau on New Providence Island (135,437 inhabitants in 1980). About 15% of the population are of British extraction, the rest being of African and mixed descent. Vital statistics, 1984: Births, 5,177; deaths, 1,150 (excluding still-births); marriages, 1,720. C L I M A T E . Winters are mild and summers pleasantly warm. Most rain falls in May, June, Sept. and Oct., and thunderstorms are frequent in summer. Rainfall amounts vary over the islands from 30" (750 mm) to 60" (1,500 mm). Nassau. Jan. 71° F (21 • 7°C), July 81"F (27 • 2°C). Annual rainfall 47" (1,179 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is a free and democratic sovereign state. Executive power rests with Her Majesty the Queen, who appoints a Governor-General to represent her, advised by a Cabinet whom he appoints. There is a bicameral legislature. The Senate comprises 16 members all appointed by the Governor-General, 9 on the advice of the Prime Minister, 4 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition, and 3 after consultation with both of them. The House of Assembly consists of 43 members elected from single-member constituencies for a maximum term of 5 years. At the general election of 11 June 1982, the Progressive Liberal Party obtained 32 seats, the Free National Movement 11 seats. Independence from Britain took place on lOJuly 1973. Governor-General: Sir Gerald Cash, GCMG, KCVO, OBE. The Cabinet in Jan. 1986 was composed as follows: Prime Minister, Finance: Rt. Hon. Sir Lynden O. Pindling, K.CMG. Foreign Affairs and Tourism and Minister with responsibility for Public Personnel and Training: Clement T. Maynard. Labour, Youth, Sports and Community Affairs: Livingstone N. Coakley. National Security: A. Loftus Roker. Works and 174

BAHAMAS

175

Utilities, Housing and National Insurance: Darrell E. Rolle. Attorney-General and Education: Senator Paul L. Adderley. Economic Affairs: Alfred T. Maycock. Transport and Local Government: Philip M. Bethel. Health: Norman R. Gay. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of aquamarine, gold, aquamarine, with a black triangle on the hoist. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is a member of UN, OAS, the Commonwealth, CARICOM and an ACP state of the E E C . ECONOMY Budget (in B$):

Revenue Expenditure

1984

350,875,000 383,092,000

1985

423,000,000 486,858,000

1986

458,242,095 529,368,000

The main sources of revenue were customs duties and receipts from fees, post office and public utilities. Currency. A decimal system of currency was introduced in 1966. Bahamian $1.54=£1 sterling (March 1987). Notes: $0.50,1, 3, 5,10,20, 50, 100; coins: 1, 5, 10,15,25, 50 cents, $1,2, 5. Sterling currency has been withdrawn. American currency is generally accepted. Bank of England and Canadian notes are not accepted, except at the banks from travellers from the UK. Banking. The Central Bank of the Bahamas was established in June 1974 with assets (Dec. 1985) of B$224 19m. and capital and reserves of B$48-57m. On 30 Sept. 1985 there were 375 institutions licensed to carry on banking and/or trust business under the Banks and Trust Companies Regulations Act. There were 19 designated institutions by the Exchange Control Department as authorized dealers and agents. Among these were the Royal Bank of Canada, the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Montreal, Chase Manhattan Bank, Barclays Bank, the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce and Citibank. While the majority of banks are located in Nassau, there are branches on several of the other islands. The Bahamas Development Bank was established in 1974 and began operations in Jan. 1978; at Dec. 1985 it had total assets of B$ 12 07m. and paid-up capital of B$6m. The post office savings bank, 31 Dec. 1983, had deposits ofB$2-6m. Weights and Measures. The UK (Imperial) system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Total units generated in New Providence/Paradise Island and Family Islands (198 5), 789 • 3m. mwh. Supply 115 volts; 60 Hz. Agriculture. In 1985 crop diversification continued to be a major area of emphasis. Orchards established in the early 1980's were in full production, with an estimated 2,500 acres of fruit crops, mainly citrus, for export. 12,528 tons of fruit and vegetables were exported in 1985. Pigeon peas, Irish potatoes and peanuts were the main field crops on which increased emphasis was placed and cassava and sweet potatoes the most important root crops. Poultry production in 1985 was estimated at 15 • 2m. lb of broilers valued at B$ 15 • 5m. An estimated 4 -2m. dozen eggs valued at B$4-3m. were produced in 1985. Production of sheep, goats and pigs declined in 1985: 133 sheep, 122 goats and 3,871 pigs were slaughtered. Bieef production increased, with 19 beef cattle slaughtered. Total agricultural production including fisheries was valued at B$34m. in 1985. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Sugar-cane, 230; vegetables, 28; fruit, 13. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 4,000; sheep, 39,000; goats, 18,000; pigs, 19,000; poultry, lm. Forestry. Production of cascarilla bark and pulp-wood in 1976 was B$1 -8m., all of which was exported.

176

BAHAMAS

Fisheries. Crawfish exports were valued at B$ 12m. in 1982. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. Tourism is the major industry. Several light industries have been established on Grand Bahama and New Providence in response to special encouragement legislation; these include garment manufacturing, ice, furniture, purified water, plastic containers, perfumes, industrial gases, jewellery and others. Larger industrial activities in the Bahamas include manufacture of alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, aragonite mining and solar salt production. Two industrial sites, one in New Providence and the other in Grand Bahama, have been developed as part of the industrialization programme. Commerce. The principal exports in 1980 were hormones, rum, salt, crawfish, cement, aragonite and plywood. The principal imports in 1977 were: Food, drink and tobacco, raw materials and articles mainly unmanufactured, articles wholly or mainly manufactured, animals not for food. Imports and exports (excluding bullion and specie) for 6 calendar years in B$: 1977 1978 1979

Imports

2,787,943 2,482,235 3,985,034

Exports

2,597,352 2,117,938 3,495,043

1980 1981 1982

Imports

5,506,577 4,203,000 3,051,000

Exports

4,836,366 3,515,000 2,444,000

Total trade between Bahamas and U K , in £1,000 sterling (British Department of Trade returns): 1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

ImportstoUK 18,273 24,013 38,478 70,763 10,266 Exports and re-exports from UK 26,364 17,815 220,356 94,059 95,816 Tourism. Tourism is the most important industry in the Bahamas. In 1985 there were 2,631,240 foreign arrivals in the Bahamas spending B$865m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 240 miles of paved roads in New Providence, and approximately 885 miles in Grand Bahama and the Family Islands. In 1985, 85,105 motor vehicles were registered. There are no railroads. Aviation. Nassau international airport is located on the island of New Providence, about 10 miles from the city of Nassau. There is another international airport at Freeport. Scheduled flights—Air Canada: 3 times weekly from Toronto and once weekly from Montreal to Nassau; twice weekly from Toronto to Freeport and once weekly from Montreal to Freeport. Delta: twice daily from New York to Nassau; once daily from Boston and Newark. Eastern Airlines: 3 flights daily from New York, 3 times daily from Miami, once daily from Fort Lauderdale, twice weekly from Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia, once daily from Boston and Newark, once daily from New York via Miami and Fort Lauderdale to Nassau; 3 times daily from Miami, once daily from Baltimore and Philadelphia to Freeport: Lufthansa: 3 times weekly from Frankfurt and Mexico and once weekly from Merida to Nassau. Air Jamaica: once daily from Chicago, Kingston and Montego Bay to Nassau. American Airlines: once daily from New York to Nassau and 4 times weekly from New York to Freeport. British Airways: 4 times weekly from London and Bermuda, twice weekly from Kingston and Panama and once weekly from Mexico City, all to Nassau; once weekly from London, Bermuda, Kingston and Panama to Freeport. There are numerous domestic schedules to the Family Islands and Florida. There are 53 airstrips on the various Family Islands and numerous water alighting areas. During 1977, 494,263 passengers landed at Nassau and 38,840 aircraft arrivals. At Freeport in 1977, 407,772 passengers landed from 41,799 aircraft arrivals. Shipping. In 1980, 678 cruise liners cleared Nassau carrying 499,527 passengers; 653 cargo vessels discharged 268,477 tons of cargo at Nassau. There are indirect

BAHAMAS

177

cargo services with UK and Canada via the USA and passenger services with the USA only. Telecommunications. New Providence and most of the other major islands have modern automatic telephone systems in operation, interconnected by an extensive multi-channel radio network, while local distribution within the islands is by overhead and underground cables. The total number of telephones in use at 31 Dec. 1986 was approximately 105,000. International telecommunications service is provided by a submarine cable system to Florida, USA, and international operator assisted and direct dialling telephone services are available to all major countries. There is an automatic Telex system and a packet switching system for data transmission, and land mobile and marine telephone services. The Bahamas Broadcasting Corporation operates radio broadcasting stations on AM and FM in New Providence and Grand Bahama and a TV station in New Providence. Cinemas (1986). There are 4 cinemas. Newspapers (1986). There are 2 daily and 1 weekly newspapers in Nassau. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice (1977). 9,655 cases (traffic, 3,550; criminal, 3,218; civil, 1,880; domestic, 1,007) were dealt with in the magistrates' court, and civil, 816; divorce, 256 in the Supreme Court. The strength of the police force (1973) was 932 officers and other ranks. Education. Education is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Culture. In 198 5-86 there were 226 schools, and of these, 188 are fully maintained by Government and 38 are independent schools. Total school enrolment, 60,744. There are 38 government-owned schools in New Providence and 150 on the Family Islands. 25 independent schools are located on New Providence and 13 on the Family Islands. 292 students attended 5 special schools, 3 on New Providence and 2 on Grand Bahama; total staff, 49. Free education is available in ministry schools in New Providence and the Family Islands. Courses lead to the Bahamas Junior Certificate and the General Certificate of Education (GCE). Independent schools provide education at primary, secondary and higher levels. The College of the Bahamas, officially opened in 1975, is the only publiclyfunded tertiary level institution. It offers a wide range of programmes leading to the associate degree, advanced level GCE (London), college diplomas and certificates. Degree programmes in education are offered in conjunction with the University of the West Indies and the University of Miami. The Hotel Training College offers a wide range of subjects up to middle management level in aspects of hotel work. Enrolment in this institution includes Bahamian as well as regional and international students. Several schools of continuing education offer secretarial and academic courses. The Governmentoperated Princess Margaret Hospital offers a nursing course at two levels. Health. In 1984 there was a government general hospital (454 beds) and a psychiatric/geriatric rehabilitation centre (417 beds) in Nassau, and a hospital in Freeport (74 beds). The Family Islands, comprising 19 health districts, had 12 health centres, 35 main clinics and 50 satellite clinics. There was 1 private hospital (24 beds) in Nassau. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Bahamas in Great Britain (10 Chesterfield St., W1X 8 AH) High Commissioner: Richard C. Demeritte (accredited 24 Oct. 1984). Of Great Britain in the Bahamas (Bitco Bldg., East St., Nassau) High Commissioner: Colin Mays. Of the Bahamas in the USA (600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Margaret MacDonald.

178

BAHAMAS

O f the U S A in the Bahamas (Queen St., Nassau) Ambassador• Carol Boyd Hallett. O f the Bahamas to the U n i t e d Nations Ambassador D r Davidson L. Hepburn. B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Bahamas Handbook and Businessman's Annual (Annual) Albury, P., The Story.of the Bahamas. London, 1975.—Paradise Island Story London, 1984 Barrett, P J H., Grand Bahama. London, 1982 Craton, M. A., A History of the Bahamas. London, 1962 Hughes, C A., Race and Politics in the Bahamas. Univ of Queensland Press, 1981 Hunte, G., The Bahamas. London, 1975 Stevenson, C St. J , The Bahamas Reference Annual. Annual Library Nassau Public Library

BAHRAIN

Capital: Manama Population: 435,065 (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 10,360 ( 1983)

Dawlat al Bahrayn HISTORY. Treaties with Britain of 1882 and 1892 were replaced by a treaty of friendship which was signed on 15 Aug. 1971. Under the earlier treaties Britain had been responsible for Bahrain's defence and foreign relations. On the same day the State of Bahrain declared its independence. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The State of Bahrain forms an archipelago of about 33 small islands in the Arabian Gulf, between the Qatar peninsula and the mainland of Saudi Arabia. The total area is about 225 sq. miles (676 sq. km). Bahrain ('Two Seas'), is 30 miles long and 10 miles wide (578 sq. Ion). It is connected by a causeway nearly 1 - 5 miles long, canying a motor road, with the second largest island, Muharraq, 4 miles long and 1 mile wide, to the north-east, and by a causeway with Sitra, an island 3 miles long and 1 mile wide, to the east. In Nov. 1986 a causeway linking Bahrain with Saudi Arabia was officially opened. Other islands are Umm Al-Nassan, 3 miles by 2 miles, and Jidda, 1 mile by 0-5 mile, bot,h to the west; Nabih Saleh, to the east; the Hawar group of 16 small islands ofTQatar, to the south-east, and several islets, some uninhabited. From Sitra oil pipelines and a causeway carrying a road extend out to sea for 3 miles to a deep-water anchorage. The islands are low-lying, the highest ground being a hill in the centre of Bahrain, 450 ft. (122-4 metres) high. The population in 1981 (census) was 350,798. Estimate (1986) 435,065. The majority of the people are Moslem arabs. Arabic is the official language. English is widely used in business. Manama, the capital of the state and the commercial centre, is situated at the northern end of the largest island and extends for 1 - 5 miles along the shore. It has a population of 108,684 (1981 census). Other towns are Muharraq (46,061, 1981 census), Jidhafs (7,232), Rifa'a (22,408), Isa Town (21,275) and Hidd(7,l 11). C L I M A T E . The climate is pleasantly warm between Dec. and March but from June to Sept. the conditions are very hot and humid. The period June to Nov. is virtually rainless. Bahrain. Jan. 66°F(19°C), July 97°F(36"Q. Annual rainfall 5 -2" (130 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A Constitution was ratified in June 1973 providing for a National Assembly of 30 members, popularly elected for a 4-year term, together with all members of the Cabinet (appointed by the Amir). Elections took place in Dec. 1973, but in Aug. 1975 the Amir dissolved the Assembly and has since ruled through the Cabinet alone. Reigning Amir: The ruling family is the A1 Khalifa, an Arab dynasty, who have been in power since 1782. The present Amir, HH Shaikh Isa bin Sulman AlKhalifa (bom 1933) succeeded on 2 Nov. 1961. Crown Prince and Minister of Defence: Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al-Khalifa. In Dec. 1985 the cabinet was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Shaikh Khalifa bin Sulman Al-Khalifa. Defence: Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al-Khalifa. Transport: Ibrahim Mohammed Hassan Homaidan. Housing: Shaikh Khalid bin Abdulla Al-Khalifa. Information: Tariq Abdulrahman Almoayed. Education: Dr Ali Fakhro. Health: Jawad Salim Al-Arrayed. Justice and Islamic Affairs: Shaikh Abdullah bin Khalid Al-Khalifa. Labour and Social Affairs: Shaikh Khalifa bin Sulman bin Mohammed AlKhalifa. Works, Power and Water: Majid Jawad A1 Jishi. Interior: Shaikh Mohammed bin Khalifa Al-Khalifa. Foreign Affairs: Shaikh Mohammed bin Mubarak Al-Khalifa. Finance and National Economy: Ibrahim Abdul-Karim. 179

180

BAHRAIN

Development and Industry: Yousuf Ahmed Al-Shirawi. Commerce and Agriculture: Habib Ahmed Kassim. Acting Minister of State for Cabinet Affairs: Yousuf Ahmed Al-Shirawi. Minister ofStatefor Legal Affairs: Dr Hussain A1 Bahama. Flag: Red, with white serrated vertical strip on hoist. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 infantry battalion, 1 armoured car squadron, 1 artillery and 2 mortar batteries with a personnel strength of 2,300 (1987). Equipment included 8 Saladin armoured cars and 8 Ferret scout cars. Navy. The Naval force consists of 4 fast missile craft and 2 fast gunboats; personnel (1987) 300. There is also a Coast Guard with 22 coastal patrol craft and 6 other vessels. Coast Guard personnel number 250. Air Force. An independent Air Force was created in 1985 as the successor to the Air Wing of the Army (Bahrain Defence Force). At the end of that year, the first combat aircraft were received, being the first four of an order for 10 F-SE and 4 F-5F Tiger lis now in service. Three MBB BO 105 helicopters are also in use. Police and security forces both also operate helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Bahrain is a member of UN, the Arab League, the Gulf Co-operation Council and OAPEC. ECONOMY Budget. The revenue of the State is derived from oil royalties and from customs duties, which are 10% ad valorem for luxury goods and 5% for essential goods. The exceptions are motor vehicles (20%); tobacco (30%); alcoholic beverages (100%); fresh fruit and vegetables (7%). Total revenues in 1985, BD 533-2m. and expenditure BD 508-5m. On 2 Jan. 1958 Manama was declared a free transit port and the former 2% transit duty was abolished, but storage charges are levied. Currency. The Bahrain dinar is divided into 1,000fils. The Bahrain currency board issues notes of500fils, 20,10, 5 and 1 dinars, and coins of 100, 50,25, 10, 5 and 1 fils. £l=BD0-579 in March 1987; US$1 =BD0-377. Banking. The Bahrain Monetary Agency has central banking powers. Since Nov. 1984 it has been responsible for licensing and monitoring the activities of money changers. There were (1985) 20 full commercial banks (including Bahrain Islamic Bank), 6 of which are locally incorporated and the rest branches of foreign banks. Total assets at 31 Dec. 1985, BD 1,971-8m. Two types of offshore banking units were operating in 1985: Locally incorporated banks (including 4 Islamic) with headquarters in Bahrain, and branches of foreign banks. Total assets at 31 Dec. 1985 US$56,805m. There are 15 investment banks (3 Islamic), with assets of US$1,750m. in Dec. 1985. The state-owned Housing Bank provides financing for construction, development of real estate and reclamation of land. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is officially in use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production(1985)6,166m. kwh. Oil. In 1931 oil was discovered. Operations were conducted by the Bahrain Petroleum Co., registered in Canada but owned by US interests, under a concession granted by the Shaikh. Production of crude oil in 1986 was 12m. tonnes. A large oil refinery on Bahrain Island, besides treating crude oil produced locally, also processes oil from Saudi Arabia transported by pipeline. In 1975 the Bahrain Government assumed a direct 60% interest in the Bahrain

BAHRAIN

181

oilfield and related crude oil facilities of BAPCO. Bahrain's gas reserves are 100% government-owned. Bahrain's oil reserves will be exhausted by the end of the century. Gas. There is an abundant supply of natural gas with known reserves of 9,000,000m. cu. ft. Production, 1985,223,600m. cu. ft. Water. Water is obtained from artesian wells and desalination plants and there is a piped supply to Manama, Muharraq, Isa town, Rifa'a and most villages. Agriculture. The 6-year agricultural plan, commissioned in 1982, aims to increase food production from 6-16% of total domestic requirements and to improve conservation of natural water and irrigation techniques. There are about 900 farms and small holdings (average 2 • 5 hectares) operated by about 2,500 farmers who produce a wide variety of fruits (44,000 tonnes in 1985) and vegetables (29,000 tonnes in 1985). The major crop is alfalfa for animal fodder. Ninety tonnes of dates a year are processed and a new processing plant will produce a further 300 tonnes in 1985. Over 30 poultry farms produced about 3,000 tonnes of domestic poultry in 1985. 75% of egg requirements are met by domestic production of 61 -2m. eggs a year, and 40% of broiler needs. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 6,000; camels, 1,000; sheep, 7,000; goats, 15,000; poultry lm. Fisheries. In 1982 the government launched a 4-year plan with a budget of approximately BD9m. to revitalize the fishing industry. In 1983 total landings weighed 4,812 tonnes with a value of BD4 -3m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Bahrain is being developed as a major manufacturing state, the first important enterprise being the Aluminium Bahrain (ALBA), a company whose original shareholders included the Bahrain Government and British, Swedish, Federal German and US interests. In 1975, the government acquired a majority shareholding in the enterprise. The aluminium smelter operation is the latest non-oil industry in the Gulf. Ancillary industries developed around aluminium smelting include the production of aluminium powder. Other projects at present under consideration include the further development of marine industries. The Arab Shipbuilding and Repair Yard (ASRY), commissioned in 1977, is now in service. Tne dry dock can handle up to 50 tankers (500,000 DWT each) annually. A US$207m. iron ore pelletizing plant was inaugurated in Dec. 1984 and a US$400m. petrochemical complex will go on-stream in 1985. In addition to the traditional minor industries such as boat-building, weaving, pottery, etc., other modern industries have developed, which include the manufacture of building materials, furniture, soft drinks, drinking straws, paper bags, woollen garments, plastic and other consumer goods. The pearling industry for which Bahrain used to be famous has considerably declined. Only about 10 boats visit the pearl banks each year, as compared with the 600-1,000 that were employed 30 years ago. Employment. Total work force (estimate 1982) 141,110, of which 42% Bahraini. Commerce. In 1985 total imports were BDl,178-9m. and total exports were BD 1,056-6m. Refined petroleum accounted for almost 86% of exports; crude oil accounted for 47% of merchandise imports. Themaji '' ' nachinery and transport, BD246-2m.; classified Alumina, BD133-2m.; chemicals, BD60-4m., , m., and miscellaneous manufactured articles, BD79 -6 m. The chief sources of supply (in BD1 m.) were USA (119 -6); UK (105); Japan (98 • 6); Federal Republic of Germany (42 • 1), and Australia (36-5). The chief non-oil exports in 1985 were classified manufactured goods, including aluminium, BD96 -6m., and machinery and transport, BD30m. The main markets (in BD1 m.) were Saudi Arabia (26); Japan (16); UAE (15-5); China (8 • 3), and India (7-3).

182

BAHRAIN

Import of arms and ammunition and telecommunication equipment is subject to special permission; the sale of alcoholic liquor is restricted and the import of cultured pearls is forbidden. Total trade between Bahrain and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 35,459 152,272

1983 37,488 150,264

1984 28,240 138,614

1985 45,219 161,560

1986 19,732 130,991

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The 25 km causeway links Bahrain with Saudi Arabia. In 1984 there were 97,935 registered vehicles. Aviation. The airport, situated at Muharraq, can take the largest aircraft and is considered one of the most modem and efficient in the Middle East, used by 2,746,037 passengers in 1983. British Airways, Gulf Air, Middle East Airlines, Pakistan International Airways, Qantas, Kuwait Airways, Air India International, Singapore Airlines, UTA, Saudi Arabian Airlines, KLM, Air Lanka, Cathay Pacific Airways, Iraqi Airways, Korean Airways, Philippine Airlines, Thai Airways International, Trans-Mediterranean Airways, Egyptair, Alia, Cyprus Airways, Ethiopia Airlines and Sudan Airways also operate to and from Bahrain. Bahrain International Airport is the Arabian Gulfs main air communication centre. Shipping. Bahrain's traditional position as the entrepot of the Southern Gulf has been supplemented by the development of Mina Sulman—the new modern harbour—as a free transit and industrial area. Local and international companies have developed industries in this area, which is also used as a storage centre for firms selling elsewhere in the Gulf. The facilities offered by Mina Sulman include engineering and ship repairing yards; the Basrec slipway is probably the largest between Rotterdam and Hong Kong. Post and Broadcasting. There were, at Dec. 1985, 86,000 telephones. There is a state-operated radio and television station and in 1983 there were 150,500 radio and 120,000 television receivers. There were 3 public service satellite stations in 1984. Cinemas. There were 6 cinemas in 1984. Newspapers. In 1984 there were several Arabic and 2 English language newspapers (one weekly and one daily) published in Manama. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Criminal law is codified, based on English jurisprudence. Religion. Islam is the State religion. In 1981 85% of the population were Moslem and 7 -3% Christian. There are also Jews, Bahai, Hindu and Parsee minorities. Education. There were, in 1984,126 schools for boys and girls with 4,409 teachers and 75,434 pupils. Five boys' general and commercial schools had 2,177 pupils; 3 boys' industrial schools at secondary level, had 1,306 pupils. In addition there were 7 private schools. The Men's Teacher Training College (established 1966) and the Women's Teacher Training College (established 1967) give 2-year courses. In 1982-83, 2,282 Bahrainis were in higher education abroad. The Gulf Technical College opened in Bahrain in Sept. 1968 and Bahrain University in 1978. In 1981-82,35 adult literacy centres were opened throughout Bahrain. Health. There is a free medical service for all residents of Bahrain. In 1984, there were 49 government hospitals and health centres and 18 centres for child welfare, an American mission hospital, an oil company hospital, a military hospital and an international hospital. Social Security. In Oct. 1976, pensions, sickness and industrial injury benefits, unemployment, maternity and family allowances were established.

BAHRAIN

183

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Bahrain in Great Britain (98 Gloucester Rd., London, SW7 4 AU) Ambassador: Sulman Abdul Wahab Al Sabbagh (accredited 19 Dec. 1984). Of Great Britain in Bahrain (21 Government Ave., P.O. Box 114, Manama) Ambassador: F. S. E. Trew, CMG. Of Bahrain in the USA (3502 International Dr., NW, Washington D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ghazi Mohammed Al-Gosaibi. Of the USA in Bahrain (Shaikh Isa Road, P.O. Box 26431, Manama) Ambassador: Donald C. Leidel. Of Bahrain to the United Nations Ambassador: Hussain Rashid Al-Sabbagh. Books of Reference Bahrain Business Directory. Manama (annual) Statistical and General Information: Ministry of Information, PO Box 253, Manama Statistical Abstract. Central Statistics Organisation (annual) Beigrave, J. H. D., Welcome to Bahrain. 9th ed. Manama, 1975 Rumaihi, M. G., Bahrain: Social and Political Change since the First World War. New York and London, 1976 Unwin, P. T. H., Bahrain. [Bibliography], London and Santa Barbara, 1984

BANGLADESH

Capital: Dhaka Population: 101 -7m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 162 (1985)

People's Republic of Bangladesh H I S T O R Y . The state was formerly the Eastern Province of Pakistan. In Dec. 1970 Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Awami League Party gained 167 seats out of 300 at the Pakistan general election and immediately made known their wish for greater independence for the then Eastern Province. Martial law was imposed following disturbances in Dhaka, and civil war developed in March 1971. The war ended in Dec. 1971 and Bangladesh was proclaimed an independent state. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Bangladesh is bounded west and north-west by West Bengal (India), north by Assam and Meghalaya (India), east by Assam, Tripura (India) and Burma, south by the Bay of Bengal. The area is 55,598 sq. miles (143,999 sq. km). Bangladesh's population (1981 census), 87,120,000. An adjustment for underenumeration produced a revised census figure of 89,912,000, of whom 14 09m. were urban and 46-3m. were male. Population estimate, 1986, 101,720,000. In 1984 the birth-rate was 33-6 per 1,000 population; death-rate, 11 -88; infant mortality 121 per 1,000 live births. Life expectancy (1983) 53 -9 years (60-3 in urban areas). The capital is Dhaka (population, 1981, 3,440,147) and its ports are Chittagong (1,391,877) and Khulna (646,359). Other large cities are Rajshahi (253,740) and Barisal (142,098). There are 21 regions divided into 64 districts: Dinajpur Rangpur Bogra Rajshahi Pabna

Area Population 1981 (sq. km) (3 districts) 6,566 3,198,000 9,593 6,510,000 (5) 3,888 2,728,000 (2) 9,456 5,270,000 (4) 4,732 3,424,000 (2)

Rajshahi division Tangail Mymensingh Jamalpur Dhaka Faridpur

(1) (3) (2) (6) (5)

Dhaka division

34,238

21,132,000

3,403 2,444,000 9,668 6,568,000 3,349 2,452,000 7,470 10,014,000 6,882 4,764,000 30,772

26,242,000

Kushtia Jessore Khulna Barisal Patuakhali

(3) (4) (3) (4) (2)

Khulna division

Area Population 1981 (sq. km) 3,440 2,292,000 6,573 4,020,000 12,168 4,329,000 7,299 4,667,000 4,095 1,843,000 33,575

17,151,000

(4) 12,718 Sylhet Comilla (3) 6,599 Noakhali (3) 5,460 Chittagong (2) 7,457 Chittagong Hill Tracts (2) 8,679 Bandarban (1) 4,501

5,656,000 6,881,000 3,816,000 5,491,000 580,000 171,000

Chittagong division

45,414

22,595,000

The official language is Bangla. C L I M A T E . A tropical monsoon climate with heat, extreme humidity and heavy rainfall in the monsoon season, from June to Sept. The short winter season is mild and dry. Rainfall varies between 50" (1,250 mm) in the west to 100" (2,500 mm) in the south-east and up to 200" (5,(XX) mm) in the north-east. Dhaka. Jan. 66° F (19°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 81" (2,025 mm). Chittagong. Jan. 66°F (19°C),July81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 108" (2,831 mm). G O V E R N M E N T A N D C O N S T I T U T I O N . Bangladesh is a republic. The Constitution came into force on 16 Dec. 1972 and provided for a parliamentary democracy. For developments between Jan. 1975 and March 1982, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1986-87, pp. 186-187. 184

BANGLADESH

185

On 23 March 1982 there was a bloodless military coup, by which Lieut.-Gen. Hossain Mohammad Ershad became chief martial law administrator. President Sattar was deposed. The Constitution was suspended and parliament ceased to function. Assanuddin Chowdhury was sworn in as civilian president on 27 March. Lieut-Gen. Ershad assumed the presidency on 11 Dec. 1983. He was re-elected on 15 Oct. 1986. Martial law ended on 10 Nov. 1986. The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act restored the constitution but protected the legality of President Ershad's decrees under martial law. Parliament has one chamber of 300 members directly elected every 5 years by citizens over 18. There are 30 seats reserved for women members elected by Parliament. In Jan. 1986 a National Executive Committee was formed and the National Party launched. The Party was composed of government supporters and was formed to fight a general election. The Party won 210 seats, the Awami League, 76; the first session of the new parliament was held in June 1986, but Awami members did not attend. President: Lieut.-Gen. Hossain Mohammad Ershad. The Council of Ministers was as follows in Jan. 1987: Prime Minister, Posts and Telecommunications: Mizanur Rahman Choudhury. Vice-President, Law and Justice: A. K. M. Nurul Islam. Deputy Prime Minister, Interior: M. A. Matin. Deputy Prime Minister, Industry: M. Ahmed. Deputy Prime Minister, Ports Shipping and River Transport: K. Z. Ahmed. Relief and Rehabilitation: Maj.-Gen. (retd.) M. Shamsul Huq. Commerce: Maj.-Gen. (retd.) M. A. Munem. Co-operatives: S. M. Hossain. Irrigation, Water Development and Flood Control: A. I. Mahmud. Fisheries and Livestock: S. H. Khan. Social Welfare and Women's Affairs: Begum R. Bhuiyan. Energy and Mineral Resources: A. Hossain. Foreign Affairs: H. R. Chowdhury. Health and Family Planning: Salauddin K. Chowdhury. Land Reform and Administration: A. K. M. Mayeedul Islam. Agriculture: M. R. Amin. Religious Affairs: Moulana M. A. Mannan. Works: S. Ghani. Textiles: S. K. Gupta. Information: A. Zahid. Finance: M. Sayeeduzzaman. Planning: Air Vice Marshal (retd.) A. K. Khondoker. Education: M. Rahman. Jute: Z. Imam. Communications: M. Motiur Rahman. Labour and Manpower: Abdur Rashid. Without Portfolio: Maj.-Gen. (retd.) M. Hasan. Nationalflag: Bottle green with a red disc in the centre. National anthem: Amar Sonar Bangla, ami tomay bhalobashi (My golden Bengal, I love you). Words by Rabindranath Tagore. DEFENCE Army. There are 5 infantry divisional headquarters, with 13 infantry brigades, and 2 armoured and 6 artillery regiments, and 6 engineer battalions. Strength (1987) 81,800, with an additional 85,000 paramilitary volunteers, including an armed police reserve and the Bangladesh Rifles. Equipment includes 30 Soviet T-54 and 20 Chinese Type-59 tanks. Navy. Naval bases are at Chittagong (handed over by India on 14 Feb. 1972), Kaptai, Khulna and Dacca. The fleet comprises 3 former British frigates (Ali Hyder, ex-HMS Jaguar, and Abu Bakr, ex-HMS Lynx, each 2,520 tons full load, transferred in July 1978 and March 1982, respectively, and Umar Farooq, ex-HMS Llandaff 2,408 tons full load, transferred in Dec 1976); 8 new Chinese-built 390-ton fast attack craft, 4 Chinese-built fast missile craft, 4 Chinese-built fast torpedo boats, 2 ex-Yugoslav 200-ton patrol vessels, 8 ex-Chinese 155-ton fast gunboats, 2 ex-Indian 150-ton patrol craft, 1 British-built 140-ton patrol craft, 4 gunboats, 5 indigenously built 70-ton river gunboats, 1 support ship, 1 repair vessel, 12 auxiliaries and 1 training ship of 710 tons.

186

BANGLADESH

The manpower of the Navy in 1986 was 7,500, comprising 600 officers and 6,900 ratings. Air Force. Deliveries, from the Soviet Union and China successively, have built up a current strength of about 30 J-6 (MiG-19) fighter-bombers; 1 An-24 and 3 An-26 turboprop transports; about 20 Mi-8, Bell 212, Bell 206L and Alouette III helicopters; 12 Chinese CJ-6 piston-engined primary trainers, 5 FT-2 (MÍG-15UTI) jet advanced trainers, 12 Magister armed jet trainers and some light aircraft. Personnel strength, (1986) 3,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Bangladesh is a member of the Commonwealth, the Asian Development Bank, the Organisation for South Asian Regional Co-operation, the UN and all its related agencies, the Colombo Plan and the Islamic Conference. External Debt. Estimated debt, June 1985, US$6,000m. Most of this was in loans from the Western aid group through the World Bank. Treaties. Bangladesh signed an economic and technical co-operation agreement with China on 4 Jan. 1977. The amended constitution of 1977 states that Bangladesh seeks fraternal relations with Moslem countries based on Islamic solidarity. ECONOMY Planning. The second 5-year development plan, 1980-85, envisaged a total investment of Tk.255,950m. with the main objectives of obtaining an improved standard of living, increasing employment, the elimination of illiteracy and reducing population growth. Budget. Details were as follows for the financial year 1984-8 5 (Tk. 1 m.): Revenue receipts Customs duties Income and corporation tax Excise duties Sales tax Non-tax revenue

34,650 11,600 3,690 6,750 3,900 7,120

Expenditure Defence Education General administration Interest on domestic and foreign debt

26,433 3,573 3,381 5,131 3,185

Money supply (April 1986) stood at Tk.46,151 m. and foreign exchange reserves (June 1985) at US$298-8m. Currency. A new currency, the Taka, was floated in 1976 (Tk.48-86 = £1 and Tk.30-80=US$1 in March 1987). Banking. The former private banking system, except for foreign banks, has been nationalized. In April 1986 the Bangladesh Bank had Tk.21,137m. notes in circulation; Tk.5,531m. deposits; Tk.l9,557m. foreign liabilities, Tk.44,616m. assets. The scheduled banks had Tk.94,082m. deposits, Tk.l3,805m. assets and Tk.21,536m. borrowings from the Bangladesh Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system was introduced from July 1982, but imperial measures are still in use. Weight is in the seer (I seer=2 lb.); the maund( 1 maund=40

seers) a n d t h e t o n .

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electric power is generated and distributed by the Bangladesh Power Development Board and the Rural Electrification Board. Installed capacity, Feb. 1986, 1,129 mw.; electricity generated, at Feb. 1986, 359-21m. kwh.; consumption, 248 • 8 3m. kwh. Water. India and Bangladesh are working towards agreement on sharing the water of the river Ganges. The flow will be monitored daily at the Farakka barrage and two other points.

BANGLADESH

187

Oil. Supplies have been located in the Bay of Bengal. Drilling is in progress. Gas. Natural gas from Titas and other sites is piped to Dhaka; reserves are considered sufficient for 200 years. Production, 1985-86,104,974m. cu. ft. Consumption, 1985-86,99,657m. cu. ft. Minerals. Coal has been found at Jamalpur (about 700m. tons). Other minerals include salt, limestone, white clay, glass sand. The Rajshahi area has known reserves of deep-lying coal. Agriculture. Agriculture contributed 51-6% of GDP in 1985-86 and employs about 80% of the economically active population. The land area is 35 -7m. acres, of which 7m. is not available for cultivation, 5-2m. is forest, 11m. is (1985) fallow and 32-4m. is cropped (25m. under rice, 1 -7m. wheat and 1 -5m. jute). Cultivable waste is about 721,000 acres. About 5 1 m . acres (1985) is irrigated; 2-2m. by tubewells and another 1 -68m. by power pump. Rice is the most important food crop; production in 1985,21-9m. tonnes. Other crops (1,000 tonnes): Sugar-cane, .6,880; wheat, 1,464; tobacco, 47; tea, 43; potatoes, 1,170; bananas, 730; sweet potatoes, 715. Fertilizefs used (1985), 1 • 16m. tonnes, of which 802m. tonnes was urea. Livestock in 1984 (1,000): Poultry, 76,000; cattle, 36,300; goats, 12,050; sheep, 2,000; buffalo, 1,750. Livestock products in 1985 (tonnes): beef and veal, 129,000; cow and buffalo milk, 847,000; goats' milk, 544,000; eggs, 81,000. Bangladesh produces about 70% of the world production of raw jute which is the principal foreign exchange earner. Production, 1985,1,158,000 tonnes. Forestry. The total area under forests (1977) is 9,283 sq. miles, of which 5,105 sq. miles are Reserved Forests. The output of roundwood timber in 1980 (1,000 cu. metres): sawlogs, veneer logs and sleepers, 555; pulpwood, 63; fuel wood, 9,754. Fisheries. Being bounded on the south by the Bay of Bengal and having numerous rivers, streams, khals and bils, the state is pre-eminently a fish-producing area and possesses great possibilities for the manufacture of various oils and fish products. Fish production, 1980-81,640,000 tons, of which 517,000 was from inland water. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Out of the existing industries, the textile-mills, sugar factories, match factories, glass works, hosiery factories, a paper-mill, jute-mills, alurtiinium works and a cement factory, with a capacity of 2m. tons per annum, are the most prominent. New government policy in 1982 aimed to restore public-sector jute and textile mills to private ownership and encourage the private sector. Arms and ammunition, atomic energy, forestry, air transport, communications and electrical industries would remain in the public sector. Refinery distillation capacity, 1 -68m. tonnes. There is a steel mill at Chittagong with a capacity of250,000 ingot-tons per annum. There is also a newsprint factory, 4 fertilizer factories, a shipyard, a dockyard and a liquified natural gas plant. Large-scale industry employs about 7% of the active population and provided 4-4% (1985-86) of the GDP. Production, 1985-86: jute goods, 437,000 tonnes (value Tk.7,864m.); cotton yarn, 96 -3m. lb.; cotton cloth, 65-9m. yd.; cement, 288,000 tonnes; steel ingots, 99,853 tonnes; steel billets, 45,916 tonnes, newsprint, 47,863 tonnes; diesel engines valued at Tk.233-6m.; bicycles at Tk.l4-3m. and motor cycles at Tk.398 • 8m. Labour. In 1983-84, the total employed were 27,972,000; agriculture, forestry and fisheries, 16,389,000; trade, hotels and restaurants, 3,271,000; personal service, 3,250,000; manufacturing, 2,108,000. In 1984-85 an unskilled agricultural worker earned Tk. 17 • 64 per day, a skilled construction worker Tk.52 16. Commerce. The main export commodities are jute goods, hide, skins, leather and tea. Bangladesh has resumed trade with Pakistan. In 1984-85 exports were valued at Tk.26,225m., of which Tk.l 1,000m. was from jute products; Tk.3,899m. from raw jute and mesta; Tk. 1,900m. from leather hides and skins; Tk. 1,570m. from tea. Principal imports (Tk.63,000m.) are machinery and transport equipment

188

BANGLADESH

(Tk. 11,835m.); manufactured goods (Tk. 13,099m.); minerals, fuels and lubricants (Tk. 10,588m.). Sources of imports: 12-6% from Singapore (mainly petroleum); 12-1% from Japan (machinery and vehicles); 10-3% from USA (foodstuffs). Of exports, 18-9% went to USA (clothing, jute products); 7 • 1 % to Belgium; 6 • 8% to Japan. Total trade between Bangladesh and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 25,189 50,979

1984 46,506 51,591

1985 35,348 69,420

1986 34,117 48,218

Tourism. In 1985 there were 145,634 visitors to Bangladesh of whom 53,949 were from India. Foreign exchange earnings, US$20m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The State is backward in the matter of road communications, but there are some 2,700 miles of paved and 1,500 miles of unpaved road. Railways. In 1984 there were 2,892 km of railways, comprising 979 lyn of 1,676 mm gauge and 1,913 km of metre gauge. In 1984—85 the railways carried 3m. tons of freight and 90m. passengers. Passenger earnings, Tk.576m.; goods, Tk.854m. Aviation. Bangladesh Biman (Bangladesh Airways) has domestic flights from Dhaka and international services to Calcutta, Kathmandu, Bombay, Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Jeddah, Bangkok, Singapore, London, Doha, Kuwait, Amsterdam, Rome, Karachi, Kuala Lumpur, Dahrain, Tripoli, Athens and Muscat. Shipping. Navigable channels provide 5,000 miles of cheap water routes. There are 3 principal waterways, the Padma, Brahmaputra and Meghna. These are freely used by inland steam vessels, which serve areas where railways cannot be economically constructed. The Bangladesh Shipping Corporation owns 24 ships including a 93,000-ton oil tanker (Banglar Noor) and has the capacity to carry 20% of imports and 12% of exports. In 1984-85 the port of Chittagong handled 6-9m. tons of imports and 330,000 tons of exports; Chalna, 2m. tons of imports and 577,000 tons of exports. Vessels entered and cleared, Chittagong 1,088, Chalna 540. Post and Broadcasting. There were 122,190 telephones in 1982. Dhaka and Islamabad were linked by telephone in Oct. 1976 and a second telephone circuit was agreed on 11 April 1977. International communications are by satellite, Chittagong being linked to the Indian Ocean Intelsat IV satellite. Newspapers. In Nov. 1981 there were 53 daily newspapers, 200 weeklies, 34 fortnightlies, 194 monthlies and 43 quarterly periodicals. Most papers are published in Dhaka. The Government has set up a paper (Dainik Barta-at Rajshahi) to stimulate a regional press. Most papers are privately owned. There is a Press Institute. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The amended constitution in 1977 set up a Supreme Judicial Council to establish a code of conduct for Supreme Court and High Court judges, who may be removed from office by the President on the Council's recommendation. Religion. Islam is the official religion, about 80% of the people being Muslim and the rest Hindus, Buddhists and Christians. Education. At the 1981 census 19-7% of the population was literate (male 25-8%, female 13-2%). The compulsory primary education scheme has been replaced by model primary education. The Government has dissolved the District School Boards and taken over school administration. In 1984-85 there were 42,200 primary schools (8-5m. pupils), 9,360 secondary schools (2-5m.) and (1983-584) 657 intermediate and degree colleges. Of these, there were 123 government colleges, of which 113 gave degrees and 10 were intermediate; degree colleges had 126,060 students and 4,764 faculty; intermediate,

BANGLADESH

189

2,936 students and 194. There were 534 non-government colleges (256 degreegiving). They had 287,781 students and 9,033 teachers. There were 6 universities: in 1982-83 Dhaka had 12,394 students (and 893 faculty); Rajshahi 10,198 (463); Chittagong 5,420 (427); Jahangirnagar 1,284 (164); Engineering University 3,015 (300); Agricultural, 3,771 (379). There are 10 teacher-training colleges, 49 primary training institutes and 57 vocational institutes. Health. In 1984 there were 452 government hospitals, 1 mental and 12 tuberculosis and chest hospitals, 11 medical colleges and nursing training centres which tram about 1,200 nurses annually. There were 21,370 beds. Voluntary agencies ran 164 hospitals with 4,771 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Bangladesh in Great Britain (28 Queen's Gate, London, SW7) High Commissioner: Lieut.-Gen. Mir Shawkat Ali. Of Great Britain in Bangladesh (Abu Bakr Hse., Plot 7, Road 84, Gulshan, Dhaka, 12)

High Commissioner T. G. Streeton, CMG, MBE. Of Bangladesh in the USA (2201 Wisconsin Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: Obaidullah Khan. Of the USA in Bangladesh (Adamjee Court Bldg., Motijheel, Dhaka) Ambassador: Howard B. Schaffer. Of Bangladesh to the United Nations Ambassador Justice B. A. Siddiky. Books of Reference Bangladesh Planning Commission, The First Five Year Plan—The Second Five Year Plan. Ministry of Finance. Bangladesh Economic Survey 1979-80 Abdullah, T , and Zeidenstein, S., Village Women of Bangladesh. Prospects for Change Oxford, 1981 Baxter, C , Bangladesh. A New Nation man Old Setting. Boulder, 1986 Chen,L.C (ed.), Disaster in Bangladesh, Health Crisis in a Developing Nation. OUP, 1973 Chowdhury, R., The Genesis of Bangladesh London, 1972 Dutt, K., Bangladesh Economy An Analytical Study New Delhi, 1973 Franda, M., Bangladesh. The First Decade New Delhi, 1982 Hartmann, B., and Boyce, J., A Quiet Violence View from a Bangladesh Village London, 1983 Kamal, K. A., Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 2nd ed. Dhaka, 1970 Kashyap, S. C. (ed.), Bangla Desh. Background and Perspectives New Delhi, 1971 Khan, A. R., The Economy of Bangladesh. London, 1972 de Lucia, R. J., and Jacoby, H. D , Energy Planning for Developing Countries A Study oj Bangladesh. John Hopkins Univ Press; 1982 Mascarenhas, A., The Rape of Bangladesh. London, 1971 de Vylder, S., Agriculture in Chains. Bangladesh A Case Study in Contradictions and Constraints London, 1982 O'Donnell, C. P , Bangladesh. Biography of a Muslim Nation. Boulder, 1986 Rahman, M„ Bangladesh Today An Indictment and a Lament London, 1978 Robinson, E. A. G , and Griffin, K. (ed.), The Economic Development of Bangladesh London, 1974

BARBADOS

Capital: Bridgetown Population. 253,055 (1985) GNP per capita. US$4,560 (1984)

HISTORY. Barbados was occupied by the British in 1627 and during its colonial history never changed hands. Full internal self-government was attained in 1961. Barbados became an independent sovereign state within the Commonwealth on 30 Nov. 1966. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Barbados lies to the east of the Windward Islands. Area 166 sq. miles (430 sq. km). In 1980 the census population was 248,983. Estimate (1985) 253,055. Bridgetown is the principal city: population, 7,466. C L I M A T E . An equable climate in winter, but the wet season, from June to Nov., is more humid. Rainfall vanes from 50" (1,250 mm) on the coast to 75" (1,875 mm) in the higher interior. Bridgetown. Jan. 76"F (24 4°C), July 80°F (26 7°C). Annual rainfall 51" (1,275 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Legislature consists of the Governor-General, a Senate and a House of Assembly. The Senate comprises 21 members appointed by the Governor-General, 12 being appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, 2 on the advice of the leader of the opposition and 7 in the Governor-General's discretion. The House of Assembly comprises 27 members elected every 5 years. In 1963 the voting age was reduced to 18. The Privy Council is appointed by the Governor-General after consultation with the Prime Minister. It consists of 12 members and the Governor-General as chairman. It advises the Governor-General in the exercise of the royal prerogative of mercy and in the exercise of his disciplinary powers over members of the public and police services. In the general election of May 1986 the Democratic Labour Party gained 24 seats and the Barbados Labour Party 3 seats. Governor-General: Sir Hugh Springer, GCMG, CBE. The Cabinet, in Nov. 1986, was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Economic Affairs. Rt. Hon. Errol Barrow, QC. Deputy Prime Minister, Leader of the House of Assembly, Education and Culture- Erskine Sandiford. Attorney General and Legal Affairs: Maurice King. Agriculture, Food and Fisheries: Warwick Franklin. Employment, Labour Relations and Community Development: Wesley Hall. Finance: Dr Richard Haynes. Foreign Affairs and Leader of the Senate: Cameron Tudor. Health. Keith Simmons. Housing and Lands: Harold Blackman. Public Service: Harcourt Lewis. Tourism and Industry Branford Taitt. Trade and Commerce: Evelyn Greaves. Transport, Works and Telecommunications. Philip Greaves. National flag: Three vertical strips of blue, gold, blue, with a black trident in the centre. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Barbados is a member of UN, OAS, CARICOM, the Commonwealth and an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1985-86 envisaged capital expenditure of BD$ 139 2m. and current expenditure of BDS677 5m. Currency. The monetary unit is the Barbados dollar (BD$) divided into 100 cents. In March 1987, £ 1 = BD$3.10; US$ 1 = 2.01. 190

BARBADOS

191

Banking. Eight main commercial banks operate in Barbados including Barclays Bank International, the Royal Bank of Canada, Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce, the Bank of Nova Scotia, Chase Manhattan Bank, Caribbean Commercial Bank, The Barbados National Bank'Bank of Credit and Commerce International. Barbados is headquarters for the Caribbean Development Bank. The Barbados Development Bank opened on 15 April 1969 and Barbados became a member of the Inter-American Development Bank on 19 March 1969. NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 364m. kwh. Supply 150 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Crude oil production (1985) 28,526,000 US gallons. Gas. Output of gas (1985) 893m. cu. ft. Agriculture. Of the total area of 106,240 acres, about 54,932 acres are arable land. The land is intensely cultivated. In 1985, 15,000 hectares of sugar-cane were harvested. Cotton was successfully replanted ip 1983 and 91 bales were harvested from 300 acres in 1985. The agricultural sector accounted for 6-8% of GDP in 1983 (1946, 45%; 1967, 24%). In 1985, 6-9% of the total labour force were employed in agriculture. In 1985, 100,247 tonnes of sugar were produced. There are 6 sugar factories and 2 rum refineries in production. In 1985,2,000 tonnes of yams and 2,000 tonnes of sweet potatoes were produced. Hot peppers, eggplants, watermelons, breadfruit and red ginger lilies are also grown for export. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 18,000; sheep, 54,000; goats, 32,000; pigs, 49,000; poultry, 1 m. Fisheries. There are about 651 (1985) powered boats and many men and women are employed during the flying-fish season. Large numbers of these boats are laid up from July to Oct. The fish catch in 1984 was 5,774 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Industrial establishments operating in Barbados in 1985 numbered approximately 300 and ranged from the manufacture of processed food to small specialized products such as garment manufacturing, furniture and household appliances, electrical components, plastic products and electronic parts. Commerce. Total trade for calendar years in BD$ 1,000: Domestic Imports' Domestic Exports'

1981 1982 1983 1,165,910 1,106,589 1,257,961 298,838 374,061 581,579 > Exclusive of bullion and specie.

1984 1,324,623 583,667

1985 1,221,595 496,471

In 1985 the principal imports (BD$lm.) were: Machinery and transport equipment, 387-4; manufactured goods, 280-3; lubricants, mineral fuels, etc., 221-8; food and live animals, 147-9; chemicals, 98-6; crude minerals, 27; beverages and tobacco, 19-5; animal and vegetable oils and fats, 12-5. In 1985 the principal domestic exports (BD$ 1 m.) were: Sugar, 50 • 3; clothing, 45; electrical parts, 302. Total trade between Barbados and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 ]9gJ ] m ] m i m Imports from UK Exports and re-exports to UK

14,887 26,886

11,899 31,938

22,509 30,654

13,512 36,856

11,661 38,338

Tourism. In 1985, 359,135 tourists visited Barbados spending BD$618-lm. The industry employs over 10,000 people. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 1,020 miles of road open to traffic, of which 840 miles are allweather roads. From Jan. to Dec. 1985 there were 30,908 private cars, 1,871 hired cars and taxis, 444 buses and 10,988 other vehicles including motorcycles and bicycles.

192

BARBADOS

Aviation. There is an international airport at Seawell, Christ Church, Barbados, served by British Airways, BWIA, Leeward Islands Air Transport, PANAM, American Airlines, Wardair, Air Martinique Cruziero (SC), Air Canada, Caribbean Airways and Eastern Airlines, Cöbana Airlines, Venezuelan Airlines. Shipping. A deep-water harbour opened in 1961 at Bridgetown provides 8 berths for ships 500-600 ft in length, including one specially designed for bulk sugar loading. The number of merchant vessels entering in 1984 was 1,676 of6,016,000 net tons. Post and Telephone. There is a general post office in Bridgetown and 16 branches on the island. In 1985 there were 86,785 telephones in service. Cinemas. There were (1985)3 cinemas and 2 drive-in cinemas for 600 cars. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 2 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 39,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court and by magistrates' courts. All have both civil and criminal jurisdiction. There is a Chief Justice and 3 puisne judges of the Supreme Court and 8 magistrates. Religion. The majority (about 70%) of the population are Anglicans, the remainder mainly Methodists, Moravians and Roman Catholics. Education. In 1984-85 children in 105 government primary schools numbered 29,392; in 21 secondary schools, 21,501; in 5 vocational centres, 967; in 15 assisted private approved secondary schools, 4,227. There are 23 independent primary schools with 3,547 pupils and a number of independent schools for which no accurate figures are available. Education is free in all government-owned and maintained institutions from primary to university level. In 1963 Erdiston College became one of the constituent Colleges of the University of the West Indies Institute of Education. The College of Arts and Sciences of the University of the West Indies in Barbados was opened in Sept. 1963 and Cave Hill campus in 1967. In 1984-85, 186 students attended Erdiston College and 1,617 students attended the Cave Hill campus. The Barbados Community College for higher education at pre-university level was opened in 1969; in 1984-85, 1,806 students (full- and part-time) were enrolled. Health. In 1984 there were 2,143 hospital beds and 213 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Barbados in Great Britain (1 Great Russell St., London, WC 1B 3NH) High Commissioner Vernon Smith. Of Great Britain in Barbados (147/9 Roebuck St., Bridgetown) High Commissioner Kevin Burns. Of Barbados in the USA (2144 Wyoming Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. 20008) Ambassador: Dr Peter D. Laurie. Of the USA in Barbados (PO Box 302, Bridgetown) Ambassador Thomas H. Anderson, Jr. Of Barbados to the United Nations Ambassador Dame Nita Barrow. Books of Reference Statistical Information. The Barbados Statistical Service (NIS Bldg, Fairchild St, St Michael) produces selected monthly statistics and annual abstracts. Director Eric Straughn. Dann.G., The Quality of Life in Barbados. London, 1984 Hoyos, F A., Barbados. A History from the Amerindians to Independence London, 1978 —Barbados. A Visitor's Guide London, 1983 Potter, R. B., and Dann, G M. S., Barbados [Bibliography]. Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Worrell, D„ 'Ihe Economy of Barbados 1946-1980. Bridgetown, 1982 Library The Barbados Public Library, Bridgetown. Acting Chief Librarian. Edwin Igill.

BELGIUM

Capital: Brussels Population: 9 • 86m. ( 1982) GNP per capita: US$7,870 (1984)

Royaume de Belgique— Koninkrijk België

H I S T O R Y . The kingdom of Belgium formed itself into an independent state in 1830, having from 1815 been part of the Netherlands. The secession was decreed on 4 Oct. 1830 by a provisional government, established in consequence of a revolution which broke out at Brussels, on 25 Aug. 1830. A National Congress elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg King of the Belgians on 4 June 1831; he ascended the throne 21 July 1831. By the Treaty of London, 15 Nov. 1831, the neutrality of Belgium was guaranteed by Austria, Russia, Great Britain and Prussia. It was not until after the signing of the Treaty of London, 19 April 1839, which established peace between King Leopold I and the King of the Netherlands, that all the states of Europe recognized the kingdom of Belgium. In the Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919) it is stated that as the treaties of 1839 'no longer conform to the requirements of the situation', these are abrogated and will be replaced by other treaties. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Belgium is bounded north by the Netherlands, north-west by the North Sea, west and south by France, east by Federal Republic of Germany and Luxembourg. Belgium has an area of 30,518 sq. km (11,778 sq. miles). The Belgian exclave of Baarle-Hertog in the Netherlands has an area of 7 sq. km, and a population (1 Jan. 1986) of 1,101 males and 1,030 females. By an agreement, 23 Sept. 1956, the frontier with Germany was slightly readjusted. Increase

Census 1900 1910 1920 1930 Provinces Antwerp (Anvers) Brabant /West Flanders I East Hainaut Liège Limbourg Luxembourg Namur

Population 6,693,548 7,423,784 7,405,569 8,092,004

annum 103 109 006 0-84

Provincial capitals Antwerp Brussels Bruges Ghent Mons Liège Hasselt Arlon Namur

Area (hectares) 286,726 335,81 1 313,439 298,167 378,669 386,213 242,231 444,114 366,501

Total

Census 1947 1961 1970

Population 8,512,195 9,189,741 9,650,944

Increase % per annum 0-36 0-52 0-55

Estimated population (31 Dec.) 1984 1985 1970' 1983 1,533,249 1,578,869 1,581,480 ,582,786 ,218,349 2,176,373 2,217,442 2,217,445 ,090,387 1,054,429 1,086,574 1,088,655 1,310,117 1,331,193 1,330,422 ,328,805 1,282,119 1,317,453 1,285,936 ,277,939 992,383 1,008,905 992,061 991,535 729,620 652,547 726,884 731,875 224,375 224,988 217,310 223,813 411,222 412,231 380,561 410,251

3,051,871

9,650,944 1

9,853,023

9,857,721

9,858,895

Census.

In 1985 there were 4,812,183 males and 5,046,712 females. Foreigners numbered 846,482 on 1 Jan. 1986. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1982 1983 1984 1985

Births 120,382 117,395 115,790 114,283

Deaths 112,506 114,814 110,577 112,691

Marriages 62,423 59,652 58,989 57,630

193

Divorces 16,159 17,238 18,768 18,530

Immigration 44,659 43,657 47,002 47,042

Emigration 61,931 61,339 56,447 54,021

194

BELGIUM O f t h e total births excluding still-born Boys Girls

1982

1983

1984

1985

120,382 61,930 58,452

117,395 60,440 56,955

115,790 59,353 56,437

114,283 58,695 55,588

The most important towns, with estimated population on 1 Jan. 1986: Brussels and suburbs 1 Antwerp (Antwerpen) 2 Ghent (Gent) Charleroi Liège (Luik) Brugge(Bruges) Namur (Namen) Möns (Bergen) Leuven (Louvain) Aalst (Alost) La Louvière Kortrijk (Courtrai) Mechelen (Malines) Oostende (Ostende)

976,536 483,199 234,251 210,234 201,749 117,799 102,501 90,072 85,028 77,293 76,371 76,230 75,932 68,681

StNiklass(St Nicolas) Tournai (Doomik) Hasselt Seraing Genk Mouscron (Moeskroen) Verviers Roeselare (Roulers) Tumhout Herstal Lokeren Vilvoorde (Vilvorde) Lier(Lierre)

68,234 66,971 65,348 62,202 61,546 54,014 53,596 51,866 37,474 37,099 34,042 33,030 30,882

1 The suburbs comprise 18 distinct communes, viz., Anderlecht, Etterbeek, Forest, Ixelles, Jette, Koekelberg, Molenbeek St Jean, St Gilles, St Josse-ten-Noode, Schaerbeek, Uccie, Woluwe-St Lambert, Auderghem, Watermael-Boitsfort, Woluwe-St Pierre, Berchem Ste Agathe, Evere and Ganshoren. 2 Including Berchem, Borgerhout, Deurne, Hoboken, Merksem and Wilrijk.

C L I M A T E . Cool temperate climate, influenced by the sea, giving mild winters and cool summers. Brussels. Jan. 36°F(2-2°C), July 64°F(17-8°C). Annual rainfall 33" (825 mm). Ostend. Jan. 38°F(3-3°C), July 62"F(16-7°C). Annual rainfall 31" (775 mm). KING. Baudouin, born 7 Sept. 1930, succeeded his father, Leopold III, on 17 July 1951, when he took the oath on the constitution before the two Chambers: married on 15 Dec. 1960 to Fabiola de Mora y Aragon, daughter of the Conde de Mora and Marqués de Casa Riera. Brother and Sister of the King. (1) Josephine Charlotte, Princess of Belgium, born 11 Oct. 1927; married to Prince Jean of Luxembourg, 9 April 1953; (2) Albert, Prince of Liège, born 6 June 1934; married to Paola Ruffo di Calabria, 2 July 1959; offspring: Prince Philippe, born 15 April 1960; Princess Astrid, bom 5 June 1962; married to Archduke Lorenz of Austria, 22 Sept. 1984; Prince Laurent, born 19 Oct. 1963. Half-brother and half-sisters of the King. Prince Alexandre, born 18 July 1942; Princess Marie Christine, born 6 Feb. 1951; Princess Maria-Esmeralda, born 30 Sept. 1956. Aunt of the King. Princess Marie-José, born 4 Aug. 1906, married to Prince Umberto (King Umberto II of Italy in 1946) on 8 Jan. 1930. Leopoldi Leopold II Albert

BELGIAN SOVEREIGNS 1831-65 Leopoldi» 1865-1909 Regency 1909-34 Baudouin

1934-44,1950-51 1944-50 1951-

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . According to the constitution of 1831, Belgium is a constitutional, representative and hereditary monarchy. The legislative power is vested in the King, the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. The royal succession is in direct male line in the order of primogeniture. By marriage without the King's consent, however, the right of succession is forfeited, but may be restored by the King with the consent of the two Chambers. No act of the King can have effect unless countersigned by one of his Ministers, who thus becomes responsible for it. The King convokes, prorogues and dissolves the Chambers. In default of male heirs, the King may nominate his successor with the consent (jf the Chambers. If the successor be under 18 years of age the two Chambers meet together for the purpose of nominating a regent during the minority.

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Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of black, yellow, red. National anthem: Après des siècles d'esclavage (La Brabançonne; words by Jenneval, 1830; tune by F. van Campenhout, 1930). French, Dutch and German are official languages. Those sections of the Belgian Constitution which regulate the organization of the legislative power were revised in Oct. 1921. For both Senate and Chamber all elections are held on the principle of universal suffrage. The Senate consists of members elected for 4 years, partly directly and partly indirectly. The number elected directly is equal to half the number of members of the Chamber of Representatives. The constituent body is similar to that which elects deputies to the Chamber; the minimum age of electors is 18 years, and the minimum length of residence required is 6 months. Women were given the suffrage at parliamentary elections on 24 March 1948. In the direct elections of members of both the Senate and Chamber of Representatives the principle of proportional representation was introduced by law of 29 Dec. 1899. Senators are elected indirectly by the provincial councils, on the basis of 1 for 200,000 inhabitants. Eveiy addition of 125,000 inhabitants gives the right't'o'l senator more. Each provincial council elects at least 3 senators. There are at present 51 provincial senators. No one, during 2 years preceding the election, must have been a member of the council appointing him. Senators are elected by the Senate itself in the proportion of half the preceding category. The senators belonging to these two latter categories are also elected by the method of proportional representation. All senators must be at least 40 years of age. They receive 900,000 francs per annum. Sons of the King, or failing these, Belgian princes of the reigning branch of the royal family, are by right senators at the age of 18, but have no voice in the deliberations till the age of 25 years; this prerogative is hardly ever used. The members of the Chamber of Representatives are elected by the electoral body. Their number, at present 212 (law of 3 April 1965), is proportional to the population, and cannot exceed one for every 40,000 inhabitants. They sit for 4 years. Deputies must be not less than 25 years of age, and resident in Belgium. Each deputy has an annual allowance of 900,000 francs. Senators and deputies have also free railway passes. The Senate and Chamber meet annually in October and must sit for at least 40 days; but the King has the power of convoking extraordinary sessions and of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately. In the latter case a new election must take place within 40 days and a meeting of the chambers within 2 months. An adjournment cannot be made for a period exceeding 1 month without the consent of the Chambers. After the revision of the Constitution by the laws of 24 Dec. 1970 and 28 July 1971 establishing three regions and two cultural councils, legislation on 'preparatory regionalization' was enacted in July 1974. Further revisions of the functions of the Cultural Councils took place on 8 and 9 Aug. 1980. The Cultural Councils became Community Councils with greater authority and the Regional Councils became competent on economic matters. Parliament was dissolved on 2 Sept. 1985 and general elections were held on 13 Oct. 1985. Parties in the Senate after the election: Christelijke Volkspartij, 42; Parti social chrétien, 18; Socialistische Partij, 28; Parti Socialiste Belge, 34; Partij voor Vrijheid en Vooruitgang, 19; Parti Reformateur Libéral (PRL), 22; Other parties, 20. Parties in the Chamber of Representatives after the election: Christelijke Volkspartij, 49; Parti social chrétien, 20; Parti Socialiste, 35; Socialistische Partij, 32; Partij voor Vrijheid en Vooruitgang, 22; Parti Reformateur Libéral, 24; Other parties, 30. A 4-party coalition government was formed in Dec. 1981 and in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Wilfried Martens (C VP). Deputy Prime Ministers: Jean Gol, PRL (Justice and Institutional Reform)-,

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Guy Verhofstadt, PW Budget, Scientific Policy and Research); Philippe Maystadt, PSC (Economic Affairs). Foreign Affairs: Léo Tindemanns (CVP). Finance: Mark Eyskens (CVP). Public Works: Louis Olivier (PRL). Communications and Foreign Trade: Herman De Croo ( P W ) . Employment and Labour: Michel Hansenne (PSC). Education (Dutch-language): Daniel Coens (CVP). Interior: J. Michel (PSC). Social Affairs and Institutional Reform: Jean-Luc Dehaene (CVP). Defence: François-Xavier de Donnéa (PRL). Middle Classes: Jacky Buchmann ( P W ) . Education (French): André Damseaux (PRL). There are thirteen Secretaries of State. Local Government. Belgium has 9 provinces and since the so-called 'Amalgamation Law' of 30 Dec. 1975, 589 communes (instead of 2,359). They have a large measure of autonomous government. According to the law of 9 June 1982, all Belgians over 18 years of age, who are recorded in the registers of population of the commune have the right to vote in the communal elections. Proportional representation is applied to the communal elections, and communal councils are to be renewed every 6 years. In each commune there is a college composed of the burgomaster as the president and a certain number of aldermen. D E F E N C E . Belgium is a full member of NATO since 1949 and of the Eurogroup since 1968. The need to extend European armaments co-operation led to the formation of the Independent European Program Group (IEPG) in 1976. Its members include Belgium. According to the Law of 30 April 1962, the Belgian Armed Forces are recruited by annual calls to the colours and by voluntary enlistments. Military service is, 8 months for conscripts serving in the Federal Republic of Germany and 10 months for those serving in Belgium, with a possibility to serve 3 or 6 months longer on a voluntary basis for private soldiers, 13 months for voluntary reserve officers and 15 for the paracommando regiment. Duration of military obligation is 8 years for most soldiers called for compulsory service. The Medical Service has a strength of 5,785 personnel. Beside the medical units and detachments in the Armed Forces, the medical service manages 6 military hospitals and a central pharmacy. Army. The Army comprises as major units 1 armoured and 3 mechanized brigades (2 of which are deployed as the Belgian divisions in the Belgian corps area in the Federal Republic of Germany) and 1 paracommando regiment. There are also 3 reconnaissance battalions. Total strength (1987) 67,400. Gendarmerie, 15,900. Equipment includes nearly 334 LEOPARD Main Battle Tanks, 135 SCORPION Light Tanks, 150 SCIMITAR Armoured Fighting Vehicles, 1,150 Armoured Personnel Carriers and 80 JPK90mm Self-Propelled Anti-Tank Guns; Artillery Battalions are equipped with 155mm and 203mm Self-Propelled Howitzers, LANCE Surface-to-Surface Missiles, HAWK Surface-to-Air Missiles and GEPARD Armoured Vehicles with 3 5 mm Anti-Aircraft Guns. Other equipment in use: MILAN Anti-Tank Guided Weapon, STRIKER Armoured Fighting Vehicle with SWINGFIRE Anti-Tank Guided Weapon, Islander aircraft, Alouette II helicopters, Epervier Remotely Piloted Vehicle. Navy. The naval forces include 4 frigates (Navy designed and built) completed in 1978,6 ocean minehunters, 2 command and logistic support ships, 4 coastal minehunters, 5 coastal minesweepers, 13 inshore minesweepers, 2 research ships, 2 river patrol boats, 1 ammunition transport, 6 tugs and 2 service craft. Eight tripartite minehunters are being built (with a further 5 on option). Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 4,490 officers and ratings. The naval air arm comprises 3 Alouette III general utility helicopters. Air Force. The Air Force has a strength of more than 20,000 personnel and more than 270 aircraft in 14 operational squadrons and support units. There are 5 flying wings. The all-weather fighter wing consists of 2 squadrons of F-16s. One fighterbomber wing has 2 squadrons of F-16s; 2 others operate Mirage 5s, organized as 3 squadrons of Mirage 5Bs and Mirage 5BD two-seat trainers, and 1 squadron of Mirage 5BR photo-reconnaissance aircraft. The transport wing consists of 1 squad-

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ron equipped with 12 C-130H Hercules turboprop transports, and 1 squadron flying 2 Boeing 727s, 3 HS 748 twin-turboprop transports, 5 Swearingen Merlin III light turboprop transports and 2 light twin-jet Falcons. Other types in service include Sea King Mk 48 search and rescue helicopters, SIAI-Marchetti SF.260M and Alpha Jet training aircraft. Two surface-to-air missile groups, stationed in Germany, are equipped with Nike Hercules missiles. Aircraft on order include 44 more F-16s. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Belgium is a member of UN, European Communities, Benelux Economic Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OECD and WEU. ECONOMY

Budget. Revenue and expenditure for calendar years (in 1 m. francs): Receipts Current Capital Total Expenditure Current Capital Total

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1,003,544 196,948

1,010,500 157,200

1,153,100 253,776

1,215,800 293,200

1,318,100 365,100

1,382,600

1,200,492

1,167,700

1,406,876

1,509,000

1,683,200

1,186,367 146,697

1,375,400 185,600

1,516,884 172,066

1,627,300 214,500

1,743,900 174,300

1,841,400 199,000

1,333,064

1,561,000

1,688,950

1,841,800

1,918,200

2,040,400

On 31 Dec. 1985 the Belgian public debt consisted of (in lm. francs): Internal debt consolidated, 2,533,200; short and middle terms, 1,307,500; at sight, 85,500. External debt, 990,200. Currency. The franc, containing 0 01826 gramme of fine gold, is the unit of currency. No gold has been minted since 1882 (save only 5m. francs struck in 1914). Note circulation 31 Dec. 1985,394,700m. francs. The official rate of exchange in March 1987 was US$1 =37-71 francs;£l =58-45 francs. Banking. The bank of issue in Belgium is the National Bank, instituted in 1850. It is the cashier of the State, and is authorized to carry on the usual banking operations. The articles of association of the National Bank of Belgium were modified on 13 Sept. 1948 so as to strengthen public control. The savings banks are mainly operated by the Caisse Générale d'Epargne et de Retraite and by the private savings banks. The Caisse Générale d'Epargne et de Retraite (CGER), a state institution, consists of 2 parts: the Caisse d'Epargne which performs the whole range of banking activities and a further unit which embodies the funds engaged in social security and insurance activities; the CGER operates under the authority of the Minister of Finance. The Commission bancaire (bank commission) supervises the financial situation and the activities of the Caisse d'Epargne. It co-operates with the Belgian postal service, thus obviating any need of a postal-savings system. The savings deposits and savings bonds of the Caisse d'Epargne amounted to 653,900m. francs on 31 Dec. 1985. The private savings banks, whose liabilities expressed in savings accounts and bonds amounted to 848,200m. francs on 31 Dec. 1985, are controlled by the'Commission bancaire'. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The production of electricity (lm. kwh.) amounted to 51,015 in 1980; 48,179 in 1981; 47,936 in 1982; 49,912 in 1983; 51,850 in 1984; 54,184 in 1985. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz.

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Gas. Production of gas (in lm. cu. metres): 675 in 1980; 690 in 1981; 594 in 1982; 623 in 1983; 717 in 1984; 716 in 1985. Minerals. Output (in tonnes) for 5 calendar years: Coal Briquettes Coke Castiron Wroughtsteel Finished steel

1981 6,136,446 53,981 6,003,730 9,786,077 12,379,638 8,902,482

1982 6,538,874 49,836 5,216,692 7,831,469 9,995,850 7,364,139

1983 6,097,428 45,265 5,105,675 8,033,206 10,157,031 7,056,770

1984 6,297,563 44,682 5,925,767 8,968,470 11,303,381 8,138,190

1985 6,211,471 5,963,729 8,719,040 10,687,461 8,072,766

Agriculture. Of the total area of3,051,871 hectares, there were, in 1985,1,389,858 hectares under cultivation, of which 344,704 were under cereals, 29,400 vegetables, 133,506 industrial plants, 146,955 root crops, 668,606 pastures and meadows. Chief crops

Wheat Barley Oats Rye Potatoes Beet (sugar) Beet (fodder) Tobacco

1983 187,260 138,676 20,980 6,399 34,473 109,078 15,012 485

Area in hectares 1984 1985 176,994 179,883 135,801 118,243 18,783 20,931 7,049 5,159 36,036 40,940 117,001 117,865 15,082 14,752 521 534

Produce in tonnes 1983 1984 1985 1,003,346 1,248,588 1,149,592 670,198 873,480 685,369 79,724 91,848 93,562 25,510 32,214 22,546 977,492 1,332,226 1,521,706 5,120,123 5,763,454 5,952,187 1,304,706 1,409,010 1,355,302 1,638 1,782 1,863

In 1985 there were 26,040 horses, 3,091,657 cattle, 164,505 sheep, 7,346 goats and 5,364,824 pigs. Forestry. In 1970 the forest area covered 19-7% of the land surface. In 1970,2-85 cu. metres of timber were felled. Fisheries. The total quantity of fish landed amounted to 33,727 tons valued at 2,828m. francs in 1985. The fishing fleet had a total tonnage of23,096 gross tons at 31 Dec. 1985. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1985 there were 13 sugar factories, output 145,279 tonnes of raw sugar; 3 sugar refineries, output 219,570 tonnes; 9 distilleries, output 88,504 hectolitres of potable and industrial alcohol; 132 breweries, output 13,930,884 hectolitres ofbeer, margarine factories, output 171,755 tonnes. Six trusts control the greater part of Belgian industry: the Société Générale (founded in 1822) owns about 40% of coal, 50% of steel, 65% of non-ferrous metals and 35% of electricity; Brufina-Confinindus operates in steel, coal, electricity and heavy engineering; the Groupe Solvay rules the chemical industry; the Groupe Copée has interests in steel and coal; Empain controls tramways and electrical equipment; the Banque Lambert owns petroleum firms and their accessories. Commerce. By the convention concluded at Brussels on 25 July 1921 between Belgium and Luxembourg and ratified on 5 March 1922 an economic union was formed by the two countries, and the customs frontier between them was abolished on 1 May 1922. Dissolved in Aug. 1940, the union was re-established on 1 May 1945. On 14 March 1947, in execution of an agreement signed in London on 5 Sept. 1944, there was concluded a customs union between Belgium and Luxembourg, on the one hand, and the Netherlands, on the other. The union came into force on 1 Jan. 1948, and is now known as the Benelux Economic Union. A joint tariff has been adopted and import duties are no longer levied at the Netherlands frontier, but import licences may still be required. A full economic union of the three countries came into operation on 1 Nov. 1960. Benelux information is supplied by the Secrétariat Général de l'Union Douanière NéerlandoBetgo-Luxembourgeoise, Rue de la Régence, 39,1000 Brussels. It publishes Benelux. Bulletin Trimestriel de Statistique; Statistisch Kwartaalbericht (1955 fF.).

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Trade by selected countries (in 1,000 Belgian francs): Imports 1983 1984 France 396,327,868 467,319,104 USA 180,684,980 192,387,281 UK 243,584,424 279,911,478 Netherlands 511,840,493 600,549,793 German Dem. Rep. 6,581,325 7,645,774 Germany, Fed. Rep. 582,294,115 636,514,989 Argentina 10,693,659 16,013,614 Italy 103,566,527 114,354,583 Switzerland 79,771,840 77,857,390 Zaire 20,131,220 29,461,682 Denmark 14,390,835 15,746,617 USSR 71,359,209 108,168,623 India 13,249,850 10,924,242 Rep. of S. Africa 15,880,722 16,869,599 Canada 15,727,033 18,619,131 Brazil 16,997,391 24,197,028 Australia 7,837,604 9,388,174

from 1985 498,946,005 187,924,213 295,653,660 614,602,338 9,425,453 695,513,488 11,867,259 118,169,483 77,349,479 32,604,538 16,909,563 74,000,531 11,609,454 20,687,570 18,772,444 29,597,678 9,825,578

Exports to 1983 1984 482,962,732 552,404,053 136,381,246 181,389,766 261,183,269 296,366,695 377,544,382 416,593,502 5,470,610

4,190,421

1985 600,636,737 200,789,652 309,864,652 451,005,568 3,790,007

560,475,111 589,671,742 588,661,598 2,771,822 2,250,301 2,032,665 123,775,439 153,807,487 172,280,290 75,462,491 80,353,780 76,325,828 8,905,660 12,474,415 13,989,196 26,002,238 27,322,164 34,469,832 34,024,691 31,638,834 37,305,363 29,395,789 38,026,426 41,809,451 11,305,781 14,327,206 10,824,906 11,354,857 17,000,443 24)84*i5«k 4,055,784 4,326,998 3,970,743 5,740,808 9,265,495 10,632,024

Imports and exports for 6 calendar years (in 1,000 Belgian francs): 1980 1981 1982

Imports 2,100,807,473 2,309,761,017 2,653,362,108

Exports 1,890,359,149 2,062,315,689 2,393,152,616

1983 1984 1985

Imports 2,820,864,806 3,195,768,712 3,317,811,996

Exports 2,651,340,902 2,992,116,161 3,167,691,043

The total trade between Belgium and Luxembourg and UK was as follows (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 2,861,809 3,133,905 3,691,794 4,016,889 4,083,883 2,298,118 2,572,673 3,051,722 3,347,596 3,832,605

Principal Belgian-Luxembourg exports to UK in 1983 1 (tonnes; francs): Textiles (128,698; 20,567m.); metals (534,473; 19,869m.); chemical and pharmaceutical products (536,421; 20,929m.); precious stones and manufactures thereof (362; 46,600m.). Principal Belgian-Luxembourg imports from the UK in 19831 (tonnes; francs): Machinery and electrical apparatus (39,024; 19,047m.); vehicles, chiefly motor cars, and aircraft (102,808; 19,490m.); textiles (40,499; 7,444m.); precious stones (191 ; 66,681 m.); base metals and manufactures thereof (270,320; 10,985m.). 1

Provisional.

Tourism. In 1985 receipts totalled98-7m. francs. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total length of the roads in Belgium on 31 Dec. 1985 was as follows: State roads (including 1,534 km of motorway), 14,121 km; provincial roads, 1,376 km; communal roads, 115,006 km. The majority of roads are metalled. Number of motor vehicles in Belgium, 1 Aug. 1986, 4,016,262, including 3,379,180 passenger cars, 16,382 buses, 280,505 lorries, 29,992 non-agricultural tractors, 142,961 agricultural tractors, 130,011 motor cycles and 37,231 special vehicles. Railways. The main Belgian lines were a State enterprise from their inception in 1834. In 1926 the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Belges (SNCB) was formed to take over the railways. The State is sole holder of the ordinary shares of SNCB, which carry the majority vote at General Meetings. The length of railway operated on 31 Dec. 1985 was 3,667 km. Revenue (1985), 55,040m. francs; expenditure, 54,654m. francs. In 1985, 72-4m. tonnes of freight and 159-3m. passengers were carried.

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The Société Nationale des Chemins de Vicinaux (SNCV) operates electrified light railways around Charleroi (97 km) and from De Panne to Knokke (68 km). TÏiere is also a metro and tramway in Brussels, and tramways in Antwerp and Ghent. Aviation. Tlje national Belgian airline SABENA (Société anonyme belge d'exploitation de la navigation aérienne) was set up in 1923. Its capital is 750m. francs. In addition to its European network, SABENA operates different routes to North and South America, to North, Central and South Africa and to the Near, the Middle and the Far East. In 1984 its airfleet comprised 24 aircraft. In 1984 SABENA flew 50m. km, carrying 2,031,571 revenue passengers, 533 -9m. ton-km of freight and 16 -45m. ton-km of mail. Shipping.1 On 1 Jan. 1986 the Belgian merchant fleet was composed of 101 vessels of2,232,927 tons. There were 51 shipping companies, of which the most important were the Compagnie Maritime Beige, with 20 ships, and the Belcan, SA, with 4 ships. ' Belgian shipping returns are given in the official 'Moorsom tons', which may be converted into net tons by deducting 19 -85% from the Moorsom total.

The navigation at the port of Antwerp in 1985 was as follows: Number of vessels entered, 16,215; tonnage, 120,001,087. Number of vessels cleared, 16,084; tonnage, 118,364,721. The total length of navigable waterways (rivets and canals) was 1,559-5 km in 1985. Post and Broadcasting. On 31 Dec. 1984 there were 1,827 post offices. The gross revenue of the post office in the year 1984 amounted to 27,090m. francs. In 1985 there were 3,032,418 telephone subscribers, 3,534 mobile telephone subscribers, 26,463 subscribers to the paging service and 26,464 telex subscribers. As to data transmission, there were 41,767 modems connected to subscriber lines, 20,385 data transmission lines and 1,332 telegraph type lines. Radio-Television belge de la Communauté française (RTBF) and Belgische Radio en Televisie (BRT) are public institutions broadcasting in French and Dutch respectively. BRT has 5 radio, programmes: BRT 1 is for service and information, documentary programmes, radio drama and light music; BRT 2 is for regional entertainments from each of the Flemish provinces. Both stations broadcast on mediumwave and on FM (stereo). BRT 3, on FM (stereo) is the cultural station; Studio Brussels (medium-wave and FM) gives local information and light music for 10 hours daily to. Dutch-speaking residents; the International Service (short-and medium-wave) aims at reaching the Fleming dwelling abroad and at presenting a picture of Flemish cultural life. RTBF has 5 radio programmes: Radio I (medium-wave) for information; Radio II (FM stereo) for entertainment and local information; Radio III (FM stereo) for classical music; Radio 21 (FM stereo) a young people's popular music and news programme; Radio quatre internationale (short-wave) which broadcasts to Africa. Each body has 2 television channels, one general and one mainly for sport, special events, cultural events, feature films; broadcasting is by PAL standards. Commercial advertising is not allowed on radio or television, which are financed by the Flemish and French Community Councils. In 1985 the Flemish community had 2-77m. radio receivers and 1 -7m. television sets of which 76 -5% were colour sets; the French-speaking community had 1 -7m. radio receivers and 1 -2m. television sets of which 72% were colour sets; 83-2% of the Flemish and 89% of the French-speaking households were connected to a television cable-network. Number of receivers (1985), radio, 4,557,615; TV, 2,983,186. Cinemas (1985). There were 445 ciriémas, with à seating capacity of 117,026. Newspapers (1986). There are 39 daily newspapers (some of them only regional or local editions of larger dailies), of which 23 are in French, 15 in Dutch and 1 in German.

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JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Judges are appointed for life. There is a court of cassation, 5 courts of appeal, and assize courts for political and criminal cases. There are 27 judicial districts, each with a court of first instance. In each of the 222 cantons is a justice and judge of the peace. There are, besides, various special tribunals. There is trial by jury in assize courts. Religion. Of the inhabitants professing a religion the majority are Roman Catholic, but no inquiry as to the profession of faith is now made at the censuses. There are, however, statistics concerning the clergy, and according to these there were in 1985: Roman Catholic higher clergy, 130; inferior clergy, 6,956; Protestant pastors, 86; Anglican Church, 10 chaplains; Jews (rabbis and ministers), 27. The State does not interfere in any way with the internal affairs of any church. There is full religious liberty, and part of the income of the ministers of all denominations is paid by the State. There are 8 Roman Catholic dioceses subdivided into 260 deaneries. Estimated number of Protestants, 24,000; of Jews, 35,000. The Protestant (Evangelical) Church is under a synod. There is also a CentralJewish Consistory, a Central Committee of the Anglican Church and a Free Protestant Church. Education. On 8 Nov. 1962/2 Aug. 1963 a linguistic frontier was fixed between the Dutch-speaking, French-speaking and German-speaking parts of Belgium. In the north, Dutch is recognized as the official language, in the south, French, and along the eastern border, German. The city and arrondissement of Brussels are bilingual. The percentage of the population in the Flemish, French, German and bilingual regions was 5 7 - 5 , 3 1 - 9 , 0 - 7 , 9 - 9 on 1 Jan. 1 9 8 5 . (See map in T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 6 7 - 6 8 . )

Higher Education (1984-85). Higher education is given in state universities: Ghent (13,503 students), Liège (9,790 students), Mons (1,814 students), the Polytechnic Faculty in Mons (567 students), the Antwerp State University Centre (2,349 students), the Gembloux Faculty of Agronomical Sciences (864 students), the Royal Military School in Brussels (730 students) and in the private universities: Catholic University of Louvain (39,866 students), the Free University of Brussels (20,205), University Institution Antwerp (1,755 students), St Ignatius Antwerp (3,439 students), Our Lady of Peace in Namur (3,691 students), Catholic University Faculty in Mons (861 students), St Louis in Brussels (1,076 students), St Aloysius in Brussels (789 students), the Limbourg University Centre (939 students) and the Protestant Faculty of Theology in Brussels (116 students). The total number of students in university colleges, faculties and institutes was 102,354. There are 5 royal academies of fine arts and 5 royal conservatoires at Brussels, Liège, Ghent, Antwerp and Mons. Secondary Education. 2,272 (1984-85) middle schools had a total of 113,923 pupils in the general classes and 175,221. in the technical classes in the traditional system and 569,481 pupils in the new system. Elementary Education. There were 4,790 (1984-85) primary schools, with 768,207 pupils and 4,234 (1984-85) infant schools, with 395,883 pupils. Normal Schools. Under the French and German linguistic systems there were 27 (1984-85) schools for training secondary teachers (2,617 students) in 1984-85; 42 (1984—85) .for training elementary teachers (2,423 students) in 1984-85, 26 technical normal schools in 1984-85 with 1,082 students and 17 normal infant schools with 1,225 students in 1984-85. Health. In 1985 there were 28,828 physicians (including 463,dentists), 5,448 other dentists and 10,608 pharmacists. Hospital beds numbered 91,638 on 1 Jan. 1984. Social Security. Social security is based on the law of Dec. 1944. It applies to all workers subject to an employment contract, and is administered by the Central National Office of Social Security (ONSS), which collects from employers and em-

202

BELGIUM

ployees all contributions referring to family allowances, health insurance, old age insurance, holidays and unemployment. These sums are distributed by the Central Office to the various institutions concerned with these benefits. Insurance against unemployment is organized through a common fund, which also undertakes to retrain the unemployed for another employment while providing for their families. Since 1944 further laws have increased allowances, made fresh provisions for housing (1945), injuries while working, professional illnesses, etc. (1948). Apart from private charity, the poor are assisted by the communes through the agency of the Centre Public d'Aide Sociale in French-speaking parts of the country and Openbaar Centrum voor Maatschappelijk Welzijn in Dutch-speaking areas. Provisions of a national character have been made for looking after war orphans and men disabled in the war: Certain other establishments, either state or provincial, provide for the needs of the deaf-mutes and the blind, and of children who are placed under the control of the courts. Provision is also made for repressing begging and providing shelter for the homeless. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Belgium in Great Britain ( 103 Eaton Sq., London, SW1W 9 AB) Ambassador: Jean-Paul Van Bellinghen (accredited 24 Feb. 1984). Of Great Britain in Belgium (Britannia Hse., rue Joseph II28,1040 Brussels) Ambassador: Peter Charles Petrie, CMG. Of Belgium in the USA (3330 Garfield St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Herman Dehennin. Of the USA in Belgium (Blvd. du Régent 27,1000 Brussels) Ambassador: Geoffrey Swaebe. Of Belgium to the United Nations Ambassador Edmonde Dever. Books of Reference Statistical Information. The Institut National de Statistique (44 rue de Louvain, Brussels) was set up on 24 Jan. 1831, under the designation of Bureau de Statistique Générale; after several changes, it received its present name on 2 May 1946. Director-General: E. Rosselle. Main publications. Statistiques du Commerce Extérieur Bulletin de Statistique Monthly Annuaire Statistique de la Belgique (from 1870).—Annuaire statistique de poche (from 1965) Statistiques Agricoles. Monthly Annuaire administratif et judiciaire de Belgique Annual. Brussels L'économie belge Ministère des Affaires Economiques. Annual (from 1947) Guide des Ministères. Revue de l'Administration Belge Brussels, Annual Molitor, A., L 'Administration de la Belgique Brussels, 1974.

BELIZE

Capital: Belmopan Population: 166,200(1985) GNP per capita: US$ 1,200 (1985)

H I S T O R Y . The early settlement of the territory was probably effected by British woodcutters about 1638; from that date to 1798, in spite of armed opposition from the Spaniards, settlers held their own and prospered. In 1780 the Home Government appointed a superintendent, and in 1862 the settlement was declared a colony, subordinate to Jamaica. It became an independent colony in 1884. Selfgovernment was attained in 1964. Independence was achieved on 21 Sept. 1981. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Belize is bounded north by Mexico, west and south by Guatemala and east by the Caribbean sea. Area, 22,963 sq. km. There

a r e 6 districts: Corozal Belize Orange Walk

Population

Sg. km 1,860 4,204 4,737

census, 1980 22,902 50,801 22,870

Population

Cayo StannCreek Toledo

Sq. km 5,338 2,176 4,649

census, 1980 22,837 14,181 11,762

Total population (census, 1980) 145,353. Estimate (1985) 166,200. In 1985 the birth rate per 1,000 was 36-7 and the death rate 4-2; infantile mortality 20-4 per 1,000 births; there were 854 marriages. English is the official language. Spanish is spoken by 31-6% of the population. The main ethnic groups are Creole (African descent), Mestizo (Spanish-Maya) and Garifuna (Caribs). Main city, Belize City; population, census 1980, 39,771. Estimate (1985) 47,000. Following the severe hurricane which struck the territory on 31 Oct. 1961 the capital Belmopan (population, 1985, 4,500) has been moved to a new site 50 miles inland; construction began in Jan. 1967 and it became the seat of government o n 3 A u g . 1970. See m a p in t h e 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 e d i t i o n o f THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK.

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Having achieved self-government in Jan. 1964 delays occurred in achieving independence because of the outstanding territorial claim by Guatemala. Attempts to reach agreement on the claim finally failed prior to independence being granted, but guarantees were given by Britain tnat a military force would remain. The Constitution, which came into force on 21 Sept. 1981, provided for a National Assembly, with a 5-year term, comprising a 28-member House of Representatives elected by universal adult suffrage, and a Senate consisting of 5 members appointed by t,he Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister, 2 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and 1 on the advice of the Belize Advisory Council. At the general election in Dec. 1984 the United Democratic Party won 21 seats in the House of Representatives and the People's United Party 7. Governor-General: Dame Elmira Minita Gordon, DCMG. The cabinet in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Finance and Defence: The Rt Hon. Manuel Amadeo Esquivel, PC. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Home Affairs: Curl Thompson. Attorney-General and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Economic Development: Dean Barrow. Agriculture: Dean Lindo. Labour and Social Services: Philip Goldson. Natural Resources: Charles Wagner. Health: Israel Alpuche. Electricity, Communication and Transport: Derek Aikman. Works and Housing: Hubert Ellington. Commerce, Industry and Tourism: Edwardo Juan. Education, Youth, Sports and Culture: Elodio Aragon. Flag: Blue with red band along the top and bottom edges. In the centre a white disc containing the coat of arms surrounded by a green garland. 203

204

BELIZE

C L I M A T E . A tropical climate with high rainfall and small annual range of temperature. The driest months are Feb. and March. Belize. Jan. 74°F (23-3°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 76" (1,890 mm). D E F E N C E . The Army consists of 1 infantry battalion and the Air Wing of the Belize Defence Force has two twin-engined BN-2B Defenders for maritime patrol and transport duties. RAF aircraft based temporarily in Belize include a detachment of Harrier V/STOL ground attack/reconnaissance aircraft. There is also a Maritime wing with 2 patrol boats used for anti-smuggling and coast guard duties. Total personnel (1987) 600. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Belize is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, ACP state of EEC.

CARICOM

and is an

ECONOMY Budget. In 1985-86 revenue was $B97 -3m. and expenditure $B105-4m. Public external debt, 31 Dec. 1985, US$87-9. Currency. There are notes of SB100,20,10, 5 and 1, and a subsidiary mixed metal coinage of 1-, 5-, 10-, 25- and 50-cent pieces. In March 1987, £1 = SB3 09 and US$1 =$B2. Banking. A Central Bank was established in 1981. There were (1986) 4 commercial banks with a total of 14 branches: Royal Bank of Canada, Barclays Bank PLC, Bank of Nova Scotia and the locally incorporated Atlantic Bank. The Development Finance Corporation provides long-term credit for development of agriculture and industry. There were (1985) 7 government savings banks, 24 credit unions and 12 insurance companies. Amendments to the Banking Ordinance permit offshore banking. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) 56m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Several oil companies were (1986) exploring for oil both off-shore and onshore. Oil was discovered in the north in 1981 but not in commercial quantities. Agriculture. In 1986 agriculture provided 65% of total foreign exchange earnings and employed 30% of the total labour force. The main agricultural export is sugar, followed by citrus fruit, chiefly grapefruit and oranges processed into oil, squash and concentrates. Citrus production, 1985, 476,000 boxes of oranges, 1,043,000 boxes of grapefruit. Sugar-cane production in 1985 was 962,000 tonnes. Bananas are the third export crop; production, 1985, 542,000 boxes. [Ed. note: Box of grapefruit, 80 lb., oranges, 90 lb., bananas, 42 lb.]. Cacao is becoming increasingly important as an export crop. Mangoes are also grown commercially; production, 1985,1,000 tonnes. Main cultivated food crops (with production, 1985) are maize (16,000 tonnes), rice (6,000 tonnes) and red-kidney beans. Belize is self-sufficient in fresh beef and pork, poultry and eggs. A dairy plant (daily milk processing capacity 400 gallons) began operations in 1986. Beekeeping co-operatives produced 694,000 lbs of honey in 1985. Livestock(1985): Cattle, 52,000;sheep, 3,000;pigs,23,000; poultry, lm. Forestry. 2,964 sq. miles, 49% of the total land area, are under forests which include mahogany, cedar, Santa Maria, pine and rosewood, and many secondary hardwoods of known or probable market value, as well as woods suitable for pulp production. Exports offorest produce in 1985 amounted to $B1 -2m. Fisheries. There are 5 registered fishing co-operatives. Food and game fish are plentiful, and domestic consumption is heavy. Main export markets for scale fish are in the USA, Mexico and Jamaica. Fish products exported in 1985 to the USA

BELIZE

205

were valued at $B15m. Turtles—Hawksbill, Loggerhead and Green—are plentiful but as yet are not exported. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1985 production of the major commodities was: Sugar, 102,000 tons; molasses, 28,100 tons; cigarettes, 74m.; beer, 600,000 gallons; batteries, 5,800; wheat flour, (1984) 2,528,000 lb.; rum, 4-5m. gallons; fertilizer, 3,670 tons; garments, 2,734,000; citrus concentrates, 1,030,000 gallons. The labour market alternates between full employment, often accompanied by local shortages in the citrus and sugar-cane harvesting (Jan.-July), and under-employment during the wet season (Aug.-Dec.), aggravated by the seasonal nature of the major industries. Trade Unions. There are more than 25 accredited unions with an estimated membership of 30,000. Commerce. In 1985 total imports amounted to $B256-3m. Total exports, $B180-3m. The principal domestic exports were timber ($Bl-2m.), sugar ($B45-9m.), fish products ($B15m.), garments ($B311m.), bananas ($B6-6m.), citrus products ($B24 -2m.), molasses ($B1 • 7m.) andhoney ($B400,000). Total trade between Belize and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1983 1984 i m i m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

13,326 10,455

11,565 8,726

15,911 11,501

15,050 8,329

17,954 8,232

Tourism. Tourists totalled 87,830 in 1985 spending $B23 -5m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are four major highways and all principal towns and villages are linked by road to Belmopan and Belize City. In 1985, there were 10,613 licensed vehicles. Aviation. Belize International Airport is 14 km from Belize City. Three airlines maintain international services to and from the USA, Central America and Mexico. In 1985,294,800 passengers arrived and departed on international flights. Domestic air services provide connections to all main towns and 3 of the main offshore islands. Shipping. The main port is Belize City, with a modem deep water port able to handle containerized shipping. Registered shipping (1981), 55 sailing vessels, 1,348 net tons, and 323 motor vessels, 745,197 net tons. The second largest port, Commerce Bight just south of Dangriga, can accommodate medium-sized vessels. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1985), 8,800. The Belize Telecommunication Authority has instituted a country-wide fully automatic telephone dialling facility. There are 6 post offices and 45 rural sub-post offices. Belize National Radio Network broadcasts daily, with 80% of its programmes in English and the remainder in Spanish. Cinemas (1985). There were lOcinemas with seating capacity of 10,000. Newspapers. There were 7 weekly newspapers and 2 monthly magazines in 1984. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Each of the 6 judicial districts has summary jurisdiction courts (criminal) and district courts (civil), both of which are presided over by magistrates. There is a Supreme Court and a Court of Appeal. There is a Director of Public Prosecutions, a ChiefJustice and 3 Puisne Judges. Religion. In 1985 about 62% of the population was Roman Catholic and 28% Protestant, including Anglican, Methodist, Seventh Day Adventist, Mennonite, Nazarene, Jehovah's Witness, Pentecostal and Baptist. There was a small group of Bahai.

206

BELIZE

Education. Education is compulsory for children between 6-14 years and primary education is free. In 1985, 225 primary schools had a total enrolment of 38,512 pupils with 1,582 teachers; 24 secondary schools, 6,676 pupils with 504 teachers; 5 other technical schools, 765 students with 62 teachers. The School of Education offers courses for primary school teachers. The 2-year course leads to a teachers' diploma. The University College of Belize opened in 1986. There is 1 governmentmaintained special school for mentally handicappai and physically handicapped children. The University of the West Indies maintains an extra-mural department in Belize City. Health. In 1985 there were 7 government hospitals(l in Belmopan, 1 in Belize City and 1 in each of the other 5 districts) and an infirmary for geriatric and chronically ill patients, with 78 doctors and 583 hospital beds. Medical services in rural areas are provided by health care centres and mobile clinics. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Belize in Great Britain (15 Thayer St., London, W1M 5DL) High Commissioner: Denton Belisle (accredited 20 May 1986). Of Great Britain in Belize (Merlin Hse., Floriana Ave., Belmopan) High Commissioner: John M. Crosby, LVO. Of Belize in the USA (15751 St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20005) Ambassador: Edward A. Laing. Of the USA in Belize (1 St. Mark St., Belize City) Chargé d'Affaires: D. Keith Guthrie. Of Belize to the United Nations Ambassador: Kenneth E. Tillett. Books of Reference Abstract of Statistics 1981. Government Printer, Belize City, 1982 Bianchi, W. J., Belize: The Controversy Between Guatemala and Great Britain. New York, 1959 Dobson, D., A History of Belize. Belize, 1973 Grant,C. H„ The Making of Modern Belize. CUP, 1976 Setzekorn, W. D., Formerly British Honduras: A Profile of the New Nation of Belize. Ohio Univ. Press, 1981 Woodward, R. L., Jr, Belize. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1980

BENIN République Populaire du Bénin

Capital: Porto Novo Population: 4 • 14m. ( 1986) GNP percapita: VS$290(m3)

H I S T O R Y . The territory of the present State was occupied by France in 1892 and was constituted a division of French West Africa in 1904 under the name of Dahomey. It became an independent republic within the French Community on 4 Dec. 1958, and acquired full independence on 1 Aug. 1960. In the sixth coup since independence, Maj. Mathieu (now Ahmed) Kerekou came to power on 26 Oct. 1972 and proclaimed a Marxist-Leninist state, whose name was altered from Dahomey to Benin on 1 Dec. 1975. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Benin is bounded east by Nigeria, north by Niger and Burkina Faso, west by Togo and south by the Gulf of Guinea. The area is 112,622 sq. km, and the population, census 1979, 3,338,240. Estimate (1986) 4,142,000. In 1979,48% of the inhabitants were male, 14-2% urban and 49% were under 15 years of age. The seat of government is Porto-Novo (208,258 inhabitants in 1982); the chief port and business centre is Cotonou (487,020 in 1982); other important towns (1982) are Parakou (65,945), Natitingou (50,800,1979), Abomey (54,418), Kandi (53,000) and Ouidah. The areas, populations and capitals of the 6 provinces are as follows: Province Atakora Borgou Zou Mono Atlantique Ouémé

Sq. km 31,200 51,000 18,700 3,800 3,200 4,700

Census 1979 479,604 490,669 570,433 477,378 686,258 626,868

Estimate 1985 568,000 577,000 670,000 560,000 824,000 738,000

Capital Natitingou Parakou Abomey Lokossa Cotonou Porto'-Novo

French is the official language, while 47% of the people speak Fon, 12% Adja, 10% Bariba, 9% Yoruba, 6% Fulani, 5% Sombaand 5% Aizo. C L I M A T E . In coastal parts there is an equatorial climate, with a long rainy season from March to July and a short rainy season in Oct. and Nov. The dry season increases in length from the coast, with inland areas having rain only between May and Sept. Porto Novo. Jan. 82°F (27-8°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 52" (1,300 mm). Cotonou. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,325 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under a Loi fondamentale adopted in Aug. 1977, the sole political party is the Parti de la Révolution Populaire du Bénin; its Congress held in Nov. 1985 elected a Central Committee of 45 members to direct Party policy and to appoint the 11 -member Political Bureau. There is a unicameral legislature, the National Revolutionary Assembly of 196 People's Commissioners elected on 10 June 1984 for 5 years from the sole list of the PRPB. The Assembly elects the President for a 5-year term, and he appoints and leads a National Executive Council composed in Feb. 1987 as follows: President, Minister of National Defence: Brig.-Gen. Ahmed Kerekou (re-elected 31 July 1984). Ministers-Delegate to the Presidency: Maj. Edouard Zodehougan (Interior, Security and Territorial Administration), Kifouli Salami (Planning and Statistics). Rural Development and Co-operative Action: Maj. Adolphe Biaou. Equipment and Transport: Giriguissou Gado. Finance and Economy: Hospice Antonio. Commerce, Crafts and Tourism: Soule Dankoro. Nursery and Primary Education: 207

208

BENIN

Capt. Philippe Akpo. Secondary and Higher Education: Vincent Guezodje. Culture, Youth and Sports: Ousmane Batoko. Labour and Social Affairs: Lieut-Col. Nathaneal Mensah. Public Health: André Archade. Information and Communications: Ali Houdou. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Guy Laudry Hazoume. Justice, Inspection andParastatalEnterprises: Didier Dassi. Nationalflag: Green with a red star in the canton. Local Government. The 6 provinces, each governed by an appointed Prefect and a Provincial Revolutionary Council, are divided into 84 districts. D E F E N C E . National service is for a period of 18 months. Army. The Army consists of 3 infantry, 1 para-commando, 1 engineer and 1 service battalion, 1 armoured reconnaissance squadron and 1 artillery battery. Strength (1987) 3,200, with an additional 2,000-strong paramilitary gendarmerie. Navy. A naval force was formed in 1979 with 4 fast gunboats and 2 fast torpedo boats transferred from the USSR, constituting a somewhat over-ambitious flotilla for such a short coastline. Personnel in 1987, under 200. Air Force. The Air Force has a strength of about 100 officers and men, 2 twinturboprop An-26 and 2 C-47 transports, 1 Cessna Skymaster, 1 Aero Commander 500, 2 Broussard communications aircraft, an Agusta-Bell 47G and 2 Ecureuil II helicopters. A twin-turbofan Corvette is operated by the Air Force on VIP missions for government agencies. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Benin is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP country of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A 10-year development plan (1981-90) envisages an expenditure of 958,800m. francs CFA. In March 1987, £1 = 498.88francs CFA: USAS1 = 303.30 francs CFA. Budget. The 1986 recurrent budget balanced at 57,028m. francs CFA and the investment budget at 49,849m. francs CFA. Currency. The monetary unit is the franc CFA (Communauté financière africaine), with a parity value of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. There are coins of 1,2, 5, 10,25, 50 and 100 francs CFA, and banknotes of 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 francs CFA. In March 1987, £1 =498-88 francs CFA\US$1 =303-30francs CFA. Banking. The Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue and the central bank. The Banque Commerciale du Bénin, in Cotonou, conducts all government business. E N E R G Y AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity., Société Béninoise d'Electricité et d'Eau, produced 88m. kwh in 1984 from generating plants at Cotonou, Porto-Novo and Parakou. Major development of hydro-electric resources along the Mono river are being conducted jointly with Togo. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The Semé oilfield, located 10 miles offshore, was discovered in 1968. Production commenced in 1982 and reached 2-5m. bbls in 1984. Agriculture. 90% of the population subsist by agriculture. The chief products, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) were: Cassava, 795; yams, 812; maize, 450; sorghum, 94; groundnuts, 70; beans, 56; rice, 10; and sweet potatoes, 38, while cash crops were palm kernels, 75, and palm oil, 37. Cotton cultivation has been successfully introduced in the north; coffee cultivation has given good results in the south. Livestock (1985 in 1,000): Cattle (925), sheep (1,131), goats (1,079), pigs (576), poultry (21,000), horses (6), asses ( 1 ).

BENIN

209

Fisheries. Total catch in 1983 was 21,000 tonnes (80% from inland and lagoon waters). Forestry. There are about 16,000 sq. km of classified forest, mainly in the north. Roundwood production in 1983 was 3 -99m. cu. metres. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Industrial plants are few, limited mainly to palm-oil processing and brewing. There is a sugar complex at Savé, a cement plant at Onigbolo and textile mills at Cotonou and Parakou. Labour. In 1973 the small trade unions were amalgamated to form a single body, now named the Union Nationale des Syndicats des Travaillers du Bénin. Commerce. Imports in 1983, US$113m.; exports, US$78m. The main exports are palm oil and kernels, cocoa, cotton and sugar. In 1984, 32% of exports were to Spain, 21% to Federal Republic of Germany and 16% to France, which provided the largest share (23%) of imports. Total trade between Benin and UK (British Department of Trade itturns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m ] m J m j m ] m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1,227 14,941

2,887 10,577

2,101 6,829

7,390 8,362

4,910 6,728

Tourism. There were 41,000 foreign tourists in 1980. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 8,400 km of roads in 1983. There were 9,592 motor cars and 6,927 goods vehicles in 1979. Railways. There are 579 km of metre-gauge railway. One line connects Cotonou with Parakou (438 km) and is being extended to Dosso (in Niger); the second runs from Cotonou via Porto-Novo to Pobé (107 km); and the third from Cotonou via Ouidah to Segboroué on the Togo frontier (34 km), continuing to Lomé. In 1981 1 • 9m. passengers and 419,000 tonnes of freight were carried. Aviation. In 1981, 80,400 passengers and 9,763 tonnes of freight passed through Cotonou airport.There are other airports at Abomey, Natitingou, Kandi and Parakou. Shipping. In 1983,736,000 tonnes were unloaded and 64,400 tonnes loaded at the port of Cotonou. There were (1986) 15 vessels of4,887 GRT registered in Benin. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1985, 8,650 telephones. Telegraph lines connect Cotonou with Togo, Niger and Senegal. In 1984 there were 68,000 radios and 17,250 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1976 there were 4 cinemas with a seating capacity of4,400. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of 12,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. The Supreme Court is at Cotonou. There are Magistrates Courts in Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Natitingou, Abomey, Kandi, Ouidah and Parakou, and a tribunal de conciliation in each district. Religion. 61% of the population follow animist beliefs, chiefly Voodoo, about 22% are Christian, mainly Roman Catholic, and 15% Moslem. Education. There were, in 1983, 428,185 pupils in primary schools, 117,724 in secondary schools and 6,369 students in technical schools. The University of Benin (Cotonou) had4,335 students in 1980. Adult literacy (1980) 28%. Health. In 1982 there were 6 hospitals, 31 health centres, 186 dispensaries and 65 maternity clinics with (1978, combined) 4,968 beds, and in 1979 there were 204 doctors, 13 dentists, 55 pharmacists and 1,294 midwives.

210

BENIN

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Benin in Great Britain Ambassador: Souler Issoufou Idrissou (resides in Paris). Of Great Britain in Benin Ambassador: Martin K, Ewans, CMG (resides in Lagos). Of Benin in the USA (2737 Cathedral Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) A mbassador: (Vacant). Of the USA in Benin (Rue Caporal Anani Bernard, Cotonou) Ambassador: George E. Moose. Of Benin to the United,Nations Ambassador: Simon Ifede Ogouma.

BERMUDA

Capital: Hamilton Population: 57,145 ( 1985) GNP per capita: US$ 16,300 (1985)

H I S T O R Y . The Spaniards visited the islands in 1515, but, according to a 17thcentury French cartographer, they were discovered in 1503 by Juan Bermudez, after whom they were named. No settlement was made, and they were uninhabited until a party of colonists under Sir George Somers was wrecked there in 1609. A company was formed for the 'Plantation of the Somers' Islands', as they were called at first, and in 1684 the Crown took over the government. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Bermuda consistsof a group of some 150 small islands-(about 20 inhabited), situated in the western Atlantic (32° 18' N. lat., 64° 46' W. long.); the nearest point of the mainland, about 570 miles distant, is Cape Hatteras, N.C., and 690 miles from New York. The area is 20-59 sq. miles (53-3 sq. km), of which 2-3 sq. miles were leased in 1941 for 99 years to the US Government for naval and air bases. The civil population (i.e., excluding British and American military, naval and air force personnel) in 1980 (Census) was 54,893. Estimate (1985) 57,145. Chief town, Hamilton; population, about 3,000. In 1984 there were 850 live births, 664 marriages and 392 deaths; infantile mortality rate was 7 • 1 per 1,000 live births. C L I M A T E . A pleasantly warm and humid climate, with up to 60" (1,500 mm) of rain, spread evenly throughout the year. Hamilton. Jan. 63°F (17-2°C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 59" (1,463 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Bermuda is a colony with representative government. Under the constitution of 8 June 1968 the Governor, appointed by the Crown, is normally bound to accept the advice of the Cabinet in matters other than external affairs, defence, internal security and the police, for which he retains special responsibility. The Cabinet is appointed from among members of the bicameral legislature, on the recommendation of the Premier. The Senate, of whom one or two members may serve on Cabinet, consists of 11 members. As a result of a Constitutional Conference held in Feb. 1979, it was decided that 5 Senators would be appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the Premier, 3 by the Governor on the recommendation of the Opposition Leader and 3 by the Governor in his own discretion. The 40 members of the House of Assembly are elected 2 from each of 20 constituencies under fall universal, adult suffrage. A general election was held on 29 Oct. 1985. The United Bermuda Party won 31 seats, the Progressive Labour Party, 7 and the National Liberal Party, 2. Governor: The Viscount Dunrossil, CMG. Premier: John W. D. Swan. Flag: The British Red Ensign with the badge of the Colony in the fly. D E F E N C E . The Bermuda Regiment had 734 men and women in 1987. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure in $B for years ending 31 March: Revenue Expenditure

1982-83

155,129,150 154,858,550

1983-84

165,498,190 165,466,440

211

1984-85

186,553,800 186,553,245

1985-86

214,800,000 190,362,000

1986-87

231,508,700 200,706,300

212

BERMUDA

Expenditure in $B1,000 (excluding capital items) was earmarked as follows: Education Health and Social Services Public Works Police Tourism Marine and Ports Services Public Transportation Agriculture and Fisheries Post Office

1982-83 25,919 30,386 13,333 12,427 10,851 3,794 4,307 5,164 4,196

1983-84 24,068 41,855 16,069 13,933 13,335 4,267 936 5,827 4,196

1984-85 30,589 37,113 16,090 13,953 14,750 4,678 953 6,266 4,196

1985-86 25,585 434,100 20,195 15,970 17,793 5,127 93,200 5,719 5,022

1986-87 27,853 491,600 21,427 17,204 19,383 5,852 77,800 6,126 5,991

Chief sources of revenue in 1985-86 were: Customs duties, $97m.; employment tax, $20-7m.; land tax, $10-8m.; hotel occupancy tax, $9-4m.; hospital levy, $26-5m.; vehicle licenses, $7,441,000; stamp duties, $6-2m.; passenger taxes, $7 • 8m. Public debt, as at 31 March 1986, was nil. Currency. Decimal currency based on a Bermuda dollar of 100 cents was introduced 6 Feb. 1970. In March 1987 £1 = 1.54 Bermuda dollars and US$1 = 1 Bermuda dollar. The Bermuda Monetary Authority issues notes in denominations of $ 100, $50, $20, $ 10, $5 and $ 1, and coins in values of 50c, 25c, 10c, 5c and 1 c. Banking. There are 3 banks, the Bank of Bermuda, Ltd, the Bank of N. T. Butterfield and Son, Ltd, and the Bermuda Commercial Bank, Ltd, with correspondent banks and representatives in either New York, London, Canada or Hong Kong. Weights and Measures. British, except that US instead of Imperial fluid measures are used. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 350m. kwh. Supply 115 volts; 60 Hz. Agriculture. The chief products are fresh vegetables, bananas and citrus fruit. In 1986, 603 acres were under cultivation. In 1985 about 5% of the work force were engaged in agriculture, fishing and horticulture. In 1983, total value of agricultural products was $B7,551,947. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 1,000; pigs, 3,000; goats, 1,000; poultry (1982), 47,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Trade Unions. Legislation providing for trade unions was enacted in Oct. 1946, and there are 9 trade unions with a total membership (1983) of7,622. Commerce. Imports and exports in SB: Imports Exports

1982 348,000,000 17,000,000

1983 377,732,000 22,762,000

1984 414,094,688 40,544,514

¡985 402,491,252 23,053,764

The visible adverse balance of trade is more than compensated for by invisible exports, including tourism and off-shore insurance business. Imports in 1985 from USA, $241m.; UK, $40m.; Canada, $25m.; Japan, $13,637,000; Hong Kong, $4,961,000; France, $6,665,000; Federal Republic of Germany, $4,818,000; New Zealand, $2,834,000; Denmark, $3,937,000; Netherlands, $2,894,000. In 198 5 the principal imports were food, drink and tobacco ($ 130 • 5m.); clothing ($29m.), electric appliances ($39m.), transport equipment ($24m.). The bulk of exports comprise sales of fuel to aircraft and ships, and re-exports of pharmaceuticals. Total trade between Bermuda and UK, in £ 1,000 sterling (British Department of Trade returns): m 2 m 3 m 4 m 5 ] m ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

5,128 18,222

4,019 24,924

3,037 22,843

6,394 28,024

1,262 26,180

BERMUDA

213

Tourism. In 1985,489,000 tourists visited Bermuda including those arriving by air and cruise ship. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1948 the railway service was discontinued and a government-operated bus service introduced. Between 1908 and Aug. 1946 the use of motor vehicles, with the exception of ambulances, fire engines and other essential services, was prohibited. In 1983, out of41,666 registered vehicles 15,843 were private cars. Aviation. American Airlines, Pan American, Delta Airlines and Eastern Airlines maintain regular services between Bermuda and the USA. British Airways also have regular flights through Bermuda linking Bermuda with Baltimore and London. Air Canada Airlines call at Bermuda on their service between Toronto, Montreal and Halifax. Shipping. In 1984, there were 128 visits by cruise ships, 228 visits by cargo ships and 25 visits by oil and gas tankers. Post and Broadcasting(1985). There are 15 post offices. The telephone company is privately owned and operated 51,374 telephones in 1983. Cables connect the islands with the USA, Halifax (N.S.) and Tortola, providing connexion with the world. Radio and television broadcasting is commercial. Newspapers (1985). There is 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of 16,000 and 2 weeklies with a total circulation of26,000. J U S T I C E , EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 3 magistrates' courts, 3 Supreme Courts and a court of appeal. The police had a strength of449 men and women in 1985. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16, and government assistance is given by the payment of grants, and, where necessary, of school fees. In 1985, there were 18 primaiy schools, 14 secondary schools (of which 5 are private, including 2 denominational schools and one run by the US Armed Forces in Bermuda), 4 special schools at the primary and secondary levels which cater to 190 blind, deaf, speech impaired and multiple handicappedxhildren, a Day Training Centre for children 5-14 years, an Opportunity Workshop which caters to 26 severely handicapped persons aged 14-21, and 11 pre-school nurseries. There were 2,371 students attending the Bermuda College in 1985. Health. In 1985 there were 2 hospitals, 76 doctors, 24 dentists, 235 professional nurses and 24 pharmacists. Books of Reference Bermuda Report, 1980-84 Hamilton, 1986 Bermuda Historical Quarterly 1944 ff. Dyer, H. T., The Next 20 Years. A Report of the Development Plans for Bermuda. Hamilton, 1963 Hayward, S. J., Holt-Gomez, V., and Sterrer, W , Bermuda's Delicate Balance People and the Environment. Hamilton, 1981 Warwick, J. B„ (ed.), Who 'j Who in Bermuda 1980-81 Hamilton, 1982 Wilkinson, H. C., Bermuda from Sail to Steam. OUP, 1973 Zuill, W S., The Story of Bermuda and Her People London, 1973 National Library The Bermuda Library, Hamilton. Head Librarian. Cyril O. Packwood.

BHUTÄN

Capital: Thimphu Population: 1 -3m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$ 140 (1984)

Druk-yul HISTORY. In 1774 the East India Company concluded a treaty with the ruler of Bhutan. Under a treaty signed in Nov. 1865 the Bhutan Government was granted an annual subsidy. By an amending tfeaty-concluded in Jan. 1910 the British Government undertook to exercise no interference in the internal affairs of Bhutan, and the Bhutan Government agreed to be guided by the advice of the British Government in regard to its external relations. The Government of India concluded a fre$h treaty with Bhutan on 8 Aug. 1949. Under this treaty the Government of Bhutan continues to be guided by the Government of India in regard to its external relations, and the Government of India have undertaken not to interfere in the internal administration of Bhutan. The subsidy paid to Bhutan has been increased to Rs 500,000, and the Government of India agreed to retrocede to Bhutan an area of about 32 sq. miles in the territory known as Dewangiri, which was annexed in 1865. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Bhutan is situated in the eastern Himalayas, bordered north by China and on all other sides by India. Extreme length from east to west 190 miles: extreme breadth 90 miles. Area about 18,000 sq. miles (46,500 sq. km); population estimated at approximately 1,300,000 (1986). Life expectancy (1985) was46 years. The capital isatThimphu(1986,15,000 population). C L I M A T E . The climate is largely controlled by altitude. The mountainous north is cold, with perpetual snow on the summits, but the centre has a more moderate climate, though winters are cold, with rainfall under 40" (1,000 mm). In the south, the climate is humid sub-tropical and rainfall approaches 200" (5,000 mm). KING. Jigme Singye-Wangchuck, succeeded his father Jigme Doiji Wangchuck whodied21 July 1972. G O V E R N M E N T . In 1907 the Tongsa Penlop (the governor of the province of Tongsa in central Bhutan), Sir Ugyen Wangchuk, GCIE, KCSI, was elected as the first hereditary Maharaja of Bhutan. The Bhutanese title is Druk Gyalpo, and his successor is now addressed as King of Bhutan. From Oct. 1969 the absolute monarchy was changed to a form of'democratic monarchy'. The National Assembly (Tshogdu) was reinstituted in 1953. It has 151 members and meets twice a year. Two-thirds are representatives of the people and are elected for a 3-year term. All Bhutanese over 25 years may be candidates. Ten monastic representatives are elected by the central and regional ecclesiastical bodies, while the remaining members are nominated by the King, and include members of the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) and the Royal Advisory Council. The official languages are Dzongkha, Lhotsam (Nepali) and English. National flag: Diagonally yellow over orange, over all in the centre a white dragon. Local government: There are 18 districts, each under a governor (Dzongda). DEFENCE Army. There is an Army of about 4,000 men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Bhutan is a member of UN. 214

BHUTAN

215

ECONOMY Planning. The Government of Bhutan has drawn up five 5-year development plans (1961-66, 1966-71, 1971-76, 1976-81, 1987-92), and one 6-year plan (1981—87), with the financial support of the Government of India, UN and other international aid organizations. Educational and medical facilities are being expanded. Forest and mineral wealth is to be exploited. About 2,000 km of new roads have been built. Budget. The budget for 1985-86 envisaged expenditure of N863m. and revenue of N264m. Currency. Paper currency has been introduced, known as the Ngultrum. Silver currency is known as Chetrum (100 Chetrum = 1 Ngultrum). Indian currency is also legal tender. In March 1987, £1 =N19-98;US$1 =N13 03. Banking. The Bank of Bhutan was established in 1968. The headquarters are at Phuntsholing with 20 branches throughout the country. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 9m. kwh, and 23 towns and 93 villages had electricity. Minerals. Large deposits of limestone, marble, dolomite, graphite, lead, copper, slate, coal, talc, gypsum, beryl, mica, pyrites and tufa have been found. Agriculture. The area under cultivation in 1985 was some 775,000 hectares. The chief crops (1985 production in 1,000 tonnes) are rice (62), millet (7), wheat (11), barley (5), maize (86), cardamom, potatoes (27), oranges (26), apples, handloom cloth, timber and yaks. Extensive and valuable forests abound. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 347,379; yaks, 31,271; pigs, 60,079; sheep and goats, 52,283;poultry, 179,521. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1985 there were about 400 small-scale cottage and industrial units and also a cement plant, a fruit processing factory, a tea-chest ply veneer factory, a resin and turpentine factory, a salt iodization plant and 3 distilleries. Commerce. Trade with India dominates but timber, cardamom and liquor are also exported to the Middle East, Singapore and Western Europe. Total trade between Bhutan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): , m m 5 m 6 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

86

109

76

Tourism. The country has been opened for controlled tourism since 1974 and this is the largest source of foreign exchange. In 1985,1,896 tourists visited Bhutan. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were about 2,000 km of roads. In 1985, there were 3,633 vehicles, of which 716 were private cars and 1,761 buses, jeeps and trucks. Post. A modem postal system was introduced in 1962. There are 54 general post offices and 30 branch post offices. In 1986 there were 1,086 km of telephone lines, 15 automatic exchanges and (1985) 1,890 telephones. Newspapers. The only weekly newspaper, Kuensel, began publication in Aug. 1986 to replace the government weekly bulletin. It is published in 3 languages (English, Eteongkha and Nepali). Total circulation (1986) about 5,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Magistrate's Court in each district, under a Thrimpon, from which appeal is to the High Court at Thimphu.

216

BHUTÄN

Religion. The majority of the people are Mahayana Buddhists of the Drukpa subsect of the Kagyud School which was first introduced from Tibet during the 12 th century. Education. In 1985 there were 33,934 pupils and 1,082 teachers in primary schools, 16,377 pupils and 589 teachers in secondary schools and 688 pupils and 103 teachers in technical and vocational schools. Many students receive training under the Colombo Plan in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Singapore and UK. Health. There were (1985) 28 hospitals, 44 dispensaries, 65 basic health units, 4 indigenous dispensaries, 5 leprosy hospitals, 1 mobile hospital, 1 health school and 15 malaria eradication centres. In 1985 beds totalled 857 and there were 70 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE Of Bhután to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). The Government of Bhutan is in diplomatic relations with Bangladesh and India at ambassadorial level with resident missions in Thimphu. Honorary Consuls have also been appointed in Singapore, South Korea and Hong Kong (the latter also responsible for Macau). Books of Reference Bhutan, Himalayan Kingdom. Bhután Government, Thimphu, 1979 Aris, M., Bhutan: The Early History of an Himalayan Kingdom. Warminster, 1979 Das, N., The Dragon Country. New Delhi, 1973 Labh, K., India and Bhutan. New Delhi, 1974 Mehra, G. N., Bhutan: Land of the Peaceful Dragon. Rev. ed. New Delhi, 1985 Olschak, B. C., Bhutan: Land of Hidden Treasures. New Delhi, 1971 Rahul, R., Royal Bhutan. New Delhi, 1983 Ronaldshay, the Earl of, Lands of the Thunderbolt. 2nd ed. London, 1931 Rose, L. E„ The Politics of Bhutan. Cornell Univ. Press, 1977 Rustomji, N., Bhutan: The Dragon Kingdom in Crisis. OUP, 1978

Capital: Sucre Seat of Government: La Paz Population: 6 • 25m. ( 1984) GNP per capita: US$400 (1985)

BOLIVIA República de Bolivia

H I S T O R Y . Until 1884, when Bolivia was defeated by Chile, she had a strip bordering on the Pacific which contains extensive nitrate beds and at that time the port of Cobija (which no longer exists). She lost this area to Chile; but in Sept. 1953 Chile declared Arica a free port and, although it is no longer a free port for Bolivian imports, Bolivia still has certain privileges. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Bolivia is a landlocked state with an area of some 424,165 sq. miles (1,098,581 sq. km). The following table shows the area and population of the departments (the capitals of each are given in brackets): Departments La Paz (La Paz) Cochabamba (Cochabamba) Potosí (Potosí) Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz) Chuquisaca (Sucre) Tarija (Tarija) Oruro (Oruro) Beni (Trinidad) Pando (Cobija) Total

Area (sq. km) 133,985 55,631 118,218 370,621 51,524 37,623 53,588 213,564 63,827

Census 1976 1,456,078 720,952 657,743 710,724 358,516 186,704 310,409 168,367 34,493

Census 1982' 1,913,184 908,674 823,485 942,986 435,406 246,691 385,121 217,700 42,594

Per sq. km 1975 12-50 15-57 7-98 1 -36 9-69 5-95 6-93 0-99 0-55

1,098,581

4,687,718

5,915,841

4-85

1

Preliminary.

Total population (estimate 1984) 6,252,250. Population (estimate 1982) of the principal towns: La Paz, 881,404; Santa Cruz, 376,917; Cochabamba, 281,962; Oruro, 132,213; Potosí, 103,182; Sucre, 79,941; Tarija, 54,001. The language of the educated classes is Spanish, that of the majority of Indians, Aymará (25 -2%) or Quechua (34 -4%). C L I M A T E . The very varied geography of Bolivia produces several different climates. The two most significant are the low-lying areas in the Amazon Basin, which are very warm and damp throughout the year, with heavy rainfall from Nov. to March, and the alti-plano, which is generally dry between May and Nov. with abundant sunshine, but the nights are cold in June and July, while the months from Dec. to March are the wettest. La Paz. Jan. 53°F (11-7°C), July 47°F (8-3°C). Annual rainfall 23" (574 mm). Sucre. Jan. 55'F(13°C), July 49°F(9-4°C). Annual rainfall 27" (675 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Republic of Bolivia was proclaimed on 6 Aug. 1825; its first constitution was adopted on 19 Nov. 1826. La Paz is the actual capital and seat of the Government, but Sucre is the legal capital and the seat of the judiciary. 217

218

BOLIVIA

The following is a list of presidents since 1966 and the date on which they took office: Gen. René Barrientos Ortuno (Constitutional President killed in air accident), 6 Aug. 1966-27 April 1969. Dr Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas (deposed), 27 April 1969-26 Sept. 1969. Gen. Alfredo Ovando Candia, 26 Sept. 1969-6 Oct. 1970. Gen. Juan José Torres, 7 Oct. 1970-21 Aug. 1971. Gen. Hugo Banzer Suarez, 21 Aug. 1971-21 July 1978. Gen. Juan Pereda Asbun, 21 July 1978-24 Nov. 1978. Gen. David Padilla Arancibia, 24 Nov. 1978-8 Aug. 1979.

Dr Walter Guevara Arze (deposed), 8 Aug. 1979-1 Nov. 1979. Dr Lydia Gueiler Tejada (deposed), 16 Nov. 1979-17 July 1980. Maj.-Gen. Luis García Meza Tejada (resigned), 18 July 1980-4 Aug. 1981. Military Junta, 4 Aug. 1981-4 Sept. 1981. Gen. Celso Torrelio Villa, (resigned), 4 Sept. 1981-19 July 1982. Brig.-Gen. Guido Vildoso Calderón, 21 July 1982-10 Oct. 1982. Dr Hernán Siles Zuazo, lOOct. 1982-6 Aug. 1985.

Following elections in July 1979 which were inconclusive an interim President was chosen with the agreement of the three parties who had polled most votes. For details of political history 1970-78 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1980-81 and for the period 1978-1980 SEE THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1983-84. The President and Vice-President are elected by universal suffrage for a four year term. The President appoints the members of his Cabinet from candidates nominated by the Senate. There is a bicameral legislature; the Senate comprises 27 members, 3 from each department, and the Chamber of Deputies 117 members, all elected for 4 years. Elections to the National Congress were held on 14 July 1985. The Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario gained 59 seats; Alianza Democrática Nacionalista, 51; Movimiento de la Izquierda Revolucionaria, 16; Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario de Izquierda, 8. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Nov. 1986: President: Dr Victor Paz Esstensoro (sworn in 6 Aug. 1985). Vice-President: Dr Julio Garrett Ayllon. Foreign Affairs: Guillermo Bedregal. Interior: Fernando Barthelemy. Defence: Fernando Valle Quevedo. Finance: Juan Cariaga Osorio. Planning: Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada. Education: Enrique Ipiña Melgar. Transport and Communications: Andrés Petricevic. Industry and Commerce: Roberto Gisbert. Labour: Walter Rios Gamboa. Health: Dr Carlos Perez Guzman. Mines and Metallurgy: Jaime Villalobos. Agriculture: Edil Sandoval Morón. Energy and Hydrocarbons: Carlos Morales Landivar. Housing: Franklin Anaya. Information: Herman Antelo Louckling. Integration: Fernando Cáseres. Aeronautics: Gen. Antonio Tovar Piérola. Secretary-General: Juan Carlos Duran Saucedo. Secretary to the Presidency: Eduardo O. Lopez Mufioz. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, yellow, green, with the arms of Bolivia in the centre. National anthem: Bolivianos, el hado propicio (words by I. de Sanjinés; tune by B. Vincenti). Local Government: The republic is divided into 9 departments, established in Jan. 1826, with 98 provinces administered by sub-prefects, and 1,272 cantons administered by corregidores. The supreme authority in each department is vested in a prefect appointed by the President. D E F E N C E . Bolivia is divided into 8 military districts, with divisional headquarters in Viacha, Oruro, Villa Montes, Camiri, Roboré, Riberalta, Santa Cruz, Cochabamba; regional HQ are located at La Paz, Sucre, Tarija, Potosí, Trinidad and Cobija. There is selective conscription for 12 months at the age of 18 years. Army. The Army consists of 13 infantry, 6 cavalry, 2 mechanized, 3 artillery, 2 ranger and 1 parachute regiments, and 2 armoured anti-tank and 6 engineer battalions. Equipment, 24 EE-9 Cascavel armoured cars. Strength (1987) 20,000.

BOLIVIA

219

Navy. A small Navy exists for river and lake patrol comprising 40 patrol craft operating in Lake Titicaca, Bern river systems and the Bolivia-Paraguay 6,000-mile river systems, 1 transport (a gift from Venezuela for use to and from Bolivian free zones in Argentina and Uruguay) and 2 hospital ships (one a gift from USA). There are two armed T-6 patrol aircraft and a Cessna light transport. Personnel in 1987 totalled 4,000 officers and men including 600 marines. Most training of officers and petty officers is carried out in Argentina. The junior ratings are almost entirely converted soldiers. Air Force. The Air Force, established in 1923, has 3 combat-capable squadrons, two equipped with T-33 armed jet trainers, and one with Hughes 500 helicopters, for counter-insurgency operations. A search and rescue helicopter squadron has 9 Brazilian-assembled Gaviáos (Lamas). Other types in service include Brazilian T-23 Uirapuru and American T-41 primary trainers, Italian SF.260M and Swiss turboprop-powered Pilatus PC-7 basic trainers, 1 Electra four-turboprop transport, 6 Fokker F.27 and 4 Israeli-built Arava twin-turboprop light transports, 1 Convair 580 twin-turboprop transport, 5 C-130H/L-100-30 Hercules, 6 C-47 and 4 Convair 440 piston-engined transports with which a military airline service is operated, about 30 Cessna single- and twin-engined light aircraft and helicopters. Personnel strength (1987) about 4,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Bolivia is a member of UN, OAS, LAIA (formerly Andean Group and the Amazon Pact.

LAFTA),

the

External Debt. The contracted external debt was US$3,227 lm.,Dec. 1983. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditures in 1 m. pesos bolivianos balanced as follows: In 1982 there was a projected budget deficit of$b.l 10,959m. Currency. On 1 Jan. 1987 the boliviano ($b. equal to lm. pesos) was introduced. Exchange rates were $b.l-923=US$l and$b.2-939=£l in March 1987. Banking. The Banco Central de Bolivia was established in 1911 as Banco de la Nación Boliviana and re-orgamzed in 1928. The Bank was nationalized in 1939. At 30 Dec. 1984 the Bank's gross gold and foreign exchange reserves amounted to US$290m. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is used by the administration and prescribed by law, but the old Spanish system is also employed. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electric power production is expanding. Installed capacity was estimated at 490,000 kw. in 1985. Estimated production from all sources (1985), 2,000m. kwh. Supply 110 volts; 60 Hz. Oil and Gas. There are petroleum and natural gas deposits in the Santa CruzCamiri areas. A pipeline for crude oil connects Caranda (Santa Cruz) with the Pacific coast at Anca (Chile) and a natural gas pipeline to Argentina was inaugurated in May 1972. All production, refining and internal distribution is now in the hands of Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (the State Petroleum Organization). Total production of crude oil in 1986 was estimated at 880,000 tonnes. Production of natural gas in 1981 was estimated at 175,478m. cu. ft. Minerals. Mining is the most important industry, accounting for about 69% of the foreign-exchange earnings. About half the mineral mined is tin. Tin mines are at altitudes of from 12,000 to 18,000 ft, where few except native Indians can stand the conditions; transport is costly. Bolivian tin is extracted by shaft-mining, frequently very deep; the ore yields only 0-7% or less of tin and is very refractory; tin is exported in concentrates called barrilla, through Pacific ports for refining. Smelting capacitv was increased in 1980 and it is planned to smelt all the ores from the

220

BOLIVIA

State Mining Co. but complex ores still have to be exported for smelting. Tin production in 1984 was 17,875 tonnes. The state industry is being run by the Corporación Minera de Bolivia (COMIBOL) employing about 23,000 in mining and administrative capacities. Alluvial gold deposits in the Alto Beni region are being exploited. Production (1984) 1 1 tonne. Foreign firms are seeking exploration rights for uranium and a small uranium processing plant was opened in Oct. 1980 at Cotaje (Potosí province). Large deposits of salt are found near Lake Poopó and in the south of Bolivia. Agriculture. The extensive and still largely undeveloped region east of the Andes comprises about three-quarters of the entire area of the country, and since the agrarian reform of 1952 sugar-cane, rice and cotton have been grown in this Oriente in increasing abundance, reaching self-sufficiency in all these products. Output in 1,000 tonnes in 1985 was: Sugar-cane, 2,000; rice, 184; coffee, 18; maize, 554; potatoes, 721; wheat, 68; cotton (lint), 2; cocoa, 3. Cocaine is by far the largest crop grown. Livestock: In 1985 there were 5,851,000 head of cattle, mostly in the Santa Cruz and Beni departments; some are exported to Peru; horses, 311,000; asses, 600,000; pigs, 1,112,000; sheep, 9,413,000; goats, 3-2m.; poultry, 10m. Forestry. Tropical forests with woods ranging from the 'iron tree' to the light palo de balsa are beginning to be exploited. In 1962 the Forestry Service announced proved reserves of 46 • 3m. hectares, plus a similar amount available for immediate development. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There are few industrial establishments and the country relies on imports for the supply of many consumer goods. However a new investment law passed in 1971 provides incentives and protection for new investment, both foreign and dorfiestic, and for reinvestment in various fields including manufacturing industry, mining, agriculture, construction and tourism. Commerce. The value of imports and exports in US$ 1,000 has been as follows: Imports Exports

1979 984,000 793,000

1980 833,160 942,000

1981 917,081 995,298

1982 496,084 898,176

1983 532,342 817,460

1984 782,000

Chief exports in 1983 (in US$1 m.): Natural gas, 378-2; tin, 207-9; silver, 58-3; zinc, 33-4; wolfram, 20; coffee, 12-9;sugar, 12-3. Chief imports in 1983 (in US$1 m.): Raw materials for industry, 211-3; capital goods for industry, 152-4; consumer goods, 52-3; transport equipment, 52-2; construction materials, 38 -4. Imports and exports (in US$ 1,000), by country, 1983: Country Argentina Belgium Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Ecuador Federal Republic ofGermany France Italy

Imports 75,562 2,766 73,860 3,994 16,215 1,573 345

Exports 388,770 25,434 12,721 31 8,333 3,805 113

29,197 21,138 3,897

23,948 15,326 602

Country Japan Mexico Netherlands Paraguay Peru Sweden Switzerland UK USA Uruguay Venezuela

Imports 38,971 32,499 5,670 46 13,473 7,189 4,544 20,816 149,466 2,363 472

Exports 15,358 15 49,077 -

14,577 150 16,540 19,121 169,851 16 234

Total exports, 1984, of all minerals, in concentrates, ingots or solder, were valued at US$363-9m. Bolivia having no seaport, imports and exports pass chiefly through the ports of Arica and Antofagasta in Chile, Mollendo-Matarani in Peru, through La Quiaca on the Bolivian-Argentine border and through river-ports on the rivers flowing into the Amazon.

221

BOLIVIA

Total trade between Bolivia and UK for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 20,899 4,943

1983 14,834 4,711

1984 20,052 17,170

1985 14,434 10,443

1986 10,225 3,663

Tourism. There were 163,000 visitors in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. A highway, in poor condition, 497 km long, runs from Cochabamba to the lowland farming region of Santa Cruz. La Paz and Oruro are also connected by a metalled road. Of other main highways (unmetalled) there is one from La Paz through Guaqui into Peru, another from La Paz, via Oruro, Potosí, Tanja and Bermejo, into Argentina, with branches to Cochabamba, Sucre and Camiri, passable throughout the year except at the height of the rainy season, and others from Villazón to Villa Montes via Tarija, passable during the dry season. The total length of the road system is 41,000 km (1984). Motor vehicles in use in 1984, 168,600, including 43,677 cars. Railways. In 1964 Bolivian National Railways (ENFE) was formed by the amalgamation of the Bolivian Government Railways, Bolivian Railway Co. and the Bolivian section of the Antofagasta (Chili) & Bolivia Railway. The Guaqui-La Paz Railway, formerly operated by Peru, became part of ENFE in 1973. Access to the Pacific is by 3 routes: to Antofagasta and Arica in Chile, and to Moliendo in Peru via Guaqui, the Lake Titicaca train ferry to Puno (Peru), then rail to the coast. Construction began in 1978 of a 150-km line linking Puno with Desaguadero on the Bolivian border which would by-pass the train ferry, though gauge difference would still prevent through running to Peru. Current network totals 3,538 km of metre gauge, comprising unconnected Eastern (1,386 km) and Western (2,152 km) systems. In 1985 the railways carried 1 -6m. passengers and 646,350 tonnes of freight. Aviation. The national airline is Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano. The airline runs regular services between La Paz and Lima, Sáo Paulo, Buenos Aires, Miami, Caracas, Salta and Arica as well as many internal services. Eastern Airways runs regular flights between La Paz, Buenos Aires, Santiago and Asunción linking Bolivia to the USA. Lufthansa links Bolivia with Europe. Other airlines serving Bolivia are Aerolíneas Argentinas, Cruzeiro, Aero Peru and Lan Chile. Shipping. Traffic on Lake Titicaca between Guaqui and Puno is carried on by the steamers of the Peruvian Corporation. About 12,000 miles of rivers, in 4 main systems (Beni, Pilcomayo, Titicaca-Desaguadero, Mamoré), are open to navigation by light-draught vessels. Post and Broadcasting. In Bolivia there were, in 1978, 458 post offices, of these, 205 provided telegraph and telephone services together with a further 245 offices for telegraph and telephone service only. There is telephone service in the cities of La Paz, Cochabamba, Oruro, Sucre, Potosí, Santa Cruz, Tarija, Camiri, Tupiza, Villazon, Riberalta and Trinidad with (1983), 204,747 telephones. There are about 119 broadcasting stations, of which 7 are state-owned. There is a commercial government television service. There are 4 private television stations and 1 University station (educational channel) in La Paz. Newspapers. There were (1984) 7 daily newspapers in La Paz, 2 in Oruro, and 1 in Cochabamba. Several other towns have regular newspapers devoted to local news, but most of them appear only a few times a week. An economic monthly journal Revista Economica and 4 daily newspapers are produced in Santa Cruz. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court, superior district courts (of 5 or 7 judges) and courts of local justice. TTie Supreme Court, with headquarters at

222

BOLIVIA

Sucre, is divided into two sections, civil and criminal, of 5 justices each, with the Chief Justice presiding over both. Members of the Supreme Court are chosen on a two-thirds vote of Congress. Religion. The Roman Catholic is the recognized religion of the state; the free exercise of other forms of worship is permitted. The Catholic Church is under a cardinal (in Sucre), an archbishop (in La Paz), 6 bishops (Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Oruro, Potosí, Riberalta and Tanja) and vicars apostolic (titular bishops resident in Cueva, Trinidad, San Ignacio de Velasco, Riberalta and Rurrenabaque). By a law of 11 Oct. 1911 all marriages must be celebrated by the civil authorities. Divorce is permitted by a law enacted on 15 April 1932. Education. Primary instruction is free and obligatory between the ages of 6 and 14 years. In 1981 there were 1 • 1 m. pupils and 51,000 teachers in 10,662 primary and elementary schools. At Sucre, Oruro, Potosí, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Tarija, Trinidad and La Paz are universities; La Paz is the most important of them while the San Francisco Xavier University at Sucre is one of the oldest in America, founded in 1624. Health. In 1972 there were 2,143 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Bolivia in Great Britain (106 Eaton Sq., London, SW1W9AD) Ambassador: Eduardo Arauco Paz (accredited 15 Nov. 1985). Of Great Britain in Bolivia (Avenida Arce 2732-2754, La Paz) Ambassador: Alan White, CMG, OBE. Of Bolivia in the US A (3014 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Fernando Manes. Of the USA in Bolivia (Banco Popular Del Peru Bldg, La Paz) Ambassador: Edward M. Rowell. Of Bolivia to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Jorge Gumucio Granier. Books of Reference Anuario Geográfico y Estadístico de ¡a República de Bolivia Anuario del Comercia Exterior de Bolivia Boletín Mensual de Información Estadística Dunkerley, J., Rebellion iti the Veins: Political Struggle in Bolivia 1952-1982. London, 1984 Fifer, i. V., Bolivia: Land, Location and Politics Since 1825. CUP, 1972 Guillermo, L., A History of the Bolivian Labour Movement 1848-1971. CUP, 1977 Klein, H„ Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society. OUP, 1982

BOTSWANA

Capital: Gaborone Population: 1 05m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$920 (1983)

H I S T O R Y . In 1885 the territory was declared to be within the British sphere; in 1889 it was included in the sphere of the British South Africa Company, but was never administered by the company; in 1890 a Resident Commissioner was appointed, and in 1895, on the annexation of the Crown Colony of British Bechuanaland to the Cape of Good Hope, the British Government was in favour of transferring the Protectorate to the BSA Company, but the three major chiefs of the Bakwena, the Bangwaketse and the Bamangwato went to England to protest against this proposal, and agreement was reached that their country should remain a British Protectorate if they ceded a strip of land on the eastern side of the country for railway construction. This railway was built in 1896-97. On 30 Sept. 1966 the Bechuanaland Protectorate became an independent and sovereign member of the Commonwealth under the name of the Republic of Botswana. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Botswana comprises the territory lying between the Molopo River on the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending from the Transvaal Province and Zimbabwe on the east to South-West Africa on the west. Area about 222,000 sq. miles (582,000 sq. km); population, estimate 1984, was 1,050,216(census, 1981,941,027). The main business centres (with estimated population, 1984) are Gaborone (79,400), Francistown (35,960), Selebi-Phikwe (32,480), Serowe (28,980), Kanye (23,400), Lobatse (22,030), Mochudi (21,280), Molepolole (23,810), Mahalapye (25,370), Maun (17,280), Palapye (11,750), Orapa (5,760), Jwaneng (7,410). The seat of government is at Gaborone. The official language is English; the national language is Setswana. C L I M A T E . Most of the country is sub-tropical, but there are arid areas in the south and west. In winter, days are warm and nights cold, with occasional frosts. Summer heat is tempered by prevailing north-east winds. Rainfall comes mainly in summer, from Oct. to April, while the rest of the year is almost completely dry with very high sunshine amounts. Gaborone. Jan. 79°F (26-TC), July 55°F (12-8°C). Annual rainfall 21" (538 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the republic is based on the Constitution which came into effect in March 1965, with some minor alterations. The executive rests with the President of the Republic who is responsible to the National Assembly. The National Assembly consists of 40 members, 32 elected by universal suffrage. The general election, held in Sept. 1984, returned 29 members of the Botswana Democratic Party, 4 Botswana National Front and 1 Botswana People's Party. The President is an ex-officio member of the Assembly. If the President is already a member of the National Assembly, a by-election will be held in that constituency. There is also a House of Chiefs to advise the Government. It consists of the Chiefs of the 8 tribes who were autonomous during the days of the British protectorate, and 4 members elected by and from among the sub-chiefs in 4 districts. The first President of Botswana, who was re-elected 3 times, was Sir Seretse Khama, KBE, who died 13 July 1980. President of the Republic: Dr Quett Ketumile Joni Masire (re-elected 1984). In Sept. 1985 the Cabinet was as follows: Vice President and Minister of Finance and Development Planning: P. S. Mmusi. Presidential Affairs and Public Administration. P. H. K. Kedikilwe. 223

224

BOTSWANA

External Affairs: Dr G. K. T. Chiepe. Health: P. Balopi. Agriculture: D. K. Kwelagobe. Local Government and Lands: J. L. T. Mothibamele. Works and Communications: C. Blackbeard. Commerce and Industry: M. P. K. Nwako. Minerai Resources and Water Affairs: A. M. Mogwe. Education: K. P. Morake. Home Affairs: E. M. K. Kgabo. Assistant Minister of Finance and Development Planning: D. Magang. Assistant Ministers of Local Government and Lands: M. R. Tshipinare and O. I. Chilume. Assistant Minister of Agriculture: G. Oteng. Attorney-General: Moleleki Mokama. Speaker of the National Assembly: J. G. Haskins. National flag: Light blue with a horizontal black stripe, edged white, across the centre. Local Government. Local government is carried out by 9 district councils and 4 town councils. Revenue is obtained mainly from local income tax, levied on all inhabitants in the area; from rates in the towns and from central government subventions in the districts. DEFENCE Army. A defence force has been created for border control and comprises 2 infantry battalions. Personnel(1987)2,850. Air Force. Equipment includes 5 Britten-Norman Defender armed light transports for border patrol, counter-insurgency and casualty evacuation duties, 5 Bulldog piston-engined basic trainers, 2 Skyvan turboprop passenger/cargo transports, 2 Trislander 3-engined transports, 2 Ecureuil helicopters and 2 Cessna 152 light aircraft. Personnel (1987) about 150. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Botswana is a member of UN, OAU, SADCC, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Development Plan 1986-91 envisages a total capital expenditure of PI,200m. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in lm. Pula) for financial years ending 31 March: 1982-83 1983-84 1981-82 Revenues and grants Expenditure and net lending

310' 364

394 414

511 439

Currency. The currency was formerly the South African Rand but in Aug. 1976 a new currency, the pula, was introduced (P2-63 = £1 sterling and PI -71 = US$1 in Feb. 1987). Banking. There were (1986) 3 commercial banks (Barclays Bank of Botswana Ltd, Standard Chartered Bank Botswana Ltd and Bank of Credit and Commerce (Botswana) Ltd) with 34 branches and sub-branches, and 44 agencies. The Bank of Botswana, was established in 1976, is the central bank. The National Development Bank, founded in 1964, has 6 regional offices and agricultural, industrial and commercial development divisions. The government-owned Botswana Savings Bank operates through 64 post offices. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Botswana Power Corporation has two divisions: Southern supplies power from a 26 mw power station and a 30 mw transmission line from the Republic of South Africa; Snashe division supplies industry and local consumers from an 80 mw power station and from small diesel power stations. Production (1985) 505m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Water. Surface water resources are about 18,000m. cu. metres a year. Nearly all flows into northern districts from Angola through the Okavango and Kwando river

BOTSWANA

225

systems. The Zambezi, also in the north, provides irrigation in Chobe District. In the south-east, there are dams to exploit the ephemeral flow of the tributaries of the Limpopo. 80% of the land has no surface water, and must be served by boreholes. Minerals. An important part of government revenue comes from the diamond mines at Orapa and Jwaneng and the nickel-copper complex at Selebi-Phikwe. An open-pit coalmine has been developed 4t Morupule. Mineral production 1985: Diamonds, 12-6m. carats (value P894,900,000); copper-nickel (1984), 51,845 tonnes (P71,661,000); coal (1984), 392,854 tonnes (P5,518,000). Mineral resources in north-east Botswana are being investigated, including salt and soda ash on the Sua Pan of the Makgadikgadi Salt Pans, nickel-copper at Selkirk and Phoenix, copper south of Maun and close to Ghanzi, and coal at Mmamabula. Agriculture. Cattle-rearing is the chief industry, and the country is more a pastoral than an agricultural one, crops depending entirely upon the rainfall. Increasing numbers of boreholes are being established where underground supply is adequate. However the rural economy is particularly vulnerable to droughLand fctot and mouth disease. The abattoir at Lobatse, opened in Oct. 1954, is of great importance to the country's economy. In 1985 the number of cattle was 2-7m.; goats, 820,000; sheep, 170,000; poultry, 1 m. Beef exports (1984) P88,853,000; meat sold locally P2,760,000. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes): Maize, 10; sorghum, 8; groundnuts, 2; millet, 1; wheat, 1; roots and tubers, 9; sunflower seeds, 1; pulses, 17; seed cotton, 3; vegetables, 16; fruit, 11. W I L D L I F E . About 17% of land is set aside for wildlife preservation. In 1986 there were 4 national parks, 6 game reserves, 3 game sanctuaries and 40 controlled hunting areas for photographic and game viewing safaris and recreational (safari) and subsistence hunting. LABOUR. At the 1981 census 44% of the labour force were engaged in agriculture, 9% was employed outside Botswana, mainly in the Republic of South Africa in the mining industry and 4 • 4% was engaged in domestic service. C O M M E R C E . In 1984 imports totalled P900m. and exports P860m. Of imports, 83% come from South Africa, 8% from Zimbabwe. Exports are mainly diamonds (to Switzerland), copper-nickel matte (to USA), beef and beef products (to EEC). Botswana is a member of the South African customs union with Lesotho, the Republic of South Africa and Swaziland. Total trade between Botswana and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 19,140 5,163

1983 21,713 3,250

1984 14,913 9,015

1985 20,998 6,680

1986 16,652 8,629

TOURISM. There were 55,928 foreign tourists in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 Dec. 1985, 1,914 km of road were bitumen-surfaced, 1,255 km gravel and about 4,860 km earth. In 1979 there were 21,800 registered motor vehicles. Railways. The main line from Mafikeng in Bophuthatswana to Bulawayo in Zimbabwe straddles Botswana. With two short branches the total is 705 km. These lines, formerly operated by National Railways of Zimbabwe, were planned to be taken over by the new Botswana Railways organization in 1987. Aviation. The Seretse Khama International Airport at Gaborone opened in 1984. Regular international flights are flown by Air Botswana, Air Zimbabwe, Royal Swazi Air and Air Zambia into Gaborone. Air Botswana carried an estimated 53,000 passengers, 420,000 kg of cargo and 94,656 kg of mail in 1984.

226

BOTSWANA

Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 66 post offices and 72 agencies. Wireless communication has been established between headquarters at Gaborone and various district offices and police stations. There were 10,833 telephones installed in 1978. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper, the bilingual (SetswanaEnglish) Daily News, which is publish«! by the Department of Information and Broadcasting; circulation, 14,000. There'are 3 other newspapers, privately-owned. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Botswana Court of Appeal was established in 1954. It has jurisdiction in respect of criminal and civil appeals enfaiiating from the High Court of Botswana and has jurisdiction in all criminal and civil causes and proceedings. Subordinate courts and African courts are in each of the 12 administrative districts. The police force was 2,359 in 1985. Education (1985). There were 518 primary, 63 secondary schools, and 3 teacher training colleges. Primary education is controlledby district and town councils, the Ministry of Education being responsible for the training and deployment of teachers, curriculum, examinations and the inspectorate. In secondary education 18 schools are community based and controlled by boards ofgovernors. Enrolment in primary schools was 222,549, and in secondary schools 31,019. There is a Polytechnic and an Auto Trades Training School. Throughout the country, Brigades provide lower level vocational training. The Department of Non-Formal Education offers secondary level correspondence courses and is the executing agency for the National Literacy Programme. The University of Botswana had 1,346 full-time and 289 part-time students, and teacher-training colleges 1,196 students. In 1981,80% of the 10-19 age group were literate, and 45% of those 20 and over. Health (1986). There were 13 general hospitals, a mental hospital, 7 health centres, 81 clinics and 246 health posts. There were also 438 stops for mobile health teams. In 1986 there were 156 registered medical practitioners, 14 dentists, and 1,530 nurses. The health facilities are the concern of central and local government, medical missions, mining companies and voluntary organizations. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Botswana in Great Britain (6 Stratford PL, London, W1N 9 AE) High Commissioner: G. U. S. Mathabaphiri (accredited 3 July 1986). Of Great Britain in Botswana (Private Bag 0023, Gaborone) High Commissioner: W. Jones, CMG. Of Botswana in the USA (4301 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Serara T. Ketlogetswe. Of the USA in Botswana (PO Box 90, Gaborone) Ambassador: Natale H. Bellocchi. Of Botswana to the United Nations Ambassador: Legwaila Joseph Legwaila. Books of Reference General Information: The Director of Information and Broadcasting, PO Box 0060, Gaborone, Botswana publishes Botswana Handbook, the monthly Kutlwano, The Botswana Daily News, Botswana in Brief and Botswana Up To Dale. Botswana '86: An Official Handbook. Department of Information and Broadcasting, Gaborone, 1986 Statistical Bulletins. Quarterly. Central Statistical Office, Gaborone Report on the Population Census, 1981. Government Printer, Gaborone, 1982 Campbell, A. C., The Guide to Botswana. Gaborone, 1980 Colclough, C. and McCarthy, S„ The Political Economy of Botswana. OUP, 1980 Harvey, C., (ed.), Papers on the Economy of Botswana. London and Nairobi, 1981 Parson, J., Botswana: Liberal Democracy and Labour Reserve in Southern Africa. Aldershot, 1984

Capital: Brasilia Population. 138m. (1986) GNP per capita. US$1,610(1984)

BRAZIL República Federativa do Brasil

H I S T O R Y . Brazil was discovered on 22 April 1500 by the Portuguese Admiral Pedro Alvares Cabral, and thus became a Portuguese settlement; in 1815 the colony was declared 'a kingdom', and on 13 May 1822 Dom Pedro, eldest surviving son of King Joao VI of Portugal, was chosen 'Perpetual Defender' of Brazil by a National Congress. He proclaimed the independence of the country on 7 Sept. 1822, and was chosen 'Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender' on 12 Oct. 1822. He abdicated in 1831 and 9 years later, his 14-year-old son Pedro, became the second Emperor of Brazil. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Brazil is bounded east by the Atlantic and on its north-west and southern borders by all the South American countries except Chile and Ecuador. Population as at 1 Sept. 1980 (census) and 1 July 1986 (estimate): North Rondonia 1 (Porto Velho1) Acre (Rio Branco) Amazonas 3 (Manaus) Roraima (Boa Vista 3 ) Para (Belem) Amapa (Macapa 3 )

Area (sq. km) 3,581,180' 243,044 152,589 1,564,445 230,104 1,248,042 140,276

Census 1980 5,880,268 491,069 301,303 1,430,089 79,159 3,403,391 175,257

Estimate 1986 7,586,000 776,000 365,000 1,781,000 107,000 4,337,000 220,000

North-east Maranhäo (Säo Luis) Piaui (Teresina) Ceara (Fortaleza) Rio Grande do Norte (Natal) Paraiba (Joäo Pessoa) Pernambuco (Recife) Alagoas (Maceió) Fernando de Noronha 6 Sergipe (Aracajü) Bahia (Salvador)

1,548,672" 328,663 250,934 148,016 53,015 56,372 98,281 27,731 26 21,994 561,026

34,812,356 3,996,404 2,139,021 5,288,253 1,898,172 2,770,176 6,141,993 1,982,591 1,279 1,140,121 9,454,346

39,884,000 4,751,000 2,480,000 5,996,000 2,163,000 3,059,000 6,883,000 2,290,000

South-east: Minas Gérais (Belo Horizonte) Espinto Santo' (Vitóna) Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro) 8 Säo Paulo (Säo Paulo)

924,935 587,172 45,597 44,268 247,898

51,734,125 13,378,553 2,023,340 11,291,520 25,040,712

60,613,000 14,808,000 2,334,000 13,021,000 30,450,000

South Parana (Cuntiba) Santa Catarina (Flonanópolis) Rio Grande do Sul (Pòrto Alegre)

577,723 199,554 95,985 282,184

19,031,162 7,629,392 3,627,933 7,773,837

20,932,000 8,150,000 4,174,000 8,608,000

1,879,455 881,001 350,548 642,092 5,814

7,544,795 1,138,691 1,369,567 3,859,602 1,176,935

9,338,000 1,539,000 1,645,000 4,455,000 1,649,000

119,002,706

138,403,000

Stale and Capital

Central West Mato Grosso (Cuiabâ) 9 Mato Grosso do Sul (Campo Grande) 9 Goiâs (Goiànla) Distnto Federai (Brasilia) Total

8,511,965 10 For notes see p. 228.

227

1,313,000 10,949,000

228

BRAZIL

Density of census population, 1980, was about 14 per sq. km. The 1980 census showed 59,123,361 males and 59,879,345 females. The urban population comprised 44-7% in 1960,55 -9% in 1970 and 67-6% in 1980. The language is Portuguese. The new capital, Brasilia, was inaugurated 21 April 1960. The federal district (5,814 sq. km) was detached from the west-central state of Goiäs, about 1,200 km north-west of Rio de Janeiro. Brasilia, Distrito Federal is the national capital; it is divided into 8 Administrative Regions. The 1st Region is Brasilia. Population of principal cities (1980 census): Säo Paulo Rio de Janeiro Salvador Belo Horizonte Recife Porto Alegre Curitiba Beiern Goiänia Fortaleza Manaus Campinas Santo André Nova Iguagu Osasco

7,033,529 5,090,700 1,506,602 1,442,483 1,184,215 1,108,883 843,733 758,117 703,263 648,815 613,068 566,517 549,278 491,802 473,856

Brasilia Santos Guarulhos Niterói Sao Bernardo do Campo Natal Maceió Teresina Duque de Caxias Ribeirao Préto Juiz de Fora Joäo Pessoa Aracaju Campo Grande

411,305 411,023 395,117 386,185 381,261 376,552 376,479 339,264 306,057 300,704 299,728 290,424 288,106 282,844

Sao José dos Campos Olinda Londrina Sorocaba Uberlándia Diadema Feira de Santana Campiña Grande Sao Gonzalo Joinville Canoas Sao Joao de Meriti Jundiaí Mauá

268.073 266,392 258,054 254,718 230,400 228,594 225,003 222,229 221,278 217.074 214,115 210,548 210,015 205,817

The principal metropolitan areas (1980 census) were Sao Paulo (12,589,000), Rio de Janeiro (9,014,000), Belo Horizonte (2,540,000) and Salvador (1,767,000). CLIMATE. Because ofits latitude, the climate is predominantly tropical, but factors such as altitude, prevailing winds and distancefromthe sea cause certain variations, though temperatures are not notably extreme. In tropical parts, winters are dry and summers wet, while in Amazonia conditions are constantly warm and humid. The N.E. sertao is hot and arid, with frequent droughts. In the south and east, spring and autumn are sunny and warm, summers are hot, but winters can be cold when polar air-masses impinge. Brasilia. Jan. 72"F (22-2'C), July 64°F (17-8"C). Annual rainfall 64" (1,600 mm). Bahia. Jan. 80"F (26-7°C), July 74"F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 76" (1,900 mm). Belem. Jan. 79°F (26"C), July 79°F (26-C). Annual rainfall 97" (2,438 mm). Manaus. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,811 mm). Recife. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 75°F (24'C). Annual rainfall 64" (1,610 mm). Rio de Janeiro. Jan. 78°F (25-6"C), July 69°F (20-6'C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,082 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 15 Nov. 1889 Dom Pedro II (1825-91) was dethroned by a revolution, and Brazil declared a republic.

1 !

Including litigious area between states of Amazonas and Para (2,680 sq. km). The name 'Territòrio Federal do Guaporé' was changed to 'Territòrio Federal de Rondònia' on 17 Feb. 1956 and became a state in 1981. ' Raised to the status of territorial capitals in 1943; previously, Pòrto Velho and Boa Vista belonged to the state of Amazonas and Macapa to the state of Para. 4 Including litigious area between states ofPiaui and Ceara (2,614sq. km). 5 Including Fernando de Noronha population. ' Territory created in 1942, total area 26 sq. km. The archipelago comprises the main isle (of the7 same name) and about 20 islets. Including the islands of Trindade and Martin Vaz. • According to Complementary Law no. 20, 1 July 1974, the States of Rio de Janeiro and Guanabara were consolidated, since 15 March 1975, into a single political unit, the State of Rio de Janeiro with the City of Rio de Janeiro as its capital city. 9 The former state of Mato Grosso was divided into Mato Grosso (capital, Cuiabà) and Mato Grosso do Sul (capital, Campo Grande) according to Complementary Law no. 31, 11 Oct. 1977. The new states were installed on 1 Jan. 1979. 10 3,286,488 sq. miles.

BRAZIL

229

Presidents since 1956 were as follows: Nereu de Oliveira Ramos (Acting), 11 Nov. 1955-31 Jan. 1956. Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira, 31 Jan. 1956-31 Jan. 1961. Jànio da Silva Quadros, 31 Jan. 1961-25 Aug. 1961 (resigned). Joäo Belchior Marques Goulart, 7 Sept. 1961-31 March 1964 (deposed). Marshal Humberto de A. Castelo Branco, 15 April 1964-15 March 1967.

Marshal Artur da Costa e Silva, 15 March 1967-31 Aug. 1969 (resigned). Gen. Emilio Garrastazu Medici, 30 Oct. 1969-15 March 1974. Gen. Emesto Geisel, 15 March 1974-15 March 1979. Gen. Joäo Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo, 15 March 1979-15 March 1985

On 24 Jan. 1967 both houses of Congress in joint session approved the new Constitution and press law which came into force on 15 March. An amendment to the Constitution, which came into force on 30 Oct. 1969, was issued on 17 Oct. The present Constitution provides for the indirect election of the President and Vice-President by an electoral college, comprising the members of Congress and delegates from the state legislatures; it grants powers to the President to issue decree-laws on matters connected with the economy and national security; it gives the President authority to intervene in any of the 23 states without consultation with Congress and the right to declare a state of siege and to rule by decree. President and Vice-President are elected for a 6-year term and are not immediately reeligible. Under the 1969 Constitution, Congress consists of a 69-member Senate and a 479-member Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is two-thirds directly elected (50% of these elected for 8 years in rotation) and one-third indirectly elected. The Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal franchise (with a literacy qualification) for 4 years. The name of the country was changed from 'Estados Unidos do Brasil' to 'Brasil' and later to 'República Federativa do Brasil'. Brazil returned to constitutional rule and a civil President assumed office in 1985. On 20 Dec. 1979 the 1965 Political Parties Statute was amended to allow the establishment of new political parties. The Institutional Act No. 5 issued on 13 Dec. 1968 was incorporated into the new Constitution through an amendment on 17 Oct. 1969. It was repealed by the Constitutional Amendment Number 11 of 13 Oct. 1978. The Congress renewed its session on 22 Oct. 1969 and elections were held on 15 Nov. 1970,1974,1978 and 1982. Voting is compulsory for men and women between the ages of 18 and 65 and optional for persons over 65. Enlisted men (who numbered 339,849 at the 1980 census) may not vote. The Constitutional Amendment number 25 of 15 May 1985 granted illiterate population 18 years old and older (who numbered 17,271,362 1980 census) the right to vote and for the direct election of the President. At the General Elections held in November 1986, 260 of the 479 seats in the Chamber of Deputies were won by the Partido Movimento Democrático Brasileiro. President of the Republic: José Samey, assumed office 15 March 1985 and became President on 22 April 1985 when President-elect Tancredo de Almeida Neves died. The cabinet was composed as follows in Sept. 1986: Head of President's Civil Household: Marco Antonio de Oliveira Maciel. Head of President's Military Household: Gen. Rubens Bayma Denys. Head of National Information Service: Gen. Ivan de Souza Mendes. Head of General Armed Forces (EMFA): Col. Paulo Campos Paiva. Air Force: Brig. Octávio Julio Moreira Lima. Agriculture: Iris Rezende Machado. Science ana Technology: Renato Bayma Archer da Silva. Communications: Antonio Carlos Peixoto de Magalhäes. Culture: Celso Monteiro Furtado. Urban Development and Environment: Deni Lineu Schwartz. Education: José Konder Bornhausen. Army: Gen. Leónidas Pires Gongalves. Finance: Dilson Domingos Funaro. Industry and Commerce: José Hugo Castelo Branco. Interior: Ronaldo Costa Couto. Justice: Paulo Brossard de Souza Pinto. Navy: Adm. Henrique Saboia. Mines and Energy: Dr Antonio

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Aureliano Chaves de Mendonga. Social Welfare: Raphael de Almeida Magalháes. Foreign Affairs: Roberto Abreu Sodré. Health: Roberto Figueira Santos. Labour: Almir Pazzianotto Pinto. Transport: José Reinaldo Cameiro Tavares. Administration: Aluizio Alves. Land Reform and Development: Dante Martins de Oliveira. Extraordinary Minister of Deburocratization: Paulo de Tarso Lustosa da Costa. Head of the Secretariat for Planning: Joáo Sayad. Irrigation: Vicente Cavalcante Fialho. Nationalflag: Green, with yellow lozenge on which is placed a blue sphere, containing 24 white stars and crossed with a band bearing the motto Ordem e Progresso. National anthem: Ouviram do Ipiranga... (words by J. O. Duque Estrada; tune by F.M. da Silva). Local Government. Brazil consists of 23 states, 3 federal territories (Roraima, Amapá, Fernando de Noronha) and 1 federal district. Each state has its distinct administrative, legislative and judicial authorities, its own constitution and laws, which must, however, agree with the constitutional principles of the Union. The states may unite or split or form new states. Taxes on interstate commerce, levied by individual states, are prohibited. The governors and members of the legislatures are elected, but magistrates are appointed and are not removable from office save byjudicial sentence. DEFENCE. Army. The Army is organized in 8 divisions, each with up to 6 armoured, 4 mechanized or motorized infantry brigades; in addition there are 7 light 'jungle' infantry battalions, 2 independent infantry and 1 independent parachute brigades; total strength (1987) 182,900. Navy. The principal ship of the Brazilian Navy: Compleied

Name

1945

MinasGerais 1

Standard displacement Tons

Aircraft

Guns

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

Aircraft Carrier 1

15,890 { ' 4 helicopter}

1 0 4 0 m m A A

40

>000

24

0

Ex- Vengeance, purchased from Great Britain in 1956.

There are also 7 diesel-powered submarines (3 modern built in Britain and 4 old ex-US), 6 new destroyer leaders (or large frigates), the Constituifao, Defensora, Liberal and Niteroi, built in Britain, and the Independencia and Uniao, built in Brazil, 10 old ex-US destroyers, 10 fleet tug type corvettes, 6 coastal minesweepers, 1 river monitor, 5 river patrol ships, 6 coastal gunboats, 1 submarine rescue ship, 2 tank landing ships, 4 transports, 19 local transports, 4 oilers, 1 repair ship, 6 training ships, 9 survey ships (2 carrying a helicopter), 6 survey launches, 35 minor landing craft, 6 coastal training craft, 12 tenders, 14 auxiliaries, 17 tugs and 3 floating docks. Rather a static navy for such a large country which is apparently suffering from financial stringency. A considerable replacement programme is needed but this has been delayed. The new construction plan was revised to replace old ex-US submarines and destroyers. A training ship (frigate) and a river support ship were projected. Among the 50 new units planned were an attack aircraft carrier, submarines, guided missile leaders, frigates, minehunters and amphibious ships. Two small diesel-powered patrol submarines and 4 small frigates are being built. Naval bases are at Rio de Janeiro, Aratu (Bahia), Belém, Natal, Recife, Salvador, with a river base at Ladario. The Fleet Air Arm was formed on 26 Jan. 1965. Aircraft for service on the carrier include 5 Sikorsky SH-3D helicopters and 8 S-2A/E Tracker anti-submarine aircraft from USA. Seven Westland Wasp light helicopters are operated on utility

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and search and rescue duties with 16 Bell Jet Ranger (16 more on order), 6 Agusta/ Sikorsky SH-3D and 9 Esquilo (AS 350) helicopters (11 on order). Nine Westland Lynx helicopters were provided for the destroyer leader/frigates of the 'Niteroi' class. The active personnel in 1987 totalled 50,285 (6,285 officers and 44,000 men), including 14,500 marines and auxiliary cbrps. Air Force. The Air Force, formed in 1918, has been independent of the Army and Navy since 1941. It is organized in 6 zones, centred on Belem, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Porto Alegre and Brasilia. The la ALADA (air defence wing) has 12 Mirage IIIE fighters and 2 Mirage HID trainers, integrated with Roland mobile short-range surface-to-air missile systems deployed by the Army, and a radar/communications/computer network. One fighter group has 2 squadrons of F-5E Tiger II supersonic fighter-bombers and two-seat F-5Bs; 2 others operate AT-26 (Aermacchi MB 326G) Xavante light jet attack/trainers, licence-built by Embraer in Brazil. Counter-insurgency squadrons are equipped with AT-26 Xavantes for reconnaissance and attack, and with Neiva Regente lightplanes, Universal armed piston-engined trainers, Super Puma transports and UH-1D/H Iroquois and armed JetRanger helicopters for liaison and observation. There is an ASW group of S-2A/E Trackers for shore-based and carrier-based operations; a maritime patrol group (2 squadrons) with 12 EMB-111 (P-95) twin-turboprop aircraft developed from the Embraer Bandeirante transport; and 3 air-sea rescue units with RC-130E Hercules reconnaissance transports and SC-95B Bandeirantes. Equipment of transport units includes 1 group of C-130E/H Hercules transports and KC-130H Hercules tankers; one squadron now (1986) receiving Boeing 707 tanker/transports; 1 group made up of a squadron of HS 748 and a second squadron of Bandeirante turboprop transports; 2 troop-carrier groups with DHC-5 Buffaloes; 1 group with Bandeirantes; and 7 independent squadrons with Bandeirantes and Buffaloes. Light aircraft for liaison duties include 30 Embraer U-7s (licence-built Piper Senecas). The VIP transport group has 2 Boeing 737s, 11 HS 125 twin-jet light transports, some Bandeirantes, 6 Embraer Xingu (VU-9) twinturboprop pressurized transports and 4 JetRanger helicopters. Training is performed primarily on locally-built T-25 Universal and turboprop T-27 Tucano (EMB-312) basic trainers, and AT-26 Xavante armed jet basic trainers. Future equipment will include 79 AM-X jet attack aircraft, produced jointly by Embraer and Aeritalia/Aermacchi of Italy plus small quantities of F-5 and Mirage III and 40 Ecureuil helicopters. Personnel strength (1987) about 50,700, with more than 600 aircraft of all types. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Brazil is a member of UN, OAS and LAIA (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY

Budget. Receipts and expenditures for the federal government (excluding states, federal district and municipalities) for calendar years have been as follows in l m C r $ :

Revenue Expenditure

1980 1,230,018 1,190,994

1981 2,351,966 2,254,896

1982 4,774,815 4,619,772

¡983 11,779,848 11,104,585

Chief items of revenue were in 1983 as follows (in Cr$lm.): Taxes, 8,836,691; government property, 90,480. Principal items of expenditure: Transport, 969,785; education and culture, 766,629; army, 453,703; aviation and navy, 807,688; welfare and security, 271,332; finance, 149,369. The foreign debt (including states and municipalities) of Brazil on 31 Dec. 1985 amounted to US$95,857m. Internal federal debt, June 1986 was Cr$685,350m. Internal states and municipalities (main securities outstanding), June 1986, Cr$56,660m. Currency. The cruzado (Cr$) is the monetary unit which was introduced in March

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1986. 1 cruzado = 1,000 cruzeiros. The exchange rate was in Feb. 1987 US$1 = Cr$18-31;£1 =Cr$27-35. Banking. The Bank of Brazil (founded in 1853 and reorganized in 1906, with an authorized capital of NCr$60m. from 1967) is not a central bank of issue but a closely controlled commercial bank; it had 2,489 branches in 1985 throughout the republic. On 31 Dec. 1985 deposits were Cr$47,064m. On 31 Dec. 1964 the Banco Central da República do Brasil was founded. The country's currency held by the public on 31 Dec. 1985 was Cr$23,494m. Since Sept. 1939 gold and dollar supply has risen from US$40m. to US$420m., of which the government's gold was US$288m. in May 1961. All banks had on 31 Dec. 1985 deposits ofCr$211,033m. Weights and Measures. The metric system has been in use in all official departments since 1862. It was made compulsory in 1872. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Brazil's hydraulic potential capacity for electric power production was estimated at 106,500 mw. in 1984, one of the largest in the world, of which 34% belongs to the Amazon hydrographic basin. Production (1985) 167,000m. kwh. Supply 110,127 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. There are 13 oil refineries, of which 11 are state owned. Crude oil output (excluding NGL) was 31,709,403 cu.metres in 1985, of which 72% was from the continental shelf. Promising results have been obtained with the exploration of that area which in 1974 represented only 9% of all the national oil production. The country imported substantial amounts of oil in 1985: 26,798,497 tonnes (value f.o.b. US$5,418 m.) representing 41% of total value of all Brazilian imports. Imports come mainly from Iraq and Nigeria. The government created the National Alcohol Program in 1975 with the aim of a gradual replacement of the consumption of petroleum by combustible alcohol specially produced from sugar-cane and cassava. By May 1980, 281 sugar-cane alcohol distillery projects had been approved and their authorized capacity represents 61% of the national aim for 1985 (about 11m. cu. metres). An agreement between the automotive industry and the government was signed in Sept. 1979. In Dec. 1984 a major oil field was reported on the fringes of the existing Campos Basin oil field. Minerals. Brazil is the only source of high-grade quartz crystal in commercial quantities; output, 1984, 109,964 tonnes raw, 8,271 tonnes processed; exports (1983) 9,629 tonnes. It is the first largest western producer of chrome ore (reserves of 8-4m. tonnes; output, 1984, 708,634 tonnes); other minerals are mica (406 tonnes in 1984); zirconium, 7,287; beryllium 10; graphite 290,007; titanium ore 2,870,335 tonnes, and magnesite 724,280 tonnes. Along the coasts of the states of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo and Bahia are found monazite sands containing thorium; output, 1984,4,165 tonnes; reserves are estimated at 14m. tonnes. Manganese ores of high content are important (reserves in the Amapá region alone are estimated at 8-7m. tonnes); output, 1984, 3,494,237 tonnes. Output of bauxite, 1984, 10,355,126 tonnes; salt (1983), 3,529,291; tungsten ore, 432,990, unrough, 1,892; lead, 366,129; asbestos, 1,869,326; coal (1983), 21,367,472. Deposits of coal exist in Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná and Minas Gerais. Total reserves are estimated at 3,717 • 8m. tonnes. Iron is found chiefly in Minas Gerais, notably the Caué Peak at Itabira. The Government is now opening up what is believed to be one of the richest iron-ore deposits in the world, situated in Carajás, in the northern state of Para, with estimated reserves of 18,000m. tonnes, representing the largest concentration of highgrade (66%) iron ore in the world. Total output of iron ore, 1984, mainly from the Cia. Vale do Rio Doce mine at Itabira, was 143,841,535 tonnes. Production of tin ore (cassiterite, processed) was 33,920 tonnes in 1984. Output of barytes, 101,301 tonnes. Output of phosphate rock, 22 • 7m. tonnes. Gold in large-scale mining was confined to a single mine in Minas Gerais; the

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production in 1984 (total), 37,218 kg. Large-scale gold deposits have been discovered at Serra Pelada in Para; production, 1984,17,537 kg processed and Minas Gérais, 4,664 kg. Silver output (processed), 1984,25,796 kg. Diamond districts are Minas Gérais, Mato Grosso, Roraima, Bahia and Sâo Paulo; output in 1984 was 122,827 carats (52,949 carats from Minas Gérais, 55,204 carats from Mato Grosso). Agriculture. 32 -41% of Brazil's population is rural. Production (in tonnes): 1984 1 1983 Grapes Bananas (1,000 bunches) 437,744 470,815 Cocoa Beans 1,580,546 2,625,676 Coffee Cassava 847,892 21,466,222 Cotton, raw Castor beans 171,777 222,678 Jute 58,568,657 64,722,620 Maize Oranges 2,933,736 Soya Potatoes 2,508,831 Rice 7,741,753 9,027,363 Sugar-cane Sisal 180,859 224,759 Wheat 1 Preliminary.

1983 577,480 380,256 3,343,176 1,521,061 12,919 18,731,216 14,582,347 216,036,958 2,236,700

1984' 603,172 329,903 2,840,563 1,889,359 19,091 21,164,138 15,540,792 222,317,847 1,983,157

Harvested coffee area, 1985,2 -5m. hectares. The 4 states of Sao Paulo, Paraná, Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais are the principal districts for coffee-growing. Harvested cocoa area, 1985, 637,962 hectares. Bahia furnished 87% of the output in 1985. Two crops a year are growri. Harvested castor-bean area, 1985, 495,064 hectares. Tobacco output was 410,902 tonnes in 1985. Rubber is produced chiefly in the states of Acre, Amazonas and Para. Output, 1985, 35,000 tonnes (natural). Brazilian consumption of rubber in 1984, was 336,726 tonnes. Caroá fibre is grown as a substitute for Indian jute; production, 1984, 146 tonnes. Jute output, 1985, 20,081 tonnes. Plantations of tung trees established in 1930 are beginning to yield tung oils in commercial quantities; output of tung, 1984,5,426 tonnes. Livestock (in 1,000): 1985, 134,500 cattle, 30,000 swine, 17,500 sheep, 8,500 goats, 5,200 horses, 1,200 asses and 1,900 mules. In 1985, 10,234,000 cattle, 12-7m. swine, 1 -8m. sheep and lambs, 2m. goats and (1982) 798m. poultry were slaughtered for meat. Fisheries. The fishing industry had a 1984 catch of958,908 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. The total number of persons engaged in industry (1980) was 5,004,522 and the value of production Cr$9,738,340m. The National Iron and Steel Co. at Volta Redonda, State of Rio de Janeiro, furnishes a substantial part of Brazil's steel. Brazil's total output, 1985: Pig-iron, 18,960,635 tonnes; crude steel, 20,456,000 tonnes. Cement output, 1985, was 20,612,000 tonnes. Brazil's output of paper, 1985, was 4,021,400 tonnes. Production (1984) of rubber tyres for motor vehicles, 23m. units; rubber tubes for motor vehicles, 14m. units. Commerce. Imports and exports for calendar years in Cr$ 1 m.: 1981 Imports 1,968,271 Exports 2,054,525

1982 3,338,626 3,368,796

1983 8,288,170 11,652,923

1984 5,966,160 49,422,908

1985 77,947,888 148,571,718

Principal imports in 1985 were (in US$1 m.): Mineral products, 6,455; chemical products, 1,479; machinery and mechanical appliances, electrical equipment, 1,972; vegetable products, 958. Principal exports in 1984 were (in US$1 m.): Coffee (green), 2,582; iron ore, 1,512; soybean bran, 1,464; orange juice, 1,425; footwear, hats etc., 1,082; machinery, 1,051. Of exports (in US$lm.) in 1985, USA took 6,956; Netherlands, 1,558; Japan, 1,398; Germany (Fed. Rep.), 1,309; Italy, 1,150; Nigeria, 915; China, 818; France, 800; UK, 632; Iraq, 630; Belgium, 577. Of 1985 imports, USA furnished 2,616;

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BRAZIL

Iraq, 1,800; Nigeria, 1,348; Saudi Arabia, 945; Germany (Fed. Rep.), 864; Japan, 550; Argentina, 469; China, 419; Canada, 398; Mexico, 380; France, 302. Total trade between Brazil and UK (according to British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 6 1982 Imports to UK 443,956 Exports and re-exports from UK. 158,837

1983 560,277 157,758

1984 637,702 238,717

1985 610,624 211,512

1986 552,259 295,152

Tourism. In 1984, 1,595,726 tourists visited Brazil. 446,055 were Argentinian, 166,753 Uruguayan, 205,034 US citizens, 119,880 Paraguayan, 58,305 German, 46,908 Chilean, 67,575 Italian, 41,05 5 French,29,721 Spanish, 19,877 Japanese. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 1,552,463 km of highways. In 1984 Brazil had 12,600,572 motor vehicles, including 9,162,384 passenger cars, 1,798,192 commercial vehicles, 129,131 buses and minibuses. 839,816 motor vehicles of all types were produced in 1984. Railways. Public railways are operated by two administrations, the Federal Railways (RFFSA) formed in 1957 and Sao Paulo Railways (FEPASA) formed in 1971, which is confined to the state of Sao Paulo. RFFSA had a route-length of 22,837 km (776 km electrified) in 1985 and FEPASA 5,072 km (1,099 km electrified). Principal gauges are metre and 1,600 mm. Except in the urban areas of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, passenger traffic moving by rail is negligible. Traffic moved by RFFSA in 1984 amounted to 76-9m. tonnes of freight and 506-8m. passengers. FEPASA carried 21 m. tonnes and 77 • 8m. passengers. There are several important independent freight railways, including the Vitoria a Minas (729 km and 96-3m. tonnes of freight), the Carajas(890 km, opened in 1985) and the Amapa (194 km). The city of Sao Paulo has a rapid metropolitan transit railway, and a similar system opened in Rio de Janeiro city in 1979. Commuter railways are also being developed in Recife, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre (all opened in 1985), Fortalezaand Salvador. Aviation. There were 34 companies (30 foreign) operating in 1985. The 4 largest Brazilian companies cover the whole territory and in 1985 they carried 13,182,409 passengers (11,290,384 in domestic traffic) and 2,045m. tonne-km of freight. TTieir commercial fleet consisted of 248 aircraft on 31 Dec. 1984. There were 243 taxiplane companies on 31 Dec. 1985. The chief airline is ViapaoAerea Rio Grande do Sul, (VARIG). Shipping. Inland waterways, mostly riven, are open to navigation over some 21,944 miles; number of vessels in 1984,1,348. Rio de Janeiro and Santos are the 2 leading ports; there are 19 other large ports. During 1984,46,325 vessels entered and cleared the Brazilian ports. The Lloyd Brasileiro is owned and operated by the Government; its fleet comprised (1984), 39 vessels of 604,733 DWT. Brazilian shipping, 1984 (registered with Lloyds) amounted to 1,636 vessels of 10,001,356 DWT. Petrobras, the government oil monopoly, took over the government tanker fleet of 26 vessels in 1958; total tanker fleet in 1984 was 70 vessels of 5,090,494 DWT (private and government-owned). Post and Broadcasting. Of the telegraph system of the country, about half, including all interstate lines, is under control of the Government. There were 7,246 post and telegraph offices in 1984. There were 7,363,586 telephones in 1984 (Sao Paulo, 2,755,534; Rio de Janeiro, 1,204,701; Brasilia, 210,197). In 1983 there were 1,382 broadcasting and 119 television stations. Cinemas (1983). Cinemas numbered 1,971. Newspapers (1983). There were 312 daily newspapers with a total yearly circulation of 1,454m. Foreigners and corporations (except political parties) are not allowed to own or control newspapers or wireless stations.

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JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND HEALTH Justice. There is a Supreme Federal Court of Justice at Brasilia. It has 11 judges; all are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. There are also federal courts in each state and the federal district and in the Territories, as well as 'electoral courts' to protect the elections, and labour tribunals. Justice is administered in the states in accordance with state law, by state courts, but in Brasilia federal justice is administered. Judges are appointed for life. In Dec. 1977 the Senate approved laws for allowing marriages to be dissolved. Brazilian citizens can apply for one divorce only during their lifetime. In the case of a marriage partner becoming mentally ill, divorce proceedings cannot begin until 5 years after the illness has been proved. Religion. The population is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic (89% at the census, 1980). In 1889 connexion between Church and State was abolished; it was restored by the 1934 constitution, but again abolished in 1946. In 1980 (census) Catholics numbered 105,861,113, Protestants, 7,885,846 and Spiritualists, 1,538,230. Education. Elementary education is compulsory. In 1980 (census) there were 69,703,993 persons 5 years of age or over who could read and write; this was 67 -95% of that age group; 68 57% of the literates were men. There were, in 1984, 190,983 first level institutions, with 24,825,545 pupils and 1,022,096 teachers; 9,104 second level institutions, with 2,946,657 pupils and 214,969 teachers; 847 higher education institutions, with 1,399,539 pupils and 113,844 teachers. There were, in 1983,67 universities (including 20 private) and 801 faculties not belonging to universities (595 private), including the University of Rio de Janeiro (founded on 6 Sept. 1922), University of Pernambuco (1827) the University of Bahia (1946), the University of Recife (1946), the University of Paraná (1912), the Rural University (1943, State of Rio de Janeiro), the University of Sao Paulo (1934), the University of Minas Gerais (1892), the University of Rio Grande do Sul (1894), the University of Brasilia (1962) and the University of Mato Grosso (1971). There are also 19 Catholic universities (all private) in Rio de Janeiro (1946), Sao Paulo (1946), Rio Grande do Sul (1948), Pernambuco (1951), Minas Gerais (1958), Bahia, Paraná, Brasilia, Goiás, Mato Grosso and Piaui. Students in 1982 totalled 1,203,468. Health. In 1984 there were 27,552 health establishments of which 6,861 were for inpatients; total number ofbeds, 538,721 (411,184 in private institutions). DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Brazil in Great Britain (32 Green St., London, W1Y 4AT) Ambassador: Celso de Souza e Silva (accredited 9 Dec. 1986). Of Great Britain in Brazil (Setor de Embaixadas Sul, Quadra 801, Conjunto K, Brasilia, D.F.) Ambassador: J. B. Ure, CMG, LVO. Of Brazil in the USA (3006 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Marcilio Marques Moreira. Of the USA in Brazil (Ave das Nasoes, Lote 3, Brasilia, D.F.) Ambassador: Harry W. Shlaudeman. Of Brazil to the United Nations Ambassador: George Alvares Maciel. Books of Reference Anuáriodo Transporte Aéreo. Ministério da Aeronáutica, DAC. Rio de Janeiro, 1985 Anuário Estatistico do Brasil. Vol. 46. Funda^ao Instituto Brasileiro de Geografía e Estatistica, Rio de Janeiro, 1985 Anuário Mineral Brasileiro. Departamento Nacional da Produgao Mineral. Brasilia, 1985

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Boletim do Banco Central do Brasil. Banco Central do Brasil. Brasilia. Monthly A Profile of Brazil. Banco do Brazil, 1984 Anuario Sunamam, Superintendència Nacional da Marìnha Mercante, 1984 Banco do Brasil, Boletim Trimestral. Brasilia, D.F. From 1966 Bruneau, T. C., The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion. Univ. of Texas Press, 1982 Bums, E. B., A History of Brazil. 2nd ed. Columbia Univ. Press, 1980 Dickenson, J. P., Brazil. Harlow, 1982 Hanbury-Tenison, R.,/l Question of Survival for the Indians of Brazil. London, 1973 McDonough, P., Power and Ideology in Brazil. Princeton Univ. Press, 1981 Micallef, J., (ed.), Brazil: Country with a Future. London, 1982 Moraes, R. Borba de., Bibliographia Brasiliana (1504-1900). 2 vols. 1958 Selcher, W. E. (ed.), Brazil in the International System: The Rise of a Middle Power. Boulder, 1981 Trebat, T. J., Brazil's State-Owned Enterprises. CUP, 1983 Tyler,W.G., The Brazilian Industrial Economy. Aldershot, 1981 Young, J. M., Brazil: Emerging World Power. Malabar, 1982 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional Avenida Rio Branco 219-39, Rio de Janeiro, RJ. Director: Maria Alice Barroso.

BRITISH ANTARCTIC TERRITORY H I S T O R Y . The British Antarctic Territory was established on 3 March 1962, as a consequence of the entry into force of the Antarctic Treaty, to separate those areas of the then Falkland Islands Dependencies which lay within the Treaty area from those which did not. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The territory encompasses the lands and islands within the area south of 60°S latitude lying between 20°W and 80°W longitude (approximately due south of the Falkland Islands and the Dependencies). It covers an area of some 700,000 square miles, and its principal components are the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, the Antarctic Peninsula (Palmer Land and Graham Land) and Coats Land. British Antarctic Territory has no indigenous or permanently resident population. There is however an itinerant population of scientists and logistics staff of about 300, manning a number of research stations. The territory is administered by a High Commissioner. Designated personnel of the scientific stations of the British Antarctic Survey are also appointed to exercise certain legal and administrative functions. High Commissioner: Gordon W. Jewkes, CMG (resides in Port Stanley). Fox, R., Antarctica and the South Atlantic. London, 1985

BRITISH I N D I A N OCEAN TERRITORY HISTORY. This territory was established by an Order in Council on 8 Nov. 1965, consisting then of the Chagos Archipelago (formerly administered from Mauritius) and the islands of Aldabra, Desroches and Farquhar (all formerly administered from Seychelles). The latter islands having become part of Seychelles when that country achieved independence on 29 June 1976, the territory now comprises the Chagos Archipelago, lying 1,180 miles (1,899 km) north-east of Mauritius. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The group, with a total land area of 23 sq. miles (60 sq. km) comprises 5 coral atolls (Diego Garcia, Peros Banhos, Salomon, Eagle and Egmont) of which the largest and southern-most, Diego Garcia, covers 17 sq. miles (44 sq. km). The British Indian Ocean Territory was established to meet UK and US defence requirements in the Indian Ocean. In accordance with the terms of Exchanges of Notes between the UK and US governments in 1966 and 1976, a US Navy support facility has been established on Diego Garcia. There is no permanent population in the British Indian Ocean Territory. Commissioner: W. Marsden (non-resident). Administrator: T. C. S. Stitt (non-resident).

237

Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan Population: 221,900 (1985) GNP per capita: US$ 15,989 ( 1985)

BRUNEI Negara Brunei Darussalem

HISTORY. The Sultanate of Brunei was a powerful state in the early 16th century, with authority over the whole of the island of Borneo and some parts of the Sulu Islands and the Philippines. At the end of the 16th century its power had begun to decline and various cessions were made to Great Britain, the Rajah of Sarawak and the British North Borneo Company in the 19 th century to combat piracy and anarchy. By the middle of the 19 th century the State had been reduced to its present limits. In 1847 the Sultan of Brunei entered into a treaty with Great Britain for the furtherance of commercial relations and the suppression of piracy, and in 1888, by a further treaty, the State was placed under the protection of Great Britain. As a result of negotiations in June 1978, the Sultan and the British Government signed a new treaty on 7 Jan. 1979 under which Brunei became a fully sovereign and independent State on 31 Dec. 1983. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Brunei, on the northwest coast of Borneo, is bounded on all sides by Sarawak territory, which splits the State into two separate parts, with the smaller portion forming Temburong district. Area, about 2,226 sq. miles (5,765 sq. km), with a coastline of about 100 miles. Population (1981 census) was 191,770; estimate (1985) 221,900. The 4 districts are Brunei/Muara (114,310), Belait (49,590), Tutong (21,640), Temburong (6,230). The capital is Bandar Seri Begawan (census, 1981) 63,868, 9 miles from the mouth of Brunei River; other large towns are Seria (23,511) and Kuala Belait (19,281). 50% of the population speak Malay and 26% Chinese. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical marine, hot and moist, but nights are cool. Humidity is high and rainfall heavy, varying from 100" (2,500 mm) on the coast to 200" (5,000 mm) inland. There is no dry season. Bandar Seri Begawan. Jan. 80°F (26 • 7°C), July 82°F (27 • 8°C). Annual rainfall 131" (3,275 mm). R U L E R . The Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan is HM Sir Muda Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzadin Waddaulah. He succeeded on 5 Oct. 1967 at his father's abdication and was crowned on 1 Aug. 1968. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 29 Sept. 1959 the Sultan promulgated a Constitution, but parts of it have been in abeyance since Dec. 1962. At independence, the Privy Council, Council of Ministers, and the posts of Chief Minister and State Secretary were abolished. There is no legislature (the 33-member Legislative Council was dissolved in Feb. 1984) and supreme political powers are vested in the Sultan. The Council of Ministers was composed as follows in Sept. 1986: Prime Minister, Minister of Finance and Home Affairs: HM The Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan. Foreign Affairs: Pengiran Muda Mohamad Bolkiah. Culture, Youth and Sports: Pengiran Muda Jefri Bolkiah. Law and Communications: Pengiran Bahrin. Defence: (vacant). Education and Health: Abdul Aziz Umar. Development: Abdul Rahman Taib. The official language is Malay, but English may be used for other purposes. The Chinese community mainly use the Hokkien dialect. Flag: Yellow, with 2 diagonal strips of white over black with the national arms in red placed over all in the centre. 238

BRUNEI

239

DEFENCE

Army. The armed forces are known as the Royal Brunei Malay Regiment and contain the naval and air elements. Strength (1987) 3,380. Military units include 2 infantry battalions, 1 armoured reconnaissance squadron, 1 engineer squadron and 1 signals squadron. Equipment includes 16 Scorpion light tanks and 24 Sankey AT-104 armoured personnel carriers. Navy. The Flotilla of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces comprises 3 fast missilearmed attack craft of 200 tons (completed by Vosper, Singapore in 1978-79), 3 coastal patrol boats (built by Vosper-Thornycroft (Singapore)), 2 landing craft, 3 utility craft and 3 small patrol boats. River Division operates 24 fast assault boats. Personnel in 1987 numbered 450 (42 officers and 408 ratings) in the First Flotilla (for offshore work) and in the Special Combat Division and River Division. Two coastal patrol craft built by Vosper, Singapore, were supplied in 1979 for the Marine Police. Air Wirig. The Air Wing of the Royal Brunei Malay Regiment-was formed in 1965-.Current equipment includes up to 7 MBB BO 105, 3 Bell 206B JetRanger and 11 Bell 212 helicopters, and 2 SF.260M piston-engined trainers. Personnel (1987) 200. Police. Establishment provides over 1,750 officers and men (1980). In addition, there is a small auxiliary force mostly employed on static guard duties. ECONOMY

Planning. A fourth Five-Year National Development Plan was announced in 1980 to further improve the economic, social'and cultural life of the people. Budget. The budget for 1985 envisaged expenditure of B$2,069m. and revenue of B$4,555m. Currency. The currency is the Brunei dollar with a par value of0-290 299 gramme ofgold. In March 1987,£1 =B$3 -29;US$1 =B$2-14. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Brunei is a member of the UN, the Commonwealth and ASEAN. ENERGY AND

NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Electric power production (1985) was 470m. kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The Seria oilfield, discovered in 1929, has passed its peak production. The high level of crude oil production is maintained through the increase of offshore oilfields production, which exceeds onshore oilfields production. Production was 7-5m. tonnes in 1986. The crude oil is exported directly, and only a small amount is refined at Seria for domestic uses. Gas. Natural gas is produced (5 • 1 m. tonnes in 1985) at one of the biggest liquefied natural gas plants in the world and is exported to Japan. Agriculture. The chief agricultural products in 1985 were fruit (6,000 tonnes), rice (3,000 tonnes), roots and tubers (1,000 tonnes), bananas (1,000 tonnes) and cassava (1,000 tonnes). Livestock in 1985: Cattle, 4,000; bufTaloes, 12,000; pigs, 13,000; chickens, 2m. Forestry. Most of the interior is under forest, containing large potential supplies of serviceable timber. Annual production averages 300,000 cu. metres. INDUSTRY

AND

TRADE

Industry. Brunei depends primarily on its oil industry, which employs more than 7% of the entire working population. Other minor products are rubber, pepper,

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sawn timber, gravel and animal hides. Local industries include boat-building, cloth weaving and the manufacture of brass-and silverware. Commerce. Crude oil accounts for 56% of the total value of the exports and reexports. The second main export is liquefied natural gas, which contributes 40% and petroleum products 3%. In 1985 imports totalled B$ 1,155m.; exports, B$6,140m. Singapore supplied 24% of imports, the USA 15 -2% and Japan 20%. Japan took 68% of all exports. Total trade between Brunei and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ,9S2 m 3 m 4 I985 m 6 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

2,434 41,804

27,154 106,477

21,966 122,651

23,346 71,496

71,624 154,146

Tourism. There were 47,043 visitors in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 1,233 km of road, of which 451 miles are bituminous surfaced. The main road connects Bandar Seri Begawan with Kuala Belait and Seria. In 1983 there were 63,177 passenger cars and 9,603 commercial vehicles. Aviation. Royal Brunei Airlines (RBA) and Singapore Airlines provide daily services linking Brunei and Singapore. RBA also operates services to Bangkok, Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Kota Kinabalu and Hong Kong. Cathay Pacific Airways also operates to Brunei and on to Western Australia from Hong Kong. British Airways provides a weekly service between Brunei and UK. Malaysian Airlines System has air connections from neighbouring regions. Shipping. Regular shipping services operate from Singapore, Hong Kong, and from ports in Sarawak and Sabah to Bandar Seri Begawan. Private companies operate a passenger ferry service between Bandar Seri Begawan and Labuan daily. Post and Broadcasting. There were 14 post offices (1983) and a telephone network (21,928 telephones in 1982) linking the main centres. Radio Brunei is operated by the Department of Radio and Television and operates on medium- and shortwaves in Malay, Iban, Dusun, English and Chinese. Number of receivers (1984): radio 52,000 and television 31,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The High Court receives appeals from subordinate courts in the districts and is itself a court of first instance for criminal and civil cases. Appeal from the High Court is to a Court of Appeal. Religion. The official religion is Islam. In 1982, 63% of the population were Moslem (mostly Malays), 14% Buddhists and 10% Christian. Education (1979). Free education in the Malay language is provided in government primary schools (29,934 pupils) and 4 government secondary Malay schools (1,218 pupils). Free education in English was provided in 30 government preparatory schools (8,546 pupils) and 7 government secondary schools (7,344 pupils) and one 6th form centre (819 pupils). The government also provided one Arabic preparatory school (203 pupils) and 2 Arabic secondary schools (251 pupils). Teachertraining was provided in 2 government teachers' colleges, in both Malay and English for 601 students. Eight non-government Mission schools provided education in English at kindergarten, primary and secondary level for a total of 6,745 pupils; 8 non-government Chinese schools provided education in Chinese at the same levels for a total of 5,813 pupils. One private kindergarten and primary school, administered by the Brunei Shell Petroleum Co., provided education in either English or Dutch for a total of986 pupils, and there was also 1 private vocational school administered by the Brunei Shell Petroleum Co. (140 artisantrainees). Two government vocational schools provided full training courses to 274 students in the engineering and building trades.

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241

Health. In 1981 there were 5 hospitals with 630 beds; there were also 97 doctors, 12 dentists, 3 pharmacists, 115 midwives and 280 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Brunei in Great Britain (49 Cromwell Rd, London, SW7 2ED) High Commissioner: Pengiran Setia Raja Pengiran Haji Jaya (accredited 14 March 1984). Of Great Britain in Brunei (Hong Kong Chambers, Jalan Pemancha, Bandar Seri Bega wan) High Commissioner: Roger Westbrook. Of Brunei in the USA (2600 Virginia Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Pengiran Haji Idriss. Of the USA in Brunei (Bandar Seri Begawan) Ambassador: Barrington King. -Of Brunei to the United Nations Ambassador: Awang Ahmad Bin Haji Mohd Yussof.

Capital: Sofia Population: 8-97m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$6,295 (1984)

BULGARIA Narodna Republika Bulgaria

H I S T O R Y . The Bulgarian state was founded in 681, but fell under Turkish rule in 1396. By the Treaty of Berlin (1878), the Principality of Bulgaria and the Autonomous Province of Eastern Rumelia, both under Turkish suzerainty, were constituted. In 1885 Rumelia was reunited with Bulgaria. On 5 Oct. 1908 Bulgaria declared her independence of Turkey. In 1941 Bulgaria signed the Three Power Pact and the Anti-Comintern Pact. After a referendum which abolished the monarchy (for details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1986-87) the Fatherland Front government asked for an armistice, which was signed on 28 Oct. 1944 by the USSR, theUK and the USA. A People's Republic was proclaimed on 15 Sept. 1946. The peace treaty was signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . On 8 Sept. 1940 by the treaty of Craiova, Romania ceded to Bulgaria the Southern Dobrudja, fixing the new frontier on the 1912 line. In April 1941 Bulgaria occupied the Yugoslav part of Macedonia, and the Greek districts of Western Thrace, Eastern Macedonia, Fiorina and Castoria. The peace treaty of 1947 restored the frontiers as on 1 Jan. 1941. The area of Bulgaria is 110,911 • 5 sq. km (42,823 sq. miles) and is bounded in the north by Romania, east by the Black Sea, south by Turkey and Greece and west by Yugoslavia. The country is divided into 28 provinces (okrug, plur. okruzi). Area and population in 1984: Area Province (sq. kmj Blagoevgrad 6,490 Burgas 7,697 Gabrovo 2,035 Khaskovo 4,007 Kürdzhali 4,036 Kyustendil 3,041 Lovech 4,136 Mikhailovgrad 3,609 Pazardzhik 4,455 Pernik 2,391

Pop. 1,000 344 441 181 298 292 196 207 229 325 176

Area Province (sq. km) Pleven 4,332 Plovdiv 5,638 Razgrad 2,669 Ruse 2,570 Shumen 3,390 Silistra 2,842 Sliven 3,614 Smolyan 3,523 Sofia 7,166

Pop. 1,000 374 760 195 299 254 174 237 176 306

Area Province (sq. kmj Sofia (City) 1,194 Stara Zagora 5,066 Tolbukhin 4,704 2,732 Türgovishte Varna 3,825 Veliko Turnovo 4,680 Vidin 3,006 Vratsa 3,955 Yambol 4,111

Pop. 1,000 1,183 417 254 172 467 338 165 289 204

The population at the census of Dec. 1985 was 8,942,976 (females, 4,515,936). Population on 1 Jan. 1986 was 8,971,200 (4-5m. males; 5-9m. urban). Population density 80-9 persq. km. Ethnic minorities are not identified. Some Turks have been repatriated, but 9% of the population may be Turkish. There were attempts forcibly to Bulgarianise these in preparation for the 1985 census. The remainder include Gipsies, Jews, Romanians and Armenians. Population of principal towns (1984): Sofia, 1,101,828; Plovdiv, 377,637; Vama, 297,090; Ruse, 185,425; Burgas, 188,387; Stara Zagora, 151,837; Pleven, 143,973; Shumen, 107,059; Tolbukhin, 104,662; Sliven, 103,868; Pernik, 97,783; Yambol, 91,419; Khaskovo, 90,972; Gabrovo, 83,626; Pazardzhik, 80,659. Vital statistics, 1984: Live births, 122,303; deaths, 101,419; marriages, 65,361; divorces, 13,227; crude birth rate, 13-6 per 1,000 population; crude death rate, 11-3; infant mortality, 16-1 per 1,000; growth rate, 2-3. Abortions, 1985:130,805. Expectation of life in 1984 was 68-4 years. 242

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243

C L I M A T E . The southern parts have a Mediterranean climate, with winters mild and moist and summers hot and dry, but further north the conditions become more continental, with a larger range of temperature and greater amounts of rainfall in summer and early autumn. Sofia. Jan. 28°F(-2-2°C), July 69°F (20-6°C). Annual rainfall 25-4" (635 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 'Tumovo' Constitution of 1879 was replaced by the 'Dimitrov' Constitution in 1947. This was in turn replaced by a new constitution on 18 May 1971. This provides for a singlechamber National Assembly (Narodno Subranie). The highest permanently operating organ of the state is the Council of State elected by the National Assembly from its members. Supreme power is vested in the National Assembly, which consists of 400 deputies elected from areas of equal population by direct, secret and universal suffrage (everybody at age of 18 being eligible to vote and hold office) for a term of 5 years; it is to meet at least three times every year. A general election was held on 27 Oct. 1946. The Fatherland Front, composed of the Workers (Communist), Agrarian, Socialist and Zveno Parties, and non-party independents, obtained 364 seats (277 of which went to the Communists) antfthe opposition 101. In Aug. 1947 the oppositional Agrarian Union was dissolved. The Socialist Party was merged with the Workers' Party in Aug. 1948, and the Zveno Party dissolved itself. The Fatherland Front became, in 1948, a unified mass organization with individual memberships. Inside the Fatherland Front, there remain two political parties, the Bulgarian Communist Party and the Bulgarian People's Agrarian Union. Petur Tanchev (1st Vice-Chairman, Council of State) is Secretary o f t h e Agrarian Union and Pencho Kubadinski Chairman of the Fatherland Front's National Council. In 1984 the membership of the Communist Party was 892,000; Young Communist League, (1976) l -3m.; Agrarian Union (1986), 120,000; Fatherland Front, 3,770,080. Elections to the National Assembly were held on 8 June 1986. 6,639,562 votes were stated to have been cast (from an electorate of 6,650,739) for the 400 candidates of the Fatherland Front (84 women; 276 Communists; 99 Agrarian Union; 25 independents). Constitutionally there is no office of Head of State, but Todor Zhivkov (Chairman ofthe Council ofState, Secretary-General of the Communist Party), performs some of its functions. Real political power lies with the Bulgarian Communist Party, whose highest policy-making and executive body is its Politburo, elected by and from the Central Committee. In March 1987 it consisted of: FULL MEMBERS: Todor Zhivkov, Geoigi Atanasov (Prime Minister), Stanko Todorov (Chairman, National Assembly), Pencho Kubadinski, Milko Balev, Chudomir Aleksandrov, Gen. Dobri Dzhurov (Defence Minister), Petur Mladenov (Foreign Minister), Ognian Doinov (Chairman, Economic Council, Deputy Prime Minister), Grisha Filipov, Yordan Yotov. CANDIDATE MEMBERS: Petur Dyulgerov, Andrei Lukanov (First Deputy Prime Minister), Georgi Yordanov (Deputy Prime Minister, Chairman, Councilfor Intellectual Development), Grigor Stoichkov (Deputy Prime Minister), Stoian Markov (First Deputy Prime Minister, Chairman, Committee for Research and Technology), Dimitur Stoianov (Minister of Internal Affairs). Ministers not in the Politburo include: Georgi Karamanev, (Deputy Prime Minister, Chairman, Social Council), Kiril Zarev (Deputy Prime Minister) Khristo Khristov (Commerce), Belcho Belchev (Finance), Svetla Daskalova (Justice), Radoi Popivanov (Health), Ivan Iliev (Deputy Prime Minister, Chairman, State Planning Commission). In May 1967 a second 20-year treaty of friendship, co-operation and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union was signed. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of white, green, red, with the national emblem in the canton.

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National anthem: An arrangement of Mila Rodino (Dear Fatherland), a popular patriotic song, was declared the national anthem in 1964. Local Government. People's Councils for the 28 provinces, 29 urban areas and 299 other districts are elected for 30 months. In addition to their civic functions they also supervise the management of publicly owned enterprises. The Council's executive organs are Permanent Committees. 54,475 councillors were elected on 8 June 1986 (55-9% Communists). DEFENCE. There is a compulsory service of 2 years in the Army and Air Force (3 years in the Navy). Army. In 1987 the Army had a strength of 105,000, including 73,000 conscripts, and is organized in 8 motor rifle divisions and 5 tank brigades. Bulgaria is divided into 3 Military Districts, based on Sofia, Plovdiv and Sliven. Equipment includes 400 T-34, 1,400 T-54/-55 and 150 T-72 tanks. Paramilitary forces, including border guards, security police and People's Territorial Militia, number some 172,500. Navy. The Navy consists of 3 ex-Soviet 'R' class diesel-powered patrol submarines, 3 ex-Soviet 'Riga' class old small frigates, 3 ex-Soviet 'Poti' class corvettes, 7 exSoviet 'Osa' class missile boats, 6 ex-Soviet patrol vessels, 6 ex-Soviet torpedo boats, 2 fleet minesweepers, 9 coastal minesweepers, 4 inshore minesweepers, 18 minesweeping boats, 24 landing craft, 4 oilers, 3 survey ships, 2 salvage craft, 9 tugs, 3 training ships, 2 degaussing vessels, 2 diving tenders and 20 auxiliaries and service craft. Personnel in 1987 totalled 8,500 officers and ratings of whom 1,800 were afloat, 2,200 on coastal defence, 1,800 in training, 2,500 for shore support and 200 for naval aviation comprising 20 helicopters. Air Force. The large tactical Air Force had (1987) about 250 Soviet-built combat aircraft and 35,000 personnel. There are 5 squadrons of MiG-21 interceptors; about 8 squadrons of fighter/ground attack MiG-23s and MiG-17s; 2 reconnaissance squadrons of MiG-17s; some Mi-24 helicopter gunships; a total of about 40 Tu-134, 11-14, An-2 and An-24/26 transport aircraft; a total of about 70 Mi-4, Mi-2, Ka-26, Mi-6, and Mi-8 helicopters; and L-29 Delfín, MÍG-15UTI and MiG-21 UTI trainers. Soviet-built 'Guideline', 'Goa' and 'GaneP surface-to-air missiles have also been supplied to Bulgaria. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Bulgaria is a member of UN, Comecon and the Warsaw Pact. External Debt. Agreements of 1955 and 1963 settled outstanding financial claims by the UK and USA respectively. ECONOMY Planning. State economic planning started in 1947. There were planning reforms in 1964,1969,1982 and 1986. A new national economy code, effective as of 1 Jan. 1988, provides for the self-management and self-accounting of all economic enterprises. For the first seven 5-year plans see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK for 1980-81 and 1981-82. The eighth 5-year plan (1981-85) envisaged a rise in national income of 20%, in industrial production of 28% and in agriculture of 18%. The ninth 5-year plan is running from 1986 to 1990. The emphasis is on technological development. Budget. The revenue and expenditure of Bulgaria for calendar years were as follows (in 1 m. leva): v Revenue Expenditure

1975 9,321 9,223

1976 8,778 8,758

1977 9,498 9,477

1980 13,187 13,167

1981 1982 1983 15",385 15,824 16,812 15,370 15,809 16,663

1984 17,754 17,392

1985 18,097 18,087

Of the 1984 revenue 92% came from the national economy. 1983 expenditure was: National economy, 8,630m. leva; education, 2,945m.; social security, 2,846m.

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245

Currency. The unit of currency is the lev (pi. leva) divided into 100 stotinki (sing. stotinka). It has been linked to the Soviet rouble since May 1952. A new lev, equalling 10 old leva, was introduced on 1 Jan. 1962. The parity (clearing value) is 1 rouble = 1-30 leva. Official rate of exchange (Feb. 1987) was £1 = 1-30 leva; US$1 = 0-90 leva. Rate of exchange for non-commercial transactions: £1 = 2 -40 leva; US$1 = 1 -65 leva. Notes are issued for 1,2,5,10 and 20 leva and coins for 1,2, 5,10,20,50 stotinki and 1,2 and 5 leva. Banking. The National Bank is the central bank and is responsible for issuing currency. It also plays an important part in the management of the economy: its chairman has ministerial rank. There is also a Foreign Trade Bank, a Mineral Bank and a State Savings Bank. In 1984, 9-88m. depositors had savings totalling 11,524m. leva. Interest on deposits is from 1% to 3%. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. On 1 April 1916 the Gregorian calendar came into force in Bulgaria. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Energy. Bulgaria has little oil, gas or high-grade coal and energy policy is based on the exploitation of its low-grade coal and hydro-electric resources, which produce 20% of the electricity supply. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Electricity. In 1984 there were 135 power stations with a potential of 9-8m. kw. (thermal, (46) 6m. kw.; hydroelectric, (88) 2m. kw.; nuclear, (1) l-76m. kw.). Output, 1985,45,800m. kwh. Oil and Natural Gas. Oil is extracted in the Balchik district on the Black Sea, in an area 100 km north of Varna and at Dolni Dubnik near Pleven. There are refineries at Buigas (annual capacity 5m. tonnes) and Dolni Dubnik (7m. tonnes). 190m. cu. metres of natural gas were produced in 1980. Minerals. Ore production 1984: Manganese, 13,000 tonnes; iron, 622,000 tonnes. 33 -9m. tonnes of coal including 373,000 tonnes of hard coal and 26-6m. tonnes of lignite were mined in 1984.89 tonnes of salt were extracted in 1984. Agriculture. In 1986 the National Agro-Industrial Union was replaced by a new Ministry of Agriculture. In 1984 agricultural land covered 6,719,000 hectares, of which 4,652,900 hectares are cultivable. Size of private plots (maximum, 1 hectare) is based on the number of members of a household. Total area of private plots in 1984 was 604,100 hectares. Collective and state farms have been incorporated into 'agricultural-industrial complexes'. There were 296 of these in 1984.148,540 tractors (in 15-h.p. units) were in use and 16,600 combine harvesters. In 1982,26 irrigation systems and 161 dams irrigated 1,169,900 hectares. Yield in 1984 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat, 4,836; rye, 37; maize, 2,994; barley, 1,279; oats, 25; rice, 61; sunflower seed, 462; unginned cotton, 15; tobacco, 135; tomatoes, 905; potatoes, 418; grapes, 1,120. Bulgaria produces 80% of the world supply of attar of roses; annual production, 1,200 kg. Other products (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1984: Meat, 1,246; wool, 36; 2,713m. eggs were produced and 2,513m. litres of milk. Livestock (1985): 118,089 horses, 1,751,305 cattle, including 686,709 milch cows, 10,500,658 sheep, 3,733,940 pigs, 42,276,961 poultry and 582,110 beehives. Forestry. The forest area, 1984, was 3,863,000 hectares (34% coniferous, 26% oak). Oak forests are in a poor condition due to indiscriminate felling in the past. 39,441 hectares were afforested in 1984.7 • 5m. cu. metres of timber were cut in 1984. Fisheries. Catch, 1982:115,600 tonnes (15,600 tonnes freshwater). I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. All industry was nationalized in 1947. A Labour Code of 1986 provides

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for the self-management of enterprises and the election of management by the workforce. Industrial production Crude steel (1,000 tonnes) Pig-iron (1,000 tonnes) Cement (1,000 tonnes) Sulphuric acid (1,000 tonnes)

1979 2,482 1,501 5,401 998

1980 2,565 1,583 5,359 852

1981 2,484 1,512 5,433 920

1982 2,584 1,558 5,614 916

1983 2,831 1,623 5,644 861

1984 2,878 1,578 5,717 908

In 1984 there were also produced (in 1,000 tonnes): Coke, 1,186; rolled steel, 3,354; artificial fertilizers, 2,722; calcinated soda, 1,212; sugar, 448; cotton fabrics, 368m. metres; woollens, 36-46m. metres. Labour. There is 42%-hour 5-day working week. The average wage (excluding peasantry) was 2,488 leva per annum in 1984. Population of working age (males 16-60; females 16-55), 1984, 5-05m. (2-7m. males). The labour force (excluding peasantry) in 1984 was 4,138,269 (2,040,381 female), of whom 1,417,975 worked in industry, 353,432 in building and 929,619 in agriculture and forestry. A Labour Code of 1987 provides for workplace election of managers. Commerce. Foreign trade is controlled by the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Bulganan trade has developed as follows (in 1 m. leva): Imports Exports

1979 7,363 7,667

1980 8,283 8,902

1981 9,860 9,958

1982 10,976 10,880

1983 11,966 11,818

1984 12,842 12,987

Structure of imports and exports in 1984: Producers' goods, 87%, 75%; consumer goods, 13%, 25%. Main exports are food products, tobacco, non-ferrous metals, cast iron, leather articles, textiles and (to Communist countries) machinery; main imports are machinery, oil, natural gas, steel, cellulose and timber. 78% of Bulgaria's trade is with the Communist countries (56% with USSR). Agreements with USSR envisage the co-ordination of the Soviet and Bulgarian 5-year plans in the spirit of'socialist internationalism'. In 1979 a 10-year plan of economic specialization and co-operation was signed with the USSR. Libya is Bulgaria's biggest non-Communist export market, Federal Republic of Germany her major non-Communist supplier. Total trade between Bulgaria and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 21,009 46,104

1983 12,355 44,577

1984 17,345 55,917

1985 22,291 109,970

1986 32,459 80,504

Joint Western-Bulgarian industrial ventures are permitted under a law of March 1980 by which Western share participation may exceed 50%.There were 6 in operation in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 36,336 km of roads, including 211 km of motorways and 2,923 km of main roads. 914m. tonnes of freight and 853m. passengers were carried. Railways. In 1985 Bulgaria had 4,341 km of standard gauge railway, including 2,050 km electrified. 106m. passengers and 101m. tonnes of freight were earned in 1985. Aviation. B A L K A N (Bulgarian Airlines) operates internal flights from Sofia (airport: Vrazhdebna) to Burgas, Khaskovo, Pleven, Plovdiv, Ruse, Silistra, Stara Zagora, Turgovistite, Veliko Tumovo, Varna, Vidin and Yambol and international flights to Algiers, Amsterdam, Athens, Baghdad, Bratislava, Belgrade, Benghazi, Berlin, Brussels, Bucharest, Budapest, Cairo, Casablanca, Copenhagen, Damascus, Dresden, Frankfurt, Istanbul, London, Madrid, Moscow, Nicosia, Pans, Prague, Rome, Stockholm, Syktyvkar, Tunis, Vienna, Warsaw and Zunch. There are also

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flights from Burgas to Leningrad and Kiev, and from Vama to Leningrad, Kuwait, Athens and Stockholm. In 1984 BALKAN carried 2-5m. passengers and 28,987 tonnes of freight. Shipping. Ports, shipping and shipbuilding are controlled by the Bulgarian United Shipping and Shipbuilding Corporation. In 1982 it had 194 ocean-going vessels with a loading capacity of l-6m. DWT. Burgas is a fishing and oil-port open to tankers of 20,000 tons. Varna is the other important port. There is a rail ferry between Varna and Ilitchovsk (USSR). In 1987 Bulgaria set up an exclusive economic zone extending 200 miles into the Black Sea. In 1984,668,000 passengers and 26m. tonnes of cargo were carried. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 4,036 post and telecommunications offices, 1,810,471 telephones, 70 broadcasting stations and 31 television stations. Radio Sofia, the government broadcasting station, transmits 2 programmes on medium- and short-waves. There is also a special tourist service, broadcast via the Vama II transmitter on 1,124 kHz. Advertisements are broadcast for half an hour a day. Bulgaria participates in the East European TV link 'Intervision'. Colour programmes by SEC AM system. Radio receiving sets licensed in 1984', 2,043*532; television, 1,697,218. Cinemas and Theatres (1984). There were 36 theatres, 18 puppet theatres, 8 opera houses, 1 operetta house and 3,293 cinemas. 492 films were made (31 full-length). Newspapers and Books. In 1984 there were 14 dailies with a circulation of 2-5m. The Party newspaper is Rabotnicheskoto Delo ('The Workers' Cause') with a circulation of820,000 in 1984.4,440 book titles were published in 1984. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. A law of Nov. 1982 provides for the election (and recall) of all judges by the National Assembly. There are a Supreme Court, 28 provincial courts (including Sofia), 105 regional courts and 'Comrades' Courts' for minor offences. Jurors are elected at the local government elections. The maximum term of imprisonment is now 20 years except for 'exceptionally dangerous crimes' which carry the death penalty. In 1985 harsh penalties were imposed for terrorist acts and drug smuggling following incidences of both. The Prosecutor General who is elected by the National Assembly for 5 years and subordinate to it alone, exercises supreme control over the observance of the law by all government bodies, officials and citizens. He appoints and discharges all Prosecutors of every grade. The powers of this office were extended and redefined by a law of 1980 to put a greater emphasis on crime prevention and the rights of citizens. Religion. 'The traditional church of the Bulgarian people' (as it is officially described), is that of the Eastern Orthodox Church. It was disestablished under the 1947 Constitution. In 1953 the Bulgarian Patriarchate was revived. The present Patriarch is Metropolitan Maksim of Lovech (enthroned 1971). The seat of the Patriarch is at Sofia. There are 11 dioceses, each under a Metropolitan, 10 bishops, 2,600 parishes, 1,700 priests, 400 monks and nuns, 3,700 churches and chapels, one seminary and one theological college. The Constitution provides for freedom of conscience and belief but forbids propaganda against the Government. The State provides 17% of Church funds. Churches may not maintain schools or colleges, except theological seminaries, or organize youth movements. In 1976 there were some 50,000 Roman Catholics in 3 bishoprics with 40 priests and 30 churches. In 1984 there were 5 Protestant groups: Pentecostals (10,000 members. 120 churches, 30 pastors); Baptists (1,000 members, 20 churches); Methoaists; Congregationalists; Adventists. There were estimated to be about 700,000 practising Moslems in 1984 under a Chief Mufti elected by 7 regional muftis. There were about 1,300 mosques in 1985. Education. Education is free, and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 16. The gradual introduction of unified secondary polytechnical schools offer-

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ing compulsory education for all children from the ages of 7 to 17 was begun in 1973-74. Complete literacy is claimed. Schools are classified according to which years of schooling they offer Elementary (1-3), primary (1-8), preparatory (4-8), secondary (9-11), complete secondaiy (1-11). In 1985 a Government decree was introduced to reinforce school discipline and eliminate truancy. Educational statistics for 1984-85: 5,285 kindergartens (380,430 children, 29,089 teachers); 736 elementary schools; 2,214 primary schools; 49 preparatory schools; 72 secondary schools; 425 complete secondary schools. Numbers of teachers and pupils: School years 1 to 3,25,893 and 430,732; 4 to 8, 35,545 and 642,368; 9 to 11, 9,192 and 156,764. There were also 3 vocational-technical schools (62 teachers, 1,430 students), 272 secondary vocational-technical schools (7,420 teachers, 114,299 students), 231 technical colleges (9,451 teachers, 90,716 students), 21 post-secondary institutions (913 teachers, 9,126 students) and 30 institutes of higher education (14,005 teachers, 92,636 students). University entrance is by competitive examination. Failure rate was 65% in 1985. There are 3 universities: the Kliment Ohrid University in Sofia (founded 1888) had 1,016 teachers and 9,612 students (in 1983-84); the Kirill i Metodii University in Veliko Turnovo (founded 1971) had 243 teachers and 3,138 students and the Paisi Hilendarski University in Plovdiv (founded 1961) had 274 teachers and 3,500 students. The Academy of Sciences was founded in 1869. Social Welfare. Retirement and disablement pensions and temporary sick pay are calculated as a percentage of previous wages (respectively 55-80%, 35-100%, 6990%) and according to the nature of the employment. Monthly family allowances for children under 16:18 leva for 1 child, 30 leva for 2 children and 55 leva for 3 children. In 1984,2 • 16m. persons received pensions totalling 2,229m. leva. All medical services are free. In 1984 there were 187 hospitals (including 16 mental hospitals and addiction treatment centres) with 75,698 beds. There were 24,718 doctors and 5,623 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Bulgaria in Great Britain (186 Queen's Gate, London, SW7 5HL) Ambassador: Dimitur Aleksandrov Zhulev (accredited 25 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in Bulgaria (Blvd. Marshal Tolbukhin 65-67, Sofia) Ambassador: John Fawcett, CMG. Of Bulgaria in the USA (1621 22nd St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Stoyan I. Zhulev. Of the USA in Bulgaria (1 Stamboliski Blvd., Sofia) Ambassador: Melvyn Levitsky. Of Bulgaria to the United Nations Ambassador: Boris Tsvetkov. Books of Reference Kratka Bulgarska Entsiklopediia (Short Bulgarian Encyclopaedia), 5 vols. Sofia, 1963-69 Statisiicheski Godishnik (Statistical Yearbook). Sofia from 1956 Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Sofia, 1971 Information Bulgaria. Oxford, 1985 Modern Bulgaria: History, Politics, Economy, Culture. Sofia, 1981 Normative Acts of the Foreign Economic Relations of the People's Republic ofBulgaria. Sofia, 1982 Atanasova, T., etal, Bulgarian-English Dictionary. Sofia, 1975 Dobrin, B., Bulgarian Economic Development Since World War II. New York, 1973 Feiwel, G. R., Growth and Reforms in Centrally Planned Economies: the Lessons of the Bulgarian Experience. New York, 1977 Lampe, J. R., The Bulgarian Economy in the Twentieth Century. London, 1986 Oren, N., Communism Administered: Agrarianism and Communism in Bulgaria. Baltimore, 1973 Pundeff, M. V., Bulgaria: A Bibliographic Guide. Library of Congress, 1965 Todorov, N., and others, Bulgaria: Historic and Geographical Outline. Sofia, 1965 Zhivkov, T., Modern Bulgaria: Problems and Tasks in Building an Advanced Socialist Society. New York, 1974.—Marxist Concepts and Practices. Oxford, 1984

BURKINA

FASO

Capital: Ouagadougou Population.! 92m.(1985) GNPper capita. US$160 (1984)

H I S T O R Y . A separate colony of Upper Volta was in 1919 carved out of the colony o f U p p e r Senegal and Niger, which had been established in 1904. In 1932 it was abolished and most of its territory transferred to Ivory Coast, with small parts added to French Sudan and Niger, but it was re-constituted with its former borders on 4 Sept. 1947. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 11 Dec. 1958 and reached full independence on 5 Aug. 1960. On 3 Jan. 1966 the government of Maurice Yameogo was overthrown by a military coup led by Lieut-Col. Sangoule Lamizana, who assumed the Presidency. In a Further coup on 25 Nov. 1980, President Lamizana was overthrown and a military regime assumed power. Further coups took place on 7 Nov. 1982 and 4 Aug. 1983. The name of the country was changed to Burkina Faso on 4 Aug. 1984. A border dispute with Mali led to brief hostilities from 25 Dec. to 29 Dec. 1985. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Burkina Faso is bounded north and west by Mali, east by Niger, south by Benin, Togo, Ghana and the Cote d'lvoire. The republic covers an area of 274,122 sq. km; population (census, 1985) 7,919,895 (3,824,531 males). Estimate (1986) 8,194,000. The largest cities (1985 estimates) are Ouagadougou, the capital (375,001), Bobo-Dioulasso (211,538), Koudougou (52,431), Ouahigouya (36,564), Kaya (27,460), Banfora (17,589), Fada N ' G o u r m a and Tenkodogo. The populations ( 198 5) of the 25 provinces were: Bam 175,130 Kénédougou 265,428 118,603 Sahel Kossi Bougouriba 213,019 244,320 Sanmatenga 340,938 Boulgou 358,617 Nahouri 88,287 Sissili 144,642 Soum Burkina 582,012 Namentenga 329,751 159,975 Comoé 210,758 Nouhoun Sourou 279,186 240,318 149,744 110,599 Ganzourgou Oubri tenga 787,011 Tapoa Gnagna 147,570 Passoré 262,548 Yatenga 636,991 Zoundwéogo Gourma 231,073 Poní 216,604 109,960 370,847 Houet The principal ethnic groups are the Mossi (48%), Fulani (10%), Lobi-Dagari (7%), Mandé (7%), Bobo (7%), Sénoufo (6%), Gourounsi (5%), Bissa (5%), Gourmantché (5%). French is the official language, but Moré (the Mossi language) is spoken by the majority and Dyula is the language of commerce. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate with a wet season from May to Nov. and a dry season from Dec. to April. Rainfall decreases from south to north. Ouagadougou. Jan. 76"F(24-4°Q, July 83°F(28-3°C). Annual rainfall 3 6 " ( 8 9 4 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Following the coup of 25 Nov. 1980, the 1977 Constitution was suspended and the 57-member National Assembly dissolved. Supreme political power is now vested in a new 12-member National Revolutionary Council (CNR), ruling through an appointed Cabinet composed in Sept. 1986 of: President of CNR, Head of State and Government: Capt. Thomas Sankara. Popular Defence: Maj. Boukary Jean-Baptiste Lingani. Minister of State to the Presidency, Justice: Capt. Blaise Compaoré. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation. Bazomboué Léandre Bassolet. Interior and Security: Nongman Ernest Ouedraogo. Information. Basile Laetare Guissou. Culture: Bernadette Sanou. Economic Development. Capt. Henri Zongo. Financial Resources. Talata Eugène Dondasse. Budget: Adèle Ouedraogo. Planning and People's Development. Youssouf 249

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Ouedraogo. Commerce and People's Supply: Mohamadou Touré. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry: Jean-Marc Somda. Water: Michel Kouda. Equipment: Moussa Michel Tapsoba. Transport and Communications: Alain Koeffe. Labour, Social Security and Civil Service: Fidèle Toe. Environment and Tourism: Noellie Marie Béatrice Damiba. Family Welfare and National Solidarity: Joséphine Ouedraogo. Public Health: Azara Bamba. Sports: Maj. Abdou Salam Kaboré. National Education: Sansan Jean-Baptiste Da. Higher Education and Scientific Research: Valére Dieudonné Somé. Rural Affairs: Jean-Léonard Compaoré. Secretary-General to the Cabinet: Nayabtigungu Congo-Kaboré. Secretary of State for Justice: Sambo Antoine Komi. National flag: Horizontally red over green with a yellow star over all in the centre. Local government: The country is divided into 25 provinces and 250 districts. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 5 infantry regiments, 1 reconnaissance squadron and support units. Equipment includes 25 armoured cars. Strength (1987), 3,900 with a further 2,100 men in paramilitary forces. Air Force. Creation of a small air arm to support the land forces began, with French assistance, in 1964. Equipment now comprises 2 HS.748 twin-turboprop freighters, 2 C-47s, 2 twin-turboprop Nord 262s, an Aero Commander 500, 2 Broussard and 1 Reims/Cessna Super Skymaster for transport and liaison duties, 1 Cessna 172 trainer, and 5 Dauphin and Alouette III helicopters. Eight MiG-21 fighters and 2 MiG-21 U trainers and 4 SF.260W Warrior light strike aircraft have been delivered. Personnel total (1987) 100. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Burkina Faso is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A People's Development Plan was introduced in 1984 aimed at selfsufficiency in basic foods and provided 160,000m. francs CFA for investment. Budget. Government revenue in 1984 was 57,600m. francs CFA and expenditure 62,700m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. In March 1987,£1 =469-88francs-, US$1 =330-30 francs. Banking. The Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue. The main commercial bank is the Banque Internationale du Burkina. In Dec. 1982 it had deposits of32,046m.francs CFA. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production of electricity (1985) was 134m. kwh. Minerals. There are deposits of manganese near Tambao in the north, but exploitation is limited by existing transport facilities. Magnetite, bauxite, zinc, lead, nickel and phosphates have been found in the same area. Agriculture. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes): Sorghum, 900; millet, 500; sugarcane (1984), 320; maize, 130; groundnuts, 77; rice, 45; cotton, 80; sesame, 6. Rice and groundnuts are of increasing importance. Livestock (1985): 2-8m. cattle, 2m. sheep, 2-6m. goats, 70,000 horses, 200,000 donkeys. Forestry. In 1983, 25% of the land was forested, chiefly in the deep valleys of the Black Volta, Red Volta and White Volta. Production, 7 • 15m. cu. metres. Fisheries. River fishing produced 7,000 tonnes in 1983.

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INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1982 gross manufacturing (including energy) was 68,146,600 francs CFA, of which textiles (3,666,600 francs CFA) and metal products (2,795,100 francs CFA). Labour. In 1982 the labour force was 3,503,610 of whom 2,873,000 (82%) were engaged in agriculture, forestry and fishing. There were (1981)4 trade unions. Commerce. In 1983 imports totalled 109,572m. francs CFA and exports 21,712m. francs CFA. The major exports were cotton (55%), karite nuts (12%) and livestock (6%). In 1983 France provided 28%, the Côte d'Ivoire 24% and USA 9% of imports, while the Côte d'Ivoire took 9%, France 12%, Taiwan (27%), China (11%) and UK 8% of exports. Total trade between Burkina Faso and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 1,514 3,048

1984 3,695 2,065

1985 557 2,729

1986 1,369 3,104

Tourism. There were 47,048 tourists in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The road system comprises 13,134 km, of which 4,396 km are national, 1,744 km departmental, 2,364 km regional and 1,940 km unclassified roads. In 1982 there were 33,769 vehicles, comprising 16,463 private cars, 419 buses, 14,852 commercial vehicles, 411 special vehicles and 1,123 tractors. Railway. Ouagadougou is the terminus of the Abidjan-Niger railway, of which 517 km lie in Burkina Faso. A 355-km extension to the manganese deposits at Tambao is planned with the first 107-km section to Kaya under construction. Aviation. Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso are regularly served by UTA and Air Afrique and in 1982 dealt with 120,684 passengers and 6,778 tonnes of freight. Air Burlana operates all internal flights to 47 domestic airports. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1982, some 42 post offices and (1981) 10,625 telephones. There are radio stations at Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso and (1984) 116,000 receivers. The state television service, Télévision Nationale du Burkina, broadcasts 6 days a week in Ouagadougou; there were (1984) 20,000 receivers. Cinemas. In 1982 there were 12 cinemas with 14,000 seats. Newspapers. Four daily newspapers were published in Ouagadougou in 1986. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court in Ouagadougou and Courts of Appeal at Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso. Revolutionary People's Tribunals have replaced the former lower courts. Religion. In 1980 45% of the population followed animist religions; 43% were Moslem and 12% Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). Education. There were (in 1984) 276,732 pupils and 4,796 teachers in 1,037 primary schools, 43,001 pupils and 1,553 teachers in 79 secondary schools, 4,492 students with 484 teachers in 27 technical schools and (1980) 495 students in teacher-training establishments. The Université d'Ouagadougou had 3,870 students and 216 teaching staff in 1984. Health (1980). There were 5 hospitals, 254 dispensaries, 11 medical centres, 65 regional clinics and 167 mobile clinics with a total of4,587 beds. There were 119 doctors, 14 surgeons, 52 pharmacists, 163 health assistants, 229 midwives and 1,345 nursing personnel. A 10-year health programme started in 1979, providing for 7,000 village health

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centres, 515 district health centres, regional and sub-regional medical centres, 10 departmental hospitals, 2 national hospitals and a university centre of health sciences in Ouagadougou. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Burkina Faso in Great Britain Ambassador: Amadé Ouedraogo, resides in Brussels (accredited 11 July 1984). Of Great Britain in Burkina Faso Ambassador:}. M. Willson (resides in Abidjan). Of Burkina Faso in the USA (2340 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20005) Chargé d'Affaires: Traore Melegue. Of the USA in Burkina Faso (PO Box 35, Ouagadougou) Ambassador• Leonardo Neher. Of Burkina Faso to the United Nations Ambassador (Vacant).

BURMA

Capital: Rangoon Population: 35-31 m. (1983) GNP per capita: US$ 180 ( 1983)

Pyidaungsu Socialist Thammada Myanma Naingngandaw H I S T O R Y . The Union of Burma came formally into existence on 4 Jan. 1948 and became the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma in 1974. In 1948 Sir Hubert Ranee, the last British Governor, handed over authority to Sao Shwe Thaike, the first President of the Burmese Republic, and Parliament ratified the treaty with Great Britain providing for the independence of Burma as a country not within His Britannic Majesty's dominions and not entitled to His Britannic Majesty's protection. This treaty was signed in London on 17 Oct. 1947 and enacted by the British Parliament on lODec. 1947. For the history of Burma's connexion with Great Britain see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 0 , p . 8 3 6 .

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Burma is bounded east by China, Laos and Thailand, west by the Indian ocean, Bangladesh and India. The total area of the Union is 261,789 sq. miles (678,000 sq. km). Some small rectifications of the border with China were agreed upon in 1960 and with Pakistan in 1964. The population in 1983 (census) was 35,313,905. Birth rate (1977 estimate), 29-1; death rate, 10-4 per 1,000 population; infant deaths, 56-3 per 1,000 live births. The leading towns are: Rangoon, the capital (1983), 2,458,712; other towns (1973), Mandalay, 417,266; Bassein, 355,588; Henzada, 283,658; Pegu, 254,761, Myingyan, 220,129; Moulmein, 202,967; Prome, 148,123; Akyab, 143,215; Tavoy, 101,536. The population of the States and Divisions at the 1983 census (provisional): Kachin State, 903,982; Kayah State, 168,355; Karen State, 1,057,505; Chin State, 368,985; Sagaing Division, 3,855,991; Tenasserim Division, 917,628; Pegu Division, 3,800,240; Magwe Division, 3,241,103; Mandalay Division, 4,580,923; Mon State, 1,682,041; Rakhine State, 2,045,891; Rangoon Division, 3,973,782; Shan State, 3,718,706; Irrawaddy Division, 4,991,057. The Burmese belong to the Tibeto-Chinese (or Tibeto-Burman) family. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial in coastal areas, changing to tropical monsoon over most of the interior, but humid temperate in the extreme north, where there is a more significant range of temperature and a dry season lasting from Nov. to April. In coastal parts, the dry season is shorter. Very heavy rains occur in the monsoon months May to Sept. Rangoon. Jan. 77°F (25°C), July 80°F (26 7°C). Annual rainfall 104" (2,616 mm). Akyab. Jan. 70°F (211°C), July 81°F (27 2°C). Annual rainfall 206" (5,154 mm). Mandalay. Jan. 68°F (20°C), July 85°F (29 ^ C ) . Annual rainfall 33" (828 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N . A new Constitution was approved by referendum in Dec. 1973. On 2 March 1974 military rule ended and Burma became a one-party socialist republic. Elections to the People's Assembly took place in Jan. and Feb. 1974. U Ne Win became President under the new Constitution and in Jan. 1978 his term of office was extended for 4 years. For earlier Constitutions see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 , p . 2 5 2 .

In Nov. 1981, U San Yu was elected Head of State by thé People's Assembly. The State Council has 27 members with U San Yu as Chairman and U Aye Ko as Vice-Chairman. In Jan. 1986 the Council of Ministers consisted of: Prime Minister U Maung Maung Kha. 253

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Deputy Prime Minister, Planning and Finance: Thura U Tun Tin. Deputy Prime Minister, Defence: Gen. Thura Kyaw Htin. Agriculture and Forests: Brig.Gen. Than Nyunt. Co-operatives: U Than Hlaing. Transport and Communications: Thura U Saw Pru. Foreign Affairs: U Ye Goung. Industry: U Tint Swe, U Maung Cho. Construction: Maj.-Gen. Myint Lwin. Mines: U Than Tin. Trade: U Khin Maung Gyi. Education: U Kyaw Nyein. Information and Culture: U Aung Kyaw Myint. Home and Religious Affairs: U Min Gaung. Labour and Social Welfare: U Ohn Kyaw. Health: U Tun Wai. Livestock and Fisheries: Rear Adm. Maung Maung Win. Energy: U Sein Tun. National flag: Red with a blue canton bearing 2 ears of rice within a cog-wheel and a ring of 14 stars, all in white. Language: The official language is Burmese; the use of English is permitted. Local government: Burma is divided into 7 states and 7 administrative divisions; these are sub-divided into townships and thence into villages and wards. DEFENCE Army. The strength of the Army (1987) was 170,000. The Army is organized into 9 regional commands comprising 3 light infantry divisions, 16 brigades, and 2 armoured, 85 independent infantry and 4 artillery battalions and 1 anti-aircraft battery. Equipment includes 24 Comet tanks, 40 Humber armoured cars and 45 Ferret scout cars. In addition, there are 2 paramilitary units: People's Police Force (38,000)and People's Militia(35,000). Navy. The fleet includes 2 old escort patrol vessels (ejc-USA PCE and MSF types), 2 small indigenously built small corvettes, 3 new patrol craft, 21 gunboats, 7 river gunboats, 36 small river patrol craft, 1 support ship, 2 survey vessels, 12 fishery protection cutters (3 offshore, 3 coastal, 6 inshore), 10 auxiliaries and 12 landing craft. Personnel in 1987 is budgeted for 7,000 including 800 marines. Air Force. The Air Force is intended primarily for internal security duties. Its combat force comprises about 5 T-33A jet fighter/trainers supplied under MAP, supplemented by 9 SIAI-Marchetti SF.260W light piston-engined attack/ trainers. Other training aircraft include 10 piston-engined SF.260Ms, 20 turboprop Pilatus PC-7s and PC-9s, and 10 jet-powered T-37Cs. Transport and second-line units are equipped with 4 FH-227, 7 Turbo-Porter, 1 Citation and 10 Cessna 180 aircraft, 10 Japanese-built Bell 47 (H-13) and Vertol KV-107-II, Bell UH-1, and Alouette III helicopters. Personnel (1987) 9,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Burma is a member of the UN and Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Planning. The Development Plan, 1986-90, envisages a total investment of K. 14,000m. Budget. The budget estimates (in K.lm.) for fiscal year 1 April 1986-31 March 1987 was revenue K.74,372m. and expenditure K.61,686m. The largest items, in 1986-87, of revenue were commodities and service tax (K.28,496m.) and customs (K. 10,600m.); of expenditure, processing and manufacturing (K.24,809m.); trade (K.3,500m.); transport and communication (8,400m.). Currency. The currency unit is now the kyat divided into 100 pyas. There are notes of kyat 75,35,25,15,10,5 arid 1, and coins of kyat 1; pyas 100,50,25,10,5 and 1. In March 1987,£1 =K.10-24andUS$1 =K.6-73. Banking. Banks include the Union of Burma Bank, the Myanma Economic Bank, the Myanma Foreign Trade Bank and the Myanma Agricultural Bank, and the State Insurance Company is the Myanma Insurance Corporation.

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ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1983-84 the total installed capacity of the Electric Power Corporation was 635,000 kw., of which 170,000 was hydro-electricity, 74,000 steamturbine, 300,000 natural gas and 91,000 diesel. Production (1985-86) 2,321m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Production (1985-86) of crude oil was 11,302,000 US bbls; natural gas 32,596m. cu. feet, petroleum (1983-84) 10-5m. bbls. Minerals. Production in 1985-86: Silver, 576,000 oz.; zinc, 9,144 tons; copper concentrates, 49,000 tons; copper matte, 173 tons; refined lead, 7,620 tons; nickel speiss, 80 tons; tin (concentrates), 1,232 tons; tungsten (concentrates 65%), 455 tons; tin tungsten-scheelite, 2,103 tons; coal, 42,500 tons; gypsum, 37,984 tons; limestone, 1 • 51 m. tons. Agriculture. Production (1985-86) in 1,000 tonnes: Paddy, 14,466; sugar-cane, 3,785; maize, 378; jute, 50; cotton, 112; wheat, 234; butter beans, 125; soya beans, 22; rubber, 16. Livestock (1985-86): Cattle, 9,718,000; buffaloes, 2,143,000; pigs, 2,955,000; poultry, 38-79m. In 1985-86 the area irrigated by government-controlled irrigation works was 2,716,290 acres. Forestry. The area of reserved forests in 1985-86 was 39,031 sq. miles. Teak extracted in 1985-86,410,000 cu. tons; hardwood, 1,297,820 cu. tons. All the teak and about 50% of the hardwood is from the state sector. Other forest produce included 16,900,000 cu. tons of firewood and 781,000 cu. tons of charcoal. Fisheries. In 1985-86 sea fishing produced 331,740 viss and freshwater fisheries 95,129 viss. [Ed. note 1 viss=3-6 lb.]. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Production (1985-86) in 1,000 tonnes: Cement, 477; sheet glass, 4; fertilizers, 354-3; sugar, 65; paper, 21 -6; cotton yarn, 14-5. 2,504 motor cars, 611 tractors and 14,000 bicycles were produced in 1985—86. Labour. Economically active (1985-86) 15 • 13m. Commerce. All imports and exports are controlled by the government trading organizations. Imports and exports (US$ 1 m.) for 1984-85: Imports 694 -2 and exports 425 -9. Total trade between Burma and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 5,342 44,242

1983 4,726 21,927

1984 6,420 16,488

1985 9,944 20,221

1986 5,092 10,835

Tourism. There were 32,948 tourists in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 14,416 miles of road in 1985-86, of which 2,452 miles were union highway. Railways. The Burma Railways were nationalized in 1948 and the present Burma Railways Corporation took over in 1972. In 1985 there were 2,774 miles of route on metre gauge. In 1985—86 the railway carried 2-26m. tonsoffreightand62-3m. passengers. Aviation. Burma Airways Corporation, formerly Union of Burma Airways, started its internal service in Sept. 1948 and its external service it) Nov. 1950. International services were in 1963 maintained between Rangoon and Bangkok and Calcutta. The routes were extended to Hong Kong in 1969 and to Dhaka and Kathmandu in 1970 and to Singapore in 1979. There were, in 1985,37 civil airfields.

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Shipping. Burma has 60 miles of navigable canals. The Irrawaddy is navigable up to Myitkyina, 900 miles from the sea, and its tributary, the Chindwin, is navigable for 390 miles. The Irrawaddy delta has nearly 2,000 miles of navigable water. The Sal ween, the Attaran and the G'yne provide about 250 miles of navigable waters around Moulmein. The Inland Water Transport Board runs services from Bhamo to Myitkyina. Post and Broadcasting. There were 1,126 post offices in 1985. Number of telephones was 55,935 in 1985. There is one television broadcasting station in Rangoon. Cinemas. In 19 71 there were about 418 cinemas. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 6 daily newspapers with a readership of over 800,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Since March 1974 the highest judicial authority has been the Council of People's Justices, appointed by the People's Assembly from its own members, which serves as the Supreme Court and Central Criminal Court. At lower levels courts are appointed by the local People's Councils from among their own membership. Religion. The Revolutionary Government, having repealed the amendment of 1961 which made Buddhism the state religion, recognizes 'the right of everyone freely to profess and practise his religion'. Education. The medium of instruction in all schools is Burmese; English is taught as a compulsory second language from kindergarten level. Education is free in the primary, junior secondary and vocational schools; fees are charged in senior secondary schools and universities. In 1985-86 there were 726 state high schools with 266,665 pupils, 1,702 state middle schools with 119,347 pupils and 31,499 state primary schools with 5,021,066 pupils; the total teaching staff was 172,188, of which 114,767 were in primary schools. Beside the Arts and Science University, there are independent degree-giving institutes of engineering, education, medicine, agriculture, economics and commerce, and veterinary sciences. The University of Mandalay has been similarly decentralized. A foreign-languages institute in Rangoon has about 800 students learning English, French, German, Russian, Japanese, Chinese and Italian. There are intermediate colleges at Taunggyi, Magwe, Akyab and Myitkyina, and degree colleges at Moulmein and Bassein, and several technical and agricultural institutes at higher and middle level. 6,540 school teachers were being trained in 14 training colleges in 1985-86. Technical high schools had 5,178 students; agricultural schools, 1,099; other vocational colleges, 4,862, and university colleges (1983-84), 171,245. A correspondence course for universities and collèges was introduced in 1975-76. Health. In 1985-86 there were 10,031 doctors and 631 hospitals with 26,019 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Burma in Great Britain (19A Charles St., London, W1X 8ER) Ambassador:U Tin Tun (accredited 16 July 1985). Of Great Britain in Burma (80 Strand Rd., Rangoon) Ambassador: Martin Morland, CMG. Of Burma in the USA (2300 S St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: U Ba Thwin. Of the USA in Burma (581 Merchant St., Rangoon) Ambassador: Daniel A. O'Donohue.

BURMA.

257

Of Burma to the United Nations Ambassador: U Maung Maung Gyi. Books of Reference Burma: Treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom and the Provisional Government of Burma. (Treaty Series No. 16,1948.)HMSO, 1948 Cornyn, W. S., and Musgrave, J. K., Burmese Glossary. New York, 1958 Lehman, F. K., The Structure ofChin Society. Univ. of Illinois Press, 1963 Silverstein, J., Burma: Military Rule and the Politics of Stagnation. Cornell Univ. Press, 1978. —Burmese Politics: The Dilemma of National Unity. Rutgers Univ. Press, 1980 Steinberg, D. I., Burma. Boulder, 1982 Stewart, J. A., and Dunn, C. W., Burmese-English Dictionary. London, 1940 ff.

BURUNDI

Capital: Bujumbura Population: 4-92m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$250 (1984)

Republika y'Uburundi H I S T O R Y . Tradition recounts the establishment of a Tutsi kingdom under successive Mwamis as early as the 16th century. German military occupation in 1890 incorporated the territoiy into German East Africa. From 1919 Burundi formed part of Ruanda-Urundi administered by the Belgians, first as a League of Nations mandate and then as a UN trust territory. Internal self-govemment was granted on 1 Jan. 1962, followed by independence on 1 July 1962. On 8 July 1966 Prince Charles Ndizeye deposed his father Mwami Mwambutsa IV, suspended the constitution and made Capt. Michel Micombero Prime Minister. On 1 Sept. Prince Charles was enthroned-as Mwami Ntare V. On 28 Nov., while the Mwami was attending a Head of States Conference in Kinshasa (Congo), Micombero declared Burundi a republic with himself as president. On 31 March 1972 Prince Charles returned to Burundi from Uganda and was placed under house arrest. On 29 April 1972 President Micombero dissolved the Council of Ministers and took full power; that night heavy fighting broke out between rebels from both Burundi and neighbouring countries, and the ruling Tutsi, apparently with the intention of destroying the Tutsi hegemony. Prince Charles was killed during the fighting and it was estimated that up to 120,000 were killed. On 14 July 1972 President Micombero reinstated a Government with a Prime Minister. On 1 Nov. 1976 President Micombero was deposed by the Army. A Supreme Revolutionary Council was established which appointed Col. JeanBaptiste Bagaza president. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Burundi is bounded north by Rwanda, east and south by Tanzania and west by Zaïre, and has an area of27,834 sq. km (10,759 sq. miles). It lies astride the main Nile-Congo dividing crest (6,000-7,000 ft) bounded on the west by the narrow plain of the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika (2,534 ft). The interior is a broken plateau at an average height of about 5,000 ft, sloping eastwards down to Tanzania and the valley of the Maragarazi River. The southernmost tributary of the Nile system, the Luvironza, rises in the south of the country. The population at the census in 1979 was 4,111,310; estimate (1986) 4,923,000. There are three ethnic groups—Hutu (Bantu, forming over 83% of the total): Tutsi (Nilotic, less than 15%); Twa (pygmoids, less than 1 %). There are some 3,500 Europeans and 1,500 Asians. In 1980 some 65,000 Tutsi refugees from Rwanda were living in Burundi. Bujumbura, the capital, had (1979 census) 141,040 inhabitants. Gitega (35,000 inhabitants in 1982) was formerly the royal residence. C L I M A T E . An equatorial climate, modified by altitude. The eastern plateau is generally cool, the easternmost savanna several degrees hotter. The wet seasons are from March to May and Sept. to Dec. Bujumbura. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 33" (825 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 21 Nov. 1981 and provides for a one-party state. The 65-member National Assembly elected in Oct. 1982 comprised 52 members elected by universal suffrage from a list of 104 candidates nominated by UPRONA (Parti de l'Unité et du Progrès National du Burundi), together with 13 members appointed by the President. President Bagaza became Party Chairman and Head of the Central Committee for a 5-year term in Jan. 1980 and was re-elected for a second 5-yearterminSept. 1984. He won 99-63% of the 1-7m. votes cast. 258

BURUNDI

259

President of the Republic, Minister of Defence: Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza (assumed office 9 Nov. 1976 and re-elected 31 Aug. 1984). Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Egide Nkuriyingoma. Finance: Pierre Ngenzi. Flag: White diagonal cross dividing triangles of red and green, in the centre a white disc bearing 3 red green-bordered 6-pointed stars. Local Government: There are 15 provinces, each under a military governor, and sub-divided into 114 districts and then into communes. DEFENCE. The national armed forces total (1987), 7,200 (there are also about 1,500 in paramilitary units) and include a small naval flotilla and air force flight of 3 SF 260, 3 Cessna 150 and 2 Do 27 liaison aircraft, 4 Alouette III and 2 armed Gazelle helicopters. The Army comprises 2 infantry battalions, 1 parachute battalion, 1 commando battalion and 1 armoured-car company. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Burundi is a member of UN and OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1983-87 Plan aims at greater diversification of agriculture with an envisaged investment of 107,400m. Burundi francs. Budget. The 1984 budget envisaged receipts of 15,171m. Burundi francs and expenditure at 17,348m. Burundi francs. Currency. The currency is the Burundi franc. There are coins of 1, 5 and 10 francs and bank notes of 10,20, 50,100, 500, 1,000 and 5,000francs. The exchange rate was 186-75 Burundi francs=£\ and 97 07 Burundi francs=US$ 1 in March 1987. Banking. The Bank of the Republic of Burundi is the central bank and 4 commercial banks have headquarters in Bujumbura. Weights and Measures. The metric system operates. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity production was (1985) 26m. kwh. The majority of the electricity is supplied by Zaire. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Mineral ores such as bastnasite and cassenite were formerly mined but output is now insignificant. Deposits of nickel (280m. tonnes) and vanadium remain to be exploited. Agriculture. The main economic activity and the main source of employment is subsistence agriculture. Beans, kassava, maize, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, peas, sorghum and bananas are grown according to the climate and the region. The main cash crop is coffee, of which about 95% is arabica. It accounts for 90% of exports and taxes and levies on coffee constitute a major source of revenue. A coffee board (OCIBU) manages the grading and export of the crop. Production (1985) 36,000 tonnes. The main food crops (production 1985, in 1,000 tonnes) are cassava (520), yams (7), bananas (1,250), beans (290), maize (150), sorghum (240), groundnuts (80) and peas (32). Other cash crops are cotton (7) and tea (4). Cattle play an important traditional role, and there were about 415,000 head in 1985. The quality is poor, but efforts are being made to improve it. There were (1985) some 798,000 goats, 369,000 sheep and 80,000 pigs. Forestry. Production (1983) 3 • 5m. cu. metres. Fisheries. There is a small commercial fishing industry on Lake Tanganyika. The catch in 1983 totalled 12,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial development is rudimentary. In Bujumbura there are plants

260

BURUNDI

for the processing of coffee and by-products of cotton, a brewery, cement works, a textile factory, a soap factory, a shoe factory and small metal workshops. Commerce. The total value of exports in 1984 was 11,828m. Burundi francs, and of imports, 22,383m. Burundi francs. Main exports in 1984 were coffee, 84% and tea, 7%. Main imports, petrol products, food, vehicles and textiles. In 1983, 50% of exports were to the Federal Republic of Germany, while Belgium supplied 15% and France 10% of imports. Total trade between Burundi and the UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡98} m 2 m 4 m 5 ]g86 ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from U K

8,737 1,522

3,485 3,155

1,924 1,710

3,367 1,592

3,074 2,324

Tourism. Tourism is developing and there were 38,000 visitors in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There is a road network of 5,144 km connecting with Rwanda, Zaire and Tanzania but in 1982 only 310 km were macadamized. In 1984 there were 7,533 cars and 4,364 commercial vehicles. Aviation. In 1984, 38,141 passengers arrived or departed through Bujumbura International airport, and there are local airports at Gitega, Nyanza-Lac, Kiofi and Nyakagunda. Shipping. There are lake services from Bujumbura to Kigoma (Tanzania) and Kalémie (Zaire). The main route for exports and imports is via Kigoma, and thence by rail to Dar es Salaam. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1982), 5,601. Radio receivers (1984) 160,000. Newspapers. There was (1984) one daily newspaper (Le Renouveauj with a circulation of20,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court, an appeal court and a tribunal de première instance at Bujumbura and provincial tribunals in each provincial capital. Religion. About 60% of the population is Roman Catholic; there is a Roman Catholic archbishop and 3 bishops. About 3% are Pentecostal, 1% Anglican and 1% Moslem, while the balance follow traditional tribal beliefs. Education. In 1984 the number of children in primary school was 337,329 and 22,061 pupils were receiving secondary education. The university of Bujumbura had (1981) 1,793 students. The local language is Kirundi, a Bantu language. French is also an official language. Kiswanili is spoken in the commercial centres. Health. In 1979 there were about 130 doctors and 21 hospitals. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Burundi in Great Britain Ambassador: Vacant. Of Great Britain in Burundi Ambassador: P. H. C. Eyers, CMG, LVO (resides in Kinshasa). Of Burundi in the USA (2233 Wisconsin Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: Edouard Kadigiri. Of the USA in Burundi (PO Box 1720, Ave. du Zaire, Bujumbura) Ambassador: James R. Bullington. Of Burundi to the United Nations Ambassador: Melchior Bwakira. Books of Reference Lemarchand, R., Rwanda and Burundi. London, 1970 Weinstein, W., Historical Dictionary of Burundi. Metuchen, 1976

CAMBODIA

Capital: Phnom Penh Population. 6-23m.(1985) GNPpercapita. Noaccurate estimate available (1981)

Democratic Kampuchea

Since April 1975 the situation m Cambodia has been such that it has been impossible to obtain reliable statistical and other information. HISTORY. The recorded history of Cambodia starts at the beginning of the Christian era with the Kingdom of Fou-Nan, whose territories at one time included parts of Thailand, Malaya, Cochin-China and Laos. The religious, cultural and administrative inspirations of this state came from India. The Kingdom was absorbed at the end of the 6th century by the Khmers, under whose monarchs was built, between the 9th and 13th centuries, the splendid complex of shrines and temples at Angkor. Attacked on either side by the Vietnamese and the Thai from the 15th century on, Cambodia was saved from annihilation by the establishment of a French protectorate in 1863. Thailand eventually recognized the protectorate and renounced all claims to suzerainty in exchange for Cambodia's north-western provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap, which were, however, returned under a Franco-Thai convention of 1907, confirmed in the Franco-Thai treaty of 1937. In 1904 the province of Stung Treng, formerly administered as part of Laos, was attached to Cambodia. For history to 1969 see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1973-74, p. 1112. Following a period of increasing economic difficulties and growing indirect involvement in the Vietnamese war Prince Sihanouk was deposed in March 1970 and on 9 Oct. 1970 the Kingdom of Cambodia became the Klimer Republic. From 1970 hostilities extended throughout most of the country involving North and South Vietnamese and US forces as well as Republican and anti-Republican Khmer troops. During 1973 direct American and North Vietnamese participation m the fighting came to an end, leaving a civil war situation which continued during 1974 with large-scale fighting between forces of the Khmer Republic supported by American arms and economic aid and the forces of the United National Cambodian Front including 'Khmer Rouge' communists supported by North Vietnam and China. After unsuccessful attempts to capture Phnom Penh in 1973 and 1974, the Khmer Rouge ended the 5-year war in April 1975, when the remnants of the republican forces surrendered the city. From April 1975 the Khmer Rouge instituted a harsh and highly regimented régime. They cut the country off from normal contact with the world and expelled all foreigners. All cities and towns were forcibly evacuated and the population were set to work in the fields. The régime had difficulties with the Vietnamese from 1975 and this escalated into full-scale fighting in 1977-78. On 7 Jan. 1979, Phnom Penh was captured by the Vietnamese, and the Prime Minister, Pol Pot, fled. In Dec. 1985 the Khmer Rouge still had 30,000 guerrillas fighting the Vietnamese in Kampuchea. Pol Pot formally retired as C.-in-C. of the Khmer Rouge forces on 2 Sept. 1985 but retained an advisory role. In June 1982 the Khmer Rouge (who claim to have abandoned their Communist ideology and to have disbanded their Communist Party) entered into a coalition with Son Sann's Kampuchean People's National Liberation Front and Prince Sihanouk's group. This government is recognized by the UN. President of the Coalition Government. Prince Norondom Sihanouk. Deputy President. Khieu Samphan. Prime Minister Son Sann. 261

262

CAMBODIA

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Cambodia is bounded north by Laos and Thailand, in the west by Thailand, east by Vietnam and south by the Gulf of Thailand. It has an area of about 181,035 sq. km (69,898 sq. miles). The total population of 5,756,141 (census, 1981 ) of whom 93% were Khmer, 4% Vietnamese and 3% Chinese. Estimate (1985) 6,232,000. The capital, Phnom Penh is located at the junction of the Mekong and Tonle Sap rivers. Populations of major towns have fluctuated greatly since 1970 by flows of refugees from rural areas and from one town to another. Phnom Penh formerly had a population of at least 2 5m. but a 1983 estimate puts it at 500,000, Other cities are Kompong Cham and Battambang. Khmer is the official language. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with high temperatures all the year. Phnom Penh. Jan. 78°F(25-6°C), July 84°F(28-9°C). Annual rainfall 52"(1,308 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Following the ousting of the Khmer Rouge régime, the Vietnamese-backed Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation (KNUFNS) on 8 Jan. 1979 proclaimed a People's Republic and established a People's Revolutionary Council to administer the country. A 117-member National Assembly was elected on 1 May 1981 for a 5-year term; in June 1981 it ratified a new Constitution under which it appointed a 7-member Council of State and a 16-member Council of Ministers, replacing the Revolutionary Council. President ofthe Council ofState Heng Samnn. Prime Minister Hun Sen. National flag: Red with a five-towered silhouette of the temple of Angkor Wat in the centre m yellow. D E F E N C E . Since the end of the war m April 1975 there has been no accurate data on defence and the three sections below should be treated with severe reserve. There is conscription into the armed forces. Army. Strength (1987) 35,000 including 5 infantry divisions and some 50 supporting units. Equipment reported includes 60 T-54/-55 and 10 PT-76 tanks. There are also paramilitary police and militia units. Navy. The Marine Royale Khmer was established on 1 March 1954 and became Marine Nationale Khmer on 9 Oct. 1970. It recently included 2 fast antisubmarine hydrofoil craft, 1 ex-Soviet fast attack craft, 13 coastal patrol craft, 25 river patrol boats, 3 surveying craft, 1 tug, 2 floating docks and a dozen small craft, converted junks, etc. Less than a third of this force is operational and the residual navy has little fighting value. Two patrol vessels and 2 support (landing) gunboats escaped from Khmer Rouge, and 2 torpedo boats were believed to have sunk. Units since stricken include 7 amphibious vessels, 8 coastal patrol craft and 60 river patrol boats and service craft. Naval personnel provided for in 1987 did not exceed 7,000. In addition there was a battalion of marines numbering some 4,000. Air Force. Since the Vietnamese invasion in 1978 there has been no established air force. ECONOMY Currency. In 1978 money was officially abolished and no wages or salaries were paid, but in 1980 the use of money was restored. The currency is the riel, divided into 100-sen. Banking. In 1964 all bank functions were taken over by government banks. In 1972 legislation permitted the re-opening of foreign banks but by the end of Dec. 1973 only a few representational offices had opened. In 1979 there was no longer anything that could be called a normal banking system.

CAMBODIA

263

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 141 m. kwh. Supply 120 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. A phosphate factory, jointly controlled by the State and private interests, was set up in 1966 near a deposit of an estimated 350,000 tons. Another deposit of about the same size is earmarked for exploitation. High-grade iron-ore deposits (possibly as much as 2 -5 m. tons) exist in Northern Khmer, but are not exploited commercially because of transportation difficulties. Some small-scale gold panning (6,687 troy oz. in 1963) and gem (mainly zircon) mining is carried out at Pailin where there is potential for considerable expansion. Agriculture. The overwhelming majority of the population is normally engaged in agriculture, fishing and forestry. Of the country's total area of 44m. acres, about 20m. are cultivable and over 20m. are forest land. In 1980, 1 -5m. hectares were cultivated. Before the spread of war the high productivity provided for a low, but well-fed standard of living for the peasant farmers, the majority of whom owned the land they worked. A relatively small proportion of the food production entered the cash economy. The war and unwise pricing policies have led to a disastrous reduction in production to a stage in which the country had become a net importer of rice. A crop of about 1-9m. tonnes of paddy were produced in 1985. Rubber production in 1985 amounted to 16,000 tonnes. Production of other crops (1985 in tonnes): Maize, 78,000; dry beans, 35,000; soybeans, 2,000. Livestock (1985) FAO estimate: Cattle, 1 -5m.; bufTaloes, 685,000; sheep, 1,000; pigs, 1 -2m.; horses, 12,000; poultry, 9m. Forestry. Much of Cambodia's surface is covered by potentially valuable forests, 3 -8m. hectares of which are reserved by the Government to be awarded to concessionaires, and are not at present worked to an appreciable extent. The remainder is available for exploitation by the local residents, and as a result some areas are overexploited and conservation is not practised. There are substantial reserves of pitch pine. Roundwood production (1982) 5 • 1 m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Cambodia has the greatest freshwater fish resources in South-East Asia. Production in 1982 84,700 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Some development of industry had taken place before the spread of open warfare in 1970. Industry established and in operation in Jan. 1970 included a motor-vehicle assembly plant, 3 cigarette manufacturing concerns, a modern factory, several metal fabricating concerns, a distillery, a saw-mill, textile, fish canning, plywood, paper, cement, sugar sack, tyre, pottery and glassware factories and a cotton-ginnery. In the private sector there are about 3,200 manufacturing enterprises, producing a wide range of goods; most of them are small family concerns. An oil refinery at Kompong Som came into production in 1969 but was put out of action by an attack in early 1971. Since April 1975 a programme for repairing factories has been started and some 70 are back in production. Commerce. Principal imports by order of value (1972) were petroleum products, metals and machinery (including vehicles), general foodstuffs and chemicals. The only recorded export in 1972 was 7,328 tonnes of rubber. Much of the country's trade is with Hong Kong and Singapore. Total trade between Cambodia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 92 479

1983 184 826

1 984 72 635

1 985 77 467

1 986 58 217

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1981, 2,670 km of asphalt roads (including the 'KhmerAmerican Friendship Highway' from outside Phnom Penh to close to Kompong

264

CAMBODIA

Som, built under the US aid programme and opened in July 1959), and 10,680 km of unsurfaced roads. Railways. A line of 385 km (metre gauge) links Phnom Penh to Poipet (Thai frontier). In 1969 traffic amounted to 170m. passenger-km and 76m. ton-km. Work was completed during 1969 on a line Phnom Penh-Kompong Som via Takeo and Kampot. Total length, 649 km but by 1973 only a short stretch between Battambang and the Thai border remained in operation, the remainder having been closed by military action. Passenger and freight trains were running over about 80% of the network in 1980. Aviation. The Pochentong airport is 10 km from Phnom Penh. Air Kampuchea has 2 small aircraft. Shipping. The port of Phnom Penh can be reached by the Mekong (through Vietnam) by ships of between 3,000 and 4,000 tons. In 1970, 97 ocean-going vessels imported 51,300 tons of cargo at Phnom Penh and exported 86,400 tons. A new ocean port has been built under the French aid programme at Kompong Som (formerly Sihanoukville) on the Gulf of Siam and is being increasingly used by long-distance shipping. Post. There were 58 post offices functioning in 1968 but in 1979 it was doubtful if any offices operate. There are telephone exchanges in all the main towns; number of telephones in 1981, 7,315. There is an International Telex network in Phnom Penh and direct telephone and telegraphic links with Singapore. RELIGION AND EDUCATION Religion. In 1980 the majority of the population practised Theravada Buddhism. The Constitution of 1976 ended Buddhism as the State religion. There are small Roman Catholic and Moslem minorities. Education. The primary education system has now substantially recovered from the disruptions of the 1970's. In 1982 there were 1,430,000 primary school and 40,000 secondary school pupils. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES UK and USA Embassies have been closed as have Cambodian Embassies in London and Washington. Of Democratic Kampuchea to the United Nations Ambassador: Thiounn Prasith. Books of Reference Barron, J., and Paul, A., Murder of a Gentle Land. New York, 1977.—Peace with Horror. London, 1977 Debré, F., La Révolution de la Forêt. Paris, 1976 Etcheson,C., The Rise and Demise ofDemocratic Kampuchea. London, 1984 Kiljunen, K., (ed.) Kampuchea: Decade ofthe Genocide. London, 1984 McDonald, M., Angkor. London, 1958 Ponchaud, F C a m b o d i a , Year Zero. London, 1978 Vickery, M., Cambodia: 1975-1982. London, 1984

Capital: Yaoundé Population: 9 -88m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$800 (1983)

CAMEROON République du Cameroun

H I S T O R Y . The former German colony of Kamerun was occupied by French and British troops in 1916. The greater portion of the territory (422,673 sq. km) was in 1919 placed under French administration, excluding the territory ceded to Germany in 1911, which reverted to French Equatorial Africa. The portion under French trusteeship was granted full internal autonomy on 1 Jan. 1959 and complete independence was proclaimed on 1 Jan. 1960. The portion assigned to British trusteeship consisted of 2 parts where separate plebiscites were tield in Feb. 1961. The northern part decided in favour of joining Nigeria, while the southern part decided to join the Cameroon Republic. This was implemented on 1 Oct. 1961 with the formation of a Federal Republic of Cameroon. As a result of a national referendum, Cameroon became a unitary republic on 2 June 1972. In Jan. 1984 the country was renamed the Republic of Cameroon. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Cameroon is bounded west by the Gulf of Guinea, north-west by Nigeria and east by Chad, with Lake Chad at its northern tip, and the Central African Republic, and south by Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. The total area is 465,054 sq. km (179,558 sq. miles). Population (1976 census) 7,663,246 (28-5% urban). Estimate (1986)9-88m. The areas, populations and chief towns of the 10 provinces were: Province Adamaoua Centre Est Extrême-Nord Littoral Nord (Bénoué) Nord-Ouest Ouest Sud Sud-Ouest

Sq.km 63,691 68,926 109,011 34,246 20,239 65,576 17,810 13,872 47,110 24,471

Census 1976 359,227 1,176,206 366,235 1,394,958 935,166 479,072 980,531 1,035,597 315,739 620,515

Chief town Ngaoundéré Yaoundé Bertoua Maroua Douala Garoua Bamenda Bafoussam Ebolowa Buéa

Estimate 1981 47,508 435,892 18,254 81,861 636,980 77,856 58,697 75,832 22,222 29,953

Other large towns (1981): Nkongsamba (86,870), Kumba (53,823), Foumban (41,358), Limbe (32,917), Edea (31,016), Mbalmayo (26,934) and Dschang (21,705). The population is composed of Sudanic-speaking people in the north (Fulani, Sao and others) and Bantu-speaking groups, mainly Bamileke, Beti, Bulu, Tikar, Bassa, Duala, in the rest of the country. "ITie official languages are French and English. C L I M A T E . An equatorial climate, with high temperatures and plentiful rain, especially from March to June and Sept. to Nov. Further inland, rain occurs at all seasons. Yaounde. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 73°F (22-8'C). Annual rainfall 62" (1,555 mm). Douala. Jan. 79'F(26- 1"C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 160" (4,026 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The 1972 Constitution, subsequently amended, provides for a President as head of state and government and commander of the armed forces. He is directly elected for a 5-year term, and there is a Council of Ministers whose members must not be members of parliament. 265

266

CAMEROON

The National Assembly, elected by universal adult suffrage for S years, consists of 120 representatives. Elections took place in May 1983. Since 1966 the sole legal party has been the Union Nationale Camerounaise. In March 1985 the UNC was renamed the Rassemblement Démocratique du Peuple Camerounais (RDPC) and is administered by a 65-member Central Committee and a 12-member Political Bureau. The Council of Ministers in Feb. 1987 comprised: President: Paul Biya (assumed office 6 Nov. 1982). Foreign Affairs: Philippe Mataga. Justice: Benjamin Itoe. Planning and Land Development: Sadou Hayatou. Youth and Sports: Ibrahim Mbombo Nioya. Territorial Administration: Jean-Marcel Mengueme. Finance: Edouard Koula. Civil Service: René Ze Nguele. Higher Education and Scientific Research: David Abouem Atchoyi. Livestock, Animal Industries and Fisheries: Hamadjoda Adjoudi. Social Affairs: Rose Zang Nguele. Posts and Telecommunications: Léonard Claude Mpouma. Housing and Town Planning: Abdoulaye Babale. Transport: André-Bosco Cheuwa. Information and Culture: Georges Ngango. Equipment: Herman Maimo. Agriculture: Jean-Baptiste Yonkeu. National Education: Robert Mbella Mbappe. Women's Affairs: Yaou Aissatou Boubakari. Trade and Industry: Edouard Nomo-Ongolo. Labour and Social Security: Adolphe Moudiki. Public Health: Victor Anomah Ngu. Mines and Energy: Michael Tabong Kima. Ministers at the Presidency: Joseph-Charles Douma, Titus Edzoa. Ministers-Delegate at the Presidency: Jérôme-Emilien Abondo (Defence), Joseph Chongwain Awunti (Relations with National Assembly), Paul Kamga Njike (Computer Services and Public Contracts), Mohamadou Labarang (General State Inspectorate and Administrative Reform). (Minister-Delegate, Foreign Affairs: Mahamat Paba Sale. There were 11 junior ministers. National flag: Three vertical strips of green, red, yellow, with a gold star in the centre. National anthem: O Cameroun, berceau de nos ancêtres. Local Government: The 10 provinces are each administered by a governor appointed by the President. They are sub-divided into 40 départements (each under a préfet) and then into arrondissements (each under a sous-préfet). DEFENCE. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured car, 1 para-commando, 1 engineer and 4 infantry battalions and 5 artillery batteries. Equipment includes M-8 armoured and Ferret scout cars. Total strength (1987) 6,600, there are an additional 4,000 paramilitary troops. Navy. The Navy operates 2 fast missile-armed craft, 2 patrol vessels (French-built), 2 small patrol craft, 12 coastal patrol launches, 12 inshore cutters and 32 auxiliaries and service craft. Personnel in 1987 numbered 350. Air Force. The Air Force has 3 C-130H Hercules turboprop transports, 4 Buffalo and 1 Caribou STOL transports, 3 C-47s for transport and communications duties, 3 Broussard liaison aircraft, 6 Magister armed jet basic trainers, 5 Alpha Jet close support/trainers, and 2 Alouette II helicopters. Some of 4 Gazelle light helicopters are armed with anti-tank missiles. A small VIP transport fleet, maintained in civil markings, comprises 1 Boeing 727 jet aircraft, 1 Gulfstream II and 3 Aerospatiale ' helicopters. Radar-equipped Dornier 128-6 twin-turboprop aircraft were delivered in 1982 for offshore oilfield patrol. Personnel total (1987) 350. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Cameroon is a member ofUN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Sixth 5-year Development Plan (from 1 July 1986 to 30 June 1991) gives priority to rural development and food self-sufficiency.

CAMEROON

267

Budget. The budget for 1986-87 balanced at 800,000m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. In March 1987, £1 = 469-8 francs CFA; US$1 = 303 -3 francs CFA. Banking. The Banque des Etats de l'Afrique Centrale is the sole bank of issue. The main banks are Banque Internationale pour l'Afrique Occidentale, Société Camerounaise de Banque, Société Générale de Banques au Cameroun, Banque International pour le Commerce et l'Industrie du Cameroun and Cameroon Bank. Most of the banks operate in all the large cities and towns throughout the Republic. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. There are 3 hydro-electric power stations at Edéa on the Sanaga river with a capacity of 180,000 kw. Total production (1985) 2,241m. kwh. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Production (estimate, 1985) mainly from Kole oilfield was 9 -2m. tonnes. Minerals. There are considerable deposits of bauxite and kvanite around Ngaoundéré. Further deposits of bauxite and cassiterite remain to be exploited in the Adamawa plateau. Agriculture. At the 1976 Census, 80% of the working population were engaged in agriculture. The main food crops (with 1985 production in 1,000 tonnes): Cassava, 670; millet, 440; maize, 530; plantains, 980; yams, 380; groundnuts, 140; bananas, 67. Cash crops include palm oil, 90; palm kernels, 50; cocoa, 115; coffee, 116; rubber, 18; cotton, 40; raw sugar, 75. Livestock(1985): 3,642,000 cattle, 1 -9m. sheep, 1 -93m. goats, 800,000 pigs. Fisheries. In 1983 the total catch was 84,277 tonnes. Forestry. Over 50% of Cameroon consists of forests, ranging from tropical rain forests in the south (producing hardwoods such as mahogany, ebony and sapele) to semi-deciduous forests in the centre and wooded savannah in the north. Production in 1983 amounted to 9-9m. cu. metres. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. There is a major aluminium smelting complex at Edéa; aluminium production in 1983 amounted to 77,600 tonnes. Production of cement totalled 227,000 tonnes in 1980. There are also factories producing shoes, beer, soap, oil and food products, cigarettes. Labour. In 1982 the work-force numbered 3,543,000 of whom 73% were occupied in agriculture. The principal trade union federation is the Organisation des syndicats des travailleurs camerounais (OSTC) established on 7 Dec. 1985 to replace the former body, the UNTC. Commerce. Imports and exports in 1 m. francs CFA were as follows: Imports Exports

1979 271,160 243,699

1980 337,602 290,614

1981 386,089 299,716

1982 392,600 326,900

In 1982, 40% (by value) of exports went to USA, 20% to the Netherlands and 16% to France, while France provided 45% of imports; the main exports (1982) were crude oil (47%), coffee (16%), cocoa (14%) and timber (6%). Total trade between Cameroon and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡ m m 2 1983 m 4 m 6 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

9,108 22,462

52,481 26,445

132,539 23,254

73,746 44,806

7,634 34,368

Tourism. There were an estimated 116,000 foreign visitors in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 64,905 km of roads, of which 2,609 km were tarmac. In 1983 there were 62,500 passenger cars and 17,000 commercial vehicles.

268

CAMEROON

Railways. Cameroon Railways, Regifercam (1,115 km in 1985) link Douala with Nkongsamba and Ngaounderé, with branches M'Banga-Kumba and MakakM'Balmayo. In 1983—84 railways carried 2-2m. passengers and 1 -8m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. Douala is the main international airport; other airports are at Yaoundé and Garoua. Cameroon Airlines serve 7 domestic airports. In 1981-82, 644,000 passengers and 14,600 tonnes of freight passed through the airports. Shipping. The merchant-marine consisted (1986) of 48 vessels (over 100 GRT) of 76,433 GRT. The major port of Douala handled (1984) 3m. tonnes of imports and lm. tonnes of exports. Timber is exported mainly through the south-west ports of Kribi and Campo. Other ports are Tiko (near Limbe) and Garoua. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1975) 150 post offices supplemented by a mobile postal service; telephones (1984), 47,200; radio stations, 19 with 785,000 receivers. Television was introduced in 1985. Cinemas. There were (1979) 52 cinemas with a capacity of29,000 seats. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of20,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court sits at Yaoundé, as does the High Court of Justice (consisting of 9 titular judges and 6 surrogates all appointed by the National Assembly). There are magistrates' courts situated in the provinces. Religion. In 1980,21% of the population is Roman Catholic, 22% Moslem, 18% Protestant, while 39% follow traditional (animist) religions. Education (1983-84). There were 1,563,852 pupils and 31,030 teachers in 5,582 primary schools, 218,057 pupils and 6,795 teachers in 365 secondary schools, and 70,671 students and 2,974 teachers in 199 vocational schools and teacher-training colleges. In 1981-82 there were 11,407 students and 557 teaching staff at 13 higher education establishments, including the Université National with its main campus at Yaoundé (established 1962) and new university centres at Douala, Buea, Dschang and Ngaounderé. Health. In 1981 there were 1,003 hospitals and health centres with 24,541 beds; there were also 640 doctors and ( 1979), 21 dentists, 107 pharmacists, 469 midwives and 1,134 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Cameroon in Great Britain (84 Holland Pk., London, W11 3 SB) Ambassador: Gibering Bol Alima. Of Great Britain in Cameroon (Ave. Winston Churchill, BP 547, Yaoundé) Ambassador: Michael Glaze. Of Cameroon in the USA (2349 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Vincent Paul-Thomas Pondi. Of the USA in Cameroon (Rue Nachtigal, BP 817, Yaoundé) Ambassador: Myles R. Frechette. Of Cameroon to the United Nations Ambassador: Paul Bamela Engo. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Service de la Statistique Générale, at Douala, set up in 1945, publishes a monthly bulletin (from Nov. 1950) DeLancey, M. W., and Schiaeder, P. }., Cameroon. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Ndongko, W. A., Planning for Economic Development in a Federal State: The Case of Cameroon, 1960-71. New York, 1975 Rubin, N., Cameroon. New York, 1972

CANADA

Capital: Ottawa Population: 25 -6m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$ 12,940 (1984)

HISTORY. The territories which now constitute Canada came under British power at various times by settlement, conquest or cession. Nova Scotia was occupied in 1628 by settlement at Port Royal, was ceded back to France in 1632 and was finally ceded by France in 1713, by the Treaty of Utrecht; the Hudson's Bay Company s charter, conferring rights over all the territory draining into Hudson Bay, was granted in 1670; Canada, with all its dependencies, including New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, was formally ceded to Great Britain by France in 1763; Vancouver Island was acknowledged to be British by the Oregon Boundary Treaty of 1846, and British Columbia was established as a separate colony in 1858. As originally constituted, Canada was composed of Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. They were united under an Act of the Imperial Parliament,'The British North America Act, 1867', which came into operation on 1 July 1867 by royal proclamation. The Act provided that the constitution of Canada should be 'similar in principle to that of tne United Kingdom'; that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the 'Senate' and the 'House of Commons'. On 30 June 1931 the British House of Commons approved the enactment of the Statute of Westminster freeing the Provinces as well as the Dominion from the operation of the Colonial Laws Validity Act, and thus removing what legal limitations existed as regards Canada's legislative autonomy. A joint address of the Senate and the House of Commons was sent to the Governor-General for transmission to London on 10 July 1931. The statute received the royal assent on 12 Dec. 1931. Provision was made in the British North America Act for the admission of British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, Rupert's Land and Northwest Territory into the Union. In 1869 Rupert's Land, or the Northwest Territories, was purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company. On 15 July 1870, Rupert's Land and the Northwest Territory were annexed to Canada and named the Northwest Territories, Canada having agreed to pay the Hudson's Bay Company in cash and land for its relinquishing of claims to the territory. By the same action the Province of Manitoba was created from a small portion of this territory and they were admitted into the Confederation on 15 July 1870. On 20 July 1871 the province of British Columbia was admitted, and Prince Edward Island on 1 July 1873. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed from the provisional districts of Alberta, Athabaska, Assiniboia and Saskatchewan and originally parts of the Northwest Territories and admitted on 1 Sept. 1905. Newfoundland formally joined Canada as its tenth province on 31 March 1949. In Feb. 1931 Norway formally recognized the Canadian title to the Sverdrup group of Arctic islands. Canada thus holds sovereignty in the whole Arctic sector north of the Canadian mainland. In Nov. 1981 the Canadian government agreed on the provisions of an amended constitution, to the end that it should replace the British North America Act and that its future amendment should be the prerogative of Canada. These proposals were adopted by the Parliament of Canada and were enacted by the UK Parliament as the Canada Act of 1982. The enactment of the Canada Act was the final act of the UK Parliament in Canadian constitutional development. The Act gave to Canada the power to amend the Constitution according to procedures determined by the Constitutional Act 1982, which was proclaimed in force by the Queen on 17 April 1982. The Constitution Act 1982 added to the Canadian Constitution a charter of Rights and Freedoms, and provisions which recognize the nation's multi-cultural heritage, affirm the existing rights of native peoples, confirm the principle of equalization of benefits among the provinces, and strengthen provincial ownership of natural resources. 269

270

CANADA

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Population of the area now included in Canada: 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891

2,436,297 1901 5,371,315 1951 3,229,633 1911 7,206,643 1961 1921 3,689,257 8,787,949 1971 4,324,810 1931 10,376,786 1981 1941 4,833,239 11,506,655 ' From 1951 figures include Newfoundland.

14,009,429 18,238,247 21,568,311 24,343,181

Population (estimated), 1 June 1986, was25,591,100. Areas of the provinces, etc. (in sq. km) and population at recent censuses: Province Land area Newfoundland 371,690 Prince Edward Island 5,600 Nova Scotia 52,840 New Brunswick 72,090 Quebec 1,356,790 Ontario 891,190 Manitoba 548,360 Saskatchewan 570,700 Alberta 644,390 British Columbia 929,730 Yukon 478,970 Northwest Territories 3,293,020 Total

9,215,430

Fresh water area 34,030

Population, 1976 557,125 118,229 828,571 677,250 6,234,445 8,264,465 1,021,506 921,323 1,838,037 2,466,608 21,836 42,609

Population, 1971 522,104 111,641 788,960 634,557 6,027,764 7,703,106 988,247 926,242 1,627,874 2,184,621 18,388 34,807

Population, 1981 567,681 122,506 847,442 696,403 6,438,403 8,625,107 1,026,241 968,313 2,237,724 2,744,467 22,135 45,471

2,650 1,350 183,890 177,390 101,590 81,630 16,800 18,070 4,480 133,300

Totalland andfresh water area 405,720 5,660 55,490 73,440 1,540,680 1,068,580 649,950 652,330 661,190 947,800 483,450 3,426,320

755,180

9,970,610 21,568,311. 22,992,604 24,343,181

—

Of the total population in 1981, 20,216,340 were Canadian born, 3,867,160 foreign born, 312,015 of the latter being USA born and 2,586,080 European born. The population (1981) bom outside Canada in the provinces was in the following ratio (%): Newfoundland, 1-7; Prince Edward Island, 3-7; Nova Scotia, 4-9; New Brunswick, 3-9; Quebec, 8-2; Ontario, 23-5; Manitoba, 14-2; Saskatchewan, 8-6; Alberta, 16-3; British Columbia, 23; Yukon, 12-5; Northwest Territories, 6 • 1. In 1981, figures for the population, according to origin, were 1: Single origins Austrian Belgian and Luxembourg British Czech and Slovak Chinese Dutch Finnish French German Greek Magyar (Hungarian) Italian Japanese Native Peoples

22,244,885 40,630 43,000 9,674,245 67,695 289,245 408,240 52,315 6,439,100 1,142,365 154,365 116,390 747,970 40,995 413,380

Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Scandinavian Spanish Swiss Ukrainian Other single origins:

254,485 188,105 22,485 48,435 282,795 53,540 29,805 529,615 1,204,685

Multiple origins: British and French British and Other French and Other Others

1,838,615 430,255 859,800 124,940 423,620

1 The 1981 Census was the first to accept more than one ethnic origin for an individual. Therefore, this table includes counts of single and multiple origins.

The native Indian registered population numbered 367,810 in 1981 and the Inuit population was 25,390 in 1981. Populations of Census Metropolitan Areas (CMA) and Cities (proper), 1981 Toronto Montreal Vancouver Ottawa-Hull Edmonton Calgary

CM A 2,998,947 2,828,349 1,268,183 717,978 657,057 592,743

City proper 559,217 980,354 414,281 295,163 532,246 592,743

Winnipeg Quebec Hamilton St CatharinesNiagara St Catharines

CM A 584,842 576,075 542,095

City proper 564,473 166,474 306,434

304,353 —

— 124,018

CANADA Niagara Falls Kitchener London Halifax Windsor Victoria Regina St John's Oshawa

CMA —

287,801 283,668 277,727 246,110 233,481 164,313 154,820 154,217

City proper 70,960 139,734 254,280 114,594 192,083 64,379 162,613 83,770 117,519

271

Saskatoon Sudbury ChicoutimiJonquière Chicoutimi Jonquiere Thunder Bay Saint John Trois Rivières

CMA 154,210 149,923

City proper 154,210 91,829

135,172 — —

121,379 114,048 111,453

—

60,064 60,354 112,486 80,521 50,466

The total 'urban' population of Canada in 1981 was 18,435,927, against 17,366,970 in 1976. While the registration of births, marriages and deaths is under provincial control, the statistics are compiled on a uniform system by Statistics Canada. The following table gives the results for the year 1985: Province Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon Territory N.W. Territories

Living births Number 8,500 2,008 12,450 10,121 86,340 132,208 17,097 18,162 43,813 43,127 464 1,437

Marriages Number 3,220 956 6,807 5,312 37,026 72,891 8,296 7,132 19,750 22,292 185 229

Deaths Number 3,557 1,110 7,315 5,230 45,707 66,747 8,756 8,031 13,231 21,302 123 214

375,727

184,096

181,323

;rant arrivals b y c o u n t r y of last p e r m a n e n t residence: Country UK France Germany Netherlands Greece Italy Portugal Other Europe Asia Australasia USA Caribbean All other Total

1983 5,737 1,651 2,518 672 601 826 820 11,487 36,906 478 7,381 7,216 12,864

1984 5,104 1,380 1,727 545 555 839 855 9,896 41,920 535 6,922 5,630 12,331

1985 4,454 1,401 1,578 466 551 650 910 8,849 38,597 506 6,669 6,132 13,539

89,157

88,239

84,302

CLIMATE. The climate ranges from polar conditions in the north to cool temperate in the south, but with considerable differences between east coast, west coast and the interior, affecting temperatures, rainfall amounts and seasonal distribution. Winters are very severe over much of the country, but summers can be very hot inland. See individual provinces for climatic details. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The members of the Senate are appointed until age 75 by summons of the Governor-General under the Great Seal of Canada. Members appointed before 2 June 1965 may remain in office for life. The Senate consists of 104 senators, namely, 24 from Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 10 from Nova Scotia, 10 from New Brunswick, 4 from Prince Edward Island, 6 from Manitoba, 6 from British Columbia, 6 from Alberta, 6 from Saskatchewan, 6 from Newfoundland, 1 from the Yukon Territory and 1 from the Northwest Territories.

272

CANADA

Each senator must be at least 30 years of age, a born or naturalized subject of the Queen and must reside in the province for which he is appointed and his total net worth must be at least $4,000. The House of Commons is elected by the people, for 5 years, unless sooner dissolved. Women have the vote and are eligible. From 1867 to the election of 1945 representation was based on Quebec having 65 seats and the other provinces the same proportion of 65 which their population had to the population of Quebec. In the General Election of 1949 readjustments were based on the population of all the provinces taken as a whole. Generally speaking, this format for representation has prevailed in all subsequent elections with readjustments made after each decennial census. Under the Representation Act 1985, effective March 1986, the formula contained in section 51 of the Constitution Act, 1867 dealing with the number of seats in the House of Commons and their distribution throughout the country, was changed. The thirty-second Parliament, elected in Sept. 1984, comprises 282 members and the provincial and territorial representation are: Ontario, 95; Quebec, 75; Nova Scotia, 11; New Brunswick, 10; Manitoba, 14; British Columbia, 28; Prince Edward Island, 4; Saskatchewan 14; Alberta, 21; Newfoundland, 7; Yukon Territory, 1; Northwest Territories, 2. State of parties in the Senate (Nov. 1986): Liberals, 68; Progressive Conservative, 30; Independent, 5; Independent Liberal, 1; Vacant, 2; total 104. State of the parties in the House of Commons (Nov. 1986): Progressive Conservatives, 209; Liberals, 40; New Democratic Party, 29; Independent, 2; Vacancies, 2; total, 282. The following is a list of Governors-General of Canada: Viscount Monck LordLisgar Earl of Dufferin Marquess of Lome Marquess of Lansdowne Lord Stanley of Preston Earl of Aberdeen Earl of Minto Earl Grey H R H the Duke ofConnaught Duke of Devonshire Viscount Byng of Vimy

1867-1868 1868-1872 1872-1878 1878-1883 1883-1888 1888-1893 1893-1898 1898-1904 1904-1911 1911-1916 1916-1921 1921-1926

Viscount Willingdon Earl of Bessborough Lord Tweedsmuir Earl of Athlone Field-Marshal Viscount Alexander of Tunis Vincent Massey Georges Philias Vanier Roland Michener Jules Léger Edward Schreyer

1926-1931 1931-1935 1935-1940 1940-1946 1946-1952 1952-1959 1959-1967 1967-1974 1974-1979 1979-1984

Governor-General: Jeanne Sauvé. Nationalflag: Vertically red, white, red with the white of double width and bearing a stylized red maple leaf. The office and appointment of the Governor-General are regulated by letters patent, signed by the King on 8 Sept. 1947, which came into force on 1 Oct. 1947. In 1977 the Queen approved the transfer to the Governor-General of functions discharged by the Sovereign. He is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the Act of 1867, by a Privy Council composed ofCabinet Ministers. The following is the list of the Conservative Cabinet in March 1987, in order of precedence, which in Canada attaches generally rather to the person than to the office: Prime Minister: Brian Mulroney. Veterans Affairs: George Hees. External Affairs: Joe Clark. Communications: Flora MacDonald. Transport: John Crosbie. Minister of State: Roch LaSalle. Deputy Prime Minister, President of the Privy Council: Don Mazankowski. Revenue: Elmer Mac Kay. Health.JakeEpp. Agriculture: John Wise.

CANADA

273

Justice and Attorney-General: Ray Hnatyshyn. Secretary of State: David Crombie. President of Treasury Board: Robert de Cotret. Defence: Perrin Beatty. Finance: Michael Wilson. Consumer and Corporate Affairs: (Vacant). Minister of Statefor Fitness and Amateur Sport: Otto Jelinek. Fisheries and Oceans: Tom Siddon. Minister of Statefor Wheat Board: Charlie Mayer. Indian Affairs and Northern Development: Bill McRnight. Environment: Tom McMillan. International Trade: Pat Carney. Minister of Statefor Transport: André Bissonnette. Employment and Immigration: Benoit Bouchard. Regional Industrial Expansion, Canada Post: Harvie André. Solicitor- General: James Kelleher. Energy, Mines and Resources: Marcel Masse. Minister ofState for Privatization, and responsibilityfor Status of Women: Barbara. McDougall. Minister of Statefor Forestry and Mines: Gerald Merrithew. Supply and Services: Monique Vezina. Public Works and responsibility for Mortgage and Housing Corporation: Stewart Mclnnes. Science and Technology: Frank Oberle. Senate Leader and Minister of State for Federal-Provincial Relations: Lowell Murray. Associate Minister of Defence: Paul Dick. Labor: Pierre Cadieux. Minister ofState for Youth: Jean Charest. Minister ofState for Finance: Tom Hockin. Minister of Statefor External Relations: Monique Landry. Minister of Statefor Small Business and Tourism Bernard Valcourt. Minister ofState for Immigration: Gerry Weiner. The salary of a member of the House of Commons (Jan. 1986) is $56,100 with a tax-free allowance of $18,700. The salary of a senator is $56,100 with a tax-free allowance of $9,000. The salary and allowances of the Prime Minister total $129,755. The salary of the Speaker of the House of Commons is $120,600; the salary of the Speaker of the Senate is $96,200; the salary of the Opposition Leader is $119,600 and that of the National Democratic Party Leader, $100,600; all these also have tax-free allowances of from $18,700-$24,700. Future increases are to be pegged at 1% less than increases in the consumer price index or industrial composite index, whichever is lower. An Act to provide retiring allowances, on a contributory basis, to members of the House of Commons was given the Royal Assent on 4 July 1952. Subsequent amendments provide allowances for surviving spouses and for former Prime Ministers or their surviving spouses. The Canadian Parliamentary Guide. Annual. Ottawa Report of the Royal Commission on Dominion-Provincial Relations, Canada 1867-1939. 3 vols. Ottawa, 1940 Byers, R. B. (ed.), Canada Challenged: The Viability of the Confederation. Toronto, 1979 Information Canada, Organization of the Government of Canada. Loose-leaf service. Ottawa, 1970 Kennedy, W. F. M., Statutes, Treaties and Documents of the Canadian Constitution, ¡713-1929. Toronto, 1930 Kemaghan, N. (ed.), Bureaucracy in Canadian Government, Selected Readings. Toronto, 1969 Morton, W. L., The Kingdom of Canada; A General History From Earliest Times. Toronto, 1969 Olmsted, R. A., Decisions ofthe Judicial Committee ofthe Privy Council Relating to the British North America Act, 1867, and the Canadian Constitution, 1867-1954. Ottawa, Queens' Printer, 1954 Russell, P. H. (ed.), Leading Constitutional Decisions; Cases on the British North America Act. Toronto, 1968

274

CANADA

D E F E N C E . The Department of National Defence was created by the National Defence Act, 1922, which established one civil Department of Government in place of the previous Departments of Militia and Defence, Naval Service and the Air Board. The Department now operates under authority of RSC 1970, c.Nl-4. The Minister of National Defence has the control and management of the Canadian Forces and all matters relating to national defence establishments and works for the defence of Canada. He is the Minister responsible for presenting before the Cabinet, matters of major defence policy for which Cabinet direction is required. He is also responsible for the Canada Emergency Measures Organization which was renamed 'Emergency Planning Canada' in 1976. In Dec. 1976, the Minister of National Defence was named as minister responsible for all aspects of air Search and Rescue in the areas of Canadian SAR responsibility, and for the overall co-ordination of marine search and rescue including provision of air resources for marine SAR within Canadian territorial waters and in designated oceanic areas off the Pacific and Atlantic Coasts in accordance with agreements made with the United States Coast Guard. A group from Transport Canada, the Department of National Defence and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans was set up at the same time, as a co-ordinating body. From September 1985 the Minister has shared his responsibilities with a newly appointed Associate Minister of National Defence. Command Structure. The Canadian forces are organized on a functional basis to reflect the major commitments assigned by the Government. In addition, a regional organization has been superimposed over the functional organizations to respond to various support requirements of Canada. All forces devoted to a primary mission are grouped under a single commander who is assigned sufficient resources to discharge his responsibilities. Specifically, the Canadian forces consist of National Defence Headquarters and the following six major commands reporting to the Chief of the Defence Staff: 1. Mobile Command consists primarily of 3 land combat formations, 2 training establishments, 8 supporting bases and the reserves. The command provides forces for N A T O and for the defence of Canada and North America. From time to time it also contributes forces in support of UN operations. The command augments and reinforces Canadian Forces Europe, particularly 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group. It also earmarks a brigade group (Canadian Air Sea Transportable (CAST) Brigade Group) and a battalion group to Allied Command Europe for the defence of NATO'S northern flank. Two of its brigade groups are assigned for the defence of Canada or North America. The command currently provides a battalion equivalent organization for peace keeping in Cyprus. The Regular Force strength of Mobile Command is 18,036. 2. Maritime Command. All maritime forces are under the Commander, Maritime Command, with headquarters in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In addition, he also exercises operational control of aircraft assigned to him by the commander Maritime Air Group for Maritime operations. Command of West Coast forces is delegated to the Commander Maritime Forces (Pacific), who has his headquarters in Esquimalt, British Columbia. The role of Maritime Command is to defend Canada against attack from the sea; provide anti-submarine defence in support of NATO; ana to provide sea transport in support of Mobile Command. Composition of the maritime forces includes 3 submarines, 4 destroyers, 19 smaller destroyerescorts (of which 3 are in reserve), 3 supply ships, 1 maintenance ship, 6 patrol craft, 7 small support ships, 6 training vessels(ex-coastal minesweepers), 3 research ships and 30 auxiliaries and service craft. There are 18 naval reserve personnel units in major Canadian cities which form an essential component of Maritime Command. The Regular Force strength of Maritime Command is 9,446. 3. Air Command. Air Command's main task is to provide operationally-ready regular and reserve air forces to meet Canada's national, continental and international commitments. Air Command is divided into six functional air groups. The Commander, Air Command, whose headquarters is in Winnipeg, Manitoba, delegates operational

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control to the commanders of the air groups over their assigned resources. The Commander retains responsibility for flight safety, as well as air doctrine and standards relating to flying operations throughout the Canadian Forces, including units located outside Canada. The air groups are: (i) Fighter Group (Headquarters at North Bay, Ontario) maintains the sovereignty of Canada's airspace, supports Mobile and Maritime Command training and operations, and fulfills Canada's commitments to N A T O and NORAD. (ii) Air Transport Group (Headquarters at Trenton, Ontario) provides airlift resources for the Canadian Forces, and is responsible for Search and Rescue (SAR) forces for Canada and surrounding waters. (iii) Maritime Air Group (Headquarters at Halifax, Nova Scotia) is responsible for the management of all air resources engaged in maritime patrol, maritime surveillance and anti-submarine warfare. (iv) 10 Tactical Air Group (Headquarters at St. Hubert, Quebec) provides combatready tactical aviation forces for operational employment in support of Mobile Command operations and training, and of other defence commitments. (v) 14 Training Group (Headquarters at Winnipeg) trains aircrew and other air personnel to initial classification and trade specifications, and provides other training as directed. (vi) Air Reserve Group (Headquarters at Winnipeg) provides support to Air Command by provision of operational units and individual augmentees. The Regular Force strength of Air Command is 22,790. 4. Canadian Forces Training System. The Canadian Forces Training System headquarters is located at CFB Trenton, Ontario. Its functions include the planning and conduct of all recruit, trades, specialist and other officer classification training common to more than one command. 5. Canadian Forces Communication Command (CFCC) manages, operates and maintains strategic communications for the Canadian Forces and, in the event of emergencies, for the federal and provincial governments. Through the Supplementary Radio System, the Command also provides a signal intelligence service in support of Canada's foreign and defence policies, operates high frequency direction finding facilities to assist search and rescue operations and collects data to support research in long-distance arctic communications. 6. Canadian Forces Europe. The elements of the Canadian Forces stationed in Europe as part of Canada's commitment to N A T O form Canadian Forces Europe. The army element is 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, operationally assigned to the N A T O Central Army Group. The air force element, 1 Canadian Air Group, consists of 3 fighter squadrons operationally assigned to the N A T O 4th Allied Tactical Air Force, and the necessary command and administrative resources. Canadian Forces Europe is located principally on the two bases of Lahr and Baden in the Federal Republic of Germany. The Reserve Force consists of officers and men who are enrolled for other than continuing full-time military service. The sub-components of the Reserve Force are the Primary Reserve; the Supplementary Reserve; the Cadet Instructors List; and the Canadian Rangers. The elements of the Primary Reserve are the Naval Reserve; Militia; Air Reserve; and Communication Reserve. Funded personnel levels for these four elements are 3,082; 19,220; 944; and 1,612 respectively. The Supplementary Reserve consists of officers and men who, except when on activie service, are not required to perform duty or training. Hie Cadet Instructors List consists of commissioned officers who may be required to undergo annual training and whose primary duty is the supervision, administration and training of cadets. The Canadian Rangers consists of officers and men who volunteer to hold themselves in readiness for service but are not required to undergo annual training. Their role is to provide a military force in sparsely settled, northern, coastal and isolated areas of Canada.

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Regional organization. In order to most effectively respond to support requirements within Canada, a regional structure has been superimposed over the functional organization. This has been accomplished by dividing Canada into six geographic regions and appointing the senior commander in each region as the Region Commander. Thus the following interrelationship of Functional Command/Region/geographical area has resulted: Maritime Command - Atlantic Region (Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island); Mobile Command - Eastern Region (Quebec); Canadian Forces Training System - Central Region (Ontario); Air Command - Prairie Region (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta); Maritime Forces Pacific - Pacific Region (British Columbia); and Northern Region Headquarters - Northern Region (Yukon and Northwest Territories). Functional responsibilities include representation to provincial governments, aid of the Civil Power, emergency and survival operations, and administration of cadets, as well as regional support services for all units in the region. The Estimated net Program Expenditures for the Department of National Defence for 1986-1987 is $9,955,000,000. The strength of the Regular Forces for 1986 was 86,036. Functional Regional Organization. Functional Commanders have been assigned a regional as well as a functional responsibility for such actions as representation to provincial governments, aid of the Civil Power, emergency and survival operations, and administration of cadets, as well as regional support services for all units in the region. Canada has been divided into six regions, five of which have been assigned to functional Commanders as follows: Atlantic (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick) - Maritime Command; Eastern (Quebec) Mobile Command; Ontario, except N.W. Ontario - Canadian Forces Training System; Prairie (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and N.W. Ontario) - Air Command; and Pacific (British Columbia) - Maritime Forces Pacific. One region, comprising the Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories, has been assigned to Commander Northern Region with Headquarters in Yellowknife, NWT. Police Forces. The police forces of Canada are organized in three groups: (1) the federal force, which is the Royal Canadian Mounted Police; (2) provincial police forces—the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec have their own provincial police forces, but all other provinces engage the services of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to perform parallel functions within their borders, and (3) municipal police forces—each urban centre of reasonable size maintains its own police force or engages the services of the provincial police, under contract, to attend to police matters. In addition, the Canadian National Railways, the Canadian Pacific Railway Company and the National Harbours Board have their own police forces. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is a civil force maintained by the federal government. It was established in 1873, as the North-West Mounted Police for service in what was then the North-West Territories and, in recognition of its services, was granted the use of the prefix 'Royal' by King Edward VII in 1904. Its sphere of operations was expanded in 1918 to include all of Canada west of Thunder Bay. In 1920 the force absorbed the Dominion Police, and its headquarters was transferred from Regina to Ottawa, and its title was changed to Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The force is responsible to the Solicitor-General of Canada and is controlled and managed by a Commissioner who holds the rank and status of a Deputy Minister. The Commissioner is empowered under the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Act to appoint members to be peace officers in all provinces, and territories of Canada. The responsibilities of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police are national in scope. The administration of justice within the provinces, including the enforcement of the Criminal Code of Canada, is part of the power and duty delegated to the provincial governments. All provinces except Ontario and Quebec have entered into contracts with the

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Royal Canadian Mounted Police to enforce criminal and provincial laws under the direction of the respective Attorneys-General. In addition, in these 8 provinces the Force is under agreement to provide police services to 187 municipalities, thereby assuming the enforcement responsibility of municipal as well as criminal and provincial laws within these communities. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is also responsible for all police work in the Yukon and Northwest territories enforcing federal law and territorial ordinances. The 16 Operational Divisions, alphabetically designated, make up the strength of the Force across Canada; they comprise 47 sub-divisions which include 718 detachments. Headquarters Division, as well as the Office of the Commissioner, is in Ottawa. The Force maintains liaison officers in 18 countries and represents Canada in the International Criminal Police Organization which has its headquarters in Paris. Thorough training is emphasized for members of the Force. Recruits receive 6 months of basic training at the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Academy in Regina. This is followed by a further 6 months of supervised on-the-job training. The RCMP also operates the Canadian Police College at which its members and selected representatives of other Canadian and foreign police forces may study the latest advances in the fields of crime prevention and detection. Many of these advances have been incorporated into the operation of the Force. A teletype system links the widespread divisional headquarters with the administrative centre at Ottawa and a network of fixed and mobile radio units operates within the provinces. The focal point of the criminal investigation work of the Force is the Directorate of Laboratories and Identification; its services, together with those of divisional and sub-divisional units, and of 8 Crime Detection Laboratories, are available to police forces throughout Canada. The Canadian Police Information Centre at RCMP Headquarters, a duplexed computer system, is staffed and operated by the Force. Law Enforcement agencies throughout Canada have access via a series of remote terminals to information on stolen vehicles, licences and wanted persons. In Oct. 1986, the Force had a total strength of 19,365 including regular members, special constables, civilian members and Public Service employees. It maintained 6,500 motor vehicles, 77 police service dogs and 145 horses. The Force has 13 divisions actively engaged in law enforcement, 1 Headquarters Division and 2 training divisions. Maritime services are divisional responsibilities and the Force currently has 350 boats at various points across Canada. The Air Directorate has stations throughout Canada and maintains a fleet of 20 fixed-wing aircraft and 8 helicopters. Eayrs, J., In Defence ofCanada: Growing up Allied. Univ. of Toronto Press, 1980 Feasby, W. R. (ed.), Official History of the Canadian Medical Services, 1939-45. 2 vols. Dept. ofNational Defence. Ottawa, 1953-56

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Canada is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OECD, NATO and Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Budget. Budgetary revenue and expenditure of the Government of Canada for years ended 31 March (in Canadian $ 1 m.): Revenue Expenditure

1982-83 60,705 88,521

1983-84 1984-85 64,211 70,891 96,610 109,215 1 Estimate.

1985-86 76,823 111,227

1986-87' 84,800 116,800

Budgetary revenue, main items, 1985-86 (estimates in Canadian Sim.): Income tax, personal Income tax, corporation Sales Customs duties

33,008 9,210 9,345 3,971

Non-resident tax Oil export charge Natural gas tax Non-tax revenue

1,053 327 -15 5,223

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Details of budget estimates1,1985-86 (in Canadian $ 1 m.): External affairs and aid 2,479 Economic and regional 9,094 development 11,823 Defence 198 Social development 51,859 Parliament 4,392 Public debt charges 25,441 Services to government 1 The Department of Finance now manages expenditure under a new system of broad categories (listed above) called 'envelopes'.

On 31 March 1986 the net public debt (estimate) was $201,517m. Canadian Tax Foundation. The National Finances: An Analysis ofthe Revenues and Expenditures of the Government of Canada. Toronto. Annual

Currency. The denominations of money in the currency of Canada are dollars and cents. "Hie cent is one-hundredth part of a dollar. Subsidiary coins of the denominations of 1, 5,10,25 and 50 cents and $1 are in use. The monetary standard is gold of900 millesimal fineness (23-22 grains of pure gold equal to 1 gold dollar). The Currency Act provides for gold coins in the denominations of $5, $ 10 and $20, which are legal tender. The British and US gold coins are also legal tender, at the par rate of exchange. The legal equivalent of the British sovereign is $4.86%. Since 1935 the Bank of Canada has the sole right to issue paper money for circulation in Canada. Restrictions introduced by the 1944 revisions of the Bank Act cancelled the right of chartered banks to issue or re-issue notes after 1 Jan. 1945; and in Jan. 1950 the chartered banks' liability for such of their notes as then remained outstanding was transferred to the Bank of Canada in return for payment of a like sum to the Bank of Canada. On 31 May 1970 the Canadian dollar which was stabilized at 92-50 US cents was allowed to fluctuate. The value of the US$ in Canadian funds was $1-33 and £1 sterling=Canadian$2-05 in March 1987. The Bank of Canada issues notes, which are legal tender, in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100 and $1,000. Under the terms of the Bank of Canada Act, the bank is required to sell gold in bars of400 oz. to any person tendering legal tender. This obligation is at the present time suspended by Order-in-Council. The exportation of gold from Canada is prohibited except by licence issued by the Minister of Finance to the Bank of Canada or a chartered bank. The Ottawa Mint was established in 1908 as a branch of the Royal Mint, in pursuance of the Ottawa Mint Act, 1901. In Dec. 1931 control of the Mint was passed over to the Canadian Government, and since that time it has operated as the Royal Canadian Mint. The Mint issues nickel, bronze and cupronickel coins for circulation in Canada. In 1967, in celebration of Canada's Centennial of Confederation, a $20 gold piece was minted, the first gold coin struck since 1919. In 1935, on the occasion of His Majesty's Silver Jubilee, the Royal Canadian Mint issued the first Canadian silver dollars. Commemorative dollars were also issued in 1939 on the occasion of the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Canada; in 1949, when Newfoundland became the tenth Province of Canada; in 1958, the one-hundredth anniversary of the establishment of the Colony of British Columbia; in 1964, the centennial of the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences which paved the way to confederation. The silver dollar bearing the design of the canoe manned by an Indian and a Voyageur has been issued in the years 1935-38, 1945-48, 1950-57, 1959-63, 1965, 1966 and 1972. For centennial year the Canada goose replaced the usual canoe design on the silver dollar. Because of a world-wide shortage of silver, the Government, in Aug. 1967, authorized the Mint to change the metal content ofthe 2 5-cent and 10-cent coins. Commencing in Sept. 1968, the 10-cent, 50-cent and $1 coins were minted in pure nickel. Gold refining is one of the principal activities of the Mint. In 1984 the refinery treated over 5 -2m. troy oz. of gold-containing materials and returned over 4-3m. troy oz. of fine gold to its clients. Of this total, 2,387,993 troy oz. of rough bullion were received from Canadian gold mines for treatment, containing 1,956,031 troy oz. of fine gold and 338,589 troy oz. of fine silver. Coins issued (1985): Gold, $2,892,654; silver, $ 1,025,781; other metals, $ 1,211,199,394. Banking. Commercial banks in Canada are known as chartered banks and are

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incorporated under the terms of the Bank Act, which imposes strict conditions as to capital, returns to the Government, types of lending operations and other matters. In Oct. 1986 there were 65 chartered banks (10 domestic banks and 55 foreign bank subsidiaries) incorporated under the provisions of the Bank Act; the 10 had 7,000 branches serving 1,700 communities in all provinces in Canada and nearly 300 branches in other countries. There was also one bank incorporated under the Quebec Savings Bank Act. The foreign bank subsidiaries operate 224 offices in Canada including 55 head offices. The Bank Act is subject to revision by Parliament every 10 years. Bank charters expire every 10 years and are renewed at each decennial revision of the Bank Act. TTie chartered banks make detailed monthly and yearly returns to the Minister of Finance and are subject to periodic inspection by the Inspector-General of Banks, an official appointed by the Government. There were 10 domestic banks in Oct. 1985 with assets of gold coin and bullion, $676m.; Bank of Canada deposits and notes, $5,837m.; deposits with banks, $47,449m.; cheques and other items in transit, $l,691m.; loans, $286,328m. (including mortgage loans, $53,351 m.); total assets, $419,471 m. The Bank of Canada Act, passed on 3 July 1934, provided for the establishment of a central bank for the Dominion. This bank commenced operations on 11 March 1935 with a paid-up capital of $5m. By reason of certain changes introduced into the composition of stockholders of the bank (for which see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1944 pp. 322-23), the Minister of Finance on behalf of Canada is the sole registered owner of the capital stock of the bank. The revised Bank Act, which came into force on 1 Dec. 1980, requires chartered banks to maintain a statutory primary reserve of 10% on demand deposits, 3% on foreign-currency deposits and 2% on notice deposits, with an additional 1% on the portion of notice deposits exceeding $500m. This reserve is required to be maintained in the form of notes and deposits with the Bank of Canada. A secondary reserve of 4% in the form of treasury bills, government bonds, etc., is also required. All gold held in Canada by the chartered banks was transferred to the Bank of Canada along with the gold held by the Government as reserve against Dominion notes outstanding at the time of the commencement of operations of the Bank of Canada. The liability of the Dominion notes outstanding at the commencement of business of the Bank of Canada was assumed by the bank. In the year ending 31 March 1986, the Federal Business Development Bank authorized 4,100 loans for a total of $719m. Weights and Measures. The legal weights and measures are in transition from the Imperial to the International system of units. The Metric Commission, established in June 1971, co-ordinates Canada's conversion to the metric system. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The net generation of electricity in 1985 was 447,181,807 mwh., of which utilities accounted for 408,831,237 mwh. Of the total, 301,285,735 mwh. was from hydro-electricity, 88,829,406 mwh. from conventional steam plants and 57,066,666 mwh. from nuclear plants. Supply 115 volts; 60 Hz. Oil and Natural Gas. With the discovery of large oilfields in Alberta and development of the Alberta oil sands, the production of petroleum became a major Canadian industry. The Interprovincial Pipeline, Canada's largest oil pipeline, moves crude oil from Edmonton, Alberta, to Montreal, Quebec. The pipeline serves Canadian refineries from Edmonton to Montreal and since the middle of 1982, Canadian crude has been delivered from Montreal to Atlantic provinces and many in the USA. Another pipeline, Trans-Mountain, extends from Edmonton to Vancouver. Nine refineries, 5 in Canada and 4 in Washington State, are served by the pipeline. At the end of 1985 Canada's oil pipeline system had 42,273 km in operation. Net oil deliveries in 1984 were 150,258,000 cu, metres. The TransCanada natural gas pipeline is the longest in the world (10,632 km). It brings natural gas from the Alberta-Saskatchewan border across the prairies, through northern Ontario to Toronto, then eastward to Montreal. Natural gas pipeline mileage

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totalled 213,430-8 km in 1985 (preliminary). Total marketable gas received for distribution in 1985, 77,085-9m. cu. metres; total gas sales 50,122-lm. cu. metres. Minerals. Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Quebec are the chief mining provinces. Total value of minerals produced in 1985 (preliminary) was $44,875,325,000. Principal minerals produced in 1985 (preliminary) were as follows:

Quantity

Metallics Copper (kg) Nickel (kg) Zinc (kg) Iron ore (tonnes) Gold (grammes) Lead (kg) Silver (kg) Molybdenum (kg) Others

(1,000) 730,347 175,570 1,038,504 40,348 86,044 263,890 1,209 7,569

Total metallics

Value ($1,000) 1,445,357 1,234,961 1,316,824 1,545,783 1,197,051 152,304 337,362 75,390 1,241,708 8,456,740

Non-metallics Asbestos (tonnes) Potash (KiO) (tonnes) Salt (tonnes) Sulphur, elemental (tonnes) Gypsum (tonnes) Others

744 6,923 10,043 8,250 8,384

352,275 642,054 225,995 881,655 80,321 252,437 2,434,737

Total non-metallics Fuels Crude petroleum (cu. metres) Natural gas (1,000 cu. metres) Natural gas by-products (cu. metres) Coal (tonnes)

84,311 80,181 19,674 60,480

18,938,654 7,905,997 2,747,919 1,884,100 31,476,670

Total fuels Structural materials Cement (tonnes) Sand and gravel (tonnes) Stone (tonnes) Clay products (bricks, tiles, etc.) Lime(tonnes)

9,772 223,724 77,930 2,010

780,050 551,254 378,155 144,487 137,043 1,990,989

Total structural materials

Value (in Canadian $1,000) of mineral production by provinces: Provinces Newfoundland Pr. Ed. Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba

1984 979,224 1,914 303,841 612,951 2,167,177 4,531,338 812,224

1985 927,110 2,235 327,804 550,306 2,236,841 4,565,649 828,459

Provinces 1984 1985 Saskatchewan 3,758,093 3,782,600 Alberta 26,429,325 27,346,016 British Columbia 3,345,590 3,406,471 Yukon Territory 70,143 58,023 N.W. Territories 777,131 843,811 Total

43,788,971

44,875,325

Agriculture. Though the manufacturing and service industries now predominate, agriculture is still very important to the Canadian economy. It contributed about 2-5% of the net value of production in 1984 and accounted for about 9-8% of the value of commodities exported. According to the census of 1981 the total land area is 2,278-6m. acres of which 162 - 8m. acres are agricultural land.

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Grain growing, dairy farming, fruit farming, ranching and fur farming are all carried on successfully. Total farm cash receipts (1985) $ 19,913 -2m. The following table shows the value of farm cash receipts for 1985 (revised), for selected agricultural commodities, in Canadian $ 1,000: Wheat Oats and barley Rapeseed Potatoes Other vegetables Fruit

3,074,853 733,096 905,783 272,655 549,351 288,561

Tobacco Cattle and calves Hogs Sheep and lambs Dairy products Poultry and eggs

158,011 3,589,427 1,821,614 29,716 2,716,404 1,409,920

Number of occupied farms (census of 1981) was 319,361; average farm size, 206-96 hectares. Field Crops. The estimated acreage and yield of the principal field crops, by provinces, 1985 were: Wheat

Provinces Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Total, Canada

Provinces Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Total, Canada

Provinces Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Total, Canada

1,000

Tame hay

Oats

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 um

acres 10 6 15 148 695 4,900 21,700 7,500 155

bu. 500 272 759 6,614 36,900 169,500 669,000 263,000 4,300

acres 126 180 172 2,445 2,650 1,450 1,800 4,000 760

bu. 210 494 300 6,724 9,300 3,700 3,200 9,000 1,900

acres 30 18 36 309 290 550 1,000 1,400 60

bu. 1,920 1,089 1,970 17,507 17,700 34,000 59,000 101,000 3,000

35,129

1,150,845

13,591

34,842

3,693

237,186

1,000 acres 63 14 24 482 580 1,550 3,600 5,650 215 12,178

Barley

1,000 bu. 3,840 781 1,382 27,098 35,300 89,000 184,000 333,000 8,700

1,000 acres

9 75 95 400 250 10

683,101

842

Canola-Rapeseed-Colza 1,000 1,000 acres bu. —

—

—

—

— —

— —

85 1,050 2,600 2,950 175

3,030 27,000 68,000 73,000 3,100

6,860

174,130

—

Rye

1,000 bu. —

3 —

—

134

—

6

405

315 2,600 2,900 10,500 9,100 330

642 1,980 50

57,084 200,500 3,300

12

1,080

25,879

2,690

262,369

—

Mixed grains 1,000 1,000 acres bu. 75 4,875 4 198 2 100 111 5,879 550 34,800 110 5,700 130 6,000 160 10,300 20 800 1,162

Corn for Grain 1,000 1,000 acres bu.

68,652

—

—

—

—

—

—

Soybeans 1,000 1,000 acres bu. —

—

—

—

— —

1,000

— —

36,300

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

1,000

—

36,300

Livestock. In parts of Saskatchewan and Alberta stockraising is still carried on as a primary industry, but the livestock industry of the country at large is mainly a subsidiary of mixed fanning. The following table shows the numbers of livestock. (in 1,000) by provinces in July 1986:

282

CANADA Provinces Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Total

Milch cows 3-3 22-5 35-4 27-9 655 0 520 0 780 800 1550 870 1,664-1

Other cattle 4-4 75-5 104-6 81-1 888-0 1,880-0 899-0 2,005-0 3,270-0 593-0

Sheep and lambs 4-4 8-1 39-0 9-0 119-0 230-0 31-0 57-0 172-0 52-0

Swine 17-0 112-0 142-0 115-0 3,298-5 3,400-0 1,196-0 670-0 1,490-0 267-0

9,800-6

721-5

10,707-5

Net production 1 of farm eggs in 1984, 589-6m. doz. ($522-4m.); 1985,487-9m. doz. ($518 6m.). , [nc|ucjes exports Wool production (in tonnes), 1980, 1,173; 1981, 1,407; 1982, 1,417; 1983, 1,380; 1984,1,386; 1985,1,310-8; 1986,1,220-8. Dairying. The dairy products industry has shown a marked tendency towards centralization; the number of establishments decreased between 1961 and 1984 from 1,710 to 401 (76 • 5%), whereas the number of employees has decreased to 20 • 6%. Production, 1985: Creamery butter, 94,775 tonnes; cheddar cheese, 108,462 tonnes; concentrated whole milk products, 150,832 kl; skim milk powder, 99,349 tonnes. Fruit Farming. The value of fruit production (excluding apples) in 1985 was (estimated in $1,000): Ontario, 80,037; British Columbia, 89,335 ; Quebec, 25,638; Nova Scotia, 10,189; New Brunswick, 3,498; Prince Edward Island, 1,290. Total apple production in Canada in 1984 was 478,605 tonnes. Tobacco. Commercial production of tobacco is confined to Ontario and Quebec. Farm cash receipts in 1985 totalled $158m. Forestry. As of 1982, the total area of land covered by forests is estimated at about 4,364,000 sq. km, of which 2,641,000 sq. km are classed as productive forest land. Lumber production (in cu. metres) in 1984 was 48,988,638. Lumber shipments from sawmills and planing mills in 1984 was 46,801,946 cu. metres valued at $4,735-5m. Pulp production was 20-5m. tonnes in 1984 and 20-2m. tonnes in 1983. In 1984 mill shipments of paper amounted to 14-lm. tonnes valued at $8,194,242,000. Fur Trade. In 1984-85 (year ended 30 June), 4,102,533 pelts valued at $104,614,332, were taken. In wild-life pelt production beaver led in total value, followed by marten, muskrat, coyote or prairie wolf and lynx. The most important animal raised on fur farms is mink, with 53% of the total production. The value of mink pelts from fur farms in 1984-85 was $49,171,545. There were, in 1985,938 fur farms reporting fox and 596 mink. Fisheries. During 1984, landings in Canadian commercial fisheries reached 1,235,397 tonnes. The landed value was $840-4m. and the estimated market value was $l,859-7m. The landed value of principal fish in 1984 was (in $1,000): Salmon, 148,005; cod, 172,599; lobster, 152,681; herring, 59,552; scallops, 56,442; freshwater fish, 61,514; halibut, 19,006. Exports of fisheries' products, 1984, were valued at $1,597m. Canadian Mines Handbook. Annual. Toronto, from 1931 Canadian Fisheries, Highlights 1983. Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans, 1984

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry groups ranked by value of shipments, survey of 1984 (based on 1980 Standard Industrial Classification):

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Industry Food industries Beverage industries Tobacco products Rubber products Plastic products Leather and allied industries Primary textile Textile industries Clothing industries Wood industries Furniture and fixtures Paper and allied industries Printing, publishing and allied industries Primary metal industries Metal fabricating industries Machinery industries Transport equipment Electrical and electronic products Non-metallic mineral products Refined petroleum products Chemical and chemical prods. Other manufacturing All industries

Production workers 130,114 17,542 4,532 18,322 27,844 20,959 21,591 25,477 97,419 86,205 37,561 88,227

Wages ($1,000) 2,618,682 488,884 131,780 457,996 496,531 293,072 410,498 384,078 1,254,847 2,027,863 639,310 2,528,884

Cost of materials ($1,000) 22,106,446 1,811,068 847,151 1,221,170 1,904,167 633,514 1,488,707 1,344,665 2,490,019 5,657,386 1,425,926 8,288,737

Value of shipments ($1,000) 31,624,232 4,550,967 1,590,167 2,507,163 3,510,377 1,270,530 2,729,328 2,523,041 5,174,915 9,972,507 3,021,514 17,471,867

65,257 81,454 99,669 50,316 149,227 84,544 36,155 6,538 45,568 46,295

1,493,827 2,564,420 2,237,773 1,153,473 4,111,318 1,836,117 883,604 262,827 1,204,029 814,740

3,161,959 8,727,737 6,149,697 3,335,246 25,365,137 5,799,862 2,066,115 20,794,568 9,262,612 2,251,741

8,659,381 16,431,472 12,193,088 6,863,194 37,916,289 11,632,092 5,246,406 23,336,800 17,174,939 4,669,823

1,240,816

28,294,553

136,133,629

230,070,091

Labour. In 1985 the industrial distribution of the employed was estimated as follows (in 1,000): Service, 3,648; manufacturing, 1,981; trade, 2,001; transport, communication and other utilities, 884; construction, 587; public administration, 812; finance, insurance and real estate, 629; agriculture, 488; non-agriculture, 10,824; other primary industries, 593; total employed, 11,311; unemployed, 1,328. Union returns filed for 1983 in compliance with the Corporations and Returns Act (1962), show 281 labour organizations reporting on 14,473 local union branches in Canada. Union membership in 1983 was 3-39m. 35-7% of the wage and salary workers in major industry groups were members of reporting labour organizations, with about 56-9% of the organized workers members of unions affiliated with the Canada Labour Congress. Over l-41m. of the union members were in international unions, which have branches both in Canada and the USA and in most cases belong to central labour organizations in both countries. It is generally established by legislation, both federal and provincial, that a trade union to which the majority of employees in a unit suitable for collective bargaining belong, is given certain rights and duties. An employer is required to meet and negotiate with such a trade union to determine wage-rates and other working conditions of his employees. The employer, the trade union and the employees affected are bound by the resulting agreement. If an impasse is reached in negotiation conciliation services provided by the appropriate government board are available. Generally, work stoppages do not take place until an established conciliation or mediation procedure has been carried out and are prohibited while an agreement is in effect. Almost 23% of the workers affected by collective agreements are in the manufacturing industry. Freedom of association is a civil right in Canada, and under common law workers are at liberty to join unions and participate in their activities. Certain specific minimum standards in regard to working conditions are set by law, for the most part by provincial labour legislation. Minimum wages, maximum hours of work or an overtime rate of pay after a specified number of hours, minimum weekly rest periods, annual vacations with pay, statutory holidays, maternity leave and notice of termination of employment are established for the majority of workers. Dept. of Labour, Working Conditions in Canadian Industry. Annual. Ottawa

Commerce. In the past the custom tariff of Canada has been protective, with

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a preferential tariff in favour of the UK, the Dominions, a number of Crown Colonies, and the Irish and South African Republics. At the Imperial Economic Conference of 1932, held in Ottawa, the UK developed further the policy of preferential tariffs to the Dominions, and on the part of the latter there was a general lowering of the existing tariffs against certain lines of UK manufacturers. Canada is one of the signatories of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and of the Kennedy Round agreements. Imports for home consumption and domestic exports (in Canadian $1,000) for calendar years (merchandise only): 1960 1970 1980

Imports 5,842,695 13,951,903 69,273,844

Exports 5,255,575 16,820,098 74,445,976 1 Revised

2

1-983 1984 1 1985 2 Estimate.

Imports 75,608,386 95,459,996 104,914,244

Exports 88,154,564 109,436,610 119,241,330

Exports (domestic) by countries in 1985 (in Canadian $ 1,000): Australia 624,596 Bahamas 25,897 Bahrain 5,984 Bangladesh 106,829 Barbados 32,899 Belize 4,359 Bermuda 32,566 Britain (UK) 2,313,122 British Oceania 1,248 Cyprus 1,214 Falkland Islands 65 Fiji 2,174 Gambia 13 Ghana 24,759 Gibraltar 384 Guyana 4,233 Hong Kong 322,762 India 488,720 Ireland 81,561 Jamaica 53,181 Kenya 17,031 Leeward and Windward Islands 40,813 Malawi 692 Malaysia 204,350 Malta 712 Mauritius and Dependencies 907 New Zealand 186,651 Nigeria 67,434 Pakistan 94,099 Qatar 5,544 Sierra Leone 100 Singapore 106,388 South Africa, Republic of 150,916 22,394 Sri Lanka Tanzania 17,251 Trinidad and Tobago 96,703 Uganda 609 Zambia 5,416 Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Austria Belgium and Luxembourg Benin Bolivia Brazil Burma

145 113 330,754 4,260 46,050 56,578 703,216 659 2,961 663,904 5,302

Cameroon Republic Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cote d'lvoire Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt (UAR) El Salvador Ethiopia Finland France French Africa French Guiana French Oceania French West Indies Gabon German Democratic Rep. Germany, Fed. Rep. of Greece Greenland Guatemala Guinea Haiti, Republic of Honduras Hungary Iceland Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Italy Japan Jordan Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait Lebanon Liberia Libya Madagascar Mauritania Mexico Morocco Mozambique Netherlands

31,262 77,979 1,259,310 145,880 20,861 18,200 328,528 21,573 82,096 35,047 48,008 191,147 15,142 59,563 131,574 714,338 39,912 86 1,108 1,112 1,382 105,856 1,888,639 40,895 8,937 16,830 16,767 25,565 14,127 15,750 3,344 257,607 58,792 66,188 132,606 525,333 5,745,330 5,040 1,196 775,560 29,092 10,775 2,645 94,384 4,245 3,495 391,355 169,345 7,026 928,833

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Exports (continued) Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Portuguese Africa Puerto Rico Romania St Pierre and Miquelon Saudi Arabia Senegal Somalia Spain Spanish Africa Sudan Suriname

8,121 18,742 347,585 52,470 2,112 46,405 45,792 34,962 61,833 1,962 210,848 39,120 24,021 230,758 21,912 148 107,741 178 18,586 3,631

Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey USSR United Arab Emirates USA USOceania US Virgin Islands Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Yemen (South) Yugoslavia Zaire Zimbabwe

179,016 290,104 41,649 429,585 126,983 3,617 78,949 219,268 1,607,916 18,872 90,344,485 2,345 13,264 5,120 307,140 2,088 3,011 41,063 20,921 11,374

Imports (for consumption) by countries in 1985 (in Canadian $ 1,000): Australia 385,599 Bahamas 38,876 Bahrain 92 Bangladesh 16,404 Barbados 6,994 Belize 4,958 Bermuda 1,654 Britain (UK) 3,281;694 British Oceania — Cyprus 597 Falkland Islands — Fiji 6,583 Gambia — Ghana 29 Gibraltar 8 Guyana 23,323 Hong Kong 886,766 India 168,201 Ireland 217,622 Jamaica 155,169 Kenya 14,230 Leeward and Windward Islands 2,446 Malawi 1,040 Malaysia 146,067 Malta 5,851 Mauritius and Dependencies 6,629 New Zealand 160,356 Nigeria 229,837 Pakistan 29,987 Qatar 219 Sierra Leone 21 Singapore 210,491 South Africa, Republic of 227,734 Sri Lanka ... Tanzania 3,704 Trinidad and Tobago 29,558 Uganda 1,765 Zambia 26 Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Argentina

181 62 321,922 890 90,857

Austria Belgium and Luxembourg Benin Bolivia Brazil Burma Cameroon Republic Chile China Colombia Costa Rica CotedTvoire Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt(UAR) ElSalvador Ethiopia Finland France French Africa French Guiana French Oceania French West Indies Gabon German Democratic Rep. Germany, Fed. Rep. of Greece Greenland Guatemala Guinea Haiti, Republic of Honduras Hungary Iceland Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Italy Japan Jordan

182,182 530,143 7 8,371 808,174 782 4,377 130,450 403,487 89,208 41,322 17,478 43,720 66,601 229,674 18,258 71,505 30,637 35,587 1,305 200,084 1,373,222 1,300 242 16 117 34,559 11,469 2,716,301 47,879 3,059 26,155 9,573 9,576 20,894 33,646 3,499 81,837 143,237 469 93,025 1,330,957 6,113,422 117

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Imports (continued) Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait Lebanon Liberia Libya Madagascar Mauritania Mexico Morocco Mozambique Netherlands Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Portuguese Africa Puerto Rico Romania St Pierre and Miquelon Saudi Arabia

480 1,606,988 137 864 1,563 37,652 1,164 —

1,330,702 13,523 287 622,590 20,202 25,621 187,912 23,287 3,205 67,952 109,080 57,936 87,275 32 199,227 45,099 513 23,768

Senegal Somalia Spain Spanish Africa Sudan Suriname Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey USSR United Arab Emirates USA US Oceania US Virgin Islands Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam Yemen (South) Yugoslavia Zaire Zimbabwe

399 78 366,497 524 2 627 682,285 488,713 205 1,286,056 108,681 2,375 101,171 35,886 27,661 2,126 74,376,958 107 27,326 9,307 1,092,129 2,165 218 43,253 16,357 5,186

Categories ofimports in 1985, estimate (in Canadian $1,000): Liveanimals Food, feed, beverages andtobacco Crude materials, inedible

109,266 5,800,191 7,858,092

Fabricated materials, inedible 18,732,852 End products, inedible 70,783,003 Special transactions 1,630,839

Categories of exports (Canadian produce) in 1985, estimate (in Canadian

$1,000):

Liveanimals Food, feed, beverages andtobacco Crude materials, inedible

466,814 9,167,978 19,179,955

Fabricated materials, inedible 36,780,505 End products, inedible 49,952,532 Special transactions 363,821

Total trade of Canada with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 m 3 m 4 m 5 m 6 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1,439,619 1,522,187 1,617,476 1,652,812 1,499,600 851,703 968,269 1,183,231 1,692,487 1,698,372

Tourism. The number of visitors to Canada in 1985 was 35,925,417 (1984, 34,864,981). In 1985,34,117,379 came from USA (1984,32,977,759). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total length of federal and provincial territorial roads and highways in Canada at the end of March 1985 was 278,680 km. Expenditures by these two levels of government on roads and highways during the fiscal year 1984-85 amounted to approximately $4,939 -7m. Federal expenditures were directed largely to the maintenance of national park highways, Indian Reserve roads and designated provincial/territorial highway construction in projects. In general highways are controlled and maintained by the province who also have the responsiblity of providing assistance to their municipalities and townships. The Alaska Highway is part of the Canadian highway system. For the TransC a n a d a Highway see m a p in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1962.

Registered motor vehicles totalled 14,818,625 in 1985 (revised); they

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included 11,118,071 passenger cars and taxis, 3,095,243 trucks and buses and 452,526 motorcycles. Urban Transit. There are metros in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver, and tram/ light rail systems in Calgary, Edmonton and Toronto. In 1984 urban transit systems (urban and suburban passenger transport, electrical railway, trolly coach, bus or subway) carried 1,403,120,442 fare passengers 689,601,142 km for an operating revenue of $1,687,390,132. In 1983, intercity and rural bus operations carried 25,573,541 fare passengers 179,168,734 km, earning revenues of $315,377,777. Railways. The total length of track operated during 1984 in Canada was 97,389 -04 km. Mainline track, 39,242 km; branch line, 332,364 km; industrial and siding track, 25,784 km. Canada has 2 great trans-continental systems: the Canadian National Railway system (CN), a government-owned body which operates 51,697 km (1984) of track, and the Canadian Pacific Railway, a joint-stock corporation operating 34,067 km (1984). From 1 April 1978, a government fuiided organization known as Via Rail took over passenger services formerly operated by CP and CN; 7-8m. passengers were carried in 1986. Selected statistics of Canadian railways for 1984: Passenger revenue $218-5m.; freight revenue, $6,225-7m.; total railway operating revenues, $7,639-7m.; total operating expenses, $6,947 -9m. Aviation. Civil aviation in Canada is under the jurisdiction of the federal government. The technical and administrative aspects are supervised by the Administrator of Air Transportation, while the economic functions are assigned to the Canadian Transportation Commission. In 1984 Canadian airports handled 45,744,077 passengers, 158,195,000 kg of mail and 573,136,000 kg of cargo. Operating revenue (1984) was $5,092-6m.; operating expenditure, $4,931 -5m. Shipping. The registered shipping on 31 Dec. 1985, including vessels for inland navigation, totalled 38,129 with a gross tonnage of 5,776,882. A total of 52,993 vessels (international shipping) visited Canadian ports in 1985, loading and unloading 204m. tonnes of cargo. The major canals in Canada are those of the St Lawrence-Great Lakes waterway with their 7 locks, providing navigation for vessels of 26-ft draught from Montreal to Lake Ontario; the Welland Canal by-passing the Niagara River between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie with its 8 locks; and the Sault Ste Marie Canal and lock between Lake Huron and Lake Superior. These 16 locks overcome a drop of 582 ft from the head of the lakes to Montreal. The St Lawrence Seaway was opened to navigation on 1 April 1959 (see map in T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1957). In 1985, traffic on the Montreal-Lake Ontario Section of the Seaway numbered 3,088 vessels carrying 37-3m. cargo tonnes; on the Welland Canal Section, 3,826 vessels with 41 • 8m. gross tonnes. Value of fixed assets was $592,760,000 and investments, $28,820,000 at 31 March 1986. Coast Guard. The Canadian Coast Guard (formed in 1962) is responsible to the Minister of Transport. In 1985 it comprised 7 heavy icebreakers; 1 heavy icebreaker/cable repair vessel; 9 medium icebreakers; 4 light icebreakers; 25 aid tenders; 3 hydraulic survey and founding vessels; 76 search and rescue vessels, (all types and sizes); 4 hovercraft and 34 helicopters; 1 fixed-wing aircraft (DC-3). Post. In 1984-85 there were 8,078 postal facilities in operation and 7,696m. pieces of mail were processed in 1985-86. Total revenue (estimate 1985-86) was $2,758m.; total expenditure, $2,968m. There were 919,143 miles (1,479,216 km) of telegraph wire in Canada in 1979 (including external cable landed in Canada). There were 15-5m. telephones in Sept. 1986. Broadcasting. There were 1,016 originating stations operating in Canada at 31 March 1986, of which 107 were Canadian Broadcasting Corporation stations, 112

288

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were CBC affiliates and 372 were privately owned and operated. Included were 381 AM radio stations, 142 FM radio stations and 68 television stations. Radio and television licence fees were abolished in 1953. Wireless 'beam' stations are operated at Montreal for direct communications with UK and Australia, and a station at Louisburg, N.S., provides a long-distance service to ships. Cinemas (1984). There were 860 cinemas with a seating capacity of 568,068 and 248 drive-in theatres with a capacity of 125,993 cars. Newspapers (1985). There were 115 daily newspapers, of which 99 were in English, 11 in French and 5 others. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court in Ottawa, having general appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases throughout Canada. There is an Exchequer Court, which is also a Court of Admiralty. There is a Superior Court in each province and county courts, with limited jurisdiction, in most of the provinces, all the judges in these courts being appointed by the Governor-General. Police, magistrates and justices of the peace are appointed by the provincial governments. For the year ended 31 Dec. 1985, 2,174,175 Criminal Code Offences were reported and 532,899 persons were charged. Canadian Legal and Directory Toronto. Annual

Religion. Membership of the leading denominations in 1981 : Province Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon Northwest Territories Total, Canada

Roman Catholic 204,430 56,415 310,140 371,100 5,609,685 2,986,175 269,070 279,840 573,495 526,355 5,470 18,215

United Church of Canada 104,835 29,645 169,605 87,460 126,275 1,655,550 240,395 263,375 525,480 548,360 3,310 3,725

Anglican Church of Canada 153,530 6,850 131,130 66,260 132,115 1,164,315 108,220 77,725 202,265 374,055 4,665 15,295

Presbyterian 2,700 12,620 38,285 12,070 34,625 517,020 23,910 16,065 63,890 89,810 615 505

Lutheran 460 210 12,315 1,810 17,655 254,175 58,830 88,785 144,675 122,395 915 665

11,210,385

3,758,015

2,436,375

812,110

702,905

Other denominations: Baptist, 696,850; Greek Orthodox, 314,870; Jewish, 296,425; Ukrainian (Greek) Catholic, 190,585; Pentecostal, 338,790; Mennonite, 189,370; other,3,136,815. Education. Under the Constitution the various provincial legislatures have power over education. These powers are subject to certain qualifications respecting the rights of denominational and minority language schools. Newfoundland and Quebec legislations provide for Roman Catholic and Protestant school boards. School Acts in Ontario, Saskatchewan and Alberta provide tax support for both public and separate schools. School board revenues derive from local taxation on real property and government grants from general provincial revenue. Except in Quebec the number of private elementary and secondary schools is small; their enrolments in 1985-86 were less than 4 -8% of the total elementarysecondary enrolment. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada finances schools for Indian and Inuit children; the enrolment in 1985-86 was 40,911. In 1985-86, 467,287 full-time regular students (graduates and undergraduates) were enrolled in universities. In 1985 some 34,154 took first degrees in social sciences, commerce, economics, law, political science and geography; 15,413 in education; 9,862 in humanities; 8,357 in engineering and applied sciences; 5,060 in agriculture; 6,239 in health subjects; 7,568 in mathematics and physical sciences and 3,036 in fine and applied arts. Unclassified, 7,785.

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The following statistics give information, for 1985—86, about all elementary and secondary schools, public, federal, private and blind and deaf: Province Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon Northwest Territories National Defence (overseas) Total

Schools 610 72 591 472 2,848 5,457 839 1,049 1,694 1,892 25 74 9

Teachers 8,148 1,285 10,536 7,373 70,747 96,226 12,240 11,208 24,983 26,210 260 670 250

Pupils 142,757 25,107 176,078 143,245 1,141,158 1,854,157 218,980 213,929 467,126 523,881 4,554 13,444 3,497

15,632

270,136

4,927,913

Health. Constitutional responsibility for personal health care services rests with the ten provinces of Canada. Accordingly, Canada's national health insurance system consists of an interlocking set of provincial hospital and medical insurance plans conforming to certain national standards rather than a single national program. These national standards, which are set out in the Canada Health Act, include: Provision of a comprehensive range of hospital and medical benefits; universal population coverage; access to necessary services in uniform terms and conditions; portability of benefits; and public administration of provincial insurance plans Provinces satisfying these national standards are eligible for federal financial assistance according to the provisions of the Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements and Federal Post-Secondary Education and Health Contributions Act. Under this Act, the provinces are entitled to receive equal-per-capita federal health contributions escalated annually by the three year average increase in nominal Gross National Product. These federal contributions are paid in the form of a combination of tax point and cash transfers, which together account for approximately 50% of provincial expenditures on insured health services. Over and above these health insurance transfers, the federal government also provides unconditional financial support for such provincial extended health care service programmes as nursing home care, certain home care services and adult residential care services. These supplementary equal-per-capita cash payments to the provinces are also escalated annually by provincial population increases and increases to nominal Gross National Product. The health insurance programmes were introduced in stages. The Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act was passed in 1958, providing prepaid coverage to all Canadians for in-patient and, at the option of each province, outpatient hospital services. The Medical Care Act was introduced in 1968 to extend universal coverage to all medically-required services provided by medical practitioners. The Canada Health Act, which took effect 1 April, 1984, consolidated the original federal health insurance legislation and clarified the national standards provinces are required to meet in order to qualify for full federal health contributions. The approach taken by Canada is one of state-sponsored health insurance. Accordingly, the advent of insurance programmes produced little change in the ownership of hospitals, almost all of which are owned by non-government nonprofit corporations, or in the rights and privileges of private medical practice. Patients are free to choose their own general practitioners and/or specialists without losing their insured benefits (there is a minor exception in Quebec involving the non-emergency services of a few physicians). Except for 0-5% of the population whose care is provided for under other legislation (such as serving members of the Canadian Armed Forces), all residents are eligible, regardless of whether they are in the work force. Benefits are available without upper limit so long as they are medically necessary, provided any registration obligations are met. Benefits are also

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portable during any temporary absence from Canada anywhere in the world— subject to any limitation a province may impose upon treatment electively sought outside the particular province without prior approval. Provinces may prescribe limits on benefits payable for out-of-province care. In addition to the benefits qualifying for federal contributions, provinces are free to provide additional benefits at their own discretion. All provinces provide such benefits, which cover a variety of services (e.g., optometric care, children's dental care, drug benefits). Most provinces fund their portion of health insurance costs out of general provincial revenues. Three provinces and one territory levy premiums which meet part of the provincial costs, 2 provinces impose a levy on employers, and 1 province utilizes part of its sales tax revenues for this purpose. Only 1 province has nominal co-charges for short-term hospital care. Several provinces have charges for long-term hospital care geared, approximately, to the room and board portion of the OAS-GIS payment mentioned under Social Welfare. Social Welfare. The social security system provides financial benefits to individuals and their families through a variety of programmes administered by federal, provincial and municipal governments. Federally, the Department of National Health and Welfare is responsible for research into the areas of health and social issues, provision of grants and contributions for various social services, improvement and construction of health facilities and the administration of several of Canada's income security programmes. These programmes are: The Family Allowances programme, introduced in 1945 and amended in 1973; the Old Age Security programme, introduced in 1952 and to which were added the Guaranteed Income Supplement in 1966 and the Spouse's Allowance in 1973, and the Pension Plan which came into being in 1966. Also implemented in 1966 was the Assistance Plan, which provides for federal-provincial cost-sharing of social assistance payments and social service programmes provided by provincial and, in some cases, municipal governments. The 1973 Family Allowances Act provides for the payment of a monthly Family Allowance ($31.93 in 1987) in respect ofa dependent child under the age of 18 who is a resident of Canada and is wholly or substantially maintained by a parent or guardian. At least one parent must be a Canadian citizen, or admitted to Canada as a permanent resident under the Immigration Act, or admitted to Canada for a period of not less than 1 year, if during that time his or her income is subject to Canadian Income Tax. Benefits are also paid under prescribed circumstances to Canadian citizens living abroad. A Special Allowance ($47.64 monthly in 1987) is paid on behalf of a child under the age of 18 who is maintained by a welfare agency, a government department or an institution. In some cases, payment is made directly to a foster parent. The Special Allowance was paid on behalf of32,500 children across Canada in March 1986. Family Allowances are considered as income for income-tax purposes for the parent who claims an exemption for the child; Special Allowances are not taxable. During the month of March 1985, over 3-6m. Canadian families (including 6-6m. eligible children) received Family Allowances; the total bill for FA and Special Allowances in the 1984-85 fiscal year was (estimate) $2,418m. Family Allowance benefits are increased each year in Jan. in accordance with the Consumer Price Index; for 1983 and 1984, however, indexation for regular benefits, (Special Allowances are excluded from this provision), has been limited to 6% and 5% respectively, in accordance with a federal policy on fiscal restraints announced in late 1982. The Family Allowances Act specifies that a provincial government may request the federal government to vary the allowance rates payable within the province subject to the fulfilment of stipulated conditions. Only the provinces of Alberta and Quebec have exercised this option. The Old Age Security (OAS) pension is payable to persons 65 years of age and over who satisfy the residence requirements stipulated in the Old Age Security Act. The amount payable, whether full or partial, is also governed by stipulated conditions, as is the payment of an OAS pension to a recipient who absents himself from Canada. OAS pensioners with little or no income apart from OAS may, upon application, receive a full or partial supplement known as the Guaranteed Income

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Supplement (GIS). Entitlement is normally based on the pensioner's income in the preceding year, calculated in accordance with the Income Tax Act. The spouse of an OAS pensioner, aged 60 to 64, meeting the same residence requirements as those stipulated for OAS, may be eligible for a full or partial Spouse's Allowance (SPA). SPA is payable, on application, depending on the annual combined income of the couple (not including the pensioner spouse's basic OAS pension or GIS). In 1979, the SPA program was expanded to include a spouse, who is eligible for SPA in the month the pensioner spouse dies, until the age of 65 or until remarriage (Extended Spouse's Allowance). Since Sept. 1985, SPA has also been available to low income widow(er)s aged 60-64. The OAS pension is taxable; GIS and SPA are not taxable. However, they must be included in computing the net income of a dependant for income-tax purposes. OAS, GIS and SPA are subject to an increase every Jan., April, July and Oct. to reflect increases in the Consumer Price Index. In Oct. 1985, the basic OAS pension was $282.94 monthly; the maximum Guaranteed Income Supplement was $336.26 monthly for a single pensioner or a married pensioner whose spouse was not receiving a pension or a Spouse's Allowance, and $219.00 monthly for each spouse of a married couple where both are pensioners. The maximum Spouse's Allowance for the same quarter was $501.94 monthly (equal to the basic pension plus the maximum GIS married rate) and $554.16 for the spouse of a deceased pensioner. Total OAS/GIS/SPA estimates for 1984-85 were $11,400m.; in March 1985, oVer2-6m. Canadians received benefits through programs. OAS and the Canada Pension Plan authorise reciprocal agreements with other countries to achieve portability of pensions. Such agreements have been made with Italy, France and Portugal, the US, Greece and Jamaica. In general, parallel provisions apply under QPP. The Canada Pension Plan (CPP) is designed to provide workers with a basic level of income protection in the event of retirement, disability or death. Benefits are determined by the contributor's earnings and contributions made to the Plan. Contribution is compulsory for most employed and self-employed Canadians 18 to 65 years of age. The Canada Pension Plan does not operate in Quebec, which has exercised its constitutional prerogative to establish a similar plan, the Quebec Pension Plan (QPP), to operate in lieu of CPP; there is reciprocity between the two to ensure coverage for all adult Canadians in the labour force. In 1987 both CPP and QPP are funded by equal contributions of 1 -9% of pensionable earnings from the employer and 1 -9% from the employee (self-employed persons contribute the full 3-8%), in addition to the interest on the investment of excess funds. In 1987, the range of yearly pensionable earnings was from $2,500 to $25,900; a person who earned and contributed at less than the maximum level receives monthly benefits at rates lower than the maximum allowable under CPP/QPP. For CPP, an advisory committee representing employers, employees, selfemployed persons and the public regularly reviews the operation of the plan, the state of investments and the adequacy of coverage and benefits, and reports to the Minister of National Health and Welfare. In March 1986, about 2-4m. Canadians received Canada or Quebec Pension Plan benefits. Total expenditures in 1985-86 for both plans were about $6,787m. Under the Canada Assistance Plan, the federal government pays 50% of the cost, to the provinces, of assistance to persons in need; welfare services provided to persons who are in need or likely to become in need if they do not receive such services (welfare services means services having as their object the lessening, removal or prevention of the causes and effects of poverty, child neglect or dependence on public assistance); and work activity projects and certain other employmentrelated programmes which are designed to improve the employability of persons who have unusual difficulty in finding or retaining jobs or in undertaking job training. 'Need' is defined by each province and is determined by the 'budget deficit' method, that is, the difference between an applicant's requirements and his income and resources. The rates of assistance payable are also determined by provincial

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CANADA

authorities. Provinces generally adjust social assistance rates once a year in accordance with certain economic indicators. In addition to persons in need as defined in the Plan, federal contributions may be made towards agency costs of providing welfare services to persons who are likely to become in need, if such services are not provided. The amount of federal subsidy is dependent on the proportion of eligible persons as determined by the use of an income test or a pre-determined income level for different sized families. In March 1985, close to l -9m. Canadians (representing 1,058,000 households) were in receipt of direct financial assistance from provincial programmes shareable under the Canada Assistance Plan. Total payments to the provinces under the Plan (including direct financial assistance, welfare services and work activity projects) for the 1984-85 financial year were $4,000m.;this amount includes the estimated value of income tax points transferred to the province of Quebec by the Department of Finance under the Interim Arrangements Act. Although the Department of Health and Welfare administers several of Canada's income security programs, various other departments are also involved in providing benefits to Canadians. Revenue Canada, Taxation administers the Child Tax Credit which was introduced in 1978. The program provides benefits to low and middle income families, in addition to those provided through Family Allowances (described above). The maximum credit payable in 1987 (in respect of the 1986 taxation year) was $454 for each eligible child (i.e. entitled to Family Allowances), where the net annual family income for the 1986 taxation year was below a specified level ($23,500 for 1 child); CTC entitlement is reduced by 5% of the amount by which the family's income exceeded this level. The credit and basic income levels are generally raised each year to reflect changes in the Consumer Price Index. The Child Tax Credit is paid in a single, non-taxable annual lump sum. It is estimated that approximately $ 1,460m. was paid out to approximately 2-4m. Canadian familiesin 1986forthe 1985 taxation year. The Unemployment Insurance program, administered by Employment and Immigration Canada, was introduced in 1940 and revised in 1971; it provides income protection to workers suffering temporary employment interruptions such as loss of work, illness and pregnancy. Lump sum retirement benefits are also paid to workers aged 65 whether or not they leave the labour force. Approximately 95% of workers in Canada are covered through the UI program. To be insurable, workers must be employed by the same employer for at least 15 hours a week, or make $106 a week or more (in 1987). Neither the self-employed (except specified fishermen) nor those over 65 years are eligible. The program is funded by employer and employee contributions and provides a benefit of 60% of average weekly insurable earnings. In 1987, the maximum weekly benefit was $318. Approximately 1 -3m. Canadians collected UI benefits in March 1986; program expenditures for 1985-86 were approximately $10,127m. The Department of Veterans Affairs offers two direct financial assistance programs - the Veterans' and Civilians' Disability Pensions program and the War Veterans' and Civilian War Allowances program, which were introduced in 1919 and 1930 respectively and both amended to include civilians in 1962. The first program provides pensions to military personnel disabled during service as defined in the legislation, a surviving spouse or dependents. Benefits are based on the degree of disability ranging from 5% to 100%. In March 1986, there were approximately 144,000 persons/families receiving pensions for a cost ofjust under $697m. in 1985-86. War Veterans' and Civilian War Allowances provide financial benefits to persons, or their dependents, who meet service eligibility requirements and who, due to age or incapacity, are unable to work and have insufficient income for maintenance, as determined by an income test. Benefits vary depending upon the family composition of the applicant. In March 1986, about 84,000 persons were receiving benefits under the program; benefit expenditures in 1985-86 were$454m. Workers' Compensation, administered by provincial Boards, provides compulsory coverage against wage loss due to work-related injury or disease for workers in

CANADA

293

specified trades and industries. The program is employer-funded and precludes legal action by the worker against his employer. Benefits are based upon previous earnings and degree of impairment and may be of a long or short term nature. Maximum compensation is set at 75% of a fixed maximum gross earnings level of 90% of a fixed maximum net earnings level, depending on the province. Benefits are also available to surviving spouses and dependent children and are calculated in the above manner, however, additional sums may be available for funeral and related expenses. Medical support and rehabilitation services are also intrinsic to the program. Benefit expenditures for Workers' Compensation in 1985 were approximately $2,742m. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Canada in Great Britain (Macdonald House., Grosvenor Sq., London, W1X OAB) High Commissioner: R. Roy McMurtry, QC. Of Great Britain in Canada (80 Elgin St., Ottawa, Kl P 5K7) High Commissioner: Sir Derek Day, KCMG. Of Canada in the USA (1746 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Allan E. Gotlieb. Of the USA in Canada (100 Wellington St., Ottawa, Kl P 5TI) Ambassador: Thomas M. T. Niles. Of Canada to the United Nations Ambassador: Stephen Lewis. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Statistics Canada, Ottawa, has been the official central statistical organization for Canada since 1918. The Bureau, which reports to Parliament through the Minister of Supply and Services, serves as the statistical agency for federal government departments; co-ordinates the statistics of the provincial governments along national lines; and channels all Canadian statistical data to internal organizations. Chief Statistician of Canada: Dr I. P. Felligi. Publications of Statistics Canada are classified as periodical (issued more frequently than once a year), annual, biennial and occasional publications. The occasional publications frequently supplement the annual reports and usually contain historical information. A complete list is contained in the 1986 edition of the Current Publications Index, available at a nominal cost. Official publications include: The Canada Year Book. Annual, from 1905 Canada, Official Handbook. Annual, from 1930 Canadian Statistical Review. Monthly, with weekly supplements, from 1926 Twelfth Decennial Census of Canada. 1981. Ottawa, 1982 Atlas and Gazetteer ofCanada. Dept. of Energy, Mines and Resources. Ottawa, 1969 Cambridge History of the British Empire. Vol. VI. Canada and Newfoundland. Cambridge, 1930 Canadian Almanac and Directory. Toronto. Annual Canadian Annual Review. Annual, from 1960 Canadian Dictionary: French-English. Toronto, 1970 Canadian Encyclopedia. 3 vols. Edmonton, 1985 Canadiana: A List of Publications of Canadian Interest. National Library, Ottawa. Monthly, with annual cumulation. 1951 ff. Cook, R., French-Canadian Nationalism; An Anthology. Toronto, 1970.—The Maple'Leaf Forever; Essays on Nationalism and Politics in Canada. Toronto, 1971 Creighton, Donald G., Canada's First Century. Toronto, 1970.—Towards the Discovery of Canada. Toronto, 1974 Dewitt, D. B., and Kirton, J. J., Canada as a Principal Power: A Study in Foreign Policy. Toronto, 1983 Dictionnaire Bélisle de la langue française au Canada; dictionnaire oxford. 1970 Dictionnaire canadien; français-anglais-français. Toronto, 1962 Encyclopedia Canadiana. 10 vols. Rev. ed. Ottawa, 1967 Granatstein, J. L., Twentieth Century Canada. Toronto, 1983

294

CANADA

Hardy, W G„ From Sea lo Sea, Canada, 1850-1920: The Road to Nationhood. Toronto, 1960 Hockin, T A., Government in Canada. London, 1976 Kerr, D. G. G., Historical Atlas of Canada. Toronto, 1960 Leacy, F H., (ed.) Historical Statistics of Canada. Government Printer, Ottawa, 1983 Lower, A. R. M., Colony to Nation. A History of Canada. 4th ed. Toronto, 1964 McCann, L. D., (ed.) Heartland and Hinterland: A Geography of Canada. Scarborough, Ontario, 1982 Newman, P C , Company of Adventurers. The Story of the Hudson's Bay Company Vol. 1, London, 1986 Nurgitz, N., and Segal, H., No Small Measure The Progressive Conservatives and the Constitution. Ottawa, 1983 Smith, D. L., (ed.) History of Canada. An Annotated Bibliography Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 National Library Sylvestre

The National Library of Canada, Ottawa, Ontano. Librarian. J. Guy

CANADIAN PROVINCES The 10 provinces have each a separate parliament and administration, with a Lieut.-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General in Council at the head of the executive. They have full powers to regulate their own local affairs and dispose of their revenues, provided only they do not interfere with the action and policy of the central administration. Among the subjects assigned exclusively to the provincial legislatures are: the amendment of the provincial constitution, except as regards the office of the Lieut.-Governor, property and civil rights; direct taxation for revenue purposes; borrowing; management and sale of Crown lands; provincial hospitals, reformatories, etc.; shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer and other licences for local or provincial purposes; local works and undertakings, except lines of ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, etc., extending beyond the province or connecting with other provinces, and excepting also such works as the Dominion Parliament declares are for the general good; marriages, administration of justice within the province; education. Local Government. Under the terms of the British North America Act the provinces are given full powers over local government. All local government institutions are, therefore, supervised by the provinces, and are incorporated and function under provincial acts. The acts under which municipalities operate vary from province to province. A municipal corporation is usually administered by an elected council headed by a mayor or reeve, whose powers to administer affairs and to raise funds by taxation and other methods are set forth in provincial laws, as is the scope of its obligations to, and on behalf of, the citizens. Similarly, the types of municipal corporations, their official designations and the requirements for their incorporation vary between provinces. The following table sets out the classifications as at 1 Jan. 1983. Type and size of group Type: Regional municipalities Metropolitan and regional municipalities 1 Counties and regional districts Unitary municipalities Cities 1 Towns Villages Rural municipalities' Quasi-municipalities 4 Total

NJld. —

PEI —

NS

NB

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

66 3 39

169 2 167 —

39 1 8 30

—

—

141

24

—

—

—

310

39

66

114

—

114 6 23 85 —

Ont.

Man.

96

39

—

3 93 1,518 65 192 243 1,018

12 27 792 49 145 119 479 7

185 5 35 40 105 17

838

202

Que

—

1,614

— —

ALBERTA Type and size of group Population size group (1581 census): Unitary municipalities— Over 100,000 50,000 to 99,999 10,000 to49,999 Under 10,000 Total Type and size of group Type: Regional municipalities Metropolitan and regional municipalities' Counties and regional districts Unitary municipalities Cities 2 Towns Villages ' Rural municipalities' Quasi-municipalities 4 Total Population size group (1981 census): Unitary municipalities— Over 100,000 50,000 to 99,999 10,000 to49,999 Under 10,000

Nfld.

295

PEI

NS

NB

Que

Ont.

Man.

1 5 163

—

1 38

1 2 17 46

2 4 108

4 16 76 1,422

17 14 78 683

4 180

169

39

66

114

1,518

792

185

Sask. —

Alta. —

BC 28

—

—

805 12 142 352 299 —

332 11 111 162 48 19

28 142 35 10 55 42 285

805

351

455

2

2 2 15 313

3 9 30 100

—

6 797

YT

1 —

NWT

Canada

—

—

163

—

—

5

2ft

15 148 4,172 192 878 1,087 2 $ 15 500

8

33

4,835

3 2 1 —

7 1 5 1

—

—

1 2

— —

7

30 46 237 3,859

Total 805 332 142 3 7 4,172 1 Includes urban communities in Quebec; and Metropolitan Toronto, regional municipalities and the district municipality of Muskoka in Ontario. 2 Includes the 5 boroughs of Metropolitan Toronto. 1 Includes municipalities in Nova Scotia; parishes, townships, united townships and municipalities without designation in Quebec; townships in Ontario; rural municipalities in Manitoba and Saskatchewan; municipal districts and counties in Alberta; and districts in British Columbia. 4 Includes local government communities and the metropolitan area in Newfoundland; improvement districts in Ontario and Alberta; local government districts in Manitoba; local improvement districts in British Columbia the Yukon Territory; and hamlets in the Northwest Territories.

ALBERTA HISTORY. The southern half of the province of Alberta was part of Rupert's land which was granted by royal charter in 1670 to the Hudson's Bay Company. The intervention by the North West Company in the fur trade after 1783 led to tne establishment of trading posts. In 1869 Rupert's land was transferred from the Hudson's Bay Company (which had absorbed its rival in 1821) to the new Dominion, and in tne following year this land was combined with the former Crown land ofthe North Western Territories to form the Northwest Territories. In 1882 'Alberta' first appeared as a provisional 'district', consisting of the southern half of the present province. In 1905 the Athabasca district to the north was added when provincial status was granted to Alberta. Four parties have held office: the Liberals 1905-21; the United Farmers 1921-35; Social Credit 1935-71, and Progressive Conservative since Sept. 1971. AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the province is 661,188 sq. km; 644,392 sq. km being land area and 16,796 sq. km water area. The population (estimate 1 July 1986) was 2,386,000; the urban population (1981), centres of 1,000 or over, was 1,727,545 and the rural 510,179. Population of the cities (30 June 1986): Calgary, 640,645; Edmonton, 571,506; Lethbridge, 60,310; Red Deer,

296

CANADA

54,192; Medicine Hat, 42,182; St Albert, 36,453; Fort McMurray, 36,810; Grande Prairie, 26,237; Camrose, 12,751; Leduc, 13,214; Fort Saskatchewan, 12,474; Spruce Grove, 11,897; Airdrie, 10,434; Wetaskiwin, 10,103; Lloydminster (Alberta portion), 10,557; Drumheller, 6,671. Vital statistics, see p. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . A continental climate: long, cold winters and mild summers. Rainfall amounts are greatest between May and Sept. Edmonton. Jan. 5°F (-15"C), July 61"F (16 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 18" (439 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of Alberta is contained in the British North America Act of 1867, and amending Acts; also in the Alberta Act of 1905, passed by the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada, which created the province out of the then Northwest Territories. All the provisions of the British North America Act, except those with respect to school lands and the public domain, were made to apply to Alberta as they apply to the older provinces of Canada. On 1 Oct. 1930 the natural resources were transferred from the Dominion to provincial government control. The province is represented by 6 members in the Senate and 21 in the House ofCommons of Canada. The executive is vested nominally in the Lieut.-Govemor, who is appointed by the federal government, but actually in the Executive Council or the Cabinet of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the Assembly in the name of the Queen. Members ofthe Legislative Assembly are elected by the universal vote of adults over the age of 18 years. There are 83 members in the legislature (elected 8 May 1986): 61 Progressive Conservative, 16 New Democratic Party, 4 Liberal, 2 Representative. Lieut.-Governor: Hon. Helen Hunley (sworn in 22 Jan. 1985). Flag: Blue with the shield of the province in the centre. The members of the Ministry were as follows in June 1986: Premier, President of Executive Council: Hon. D. R. Getty. Deputy Premier and Minister of Advanced Education: Hon. D. J. Russell. Municipal Affairs and Government House Leader: Hon. N. S. Crawford. AttorneyGeneral, Minister of Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs and Deputy Government House Leader: Hon. J. D. Horsman. Economic Development and Trade: Hon. L. R. Shaben. Provincial Treasurer: Hon. D. Johnston. Energy: Hon. Dr P. N. Webber. Technology, Research and Telecommunications: Hon. L. Young. Transportation and Utilities: Hon. J. A. Adair. Hospitals and Medical Care: Hon. M. E. Moore. Tourism: Hon. E. L. Fjordbotten. Labour: Hon. Dr I. Reid. Social Services: Hon. C. E. Osterman. Forestry, Lands and Wildlife: Hon. D. Sparrow. Environment: Hon. K. Kowalski. Public Works, Supply and Services: Hon. E. D. Isley. Agriculture: Hon. P. Elzinga. Associate Minister of Agriculture: Hon. S. Cripps. Culture: Hon. D. Anderson. Recreation and Parks: Hon. N. Weiss. Career Development and Employment: Hon. R. Orman. Education: Hon. N. Betkowski. Solicitor General: Hon. K. Rostad. Consumer and Corporate Affairs: Hon. E. McCoy. Community and Occupational Health: Hon. J. Dinning. Local Government. The local government units are City, Town, New Town, Village, Summer Village, County, Municipal District and Improvement District. There are 16 cities in Alberta, namely: Airdrie, Calgary, Camrose, Drumheller, Edmonton, Fort McMurray, Fort Saskatchewan, Grande Prairie, Leduc, Lethbridge, Lloydminster, Medicine Hat, Red Deer, St Albert, Spruce Grove and Wetaskiwin. These cities operate under the Municipal Government Act. The governing body consists of a mayor and a council of from 6 to 20 members. A city can be incorporated by order of the Lieut.-Governor-in-Council. A population of 10,000 is required. There are no limits of area specified in the statutes for any of the different local government units. The population requirement for a Town as specified in the Municipal Government Act is 1,000 people, and the area at incorporation is that of the original village.

ALBERTA

297

A Village must contain 75 separate and occupied dwellings. The Municipal Government Act requires each dwelling to have been occupied continuously for a period of at least 6 months. A Summer Village must contain SO separate dwellings. A rural county area is an area incorporated through an order of the Lieut. Governor-in-Council under the provisions of the County Act. One board of councillors deal with both municipal and school affairs. A rural Municipal District is an area which has been incorporated under the Municipal Government Act. In Municipal Districts separate boards control municipal and school affairs. Areas not incorporated as counties or Municipal Districts are termed Improvement Districts or Special Areas. Sparsely populated, such districts are administered and taxed by the Department of Municipal Affairs of the provincial government. There are no requirements as to the minimum number of residents of a County or Municipal District. F I N A N C E . The budgetary revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $) for years ending 31 March were as follows: 1982-83 198i-84 1984-85 1985-861 im$rr~ Revenue 7,085,799,000 2 9,282,373,000 2 10,122,287,000 2 9,869,000,000 2 8,308,000,000 2 Expenditure 9,133,575,000 9,341,747,000 9,078,938,000 10,064,518,000 10,803,715,000 ' Estimates. 2 Excludes funds allocated to Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund.

Personal income per capita (1984), $ 15,303. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Oil. In 1985, 69,213,000 cu. metres of crude oil and condensate were produced with gross sales value of $15,786,925,000. Alberta produced 83-4% of Canada's crude petroleum output in 1985. Production of natural gas by-products was 19,240,000 cu. metres, valued at $2,687,226,000. The 4 major deposits of oil sands are found in northern and eastern Alberta: The Athabasca, Cold Lake, Peace River and Buffalo Head Hills deposits; total area, 140,800 sq. km. A limited part of the deposits along the Athabasca River can be exploited through open-pit mining. The rest of the Athabasca, and all the deposits in the other areas, are deeper reserves which must be developed through in situ techniques. These reserves reach depths of 760 metres. In 1985, 15 new projects were approved by the Energy Resources Conservation Board and 1,095 oil sands wells were drilled. Production of bitumen was estimated at 12,000 cu. metres per day in Dec. 1985. Two oil sands mining plants in the Fort McMurray area produced 9-5m. cu. metres of synthetic crude oil in 1985. Gas. Natural gas is found in abundance in numerous localities. In 1985, 70,869,000 cu. metres valued at $7,278,483,000 were produced. Minerals. In 1985 the ultimate remaining recoverable coal resources of Alberta were estimated at 22,200m. tonnes. Value of total mineral production increased from $26,429,325,000 in 1984 to $27,346,016,000 in 1985. Agriculture. Total area of farms (1981) 47,218,170 acres; improved land, 30,951,142; under crops, 20,858,765; improved pasture, 3,907,830; summer fallow, 5,449,831; other improved land, 734,716; unimproved land, 16,267,083; woodland, 1,217,420; other unimproved land, 15,049,663. For particulars of agricultural production and livestock, see under CANADA, pp. 281-82. Farm cash receipts in 1985 totalled $3,830,719,000, of which crops contributed $1,952,890,000; livestock and products, $1,812,962,000, and other sources, $64,867,000. Forestry. Total forest lands (1985-86) 397,000 sq. km, of which 164,050 sq. km were productive (supporting 1,500m. cu. metres of wood) and 71,905 sq. km had the potential to produce forest products. In 1985-86, 5,813,050 cu. metres of lumber and plywood were produced.

298

CANADA

Fisheries. The largest catch in commercial fishing is whitefish. Perch, tullibee, walley, pike and lake trout are also caught in smaller quantities. In 1984 a provincial fish marketing policy was implemented and a new commercial fishery licensing system was approved for implementation in 1986. Commercial fish production in 1985-86 was $2,799,200. INDUSTRY. The leading manufacturing industries are food and beverages, petroleum refining, metal fabricating, wood industries, primary metal, chemical and chemical products and non-metallic mineral products industries. There were in 1984 approximately 2,482 manufacturing establishments, in which were employed 71,451 persons, who earned in salaries and wages $1,946,380,000. Manufacturing shipments had a total valueof $16,140,768,000 in 1985. Chief among these shipments were: Food and beverages, $3,837,021,000; refined petroleum and coal products, $5,151,496,000; chemicals and chemical products, $2,049,010,000; fabricated metal products, $684,964,000; primary metals, $749,947,000; nan-metallic mineral products, $568,805,000; printing, publishing and allied, $575,592,000; wood, $486,786,000; paper and allied products, $453,141,000; machinery, $645,626,000; furniture and fixtures, $97,426,000; other, $146,866,000. Total retail saleS(1985)$13,523,532,000. Tourism is of increasing importance and in 1985 contributed $2,106,974,000 to the economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 151,319 km of roads and highways, including 105,075 km gravelled and 17,612 km paved. At 31 March 1986 there were 2,084,381 motor vehicles registered, including 1,278,710 passenger cars, 396,897 commercial vehicles, 303,131 trailers, 5,936 buses and 46,446 motor cycles. Railways. In 1986 the length of main railway lines was 9,702-5 km. In 1986 there was a rail rapid transit network in Edmonton (10-5 km) and Calgary (22-5 km). Post and Telecommunications. Alberta's modem telephone system is owned and operated by the provincial government, except in the city of Edmonton (owned and operated by Edmonton) and some rural lines. There were 1,111,525 telephones in service in April 1986. JUSTICE AND EDUCATION Justice. The Supreme Judicial authority of the province is the Court of Appeal. Judges of the Court of Appeal and Court of Queen's Bench are appointed by the Dominion Government and hold office until retirement at the age of 75. There are courts of lesser jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters. The Court of Queen's Bench has full jurisdiction over civil proceedings. A Provincial Court which has jurisdiction in civil matters up to $1,000 is presided over by provincially appointed judges. Juvenile Courts have power to try boys and girls 16 and under for offences against the Juvenile Delinquents Act. The jurisdiction of all criminal courts in Alberta is enacted in the provisions of the Criminal Code. The system of procedure in civil and criminal cases conforms as nearly as possible to the English system. Education. Schools of all grades are included under the term of public school (including those in the separate school system which are publicly supported). The same board of trustees controls the schools from kindergarten to university entrance. In 1985-86 there were 423,356 pupils enrolled in elementary, junior high schools and high schools. The Uiiiversity of Alberta (in Edmonton), organized in 1907, had, in 1985-86, 23,828 full-time students. The University of Calgary, formerly part of the University of Alberta and autonomous from April 1966, had in 1985-86,15,412 full-time students. The University of Lethbridge, organized in 1966, had in 1985-86,2,692 full-time students. The Athabasca University had in

BRITISH C O L U M B I A

299

1985-86,9,557 part-time students. Banff Centre for Continuing Education had in 1985-86,1,356 part-time students. The full-time enrolment at Alberta's 11 public colleges totalled 17,474 students in 1985-86. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Alberta Bureau of Statistics (Dept. of Treasury, Edmonton), which was established in 1939, collects, compiles and distributes information relative to Alberta. Among its publications are: Alberta Statistical Review (Quarterly).—Alberta Economic Accounts (Annual).—Retail and Service Trade Statistics, Alberta (Annual).— Alberta Facts (Annual).—Principal Manufacturing Statistics, Alberta (Annual).—Population Projections, Alberta (Occasional).—Alberta Population Growth (Quarterly). Dept. of Economic Development, Alberta Profile. Edmonton, (Annual) MacGregor, J. G.,A History of Alberta. 2nd ed. Edmonton, 1981 Masson, J., Alberta's Local Governments and their Politics. Univ. of Alberta Press, 1985 Richards, J., Prairie Capitalism: Power and Influence in the New West. Toronto, 1979 Wiebe, Rudy., Alberta, a Celebration. Edmonton, 1979

BRITISH COLUMBIA H I S T O R Y . Vancouver Island was organized as a colony in 1849; the mainland as far as the watershed of the Rocky Mountains was organized as a colony following a gold rush on the Fraser River in 1859. The two were united as the colony of British Columbia in 1866; this became a Canadian Province in 1871. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . British Columbia has an area of 948,596 sq. km. The capital is Victoria. The province is bordered westerly by the Pacific ocean and Alaska Panhandle, northerly by the Yukon and Northwest Territories, easterly by the Province of Alberta and southerly by the USA along the 49th parallel. A chain of islands, the latest of which are Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands, affords protection to the mainland coast. TheJune 1981 census population was 2,744,467; estimate, 1986,2,905,900. The principal cities and their populations (1985) are as follows: Greater Vancouver, 1,234,864; Greater Victoria, 263,180; Prince George, 68,975; Kamloops, 63,959; Kelowna, 61,578; Nanaimo, 50,440; Penticton, 23,904; Vernon, 21,059; Port Albemi, 19,104; Prince Rupert, 16,692; Cranbrook, 16,597; Fort St. John, 13,493. Vital statistics, see p. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . The climate is cool temperate, but mountain influences affect temperatures and rainfall very considerably. Driest months occur in summer. Vancouver. Jan. 36°F(2-2°Q, July 64°F(17-8°Q. Annual rainfall 58" (1,458 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . British Columbia (then known as New Caledonia) originally formed part of the Hudson's Bay Company's concession. In 1849 Vancouver Island and in 1858 British Columbia were constituted Crown Colonies; in 1866 the two colonies amalgamated. The British North America Act of 1867 provided for eventual admission into Canadian Confederation, ahd on 20 July 1871 British Columbia became the sixth province of the Dominion. British Columbia has a unicameral legislature of 69 elected members. Government policy is determined by the Executive Council responsible to the Legislature. The Lieut.-Govemor is appointed by the Governor-General of Canada, usually for a term of 5 yean, and is the head of the executive government of the province. Lieut.-Govemor: The Hon. Robert Gordon Rogers. Flag: A banner of the arms, i.e., blue and white wavy stripes charged, with a setting sun in gold, across the top of a Union Flag with a gold coronet in the centre.

300

CANADA

The Legislative Assembly is elected for a maximum term of 5 years. Every male or female Canadian citizen 19 years and over, having resided a minimum of 6 months in the province, duly registered, is entitled to vote. Representation of the parties in Nov. 1986: Social Credit Party, 47; New Democratic Party, 22. The province is represented in the Federal Parliament by 28 members in the House of Commons, and 6 Senators. The Executive Council was composed as follows, Jan. 1987: Premier and President of the Executive Council: William N. Vähder Zalm. Minister of Economic Development: Grace M. McCarthy. Provincial Secretary, Minister of Government Services: Elwood N. Veitch. Attorney General: Brian R. D. Smith, QC. Agriculture and Fisheries: J. Savage. Education: Anthony J. Brummet. Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources: John Davis, PC. Environment and Parks: C. S. Rogers. Forests and Lands: Jack J. Kempf. Health: P. A. Dueck. Social Services and Housing: Claude H. Richmond. Intergovernmental Relations. Patrick L. McGeer. Labour and Consumer Services: L. F. Hansen. Municipal Affairs. Rita M. Johnston. Continuing Education and Job Training: S. Hägen. Tourism. William E. Reid. Transportation and Highways. C. Michael. Finance and Corporation Relations: M. Couvelier. Agent-General in London: Alexander H. Harte, QC (British Columbia House, 1 Regent St., London, SW1Y 4NS). Local Government. Vancouver City was incorporated by statute and operates under the provisions of the Vancouver Charter of 1953 and amendments. This is the only incorporated area in British Columbia not operating under the provisions of the Municipal Act. Under this Act municipalities are divided into the following classes: (a) a village with a population between 500 and 2,500, governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 4 aldermen; (b) a town with a population between 2,500 and-5,000, governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 4 aldermen; fc/a city where the population exceeds 5,000 governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 6 or 8 aldermen depending on population; (d) a district where the area exceeds 810 hectares and the average density is less than 5 persons per hectare, governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 6 or 8 aldermen depending on population. There are two other forms of local government: The regional district covering a number of areas both incorporated and unincorporated, governed by a board of directors; and the improvement district governed by a board of 3 trustees. Revenue for municipal services is derived mainly from real-property taxation, although additional revenue is derived from licence fees, business taxes, fines, public utility projects and grants-in-aid from the provincial government. ECONOMY Budget. Current provincial revenue and expenditure, including all capital expenditures, in Canadian $ 1 m. for fiscal years ending 31 March: Revenue Expenditure

1982-83 6,529 1 7,513 3

1983-84 7,344 3 8,356 4

1984-85 7,789 9 8,783 8

1985-86 8,162 1 9,099 1

The main sources of current revenue are the income taxes, contributions from the federal government, and privileges, licences and natural resources taxes and royalties. The main items of expenditure in 1985-86 (preliminary) are as follows: Health and social services, $4,098-7m.; education, $l,764-8m.; transport and highways, $l,124-4m. Banking. On 31 Dec. 1984, Canadian chartered banks maintained 843 branches and had total assets of $34,300m. in British Columbia; credit unions at 314 locations had total assets of $6,004m. Several foreign banks have Canadian head offices in Vancouver and several others have branches. The Bank of British

BRITISH COLUMBIA

301

Columbia, which commenced operations in Vancouver in 1968, had 51 branches and total assets of $3,100m. at 31 Oct. 1984. The Western and Pacific Bank of Canada and the Security Pacific Bank Canada have head offices in the province. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Generation in 1985 totalled 59,126-3m. kwh. of which a net 11,23 lm. kwh. were exported. Consumption within the province was 49,041 m. kwh. Minerals. Copper, coal, natural gas, crude oil, molybdenum and silver are the most important minerals produced. The 1985 total of mineral production was estimated at $3,465m. Total value of mineral fuels produced in 1985 was estimated at: Coal, $ 1,067 -4m.; oil and gas, $1,067 • 1 m. Agriculture. Only 2 -4m. hectares or 3% of the total land area is arable or potentially arable. Farm cash receipts, in 1985, were $993 -6m. Forestry. About 55% of British Columbia's land is forest land, with 47-8m. hectares bearing commercial forest. Over 94% of the forest area is owned or administered by the provincial government. The total cut from forests in 1985 was 76-9m. cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1985 the wholesale market value of fish products was estimated at $625m. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. The selling value of factop' shipments from all manufacturing industries reached an estimated $ 19,061 - 7m. in 1985. Commerce. Exports through British Columbia customs ports during 1985 totalled $19,084m. in value, while imports amounted to $9,292m. About 40% of exports through British Columbia customs ports are products from other provinces, primarily grains, potash and fuels from the Prairie Provinces. USA is the largest market for products exported through British Columbia customs ports ($7,851m. in 1985) followed by Japan ($4,793 -7m.). Exports were valued at $12,314-5m. in 1985. The leading exports were: Lumber, $2,847-9m.; pulp, $l,594-5m.; coal, $l,617-8m.; newsprint, $831 7m.; natural gas, $379-8m.; aluminium ingots, $341 -3m.; copper ore and ingots, $380-7m.; fisheries products, $443 -8m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 31 March 1986 there were 45,570 km of provincial roads and rights of way in the province, of which 21,101 km were paved. Railways. The province is served by two transcontinental railways, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railway. Passenger service is provided by VIA Rail, a Crown Corporation. British Columbia is also served by the publicly owned British Columbia Railway, the Railway Freight Service of the B.C. Hydro and Power Authority, the Northern Alberta Railways Company and the Burlington Northern Inc. Tne combined route-mileage of mainline track operated by the CPR, CNR and BCR totals 7,500 km. The system also includes CPR and CNR railcar barge connections to Vancouver Island, between Prince Rupert and Alaska, and interchanges with American railways at southern border points. A metro line was opened in Vancouver in 1986. Aviation. International airports are located at Vancouver and Victoria. Daily interprovincial and intraprovincial flights serve all main population centres. Small public and private airstrips are located throughout the province. Shipping. The m^jor ports are Vancouver, New Westminster, Victoria, Nanaimo and Prince Rupert. The volume of domestic cargo handled during 1984 was 39 -4m. tonnes. The British Columbia Ferries connect Vancouver Island with the mainland and

302

CANADA

also provide service to other coastal points. Service by other ferry systems is also provided between Vancouver Island and the USA. The Alaska State Ferries connect Prince Rupert with centres in Alaska. Post and Broadcasting. The British Columbia Telephone Company have approximately 1 -4m. telephones in service. In March 1985 there were 67 AM radio, 21 FM radio, 10 television stations and 2 pay-television networks originating in British Columbia. In addition there were 495 re-broadcasting stations in the province. E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Education. Education, free up to Grade XII levels, is financed jointly from municipal and provincial government revenues. Attendance is compulsory from the age of 6 to 15. There were approximately 487,000 pupils enrolled in public schools from kindergarten to Grade XII in Sept. 1985. The universities had a full-time enrolment of approximately 35,000 for 1985-86. They include University of British Columbia, Vancouver, University of Victoria, Victoria and Simon Fräser University, Burnaby. The regional colleges are Camosun College, Victoria; Capilano College, North Vancouver, Cariboo College, Kamloops; College of New Caledonia, Prince George; Douglas College, New Westminister; East Kootenay Community College, Cranbrook; Fräser Valley College, Chilliwack/Abbotsford; Kwantlen College, Surrey; Malaspina College, Nanaimo; North Island College, Comox; Northern Lights College, Dawson Creek/Fort St John; Northwest Community College, Terrace/Prince Rupert; Okanagan College, Kelowna with branches at Salmon Arm and Vernon; Selkirk College, Castlegar; Vancouver Community College, Vancouver. There are also the British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby; Emily Carr College of Art and Design, Vancouver, Justice Institute or British Columbia, Vancouver; Open Learning Institute, Richmond; Pacific Marine Training Institute, North Vancouver; Pacific Vocational Institute, Burnaby/Maple Ridge/ Richmond. A televised distance education and special programmes through KNOW, the Knowledge Network of the West is provided. Health. The Government operates a hospital insurance scheme giving universal coverage after a qualifying period of 3 months' residence in the province. The province has come under a national medicare scheme which is partially subsidized by the provincial government and partially by the federal government. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Central Statistics Bureau (Ministry of Economic Development, Hon. Grace McCarthy—Minister, Parliament Buildings, Victoria, B.C., V8V 1X4), collects, compiles and distributes information relative to the Province. Publications include B.C. Industry Review (annual); Manufacturers' Directory; External Trade Report (annual); British Columbia Facts and Statistics (annual); British Columbia Economic Accounts (annual); British Columbia Population Forecast (annual). Ministry of Finance, British Columbia Financial and Economic Review. Victoria, B.C. (annual) Morley, J. T., The Reins of Power: Governing British Columbia. Vancouver, 1983 Ormsby, M., British Columbia: A History. Vancouver, 1958

MANITOBA H I S T O R Y . The Hudson's Bay Company formed a colony on the Red River in 1812, which was part of territory annexed to Canada in 1870. The Metis colonists (part-Indian, mostly French-speaking, Catholic) objected to the arrangements for the purchase of the Company territory by Canada and the province of Manitoba was created to accommodate them. It was extended northwards and westwards in 1881 and to Hudson Bay in 1912.

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AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 250,946 sq. miles (649,046 sq. km), of which 211,721 sq. miles are land and 39,225 sq. miles water. From north to south it is 793 km and at the widest point it is 493 km. The population (census, 1981)was 1,026,241. Estimate (April 1986), 1,077,200. Population of Winnipeg, the capital (June 1985), 612,500; other principal cities (census, 1981): Brandon, 36,242; Thompson, 14,288; Portage la Prairie, 13,086; Selkirk, 10,037; Bin Flon, 7,894. Vital statistics, see p. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . The climate is cold continental, with very severe winters but pleasantly warm summers. Rainfall amounts are greatest in the months May to Sept. Winnipeg. Jan. -3'F(-19-3°Q, July 67°F(19-6'Q. Annual rainfall 21" (539 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Manitoba was known as the Red River Settlement before its entry into the Dominion in 1870. The provincial government ;?administered by a Lieut.-Governor assisted by an Executive Cpujicil (Cabinet) which is appointed from and responsible to a legislative assembly of 57 members elected for 5 years. Women were enfranchised in 1916. The Electoral Division Act, 1955, created 57 single-member constituencies and abolished the transferable vote. The Electoral Divisions Act, 1979, created 27 rural electoral divisions, and 30 urban electoral divisions. The province is represented by 6 members in the Senate and 14 in the House of Commons of Canada. Lieut.-Governor: Dr George Johnson (sworn in 12 Dec. 1986). Flag: The British Red Ensign with the shield of the province in the fly. State of parties in the Legislative Assembly: New Democratic Party, 30; Progressive Conservative, 26; Liberal, 1. The members of the New Democratic Party Ministry (sworn in 30 Nov. 1981) are as follows (Sept. 1986): Premier, President of the Council, Minister of Federal-Provincial Relations: Howard Russell Pawley. Health, Sport, Minister charged with the administration of the Boxing and Wrestling Commission Act, The Fitness and Amateur Sport Act: Laurent Louis Desjardins. Employment Services and Economic Security: Leonard Salusbury Evans. Agriculture: Billie Uruski. Co-operative Development: Jay Marine Cowan. Energy and Mines, Minister responsible for the administration of the Manitoba Hydro Act: Wilson D. Parasiuk. Industry, Trade and Technology, Crown Investments, The Manitoba Development Corporation Act (except with respect to Flyer Industries): Victor Schroeder. Business Development and Tourism, Housing: Maureen Lucille Hemphill. Finance, Minister charged with the Administration of The Manitoba Development Corporation Act (with respect to Flyer Industries), Minister responsible for The Civil Service Act, The Civil Service Superannuation Act, The Civil Service Special Supplementary Severance Benefit Act, The Public Servants Insurance Act, Chairman of Treasury Board: Eugene Michael Kostyra. Attorney-General, Constitutional Affairs, Keeper of the Great Seal, Minister responsible for the Administration of The Liquor Control Act: Roland Penner. Community Services, Deputy Premier: Muriel Ann Smith. Consumer and Corporate Affairs, Labour: Alvin Henry Mackling. Education, Minister charged with the Administration of the Manitoba Forestry Resources Ltd: Jerry Thomas Storie. Highways and Transportation, Government Services: John S. Plohman. Municipal Affairs, Minister charged with the Administration of The Manitoba Public Insurance Corporation Act: John Bucklaschuk. Environment and Workplace Safety and Health: Gerard Lecuyer. Northern Affairs, Minister responsible for and charged with the Administration of The Communities Economic Development Fund.Act, The Manitoba Natural Resources Development Act (with respect to Channel Area Loggers Ltd or to Moose Lake Loggers Ltd). Without portfolio, responsible for Native Affairs: Elijah Harper. Urban Affairs, Minister responsiblefor the Administration of The Manitoba Telephone Act: Gary Doer. Natural Resources:

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Leonard Harapiak. Culture, Heritage and Recreation, Minister charged with the administration of The Manitoba Lotteries Foundation Act, Minister responsible for the Status of Women: Judy WaSylycia-Leis. Local Government. Rural Manitoba is organized into rural municipalities which vary widely in size. Some have only 4 townships (a township is 36 sq. miles), while the largest has 22 townships. The province has 105 rural municipalities, as well as 3 5 incorporated towns, 39 incorporated villages and S incorporated cities. On 1 Jan. 1972, the cities and towns comprising the metropolitan area of Winnipeg were amalgamated to form the City of Winnipeg. A mayor and council are elected to a central government, but councillors also sit on 'community committees' which represent the areas or wards they serve. These committees are advised by non-elected residents of the area on provision of municipal services within the community committee jurisdiction. Taxing powers and overall budgeting rest with the central council. The mayor is elected at the same time as the councillors in a city-wide vote. Revisions to the City of Winnipeg Act came into effect with the municipal elections held in Oct. 1977. Since Jan. 1945, 17 Local Government Districts have been formed in the less densely populated areas of the province. They are administered by a provincially appointed person, who acts on the advice of locally elected councils. In the extreme north, many communities have locally elected councils, while others are administered directly by the Department of Northern Affairs. This department provides most ofthe funding in all these northern settlements. F I N A N C E . Provincial revenue and expenditure (current account) for fiscal years ending 31 March (in Canadian S): 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86' 1986-871 Revenue 2,408,961,000 2,797,155,000 2,924,600,000 3,115,500,000 3,380,200,000 Expenditure 2,843,608,000 3,226,104,000 3,407,200,000 3,644,800,000 3,869,600,000 1 Preliminary unaudited. ' Budgeted.

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The total generating capacity of Manitoba's power stations is 4 1 m . kw. The Manitoba Hydro system, owned by the province, provides most of this power, while the city-owned Winnipeg Hydro provides about 190,000 kw. The systems have about 430,000 customers and consumption was 13-2m. kwh. in 1985. Oil. Crude oil production in 1985 was valued at $180m. for the 825,000 cu. metres produced. Minerals. Total value of minerals in 1985 was about $832-9m. Principal minerals mined are nickel, zinc, copper, and small quantities of gold and silver. Manitoba has the world's largest deposits of caesium ore. Agriculture. Rich farmland is the main primary resource, although the area of Manitoba in farms is only about 14% of the total land area. In 1985 the total value of agricultural production in Manitoba was $2,400m., with $ 1,700m. from crops, $670m. from livestock and from the sale of other products including furs, hides and honey. Forestry. About 40% of the land area is wooded, of which 149,000 sq. km is productive forest land. Total sales of wood-using industries (1985, estimate) $500m. Fur Trade. Value of fur production to the trapper was $4-7m. in 1985. Fisheries. From 22,000 sq. miles of rivers and lakes fisheries production was about $19m. in 1984—85. Whitefish, sauger, pickerel, pike, trout and perch are the principaf varieties offish caught. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufacturing, the largest industry in the province, encompasses almost every major industrial activity in Canada. Estimated shipments in 1985 totalled

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$5,508m. Manufacturing employed about 58,000 persons. Due to the agricultural base of the province, the food and beverage group of industries is by far the largest, valued at $ 1,641m. in 1985, accounting for about 29-8% of the total value. The next largest segments are transportation equipment, $427m. (7-8%), clothing and textiles, $386m. (7%) and paper and allied products, $333m. (6%). Trade. Products grown and manufactured in Manitoba find ready markets in other parts of Canada, in the USA, particularly the upper midwest region, and in other countries. Export shipments to foreign countries from Manitoba in 1985 were valued at about $l,715m., with $l,400m. (81 7%) going to the US. Of total exports about 29% are raw materials and about 71% are processed and manufactured products. Tourism. In 1985, non-Manitoban tourists numbered 2 4m. All tourists including Manitobans contributed $616m. to the economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Highways and provincial roads totalled 19,181 ion in 1935. Railways. At 30 June 1986 the province had 6,300 km of track, not including industrial track, yards and sidings. Aviation. A total of 108 licensed commercial air carriers operate from bases in Manitoba, as well as 7 regularly scheduled major national and international airlines. Post. All of the Manitoba Telephone System's 799,775 (1986) telephones are dialoperated. There are some privately-owned fixtures and extension phones; all service is operated by MTS. EDUCATION. Education is controlled through locally elected school divisions. There are about 199,000 children enrolled in the province's elementary and secondary schools. Manitoba has 3 universities with an enrolment of about 41,750 during the 1985-86 year; the University of Manitoba, founded in 1877, in Winnipeg, the University of Winnipeg, and Brandon University. Expenditure (estimate) on education in the 1986-87 fiscal year was $697m. Three community colleges, in Brandon, The Pas and Winnipeg, offer 2-year diploma courses in a number of fields, as well as specialized training in many trades. They also give a large number and variety of shorter courses, both at their campuses and in many communities throughout the province. Books of Reference General Information. Inquiries may be addressed to the Information Services Branch, Room 29, Legislative Building, Winnipeg, R3C OV8. The Department of Agriculture publishes: Year Book of Manitoba Agriculture Information Services Branch publishes: Manitoba Facts Manitoba Statistical Review Manitoba Bureau of Statistics, Quarterly Twelfth Census of Canada. Manitoba. Statistics Canada, 1981 Jackson, J A., The Centennial History of Manitoba. Toronto, 1970 Morton, W. L., Manitoba. A History Univ of Toronto Press, 1967

NEW BRUNSWICK HISTORY. Touched by Jacques Cartier in 1534, New Brunswick was first explored by Samuel de Champlain in 1604. It was ceded by the French in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and became a permanent British possession in 1763. It was separated from Nova Scotia and became a province in June 1784, as a result of the great influx of United Empire Loyalists. Responsible government came into being in 1848, and consisted of an executive council, a legislative council (later abolished) and a House of Assembly.

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AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the province is 28,354 sq. miles (73,000 sq. km), of which 27,633 sq. miles (71,569 sq. km) are land area. The population (census 1981) was 696,403. Of the individuals identifying a single ethnic origin, 53-5% were British and 36-4% French. Other significant ethnic groups were German, Dutch and Scandinavian. Among those who provided a multiple response 3-3% were of British and French descent and 1,- 6% British and other. In 1981 there were 5,515 Native People or Native People arid other. Census population of urban centres: Saint John, 80,521; Moncton, 54,743; Fredericton (capital), 43,723; Bathurst, 15,705; Edmundston, 12,044;Campbellton,9,818. Vital statistics, seep. 271. Religion, see p. 288. CLIMATE. A cool temperate climate, with rain at all seasons but temperatures modified by the influence of the Gulf Stream. Saint John. Jan. 14"F (-10°Q, July 63°F (17• 2°C). Annual rainfall 51" (1,278 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The government is vested in a Lieut.-Governor and a Legislative Assembly of 58 members each of whom is individually elected to represent the voters in one constituency or riding. A simultaneous translation system is used in the Assembly. Any Canadian subject of full age and 6 months' residence is entitled to vote. As a result of the provincial election held on 10 Oct. 1982 and subsequent by-elections, the Assembly is composed of 37 Progressive Conservatives, 17 Liberals and 1 New Democratic Party members. The province has 10 members in the Canadian Senate and 10 members in the federal House of Commons. Lieut -Governor: George F. S. Stanley (appointed 23 Dec. 1981). Flag: A banner of the Arms, i.e., yellow charged with a black heraldic ship on wavy lines of blue and white; across the top a red band with a gold lion. The members of the Progressive Conservative Ministry are as follows (Oct. 1986): Premier: Richard Hatfield. President ofthe Executive Council: Wilfred G. Bishop. Attorney General and Justice: David Clark. Finance: John B. M. Baxter, QC. Chairman of Board of Management: Yvon R. Poitras. Supply and Services: C. William Harmer. Transportation: Robert McCready. Forests, Mines and Energy: Malcolm MacLeod. Agriculture: Hazen Myers. Health and Community Services: Nancy Teed. Income Assistance: Paul Dawson. Labour: Joseph W. Mombourquette. Education: Jean-Pierre Ouellet. Advanced Education and Training: Mabel DeWare. Municipal Affairs and Environment: Robert Jackson. Commerce and Technology: Fernand G. Dube, QC. Fisheries: James Tucker. Tourism, Recreation and Heritage: Omer A. Leger. Housing: Jean Gauvin. Chairman ofthe New Brunswick Electric Power Commission: Leslie I. Hull. Local Government. Under the reforms introduced in 1967 the province has assumed complete administrative and financial responsibility for education, health, welfare and administration ofjustice. Local government is now restricted to provision of services of a strictly local nature. Under the new municipal structure, units include existing and new cities, towns and villages. Counties have disappeared as municipal units. Areas with limited populations have become local service districts. The former local improvement districts have become towns, villages or local service districts depending on their size. FINANCE. The ordinary budget (in Canadian $) is shown as follows (financial years ended 31 March): Grossrevenue Gross expenditure

1983 1,945,154,091 2,147,955,484

1984 2,213,420,941 2,344,948,500

1985 2,373,169,361 2,507,010,184'

1986 2,662,864,912 2,711,636,827

Funded debt and capital loans outstanding (exclusive of Treasury Bills) as of 31

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March 1986 was $3,088m. Sinking funds held by the province at 31 March 1986, $829m. The ordinary budget excludes capital spending. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Hydro-electric, thermal and nuclear generating stations of the New Brunswick Electric Power Commission had an installed capacity of3,190,000 kw. at 31 March 1986, consisting of 14 generating stations. The Mactaquac hydroelectric development near Fredericton, has a name plate capacity of 653,400 kw. The largest thermal generating station, Coleson Cove, near Saint John, has over lm. kw. of installed capacity. Atlantic Canada's first nuclear generating station, a 630,000 kw. CANDU plant built on a promontory jutting out in the Bay of Fundy, near Saint John, went into commercial operation in Jan. 1983. New Brunswick is electrically inter-connected with utilities in neighbouring provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, as well as the New England States. Electricity export sales accounted for over 40% of revenue in 1985-86; energy purchases, mainly from the large Hydro Quebec system, supplied about 35% of in-province energy requirements. Minerals. In 1985, a total of 22 different metals, minerals and commodities were produced. These included lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, bismuth, gold, silver, antimony, potash, salt, limestone, dolomite, gypsum, oil, gas, coal, oil shales, sand, gravel, clay, peat and marl. The total value of minerals produced in 1985 declined to (preliminary) $552,132,000 from $619,969,438 in 1984. The largest contributors to mineral production are zinc, silver, lead and potash with zinc accounting for over 53% of total value in 1985. These 4 minerals recorded significant reductions in price during the year, especially zinc which declined nearly 40%. In Canada in 1985, New Brunswick ranked first in bismuth production; second in antimony, tungsten, peat and potash; third in sulphur, lead, silver and zinc, and fifth in copper and clay products. Antimony is mined at Lake George and production resumed at the Durham Resources mine near Fredericton in 1985. Peat, rapidly becoming a major industiy, is produced from 15 operations in the north. Three potash mines are in operation in the Sussex area, including the Denison-Potacan mine where production commenced in 1985. Oil and natural gas continue to be produced in the Stoney Creek and Hillsborough areas. Gordex Minerals produced its first gold in 1986 using the heap leach process. Coal is strip-mined at Grand Lake, producing some 555,000 tonnes annually. Not all of the province's minerals nave been explored sufficiently and research continues. Provincial government programmes are being supplemented by a 5-year, $22 m. Mineral Development Agreement between the Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources and the province. Federal and Provincial agencies are co-operating on field, laboratory and other projects. Agriculture. The total area under crops is estimated at 130,526 hectares, exclusive ofimproved pasture land (41,479 hectares). Farms numbered 4,063 and averaged 107-8 hectares each (census 1981). Potatoes account for 23% of total farm cash income. Mixed farming is common throughout the province. Dairy farming is centred around the larger urban areas, and is located mainly along the Saint John River Valley and in the south-eastern sections of the province. Income from dairy operations provides about 22% of farm cash income. New Brunswick is selfsufficient in fluid milk and supplies a processing industry. For particulars of agricultural production and livestock, see under CANADA, pp. 281-82. Farm cash receipts in 1984 were approximately $230m. Forestry. New Brunswick contains some 62,000 sq. km of productive forest lands. The gross value of forest production is over $1,300m. and it accounts for almost one-quarter of all goods produced in the province. The pulp and paper and allied industry group is tne largest component of the industry contributing about 70% of the value of output. Timber-using plants employ about 15,000 people for all aspects of the forest industry, including harvesting, processing and transportation. Practically all forest products are exported from the province's numerous ports and harbours near which many of the mills are located or sent by road or rail to the USA.

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Fisheries. Commercial fishing is one of the most important primary industries of the province, employing 6,488. Nearly 50 commercial species of fish and shellfish are landed, including scallop, shrimp, crab, herring and cod. Landings in 1985 (133,426 tonnes) amounted to $82-99m. In 1986 there were 150 fish processing plants employing 14,000 people in peak periods. The total market value of 88,144 tonnes offish products in 1984 was $293-4m. Estimate (1985) $350m. Exports (1985) $260-2m., mainly to the USA and Japan. INDUSTRY. In 1986 there were 1,457 manufacturing and processing establishments, employing about 39,800 persons. New Brunswick's location, with deepwater harbours open throughout the year and container facilities at Saint John, makes it ideal for exporting. Industries include food and beverages, paper and allied industries, timber products. About 20% of the industrial labour force work in Saint John. TOURISM. Tourism is a major industry. During 1985, more than 4-2m. tourists spent approximately $435m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are about 1,541-9 km of arterial highways and 2,381-7 km of collector roads, all of which are hard-surfaced. 12,279-9 km of local roads provide access to most areas in the province. The main highway system, including 596-4 km of the Trans-Canada Highway, links the province with the principal roads in Quebec and Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, as well as the Interstate Highway System in the eastern seaboard states of the USA. Passenger vehicles, 31 March 1986, numbered 278,106; commercial vehicles, 122,607; motorcycles, 11,836. Railways. New Brunswick is served by main lines of both Canadian Pacific and Canadian National railways. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 the New Brunswick Telephone Co. Ltd had 439,446 telephones in service. The province is served by 21 radio stations. Sixteen are privately owned and 3 owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and 2 are university stations. Three stations broadcast in the French language, 3 are bilingual and the CBC International Service broadcasts in several languages from its station at Sackville. The province is served by 3 television stations, 1 of which broadcasts in French. Newspapers. New Brunswick had (1986) 5 daily newspapers, and 23 weekly newspapers, 7 in French or bilingual. EDUCATION. Public education is free and non-sectarian. There are 4 universities. The University of New Brunswick at Fredericton (founded 13 Dec. 1785 by the Loyalists, elevated to university status in 1823, reorganized as the University of New Brunswick in 1859) had 6,803 full-time students at the Fredericton campus and 1,006 full-time students at the Saint John campus (1985-86); Mount Allison University at Sackville had 1,741 full-time students; the Université de Moncton at Moncton, 3,337 full-time students; St Thomas University at Fredericton, 1,232 full-time students. During the period 1 July 1985 to 30 June 1986, there were 11,687 students enrolled full-time at 10 Community College campuses and at various campus training centres. There were, in Sept. 1985, 140,886 students and 7,458 full-time (equivalent) teachers in the province's 437 schools. There are 41 school boards. Books of Reference Industrial Information: Dept. of Commerce and Technology, Fredericton. Economic Information: Dept. of Finance, Economics and Statistics Branch. Fredericton. General Information: NB Information Service, Fredericton. Directory of Products and Manufacturers. Department of Commerce and Development; Annual Thompson, C., New Brunswick Inside Out. Ottawa, 1977 Trueman,S., The Fascinating World of New Brunswick. Fredericton, 1973

N E W F O U N D L A N D A N D LABRADOR

309

NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR H I S T O R Y . Archaeological finds at L'Anse-au-Meadow in northern Newfoundland show that the Vikings had established a colony there at about A.D. 1000. This site is the only known Viking colony in North America. Newfoundland was discovered by John Cabot 24 June 1497, and was soon frequented in the summer months by the Portuguese, Spanish and French for its fisheries. It was formally occupied in Aug. 1583 by Sir Humphrey Gilbert on behalf of the English Crown, but various attempts to colonize the island remained unsuccessful. Although British sovereignty was recognized in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, disputes over fishing rights with the French were not finally settled till 1904. By the AngloFrench Convention of 1904, France renounced her exclusive fishing rights along part of the coast, granted under the Treaty of Utrecht, but retained sovereignty of the offshore islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Area, 143,501 sq. miles (371,669 sq. km) of which freshwater, 13,139 sq. miles (34,030 sq. km). In March 1921 the Privy Council decided the boundary between Canada and Newfoundland in Labrador. This area, now part of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador, is 102,699 sq. miles. The coastline is extremely irregular. Bays, fiords and inlets are numerous and there are many good harbours with deep water close to shore. The coast is rugged with bold rocky cliffs from 200 to 400 ft high; in the Bay of Islands some of the islands rise 500 ft, with the adjacent shore 1,000 ft above tide level. The interior is a plateau of moderate elevation and the chief relief features trend north-east and south-west. Long Range, the most notable of these, begins at Cape Ray and extends north-east for 200 miles, the highest peak reaching 2,673 ft. Approximately onethird of the area is covered by water. Grand Lake, the largest body of water, has an area of about 200 sq. miles. The principal rivers flow towards the north-east. On the borders of the lakes and water-courses good land is generally found, particularly in the valleys of the Terra Nova River, the Gander River, the Exploits River and the Humber River, which are also heavily timbered. Census population, 1981, was 567,681. The capital of Newfoundland is the City of St John's (154,820, metropolitan area). The only other city is Corner Brook (24,339); important towns are Labrador City (11,538), Gander (10,404), Stephenville (8,876), Grand Falls (8,765), Happy Valley-Goose Bay (7,103), Marystown (6,299), Channel-Port aux Basques (5,988), Windsor (5,747), Carbonear (5,335), Bonavista (4,460), Wabana (4,254), Wabush (3,155). Vital statistics, see p. 271. Religion, we p. 288. C L I M A T E . The cool temperate climate is marked by heavy precipitation, distributed evenly over the year, a cool summer and frequent fogs in spring. St. John's. Jan. 23°F(-5°Q, July 59°F(15"Q. Annual rainfall 54" (1,367 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Until 1832 Newfoundland was ruled by the Governor under instructions of the Colonial Office. In that year a Legislature was brought into existence, but the Governor and his Executive Council were not responsible to it. Under the constitution of 1855, which lasted until its suspension in 1934, the government was administered by the Governor appointed by the Crown with an Executive Council responsible to the House of Assembly of 27 elected members and a Legislative Council of 24 members nominated for life by the Governor in Council. Women were enfranchised in 1925. At the Imperial Conference of 1917 Newfoundland was.constituted as a Dominion. In 1933 the financial situation had become so critical that the Government of Newfoundland asked the Government of the UK to appoint a Royal Commission to investigate conditions. On the strength of their recommendations, the parliamentary form of government was suspended and Government by Commission was inaugurated on 16 Feb. 1934.

310

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A National Convention, elected in 1946, made, in 1948, recommendations to H.M. Government in Great Britain as to the possible forms of future government to be submitted to the people at a national referendum. Two referenda were held. In the first referendum (June 1948) the three forms of government submitted to the people were: commission of government for 5 years, confederation with Canada and responsible government as it existed in 1933. No one form of government received a clear majority of the votes polled, and commission of government, receiving the fewest votes, was eliminated. In the second referendum (July 1948) confederation with Canada received 78,408 and responsible government 71,464 votes. In the Canadian Senate on 18 Feb. 1949 Royal assent was given to the terms of union ofNewfoundland and Labrador with Canada, and on23 March 1949, in the House of Lords, London, Royal assent was given to an amendment to the British North America Act made necessary by the inclusion of Newfoundland and Labrador as the tenth Province of Canada. Under the terms of union of Newfoundland and Labrador with Canada, which was signed at Ottawa on 11 Dec. 1948, the constitution of the Legislature of Newfoundland and Labrador as it existed immediately prior to 16 Feb. 1934 shall, subject to the terms of the British North America Acts, 1867 to 1946, continue as the constitution of the Legislature of the Province ofNewfoundland and Labrador until altered under the authority of the said Acts. The franchise was in 1965 extended to all male and female residents who have attained the age of 19 years and are otherwise qualified as electors. The House of Assembly (Amendment) Act, 1979, established 52 electoral districts and 52 members of the Legislature. In Oct. 1985 there were 36 Progressive-Conservatives, 15 Liberals and 1 New Democrat. The province is represented by 6 members in the Senate and by 7 members in the House of Commons of Canada. Lieut.-Governor Hon. James W. McGrath (assumed office 5 Sept. 1986). Flag: White, in the hoist 4 solid blue triangles; in the fly 2 red triangles voided white, and between them a yellow tongue bordered in red. The Progressive-Conservative Executive Council was, at 15 Oct. 1985, composed as follows: Premier Brian Peckford. President ofthe Council and Minister responsiblefor Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro and the Petroleum Directorate: W. W. Marshall. Finance: J. Collins. Intergovernmental Affairs. G. Ottenheimer. President of the Treasury Board: Neil Windsor. Mines and Energy and Minister responsible for Newfoundland and Labrador Housing Corporation. Jerome W. Dinn. Career Development and Advanced Studies: Charles J. Power. Public Works and Services. D. Haig Young. Justice and Attorney General: Lynn Verge. Transportation: Ronald G. Dawe. Forest Resources and Lands: Leonard A. Simms. Municipal Affairs: Norman E. Doyle. Fisheries. Thomas G. Rideout. Health: Dr Hugh M. Twomey. Rural, Agricultural and Northern Development. Robert J. Aylward. Social Services: Charles Brett. Consumer Affairs and Communications. James M. Russell. Development and Tourism. Harold M. Barrett. Environment. John C. Butt. Education. Loyola Hearn. Culture, Recreation and Youth. William B. Matthews. Labour T. A. Blanchard. Agent-General in London. H. Watson Jamer (60 Trafalgar Sq., WC2). F I N A N C E . Budget' in Canadian $1,000 for fiscal years ended 31 March: 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-862 Grossrevenue 1,511,019 1,652,046 1,768,464 1,867,470 2,080,233 Gross expenditure 1,504,752 1,689,339 1,827,839 1,954,762 2,131,953 2 ' Current amount only Revised estimates.

1986-87 2,224,901 2,274,219

NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR Capital

account:

1983-84 1984-85 1985-862 60,942,000 78,205,000 69,102,000 327,596,000 243,074,000 280,119,000 1 ! Current amount only. Revised estimates.

Gross revenue Gross expenditure

311 1986-87' 78,287,000 316,538,000

Public debenture debt as at 31 March 1986 (preliminary) was $3,418-8m.; sinking fund, $775m. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The electrical energy requirements of the province are met mainly by hydro-electric power, with petroleum fuels being utilized to provide the balance. The total amount of energy generated in the province in 1985 (preliminary) was 41,387,237 mwh., of which approximately 96% was derived from hydro-electric facilities. The greater part of the energy produced in 1985 (preliminary) came from Churchill Falls, of which 31,836,542 mwh. was sold to Hydro-Quebec under the terms of a long-term contract. Energy consumed in the province during 1985 (preliminary) totalled 9,550,695 mwh., with approximately 7,796,315 mwh., or 82%, coming from hydro-electric facilities. At 31 Dec. 1984 total electrical generating capacity in the province was 6,968,765 kw., with hydro-electric plants accounting for 6,212,705 kw., or 89%. It is estimated that potential additional hydro-electric generating capacity of up to 4• 5m. kw. can be developed at various sites in Labrador. Oil. In 1981 the province consumed refined petroleum at the rate of39,000 bbls a day. Since 1965, 119 wells have been drilled on the Continental Margin of the Province. In 1985 it was estimated that offshore exploration expenditures would be approximately $660m. By 31 Dec. 1985 there had been 20 significant hydrocarbon discoveries offNewfoundland and delineation drilling had been initiated or was ongoing at 6: Terra Nova, Ben Nevis, Whiterose, North Ben Nevis and Mara. In 1986 only the Hibernia discovery had commercial capability and the Canada-Newfoundland OfFshore Petroleum Board approved Mobile Oil Canada's development plan for the Hibernia Project, with production starting in the early 1990's. In 1979, a discovery of oil was made on the Hibemia geological structure located 164 nautical miles east of Cape Spear. The discovery well, Hibernia P-15, tested medium gravity, sweet crude from several intervals with a reported total producing capability in excess of20,000 bbls of oil per day. • Minerals. The mineral resources are vast but only partially documented. Large deposits of iron ore, with an ore reserve of over 5,000m. tons at Labrador City, Wabush City and in the Knob Lake area are supplying approximately half of Canada's production. Other large deposits of iron ore are known to exist in the Julienne Lake area. There are a variety of other minerals being produced in the province in more limited amounts. Uranium deposits in the Kaipokak Bay area near Makkovik in Labrador are presently being studied by Brinex. The Central Mineral Belt, which extends from the Smallwood Reservoir to the Atlantic coast near Makkovik, holds uranium, copper, beryllium and molybdenite potential. In 1986 a gold mine was being developed at Hope Brook on the south coast east of Port aux Basques, with initial gold production scheduled to start in Aug. 1987 from an open pit operation using a heap leach process. Full production from an underground operation using conventional carbon-in-pulp gold processing is planned to start in late 1988. Production in 1985 (preliminary): Iron ore, 21,269,000 tonnes($835,633,000); zinc, 29,686 tonnes ($37,642,000); asbestos, 50,000 tonnes ($20,442,000); gypsum, 450,000 tonnes ($5,337,000); pyrophyllite, soapstone and talc, 43,000 tonnes ($1,495,000); cement ($9,453,000); clay products ($115m.); sand and

312

CANADA

gravel, 3,025,000 tonnes ($11 35m.); stone, 575,000 tonnes ($3,335,000); quartz ($ 1,853,000); barrite ($362,000); peat, 1,000 tonnes ($49,000). Agriculture. The estimated value of agricultural products sold, including livestock, 1985, was $42-7m. Forestry. The forestry economy in the province is mainly dependent on the operation of 3 newsprint mills. In 1985 the value of newsprint exported from these 3 mills totalled $297 • 5m. Lumber mills, saw-log operations produced 38m. f.b.m. in 1983—84. Fisheries. The principal fish landings are cod, flounder, redfish, Queen crabs, lobster, salmon and herring. In 1985 a yearly average of some 9,100 persons were employed by the fish-processing industry and there were 26,615 licensed full-, part-time and casual fishermen engaged in harvesting operations. Approximately 208 processing operations were licensed in 1985. The production of fresh and frozen fish products was $455 -9m. in 1983. The total catch in 1985 (preliminary) was 470,173 tonnes valued at $168,674,000, which comprised: Cod, 271,402 tonnes ($91,814,000); plaice and greysole, 49,558 ($12,393,000); herring, 11,815 tonnes ($1,447,000); redfish, 28,416 ($6,097,000); lobster, 2,957 ($17,806,000); salmon, 882 ($3,705,000); capelin, 34,754 ($6,016,000); crab, 8,000 ($6,895,000); other, 62,389 ($22,501,000). I N D U S T R Y . The total value of manufacturing shipments in 1985 was $ 1,370m. This consists largely of first-stage processing of primary resource products with two of the largest components being paper and fish products. T R A D E U N I O N S . There were (1983) 417 unions representing 81,654 members of international and national unions and government employee associations. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 8,713 km, of which 5,533 were paved. Railways. In 1981 there were 1,457-8 km of main track railway, of which the Canadian National Railways operated 1,130 • 6 (3 ft 6 in.), the Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railway 324-8 (4 ft 8'A in.) and there were 2-4 km of private line. Car and passenger ferries operate from Port aux Basques and Aigentia to North Sydney, Nova Scotia. On the island of Newfoundland, the Canadian National Railways operates a trans-island bus and rail freight service in addition to a coastal service for both passengers and freight. In the months that the Labrador coast is icefree, usually from June to Nov., the Canadian National Railways operates a scheduled coastal steamer service every week. Aviation. The province is linked to the rest of Canada by regular air services provided by Air Canada, Canadian Pacific Airways, Quebecair and a number of smaller air carriers. Shipping. At 31 Dec. 1984 there were 1,586 ships registered in Newfoundland. Post. There were 481 post offices open in 1985, and 2 telegraph offices in the Newfoundland and Labrador postal district. Telephone connexions in the province numbered 282,825 in 1984. E D U C A T I O N . The number of schools in 1985-86 was 607. The enrolment was 142,332; teachers numbered 8,612. The Memorial University, offering courses in arts, science, engineering, education, nursing and medicine, had approximately 15,018 full- and part-time students in 1985-86. Total expenditure for education by the Government in 1985-86 was $547 -2m. Books of Reference Blackburn, R. H. (ed.), Encyclopaedia ofCanada. Newfoundland Supplement. Toronto, 1949

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313

Bruet, E.,Le Labrador et le Nouveau-Québec. Paris, 1949 Horwood, H., Newfoundland. Toronto, 1969 Loture, R. de, Histoire de la grande pêche de Terre-Neuve. Paris, 1949 Mercer, G. A., The Province of Newfoundland and Labrador: Geographical Aspects. Ottawa, 1970 Perlin, A. B., The Story of Newfoundland, 1497-1959. StJohn's, 1959 Tanner, V., Outlines of Geography. Life and Customs of Newfoundland-Labrador. 2 vols. Helsinki, 1944, and Toronto, 1947 Taylor, T. G., Newfoundland: A Study of Settlement. Toronto, 1946

NOVA SCOTIA H I S T O R Y . The first permanent settlement was made by the French early in the 17th century, and the province was called Acadia until finally ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 21,425 sa, mlSS (55,000 sq. km), of which 20,401 sq. miles are land area, 1,024 sq. miles water area. The population (census 1981) was 847,442; estimate (1986) 886,300. Population of the principal cities and towns (census 1981): Halifax, 114,594; Dartmouth 62,277; Sydney, 29,444; Glace Bay, 21,466; Truro, 12,552; New Glasgow, 10,464; Amherst, 9,684; New Waterford, 8,808; Sydney Mines, 8,501; North Sydney, 7,820; Yarmouth, 7,475. Vital statistics,seep. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . A cool temperate climate, with rainfall occurring evenly over the year. The Gulf Stream moderates the temperatures in winter so that ports remain ice-free. Halifax. Jan. 23"F(-5'C), July 64'F(17-8"C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,412 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the British North America Act of 1867 the legislature of Nova Scotia may exclusively make laws in relation to local matters, including direct taxation within the province, education and the administration of justice. The legislature of Nova Scotia consists of a Lieut.-Governor, appointed and paid by the federal government, and holding office for 5 years, and a House of Assembly of 52 members, chosen by popular vote not more than every 5 years. The province is represented in the Canadian Senate by 10 members, and in the House of Commons by 11. The franchise and eligibility to the legislature are granted to every person, male or female, if of age (19 years), a British subject or Canadian citizen, and a resident in the province for 1 year and 2 months before the date of the writ of election in the county or electoral district of which the polling district forms part, and if not by law otherwise disqualified. State of parties in Jan. 1987: 41 Progressive Conservatives, 6 Liberals, 3 New Democrats, 1 Labour, 1 Vacant. Lieut. - Governor: Alan R. Abraham. Flag: A banner of the Arms, i.e., white with a blue diagonal cross, bearing in the centre the royal shield of Scotland. The members of the Progressive Conservative Ministry were as follows in Jan. 1987: Premier, President of the Executive Council, Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs: Rt Hon. John M. Buchanan, PC, QC. Development and Minister in Charge of Administration of the Research Foundation Corporation Act: Roland J. Thornhill. Agriculture and Marketing: Roger S. Bacon. Tourism: John Maclsaac. Lands and Forests: Kenneth Streatch. AttorneyGeneral, Provincial Secretary and Minister in Charge of Administration of the Regulations Act: Ronald C. Giffin, QC- Chairman of the Policy Board and Minister of Human Resources Development and Training: Terence R. B. Donahoe, QC. Education: Thomas J. Mclnnis. Mines and Energy: Joel R. Matheson, QC.

314

CANADA

Consumer Affairs, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Residential Tenancies Act, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Human Rights Act: Laird Stirling. Social Services: Edmund L. Morris. Health, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Drug Dependency Act and Registrar General: Ronald S. Russell. Government Services and Minister in Charge of Administration of the Communications and Information Act: Michael A. Laffin, DDS. Fisheries: John G. Leefe. Chairman ofthe Management Board, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Civil Service Act, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Liquor Control Act: George C. Moody. Housing and Minister in Charge of Administration of the EMO (NS) Act and Regulations: Milne C. Pickings. Municipal Affairs: G. David Nantes. Finance and Culture, Recreation and Fitness, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Lottery Act, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Heritage Property Act: Greg Kerr. Transportation: Maxine Cochran. Environment: Guy J. LeBlanc. Labour and Minister in Charge ofAdministration of the Advisory Council on the Status of Women Act: Brian A. Young. Agent-General in London: Donald M. Smith (14 Pall Mall, SW1Y5LU). Local Government. The main divisions of the province for governmental purposes are the 3 cities, the 39 towns and the 24 rural municipalities, each governed by a council and a mayor or warden. The cities have independent charters, and the various towns take their powers from and are limited by The Towns Act, and the various municipalities take their powers from and are limited by The Municipal Act as revised in 1967. The majority of municipalities comprise 1 county, but 6 counties are divided into 2 municipalities each. In no case do the boundaries of any municipality overlap county lines. The 18 counties as such have no administrative functions. Any city (of which there are 3) or incorporated town (of which there are 39) that lies within the boundaries of a municipality is excluded from any jurisdiction by the municipal council and has its own government. F I N A N C E . Revenue is derived from provincial sources, payments from the federal government under the Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements and Established Programs Financing Act. Recoveries consist generally of amounts received under various federal cost-shared programmes. Main sources of provincial revenues include income and sales taxes. Revenue, expenditure and debt (in Canadian $lm.) for fiscal years ending 31 March: 1984

1983

1987'

1985

1986

2,387-8 2,119-1

2,558-8 2,323-9

2,789-8 2,549-6

2,983-6 2,714-6

3,133-8 2,900-9

Operating Deficit (Surplus) Sinking fund Instalments and Serial Retirements Net Capital Expenditures

268-7

234-9

240-3

269-0

232-9

45-1 186-4

513 203-7

65-1 231-2

77-2 192-0

87-2 209-6

Net Budgetary Transactions

500-2

489-9

536-5

538-2

529-7

Budgetary Transactions Current Expenditure Current Revenues and Recoveries

Non-Budgetary Transactions Capital Expenditures Net Increase (Decrease) in Advances and Investments Net Other Transactions

3-0

10-3

6-8

2-7

0-9

29-1 19-6

(9 3) (7-7)

(12 1) 7-0

(7-4) 6-7

1-0 6-8

Non-Budgetary Transactions

51-8

(8 7)

1-6

2-0

8-7

538-1

540-2

538-4

552-0 1

498-6

Estimate.

NOVA SCOTIA

315

Banking. All major Canadian banks are represented with numerous branch locations throughout the Province. In June 1986 total deposits with chartered banks in Nova Scotia totalled $3,265m. Trust company deposits were $1,683m., mortgage companies $956m. and credit unions $ 186m. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Principal minerals in 1985 were: Coal, 2 -8m. tonnes, valued at $ 169m.; gypsum, 6 • 3m. tonnes, valued at $52 • 2m.; sand and gravel, 7 • 5m. tonnes, valued at $21 • 3m. Total value of mineral production in 1985 was about $327 8m. Agriculture. Dairying, poultry and egg production, livestock and fruit growing are the most important branches. Farm cash receipts for 1985 were estimated at $258m., with an additional $6 -2m. going to persons on farms as income in kind. Cash receipts from sale of dairy products were $78-3m., with total milk production of 173,976,000 litres. The production of poultry meat in 1985 was 18,610 tonnes, of which 16,844 tonnes weie chickens and fowls and 1,766 tonnes were turkeys. Egg production was 18-lm. dozen. The main 1985 fruit crops were apples, 49,532 tonnes; blueberries, 8,763 tonnes; and strawberries, 2,835 tonnes. Forestry. The estimated forest area of Nova Scotia is 15,555 sq. miles (40,298 sq. km), of which about 25% is owned by the province. The principal trees are spruce, balsam fir, hemlock, pine, larch, birch, oak, maple, poplar and ash. 3,143,950 cu. metres of round forest products were produced in 1985. Fisheries. The fisheries of the province in 1985 had a landed value of $309• lm. of sea fish including scallop fishery, $49m., and lobster fishery, $93m. In 1984 there were about 5,793 employees in the fish processing industry; the value of shipment of goods was $388 -8m. I N D U S T R Y . The number of manufacturing establishments was 840 in 1984;the number of employees was 35,024; wages and salaries, $776m.; value of shipments was $4,595-4m. The value of shipments in 1985, was $4,774-8m., and the leading industries were petroleum and coal products, food and beverages, paper and allied industries and transportation equipment. T R A D E U N I O N S . Total union membership during 1986 was 104,435 belonging to 109 unions comprised of 634 individual locals. The largest percentage of the total union membership was in the service sector followed by public administration and defence sector. An estimated 48,953 members in 395 locals were affiliated with the Canadian Labour Congress. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In April 1986 there were 25,797 km of highways; 2,642 km of paved arterial highways; 4,725 km of collector highways (of which 4,500 km are paved); 18,430 lam of local highways (of which 5,137 km are paved). Railways. The province is covered with a network of 710 km of mainland track. Aviation. There is a direct air service to all Canadian points and international service to Boston, New York, Bermuda, Jamaica, London, Glasgow and Amsterdam. Shipping. Ferry services connect Nova Scotia with Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick and Maine. Direct service by container vessels is provided from the Port of Halifax to ports in Europe, Asia and the Caribbean. J U S T I C E AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. There is a Supreme Court which is a Court of common law and equity possessing original and appellate jurisdiction in civil and in criminal cases. The Supreme Court consists of an appeal division of 8'judges and a trial division of 12

316

CANADA

judges. There are also county courts, family courts, probate courts, magistrates' courts, small claims courts, municipal and justices' courts. Bodies, sometimes referred to as courts, are established for the revision of assessment rolls, voters' lists and like purposes. Young offenders under 16 years are now tried by Youth Courts. The Courts were established in April 1984. In 1985, the Youth Courts have the jurisdiction to adjudicate charges against 16- and 17- year-old offenders. For the year fiscal ending 31 March 1986 there were 4,288 admissions to provincial custody; ofthese, 3,090 were sentenced. Education. Public education in Nova Scotia is free, compulsory and undenominational through elementary and high school. Attendance is compulsory to the age of 16. In addition to 540 public schools there are the Atlantic Provinces Resource Centres for the Hearing Handicapped and for the Visually Impaired; the Shelburne Youth Centre for young offenders and the Nova Scotia Residential Centre for delinquent children; and the Nova Scotia Youth Training Centre for mentally handicapped children. The province has 14 universities and colleges of which the largest is Dalhousie University in Halifax. The Nova Scotia Agricultural College and the Nova Scotia Teachers' College are located at Truro. The Technical University ofNova Scotia at Halifax grants degrees in engineering and architecture. The Department of Vocational and Technical Training administers 2 institutes of technology and a nautical institute. It also provides in-school training for the Department of Labour Apprenticeship programme. The Nova Scotia government offers financial support and organizational assistance to local school boards for provision of weekend and evening courses in academic and avocational subjects, and citizenship for new Canadians. It also provides local authorities with specialist support services to assist them in providing community workshops and it operates a correspondence study service for children and adults. Occupational courses at the high school level are provided by 14 regional vocational schools under the jurisdiction (except in 3 school areas) of the Department of Vocational and Technical Training. Total estimated expenditure on education for the year 1986 was $621 -5m., of which 80% was borne by the provincial government. In 1986-87, classrooms operated in 540 schools, with 10,422 teachers and 170,964 pupils. Books of Reference Nova Scotia Fact Book. N.S. Department of Development, Halifax, 1986 Nova Scotia Resource Atlas. N.S. Department of Development, Halifax, 1986 Atlantic Provinces Economic Council. The Atlantic Vision, ¡990. Halifax, 1979 Public Archives of Nova Scotia. Place Names and Places of Nova Scotia. Halifax, 1967 Beck,M., The Evolution of Municipal Government in Nova Scotia, 1749-1973.1973 Fergusson, C. B., Nova Scotia in Encyclopedia Canadiana, Vol. VII. Toronto, 1968 Hamilton, W.B., The Nova Scotia Traveller. Toronto, 1981 McCormick, P., A Guide to Halifax. Tantallon, 1984 McCreath, P., and Leefe, J., History of Early Nova Scotia. Halifax, 1982 Vaison, R.,Nova Scotia Past and Present: A Bibliography and Guide. Halifax, 1976

ONTARIO HISTORY. The French explorer Samuel de Champlain explored the Ottawa River from 1613. The area was governed by the French, first under a joint stock company and then as a royal province, from 1627 and was ceded to Great Britain in 1763. A constitutional act of 1791 created there the province of Upper Canada, largely to accommodate loyalists of English descent who had immigrated after the United States war of independence. Upper Canada entered the Confederation as Ontario in 1867. AREA AND POPULATION. The total area is about 412,582 sq. miles

ONTARIO

317

(1,068,630 sq. km), of which some 344,100 sq. miles (891,200 sq. km) are land area and some 64,490 sq. miles (189,196 sq. km) are lakes and fresh water rivers. The province extends 1,050 miles (1,690 km) from east to west and 1,075 miles (1,730 km) from north to south. Ontario isbounded on the north by the waters of Hudson and James Bay, on the east by Quebec, on the west by Manitoba, and on the south by the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The population of the province (census, 1 June 1981) was 8,625,107. Estimate (1985) 9 1m. Population of the principal cities (1985): Hamilton, 307,690 (city), 421,264 (metropolitan area); Kitchener, 147,439 (city), 287,801 (census metropolitan area); London, 276,000 (city); Ottawa (federal capital), 304,448 (city), 562,782 (census metropolitan area); Sudbury, 90,453 (city), 154,387 (regional municipality); Toronto (provincial capital), 606,247 (city), 2,998,947 (census metropolitan area); Windsor, 195,028 (city). Vital statistics, seep. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . A temperate continental climate, but conditions are quite severe in winter, though proximity to the Great Lakes has a moderating influence on temperatures. Ottawa. Jan. 12°F (-11 • PC), July 69"F (20-6°C). Annual rainfall 35" (871 mm). Toronto. Jan. 23°F (-5°C), July 69°F (20-6°C). Annual rainfall 33" (815 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The provincial government is administered by a Lieut.-Governor, a cabinet and one chamber elected by a general franchise for a period of 5 years. Women were granted the right to vote and be elected to the chamber in 1917. The minimum voting age is 18 years. In Aug. 1986 the provincial legislature was composed as follows: Progressive Conservatives, 51; Liberals, 49; New Democrats, 2 5; total 125. Lieut.-Governor Right Hon. Lincoln M. Alexander, PC, QC (appointed Sept. 1985). Flag: The British Red Ensign with the shield of Ontario in the fly. The members of the Executive Council in June 1985 were as follows (all Liberals): Premier and President ofthe Council and Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs. Hon. David Peterson. Treasurer and Minister of Economics and of Revenue: Hon. Robert F. Nixon. Agriculture and Food: Hon. Jack Riddell. Attorney-General and Minister for Women's Issues and for Native Affairs: Hon. Ian G. Scott, QC. Citizenship and Culture: Hon. Lily Munro. Colleges and Universities and Skills Development. Hon. Gregory Sorbara. Community and Social Services. Hon. John Sweeney. Consumer and Commercial Relations: Hon. Monte Kwinter. Correctional Services and Solicitor General: Hon. Ken Keyes. Education: Hon. Sean Conway. Energy and Natural Resources: Hon. Vincent Kerrio. Environment: Hon. James Bradley. Government Services and Chairman of Management Board of Cabinet. Hon. Sean Conway (Acting). Health: Murray J. Elston. Housing: Hon. Alvin Curling. Industry, Trade and Technology: Hon. Hugh P. O'Neill. Labour: Hon. William Wrye. Municipal Affairs and Francophone Affairs. Hon. Bernard Grandmaitre. Northern Affairs and Mines: Hon. David Peterson (Acting). Tourism and Recreation. Hon. John Eakins. Transportation and Communications. Hon. Ed Fulton. Ministers Without Portfolio: Hon. Ron Van Home, Hon. Tony Ruprecht. Local Government. Local government in Ontario is divided into two branches, one covering municipal institutions and the other education. The present municipal system dates from The Municipal Corporations Act enacted by The Province of Canada in 1849. It has been considerably modified in recent years with the creation of the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto in 1954 and the launching of the Government of Ontario's locail government restructuring programme in 1968. Generally, there are two levels of municipal

318

CANADA

government in Ontario. The upper level consists of 27 counties plus 12 restructured regional municipalities. The local level comprises more than 800 cities, towns and townships. Cities in the traditional county system function independently of the county in which they lie, as do 4 towns which have been separated for municipal purposes. There are no separated municipal units in regional governments. Ontario's local municipalities are governed by councils elected by popular vote. A city council usually consists of a mayor, aldermen and, sometimes, an executive committee known as a board of control. .„ Councils of towns, villages and townships usually consist of a mayor, reeve, deputy reeve, councillors and, in the case of the newer regional municipalities, one or more regional councillors who represent the area municipalities on the regional council. County and regional government councils are federated assemblies. A county council consists of the reeves and deputy reeves of the towns, villages and townships. The head of the county council is the warden, who is elected by the council from among its own members. A regional council consists of the heads of council of the local municipalities, as well as a varying number of regional councillors, who are elected on the basis of representation, either directly or indirectly. The head of the regional council is the chairman who is elected by council but who, unlike a county warden, need not have been a council member. No municipality in Ontario may incur long-term debts without the sanction of the tribunal created by the Provincial Legislature and known as the Ontario Municipal Board. Debenture obligations incurred by municipalities for utility undertakings (water-works and electric light and power systems) are discharged ordinarily out of revenues derived from the sale of utility services and do not fall upon the ratepayers. Municipal councils have no jurisdiction for education beyond the collection of taxes for school purposes. Responsibility for providing, operating and maintaining school facilities, and for the supply of teachers, rests with local education authorities known as Boards of Education or School Boards. These Boards are now generally organized on a county or regional basis. Apart from some of the larger cities, local municipal school boards no longer exist. Municipal institutions come under the jurisdiction of the Provincial Ministry of Intergovernmental Affairs. One of the principal functions of the Ministry is to advise and assist municipalities on such matters as accounting, reporting, auditing, budgeting and planning. Educational support and guidance at the provincial level is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, which deals with the training of teachers and the formulation of curriculum. (At the university and community college level, education support services are provided by the Ministry of Colleges and Universities.) There are considerable areas in the northernmost parts of Ontario where as yet there is little or no settlement of population. In such areas no municipal organization exists, and control for all purposes over such areas remains in the hands of the Provincial Government. FINANCE. The gross revenue and expenditure and the net cash requirements (in Canadian $1,000)foryears ending 31 March were as follows: Gross revenue Gross expenditure Net cash requirement

1981-82 18,886 20,389 1,503

1982-83 20,395 22,943 2,548

1983-84 22,647 24,936 2,289

1984-85 24,762 26,801 2,039

1985-86 26,059 28,789 2,730

Gross revenue and expenditure figures include all non-budgetary transactions, i.e., the lending and investment activity of the Government to Crown corporations, agencies and municipalities as well as the repayment of these loans or recovery of investments. Transactions on behalf of Ontario Hydro are excluded. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity (1985). Ontario Hydro recorded for the calendar year an installed gene-

ONTARIO

319

rating capacity of 28,224m. kw. and a net energy output generated and purchased of 124,614m. kwh. Minerals (1985, preliminary). The total value of shipments from mines was $4,573m. in 1985. Important commodities (in $lm.) were: Nickel, 968; copper, 554; uranium, 519; gold, 441; zinc, 342, The mining industry employed about 24,600 people in 1983. Agriculture. In 1985, 3-5m. hectares were under field crops with total farm receipts of $5,179m. Forestry. According to the most recent inventory (1984) the total area of productive forest is 34-7m. hectares, comprising: Softwoods, 22-9m.; hardwoods, 11,837,000. The growing stock equals 4,431 m. cy. metres. The estimated value of shipments by the forest products industry (including logging) was (1983) $7,408m. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry (1983). Ontario is Canada's most highly industrialized province. About 73% of value added in commodity-producing industries is accounted fortry manufacturing. Construction is next with 10%. In 1984, the labour force was 4-7m. Total labour income was $95,634-3m. The Gross Provincial Product (GPP) was $ 162,098m. The leading manufacturing industries are motor vehicles and parts, iron and steel, meat and meat preparations, dairy products, paper and paperboard, chemical products, petroleum and coal products, machinery and equipment, metal stamping and pressing and communications equipment. Trade. In 1984 Ontario exported 49% ($55,200m.) of Canada's total foreign trade. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1984,153,613 km of roads. Motor licences numbered (1984) approximately 8 -2m., of which 5 -7m. were passenger cars, 1 -2m. trucks and tractors, 28,646 buses, 853,398 trailers, 219,093 motor cycles and 169,273 snow vehicles. Railways. The provincially-owned Ontario Northland Railway has about 550 miles of track and the Algoma Central Railway 325 miles. The Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Railways operate a total of about 9,500 miles in Ontario. There is a metro and tramway network in Toronto. Post (1984). Telephone service is provided by 30 independent systems (282,947 telephones) and Bell Canada (9 • 8m. telephones). E D U C A T I O N . There is a complete provincial system of elementary and secondary schools as well as private schools. In 1985 publicly financed elementary and secondary schools had a total enrolment of 1,773,478 pupils. In 1965 Ontario established Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology (CAATS). There are now 22 of these publicly owned colleges with full-time enrolment (1985) of96,269 in academic courses. The University of Toronto, founded in 1827 (full-time enrolment, 1985, 34,346), and 14 other major universities (total full-time enrolment, 1985, 185,012), all receive provincial grants. The net general expenditure of the provincial ministries of education and colleges and universities for the fiscal year ending 31 March 1985 was $5,41 lm. Books of Reference Statistical Information. Annual publications of the Ontario Ministry of Treasury and Economics include: Ontario Statistics, Ontario Budget, Public Accounts, Financial Report. Guillet, E. C., Pioneer Days in UpperCanada. Toronto, 1933 McDonald, D. C. (ed.), The Government and Politics ofOntario. 2nd ed. Toronto, 1980 Middleton, J. E., The Province of Ontario: A History 1615-1927 Toronto, 1927,4vols. Schull, J., Ontario since ¡867. Toronto, 1978

320

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PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND HISTORY. The earliest discovery of the island is not satisfactorily known, but the first recorded visit was by Jacques Cartier in 1534, who named it Isle St-Jean; it was first settled by the French, but was taken from them in 1758. It was annexed to Nova Scotia in 1763, and constituted a separate colony in 1769. Prince Edward Island entered the Confederation on 1 July 1873. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The province, which is the smallest in Canada, lies in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and is separated from the mainland of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by Northumberland Strait. The area of the island is 2,184 sq. miles (5,656 sq. km). Total population (census, 1981), 124,200; (estimate, 1986), 128,000. Population ofthe principal cities: Charlottetown (capital), 15,282; Summerside, 7,828. Vital statistics, see p. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . The cool temperate climate is affected in winter by the freezing of the St. Lawrence, which reduces winter temperatures. Charlottetown. Jan. 19°F (-7-2°C), July 67°F(19-4°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,077 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The provincial government is administered by a Lieut.-Governor-in-Council (Cabinet) and a Legislative Assembly of 32 members who are elected for up to 5 years. In Nov. 1986, parties in the Legislative Assembly were: Liberals, 21; Progressive Conservatives, 11. Lieut.-Governor: Lloyd G.MacPhail (sworn in 1 Aug. 1985). Flag: A banner of the arms, i.e., a white field bearing 3 small trees and a larger tree on a compartment, all green, and at the top a red band with a golden lion; on 3 sides a border of red and white rectangles. Premier and President of Executive Council: Hon. Joseph A. Ghiz, QC. Finance and Community and Cultural Affairs: Hon. Gilbert R. Clements. Energy and Forestry: Hon. Allison Ellis. Industry: Hon. Leonce Bernard. Fisheries. Hon. Ross (Johnny) Young. Transportation and Public Works: Hon. Robert Morrissey. Education. Hon. Betty Jean Brown. Agriculture: Hqn. Tim Carroll. Justice and Attorney-General and Labour: Hon. Wayne Chevene. Tourism and Parks: Hon. Gordon Maclnnis. Health and Social Services. Hon. Keith Milligan. Local Government. The Municipalities Act, 1983, provides for the incorporation of Towns and Communities. The City of Charlottetown and the town of Summer: side are incorporated under private Acts of the Legislature. F I N A N C E . Revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $) for 6 financial years ending 31 March: 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 Revenue 352,556,900 380,883,900 394,641,400 432,222,600 446,850,500 486,328,400 Expenditure 351,486,200 386,878,700 415,444,500 440,300,700 450,806,600 509,642,900

ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power is supplied to 100% of the population. The province's net generated and purchased consumption of electricity during 1985 was 579m. kwh. In 1985, peak demand for electricity was 112-5 mw. In 1977 the province completed the laying of an undersea power cable which links the island with New Brunswick and the Maritime Power Grid. In 1980, 30 miles of additional 138 kv transmission line was added to the PEI system. In 1985, about 99% of power requirements were supplied through this system. Agriculture. Total area of farms occupied approximately 699,367 acres in 1981 out ofthe total land area of 1,399,040 acres. Farm cash receipts in 1985 were $176m. with cash receipts from potatoes accounting for 32% of the total. Cash receipts

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from dairy products, cattle and hogs followed in importance. The land in forest covered 700,000 acres in 1985 and total value of forest products sold in 1985 was about $7m. For particulars of agricultural production and livestock, see under CANADA, p p . 2 8 1 - 8 2 .

Fisheries. The fishery in 1984 had a landed value of $37 8m. Lobsters accounted for 60% of the total. Value of groundfish landings accounted for 12%; pelagic and estuarial, 8 7%; shellfish, other than lobster, 13%; Irish moss, 4 5%. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Value of manufacturing shipments for all industries in 1985 was $292m. Commerce. Average personal income rose from'$8,943 in 1982 to $10,056 in 1983. The average weekly wage rose from $295.45 in 1983 to $299.79 in 1984. The labour force averaged 55,000 in 1983, while employment averaged 48,000. In 1984, provincial GDP for manufacturing was $78-9m., construction, $56m. In 1985, total value of retail trade was$548m. Tourism. The value of the tourist industry was estimated at $58 -6m. in 1985 with 218,381 tourist parties. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The province has a total of 5,280 km of road, including 3,725 km of paved highway. Railways. Rail service is provided over 274 miles of track within the province and connects with the national railways system via the New Brunswick-Prince Edward Island ferry service. Aviation. In 1986 air service for passengers, mail and cargo provided 15 flights daily in each direction between the province and various points in eastern Canada. A daily bus service operates between various centres in the province as well as to the mainland. Shipping. A ferry service provides rail and highway communication with New Brunswick by means of 4 large ferries, 2 of which are powerful ice-breakers. Another ferry service employing 2 ferries plus an additional 2 for summertime operates between the province and Nova Scotia throughout the season of open navigation. A third ferry service employing 1 ferry operates between the province and Magdalen Islands, Quebec, during the open navigation season. Post. In 1984 there were approximately 74,594 telephones. EDUCATION (1985-86). Under the regional school boards there are 66 public schools, 1,375 teaching positions, 24,900 students. There is one undergraduate university (over 1,700 full-time students), and a college of applied arts and technology (828 full-time post-secondary students), both in Charlottetown. Total expenditure in education in the year ending 31 March 1986 was forecast to be $105,672,900. Books of Reference Baldwin, D. O., Abegweit. Land of the Red Soil. Charlottetown, 1985 Bolger, F W P, Canada s Smallest Province Charlottetown, 1973 Clark, A. H , Three Centuries and the Island. Toronto, 1959 Hocking, A., Prince Edward Island. Toronto, 1978 M a c K i n n o n , F , The Government of Prince Edward Island. Toronto, 1951

QUEBEC—QUÉBEC HISTORY. Quebec was formerly known as New France or Canada from 1534 to 1763; as the province of Quebec from 1763 to 1790; as Lower Canada from 1791

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to 1846; as Canada East from 1846 to 1867, and when, by the union of the four original provinces, the Confederation of the Dominion of Canada was formed, it again became known as the province of Quebec (Québec). The Quebec Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1774, guaranteed to the people of the newly conquered French territory in North America security in their religion and language, their customs and tenures, under their own civil laws. In the referendum held 20 May 1980, 59 -5% voted against and 40-5% for 'separatism'. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Quebec (as amended by the Labrador Boundary Award) is 1,667,926 sq. km (594,860 sq. miles), of which 1,315,134 sq. km is land area and 352,792 sq. km water. Of this extent, 911,106 sq. km represent the Territory of Ungava, annexed in 1912 under the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act. The population (estimated 1 June 1985) was6,552,700. Principal cities (1985): Quebec (capital), 163,500; Montreal, 989,800; Laval, 282,900; Sherbrooke, 71,500; Verdun, 57,600; Hull, 54,200; Trois-Rivières, 49,900. Vital statistics, see p. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . Cool temperate in the south, but conditions are more extreme towards the north. Winters are severe and snowfall considerable, but summer temperatures are quite warm. Rain occurs at all seasons. Quebec. Jan. 10°F (-12-2°C), July 66°F (18-9°Q. Annual rainfall 40" (1,008 mm). Montreal. Jan. 1 1 T (-11 r C ) , July 67°F(19-4°C). Annual rainfall41" (1,025 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . There is a Legislative Assembly consisting of 122 members, elected in 122 electoral districts for 4 years. At the provincial general elections held 2 Dec. 1985, Liberals won 99 seats and Parti Québécois, 23. The Liberal Party was led by Robert Bourassa who failed to win a seat but did so at a subsequent by-election on 20 Jan. 1986. Lieut.-Governor: The Hon. Gilles Lamontagne. Flag: The Fleurdelysé flag, blue with a white cross, and in each quarter a white fleur-de-lis. Senior members of the Executive Council as in June 1986, were as follows: Prime Minister: Robert Bourassa. Finance: Gérard D. Lévesque. Education: Claude Ryan. Justice: Herbert Marx. External Trade: Pierre MacDonald. International Relations: Gil Rémillard. General-delegate in London: Patrick Hindman (59 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JH). General-delegate in New York: Rita Dion Marsolais (17 West 50th St., Rockefeller Center, New York 10020). General-delegate in Paris: Jean-Louis Roy (66 Pergolèse, Paris 75116). ECONOMY Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $1,000) for fiscal years ending 31 March: Revenue Expenditure

1980-81 14,718,305 17,596,659

1981-82 17,471,594 20,359,807

1982-83 19,210,266 22,259,296

1983-84 21,410,969 24,523,514

1984-85 23,310,027 25,542,499

The total net debt at 31 March 1985 was$19,217,568,000. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Water power is one of the most important natural resources of the province of Quebec. Its turbine installation represents about 40% of the aggregate of Canada. At the end of 1985 the installed generating capacity was 31,633 mw. Production, 1985, was 136,675 gwh.

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Minerals (1985). The estimated value of the mineral production (metal mines only) was $2,237,765,000. Chief minerals: Iron ore, (confidential); copper, $ 136,265,000; gold, $407,665,000; zinc, $81,571,000. The second major iron-ore development in northern Quebec is, like the one at Knob Lake which gave birth to Schefferville, based on the Quebec-Labrador Trough which extends from Lac Jeannine to the northern tip of Ungava peninsula. The port of Sept-Iles and the railway connecting it with Schefferville allow easy shipment to the furnaces and steel mills of Canada, the USA and Europe. The setting-up of a steel industry is being explored. Non-metallic minerals produced include: Asbestos ($241,054,000; about 87% of Canadian production), titane-dioxide (confidential), industrial lime, dolomite and brucite, quartz and pyrite. Among the building materials produced were: Stone, $142,574,000; cement, $196,200,000; sand and gravel, $60,019,000; lime, (confidential). Agriculture. In 1985 the total area (estimate) of the principal field crops was 2,187,400 hectares. The yield ofthe principal crop» was (in 1,000 tonnes): Crops Tame hay Oatsforgrain Potatoes Mixed grains

Yield 5,300 360 460 160

Crops Fodder com Maizeforgrain Barley Buckwheat

Yield 2,900 1,550 520 14

The farm cash receipts from farming operations estimated in 1985 amounted to $3,149,781,000. The principal items being: Livestock and products, $2,256,359,000; crops, $548,537,000; dairy supplements payments, $133,573,000, forest and maple products, $62,222,000. Forestry. Forests cover an area of764,279 sq. km. About 556,044 sq. km are classified as productive forests, of which 652,956 sq. km are provincial crown land and 108,992 sq. km are privately owned. Quebec leads the Canadian provinces in pulpwood production, having nearly half of the Canadian estimated total. In 1983 production of lumber was softwood and hardwood, 7,963,016 cu. metres; woodpulp, 6,509,899 tonnes. Fisheries. The principal fish are cod, herring, red fish, lobster and salmon. Total catch of sea fish, 1985,84,774 tonnes, valued at $63,178,000. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1984 there were 10,649 industrial establishments in the province; employees, 484,883; salaries and wages, $11,178,303,358; cost of materials, $35,829,698,342; value of shipments, $61,537,262,869. Among the leading industries are petroleum refining, pulp and paper mills, smelting and refining, dairy products, slaughtering and meat processing, motor vehicle manufacturing, women's clothing, saw-mills and planing mills, iron and steel mills, commercial printing. Commerce. In 1985 the value of Canadian exports through Quebec custom ports was $21,120,343,000; value of imports, $17,196,669,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 58,045 km of roads and (1985) 3,078,412 registered motor vehicles. Railways. There were (1985) 4,507 km of railway. There is a metro system in Montreal. Aviation. In 1986 Quebec had 2 international airports, Dorval (Montreal) with landing runway of 8 - 4 km and Mirabel (Montreal) with 7 • 3 km. Post and Broadcasting. Telephones numbered 4,073,882 in 1984 and there were 26 television and 119 radio stations in 1985. Newspapers (1985). There were 10 French- and 2 English-language daily newspapers.

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E D U C A T I O N . The province has 7 universities: 3 English-language universities, McGill (Montreal) founded in 1821, Bishop (Lennoxville) founded in 1845 and the Concordia University (Montreal) granted a charter in 1975; 4 French-language universities: Laval (Quebec) founded in 1852, Montreal University, opened in 1876 as a branch of Laval and became independent in 1920, Sherbrooke University founded in 1954 and University of Quebec founded in 1968. In 1983-84 there were 96,900 full-time university students and 96,800 parttime students. In 1984-85, in pre-kindergartens, there were 6,521 pupils; in kindergartens, 93,337; primary schools, 556,334; in secondary schools, 491,465; in colleges (postsecondary, non-university), 158,027; and in classes for children with special needs, 101,357. The school boards had a total of62,069 teachers. Expenditure of the Department of Education for 1984-85, $6,293,063,000 net. This included $1,025,950,000 for universities, $3,624,719,000 for public primary and secondary schools, $191,352,000 for private primary and secondary schools and $873,227,000 for colleges. Books of Reference Statistical Information. The Quebec Bureau ofStatistics was established in 1912. The Bureau, which reports to the Finance Dept. since March 1983, collects, compiles and distributes statistical information relative to Quebec. Director Nicole Gendreau. A statistical information list is available on request. Among the most important publications are: Annuaire du Québec (Quebec Yearbook), Statistiques (quarterly), Comptes économiques du Québec (annual), Perspectives démographiques (annual), Situation démographique (annual), Commerce international du Québec (annual), Investissements privés et publics (annual). Atlas du Québec L 'Agriculture Ministère de l'Industrie et du Commerce, Quebec, 1966 Baudoin, L., Le Droit civil de la province de Québec Montreal, 1953 Blanchard, R., Le Canada-français. Pans, 1959 Hamelin, J., Histoire du Québec St-Hyacinthe, 1978 Jacobs, J., The Question of Separatism. Quebec and the Struggle for Sovereignty London, . 1981 McWhinney, E., Quebec and the Constitution. Univ ofToronto Press, 1979 Ouellet, F., Histoire de la Chambre de Commerce de Québec, 1809-1959 Québec, 1959 Raynauld, A., Croissance et structure économiques de la province de Québec Québec, 1961 Trofimenkoff, S. M., Action Française Umv ofToronto Press, 1975 Wade, F M., The French Canadians, 1760-1967 Toronto, 1968.—Canadian Dualism. Studies of French-English Relations. Quebec-Toronto, 1960

SASKATCHEWAN H I S T O R Y . Saskatchewan derives its name from its major river system, which the Cree Indians called 'Kis-is-ska-tche-wan', meaning 'swift flowing'. It officially became a province when it joined the Confederation on 1 Sept. 1905. In 1670 King Charles II granted to Prince Rupert and his friends a charter covering exclusive trading rights in 'all the land drained by streams finding their outlet in the Hudson Bay'. This included what is now Saskatchewan. The trading company was first known as The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England; later as the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1869 the Northwest Territories was formed, and this included Saskatchewan. In 1882 the District of Saskatchewan was formed. By 1885 the North-West Mounted Police had been inaugurated, with headquarters in Regina (now the capital), and the Canadian Pacific Railway's transcontinental line had been completed, bringing a stream of immigrants to southern Saskatchewan. The Hudson's Bay Company surrendered its claim to territory in return for cash and land around the existing trading posts. Legislative government was introduced. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Saskatchewan is bounded on the west by Alberta, on the east by Manitoba, to the north by the Northwest Territories; to the south it is bordered by the US states of Montana and North Dakota. The area of

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325

the province is 251,700 sq. miles (570,113 sq. km), of which 220,182 sq. miles is land area and 31,518 sq. miles is water. The population, 1981 census, was 968,313 (1986, estimate, 1,020,000). Population of cities, 1981 census (1986 estimate): Regina (capital), 162,984 (176,321); Saskatoon, 154,210 (178,361); Moose Jaw, 33,941 (35,496); Prince Albert, 31,380 (33,956); Yorkton, 15,339 (16,106); Swift Current, 14,747 (16,211); North Battleford, 14,030 (14,773); Estevan, 9,174 (10,768); Weyburn, 9,523 (10,477); Lloydminster, 6,034 (7,512); Melfort, 6,010 (6,554); Melville, 5,092 (5,370). Vital statistics, see p. 271. Religion, see p. 288. C L I M A T E . A cold continental climate, with severe winters and warm summers. Rainfall amounts are greatest from May to Aug. Regina. Jan. 0°F (-17-8°C), July 65°F(18-3°C). Annual rainfall 15" (373 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Thé provincial government is vested in a Lieut.-Governor, an Executive Council and a Legislative Assembly, elected for 5 years. Women were given the franchise in 1916 and are also eligible for election to the legislature. State of parties in Oct. 1986: Progressive Conservative, 38; New Democratic Party, 25; Liberal, 1. Lieut.-Govemor: F. W. Johnson. Flag: Green over gold, with the shield of the province in the canton, and a green and red prairie lily in the fly. The Progressive Conservative Ministry in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Premier: Grant Devine. Deputy Premier, Economic Development and Trade, Provincial Secretary, Saskatchewan Power Corporation. Eric Bemtson. Finance and Leader of the House: Bob Andrew. Energy and Mines, Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan: Paul Schoenals. Agriculture: Lome Hepworth. Justice and Attorney-General, Saskatchewan Telecommunications: Gary Lane. Urban Affairs: Tim Embury. Parks and Renewable Resources: Colin Maxwell. Culture and Recreation. Rick Folk. Education: Patricia Smith. Social Services: Gordon Dirks. Labour: Lome McLaren. Tourism and Small Business: Jack Klein. Science and Technology, Telephones, Advanced Education and Manpower: Gordon Currie. Health: Graham Taylor. Environment: Neal Hardy. Highways: Jim Gamer. Revenue and Financial Services: Paul Rousseau. Consumer and Commercial Affairs: Joan Duncan. Supply and Services, Deputy Leader of the House: George McLeod. Cooperation and Co-operative Development: Jack Sandberg. Rural Development: Louis Domotor. Ministers without Portfolio: Sid Dutchak (Indian and Native Affairs, Saskatchewan Housing Corporation), Gerald Muirhead (Saskatchewan Crop Insurance). Agent-General in London: R. A. Larter, 21 Pall Mall, SW1Y 5LP. Local Government. The organization of a city requires a minimum population of 5,000 persons; that of a town, 500; that of a village, 100 people. No requirements as to population exist for the rural municipality and the local improvement district. Cities, towns, villages and rural municipalities are governed by elected councils, which consist of a mayor and 6-20 aldermen in a city; a mayor and 6 councillors in a town; a mayor and 2 other members in a village; a reeve and a councillor for each division in a rural municipality (usually 6). Local improvement districts are administered by the Department of Municipal Affairs. F I N A N C E . Budget and net assets (years ending 31 March) in Canadian $ 1,000: Budgetary revenue Budgetary expenditure

1983-84 2,605,457 2,983,151

1984-85 2,793,213 3,230,223

1985-86 3,048,650 3,396,230

1986-8T 3,201,409 3,660,555

E N E R G Y A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S . Agriculture used to dominate the history and economics of Saskatchewan, but the 'prairie province' is now a

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CANADA

rapidly developing mining and manufacturing area. It is a major supplier of oil; has the world's largest deposits of potash; and net value of non-agricultural production account for (1985 estimate) 83-7% of the provincial economy. Electricity. The Saskatchewan Power Corporation generated 11,525m. kwh. in 1985. Minerals. The 1985 mineral sales were valued at $3,597,300,000, including (in $1,000): Petroleum 2,210,000, natural gas, 106,700; coal and others, 105,900; gold, 2,942; silver, 1,379; copper, 9,511; zinc, 6,423; potash, 621,515; salt and others, 18,417; uranium, 456,417; sodium sulphate, 30,194. Agriculture. Saskatchewan produces normally about two-thirds of Canada's wheat. Wheat production in t 9 8 5 (in 1,000 tonnes), was 12,710 from20-7m. acres; oats, 663 from 900,000 acres; barley, 3,636 from 3-5m. acres; rye, 205-4 from 400,000 acres; rapeseed, 1,542 from 2-9m. acres; flax, 315 from 700,000 acres. Livestock (1 July 1986): Cattle and calves, 2,085,000; swine, 670,000; sheep and lambs, 57,000. Poultry in 1986: Chickens, 4,435,000; turkeys 450,000. Cash income from the sale of farm products in 1985 was $4,072m. At the June 1981 census there were 67,318 commercial farms in the province, each being a holding of 1 acre or more with sales of agricultural products during the previous 12 months of $50 or more. The South Saskatchewan River irrigation project, whose main feature is the Gardiner Dam, was completed in 1967. It will ultimately provide for an area of 200,000 acres of irrigated cultivation in Central Saskatchewan. In 1986, 110,000 acres were irrigated. Total irrigated land in the province, 300,000 acres. Forestry. Half of Saskatchewan's area is forested, but only 115,000 sq. km are of commercial value at present. Forest products valued at $147m. were produced in 1985. The province's first pulp-mill, at Prince Albert, went into production in 1968; its daily capacity is 1,000 tons ofhigh-grade kraft pulp. Fur Production. In 1984-85 wild fur production was estimated at $5,099,682. Ranch-raised fur production amounted to $ 126,486. Fisheries. The lakeside value of the 1984-85 commercial fish catch of 3 -4m. kg was $3-3m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 Saskatchewan had 777 manufacturing establishments, employing 12,873 persons. Manufacturing contributed $941m., construction $745m. to the total gross domestic product at factor cost of$ 17,442m. in 1985. T O U R I S M . An estimated 1,468,000 out of province tourists spent $232m. in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 23,362 km of provincial highways, 192,830 km of municipal roads (including prairie trails). Motor vehicles registered totalled (1985) 697,160. Bus services are provided by 2 major lines. Railways. There were (1986) approximately 12,060 km of main railway track in operation. Aviation. Saskatchewan had 2 major airports, 176 airports and landing strips in 1987. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1986) 720 post offices (excluding sub-post offices), 87 T V and re-broadcasting stations and 52 AM and FM radio stations. 724,439 telephones were connected to the Saskatchewan Telecommunications system. E D U C A T I O N . The University of Saskatchewan was established at Saskatoon on 3 April 1907. In 1986-87 it had 13,730 full-time students, 1,476 part-time students and 1,200 full-time teaching staff. The University of Regina was established 1 July

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1974; in 1986-87 it had 5,720 full-time and 4,093 part-time students and 360 fulltime faculty members. The Saskatchewan education system in 1986-87 consisted of 112 school divisions and 4 school boards, of which 22 are Roman Catholic separate school divisions, serving 144,435 elementary pupils, 58,369 high-school students and 3,086 students enrolled in special classes. In addition, provincial technical and vocational schools had 7,058 students enrolled in autumn 1986. In addition there are 16 community colleges with an enrolment of approximately 86,000 per year. Books of Reference Tourist and industrial publications, descriptive of the Government's programme, are obtainable from the Department of Industry and Commerce; other government publications from Government Information Services (Legislative Building, Regina). Saskatchewan Economic Review Executive Council, Regina. Annual Archer, J. H., Saskatchewan. A History. Saskatoon, 1980 Arora, V., The Saskatchewan Bibliography. Regina, 1980 Richards, J S., and Fung, K. I. (eds.), Atlas of Saskatchewan. Univ of Saskatchewan, 1969

THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES H I S T O R Y . The Territory was developed by the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company (of Montreal) from the 17th century. The Canadian Government bought out the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869 and the Territory was annexed to Canada in 1870. The Arctic Islands lying north of the Canadian mainland were annexed to Canada in 1880 by Queen Victoria. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area of the Territories is 1,304,903 sq. miles (3,379,700 sq. km), divided into 5 administrative regions: Fort Smith, Inuvik, Kitikmeot, Keewatin and Baffin. The population in June 1985 was 51,012, 29,602 of whom were Inuit (Eskimo) or Dene (Indian) and Metis. When the transfer of governmental responsibility from Ottawa to the Territorial capital at Yellowknife took place in 1967, the population of Yellowknife increased by the influx of civil servants from 3,741 in 1966 to 11,077 in 1985. Main centres (June 1985): Inuvik (3,166), Fort Smith (2,468), Hay River (3,142), Frobisher Bay (2,954), Rankin Inlet (1,315), Cambridge Bay (902). C L I M A T E . Conditions range from cold continental to polar, with long hard winters and short cool summers. Precipitation is low. Yellowknife. Jan. -15°F (-26°C), July 61°Fjoué near Brazzaville and from about 6 thermal plants. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Oil reserves are estimated at 500-1,000m. tonnes. Output in 1986 was 5-85m. tonnes from the 26 offshore oil platforms operated by Elf Congo and Agip Congo. A refinery at Pointe-Noire came on stream in Dec. 1982. Minerals. Lead, copper, zinc and gold (3 kg in 1983) are the main minerals. There are reserves of phosphates, bauxite and iron. Agriculture. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes): Cassava, 610; sugar-cane, 510; pineapples, 107; bananas, 33; plantains, 63; yams, 14; maize, 7; groundnuts, 15; palm-oil, 15; coffee, 3; cocoa, 2; rice, 2; sweet potatoes, 13. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 70,000; pigs, 43,000; sheep, 62,000; goats, 183,000; poultry, lm. Forestry. Equatorial forests cover 20m. hectares (60% of the total land area) from

379

CONGO

which (in 1983) 2,238,000 eu. metres of timber were produced, mainly okoumé from the south and sapele from the north. Hardwoods (mainly mahogany) are also exported. Fisheries. In 1983 the catch amounted to 31,926 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There is a growing manufacturing sector, located mainly in the 4 major towns, producing processed foods, textiles, cement (39,242 tonnes in 1982), metal industries and chemicals; in 1981 it employed 26% of the labour force. Commerce. Imports in 1982 totalled 265,250m. francs CFA (mainly machinery) and exports 321,030m. (of which petroleum 90%). In 1982 64% of imports were from France; 51% of exports were to USA, 21% to Italy, 10% to Spain and 10% to France. Total trade between the Congo and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in

£1

..000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

¡982 2,393 9,766

¡983 4,335 9,560

1984 1,958 6,207

1985 2,819 12,112

-19842,444 9,165

Tourism. There were 62,000 visitors in 1981. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 8,246 km of all-weather roads, of which 849 km were paved. In 1982 there were 30,500 cars and 18,600 commercial vehicles. Railways. A railway (517 km, 1,067 mm gauge) and a telegraph line connect Brazzaville with Pointe-Noire and a 200 km branch railway links Mont-Belo with Mbinda on the Gabon border. In 1983 railways carried 2-4m. passengers and 2-9m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. The principal airports are at Maya Maya (near Brazzaville) and PointeNoire. In addition there are 22 airfields served by the local airline, Lina-Congo. Shipping. Pointe-Noire handled (1979) 2-4m. tonnes of goods including manganese from Gabon. There were (1985) 21 vessels of8,458 GWT registered. There are hydrofoil connexions from Brazzaville to Kinshasa (30 km across the river). Post and Broadcasting. Telephones (1982) numbered 8,899. In 1984 there were 97,000 radios and 4,800 TV sets in use. Cinemas. In 1973 there were 7 cinemas with a seating capacity of 5,100. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 3 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 24,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court, Court of Appeal and a criminal court are situated in Brazzaville, with a network of tribunaux de grande instance and tribunaux d'instance in the regions. Religion. In 1980, 54% of the population were Roman Catholic, 24% Protestant, 19% followed animist beliefs and 3% were Moslem. Education. In 1982 there were 406,835 pupils and 6,997 teachers in 1,377 primary schools, 171,862 pupils and 3,638 teachers in 122 secondary schools, 18,150 students with 1,261 teachers in 36 technical schools and teacher-training establishments. The Université Marien-Ngouabi (founded 1972) in Brazzaville had 7,255 students and 292 teaching stafTin 1980. Adult literacy ( 1980) 56%. Health. There were (1978) 274 doctors, 2 dentists, 28 pharmacists, 413 midwives, 1,915 nursing personnel and 473 hospitals and dispensaries with 6,876 beds.

380

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DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Congo in Great Britain Ambassador: Jean-Marie Ewengue (accredited 12 June 1986, resides in Paris). Of Great Britain in the Congo (Ave. du General de Gaulle, Plateau, Brazzaville) Ambassador: P. H. C. Eyers, CMG, LVO (resides at Kinshasa). Of the USA in the Congo (PO Box 1015, Brazzaville) Ambassador: Alan W. Lukens. Of Congo to the USA and United Nations Ambassador: Dr Martin Adouki.

COSTA

RICA

Capital: San José Population: 2 • 66m. ( 198 5) GNP per capita: US$ 1,280 ( 1984)

República de Costa Rica

H I S T O R Y . Part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1540, Costa Rica (the 'Rich Coast') formed part of Central America when the latter acquired independence on 15 Sept. 1821. Central America seceded to Mexico on 5 Jan. 1822 until 1 July 1823, when it became an independent confederation as the United Provinces of Central America. The province of Güanacaste was acquired from Nicaragua in 1825. Costa Rica left the confederation and achieved full independence in 1838. The first Constitution was promulgated on 7 Dec. 1871. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Costa Rica is bounded north by Nicaragua, east by the Caribbean, southeast by Panama, and south and west by the Pacific. The area is estimated at 51,100 sq. km (19,730 sq. miles). The population at the census of 1 June 1985 was2,655,000. The area and census of population for 1 June 1984 (2,416,809) was as follows: Province San José Alajuela Cartago Heredia Guanacaste Puntarenas Limón

Area (sq. km) 4,959-63 9,753-23 3,124-67 2,656-27 10,140-71 11,276-97 9,188-52

Population 890,434 427,962 271,671 197,575 195,208 265,883 168,076 ' District

Capital San José Alajuela Cartago Heredia Liberia Puntarenas Limón

Population 241,464 34,556 23,928 21,440 22,525 ' 29,224 ' 52,602 '

In 1982, 47% lived in urban areas, and 36% were aged under 15; population density (1986) 51 persq. km. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985

Marriages Births 20,558' 78,197' 19,747' 84,252' ' Preliminary.

Deaths 9,931' 10,968'

The population of European descent, many of them of pure Spanish blood, dwell mostly around the capital of the republic, San José, and in the principal towns of the provinces. Limón, on the Caribbean coast, and Puntarenas, on the Pacific coast, are the chief commercial ports. The United Fruit Co., who in 1941 abandoned their banana plantations on the Atlantic coast in favour of large new plantations on the Pacific coast, have constructed ports at Quepos and Golfito. The Standard Fruit Co. and others have cleared land since 1958 in the Atlantic coast area and now have 2,325 acres producing some 4 -2m. stems a year. There are some 15,000 West Indians, mostly in Limón province. The indigenous Indian population is dwindling and is now estimated at 1,200. Spanish is the language of the country. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with a small range of temperature and abundant rains. The dry season is from Dec. to April. San José. Jan. 66°F(18-9°C), July 69°F(20-6°C). Annual rainfall 7 2 " (1,793 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution was promulgated in Nov. 1949. It forbids the establishment or maintenance of an army. The legislative power is normally vested in a single chamber called the Legislative Assembly, which since 1962 consists of 57 deputies, 1 for every 40,000 inhabitants, 381

382

COSTA RICA

elected for 4 years. The President and 2 Vice-Presidents are elected for 4 years; the candidate receiving the largest vote, provided it is over 40% of the total, is declared elected, but a second ballot is required if no candidate gets 40% of the total. Suffrage is universal, there being no exemption for reaspns of economic status, race or sex. The vote is direct by secret ballot for all nationals of 18 years or over. Elections are normally held on the first Sunday in February. Voting for President, Deputies and Municipal Councillors is secret and compulsory for all men under 70 years of age. Independent non-party candidates are barred from the ballot. The Cabinet in October 1986 was composed as follows: President: Oscar Arias Sánchez, elected 2 Feb. 1986. Minister at the Presidency: Rodrigo Arias Sánchez. Foreign Affairs: Rodrigo Madrigal Nieto. Interior and Police: Guido Fernández Saborio. Finance: Fernando Naranjo Villalobos. Health: Dr Edgar Mohs Villalta. Public Works and Transport: Guillermo Constenla Umaña. Public Security: Hernán Garrón Salazar. Agriculture: Alberto Esquivel Volio. Education: Francisco Antonio Pacheco. Economy and Commerce: Luis Diego Escalante Vargas. Industry, Energy and Mines: Calixto Chávez Zamora. Culture, Youth and Sports: Carlos Francisco Echeverría Salgado. Labour and Social Security: Edwin León. Housing and Urban Development: Fernando Zumbado Jiménez. Science and Technology: Rodrigo Zeledón Araya. Foreign Trade: Muni Figueres de Jiménez. Justice: Luis Paulino Mora. Planning: Otón Solís Fallas. Co-ordinator of Presidential Advisers: Danilo Jiménez Veiga. Central Bank President: Eduardo Lizano Fait. Vice-President: Jorge Manuel Dengo. Vice-President: Victoria Garrón de Doryan. The powers of the President are limited by the constitution, which leaves him the power to appoint and remove at will members of his cabinet. All other public appointments are made jointly in the names of the President and of the minister in charge of the department concerned. National flag: Five unequal stripes of blue, white, red, white, blue, with the national arms on a white disc near the hoist. National anthem: Noble patria, tu hermosa bandera (words by J. M. Zeledón, 1903; tune by M. M. Gutiérrez, 1851). DEFENCE Army. The Army was abolished in 1948, and replaced by a Civil Guard reputed to be 6,000 strong. There has never been compulsory military service or training. Navy. The flotilla includes 1 fast patrol craft and 1 armed tug on the Atlantic coast and 5 small coastguard cutters on the Pacific coast. Personnel (1987) 100 officers and men. Air Wing. The Civil Guard operates a small air wing equipped with about 12 lightplanes and helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Costa Rica is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1980 balanced at 8,029m. colones. The income-tax law of 10 March 1972 raised the maximum rate to 50% for personal incomes of 350,000 colones and over, and to 40% for corporate incomes of 1 m. colones and over. External government debt on 31 Dec. 1982 was US$3,500m. Currency. The unit of currency is the colone (C). Annual rainfall 31 -8" (794 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the Fifth Republic, superseding that of 1946, came into force on 4 Oct. 1958. It consists of a preamble, dealing with the Rights of Man, and 92 articles. France is a Republic, indivisible, secular, democratic and social; all citizens are equal before the law (Art. 2). National sovereignty resides with the people, who exercise it through their representatives and by referenda (Art. 3). Political parties carry out their activities freely, but must respect the principles of national sovereignty and democracy (Art. 4). The President of the Republic sees that the Constitution is respected; he ensures the regular functioning of the public authorities, as well as the continuity of the state. He is the protector of national independence and territorial integrity (Art. 5). He is elected for 7 years by direct universal suffrage (Art. 6). He appoints a Prime Minister and, on the latter's advice, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Government (Art. 8). He presides over the Council of Ministers (Art. 9). He can dissolve the National Assembly, after consultation with the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the two Houses (Art. 12). He appoints to the civil and military offices of the state (Art. 13). In times of crisis, he may take such emergency powers as the circumstances demand; the National Assembly cannot be dissolved during such a period (Art. 16). Previous Presidents of the Fifth Republic: General Charles André Joseph de Gaulle, 8 Jan. 1959-28 April 1969 (resigned); Alain Poher (interim), 28 April 1969-20 June 1969; Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou, 20 June 1969-2 April 1974 (died); Alain Poher (interim), 2 April 1974-27 May 1974; Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, 27 May 1974-21 May 1981. President of the Republic: François Mitterrand (elected 10 May 1981 ; took office 21 May 1981). The government determines and conducts the policy of the nation (Art. 20). The Prime Minister directs the operation of the Government, is responsible for national defence and ensures the execution of laws (Art. 21). Members of the Government must not be members of Parliament (Art. 23). The Council of Ministers was composed as follows in Jan. 1987: Prime Minister: Jacques Chirac (RPR). Minister of State for Economics, Finance and Privatisation: Edouard Balladur (RPR). Justice, Keeper of the Seals: Albin Chalandon (RPR). Defence: André Giraud. Culture and Communication: François Léotard (UDF-PR). Foreign Affairs: Jean-Bernard Raimond. Interior: Charles Pasqua (RPR). Housing, Transport and Urban Affairs: Pierre Méhaignerie (UDF-CDS). Overseas Departments and Territories: Bernard Pons (RPR). Education: René Monory (UDF-CDS). Employment and Social Affairs: Philippe Séguin (RPR). Industry, Posts and Telecommunications, Tourism: Alain Madelin (UDF-PR). Agriculture: François Guillaume. Co-operation: Michel Aurillac (RPR). Relations with Parliament: André Rossinot (UDF-Rad.). Ministers-Delegate: Bernard Bosson (European Affairs), Gérard Longuet (Posts and Telecommunications), Hervé de Charette (Planning and Public Offices) , Alain Juppé (Budget), Michel Noir (Foreign Trade), Camille Cabana (Administrative Reform), Georges Chavanes (Commerce and Small Businesses), Robert Pandraud (Security), Dr Michèle Barzach (Health), Hélène Gisserot (Women's Affairs), Jacques Doufliagues (Transport), Alain Carignon (Environment), Yves Galland (Regional Duties).

482

FRANCE

The Government also includes 15 Secretaries of State. Secretary-General to the Government: Renaud Denoix de Saint Marc. Parliament consists of the National Assembly and the Senate; the National Assembly is elected by direct suffrage and the Senate by indirect suffrage (Art. 24). It convenes as of right in two ordinary sessions per year, the first on 2 Oct. for 80 days and the second on 2 April for not more than 90 days (Art. 28). The National Assembly comprises 577 Deputies, elected for a 5-year term from multi-member constituencies by proportional representation - 555 in Metropolitan France and 22 in the various overseas departments and dependencies. The latest General Election, held in March 1986, resulted in a composition (by group, including 'affiliates') of 155 Rassemblement Pour la République (Gaullists), 131 Union de la Démocracie Française (Giscardians and Centrists) and 5 others supporting the Government, and an opposition consisting of 212 Parti Socialiste (including 2 Mouvement des Radicaux de Gauche and 14 other 'affiliates'), 35 Parti Communiste Française, 4 other 'unaffiliated left' and 35 Front National. The Senate comprises 319 Senators elected for 9-year terms (one-third every 3 years) by an electoral college in each Department or overseas dependency, made up of all members of the Departmental Council or its equivalent in overseas dependencies, together with all members of Municipal Councils within that area; there are 296 Senators for Metropolitan France, 13 for the Overseas Departments and dependencies, and 10 for French citizens residing outside France and its dependencies. Following the partial elections held in Sept. 1986, the Senate was composed of (by group, including 'affiliates') 154 UDF, 77 RPR, 73 Groupe Socialiste (including 9 MRG) and 15 Groupe Communiste. The Constitutional Council is composed of 9 members whose term of office is 9 years (non-renewable), one-third every 3 years; 3 are appointed by the President of the Republic, 3 by the President of the National Assembly, and 3 by the President of the Senate; in addition, former Presidents of the Republic are, by right, life members of the Constitutional Council (Art. 56). It oversees the fairness of the elections of the President (Art. 58) and Parliament (Art. 59) and of referenda (Art. 60), and acts as a guardian of the Constitution (Art. 61 ). The Economic and Social Council advises on Government and Private Members' Bills (Art. 69). It comprises representatives of employers', workers' and farmers' organizations in each Department and Overseas Territory. Nationalflag: The Tricolour of three vertical stripes of blue, white, red. National anthem: La Marseillaise (words and music by C. Rouget de Lisle, 1792). Local Government: France is divided into 22 regions for national development work, for planning and for budgetary policy. Under far-reaching legislation on decentralisation promulgated in March 1982, state-appointed Regional Prefects were abolished and their executive powers transferred to the Presidents of the Regional Councils, which are to be directly elected. There are 96 départements within the 22 regions each governed by a directlyelected Conseil Général. From 1982 their Presidents' powers are greatly extended to take over local administration and expenditure from the former Departmental prefects, now called 'Commissioners of the Republic' with responsibility for public order. The arrondissement (324 in 1975) and the canton (3,509 in 1975), have little administrative significance. The unit of local government is the commune, the size and population of which vary very much. There were, in 1975, in the 96 metropolitan departments, 36,394 communes. Most of them (31,593) had less than 1,500 inhabitants, and 16,550 had less than 300, while 229 communes had more than 30,000 inhabitants. The local affairs of the commune are under a Municipal Council, composed of from 9 to 36 members, elected by universal suffrage for 6 years by French citizens of 21 years or over after 6 months residence. Each Municipal Council elects a mayor, who is both the representative of the commune and the agent ofthe central government. In Paris the Conseil de Paris is composed of 109 members elected from the 20 arrondissements. It combines the functions of departmental Conseil Général and Municipal Council.

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483

D E F E N C E . The President of the Republic exercises command over the Armed Forces. He is assisted by the High Council of Defence (Conseil Supérieur de Défense), which studies defence problems, and by two Committees (Comité de Defense and Comité de Défense restreint) which formulate directives. The Prime Minister is responsible for national defence; he exercises his military responsibilities and co-ordinates inter-ministry defence activities through the General Secretariat of National Defence (SGDN). Under the Prime Minister's authority, the Minister of Defence is responsible for the execution of military policy, in particular the organization and administration of the Armed Forces. On 5 July 1969 the Ministry of State for National Defence assumed responsibility from the former individual service Ministries for the Army, Air Force and Navy. The Ministry prepares general directives for negotiations relating to defence. The preparation and control of the Armed Forces is exercised by the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services—Army, Navy and Air—and the head of the Gendarmerie. French forces are not formally under the NATO command structure. About 48,000 French service personnel are stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany, with a further28,000 stationed in other overseas locations. Army. The Army consists of regular officers and n.c.o.s, long-term n.c.o.s and soldiers, and conscripts serving 12 months. The peace-time units comprise 6 armoured divisions, 2 light armoured divisions and 2 motorized rifle divisions, plus artillery, engineering, signals, transport, supply, and naval infantry and artillery units. In addition, there are the Foreign Legion, the Rapid Action Force (comprising a parachute division, an air-portable marine division, a light armoured division, an alpine division and an airmobile division), and other specialized units. 5 artillery units can deliver the 'Pluton' nuclear missile. In 1987 the effective strength of the Army was 296,480 all ranks (excluding Gendarmerie). Equipment included 1,300 AMX-30 and 321 AMX-13 main battle tanks. Higher military instruction is provided in ,3 stages: the staff school (École d'Étatmajor) for officers of formation staffs; the Ecole Supérieure de Çuerre for officers earmarked for the higher command; the Institut des Hautes Etudes de Défense Nationale where high-ranking officers and civilians study together the problems of national defence. Formed in 1952, the Aviation Légère de l'Armée de Terre (ALAT) is a wellequipped force, with 15 light aeroplanes and more than 650 helicopters for observation, reconnaissance, combat area transport, liaison and supply duties. Effective strength, 1987, about 7,000. Gendarmerie. The Gendarmerie is an integral part of the Armed Forces but also co-operates with the civil administration in maintaining public order. Effective strength, 1985,89,816. Navy. The Navy is under the supreme direction of the Minister of Defence, being administered by the Chief of Naval Staff and his deputies. All naval aircraft and coastal defences are under the control of the Navy, and are organized in 3 maritime regions (with headquarters in Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon). The French Navy is manned partly by conscription but mainly by voluntary enlistment. In 1987 the active personnel was 75,000 officers and men, including the Naval Air Arm. The following is a summary of the strength of the fleet at the end of the years shown: 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 Aircraft carriers 31 V 31 3' 3' 3' V Capital submarines 2 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 Other submarines 24 22 23 23 23 18 20 1 1 1 1 Cruisers 1 1 1 22 Destroyers 20 19 20 20 18 18 Frigates 27 24 22 22 25 26 26 1 1 Including 1 helicopter-carrier. Nuclear-powered ballistic missile

1985 3' 6 16 1 16 25 type.

1986 V 6 17 1 17 25

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FRANCE

The principal ships of the French Navy are as follows: Completed

Standard displacement Tons

Name

Principal armament

Aircraft

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

126,000

32-0

Aircraft Carriers 1961 Clemenceau} 1

^

{ Ihelico^

}

Single3-9in-

4 guns replaced by 2 Crotale missile launchers in Clemenceau during 1986.

Helicopter Carrier 1964 Jeanne d'Arc 1

10,000 1

8 helicopters

6'Exocet'(singles) 4 single 3-9 in.

40,000

26-5

86,000

31-5

Cruiser type forward, flat-topped midships to aft.

Cruiser 1959

Colbert

8,500

—

4'Exocet'(singles) 1 twin 'Masurca' 2 single 3-9 in.

Capital (Strategic) Submarines Class '611'

No. 5

'615'

1

Displacement (submerged) tons 8,940 8,920

Missile Tubes (vertical) 16 M 20 16 M4

Nuclear Reactors 1

Shaft horsepower 16,000

1

16,000

Speed Knots 25 dived 20 surface 25

The '611' class comprises Le Redoubtable (completed 1971), Le Terrible (1973), Le Foudroyant (1974), L'Indomptable (1976) and Le Tonnant (1980). L'Inflexible (1985) of the '615' class is of intermediate type between her predecessors and a new class of 15,000 tonnes. All the named vessels above are also armed with four 21 -inch torpedo tubes.

There are also 3 nuclear-powered fleet submarines (Rubis, Saphir and Casabianca) of 2,670 tons (submerged), 14 diesel-powered submarines, 17 destroyers, 25 frigates, 4 fast missile craft, 4 fast attack craft, S patrol vessels, 10 large minehunters (ex-ocean minesweepers), 8 coastal minehunters, 12 coastal minesweepers (3 used as patrol vessels and 4 as diving ships), 8 inshore minesweepers (used as diving and utility tenders), 7 surveying vessels, 2 dock landing ships, 6 tank landing ships, 19 landing craft, 16 minor landing craft, 6 maintenance, repair and depot ships, 6 oilers, 11 boom defence vessels, 8 support ships, 18 transports, 17 training vessels, 42 auxiliary ships and 106 tugs. A 35,500 ton nuclear-powered aircraft carrier (Richelieu, for completion in 1995), a seventh nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, 4 more nuclearpowered fleet (torpedo-armed) submarines, 6 guided missile destroyers and 10 fast attack craft are under construction. A second nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, an eighth nuclear-powered fleet (torpedo-armed) submarine, 4 diving tenders, 3 frigates and 5 mine-hunters are projected. : The naval air arm, known usually as Aéronavale, includes 3 squadrons of Super Etendard transonic fighter-bombers, 1 squadron of Etendard reconnaissance fighters, 1 squadron of US-built Crusader all-weather fighters, 2 squadrons of Alizé turboprop anti-submarine aircraft, 4 squadrons of Atlantic maritime reconnaissance aircraft and 5 anti-submarine and assault helicopter squadrons with Super Frelon and Lynx helicopters. Strength is 220 aircraft comprising 160 fixed-wing and 60 helicopters. Air Force. Formed as the Service Aéronautique in April 1910, the Armeé de l'Air is organized in 7 major commands. The Commandement des Forces Aériennes Stratégiques (CFAS) commands the airborne nuclear deterrent force. The Commandement de la Force Aérienne Tactique (FATAC) directs the tactical air forces

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485

and is responsible for support of the ground forces. Under FATAC the 1st Commandement Aérien Tactique (1° CATAC) controls tactical air units based in eastern France; the 2nd Commandement Aérien Tactique (2° CATAC) controls the reserve forces and the air component of the Force d'Intervention. The Commandement du Transport Aérien Militaire (COTAM) is responsible for air transport operations and participates also in the training and transport of airborne forces. The Commandement de la Défense Aérienne (DA) controls French airspace. The Commandement des Écoles de l'Armée de l'Air (CEAA) is responsible for training the personnel for all branches of the Air Force. The Commandement des Transmissions has responsibility for communications and electronic warfare. Finally, the Commandement du Génie de l'Air, made up mainly of Army personnel, undertakes airbase construction and maintenance under Air Force control. The home-based French Air Force is divided territorially among 4 metropolitan air regions (Metz, Villacoublay, Bordeaux, Aix-en-Provence); overseas, small air units are integrated into the local joint-service commands. There are about 40 combat squadrons plus about 30 transport, helicopter and support squadrons, and the Air Force uses a total of 66 bases. The strategic, tactical and air defence forces are equipped entirely with jet aircraft. The CFAS has 26 Mirage IV supersonic nuclear bombers, deployed in 2 wings (each 2 squadrons) supported by 11 C-13SF in-flight refuelling tanker transports. The FATAC deploys 6 wings (18 squadrons), with about 105 Mirage III-E and 5F ground-attack fighters, and 120 Jaguar strike aircraft, 3 reconnaissance squadrons with Mirage Fl-CRs, and operational conversion units equipped with Mirage III-Bs and Jaguars. The air defence forces have 4 wings, comprising 9 squadrons with 120 Mirage Fl-C and 3 squadrons with 30 Mirage 2000C interceptors. The COTAM is organized into 3 wings, equipped with 74 Transall C.160 turboprop transports, 5 DC-8s and 105 helicopters. Training aircraft include CAP-10 pistonengined primary trainers, Epsilon piston-engined and Fouga-magister jet basic trainers, Mirage F1 Bs, Mirage III-Bs, Mirage 2000Bs and two-seat Jaguars in wings for operational transformation; 25 Embraer 121-Xingus bought from Brazil are dual-purpose training/liaison aircraft. Total officers and other ranks ( 1987) 95,978; 450 combat aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. France is a member of UN, the Council of Europe, NATO and the European Communities. ECONOMY Planning. For the history of planning in France from 1947 to 1980, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1982-83, p. 474. The Eighth Plan, covering the 1981—85 period, was set aside after the change of government in May 1981 and replaced by an interim plan for 1982-83, followed by a new Ninth Plan for 1984-88.

Budget. Receipts and expenditure (in 1 m. francs) for calendar years: Receipts Direct taxation Income tax Corporation tax Indirect taxation Value-added tax Petrol tax Payroll and other taxes Non-fiscal receipts Gross total Net budget receipts (gross total taxes minus various deductions)

1984

%

1985

%

203,397 89,290

200 8-8

204,155 93,720

18-9 8-7

415,800 67,396 174,154 54,002

410 6-6 18-3 5-3

444,624 85,291 181,314 60,475'

411 7-9 16-7 5-6

1,004,039

1,069,579

833,130

867,374

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Expenditure

Public authorities and general administration Education and culture Social affairs, health, employment Agriculture and countryside Housing and town planning Transport and communications Industry and services External affairs Defence Miscellaneous expenditure Total expenditure

1985 116,113 238,565 200,859 25,179 46,938 42,920 50,852 26,150 159,531 111,059

% 11-4 23-4 19-7 2-5 4-6 4-2 5-0 2-6 15-7 10-9

1,018,170

1986 128,700 246,500 199,000 25,700 48,000 43,100 51,300 26,200 167,800 117,400

% 12-2 23-4 18-9 2-4 4-6 4-1 4-9 2-5 15-9 111

1,053,800

The accounts of revenue and expenditure are examined by a special administrative tribunal (Cour des Comptes), instituted in 1807. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc. Coins are issued for 5, 10, 20 and 50 centimes, 1,2, S and 10 francs; and bank-notes for 10, 50,100 and 500 francs. In Feb. 1987,£1 sterling=9-39 francs- US$1 =6-06 francs. Banking. The Banque de France, founded in 1800, and nationalized on 2 Dec. 1945, has the monopoly (since 1848) of issuing bank-notes throughout France. Note circulation at 31 Dec. 1981 was 151,900m. francs. As a Central Bank, it puts monetary policy into effect and supervises its application. The National Credit Council, formed in 1945 to regulate banking activity and consulted in all political decisions on monetary policy, comprises 45 members nominated by the Government; its president is the Minister for the Economy, its vice-president is the Governor of the Banque de France. Four principal deposit banks were nationalized in 1945 and the remainder in 1982, the chief ones being the Crédit Lyonnais (founded 1863), Banque Nationale de Paris (founded by amalgamation 1966), Société Générale (founded 1864), Crédit Industriel et Commercial, Crédit Commercial de France, the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas and the Crédit du Nord. Total deposits and short- and medium-term held bills by the banks at 31 Dec. 1981 was 1,302,800m. francs. The rest of the banking system comprises the popular banks, the Crédit agricole, the Crédit mutuel, the Banque française du commerce exterieur and the various financial establishments. The state savings organization (Caisse nationale d'epargne) is administered by the post office on a giro system. On 31 Dec. 1981 the private savings banks (Caisses d'epargne et de prévoyance), numbering about 500 had 434,000m. francs in deposits; the state savings banks had 206,300m. francs in deposits. Deposited funds are centralized by a non-banking body, the Caisse de Dépôts et Consignations, which finances a large number of local authorities and state aided housing projects, and carries an important portfolio oftransferable securities. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (in lm. kwh.): 1985, 332,016, of which 24% was hydroelectric and 49% nuclear. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. In 1986 3m. tonnes of crude oil were produced. The greater part came from the Parentis oilfield in the Landes. Reserves (1985) total 221m. bbls. France has an important oil-refining industry, chiefly utilizing imported crude oil. The principal plants are situated in Seine-Maritime and in Bouches-du-Rhône. In 1985,72 -49m. tonnes of petroleum products were refined. There are 7,802 km of pipelines. There has been considerable development of the production of natural gas and sulphur in the region of Lacq in the foothills of the Pyrenees. Production of natural gas was 10,574m. cu. metres in 1984; reserves (1985)41,000m. cu. metres.

FRANCE

487

Minerals. Principal minerals and metals produced in 1983, in 1,000 tonnes: Coal, 33,396; crude steel, 17,616; iron ore, 15,972; pig iron, 13,752; bauxite, 1,660; potash salts, 1,651. Agriculture. Of the total area of France (54-9m. hectares) 17-3m. were under cultivation, 12-6m. were pasture, 11m. were under vines, 14-4m. were forests and 8 • 5m. were uncultivated land in 1982. The following table shows the area under the leading crops and the production for 3 years: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet Maize

Area (1,000 hectares) 1982 1983 1984 4,826 4,843 5,095 110 101 102 2,388 2,143 2,113 444 520 436 210 204 205 562 490 527 1,684 1,646 1,723

Produce (1,000 tonnes) 1982 1983 1984 32,884 23,358 24,745 322 349 293 10,036 8,772 11,543 1,804 1,419 1,875 6,793 5,325 6,200 32,331 26,319 27,790 10,400 10,525 10,321

Other crops for 1984 (1983 in brackets) include (in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 42 # 8 ) ; tobacco, 37 (36); flax, 78 (62). France is the world's second largest producer of wine (after Italy); production in 1984 amounted to 6,447,000 tonnes. The production of fruits (other than for cider making) for 4 years was (in 1,000 tonnes) as follows: Apples Pears Plums Peaches Apricots

1981 1982 1983 1984 1,571 3,149 1,983 2,935 455 460 430 485 167 174 177 212 422 438 447 454 87 73 102 80

Cherries Nuts Grapes Strawberries

1981 1982 1983 1984 112 142 16 57 48 45 219 117 100 94 79 87 84 92

In 1985 the numbers of farm animals (in 1,000) were (figures for 1984 in brackets): Horses, 310 (310); cattle, 23,099 (23,519); sheep, 10,824 (11,231); goats, 962 (1,042); pigs, 10,975 (11,251 ); poultry, 215,000 (211,000). Forestry. The total area of forested land (1982) was 137,651 sq. km. Timber sold (1982), 28,342m. cu. metres valued at 7,581m. francs. Fisheries. (1984). There were 18,700 fishermen, and 9,630 sailing-boats, steamers and motor-boats. Catch (in 1,000 tonnes): Fish, total, 450; crustaceans, 24-6; shell fish, 194. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Industrial production (in 1,000 tonnes) for 3 years was as follows: Sulphuric acid Caustic acid Sulphur Polystyrene Polyvinyl Polyethylene Wool Cotton Linen Silk Man-made fibres, yarns Jute Cheese Chocolate Biscuits Sugar Fish preparations Jams and jellies Cement

1982 4,143 1,448 1,839 445 789 912 49 161 1 8 48 46 5 1,125 115 380 4,436 92 125 26,141

1983 4,309 1,392 1,833 480 816 965 44 154 2 1 52 38 2 7 1,153 123 397 2,562 98 122 24,352

1984 4,531 1,573 1,834 492 797 1,006 45 151 2 57 34 3 1,191 126 400 3,959 101 127 22,724

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Engineering production (in 1,000 units) for 3 years: Motor vehicles Television sets Radio sets Tyres

1982 3,148 2,155 2,733 41,478

1983 3,335 2,033 2,481 45,606

1984 3,062 2,001 2,128 47,817

Employment (1975). Out of an economically active population of 21,061,215 persons, there are 2-01m. engaged in agriculture; 1,841,083 in building and public works; 6,327,818 in other manufacturing industries; 829,289 in transport; 3,632,478 in business, banking and insurance; 3,543,881 in services; 2,522,544 in commerce. In 1984, there were 23,594,000 employed (42-5% female), of whom 1 -9m. were foreign workers; in Feb. 1985, there were 2,484,855 unemployed. Trade Unions. The main confederations recognized as nationally representative are: the CGT (Confédération Générale du Travail), founded in 1895; the CGT-FO (Confédération Générale du Travail-Force Ouvrière) which broke away from the CGT in 1948 as a protest against Communist influence therein; the CFTC (Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens), which was founded in 1919 and divided in 1964, with a breakaway group retaining the old name and the main body continuing under the new name of CFDT (Confédération Française Démocratique du Travail); and the CGC (Confédération Générale des Cadres) formed in 1944 which only represents managerial and supervisory staff. Membership is estimated because unions are not required to publish figures; but at elections held on 8 Dec. 1982 for labour tribunals, the CGT was supported by 2-8m. members, the CGT-FO by l -4m., the CFDT by l-8m., the CFTC by 650,000 and the CGC by 740,000. Except for the CGC unions operate within the framework of industries and not of trades. Commerce. Imports (c.i.f.) and exports (f.o.b.) in lm. francs for 5 calendar years were (including gold): Imports Exports

1981 653,100 548,700

1982 757,595 606,063

1983 799,754 694,660

1984 905,421 813,003

1985 962,927 871,670

The chief imports for home use and exports of home goods are to and from the following countries, in 1 m. francs (including gold): Countries Algeria Belgium-Luxembourg Germany (Fed. Rep.) Italy Japan Netherlands Saudi Arabia Spain (excluding Canary Is.) Sweden Switzerland (and Liechtenstein) USSR UK USA

Imports 1984' 24,900 74,345 147,290 89,186

1

55,085 18,753 30,745 13,833 18,062 22,286 73,350 69,910 Provisional.

(c.i.J) 1985' 20,766 82,300 159,065 96,790 26,906 58,542 36,542 20,278 22,037 79,098 73,251

Exports (f.o.b.) 1984 < 1985' 23,583 21,837 69,817 73,'977 119,442 130,497 88,551 95,443 10,744 38,645 42,540 19,905 26,207 23,385 10,728 31,620 36,495 16,837 17,068 64,367 71,598 . 65,894 75,381

Total trade between France and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 m 3 m 4 m 5 1986 Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from UK

4,269,103 5,043,118 5,885,715 6,632,410 7,348,574 4,486,458 5,651,521 7,082,389 7,751,751 6,210,216

Tourism. In 1983 foreign visitors contributed about 55,052m. francs to the French economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 the French road system consisted of6,290 km of motorway, out of a

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total road network of 1,521,351 km. In 1983, there were 20-6m. passenger carsand 3 -23m. commercial vehicles in use. Railways. As from 1 Jan. 1938 all the independent railway companies were merged with the existing state railway system in a Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français, which became a public industrial and commercial establishment in 1983. In 1985, the State railway totalled 34,676 km (11,488 km electrified) of 1,435 mm gauge, and carried 171m. tonnes of freight and 776m. passengers. A new railway for high-speed trains was completed in 1983 between Paris and Lyon and another is under construction to serve Western France. The Paris transport network consisted in 1985 of472 km of underground railway (métro) and regional express railways and 2,134 km of bus routes. In 1984 it carried 1,176m. passengers on the métro and 782m. by bus. Aviation. Air France, UTA and Air Inter, the national airlines, had (31 Dec. 1979) a fleet of 166 aircraft, servicing Europe, North America, Central and South America, West and East Africa, Madagascar, the Near, Middle and Far East. There are local networks in the West Indies and Central America. In 1982 Air France^ UTA "and Air Inter flew 2,298m. tonne-km (excluding mail) and 37,845m. passenger-km. There were (1984) 60 airports with scheduled services. Shipping. Merchant ships, on 1 Jan. 1985, numbered 1,174 vessels of 8,945,046 GRT. Shipping (excluding fishing vessels) in foreign trade in 1979: Entered, 85,026 vessels and disembarked 259-2m. tonnes of imports and loaded 71 -6m. tonnes of exports. Total cargo traffic 330-8m. tonnes. In 1984 there were 8,568 km of navigable rivers, waterways and canals (of which 1,647 km accessible to vessels over 3,000 tons), with a total traffic of 68-9m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. On 31 Dec. 1983 the telephone system (governmentowned) had 29,373,663 subscribers; the Paris region (including the Paris and Seine-et-Marne, Yvelines, Essonne, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-deMarne and Val-d'Oise departments) accounted for 5,396,726. Radio and television broadcasting was reorganized under the Act of 7 Aug. 1974 which replaced the Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française with 4 broadcasting companies, a production company and an audio-visual institute. Organization, development, operation and the maintenance of networks and installations became the responsibility of the Public Broadcasting Establishment. Radio programmes are broadcast from 363 transmitters by 3 stations: France Inter, France Musique and France Culture. Television programmes are broadcast from 325 transmitters and 4,661 relay stations on 3 channels. There were about 20m. radio and 19m. TV sets in use in 1983 (of which 8 -9m. in colour). Cinemas (1984). There were 5,050 cinemas with a seating capacity (1979) of 1,472,400; attendances totalled 187 • 8m. Newspapers (1983). There were 72 daily papers published in the provinces with a circulation of 6-7m. copies, and 14 published in Paris with a national circulation of 2-5m. Among Paris dailies France-Soir sells 550,000; Le Monde 550,000; Le Parisien Libéré 438,000; Le Figaro 407,000, and L'Aurore 220,000. Among provincial dailies Ouest-France (Rennes) sells 783,000; Le Progrés (Lyon) 447,000; La Voix du Nord (Lille) 372,000; Sud-Ouest (Bordeaux) 430,000; La Dauphine Libérée (Grenoble) 401,000 and Le Provençal (Marseilles) 345,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. Since 1958,474 tribunaux d'instance (11 in overseas departments), under a single judge each and with increased material and territorial jurisdiction, have replaced the former juges de paix (1 in each canton); and 181 tribunaux de grande instance (6 in overseas departments) have taken the place of the 357 tribunaux de première instance (I in each arrondissement). The tribunaux de grande instance usually have a collegiate composition,

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however a law dated 10'July 1970 has allowed them to administer justice under a single judge in some civil cases. All petty offences (contraventions) are disposed of in the Police Courts (Tribunaux de Police) presided over by a Judge on duty in the tribunal d'instance. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offences (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to 5 years. They have no jury, and consist of 3 judges who administer both criminal and civil justice. An Act of 29 Dec. 1972 established that there is only 1 judge; in some cases, the correctional courts may consist of a single judge each. In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d'instruction), who either dismisses the case or sends it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (Procureur) endeavours to prove the charge. The Conciliation Boards (Conseils des Prud'hommes) composed of an equal number of employers and employees deal with labour disputes. Commercial litigation goes to the Commercial Courts (Tribunaux-de Commerce) composed of tradesmen and manufacturers elected for 2 years. The judges hold office for 2 years and they can be re-elected; 3 years for the President. When the decisions of any of these Tribunals are susceptible of appeal, the case goes to one of the 35 Courts of Appeal (Cours d'Appel), (including 3 in overseas departments and 2 in overseas territories), composed each of a president and a variable number of members. The Courts of Assizes (Cours d'Assises), composed each of a president, assisted by 2 other magistrates who are members of the Courts of Appeal, and by a jury of 9 people, sit in every département, when called upon to try very important criminal cases. The decisions of the Courts of Appeal and the Courts of Assizes are final; however, the Court of Cassation (Cour de Cassation) has discretion to verify if the law has been correctly interpreted and if the rules of procedure have been followed exactly. The Court of Cassation may annul any judgment, and the cases have to be tried again by a Court ofAppeal or a Court of Assizes. The State Security Court, established in 1963, was abolished by law on 4 Aug. 1981. Capital punishment was abolished in the same month. On 24 Jan. 1973 the first Ombudsman (médiateur) was appointed for a 6-year period. The French penal institutions consist of: (1) maisons d'arrêt and de correction, where persons awaiting trial as Well as those condemned to short periods of imprisonment are kept; (2) central prisons (maisons centrales) for those sentenced to long imprisonment; (3) special establishments, namely (a) schools for young adults, (b) hostels for old and disabled offenders, (c) hospitals for the sick and psychopaths, (d) institutions for recidivists. Special attention is being paid to classified treatment and the rehabilitation and vocational re-education of prisoners including work in open-air and semi-free establishments. There are 2 penal institutions for women. Juvenile delinquents go before special judges and courts; they are sent to public or private institutions of supervision and re-education. The population at 1 June 1984 of all penal establishments was 40,870 men and women. Religion. No religion is officially recognized by the State. Under the law promulgated on 9 Dec. 1905, which separated Church and State, the adherents of all creeds are authorized to form associations for public worship (associations culturelles). The law of 2 Jan. 1907 provided that, failing associations culturelles, the buildings for public worship, together with their furniture, would continue at the disposition of the ministers of religion and the worshippers for the exercise of their religion; but in each case there was required an administrative act drawn up by the préfet as regards buildings belonging to the State or the departments and by the maire as regards buildings belonging to the communes. There are 18 archbishops and 92 bishops of the Roman Catholic Church, with (1974) 43,557 clergy of various grades and (1985) 42-2m. members. The Protestants of the Augsburg confession are, in their religious affairs, governed by a General Consistory, while the Reformed Church is under a Council of Administra-

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tion, the seat of which is in Paris. In 1982 there were about 2m. Protestants and 1 -7m. Moslems. Education. The primary, secondary and higher state schools constitute the 'Université de France'. The Supreme Council of 84 members has deliberative, administrative and judiciary functions, and as a consultative committee advises respecting the working of the school system, the inspectors-general are in direct communication with the Minister. For local education administration France is divided into 25 academic areas, each of which has an Academic Council whose members include a certain number elected by the professors or teachers. The Academic Council deals with all grades of education. Each is under a Rector, and each is provided with academy inspectors, 1 for each department. Compulsory education is now provided for children of 6-16. The educational stages are as follows: 1. Non-compulsory pre-school instruction for children aged 2-5, to be given in infant schools or infant classes attached to primary schools. 2. Compulsory elementary instruction for children aged 6-11, to be given in primary schools and certain classes of the lycées. It consists of 3 courses: preparatory (1 year), elementary (2 years), intermediary (2 years). Physically or mentally handicapped children are cared for in special institutions or special classes of primary schools. 3. Lower secondary education (Enseignement du premier cycle du Second Degré) for pupils aged 11-15, consists of 4 years of study in the lycées (grammar schools), Collèges d'Enseignement Secondaire or Collèges d'Enseignement Général. 4. Upper secondary education (Enseignement du second cycle du Second Degré) for pupils aged 15-18: Long, général or professionel provided by the lycées and leading to the baccalauréat or to the baccalauréat de technicien after 3 years. Court, professional courses of 3, 2 and 1 year are taught in the lycées d'enseignement professionel, or the specialized sections of the lycées, CES or CEG. The following table shows the various types of schools in 1984-85 and the numbers of enrolled pupils: Description Pre-primary Primary Secondary Higher Specialized

State 2,196,645 3,504,227 4,180,730 1,084,261 199,536

Private 328,979 622,208 1,129,565 79,642 93,752

Total 2,525,624 4,126,435 5,310,295 1,163,903 293,288

Total

11,165,399

2,254,146

13,419,545

The state schools in 1984-85 had 73,872 nursery, 166,623 primary, 33,003 special school and 321,128 secondary school teachers. Higher Instruction is supplied by the State in the universities and in special schools, and by private individuals in the free faculties and schools. The law of 12 July 1875 provided for higher education free of charge. This law was modified by that of 18 March 1880, which granted the state faculties the exclusive right to confer degrees. A decree of 28 Dec. 1885 created a general council of the faculties, and the creation of universities, each consisting of several faculties, was accomplished in 1897, in virtue of the law of 10 Julv 1896. The law of 12 Nov. 1968 laying down future guidelines for higher education redefined the activities and working of universities. Bringing several disciplines together, 780 units for teaching and research (UER-Unités d Enseignement et de Recherche) were formed which decided their own teaching activities, research programmes and procedures for checking the level of knowledge gained. They and the other parts of each university must respect the rules designed to maintain the national standard of qualifications. The UERs form the basic units of 69 Universities and 3 National Polytechnic

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Institutes (with university status), grouped into 25 académies with 944,434 students (of which 59,824 in the Institutes) in 1984-85. There are also Catholic university facilities in Paris, Angers, Lille, Lyon and Toulouse with (1981-82) 34,118 students and private universities with (1984-85) 17,646 students. Outside the university system, higher education (academic, professional and technical) is provided by over 400 schools and institutes, including the various Grand Ecoles. In 1984-85 there were 139,827 students in state establishments and 61,996 in private establishments. In 1984-85 there were also 46,258 students in preparatory classes leading to the Grande Écoles, 105,101 in the Sections de Techniciens Supérieurs and 31,513 in the Ecoles d'ingénieurs; there were also 18,951 students in Écoles normales d'instituteurs (teacher-training). Health. On 1 Jan. 1983 there were 114,534 physicians, 43,662 pharmacists, 33,048 dentists, 271,253 nursing personnel and 8,660 midwives practising. On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 3,364 hospitals with 622,552 beds. Social Welfare. An order of 4 Oct. 1945 laid down the framework of a comprehensive plan of Social Security and created a single organization which superseded the various laws relating to social insurance, workmen's compensation, health insurance, family allowances, etc. All previous matters relating to Social Security are dealt with in the Social Security Code, 1956; this has been revised several times, and finally by orders laid down on 21 Aug. 1967, which were ratified on 31 July 1968. The Social Security general scheme covers all wage-earning workers in industry and commerce that are not covered by a special scheme of their own. Contributions. All wage-earning workers or those of equivalent status are insured regardless of the amount or the nature of the salary or earnings. The funds for the general scheme are raised mainly from professional contributions, these being fixed within the limits of a ceiling (assessed at 68,760 francs per annum on 1 Jan. 1981 ) and calculated as a percentage of the salaries. The calculation of contributions payable for family allowances, old age and industrial injuries relates only to this amount; on the other hand, the amount payable for sickness, maternity expenses, disability and death is calculated partly within the limit of the 'ceiling' and partly on the whole salary. These contributions are the responsibility of both employer and employee, except in the case of family allowances or industrial injuries, where they are the sole responsibility of the employer. Contributions and benefits paid in 1984 (in 1 m. francs) were: Health service Industrial injuries Old age pensions Family benefits

Contributions 259,258 34,049 135,243 93,948

Benefits 219,476 25,551 123,414 91,561

Self-employed Workers. From 17 Jan. 1948 allowances and old-age pensions were paid to self-employed workers by independent insurance funds set up within their own profession, trade or business. Schemes of compulsory insurance for sickness were instituted in 1961 for farmers and in 1966, with modifications in 1970, for other non-wage-earning workers. Social Insurance. The orders laid down in Aug. 1967 ensure that the whole population can benefit from the Social Security Scheme; at present all elderly persons who have been engaged in the professions, as well as the surviving spouse, are entitled to claim an old-agè benefit; 98% of the population, both working and retired, are covered by a compulsory scheme of insurance for sickness, the remaining 2% who are not covered by a compulsory insurance scheme have been able to participate in a voluntary scheme since 1967; the whole population benefit from the legislation regarding family allowances. Sickness Insurance refunds the costs of treatment required by the insured and the needs of dependants. A decree of 12 Oct. 1976 laid down conditions on which students of 20 or. over at public or private educational institutions, who do not benefit from a social security scheme in their own right, are guaranteed insurance benefits for sickness or maternity, holding their parents entitlement until the end of

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the academic year in which they attain their 21st birthday, provided they have proof that their studies have been interrupted by illness. The general principles relating to medical care consist of: a free choice by the patient of his doctor, his pharmaceutical chemist, his place of treatment, etc.; the medical practitioner is granted freedom of prescription. Reimbursement is not as a rule made in full; the insured person usually pays between 10% and 30% of the legal rate except in cases of exemption. The insured who is recognized as medically unfit for work receives daily allowances equal to half of the wage which has been used to calculate the contributions, or to two-thirds of this if the person has 3 or more children. These allowances may be paid for 3 years, plus 1 additional year if the insured undergoes readaptation treatment or takes up fresh vocational training. Maternity Insurance covers the costs of medical treatment relating to the pregnancy, confinement and lying-in period; the beneficiaries being the insured person or the spouse. The daily allowances are equal to 90% of the salary on which contributions were calculated. Insurance for Invalids is divided into 3 categories: (1) those who are capable of working; (2) those who cannot work; (3) those who, in addition, are in need ofthe help of another person. According to the category, the pension rate varies from 30 to 50% of the average salary for the last 10 years, with additional allowance for home help for the third category. Old-age Pensions for workers were introduced in 1910 and are now fixed by the Social Security Code of28 Jan. 1972. Since 1983 people who have paid insurance for at least 37'/i years (150 quarters) receive at 60 a pension equal to 60% of basic salary. People who have paid insurance for less than 37Vj years but no less than 15 years can expect a pension equal to as many 1/150ths of the full pension as their quarterly payments justify. In the event of death of the insured person, the husband or wife ofthe deceased person receives half the pension received by the latter. Compulsory supplementary schemes ensure benefits equal to 70% of previous earnings. Family Allowances. The system comprises: (a) Family allowances proper, equivalent to 25 • 5% of the basic monthly salary (1,246 francs) for 2 dependent children, 46% for the third child, 41% for the fourth child, and 39% for the fifth and each subsequent child; a supplement equivalent to 9% of the basic monthly salary for the second and each subsequent dependent child more than 10 years old and 16% for each dependent child over 15 years, (b) Family supplement (519 francs) for persons with at least 3 children or one child aged less than 3 years, (c) Antenatal grants, (d) Maternity grant equal to 260% of basic salary; increase for multiple births or adoptions, 198%; increase for birth or adoption of third or subsequent child, 457%. (e) Allowance for specialized education of handicapped children, ( f ) Allowance for orphans, (g) Single parent allowance, (h) Allowance for opening of school term, (i) Allowance for accommodation, under certain circumstances. (J) Minimum family income for those with at least 3 children. Allowances (b), (g), («) and (/) only apply to those whose annual income falls below a specified level. Workmen's Compensation. The law passed by the National Assembly on 30 Oct. 1946 forms part of the Social Security Code and is administered by the Social Security Organization. Employers are invited to take preventive measures. The application of these measures is supervised by consulting engineers (assessors) of the local funds dealing with sickness insurance, who may compel employers who do not respect these measures to make additional contributions; they may, in like manner, grant rebates to employers who have in operation suitable preventive measures. The injured person receives free treatment, the insurance fund reimburses the practitioners, hospitals and suppliers chosen freely by the injured. In cases of temporary disablement the daily payments are equal to half the total daily wage received by the injured. In case of permanent disablement the injured person receives a pension, the amount of which varies according to the degree of disablement and the salary received during the past 12 months. A law promulgated on 11 Oct. 1946 has created a medical labour service of doctors who hold a diploma of 'industrial health specialists'. These doctors are

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entrusted with the control of hygiene and health matters in all industrial undertakings or groups of undertakings. In addition, it is the duty of this medical service to examine wage-earners when they are engaged, to carry out periodical medical examinations and to ensure the application of the existing rules relating to safety in work. Unemployment Benefits vary according to circumstances (full or partial unemployment) which are means-tested. Since 1926 unemployment benefits have been paid from public funds. Full unemployment benefit amounts to 13-50 francs per day for the head of the family and 5-40 francs for the spouse or a dependent person. After 3 months the payment is reduced to 12 -40 francs. A collective agreement signed on 31 Dec. 1958 between the national council of employers and certain trade unions has established a system of special allowances for totally unemployed workers in industry and trade. The costs are shared by employers (2 -76% of wages) and employees (0-84%) and the benefits vary according to circumstances. The system is now governed by the law of 16 Jan. 1979. A similar agreement of 21 Feb. 1968 extends the system to partial unemployment. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of France in Great Britain (58 Knightsbridge, London, SW1X 7JT) Ambassador: Viscomte Luc de la Barre de Nanteuil (accredited 28 Feb. 1986). Of Great Britain in France (35 rue du Faubourg St Honoré, Paris) Ambassador: Sir John Fretwell, KCMG. Of France in the USA (4101 Reservoir Rd., NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: Emmanuel de Margerie. Of the USA in France (2 Ave. Gabriel, Paris) Ambassador: Joe M. Rodgers. Of France to the United Nations Ambassador: Claude de Kemoularia. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Institut national de la Statistique et des Études économiques (18, Boulevard Adolphe Pinard, 75014 Paris) is the central office of statistics. It was established by a law of 27 April 1946, which amalgamated the Service National des Statistiques (created in 1941 by merging the Direction de la Statistique générale de la France and the Service de la Démographie) with the Institut de Conjoncture (set up in 1938) and some statistical services of the Ministry of National Economy. The Institut comprises the following departments: Metropolitan statistics, Overseas statistics, Market research and economic studies, Documentation, Research statistics and economics, Informatics, Foreign Economic Studies. The main publications of the Institut include: Annuaire statistique de la France (from 1878) Annuaire statistique des Territoires d'Outre-Mer (from 1959) Bulletin mensuel de statistique (monthly) Documentation économique (bi-monthly) Données statistiques africaines et Malgaches (quarterly) Economie et Statistique (monthly) Tableaux de l'Economie Française (biennially, from 1956) Tendances de la Conjoncture (monthly) Caron, F., An Economic History of Modem France. London, 1979 Chambers, F. J., France. [Bibliography] London and Santa Barbara, 1984 Crozier, M.,A Strategy for Change: The Future of French Society. MIT Press, 1982 Dyer, C'., Population and Society in Twentieth Century France. London, 1978 Peyrefitte, A., The Trouble with France. New York, 1981 Tuppen, J. N., France. Folkestone, 1981

OVERSEAS DEPARTMENTS On 19 March 1946 the French colonies of Guadeloupe, French Guiana, Martinique and Réunion each became an Overseas Department of France, with the same

GUADELOUPE

495

status as the departments comprising Metropolitan France. The former territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon held a similar status from July 1976 until June 1985, when it became a collectivité territorial.

GUADELOUPE H I S T O R Y . Discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493, the two main islands were then known as Karukera (Isle of Beautiful Waters) to the Carib inhabitants, who resisted Spanish attempts to colonize. A French colony was established on 28 June 1635, and apart from short periods of occupancy by British forces, Guadeloupe has since remained a French possession. On 19 March 1946 Guadeloupe became an Overseas Department; in 1974 it additionally became an administrative region. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Guadeloupe consists of a group of islands in the Lesser Antilles. The two main islands, Basse-Terre to the west and GrandeTerre to the east, are separated by a narrow channel, called Rivière Salée. Adjacent to these are the islands of Marie Galante (Ceyre to the Caribs) to the south-east, La Désirade to the east, and the îles des Saintes to the south. The islands of St Martin and St Barthélémy lie 250 km to the north-west. St Martin 1 St Barthélémy Basse-Terre Grande-Terre îles des Saintes La Désirade Marie-Galante

Area in sq. km 54 21 848 585 14 22 158

Census 1974 6,191 2,491 135,746 159,424 3,084 1,682 15,912

Census 1982 8,072 3,059 141,313 157,696 2,901 1,602 13,757

Chieftown Marigot Gustavia Basse-Terre Pointe-à-Pitre Terre-de-Bas Grande Anse Grand-Bourg

1,702 324,530 328,400 'Northern part only; the southern third belongs to the Netherlands.

Population (estimate, 1986) 330,600. 77% are mulatto, 10% black and 10% mestizo, but the populations of St Barthélémy and Les Saintes are still mainly descended from 17th-century Breton and Norman settlers. French is the official language, but a Creole dialect is spoken by the vast majority. The seat of government is Basse-Terre (15,778 inhabitants) at the south-west end of that island but the largest towns are Pointe-à-Pitre (23,889 inhabitants), the economic centre and main port, and its suburb, Les Abymes. Vital statistics (1984): Births, 6,676; deaths, 2,239. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Guadeloupe is administered by a Conseil Général of 42 members (assisted by an Economic and Social Committee of 40 members) and a Regional Council of 39 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. It is represented in the National Assembly by 4 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators and on the Economic and Social Council by 2 councillors. There are 3 arrondissements, sub-divided into 34 communes, each administered by an elected municipal council. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Maurice Saborin. President of the Conseil Général: Dominique Larifla. President of the Regional Council: Félix Proto. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1983 balanced at 1,633m. francs. Banking. The main commercial banks are the Banque des Antilles Françaises (with 6 branches), the Banque Populaire de la Guadeloupe (with 6 branches), the Banque Nationale de Paris (14 branches), the Crédit Agricole (26), the Banque Française

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Commerciale (8), the Société Generate de Banque aux Antilles (5) and the Chase Manhattan Bank (1). The Caisse Centrale de Coopération économique is the official bank ofthe department and issues its bank-notes. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1985 totalled 273m. kwh. Agriculture. Chief products (1984) are bananas (61,100 tonnes), sugar (613,252 tonnes in 1983), rum (64,883 hectolitres of pure alcohol). Other fruits and vegetables are grown for domestic consumption. 11 -8m. flowers were grown in 1984. Livestock(1985): Cattle, 91,000; goats, 52,000; sheep, 4,000; pigs, 46,000. Forestry. In 1984,51,848 cu. metres of wood were produced. Fisheries. The catch in 1984 was 8,500 tonnes; crustacea (120 tonnes), shell fish (300 tonnes). C O M M E R C E . Trade for 1984 (in lm. francs) was imports 5,231 and exports 751, 59% of imports were from France, while 72% of exports went to France and 16% to Martinique. In 1982 bananas formed 51 -7% of the exports, sugar 14 -7% and rum 7 • 8%. St Martin and St Barthélémy are free ports. Tourism. In 1984 there were 333,000 tourists (58% from France). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 3,500 km of roads. There were 87,785 passenger cars and 33,350 commercial vehicles in 1981. Aviation. Air France and 7 other airlines call at Guadeloupe. In 1984 there were 28,119 arrivals and departures of aircraft and 1,165,566 passengers at Raizet (Pointe-à-Pitre) airport making it the sixth most frequented French airport. Shipping. Guadeloupe is in direct communication with France by means of 12 steam navigation companies. In 1982, 1,159 vessels arrived to disembark 31,078 passengers and 1,074,660 tonnes of freight and to embark 30,646 passengers and 426,535 tonnes of freight. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 47 post offices and 64,916 telephones. RFO broadcasts for 17 hours a day in French and television broadcasts for 6 hours a day. There were (1983) 25,000 radio and (1981) 32,886 TV receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (France-Antilles) with a circulation of 25,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 4 tribunaux d'instance and 2 tribunaux de grande instance at Basse-Terre and Pointe-à-Pitre; there is also a court of appeal and a court of assizes at Basse-Terre. Religion. The majority of the population are Roman Catholic. Education. In 1984 there were 62,303 pupils at 284 primary schools and 45,843 at secondary schools. The University Antilles-Guyane had 4,809 students in 1984-85, of which Guadeloupe itselfhad 1,870. Health. The medical services in 1985 included 11 public hospitals (2,891 beds) and 18 private clinics (1,256 beds). There were 416 physicians, 127 dentists, 127 pharmacists, 70 midwives and 1,131 nursing personnel. Books of Reference Information: Office du Tourisme du départemente, Point-à-Pitre. Director: Eric W. Rotin. Lasserre,G., La Guadeloupe, étude géographique. 2 vols. Bordeaux, 1961

GUIANA

497

GUIANA Guyane Française H I S T O R Y . A French settlement on the island of Cayenne was established in 1604 and the territory between the Maroni and Oyapock rivers finally became a French possession in 1817. Convicts settlements were established from 1852, that on off-shore Devil's Island being most notorious; all were closed by 1945. On 19 March 1946 the status of Guiana was changed to that of an Overseas Department and in 1974 also became an administrative region. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . French Guiana is situated on the north-east coast of South America, and has an area of about 83,533 sq. km (32,252 sq. miles) and a population at the 1982 Census of 73,012, of whom 3,000 were tribal Indians; estimate (1986) 85,800. The chief towns (1982 populations) are Cayenne, the capital (38,135), Kourou (6,465) and Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni (5,042). These figures exclude the floating population of miners, officials and troops. In 1982,43% of the inhabitants were of Creole origin, 14% Chinese, 11% from Metropolitan France and 8% Haitian. Vital statistics (1981): Live births, 2,081 ; deaths, 417. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . French Guiana is administered by a Conseil Général of 19 members and a Regional Council of 31 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. It is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies and in the Senate by 1 senator. TTie French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. There are 2 arrondissements (Cayenne and SaintLaurent-du-Maroni) sub-divided into 20 communes. Commissioner: Bernard Courtois. President of the Conseil Général: Elie Castor. President of the Regional Council: Georges Othily. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1982 balanced at 578m. francs, excluding duplicated items and national expenditure. Banking. The Banque de la Guyane has a capital of 10m. francs and reserve fund of 2-39m. francs. Loans totalled 206m. francs in 1981. Other banks include Banque National de Paris-Guyane and Banque Française Commerciale. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production in 1985 totalled 138m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. Only 10,436 hectares are under cultivation. The crops (1984, in tonnes) consist of rice (3,000), maize (280, 1981); manioc (8,000), bananas (680, 1981) and sugar-cane (12,000) as well as a large variety of other fruits, vegetables and spices. Livestock(1985): 14,000 cattle, 10,000 swine and (1982) 100,000 poultry. Forestry. The country has immense forests (about 66,700 sq. km) rich in many kinds oftimber. Roundwood production (1984) 69,200 cu. metres. Fisheries. The fishing fleet for shrimps comprises 59 US, 22 Japanese and' 11 French boats. The catch in 1982 totalled 4,503 tonnes (of which shrimps comprised 3,227 tonnes), exports 2,750 tonnes. Production of Macrobrachium Rosenbergii (an edible river shrimp) is now established. C O M M E R C E . Trade in lm. francs: Imports Exports

1981 1,355 192

1982 1,643 212

1983 2,137 294

1984 2,158 327

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FRANCE

In 1984,13% ofimports came from Trinidad and Tobago, 55% from France and 3% from the USA, while 41% of exports went to the USA, 18% to Japan and 9% to France. In 1983, shrimps formed 74% of exports and timber, 5%. Total trade between Guiana and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): J m m 3 J m j m ] m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1,956 6,840

853 897

795 3,106

124 1,146

55 1,052

TOU RISM. There were 21,600 tourists in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Three chief and some secondary roads connect the capital with most of the coastal area by motor-car services. There are (1981) 321 km of national and 269 km of departmental roads. In 1981 there were 16,789 passenger cars and 2,013 commercial vehicles. Connexions with the interior are made by waterways which, despite rapids, are. navigable by local craft. Aviation. In 1983, 62,032 passengers and 2,522 tonnes of freight arrived and 63,841 passengers and 1,127 tonnes of freight departed by air at Rochambeau International Airport (Cayenne). There are regular internal flights to 7 other airports. Shipping. The chief ports are: Cayenne, St-Laurent-du-Maroni and Kourou. Dégrad des Cannes, the port of Cayenne, is visited regularly by ships of the Compagnie Général Maritime, the Compagnie Maritime dès Chargeurs Réunis and Marseille Fret. In 1981,594 arrivals and departures of vessels were registered in French Guiana (113,219 tonnes of petroleum products arrived and 165,140 tonnes ofother freight arrived and departed). Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1984), 22,143. There are wireless stations at Cayenne, Oyapoc, Régina, St-Laurent-du-Maroni and numerous other locations. RFO-Guyane (Guiana Radio) broadcasts for 116 hours each week on mediumand short-waves and FM in French. Television is broadcast for 43 hours each week on 7 transmitters. In 1983 there were 40,000 radio and 9,500 TV receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (Presse de la Guyane) with a circulation of 16,000, a bi-weekly paper (France-Guyane) with a circulation of 3,500 and a weekly (Debout Guyane). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. At Cayenne there is a tribunal d'instance and a tribunal de grande instance, from which appeal is to theregionalcour d'appel in Martinique. Religion. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. Primary education has been free since .1889 in lay schools for the two sexes in the communes and many villages. In 1981 public primary schools had 580 teachers and 11,953 pupils, the lycées and collèges d'enseignement secondaire, 510 teachers and 7,277 pupils. Private schools had 119 teachers and 2,528 pupils. The Institut Henri Visioz forms part of the Université des Antilles-Guyane, with 236 students. Health. There were(1981)80 physicians, 14 dentists, 18 pharmacists, 16midwives and 309 nursing personnel. In 1980 there were 5 hospitals with 907 beds and 3 private clinics.

MARTINIQUE HISTORY. Discovered by Columbus in 1493, the island was known to its inhabitants as Madinina, from which its present name was corrupted. A French colony

499

MARTINIQUE

was established in 1635 and, apart from brief periods of British occupation, has since remained under French control. On 19 March 1946 its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department, and in 1974 it also became an administrative region. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The island, situated in the Lesser Antilles between Dominica and St Lucia, occupies an area of 1,079 sq. km (417 sq. miles). The total population, 1982 Census, was 326,717 (estimate, 1985, 327,716), of whom 97,814 lived in Fort-de-France, the capital and chief commercial town, which has a landlocked harbour nearly 40 sq. km in extent. French is the official language, but the majority of the population use a Creole dialect. Vital statistics (1985): Live births 5,722; deaths 2,257; marriages 1,331. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND GOVERNMENT. The island is administered by a Conseil Général of 44 members and a Regional Council of 41 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. There are 3 arrondissements, sub-divided into 34 communes, each administered by an elected municipal council. Martinique is represented in the National Assembly by 4 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators and on the Economic and Social Council by 2 councillors. Commissioner: Edouard Lacroix. President of the Conseil Général: Émile Maurice. President of the Conseil Régional: Aimé Cesaire. ECONOMY Budget. The budget, 1985, balanced at 1,738m. francs. Banking. The Institut d'Émission des Départements d'Outre-mer is the official bank of the department. The Caisse Centrale de Coopération économique is used by the Government in assisting the economic development of the department. The Banque des Antilles Françaises (with a capital of 32-5m. francs), the Crédit Martiniquais (30-4m. francs), the Société Générale de Banque aux Antilles (15m. francs), the Banque Française Commerciale (49m. francs), the Banque Nationale de Paris, Crédit Agricole and the Chase Manhattan Bank are operating at Fort-deFrance. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1985 totalled 423m. kwh. Agriculture. Bananas, sugar and rum are the chief products, followed by pineapples, food and vegetables. In 1984 there were 4,100 hectares under sugarcane, 7,300 hectares under bananas and 800 hectares under pineapples. Production (1985): Sugar, 8,610 tonnes; industrial rum, 3,260 hectolitres; agricultural rum, 74,514 hectolitres; cane for sugar, 90,200 tonnes; cane for rum, 108,253 tonnes; bananas (1984) 185,000 tonnes; pineapples (1984) 23,000 tonnes. Livestock (1985): 52,000 cattle, 73,000 sheep, 42,000 pigs, 27,000 goats and 1,000 horses. Forestry. Production (1983) 11,000 eu. m. Forests comprise 26% of the land area. Fisheries. The catch in 1983 was 5,174 tonnes. C O M M E R C E . Trade in lm. francs: Imports Exports

1982 4,943 1,016

1983 5,672 1,314

1984 5,983 1,351

1985 6,050 1,456

In 1984 the main items of import were crude petroleum and foodstuffs; main items of export were petroleum products (29%), bananas (38%) and rum (7%); 54% of imports came from France and 54% of exports went to France and 36% to Guadeloupe.

500

FRANCE

Total trade of Martinique with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 34 2,400

1983 35 3,029

1984 229 2,980

1985 126 2,776

1986 14 21,230

Tourism. In 1985 there were 158,929 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 7 km of motorway, 260 km of national roads, 618 km of district roads and 755 km of local roads. In 1985 there were 8,179 passenger cars and 1,828 commercial vehicles registered. Aviation. In 1985,815,261 passengers arrived and departed by air. Shipping. The island is visited regularly by French and American steamers. In 1984,4,954 vessels called at Martinique. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1985, 46 post offices and, 81,985 telephones. Radio-telephone service to Europe is available. In 1984 there were 46,000 radio and 42,500 TV receivers. Newspapers. In 1987 there was 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of30,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by 2 tribunaux d'instance, a tribunal de grande instance, a regional court of appeal, a commercial court, a court of assizes and an administrative court. Religion. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 years. In 1984-85, there were 54,132 pupils in primary schools, 44,426 pupils in secondary schools, 2,144 pupils in technical schools and 3,460 students at the teachertraining college. The Institut Henri Visioz, which forms part of the Centre Universitaire Antilles-Guyane, had(1983) 1,299 students. Health. There were (1982)16 hospitals with 3,671 beds and in 198 5 there were 544 physicians, 155 pharmacists and 127 dentists. Books of Reference Annuaire statistique I.N.S.E.E. 1977-80. Martinique, 1982 La Martinique en quelques chiffres. Martinique, 1982 Guide Economique des DO.M.-TO.M., Paris, 1982

RÉUNION HISTORY. Réunion (formerly Ile Bourbon) became a French possession in 1638 and remained so until 19 March 1946, when its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department; in 1974 it also became an administrative region. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The island of Réunion lies in the Indian Ocean, about 640 km east of Madagascar and 180 km south west of Mauritius. It has an area of 2,512 sq. km (968-5 sq. miles) and population of 515,798 (March 1982 census), estimate (1986) 552,500. The capital is Saint-Denis (1982 census) 109,068. Most inhabitants speak a Creole language, but French is official and Gujurati is also spoken. Vital statistics (1985): Live births, 13,111; deaths, 3,050. The small islands of Juan de Nova, Europa, Bassas da India, îles Glorieuses and Tromelin, with a combined area of 32 sq. km, are all uninhabited and lie at various points in the Indian Ocean adjacent to Madagascar. They remained French after

501

RÉUNION

Madagascar's independence in 1960, and are now administered by Réunion. Both Mauritius and the Seychelles claim Tromelin (transferred by the UK from the Seychelles to France in 1954), and Madagascar claims all 5 islands. C L I M A T E . A sub-tropical maritime climate, free from extremes of weather, though the island lies in the cyclone belt of the Indian Ocean. Conditions are generally humid and there is no well-defined dry season. Saint-Denis. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 70"F (21 • 1 °C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,400 mm). CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. The island is administered by a Conseil Général of 36 members and a Regional Council of 45 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. Réunion is represented in the National Assembly by 5 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators, and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. There are 4 arrondissements, sub-divided into 24 communes each administered by an elected municipal council. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Jean Anciaux. President of the Conseil Général: Auguste Legros. President of the Conseil Régional: Pierre Lagourgue. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1984 balanced at 2,265m. French francs. Banking. The Institut d'émission des Départements d'Outre-mer has the right to issue bank-notes. Banks operating in Réunion are the Banque de la Réunion (Crédit Lyonnais), the Banque Nationale de Paris Internationale, the Caisse Régionale de Crédit Agricole Mutuel de la Réunion, the Banque Française Commerciale (BFC) CCP, Trésorerie Générale, and the Banque de la Réunion pour l'Economie et la Développement. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 562m. kwh. Agriculture (1984). The chief produce is sugar (246,404 tonnes), molasses (69,353 tonnes), bananas (5,079 tonnes), rum (98,037 hectolitres), maize (10,392 tonnes), potatoes (3,531 tonnes), onions (1,831 tonnes), mangoes (3,462 tonnes in 1983), pineapples (4,000 tonnes), tomatoes (3,154 tonnes), vanilla (168 tonnes), essences and tobacco. Livestock (1985): 20,000 cattle, 71,490 pigs, 3,000 sheep, 43,000 goats and 4m. poultry. Forestry. There were (1985) 103,330 hectares of forest. Roundwood production (1983) 33,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1985 the catch was 2,180 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry (1985). Total number of workers (in 418 firms employing 10 or more) 16,000. The sugar industry employed 2,900. Commerce. Trade in 1 m. French francs: Imports Exports

1980 3,749 554

1981 4,282 573

1982 5,304 668

1983 6,490 875

1984 6,895 817

1985 7,350

The chief export is sugar, forming (1984) 75% by value. In 1984 (by value) 65% of imports were from, and 55% of exports to, France. Total trade between Réunion and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in

£1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 74 2,889

1983 73 3,684

1984 407 3,327

1985 1,391 4,081

1986 12,259 4,225

502

FRANCE

Tourism. There were 78,952 tourists in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1984, 1,711 km of roads. There were 92,900 registered vehicles in 1984. Railways. In 1984 there were 614 km of railways serving only the sugar plantations. Aviation. Air France maintains an air service 6 times a week. In 1985, 210,121 passengers and 6,625 tonnes of freight arrived and 210,764 passengers and 3,666 tonnes of freight departed at Saint-Denis-Gillot airport. Shipping. Four shipping lines serve the island. In 1985, 362 vessels visited the island to discharge 1-lm. tonnes of freight and 1,900 passengers, and load 340,000 tonnes of freight and 1,900 passengers at Pointe-des-Galets. Post and Broadcasting. There are telephone and telegraph connexions with Mauritius, Madagascar and metropolitan France. There are 38 post offices and a central telephone office; number of telephones ( 1984), 85,861. France Régions 3 broadcast in French on medium- and short-waves for more than 18 hours a day. There are 2 television channels broadcasting for 70 hours a week. In 1984 there were 114,500 radio and 107,500 TV receivers. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 2 5 cinemas with a seating capacity of 10,200. Newspapers. There were (1985) 3 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 70,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 3 tribunaux d'instance, 2 tribunaux de grande instance, 1 Cour d'Appel, 1 tribunal administratifand 2 conseils de prud'homme. Religion. The vast majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. Secondary education is provided in (1983-84) 6 lycées, 50 collèges, and 9 lycées d'enseignement technique with 66,653 pupils altogether and in 13 private secondary schools with 3,407 pupils. Primary education is given in 336 public schools with 4,018 teachers and 106,437 pupils; and in 28 private schools, with 306 teachers, and 8,827 pupils. The Université Française de l'Océan Indien (founded 1971 ) had 2,674 students and 82 teaching staff in 1984. Health. In 1984 there were 21 hospitals with 3,879 beds; in 1984 there were 762 physicians, 183 dentists, 180 pharmacists, 102 midwives and 1,791 nursing personnel. Books of Reference Bulletin de l'Académie de la Réunion. Biennial Bulletin de la Chambre d'Agriculture de ta Réunion Panorama de l'Economie de la Reunion. 1983 Statistiques et Indicateurs Economiques. 1983

TERRITORIAL COLLECTIVITIES MAYOTTE HISTORY. Mayotte was a French colony from 1843 until 1914, when it was attached, with the other Comoro islands, to the government-general of Madagascar. The Comoro group was granted administrative autonomy within the French Republic and became an Overseas Territory. When the other 3 islands voted to become independent (as the Comoro state) in 1974, Mayotte voted against this and remained a French dependency. In Dec. 1976, it became (following a further referendum) a collectivité territoriale.

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MAYOTTE

AREA A N D POPULATION. Mayotte, east of the Comoro Islands, consists of a main island (362 sq. km) with 57,363 inhabitants at the 1985 Census, containing the chief town, Mamoundzou (12,119); and the smaller island of Pamanzi (11 sq. km) lying 2 km to the east, with 9,775 inhabitants in 1985, containing the old capital of Dzaoudzi (5,675). TTie whole territory covers 373 sq. km (144 sq. miles) and had a 1985 Census population of67,138; estimate (1986) 70,600. The spoken language is Mahorian (akin to Comoran, an Arabized dialect of Swahili), but French remains the official and commercial language. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. The island is administered by a Conseil Général of 17 members, directly elected for a 6-year term. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Mayotte is represented by 1 deputy in the National Assembly and by 1 member in the Senate. There are 17 communes, including 2 on Pamanzi. Commissioner: Christian Pellerin. President of the Conseil Général: Younoussa Bamana. ECONOMY Budget. In 1984, revenue was 137- lm. francs (44% being subsidies from France) and expenditure 148 -4m. francs. The 1985 Budget balanced at 313m. francs. Currency. Since Feb. 1976 the currency has been the (metropolitan) French franc. Banking. The Institut d'Emission d'Outre-mer and the Banque Française Commerciale both have branches in Dzaoudzi. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1982) 5m. kwh. Agriculture. The main food crops (1983 production in tonnes) are mangoes (1,500), bananas (1,300), breadfruit (700), cassava (500) and pineapples (200). The chief cash crops are ylang-ylang, vanilla, coffee, copra, cinnamon and cloves. Livestock (1982): Cattle, 3,000; goats, 10,000; pigs, 2,000. Fisheries. A lobster and shrimp industry has recently been created. Annual catch is about 2,000 tonnes. C O M M E R C E . In 1984, exports totalled 34m. francs (57% to France in 1983) and imports 182-8m. francs (53% from France). Ylang-ylang formed 48% of exports, vanilla 33% and coffee 12%. Total trade between Mayotte and UK (1984): Imports to UK, £67,000 and exports and re-exports from UK, £343,000. Total trade between Mayotte and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 61 343

1985 22 2,000

1986 9 506

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 93 km of main roads and 137 km of local roads, with 1,528 motor vehicles. Aviation. In 1984, 15,570 passengers and 162 tonnes of freight arrived and departed by air. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 6,000 radio receivers. Telephones (1981)400. Newspapers. There is 1 daily newspaper, le Journal de Mayotte. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a tribunal d'instance and a tribunal supérieur d'appel.

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Religion. The population is 97% Sunni Moslem, with a small Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) minority. Education. In 1984 there were 14,992 pupils and 407 teachers in 72 primary schools; 1,374 pupils in 1 secondary school; and 475 students in 2 technical and teacher-training establishments. Health. In 1980 there were 9 doctors, 1 dentist, 1 pharmacist, 2 midwives and 51 nursing personnel. In 1981 there were 2 hospitals with 86 beds.

ST PIERRE A N D MIQUELON îles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon HISTORY. The tiny remaining fragment of the once extensive French possessions in North America, the archipelago was settled from France in the 17th century and finally became a French territory from 1816 until July 1976, when its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department. In June 1985 it became a collectivité territoriale. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The archipelago consists of 8 small islands off the south coast of Newfoundland, with a total area of242 sq. km, comprising the Saint-Pierre group (26 sq. km) and the Miquelon-Langlade group (216 sq. km). The population (census, 1982) was 6,041 of whom 5,415 were on SaintPierre and 626 on Miquelon; estimate (1986) 6,300. The chief town is St Pierre. Vital statistics (1985): Births, 95; marriages, 32; deaths, 50. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The dependency is administered by a Conseil Général of 14 members, directly elected for a 6-year term. It is represented in the National Assembly by 1 deputy, in the Senate by 1 senator and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Bernard Leurquin. President of the Conseil Général: Marc Plantegenest. ECONOMY Budget. The ordinary budget for 1985 balanced at 50m. francs. Banking. Banks include the Banque des îles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon and the Crédit Saint-Pierrais. ENERGY AND N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1983) 35m. kwh. Agriculture. The islands, being mostly barren rock, are unsuited for agriculture, but some vegetables are grown and livestock kept for local consumption. Fisheries. The catch (the islands' main industry) amounted in 1983 to 10,099 tonnes, chiefly cod. C O M M E R C E . Trade in 1,000 tonnes and 1,000 francs: Imports Exports

Quantity

47-7 4-3

1980

Value

177,203 24,213

Quantity

58-6 4-9

1981

Value

220,910 38,658

Quantity

58-6 3-6

1982

Value

275,390 41,045

In 1981,66% of imports came from Canada and 28% from France, while 58% of exports were to USA, 17% to France and 11 % to UK. The main exports are fish (88%), shellfish (6%) and fishmeal (5%).

OVERSEAS

505

TERRITORIES

Total trade between St Pierre and Miquelon and UK (British Department of Trade returns in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK.

1982 254 363

1983 578 250

1984 743 523

1985 497 370

1986 474 367

Tourism. There were (1985) 11,508 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 120 km of roads, of which 60 km were paved. In 1981 there were about 1,637 passenger cars and 531 commercial vehicles. Aviation. Air Saint-Pierre connects the department with Halifax and Sydney (Nova Scotia), and there are occasional flights to and from St John's (Newfoundland), Gander and New York. Shipping. St Pierre is in regular motor-vessel communication with North Sydney, Fortune (Newfoundland) and Halifax. In 1980, about 47,600 tonnes of freight were unloaded and 4,250 tonnes loaded. 1,033 ships (615,176 gross tonnage) enfereff the harbour in 1981. Post and Broadcasting. There were 3,601 telephones in 1983. RFO broadcasts in French on medium-waves. St Pierre is connected by radio-telecommunication with most countries of the world. Radio licences totalled 4,400 and TV 3,800 in 1985. Cinemas. There were (1983)2 cinemas with a seating capacity of760. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a tribunal de premier instance and a tribunal supérieur d'appel at St Pierre. Religion. The population is chiefly Roman Catholic. Education. Primary instruction is free. There were, in 1986-87, 8 nursery and primary schools with 934 pupils and 4 secondary schools (including 2 technical schools) with 785 pupils. Health. There was (1983) 1 hospital on St Pierre with 100 beds; 11 doctors and 2 dentists. Books of Reference De Curton, E., Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Paris, 1944 DeLaRiie,E. A., Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Paris, 1963 Ribault, J. Y., Histoire de Saint-Pierre et Miquelon: Des Origines à 1814. St Pierre, 1962

OVERSEAS TERRITORIES Among the 7 French Overseas Territories remaining since Algerian independence in 1962, the Comoro Islands declared their independence on 6 July 1975 (recognized by France on 31 Dec.), but the island of Mayotte remained French and in Dec. 1976 was classed as a 'territorial collectivity*. TTie territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon became a fifth Overseas Department in July 1976, but in June 1985 it acquired the same status as Mayotte. The former French Somaliland (subsequently Territory of the Afars and Issas) became independent on 27 June 1977 as the Republic of Djibouti. The remaining French Overseas Territories are New Caledonia (with its dependancies), French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, and the French Southern and Antarctic Territories.

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SOUTHERN A N D ANTARCTIC TERRITORIES Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises TheTerritoryofthe TAAF was created on 6 Aug. 1955. It comprises the Kerguelen and Crozet archipelagoes, the islands of Saint Paul and Amsterdam (formerly Nouvelle Amsterdam), all in the southern Indian ocean, and Terre Adélie. The Administrator is assisted by a 7-member consultative council which meets twice yearly in Paris; its members are nominated by the Government for 5 years. The 12 members of the Scientific Council are appointed by the Senior Administrator after approval by the Minister in charge of scientific research. A 15-member Consultative Committee on the Environment, created in Nov. 1982, meets at least once a year to discuss all problems relating to the preservation of the environment. The administration has its seat in Paris. Administrateur supérieur: Vice-Adm. Claude Piéri. There are 4 postal agencies; the TAAF has its own postage stamps. The scientific stations of the TAAF which took an important part in the International Geophvsical Year, 1956-58, have been made permanent; the staff of the French bases (210 in 1985) is renewed annually and forms the only population. Kerguelen islands, situated 48-50° S. lat., 68-70" E. long., consists of 1 large and 85 smaller islands and over 200 islets and rocks with a total area of 7,215 sq. km (2,786 sq. miles), of which Grande Terre occupies 6,675 sq. km (2,577 sq. miles). It was discovered in 1772 by Yves de Kerguelen, but was effectively occupied by France only in 1949. Port-aux-Français has several scientific research stations (100 members). Reindeer, trout and sheep have been acclimatized. Crozet islands, situated 46" S. lat., 50-52* E. long., consists of 5 larger and 15 tiny islands, with a total area of 505 sq. km (195 sq. miles); the western group includes Apostles, Pigs and Penguins islands; the eastern group, Possession and Eastern islands. The archipelago was discovered in 1772 by Marion Dufresne, whose mate, Crozet, annexed it for Louis XV. A meteorological and scientific station (40 members) at Base Alfred-Faure on Possession Island[was built in 1964. Amsterdam Island and Saint-Paul Island, situated 38-39° S. lat., 77° E. long. Amsterdam, with an area of 54 sq. km (21 sq. miles) was discovered in 1522 by Magellan's companions; Saint-Paul, lying about 100 km to the south, with an area of 7 sq. km (2-7 sq. miles), was probably discovered in 1559 by Portuguese sailors. Both were first visited in 1633 by the Dutch explorer, Van Diemen, and were annexed by France in 1843. They are both extinct volcanoes. The only inhabitants are at Base Martin de Vivies, established in 1949 on Amsterdam Island, with several scientific research stations, hospital, communication and other facilities (40 members). Crayfish are caught commercially on Amsterdam. Terre Adélie comprises that section of the Antarctic continent between 136° and 142° E. long., south of 60° S. lat. The ice-covered plateau has an area of about 432,000 sq. km (166,800 sq. miles), and was discovered in 1840 by Dumont d'Urville. A research station (30 members) is situated at Base Dumont d'Urville, which is maintained by the French Polar Expeditions. Book of Reference T.A.A.F. Revue trimestrielle. Paris, 1957 fT.

NEW CALEDONIA Nouvelle Calédonie et Dépendances HISTORY. New Caledonia was annexed by France in 1853 and, together with most of its former dependencies, became an Overseas Territory in 1958.

NEW C A L E D O N I A

507

AREA AND POPULATION. The territory comprises the island of New Caledonia and various outlying islands, all situated in the south-west Pacific with a total land area of 18,576 sq. km (7,172 sq. miles). In 1983 the population (census) was 145,368, including 53,974 Europeans (majority French), 61,870 Melanesians (Kanaks), 7,700 Vietnamese and Indonesians, 5,570 Polynesians, 12,174 Wallisians, 4,080 others; 1986 (estimate) 151,400. The capital, Nouméa had (1983) 60,112 inhabitants. Vital statistics (1985): Live births, 3,525; deaths, 865. The main islands are: 1. The island of New Caledonia with an area of 16,372 sq. km, has a total length of about 400 km, and an average breadth of 50 km, and a population (census, 1983) of 127,885. The east coast is predominantly Melanesian, the Nouméa region predominantly French, and the rest of the west coast of mixed population. 2. The Loyalty Islands, 100 km (60 miles) east of New Caledonia, consisting of 3 large islands, Maré, Lifou and Uvéa, and many small islands with a total area of 1,981 sq. km and a population (census, 1983) of 15,510, nearly all Melanesians except on Uvéa, which is partly Polynesian. The chief culture in the islands is that of coconuts: the chief export, copra. 3. The Isle of Pines, 50 km (30 miles) to the south-east of Nouméa, with an area of 152 sq. km and a population of 1,287 (census 1983), is a tourist and fishing centre. 4. The Bélep Archipelago, about 50 km north-west of New Caledonia, with an area of 70 sq. km and a population of686 (census 1983). The remaining islands are all very small and none have permanent inhabitants, although many were formerly exploited for their guano deposits. The largest are the Chesterfield Islands, a group of 11 well-wooded coral islets with a combined area of 10 sq. km, about 550 km west of the Bélep Archipelago. The Huon Islands, a group of 4 barren coral islets with a combined area ofjust 65 hectares, are 225 km north of the Bélep Archipelago. Walpole, a limestone coral island of 1 sq. km, lies 150 km east of the Isle of Pines; Matthew Island (20 hectares) and Hunter Island (2 sq. km), respectively 250 km and 330 km east of Walpole, are spasmodically active volcanic islands also claimed by Vanuatu. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Following constitutional changes introduced by the French government in Sept. 1985, the Territory is administered by a 5-member Executive Council consisting of the President of the Territorial Congress (as President) and the Presidents of the 4 Regional Councils which were elected on 29 Sept. 1985. The French government is represented by an appointed High Commissioner. There is a 46-member Territorial Congress consisting of the complete membership of the 4 Regional Councils, which has replaced the former 42-member Territorial Assembly. The Rassemblement Pour la Calédonie dans la République (Gaullists) gained 25 seats, the Front de Libération Nationale Kanake Socialiste (nationalists) 16 seats and others 5 seats. New Caledonia is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies, in the Senate by 1 senator and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. The Territory is divided into 4 regions (Nord, Centre-Sud-Est, Nouméa and Iles Loyauté), each under a directly-elected Regional Council. They are sub-divided into 32 communes administered by locally-elected councils and mayors. High Commissioner: Jean Montpezat. President ofthe Executive Council: Dick Ukeiwé. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1986 balanced at 38,690m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFP francs 18-18 to the French franc. Banking. There are branches of the Banque de Iridosuez, the Banque Nationale de Paris, the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas, and the Société Générale, and the Banque de la Nouvelle-Calédonie (Crédit Lyonnais).

508

FRANCE

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1985, production totalled 1,077m. kwh. Minerals. The mineral resources are very great; nickel, chrome and iron abound; silver, gold, cobalt, lead, manganese, iron and copper have been mined at different times. The nickel deposits are of special value, being without arsenic. Production of nickel ore in 1985,3 -63m. tonnes and chrome ore 149,746 tonnes. About 3,270 sq. km of mining land are owned, and 300 sq. km have been granted for exploitation. In 1985 the fiirnaces produced 8,905 tonnes of matte nickel and 36,103 tonnes of ferro-nickel. Agriculture. 271,864 hectares are pasture land; about 10,03 5 hectares are commercially cultivated. The chief agricultural products are beef, pork, poultry, coffee, copra, maize, fruit and vegetables. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 122,000; pigs, 40,000; goats, 18,000. Fisheries. The catch in 1984 totalled6,015 tonnes. Forestry. There are about 250,000 hectares of forest. Roundwood production (1983) 12,000 cu. metres. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Local industries include chlorine and oxygen plants, cement, soft drinks, barbed wire, nails, pleasure and fishing boats, clothing, pasta, household cleaners and confectionery. Labour. The working population (1983 census) was 58,000 of whom 19,700 worked in agriculture. Commerce. Imports and exports in 1 m. francs CFP for 5 years: Imports Exports

1981 40,434 33,435

1982 43,735 27,707

1983 42,201 22,035

1984 49,605 33,452

1985 55,931 43,938

In 1985,45 -6% of the imports came from France and 8-1% from Australia, while 69-6% of the exports went to France and most of the rest to Japan. Refined minerals (mainly ferro-nickel and nickel) formed 72% of exports by value, nickel ore 11-4% and chrome ore 3 • 5%. Tourism. In 1985 there were 51,190 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1984,6,273 km of roads, of which 1,867 were paved. There were(1985)42,207 vehicles. Aviation. New Caledonia is connected by air routes with France (by UTA), Australia (UTA and Qantas), New Zealand (UTA and Air New Zealand), Fiji and Wallis and Futuna (by Air Cal International), Vanuatu and Tahiti (by UTA), and Nauru (by Air Nauru). In 1985,86,073 passengers arrived and 90,600 departed via La Tontouta airport, near Nouméa. Internal services connect Nouméa with 17 domestic air fields. Shipping. In 1985,350 vessels entered Nouméa unloading 731,000 tonnes of goods and loading 1,605,000 tonnes. A new harbour for deep-water alongside discharge was completed in 1974. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1985) 52 post offices and telex, telephone, radio and television services. There were (1983) 30,578 telephones. RFO broadcasts in French on medium- and short-wave radio (there are also 4 private stations) and on 1 television channel 50 hpurs a week. Number of receivers (1983): radio, 78,000; TV, 30,000. Cinemas. In 1985 there were 9 cinemas. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of 16,000 and 16 other periodicals.

F R E N C H POLYNESIA

509

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Tribunal de Grande Instance and a Cour d'Appel in Nouméa. Religion. In 1980 over 72% of the population was Roman Catholic, 16% Protestant and 4% Moslem. Education. In 1985, there were 31,589 pupils and 1,529 teachers in primary schools, 12,481 pupils in 45 secondary schools, 5,429 students in 28 technical and vocational schools, and 761 students and 63 teaching staff in 5 higher education establishments. Health. In 1985 there were 194 physicians, 33 dentists, 42 pharmacists, 27 midwives and 823 paramedical personnel. In 1985,5 hospitals and 25 dispensaries had a total of 991 beds. Books of Reference Journal Officiel de la Nouvelle Calédotiie et Dépendances Annuaire Statistique de la Nouvelle Calédonie et Dépendances Tableaux de l'Economie Calédonienne, 1983-1985

FRENCH POLYNESIA Territoire de la Polynésie Française HISTORY. French protectorates since 1843, these islands were annexed to France 1880-82 to form 'French Settlements in Oceania', which opted in Nov. 1958 for the status of an Overseas Territory within the French Community. AREA A N D POPULATION. The total land area of these 5 archipelagoes, scattered over a wide area in the Eastern Pacific is 3,521 sq. km (1,359 sq. miles). The population, Census, 1983, was 166,753; estimate (1986) 180,000. The islands are administratively divided into 5 circonscriptions: 1. The Windward Islands (îles du Vent) (123,069 inhabitants in 1983) comprise Tahiti with an area of 1,042 sq. km and 115,820 inhabitants; Moorea with an area of 132 sq. km and 7,000 inhabitants; Maio (Tubuai Manu) with an area of 9 sq. km and 200 inhabitants, and the smaller Mehetia and Tetiaoro. The capital is Papeete (78,814 inhabitants including suburbs). 2. The Leewaid Islands (lies sous le Vent), comprise the volcanic islands of Raiatéa, Tahaa, Huahine, Bora-Bora and Maupiti, together with 4 small atolls, the group having a total land area of404 sq. km and 19,060 inhabitants in 1983. The chief town is Uturoa on Raiatéa. The Windward and Leeward Islands together are called the Society Archipelago (Archipel de la Société). Tahitian, a Polynesian language, is spoken throughout the archipelago and used as a lingua franca in the rest of the territory. 3. The Ttaunotu Archipelago, consisting of two parallel ranges of 78 atolls lying north and east of the Society Archipelago, have a total area of690 sq. km; the most populous atolls are Rangiroa, Hao and Turéia. Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls in the south-east of the group have been used by France for nuclear tests since 1966, having been ceded to France in 1964 by the Territorial Assembly. The circonscription (total 11,793 inhabitants) also includes the Gambier Islands further east (of which Mangareva is the principal), with an area of 36 sq. km and a population of5 56 ( 1977); the chief centre is Rikitea on Mangareva. 4. The Austral or Ttibuai Islands, lying south of the Society Archipelago, comprise a 1,300 km chain of volcanic islands and reefs. They include Rimatara, Rurutu, Tubuai, Raivaevae and, 500 km to the south, Rapa-Iti, with a combined area of 148 sq. km and 6,283 inhabitants; the chief centre is Mataura on Tubuai. 5. The Marquesas Islands, lying north of the Tuamotu Archipelago, with a total

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FRANCE

area of 1,049 sq. km and 6,548 inhabitants, comprise Nuku-Hiva, Ua Pu, Ua Huka, Hiva-Oa, Tahuata, Fatu-Hiva and 4 smaller (uninhabited) islands; the chief centre is Taiohae on Nukuhiva. Vital statistics (1984): Births, 5,016; marriages, 1,099; deaths, 818. C L I M A T E . Papeete. Jan. 8 T F (27- 1°C), July 75°F (24°C). Annual rainfall 83" (2,106 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the 1984 Constitution, the Territory is administered by a Council of Ministers, whose President is elected by the Territorial Assembly from among its own members; he appoints a VicePresident and 9 other ministers. There is an advisory Economic and Social Committee. French Polynesia is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies, in the Senate by 1 senator, and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. The French government is represented by a High Commissioner. The Territorial Assembly comprises 41 members elected every 5 years by universal suffrage. At the elections held in March 1986, the Tahoeraa Huiraatiraa (Gaullists) won 22 seats, the Amuitahiraa No Porinesia 5 seats, Nationalists 5 seats and others 9 seats. High Commissioner: Pierre Angeli. President ofthe Council of Ministers: Gaston Flosse. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, red, with the white of double width containing the emblem of French Polynesia in yellow. ECONOMY Budget. The ordinary budget for 1986 balanced at 51,600m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFPfrancs 18-18 to the French franc. Banking. There are 5 commercial banks, the Bank Indosuez, the Bank of Tahiti, the Banque de Polynésie, Paribas Pacifique and Société de Crédit et de Développement de l'Océanie. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production in 1985 (Tahiti only) amounted to 203m. kwh (16% hydroelectric). Agriculture. An important product is copra (coconut trees covering the coastal plains of the mountainous islands and the greater part of the low-lying islands), production (1985) 13,442 tonnes. Tropical fruits, such as bananas, pineapples, oranges, etc., are grown only for local consumption. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 10,000; horses, 2,000; pigs, 34,000; sheep, 2,000; goats, 3,000; poultry, lm. Fisheries. The catch in 1985 amounted to 1,868 tonnes offish. C O M M E R C E . Trade in lm. francs CFP: Imports Exports

1981 54,843 2,861

1982 62,307 3,349

1983 74,231 4,823

1984 85,476 5,084

1985 88,939 6,564

Total trade between the French possessions in the Pacific and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 93 2,601

1984 2 3,276

1985 23 3,961

1986 95 4,890

Chief exports are coconut oil and cultured pearls. In 1983, France provided 46% of imports and USA 16%, while 68% of exports went to France.

WALLIS A N D F U T U N A

511

Tourism. Tourism is very important, earning almost half as much as the visible exports. There were 122,086 tourists in 1985 (50% from the USA). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 798 km of roads and (1985) 5,374 registered vehicles. Aviation. Seven international airlines connect Tahiti with Paris, Los Angeles and many Pacific locations. There is also a regular air service between Faaa airport (on Tahiti), Moorea and the Leeward Isles with occasional connexions to the other groups. In 1985, 154,504 international passengers arrived and 152,567 departed via tne airports at Faaa and on Moorea. Thirty other airfields have regular domestic services. Shipping. Several shipping companies connect France, San Francisco, New Zealand, Japan, Australia, South East Asia and most Pacific locations with Papeete. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1985), 28,192. Radio Tele Tahiti belongs to Société de Radiodiffusion et de Télévisiçnj?our l'Outre-mer (RFO) and broadcasts in French, Tahitian and English on médium- and short-waves and also broadcasts 1 television programme via 5 transmitters. There are also 9 private radio stations. Number of receivers ( 1983): radio, 77,000; TV,25,50Q. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 8 cinemas in Papeete. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 3 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 23,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. There is a tribunal de grande instance and a cour d'appel at Papeete. Religion. In 1980 it was estimated that 46-5% of the inhabitants were Protestants, 39-4% Roman Catholic and 5 • 1 % Mormon. Education. Education was reorganized in 1975. There were, in 1985-86, 41,107 pupils in 254 primary schools, 13,372 pupils in secondary schools, and 3,944 pupils in technical schools and teacher-training colleges. Health. There were (1980) 143 physicians, 47 dentists, 20 pharmacists, 15 midwives and 257 nursing personnel. There was (1983) a main hospital at Mamao (on Tahiti), 7 secondary hospitals, and 12 medical centres with 903 hospital beds. D E P E N D E N C Y . The uninhabited Clipperton Island, 1,000 km off thé west coast of Mexico, is administered by the High Commissioner for French Polynesia but does not form part of the Territory; it is an atoll with an area of 5 sq. km. Books of Reference Journal Officiel des Etablissements Françaises de l'Océanie, and Supplement Containing Statistics of Commerce and Navigation. Papeete Andrews, E., Comparative Dictionary of the Tahitian Language. Chicago, 1944 Bounds, J. H„ Tahiti. Bend, Oregon, 1978 Luke, Sir Harry, The Islands of the South Pacific. London, 1961 O'Reilly, P., and Reitman, E., Bibliographie de Tahiti et de la Polynésie française. Paris, 1967 O'Reilly, P., and Teissier, R., Tahitiens. Répertoire bio-bibliographique de la Polynésie française. Paris, 1963

WALLIS A N D FUTUNA H I S T O R Y . French dependencies since 1842, the inhabitants of these islands voted on 22 Dec. 1959 by an overwhelming majority in favour of exchanging their status to that of an Overseas Territory, which took effect from 29 July 1961. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Territory comprises two groups of islands

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FRANCE

(total area 274 sq. km) in the central Pacific, The îles de Hoorn lie 240 km northeast of Fiji and consist of 2 main islands-Futunà (64 sq. km) and uninhabited Alofi (SI sq. km). The Wallis Archipelago lies another 160 km further north-east, and comprises one main island - Uvea (159 sq. km), with a surrounding coral reef: The capital is Mata-Utu (815 inhabitants, 1983) on Uvea. The resident population (census March 1982) was 11,943 (estimate, 1986, 13,500), comprising 7,843 on Uvea and 4,100 on Futuna. About 12,000 Wallisians and Futunians live abroad, mainly in New Caledonia. Wallisian and Futunian are distinct Polynesian languages. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Senior Administrator carries out the duties of Head of the Territory, assisted by a 20-member Territorial Assembly directly elected for a 5-year term. The territory is represented by 1 deputy in the National Assembly, by 1 senator in the Senate, and by 1 member on the Economic and Social Council. There are 3 districts: Singave and Alo (both on Futuna) and Wallis. Administrateur supérieur: Robert Thil. President of the Territorial Assembly: Falakiko Gata. ECONOMY Budget. The 1982 budget provided for expenditure of303 -8m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFP francs 18-18 to the French franc. A G R I C U L T U R E . The chief products are copra, cassava, yams, taro roots and bfltiflnfls Livestock: Cattle, 100 (1976); pigs, 26,000 (1985); horses, 400 (1978); goats, 7,000(1985). C O M M E R C E . Imports (1981) amounted to 667m. francs CFP. There are few exports. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1977 there were 100 km of roads on Uvea. Aviation. In 1980 there were 581 aircraft arrivals and departures at Hihifo airport, on Uvea. There is a weekly flight via Vila (Vanuatu) to Nouméa (New Caledonia) and three flights each week to Futuna (Point Vele air strip). Shipping. A regular service links wharves at Mata-Utu and at Singave (Futuna) with Nouméa (New Caledonia), Suva (Fiji) and Vila and Santo (Vanuatu). Post and Broadcasting. In 1979 a radio station was established on Uvea. In 1983 there were 225 telephones. R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Religion. The majority ofthe population is Roman Catholic. Education. In 1983, there were 3,962 pupils in 13 primary and lower secondary schools. Health. In 1981 there were 4 physicians, 1 pharmacist, 1 dentist and 1 midwife. There were (1981)3 hospitals with 108 beds.

GABON

Capital: Libreville Population: 1 -34m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$4,250 (1983)

République Gabonaise H I S T O R Y . First colonized by France in the mid-19th century, Gabon was annexed to French Congo in 1888 and became a separate colony in 1 9 1 0 a s o n e o f the 4 territories of French Equatorial Africa. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 28 Nov. 1958 and achieved independence on 17 Aug. 1960. The first President, Leon M'ba, died on 30 Nov. 1967 and was succeeded on 2 Dec. by his Vice-President, Albert-Bernard (now Omar) Bongo. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Gabon is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean, north by Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon and east and south by Congo. The area covers 267,667 sq. km; its population at the 1970 census was 950,007; estimate (1986) is 1,336,000. The capital is Libreville (350,000 inhabitants, 1983), other large towns being Port-Gentil (123,300), Masuku (formerly Franceville, 38,030), Lambarene (26,257 in 1978) and Mouanda (22,909 m 1978). Vital statistics (1975): Birth rate, 3 • 22%; death rate, 2 • 22%. Provincial areas, populations (estimate 1978, in 1,000) and capitals are as follows: Province

Estuaire Woleu-Ntem Ogooué-Ivindo Moyen-Ogooué Ogooué-Maritime

Sq. km 1978

Capital

20,740 359 Libreville 38,465 166 Oyem 46,075 53 Makokou 18,535 49 Lambaréné 22,890 194 Port-Gentil

Province

Nyanga Ngounié Ogooué-Lolo Haut-Ogooué

Sq. km 1978

Capital

21,285 98 Tchibanga 37,750 118 Mouila 25,380 49 Koulamoutou 36,547 213 Masuku

The largest ethnic groups are the Fang (30%) in the north, Eshira (25%) in the south-west, and the Adouma (17%) in the south-east. French is the official language. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with high temperatures and considerable rainfall. Mid-May to mid-Sept, is the long dry season, followed by a short rainy season, then a dry season again from mid-Dec. to mid-Feb., and finally a long rainy season once more. Libreville. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 75"F(23-9'C). Annual rainfall 9 9 " (2,510 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1967 Constitution (as subsequently revised) provides for an Executive President directly elected for a 7-year term, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him. The unicameral National Assembly consists of 111 members, directly elected for a 5-year term (latest elections, Feb. 1985) and a further 9 members nominated by the President. The sole legal political party is the Parti démocratique gabonais founded in 1968. President: Omar Bongo (re-elected on 25 Feb. 1973 and 30 Dec. 1979). Prime Minister: Léon Mébiame. Deputy Prime Ministers: Georges Rawiri, Etienne-Guy Mouvagha Tchioba, Emile Kassa-Mapsi. Foreign Minister: Martin Bongo. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow, blue. Local government: The 9 provinces, each administered by a governor appointed by the President, are divided into 37 départements, each under a prefect. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 all-arms Presidential Guard battalion group with support units, totalling ( 1987), 1,900 men. 513

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Navy. The small naval flotilla in 1986 comprised 4 fast attack craft, 1 patrol craft, 1 frigate-size amphibious ship, and 3 landing craft with a base at Port-Gentil. Personnel in 1987 totalled 350 officers and men. The Coastguard has 11 small patrol craft and 1 service tender. Air Force. The Air Force has 6 single-seat and 3 two-seat Mirage 5 ground-attack aircraft, and 1 EMB-111 maritime patrol aircraft. Transport duties are performed primarily by 4 Hercules and 2 EMB-110 Bandeirante turboprop aircraft, supported by 3 C-47s and 3 Nord 262s. Single Mystère 20, F-28 and DC-8 aircraft are used for VIP duties. Three T-34C-1 armed turboprop aircraft, 5 armed Magister trainers and an EMB-110 Bandeirante are operated for La Présidentielle Garde. Also in service are 4 Puma, 5 Gazelle, 2 Ecureuil and 4 Alouette III helicopters. Personnel (1987) 600. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Gabon is a member of UN, OAU and OPEC; it is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY. Planning. The Fifth 5-year Plan (1984-88) envisages public expenditure of 1,228,478m. francs CFA, of which 595,662m. were to develop the infrastructure. Budget. The 1985 budget provided expenditure of 679,000m. francs CFA and revenue of594,000m. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, with a parity value of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. Banking. The Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale is the bank of issue. There are 9 commercial banks situated in Gabon. The Banque Gabonaise de Développement and the Union Gabonaise de Banque are Gabonese controlled. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The semi-public Société d'energie et d'eau du Gabon produced 736m. kwh. in 1985, mainly from thermal plants but increasingly from hydro-electric schemes at Kinguélé (near Libreville), Tchimbélé and Poubara (near Masuku). Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Extraction from offshore fields totalled 8 1 m . tonnes in 1986. Gabon operates 2 refineries, at Port-Gentil and at nearby Pointe Clairette. Proven reserves ( 1984) 490m. bbls. Gas. Natural gas production ( 1983) was 82m. cu. metres. Minerals. Production (1984) of manganese ore (from deposits around Moanda in the south-east) amounted to 2 • 17m. tonnes. Uranium is mined nearby at Mounana (1,179 tonnes in 1984). An estimated 850m. tonnes of iron ore deposits, discovered 1971 at Mékambo (near Bélinga in the north-east) await completion of the branch railway line to be exploited. Gold ( 18 kg in 1982), zinc and phosphates also occur. Agriculture. The major crops (production, 1985, in 1,000 tonnes) are: Sugar-cane, 155; cassava, 250; plantains, 165; maize, 10; groundnuts, 8; bananas, 8; palm oil, 3 • 5 ; cocoa, 3 ; coffee, 1 and rice, 1. Livestock (1985): 9,000 cattle, 80,000 sheep, 60,000 goats, 150,000 pigs. Forestry. Gabon's equatorial forests covering 78% of the land area produced l-39m. cu. metres of okoumé and hardwoods in 1983. Hardwoods (mahogany, ebony and walnut) are also exported. Fisheries. The total catch (1982) amounted to 52,638 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE Industry. A sugar refinery at Masuku produced (1984) 15,000 tonnes raw sugar.

GABON

515

Most manufacturing is based on the processing of food, timber and mineral resources. Labour. The workforce in 1983 numbered 532,000 of whom 74% were agricultural. Trade. In 1983 imports totalled 324,900m. francs CFA and exports 746,600m. francs CFA. France and USA are Gabon's principal trading partners. In 1983 petroleum made up 83 • 5% of exports; metals, 7 • 5% and timber, 7%. Total trade between Gabon and the UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 27,634 14,179

1983 66,135 18,798

1984 70,775 20,548

1985 48,292 30,588

1986 36,642 16,627

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 7,513 km of roads and in 1982 there were 16,043 passenger cars and 10,695 commercial vehicles. Railways. A 1,435-mm gauge (Transgabonais) railway runs from Owendo via N'Djole to Booué and Lastourville, Mouanda and Masuku, opened throughout in 1986, which is connected to the Congo railways. A branch from Booué to Belinga is also under construction. Total 523 km of 1,437 mm gauge. In 1984, 120,000 passengers and 450,000 tonnes of freight were transported. Aviation. There are 3 international airports at Port-Gentil, Masuku, and Libreville; internal services link these to 65 domestic airfields. Shipping. Owendo (near Libreville), Mayumba and Port-Gentil are the main ports. In 1980,10-1 m. tonnes were loaded and 617,000 tonnes unloaded at the ports. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 11,600 telephones, 20,000 television and 100,000 radio licences. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 6 cinemas with a seating capacity of 4,100. Newspapers. There were (1984) 2 newspapers published in Libreville; GabonMatin (daily) has a circulation of 18,000 and L 'Union (weekly) 15,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are tribunaux de grande instance at Libreville, Port-Gentil, Lambaréné, Mouila, Oyem, Masuku and Koulamoutou, from which cases move progressively to a central Criminal Court, Court of Appeal and Supreme Court, all 3 located in Libreville. Civil police number about 900. Religion. 84% of the population is Christian (65% Roman Catholic), the majority of the balance following animist beliefs. There are about 10,000 Moslems. Education. Education is compulsory between 6-16 years. In 1982-83 there were 165,559 pupils with 3,781 teachers in primary schools; 22,350 pupils with 1,161 teachers in 47 secondary schools; 10,545 students with 582 teachers in 29 technical and teacher-training establishments. The Université Omar Bongo, founded in 1970 in Libreville, had (1982-83) 2,651 students and 297 teaching staff. Health In 1980 there were 265 doctors, and 1977,20 dentists, 28 pharmacists, 99 midwives and 823 nursing personnel. In 1981 there were 16 hospitals and 87 medical centres, with a total of 4,815 beds, as well as 258 local dispensaries. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Gabon in Great Britain (48 Kensington Ct., London, W8) Ambassador: Charles Mamadou Diop (accredited 20 Nov. 1986). Of Great Britain in Gabon (Immeuble CK2, Blvd de l'Indépendance, Libreville) Ambassador: M. A. Goodfellow.

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Of Gabon in the USA (2034 20th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Mocktar Abdoulaye-Mbingt. Of the USA in Gabon (Blvd de la Mer, Libreville) Ambassador: Larry C. Williamson. Of Gabon to the United Nations Ambassador: Jean-Félix Oyoue. Books of Reference Bory, P., The New Gabon. Monaco, 1978 Remy, M., Gabon Today. Paris, 1977

THE GAMBIA

Capital: Banjul Population: 687,817 (1983) GNPper capita: US$ 170 (1984)

HISTORY. The Gambia was discovered by the early Portuguese navigators, but they made no settlement. During the 17th century various companies of merchants obtained trading charters and established a settlement on the river, which, from 1807, was controlled from Sierra Leone; in 1843 it was made an independent Crown Colony; in 1866 it formed part of the West African Settlements, but in Dec. 1888 it again became a separate Crown Colony. The boundaries were delimited only after 1890. The Gambia achieved full internal self-government on 4 Oct. 1963 and became an independent member of the Commonwealth on 18 Feb. 1965. The Gambia became a republic within the Commonwealth on 24 April 1970. The Gambia, with Senegal formed the Confederation of Senegambia on 1 Feb. 1982. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Gambia is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean and on all other sides by Senegal. Area of Banjul (formerly Bathurst) and environs, 87-8 sq. km. In the provinces (area, 10,601 - 5 sq. km) the settled population (1971) was 275,469, not including temporary immigrants. Total population (census, April 1983), 687,817. The largest tribe is the Mandingo (251,997), followed by the Fulas (117,092), Woloffs (91,004), Jolas (64,494) and Sarahuhs (51,137). The capital is Banjul, 1983 census (44,188), and the surrounding urban area, Kombo St Mary (101,504). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Parliament consists of the House of Representatives which consists of a Speaker, Deputy Speaker and 35 elected members; in addition, 4 Chiefs are elected by the Chiefs in Assembly, 5 nominated members are without votes and the Attorney-General is appointed and has a vote. See Senegal for details about Senegambia. A general election was held on 4-5 May 1982. State of parties (Jan. 1984): The People's Progressive Party 29, the National Convention Party 3, and Independents 3 seats. The Government was in March 1987 composed as follows: President: Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara. Vice-President (Information and Tourism): Bakary B. Darbo. External Affairs: Alhaji Lamine Kiti Jabang. Finance and Trade: Sherif Sisay. Agriculture (Finance and Trade): Saikou Sabally. Education, Youth, Sport and Culture: Louise Njie. Health, Labour and Social Welfare: Momodou Cherno Jallow. Works and Communications: Lamine Bora M'Boge. Economic Planning and Industrial Development: Alhagi Abdoulie Njie. Justice and Attorney-General: Hassan Jallow. Water Resources and Environment: Omar A. Jallow. Information and Tourism: Landing Jallow Sonko. Interior: A. E. W. F. Badji. Local Government and Lands: Amulai Janneh. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, blue, green, with the blue edged in white. Local Administration. The Gambia is divided into 35 districts, each traditionally under a Chief, assisted by Village Heads and advisers. These districts are grouped into 6 Area Councils containing a majority of elected members, with the Chiefs of the district as ex-officio members. The city of Banjul is administered by a City Council. C L I M A T E . The climate is characterized by two very different seasons. The dry season lasts from Nov. to May, when precipitation is very light and humidity moderate. Days are warm but nights quite cool. The SW monsoon is likely to set in with spectacular storms and produces considerable rainfall from July to Oct., with 517

518

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increased humidity. Banjul. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 52" (1,295 mm). INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Gambia is a member of UN, OAU, the Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Conference and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for years ending 30 June are (in dalasi): Revenue Expenditure

1983-84 150,500,000 164,908,621

1984-85 172,300,050 189,279,550

1985-86 218,080,000 207,524,639

1986-87 266,730,000 262,531,520

Currency. The currency is the dalasi and is divided into 100 butut. 11 00 dalasi = £1 sterling; 7-58 dalasi = US& I (March 1987). Banking. There are 5 banks in the Gambia, the Standard Bank of Gambia Ltd, Central Bank of the Gambia, Commercial and Development Bank, la Banque Internationale pour le Commerce et ¡'Industrie (BICI) and Agricultural Development Bank. On 30 Nov. 1978 the government savings bank had about 36,000 depositors holding approximately 992,496 dalasi. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) 64m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Heavy minerals, including ilmenite, zircon and rutile, have been discovered (lm. tons up to 31 Dec. 1980) in Sanyang, Batakunku and Kartong areas. Agriculture. Almost all commercial activity centres upon the marketing of groundnuts, which is the only export crop of financial significance; in 1985, 120,000 tonnes were produced. Cotton is also exported on a limited scale. Rice is of increasing importance for local consumption; production (1985) 44,000 tonnes. Livestock (1985): 290,000 cattle, 194,000 goats, 185,000 sheep, 12,000 pigs and (1982) 300,000 poultry. Fisheries. Total catch (1981) 9,700 tonnes, of which 1,100 tonnes were from inland waters. L A B O U R . There are 4 large and 10 small trade unions. T R A D E . Chief items of imports are textiles and clothing, vehicles and machinery, metal goods and petroleum products. Imports and exports, in 1,000 dalasi: Imports Exports

1982-83 262,107 114,712

1983-84 346,706 163,261

1984-85 358,569 163,890

1985-86 492,206 204,097

Chief items of exports are groundnuts, palm kernels, dried and smoked fish, hides and skins and groundnut oil. Total trade between the Gambia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 m j [ m ] m ] m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

2,031 10,087

3,781 13,251

3,407 10,233

2,823 11,918

2,273 16,707

T O U R I S M . In 1985-86,78,268 tourists visited the Gambia. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 2,990 km of motorable roads, of which 1,718 km rank as allweather roads including 306 km of bituminous surface and 531 km of laterite gravel. Number of licensed motor vehicles (1983): 3,420 private cars, 775 buses and coaches, 1,219 motorcycles, scooters and mopeds.

GERMANY P O S T - W A R H I S T O R Y . Since the unconditional surrender of the German armed forces on 8 May 1945 there has been no central authority whose writ runs in the whole of Germany. Consequently no peace treaty has been signed with a government representing the whole of Germany, and the country is virtually partitioned between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. By the Berlin Declaration of 5 June 1945 the governments of the USA, the UK, the USSR and France assumed supreme authority over Germany. Each of the 4 signatories was given a zone of occupation, in which the supreme power was to be exercised by the C.-in-C. in that zone (see map in T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1947). Jointly these 4 Cs.-in-C. constituted the Allied Control Council in Berlin, which was to be competent in all 'matters affecting Germany as a whole'. The territory of Greater Berlin, divided into 4 sectors, was to be governed as an entity by the 4 occupying powers. At the Potsdam Conference (17 July-2 Aug. 1945) the northern part of the Province of East Prussia, including its capital Königsberg (renamed Kaliningrad), was transferred to the Soviet Union, pending final ratification by a peace treaty; and it was agreed that, pending the final peace settlement, Poland should administer those parts of Germany lying east of a line running from the Baltic Sea immediately west of Swinemünde along the river Oder to its confluence with the Western Neisse and thence along the Western Neisse to the Czechoslovak frontier. The agreements between the war-time allies concerning the occupation zones (12 Sept. 1944) and control of Germany (1 May 1945) were repudiated by the USSR on 27 Nov. 1958. A Treaty was signed in East Berlin between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany on 21 Dec. 1972 agreeing the basis of relations between the two countries.

520

Capital: Berlin (East) Population. 16-6m. (1985) GNPper capita. US$9,800 (1984)

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Deutsche Demokratische Republik

HISTORY. For the immediate post-war history see p. 520. An agreement proclaiming the Oder-Neisse line the permanent frontier between Germany and Poland was concluded between the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and Poland on 6 July 1950. A protocol on the delimitation of the frontier was signed on 27 Jan. 1951. AREA A N D POPULATION. The GDR is bounded north by the Baltic Sea, east by Poland, south-east by Czechoslovakia and west by Federal Germany. Its area is 108,333 sq. km. Population at the census of 31 Dec. 1981 was 16,705,635. Population in 1985, 16,644,308 (7-87m. male; 12-75m. urban). Population density: 154 per sq. km. TTiere were some 110,000 Sorbs, a Slav minority, in 1985. Administratively, the country is divided into 15 counties (Bezirk), subdivided in 1985 into 36 urban districts, 191 rural districts and 7,570 communities, Berlin (East) has county status. Area and population, 1985: Population Total 1,202 9 883 4 1,779-4 1,235 9 706 8 741 7 1,795-6 1,881 9 1,381 5 1,253 2 619 7 1,121 3 898 9 592 1 550-0

Area in sq. km 403 8,262 6,738 7,349 7,186 4,004 8,771 6,009 4,966 11,526 10,948 12,568 7,075 8,672 3,856

Counties Berlin (East) Cottbus Dresden Erfurt Frankfurt Gera Halle Karl-Marx-Stadt Leipzig Magdeburg Neubrandenburg Potsdam Rostock Schwerin Suhl

(1.000s) Female 639 7 459-4 948 3 649 4 367-0 391 2 947-0 1,006-9 738-6 659 7 319-4 585 8 465 4 308 3 288-0

Per sq. km 2,985 107 264 168 98 185 205 313 278 109 57 89 127 68 143

The capital is Berlin (East). Resident population ofthe principal towns in 1985: Berlin (East) Leipzig Dresden Karl-Marx-Stadt Magdeburg

Vital statistics: 1982 1983 1984 1985

1,202,895 554,595 519,860 316,361 288,914

Rostock Halle Erfurt Potsdam Geia

Live births 240,102 233,756 228,135 227,648

Marriages 124,890 125,429 133,898 131,514

242,729 235,858 215,499 138,737 131,537 Divorces 49,874 49,624 50,320 51,240

Schwerin Cottbus Zwickau Jena Dessau

127,065 123,898 120,101 107,241 103,748

Deaths 227,975 222,702 221,204 225,362

Rates per 1,000, 1985: Birth, 13-7; marriage, 7 9; divorce, 3 1; death, 13-5; infant mortality, 5 -2 stillborn, 9 -6 under 1 year. 521

522

G E R M A N D E M O C R A T I C REPUBLIC

CLIMATE. The continental-type climate makes winters crisp and clear, but with cold easterly winds bringing very low temperatures and appreciable snowfall. Summers are hot, but with much convectional rainfall. Berlin. Jan. 31°F (-0-5°C), July 66°F(19"Q. Annual rainfall 22-5" (563 mm). Dresden. Jan. 30°F(-1°C), July 65°F (18-5'Q. Annual rainfall 27-2" (680 mm). Leipzig. Jan. 31°F(-0-6°C), July 65°F (18-5°C). Annual rainfall 24" (605 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Upon the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany, the People's Council of the Soviet-occupied zone, appointed in 1948, was converted into a provisional People's Chamber. On 7 Oct. 1949 the provisional People's Chamber enacted a constitution of the 'German Democratic Republic'. A new 'socialist constitution' was approved by a referendum on 6 April 1968 (revised in 1974), when 94 • 54% of the electorate voted for the constitution; it came into force on 8 April 1968. The People's Chamber, of500 deputies, is 'the supreme organ of state power'; it elects the Council of State, the Council of Ministers, the National Defence Council and the judges of the Supreme Court. Council of State. The Council is authorized to issue decisions and to interpret existing laws. The Chairman of the Council of State represents the GDR in international law. In March 1987 it consisted of: Chairman: Erich Honecker; Deputy Chairmen: Manfred Gerlach, Gerald Gotting, Heinrich Homann, Egon Krenz, Ernst Mecklenburg, Günter Mittag, Horst Sindermann, Willi Stoph; 17 other members and a secretary. In March 1987 the Council of Ministers consisted of a Presidium, composed as follows: Chairman (i.e. Premier): Willi Stoph. First Deputy Chairmen: Alfred Neumann, Werner Krolikowski. Deputy Chairmen: Günther Kleiber, Wolfgang Rauchfuss, Gerhard Schürer (Chairman, State Planning Commission), Dr Herbert Weiz (Minister of Science), Manfred Flegel, Hans-Joachim Heusinger (Minister ofJustice), Dr Hans Reichelt (Minister for the Environment), Rudolph Schulze (Minister for Posts and Telecommunications), Horst Solle, Walter Halbritter (Director, Office ofPrices), Ernst Höfner (Minister of Finance)-, and 35 other ministers, including: Gen. Heinz Hoffmann (Defence), Oskar Fischer (Foreign Affairs), and Friedrich Dickel (Interior). Supreme political power is in the hands of the Socialist Unity (i.e. Communist) Party of Germany (SED), which had 2-2m. members in 1985, and which is united in the National Front with 4 puppet parties (1985 membership in brackets): Christian Democratic Union (120,000), Democratic Farmers (100,000), Liberal Democratic Party (90,000) and the National Democratic Party (90,000). At the June 1981 elections to the People's Chamber National Front candidates gained 99 -86% ofthe vote. Elections were due in June 1986. The Politburo of the SED in March 1987 consisted of: Erich Honecker (General Secretary); Hermann Axen; Hans-Joachim Böhme; Horst Dohlus; Werner Eberlein; Werner Felfe; Kurt Hager, Joachim Herrmann; Werner Jarowinski; Heinz Kessler, Günther Kleiber; Egon Krenz; Werner Krolikowski; Siegfried Lorenz; Erich Mielke; Günter Mittag; Erich Mueckenberger, Alfred Neumann; Günther Schabonski; Horst Sindermann; Willi Stoph; Harry Tisch; candidate members: Ingeburg Lange; Gerhard Müller, Margarete Müller, Gerhard Schürer; Werner Walde. National flag: Black, red, golden (horizontal); in the centre, on both sides, the coat of arms showing a hammer and compass with a wreath of grain entwined with a black, red and golden ribbon. National hymn: Auferstanden aus Ruinen (tune by Hanns Eisler). Local government is conducted by assemblies at each administrative level. 3,172 representatives were elected to the County Assemblies in June 1981. DEFENCE. On 18 Jan. 1956 the People's Chamber established a 'national people's army' and a defence ministry. A 12-member defence council, under the

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

523

chairmanship of E. Honecker, General Secretary of the SED, was set up on 10 Feb. 1960. The 'law for the defence of the GDR', of 20 Sept. 1960, makes military service (in case of emergency) and civil defence compulsory for all citizens. Conscription for men between 18 and 25 years was introduced on 24 Jan. 1962 (18 months' service in the army, 2 years in the navy and air force). Some 422,000 Soviet troops with about 1,000 heavy tanks and 6,000 armoured vehicles are stationed in the German Democratic Republic, chiefly along the Polish border. Army. The Army, set up on 1 March 1956, is organized in 2 army corps, including 2 armoured divisions and 4 motorized infantry divisions. Operationally these divisions are subordinate to the Soviet formations of the Warsaw Pact forces. They are armed with about 2,800 tanks (mostly Soviet T-54, T-55, T-62 and T-72), 216 self-propelled guns and ground-to-air 'Guideline' missiles. The Border Police was taken out of the Army in 1974. Total army strength was (1987) 123,000 (71,500 conscripts) with a reserve of400,000 men. Police. The Police force (Volkspolizei) numbered 25,000 security and 46,500 border troops. There are also 450,000 militiamen organized in combat groups. The militia receive military instruction from the People's Police. Navy. The 'People's Navy' (Volksmarine) includes 3 frigates, 20 corvettes, 15 missile boats, 46 torpedo boats, 48 coastal minesweepers, 3 intelligence ships, 13 tank landing ships, 10 oilers, 2 training ships, 4 supply ships, 5 survey vessels, 9 small survey craft, 13 buoy tenders, 3 diving vessels, 1 cable layer, 2 torpedo recovery craft, 2 icebreakers, 30 auxiliary ships and service craft and 13 tugs. The Navy operates one squadron of 8 Mi-14 helicopters. Personnel in 1987 totalled 15,500 officers and men, including the GBK Coastal Frontier Guards (Grenz Brigade Ktiste) which operates 40 vessels, many of them ex-Navy. Air Force. The ex-'air-police', set up in Nov. 1950, had in 1987 a strength of about 40,000 officers and men and 375 combat aircraft. Two air defence divisions consist respectively of 2 and 4 regiments (each with 3 squadrons of 12 aircraft), plus a fighter training division, equipped with MiG-21, MiG-23, and Su-20 supersonic fighters. There is 1 squadron of MiG-21 reconnaissance fighters. Mi-24 gunship helicopters have been delivered to the German Democratic Republic. Other units include a regiment of Mi-2, Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters, a regiment of An-2, Let L-410, II-14, An-26 and Tu-134 transports and a Flight Training Division with Yak-18, Trener, L-29 Delfin, L-39 Albatross, MiG-15UTIandMiG-21U training aircraft. 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missile units are operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The German Democratic Republic is a member of UN and Comecon. ECONOMY Planning. The economy is one of the most successful of the centrally-planned type. Although there have been small concessions to 'market forces', improvement is sought rather in 'comprehensive intensification': rationalization, cutting production costs and combining production units. Extrasystemic features favouring economic performance include the beneficial special relationship with Federal Germany and special support from the USSR. The current 5-year plan is running from 1986 to 1990. Annual increase targets: National income, 4-4%; industrial production, 8-3%. Budget. The budget of the GDR was as follows (in M 1 m.) for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1980 160,652 160,283

1981 167,466 167,159

1982 182,836 182,071

1983 192,410 191,689

1984 213,535 211,778

1985 235,535 234,392

Of the 1985 expenditures, M 12,392m. was earmarked for health and social services, M 12,404m. for education and M 32,508 for social benefits and pensions.

524

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

Currency. The circulating Reichsmark notes were in June 1948 exchanged for 'Deutsche Mark' (East), renamed 'Mark of the German Bank of Issue' (MDN) from 1 Aug. 1964 and further renamed 'the Mark of the GDR' (M) from 1967. Money in circulation, 1985: M 13,651m. In March 1987, £1 =2-95 M; US$1 = 1-83M. Banking. The most important banking institutions are the State Bank, which is the bank of issue, the Foreign Trade Bank and the Industrial and Trade Bank. Savings in 1985, totalled M 124,577m. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Sources of energy in 1985 included lignite, 82-8%, nuclear power, 11 -2% and hydroelectric power, 1-5%. Electricity generation (1985): 114,700 kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. The GDR is a major producer of lignite. Production in 1985, 312m. tonnes. Uranium, cobalt, bismuth, arsenic and antimony are exploited in the western Erzgebirge and eastern Thuringia. Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 6-22m. hectares including 4-72m. hectares arable and 1 -25m. hectares grassland. In 1985 there were 3,905 collective farms with 5-28m. hectares of arable land, and 465 state farms with 438,272 hectares of land. The yield of the main crops in 1985 was as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Potatoes, 12,235; sugar-beet, 7,379; barley, 4,366; wheat, 3,936; rye, 2,505; oats, 746. Livestock (in 1,000) in 1985: Cattle, 5,827 (including 2,064 milch cows); pigs, 12,946; sheep, 2,587; poultry, 50,680. In 1985 there were 158,025 tractors and 16,868 cofnbine harvesters. Forestry. In 1985 there were 2,977,600 hectares of forest. Timber production was 10,869,200 cu. metres. The industry employed 50,454 people in 1985. Fisheries. Total catch (1985) 264,900 tonnes. Inland catch was 24,538 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Industry produced about 80% of the national income in 1985. There were 4,029 state and co-operative industrial enterprises in 1985. The percentage of privately owned enterprises was 32-8 in 1950and2-9in 1982. Production of iron and steel (in 1,000 tonnes): Crudesteel Rolled steel

1979 7,023 5,100

1980 7,308 5,128

1981 7,467 5,061

1982 7,168 4,959

1983 7,219 5,084

1984 7,573 5,386

1985 7,853 5,637

Leading chemical products in 1985 were (in 1,000 tonnes): Sulphuric acid, 883; potash fertilizers, 3,465; nitrogen fertilizers, 1,078; calcined soda, 884; caustic soda, 667; other industrial products: cement, 11,608; passenger cars (no.), 210,000; television receivers (no.), 668,000; shoes, 84m. pairs; plastics and synthetic resins, 1,048. Labour. In 1985 the workforce was 8-94m., of whom 37-9% worked in industry, 20-9% in the service sector, 10-8% in agriculture and 10-1% in commerce. Commerce. Total trade was as follows (in 1 m. Valuta-Mark): Total 1980 1981 1982

Imports 62,970 67,000 69,878

Total Exports 57,131 65,927 75,231

1983 1984 1985

Imports 76,197 83,501 86,701

Exports 84,227 90,402 93,490

In 1985 machinery made up 47% of exports and fuels and metal ores 43% of imports; 66% of trade is with Communist countries. Largest trading partners: USSR, Czechoslovakia, Federal Germany.

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

525

Total trade between the German Democratic Republic and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

133,921 63,665

157,625 60,997

190,130 92,270

204,293 63,797

195,513 81,276

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1985, 47,214 km of classified roads including 1,850 km of motorways. 3,524m. passengers and 139-8m. tonnes of goods were carried by public transport. There were 3,306,230 cars, 220,640 lorries, 1,319,186 motorcycles and 55,698 buses. There were 45,809 road accidents in 1985, with 1,450 fatalities. Railways. There were, in 1985, 14,231 km of standard gauge line, of which 2,523 km were electrified. 623m. passengers and 347 -9m. tonnes of freight were carried. Aviation. Interflug operates services between Berlin and Prague, Warsaw, Budapest, Bucharest, Moscow, Sofia, Belgrade, Tirana, Cairo, Baghdad, Beirut and other capitals. Passengers carried (1985), 1,446,000; freight, 39,678 tonnes. Shipping. In 1985 the merchant fleet had 171 vessels of 1,222,410 GRT. 11 -4m. tonnes of freight were carried. Navigable inland waterways had a total length of 2,319 km. 7m. passengers and 17-7m. tonnes of freight were carried. In 1986 a rail ferry was opened from the Island of Rügen to the ice-free Soviet port of Klaipeda, by-passing Poland. Pipeline. 1,307 km in 1985. Materials transported in 1984:37-3m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 11,971 post offices and agencies and 3,441,484 telephone subscribers. Staatliches Komitee fir Rundfunk, the governmental broadcasting system, broadcasts 4 programmes on long-, medium-and short-waves, and on FM. Tne foreign service is broadcast in 11 languages on medium-and short-waves, using the name Radio Berlin International. The transmitters are located at Königswusterhausen, Leipzig and Nauen. Radio Volga transmits on long-waves from Burg and broadcasts in Russian for the Soviet Armed Forces in Germany. More than 80% of the programmes are relays from Radio Moscow. Radio Moscow is using relay transmitters on medium-waves at Leipzig for programmes in German. Deutsche Freiheitssender 904 and Deutsche Soldatensender are clandestine stations claiming to be operating from the Federal Republic although they are located not far from Burg. Fernsehen der DDR broadcasts 2 TV programmes in colour, using SECAM-system. Number of wireless licences (1985), 6-65m.; TV licences, 6-08m. Cinemas and Theatres (1985). There were 819 cinemas with a seating capacity of 248,332, and 183 theatres with a capacity of55,447. Newspapers. There were 535 newspapers and periodicals in 1985.6,395 book titles were published in 141m. copies. RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Religion. According to the census of 1950, 80-5% of the population were Protestants and 11% were Roman Catholics. The Synod of Lutheran Churches was founded in 1969 and embraces 8 regional churches. There were some I-5m. Lutherans in 1986 with 4,300 priests. In 1986 there were l-2m. Catholics with 1,300 priests. Education. In 1985 788,200 children were in 13,148 pre-school educational institutions. General education schools numbered 5,864 in 1985 with 173,689 teachers. Of these schools 5,176 with 1,943,087 pupils offered 10 years schooling and the remainder 12. In addition there were 963 vocational schools (Berufsschulen) with 16,932 teachers and 391,600 trainees, and 239 technical schools with 163,573 students. There were also 54 universities and other higher education institutes with 129,885 full-time students, including 65,079 women.

526

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

Health. In 1985 there were 169,112 hospital beds. There were 590 polyclinics. There were 37,943 doctors and 11,757 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the German Democratic Republic in Great Britain (34 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X8QB) Ambassador: Dr Gerhard Lindner (accredited 27 July 1984). Of Great Britain in the German Democratic Republic (108 Berlin, Unter den Linden 32/34) Ambassador: T. J. Everard, CMG. Of the German Democratic Republic in the USA (1717 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Dr Gerhard Herder. Of the USA in the German Democratic Republic (108 Berlin, Neustädtische Kirchstrasse 4-5) Ambassador: Francis J. Meehan. Ofthe German Democratic Republic to the United Nations A mbassador: Harry Ott. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The central statistical agency is the Staatliche Zentralverwaltung fur Statistik(Hans-Beimler-Str. 70-72,102, Berlin). Statistisches Jahrbuch der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, annual (from 1956).— Statistisches Taschenbuch der DDR (annual, from 1959; also Arabic, English, French, Russian, Spanish editions).—Statistische Praxis (from 1946). The Constitution of the German Democratic Republic. 3rded. Berlin, 1974 DDR-Handbuch. 3rded. Cologne, 1985 Handbook of the Economy of the German Democratic Republic. Farnborough, 1979 Aslund, A., Private Enterprise in Eastern Europe: The Non-Agricultural Private Sector in Poland and the GDR. London, 1985 Beyme, K, von, and Zimmerman, H., (eds.) Policy-making in the German Democratic Republic. Aldershot, 1984 Childs, D., The GDR: Moscow's German Ally. London, 1983.— (ed.), Honecker's Germany. London,1985 Edwards, G. E., GDR Society and Social Institutions. London, 1985 Honecker, E., Reden und Aufsätze. Berlin, 1975.—The German Democratic Republic, Pillar of Peace and Socialism. New York, 1979.—Aus meinem Leben. Berlin, 1980 Krisch, H., The German Democratic Republic. Boulder, 1985 McAdams, A. J., East Germany and Detente. CUP, 1985 McCauley,M., The German Democratic Republic since ¡945. London, 1983 Scharf, C. B., Politics and Social Change in East Germany. London, 1984 Schulz, E., (ed.) GDR Foreign Policy. New York, 1982 Staritz, D., Geschichte der DDR, ¡949-1985. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1985 Weber, H„ Geschichte der DDR. Munich, 1985 National Library: Deutsche Bücherei, Leipzig C. 1. Director: Helmut Rötzsch.—Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. Director: Professor H. Kunze.

FEDERAL R E P U B L I C OF GERMANY

Capital: Bonn Population: 61m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 10,670 ( 1984)

Bundesrepublik Deutschland H I S T O R Y . The Federal Republic of Germany became a sovereign independent country on 5 May 1955. In June 1948 USA, UK and France agreed on a central government for the 3 western zones. An Occupation Statute, which came into force on 30 Sept. 1949, reduced the responsibilities of the occupation authorities. Formally, the Federal Republic of Germany came into existence on 21 Sept. 1949. The Petersberg Agreement of22 Nov. 1949 freed the Federal Republic of numerous restrictions of the Occupation Statute. In 1951 USA, UK and France as well as other states terminated the state of war with Germany; the Soviet Union followed on 25 Jan. 1955. On 5 May 1955 the High Commissioners of USA, UK and France signed a proclamation revoking the Occupation Statute. On the same day, the Pans and London treaties, signed in Oct. 1954, came into force and established the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Federal Germany is bounded north by Denmark and the North and Baltic Seas, east by the German Democratic Republic, and Czechoslovakia, south-east and south by Austria, south by Switzerland and west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. West Berlin is an enclave within the German Democratic Republic. Area: 248,706 sq. km. Population, at 31 Dec. 1985,61,020,000; at 30 June 1985,61,024,000(29,181,000 males). Density 245 persq. km. The capital is Bonn. Area and population of the Länder as at 30 June 1984: Länder Schleswig-Holstein Hamburg Lower Saxony Bremen North Rhine-Westphalia Hessen Rhineland-Palatinate Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Saarland

Area in sq. km 15,721 755 47,447 404 34,061 21,115 19,848 35,751 70,553 2,571

Berlin (West)

480

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Marriages 369,963 364,140 364,684

Live births 594,177 584,157 586,155

Population (Males in brackets) 2,615,100 (1,262,900) 1,600,300 (748,700) 7,229,700 (3,469,600) 671,600 (315,200) 16,775,900 (8,002,600) 5,548,700 (2,664,700) 3,627,800 (1,734,800) 9,242,800 (4,447,100) 10,965,800 (5,250,900) 1,051,600 (499,200) 1,851,800 Of these illegitimate 52,442 52,998 55,070

(848,500)

Deaths 718,337 696,118 704,296

Per sq. km 166 2,121 152 1,661 493 263 183 259 155 409 3,875

Divorces 121,475 130,894

Crude birth rate in 1985 was 9-6 per 1,000 population; marriage rate, 6; death rate, 11-5; infantile mortality 9; growth rate,-l -9. In 1985 there were 4,378,900 resident foreigners, including 1,401,900 Turks, 591,000 Yugoslavs, 531,300 Italians and 280,600 Greeks; 38,046 persons were naturalized in 1984, including 13,248 from Romania and 5,988 from Poland. 527

528

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

GERMANY

In 1985 there w e r e 4 2 8 , 7 0 0 emigrants a n d 5 1 2 , 1 0 0 immigrants; i n c l u d i n g 7 3 , 8 3 2 s e e k i n g a s y l u m . T h e r e were 4 2 , 3 1 6 i m m i g r a n t s f r o m the G e r m a n D e m o cratic R e p u b l i c in 1 9 8 4 (for earlier figures see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 , p. 522). T h e r e w e r e 1 , 6 4 3 emigrants t o the G e r m a n D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b lic in 1 9 8 4 . P o p u l a t i o n s o f t o w n s o f o v e r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 inhabitants o n 3 0 J u n e 1985 ( i n ' 0 0 0 ) : Town Berlin (West) Hamburg Munich Cologne Essen Frankfurt am Main Dortmund Düsseldorf Stuttgart Bremen Duisburg Hanover Nuremburg Bochum Wuppertal Bielefeld Mannheim Bonn Gelsenkirchen Münster Karlsruhe Wiesbaden Mönchengladbach Braunschweig Kiel Augsburg Aachen Oberhausen Krefeld Lübeck Hagen Mainz Saarbrücken Kassel

Land Berlin (West) Hamburg Bavaria N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph.

Population 1,852-7 1,585-9 1,266-1 919-3 622-0

Hessen N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Baden-Württ. Bremen N. Rhine-Westph. Lower Saxony Bavaria N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Baden-Württ. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Baden-Württ. Hessen

598-0 575-2 563-0 561-2 528-9 520-2 510-8 466-1 383-2 378-1 300-8 295-2 292-6 286-5 273-0 268-4 267-0

N. Rhine-Westph. Lower Saxony Schleswig-Holstein Bavaria N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Schleswig-Holstein N. Rhine-Westph. Rhinel.-Pal. Saarland Hessen

255-1 250-7 245-3 244-2 239-2 223-0 217-0 211-0 206-7 188-2 187-6 184-5

Town Freiburg im Breisgau Mülheim a.d. Ruhr Hemfe Hamm Solingen Leverkusen Ludwigshafen am Rhein Osnabrück Neuss Oldenburg Darmstadt Bremerhaven Heidelberg Göttingen Würzburg Regensburg Wolfsburg Remscheid Recklinghausen Bottrop Heilbronn Koblenz Paderborn Siegen Offenbach am Main Salzgitter Pforaheim Witten Bergisch Gladbach Hildesheim Erlangen

Land

Population

Baden-Württ.

182-2

N. N. N. N. N.

Rhine-Westph. Rhine-Westph. Rhine-Westph. Rhine-Westph. Rhine-Westph.

172-6 172-3 166-5 157-9 155-2

Rhinel.-Pal. Lower Saxony N. Rhine-Westph. Lower Saxony Hessen Bremen Baden-Württ. Lower Saxony Bavaria Bavaria Lower Saxony N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Baden-Württ. Rhinel.-Pal. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph,

154-5 153-3 143-6 138-4 134-6 134-5 133-8 132-1 129-4 125-6 122-0 121-5 117-8 112-3 111-2

Hessen Lower Saxony Baden-Württ. N. Rhine-Westph.

107-2 106-6 104-1 102-1 101-0

N. Rhine-Westph. Lower Saxony Bavaria

111-1

109-8 107-5

100-9 100-0

C L I M A T E . O c e a n i c i n f l u e n c e s are o n l y f o u n d in t h e n o r t h - w e s t w h e r e winters are q u i t e m i l d b u t stormy. E l s e w h e r e a c o n t i n e n t a l c l i m a t e is general. T o t h e east a n d s o u t h , w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s are lower, w i t h bright frosty w e a t h e r a n d c o n siderable s n o w f a l l . S u m m e r t e m p e r a t u r e s are fairly u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t . Frankfurt. Jan. 3 3 ° F (0-6"C), July 6 6 ° F (18-9°C). A n n u a l rainfall 2 4 " (601 m m ) . H a m b u r g . Jan. S l T f - O ^ C ) , July 6 3 ° F ( 1 7 - 2 ° C ) . A n n u a l rainfall 2 9 " ( 7 2 6 m m ) . H a n o v e r . Jan. 3 3 ° F (0-6°C), July 6 4 ° F (17-8°C). A n n u a l rainfall 2 4 " ( 6 0 4 m m ) . K ö l n . Jan. 36"F (2-2°C), July 6 6 ° F (18-9°C). A n n u a l rainfall 2 7 " ( 6 7 6 m m ) . M u n i c h . Jan. 2 8 ° F ( - 2 - 2 X ) , July 6 3 ° F ( 1 7 - 2 ° Q . A n n u a l rainfall 3 4 " ( 8 5 5 m m ) . Stuttgart. Jan. 3 3 ° F ( 0 - 6 ° C ) , July 6 6 ° F ( 1 8 - 9 ° C ) . A n n u a l rainfall 2 7 " ( 6 7 7 m m ) . C O N S T I T U T I O N . T h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y ( k n o w n a s the 'Parliamentary C o u n c i l ' ) m e t in B o n n o n 1 Sept. 1 9 4 8 , a n d w o r k e d o u t a Basic L a w w h i c h w a s a p p r o v e d b y a t w o - t h i r d s majority o f the p a r l i a m e n t s o f t h e participating L ä n d e r a n d c a m e i n t o force o n 2 3 M a y 1 9 4 9 . T h e Basic L a w (Grundgesetz) c o n s i s t s o f a p r e a m b l e a n d 146 articles. T h e first s e c t i o n deals w i t h the basic rights w h i c h are legally b i n d i n g f o r legislation, a d m i n i s tration a n d jurisdiction. T h e Federal R e p u b l i c is a d e m o c r a t i c a n d social c o n s t i t u t i o n a l state o n a parliam e n t a r y basis. T h e federation is c o n s t i t u t e d b y t h e 11 L ä n d e r (states): B a d e n -

F E D E R A L REPUBLIC O F G E R M A N Y

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Württemberg, Bavaria, Bremen, Berlin (West), Hamburg, Hessen, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland and SchleswigHolstein. In Berlin (West) the Basic Law applies with certain restrictions. The Basic Law decrees that the general rules of international law form part of the federal law. The constitutions of the Länder must conform to the principles of a republican, democratic and social state based on the rule of law. Executive power is vested in the Länder, unless the Basic Law prescribes or permits otherwise. Federal law takes precedence over state law. Legislative power is vested in the Federal Assembly (Bundestag) and the Federal Council (Bundesrat). The Federal Assembly, elected in universal, direct, free, equal and secret elections, for a term of 4 years. The Federal Council consists of 45 members appointed by the governments of the Länder in proportions determined by the number of inhabitants. Each Land has at least 3 votes. The Head of State is the Federal President (Bundespräsident) who is elected for a 5-year term by a Federal Convention specially convened for this purpose. This Convention consists of all the members of the Federal Assembly and an equal number of members elected by the Länder parliaments according to proportional representation. Presidents maybe re-elected for one further term only. Executive power is vested in the Federal Government, which consists of the Federal Chancellor, elected by the Federal Assembly on the proposal of the Federal President, and the Federal Ministers, who are appointed and dismissed by the Federal President upon the proposal of the Federal Chancellor. The Federal Republic has exclusive legislation on: (1) foreign affairs (2) federal citizenship; (3) freedom of movement, passports, immigration and emigration, and extradition; (4) currency, money and coinage, weights and measures, and regulation of time and calendar; (5) customs, commercial and navigation agreements, traffic in goods and payments with foreign countries, including customs and frontier protection; (6) federal railways and air traffic; (7) post and telecommunications; (8) the legal status of persons in the employment of the Federation and of public law corporations under direct supervision of the Federal Government; (9) trade marks, copyright and publishing rights; (10) co-operation of the Federal Republic and the Länder in the criminal police and in matters concerning the protection of the constitution, the establishment of a Federal Office of Criminal Police, as well as the combating of international crime; (11) federal statistics. For concurrent legislation in which the Länder have legislative rights if and as far as the Federal Republic does not exercise its legislative powers,'see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 6 , P . 1 0 3 8 .

Federal laws are passed by the Federal Assembly and after their adoption submitted to the Federal Council, which has a limited veto. The Basic Law may be amended only upon the approval of two-thirds of the members of the Federal Assembly and two-thirds of the votes of the Federal Council. The foreign service, federal finance, railways, postal services, waterways and shipping are under direct federal administration. In the field of finance the Federal Republic has exclusive legislation on customs and financial monopolies and concurrent legislation on: (1) excise taxes and taxes on transactions, in particular, taxes on real-estate acquisition, incremented value and on fire protection; (2) taxes on income, property, inheritance and donations; (3) real estate, industrial and trade taxes, with the exception of the determining of the tax rates. The Federal Republic can, by federal law, claim part of the income and corporation taxes to cover its expenditures not covered by other revenues. Financial jurisdiction is uniformly regulated by federal legislation. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes ofblack, red, gold. National anthem: Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit (Words by H. Hoffmann, 1841; tune by J. Haydn, 1797).

530

FEDERAL

REPUBLIC

OF

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Local Government. Below Land level local government is carried on by elected councils to counties (Landkreise), county boroughs (Kreisfreie Städte) and local communities (Gemeinden). G O V E R N M E N T . The 11th Federal Assembly, elected 25 Jan. 1987, is composed of 520 members. These include 22 members for Berlin with limited voting rights. Electoral turnout was 84-4%. The government is formed by a coalition of the Christian Democrat/Christian Socialist (CDU/CSU) alliance with the Free Democrats (FDP). (The CSU is a Bavarian party where the CDU does not stand). Percentage votes, and seats gained (1983 electoral results in brackets): CDU/CSU 44-3%, 223 (48 -8%, 244); Social Democratic Party (SPD), 37%, 186 (38-2%, 193); FDP, 9 • 1 %, 46 (7%, 34); Greens, 8 • 3%, 42 (5 • 6%, 27). Federal President: Dr Richard von Weizsäcker (sworn in 1 July 1984). The Cabinet, in March 1987, was as follows: Chancellor: Dr Helmut Kohl (CDU). Without Portfolio: Wolfgang Schäuble (CDU). Deputy Chancellor, Minister of Foreign'Affairs: Hans-Dietrich Genscher (FDP). Interior: Dr Friedrich Zimmermann (CSU). Justice: Hans A. Engelhard (FDP). Finance: Dr Gerhard Stoltenberg (CDU). Economics: Martin Bangemann (FDP). Food, Agriculture and Forestry: Ignaz Kiechle (CSU). Intra-German Relations: Dorothée Wilms (CDU). Labour and Social Affairs: Dr Norbert Blüm (CDU). Defence: Dr Manfred Wörner (CDU). Youth, Family Affairs and Health: Rita Süssmuth (CDU). Transport: Jürgen Wamke (CSU). Posts and Telecommunications: Dr Christian Schwarz-Schilling (CDU). Regional Planning, Building and Urban Development: Dr Oscar Schneider (CSU). Research and Technology: Dr Heinz Riesenhuber (CDU). Education and Science: Jürgen Möllemann (CDU). Economic Co-operation: Hans Klein (CSU). Environment: Walter Wallman. D E F E N C E . The Paris Treaties, which entered into force in May 1955, stipulated a contribution of the Federal Republic to western defence within the framework of NATO and the Western European Union. The Federal Armed Forces (Bundeswehr) had a total strength (1985) of495,000 all ranks (236,000 conscripts) and a further 750,000 reserves. Army. The Army is divided into the Field Army, containing the units assigned to N A T O in event of war, and the Territorial Army. The Field Army is organized in 3 corps, comprising 17 armoured, 15 armoured infantry, 1 mountain and 3 airborne brigades. Equipment includes 1,232 M-48, 2,437 Leopard I and 800 Leopard II tanks. An air component operates 200 BO 105P anti-armour helicopters, 107 CH-53G and 180 U H - I D Iroquois transport helicopters, plus-115 Alouette II and 95. BO 105M liaison/observation helicopters. The Territorial Army is organized into 5 Military Districts, under 3 Territorial Commands. Its main task is to defend rear areas and remains under national control even in wartime. Total strength was (1987) 340,800 (conscripts 181,300; Territorial Army 49,400). Navy. The Federal Navy comprises 24 diesel-powered coastal submarines, 7 destroyers, 9 frigates, 6 corvettes, 40 fast missile boats (Exocet armed), a light cruiser type ' training ship; 10 frigate-type support ships, 6 coastal minesweepers, 12 minehunters, 21 fast minesweepers, 18 inshore minesweepers, 22 utility landing craft, 28 smaller landing craft, 12 supply and support ships, 2 fleet replenishment ships, 8 oilers, 8 coast patrol boats, 12 torpedo recovery vessels, 9 coastguard cutters, 2 repair ships, 24 tugs and 45 auxiliaries and service craft.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

531

GERMANY

The projected construction programme includes 12 submarines, 7 frigates, 10 fast mine warfare craft and 20 minehunters. The Naval Air Arm operates 186 fixed-wing aircraft, including 70 Tomados, 35 Starfighters, 19 Atlantics and 19 D028s; and 36 helicopters (22 Sea Kings and 14 Lynx). About 20 more Tornados and 5 Lynx were on order in 1987. Navy personnel in 1987 totalled 5,640 officers and 32,860 men, including 6,700 in the Naval Air Arm. Air Force. Since Oct. 1970, the Luftwaffe has comprised the following commands: German Air Force Tactical Command, German Air Force Support Command (including two German Air Force Regional Support Commands—North and South) and General Air Force Office. Its strength in 1987 was approximately 108,700 officers and other ranks and about 500 first-line combat aircraft. Combat units, including 12 heavy fighter-bomber squadrons, 7 light ground attack/ reconnaissance squadrons, 4 reconnaissance squadrons, 8 surface-to-surface missile squadrons, and an air defence force of 4 interceptor squadrons, 24 batteries of Nike-Hercules and 36 batteries of Improved Hawk surface-to-air missiles, are assigned to NATO. There are 4 F-4F Phantom interceptor squadrons, 6 Tornado attack squadrons, 2 F-104G fighter-bomber squadrons (to re-equip with Tornados), 4 attack squadrons of F-4Fs, 4 RF-4E Phantom reconnaissance squadrons, and 7 light attack/reconnaissance squadrons of Alpha Jets. Four transport squadrons (each 15 aircraft) with turboprop Transall C-160 aircraft and 1 wing of 5 helicopter squadrons with UH-1D Iroquois add to the air mobility of the Bundeswehr. There are also VIP, support and light transport aircraft, and Piaggio P. 149D initial training aircraft. Guided weapons in service include 8 squadrons of Pershing surface-to-surface missiles and 6 battalions of Nike-Hercules and 9 battalions of Improved Hawk surface-to-air missiles. Pilots undergo basic and advanced training in USA. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. The Federal Republic of Germany is a member of UN, OECD, European Communities, WEU, NATO and the Council of Europe. ECONOMY Budget. Since 1 Jan. 1979 tax revenues have been distributed as follows: Federal Government. Income tax, 42 • 5%; capital yield and corporation tax, 50%; turnover tax, 67-5%; trade tax, 15%; capital gains, insurance and accounts taxes, 100%; excise duties (other than on beer), 100%. Länder. Income tax, 42 • 5%; capital yield and corporation tax, 50%; turnover tax, 32-5%; trade tax, 15%; other taxes, 100%. Local authorities. Income tax, 15%; trade tax, 70%; local taxes, 100%. Budgets for 1985and 1986 (in DMlm.): Revenue Taxes Economic activities Interest Current allocations and subsidies Other receipts minus equalising payments

All public 1985 422,024 41,006 3,155 94,393 28,440 87,949 501,070

Sale of assets Allocations for investment Repayment ofloans Public sector borrowing minus equalising payments Totals

5,802 25,039 6,490 2,634 23,590 16,375 517,441

Federal portion authorities 1986 1985 1986 Current 213,541 209,420 435,261 18,037 41,521 17,846 1,269 1,271 3,191 1,264 1,263 96,248 4,428 29,743 3,898 89,597 516,367

233,698

Capital 5,471 25,139 6,669 2,555 24,008 15,826 532,010

238,539

183 13 1,825

637 17 2,037

2,021 235,719

2,691 241,230

532

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Federal portion All public authorities 1985 1986 1985 1986 Current 171,808 178,120 36,631 37,913 89,939 92,238 39,016 39,944 29,407 30,382 57,198 59,489 238,876 244,403 118,723 120,983 87,948 89,597

Expenditure Staff Materials Interest Allocations and subsidies minus equalising payments

469,873 Construction Acquisition of property Allocations and subsidies Loans Acquisition of shares Repayments in the public sector minus equalising payments

223,776

Capital 42,837 10,456 47,342 19,935 3,277 1,373 24,008

41,664 11,296 49,043 19,094 3,573 1,363 23,590 102,443 571,700

Totals

484,653

101,212 584,866

229,222

6,362 1,462 18,869 8,910 1,906

6,060 1,511 17,963 9,209 1,514

37,508 261,059

36,256 265,220

Major areas of expenditure in 1985 (and 1984) in DM 1,000m.: Social, 82 (83-6); defence, 50-8 (49-8); transport and communications, 12-6 (12-5); economy, 9-3 (10-3X Currency. Ì00 pfennig (pf.)=l deutsche Mark (DM). There are 1,2, 5,10, 50 pf., 1, 2, 5 and 10 DM coins and 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 DM notes. Money in circulation in 1984, DM 104,700m. In March 1987, £1 =2 -95 DM; US$1 = 1 -83 Banking. On 14 Feb. 1948 the Bank deutscher Länder was established in Frankfurt as the central bank. The Länder and Berlin central banks were merged from 1 Aug. 1957 to form the Deutsche Bundesbank. Its assets were DM 208,267m. in 1984. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1984,394,884m. kwh. were produced. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The chief oilfields are in Emsland (Lower Saxony). In 1985,28-73m. tonnes of petroleum and benzine, and 11 -64m. tonnes of diesel oil were produced. Minerals. The main production areas are: North Rhine-Westphalia (for coal, iron and metal smelting-works), Central Germany (for brown coal), and Lower Saxony (Salzgitter for iron ore; the Harz for metal ore). Production (in 1,000 tonnes): Minerals Coal Lignite Iron ore Potash Crude oil

1980 87,146 129,833 1,945 29,317 4,631

1981 88,460 130,619 1,572 28,192 4,459

1982 89,014 127,307 1,304 22,536 4,256

1983 82,202 124,281 976 27,200 4,116

1984 79,426 126,739 977 29,543 4,055

1985 82,398 120,667 1,060 29,248 4,105

Production of iron and steel (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron Steel Rolled products finished

1980 33,873 43,838

1981 31,876 41,610

1982 27,621 35,880 25,702

1983 26,598 35,729 26,063

1984 30,203 39,389 27,962

1985 31,531 40,497 28,919

Agriculture. Area cultivated, 1985: 11 -93m. hectares (arable, 7-21m.; pasture, 4-5m.).

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In 1985 the number of agricultural holdings classified by area farmed was: Schleswig-Holstein Hamburg Lower Saxony Bremen North Rhine-Westphalia Hessen Rhineland-Palatinate Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Saarland Berlin (West) Federal Republic

Total 30,789 1,295 112,910 466 91,571 56,249 55,343 123,434 244,663 3,972 143 720,835

1-5 hectares 6,349 788 30,551 153 28,020 21,055 22,780 49,541 63,217 1,687

5-20 hectares 5,724 283 32,016 114 32,539 21,862 20,537 50,036 124,985 1,163 35 289,294

—

224,225

20-100 hectares 17,455 211 48,469 196 30,420 13,087 11,868 23,775 55,844 1,087 24 202,166

Over 100 hectares 1,261 13 1,874 3 592 245 158 352 617 35 —

5,150

Area (in 1,000 hectares) and yield (in 1,000 tonnes) of the main crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1982 1,578 407 2,021 723 238 418

1983 1,655 445 2,035 601 224 393

Area 1984 1,634 439 2,006 555 219 406

1985 1,618 424 1,944 582 . 218 403

1982 8,632 1,639 9,460 3,113 7,049 22;732

1983 8,990 1,599 8,944 2,068 5,669

Yield 1984 10,223 1,931 8,284 2,507 7,272

1985 9,866 1,821 9,690 2,807 7,905 20,813

Wine must production (in lm. hectolitres): 15-4inT982; 13 in 1983; 8 in 1984; 5-4 in 1985. Livestock, 1985: Cattle, 15,592,900 (including 5,559,700 milch cows); horses, 252,200; sheep, 1,120,400; pigs, 23,401,200; poultry, 66,245,100. Forestry. Forestry is of great importance, conducted under the guidance of the State on scientific lines. In recent years enormous depredation has occurred through pollution with acid rain. Forest area in 1985 was 5 • 28m. hectares, of which 2 -22 m. were owned by the State. In 1984 29m. cu. metres of timber were cut. Fisheries. In 1985 theyield of sea fishing was 190,670 tonnes live weight. In 1985 the fishing fleet consisted of 21 trawlers (45,039 gross tons), 1 lugger and 655 cutters. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1984 there were 53,598 manufacturing firms (with 20 and more employees) employing 8-17m. persons, made up of 0-26m. in energy and water services, 0-22m. in mining, l-4m. in raw materials processing, 3-5m. in the manufacture of producers' goods, 1 -3m. in the manufacture of consumer goods, 0-48m. in food and tobacco and 1 -03m. in building. Production of major industrial products: Products (1,000 tonnes) 1981 Aluminium 729 Artificial fertilizers 1,961 Sulphuric acid, SOj 3,945 Soda, Na2COj 1,189 Cement 31,498 Plastics 6,610 Cotton yarn 148 Woollen yarn 52 Passenger cars (1,000) 3,590 3,441 Bicycles (1,000)

1982 723 1,505 3,601 1,105 30,079 6,335 168 47 3,771 3,089

1983 743 1,618 3,543 1,218 30,466 7,100 181 46 3,875 3,334

1984 777 1,691 3,518 1,364 28,909 7,505 194 49 3,505 3,024

1985 745 1,651 3,428 1,412 25,758 7,666 131 42 4,165 2,891

Labour. 26-61m. persons were employed in 1985, including 10- 17m. women and 2-lm. foreign workers. Major categories: manufacturing industries, 10-46m.; services, 9m.; commerce and transport, 4-67m.; self-employed, 2-43m.; agriculture, forestry and fishing, l-37m. Unemployed: 2-21m.; unfilled- vacancies, 109,996. Trade Unions. The majority of trade unions belong to the Deutscher Gewerk-

534

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

schaftsbund (DGB, German Trade Union Federation), which had (women in brackets) 7-72m. (1 -71m.) members in 1985, including 5- 18m. (0-84m.) manual workers, 1 • 72m. (0 • 72m.) white-collar workers and 0 • 82m. (0 • 15m.) civil servants. Of these 2-55m. (0-37m.) worked in the metal industries, l-18m. (0-35m.) in public services, 0 • 51 m. in building and 0 • 36m. in mining and energy. DGB unions are organized in industrial branches such that only one union operates within each enterprise. Outside the DGB lie several smaller unions: The Deutscher Beamtenbund (DBB) or civil servants union with 0-8m. (0-2m.) members, the Deutsche Angestellten-Gewerkschaft (DAG) or union of salaried staff with 0-5m. (0-2m.) members and the Deutscher Handels-und Industrieangestellten- Verband (DHIV) or commercial and industrial salaried staffs association with 0-06m. (0-02m.) members. Commerce. Imports and exports in DM 1 m.: 1983 390,192

Imports 1984 434,257

1985 463,811

1983 432,281

Exports 1984 488,223

1985 537,164

Distribution of imports and exports by categories of countries in 1985 (in DM lm.): EEC, 225,406, 254,867; developing countries, 71,794, 66,629; Communist countries, 26,310, 27,883. Most important trading partners in 1985 (trade figures in DM lm.): imports Netherlands, 58,227; France, 49,280; UK, 37,164; Italy, 37,155; USA, 32,341; Belgium with Luxembourg, 29,112; Japan, 20,720; Switzerland, 17,164; Austria, 15,350; USSR, 13,629: exports Fiance, 64,001; USA, 55,533; Netherlands, 46,254; UK, 45,967; Italy, 41,795; Belgium with Luxembourg, 36,967; Switzerland, 28,856; Austria, 27,395; Sweden, 14,734; Denmark, 11,810; USSR, 10,527. Distribution by commodities in 1985 (in DM lm.): imports and exports live animals, 736, 864; foodstuffs, 47,584, 22,056; luxury foods and tobacco, 9,632, 5,105; raw materials, 57,456, 8,565; semi-finished products, 86,794, 41,038; manufactures, 254,034,456,209. Total trade between the Federal Republic of Germany and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 7,414,073 9,667,444 11,090,227 12,601,387 14,139,097 5,414,733 6,063,989 7,458,042 8,947,055 8,542,196

Tourism. In 1984-85, 12-54m. arrivals and 27-58m. overnight stays by foreign visitors were registered. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1985 the total length of classified roads was 173,045 km, including 8,198 km of motorway (Autobahn), 31,485 km of federal highways, 63,306 km first-class and 70,056 km second-class country roads. Motor vehicles licensed on 1 July 1985: 30,617,600 (including 25,844,500 passenger cars, 1,280,800 trucks, 69,400 buses and 1,704,900 tractors. Road casualties in 1985 totalled 422,095 injured and 8,400 killed. Railways. Length of Federal Railway in 1985 was 28,045 km (1,435 mm gauge) of which 11,204 km was electrified. In 1985 it carried 1,104m. passengers and 334-6m. tonnes of freight. There were also2,950 km of privately-owned and other minor railways. Aviation. Deutsche Lufthansa was set up in 1953 with a capital of DM 900m. The Federal Republic owns 74-3%, Land North Rhine-Westphalia 2-2%, the Federal Railways, 0-9%, Federal Post 1-8%, Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau 3% and private industry 17-.8%. In 1985 it had 88 Boeingsand 16 Airbuses. Lufthansa operate internal, European, African, North and South Atlantic, Near and Far East routes. In 1985 it carried42m. passengers and0-7m. tonnes offreight. Shipping. On 31 Dec. 1984 the mercantile marine comprised 1,951 ocean-going vessels of6,304,000 BRT.

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The inland-waterways fleet on 31 Dec. 1984 included 2,260 motor freight vessels of 2m. tonnes and 437 tankers of 547,493 tonnes. The length of the navigable rivers and canals in use was 4,429 km. Sea-going ships in 1984 carried 132-3m. tonnes of cargo. Inland waterways carried 236 • 5m. tonnes in 1984. Pipeline. In 1985 there were 1,715 km of pipeline. 56-79m. tonnes of oil were transported. Post and Broadcasting. In 1985 there were 17,831 post offices and 37 9m. telephones. The post office savings banks had, in 1985, 20,761,000 depositors with DM 34,746m. to their credit. In 1984 postal revenues amounted to DM 48,486m. and expenditure to DM 44,229m. There are 9 regional broadcasting stations. The Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD) organises co-operation between them and also broadcasts a federal-wide TV programme of its own. Number of wireless licences, (1985) 25-48m.; of television licences, 22-71m. Cinemas and Theatres. In 1983 there were 3,192 cinemas. In 1985 there were 286 theatres with a seating capacity of 160,603. Newspapers. In 1983, 359 newspapers and 6,702 periodicals were published with respective circulations of25-83m. and 260- 16m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the federal courts and by the courts of the Länder. In criminal procedures, civil cases and procedures of non-contentious jurisdiction the courts on the Land level are the local courts (Amtsgerichte), the regional courts (Landgerichte) and the courts of appeal (Oberlandesgerichte). Constitutional federal disputes are dealt with by the Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) elected by the Federal Assembly and Federal Council. The Länder also have constitutional courts. In labour law disputes the courts of the first and second instance are the labour courts and the Land labour courts and in the third instance, the Federal Labour Court (Bundesarbeitsgericht). Disputes about public law in matters of social security, unemployment insurance, maintenance of war victims and similar cases are dealt with in the first and second instances by the social courts and the Land social courts and in the third instance by the Federal Social Court (Bundessozialgericht). In most tax matters the finance courts of the Länder are competent and in the second instance, the Federal Finance Court (Bundesfinanzhof). Other controversies of public law in non-constitutional matters are decided in the first and second instance by the administrative and the higher administrative courts (Observerwaltungsgerichte) of the Länder, and in the third instance by the Federal Administrative Court (Bundesverwaltungsgericht). For the inquiry into maritime accidents the admiralty courts (Seeämter) are competent on the Land level and in the second instance the Federal Admiralty Court (Bundesoberseeamt) in Hamburg. The death sentence has Seen abolished. Religion. Census (Í970) 49% of the population were Protestants, 44-6% Roman Catholics and 0-1% Jews. The Evangelical (Protestant) Church consists of 18 member-churches in the Federal Republic and West Berlin (7 Lutheran Churches, 8 United-LutheranReformed, 2 Reformed Churches and 1 Confederation of United member Churches: 'Church of the Union'). Its organs are the Synod, the Church Conference and the Council under the chairmanship of Bishop Dr Eduard Lohse (Hanover). There are also some 12 Evangelical Free Churches. In 1983 there were 10,648 parishes, 16,302 priests and 25-5m. members. There are 5 Catholic archbishops and 17 bishoprics. Chairman of the German Bishops' Conference is Cardinal Höfiner, Archbishop of Cologne. A concordat

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between Germany and the Holy See was signed on 20 July and ratified on 10 Sept. 1933. The 'Old Catholics', who are in full communion with the Anglican Churches, numbered about 30,000 in 1977; they have a bishop at Bonn. Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland. Hanover, 1979 Taschenbuch der evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland. Frankfurt, 1980 Kirchliches Handbuch. Amtliches statistisches Jahrbuch der Katholischen Kirche Deutschlands Pastoral der Kirche fremden—Eroffnungsreferat der Deutschen Bischofskonferenz 1979 in Fulda—von Kardinal Joseph Höffner. Bonn, 1979 Alt-Katholisches Jahrbuch. Bonn, 1978 Katholiken und ihre Kirche, Protestanten und ihre Kirche. Munich, 1977

Education. Schools providing general education are primary and post-primary schools (Grund- und Hauptschulen), special schools (Sonderschulen), secondary modem schools (Realschulen), grammar schools (Gymnasien) and comprehensive schools (Gesauntschulen). Primary schools: Attendance is compulsory for all children having completed their 6th year of age. Compulsory education extends 9 years. After the first 4 (or 6) years at primary school children may attend postprimary schools, secondary modern schools, grammar schools and other schools of general secondary education. The secondary modern school comprises 6, the grammar school 9 years. The final Grammar School Certificate (Abitur-Higher School Certificate) entitles the holder to enter any institution of higher education. There are also special schools for retarded, physically or mentally handicapped and socially maladjusted children. In 1984 there were 19,325 primary and post-primary schools with 4,005,638 pupils and 234,549 teachers; 2,819 special schools with 284,594 pupils and 41,273 teachers, 2,628 secondary modem schools with 1,132,205 pupils and 63,164 teachers; 2,487 grammar schools with 1,852,681, pupils and 125,517 teachers; 301 comprehensive schools with 220,890 pupils and 28,533 teachers. Vocational education is provided in part-time, full-time and advanced vocational schools (Berufs-, Berufsaufbau-, Berufsfach- and Fachschulen, including Fachschulen für Technik and Schulen des Gesundheitswesens). Running parallel to the occupation, part-time vocational schools offer 6 to 12 hours per week of additional compulsory schooling. All young people who are apprentices, in some other employment or even unemployed have to attend them in general up to the age of 18 years or until the completion of the practical vocational training. Fulltime vocational schools comprise courses of at least one year. They prepare for commercial and domestic occupations as well as specialized occupations in the field of handicrafts. Advanced full-time vocational schools are attended by pupils having completed their 18th year of age; courses vary from 6 months to 3 or more years. In 1984 there were 5,847 full- and part-time vocational schools with 80,065 teachers and 2,554,898 pupils (1,140,499 female); 2,932 advanced vocational schools with 9,747 teachers and 207,575 pupils(137,176 female). Higher Education. There are universities at Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth, Berlin (West), Bielefeld, Bochum, Bonn, Bremen, Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Eichstatt, Erlangen-Nuremberg, Frankfurt-am-Main, Freiburg im Breisgau, Giessen, Göttingen, Hamburg, Hanover, Heideiburg, Hildesheim, Hohenheim, Kaiserslautem, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Konstanz, Lüneburg, Mainz, Mannheim, Marburg, Munich, Münster, Oldenburg, Osnabrück, Passau, Regensburg, Saarbrücken, Stuttgart, Trier, Tübingen, Ulm and Würzburg, and in 1985 there were 17 other institutions of equivalent status. Teachers in 1984: universities, 100,880; technical universities, 21,425; polytechnics, 7,576; art colleges, 4,685. Students in 1985—86 (women in brackets): universities and equivalent institutions, 912,253 (371,044); polytechnics, 85,045 (26,996); teachers' training colleges, 14,682 (10,004); theological colleges, 3,129 (990); art schools, 21,665 (10,608); technical universities, 268,826 (73,709); business colleges, 33,442 (13,298).

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Health. In 1985 there were 153,895 doctors (including 73,010 in hospitals) and 34,415 dentists. There were 3,106 hospitals (including 933 private) with 678,708 beds. Social Welfare. Social Health Insurance (introduced in 1883). Wage-earners and apprentices, salaried employees with an income below a certain limit and socialinsurance pensioners are compulsorily insured. Voluntary insurance is also possible. Benefits: Medical treatment, medicines, hospital and nursing care, maternity benefits, death benefits for the insured and their families, sickness payments and out-patients' allowances. 36m. persons were insured in 1984 (20-9m. compulsorily) and 10-6m. persons (including 6-6m. women) were drawing pensions. Number of cases of incapacity for work totalled 22m., and 362m. working days were lost. Total disbursements DM 108,679m. Accident Insurance (introduced in 1884). Insured are all persons in employment or service, apprentices and the greater part of the self-employed and the unpaid family workers. ' "" • Benefits in the case of industrial injuries and occupational diseases: Medical treatment and nursing care, sickness payments, pensions and other payments in cash and in kind, surviving dependants' pensions. Number of insured in 1984,29-4m.; number of current pensions, 0-97m.; total disbursements, DM 12,769m. Workers' and Employees' Old-Age Insurance Scheme (introduced in 1889). All wage-earners and salaried employees, the members of certain liberal professions and—subject to certain conditions—self-employed craftsmen are compulsorily insured. The insured may voluntarily continue to insure when no longer liable to do so or increase the insurance. Benefits: Measures designed to maintain, improve and restore the earning capacity; pensions paid to persons incapable for work, old age and surviving dependants' pensions. Number of insured in 1983, 30-3m. (14-2m. women); number of current pensions, 1985: 13-3m.; pensions to widows and widowers, 3-8m.; pensions to orphans, 0 • 5m. Total disbursements in 1984, DM 180,586m. There are also special retirement and unemployment pension schemes for miners and farmers, assistance for war victims and compensation payments to members of German minorities in East European countries expelled after the Second World War and persons who suffered damage because of the war or in connexion with the currency reform. Family Allowances. The monthly allowance for the first child is DM 50, for the second, DM 70-100 (varying according to income) for the third DM 140-220 and the fourth DM 140-240. DM 10,901 were dispersed to 6-41m. recipients in 1984. Unemployment Allowances. In 1985 0-6m. persons (0- 16m. women) were receiving unemployment benefit and 0-84m. (0-37m. women) earnings-related benefit. Total expenditure on these and similar benefits (e.g. short-working supplement, job creation schemes) was DM 29,737m. in 1985. Accommodation Allowances averaging DM 118 a month were paid in 1984 to 1 • 5m. persons whose monthly income averaged DM 1,317. Public Welfare. Benefits were instituted in 1962. In 1984 DM 18-75m. were distributed to 2 -57m. recipients. Public Youth Welfare. For supervision of foster children, official guardianship, assistance with adoptions and affiliations, social assistance in juvenile courts, educational assistance and correctional education under a court order. Total expenditure in 1984, DM 5,971 m. Übersicht über die soziale Sicherung. Bundesministerium fur Arbeit und Sozialordnung. 9th ed. Bonn, 1977

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Tietz, G., Zahlenwerk zur Sozialversicherung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (and supplements). Berlin, 1963 Arbeits- und Sozialstatistik. Bundesminister für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, Bonn (from 1950) Fachserie 13 Sozialleistungen. Statistisches Bundesamt (from 1951) Fachserie 12 Gesundheitswesen. Statistisches Bundesamt (from 1946) DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y in Great Britain (21-23 Beigrave Sq., London, S W 1 X 8 P Z ) Ambassador: Baron Rüdiger von Wechmar, G C V O (accredited 7 Feb. 1984). Of Great Britain in the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y (Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 77, 5300 Bonn 1) Ambassador: Sir Julian Bullard, K C M G . Of the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y in the U S A (4645 Reservoir Rd, NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: GnexAber van Well. Of the U S A in the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y (Deichmanns Ave., 5300, Bonn) A mbassador: Richard R. Burt. Of the Federal Republic of G e r m a n y to the United Nations Ambassador: D r Hans W e m e r Lautenschlager. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The central statistical agency is the Statistisches Bundesamt, 62 Wiesbaden, Gustav Stresemann Ring 11. President: Egon Holder. Its publications include: Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir die Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Wirtschaft und Statistik (monthly, from 1949); Das Arbeitsgebiet der Bundesstatistik (latest issue 1981; also in English: Survey of German Federal Statistics). Berghahn, V. R., Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century. CUP, 1982 Beyme, K. von, The Political System of the Federal Republic ofGermany. New York, 1983 Burdick, C., et al. (eds.), Contemporary Germany: Politics and Culture, Boulder, 1984 Can,}., Helmut Schmidt, Helmsman of Germany. London, 1985 Childs, D., Germany since 1918.2nded. New York, 1980 Conradt, D. P., The German Polity. 2nd ed. New York, 1982 Craig,G. A., Germany, 1866-1945. OUP, mi—The Germans. Harmondsworth, 1984 Eley, G., From Unification to Nazism: Reinterpreting the German Past. London, 1986 Gatzke, H. W., Germany and the United States: a 'Special Relationship '.'Harvard Univ. Press, 1980 Hardach, K., The Political Economy of Germany in the Twentieth Century. California Univ. Press, 1980 Hubatsch, W., Studies in Medieval and Modern German History. Basingstoke, 1985 Johnson, N., State and Government in the Federal Republic of Germany: the Executive at Work. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1983 Jonas, M., The United States and Germany: A Diplomatic History. Cornell Univ. Press, 1984 Koch, H. W., A Constitutional History of Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. London,1984 Kohl, W. L.,andBasevi,G., West Germany: A European and Global Power. London, 1982 Kolinsky, E., Parlies, Opposition and Society in West Germany. London, 1984 König, K., et al. (eds.) Public Administration in the Federal Republic of Germany. Boston, 1983 Laqueur, W., Germany Today: a Personal Report. London, 1985 Mann, A., Comeback: Germany 1945-1952. London, 1980 Markovits, A. S. (ed.), The Political Economy of West Germany: Modell Deutschland. New York, 1982 Pachter, H., Modern Germany: A Social, Cultural and Political History. Boulder, 1978 Pasley, M., (ed.). Germany: a Companion to German Studies. 2nd ed. London, 1982 Schweitzer, D.-C., (ed.) Politics and Government in the Federal Republic of Germany: Basic Documents. Leamington Spa, 1984 Smith, E.O., The West German Economy. London, 1983 Wallach, P. and Romoser, G. K. (eds.) West German Politics in the Mid-Eighties: Crisis and Continuity. New York, 1985

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Who's Whoin Germany, 1982-1983. Munich, 1983 Wild, T., (ed). Urban and Rural Change in West Germany. London, 1983 National Library: Deutsche Bibliothek, Zeppelinallee 4-8; Frankfurt (Main). Director: Professor Dr Kurt Köster.

THE LANDER BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Baden-Württemberg comprises 35,751 sq. km, with a population (at 31 March 1986) of 9,277,885 (4,469,852 males, 4,808-,033 females). The Land is administratively divided into 4 areas, 9 urban and 35 rural districts, and numbers 1,111 communes. The capital is Stuttgart. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 95,447 94,000 94,442

Marriages 54,785 54,349 54,901

Divorces 15,434 16,252 15,984

Deaths 95,750 90,870 93,295

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Land Baden-Württemberg is a merger of the 3 Länder, Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württembeig-Hohenzollern, which were formed in 1945. The merger was approved by a plebiscite held on 9 Dec. 1951, w,hen 70% ofthe population voted in its favour. The Diet, elected on 25 March 1984, consists of 68 Christian Democrats, 41 Social Democrats, 8 Free Democrats, 9 Ecologists. The Government is formed by Christian Democrats, with Lothar Späth (CDU) as Prime Minister. A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Rye Wheat Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1984 1983 1985 16-4 141 16-0 222-4 223-1 218-5 198-8 197-8 200-8 85-3 87-0 86-3 17-4 19-0 15-5 23-4 22-3 23-7

1983 53-5 1,046-0 821-4 337-1 422-6 940-1

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1984 1985 72-6 80-7 1,279-6 1,330-6 955-0 995-9 437-6 373-1 559-6 838-8 1,260-8 1,228-6

Livestock (3 Dec. 1985): Cattle, 1,769,300 (including 641,400 milch cows); horses, (1984) 50,600; pigs, 2,375,400; sheep, 212,700; poultry, 5,222,400. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 12,835 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 1,391,709 persons; of these, 245,961 were employed in machine construction (excluding office machines, data processing equipment and facilities); 76,047 in textile industry; 235,084 in electrical engineering; 218,208 in car building. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 4,296,000 at the 0-4%-ECsample survey of June 1983. Of the total 543,800 were self-employed (including family workers), 3,752,200 employees; 247,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry; 2,094,200 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 602,600 in commerce and transport, 1,352,200 in other industries and services. R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1986 there were 27,899 km of'classified' roads, including 927 km of autobahn, 4,950 km of federal roads, 10,211 km of first-class and 11,811 km of second-class highways. Motor vehicles, at 1 Jan. 1986, numbered 4,856,766, including, 4,121,625 passenger cars, 8,338 buses, 192,744 lorries, 306,737 tractors and 176,566 motorcycles.

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J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshof), 2 courts of appeal, 17 regional courts, 108 local courts, a Land labour court, 9 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshoj), 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 1 Jan. 1985, 44-1% of the population were Protestants and 47 -3% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985-86 there were 3,613 primary schools (Grund and Hauptschule) with 31,981 teachers and 551,682 pupils; 572 special schools with 7,947 teachers and 45,168 pupils; 438 intermediate schools with 12,082 teachers and 202,157 pupils;413 high schools with 19,304 teachers and 268,370 pupils; 26 Freie Waldorf schools with 1,030 teachers and 14,147 pupils. Other schools together had 1,047 teachers and 13,963 pupils; there were also 39 Fachhochschulen (colleges of engineering and others) with 44,444 students. In the winter term 1985-86 there were 9 universities (Freiburg, 22,129 students; Heidelberg, 26,599; Konstanz, 5,967; Tübingen, 22,735; Karlsruhe, 17,315; Stuttgart, 17,532; Hohenheim, 5,079; Mannheim 10,314; Ulm, 4,511); 8 teachertraining colleges with 9,785 students; 5 colleges of music with 2,806 students and 2 colleges of fine arts with 1,042 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Baden-Württemberg (P.O.B. 898, D7000 Stuttgart 1) (President: Prof. Max Wingen), publishes: 'Baden- Württemberg in Wort und Zahl' (monthly); Jahrbücher fur Statistik und Landeskunde von Baden- Württemberg; Statistik von Baden-Württemberg (series); Statistisch-prognostischer Bericht (latest issue 1985—86); Statistisches Taschenbuch (latest issue 1984-85). State Library: Württembergische Landesbibliothek, Konrad-Adenauer-Str. 8, 7000 Stuttgart 1. Director: Dr Hans-Peter Geh. Badische Landesbibliothek Karlsruhe, Lamm-Str. 16, 7500 Karlsruhe 1. Director: Dr Römer.

BAVARIA Bayern AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Bavaria has an area of 70,553 sq. km. The capital is Munich. There are 7 areas, 96 urban and rural districts and 2,051 communes. The population (31 Dec. 1985) numbered 10,973,720 (5,257,074 males, 5,716,646 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 112,644 111,183 111,365

Marriages 65,941 66,005 66,012

Divorces 18,420 18,877 19,252

Deaths 125,362 122,057 121,941

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Constituent Assembly, elected on 30 June 1946, passed a constitution on the lines of the democratic constitution of 1919, but with greater emphasis on state rights; this was agreed upon by the Christian Social Union and the Social Democrats. The elections for the Diet, held on 10 Oct. 1982, had the following results: 133 Christian Social Union, 71 Social Democrats. The cabinet of the Christian Social Union is headed by Minister President Dr Franz Josef Strauss (CSU). A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important products: Wheat. . Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1984 493-8 62-2 534-9 128-2 85-9 84-2

Area (1,000 hectares) Yield (1,000 tonnes) ¡986 1984 1986 1985 1985 487-6 3,085-4 493-1 2,984-2 2,829-1 56-4 60-1 273-1 260-5 219-1 2,193-4 530-8 521-5 2,701-6 2,642-2 129-8 121-2 618-3 639-8 558-5 72-4 2,683-2 80-9 2,732-9 2,269-9 4,536 2 83-8 79-5 1 4,845-7 1 Preliminary figures.

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Livestock (3 Dec. 1985): 5,219,600 cattle (including 2,013,100 milch cows); 56,700 horses; 319,200 sheep; 4,303,000 pigs; 12,516,900 poultry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985, 9,472 establishments (with 20 or more employees) employed 1,304,273 persons; of these, 233,043 were employed in electrical engineering; 77,984 in mechanical engineering; 125,283 in clothing and textile industries. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 5,185,500 at the 0-4% sample survey of the microcensus of June 1984. Of the total, 555,600 were selfemployed, 323,400 unpaid family workers, 4,306,500 employees; 2,206,400 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building; 836,100 in commerce and transport; 1,656,800 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were, on 1 Jan. 1985,40,573 km of'classified' roads, including 1,836 km of autobahn, 7,130 km of federal roads, 13,765 km of first-class and 17,842 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vphiqles.at 1 July 1986, was 6,099,406, including 4,909,672 passenger cars, 231,825 lorries, 12,707 buses, 572,254 tractors, 310,270 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshofi, a supreme Land court (Oberstes Landesgericht), 3 courts of appeal, 21 regional courts, 72 local courts, 2 Land labour courts, 11 labour courts, a Land social court, 7 social courts, 2 finance courts, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshoß, 6 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . At the census of 27 May 1970 there were 69 -9% Roman Catholics and 25-7% Protestants. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985-86 there were 2,808 primary schools with 42,995 teachers and 732,697 pupils; 393 special schools with 5,134 teachers and 38,505 pupils; 335 intermediate schools with 8,763 teachers and 145,607 pupils; 396 high schools with 19,755 teachers and 288,218 pupils; 272 part-time vocational schools with 7,751 teachers and 377,318 pupils, including 63 special part-time vocational schools with 504 teachers and 7,720 pupils; 563 full-time vocational schools with 3,585 teachers and 56,187 pupils including 226 schools for public health occupations with 805 teachers and 15,790 pupils; 279 advanced full-time vocational schools with 1,994 teachers and 25,518 pupils; 81 vocational high schools (Berufsoberschulen, Fachoberschulen) with 1,690 teachers and 25,357 pupils. In the winter term 1985-86 there were 11 universities with 156,519 students (Augsburg, 7,214; Bamberg, 4,469; Bayreuth, 4,793; Eichstätt, 2,128; ErlangenNiimberg, 23,956; München, 56,997; Passau, 4,088; Regensburg, 11,276; Würzburg, 16,763; the Technical University of München, 21,822; München University of the Federal Armed Forces (Universität der Bundeswehr), 3,013); 1 Gesamthochschule with 305 students, the college of philosophy, München, 376 and a philosophical-theological college in Benediktbeuern with 113 students. There were also 2 colleges of music, 2 colleges of fine arts and 1 college of television and film, with together 2,423 students; 13 vocational colleges (Fachhochschulen) with 50,058 students including one for the civil service (Bayerische Beamtenfachhochschule) with 3,986 students. Statistical Information: Bayerisches Landesamt fur Statistik und Datenverarbeitung, 51 Neuhauser Str. 8000 Munich, was founded in 1833. President: Dr Hans Helmut Schiedermaier. It publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch für Bayern. 1894 ff.—Bayern in Zahlen. Monthly (from Jan. 1947).—Zeitschrift des Bayerischen Statistischen Landesamts. July 1869-1943; 1948 ff—Beiträge zur Statistik Bayerns. 1850 ff.—Statistische Berichte. 1951 ff— Schaubilderhefte. 1951 ff—Kreisdaten. 1972 ff.—Gemeindedaten. 1973 ff. Nawiasky, H., and Luesser, C., Die Verfassung des Freistaates Bayern vom 2. Dez. 1946. Munich, 1948; supplement, by H. Nawiasky and H. Lechner, Munich, 1953 State Library: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich 22. Director: Dr Franz G. Kaltwasser.

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BERLIN G O V E R N M E N T . Greater Berlin was under quadripartite Allied government (Kommandatura) until 1 July 1948, when the Soviet element withdrew. On 30 Nov. 1948, a separate Municipal Government was set up in the Soviet Sector (see p. 520). AREA. The total area of Berlin is 883 sq. km, of which Western Berlin covers 480 sq. km and the Soviet Sector 403 sq. km. The British Sector includes the administrative districts of Tiergarten, Charlottenburg, Wilmersdorf and Spandau; the American Sector those of Kreuzberg, Neukölln, Tempelhof, Schöneberg, Zehlendorf and Steglitz; the French Sector covers the administrative districts of Wedding and Reinickendorf, and the Soviet Sector, those of Mitte, Friedrichshain, Prenzlauer Berg, Pankow, Weissensee, Lichtenberg, Treptow and Köpenick. The British, American and French sectors form an administrative unit, called Berlin (West). In 1961 the East German Government tried to stop the outflow by erecting a heavily fortified barrier, the 'Berlin Wall', along the border. A minefield which accompanied it was removed in 1985.

BERLIN (WEST) P O P U L A T I O N . Population, 31 Dec. 1985, 1,860,084 (858,115 males, 1,001,969 females). According to the census of 27 May 1970, 70-2% were Protestants and 12-5% Roman Catholics. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 17,819 17,799 17,911

Marriages 12,162 12,239 12,277

Divorces 5,962 6,471 6,585

Deaths 33,145 32,411 32,614

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . According to the constitution of 1 Sept. 1950, Berlin is simultaneously a Land of the Federal Republic (though not yet formally incorporated) and a city. It is governed by a House of Representatives (at least 200 members); the executive power is vested in a Senate, consisting of the Governing Mayor, the Mayor and not more than 16 senators. In the municipal elections, held on 10 March 1985, the Christian Democrats obtained 69 seats; the Social Democrats, 51; the Alternative List, 15; the Free Democrats, 12. Governing Mayor: Eberhard Diepgen (Christian Democrat). ECONOMY Currency. The legal tender of Berlin (West) is the German Mark (DM). Banking. On 20 March 1949 when the DM fWest) became the only legal tender of the Western Sectors, the Zentralbank of Berlin was established. Its functions were similar to those of the Zentralbanks of the Länder of the Federal Republic. The Berlin Central Bank was merged with the Bank deutscher Länder as from 1 Aug. 1957, when the latter became the Deutsche Bundesbank. The legal tender for the Western Sectors of Berlin is being issued by the Deutsche Bundesbank (formerly Bank deutscher Länder). • A G R I C U L T U R E . Agricultural area (April 1985), 1,411 hectares, including 964 hectares arable land and 158 hectares gardens, orchards, nurseries. Livestock (Dec. 1984): Cattle, 656; pigs, 2,900; horses, 3,472; sheep, 857. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 (monthly averages), 1,003 establishments (with 20 or more employees) employed 162,572 persons; of these, 57,496 were employed in electrical engineering, 15,659 in machine construction, 11,940 in the manufacture of chemicals, 3,642 in steel construction and 3,529 in textiles.

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LABOUR. The economically active persons totalled 802,700 at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of April 1982. Of the total, 66,700 were self-employed including unpaid family workers, 736,000 employees; 9,300 were engaged in agriculture and forestry; 286,400 in power supply, manufacturing and building; 124,400 in commerce and transport; 382,900 in other industries and services. ROADS. There were, on 1 Jan. 1985, 137 km of'classified' roads, including 42 km of autobahn and 94 km of federal roads. On 1 July 1985, 753,994 motor vehicles were registered, including 596,291 passenger cars, 40,204 lorries, 37,896 motor cycles, and 2,365 buses. JUSTICE. There are a court ofappeal (Kammergericht), a regional court, 7 local courts, a Land Labour court, a labour court, a Land social court, a social court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court and a finance court. EDUCATION. In 1985 (preliminary figures) there were 445 schools providing general education (excluding special schools) with 185,861 pupils; 59 special schools with 7,266 pupils. There were a further 213 vocational schools with 67,113 pupils. In the winter term 1985-86 there was 1 university (52,624 students); 1 technical university (25,871); 1 theological (evangelical) college (580); 1 college of fine arts with 4,284 students; 1 vocational college (for economics) (1,375); 2 colleges for social work (1,248); 1 technical college (4,630), 1 college of the Federal postal administration (554) and 2 colleges for public administration (2,483). Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt Berlin was founded in 1862 (Fehrbelliner Platz 1, 1000 Berlin 31). Director: Günther Appel. It publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch (from 1867): Berliner Statistik (monthly, from 1947).—100Jahre Berliner Statistik (1962). Childs, D. and Johnson, J., West Berlin: Politics and Society. London, 1981 Hillenbrand, M. J., The Future of Berlin. Monclair, 1981 State Library: Amerika-Gedenkbibliothek-Berliner Zentralbibliothek-, Blücherplatz 1, D1000 Berlin 61. Director: Dr Peter K. Liebenow.

BREMEN Freie Hansestadt Bremen AREA AND POPULATION. The area of the Land, consisting of the towns and ports of Bremen and Bremerhaven, is 404 sq. km. Population, 31 Dec. 1985, 659,898 (309,425 males, 350,473 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 5,700 5,240 5,294

Marriages 3,933 3,632 3,804

Divorces 2,059 2,006 1,999

Deaths 8,692 8,493 8,545

CONSTITUTION. Political power is vested in the House of Buigesses (Bürgerschaft) which appoints the executive, called the Senate. The elections of 25 Sept. 1983 had the following result: 58 Social Democratic Party, 37 Christian Democrats, 5 Die Grünen. The Senate is only formed by Social Democrats; its president is Klaus Wedemeier (Social Democrat). AGRICULTURE. Agricultural area comprised (1983), 10,510 hectares: yield of grain crops (1983), 7,654 tonnes; potatoes, 306 tonnes. Livestock (3 Dec. 1984): 17,394 cattle (including 5,099 milch cows); 5,318 pigs; 443 sheep; 1,073 horees; 24,805 poultry. INDUSTRY. In 1985, 343 establishments (20 and more employees) employed 74,973 persons; of these, 9,843 were employed in shipbuilding (except naval en-

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

gineering); 6,606 in machine construction; 9,579 in electrical engineering; 1,927 in coffee and tea processing. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 282,400 at the 1%sample survey of the microcensus of April 1982. Of the total, 19,300 were selfemployed, 261,000 employees; 93,100 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 79,800 in commerce and transport, 106,800 in other industries and services. R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 127 km of'classified' roads, including 45-4 km of autobahn, 81-6 km of federal roads, 7 km of first-class and 5 km of secondclass highways. Registered motor vehicles on 1 July 1985 numbered 277,691, including 248,135 passenger cars, 13,507 trucks, 2,297 tractors, 685 buses and 9,878 motorcycles. S H I P P I N G . Vessels entered in 1985, 9,838 of 44,056,773 net tons; cleared, 9,823 of44,208,790 net tons. Sea traffic, 1985, incoming 17,113,032 tonnes; outgoing, 12,714,026 tonnes. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshofi, a court of appeal, a regional court, 3 local courts, a Land labour court, 2 labour courts, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 82-4% Protestants and 10-2% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985 there were 320 new system schools with 5,694 teachers and 71,437 pupils; 26 special schools with 581 teachers and 3,376 pupils; 21 parttime vocational schools with 30,985 pupils; 34 full-time vocational schools with 6,855 pupils; 7 advanced vocational schools (including institutions for the training of technicians) with 821 pupils; 11 schools for public health occupations with 1,058 pupils. In the winter term 1985-86 about 8,343 students were enrolled at the university. In addition to the university there were 4 other colleges in 1985-86 with about 5,833 students. Statistical Information. Statistisches Landesamt Bremen (An der Weide 14-16 (P.B. 101309), D2800 Bremen 1), founded in 1850. Director Ltd Reg. Dir Volker Hannemann. Its current publications include: Statistische Mitteilungen Freie Hansestadt Bremen (from 1948).—Monatliche Zwischenberichte (1949-53); Statistische Monatsberichte (from 1954).—Statistische Berichte (from 1956).—Statistisches Handbuch fur das Land Freie Hansestadt Bremen (1950-60, 1961,1960-64, 1967; 1965-69, 1971; 1970-74, 1975; 1975-80, 1982).—Bremen im statistischen Zeitvergleich 1950-1976. 1977.—Bremen m Zahlen. 1986. Beutin, L., Bremen und Amerika. Bremen, 1953 State and University Library Albrecht Koch.

Bibliotheks Str., D2800 Bremen 33 Director Prof. Dr Hans-

HAMBURG Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . In 1938 the territory of the town was reorganized by the amalgamation of the city and its 18 rural districts with 3 urban and 27 rural districts ceded by Prussia. Total area, 754-7 sq. km (1985), including the islands Neuwerk and Scharhörn (7 sq. km). Population (31 Dec. 1985), 1,579,884 (738,953 males, 840,931 females).

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545

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 12,819 12,407 12,711

Marriages 9,198 8,885 8,768

Divorces 4,970 5,213 4,916

Deaths 22,537 22,021 22,266

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution of 6 June 1952 vests the supreme power in the House of Burgesses (Bürgerschaft) of 120 members. The executive is in the hands ofthe Senate, whose members are elected by the Bürgerschaft. The elections of 19 Dec. 1982 had the following results: Social Democrats, 64; Christian Democrats, 48; Green Alternatives, 8. The First Burgomaster is Dr Klaus von Dohnanyi (Social Democrat). The territory has been divided into 7 administrative districts. A G R I C U L T U R E . The agricultural area comprised 15,500 hectares in 1985. Yield, in tonnes, of cereals, 22,600; potatoes, 700. Livestock (3 Dec. 1984): Cattle, 13,310 (including 3,197 milch cows); pigs, 7,672; horses, 2,854; sheep, 1,987; poultry, 63,897. F I S H E R I E S . In 1985 the yield of sea and coastal fishing was 10,970 tonnes valued at DM 16m. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1985, 816 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 139,524 persons; of these, 20,246 were employed in electrical engineering; 16,162 in machine construction; 9,887 in shipbuilding (except naval engineering); 13,633 in chemical industry. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 721,600 at the0 -4%-sample survey of the microcensus of June 1983. Of the total, 57,200 were self-employed, 4,000 unpaid family workers, 660,400 employees; 4,800 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 202,600 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 196,600 in commerce and transport, 318,200 in other industries and services. R O A D S . On 31 Dec. 1985 there were 3,872 km of roads, including 78 km of autobahn, 153 km of federal roads. Number of motor vehicles (1 July 1985), 666,690, including 593,441 passenger cars, 34,731 lorries, 1,642 buses, 4,716 tractors, 23,444 motor cycles and 8,716 other motor vehicles. S H I P P I N G . Hamburg is the largest port in the Federal Republic. Vessels Entered: Number Tonnage Cleared: Number Tonnage

1938 18,149 20,567,311 19,316 20,547,148

1958 19,033 27,454,640 20,363 27,579,914

1978 16,636 61,785,643 17,414 62,028,141

1984 14,020 56,954,538 14,155 56,960,663

1985 14,315 58,926,086 14,455 59,124,046

J U S T I C E . There is a constitutional court (Verfassungsgericht), a court of appeal (Oberlandesgericht), a regional court (Landgericht), 6 local courts (Amtsgerichte), a Land labour court, a labour court, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) Evangelical Church and Free Churches 73 -6%, Roman Catholic Church 8 • 1%. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985 there were 386 schools of general education (not including Internationale Schule) with 7,707 teachers and 158,116 pupils; 62 special schools with 894 teachers and 7,268 pupils; 45 part-time vocational schools with 52,394 pupils; 22 schools with 2,272 pupils in their vocational preparatory year; 22 schools with 2,069 pupils in manual instruction classes; 54 full-time vocational schools with 11,842 pupils; 9 economic secondary schools with 2,805 pupils; 24 advanced vocational schools with 3,278 pupils; 39 schools for public health occu-

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pations with 2,588 pupils; 8 vocational introducing schools with 221 pupils and 21 technical superior schools with 2,396 pupils; all these vocational and technical schools have a total number of 2,916 teachers. In the winter term 1985-86 there was 1 university with 41,815 students; 1 technical university with 351 students; 1 college of music and 1 college offinearts with together 2,055 students; 1 university of the Bundeswehr with 1,916 students; 1 professional high school ('Fachhochschulej with 12,258 students; 1 high school for economics and politics with 1,792 students; 1 high school of public administration with 1,108 students, as well as 1 private professional high school with 149 students. Statistical Information. The Statistisches Landesamt der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg (Steckelhöm 12, D2000 Hamburg 11) publishes: Hamburg in Zahlen, Statistische Berichte, Statistisches Taschenbuch, Statistik des Hamburgischen Staates. KJessmann, E., Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg. Hamburg, 1981 Meyer-Marwitz, B., Das Hamburg Buch. Hamburg, 1981 Ohlig, i., Porträt einer Weltstadt. Hamburg, 1974 Plagemann, V., Industriekultur in Hamburg. Hamburg, 1984 Studt, B., and Olsen, H., Hamburg—eine kurzgefaßte Geschichte der Stadt. Hamburg, 1964 State Library Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Carl von Ossietzky, Von-Melle-Park 3, D2000 Hamburg 13. Director Prof. Dr Höret Gronemeyer

HESSEN AREA AND POPULATION. The State of Hessen comprehends the areas of the former Prussian provinces Kurhessen and Nassau (excluding the exclaves belonging to Hessen and the rural counties of Westerwaldkreis and Rhine-Lahn) and of the former Volksstaat Hessen, the provinces Starkenburg (including the parts of Rheinhessen east of the river Rhine) and Oberhessen. Hessen has an area of 21,114 sq. km. Its capital is Wiesbaden. Since 1 Jan. 1981 there have been 3 areas with 5 urban and 21 rural districts and 421 communes. Population, 31 March 1986, was 5,528,934 (2,657,304 males, 2,871,630 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 50,860 49,844 49,682

Marriages 32,286 31,424 31,823

Divorces 10,252 12,097 11,877

Deaths 63,945 62,012 63,360

CONSTITUTION. The constitution was put into force by popular referendum on 1 Dec. 1946. The Diet, elected on 25 Sept. 1983, consists of 51 Social Democrats, 44 Christian Democrats, 8 Free Democrats, 7 Die Grünen. The Social Democrat cabinet is headed by Minister President Holger Börner (SPD). AGRICULTURE. Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (in 1,000 hectares! 1983 1984 1985 136 4 141 7 142 0 32 4 34 7 31 5 142 1 140-8 1416 67 7 63 8 63 2 11 1 10-5 9 7 21 3 22 7 21 7

1983 749 3 118 9 651 2 217 8 225-7 876 3

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1984 1985 837 1 850 1 159 1 138 5 750-1 707 8 261 4 294 3 298 5 304 7 1,061 4 1,049 9

Livestock, Dec. 1985: Cattle, 866,200 (including 274,700 milch cows); horses 32,100; Dec. 1984, pigs, 1 -27m.; sheep, 126,500; poultry, 3-95m. INDUSTRY. In June 1986,3,615 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 627,190 persons; of these, 94,223 were employed in chemical industry; 87,250 in electrical engineering; 90,938 in car building; 77,084 in machine construction; 29,817 in food industry.

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L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 2-45m. at the 1% sample survey of the microcensus of June 1985. Of the total, 199,400 were self-employed, 36,000 unpaid family workers, 2,210,700 employees; 62,100 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 985,000 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 469,700 in commerce and transport, 929,300 in other services. R O A D S . O n 1 Jan. 1986 there were 16,648 km of'classified' roads, including 929 km of autobahn, 3,582 km of federal highways, 7,117 km of first-class highways and 5,021 km of second-class highways. Motor vehicles licensed on 1 July 1986 totalled 3,011,090, including 2,615,370 passenger cars, 5,687 buses, 118,316 trucks, 140,681 tractors and 102,135 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshof), a court of appeal, 9 regional courts, 58 local courts, a Land labour court, 12 labour courts, a Land social court, 7 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshoj), 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . In 1980 there were 51-7% Protestants and 35-3% R o m a n Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985 there were 1,248 primary schools with 14,233 teachers and 239,349 pupils; 236 special schools with 2,699 teachers and 20,037 pupils; 155 intermediate schools with 2,738 teachers and 51,029 pupils; 154 high schools with 8,988 teachers and 126,960 pupils; 186 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 11,020 teachers and 162,547 pupils; 118 part-time vocational schools with 4,538 teachers and 180,745 pupils; 248 full-time vocational schools with 2,426 teachers and 36,658 pupils; 91 advanced vocational schools with 531 teachers and 7,953 pupils; 177 schools for public health occupations with 10,204 pupils. In the winter term 1985-86 there were 3 universities (Frankfurt/Main, 29,328 students; Giessen, 16,532; Marburg, 14,812); 1 technical university in Darmstadt (14,108); 1 Gesamthochschule (9,247); 15 Fachhochschulen (33,506); 2 Roman Catholic theological colleges and 1 Protestant theological college with together 507 students; 1 college of music and 2 colleges of fine arts with together 1,250 students. Statistical Information: The Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt (Rheinstr. 35-37, D6200 Wiesbaden). President: Götz Steppuhn. Main publications: Statistisches Taschenbuchfiir das Land Hessen (zweijährlich; 1980-81 ff.).—Staat und Wirtschaft in Hessen (monthly).— Beiträge zur Statistik Hessens.—Statistische Berichte. —Hessische Gemeindestatistik ¡960-61 (5 vols., 1963 ff.).—Hessische Gemeindestatistik ¡970 (5 vols., 1972 ff.).—Hessische Gemeindestatistik (annual, 1980 ff.). State Library: Hessische Landesbibliothek, Rheinstr. 55-57, D6200 Wiesbaden. Director: Dr Helmut Schwitzgebel.

LOWER SAXONY Niedersachsen A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Lower Saxony (excluding the town of Bremerhaven, and the districts on the right bank of the Elbe in the Soviet Zone) comprises 47,438 sq. km, and is divided into 4 administrative districts, 38 rural districts, 9 towns and 1,019 communes; capital, Hanover. Estimated population, on 31 Dec. 1985, was 7,156,918 (3,454,823 males, 3,742,035 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 68,490 66,803 67,223

Marriages 41,284 40,415 40,778

Divorces 13,231 14,100 13,885

Deaths 85,375 83,684 84,432

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F E D E R A L REPUBLIC O F G E R M A N Y

GOVERNMENT. The Land Niedersachsen was formed on 1 Nov. 1946 by merging the former Prussian province of Hanover and the Länder Brunswick, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe. The Diet, elected on 15 June 1986, consists of 69 Christian Democrats, 66 Social Democrats; Free Democrats, 9 and Die Grünen, 11. The cabinet of the Christian Democratic Union is headed by Minister President Dr Ernst Albrecht (CDU). AGRICULTURE. Area and yield of the most important crops: Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1983 1984 1982 Wheat 301 290 283 Rye 164 189 183 Barley 464 493 483 Oats 185 146 133 Potatoes 72 71 71 Sugar-beet 160 150 153

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1982 1983 1984 1,694 1,627 1,699 668 644 773 2,077 2,124 2,326 871 460 579 2,239 1,873 2,563 7,712 5,260 6,735

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1985: Cattle, 3,374,258 (including 1,121,548 milch cows); horses, (1984) 79,425; pigs, 7,505,349; sheep, 188,344; poultry, 33,150,435. F I S H E R I E S . In 1984 the yield of sea and coastal fishing was 103,396 tonnes valued at DM 118m. INDUSTRY. In Sept. 1985,4,301 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 645,392 persons; of these 57,956 were employed in machine construction; 139,737 in car building; 65,041 in electrical engineering. LABOUR. The economically active persons totalled 2,999,000 in 1984. Of the total 278,600 were self-employed, 116,400 unpaid family workers, 2,604,000 employees; 213,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 1,148,400 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 572,000 in commerce and transport, 1,065,600 in other industries and services. ROADS. At 1 Jan. 1985 there were 27,958 km of'classified' roads, including 1,102 km of autobahn, 5,054 km of federal roads, 8,708 km of first-class and 13,095 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 Jan. 1985, was3,591,806 including3,011,836 passenger cars, 145,638 lorries, 8,382 buses, 244,690 tractors, 144,501 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshoj), 3 courts of appeal, 11 regional courts, 79 local courts, a Land labour court, 15 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (together with Schleswig-Holstein), 3 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 74-6% Protestants and 19 -6% Roman Catholics. EDUCATION. In 1980 there were 2,307 primary schools with 28,092 teachers and 502,497 pupils; 293 special schools with 4,743 teachers and 43,450 pupils; 320 stages of orientation with 179,811 pupils; 270 intermediate schools with 7,157 teachers and 165,699 pupils; 241 grammar schools with 12,623 teachers and 207,542 pupils; 9 evening high schools with 138 teachers and 1,514 pupils; 20 integrated comprehensive schools with 1,684 teachers and 24,492 pupils; 17 cooperative comprehensive schools with 1,490 teachers and 26,186 pupils; 142 parttime vocational schools with 211,447 pupils; 114 year of basic vocational training with 21,071 pupils; 538 full-time vocational schools with 38,008 pupils; 89 Fachgymnasien with 8,696 pupils; 126 Fachoberschulen with 7,557 pupils (fulltime vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges); 56 vocational extension schools with 1,544 pupils; 151 advanced full-time vocational schools (including

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schools for technicians) with 9,662 pupils; 219 public health schools with 11,527 pupils. In the winter term 1985-86 there were 4 universities (Göttingen, 28,802 students; Hanover, 24,862; Oldenburg, 9,157; Osnabrück, 7,421); 2 technical universities (Braunschweig, 14,723; Clausthal, 3,712); the medical college of Hanover (3,613), the veterinary college in Hanover (1,969) and the colleges of Hildesheim (1,800) a n d L ü n e b u r g (1,538). Statistical Information: The Niedereächsisches Landesverwaltungsamt—Statistik' (Geibelstr. 65, D3000 Hanover 1) fulfils the function of the 'Statistisches Landesamt fur Niedersachsen'. Head of Division: Abteilungsdirektor Dr Günter Koop. Main publications are: Statistisches Jahrbuch Niedersachsen (from 1950).—Statistische Monatshefte Niedersachsen (from 1947).—Statistik Niedersachsen. State Library: Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Prinzenstr. 1, 3400, Göttingen. Director: Helmut Vogt; Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek, Waterloostr. 8, D3000 Hannover 1. Director: Dr Wilhelm Totok.

N O R T H RHINE-WESTPHALIA Nordrhein-Westfalen A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Land comprises 34,068 sq. km. It is divided into 5 areas, 23 urban and 31 rural districts. Capital Düsseldorf. Population, 31 Dec. 1985,16,674,051 (7,956,631 males, 8,717,690 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 161,589 158,309 159,713

Marriages 105,022 102,035 101,321

Divorces 36,198 39,560 38,203

Deaths 194,905 188,515 191,161

G O V E R N M E N T . The Land Noidrhein-Westfalen is governed by Social Democrats; Minister President, Johannes Rau(SPD). The Diet, elected on 12 May 1985, consists of 125 Social Democrats, 88 Christian Democrats and 14 Free Democrats. A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1983 1984 1985 235-4 234-6 223-6 53-4 59-5 54-6 327-4 362-1 358-9 81-4 89-8 85-7 18-4 16-9 18-3 80-3 81-2 81-6

1983 1,353-7 224-0 1,746-4 318-7 535-9 3,338-7

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1984 1985 1,464-6 1,447-1 254-1 232-6 1,995-0 1,714-0 363-8 395-9 615-6 706-6 3,791-8 4,099-3

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1985: Cattle, 2,068,910 (including 622,448 milch cows); pigs, 6,355,890; sheep, 171,239;horses,(1984)84,943;poultry, 13,362,613. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1985, 10,788 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 1,942,152 persons; of these, 161,223 were employed in mining; 270,391 in machine construction; 153,324 in iron and steel production; 192,528 in chemical industry; 175,575 in electrical engineering; 58,759 in textile industry. Output and/or production in 1,000 tonnes, 1985: Hard coal, 71,129; lignite, 114,503; pig-iron, 20,069; raw steel ingots, 24,243; rolled steel, 15,718; castings (iron and steel castings), 1,453; cement, 9,554; fireproof products, 1,298; sulphuric acid (including production of cokeries), 1,817; staple fibres and rayon, 303; metalworking machines, 108; equipment for smelting works and rolling mills, 100; machines for mining industry, 236; cranes and hoisting machinery, 57; installation implements, 1,150,677 (pieces); cables and electric lines, 213; springs of all kinds, 192; chains of all kinds, 97; locks and fittings, 336; spun yarns, 214; electric power, 166,894m. kwh. Of the total population, 11 • 7% were engaged in industry.

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 6,770,700 at the labour force sample survey of European Communities of June 1984. Of the total, 545,200 were self-employed, 149,200 unpaid family workers, 6,076,300 employees; 183,300 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 3,041,700 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 1 -25m. in commerce and transport, 2,290,200 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1986) 29,740 km of 'classified' roads, including 1,968 km of autobahn, 5,510 km of federal roads, 12,308 km of first-class and 9,954 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 July 1986, 8,130,714, including 6,559,288 passenger cars, 625,956 lorries, 325,056 motor lorries/trucks, 16,520 buses, 208,819 tractors and 321,842 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), 3 courts of appeal, 19 regional courts, 130 local courts, 3 Land labour courts, 30 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, 3 finance courts, a higher administrative court, 7 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 41 -9% Protestants and 52 -5% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985 there were 4,680 primary schools with 67,513 teachers and 1,064,100 pupils; 738 special schools with 12,426 teachers and 86,998 pupils; 551 intermediate schools with 16,449 teachers and 283,066 pupils; 89 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 5,777 teachers and 70,263 pupils; 640 high schools with 39,032 teachers and 540,141 pupils; in 1985 there were 291 part-time vocational schools with 490,948 pupils; vocational preparatory year 244 with 25,159 pupils; 323 full-time vocational schools with 110,444 pupils; 34 schools offering upgrading courses to raise the general level of education and quality for vocational colleges with 666 pupils; 221 full-time vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges with 23,459 pupils; 146 advanced full-time vocational schools with 16,077 pupils; 567 schools for public health occupations with 9,948 teachers and 33,006 pupils; 22 schools within the scope of a pilot system of courses with 52,291 pupils and 1,968 teachers. In the winter term 1985-86 there were 8 universities (Bielefeld, 13,221 students; Bochum, 28,809; Bonn, 39,395; Dortmund, 17,500; Düsseldorf, 14,675; Cologne, 46,033; Münster, 43,585; Witten, 147); the Technical University of Aachen (34,395); 4 Roman Catholic and 2 Protestant theological colleges with together 1,126 students. There were also 3 colleges of music, 1 college of fine arts and the college for physical education in Cologne with together 10,627 students; 20 Fachhochschulen (vocational colleges) with 87,794 students, and 6 Gesamthochschulen with together 75,495 students. Statistical Information: The Landesamt fur Datenverarbeitung und Statistik NordrheinWestfalen (Mauerstr. 51, D4000 Düsseldorf 30) was founded in 1946, by amalgamating the provincial statistical offices of Rhineland and Westphalia. President: A. Benker. The Landesamt publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch Nordrhein-Westfalen. From 1949. More than 550 other publications yearly. Müller-Wille, W., Westfalen. Münster, 1981. Land Library: Universitätsbibliothek, Universitätsstr. 1, D4000 Düsseldorf. Director: Dr G. Gattennann.

RHINELAND-PALATINATE Rheinland-Pfalz AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Rhineland-Pfalz comprises 19,848 sq. km. Capital Mainz. Population (at 31 Dec. 1985), 3,615,049 (1,731,405 males, 1,883,644 females).

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Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 35,422 35,504 34,899

Marriages 23,317 23,016 22,971

Divorces 6,747 7,266 7,215

Dëaths 44,459 42,890 42,587

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution of the Land Rheinland-Pfalz was approved by the Consultative Assembly on 25 April 1947 and by referendum on 18 May 1947, when 579,002 voted for and 514,338 against its acceptance. The elections of 6 March 1983 returned 57 Christian Democrats, 43 Social Democrats. The cabinet is headed by Bernhard Vogel (Christian Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R EArea . Area and yield of the most important products: (1,000 hectares) Yield (1,000 tonnes) Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet Wine (1,000 hectolitres) Tobacco

1983 113-4 28-0 137-0 45-0 12 9 22-0

1984 114-2 29-2 133-8 42-9 11-8 22-2

1985 106-9 29-1 138-4 44-9 12-5 23-1

1983 527-4 98-8 489-8 129-2 264-9 970-2

1984 683 0 141-5 633-2 170-6 351-8 1,179-4

1985 592-4 130J 636-4 183-4 379-9 1,176-8

58-9 1-0

60-0 0-9

60-7 0-9

8,932-0

5,668-7

4,144-2

Livestock (3 Dec. 1985): Cattle, 631,800 (including 220,000 milch cows); horses (1984), 19,100; sheep, 101,000; pigs, 666,900; poultry, 2,889,580. I N D U S T R Y . In Sept. 1985,2,645 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 368,866 persons; of these 72,095 were employed in chemical industry; 19,792 in production of leather goods and footwear, 47,522 in machine construction; 14,775 in processing stones and earthenware. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 1,552,900 at the census of June 1985. Of the total, 145,600 were self-employed, 50,000 unpaid family workers, 1,357,300 employees; 90,800 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 638,300 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 264,200 in commerce and transport, 559,600 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1986) 18,628 km of'classified' roads, including 758 km of autobahn, 3,200 km of federal roads, 6,985 km of first-class and 7,684 Ion of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 July 1986, was 2,029,820, including 1,687,599 passenger cars, 78,610 lorries, 4,996 buses, 146,859 tractors and 93,970 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshoj), 2 courts of appeal, 8 regional courts, 47 local courts, a Land labour court, 5 labour courts, a Land social court, 4 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court, 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 40-7% Protestants and 55 -7% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985 there were 1,190 primary schools with 14,651 teachers and 229,039 pupils; 154 special schools with 2,698 teachers and 13,198 pupils; 107 intermediate schools with 3,159 teachers and 54,883 pupils; 137 high schools with 6,990 teachers and 103,552 pupils; 97 vocational schools with 124,217 pupils; 142 advanced vocational schools and institutions for the training of technicians (full-and part-time) with 7,015 pupils; 116 schools for public health occupations with 369 teachers and 7,496 pupils. In the winter term 1985-86 there were the University of Mainz (25,292

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF G E R M A N Y

students), the University of Kaiserslautern (6,672 students), the University of Trier (6,956 students), the Hochschule fiir Verwaltungswissenschaften in Speyer (494 students), the Koblenz School of Corporate Management (Wissenschaftliche Hochschule fiir Unternchmensfiihrnng in Koblenz) with 86 students, the Roman Catholic Theological College in Trier (313 students) and the Roman Catholic College in Vallendar (56 students). There were also the Teacher-Training College of the Land Rheinland-Pfalz (Erziehungswissenschaftliche Hochschulej with 2,474 students, the Fachhochschule des Landes Rheinland-Pfalz (college of engineering) with 14,516 students and 4 Verwaltungsfachhochschulen with 2,200 students; also 2 private colleges for social-pedagogy (874 students). Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz (Mainzer Str., 14-16, D5427 Bad Ems) was established in 1948. President: Dr Weis. Its publications include: Statistisches Jahrbuch fir Rheinland-Pfalz (from 1948); Statistische Monatshefte RheinlandPfalz (from 1958); Statistik von Rheinland-Pfalz (from 1949) 314 vols, to date; RheinlandPfalz im Spiegel der Statistik (1968); Die kreisfreien Städte und Landkreise in RheinlandPfalz (1977); Rheinland-Pfalz heute (from 1973); Benutzerhandbuch des Landesinformationssystems (1976); Rheinland-Pfalz heute und morgen (Mainz, 1981); Raumoranungsbericht 1981 der Landesregierung Rheinland-Pfalz (Mainz, 1981). Landesentwicklungsprogramm 1980 (Mainz, 1980). Klöpper, R., and Korber, J., Rheinland-Pfalz in seiner Gliederung nach zentralörtlichen Bereichen. Remagen, 1957 Süsterhenn, A., and Schäfer, H., Verfassung von Rheinland-Pfalz: Kommentar. Koblenz, 1950

SAARLAND H I S T O R Y . In 1919 the Saar territory was placed under the control of the League of Nations. Following a plebiscite, the territory reverted to Germany in 1935. In 1945 the territory became part of the French Zone of occupation, and was in 1947 accorded an international status inside an economic union with France. In pursuance of the German-French agreement signed in Luxembourg on 27 Oct. 1956 the territory returned to Germany on 1 Jan. 1957. Its re-integration with Germany was completed by 5 July 1959. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Saarland has an area of2,568 sq. km. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1985, 1,045,936 (497,188 males, 548,748 females). The capital is Saarbrücken. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 9,918 9,696 9,800

Marriages 7,195 7,095 6,964

Divorces 2,290 2,644 2,418

Deaths 13,150 12,387 12,765

C O N S T I T U T I O N . Saarland now ranks as a Land of the Federal German Republic and is represented in the Federal Diet by 8 members. The constitution passed on 15 Dec. 1947 is being revised. The Saar Diet, elected on 10 March 1985, is composed as follows: 26 Social Democrats, 20 Christian Democrats, 5 Free Democrats. Saarland is governed by Social Democrats in Parliament. Minister President: Oskar Lafontaine (Social Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R E AND F O R E S T R Y . The cultivated area occupies 120,500 hectares or slightly more than half the total area; the forest area comprises nearly 33% of the total (256,804 hectares). Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1983 6-9 5-4 111 6 0 0 6

Area (1,000 hectares) 1984 1985 70 6 1 5-7 6-2 10-5 10-7 6 0 6-3 0-5 0-5

1983 27-3 19-3 35-0 16-9 7-7 0-2

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1984 36-9 25-0 47-0 24 0 11 -2 0-3

1985 32-2 25-9 47 0 27-0 13-7 0-2

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

553

Livestock, Dec. 1985: Cattle, 72,663 (including 23,527 milch cows); pigs, 46,690; sheep, 12,376; horses, 3,834; poultry, 307,328. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1986, 583 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 138,521 persons; of these 24,203 were engaged in coalmining, 20,063 in iron and steel production, 12,238 in machine construction, 8,260 in steel construction. In 1985 the coalmines produced 10-7m. tonnes of coal. Four iron foundries had 11 blast furnaces working and produced 4 -3m. tonnes of pig-iron and 4-7m. tonnes of crude steel. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 391,400 in April 1984. Of the total, 28,400 were self-employed, 5,800 unpaid family workers, 357,200 employees; 4,500 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 175,500 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 73,100 in commerce and transport, 139,300 in other industries and services. R O A D S . At 1 Jan. 1986 there were 2,198 km of'classified' roads, includiog.222 km of autobahn, 421 km of federal roads, 762 km of first-class and 784 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1985,522,513, including 459,717 passenger cars, 21,013 lorries, 1,388 buses, 12,685 tractors and 22,859 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a Constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), a court of appeal, a regional court, 11 local courts, a Land labour court, 3 labour courts, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) 73 -8% of the population were Vornan Catholics and 24 • 1 % were Protestants. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985-86 there were 333 primary schools with 3,965 teachers and 61,482 pupils; 52 special schools with 566 teachers and 3,624 pupils; 38 intermediate schools with 1,101 teachers and 14,096 pupils; 37 high schools with 2,037 teachers and 25,838 pupils; 2 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive high schools) with 146 teachers and 1,923 pupils; 2 Freie Waldorfschulen with 57 teachers and 632 pupils; 42 part-time vocational schools with 33,142 pupils; year of commercial basic training (1984-85): 87 institutions with 4,125 pupils; 22 advanced full-time vocational schools and schools for technicians with 2,878 pupils; 53 full-time vocational schools with 6,153 students; 16 vocational extension schools with 762 pupils; 25 Fachoberschulen (full-time vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges) with 2,780 students; 41 schools for public health occupations with 2,213 pupils; 8 evening high schools and 1 Saarland-Kolleg with together 498 pupils. The number of pupils visiting the vocational schools amounts to 52,080. They are instructed by 1,819 teachers. In the winter term 1985-86 there was the University of the Saarland with 17,252 students; 1 conservatory with 274 students; 1 vocational college (economics, engineering and design) with 2,628 students; 1 vocational college for social affairs with 218 students; 1 vocational college for public administration with 250 students. Statistical Information. The Statistisches Amt des Saarlandes (Hardenbergstrasse 3, D6600 Saarbrücken 1) was established on 1 April 1938. As from 1 June 1935, it was an independent agency; its predecessor, 1920-3 5, was the Statistical Office of the Government Commission of the Saar Chief: Direktor Josef Mailänder The most important publications are: Statistisches Handbuch fur das Saarland, from 1950.—Statistisches Taschenbuch für das Saarland, from 1959 —Saarländische Bevölkerungs-und Wirtschaftszahlen. Quarterly, from 1949. —Saarland in Zahlen (special issues).—Einzelschriften zur Statistik des Saarlandes, from 1950—Statistische Nachrichten, from 1981 Fischer, P., Die Saar zwischen Deutschland und Frankreich. Frankfurt, 1959 Osang, KM., Saarland ABC Saarbrücken, 1975 Schmidt, R. H., Saarpolitik 1945-57 3 vols. Berlin, 1959-62

554

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN AREA AND POPULATION. The area of Schleswig-Holstein is 15,727 sq. km; it is divided into 4 urban and 11 rural districts and 1,131 communes. The capital is Kiel. The population (estimate, 31 Dec. 1985) numbered 2,614,151 (1,264,517 males, 1,349,634 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 23,470 22,958 23,099

Marriages 14,840 15,045 15,042

Divorces 5,568 6,231 5,803

Deaths 31,017 30,778 31,330

GOVERNMENT. The elections of 13 March 1983 gave the Christian Democrats 39, the Social Democratic Party 34 and the South Schleswig Association 1 seat. Minister President, Dr Uwe Barschel (Christian Democrat). AGRICULTURE. Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1983 148-5 52-6 149-2 26-7 4-4 17-5

Area (7,000 hectares) 1984 1985 152-1 145-8 52-2 50-0 143-2 142-8 22-9 32-0 5-1 4-5 18-8 12-3

1983 982-6 207-9 803-3 88-4 93-5 589-0

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1984 1985 1,081-8 1,112-1 226-4 213-8 865-1 726-9 113-6 164-0 187-2 177-6 831-1 775-6

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1985: (1984) 33,014 horses, 1,592,406 cattle (including 526,393 milch cows), 1,743,107 pigs, 160,969 sheep, 2,995,110 poultry. FISHERIES.In 1985 the yield of small-scale deep-sea and inshore fisheries was 48,200 tonnes valued at DM61 -8m. INDUSTRY. In 1985 (average), 1,557 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 165,835 persons; of these, 12,516 were employed in shipbuilding (except naval engineering); 30,958 in machine construction; 22,361 in food and landred industry; 17,008 in electrical engineering. LABOUR. The economically active persons totalled l-14m. in 1984. Of the total, 113,000 were self-employed, 29,000 unpaid family workers, 1,003,000 employees; 72,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 344,000 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 250,000 in commerce and transport, 479,000 in other industries and services. ROADS. There were (1 Jan. 1986) 9,786-7 km of'classified' roads, including 381-8 km of autobahn, 1,927-5 km of federal roads, 3,527-9 km of first-class and 3,949-5 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 Jan. 1986, was 1,256,591, including 1,075,480 passenger cars, 53,137 lorries, 2,744 buses, 73,204 tractors, 37,864 motorcycles. SHIPPING. The Kiel Canal, 98-7 km (51 miles) long, is on Schleswig-Holstein territory. In 1938, 53,530 vessels of 22-6m. net tons passed through it; in 1981, 52,641 vessels of 53-3m. net tons; in 1982, 49,100 vessels of 52-7m. net tons; in 1983,49,320 vessels of 50-9m. net tons; in 1984,50,920 vessels of 53m. net tons; in 1985,48,387 vessels of 53- 5m. net tons. JUSTICE. There are a court of appeal, 4 regional courts, 30 local courts, a Land labour court, 6 labour courts, a Land social court, 4 social courts, a finance court, an administrative court. RELIGION. On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 86-5% Protestants and 6% Roman Catholics.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

555

E D U C A T I O N . In 1985-86 there were 695 primary schools with 5,668 teachers and 147,385 pupils; 168 special schools with 1,509 teachers and 14,445 pupils; 176 intermediate schools with 3,031 teachers and 63,420 pupils; 99 high schools with 4,314 teachers and 73,956 pupils; 6 Integrierte Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 252 teachers and 4,320 pupils; 42 part-time vocational schools with 1,585 teachers and 96,060 pupils; 142 full-time vocational schools with 426 teachers and 11,574 pupils; 55 advanced vocational schools with 275 teachers and 5,184 pupils; 61 schools for public health occupations with 4,317 pupils; 49 vocational grammar schools with 366 teachers and 6,035 pupils; 6 Fachhochschulen (vocational colleges) with 10,341 pupils in the summer term 1986. In the summer term 1986 the University of Kiel had 16,443 students, 2 teachertraining colleges had 2,030 students, 1 music college had 341 students and 1 Medizinische University in Lübeck had 1,026 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Schleswig-Holstein (Fröbel Str. 15-17, D2300 Kiel 1). Director: Dr Mohr. Publications: Statistisches Taschenbuch SchleswigHolstein, since 1954.—Statistisches Jahrbuch Schleswig-Holstein, since 1951.—Statistische Monatshefte Schleswig-Holstein, since 1949.—Statistische Berichte, since 1947.—Beitrage' zur historischen Statistik Schleswig-Holstein, since 1967.—Lange Reihen, since 1977. Baxter, R. R., The Law of International Waterways. Harvard Univ. Press, 1964 Brandt, O., Grundriss der Geschickte Schleswig-Holsteins. 5th ed. Kiel, 1957 Handbuch fflr Schleswig-Holstein. 22nded. Kiel, 1984 State Library: Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesbibliothek, Kiel, Schloss. Director: Prof. Dr Dieter Lohmeier.

GHANA

Capital: Accra Population: 13 04m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$320 1971.

The Tie de la Gonave, some 40 miles long, lies in the gulf of the same name. Among other islands is La Tortue, off the north peninsula. 95% of the population is black, with an important minority of mulattoes and only about 5,000 white residents, almost all foreign. Haiti is the only French-speaking republic in the Americas. The standard French of government, parliament and the press is spoken by the small literate 590

HAITI

591

minority (about 10%), but the great majority of the people habitually speak the dialect known as Créole. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, but the central mountains can cause semi-arid conditions in their lee. There are rainy seasons from April to June and Aug. to Nov. Hurricanes and severe thunderstorms can occur. The annual temperature range is small. Port-au-Prince. Jan. 77°F (25°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,321mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The 1983 Constitution, provided for an Executive President who was elected for life and could nominate his successor. He nominated a Cabinet to assist him and, in cases of national emergency, could dismiss both the Cabinet and the National Assembly and govern by decree. A new draft Constitution was approved in March 1987. The unicameral National Assembly comprises 59 deputies elected for 6-year terms (renewable) by universal suffrage at age 18. Following the departure of President Jean-Claude Duvalier the 5-man Council of Government formed in Feb. 1986 was composed.of Gen. Henry.Namphv; Col. Max Valles, Commander of the Presidential Guard; Col. William Regala, Inspector-General; Alix Cinéas and Gérard Gourgue. The Cabinet in March 1987 was composed as follows: President: Gen. Henri Namphy. Interior and Defence: Col. Williams Regala. Finance and Economy: Leslie Delatour. Trade and Industry: Mario Célestin. Agriculture: Gustave Menager. Foreign Affairs: Col. Hérard Abraham. Justice: François St. Fleur. Public Health and Population: Lieut-Col. Jean Verly. Public Works, Transport and Communications, Mines and Energy Resources: Aubeline Jolicoeur. Education, Youth and Sport: Patrick Delencourt. Social Affairs: Gérard Noel. Planning: Jacques Villegrain. Information: Jacques Lorthe. Nationalflag: Horizontally blue over red with the national arms on a white panel in the centre. National anthem: 'La Dessalinienne': Pour le pays, pour les ancêtres (words by J. Lhérisson; tune by N. Geffrard, 1903). D E F E N C E . The Haitian Defence Force (Forces Armées d'Haiti) totalling about 7,500 men, was divided into Army, Navy, and Air Force. The President is Commander-in-Chief and appoints the officers. Army. Total strength, about 6,900 (1987), organized into 9 Military Departments and the 'Leopards'. Three of the Departments are in Port-au-Prince and consist of the Pre-sidential Guard (4 Companies); the Dessalines Barracks (7 Companies including the Dessalines Battalion and Headquarters troops); and the Port-auPrince Police (6 Companies in blue uniforms). The other 6 Military Departments are located outside Port-au-Prince; their troops (21 Companies) operate as District Police. The Fire Brigade and the Prison Guard Company are also part of the Armed Forces. Navy. The Navy/coastguard of 45 officers and 280 men has 1 ex-US armed tug, and 13 coastal patrol boats. The base is at Port-au-Prince. Air Force. Personnel strength was (1987) about 200, with about 30 aircraft of some 12 varieties. They include 7 Summit/Cessna 02-337 Sentry twin piston-engined counter-insurgency aircraft, 1 DC-3,6 light transports, 11 training and liaison aircraft, including 4 S.211 jet trainers, 4 turboprop-powered SF.260 TPs, and 4 Sikorsky helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Haiti is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue (fiscal year ending 30 Sept.) in US$1 m. (5 gourdes = US$1), 1981-82,204m.; expenditure, 270m.

592

HAITI

Currency. The unit of currency is the gourde and its value fixed at 5 gourdes = US$1. In March 1987, £1 = 7-94 gourdes. There are copper-nickel coins for 50, 20,10 and 5 centimes and copper-zmc-nickel coins of 10 and 5 centimes. Banking. Banque Nationale de Credit, owned by the State, was established 21 Oct. 1910 with a capital of US$5m., and has a monopoly of the note issue. US dollars may be included in the minimum required reserves. The Royal Bank of Canada, the Citibank, the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Boston, the Banque de l'Union Haitienne (mainly local capital with participation from American, Canadian and Dominican Republic Banks), Banque Nationale de Paris and Banque Nationale de République d'Hâiti (the central bank) all have branches in Port-au-Prince. Weights and Measures. The metric system is officially accepted. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) 325m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Copper exists but is at present uneconomic to exploit. Haiti may possess undeveloped mineral resources of oil, gold, silver, antimony, sulphur, coal and lignite, nickel, gypsum and porphyry. Agriculture. Only one-third of the country is arable and most people own the tiny plots they farm; the resulting pressure of population is the main cause of rural poverty. Number of farms is estimated at over 500,000. The occupations of Haiti are nine-tenths agricultural, carried on in 7 large plains, from 200,000 to 25,000 acres, and in 15 smaller plains down to 2,000 acres. Irrigation is used in some areas. Haiti's most important product is coffee of good quality, classified as 'mild', and grown by peasants. Production in 1984 totalled about 38,000 tonnes. Second most important crop is sugar. Sisal is grown extensively. Much ofthe fibre is exported as or for cordage. New types of cotton are being tried with success. New varieties of rice should significantly boost future production, especially in the Artibonite Valley. Output of main crops in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) was: Sugar-cane, 3,000; mangoes, 340; plantains; 315; sweet potatoes, 350; cassava, 265; bananas, 235; maize, 90; soignum, 75; rice, 125; sisal, 9; cotton, 5; cocoa, 3. Rum and other spirits are distilled. Essential oils from vetiver, neroli and amyris are important. Cattle and horse breeding are encouraged. Livestock (1985); Cattle, 1 35m.; sheep, 92,000; goats, M m . ; horses, 425,000; poultry, 8m. Fisheries. Production (1984) 5,000 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Light manufacturing industries assembling or finishing goods for reexport constitute the fastest growing sector. Soap factories produce laundry soap, toilet soap and detereent. A cement factory located near the capital produced 243,000 tonnes in 1980. A steel plant making rods, beams and angles was opened in 1974. There are also a pharmaceutical plant, a tannery, a plastics plant, 2 paint works, 5 shoe factories, a large factory producing enamel cookingware, 2 pastamaking factories, a tomato cannery and a flour-mill, all located in or near Port-auPrince. Labour. Trade unions were recognized in Feb. 1946. Strong government influence is exercised over the insignificant portion of the labour force that is unionized and organized labour has virtually no strength in Haiti. Commerce. In 1984 exports were US$250m. and imports, US$365m. The leading imports are foodstuffs, textiles, machinery, mineral oils, raw materials for transformation industries and vehicles. Total trade between Haiti and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 61 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 2,615 3,704

1983 1,646 4,171

1984 1,402 3,736

1985 1,512 5,048

¡986 899 5,147

HAITI

593

Tourism. In 1984,90,000 tourists visited Haiti. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of roads is some 4,000 km, little of which is practicable in ordinary motors in the rainy season. There were (1984) about 50,000 vehicles in Haiti. Railways. The only railway is owned by the Haitian American Sugar Company. Aviation. An airport capable of handling jets was opened at Port-au-Prince in 1965. US and French carriers provide daily direct services to New York, Miami, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and the French Antilles. There are also services to the Dominican Republic and the Netherlands Antilles. A Haitian company provides a cargo service to the US and Puerto Rico. Air services connecting Port-au-Prince with other Haitian towns are operated by Haiti Air Inter. Shipping. US, French, Federal Republic of Germany, Dutch, British, Canadian and Japanese lines connect Haiti with the US, Latin America (except Cuba). Canada, Jamaica, Europe and the Far East. Post and Broadcasting. Most principal towns are connected by the government telegraph system, telephones and wireless. Tlie telephone company, of which the Haitian Government is now the majority stockholder, is in process of being modernized. Telephone subscribers totalled 34,000 in 1984. In 1982 there were 105,000 radio and 65,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1984). There were 10 cinemas in Port-au-Prince. Newspapers (1984). There were 6 daily newspapers in Port-au-Prince, also a monthly in English and 1 weekly newspaper in Cap Haitien. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Judges, both of the lower courts and the court of appeal, are appointed by the President. The legal system is basically French. The divorce law has recently been amended to permit parties to obtain 'quick and painless' divorces at a moderate cost, in the hope of attracting the US trade, now that the Mexican 'divorce mills' have closed down. This has developed a useful flow of dollar revenue. Police. The Police number about 1,200 in Port-au-Prince and are part of the armed forces. Religion. Since the Concordat of 1860, the official religion is Roman Catholicism, under an archbishop with 5 suffragan bishops. There are still quite a number of foreigners, French and French Canadians mainly, among the clergy but the first Haitian archbishop took office in 1966. The Episcopal Church now has its first Haitian bishop who was consecrated in 1971. Other Christian churches number perhaps 10% of the population. The folk religion is Voodoo. Education. Education is divided into primary (first 6 years), secondary (the next 7 years) and finally superior or university. The school system is modelled on that of France. The law calls for free and compulsory elementary education in the French language. In 1983 there were 3,321 primary schools with 14,927 teachers and 658,102 pupils. Secondary schools had 98,562 pupils in 1980. Higher education is offered at the University of Haiti with 4,100 students in 1980. Health. There were, in 1972,332 doctors and 104 dentists in practice, 44 hospitals, and 196 health centres and rural clinics. The hospitals had 3,329 beds, of which 776 were in private and charitable establishments.

594

HAITI

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Haiti in Great Britain (55 Park Lane, London, W1Y 3DH, but due to close in 1987) Ambassador: Théo Duval (accredited ó.Dec. 1984). Of Great Britain in Haiti Ambassador: H. M. S. Reid, CMG (resides in Kingston). Of Haiti in the USA (2311 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Pierre Sam. Of the USA in Haiti (Harry Truman Blvd., Port-au-Prince) Ambassador:- Clayton E. McManaway, Jr. Of Haiti to the United Nations Ambassador: Serge Elie Charles. Books of Reference The official gazette is Le Moniteur. Revue Agricole d'Haïti. From 1946. Quarterly Bellegarde, D., Histoire du Peuple Haïtien. Port-au-Prince, 1953 Chambers, F. J., Haiti. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 Laguerre, M. S., The Complete Haitiana. [Bibliography] London and New York, 1982 Lundahl,M., The Haitian Economy: Man, Land and Markets. London, 1983 Nicholls, D., From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence in Haiti. CUP, 1979—Haiti in Caribbean Context: Ethnicity, Economy and Revolt. London, 1985 National Library: Bibliothèque Nationale, Rue du Centre, Port-au-Prince.

HONDURAS

Capital: Tegucigalpa Population: 4 • 24m. ( 1984) GNP per capita. US$750 (1984)

República de Honduras

H I S T O R Y . On 5 Nov. 1838 Honduras declared itself an independent sovereign state, free from the Federation of Central America, of which it had formed a part. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Honduras is bounded north by the Caribbean, east and south-east by Nicaragua, west by Guatemala, south-west by El Salvador and south by the Pacific ocean. Area is 112,088 sq. km (43,277 sq. miles), with a population, census(1974)of2,656,948. Estimate(1981)4,Q92,175..The chief cities (populations, 1982) were Tegucigalpa, the capital (533,626), San Pedro Sula (397,937), El Progreso (105,372), Choluteca (88,988), Danli (77,005) and the Atlantic coast ports of La Ceiba (68,911), Puerto Cortés (62,250) and Tela (61,188); other towns include Olanchito (53,568), Juticalpa (49,817) and Comayagua(28,121 in 1971). The areas and populations of the 18 departments and federal district were as follows: Department Sq. km 1983 Department Sq. km 1983

Atlántida Choluteca Colón Comayagua Copan Cortés El Paraíso Federal District Francisco Morazán Gracias a Dios

4,251 4,211 8,875 5,196 3,203 3,954 7,218 1,648 6,298 16,630

242,235 289,637 128,370 211,465 217,258 624,090 206,601 532,519 203,753 35,471

Intibucá Islas de la Bahía La Paz Lempira Ocotepeque Olancho Santa Bárbara Valle Yoro

3,072 261 2,331 4,290 1,680 24,350 5,115 1,565 7,939

111,412 18,744 86,627 174,916 64,151 228,122 286,854 125,640 304,310

Aboriginal tribes number over 35,000, principally Miskito, Payas and Xicaques Indians and Sambos (the latter a mixture of Miskito and Negro), each speaking a different dialect. The Spanish-speaking inhabitants are chiefly mestizos, Indians with an admixture of Spanish blood. Gracias a Dios is still largely unexplored and is inhabited by pure native races who speak little or no Spanish. In 1983 the birth rate was 38 -7 per 1,000; death rate (1980), 12 -4 per 1,000 and infant mortality rate (1980), 11 - 8 per 1,000 live births. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with a small annual range of temperature but with high rainfall. Upland areas have two wet seasons, from May to July and in Sept. and Oct. The Caribbean Coast has most rain in Dec. and Jan. and temperatures are generally higher than inland. Tegucigalpa. Jan. 66°F (19°Q, July 74°F (23 • 3°C). Annual rainfall 6 4 " (1,621 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Presidential and Congressional elections were held on 24 Nov. 1985. A new Constitution was promulgated on 20 Jan. 1982. The President is directly elected for a 4-year term. At the 1985 Presidential elections the National Party's leading candidate obtained 41 % of the vote, but the leading Liberal, José Azccma Hoyo, was declared President-elect since the combined Liberal vote was 51% against 45% for the National Party candidates. President: José Azcona Hoyo (swom in 27 Jan. 1986). The legislature is a 134-member Congress of Deputies, composed following the 595

596

HONDURAS

elections of 24 Nov. 1.985 of 46 deputies of the Partido Liberal, 63 of the Partido Nacional and the remaining 25 seats were won by a rival Liberal Party faction and 2 smaller political parties. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of blue, white, blue, with 5 blue stars in the centre. National anthem. Tu bandera es un lampo de cielo (words by A. C. Coello; tune byC. Hartling). Local government: Honduras comprises a Federal District (containing the cities of Tegucigalpa and Comayaguela) and 18 departments (each administered by an appointed Governor), sub-divided into 282 municipalities (each under an elected Council). D E F E N C E . Conscription into the Armed Forces is for approximately 12 months. Although there is no actual reserves programme, those men who have served on active duty for 1 year or more, are eligible for recall. Army. The Army consists of 3 infantry brigades, 1 Presidential Guard company and 5 infantry, 3 artillery, 1 engineer and 1 special forces battalions. Equipment includes 12 Scorpion light tanks. Strength(1987) 17,000 (12,000 conscripts). There is also a paramilitary Public Security Force of5,000 men. Air Force. Equipment includes 6 J52-engined Super Mystère fighters acquired from Israel, 12 A-37B jet light attack aircraft, 4 Spanish-built CASA C-101BB armed jet trainers, some Summit/Cessna 02-337 Sentry twin piston-engined COIN aircraft, 6 C-47,4 Israeli-built Arava and 1 Westwind transports, some helicopters and Tucano, C. 10IBB Aviojet and T-41A trainers. Total strength was (1987) about 1,100 personnel, of whom many are civilian maintenance staff. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Honduras is a member of UN, OAS and ODEC A. ECONOMY Budget. In 1984 revenue (in lm. lempiras) was 1,524 (1983, 2,580); expenditure, 2,580(1982,2,304). Total external debt (1985) was (in lm. lempiras), 4,600 and net reserves of foreign currency, 256. Currency. The unit of the monetary system is the lempira also known as a peso, comprising 100 centavos. Notes are issued by the Banco Central de Honduras which has the sole right to issue, in denominations of 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 lempiras. Coins in circulation are 50 and 20 centavos in silver, 10 and 5 centavos in cupro-nickel and 2 and 1 centavos in copper. Rate of exchange, March 1987: £1 = 3 1 8 lempiras: US$ 1 =2 lempiras. Banking. The central bank of issue is the Banco Central de Honduras. The Banco Atlántida has branches in Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, Comayaguela, Puerto Cortés, La Ceiba, Tela, El Progreso, Choluteca and other towns. The Bianco de Honduras which operates in many parts of the country is controlled by the Citibank. The Bank of America has branches in Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula. The Bank of London and Montreal has branches in Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, Comayaguela and La Ceiba. The Central American Bank for Economic Integration has its head office in Tegucigalpa. Weights and Measures. The metric system has been legal since 1 April 1897, but English pounds and yards and the old Spanish system are still in use: 1 vara = 32 in.; 1 manzana (10,000 sq. varas) = 700 sq. metres; 1 arroba = 25 Ib.; 1 quintal = 100 Ib.; 1 tonelada^2,000 lb. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) 1,400m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 60 Hz.

HONDURAS

597

Minerals. Mineral resources include gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc and iron ore, which are exported. There are probablyreservesof other minerals which have not yet been exploited. The Rosario Resources Company, which owned and operated the famous Rosario mines near Tegucigalpa from 1882 to 19S4, developed and now operates a mine at El Mochito (Department of Santa Barbara) while the Compañía Minera Los Angeles SA has a mine currently extracting lead, zinc and silver at Vallé de Angeles (Department of Francisco Morazán). Agriculture. Although Honduras is essentially an agricultural country, less than a quarter of the total land area is cultivated and by far the larger portion of this is on the Caribbean and Pacific coastal plains. Agriculture employs 58-9% of the working population and provides 80% of the exports. The main agricultural crops are: Bananas, coffee, sugar and tobacco. Exports of meat amounted to 62-6m. lempiras in 1983. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 2,508,000; sheep, 5,000; pigs, 410,000; goats, 24,000; horses, 168,000; poultry, 5m. Forestry. Forests cover nearly 45% of the total land area. Honduras has an abundance of hard-' and soft*woods. Large stands of mahogany and other hardwoods— granadino, guayacán, walnut and rosewood—grow in the north-eastern part of the country, in the interior valleys, and near the southern coast. Stands of pine occur almost everywhere in the interior, but are severely damaged by bark beetle and fires. In 1983, total wood exports amounted to 79-3m. lempiras. The Olancho Forest Development Programme involving the construction of saw- and pulp-mills is in progress. Fisheries. Commercial fishing in territorial waters is restricted to Honduran nationals and Honduran companies in which the controlling share of the capital is owned by a Honduran national. Shrimps and lobsters are important catches; exports (1983) 68 • 3m. lempiras. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Small-scale local industries include beer and mineral waters, cement, flour, vegetable lard, coconut oil, sweets, cigarettes, cigars, textiles and clothing, panama hats, plastics, nails, matches, plywood, furniture, paper bags, soap, candles, fruit juices and household chemicals. Electricity from an important hydro-electric scheme, EICAJON, built at Rio Lindo to serve the Central and North Coast regions, came on stream in 1985 (290 mw). A small integrated steelmill may be erected in Agalteca (Department of Francisco Morazán). The manufacturing industry employed 7 • 5% of the working population in 1983. Labour. The organization of trade unions was begun in 1954 with the assistance of ORIT (Inter-American Regional Organization) sponsored by the USA trade unions. In 1972 there were 166 trade unions, of which only 119 were active, with about 67,956 members. A 'Charter of Labour' was granted in Feb. 1955 and an advanced Labour Code and Social Security Bill passed into law in May 1959. A Ministry of'Labour, Social Assistance and the Middle Class' was created in 1955; the last four words of its title were expunged in 1957. Commerce. Imports in 1983 were valued at 1,511-7m. lempiras and exports at 1,360-6m. lempiras. Imports (1983) in lm. lempiras: Fuel and lubricants, 341 -6; chemical products, 314-8; transport machinery and equipment, 257-4; food products, 139-2. Exports (1983) in lm. lempiras: Bananas, 415-3; coffee, 302-4; timber, 79-3; refrigerated meats, 62 • 6; sugar, 55-7; cotton, 9-4. Trade with main countries in lm. lempiras (1983) was: USA, 1,281-2; Guatemala, 185-8; Japan, 146-4; Venezuela, 139-1; Federal Republic of Germany, 121-9; Trinidad and Tobago, 93-4; Costa Rica, 84-5; Netherlands, 75-1; Belgium, 72-6. Total trade between Honduras and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 ¡ m ¡g84 m 5 m 6 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

4,695 4,659

7,082 9,539

12,360 7,382

11,139 9,026

5,280 9,213

598

HONDURAS

Tourism. There were 157,715 tourists in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Honduras is connected with Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua by the Pan-American Highway. Out of a total of 18,280 km of road (1983), 1,828 were paved and 9,379 are useable throughout the year. There are good asphalted highways between Puerto Cortés in the north and Choluteca in the south passing through San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa with branches to Guatemala and El Salvador. In 1983 there were 114,675 motor vehicles. Railways. Only 4 railways exist; they are confined to the north coastal region and are used mainly for transportation of bananas. Tegucigalpa, the capital, is not served by any railway, and there are no international railway connexions. The total railways operating in 1983 were 1,004 km of 1,067 mm and 914 mm gauge. Aviation. Over a large part of the country the aeroplane is the normal means of transport for both passengers and freight. There are international airports at Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, La Ceiba and over 30 smaller airstrips in various parts of the country. Shipping. Sailings to the Atlantic coast port of Puerto Cortés from Europe are frequent, mainly operated by the Harrison Line, Cia Generale Transatlantique, the Royal Netherlands Steamships Co., Hapag Lloyd and vessels owned or chartered by the Tela Railroad Co., a subsidiary of United Brands, and the Standard Fruit Co. Post and Broadcasting. The Government in April 1972 operated 18,845 km of telephone lines and 12,526 km of telegraph lines. Number of telephones in use, 1984, 37,278; telephone exchanges, 56; number of telegraph offices, 262; combined telephone and telegraph offices, 184; radio stations, 187; commercial television channels, 4. There were (1979) about 27,000 receivers m use. Transmission in colour commenced mid-1973. Cinemas (1982). Cinemas numbered about 60 with seating capacity of some 60,000. Newspapers (1984). The 4 most important daily papers are El Heraldo and La Tribuna in Tegucigalpa, La Prensa and El Tiempo in San Pedro Sula. Several others exist but their circulation is low and their influence is very limited. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court, with 7 judges elected by the National Constituent Assembly in 1980 for 6 years; it appoints the judges of the courts of appeal, labour tribunals and the district attorneys who, in turn, name the justices of the peace. Religion. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion, but the constitution guarantees freedom to all creeds, and the State does not contribute to the support of any. Education. Instruction is free, compulsory (from 7 to 15 years of age) and secular. In 1983 the 6,422 primary schools had 704,612 children (19,300 teachers); the 354 secondary, normal and technical schools had 129,606 pupils (5,916 teachers); the teachers' college had 2,604 students in 1981 (168 teachers). In 1982, the three universities had a total of 29,261 students and 1,825 teachers; one teachers' training college with 5,841 students. The illiteracy rate was 40% of those 10 years ofage and older in 1983. Health. In 1981 there were about 1,370 doctors. In 1985 there were 46 hospitals (25 private) with 5,220 beds, and 571 health centres. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Honduras in Great Britain (47 Manchester St., London, W1M5PB) Ambassador Max Velasquez Diaz (accredited 7 June 1984).

HONDURAS

599 er

Of Great Britain in Honduras (Edificio Palmira, 3 Piso, Colonia Palmira, Tegucigalpa) Ambassador B. O. White. Of Honduras in the USA (4301 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Juan Agurcia Ewing. Of the USA in Honduras (Ave. La Paz, Tegucigalpa) Ambassador: Everett Ellis Briggs. Of Honduras to the United Nations Ambassador: Roberto Martinez Ordoflez. Books of Reference The Anuario Estadístico (latest issue, Comercio Exterior de Honduras, 1983) is published by the Dirección de Estadísticas y Censos, Tegucigalpa. Director Elizabeth Zavala de Turcios. Monthly Bulletin.—Hondurasen Cifras. Banco Central de Honduras, 1980 Checchi, V (and others), Honduras, a Problem in Economic Development. New York, 1959 Mòrris.J A., Honduras: Caudillo Polities and Military Rulers. Boulder, 1984 Rubio Melhado, A., Geografia General de la República de Honduras. Tegucigalpa, 1953 Stokes, W S., Honduras. An Area Study m Government. Madison, Wise., 1950

HONG KONG

Population: 5 -43m. ( 1986) GDPper capita: US$6,273 (1985)

H I S T O R Y . Hong Kong Island and the southern tip of theKowloon peninsula were ceded by China to Britain after the first and second Anglo-Chinese Wars respectively by the Treaty of Nanking 1842 and the Convention of Peking 1860. Northern Kowloon was leased to Britain for 99 years by China in 1898. Since then, Hong Kong has been under British administration, except from Dec. 1941 to Aug. 1945 during the Japanese occupation. Talks began in Sept. 1982 between Britain and China over the future ofHong Kong after the lease expiry in 1997. On 19 Dec. 1984, the two countries signed a joint declaration whereby China would recover sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and the New Territories) from 1 July 1997 and establish it as a Special Administrative Region where the existing social and economic systems, and the present life-style, would remain unchanged for another SO years. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Hong Kong island is 32 km east of the mouth of the Pearl River and 130 km south-east of Canton. The area of the island is 79 - 21 sq. km. It is separated from the mainland by a fine natural harbour. On the opposite side is the peninsula of Kowloon (11 -31 sq. km), which was added to the Territory by the Convention of Peking, 1860. By a further convention, signed at Peking on 9 June 1898, about 975 sq. km, consisting of all the immediately adjacent mainland and numerous islands in the vicinity, were leased to Great Britain by China for 99 years. This area is known as the New Territories. Total area of the territory is 1,068 -61 sq. km (including recent reclamations), a large part of it being steep and unproductive hillside. Some 38% of the territory is conserved as country parks. Shortage of land suitable for development for housing and industry is a serious problem. Since 1945, the Government has reclaimed about 2,154 hectares from the sea, principally from the seafronts of Hong Kong and Kowloon, facing the harbour. In the New Territories, the new town of Tsuen Wan, incorporating Tsuen Wan, Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi, already houses 700,000 of its planned ultimate population of890,000. The construction of 7 further new towns at Sha Tin, Tuen Mun, Tai Po, Fanling, Yuen Long, Junk Bay and Tin Shui Wai is now well underway, with planned ultimate population of about 710,000, 570,000, 305,000, 220,000,190,000,220,000 and 125,000 respectively. The population was 5,431,200 at 1986 census. During the war years the population ofHong Kong fluctuated sharply. In Sept. 1945, at the end of the Japanese occupation, it was about 600,000. In mid-1950 it was estimated at 2-24m. Since 1976 the average annual growth rate has been 2-1%. Of the present population about 23% are under 15 years of age. About 59% of the population was born in' Hong Kong. C L I M A T E . The climate is warm sub-tropical being much affected by monsoons, the winter being cool and dry and the summer hot and humid, May to Sept. being the wettest months. Jan. 60*F (15-6'Q, July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 85" (2,162 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The administration is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council, composed of the Chief Secretary, the Commander, British Forces, the Financial Secretary, the AttorneyGeneral (who are members ex officio) and such other members, as may be appointed by the Queen Upon the Governor's nomination. In July 1985 there were, in addition to the 4 ex-officio members, 3 nominated officials and 9 appointed members. There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the Governor. From Oct. 1985 it consisted of 3 ex-officio members, namely the Chief Secretary, the Financial Secretary, the Attorney-General, 7 official members, 22 appointed 600

HONG KONG

601

members and 24 elected members. Chinese and English are the official languages. District boards with elected members were set up in 1982 in the 19 administrative districts of Hong Kong. They have mainly an advisory role to perform and have a substantial influence over district affairs. Governor and C.-in-C.: Sir David Wilson. Commander British Forces: Maj.-Gen. Anthony Boam, CBE. ChiefSecretary: Sir David Akers-Jones, KBE, CMG. Flag: British Blue Ensign with the arms of the Territory on a white disc in the fly. DEFENCE. The Hong Kong garrison, under the Commander British Forces, comprises units of all three services. Its principal rôle is to assist the Hong Kong Government in maintaining security and stability. Army. The Army constitutes the bulk of the garrison. It comprises a UK battalion, based at Stanley Fort, and 4 Gurkha infantry battalions, one based at Lyemun, the other 3 in the New Territories; supporting units include the Queen's Gurkha Engineers, the Queen's Gurkha Signals, the Gurkha Transport Regiment, and 660 Squadron Army Air Corps. Navy. The Naval Base is at HMS Tamar. The Hong Kong Squadron comprises five peacock class patrol craft which are specially designed for patrol duties during typhoons and perform Search and Rescue operation in both Hong Kong waters and international waters in the South China Sea. The vessels, HMS Peacock, HMS Plover, HMS Starling, HMS Swallow, HMS Swift, were built by Hall Russell, Aberdeen, Scotland. Air Force. The Royal Air Force is based at Shek Kong. No. 28 (Army Cooperation) Squadron operates Wessex helicopters. In addition to its operational rôle in support of the army and navy, the RAF carries out search and rescue and medical evacuation tasks. It is also responsible for air traffic control services at Shek Kong, and provides a territory-wide air traffic advisory service. Auxiliary Forces. The local auxiliary defence units, consisting of the Royal Hong Kong Regiment and the Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force, are administered by the Hong Kong Government, but, if called out, would come under the command of the Commander British Forces. The Royal Hong Kong Regiment (The Volunteers) has a strength of about 950. It is fully mobile and its rôle is to operate in support of regular army battalions stationed in Hong Kong. The Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force is intended mainly for internal security and air-sea rescue duties. It has a strength of about 131, operating a fleet of seven aircraft - a twinengined Britten-Norman Islander, a twin-engined Cessna 404 Titan Courier, two Scottish Aviation Bulldog Trainers and three Aérospatiale Dauphin 365C1 helicopters. ECONOMY Budget. The public revenue and expenditure for financial years ending 31 March were as follows (in HK$): Revenue Expenditure

1983-84 30,399,700,000 33,393,100,000

1984-85 36,342,500,000 36,901,700,000 1 Estimate.

1985-86 41,241,000,000 39,798,200,000

1986-87' 39,891,800,000 39,543,800,000

The revenue is derived chiefly from rates, licences, tax on earnings and profits, land sales, duties on tobacco, hydrocarbon oils, methyl alcohol, intoxicating liquor, non-intoxicating liquor, non-alcoholic beverages and cosmetics and various duties. Currency. The unit of currency is the Hong Kong dollar. Banknotes (of denominations of $10 upwards) are issued by the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, and the Standard Chartered Bank. Their combined note issue was, at 31 July 1986, HK$ 18,636m. Subsidiary currency consisting of HK$5, HK$2, HKSl,

602

HONG KONG

50-cent, 20-cent, 10-cent, 5-cent copper-nickel-alloy coins and 1-cent notes is issued by the Hong Kong Government and at 31 July 1986 totalled HK$1,529m. Since Oct. 1983 the HK$ has been linked to the US$ 1 at a fixed exchange rate of US$1 =HK$7-80. In March 1987, £1=HK$12 -41. Since 1975, the Hong Kong Government has issued annually a limited quantity of HK$ 1,000 gold coins. The first in the series was issued to commemorate the Queen's visit to Hong Kong in 1975. Gold coins have since been minted to mark the Chinese Lunar Years of the Dragon, the Snake, the Horse, the Goat, the Monkey, the Cockerel, the Dog, the Pig, the Rat, the Ox and the Tiger. Banking. At 31 Dec. 1985: There were 143 banks licensed under the Banking Ordinance with a total of 1,537 banking offices, and 131 representative offices of foreign banks; bank deposits were HK$367,224m. and loans and advances HK$312,942m.; there were 278 deposit taking companies registered, and 35 licensed, under the Deposit-taking Companies Ordinance with total deposits of HKS31,744. Weights and Measures. Metric, British Imperial, Chinese and US units are all in current use in Hong Kong. However Government Departments have now effectively adopted metric units; all new legislation uses metric terminology and existing legislation is being progressively metricated. Metrication is also proceeding in the private sector. The statutory equivalent for the chek is 14 5/8 inches. The variation of the size of the chek with usage still persists in Hong Kong but the chek and derived units are now used much less than in the past. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 17,830m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. Only 9% of the total land area is suitable for crop farming and most vegetables are produced through intensive market gardening cultivation, with 31% self-sufficiency. In 1985,65,000 tonnes of vegetables and 7,000 tonnes of fruit were produced. Poultry production was 43,430 tonnes, with 55% self-sufficiency. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 810; pigs, 593,160; poultry, 7m. Fisheries. The fishing fleet of nearly 5,000 vessels supplies 90% of fresh marine fish consumed locally. In 1984 the total catch was almost 192,000 tonnes, valued at HK$1,600m. Inland freshwater farming and coastal marine farming provided 6,500 tonnes of freshwater fish valued at HK$77m. and 1,300 tonnes of marine products valued at HK$98m. Water. The provision of sufficient reservoir capacity to store the summer rainfall in order to meet supply requirements has always been a serious problem. Over the years no less than 17 impounding reservoirs have been constructed with a total capacity of 586m. cu. metres. The major among these are the Plover Cove Reservoir (230m. cu. metres) finally completed in 1973 and the High Island Reservoir (280m. cu. metres) completed in 1978, both involving the conversion of sea water inlets into fresh water lakes. There are no sites remaining in Hong Kong suitable for development as storage reservoirs. Consequently the purchase of water from China has been of increasing importance and the future needs of Hong Kong will be met to a large extent from this source. In 1985 water purchased from China was in the order of 325m. cu. metres which represents about 50% of Hong Kong's demand. The agreement with China allows for annual increases up to a total figure of 620m. cu. metres per annum by 1994-95 which will represent around 60% of Hong Kong's demand. These resources can be further supplemented when necessary by up to 181,000 cu. metres of fresh water a day from a desalting plant completed in 1976 and now considered as a reserve resource. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. An economic policy based on free enterprise and free trade; an

HONG KONG

603

industrious work force; an efficient and aggressive commercial infrastructure; modern and efficient sea-port (including container shipping terminals) and airport facilities; its geographical position relative to markets in North America and its traditional trading links with Britain have all contributed to Hong Kong's success as a modern industrial territory. In Dec. 1985, there were 45,915 factories employing 847,615 people out of a total population of approximately 5 -4m. The type of factory involved ranges from the small sub-contractor type to large highly complex modern establishments. Given the scarcity of land it is most common for light industry to operate in multistorey buildings specially designed for this puipose. The main industry is textiles and clothing, which employed 43% of the total industrial workforce and accounted for 41 % of total domestic exports in 1985. Other major light manufacturing industries include electronic products, clocks and watches, toys, plastic products, electrical products, metalware, footwear, cameras and travel goods. Heavy industry includes ship-building, ship-repairing, aircraft engineering and the manufacture of machinery. Commerce. Hong Kong's industries are mainly export oriented. The total value of domestic exports in 1985 was HK$129,822m. The major markets were'USA (44 -4%), China (11 -7%), UK (6 -6%), Federal Republic of Germany (6 -2%), Japan (3-4%) and Canada (3-4%). There is also a sizeable and flourishing entrepot trade which accounted for another HK$105,270m. in 1985. The total value of imports in 1985 was HK$231,420m., mainly from China (25-5%), Japan (23-1%), USA (9-5%), Taiwan (9%), Singapore (4-9%) and UK (3-7%). The chief import items were manufactured goods (27-9%), machinery and transport equipment (25-6%), foodstuffs (8-6%), chemicals (7%), mineral fuel, lubricants and related materials (4 - 7%). Duties are levied only on tobacco, hydrocarbon oils, methyl alcohol, alcoholic liquors, non-alcoholic beverages and cosmetics, whether imported into or manufactured in Hong Kong for local consumption. All imports (apart from foodstuffs, which are subject to a flat declaration charge irrespective of the value of the consignment) and exports are subject to an ad valorem declaration charge at the rate of HK50 cents for every $1,000 value (or part thereof) of the goods shipped. Visible trade normally carries an adverse balance which is offset by a favourable balance from exchange, shipping and insurance transactions, an inflow of capital, ship-repairing, a flourishing tourist industry, etc. Hong Kong has a free exchange market. Foreign merchants may remit profits or repatriate capital. Import and export controls are kept to the minimum, consistent with strategic requirements. Total trade between Hong Kong and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling) is given as follows: 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 ImportstoUK 872,545 1,178,343 1,266,965 1,175,984 1,530,786 Exports and re-exports from UK 732,489 726,711 897,419 949,180 960,956

Tourism. 3,400,000 tourists spent HKS14,800m. in Hong Kong during 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In June 1986 there were 1,337 km of roads, distributed as follows: Hong Kong Island, 380; Kowloon and New Kowloon, 354, and New Territories, 603. A cross-harbour tunnel, 1 -8 km in length, opened to traffic in Aug. 1972, now links Hong Kong Island with the Kowloon peninsula. The 1 -4 km twin-tube Lion Rock Tunnel, which links Kowloon with Sha Tin New Town and other areas of the north-eastern New Territories, became fully operational in Oct. 1978. The 1 -8 km twin-tube Aberdeen Tunnel, which connects Aberdeen and Wanchai, became operational in March 1983. A 34 km Light Railway Transit System is scheduled for 1988 and will connect Tuen Mun and Yuen Long in the New Territories. Railways. There is an electric tramway with a total track length of 30-4 km, and a

604

HONG KONG

cable tramway connecting the Peak district with the lower levels in Victoria. The Kowloon-Canton Railway runs for 34 km from the terminus at Hung Horn in Kowloon to the border point at Lo Wu. The railway completed its five-year, HK$3,500m. modernization and electrification project in July 1983. All existing stations were rebuilt and three new stations were constructed for Tai Wai, Fo Tan and Kowloon Tong. The Kowloon Tong Station is designed as an interchange with the underground Mass Transit Railway. The status of the Kowloon-Canton Railway changed from a government department to a public corporation on 1 Jan. 1983. The decision was taken in view of the major development of the KCR into a much expanded and more sophisticated railway. An underground Mass Transit Railway system, comprising 37 stations, is now in operation. The system consists of three lines, one linking the Central District of Hong Kong Island with Tsuen Wan in the west of Kowloon, the second linking Kwun Tong in East Kowloon with Yau Ma Tei in Nathan Road and the third Island line links Sheung Wan and Chai Wan. A second cross-harbour line is under construction linking Kwun Tong and Quarry Bay, while a light rail line is being built to serve the Tuen Mun area. Aviation. Hong Kong International Airport is situated on the north shore of Kowloon Bay. It is regularly used by some 30 airlines and many charter airlines which provide frequent services throughout the Far East to Europe, North America, Africa, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand. British Airways operates 7 flights per week via India or the Gulf to the UK. Cathay Pacific Airways, one of the two Hong Kong-based airlines, operates more than 400 passenger and cargo services to Europe, the Far and Middle East, Australia and North America weekly. Hong Kong Dragon Airlines Ltd, which was set up in July 1985, operates B-737 non-scheduled services between Hong Kong and a number of cities in Asia, the People's Republic of China and Micronesia. British Caledonian Airways operates scheduled services on the Hong Kong to London route. About 1,000 scheduled flights are operated weekly to and from Hong Kong by various airlines. In 1985, 59,420 aircraft arrived and departed on international flights, carrying 9 • 8m. passengers and 419,680 tonnes of freight. Shipping. The port of Hong Kong, which ranks among the top three container ports in the world, handled 2-3m. twenty-foot equivalent units in 1985. The Kwai Chung Container Port has six berths with more than 2,300 metres of quay backed by about 90 hectares of cargo handling area. In 1985, some 26,747 ocean-going vessels called at Hong Kong and loaded and discharged more than 45-7m. tonnes of cargo. This included 35m. tonnes of general goods, 37% of which was containerized cargo. Telecommunications, Post and Broadcasting. There were 103 post offices in 1985; postal revenue totalled HK$864-4m.; expenditure, HK$538-3m.; 564-9m. letters and parcels were handled. Telephone service is provided by the Hong Kong Telephone Co. Ltd., a member of the Cable and Wireless Worldwide Communications Group. It provides local, and in association with Cable and Wireless (HK) Ltd., international voice, data and facsimile transmission services for Hong Kong. At 31 Dec. 1985 there were over 2-3m. telephones served by l -7m. lines. Cable and Wireless (Hong Kong) Ltd, which is owned jointly by Cable and Wireless PLC and the Hong Kong Government, provides the international telecommunication services as well as local telegram and telex services. These include public telegram, telex, telephone, television programmes transmission and reception, leased circuits, facsimile, switched data, ship-shore and air-ground communications. International facilities are provided through submarine cables, microwave and satellite radio systems. There is a government broadcasting station, Radio Television Hong Kong, with daily transmissions in English and Chinese. A commercial station, the Commercial Broadcasting Co. Ltd, transmits daily in English and Cantonese. Two radio stations operate 8 channels with 4 providing 24-hour service.

HONG KONG

605

Television Broadcasts Ltd and Asia Television Ltd transmit commercial television in English and Chinese on 4 channels, in colour. Cinemas. In Oct. 1986 there were 104 cinemas with a seating capacity in excess of 110,000. Newspapers. In Jan. 1986 there were 66 daily or weekly newspapers, registered and in circulation, including 8 English-language papers, one bilingual paper, 50 Chinese-language dailies and a number of news agency bulletins. JUSTICE, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. There is a Supreme Court which comprises the Court of Appeal and the High Court. While the Court of Appeal hears appeals on all matters, civil and criminal from the lower courts, the High Court has unlimited jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters including bankruptcy, company winding-up, adoptions, probate and lunacy matters. The District Court has civil jurisdiction to hear monetary claims u p to HK$60,000 or, where the claims are for recovery of land, the annual rent or rateable value does not exceed HK$45,000. In its criminal jurisdiction, it may try more serious offences except murder, manslaughter and rape; Hie maximum term of imprisonment it can impose is seven years. The Magistrates' Court exercises criminal jurisdiction over a wide range of indictable and summary offences. Its powers of punishment are generally restricted to a maximum of two years' imprisonment, or a fine of HK$10,000, though cumulative sentences of imprisonment up to three years may be imposed. The Coroner's Court inquires into the identity of a deceased person and the cause of death. The Juvenile Court has jurisdiction to hear charges against young people aged under 16 for any offence other than homicide. Children under the age of seven are not deemed to have reached the age of criminal responsibility. The Lands Tribunal determines on statutory claims for compensation over land and certain landlord and tenant matters. The Labour Tribunal provides inexpensive and speedy settlements to individual monetary claims arising from disputes between employers and employees. The Small Claims Tribunal deals with monetary claims involving amounts not exceeding HKS8,000. Police. At the end of 1985, the establishment of the Royal Hong Kong Police Force was 30,977. In addition, there were 5,611 auxiliary officers. During the year, 86,944 crimes were reported. The overall detection rate was 46-1% and a total of 38,749 people were arrested and prosecuted. The Marine Police is responsible for patrolling some 1,850 sq. km of territorial waters and involved in the control of some 33,000 local craft with a maritime population of between 50,000 and 60,000. At the end of 1985, it consisted of a disciplined stafTof2,847 and a fleet of 127 vessels. Education. The majority of schools have to be registered with the Education Department under the Education Ordinance. They are required to comply with regulations as to staff, building, fire and health requirements. From Sept. 1971, free and compulsory primary education was introduced in government and the majority of government-aided schools. Free junior secondary education of 3 years' duration was introduced in 1978 and it was made compulsory in Sept. 1979. In March 1986 there were 229,089 pupils in kindergartens (all private), another 534,903 in primary schools and 1,206,783 in secondary schools. There are 7 technical institutes with a total full-time and part-time enrolment of 51,850, 1 technical teachers' college and 3 colleges of education with a total enrolment of5,343. The University of Hong Kong had 6,264 undergraduates in 1986 and the Chinese University of Hong Kong, inaugurated in Oct. 1963, had 5,675 undergraduates. The Hong Kong Polytechnic, 1985, had a total of 24,908 students. In Oct. 1984, the City Polytechnic was opened and had a total of 2,951 students in 1985. Health. In Feb. 1986 there were 4,782 doctors and about 24,640 hospital beds.

606

HONG KONG

Social Security. The Government co-ordinates and implements expanding programmes in social welfare, which include social security, family services, child care, services for the elderly, youth and community work, probation and corrections and rehabilitation. More than 144 voluntary welfare agencies are subsidised by public funds. The Government gives non-contributory cash assistance to needy families, unemployed able-bodied adults, the severely disabled and the elderly. Caseload in Aug. 1986 totalled 342,278. Victims of natural disasters, crimes of violence and traffic accidents are financially assisted. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Census and Statistics Department is responsible for the preparation and collation of Government statistics. These statistics are published mainly in the Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics which is also available in a collected annual edition. The Department also publishes monthly trade statistics, economic indicators, annual review of overseas trade, etc. Statistical information is also published in the annual reports of Government departments. Hong Kong 1985, and other government publications are available from the Hong Kong Government Publications Centre, GPO Building, Connaught Place, Hong Kong, and the Hong Kong Government Office in London, 6 Grafton Street, London, W1X3LB. The Hong Kong Trade Development Council, Connaught Centre, Connaught Place, Hong Kong, issues a monthly Hong Kong Enterprise and other publications. Hong Kong 1985. Hong Kong Government Press, 1985 Beazer,W.F., The Commercial Future of Hong Kong. New York, 1978 Benton,G., The Hong Kong Crisis. London, 1983 Bonavia, D., Hong Kong 1997. London, 1984 Cheng, J. Y. S. (ed.), Hong Kong: In Search ofa Future. OUP, 1984 Endacott, G. B., A History of Hong Kong. 2nd ed. OUP, 1973 .-Government and People in Hong Kong, 1841-1962. A Constitutional History. OUP, 1965 Hopkins, K., Hong Kong: The Industrial Colony. OUP, 1971 Rabushka, A., The Changing Face of Hong Kong: New Departures in Public Policy. Washington, 1973 Tregear, E. R., Land Use in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1958.—Hong Kong Gazetteer. Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1958.—The Development of Hong Kong as Told in Maps. HongKongUniv. Press, 1959 Youngson, A. J., Hong Kong: Economic Growth and Policy. OUP, 1982

HUNGARY

Capital: Budapest Population: 10-64m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$2,150 (1983)

Magyar Népkôztârsasâg HISTORY. Hungary first became an independent kingdom in 1001. For events in Hungary since 1918 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1945, pp. 1006-7, and 1957, p. 1096. On 23 Oct. 1956 an anti-Stalinist revolution broke out, and the newly formed coalition government oflmre Nagy on 1 Nov. withdrew from the Warsaw Pact and asked the UN for protection. Janos Kadar, formed a counter-government on 3 Nov. and asked the USSR for support. Russian troops suppressed the revolution and abducted Nagy and his Ministers, who were later secretly executed. On 7'Sept. 1967 the SoViet-Hungarian treaty of friendship was renewed for 20 years. In 1978 the crown of St Stephen, the symbol of Hungarian nationhood, which had been in US hands since 1945, was returned to Hungary. AREA AND POPULATION. Hungary is bounded north by Czechoslovakia, north-east by the USSR, east by Romania, south by Yugoslavia and west by Austria. The peace treaty of 10 Feb. 1947 restored the frontiers as of 1 Jan. 1938. TheareaofHungaryis93,032sq.km(35,911 sq.miles). The official language is Hungarian (Magyar), which is a member of the FinnoUgrian group. At the census of 1 Jan. 1980 the population was 10,709,550 (5,195,300 males). Population in 1986: 10,640,000 (males, 5,137,000). Ethnic composition, 1984: Hungarians, 96-6%; Germans, 1-6%; Slovaks, 1-1%; Romanians, 0-2%; others, 0-5%. There were 0 • 32m. Gypsies in 1985. A Gypsy Council was set up in 1985. 57% of the population is ¿ b a n (20% in Budapest). Population density, 114-4 per sq. km. Birth rate, 1985, 12-2 per 1,000. The population is decreasing, by 2 per 1,000 in 1984; expectation of life (1984): males, 66; females, 74. There is a worldwide Hungarian diaspora, and Hungarian minorities in Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia Vital statistics, 1985: Births, 129,928; marriages, 73,425 (of which 22,100 remarriages); divorces, 28,700; deaths, 147,443; abortions, 82,400 (approx.); infant mortality, 20-4 per 1,000 live births. Area (in sq. km) and population (in 1,000) of counties and county towns: Counties (1985) Baranya Bâcs-Kiskun Békés Borsod-Abaûj-Zemplén Csongrâd Fejér Gyor-Sopron Hajdu-Bihar Heves Komàrom Nógrad Pest Somogy Szaboïcs-Szatmâr Szolnok Tolna Vas Veszprém Zala Budapest

Area 4,487 8,362 5,632 7,248 4,263 4,374 4,012 6,212 3,637 2,250 2,544 6,394 6,036 5,938 5,608 3,704 3,337 4,689 3,784 525

Population 432 558 422 791 457 426 428 551 342 321 233 985 353 578 436 266 280 388 313 3,962 607

Chieflownfl985) Pecs Kecskemet Bekescsaba Miskolc Szeged Szekesfehervar Gyo'r Debrecen Eger Tatabanya Salgotaijan Budapest Kaposvar Nyiregyhaza Szolnok Szekszard Szombathely Veszprim Zalaegerszeg (has county status)

Population 177 103 70 212

183 112

129

212

65 76 49 2,080 74 118 81 38 86 64 62

608

HUNGARY

C L I M A T E . A humid continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Precipitation is generally greater in summer, with thunderstorms. Dry, clear weather is likely in autumn, but spring is damp and both seasons are of short duration. Budapest. Jan. 3 2 T (0°C), July 71°F (21 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 25" (625 mm). Pécs. Jan. 30°F (-0• 7"C), July 7 l'F(21 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 26-4" (661 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 1 Feb. 1946 the National Assembly proclaimed a republic. The present People's Republic was established by a constitution adopted on 18 Aug. 1949. Supreme power is vested in Parliament. Parliament elects a Presidential Council, which exercises the functions of Parliament between sessions. It can dissolve government bodies and annul legislation. The 1949 Constitution was amended in 1972. The distinction between 'working people' and 'citizens' disappears. Citizens are stated to have both indirect (through elected representatives) and direct (through local and enterprise councils) democratic rights. State and co-operative property are recognized as co-existing with equal status. Personal property is 'recognized and protected' up to the limit set by law (this includes for private artisans and, since 1 Jan. 1982, for various classes of small companies and 'economic working groups', places ofbusiness and machinery). Ethnic minorities have equal rights and education in their own tongue. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, green. National anthem: God bless the Hungarians-Isten âldd meg a magyart (words by Ferenc Kôlcsey, tune by Ferenc Erkel). Chairman of the Presidential Council (Head of State): Pal Losonczi, appointed on 14 April 1967. Deputy Chairmen: SàndorGàspir and Rezso Trautmann. In 1949 the Hungarian Working People's Party (Communists), the Smallholders' Party, the National Peasant Party, the Trade Union Federation, the Association of Working Peasants, the Democratic Women's Association and the Federation of Working Youth were merged in the Hungarian People's Independence Front. In 1954 a new comprehensive organization was formed, the People's Patriotic Front. The Communist Youth Association (Kisz) had 912,000 members in 1986. The Communist Party Was reorganized after the 1956 revolution and changed its name to 'Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party'. It had 852,000 members in 1983 (32% women; 46% manual workers and peasants in 1980). Supreme defacto power is in the hands of the Party's Politburo, composed in March 1987 of: Jânos Kàdâr, (General Secretary•); Kârolyi Németh (Deputy General Secretary)-, Gyòrgy Aczél; Sândor Gâspâr; Kârolyi Grosz; Csaba Hâmori; Ferenc Havasi; Gyôrgy Lâzâr; Pâl Losonczi; Làszló Maróthy; Miklos Ovàri; Istvân Sârlos; Istvân Szabó. Prominent members of the Government in March 1987 were: Prime Minister: Gyôrgy Lâzâr. Deputy Prime Ministers: Judith Csehak, Gen. Lajos Czinege, József Maijaì, Làszló Maróthy (Chairman, State Planning Office). Finance: Peter Medgessy. Foreign Affairs: Péter Vàrkonyi. Speaker, National Assembly: Istvân Sârlos. Interior: Dr Jânos Kamara. Culture: Dr Béla Kôpeczi. Defence: Col.-Gen. Ferenc Kârpâti Foreign Trade: Péter Veress. Justice: Imre Markója. Parliament consists of352 deputies, elected for a 5-year term by all citizens over 18 years. The right to select candidates is vested solely in pre-election nomination meetings open to all voters. In order to stand candidates must receive one-third of the votes of those present. Since 1983 more than one candidate must stand in each constituency. All candidates must support the policies of the Patriotic People's Front (PPF). To be elected candidates must gain at least 50% of the votes cast. Candidates who receive more than 25% of the votes become alternate deputies. In addition a 'national slate' of 3 5 prominent personalities is voted on by all citizens. At the elections of 8 June 1985 93 -9% of the 7,728,280 electors voted (97% in 1980) for the 762 candidates, including 71 not sponsored by the PPF, of whom 25 were elected. 5 -4% of the votes were invalid, and 1 -2% negative. 77% of those elected were Communist Party members. In 42 constituencies no candidate gained an

HUNGARY

609

absolute majority, and a second vote was taken on 22 June after new nomination meetings. Turnout here was 83%. Local Government. Hungary is divided into 19 counties (megyék) and the capital city, Budapest, which has county status. Counties are sub-divided into towns and boroughs. These are administered by a hierarchy of local councils which in turn elect Executive Committees to carry on day-to-day administration. There are 42,734 local council constituencies. Elections are held at the same time as general elections. Members of county councils are elected by the lower councils. At the June 1985 elections 41,885 councillors and 30,885 alternate councillors were elected. County districts were abolished in 1983. D E F E N C E . The 1947 Treaty authorized Hungary to have an army up to a strength of65,000 personnel, and an air force of 90 aircraft, of which not more than 70 may be combat types with a personnel strength of5,000. By a law of 1976 the Presidential Council may establish a National Defence Council which in times of war would exercise supreme control over defence. Men between the ages of 18 and 23 are liable for 18 months' conscription in the Army, 24 months in the Air Force. Compulsory military service age-limits are 18 to 55 (18 to 45 women). The security police (BKH) is controlled by the Ministry ofthe Interior. The Workers' Militia is a para-military organization, armed with automatic weapons. Strength (1985), 60,000. Four Soviet divisions are stationed in Hungary. Army. Hungary is divided into 4 army districts: Budapest, Debrecen, Kiskunfélegyháza, Pécs. The strength of the Army was (1987) 83,000 (including 50,000 conscripts). It is organized in 1 tank division, 5 motor rifle divisions, 1 artillery and 1 surface-to-surface missile brigade, 1 anti-aircraft regiment, 3 surface-to-air missile regiments and 1 airborne battalion. Equipment includes 1,200 T-54/-55,60 T-72 and 100 PT-76 tanks. Navy. The maritime wing of the Army in 1987 deployed 500 officers and men operating 51 vessels, comprising 10 patrol craft, 26 mine warfare craft, 15 river patrol craft, and over 30 other craft including 5 utility landing craft, several troop transports of up to 1,000 tons, river monitors, icebreakers and tugs, constituting the River Guard, and Army amphibious logistic and bridging vessels are active along the Danube. Air Force. The Air Force is an integral part of the Army, with a strength (1987) of about 22,000 officers and men and 200 combat aircraft. The interceptor division has 3 regiments of MiG-23 and MiG-21 fighters. Other combat aircraft include some 40 Su-25s ground attack aircraft and about 20 Mi-24 helicopter gunships. Transport units are equipped with An-2, An-24, An-26 and 11-14 aircraft. Other types in service include Ka-26, Mi-2 and Mi-8 helicopters and L-29 Delfín and MÍG-15UTI trainers. 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missiles are also operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Hungary is a member of UN, the Warsaw Pact and Comecon and, since 1982, IMF and IBRD. External Debt. Hungary settled its debt to the UK in 1967. By an agreement of 6 March 1973 Hungary is to meet US claims ofUS$189m. arising from war damage and nationalization in 20 yearly instalments. Hungarian indebtedness to the West was US$8,300m. in 1983. A US$400m. loan was made by IBRD in 1983. ECONOMY Planning. The 'New Economic Mechanism' introduced in 1968, allows decentralisation in planning and responsiveness to market forces. For details of this and p r e v i o u s e c o n o m i c p l a n s see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 . N e w f o r m s

of enterprise management were introduced in 1985, under which some 25% of

610

HUNGARY

enterprises will elect their own management and a further 50% will be run by enterprise councils. Remaining enterprises will continue to be state-administered. The seventh 5-year plan covers 1986 to 1990. There were large price increases in 1983 and 1985. Inflation was over 7% in 1984. Budget. The budget for calendar years was as follows (in 1,000 forints): Revenue Expenditure

1980 423,500 428,000

1981 472,600 482,400

1982 1983 485,792 543,735 498,007 549,822 1 Estimates

1984 572,920 576,580

1985 638,130 651,310

1986 1 681,660 706,020

1985 revenue included: Direct taxes, 51-9%; wages tax, 24-8%; profits tax, 20-2%; indirect taxes, 31 • 1%. Expenditure included; Price subsidies 26-7%; social security, 20-2%; wealth and education, 16-5%; defence, 5-7%. Currency. A decree of 26 July 1946 instituted a new monetary unit, the forint subdivided into 100 filler. The rate of exchange (March 1987) 67 04 forints to the £1 sterling, 44-29 forints = US$1. A uniform exchange rate was established in Oct. 1981 as a final step before the introduction of external, central-bank convertibility for foreign trade. Since 1983 the forint has been devalued several times by a total of 20%. Banking. In 1987 a two-tier system was established. The National Bank remains the central state financial institution, responsible for the circulation of money and foreign currency exchange, and also becomes a central clearing bank, with general (but not operational) control over 5 new second-tier commercial banks and 10 specialized development banks. 9 other commercial banks were set up in 1985 to finance development. In 1987 the State Development Institute was established to issue Government bonds to cover the budgetary deficit. The Hungarian International Trade Bank opened in London in 1973. In 1980 the Central European International Bank was set up in Budapest with 7 Western banks holding 66% of the shares. The National Savings Bank handles local government as well as personal accounts. Deposits in 1985:244,100m. forints. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Capacity of all power stations in 1985 was 6,350 mw. There is an 880-mw nuclear power station at Paks. A 750 kv power line links Albertirsa with the Soviet grid at Vinnitsa. 26,770m. kwh were produced in 1985 (6,480 kwh by nuclear power), and 12,732m. kwh imported. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Oil and natural gas have been found in the Szeged basin and in Zala county. Production in 1985: oil, 2m. tonnes; gas, 7,441m. cu. m. There are pipelines for crude oil ('Friendship' I and II from USSR, section of the Adria oil pipeline from Rijeka to Czechoslovakia) and natural gas totalling 5,218 km in 1985. Minerals. Production in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): coal, 2,639; lignite, 7,387; brown coal, 14,016; bauxite, 2,815; iron ore, 311. Agriculture. Agricultural land was collectivised in 1950. A law of 1968 permits collectives to own land, and guarantees individuals' rights to private plots. Collectives meet in a National Council of Agricultural Co-operatives. In 1985 the agricultural area was (in 1,000 hectares) 6,540, of which 4,698 were arable, 1,247 meadows and pastures, and 257 orchards and vineyards. In 1986 there were 1,270 collective farms with 5 -6m. hectares of land (including 303,500 hectares of household plots) and 128 state farms with 912,800 hectares of land. The irrigated area was 137,000 hectares; 55,000 tractors were in use. In 1985 state farms were transformed from state-administered into self-governing bodies under the Ministry of Agriculture. Production statistics (in 1,000 tonnes): Crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats

1983 5,968 136 1,008 118

1984 7,367 192 1,208 151

1985 6,548 163 1,040 132

Crops Maize Potatoes Sugar-beet Sunflower seed

1983 6,256 799 3,782 587

1984 6,514 1,048 4,360 596

1985 6,613 971 4,024 669

HUNGARY

611

Livestock in 1986 was (in 1,000 head) as follows: Cattle, 1,766; pigs, 8,280; poultry, 38,376; sheep, 2,465; horses, 98,000. Livestock products (1985): Eggs, 4,153m.; milk, 2,644m. litres; wool, 12,200 tonnes; animals for slaughter, 2,316,000 tonnes. The north shore of Lake Balaton and the Tokaj area are important wineproducing districts. Wine production in 1985 was 221 m. litres. Forestry. The area under forest in 1985 was 1 -65m. hectares. 20,000 hectares were afforested and 8 -2m. cu. metres of timber were cut. Fisheries. There are fisheries in the rivers Danube and Tisza and Lake Balaton, and in 1984 there were 26,000 hectares of commercial fishponds. Catch in 1984: 38,976 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron Crude steel Rötled steel Aluminium Alumina Cement Artificial fertilizers Synthetic materials (PVC, etc.) Sulphuric acid Sugar Cotton cloth (1 m. sq. metres) Woollen ( 1 m. sq. metres) Silk and rayon (1 m. sq. metres) Leather footwear (1 m. pairs)

1981 2,193 3,643 2,816 74 792 4,635 647 314 573 490 320 45 59 44

1982 2,183 3,703 2,856 74 745 4,369 726 326 569 459 310 41 57 44

1983 2,047 3,617 2^20 74 836 4,243 761 344 606 476 307 37 55 43,501

1984 2,097 3,750 • l>m74 839 4,145 742 385 549 407 303 39 57 44,569

1985 2,095 3,647 2,860 74 801 3,678 733 389 520 483 310 36 59 44,972

By a law of 1986 creditors may proceed against insolvent companies which may be liquidated. Workers laid off receive 12 months' 'relocation support'. Labour. In 1985 there were 4,912,900 wage-earners (2,247,200 female) in the following categories: working-class, 55-4%; white-collar, 26-8%; co-operative peasantry, 13-4%; self-employed tradesmen, 4-4%. 4,912,900 worked in the socialist sector. Percentage distributions of the workforce: industry, 31-3; agriculture, 21-5; social and cultural services, 11-4; trade, 10-4; transport and communications, 8 1 ; building, 7-2. A 40-hour 5-day week was introduced in 1984. Average monthly wages in 1985: 5,646 forints. Minimum wage in 1984: 2,000 forints. Retirement age: Men, 60; women, 55. Leave entitlement, 15-24 days in 1985. Trade Unions. Trade union membership was 4 • 9m. in 1984. Commerce. The economy is heavily dependent on foreign trade. Trade for calendar years (in 1 m. forints): Imports Exports

1979 308,900 282,100

1980 299,900 281,000

1981 314,300 299,400

1982 324,800 324,500

1983 365,000 374,100

1984 390,500 414,000

1985 410,100 424,600

In 1985 Hungary's trade with communist countries (in 1,000m. forints): imports, 223 -2; exports, 248 -9. In 1985 USSR was Hungary's major trading partner(30% of imports, 33-6% of exports), ahead of the Federal Republic of Germany (11 -4%, 7 • 8%) and the German Democratic Republic (6 • 5%, 6 • 1 %). Commodity structure of foreign trade (%), 1985:

Fuels and electricity Raw materials Semifinished products Spare parts Machinery and capital goods Industrial consumer goods Agricultural produce Food industry products

Imports Communist Other countries countries 31-6 11-3 12-7 13-3 12-9 . 30-7 • 11-0 7-8 12-4 21-8 10 5 ' 10-3 0-6 4-3 2-1 6'8

Exports Other Communist countries countries 8-1 0-8 8-6 . 1-9 25-9 10-5 10-4 2-5 46-1 13 2 17-2 13-2 3-1 12-3 10 1 16-3

612

HUNGARY

All exports and imports require licensing by the Ministry of Foreign Trade, and may be handled by 29 specialized foreign-trade agencies. Enterprises may handle their own foreign trade relations, set up companies abroad and participate in foreign companies. Hard currency is available through the National Bank. Tax-free zones for foreign companies exporting their own products were established in 1983. The Marketexpo branch of the Hungarian National Market Research Institute will conduct research for foreign firms. The agency Interag acts for Western firms in Hungary. Joint ventures with Western firms.holding more than 50% of the capital are permitted, and may be declared duty-free zones. Foreign companies may set up offices in Hungary. In 1985 there were 3 Hungarian-British companies. In Nov. 1978 the US and Hungary signed a most-favoured-nation trade agreement Total trade between Hungary and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): B

' ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 44,051 77,446

1983 53,834 91,845

1984 75,905 100,502

1985 84,114 107,226

1986 77,229 101,557

Tourism. In 1985, 15- 13m. foreigners visited Hungary (3-75m. from the West), of whom 9-72m. were tourists (2-01m. from the West); and 5-53m. Hungarians travelled abroad (0 • 76m. to the West) of whom 4 • 94m. (0 • 66m.) were tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 29,633 km of roads, including motorways, 79 km; highways, 167 km and other first class main roads, 1,933 km. In 1985 passenger cars numbered 1,435,900 (1,399,900 private), lorries 151,260 and coaches and buses 24,850.230m. tonnes of freight and 650m. passengers were transported by road in 1985 (excluding intra-urban passengers). In 1984 there were 19,298 road accidents with 1,590 fatalities. Railways. Route length of public lines in 1985,7,766 knf, of which 1,801 km were electrified. 117m. tonnes of freight and 235m. passengers were carried. Aviation. Hungarian Air Lines (Malev) operate from Ferihegy airport, 16 km from Budapest. Passengers carried, 1985, 1 16m. Malev has 22 aircraft and flies 43 routes (including one to UK). British Airways, PANAM, Air France, SABENA, Swissair, OS, Lufthansa and KLM have services to Budapest. Shipping. Permanently navigable waterways have a length of 1,688 km. The Hungarian Shipping Company (MAHART) has agencies at Amsterdam, Alexandria, Algiers, Beirut, Rijeka and Trieste. It has 17 sea-going ships. 4-3m. tonnes of cargo were carried in 1985 and 3 -9m. passengers. Post and Broadcasting. Number of post offices (1985), 2,565; number of telephones, 738,800 (499,000 private). Radio licences were abolished in 1980; television licences, (1985) 2,991,000. Magyar Rddio ¿s Televizid broadcasts 3 programmes on medium-waves and FM and also regional programmes, including transmissions in German, Romanian and Serbo-Croat. Two TV programmes are broadcast, averaging 95 hours a week in 1985. Colour broadcasts are only transmitted in Budapest, using the SECAM system. Cinemas and Tbeatres (1985). There were 3,745 cinemas; attendance 70m. 21 full-length feature films were made. There were 41 theatres; attendance 6 07m. Newspapers and Books. In 1984 there were 29 dailies and 1,627 other periodicals. The Party daily is Nipszabads&g ('People's Freedom') (average daily circulation, 727,000). 8,015 book titles were publishedlin in 1985 in • 88m. ™ Copies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The administration of justice is the responsibility of the ProcuratorGeneral, who is elected by Parliament for a term of 6 years. Civil and criminal cases fall under the jurisdiction of the district courts, county courts and the Supreme Court in Budapest. Criminal proceedings are dealt with by district courts through 3-member councils and by county court and the Supreme Court in 5-member councils. A new Civil Code was adopted in 1978 and a new Criminal Code in 1979.

HUNGARY

613

District Courts act only as courts of first instance; county courts as either courts of first instance or of appeal. The Supreme Court acts normally as an appeal court, but may act as a court of first instance in cases submitted to it by the Public Prosecutor. All courts, when acting as courts of first instance, consist of 1 professional judge and 2 lay assessors, and, as courts of appeal, of 3 professional judges. Local government Executive Committees may try petty offences. District or county judges and assessors are elected by the district or county councils, all members of the Supreme Court by Parliament. There are also military courts of the first instance. Military cases of the second instance go before the Supreme Court. Judges are elected by the Presidential Council. 58,318 sentences were imposed on adults in 1985, including 28,895 of imprisonment. Juvenile convictions: 6,067. Religion. There are 20 authorized religious denominations which share proportionally an annual state subsidy of 70m. forints. 8-5m. of the population professed a religious faith in 1976; the number of active church members was put between 1 m. and 1 • 5m. Senior church appointments require the consent of the Presidential Council. Lower ones are ratified by the State Office for Church Affairs. Certain appointments become valid if the Office makes no comment within 15 days, and for the most minor church appointments neither state consent nor prior notification is required. Ecclesiastics are required to take an oath of allegiance to the state. In 1976 there were 5-25m. Roman Catholics with 11 dioceses and 4,400 churches, and 500,000 Uniates. In 1979 there were 3 seminaries and 1 Uniate seminary, a theological academy, and 8 secondary schools. There were 2,400 Roman Catholic priests in 1986. TTiere are also lay co-operators of both sexes who perform some priestly duties. The Primate of Hungaiy is Archbishop Laszló Pacskai, appointed Aug. 1986. There are also 2 archbishops, 8 bishops and an apostolic administrator. There is one Uniate bishopric. In 1976 there were 2m. Calvinists with 4 dioceses, 1,300 ministers and 1,567 churches. There were 2 theological colleges (20% of students female) with 16 teachers, and 1 secondary school. There were 500,000 Lutherans with 16 dioceses, 374 ministers and 673 churches. There is a theological college with 6 teachers. The 10 denominations in the Association of Free Churches had 37,000 members, 230 ministers and 675 churches. There are 4 Orthodox denominations with 40,000 members in 1979. The Unitarian Church has 10,000 members, 11 ministers and 6 churches. In 1979 there were 80,000-100,000 Jews (825,000 in 1939) with 130 synagogues, 26 rabbis, a rabbinical college with 6 teachers and a secondary school. Education. Education is free and compulsory from 6 to 14. Primary schooling ends at 14; thereafter education may be continued at secondary, secondary technical or secondary vocational schools, which offer diplomas entitling students to apply for higher education, or at vocational training schools which offer tradesmen's diplomas. Students at the latter may also take the secondary school diploma examinations after 2 years of evening or correspondence study. In 1985-86 there were 4,823 kindergartens with 33,548 teachers and 424,678 pupils; 3,546 primary schools with 88,066 teachers and 1,297,800 pupils; 561 secondary schools with 17,899 teachers and 236,100 pupils; and 274 vocational training schools with 176,400 students and 11,505 teachers. There are 4 universities proper (Budapest, Pécs, Szeged, Debrecen), and 14 specialized universities (6 technical, 4 medical, 3 arts, 1 economics). At these and at 40 other institutions of higher education there were 64,200 students and 14,850 teachers. Libraries and Museums. In 1985 there were 4,643 public and 4,937 trade union libraries. Major national libraries (1985): National Széchenyi, 6-3m. volumes; Budapest University, 3-4m.; Academy of Sciences, l-7m.; National Technical Library and Documentation Centre, 1 -4m. In 1985 there were 630 museurtis with 19-4m. visitors. Health. In 1985 there were 34,758 doctors and dentists and 102,346 hospital beds. Social Security. Medical treatment is free. Patients bear 15% of the cost of

614

HUNGARY

medicines. Sickness benefit is 75% of wages, old age pensions (at 60 for men, 55 for women) 60-70%. In 1985, 137,632m. forints were paid out in social insurance benefits including 21,341m. in family allowances, 11,600m. in sick pay and 91,737m. in pensions. There were 2-28m. pensioners in 1985. In 1985 family allowances were paid to 1,337,000 families. Family support measures were improved in 1985. Allowances range from 410 forints per month. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Hungary in Great Britain (35 Eaton Place, London, SW1X 8 BY) Ambassador: Dr Mätyäs Domokos (accredited 22 Nov. 1984). Of Great Britain in Hungary (Harmincad Utca 6, Budapest V) Ambassador: L. V. Appleyard. Of Hungary in the USA (3910 Shoemaker St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Vencel Hazi. Of the USA in Hungary (Szabadsäg Ter 12, Budapest V) Ambassador: Nicolas M. Salgö. Of Hungary to the United Nations Ambassador: Ferenc Esztergalyos. Books of Reference Statisztikai Evkönyv. Budapest, annual; since 1871, abridged English version, Statistical YearBook Statistical Pocket Book of Hungary (in English). Budapest, annual from 19 59 State Budget. Budapest, annual from 1983 Hungarian Digest. Budapest, 6 a year from 1980 The Hungarian Economy: a Quarterly Economic and Business Review. Budapest, since 1972 Hungary 66 (67etc.). Budapest, annual from 1966 Managers in Hungary: A Biographical Directory. Budapest, 1986 Marketing in Hungary. Budapest, quarterly Quarterly Review of the National Bank of Hungary. From 1983 Information Hungary. Budapest, 1980 The Constitution of the Hungarian People's Republic. Budapest, 1972 The 13th Congress of the Hungarian Workers' Party, March 25-28,1985. Budapest, 1986 Bako, E., Guide to Hungarian Studies. 2 vols. Stanford Univ. Press, 1973 Berend, I. T., and Ranki, G., Hungary: A Century of Economic Development. New York and Newton Abbot, 1974.—Underdevelopment and Economic Growth: Studies in Hungarian Social and Economic History. Budapest, 1979.—The Hungarian Economy in the Twentieth Century. London, 1985 Bemat, T.,(ed.) An Economic Geography of Hungary. Budapest, 1985 Cave, M., Alternative Approaches to Economic Planning. London, 1981 E n y e d i , G H u n g a r y : An Economic Geography. Boulder, 1976 Fekete, J., Back to the Realities: Reflections of a Hungarian Banker. Budapest, 1982 Gati,C., Hungary and the Soviet Bloc. DukeUniv. Press, 1986 Hare, P. G., and others (eds.), Hungary: a Decade of Economic Reform. London, 1981 Hegediis, A., The Structure of Socialist Society. London, 1977 Heinrich, H.-G., Hungary: Politics, Economics and Society. London, 1986 Kabdebö, T., Hungary. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1980 Kädär,}., For a Socialist Hungary. Budapest, 1974.—Socialism and Democracy in Hungary. Budapest, 1984 Kornai, J., Economics of Shortage. Oxford, 1980 Kovrig, B., Communism in Hungary. Stanford, 1979 Kozma, F., Economic Integration and Economic Strategy. The Hague, 1982 Kulcsär K., Contemporary Hungarian Society. Budapest, 1984 Macartney, C. A., Hungary: A Short History. London, 1962 Nemeth, G. (ed.), Hungary: A Comprehensive Guide. Budapest, 1980 Orszägh, L., Hungarian-English Dictionary. Budapest, 1977.—English-Hungarian Dictionary. Budapest, 1970 Pamlenyi, E. (ed.), A History of Hungary. Budapest, 1975 Pecsi, M. and Särfalvi, B., Physical and Economic Geography of Hungary. 2nd ed. Budapest, 1979 Torna, P. A., and Volgyes, I., Politics in Hungary. San Francisco, 1977 Vardy, S. B., and Vardy, A. H., (eds.) Society in Change. Boulder, 1983

ICELAND

Capital: Reykjavik Population: 242,089 ( 1985) GNPper capita: US$9,040 ( 1984)

Ly5veldi6 island H I S T O R Y . The first settlers came to Iceland in 874. Between 930 and 1264 Iceland was an independent republic, but by the 'Old Treaty' of 1263 the country recognized the rule of the King of Norway. In 1381 Iceland, together with Norway, came under the rule of the Danish kings, but when Norway was separated from Denmark in 1814, Iceland remained underthe rule ofDenmark. Since 1 Dec. 1918 it has been acknowledged as a sovereign state. It was united with Denmark only through the common sovereign until it was proclaimed an independent republic on 17 June 1944. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Iceland is a large island in the North Atlantic, close to the Arctic Circle, and comprises an area of about 103,000 sq. km (39,758 sq. miles), with its extreme northern point (the Rifstangi) lying in 66* 32' N. lat., and its most southerly point (Kotlutangi) in 63° 23' N. lat., not including the islands north and south of the land; if these are included, the country extends from 67° 10' N. (the Kolbeinsey) to 63° 17' N. (Surtsey, one of the Westman Islands). It stretches from 13° 30' (the Gerpir) to 24° 32' W. long. (Latrabjarg). The skerry Hvalbakur (The Whaleback) lies 13° 16'W.long. There are 8 regions: Region Capital area 1 Southwest Peninsula J West Western Peninsula Northland West Northland East

Iceland

Inhabited land (sq. km) , 266 1,266

5,011 4,130 4,867 9,890

42,085

Mountain pasture (sq. km) 7i6 "6 3,415 3,698 5,278 6,727

Wasteland (sq. km) _

»•»»

'^55

37,553

23,181

275 1,652 2,948 5,751

Total area (sq. km) i os2

Population(l Dec. 1985) (132,510 \ 14,281 8,711 14,996 9,470 10,262 13,093 10,808 22,368 25,955

20;l34 102,819

242,089

In 1985, 25,495 were domiciled in rural districts and 216,594 in towns and villages (ofover 200 inhabitants.) The population is almost entirely Icelandic. In 1984 foreigners numbered 3,534; of these 999 were Danish, 684 US, 340 British, 295 Norwegian and 241 German (Fed. Rep.) nationals. The capital, Reykjavik, had on 1 Dec. 1985, a population of89,868; othertowns were Akranes, 5,419; Akureyri, 13,766; Bolungarvik, 1,256; Dalvik, 1,340; Eskifjor&ur, 1,087; jGarSabaer, 6,027; Grindavik, 2,033; Hafharfj6r6ur, 13,214; Husavik, 2,482; Isafjor&ur, 3,448; Keflavik, 6,922; Kopavogur, 14,631; Neskaupsta&ur, 1,714; Njarftvik, 2,258; Olafsfjor8ur, 1,148; Sau6arkrokur, 2,386; Selfoss, 3,710; Seltiarnarnes, 3,764; Sey5isfjor5ur, 1,003; Siglufjor&ur, 1,917; Vestmannaeyjar, 4,787. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Living births 4,371 4,113 3,856

Still-born 14 17 9

Marriages 1,396 1,413 1,252

Divorces 495 449 543

Deaths 1,653 1,584 1,656

Infant deaths 27 25 22

The official language is Icelandic (islenska). C L I M A T E . The climate is cool temperate oceanic and rather changeable, but mild for its latitude because of the Gulf Stream and prevailing S.W. winds. Precipitation is high in upland areas, mainly in the form of snow. Reykjavik. Jan. 34°F (1°Q, July 52°F(11°C). Annual rainfall 34" (860 mm). 615

616

ICELAND

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 24 May 1944 the people of Iceland decided in a referendum to sever all ties with the Danish Crown. TTie voters were asked whether they were in favour of the abrogation of the Union Act, and whether they approved of the bill for a republican constitution: 70,725 voters were for severance of all political ties with Denmark and only 370 against it; 69,048 were in favour of the republican constitution, 1,042 against it and 2,505 votes were invalid. On 17 June 1944 the republic was formally proclaimed, and as the republic's first president the Alfringi elected Sveinn Bjornsson for a 1 -year term (re-elected 1945 and 1949; died 25 Jan. 1952). The President is now elected for a 4yearterm. President of the Republic of Iceland: Vigdis Finnbogadottir (elected 29 June 1980, with 43,611 out of 129,049 valid votes, inaugurated 1 Aug. 1980); re-elected unopposed in 1984. Nationalflag: Blue with a red white-bordered Scandinavian cross. National anthem: 0 Gu6 vors lands (words by M. Jochumsson, 1874; tune by S. Sveinbjornsson). The Aljjingi (Parliament) is divided into two Houses, the Upper House and the Lower House. The former is composed of one-third of the members elected by the whole Alfoingi in common sitting. The remaining two-thirds of the members form the Lower House. The members of the Afoingi receive payment for their services. The budget bills must be laid before the two Houses in joint session, but all other bills can be introduced in either of the Houses. If the Houses do not agree, they assemble in a common sitting and the final decision is given by a majority of twothirds of the voters, with the exception of budget bills, where a simple majority is sufficient. The ministers have free access to both Houses, but can vote only in the House of which they are members. The electoral law enacted in 1959 provides for an AlJ>ingi of 60 members. Of these, 49 are elected in 8 constituencies by proportional representation; the remaining 11 are apportioned to the parties according to their total vote. At the elections held on 23 April 1983 the following parties were returned: Independence Party, 23; Progressives, 14; People's Alliance, 10; Social Democrats, 6; Social Democratic Alliance, 4; Women's Alliance, 3. The executive power is exercised under the President by the Cabinet. The coalition Cabinet, as constituted in Jan. 1986, was as follows: Prime Minister: Steingrimur Hermannsson (Progress). Foreign Affairs: Matthias A. Mathiesen (Ind.). Finance: Thorsteinn Palsson (Ind.). Social Affairs: Alexander Stefansson (Progress). Fisheries: Halldor Asgrimsson (Progress). Agriculture, Justice and Church: Jon Helgason (Progress). Health and Social Security: Ragnhildur Helgadottir (Ind.). Commerce and Communications: Matthias Bjamason (Ind.). Education: Sverrir Hermannsson (Ind.). Energy and Industry: Albert Gudmundsson (Ind.). The ministers take responsibility for their acts. They can be impeached by the Alt»ngi, and in that case their cause will be decided by the Landsdomur, a special tribunal for parliamentary impeachments. Local Administration. Iceland is divided into 223 communes, of which 23 have the status of towns, while the 200 remaining communes make up 23 counties (syslur). The commune and county councils are elected by universal suffrage (men and women 18 years of age and over), in town and other urban communes by proportional representation, but in rural communes by simple majority. The county councils consist of one representative for each of the constituent communes, their purpose being the superintendence of local government within the county. Town councils and county councils come under the supervision of the Ministry of Social Affairs. For national government-there are 27 divisions, consisting of towns and counties, single or combined, with the exception of Keflavik Airport. In the capital the different branches of national government are independent (courts, police,

617

ICELAND

customs), while in other national government divisions they are the charge of one official, who, in the case of counties, presides over the county council as well. D E F E N C E . Iceland possesses neither an army nor a navy. Under the North Atlantic Treaty, US forces are stationed in Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force. Three armed fishery protection vessels are maintained by the Coastguard, with 1 patrol aircraft and 2 helicopters. Coastguard Service personnel in 1985 totalled about 120 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Iceland is a member of UN, EFTA, OECD, the Council of Europe, NATO and the Nordic Council. ECONOMY Budget. Total revenue and expenditure for calendar years (in 1 m. kr.): Revenue Expenditure

1980 3,929 3,790

1981 6,304 6,129

1982 10,328 9,479

1983 16,282 17,717

1984 22,088 20,474

1985 28,746 30,716

Main items of the Treasury accounts for 1985 (in 1 m. kr.): Direct taxes Indirect taxes Other

Revenue

3,698 23,646 1,403

Expenditure Administration, justice and police Foreign service Education, culture and State Church Health and social security Subsidies Agriculture Fisheries Manufacturing and energy Communications Other

2,752 282 5,064 13,168 987 1,457 943 1,219 2,529 2,216

The public debt oflceland was on 31 Dec. 1985,26,700m. kr. Currency. The Icelandic monetary units are the krona, pi. kronur and the eyrir, pi. aurar. There are 100 aurar to the krona. In March 1987, US$1 =kr. 39-23; £1 =kr. 62 -34. Note and coin circulation, 31 Dec. 1985, was 1,226m. kr. Banking. By Act of 29 March 1961 the Central Bank oflceland was established, which took over the central bank function up to that date exercised by the Landsbanki islands (The National Bank of Iceland, owned entirely by the State). Other banks are: Bunadarbanki Islands (the Agricultural Bank oflceland), a state bank, founded in 1930; Utvegsbanki Islands (the Fisheries Bank of Iceland), founded in 1930 as a joint-stock bank, which in 1957 became a state bank; isdnadarbanki islands (Industrial Bank oflceland Ltd), a joint-stock bank, established 1953, part of the shares being owned by the Government; Verzlunarbanki islands (Iceland Bank of Commerce Ltd), established in 1961; Samvinnubanki islands (The Icelandic Co-operative Bank), established in 1963; Alfryihibankinn (The People's Bank Ltd) established 1971. On 31 Dec. 1985 the accounts of the Central Bank balanced at 23,030m. kr. At the end of 1985 there were 42 savings banks with deposits amounting to 5,718m. kr. and total deposits of the commercial banks amounted to 31,619m. kr. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is obligatory. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The installed capacity of public electrical power plants at the end of 1985 totalled 921,260 kw., of which 752,000 kw. comprised hydro-electric plants. Total electricity production in public-owned plants in 1985 amounted to 3,837m. kwh.; in privately-owned plants, 15m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz.

618

ICELAND

Agriculture. Of the total area of Iceland, about six-sevenths is unproductive, but only about 1 • 1% is under cultivation, which is largely confined to hay, potatoes and turnips. In 1985 the total hay crop was 3,588,000 cu. metres; the crop of potatoes, 12,800 tonnes, and of turnips 500 tonnes. At the end of 1985 the livestock was as follows: Horses, 54,100; cattle, 72,900 (including 35,100 milch cows); sheep, 709,300; pigs, 2,600; poultry, 323,000. Fisheries. Fishing vessels at the end of 1985 numbered 832 with a gross tonnage of 112,594. Total catch in 1984,1,519,000 tonnes; 1985,1,669,000 tonnes. The Icelandic Government announced that the fishery limits off Iceland were extended from 12 to 50 nautical miles from Sept. 1972. An interim agreement for 2 years signed by the UK and Iceland in Nov. 1973 expired in Nov. 1975. On 15 July 1975 the Icelandic Government issued a decree that from 15 Oct. 1975 the fishery limits of Iceland were extended from 50 to 200 nautical miles. The Icelandic Government maintain that this extension is necessary to protect the fish stocks in Icelandic waters because the fishing industry is of vital importance to the national economy. C O M M E R C E . Total value of imports (c.i.f.) and exports (f.o.b.) in 1,000 kr.: Imports Exports

1981 7,484,684 6,536,214

1982 11,647,000 8,479,000

1983 20,605,978 18,632,993

1984 26,780,309 23,556,960

1985 37,600,289 33,749,626

Leading exports (in 1,000 kg and 1,000 kr.): Quantity 485,769 79,928 57,252

Marine products Aluminium Ferro-silicon

1984

Value 15,832,994 3,426,162 1,016,286

Quantity 694,243 70,600 56,845

1985

Value 25,226,194 3,339,704 1,219,588

Leading imports (in 1,000 tonnes and 1,000 kr.): Ships (number) Fuel oil Gas oils Jet fuel Cereals Animal feed Gasoline Motor vehicles (number) Fishing nets and other gear

1984 Value Quantity 1 403,616 116,031-5 756,739 205,399-7 1,561,751 56,952-0 477,599 13,082-6 168,025 66,007-2 449,196 94,241-6 782,053 8,853-0 1,314,063 1,192-0 204,417

1985 Quantity Value 2 446,198 99,985-7 791,396 255,399-6 2,570,087 65,764-0 709,363 12,944-0 218,003 59,796-6 500,813 993,762 91,711-9 7,167-0 1,268,753 1,400-7 342,182

Value of trade with principal countries for 3 years (in 1,000 kr.): 1983 Imports Exports (c.i.f.) (f.o.b.) 124,547 26,450 508,860 403,097 90,548 47,169 82,117 70,010 69,302 46,214 2,002,029 288,975 1,337 114,137 508,157 193,369 470,430 682,076 67,775 5,126

Austria Belgium Brazil Canada Czechoslovakia Denmark Faroe Islands Finland France German Dem. Rep. Germany, Fed. Rep. 2,426,220 of 4,417 Greece 11,632 Hungary 26,665 India 42,743 Ireland 15,709 Israel 499,429 Italy 807,752 Japan

1,812,324 188.803 13,606 6,057 16,274 587,596 521,783

1984 Imports Exports (elf) (f.o.b.) 160,417 10,259 593,617 446,097 164,283 34,725 147,507 60,059 103,609 118,270 2,451,579 685,112 3,932 136,395 629,311 456,543 680,880 869,278 93,387 2,921

1985 Imports Exports (elf) (f.o.b.) 204,353 32,970 897,870 422,846 185,555 50,073 135,572 102,292 97,819 74,240 3,410,894 950,284 18,151 281,830 951,339 680,324 1,080,935 ,346,481 92,822 25,984

3,377,204 7,610 25,809 30,417 82,311 29,483 726,689 1,220,598

4,984,664 19,157 14,685 40,371 94,784 34,801 978,963 1,631,711

2,558,308 220,653 12,296 10,484 20,466 538,088 883,921

2,810,308 291,544 23,223 28,442 12,498 611,296 1,672,187

ICELAND 1983

Netherlands Nigeria Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland USSR UK USA

Imports (c.i.f.) 1,510,917 302 1,642,559 49,365 490,611 193,250 1,717,205 220,340 2,133,474 1,810,767 1,622,300

Exports (f.o.b.) 282,373 888,441 131,801 36,543 1,142,564 610,292 218,809 1,056,507 1,384,598 2,207,225 5,266,130

619 1984

Imports (c.i.f.) 2,342,590 607 1,653,973 273,689 716,032 300,746 2,260,863 259,574 2,477,365 2,208,763 1,826,678

Exports (f.o.b.) 530,999 41,630 301,260 225,780 1,000,070 1,081,039 340,120 887,628 1,844,049 3,152,981 6,685,915

1985

Imports (c.i.f.) 3,354,926 1,054 2,854,835 66,295 866,629 371,097 2,994,644 417,820 3,016,431 3,591,482 2,557,771

Exports (f.o.b.) 485,754 27,853 715,865 247,996 1,909,337 1,308,908 384,590 1,082,207 2,271,996 6,214,810 9,118,359

Total trade between Iceland and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 72,721 102,714

1983 66,505 65,176

1984 86,104 64,242

1985 128,281 76,194

1986 173,140 73,640

T O U R I S M . There were 113,528 visitors to Iceland in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are no railways in Iceland. Iceland possesses between 11,000-12,000 km of high roads and country roads. Motor vehicles registered at the end of 1985 numbered 118,000, of which 103,000 were passenger cars and 12,700 trucks; there were also about 900 motor cycles. On 26 May 1968 Iceland changed from left-hand to right-hand traffic. Aviation. One large and some small companies maintain regular services between Reykjavik and various places in Iceland (the large one 1985: 244,027 passengers; 1,027 tonnes of mail; 2,232 tonnes of freight). The large company maintains regular services between Iceland and the UK, the Scandinavian countries, some other European countries and USA. In 1985 the company carried in scheduled foreign flights 485,696 passengers, 1,565 tonnes of mail and 4,577 tonnes of freight. Shipping. Total registered vessels, 963(186,002 GRT) on 31 Dec. 1985. Post and Broadcasting. At the end of 1985 the number of post offices was 139 and telephone and telegraph offices 109; .number of telephone subscribers, 102,700. The government station, Rikisutvarpid, broadcasts 1radioprogramme on long and medium-waves and on FM and a second programme on FM, as well as 2 local programmes for the capital region and the central north coast. Rikisutvarpid uses 200 transmitters and broadcasts 1 TV programme. Number of licenced receivers: radio, about 70,000; television, about 70,000. Cinemas (1982). There were 30 cinemas (39 cinema halls) with a seating capacity of about 12,000. Newspapers (1985). There are 6 daily newspapers, 5 in Reykjavik and one in Akureyri, with a combined circulation of about 100,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The lower courts of justice are those of the provincial magistrates (syslumenn) and town judges (bcejarfogetar). From these there is an appeal to the Supreme Court (hastirettur) in Reykjavik, which has 8 judges. Religion. The national church, and the only one endowed by the State, is Evangelical Lutheran. But there is complete religious liberty, and no civil disabilities are attached to those not of the national religion. The affairs of the national church are under the superintendence of a bishop. In 1985, 4,716 persons (2%) were Dissenters and 3,049 persons (1-3%) did not belong to any religious community. Education. Compulsory education for children began in 1907, and a university was

620

ICELAND

founded in Reykjavik in 1911. There is in Reykjavik a teachers' training college and a technical high school; various specialized institutions of learning and a number of second-level schools are scattered throughout the country. There are many part-time schools of cultural activities, including music. Compulsory education comprises 9 classes, 7-15 years of age. After completion of a facultative 9th class, attended by 93%-95% of the relevant age group, there is access to further schooling free of charge. Some 65% of the age groups 15-19 years old attend schools. Around 15%-20% of each age group go into handicraft apprenticeship. About 30% pass matriculation examination, generally at the age of 20. Approximately one third-level student out of every four goes abroad for studies, two-thirds of them to Scandinavia, the rest mainly to English- and Germanspeaking countries. Immatriculation in Iceland in autumn 1984: Preceding the first level, 4,208. First-level (lst-6th class) 25,058. Second-level first stage (7th-9th class) 11,803. Second-level second stage (4-year courses) 15,434. Third-level studies, 5,125. Social Welfare. The main body of the Icelandic social welfare legislation is consolidated in six main acts: (i) The social security legislation (a) health insurance, including sickness benefits; (b) social security pensions, mainly consisting of old age pension, disablement pension and widows' pension, and also children's pension; (c) employment imuries insurance. (iij The unemployment insurance legislation, where daily allowances are paid to those who have met certain conditions. (iii) The subsistence legislation. This is controlled by municipal government, and social assistance is granted under special circumstances, when payments from other sources are not sufficient. (iv) The tax legislation. In 1975 family allowances were abolished and children's support included in the tax legislation, according to which a certain amount for each child in a family is subtracted from income taxes or paid out to the family. (v) The rehabilitation legislation. (vi) Child andjuvenile guidance. Health insurance covers the entire population. Citizenship is not demanded and there is no waiting period. Most hospitals are both municipally and state run, a few solely state run and all offer free medical help. Medical treatment out of hospitals is partly paid by the patient, the same applies to medicines, except medicines of lifelong necessary use, which are paid in full by the health insurance. Dental care is free for the age groups 6-15, but is paid 75% for those five years or younger and the age group 16 but 50% for old age and disabled pensioners. Sickness benefits are paid to those who lose income because of periodical illness. The daily amount is fixed and paid from the 11th day of illness. The pension system is composed of the public social security system and some 90 private pension funds. The social security system pays basic old age and disablement pensions of a fixed amount regardless of past or present income, as well as supplementary pensions to individuals with low present income. The pensions are index-linked, i.e. are changed in line with changes in wage and salary rates in the labour market. The private pension funds pay pensions that depend on past payments of premiums that are a fixed proportion of earnings. The payment of pension fund premiums is compulsory for all wage and salary earners. "Die pensions paid by the funds differ considerably between the individual funds, but are generally indexlinked. In the public social security system, entitlement to old age and disablement pensions at the full rates is subject to the condition that the beneficiary has been resident in Iceland for 40 years at the age period of 16-67. For shorter period of residence, the benefits are reduced proportionally. Entitled to old age pension are all those who are 67 years old, and have been residents in Iceland for 3 years of the age period of 16-67. Entitled to disablement pension are those who have lost 75% of their working capacity and have been residents in Iceland for 3 years before application or have had full working capacity at the time when they became

ICELAND

621

residents. Old age and disablement pension are of equally high amount, in the year 1986 the total sum was 74,028 kr. for an individual. Married pensioners are paid 90% of two individuals' pensions. In addition to the basic amount, supplementary allowances are paid according to social circumstances and income possibilities. Widows' pensions are the same amount as old age and disablement pension, provided the applicant is over 60 when she becomes widowed. Women at the age 50-60 get reduced pension. Women under 50 are not entitled to widows' pensions. The employment injuries insurance covers medical care, daily allowances, disablement pension and survivors' pension and is applicable to practically all employees. All benefits within the above-mentioned laws shall go up in step with general wages within 6 months from their increase. Social assistance is primarily municipal and granted in cases outside the social security legislation. Domestic assistance to old people and disabled is granted within this legislation, besides other services. Child and juvenile guidance is performed by chosen committees according to special laws, such as home guidance and family assistance. In cases of parents' disablement the committees take overthe guidance of the children involved. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Iceland in Great Britain (1 Eaton Terrace, London, SW1W 8E Y) Ambassador: Olafur Egilsson (accredited 28 Nov. 1986). Of Great Britain in Iceland (Laufasvegur 49,101 Reykjavik) Ambassador and Consul-General: Mark Senger Chatman, CVO. Of Iceland in the USA (2022 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ingvi S. Ingvarson. Of the USA in Iceland (Laufasvegur 21,101 Reykjavik) Ambassador: L. Nicholas Ruwe. Of Iceland to the United Nations Ambassador: Hans G. Andersen. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Icelandic Statistical Office, Hagstofa Islands (Reykjavik) was founded in 1914. Director: Hallgrimur Snorrason. Its main publications are: Statistical Abstract, (latest issue 1984) Hagskyrslur islands. Statistics of Iceland (from 1912) Hagtidindi (Statistical Journal) (from 1916) Economic Statistics. Central Bank of Iceland (quarterly from 1980) Icelandic Currency Reform January 1st 1981. Central Bank of Iceland, 1980 Heilbrigdisskyrslur. Public Health in Iceland (latest issue for 1977; published 1980) Cleasby, R., An Icelandic-English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1957 Foss, H. (ed.), Directory of Iceland. Annual. Reykjavik, 1907-40,1948 ff. Hermannsson, Halldor, Islandica. An annual relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Ithaca (from 1908) Hood, J. C. F., Icelandic Church Saga. London, 1946 Horton, J. J., Iceland. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 Leaf, H., Iceland Yesterday and Today. London, 1949 Magnusson, S. A., Northern Sphinx: Iceland and the Icelanders from the Settlement to the Present. London, 1977 Nordal, J., and Kristinsson, V. (eds), Iceland 874-1974. Central Board of Iceland, Reykjavik, 1975 Porflarson, Matthias, The Althing, Iceland's Thousand-Year-Old Parliament, 930-1930. Reykjavik, 1930 t>orsteinsson, fcorsteinn, Iceland, 1946: A Handbook Published on the 60th Anniversary of the National Bank of Iceland. 4th ed. Reykjavik, 1946 Zoega, G. T., Islensk-ensk (and Ensk-islensk) ordabok. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Reykjavik, 1932-51 National Library: LandsbokasafhiS, Reykjavik, Librarian: Dr Finnbogi Gudmundsson.

INDIA

Capital: New Delhi Population: 748m. (1984) GDPper capita: US$260 (1983)

Bharat H I S T O R Y . The Indus civilization was fully developed by c. 2500 B.C., and collapsed c. 1750 B.C. An Aryan civilization spread from the west as far as the Ganges valley by 500 B.C.; separate kingdoms Wer6 established and many of these were united under the Mauryan dynasty established by Chandragupta in c. 320 B.C. The Mauryan Empire was succeeded by numerous small kingdoms. The Gupta dynasty (A.D. 320-600) was followed by the first Arabic invasions of the north-west. Moslem, Hindu and Buddhist states developed together with frequent conflict until the establishment of the Mogul dynasty in 1526. The first settlements by the East India Company were made after 1600 and the company established a formal system of government for Bengal in 1700. During the decline of the Moguls frequent wars between the Company, the French and the native princes led to the Company's being brought under British Government control in 1784; the first Governor-General of India was appointed in 1786. The powers of the Company were abolished by the India Act, 1858, and its functions and forces transferred to the British Crown. Representative government was introduced in 1909, and the first parliament in 1919. The separate dominions of India and Pakistan became independent within the Commonwealth in 1947 and India became a republic in 1950. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . India is bounded north-west by Pakistan, north by China, Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan, east by Burma, south-east, south and south west by the Indian ocean. The far eastecn states and territories are almost separated from the rest by Bangladesh as it extends northwards from the Bay of Bengal. The area of the Indian Union (excluding the Pakistan and China-occupied parts ofJammu and Kashmir) is 3,166,829 sq. km. Its population according to the 1981 census (preliminary figures) was 683,810,051 (excluding the occupied area of Jammu and Kashmir); this represents an increase of 24-8% since 1971. Sex ratio was 940 females per 1,000 males (929 in 1971); density of population, 221 per sq. km. About 23-7% of the population was urban in 1981 (in Maharashtra, 35%; in Himachal Pradesh, 7-7%). Many births and deaths go unregistered. Data from certain areas of better registration and field studies suggest that the average annual birth rate for the decade 1971 -80 was about 36 per 1,000 population, the death rate 14• 8 per 1,000. In 1980 (estimate) the age-group 0-14 years represented 39 • 7% of the population and only 5 • 5% were over 60. In 1981 expectation of life for men was 52 years, for women 50. Marriages and divorces are not registered. The minimum age for a civil marriage is 18 for women and 21 for men; for a sacramental marriage, 14 for girls and 18 for youths. The main details of the census of 1 March 1971 and of 1 March 1981 are: Land area in sq. km (1981)

Name of State Slates Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir'

276,814 78,523 173,876 195,984 44,222 55,673 101,283 1

Population 1971 1981 43,502,708 14,625,152 56,353,369 26,697,475 10,036,808 3,460,434 4,617,000

Excludes the Pakistan-occupied area.

622

53,403,619 19,902,826 69,823,154 33,960,905 12,850,902 4,237,569 5,981,600

INDIA Land area in sq. km (1981) 191,773 38,864 442,841 307,762 22,356 22,489 16,527 155,782 50,362 342,214 7,299 130,069 10,477 294,413 87,853

Name of State Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tnpura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands „ A r u n a c h a l Pradesh 1 Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Delhi Goa, Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Mizoram' Pondicherry

623 Population

1971 29,299,014 21,347,375 41,654,119 50,412,235 1,072,753 1,011,699 516,449 21,944,615 13,551,060 25,765,806 41,199,168 1,556,342 88,341,144 44,312,011

1981 37,043,451 25,403,217 52,131,717 62,693,898 1,433,691 1,327,824 773,281 26,272,054 16,669,755 34,102,912 315,682 48,297,456 2,060,189 110,858,019 54,485,560

115,133 467,511 257,251 74,170 4,065,698 857,771 31,810 332,390 471,707

188,254 628^)50 450,061 103,677 6,196,414 1,082,117 40,237 487,774 604,136

3,166,829 547,949,809 Achieved statehood 1986.

683,810,051

8,293 83,578 114 491 1,485 3,813 32 21,087 480

Grand total 1

Greatest density occurs in Delhi (4,178 per sq. km), Chandigarh (3,948), Lakshadweep (1,257) and Pondicherry (1,228). The lowest occurs in Arunachal Pradesh (7). There were(1981)353,347,249 males and 330,462,802 females. In 1981, 502m. were rural (c. 76%) and 156m. were urban. Cities and Urban Agglomerations (with states in brackets) having more than 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 p o p u l a t i o n at t h e 1981 census were(l,000): Agra (U. P.) 770 Ahmedabad (Guj.) 2,515 Ajmer (Raj.) 374 Aligarh(U.P.) 320 642 Allahabad (U.P.) Amravati (Mah.) 261 Amritsar (Pun.) 589 Asansol(W.B.) 365 316 Aurangabad (Mah.) 2,914 Bangalore (Kar ) Bareilly(U.P) 438 Belgaum (Kar.) 300 Bhavnagar(Guj.) 308 672 Bhopal (M.P) Bikaner (Raj.) 280 Bokaro Steel City (Bih.) 261 Bombay (Mah.) 8,227 Calcutta (W.B.) 9,166 Calicut (Ker.) 546 Chandigarh (Ch.) 421 Cochin (Ker.) 686 Coimbatore (T N.) 917 Cuttack (Ori.) 326 294 DehraDun(U.P.) Delhi 5,714 677 Dhanbad (Bih.) Durgapur(W.B.) 306 Durg-Bhilainagar (M.P.) 490

Erode (T.N.) 275 Fandabad agglomeration 327 Ghaziabad(U.P.) 292 Gorakhpur(U.P) 306 Guntur(A.P) 367 Gwalior(M.P) 560 Hubli-Dharwar (Kar;1 526 Hyderabad (A.P) 2,528 Indore(M.P) 827 Jabalpur (M.P.) 758 Jaipur (Raj.) 1,005 Jalandhar (Pun.) 406 Jamnagar (Guj.) 317 Jamshedpur (Bih.) 670 Jhansi(U.P.) 281 494 Jodhpur(Raj.) Kanpur(U.P.) 1,688 Kolhapur(Mah.) 351 Kotah (Raj.) 347 1,007 Lucknow(U,P.) Ludhiana (Pun.) 606 Madras (TN.) 4,277 904 Madurai (T.N.) 306 Mangalore (Kar.) Meerut(U.P.) 538 Moradabad (U.P.) 348 Mysore (Kar.) 476 Nagpur (Mah.) 1,298 1 Estimate.

Nasik(Mah.) Patna(Bih.) Pondicherry Pune (Mah.) Raipur (M.P.) Raiahmundry (A.P.) Rajkot(Guj.) Ranchi (Bih.) Rourkela (Ori.) Saharanpur(U.P.) Salem (TN.) Sangli (Mah.) Sholapur (Mah.) Srinagar (J. & K.) Surat (Guj.) Thana (Mah.) Tiruchirapalli (T.N.) Tirunelveli(T.N.) Trivandrum (Ker.) Tuticorin (T.N.) Ujjain (M.P.) Ulhasnagar (Mah.) Vadodara (Guj.) Varanasi (U.P.) Vijayawada (A.P.) Visakhapatnam (A.P.) Warangal(A.P.)

429 916 251 1,685 339 268 444 501 321 294 515 269 514 520' 913 389 608 324 520 251 282 648 744 794 545 594 336

624

INDIA

Report of the Officials of the Government of India and the People's Republic of China on the Boundary Question. New Delhi, Ministry of External Affairs, 1961 Census of India: Reports and Papers, Decennial Series. (Government of India.) Annual Report on the Working of Indian Migration. Government of India, from 1956 Report ofthe Commissionerfor Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Government of India. Annual Public Health. Report ofthe Public Health Commission with the Government ofIndia. Annual Agarwala, S. N., India's Population Problems. New York, 1973

C L I M A T E . India has a variety of climatic sub-divisions. In general, there are four seasons. The cool one lasts from Dec. to March, the hot season is in April and May, the rainy season is June to Sept., followed by a further dry season till Nov. Rainifall, however, varies considerably, from 4 " (100 mm) in the N.W. desert to over 400" (10,000 mm) in parts of Assam. Range of temperature and rainfall: New Delhi. Jan. 57'F (13-9°C), July 88°F (31 • PC). Annual rainfall 26" (640 mm). Bombay. Jan. 75°F (23-9°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,809 mm). Calcutta. Jan. 67°F(19-4°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 64" (1,600 mm). Cherrapunii. Jan. 53°F (11 -7°C), July 68°F (20°C). Annual rainfall 432" (10,798 mm). Cochin. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 117" (2,929 mm). Daijeeling. Jan. 41°F(5°Q, July 62°F(16-7°C). Annual rainfall 121" (3,035 mm). Hyderabad. Jan. 72°F(22 2°C), July 80°F (26-7°Q. Annual rainfall 30" (752 mm). Madras. Jan. 76°F (24-4°Q, July 87°F (30-6°C). Annual rainfall 51" (1,270 mm). Patna. Jan. 63°F (17-2°C), July 90°F(32-2°Q. Annual rainfall 46" (1,150 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 26 Jan. 1950 India became a sovereign democratic republic. India's relations with the British Commonwealth of Nations were defined at the London conference of Prime Ministers on 27 April 1949. Unanimous agreement was reached to the effect that the Republic of India remains a full member of the Commonwealth and accepts the Queen as 'the symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and, as such, the head of the Commonwealth'. This agreement was ratified by the Constituent Assembly of India on 17 May 1949. The constitution was passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 Nov. 1949 and came into force on 26 Jan. 1950. It has since been amended 44 times. India is a Union of States and comprises 24 States and 7 Union territories. Each State is administered by a Governor appointed by the President for a term of 5 years while each Union territory is administered by the President through an administrator appointed by him. The capital is New Delhi. Presidency. The head of the Union is the President in whom all executive power is vested, to be exercised on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament. He is elected by an electoral college consisting of all the elected members of Parliament and of the various state legislative assemblies. He holds office for 5 years and is eligible for re-election. He must be an Indian citizen at least 35 years old and eligible for election to the Lower House. He can be removed from ofTice by impeachment for violation ofthe constitution. There is also a Vice-President who is ex-officio chairman of the Upper House of Parliament. Central Legislature. The Parliament for the Union consists of the President, the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha). The Council of States, or the Upper House, consists of not more than 250 members; in 1986 there were 232 elected members and 12 members nominated by the President. The election to this house is indirect; the representatives of each State are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of that State. The Council of States is a permanent body not liable to dissolution, but one-third of the members retire every second year. TTie House of the People, or the Lower House, consists of 544 members, 525 directly elected on the basis of adult suffrage from territorial constituencies in the States, and 17 members to represent the Union

INDIA

625

territories, chosen in such manner as the Parliament may by law provide; in Dec. 1986 there were 542 elected members and 2 members nominated by the President. The House of the People unless sooner dissolved continues for a period of 5 years from the date appointed for its first meeting; in emergency, Parliament can extend the term by 1 year. State Legislatures. For every State there is a legislature which consists of the Governor, and (a) 2 Houses, a Legislative Assembly and a Legislative Council, in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Kamataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, and (b) 1 House, a Legislative Assembly, in the other States. Every Legislative Assembly, unless sooner dissolved, continues for 5 years from the date appointed for its first meeting. In emergency the term can be extended by 1 year. Every State Legislative Council is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution, but one-third of the members retire every year. Parliament can, however, abolish an existing Legislative Council or create a new one, if the proposal is supported by a resolution of the Legislative Assembly concerned. Legislative Councils have one-third of the total membership of the Assemblies but not less than 40 members, of whom one-third are elected by local authorities, one-third by members of the Assembly, one-twelfth by state university graduates and one-twelfth by teachers of secondary school upwards; the rest are named by the Governor. Legislative Assemblies have between 60 and 500 directly elected members. Legislation. The various subjects of legislation are enumerated in three lists in the seventh schedule to the constitution. List I, the Union List, consists of 97 subjects (including defence, foreign affairs, communications, currency and coinage, banking and customs) with respect to which the Union Parliament has exclusive power to make laws. The State legislature has exclusive power to make laws with respect to the 66 subjects in list II, the State List; these include police and public order, agriculture and irrigation, education, public health and local government. The powers to make laws with respect to the 47 subjects (including economic and social planning, legal questions and labour and price control) in list III, the Concurrent List, are held by both Union and State governments, though the former prevails. But Parliament may legislate with respect to any subject in the State List in circumstances when the subject assumes national importance or during emergencies. Other provisions deal with the administrative relations between the Union and the States, interstate trade and commerce, distribution of revenues between the States and the Union, official language, etc. Fundamental Rights. Two chapters of the constitution deal with fundamental rights and 'Directive Principles of State Policy'. 'Untouchability' is abolished, and its practice in any form is punishable. The fundamental rights can be enforced through the ordinary courts of law and through the Supreme Court of the Union. The directive principles cannot be enforced through the courts of law; they are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of the country. Citizenship. Under the Constitution, every person who was on the 26 Jan. 1950, domiciled in India and (a) was bom in India or (b) either of whose parents was born in India or (c) who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less than 5 years immediately preceding that date became a citizen of India. Special provision is made for migrants from Pakistan and for Indians resident abroad. Under the Citizenship Act, 1955, which supplemented the provisions of the Constitution, Indian citizenship is acquired by birth, by descent, by registration and by naturalization. The Act also provides for loss of citizenship by renunciation, termination and deprivation. The right to vote is granted to every person who is a citizen of India and who is not less than 21 years of age on a fixed date and is not otherwise disqualified. Parliament. Parliament and the state legislatures are organized according to the following schedule (figures show distribution of seats in Jan. 1987):

626

INDIA

States: Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Jammu and Kashmir Union Territories: Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Delhi Goa, Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Pondicherry Nominated by the President under Article 80(1) (a) of the Constitution Total

Parliament House of the Council of People States (LokSabha) (RajyaSabha)

State Legislatures Legislative Legislative Assemblies Councils (Vidhan (Vidhan Sabhas) Parishads)

1 34 16 4

294 30 126 324 182 90 68 224 140 320 288 60 60 30 60 147 117 200 32 234 60 425 294 76J

1 1 1 7 2 1 1

3

61

1

30

-

12

544'

244

42 2 14 54 26 10 4 28 20 40 48 2 2 1 1 21 13 25 1 39 2 85 42 6

18 1» 7 22 11

5 3 12 9 16 19 1 1 1 1 10 7 10 1 18

63 90 78

108 364

30

4,002

375

' Includes 2 nominated members to represent Anglo-Indians. 1 Excludes 25 seats for Pakistan-occupied areas of the State which are in abeyance. 1 4 Nominated by the President. Excludes seats for the Pakistan-occupied areas.

The number of seats allotted to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House of the People is 79 and 40respectively.Out of the 3,997 seats allotted to the Legislative Assemblies, 557 are reserved for scheduled castes and 315 for scheduled tribes. In Dec. 1986 the composition of the House of the People was: Indira Congress 412; Telugu Desam, 30; Communist Party (Marxist) 22; All India Anna DMK, 11 ; Janata, 13; Communist Party, 6; Congress (S), 4; National Conference (F), 3; Akali Dal, 7; Asom Gana Parishad, 7; Revolutionary Socialist Party, 3; Independents and others, 22; nominated, 2; vacant, 2. The Council of States was composed as follows: Indira Congress 150; CPI (Marxist) 13; All-India Anna DMK 11 ; Janata, 10; Bharatiya Janata, 9; Lok Dal, 8 ; CPI, 4; Telugu Desam, 5; DMK, 3; Congress (S), 2; Akali Dal, 2; Forward Bloc, 2; Others, 5; Independent 5; Nominated 7; Vacant 1. Nationalflag:Three horizontal stripes of saffron (orange), white and green, with the wheel of Asoka in the centre in blue. National anthem: Jana-gana-mana (words by Rabindranath Tagore).

INDIA

627

Indian Independence Act, 1947. (Ch. 30.) London, 1947 The Constitution oflndia (Modifiedup to 15 April 1967). Delhi, 1967 Appadorai, A., Indian Political Thinking in the Twentieth Century: From Naoroji to Nehru. OUP, 1971 .—Documents on Political Thought in Modern India. OUP, 1974 Austin, G„ The Indian Constitution. OUP, 1972 Mansergh, N„ ed. The Transfer of Power 1942-47.5 vols. HMSO, 1970-75 Pylee, M. V., Constitutional Government in India. 2nded. Bombay, 1965 Rao, K. V., Parliamentary Democracy ofIndia. 2nded. Calcutta, 1965 Seervali, H. M., Constitutional Law of India. Bombay, 1967

Language. The Constitution provides that the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in the Devanagari script. It was originally provided that English should continue to be used for all official purposes until 1965. But the Official Languages Act 1963 provides that, after the expiry of this period of 15 years from the coming into force of the Constitution, English might continue to be used, in addition to Hindi, for all official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before that day, and for the transaction of business in Parliament. According to the Official Languages (Use for official purposes of the Union) Rules 1976, an employee may record in Hindi or in English without being required to furnish a translation thereof in the other language and no employee possessing a working knowledge of Hindi may ask for an English translation of any document in Hindi except in the case of legal or technical documents. The following 15 languages are included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu. There are numerous mother tongues grouped under each language. Hindi, Bengali, Telugu and Marathi languages (including mother tongues grouped under each) are spoken by 153-7m., 44.5m., 44-7m. and 41-7m. of the population respectively. Ferozsons English-Urdu, Urdu-English Dictionary. 2 vols. 4th ed. Lahore, 1961 Fallon, S.W., A New English-Hindustani Dictionary. Lahore, 1941 Grierson, Sir G. A., Linguistic Survey oflndia. 11 vols, (in 19 parts). Delhi, 1903-28 Mitra, S. C., Student's Bengali-English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Calcutta, 1923 Scholberg, H. C., Concise Grammar of the Hindi Language. 3rded. London, 1955 University of Madras, Tamil Lexicon. 7 vols. Madras, 1924-39 Vyas, V. G., and Pat el, S. G., Standard English-Gujarati Dictionary. 2 vols. Bombay, 1923

Government. President of the Republic: Zail Singh (sworn in July 1982). Vice-President: R. Venkataraman (took office 31 Aug. 1984). There is a Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President of the Republic in the exercise of his functions; this comprises Ministers who are members of the Cabinet and Ministers of State who are not. A Minister who for any period of 6 consecutive months is not a member of either House of Parliament ceases to be a Ministerat the expiration of that period. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President; other Ministers are appointed by the President on the Prime Minister's advice. The salary of each Minister is Rs 27,000 per annum, and that of each Deputy Minister is Rs 21,000 per annum. Each Minister is entitled to the free use of a furnished residence and a chauffeur-driven car throughout his term of office. A Cabinet Minister has a sumptuary allowance of Rs 1,000 per month, Ministers of State, Rs 500 and Deputy Ministers, Rs 300. At the administrative head of each Ministry is a Secretary of the Government. Following was the composition of the Cabinet in Feb. 1987: Prime Minister: Rajiv Gandhi. Portfolios held by the Prime Minister assisted by Ministers of State: Planning, Science and Technology, Finance, Atomic Energy and Space. Ministers: External Affairs: K. P. S. Menon. Industry;J. Vengal Rao.

628

INDIA

Urban Development: Mohsinha Kidwai. Law and Justice: Asoke Sen. Water Resources. B. Shankaranand. Agriculture and Rural Development: G. S. Dhillon. Parliamentary Affairs, Food and Civil Supplies: H. K. L. Bhagat. Steel and Mines: K. C. Pant. Health and Human Resources Development: P. V. Narasimha Rao. Home: Buta Singh. Energy: Vasant Sathe. Defence: Vishwanath Pratap Singh. Programme Implementation: A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhry. Commerce: P. Shivshankar. Communications: Aijun Singh. Environment and Forests: Bhajan Lai. Tourism: Mufti Mohd Sayeed. There were also 8 Ministers of State with independent charge: Labour: P. A. Sangma. Welfare: R. K. Bajpai. Textiles: R. N. Mirdha. Information and Broadcasting: Ajit Panja. Railways: Madhavrao Scindia. Civil Aviation: Jagdish Tytler. Surface Transport: Rajesh Pilot. Petroleum and Natural Gas: Brahm Dutt. There were 29 other Ministers of State and 3 Deputy Ministers. Local Government. There were in 1980,40 municipal corporations, 1,274 municipalities, 815 town area and notified area committees and 62 cantonment boards. The municipal bodies have the care of the roads, water supply, drainage, sanitation, medical relief, vaccination and education. Their main sources of revenue are taxes on the annual rental value of land and buildings, octroi and terminal, vehicle and other taxes. The municipal councils enact their own bye-laws and frame their budgets, which in the case of municipal bodies other than corporations generally require the sanction of the State government. All municipal councils are elected on the principle of adult franchise. For rural areas there is a 3-tier system of panchayati raj at village, block and district level, although the 3-tier structure may undergo some changes in State legislation to suit local conditions. All panchayati raj bodies are organically linked, and representation is given to special interests. Elected directly by and from among villagers, the panchayats are responsible for agricultural production, rural industries, medical relief, maternity and child welfare, common grazing grounds, village roads, tanks and wells, and maintenance of sanitation. In some places they also look after primary education, maintenance of village records and collection of land revenue. They have their own powers of taxation. There are some judicial panchayats or village courts. Panchayati raj now cover all the States with the exception of Mizoram, Nagaland and Meghalaya, although Nagaland has area, range and tribal councils. They exist in all the Union Territories except Lakshadweep. The powers and responsibilities of panchayati raj institutions are derived from State Legislatures, and from the executive orders of State governments. NAGARLOK (Municipal Affairs Quarterly). Quarterly. Institute of Public Administration. Delhi Proceedings of the / 3th Meeting of the Central Council ofLocal SelfGovernment. Delhi, 1970 Report of the Committee on Budgetary Reforms in Municipal Administration. Delhi, 1974 State Machinery for Municipal Supervision. Institute of Public Administration. Delhi, 1970 Statistical Abstract of India. Annual. Delhi.

D E F E N C E . The Supreme Command of the Armed Forces vests in the President of the Indian Republic. Policy is decided at different levels by a number of committees, including the Political Affairs Committee presided over by the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister's Committee. Administrative and operational control rests in the respective Service Headquarters, under the control of the Ministry of Defence. The Ministry of Defence is the central agency for formulating defence policy and for co-ordinating the work of the three services. Among the organizations directly

INDIA

629

administered by the Ministry are the Research and Development Organization, the Production Organization, the National Defence College, the National Cadet Corps and the Directorate-General of Armed Forces Medical Services. The Research and Development Organization (headed by the Scientific Adviser to the Minister) has under it about 30 research establishments. The Production Organization controls 8 public-sector undertakings and 28 ordnance and 2 departmental factories. The National Defence College, New Delhi, was established in 1960 on the pattern of the Imperial Defence College (UK): the 1 -year course is for officers of the rank of brigadier or equivalent and for senior civil servants. The Defence Services Staff College, Wellington, trains officers of the three Services for higher command for staffappointments. There is an Armed Forces Medical College at Pune. The National Defence Academy, Khadakvasla, gives a 3-year basic training course to officer cadets of the three Services prior to advanced training at the respective Service establishments. Army. The Army Headquarters functioning directly under the Chief of the Army StafT is divided into the following main branches: General Staff Branch; Adjutant General's Branch; Quartermaster-General's Branch; Master-General of Ordnance Branch; Engineer-in-Chief s Branch; Military Secretary's Branch. The Army is organized into 4 commands-eastern, central, western and southem-each divided into areas, which in turn are subdivided into sub-areas. Recruitment of permanent commissioned officers is through the Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun. It conducts courses for ex-National Defence Academy, National Cadet Corps and direct-entry cadets, and for serving personnel and technical graduates. The Territorial Army came into being in Sept. 1949, its role being to: (1) relieve the regular Army of static duties and, if required, support civil power; (2) provide anti-aircraft units, and (3) if and when called upon, provide units for the regular Army. The Territorial Army is composed of practically all arms of the Services. The authorized strength of the Army is 11m., that of the Territorial Army, 50,000. There are 2 armoured; 1 mechanized, 19 infantry and 10 mountain divisions, 7 independent armoured brigades, 10 independent infantry, 8 independent artillery brigades, 1 parachute brigade, 1 mountain brigade and 3 independent engineer brigades. Navy. Since 26 Jan. 1950 the former Royal Indian Navy, which traced its history in an unbroken line from the foundation in 1613 of the East India Company's Marine, has been known as 'Indian Navy', and the ships referred to as 'INS' instead of 'HMIS'. There are 3 commands: Eastern, Western and Southern; and 2 fleets: Eastern and Western. Principal ships of the Indian Navy: Completed

Name

1959

Virat (ex-Hermes)

1961

Vikrant(ex-Hercules)

Standard displacemenl Tons

Aircraft

Aircraft Carriers 1

23,900 5 Sea Harriers; 9 Sea King helicopters 16,000 22capacity

Principal armament

Shaft horse- Speed power Knots

2 quadruple 78,000 28 0 Seacat missile launchers 440mm.AA 40,000 24-5

•The cruiser Delhi (ex-Achilles) completed in 1933, was scrapped in 1979; and the cruiser Mysore (ex-Nigeria), completed in 1940, was deleted from the List in 1986.

The fleet also includes 1 new German (FR)-built submarine, 9 ex-Soviet submarines, 4 new Soviet-built guided missile armed destroyers, 2 new 'stretched', or improved 'Leander' type missile frigates and 6 broad-beamed 'Leander' class general purpose frigates (all eight built in India), 2 anti-submarine frigates and 3 anti-aircraft frigates (all five built in Great Britain), 1 old ex-British frigate, 10

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Soviet-built escorts, 3 ex-Soviet corvettes, 14 fast missile boats, 7 fast attack craft, 6 ex-Soviet ocean minesweepers, 10 inshore minesweepers, 1 patrol craft, 8 landing ships, 4 landing craft, 9 survey ships, 1 repair ship, 1 submarine parent ship, 1 submarine rescue ship, 6 oilers, 22 service craft and 6 tugs. New construction includes 1 Federal German-built patrol submarine, 4 indigenously built similar submarines, 4 Soviet built larger submarines, 3 more Soviet destroyers, 1 more frigate and 4 corvettes. India plans to acquire an aircraft carrier to replace Vikrant, see above. The major training establishments of the Navy include INS Venduruthy at Cochin (Basic and Divisional, Gunnery, Torpedo and Anti-Submarine, Navigation and Direction, Communication), INS Vaisura at Jamnagar (Electrical), INS Shivaji at Lonavla (Engineering), INS Hansa at Goa (Aviation), INS Hamla at Bombay (Supply and Secretariat) and INS Satyavahana (Submarine) and INS Circars (Boys') at Vishakhapatnam. The Fleet Requirement Unit of the Naval Aviation Station, INAS Garuda, is at Cochin. The 100-plus aircraft include Sea Harriers for the aircraft carriers, Sea Hawk fighters, Alize anti-submarine aircraft and Sea King anti-submarine' helicopters acquired for the aircraft carriers. Naval personnel in 1987 exceeded 47,000 officers and ratings, including the Naval Air Arm. The Coast Guard was constituted as an independent para-military service by 1978 Act of Parliament. It comprised the frigates Kirpan and Kuthar and five patrol craft all transferred from the Indian Navy and 2 larger patrol vessels custombuilt. It has since been augmented by new specifically built ships and aircraft, including 4 1,040-ton offshore patrol vessels with aircraft and hangar, 5 inshore protection craft, 4 fast patrol craft, 8 South Korean-built launches and 7 Japanese-designed vedettes (6 built indigenously). There are 11 aircraft. The Coast Guard is administered by a Director-General (Vice-Admiral) and a Deputy Director-General (Commodore). It functions under the Defence Ministry but is funded by the Revenue Department. Personnel comprised 80 officers and 400 ratings. Air Force. The Indian Air Force Act was passed in 1932, and the first flight was formed in 1933. The Air Headquarters, under the Chief of Air Staff, consists of 4 main branches, viz., Air Staff, Administration, Policy and Plans, and Maintenance. Units of the IAF are organized into 5 operational commands-Western at Delhi, Central at Allahabad, Eastern at Shillong, Southern at Trivandrum and South-Western at Jodhpur. Training Command HQ is at Bangalore, Maintenance Command at Nagpur. Nominal strength in 1986 was 13,000 personnel and 1,400 aircraft of all types, in 45 squadrons of fixed-wing aircraft, 14 helicopter squadrons and about 30 squadrons of 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missiles, and closerange missiles such as 'Gainful' and Tigercat. Air defence units include 2 squadrons of MiG-23 variable-geometry interceptors, 18 squadrons of MiG-21s and 2 of Mirage 2000s. Initial delivery of MiG-21s from the Soviet Union was followed by large-scale licence production in India. There are 2 squadrons of MiG-27s, 1 of Indian-designed Maruts, 4 of Ajeet (Gust Mk 2) fighters, 3 of Canberras, 3 of Jaguars, 1 of Hunter F56s, 3 of MiG-23 supersonic fighter-bombers and one of MiG-25 reconnaissance aircraft plus a MÌG-25U two seat trainer. Canberra and Hunter squadrons are being re-equipped with 124 Jaguars, assembled in India, to create a force of 5 Jaguar squadrons. Some of those flying MiG-21s will re-equip with MiG-27s and MiG-29s; 49 Mirage 2000s from France are being delivered. The large transport force includes An-12s, An-32s, Il-76s, HS 748s, 2 Boeing 737s, and smaller aircraft and helicopters for VIP and other duties. Otters will be replaced with Domier 228s. Helicopter units have Mi-8s and Mi-17s (6 squadrons), Mi-26s, Chetaks (Aerospatiale Alouette Ills) and licence-built Cheetahs (Aerospatiale Lamas), plus Mi-24 gunships; main training types are the Hindustan HPT-32 and Kiran, Polish built TS-11 Iskra, Hunter T.66, MÌG-21UT1 and MÌG-23U.

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Primary flying training is provided at the Elementary Flying School, Bidar, and advanced flying training at the Air Force Academy, Dundigal, Hyderabad. There is a Navigation and Signals School at Begumpet. The IAF Technical College, Jalahalli, imparts technical training, while the IAF Administrative College, Coimbatore, trains officers of the ground duty branch. There are also land-air warfare, flying instructors' and medical schools. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. India is a member of the UN, the Commonwealth and the Colombo Plan. External Debt. At the end of Dec. 1984 India's external public debt was estimated at US$22,500m. Treaties. India pursues a general policy of non-alignment; the exception is a Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR, 1971; the parties agreed to mutual support short of force in the event of either being attacked by a third party. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth plan (1980-85) envisaged total investment of Rs 1,587,100m., of which Rs 975,000m. was for the public sector. The seventh plan (1985-89) aims at an annual 5:2% growth. The priority sections are power generation, irrigation and hydro carbons. Total planned outlay, Rs 3,200,000m., 56% from the public sector. Annual plan outlay (1986-87) Rs 390,520m. Ministry of Agriculture. Serving the Small Farmer: Policy Choices in Indian Agricultural Development. 1975 Dutt, A. K. (ed.), India: Resources, Potentialities and Planning. Rev. ed. D u b u q u e , India, 1973 Singh, T., India's Development Experience. London, 1975

Budget. Revenue and expenditure (on revenue account) of the central government1 for years ending 31 March, in crores of rupees: 1984-852 24,930 28,300

Revenue Expenditure

1985-862 28,430 33,617

1986-87> 30,956 36,850

' Excluding states' share of excise duties a n d other taxes. Revised. ' Budget estimates.

2

Important items of revenue and expenditure on the revenue account of the central government for 1985-86 (estimates), in Rs 1 m.: Revenue Net tax revenue Non-tax revenue

209,400 62,312

Expenditure Genera! Services Defence G r a n t s in aid to States, etc.

183,108 71,970 72,330

Total capital account receipts (1986-87 budget), Rs 196,700m.; capital account disbursements, Rs 160,120m. Total (revenue and capital) receipts, Rs 492,120m.; disbursements, Rs 528,620m. U n d e r the Constitution (Part XII and 7th Schedule), the power t o raisK funds has been divided between the central government and the states. Generally, the sources of revenue are mutually exclusive. Certain taxes are levied by the Union for the sake of uniformity a n d distributed to the states. The Finance Commission (Art. 280 of the Constitution) advises the President on the distribution of the taxes which are distributable between the centre and the states, and on the principles on which grants should be m a d e o u t of U n i o n revenues to the states. The main sources of central revenue are: customs duties; those excise duties levied by the central government; corporation, income and wealth taxes; estate and succession duties on non-agricultural assets and property, and revenues from the railways and posts and telegraphs. The main heads of revenue in the states are: taxes and duties levied by the state governments (including land revenues a n d agricultural income tax); civil administration and civil works; state undertakings; taxes shared with the centre; and grants received from the centre.

Currency. A decimal system of coinage was introduced in 1957. The Indian rupee

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is divided into 100 paise (until 1964 officially described as nayepaise), the decimal coins being 1, 2,3,5,10,20,25 and 50paise. The rupee is valued in relation to a package of main currencies. The £ is the currency of intervention. In Feb. 1987 Rs 19.98=£l;Rs 13.03 = US$1. The paper currency consists of: (1) Reserve Bank notes in denominations of Rs 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100; and (2) Government of India currency notes of denominations of Re 1 deemed to be included in the expression 'rupee coin' for the purposes of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. According to the Reserve Bank of India, the total money supply with the public on the last Friday of Oct. 1986 was Rs 26,204 crores. 100,000 rupees are called 1 lakh; 100 lakhs are called 1 crore. Banking. The Reserve Bank, the central bank for India, was established in 1934 and started functioning on 1 April 1935 as a shareholder's bank; it became a nationalized institution on 1 Jan. 1949. It has the sole right of issuing currencynotes. The Bank acts as adviser to the Government on financial problems and is the banker for central and state governments, commercial banks and some other financial institutions. The Bank manages the rupee public debt of central and state governments. It is the custodian of the country's exchange reserve and supervises repatriation of export proceeds and payments for imports. The Bank gives shortterm loans to state governments and scheduled banks and short and medium-term loans to state co-operative banks and industrial finance institutions. The Bank has extensive powers of regulation of the banking system, directly under the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, and indirectly by the use of variations in Bank rate, variation in reserve ratios, selective credit controls and open market operations. Bank rate was raised to 10% in July 1981. Except refinance for food credit and export credit, the Reserve Bank's refinance facility to commercial banks has been placed on a discretionary basis. The net profit of the Reserve Bank of India for the year ended June 1986, after making the usual or necessary provisions, amounted to Rs 210 crores. The commercial banking system consisted of 275 scheduled banks (i.e., banks which are included in the 2nd schedule to the Reserve Bank Act) and 4 nonscheduled banks on 30 June 1986; scheduled banks included 194 Regional Rural Banks. Total deposits in commercial banks, Nov. 1986, stood at Rs 95,164 crores. The business of non-scheduled banks forms less than 0-1% of commercial bank business. Of the 275 scheduled banks, 21 are foreign banks which specialize in financing foreign trade but also compete for domestic business. The latest scheduled bank is the State Bank of India, constituted by nationalizing the Imperial Bank of India in 1955. The State Bank acts as the agent of the Reserve Bank and the subsidiaries of the State Bank act as the agents of the State Bank for transacting government business as well as undertaking commercial functions. Fourteen banks with aggregate deposits of not less than Rs 50 crores were nationalized on 19 July 1969. Six banks were nationalized in April 1980. The 28 public sector banks (which comprise the State Bank of India and its seven associate banks and 20 nationalised banks) account for over 90% of deposits and bank credit of all scheduled commercial banks. Reserve Bank of India: Report on Currency and Finance.—Report on the Trend and Progress of Banking in India.—Report ofthe Central Board of Directors. Annual. Bombay

Weights and Measures. Uniform standards of weights and measures, based on the metric system, were established for the first time by the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1956, which provided for a transition period of 10 years. So far the system has been fully adopted in trade transactions but there are a few fields such as engineering, survey and land records and the building and construction industry where it has not; efforts are being made to complete the change as early as possible. In order to align this legislation with the latest international trends an expert committee (Weights and Measures (Law Revision) Committee) was set up by the central government to suggest a revised Bill which was passed by Parliament in April 1976. The new Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1976, has recognized the International System of Units and other units recommended by

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the General Conference on Weights and Measures and is in line with the recommendations of the International Organisation of Legal Metrology (OIML). The new Act also covers the system of numeration, the approval of models of weights and measures, regulation and control of inter-state trade in relation to weights and measures. The Act also protects consumers through proper indication of weight, quantity, identity, source, date and price on packaged goods. A draft Standards of Weights and Measures (Enforcement) Bill has also been prepared by the committee for adoption either by Parliament or State legislatures, as enforcement is now in the 'concurrent' list of legislation. The provisions of the 1976 Act came into force in Sept. 1977, as did the accompanying Standards of Weights and Measures (Packaged Commodities) Rules, 1977. While the Standards of Weights and Measures are laid down in the Central Act, enforcement of weights and measures laws is entrusted to the state governments; the central Directorate of Weights and Measures is responsible for co-ordinating activities so as to ensure national uniformity. An Ipdian Institute of Legal Metrology trains officials of the Weights and Measures departments of India and different developing countries. The Institute is being modernized. with technical assistance from the Federal Republic of Germany. There are 2 Regional Reference Standards laboratories at Ahmedabad and Bhubaneswar which (besides calibrating secondary standards of physical measurements) also provide testing facilities in metrological and industrial measurements. These laboratories are equipped with Standards next in line to the National Standards of physical measurements which are maintained at the National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi. For weights previously in legal use under the Standards of Weight Act, 1956, see T h e S t a t e s m a n ' s Y e a r - B o o k , 1961, p . 171.

Calendar. The dates of the Saka era (named after the north Indian dynasty of the first century a.d.) are being used alongside Gregorian dates in issues of the Gazette of India, news broadcasts by All-India Radio and government-issued calendars, from 22 March 1957, a date which corresponds with the first day of the year 1879 in the Saka era. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In March 1983 about 55% of all villages had electricity. Total installed capacity (1985, provisional) was 40-6m. kw. Production of electricity in 1984-85 was 156,700m. kwh., of which 102,900m. kwh. came from thermal and nuclear stations and 53,800m. kwh from hydro-electric stations.- Supply 230 and 250 volts; 50 Hz. Oil and Gas. The Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Oil India Ltd and the Assam Oil Co. are the only producers of crude oil. Estimated production, 1986-87, about 31 m. tonnes, about 60% of consumption. The main fields are in Assam and offshore in the Gulf of Cambay (the Bombay High field). Natural gas production, 1984-85,6,600m. cu. metres. Water. The net area of 57m. hectares (1982) under irrigation exceeds that of any other country except China, and equals about 38% of the total area under cultivation. Irrigation projects have formed an important part of all three Five-Year Plans. The possibilities of diverting rivers into canals being nearly exhausted, the emphasis is now on damming the monsoon surplus flow and diverting that. Ultimate potential of irrigation is assessed at 107m. hectares, total cultivated land being 142m. hectares. In 1985 India and Bangladesh reached an agreement to monitor the water of the Ganges at the Farakka barrage. Minerals. Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh produce 42%, 25% and 19% of all coal, respectively. The coal industry was nationalized in 1973. Production, 1984-85, 147m. tonnes; reserves (including lignite) are estimated at 114,000m. tonnes. (Coal in seams at least 1 • 2 metres thick and down to a depth of600 metres, 86,428m. tonnes; lignite, 2,100m. tonnes). Production of other minerals, 1984

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estimates (in 1,000 tonnes): Iron ore, 41,700; bauxite, 2,000; chromite 450; copper ore, 3,800; manganese ore, 1,100; gold, 2,000 kg. Other important minerals are lead, zinc, limestone, apatite and phosphorite, dolomite, magnesite and silver. Value of mineral production, 1982 (provisional), Rs 53,912m. of which mineral fuels produced Rs 48,140m., metallic minerals Rs 2,671m. and non-metallic Rs 3,102m. Agriculture. The chief industry of India has always been agriculture. About 70% of the people are dependent on the land for their living. In 1983-84 it provided 39-8% of GDP. In 1984-85 agricultural commodities accounted for about 20% by value of Indian exports, while agricultural commodities, machinery and fertilizers accounted for about 20% of imports. Tea accounted for about 30% ofagricultural exports. An increase in food production of at least 2% per annum is necessary to keep pace with the rising population. Foodgrain production, 78-4m. tons in 1962-63, was 150-5m. tonnes in 1985-86. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research works through 37 institutes, 9 national research centres, 5 project directorates, and 71 national research projects. It supports the establishment of at least 1 agricultural university in each of the states. The farming year runs from July to June through three crop seasons: kharif (monsoon); rabi (winter) and summer. Agricultural production, 1985-86 (in 1,000 tonnes): rice, 64,153; wheat, 46,885; total foodgrains, 150,469; sugar-cane 171,681; oilseeds, 11,154; cotton, 8-6m. bales (of 170 kg); jute is grown in West Bengal (half total yield), Bihar and Assam, total yield, 10-95m. bales. The coffee industry is growing: the main cash varieties are Arabica and Robusta (main growing areas Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu). The tea industry is important, with production concentrated in Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Total crop in 1985, about 670,000 tonnes from 370,000 hectares. Livestock (1985). Cattle, 182-41m.; sheep, 41-3m.; pigs, 8,826,000; horses, 910,000; asses, 1 m.; goats, 81 • 5m.; buffaloes, 64 • 5m. Fertilizer consumption in 1984-85 was 8-2m. tonnes. Land Tenure. There are three main traditional systems of land tenure: ryotwari tenure, where the individual holders, usually peasant proprietors, are responsible for the payment of land revenues; zamindari tenure, where one or more persons own large estates and are responsible for payment (in this system there may be a number of intermediary holders); and Trtahalwari tenure, where village communities jointly hold an estate and are jointly and severally responsible for payment. Agrarian reform, initiated in the first Five-Year Plan, being undertaken by the state governments includes: (1) The abolition of intermediaries under zamindari tenure. (2) Tenancy legislation designed to scale down rents to V*—Vs of the value of the produce, to give permanent rights to tenants (subject to the landlord's right to resume a minimum holding for his personal cultivation), and to enable tenants to acquire ownership of their holdings (subject to the landlord's right of resumption for personal cultivation) on payment of compensation over a number of years. (3) Fixing of ceilings on existing holdings and on future acquisition; the holding of a family is between 4-05 and 7-28 hectares if it has assured irrigation to produce two crops a year, 10-93 hectares for land with irrigation facilities for only one crop a year, and 21-85 hectares for all other categories of land. Tea, coffee, cocoa and cardamom plantations have been exempted. (4) The consolidation of holdings in community project areas and the prevention of fragmentation of holdings by reform of inheritance laws. (5) Promotion of farming by co-operative village management (see p. 636). The average size of holding for the whole of* India is 2-63 hectares. Andhra Pradesh, 2-87; Assam, 1-46; Bihar, 1-53; Gujarat, 4-49; Jammu and Kashmir, 1 -43; Karnataka, 411; Kerala, 0-75; Madhya Pradesh, 3-99; Maharashtra, 4-65; Orissa, 1 -98; Punjab, 3-85; Rajasthan, 5-5; Tamil Nadu, 1-49; Uttar Pradesh, 1-78; West Bengal, 1-56.

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Of the total 71m. rural households possessing operational holdings, 34% hold on the average less than 0-20 hectare of land each. Opium. By international agreement the poppy is cultivated under licence, and all raw opium is sold to the central government. Opium, other than for wholly medical use, is available only to registered addicts. Fisheries. Total catch (1984-8 5) was 2 • 86m. tonnes, of which Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra produced about half.' Of the total catch, 1,777,000 tonnes were marine fish. There were 81 deep-sea (20 metres and above) fishing boats at end Nov. 1985. Fishermen's co-operatives totalled 7,144 with 709,000 members in 1983-84; their total sales were worth Rs 181 m. Forestry. The lands under the control of the state forest departments are classified as 'reserved forests' (forests intended to be permanently maintained for the supply of timber, etc., or for the protection of water supply, etc.), 'protected forests' and 'unclassed' forest land. In 1984-85 the total forest area was 75m. hectares. Main types are teak and sal. Production, 1983, 39m. tonnes. About 16% of the area is inaccessible, of which about 45% is potentially productive. Forest revenue, 1981-82 (provisional), Rs 5,239-3m. There are about 3,000 sawmills. In 1981—82 1-3m. saplings were planted; this is considered insufficient to meet future demands for fuel and industrial wood. Fuel wood consumption, 1983,133m. tonnes. Some states have encouraged planting small areas around villages. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industries. Railways, air transport, armaments and atomic energy are government monopolies. In a number of industries (including the manufacture of iron and steel and mineral oils, shipbuilding and the mining of coal, iron and manganese ores, gypsum, gold and diamonds) new units are set up only by the state. In a further group of industries (road transport, manufacture of chemicals such as drugs, dyestuffs, plastics and fertilizers) the state established new undertakings, but private enterprise may develop either on its own or with state backing, which may take the form of loans or purchase of equity capital. Nationalized industries employed 4m. in 1981. Under the Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951, as amended, industrial undertakings are required to be licensed; 162 industries are within the scope of the Act. The Government are authorized to examine the working of any undertaking, to issue directions to it and to take over its control if this be deemed necessary. A Central Advisory Council has been set up consisting of representatives of industry, labour, consumers and primary producers. There are Development Councils for individual industries and (1981) 4 national development banks. Foreign investment is encouraged by a tax holiday on income up to 6% of capital employed for 5 years. There are special depreciation allowances, and customs and excise concessions for export industries. Oil refinery installed capacity, Dec. 1985, was 45-55m. tonnes; production of refined oils (1984-85), 33 -2m. tonnes. The Indian Oil Corporation was established in 1964 and had (1984) most of the market. Industry, particularly steel, has suffered from a shortage of power and coal. There is expansion in petrochemicals, based on the oil and associated gas of the Bombay High field, and gas from Bassein field. Small industries (initial outlay on capital equipment of less than Rs 3-5m.) are important; they employ about-9m. and produced (1984-85) goods worth Rs 505,200m. The industrial growth rate, 1985-86 was6-3%. Industrial production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron and ferro-alloys, 9,843; steel ingots, 10,962; finished steel, 7,841; aluminium, 260; motor cycles (nos.), 5-6m.; commercial vehicles (nos.), 105,324; petroleum products, 38,256; sulphuric acid, 2,076; cement, 31,080; board and paper, 1,463; nitrogen fertilizer, 4,236; phosphate fertilizer, 1,344; jute goods, 1,223; cotton yam, 1,260; cotton cloth, 9,289m. metres; man-made fibre, 299-8; diesel engines, 168,408 engines; electric motors, 5 • lm. h.p.; sugar, 7,980.

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Lai, V. B., (et al) The Aluminium Industry in India: Promise, Prospects, Constraints and Impact. New Delhi, 1985

Labour. At the 1981 census there were 222-5m. workers, of whom 92-5m. were cultivators, 55-5m. agricultural labourers; in 1984 there were 7-4m. in manufacturing, 11 -3m. in social, community and personal services, 1 -5m. in construction and 3 • 53m. in transport, communications and storage. There were in 1982 38,313 registered trade unions. Hie bond labour system was abolished in 1975. Man-days lost by industrial disputes, 1985, 22-5lm., of which 2-05m. were in the public sector. An ordnance of July 1981 gave the government power to ban strikes in essential services; the ordnance was to remain in force for six months and would then be renewable. Dasgupta, A. K „A Theory of Wage Policy. OUP, 1976

Companies. The total number of companies limited by shares at work in India, 31 March 1985, was 107,369; aggregate paid-up capital was Rs 27,331-3 crores. There were 14,566 public limited companies with an aggregate paid-up capital of Rs 6,286-8 crores, and 92,803 private limited companies (Rs 21,044-5 crores). There were also 295 companies with unlimited liability. During 1984-85, 13,347 new limited companies were registered in the Indian Union under the Companies Act 1956 with a total authorized capital of Rs 2,030• 5 crores; 1,659 were public limited companies (Rs 1,069 crores) and 11,688 were private limited companies (Rs 961-5 crores). There were 13 private companies with unlimited liability also registered in 1984-85. Of the new non-govemment limited companies, 192 had an authorized capital of Rs 1 crore and above, and 321 of between Rs 50 lakhs and Rs 1 crore. During 1984-85, 100 companies with an aggregate paid-up capital of Rs 9-80 crores went into liquidation and 136 companies (Rs 9 • 66 crores) were struck off the register. On 31 March 1985 there were 980 government companies at work with a total paid-up capital of Rs 21,492 • 8 crores; 417 were public limited companies and 563 were private limited companies. On 31 March 1985, 324 companies incorporated elsewhere were reported to have a place of business in India; 123 were ofUK and 68 of USA origin. Department of Company Affairs, Govt, of India. Annual Report on the Working and Administration of the Companies Act, 1956. New Delhi, 1983

Co-operative Movement In 1984-85 there were about 300,000 co-operative societies with a total membership of about 125m. These included Primary Cooperative Marketing Societies, State Co-operative Marketing Federations and the National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India. There were also 10 State Co-operative Commodity Marketing Federations, and 8 State Tribal Co-operative Development Corporations/Federations. There were, on 31 March 1983, 28 State Co-operative Banks, 349 Central Cooperative Banks, 94,019 Primary Agricultural Societies, 19 State Land Development Banks, and 885 primary or district Land Development Banks/branches which provide long-term investment credit. Total agricultural credit disbursed by Co-operatives in 1984—85 was Rs 3,250 crores including Rs 2,500 crores in short-term credit, Rs 250 crores in mediumterm credit and Rs 500 crores in long-term credit. Total credit disbursed in 1983-84 (estimate), Rs 3,000 crores. Value of agricultural produce marketed by Co-operatives in 1984-85 was about Rs 3,032 crores. They procured 2-46m. tons of wheat, 0-24m. tons of paddy, 34 -45m. tons of sugarcane, 2 • 7m. bales ofcotton änd 0 -21 m. bales of jute. In June 1984 there were 2,140 processing units; in 1984-85,184 sugar factories produced 3-64m. tons; 82 spinning mills (capacity 2 -06m. spindles) produced 120m. kg. of yam; there were 308 oilmills and similar units; total storage capacity was 7-93m. tons.' In 1984-85 there were 60,122 retail depots distributing 3 -63m. tons of fertilizers. Indian Labour Guide. Monthly. Delhi Co-operative Movement in India, Statistical Statements Relating to. Annual. Reserve Bank of India, Bombay

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Commerce. The external trade of India (excluding land-borne trade with Tibet and Bhutan) was as follows (in 100,000 rupees): 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86

Imports 1,254,915 1,360,756 1,435,999 1,576,000 1,559,186 1,974,700

Exports and Re-exports 671,070 780,590 883,421 987,000 1,139,598 1,101,200

The distribution of commerce by countries and areas was as follows in the year e n d e d 31 M a r c h 1985 (in 100,000 rupees): Countries Exports to Imports from Afghanistan 1,583 1,463 Algeria 1,715 821 Argentina 108 6,227 19,241 14,850 Australia Austria 1,400 2,528 Bahrain 5,101 33,390 Bangladesh 9,317 4,448 Belgium 18,563 79,301 Brazil 141 29,403 2,164 Bulgaria 3,853 Burma 290 4,838 Canada 13,467 50,837 Czechoslovakia 5,852 6,223 Denmark 4,041 3,481 Egypt 10,520 986 Federal Rep. of Germany 47,092 129,775 Finland 656 4,619 20,892 France 35,819 German Dem. Republic 7,030 6,729 Ghana 2,036 2,482 Hong Kong 17,374 5,569 Hungary 1,974 2,664 3,129 Indonesia 5,919 Iran 13,403 51,016 Iraq 4,300 67,437 Italy 20,316 28,874 Japan 106,097 124,041 Kenya 2,837 543 Korea, Republic of 8,946 14,730

Countries Exports to Kuwait 11,590 Malaysia 7,097 Morocco 505 Nepal 18,108 18,212 Netherlands New Zealand 1,852 Nigeria 3,589 Norway 1,083 Poland 9,366 Qatar 3,010 Romania 6,378 Saudi Arabia 24,500 Singapore 19,123 Spain 3,100 Sri Lanka 11,423 Sudan 1,843 11,874 Switzerland Tanzania 1,592 2,542 Thailand United Arab Emirates 26,878 USSR 165,459 UK 67,006 USA 176,848 Yemen, Arab Rep. 2,972 Yemen, People's Dem. Rep. 8,236 Yugoslavia 2,425 Zaire 151 Zambia 1,022

Imports from 36,813 54,848 8,405 6,041 36,406 3,116 72 4,497 5,379 5,711 11,735 124,948 54,207 8,847 1,057 234 16,282 3,846 8,692 35,898 180,338 101,883 166,660 —

909 5,482 6,678 5,826

The value (in 100,000 rupees) of the leading articles of merchandise was as follows in the year ended 31 March 1985: Exports Meat and meat preparations Fish, crustaceans, molluscs and preparations thereof Rice Vegetables and fruits Coffee and coffee substitutes Tea and mate Spices Oilcake Tobacco unmanufactured and tobacco refuse Raw cotton Iron ore Crude vegetable materials Cotton fabrics Cotton madeup articles

Value 7,598 33,582 12,168 33,626 19,813 70,786 17,406 13,281 14,863 5,680 44,723 13,648 41,287 9,203

638

INDIA Exports Readymade garments Jute manufactures including twist and yarn Leather and leather manufactures (except footwear) Pearls, precious and semi-precious stones Works of art Handmade carpets Metal manufactures except iron and steel Machinery including transport equipments Mineral fuel, lubricants and related products Chemicals and allied products Iron and steel Jewellery Sugar and sugar preparations

Value 8 5,7 84 34,107 42,524 119,468 13,477 22,707 18,345 55,494 25,503 37,059 6,205 6,702 2,174

Imports Wheat Milk and cream Crude rubber including synthetic and reclaimed Synthetic and regenerated fibre Fertilizers, crude Sulphur and unroasted iron pyrites Metalliferous ores and metal scrap Petroleum, Petroleum products and related materials Edible oil Organic chemicals Inorganic chemicals Medical and pharmaceutical products Fertilizers, manufactured Artificial resins, plastic materials etc Chemical materials and products Paper, paper board and manufactures thereof Textile yarn, fabrics and madeup articles Pearls, precious and semi-precious stones Non-metallic mineral manufactures exclg. pearls Iron and steel Non-ferrous metal Manufactures of metal Machinery other than electric Electrical machinery Transport equipment Professional, scientific, controlling instruments, photographic, optical goods, watches and clocks

10,741 9,616 7,069 4,881 11,102 11,065 11,321 538,208 83,019 38,933 37,980 12,929 75,102 18,236 11,170 17,512 8,985 102,772 13,052 77,733 34,514 12,956 187,233 46,114 28,411 29,047

Total trade between India and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ^ , m m 3 m 4 i m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

379,169 805,321

366,928 804,779

571,470 780,997

431,785 894,708

440,681 941,169

Annual Statement of the Foreign Trade of India. 2 vols. Calcutta Monthly Statistics of the Foreign Trade of India. Calcutta Review of the Trade of India. Annual. Delhi India-Handbook of Commercial Information. 3 vols. Calcutta Guide to Official Statistics of Trade, Shipping, Customs and Excise Revenue of India. Rev. ed. Calcutta

Tourism. There were l-26m. visitors in 1985 bringing about Rs 13,000m. in foreign exchange; 119,544 from UK, 95,916 from USA, 69,060 from Sri Lanka. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984-85 there were 1,770,000 km of roads, of which 832,000 km were surfaced. Roads are divided into 5 main administrative classes, namely, national highways, state highways, major district roads, other district roads and village

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roads. The national highways (31,803 km in 1986) connect capitals of states, major ports and foreign highways. The national highway system is linked with the ESCAP (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) international highway system. The state highways are the main trunk roads of the states, while the major district roads connect subsidiary areas of production and markets with distribution centres, and form the main link between headquarters and neighbouring districts. There were (31 March 1985) 8,796,000 motor vehicles in India, comprising 1,380,000 private cars and jeeps, 4-9m. motor cycles and scooters, 160,000 taxis, 210,000 buses and 850,000 goods vehicles. Railways. The Indian railway system is government-owned and (under the control of the Railway Board) is divided into 9 zones; route-km at 31 March 1983: Zone Central Eastern Northern North Eastern North East Frontier Southern South Central South Eastern Western

Headquarters Bombay Calcutta Delhi Gorakhpur Gauhati Madras Secunderabad Calcutta Bombay

Route-km 6,371 km (657 km electrified) 4,238km(l,218km) 10,688 km (572 km) 5,163 km 3,844 km 6,700 km (391 km) 7,023 km (388 km) 7,041 km (1,421 km) 10,292 km (496 km)

Principal gauges are 1,676 mm. and metre, with networks also of 762 and 610 mm. gauge. Passengers carried in 1984-85 were approximately 3,333m.; freight, 236m. tonnes. Revenue (1984) from passengers, Rs 1,445 crores; from goods, Rs 3,614 crores. Indian Railways pay to the central government a fixed dividend of 4-5% on capital-at-charge. Railway finance in Rs 1 m.: Financial years 1986-87' 1987-88 !

Gross traffic Working exreceipts penses 75,030 53,920 81,790 75,500 ' Revised estimate.

Net revert ues (traffic and miscellaneousj 5,810 7,210 2 Budget.

Net surplus or deficit (after dividend) +110 +690

Aviation. The air transport industry in India was nationalized in 1953 with the formation of two Air Corporations: Air India for operating long-distance international air services, and Indian Airlines for operating air services within India and to adjacent countries. A third airline, Vayudoot, was formed in 1981 as an internal feeder airline. Air India runs Boeing 747s and 707s, Airbus A-300 and A-310s; it operates from Bombay, Delhi, Madras, Trivandrum, Hyderabad, Goa and Calcutta to Africa (Nairobi, Lagos, Seychelles, Mauritius, Dar es Salaam, Lusaka and Harare); to Europe (London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Geneva, Zurich, Brussels, Moscow and Rome); to western Asia (Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dharan, Dubai, Bahrain, Kuwait, Muscat, Jeddah, Ras al Khaymah, Shaijah and Baghdad); to east Asia (Bangkok, Hong Kong, TOkyft, Osaka, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Sydney); to North America (New York). Indian Airlines has a fleet of 53 aircraft consisting of Airbus A-300BS, Boeing 737, F-27 and HS-748 aircraft (Sept. 1986). During 1985-86 they carried 9-2m. passengers; net profit Rs 58-75 crores. Flights cover over 83,000 unduplicated route km. Vayudoot serves remote areas of India; it has a network of 62 stations. The National Airports Authority maintains and operates 84 civil aerodromes and 25 terminals at military aerodromes. The management of the 4 international airports at Bombay (Santa Cruz), Calcutta (Dum Dum), Delhi (Palam) and Madras is vested in the International Airports Authority of India. Shipping. In Dec. 1985, 428 ships totalling 6,388,772 G R T were on the Indian Register, of these, 111 ships of 355,108 G R T were engaged in coastal trade, and

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317 ships of6,033,664 GRT in overseas trade. Traffic of major ports, 1985-86, was s: Port

Calcutta Bombay Madras Cochin Mormugao Vishakhapatnam Kandla Paradip New Mangalore Tuticorin Haldia

Ships cleared 813 2,064 1,323 652 457 689 770 173 303 452 567

Imports (lm. tonnes) 3 04 11-8 10 4 4-5 1-4 6-4 15-2 0-9 10 40 5-36

Exports (Im. tonnes) 0-87 131 7-8 0-6 14-5 7 0 1-3 2-4 2-7 0-2 2-61

The shipyard at Vishakhapatnam is capable of building vessels of a maximum of 21,500 DWT. Present capacity is about 64,500 DWT per year. The Cochin Shipyard can build Panamax type bulk carriers of 85,000 DWT each. On full development the capacity of the shipyard will be 2 such ships a year. Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers are building bulk carriers of 26,000 DWT, ferry ships (6,000 DWT), hydrographic research ships, tugs and fast patrol craft. There are about 5,200 km of major rivers navigable by motorised craft, of which 1,700 km are used. Canals, 4,300 km, of which 485 km are navigable by motorised craft (331 km are used). Post and Broadcasting. On 30 Sept. 1986 there were 144,257 post offices and 36,161 telegraph offices. Of the post offices, 128,470 were rural and 15,787 urban. The telephone system is in the hands of the Indian Posts and Telegraphs Department. In Sept. 1986 there were 3,259,000 telephones. There were 213 telex exchanges and 31,755 subscribers. There were 88 radio stations on 31 March 1986, and programmes were sent out from 167 transmitters. There were 44 high-power and 135 low-power television transmission centres. In 1985 television covered 36% of the national area and 58% of the population. Entertainment films occupy 29 -3% of broadcasting time, news and currentlafTairs, 21 • 3%. A communications satellite ('APPLE') went into operation in July 1981. Cinemas. In 1976 there were 9,017 cinemas, including about 2,660 touring cinemas: about 500 feature films were produced. Newspapers. In 1982 the total number of newspapers and periodicals was 19,937; about 30% were published in Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. There were 1,334 daily and 5,898 weekly papers. Circulation of dailies (1981), 13-2m., of weeklies, 12-9m. Hindi papers have the highest number and circulation, followed by English, then Bengali, Urdu and Marathi. Annual Report ofthe Register ofNewspapers for India. New Delhi

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. All courts form a single hierarchy, with the Supreme Court at the head, which constitutes the highest court of appeal. Immediately below it are the high courts and subordinate courts in each state. Every court in this chain, subject to the usual pecuniary and local limits, administers the whole law of the country, whether made by Parliament'or by the state legislatures. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam (in common with Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh), Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab (in common with the state of Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Sikkim have each a High Court. The jurisdiction of Bombay High Court extends to the Territory of Goa. There is a separate High Court for Delhi. For the Andaman and Nicobar Islands the Calcutta High Court, for Pondicherry the High Court of Madras, and for Lakshadweep the High Court of Kerala are the highest judicial

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authorities; in Dadra and Nagar Haveli the High Court of Bombay is the relevant high court. The Allahabad High Court has a Bench at Lucknow, the Bombay High Court has Benches at Nagpur and Aurangabad, the Madhya Pradesh High Court has Benches at Gwalior and Indore, the Patna High Court has a Bench at Ranchi and the Rajasthan High Court has a Bench at Jaipur. Judges and Division Courts of the Gauhati High Court also sit in Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura. Below the High Court each state is divided into a number of districts under the jurisdiction of district judges who preside over civil courts and courts of sessions. There are a number of judicial authorities subordinate to the district civil courts. On the criminal side magistrates of various classes act under the overall supervision of the High Court. The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, has been replaced by the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), which came into force with effect from 1 April 1974. The new Code provides for complete separation of the Judiciary from the Executive throughout India. Police. The states control their own police force through the state Home Ministers. The Home Minister of the central government co-ordinates the work qf the states and controls the Central Detective Training School, the Central Forensic Laboratory, the Central Fingerprint Laboratory as well as the National Police Academy at Mount Abu (Rajasthan) where the Indian Police Service is trained. This service is recruited by competitive examination of university graduates and provides all senior officers for the state police forces. The Central Bureau of Investigation functions under the control of the Cabinet Secretariat. The cities of Pune, Ahmedabad, Nagpur, Bangalore, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay and Hyderabad have separate police commissionerates. Sarkar, P. C., Civil Laws of India and Pakistan. 2 vols. Calcutta, 1953.—Criminal Laws of India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Calcutta, 1956 Setalvad, M. C., The Common Law of India. London, I960 Sharma, S. R., Supreme Court in the Indian Constitution. Delhi, 1959

Religion. The principal religions in 1971 (census) were: Hindus, 453-2m. (82-7%); Moslems, 61-4m. (11-21%); Christians, 14-2m. (2-6%); Sikhs, 10-3m. (1-89%); Buddhists, 3 • 8m. (0 • 7%); Jains, 2 • 6m. (0 • 47%). In 1971 the Christian population consisted of 8-2m. Roman Catholics, 2-69m. Anglicans of the Church of South India, 1 -37m. Anglicans of the Church of North India and about 2m. nonconformists. Sundkler, B., Church of South India. London, 1954

Education. Literacy. According to the 1981 census the literacy percentage in the country (excluding age-group, 0-4) was 36-23 (34-45 in 1971): 46-74% among males, 24-88% among females. Of the states and territories, Chandigarh and Kerala have the highest rates. Educational Organization. Education is the concurrent responsibility of state and Union governments. In the union territories it is the responsibility of the central government. The Union Government is also directly responsible for the central universities and all institutions declared by parliament to be of national importance; the promotion of Hindi as the federal language; coordinating and maintaining standards in higher education, research, science and technology. Professional education rests witn the Ministry or Department concerned, e.g., medical education, the Ministry or Department of Health. The Department of Education is a part of the Union Ministry of Human Resource Development, headed by a cabinet minister. There are several autonomous organizations attached to the Department of Education. These include the University Grants Commission, the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration and the National Council of Educational Research and Training. There is a Central Advisory Board of Education to advise the Union and the State Governments on any educational question which may be referred to it. School Education. The school system in India can be divided into four stages: primary, middle, secondary and senior secondary.

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Primary education is imparted either at independent primary (or junior basic) schools or primary classes attached to middle or secondary schools. The period of instruction in this stage varies from 4 to 5 years and the medium of instruction is in most cases the mother tongue of the child or the regional language. Free primary education is available for all children. Legislation for compulsory education has been passed by some state governments and Union Territories but it is not practicable to enforce compulsion when the reasons for non-attendance are socioeconomic. Residential schools are planned for country children. The period for the middle stage varies from 2 to 3 years. Higher Education. Higher education is given in arts, science or professional colleges, universities and all-India educational or research institutions. In 1984-85 there were 125 universities, 10 institutions of national importance and 15 institutions deemed as universities. Of the 125 universities, 7 are central: Aligarh Muslim University; Banaras Hindu University; University of Delhi; University of Hyderabad; Jawanarlal Nehru University; North Eastern Hill University; Visva Bnarati. The rest are state universities. Total enrolment at universities, 1984-85, 3 • 53m., of which 3 • 11 m. were undergraduates. Women students, 1 -02m. Grants are paid through the University Grants Commission to the central universities and institutions deemed to be universities for their maintenance and development and to state universities for their development projects only; their maintenance is the concern of state governments. During 1984-85 the University Grants Commission sanctioned grants of Rs 166 • 66 crores. Technical Education. The number of institutions awarding degrees in engineering and technology in 1985-86 was 159 (in 1947: 38), and those awarding diplomas in engineering and technology numbered 330 (in 1947: 53); the former admitted about 33,800, the latter about 58,000 students. There were also 5 rural institutes and 42 Girls' Polytechnics with about 450 and 5,200 students respectively. For training high-level engineers and technologists 5 Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and 99 other institutions conduct postgraduate and research courses. There are (1986) 4 national Management Institutions. Adult Education. In spite of the improvement in the literacy rate, the number of adult illiterates over 14 was over 424-26m. in 1981. Adult education is, therefore, being accorded a high priority; it formed part of the Minimum Needs Programme under the seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-90), in which it is proposed to cover all illiterate persons in the age-group 15-35 by 1990. The National Board of Adult Education was established in 1977; effort is concentrated on backward areas, women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, settled and migrant labourers. The Rural Functional Literacy Projects, state adult education programme voluntary agencies. Nehru Yovak Kendras and other agencies share the work. The Directorate of Adult Education, established in 1971, is the national resource centre; with 17 state resource centres it is responsible for producing teaching/learning materials, training and orientation, monitoring and evaluating the programme. There were 237,532 adult education centres in Sept. 1985. Educational statistics for the year 1984-85: Type of recognized institution Primary/junior basic schools Middle/senior basic schools High/higher secondary schools Training schools and colleges Arts, Science and Commerce colleges 1 2

No. of institutions 519,701 129,879 58,834 1,290 3,925

No. of students on rolls 61,168,620 32,986,054 31,547,190 163,560' 2,870,032 2

No. of teachers 1,458,140 905,207 1,075,487

Enrolment by stages of teachers' training courses at school and college level. Enrolment by stages of all post-graduate and graduate courses.

School pupils represent 94 • 1 % of the age-group 6-11 and 49 • 8% of 11 s-14s. Expenditure. Total public expenditure on education 1984-85 is estimated at Rs 6,575 crores. Total public expenditure on education, sport, arts and youth welfare during the Seventh Plan, Rs 6,382-65 crores; Seventh Plan spending on adult education, Rs 130 crores.

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Health. Health programmes are primarily the responsibility of the state governments. The Union Government has sponsored and supported major schemes for disease prevention and control which are implemented nationally. These include the prevention and control of malaria, filaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, venereal diseases, smallpox, trachoma and cancer. There are also Union Government schemes in connexion with water supply and sanitation, and with nutrition. The Nutrition Advisory Committee of the Indian Council of Medical Research sponsors schemes for research and advises the Government. The National Nutrition Advisory Committee is to formulate a national nutrition policy and recommend measures for improving national standards. Medical relief and service is primarily the responsibility of the states. Medical education is also a state responsibility, but there is a co-ordinating Central Health Educational Bureau. Family planning is centrally sponsored and locally implemented. The goal is to reduce the birth-rate by means of education in family planning methods. The central government budget for 1984-8 5 provided Rs 469 • 7 crores for family welfare (including family planning) and Rs 343 crores for health; Rs 124-4 crores was for prevention and control of disease. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of India in Great Britain (India House, Aldwych, London, WC2B4NA) High Commissioner: Dr P. Cherian Alexander. Of Great Britain in India (Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 1100-21) High Commissioner: Arthur Goodall. Of India in the USA (2107 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: K. Shankar Bajpai. Of the USA in India (Shanti Path, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 21) Ambassador: John G. Dean. Of India to the United Nations Ambassador Natarajan Krishnan. Books of Reference Special works relating to States are shown under their separate headings. India. A Reference Annual. Delhi Govt. Printer Annual Cambridge History of India. 6 vols. CUP, 1922-47 Supp., 1953 The Times of India Directory and Yearbook. Bombay and London. Annual Akbar, M. J., India. The Siege Within. Harmondsworth, 1985 Balasubramanyam, V N., The Economy of India. London, 1985 Bardham, P., The Political Economy of Development in India. Oxford, 1984 Brown, J., Modern India. The Origins ofan Asian Democracy OUP, 1985 Chatteijee, S. P., Indian Climatology Calcutta, 1956. (ed.), National Atlas of India (Preliminary (Hindi) edition). Calcutta, 1957 Fishlock,T,,/ndiaFi7e Inside the Subcontinent. London, 1983 von Fiirer-Haimendorf, C., Tribes of India, the Struggle for Survival. Univ ofCalifornia Press, 1983 Kesavan, B. S., and Kulkami, V Y (eds), The National Bibliography of Indian Literature. 1901-53, New Delhi, 1963 fT. Gupta, G. K. and Kharbas, D. S., India. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Hall, A., The Emergence of Modern India. Columbia Univ Press, 1981 Hart, D., Nuclear Power in India, a Comparative Analysis. London, 1983 Majumdar, R. C., Raychandhuri, H. C.,and Datta, K., An Advanced History of India. 2nded. London, 1950 Mitra, H. N., The Indian Annual Register Calcutta, from 1953 Nanda, B. R. (ed.), Socialism in India. Delhi, Bombay, Bangalore, Kanpur, London, 1972 Pachauri, R. K., Energy and Economic Development in India. New York, 1977 Philips, C. H. (ed.), The Evolution of India and Pakistan. Select Documents. OUP, 1962 fT.— Politics and Society in India. London, 1963 Poplai, S. L. (ed.), India, 1947-50(select documents). 2 vols. Bombay and London, 1959 Ray, R. K.., Industrialisation of India. OUP, 1983 Smith, V E., Oxford History of India. 3rd ed. OUP, 1958

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Spear, P., India: A Modem History. 2nd ed. Univ. of Michigan Press, 1972 Sutton, S. C., Guide to the India Office Library (founded in 1801). HMSO, 1952 Thomas, R., India's Emergence as an Industrial Power. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1982 Yasdani, C. (ed.), Early History of the Deccan. 2 vols. London, 1960

STATES AND TERRITORIES The Republic of India is composed of the following 24 States and 7 centrally administered Union Territories: States Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

Capital Hyderabad Itanagar Dispur Patna Ahmedabad Chandigarh Shimla Srinagar Bangalore Trivandrum Bhopal Bombay

States Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

Capital Imphal Shillong Aizawl Kohima Bhubaneswar Chandigarh Jaipur Gangtok Madras Agartala Lucknow Calcutta

Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Chandigarh; Dadra and Nagar Haveli; Delhi; Goa, Daman and Diu; Lakshadweep; Pondicherry. States Reorganization. The Constitution, which came into force on 26 Jan. 1950, provided for 9 Part A States (Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) which corresponded to the previous governors' provinces; 8 Part B States (Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patalia-East Punjab (PEPSU), Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Travancore-Cochin) which corresponded to Indian states or unions of states; 10 Part C States (Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, Tripura and Vindhya Pradesh) which corresponded to the chief commissioners' provinces; and Part D Territories and other areas (e.g., Andaman and Nicobar Islands). Part A States (under governors) and Part B States (under rajpramukhs) had provincial autonomy with a ministry and elected assembly. Part C States (under chief commissioners) were the direct responsibility of the Union Government, although Kutch, Manipur and Tripura had legislatures with limited powers. Andhra was formed as a Part A State on its separation from Madras in 1953. Bilaspur was merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1954. The States Reorganization Act, 1956, abolished the distinction between Parts A, B and C States and established two categories for the units of the Indian Union to be called States and Territories. The following were the main territorial changes: the Telugu districts of Hyderabad were merged with Andhra; Mysore absorbed the whole Kannada-speaking area (including Coorg, the greater part of 4 districts of Bombay, 3 districts of Hyderabad and 1 district of Madras); Bhopal, Vindhya Pradesh and Madhya Bharat were merged with Madhya Pradesh, which ceded 8 Marathi-speaking districts to Bombay; the new state of Kerala, comprising the majority of Malayalam-speaking peoples, was formed from Travancore-Cochin with a small area from Madras; Patalia-East Punjab was included in Punjab; Kutch and Saurashtra in Bombay; and Ajmer in Rajasthan; Hyderabad ceased to exist. On 1 May 1960 Bombay State was divided into two parts: 17 districts (including Saurashtra and Kutch) in the north and west became the new state of Gujarat; the remainder was renamed the state of Maharashtra. In Aug. 1961 the former Portuguese territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli became a Union territory. The Portuguese territory of Goa and the smaller territories of Daman and Diu, occupied by India in Dec. 1961, were constituted a Union territory in March 1962. In Aug. 1962 the former French territories of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahé and Yanaon were formally transferred to India and

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became a Union territory. In Sept. 1962 the Naga Hills Tuensang Area was constituted a separate state under the name of Nagaland. On 1 Nov. 1966, under the Punjab Reorganization Act 1966, a new state of Haryana and a new Union Territory of Chandigarh were created from parts of Punjab (India); for details, see pp. 652 and 684. On 26 Jan. 1971 Himachal Pradesh became a state. In 1972 the North East Frontier Agency and Mizo hill district were made Union territories (as Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram) and Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura full states. Sikkim became a state in 1975. Statehood for Mizoram was passed by parliament in July 1986; for Arunachal Pradesh in Dec. 1986. Report of the States Reorganization Commission. Government of India. Delhi, 1956

ANDHRA PRADESH H I S T O R Y . Andhra was constituted a separate state on 1 Oct. 1953, on its partition from Madras, and consisted of the undisputed Telugu-speaking area of that state. To this region was added, on 1 Nov. 1956, the Telangana area of the former Hyderabad State, comprising the districts of Hyderabad, Medak, Nizamabad, Karimnaga, Warangal, Khammam, Nalgonda and Mahbubnaga, parts of the Adilabad district and some taluks of the Raichur, Gulbarga and Bidar districts, and some revenue circles of the Nanded district. On 1 April 1960,221 • 4 sq. miles in the Chingleput and Salem districts of Madras were transferred to Andhra Pradesh in exchange for 410 sq. miles from Chittoor district. The district of Prakasam was formed on 2 Feb. 1970. Hyderabad was split into 2 districts on 15 Aug. 1978. A new district, Vizianagaram, was formed in 1979. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Andhra Pradesh is in south India and is bounded south by Tamil Nadu, west by Karnataka, north and northwest by Maharashtra, northeast by Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, east by the Bay of Bengal. The state has an area of275,100 sq. km and a population (1981 census) of 53-5m. Density, 195 per sq. km. Growth rate 1971—81,23-19%. TTie principal language is Telugu. Cities with over 250,000 population (1981 census), see p. 623. Other large cities (1981): Nellore (236,879); Kakinada (226,600); Kurnool (206,700); Nizamabad (183,135); Eluru (168,100); Machilipatnam (138,500); Anantapur (119,536); Tenali (119,200); Tirupati (115,200); Vizianagaram (115,200); Adoni (108,900); Proddatur (107,100); Cuddapah (103,100); Bheemavaram (101,940). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Andhra Pradesh has a unicameral legislature; the Legislative Council was abolished in June 1985. There are 295 seats in the Legislative Assembly. At the election of March 1985, the Telegu Dasam party continued in office. For administrative purposes there are 23 districts in the state. The capital is Hyderabad. Governor: M. S. Kumud Ben Joshi. Chief Minister: N. T. Rama Rao. BUDGET. The budget (estimate) for 1986-87 showed total receipts on revenue account of Rs 3,226-88 crores, and expenditure of Rs 3,242-62 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. There are 6 hydro-electric plants including Machkund, Upper Sileru and Nizam Sagar and 5 thermal stations including Nellore and Kothagudam. Installed capacity, 1986-87, 3,366 mw., power generated 12,225m. kwh. In 1985-86 there were 23,680 electrified villages and 733,000 electric pump sets. Gas. Natural gas was found at Reyzole in 1983. Water. The irrigation potential of the state in 1983-84 was 10,300,000 hectares; actual area under irrigation, 3,880,000 hectares. The Telugu Ganga joint project

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with Tamil Nadu, now in execution, will irrigate about 233,000 hectares, besides supplying drinking water to Madras city (Tamil Nadu). Minerals The state is an important producer of asbestos and barytes. Other important minerals are copper ore, coal, iron and limestone, steatite, mica and manganese. Agriculture. There were (1983-84) about 13-04m. hectares of cropped land, of which 35-9% is irrigated. 9 -2m. hectares were under food-grains. Yield per hectare, in kg: Sugar-cane, 7,332; rice, 2,161; ground-nuts, 1,029; tobacco, 881; jowar, 569; cotton, 360; castor, 208. Livestock (1983 provisional): Cattle, 13-12m.; buffaloes, 8-7m.; goats, 5-5m.; sheep, 7-5m. Forests. In 1982 it was estimated that forests occupy 23-2% of the total area of the state or 63,771 sq. km; main forest products are teak, eucalyuptus, cashew, casuarina, softwoods and bamboo. Fisheries. Production 1985-86,150,000 tonnes of marine fish and 150,000 tonnes of inland water fish. The state has a coastline of974 km. INDUSTRY. The main industries are textile manufacture, sugar-milling machine tools, pharmaceuticals, cement, chemicals, glass, fertilizers, electronic equipment, heavy electrical machinery, aircraft parts and paper-making. There is an oil refinery at Vishakhapatnam, where India's only major shipbuilding yards are situated. In 1983 a steel plant was under construction at Vishakhapatnam and a railway repair shop at Tirupathi. Cottage industry includes the manufacture of carpets, wooden and lacquer toys, brocades, bidriware, filigree and lace-work. The wooden toys of Nirmal and Kondapalli are particularly well known. Sericulture is developing rapidly. District Industries Centres have been set up to promote small-scale industry. Tourism is growing; the main centres are Hyderabad, Nagaijunasagar, Warangal, Araku Valley, Horsley Hills and Tirupathi. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 March 1986 there were 2,357 km of national highways, 8,387 km of state highways, 25,419 km of major district roads, 85,156 km of other roads. Number of vehicles: 408,341 motor cycles and scooters, 64,173 cars and jeeps, 61,252 goods vehicles and 13,237 buses. Railways. In 1985-86 there were approximately 5,090 route-km of railway, of which 3,079 km were broad gauge. Aviation. There are airports at Hyderabad, Tirupathi, Vijayawada and Vishakapatnam, with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta, Bangalore and Madras. A feeder airline serves Rajahmundry and Cuddapah. Shipping. The chief port is Vishakhapatnam. There are minor ports at Kakinada, Machilipatnam, Bheemunipatnam, Narsapur, Krishnapatnam, Vadarevu and Kalingapatnam. JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. The high court of Judicature at Hyderabad has a Chief Justice and 22 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1981 census Hindus numbered 47,525,681; Moslems, 4,533,700; Christians, 1,433,327; Jains 18,642; Sikhs, 16,222; Buddhists, 12,930. Education. In 1981, 29 -94% of the population were literate (39-13% of men and 20-52% of women). There were, in 1984-85 41,702 primary schools (4,835,050 students); 5,445 upper primary (1,693,586); 4,679 secondary (2,248,201). Education is free for children up to 14. There were in 1985—86 353 degree colleges, 635 junior colleges, 53 oriental colleges and 13 universities: Osmania University, Hyderabad; Andhra University,

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Waltair, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupathi; Kakatiya University, Warangal; Nagaijuna University, Guntur; Sri Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad; Central University, Hyderabad; A.P. Agricultural University, Hyderabad; Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur, Smt. Padmarathi Mahila Vishwaridyalayam (University for Women), Tirupathi; A. P. Open University, Hyderabad; Telugu University, Hyderabad and A. P. Medical University, Vijayawada.

ARUNACHAL PRADESH H I S T O R Y . In Jan. 1972 the former North East Frontier Agency of Assam was created a Union Territory. In Dec. 1986, by the Constitution (55th Amendment) and State of Arunachal Pradesh Acts, the Territory became the 24th state of India. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in north-east India and is bounded by Assam, Bhutan, China and Burma; it comprises the former frontier divisions of Kameng, Tirap, Subansiri, Siang and Lohit; it has an area of 81,426 sq. km and a population (1981 census) of628,050; growth, 1971-81,34-34%; density, 7 per sq. km. The state is mainly tribal; there are over 80 tribes using about 50 tribal dialects. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . There is a Legislative Assembly of 30 members. Elections were to be held during 1987. The capital is Itanagar. Lieut.-Governor: B. Narayan Singh. ChiefMinister: Gegong Apang. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S . About 60% of the land area is forest, and most is mountainous. There is some farming on terraced land; crops include rice, rubber, coffee, fruits and spices. Agriculture employs about 46% of the population.

ASSAM H I S T O R Y . Assam first became a British Protectorate at the close of the first Burmese War in 1826. In 1832 Cachar was annexed; in 1835 the Jaintia Hills were included in the East India Company's dominions, and in 1839 Assam was annexed to Bengal. In 1874 Assam was detached from Bengal and made a separate chief commissionership. On the partition of Bengal in 1905, it was united to the Eastern Districts of Bengal under a Lieut.-Governor. From 1912 the chief commissionership of Assam was revived, and in 1921 a governorship was created. On the partition of India almost the whole of the predominantly Moslem district of Sylhet was merged with East Bengal (Pakistan). Dewangiri in North Kamrup was ceded to Bhutan in 1951. The Naga Hill district, administered by the Union Government since 1957, became part ofNagaland in 1962. The autonomous state ofMeghalaya within Assam, comprising the districts of Garo Hills and Khasi and Jaintia Hills, came into existence on 2 April 1970, and achieved full independent statehood in Jan. 1972, when it was also decided to form a Union Territory, Mizoram (now a state), from the Mizo Hills district. E V E N T S . In Aug. 1985 there was an agreement between central government and anti-immigration parties, led by the Assam Peoples' Front. Settlers coming in illegally between 1966 and 1971 are disenfranchised for 10 years; those coming illegally since 1971 are to be expelled. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Assam is in eastern India, almost separated from central India by Bangladesh. It is bounded west by West Bengal, north by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh, east by Nagaland, Manipur and Burma, south by Meghalaya, Bangladesh, Mizoram and Tripura. The area of the state is now

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approximately 78,523 sq km. Its population (1981 census) 19-9m. Density, 254 per sq. km. Growth rate since 1971, 36-09%. Principal towns with population (1971) are; Gauhati, 122,981; Dibrugarh, 80,344; Tinsukia, 55,392; Nowgong, 52,892; Silchar, 52,612. The principal language is Assamese. The central government is surveying the line of a proposed boundary fence to prevent illegal entry from Bangladesh. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Assam has a unicameral legislature of 126 members. In Dec. 1985 elections were held and an Assam Peoples' Front government was returned. The temporary capital is Dispur. Governor: B. N. Singh. Chief Minister:?. Kumar Mahanta. B U D G E T . The budget estimates for 1984-85 showed revenue account receipts of Rs 656-51 crores and expenditure of Rs 752-22 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1984-85 there was an installed capacity of about 600 mw and 9,555 villages (out of21,995) with electricity. New power stations are under construction at Bongaigaon and Lakwa, Namrup and Karbi-Langpi hydro-electricity project. Oil. Assam contains important oilfields and produces about 50% of India's crude oil. There is also natural gas. Water. In 1983-84, 2-7m. hectares were irrigated; 2 major and 10 minor projects were in hand in 1985. Minerals. Coal production (1983), 751,000 tonnes. The state also has limestone, refractory clay, dolomite, and corundum. Agriculture. There are 770 tea plantations, and growing tea is the principal industry. Production in 1983, 321m. kg, over 50% of Indian tea. Over 72% of the cultivated area is under food crops, of which the most important is rice. Total foodgrains, 1983-84, 22-73m. tonnes. Main cash crops: jute, tea, cotton, oilseeds, sugar-cane, fruit and potatoes. Wheat has been introduced recently and yielded 121,000 tonnes in 1983-84. Cattle are important. Forestry. There are 17,272 -98 sq. km of reserved forests under the administration of the Forest Department and 10,063-81 sq. km of unclassed forests, altogether about 30% of the total area of the state. Revenue from forests, 1980-81, Rs 122m. I N D U S T R Y . Sericulture and hand-loom weaving, both silk and cotton, are important home industries together with the manufacture of brass, cane and bamboo articles. Hand-loom weaving of silk is stimulated by state and central development schemes. There is a silk-spinning mill and 25 cotton-mills. The main heavy industry is petro-chemicals; there are 3 oil refineries. Other industries include manufacturing paper, fertilizers, sugar, jute and plywood products, rice and oil milling. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 24,359 km of road maintained by the Public Works Department in Assam, including national highway. There were 100,459 motor vehicles in the state in 1983. Railways. The route km of railways in 1983-84 was 2,181 km, of which 105-22 km are broad gauge. Aviation. Daily scheduled flights connect the principal towns with the rest of India. There are airports at Gauhati, Tezpur, Jorhat, North Lakhimpur, Silchar and Dibrugarh. Shipping. Water transport is important in Lower Assam; the main waterway is the Brahmaputra River. Cargo carried in 1986 was 65,000 tonnes.

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J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. The seat of the High Court is Gauhati. It has a Chief Justice and 6 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 10,604,618; Moslems, 3,592,124; Christians, 381,010; Buddhists,22,565; Jains, 12,914; Sikhs, 11,920. Education. The 1971 census showed 28 • 74% of the population to be literate. In 1980-81 there were 21,723 primary/junior basic schools; 4,194 middle/senior basic; 1,994 high/higher secondary. There were 139 colleges for general education, 3 medical colleges, 3 engineering and 1 agricultural, 38 teacher-training colleges and 3 universities. Goswami, P C., Economic Development ofAssam. London, 1963 Reid, Sir Robert, History ofthe Frontier Areas Bordering on Assam. Shillong, 1942

BIHAR The state contains the ethnic areas of North Bihar, Santhalpargana and Chota Nagpur. In 1956 certain areas of Pumea and Manbhum districts were transferred to West Bengal. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Bihar is in north India and is bounded nprth by Nepal, east by West Bengal, south by Orissa, south-west by Madhya Pradesh and west by Uttar Pradesh. The area of Bihar is 173,876 sq. km and its population (1981 census, revised), 69,914,734, a density of402 per sq. km. Growth rate since 1971,23-9%. Population of principal towns, see p. 623. Other large towns (1981): Muzaflarpur, 189,765; Darbhanga, 175,879; Biharsharif, 151,305; Munghyr, 129,187; Arrah, 124,614; Katihar, 121,693; Dhanbad, 119,807; Chapra, 111,407; Pumea, 109,649; Bermo, 101,502. The official language is Hindi and the second language Urdu. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Bihar has a unicameral legislature. The Legislative Assembly consists of325 elected members. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. For the purposes of administration the state is divided into 10 divisions covering 38 districts. The capital is Patna. Governor: P. Venkatasubbiah. Chief'Minister B. Dubey. B U D G E T . The budget estimates for 1981-82 show total receipts of Rs 15,221 -3m and expenditure of Rs 14,443 • 5 m. Per capita income (1983) Rs 870. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity (1983) 939-68 mw. Power generated (1983-84), 2,219m. kw. In Feb. 1984 there were 29,702 villages with electricity. Hydroelectric projects in hand in 1984 will add about 50mw. capacity. Minerals. Bihar is very rich in minerals, with about 40% of national production. There are huge deposits of copper, capatite and kyanite and sizeable deposits of coal, mica and china clay. Bihar is a principal producer of iron ore. Other important minerals: manganese, limestone, graphite, chromite, asbestos, barytes, dolomite, feldspar, columbite, pyrites, saltpetre, glass sands, slate, lead, silver, building stones and radio-active minerals. Agriculture. About 26% of the cultivable area is irrigated. Cultivable land, 11 -5m. hectares, of a total area of 17-4m. hectares. Total cropped area, 1984, 8-5m. hectares. Main food crops are rice, wheat, maize, rabi and pulses. Main cash crops are jute, sugar-cane, oilseeds, tobacco and potato. Forests in 1984 covered 30,896 hectares. There are 12 protected forests.

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INDUSTRY. Main plants are the Tata Iron and Steel Co., the Tata Engineering and Locomotive Co., the steel plant at Bokaro, oil refinery at Barauni, Heavy Engineering Corporation and Foundry Forge project at Ranchi, and aluminium plant at Muri. Other important industries are machine tools, fertilizers, electrical engineering, sugar-milling, paper-milling, silk-spinning, manufacturing explosives and cement. There is a copper smelter at Ghatsila and a zinc plant at Tundo. Industrial disputes lost 1 • 18m. man-days in 1979. T O U R I S M . The main tourist centres are Bodh Gaya, Patna, Nalanda, Jamshedpur, Sasaram, Betla, Hazaribagh and Vaishali. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1972 the state had 116,575 km of highway (including 88,040 km of unmetalled roads). Passenger transport has been nationalized in 7 districts. There were 181,694 motor vehicles in 1980-81. Railways. The North Eastern and Eastern railways traverse the state. Aviation. There are airports at Patna and Ranchi with regular scheduled services to Calcutta and Delhi. Shipping. The length of waterways open for navigation is 900 miles. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a High Court (constituted in 1916) at Patna, and a bench at Ranchi, with a Chief Justice, 32 puisne judges and 4 additional judges. Police. The police force is under a Director General of Police; in 1983 there were 957 police stations (and 56 for railway police). Religion. At the 1961 census Hindus numbered 39,347,050; Moslems, 5,785,631 ; Christians, 502,195; Sikhs, 44,413; Jains, 17,598; Buddhists, 2,885. Education. At the census of 1981 the number of literates was 18- 16m. (26%: males 37-78%; females, 13-58%). There were, 1971, 2,581 high and higher secondary schools with 601,000 pupils, 8,025 middle schools with 965,000 pupils, 46,582 primary schools with 5,009,000 pupils. Primary schools had 144,559 teachers, higher secondary and high schools 25,740. Education is free for children aged 6-11. There were 7 universities in academic year 1972-73; Patna University (founded 1917) with 12,577 full-time students (1970); Bihar University, Muzaffarpur (1952) with 4 constituent colleges, 35 affiliated colleges and 41,640 students (1970); Bhagalpur University (1960) with 40,746 students (1970); Ranchi University (1960) with 36,892 students (1968-69); Darbhanga Sanskrit University (1961); Magadha University, Gaya ( 1962) and Mithila University ( 1972), Darbhanga. Health. In 1983 there were 259 hospitals with 19,583 beds, and 861 dispensaries with 4,166 beds. Das, A. N., Agrarian Movements in India: Studies in 20th Century Bihar. London, 1982

GUJARAT HISTORY. On 1 May 1960, as a result of the Bombay Reorganization Act, 1960, the state of Gujarat was formed from the north and west (predominantly Gujaratispeaking) portion of Bombay State, the remainder being renamed the state of Maharashtra. Gujarat consists of the following districts of the former state of Bombay: Banas Kantha, Mehsana, Sabar Kantha, Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panch Mahals, Vadodara, Bharuch, Surat, Dangs, Amreli, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Jamnagar, Junagadh, Bhavnagar, Kutch, Gandhinagar and Bulsar. AREA A N D POPULATION. Gujarat is in western India and is bounded north by Pakistan and Rajasthan, east by Madhya Pradesh, south-east by Maha-

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rashtra, south and west by the Indian ocean and Arabian sea. The area of the state is 195,984 sq. km and the population at the 1981 census (revised) was 34,086,000; a density of 174 per sq. km. Growth rate 1971-81, 27-2%. The chief cities, see p. 623. Gujarati and Hindi in the Devanagari script are the official languages. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Gujarat has a unicameral legislature, the Legislative Assembly, which has 182 elected members. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. The capital is Gandhinagar. There are 19 districts. Governor: Ram Krishna Trivedi. ChiefMinister: Amarsinh Chaudhury. B U D G E T . The budget estimates for 1986-87 showed an overall deficit of Rs 41-21 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1985 the total generating capacity was 3,383 mw of electricity, serving 34,500towns and villages and 322,681 wells and tube-wells. Oil and Gas. There were crude oil and gas reserves in 23 fields in 1982-83. Production: Crude oil, 3 -2m. tonnes; gas, 658 • 5m. cu. metres. Minerals. Chief minerals produced in 1983 (in tonnes) included lime stone (3-6m.), agate stone (541), calcite (612), quartz and silica (204,459), bauxite (520,000), crude china clay (10,557), refined china clays (10,335), dolomite (279,232), crude fluorite (105,886), graded fluorite (348), calcareous and sea sand (630,000) and lignite (646,000). Enormous reserves of coal were found under the Kalol and Mehsana oil and gas fields in May 1980. The deposit, mixed with crude petroleum, is estimated at 100,000m. tonnes, extending over 500 km. Agriculture. In 1985-86 drought was exceptionally severe. Cropped area, 1981-82, was 10-9m. hectares. Area and production of principal crops, 1984-85 (in 1,000 hectares and 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 566 and 835; groundnuts, 2,061 and 1,572; cotton, 1,383 and 2,069,000 bales of 170 kg. Total cropped area 3-9m. hectares producing 4 • 7m. tonnes. Livestock (1982): Buffaloes, 4-43m.; other cattle, 6-93m.; sheep, 2-33m.; goats, 3 -26m.; horses and ponies, 24,000. Fisheries. There were (1984) about 225,000 people engaged in fisheries. There were 11,774 fishing vessels (4,245 motor vessels). The catch for 1982-83 (estimate) was 212,419 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y . Gujarat is one of the 4 most industrialized states. In 1985 there were more than 70,000 small-scale units and 13,000 factories including 1,328 textile factories. There were 167 industrial estates. Principal industries are textiles, general and electrical engineering, petrochemicals, machine tools, heavy chemicals, pharmaceuticals, dyes, sugar, soda ash and cement. Large fertilizer plants have been set up and there is an oil refinery at Koyali near Vadodara, with a developing petro-chemical complex. State production of soda-ash is 90-4% of national output, and of salt, about 60%. Salt production (1984) 8-4m. tonnes; cement production, 142,100 tonnes. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 57,845 km of roads. Gujarat State Transport Corporation operated 13,284 routes. Railways. In 1983 the state had 5,633 km of railway line. Aviation. Ahmedabad is the main airport. There are 5 services daily between Ahmedabad and Bombay, Jaipur and Delhi. There are 8 other airports: Baroda, Bhavnagar, Bhuj, Jamnagar, Kandla, Keshod, Porbandar and Rajkot.

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Shipping. The largest port is Kandla. There are 39 other ports, 11 intermediate, 28 minor. Post. There were (March 1984-85) 9,000 post offices, 2,000 telegraph offices. Ahmedabad has direct dialling telephone connexion (or night S.T.D.j with 273 cities and 16 foreign countries. There were 227,000 telephone connexions in the state. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Ahmedabad has a Chief Justice and 18 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 23,835,471; Moslems, 2,249,055; Jains, 451,578; Christians, 109,341; Sikhs, 18,233; Buddhists, 5,469. Education. In 1981 the number of literates was 14-85m. (43-7%). Primary and secondary education up to Standard XI are free. Education above Standard XII is free for girls. In 1984-85 there were 27,087 primary schools; nearly all villages with more than 200 people have one within 1-5 km. There were 4,125 secondary schools including 1,416 higher secondary schools. There are 7 universities in the state. Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, founded in 1949, is teaching and affiliating; it has 149 affiliated colleges. The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Vadodara (1949) is residential and teaching. The Sardar Patel University, Vallabh-Vidyanagar, (1955) has 16 constituent and affiliated colleges. The 2 newer universities (1967) are Saurashtra University at Rajkot with 54 affiliated colleges, and South Gujarat at Surat with 37. Bhavnagar University (1978) is residential and teaching with 7 affiliated colleges. North Gujarat University was established at Patan in 1986. Gujarat Vidyapith at Ahmedabad is deemed a university under the University Grants Commission Act. There were also 1 agricultural and 1 Ayurvedic university. There are 9 engineering colleges, 24 polytechnics, 5 medical colleges, 6 agricultural, 3 pharmaceutical and 2 veterinary. In 1984-85 the total number of higher education institutes was 400, with 213,000 students. Health. In 1985 there were 260 primary health centres and 4,869 sub-centres. Rushbrook Williams, L. F., The Black Hills: Kutch in History and Legend. L o n d o n , 1958 Desai, I. F., Untouchability in Rural Gujarat. Bombay, 1977

HARYANA H I S T O R Y . The state of Haryana, created on 1 Nov. 1966 under the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966, was formed from the Hindi-speaking parts of the state of Punjab (India). It comprises the districts of Hissar, Mohindergarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Karnal; parts of Sangrur and Ambala districts; and part of Kharar tehsil. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Haryana is in north India and is bounded north by Himachal Pradesh, east by Uttar Pradesh, south and west by Rajasthan and north-west by Punjab. Delhi forms an enclave on its eastern boundary. The state has an area of44,222 sq. km and a population (1981) of 12,850,902; density, 291 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,28 -04%. The principal language is Hindi. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The state has a unicameral legislature with 90 members. After the elections of May 1982 when 89 seats were contested, Congress (I) held 36 seats; Lok Dal, 31; independents, 12 and others, 10. The state shares with Punjab (India) a High Court, a university and certain public services. The capital (shared with Punjab) is Chandigarh (see p. 684). Its transfer to Punjab, intended for 1986, has been postponed. There are 12 districts. Governor: S. M. H. Burney. Chief Minister: Bansi Lai.

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B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1981-82 show income of Rs 872 crores and expenditure of Rs 921 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Approximately 1,000 mw are supplied to Haryana, mainly from the Bhakra Nangar system. In 1982-83 installed capacity was 1,385 mw and all the 3,302 villages had electric power. Minerals. Minerals include placer gold, barytes and rare earths. Value of production, 1984-85, Rs 39m. Agriculture. Haryana has sandy soil and erratic rainfall, but the state shares the benefit of the Sutlej-Beas scheme. Agriculture employs over 82% of the working population; in 1981 there Were about 900,000 holdings (average 3 • 7 hectares), and the gross irrigated area was 1 -97m. hectares. Area under high-yielding varieties of foodgrains, 2-2m. hectares. During 1983-84 foodgrain production was 6-9m. tonnes; sugar (gur), oilseeds, and wheat, are important. Forests cover 3 • 3% of the state. I N D U S T R Y . Haryana has a large market for consumer goods in neighbouring Delhi. In 1984—85 there were 348 large and medium scale industries employing 120,000 and producing goods worth over Rs 10,000m. There were 58,250 small units. The main industries are cotton textiles (27 mills in 1984-85), agricultural machinery, woollen textiles, scientific instruments, glass, cement, paper and sugar milling, cars, tyres and tubes, motor cycles, bicycles, steel tubes, engineering goods, electrical and electronic goods. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) about 19,415 km of metalled roads, linking all villages. Road transport is nationalized. There were 139,890 motor vehicles in 1982-83. Railways. The state is crossed by lines from Delhi to Agra, Ajmer, Ferozepur and Chandigarh. Route km, 1983-84, 1,501. The main stations are at Ambala and Kurukshetra. Aviation. There is no airport within the state but Delhi is on its eastern boundary. J U S T I C E AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. Haryana shares the High Court of Punjab and Haryana at Chandigarh. Education. In 1981 the number of literates was 4-6m. In 1984-85 there were 7,962 schools and colleges with 2,433,000 attending. This includes 4,928 primary schools, 1,801 high and higher secondary schools, 1,105 middle schools and 128 colleges.

HIMACHAL PRADESH H I S T O R Y . The territory came into being on 15 April 1948 and comprised 30 former Hill States. The state of Bilaspur was merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1954. The 6 original districts were: Mahasu, Sirmur, Mandi, Chamba, Bilaspur and Kinnaur. On 1 Nov. 1966, under the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966, certain parts of the state of Punjab (India) were transferred to Himachal Pradesh. These comprise the districts of Shimla, Kulu, Kangra, and Lahaul and Spiti; and parts of Hoshiarpur and Ambala districts. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Himachal Pradesh is in north India and is bounded north by Kashmir, east by Tibet, south-east by Uttar Pradesh, south by Haryana, south-west and west by Punjab. The area of the state is 55,673 sq. km and it had a population at the 1981 census of 4,280,818. Density, 77 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,23-71%. Principal language is Pahari.

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C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Full statehood was attained, as the 18th state ofthe Union, on 25 Jan. 1971. On 1 Sept. 1972 districts were reorganized and 2 new districts created, Hamirpur and I Jna, making a total of 12. The capital is Shimla. There is a unicameral legislature. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. Governor: Vice Adm. (Retd.) R. K. S. Gandhi. Chief Minister: V. Bhadra Singh. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1986-87 showed revenue receipts of Rs 498-22 (1985-86, Rs 468-36 crores) crores (including central assistance and centrallysponsored schemes) and expenditure on revenue account of Rs 435 -12 crores (Rs 376-68 crores). The capital account showed expenditure of Rs 239-57 crores (Rs 229-60 crores). ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In March 1986,15,015 villages had electricity. Power generation is the first priority of the 7 th five-year plan. Water. An artificial confluence of the Sutlej and Beas rivers has been made, directing their united flow into Govind Sagar Lake. Minerals. The state has rock salt, slate, gypsum, limestone, barytes, dolomite and pyrites. Agriculture. Farming employs 76% of the people. Irrigated area is 26% of the area sown. Main crops are seed potatoes, wheat, maize, rice and fruits such as apples, peaches, apricots, nuts, pomegranates. Production offoodgrains( 1984) 1 -04m. tonnes. Livestock (1977 census): Buffaloes, 384,497; other cattle, 2,106,220; goats, 1,035,337. Forestry. Himachal Pradesh forests cover 38 • 3% of the state and supply the largest quantities of coniferous timber in northern India. They are the main source of revenue of Pradesh. The forests also ensure the safety of the catchment areas of the Jumna, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi and Chenab rivers. I N D U S T R Y . The main sources of employment are the forests and their related industries; there are factories making turpentine and rosin. The state also makes fertilizers, cement and TV sets. There is a foundry and a brewery. Other industries include salt production and handicrafts, including weaving. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The national highway from Chandigarh runs through Shimla; other main highways from Shimla serve Kulu, Manali, Kangra, Chemba and Pathankot. The rest are minor roads. Pathankot is also on national highways from Punjab to Kashmir. Railways. There is a line from Chandigarh to Shimla, and the Jammu-Delhi line runs through Pathankot. A Nangal-Talwara rail link has been approved by the central government (1985). Aviation. The state has a small airport at Bhuntar near Kulu. In 1986 a second airport was under construction at Jubbarhathi, near Shimla. J U S T I C E . The state has its own High Court at Shimla. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985,42 98% ofthe population was literate.

JAMMU A N D KASHMIR H I S T O R Y . The state of Jammu and Kashmir, which had earlier been under Hindu rulers and Moslem sultans, became part of the Mogul Empire under Akbar from 1586. After a period of Afghan rule from 1756, it was annexed to the Sikh

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kingdom of the Punjab in 1819. In 1820 Ranjit Singh made over the territory of Jammu to Gulab Singh. After the decisive battle of Sobraon in 1846 Kashmir also was made over to Gulab Singh under the Treaty of Amritsar. British supremacy was recognized until the Indian Independence Act, 1947, when all states decided on accession to India or Pakistan. Kashmir asked for standstill agreements with both. Pakistan agreed, but India desired further discussion with the Government of Jammu and Kashmir State. In the meantime the state became subject to armed attack from the territory of Pakistan and the Maharajah acceded to India on 26 Oct. 1947, by signing the Instrument of Accession. India approached the UN in Jan. 1948; India-Pakistan conflict ended by ceasefire in Jan. 1949. Further conflict in 1965 was followed by the Tashkent Declaration on Jan. 1966. Following further hostilities between India and Pakistan a ceasefire came into effect on 17 Dec. 1971, followed by the Simla Agreement in July 1972, whereby a new line of control was delineated bilaterally through negotiations between India and Pakistan and came into force on 17 Dec. 1972. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in the extreme north and is bounded north by China, east by Tibet, south by Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and west by Pakistan. The area is 222,236 sq. km, of which about 78,932 sq. km is occupied by Pakistan and 42,735 sq. km by China; the population of the territory on the Indian side of the line, 1981 census, was 5,981,600. Growth rate, 1971-81, 29-57%. For the population of Srinagar, see p. 623. TTie official language is Urdu; other commonly spoken languages are Kashmiri, Dogri, Balti, Ladakhi and Punjabi. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Maharajah's son, Yuvraj Karan Singh, took over as Regent in 1950 and, on the ending of hereditary rule (17 Oct. 1952), was sworn m as Sadar-i-Riyasat. On his father's death (26 April 1961) Yuvraj Karan Singh was recognized as Maharajah by the Indian Government; he decided not to use the title while he was elected head of state. The permanent Constitution of the state came into force in part on 17 Nov. 1956 and fully on 26 Jan. 1957. There is a bicameral legislature; the Legislative Council has 36 members and the Legislative Assembly has 76. Since the 1967 elections the 6 representatives of Jammu and Kashmir in the central House of the People are directly elected; there are 4 representatives in the Council of States. The state assembly was suspended in March 1986. The state was placed under Governor's rule on 7 March 1986 and then under President's rule on 6 Sept. 1986. A caretaker coalition government took office in Nov. 1986. Kashmir Province has 8 districts and Jammu Province has 6 districts. Srinagar is the summer and Jammu the winter capital. Governor: Jag Mohan. Chief Minister: Farooq Abdullah. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1980-81 show revenue of Rs 576-62 crores, and expenditure ofRs 578-37 crores. Total planning expenditure for 1980-81 was Rs 147-48 crores., of which agriculture and allied sectors received Rs 26-38 crores; power Rs 21-25 crores; water supply Rs 16-50 crores and irrigation and flood control Rs 16 -00 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity (1983-84) 208-93 mw.; 5,468 villages had electricity. Minerals. Value of production, 1976, Rs 5-46m. Minerals include coal, bauxite and gypsum. Agriculture. About 80% of the population are supported by agriculture. Rice, wheat and maize are the major cereals. The total area under food crops (1983-84) was estimated at 860,900 hectares. Total foodgrains produced, 1983-84, 1 -14m. tonnes. Fruit is important; exports (1983-84 estimate), 4- 5m. quintals.

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The Agrarian Reforms Act came into force in July 1978; the Debtors Relief Act and the Restriction of Mortgage Properties Act also alleviate rural distress. The redistribution of land to cultivators is continuing. Livestock (1982): Cattle, 2,325,200; buffaloes, 5,631,000; goats, 1,003,900; sheep, 1,908,700; horses, 973,000, and poultry, 2,406,760. Forestry. Forests cover about 20,891-89 sq. km., forming an important source of revenue, besides providing employment to a large section of the population. About 20,174 sq. km of forests yield valuable timber; state income in 1983-84 was Rs 340m. I N D U S T R Y . There are 2 central public sector industries and 30 medium-scale (latter employing 6,468 in 1984). Thé largest industrial complex is the Bari Brahmara estate in Jammu which covers 320 acres and accommodates diverse manufacturing, as does the Khanmuh estate. The Sopore industrial area in Kashmir Division is intended for industries based on horticulture. There are 14,920 small units (1983-84) employing 68,912. The main traditional handicraft industries are silk spinning and carpet-weaving. Value of total industrial production, 1983-84, Rs 1,573m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Kashmir is linked with the rest of India by the motorable JammuPathankot road. The Jawahar Tunnel, through the Banihal mountain, connects Srinagar and Jammu, and maintains road communication with the Kashmir Valley during the winter months. In 1982 there were 11,797 km of roads; work on the Batote-Kishtwar road was in progress, up-grading to National Highway standard. There were 52,930 motor vehicles in 1983-84. Railways. Kashmir was linked with the Indian railway system on 3 Dec. 1972 when the line between Jammu and Pathankot was opened. Aviation. Major airports, with daily service from Delhi, are at Srinagar and Jammu. Srinagar airport is being developed as an international airport. Post. There were 1,290 post offices in 1980,82 telephone exchanges and approximately 12,120 private telephones. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The High Court, at Srinagar and Jammu, has a Chief Justice and 4 puisne judges. Religion. The majority of the population, except in Jammu, are Moslems. At the 1971 census Moslems numbered 3,040,129; Hindus, 1,404,292; Sikhs, 105,873; Buddhists, 57,956; Christians, 7,182; Jains, 1,150. Education. The proportion of literates was 27% in 1981. Education is free. There are (1981) 9,715 schools and about 953,000 children attend. Jammu and Srinagar Universities (founded 1948) have 37 teaching departments and 42 affiliated colleges. There are 2 medical colleges, an engineering college, 1 agricultural college, 2 polytechnics, 12 professional colleges, 8 oriental colleges and an Ayurvedic college. Health. In 1983-84 there were 45 hospitals, 93 primary health centres and 425 units, 679 clinics and dispensaries, and 483 other units. There were 2,036 doctors. There is a National Institute of Medical Sciences. Bamzai, P. N. K „A History of Kashmir. Delhi, 1962 Gupta, S., Kashmir: A Study in IndiaPakistan Relations. London, 1967

KARNATAKA H I S T O R Y . The state of Kamataka, constituted as Mysore under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, brought together the Kannada-speaking people distributed in 5 states, and consisted of the territories of the old states of Mysore and

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Coorg, the Bijapur, Kanara and Dharwar districts and the Belgaum district (except one taluk) in former Bombay, the major portions of the Gulbarga, Raichur and Bidar districts in former. Hyderabad, and South Kanara district (apart from the Kasaragod taluk) and the Kollegal taluk of the Coimbatore district in Madras. The state was renamed Karnataka in 1973. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in south India and is bounded north by Maharashtra, east by Andhra Pradesh, south by Tamil Nadu and Kerala, west by the Indian ocean and north-east by Goa. The area of the state is 191,791 sq. km, and its population (1981 census), 37,135,714, an increase of 26-43% since 1971. Density, 193 per sq. km. Kannada is the language of administration and is spoken by about 66% of the people. Other languages include Telugu (8 -2%),"Urdu (9%), Marathi (4-5%), Tamil (3-6%), Tulu and Konkani. Principal cities, see p. 623. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Karnataka has a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Council has 63 members. The Legislative Assembly consists of 225 elected members. After elections in March 1985 the Janata party formed a government. The state has 19 districts (of which Coorg is one) in 4 divisions: Bangalore, Mysore, Belgaum and Gulbarga. The capital is Bangalore. Governor: A. N. Baneijee. Chief Minister: Ramakrishna Hegde. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1983-84 showed a deficit of Rs 171-84 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1983 the state's installed capacity was 2,009-8 mw. Water. About 1 -48m. hectares were irrigated in 1984. Minerals. Karnataka is an important source of gold and silver. The estimated reserves of high grade iron ore are 5,000m. tonnes. These reserves are found mainly in the Chitradurga belt. The National Mineral Development Corporation of India has indicated total reserves of nearly 1,000m. tonnes of magnesite and iron ore (with an iron content ranging from 25 to 40) which have been found in Kudremukh Ganga-Mula region in Chickmagalur District. The estimated reserves of manganese are over 100m. tonnes. Limestone is found in many regions; deposits (1984) are about 2,184m. tonnes. Karnataka is the largest producer of chromite. It is one of the only two states of India producing magnesite. The other minerals of industrial importance are corundum and garnet. Agriculture. Agriculture forms the main occupation of more than three-quarters of the population. Physically, Karnataka divides itself into four regions-the coastal region, the southern and northern 'maidan' or plain country, comprising roughly the districts of Bangalore, Tumkur, Chitaldrug, Kolar, Bellary, Mandya and Mysore, and the 'malnad' or hill country, comprising the districts of Chickmagalur, Hassan and Shimoga. Rainfall is heavy in the 'malnad' tracts, and in this area there is dense forest. The greater part of the 'maidan' country is cultivated. Coorg district is essentially agricultural. The main food crops are rice and jowar, and ragi which is also about 30% of the national crop. Sugar, groundnut, castor-seed, safflower, mulberry silk and cotton are important cash crops. The state grows about 70% of the national coffee crop. Production, 1983-84 (1,000 tonnes): Cotton, 559; sugar-cane, 109-2; tobacco, 158-2; chillies, 131-3; ground nuts, 119-9; caster seed, 134-7; sesamum, 252 -9. Livestock (1983): BufTaloes, 3,278,128; other cattle, 10,221,960; sheep, 4,536,481;goats,3,388,139. Forestry. Total forest in the state (1979) is 18% of the land area, producing sandal wood, bamboo and other timbers, and ivory.

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INDUSTRY. The Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works is situated at Bhadravati, while at Bangalore are national undertakings for the manufacture of aircraft, machine tools, light engineering and electronics goods. Other industries include textiles, vehicle manufacture, cement, chemicals, sugar, paper, porcelain and soap. In addition, much of the world's sandalwood is processed, the oil being one of the most valuable productions of the state. Sericulture is a more important cottage industry giving employment, directly or indirectly, to about 2-4m. persons; production is about 3,000 tonnes, over two-thirds of national production. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982-83 the state had 102,151 km of roads. Railways. In 1983-84 there were 2,938 km ofrailway(including 154 km of narrow gauge) in the state. Aviation. There are airports at Bangalore, Mangalore and Belgaum, with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras. Shipping. Mangalore is a deep-water port for the export of mineral ores. Karwar is being developed as an intermediate port. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The seat of the High Court is at Bangalore. It has a Chief Justice and 11 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 25,332,388; Moslems, 3,113,298; Christians, 613,026; Jains, 218,862; Buddhists, 114,139; Sikhs, 6,830. Education. The number of literates, according to the 1981 census, was 38 -5m. In 1983-84 the state had 36,814 primary schools, 3,298 high schools, 568 schools for professional and technical education and 62 polytechnic and engineering schools. Education is free up to pre-university level. The University of Mysore (founded in 1916) at Mysore has 7 university colleges at Mysore and 134 affiliated colleges. Karnatak University (1950) at Dharwar has 4 constituent colleges and 95 affiliated colleges. Bangalore University (1964) has 46 constituent colleges, the University of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal, Bangalore, (1964) has 3 constituent colleges. There are two other universities: Gulbaiga and Mangalore. The Indian Institute of Science. Bangalore, is unaffiliated; it conducts diploma courses in engineering, metallurgy and technology. There are 415 other colleges, including medical, law and commercial. Learmouth, A. T A., and Bhat, L. T., Mysore State 2 vols. London, 1961-62

KERALA HISTORY. The state of Kerala, created under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, consists of the previous state of Travancore-Cochin, except for 4 taluks of the Trivandrum district and a part of the Shencottah taluk of Quilon district. It took over the Malabar district (apart from the Laccadive and Minicoy Islands) and the Kas^ragod taluk of South Kanara (apart from the Amindivi Islands) from Madras State. AREA AND POPULATION. Kerala is in south India and is bounded north by Kamataka, east and south-east by Tamil Nadu, south-west and west by the Indian ocean. The state has an area of 38,863 sq. km. The 1981 census showed a population of25,453,680; density of population was 655 per sq. km (highest of any state). Growth rate, 1971-81,19%. Population of principal cities, see p. 623. Languages spoken in the state are Malayalam, Tamil and Kannada. The physical features of the land fall into three well-marked divisions: (1) the hilly tracts undulating from the Western Ghats in the east and marked by long

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spurs, extensive ravines and dense forests; (2) the cultivated plains intersected by numerous rivers and streams; and (3) the coastal belt with dense coconut plantations and rice fields. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. The state has a unicameral legislature of 140 members including the Speaker. After the elections of March 1987 the Indian National (I) Congress Party and allies held 60 seats, the Left Front (CPI, CPI (M) and allies), 76. The state has 14 districts. The capital is Trivandrum. Governor: E. K. Nayanar. Chief Minister: K. Karunakaran. B U D G E T . Revised budget estimates for 1985-86 showed total revenue receipts ofRs 1,156-30 crores, expenditure Rs 1,235-42 crores. Annual Plan expenditure, Rs 369 crores. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity (1983), 1,011-5 mw.; energy generated in 1982-83 was 4,487-7m. kw. Stage I of the Idukki hydro-electric plant has a capacity of 390 mw, the Sabarigiri scheme 300mw. Minerals. Next to Bihar, Kerala possesses the widest variety of economic mineral resources among the Indian States. The beach sands of Kerala contain monazite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon, sillimanite, etc. There are extensive whiteclay deposits; other minerals of commercial importance include mica, graphite, limestone, quartz sand and lignite. Iron ore has been found at Kozhikode (Calicut). Value of mineral production, 1983-84, Rs 2 -45m. Agriculture. The chief agricultural products are rice, tapioca, coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, oilseeds, pepper, sugar-cane, rubber, tea, coffee and cardamom. About 98% of Indian black pepper and about 95% of Indian rubber is produced in Kerala. Area and production of principal crops, 1983-84 (in 1,000 hectares and 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 740,1,208; black pepper, 106,25; arecanut, 60,8,318 (million nuts); bananas and other plantains, 49-3, 293-8; cashewnuts, 142, 77; coconuts, 682-5, 2,602 (million nuts); tea, 36 1,48-7; coffee, 57-9,21 -7; rubber, 271,162; tapioca, 233,3,924; cardamom, 54-5,1-9. Livestock (1982, provisional); Buffaloes, 7-4m.; other cattle, 3m.; goats, 2m. In 1982-83 milk production was 1 m. tonnes. Egg production, 1,018m. Forestry. About 24% of the area is comprised of forests, including teak, sandal wood, ebony and blackwood and varieties of softwood. Net forest revenue, 1983-84, Rs 40- 53 crores, from timber, bamboos, reeds and ivory. Fisheries. Fishing is a flourishing industry; the catch in 1983 was about 412,000 tonnes. Fish exports, 1983-84,32,840 tonnes valued at Rs 140 -8 crores. A shrimpculture project was approved in 1986, investment Rs 134 • 7 crores. INDUSTRIES. Most of the major industrial concerns are either owned or sponsored by the Government. Among the privately owned factories are the numerous cashew and coir factories. Other important factory industries are rubber, tea, tiles, oil, textiles, ceramics, fertilizers and chemicals, zinc-smelting, sugar, cement, rayon, glass, matches, pencils, monazite, ilmenite, titanium oxide, rare earths, aluminium, electrical goods, paper, shark-liver oil, etc. The number of factories registered under the Factories Act 1948 on 31 Dec. 1984 was 10,000, with daily average employment of286,000. Among the cottage industries, coir-spinning and handloom-weaving are the most important, forming the means of livelihood of a large section of the people. Other industries are-the village oil industry, ivory carving, furniture-making, bell metal, brass and copper ware, leather goods, screw-pines, mat-making, rattan work, bee-keeping, pottery, etc. These have been organized on a co-operative basis.

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983-84 there were 101,200 km of roads in the state; national highways, 839 km. There were 277,000 motor vehicles in 1983-84. Railways. There is a coastal line from Mangalore (Kamataka) which serves Cannanore, Mahe, Kozhikode (Calicut), Ernakulam (for Cochin), Quilon and Trivandrum, and connects them with main towns in Tamil Nadu. In 1982-83 there were 806 km broad gauge and 113 km metre gauge lines. Aviation. There are airports at Cochin and Trivandrum with regular scheduled services to Bombay and Madras; international flights leave Trivandrum for Sn Lanka. Shipping. Port Cochin, administered by the central government, is one of India's major ports; in 1983 it became the out-port for the Inland Container Depot at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu). There are 13 other ports and harbours. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The High Court at Ernakulam has a Chief Justice and 14 puisne judges and 3 additional judges. Religion. The majority are Hindus; other important faiths are Christianity and Islam. There are also some Jains. Education. Kerala is the most literate Indian State with 17m. literates at the 1981 census (70%). Education is free up to the age of 14. In 1983-84 there was a total school enrolment of 5-66m. students. There were 6,842 lower primary schools 2,822 upper primary schools and 2,331 high schools. Kerala University (established 1937) at Trivandrum, is affiliating and teaching; in 1982-83 it had 99 affiliated arts and science colleges. The University of Cochin is federal, and for post-graduate studies only. The University of Calicut (established 1968) is teaching and affiliating and has 69 affiliated colleges. Kerala Agricultural University (established 1971) has 3 constituent colleges. Gandhiji University at Kottayam was established in 1983.

MADHYA PRADESH HISTORY. Under the provisions of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the State of Madhya Pradesh was formed on 1 Nov. 1956. It consists of the 17 Hindi districts of the previous state of that name, the former state of Madhya Bharat (except the Sunel enclave of Mandsaur district), the former state of Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh and the Sironj subdivision of Kotah district, which was an enclave of Rajasthan in Madhya Pradesh. For information on the former states, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 8 , pp. 180-«4.

EVENTS. More than 2,000 were killed by a leakage of toxic gas from a pesticide plant near Bhopal in Dec. 1984. the plant (Union Carbide) was closed. AREA AND POPULATION. The state is in central India and is bounded north by Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, east by Bihar and Orissa, south by Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, west by Gujarat. Madhya Pradesh is the largest Indian state in size, with an area of 442,841 sq. km. In respect of population it ranks sixth. Population (1981 census), 52,138,467, an increase of 25-15% since 1971. Density, 118 persq. km. Cities with over 250,000 population, see p. 623. Other large cities (1981): Sagar, 207,401; Bilaspur, 186,885; Ratlam, 156,490; Burhanpur, 141,142; MudwariKatni, 125,096; Khandwa, 114,463;Rewa, 100,519. The number of persons speaking each of the more prevalent languages (1971 census) were: Hindi, 32,873,079; Urdu, 988,275; Marathi, 1,385,952; Gujarati, 155,723.

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C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Madhya Pradesh is one of the 9 states for which the Constitution provides a bicameral legislature, but the Vidhan Parishad or Upper House (to consist of 90 members) has yet to be formed. The Vidhan Sabha or Lower House has 320 elected members. Following the election of March 1985, a Congress government was returned, with 250 out of350 seats. For administrative purposes the state has been split into 11 divisions with a Commissioner at the head of each; the headquarters of these are located at Bhopal, Bilaspur, Gwalior (2), Hoshangabad, Indore, Jabalpur, Raipur, Rewa, Sagar and Ujjain. TTiere are 45 districts. The seat of government is at Bhopal. Governor: Prof. K. M. Chandy. Chief Minister: (Vacant). B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1982-83 showed total revenue ofRs 14,26,51-83 lakhs, and expenditure of Rs 12,68,30 lakhs. Receipts included: Contributions and adjustments between central and state governments, Rs 4,84,55-97 lakhs; taxes on income, Rs 81,92 lakhs; state excise, Rs 68,63 - 70 lakhs; stamps and registration, Rs 26,45 lakhs; forests, Rs 1,95,00 lakhs; sales tax, Rs 2,40,96 lakhs; vehicles taxes, Rs 26,11 lakhs; debt services, Rs 77,49-27 lakhs; civil administration, Rs 22,39-68 lakhs; land revenue, Rs 12,98-00 lakhs. Expenditure included: Education, Rs 2,11,24-16 lakhs; public works and improvements, Rs 55,26-89 lakhs; irrigation, embankment, etc., Rs 40,24-01 lakhs; medical, and public health, Rs 1,34,46-65 lakhs; police, Rs 83,32-72 lakhs; agriculture, Rs 40,94-18 lakhs; general administration, Rs 20,13-25 lakhs; debt services, Rs 1,19,05-35 lakhs; community projects and local development, Rs 65,80-76 lakhs; industries, Rs 16,41-25 lakhs; forests, Rs 1,05,66-69 lakhs; social security and welfare, Rs 71,88-49 lakhs. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Madhya Pradesh is rich in low-grade coal suitable for power generation, and also has immense potential hydro-electric energy. The present installed capacity is 1,630-5 mw; of this 193 mw from hydro-electric power stations. The thermal power stations are at Korba in Bilaspur district, Amarkantak in Shahdol district and Satpura in Betul district; new stations are being built. The only hydroelectric power station is at Gandhi Sagar lake in Mandsaur district; this, with a maximum water surface of 165 sq. miles, is the biggest man-made lake in Asia. Water. Major irrigation projects include the Chambal Valley scheme (started in 1952 with Rajasthan), the Tawa project in Hoshangabad district, the Barna and Hasdeo schemes, the Mahanadi canal system and schemes in the Narmada valley at Bargi and Narmadasagar. Total irrigation potential in 1983, 10m. hectares, of which 3 m. had been achieved. Minerals. The state has extensive mineral deposits including coal (35% of national deposits), iron ore (30%) and manganese (50%), bauxite (44%), ochre, sillimanite, limestone, dolomite, rock phosphate, copper, lead, tin, fluorite, barytes, china clay and fireclay, corundum, gold, diamonds, pyrophyllite and diaspore, lepidolite, asbestos, vermiculite, mica, glass sand, quartz, felspars, bentonite and building stone. New and very large reserves of copper were found in the Malanjkhand area in 1986. In 1980 the output of major minerals was (in tonnes): Coal, 25- lm.; limestone, 6-53m.; dolomite, 770,000; diamonds, 14,432 carats; bauxite, 470,000; iron ore, 9 • 7m.; manganese ore, 270,000. Value of production, 1980, Rs 3,626m. Agriculture. Agriculture is the mainstay of the state's economy and 80% of the people are rural. Over 42% of the land area is cultivable, of whicn 13% is irrigated. The Malwa region abounds in rich black cotton soil, the low-lying areas of Gwalior, Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand and the Chhatisgarh plains have a lighter sandy soil, while the Narmada valley is formed of deep rich alluvial deposits. Production of principal crops, 1980-81 (in tonnes): Foodgrains, 12-4m.; sugar-cane (gur), 107,000; oilseeds, 608,000, and cotton, 268,000 bales (of 170 kg).

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Livestock (1977 census): Buffaloes, 5,852,549; other cattle, 34,256,725; sheep, 968,595; goats, 6,573,467; horses and ponies, 121,908. Forestry. In 1982 155,411 sq. km, or about 35% of the state's area was covered by forests. The forests are chiefly of sal, saja, bija, bamboo and teak. They are the chief source in India of best-quality teak; they also provide firewood for about 60% of domestic fuel needs, and form valuable watershed protection. I N D U S T R Y . The major industries are the steel plant at Bhilai, Bharat Heavy Electricals at Bhopal, the aluminium plant at Korba, the security paper mills at Hoshangabad, the Bank Note Press at Dewas, the newsprint mill at Nepanagar and alkaloid factory at Neemuch, cement factories, vehicle factory, ordnance factory, and gun carriage factory. There are also 23 textile mills, 7 of them nationalized. The Bhilai steel plant near Durg is one of the 6 major steel mills. A power station at Korba (Bilaspur) with a capacity of420 mw serves Bhilai, the aluminium plant and the Korba coalfield. The heavy electricals factory was set up by the Government of India at Bhopal during the second-plan period. This is India's first heavy electrical equipment factory and also one of the largest of its type in Asia. It makes a variety of highly complicated equipment required for generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electric power. Other industries include cement, sugar, straw board, paper, vegetable oil, refractories, potteries, textile machinery, steel casting and rerolling, industrial gases, synthetic fibres, drugs, biscuit manufacturing, engineering, tools, rayon and art silk. The number ofheavy and medium industries in the state is 193, with 181 ancillary industries; the number of small-scale industries in production is 77,360. Thirtynine out of 45 districts in the state are categorized as industrially backward districts. The main industrial development agencies are Madhya Pradesh Financial Corporation, Madhya Pradesh Audyogik Vikas Nigam Ltd, Madhya Pradesh State Industries Corporation, Madhya Pradesh Laghu Udyog Nigam, Madhya Pradesh State Textile Corporation, Madhya Pradesh Handicrafts Board, Khadi and Village Industries Board and Madhya Pradesh State Mining Corporation. The state is known for its traditional village and home crafts such as handloom weaving, best developed at Chanderi and Maheshwar, toys, pottery, lacework, woodwork, zari work, leather work and metal utensils. The ancillary industries of dyeing, calico printing and bleaching are centred in areas of textile production. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of roads in 1982 was 65,889 km, of which 50,934 km were surfaced. In 1977-78 there were 225,278 motor vehicles. Railways. Bhopal, Bilaspur, Katni, Khandwar and Ratlam are important junctions for the central and northern networks. Aviation. There are airports at Bhopal, Indore, Jabalpur, Khajuraho and Raipur with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Jabalpur has a Chief Justice and 21 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 39,024,162; Moslems, 1,815,685; Christians, 286,072; Buddhists, 81,823; Sikhs, 98,973. Education. The 1981 census showed 14-5m. people to be literate. Education is free for children aged up to 14. In 1975—76 there were 355 higher educational institutions. Primary schools ( 1974-75) had 3 • 5m. pupils and higher secondary schools, 620,897 pupils. There are 10 universities in Madhya Pradesh: the University of Sagar (established 1946), at Sagar, had 53 affiliated colleges and 26,516 students in 1975; Jabalpur University (1957) had 30 affiliated colleges and 12,962 students; Vikram

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University (1957), at Ujjain, had 46 affiliated colleges and 38,011 students; Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya (1956), at Khairagarh, had 9 affiliated colleges and 1,164 students on roll (this university teaches music and fine arts); Indore University ( 1964) had 21 affiliated colleges and 22,915 students; Jivagi University ( 1963), at Gwalior, had 43 affiliated colleges and 31,462 students; Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi University (1964), at Jabalpur, had 9 affiliated colleges and 2,274 students in 1964; Ravishankar University (1964), at Raipur, had 63 affiliated colleges and 41,607 students. In 1975-76 there were 256 degree-granting colleges, 19 teachertraining colleges, and 71 professional colleges including polytechnics.

MAHARASHTRA H I S T O R Y . Under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, Bombay State was formed by merging the states of Kutch and Saurashtra and the Marathi-speaking areas of Hyderabad (commonly known as Marathwada) and Madhya Pradesh (also called Vidarbha) in the old state of.Bombay, after the t r a i l e r from that stat^ gQJy: Kannada-speaking areas of the Belgaum, Bijapur, Kanara and Dharwar districts which were added to the state of Mysore, and the Abu Road taluka of Banaskantha district, which went to the state of Rajasthan. By the Bombay Reorganization Act, 1960, which came into force 1 May 1960, 17 districts (predominantly Gujarati-speaking) in the north and west of Bombay State became the new state of Gujarat, and the remainder was renamed Maharashtra. The state of Maharashtra consists of the following districts of the former Bombay State: Ahmednagar, Akola, Amravati, Aurangabad, Bhandara, Bhir, Buldana, Chanda, Dhulia (West Khandesh), Greater Bombay, Jalgaon (East Khandesh), Kolaba, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Nanded, Nasik, Osmanabad, Parbhani, Pune, Ratnagiri, Sangli, Satara, Sholapur, Thana, Wardha, Yeotmal; certain portions of Thana and Dhulia districts have become part of Gujarat. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Maharashtra is in central India and is bounded north and east by Madhya Pradesh, south by Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Goa, west by the Indian ocean and north-west by Daman and Gujarat. The state has an area of 307,762 sq. km. The population at the 1981 census (revised) was 62,784,174 (an increase of 24-36% since 1971), of whom about 30m. were Marathi-speaking. Density, 204 per sq. km. The area of Greater Bombay was 603 sq. km. and its population 8,227,000. For other principal cities, see p. 623. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Maharashtra has a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Council has 78 members. The Legislative Assembly has 288 elected members and 1 member nominated by the Governor to represent the Anglo-Indian community. Following the election of March 1985 Congress (I) held 159 seats; Congress (U), 54; Janata, 21; B.J.P., 16;P.W.P., 13;others,25. The Council of Ministers consists of the Chief Minister, 7 other Ministers, and 12 Ministers of State. The capital is Bombay. Governor: S. Dayal Sharma. Chief Ministers. B. Chavan. B U D G E T . Budget estimates, 1986-87, show a deficit of Rs 341 -63 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity, 31 March 1986, 6,940 mw. (5,477 mw. thermal, 1,303 mw. hydro-electricity and 160 mw. nuclear). Minerals. Value of main mineral production, 1985, Rs 215 crores. The state has coal, silica, sand, dolomite, kyanite, sillimanite, limestone, iron ore, manganese, bauxite.

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Agriculture. About 12-5% of the cropped area is irrigated. In 1984-86 there was severe drought in 18 of the state's 30 districts. The monsoon-season harvest failed, and the winter-season harvest was poor. In normal seasons the ipain food crops are rice, wheat, jowar, bajri and pulses. Main cash crops: cotton, sugar-cane, groundnuts. Livestock (1978 census): BufTaloes, 3,898,716; other cattle, 6,916,355; sheep, 2,636,001; goats, 7,562,925; horses and ponies, 48,817; poultry, 18,750,817. Forestry. Forests occupy 20 • 8% of the state. INDUSTRY. Industry is concentrated mainly in Bombay, Pune and Thana. The main groups are chemicals and products, textiles, electrical and non-electrical machinery, petroleum and products, and food products. The state industrial development corporation had invested Rs 5,000 crores in 4,400 industrial units by 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 March 1985 there were 151,724 km of roads, of which 88,117 km were surfaced. There were 1,391,641 motor vehicles on 31 March 1985, of which 441,084 were in Greater Bombay. Passenger and freight transport has been nationalized. Railways. The total length of railway on 31 March 1984 was 5,297 km; 60% was broad gauge, 19% metre gauge and 21% narrow gauge. The main junctions and termini are Bombay, Manmad, Akola, Nagpur, Pune and Sholapur. Aviation. The main airport is Bombay, which has national and international flights. Nagpur airport is on the route from Bombay to Calcutta and there are also airports at Pune and Aurangabad. Shipping. Maharashtra has a coastline of 720 km. Bombay is the major port, and there are 48 minor ports. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The High Court has a Chief Justice and 37 judges. The seat of the High Court is Bombay, but it has benches at Nagpur, Aurangabad and Panaji (Goa). Religion. At the 1981 census Hindus numbered 51,109,457; Moslems, 5,805,785; Buddhists, 3,946,149; Christians, 795,464; Jains, 939,392; Sikhs, 107,255. Other religions, 155,692; religion not stated, 1,394. Education. The number of literates, according to the 1981 census, was29-6m. The total number of recognized institutions in 1984-85 was 62,452, with 14,288,000 students. Higher and secondary schools numbered 7,683 with 4,263,000 pupils; primary schools, 53,420, with 9,235,000 pupils; pre-primary schools, 701 with 78,000. Bombay University, founded in 1857, is mainly an affiliating university. It has 145 colleges with a total (1984-85) of 215,692 students. Colleges in Goa can affiliate to Bombay University. Nagpur University (1923) is both teaching and affiliating. It has 94 colleges with 81,872 students. Pune University, founded in 1948, is teaching and affiliating; it has 165 colleges and 169,859 students. The SNDT Women's University had 10 colleges with a total of 10,083 students. Marathwada University, Aurangabad, was founded in 1958 as a teaching and affiliating body to control colleges in the Marathwada or Marathi-speaking area, previously under Osmania University; it has 115 colleges and 81,691 students. Shiwaji University, Kolhapur, was established in 1963 to control affiliated colleges previously under Pune University. It has 127 colleges and 100,055 students. Amravarti University has 81 colleges and 57,633 students. Statistical Information. The Director of Publicity, Sachivalaya, Bombay Tindall.G., City of Gold, London, 1982

MANIPUR H I S T O R Y . Formerly a state under the political control of the Government of India, Manipur, on 15 Aug. 1947, entered into interim arrangements with the Indian Union and the political agency was abolished. The administration was taken over by the Government of India on 15 Oct. 1949 under a merger agreement, and it is centrally administered by the Government of India through a Chief Commissioner. In 1950-51 an Advisory form of Government was introduced. In 1957 this was replaced by a Territorial Council of 30 elected and 2 nominated members. Later in 1963 a Legislative Assembly of 30 elected and 3 nominated members was established under the Government of Union Territories Act 1963. Because of the unstable party position in the Assembly, it had to be dissolved on 16 Oct. 1969 and President's Rule introduced. The status of the administrator was raised from Chief Commissioner to Lieut.-Governor with effect from 19 Dec. 1969. On the 21 Jan. 1972 Manipur became a state and the status of the administrator was changed from Lieut.-Governor to Governor. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in north-east India and is bounded north by Nagaland, east by Burma, south by Burma and Mizoram, and west by Assam. Manipur has an area of 22,356 sq. km and a population (1981) of 1,433,691. Density, 64 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 33-65%. The valley, which is about 1,813 sq. km, is 2,600 ft above sea-level. The hills rise in places to nearly 10,000 ft, but are mostly about 5,000-6,000 ft. The average annual rainfall is 65 in. The hill areas are inhabited by various hill tribes who constitute about onethird of the total population of the state. There are about 40 tribes and sub-tribes falling into two main groups of Nagas and Kukis. Manipuri and English are the official languages. A large number of dialects are spoken, while Hindi is gradually becoming prevalent. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . With the attainment of statehood, Manipur has a Legislative Assembly of 60 members, of which 19 are from reserved tribal constituencies. There are 6 districts. Capital, Imphal (population, 1981,155,639). Presidential rule was imposed in Feb. 1981. Governor: Gen. K. V. Krishna Rao. B U D G E T . Revised estimates for 1977-78 show revenue of Rs 4,247 -82 lakhs and expenditure on revenue account of Rs 4,774-24 lakhs. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity (1983) is 22 mw. from diesel generators. This has been augmented since 1981 by the North Eastern Regional Grid. In 1983 there were 488 villages with electricity. Water. The main power, irrigation and flood-control schemes are the Loktak Lift Irrigation scheme (irrigation potential, 40,000 hectares of which (1983) 19,000 have been achieved); the Singda scheme (potential 4,000 hectares, and improved water supply for Imphal); the Thoubal scheme (potential 34,000 hectares, 7 • 5 mw. of electricity and 10 M G D of water supply), and four other large projects. Agriculture. Rice is the principal crop; with wheat, maize and pulses. Total foodgrains, 1982-83,358,000 tonnes. Agricultural work force, about 348,000. Only 210,000 hectares are cultivable, of which 186,000 are under paddy. Fruit and vegetables are important in the valley, including pineapple, oranges, bananas, mangoes, pears, peaches and plums. Soil erosion, produced by shifting cultivation, is being halted by terracing. Forests. Forests occupy about 15,154 sq km. The main products are teak, juijan, pine; there are also large areas of bamboo and cane, especially in the Jiri and Barak river drainage areas, yielding about 300,000 tonnes annually. Total revenue from forests, 1981-82, Rs 3-9m.

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Fisheries. Landings in 1981-82,3,450 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y . Handloom weaving is a popular industry. Larger-scale industries include sugar, cement, starch and glucose. Sericulture produces about 45 tonnes of raw silk annually. Estimated non-agricultural work force, 240,000. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . A national highway from Kazirangar (Assam) runs through Imphal to the Burmese frontier. There are no railways, but the highway runs through Dimapur which has a rail-head, 215 km. from Imphal. There is an airport at Imphal with regular scheduled services to Gauhati and Calcutta. E D U C A T I O N AND H E A L T H Education. The 1981 census gave the number of literates as 600,000. In 1982-83 there were 2,821 primary schools, 459 middle schools, 301 high and higher schools and 23 colleges, as well as Manipur University. Health. In 1977-78 there were 33 hospitals (including primary health centres) and 125 dispensaries (including primary health centres).

MEGHALAYA HISTORY. The state was created under the Assam Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act 1969 and inaugurated on 2 April 1970. Its status was that of a state within the State of Assam until 21 Jan. 1972 when it became a fully independent state of the Union. It consists of the former Garo Hills district and United Khasi and Jaintia Hills district of Assam. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Meghalaya is bounded north and east by Assam, south and west by Bangladesh. In 1981 (census figure) the area was 22,429 sq. km and the population 1,335,819. Density 59 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971—81,31 -25%. The people are mainly of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo tribes. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Meghalaya has a unicameral legislature. The Legislative Assembly has 60 seats. Party position in summer 1984: Meghalaya Democratic Front, 37 (including 31 Congress I); opposition, 13. There are 2 districts. The capital is Shillong. Governor: B. N. Singh. ChiefMinister: W. A. Sangma. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1981-82 showed a deficit of Rs 6 -6m. Annual Plan expenditure, 1984-85, Rs 65 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Total installed capacity (1982-83) was 125-2 mw. 997 villages had electricity. Minerals. The United Khasi and Jaintia Hills district produces coal, sillimanite (95% of India's total output), limestone, white clay and corundum. The state also has deposits of coal (estimated reserves 1,200m. tonnes), limestone (2,100m.), fire clay (100,000) and sandstone which are virtually untapped because of transport difficulties. Value of production, 1976, Rs 3 -26m. Agriculture. About 80% of the people depend on agriculture, and 27% of the cultivable area is irrigated. Principal crops are potatoes, fresh fruit and cotton. Production 1983-84 (in 1,000 tonnes): Foodgrains, 163; potatoes, 141; tapioca, 5; jute, 43,900 bales (of 180 kg). Annual production (in 1,000 tonnes, estimated) of pineapples, 70; oranges, 80; bananas, 35. Forest products are the state's chief resources.

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I N D U S T R Y . Apart from agriculture the main source of employment is the extraction and processing of minerals; there are also important timber processing mills. Meghalaya Industrial Development Corporation has set up industrial units. There is a new industrial area in Byrnihat, and two industrial estates in Shillong and Mendipathar. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . A national highway from Gauhati (Assam) runs through Dispur and Shillong. The state has no railways. Umroi airport (20 km from Shillong) connects the state with main air services. J U S T I C E . There is a High Court at Shillong which is common to Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and state of Arunachal Pradesh

MIZORAM H I S T O R Y . On 21 Jan. 1972 the former Mizo Hills District of Assam was created a Union Territory. A long dispute between the Mizo National Front (originally Seperatist) and the central government was resolved in 1985. Mizoram became a state by the Constitution (53rd Amendment) and the State of Mizoram Acts, July 1986. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mizoram is one of the eastern-most Indian states, lying between Bangladesh and Burma, and having on its northern boundaries Tripura. Assam and Manipur. The area is about 21,090 sq. km and the population (1981 census) 487,774. Density, 23 per sq. km; growth rate 1971—81, 46-75%. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Mizoram has a unicameral Legislative Assembly with 30 seats. Elections in February 1987 returned a Mizo National Front government. The capital is Aizawl. Governor: H. Saikia. Chief Minister: Laldenga. E M P L O Y M E N T . About 46% of the people are employed in agriculture, either on terraced holdings or in shifting cultivation. Industry is based on the extensive forests. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . Aizawl is connected by road and air with Silchar in Assam. R E L I G I O N . The mainly tribal population is 90% Christian.

NAGALAND H I S T O R Y . The territory was constituted by the Union Government in Sept. 1962. It comprises the former Naga Hills district of Assam and the former Tuensang Frontier division of the North-East Frontier Agency; these had been made a Centrally Administered Area in 1957, administered by the President through the Governor of Assam. In Jan. 1961 the area was renamed and given the status of a state of the Indian Union, which was officially inaugurated on 1 Dec. 1963. For some years a section of the Naga leaders sought independence. Military operations from 1960 and the prospect of self-government within the Indian Union led to a general reconciliation, but rebel activity continued. A 2^month amnesty in mid 1963 had little effect. A 'ceasefire' in Sept. 1964 was followed by talks between

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a Government of India delegation and rebel leaders. The peace period was extended and the 'Revolutionary Government of Nagaland' (a breakaway group from the Naga Federal Government) was dissolved in 1973. Further talks with the Naga underground movement resulted in the Shillong Peace Agreement of Nov. 1975. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in the extreme north-east and is bounded west and north by Assam, east by Burma and south by Manipur. Nagaland has an area of 16,527 sq. km and a population (1981) census of773,281. Density 47 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 49-73%. Towns include Kohima, Mokokchung, Tuensang and Dimapur. The chief tribes in numerical order are: Angami, Ao, Sema, Konyak, Chakhesang, Lotha, Phom, Khiamngan, Chang, Yimchunger, Zeliang-Kuki, Rengma and Sangtam. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . An Interim Body (Legislative Assembly) of 42 members elected by the Naga people and an Executive Council (Council of Ministers) of 5 members were formed in 1961, and continued until the State Assembly was elected in Jan. 1964. The initial strength of this Assembly was 46, with 8 cabinet ministers. Since 1974 there have been 60 members. The Governor has extraordinary powers, which include special responsibility for law and order. On 17 Nov. 1982 a Congress (I) government took office. There are 10 cabinet ministers and 10 ministers of state. The state has 7 districts (Kohima, Mon, Zunheboto, Wokha, Phek, Mokokchung and Tuensang). The capital is Kohima. Governor: Gen. K. V. Krishna Rao. ChiefMinister: Hokishe Sema. B U D G E T . The budget (estimate) for 1984-85 is Rs 187-18 crores. Plan outlay, Rs 56 crores; non-plan, Rs 131 • 18 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity (1984) 5-12 mw; 580 towns and villages (out of 814) had electricity in 1984. Agriculture. More than 80% of the people derive their livelihood from agriculture. The Angamis, in Kohima district, practise a fixed agriculture in the shape of terraced slopes, and wet paddy cultivation in the lowlands. In the other two districts a traditional form of shifting cultivation (¿humming) still predominates, but some farmers have begun tea and coffee plantations and horticulture. About 66,120 hectares were under terrace cultivation and 44,810 under jhumming in 1982. Production of rice (1981) was 135,000 tonnes. Forests covered 288,252 hectares in 1981. I N D U S T R Y . There is a forest products factory at Tijit; a paper-mill (100 tonnes daily capacity) at Tuli, a distillery unit and a sugar-mill (1,200 tonnes daily capacity) at Dimapur. There are also over 1,000 small units. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . There is a national highway from Kaziranga (Assam) to Kohima and on to Manipur. There are state highways connecting Kohima with the district headquarters. There were 16,972 motor vehicles in 1983. Dimapur has a rail-head and a daily air service to Calcutta. R E L I G I O N AND E D U C A T I O N Religion. Christianity is the main religion; there are also Hindus, Moslems, and followers of indigenous faiths. Education. The 1981 census records 300,000 literates, or 41 -9%: 49 -16% of men and 33-72% of women. In 1984 there were 3 government and 10 private colleges, 59 government and 50 private high schools, 173 government and 147 private

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middle schools and 1,224 primary schools, 1 polytechnic, 1 agricultural college, 2 law colleges. The North Eastern Hill University opened in 1978. Aram, M., Peace in Nagaland, New Delhi, 1974

ORISSA HISTORY. Orissa, ceded to the Mahrattas by Alivardi Khan in 1751, was conquered by the British in 1803. In 1803 a board of 2 commissioners was appointed to administer the province, but in 1805 it was designated the district of Cuttack and was placed in charge of a collector, judge and magistrate. In 1829 it was split up into 3 regulation districts of Cuttack, Balasore and Puri, and the nonregulation tributary states which were administered by their own chiefs under the aegis of the British Government. Angul, one of these tributary states, was annexed in 1847, and with the Khondmals, ceded in 1835 by the tributary chief of the Boudh state, constituted a separate non-regulation district. Sambalpur was transferred from the Central Provinces to Orissa in 1905. These districts formed an outlying tract of the Bengal Presidency till 1912, when they were transferred to Bihar, constituting one of its divisions under a commissioner. Orissa was constituted a separate province on 1 April 1936, some portions of the Central Provinces and Madras being transferred to the old Orissa division. The rulers of 25 Orissa states surrendered all jurisdiction and authority to the Government of India on 1 Jan. 1948, on which date the Provincial Government took over the administration. The administration of 2 states, viz., Saraikella and Kharswan, was transferred to the Government of Bihar in May 1948. By an agreement with the Dominion Government, Mayurbhanj State was finally merged with the province on 1 Jan. 1949. By the States Merger (Governors' Provinces) Order, 1949, the states were completely merged with the state of Orissa on 19 Aug. 1949. EVENTS. Serious Hooding in Aug. 1982 caused the deaths of about 1,000 people. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Orissa is in eastern India and is bounded north by Bihar, north-east by West Bengal, east by the Bay of Bengal, south by Andhra Pradesh and west by Madhya Pradesh. The area of the state is 155,707 sq. km, and its population (1981 census), 26,370,271, density 169 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 20-17%. The second-largest city next to Cuttack (327,412) is Rourkela (322,610). The principal and official language is Oriya. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND GOVERNMENT. The Legislative Assembly has 147 members. After the election in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. The state consists of 13 districts. The capital is Bhubaneswar (18 miles south of Cuttack). Governor: B. N. Pandey. ChiefMinister: J. B. Patnaik. BUDGET. Budget estimates, 1980-81 showed total revenue of Rs 1,257 -3 crores and expenditure of Rs 1,235-6 crores (capital and revenue accounts). ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Hirakud Dam Project on the river Mahanadi (started 1949) irrigates 628,000 acres and has a scheduled capacity of 270,000 kw. The dam (the largest earth dam in the world) was completed in 1957. Hydro-electric power is now serving a large part of the state. Hydro-electric installed capacity (1985) 664 mw. (Balimela Hydel project, 360 mw.), Talcher thermal plant, 470 mw. Under

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construction, 1985, were Rengali Hydel project (100 mw.) and thermal plants at the Rourkela Steel Plant and NALCO plant. Total installed capacity, 1985, 1,134 mw.; there were 23,762 electrified villages in 1984-85. Minerals. Orissa is India's leading producer of chromite (95% of national output), dolomite (50%), manganese ore (25%), graphite (80%), iron ore (16%), fire-clay (34%), limestone (20%), and quartz-quartzite (18%). Production in 1984 (1,000 tonnes): iron ore, 6,603; manganese ore, 435; chromite, 400; coal, 5,101; limestone, 2,877; dolomite, 909; fire-clay, 91; china clay, 28; graphite, 29; quartz and quartzite, 64; lead ore, 66. About 60,000 workers are employed in the mines. Value of mineral production (1984), Rs 1,840m. Agriculture. The cultivation of rice is the principal occupation of nearly 80% of the population. Production amounted to 5-05m. tonnes in 1983-84; only a very small amount of other cereals is grown. Production of foodgrains (1983-84) totalled 6-84m. tonnes from 6-8m. hectares. Jute (340,000 bales of 180 kg.), wheat (121,000 tonnes), oilseeds (603,000 tonnes) and sugar-cane (2-86m. tonnes) are also grown. Turmeric is cultivated in the uplands of the districts of Ganjam, Phulbani and Koraput, and is exported. Livestock (1977 census): Buffaloes, 1,358,451; other cattle, 12-lm.; sheep, 1 -5m.; goats, 3 -4m.; horses and ponies, 3,675. Forests. Forests occupy about 43% of the area of the state, the most important species being sal, teak, kendu, sandal, sisu, bija, kuruma, kongada and bamboo. Fisheries. There were, in 1981,484 fishery co-operative societies. INDUSTRY. Over 100 large and medium industries have been set up (1984), mostly based on minerals, including the steel plant of Hindustan Steel Ltd at Rourkela, a pig-iron plant near Barbil, 3 ferrochrome plants, 2 ferromanganese plants at Joda and Rayagada, 1 ferrosilicon plant at Theruvelli and an aluminium smelter plant at Hirakud, 4 refractory plants and 2 cement plants. There are 3 large paper mills at Rayagada, Chowdwar and Brajrajnagar, three fertilizer plants, a caustic soda plant, a salt manufacturing unit and an industrial explosives plant. There are aluminium-alumina plants at Damanjodi and Angul. Other industries of importance are sugar, glass, aluminium, heavy machine tools, a re-rolling mill and textile mills. There are cottage and small-scale industries in the state, e.g., handloom weaving and the manufacture of baskets, wooden articles, hats and nets; silver filigree work and hand-woven fabrics are specially well known. TOURISM. Tourist traffic is concentrated mainly on the 'Golden Triangle', Konark, Puri and Bhubaneswar, and its temples. Tourists also visit Gopalpur, the Similipal Forest and Chilka Lake. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 March 1982 length of roads was: State highway, 2,834 km; national highway, 1,631 km; other Public Works Department roads, 13,522 km; village council roads, 938 km. There were 74,304 motor vehicles in 1982. A 144-km expressway, part national highway, connects the Daitari mining area with Paradip Port. Railways. The total length of railway in 1983-84 was 1,982 km, of which 1,310 km was single line. Aviation. There is an airport at Bhubaneswar with regular scheduled services to New Delhi, Calcutta, Vizag and Hyderabad. Shipping. Paradip was declared a 'major' port in 1966 and has been developed to handle 4m. tons of traffic. Other minor ports at Chandbali and Gopalpur. JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Cuttack has a Chief Justice and 6 puisne judges.

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Religion. There were in 1981: Hindus (including scheduled castes and scheduled tribes), 25,161,725; Christians, 480,426; Moslems, 422,266; Sikhs, 14,270; Buddhists, 8,028; Jains, 6,642. Education. The percentage of literates in the population is 34-12% (males, 46-9%, females, 21 11%). In 1981-82 there were 32,797 primary, 7,413 middle English and 2,466 high schools. Utkal University was established in 1943 at Cuttackand moved to Bhubaneswar in 1962 ; it is both teaching and affiliating. It has 2 university colleges (law) and 113 affiliated colleges. Berhampur University has 20 affiliated colleges and Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology 4 constituent colleges. Sambalpur University has 42 affiliated colleges. Sn Jagannath Sanskrit Viswavidyalaya University was established in 1981 for oriental studies.

PUNJAB (INDIA) H I S T O R Y . The Punjab was constituted an autonomous province of India in 1937. In 1947, the province was partitioned between India and Pakistan into East and West Punjab respectively, under the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the boundaries being determined under the Radcliffe Award. The name of East Punjab was changed to Punjab (India) under the Constitution of India. On 1 Nov. 1956 the erstwhile states of Punjab and Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) were integrated to form the state of Punjab. On 1 Nov. 1966, under the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966, the state was reconstituted as a Punjabi-speaking state comprising the districts of Gurdaspur (excluding Dalhousie), Amritsar, Kapurthala, Jullundur, Ferozepore, Bhatinda, Patiala and Ludhiana; parts of Sangrur, Hoshiarpur and Ambala districts; and part of Kharar tehsil. The remaining area comprising an area of 18,000 sq. miles and an estimated (1967) population of 8-5m. was shared between the new state of Haryana and the Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh. The existing capital of Chandigarh was made joint capital of Punjab and Haryana; its transfer to Punjab alone (due in 1986) has been delayed while the two states seek agreement as to which Hindi-speaking districts shall be transfered to Haryana in exchange. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Punjab is in north India and is bounded at its northernmost point by Kashmir, north-east by Himachal Pradesh, south-east by Haryana, south by Rajasthan, west and north-west by Pakistan. The area of the state is 50,376 sq. km, with census (1981) population of 16,669,755. Density 331 persq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,23 01%. The largest cities, see p. 623. The official language is Punjabi. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Punjab (India) has a unicameral legislature, the Legislative Assembly, of 117 members. After the election of Sept. 1985 a moderate Akali Dal government was returned. There are 12 districts. The capital is Chandigarh (see p. 684). There are 104 municipalities, 118 community development blocks and 9,331 elected village panchayats. Governor: S. Shankar Ray. Chief Minister: Suijit Singh Barnalä. B U D G E T . Budget estimates, 1984-85, showed a surplus of Rs 135-52 croreson revenue account and a deficit of Rs 240-61 crores on capital account. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity, 1979, was 1,541 mw; all villages had electricity. Agriculture. About 75% of the population depends on agriculture. Agricultural

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prosperity is mainly due to irrigation. The irrigated area rose from 2 - 21 m. hectares in 1950-51 to 5 -5m. hectares in 1978-79: total production offoodgrains rose from 1 -99m. tonnes to 11 -9m. tonnes in 1980-81. In 1984-85 wheat production was 10m. tonnes, rice, 5 05m. Sugar-cane yield is 460 kg. per hectare. Punjab produced about 16% of Indian cotton. Livestock (1972 census): Buffaloes, 3,839,200; other cattle, 3-41m.; sheep and goats, 1,205,400; horses and ponies, 54,700; poultry, 3m. Forestry. In 1981 there were 260,235 hectares offorest land, of which 130,008 hectares belonged to the Forest Department. INDUSTRY. In Jan. 1981 the number of registered factories in the Punjab (India) was 7,397; 7,053 operational factories employed about 210,735 people. The chief manufactures are textiles (especially woollen hosiery), sewing machines, sports goods, sugar, starch, fertilizers, bicycles, scientific instruments, electrical goods, machine tools and pine oil. In 1981 there were 61,667 important small manufacturing units. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total length of metalled roads on 31 March 1980 was 33,288 km. State transport services cover 671,000 route km daily with a fleet of2,776 buses carrying a daily average of lm passengers. Coverage by private operators is estimated as 40%. In 1978 there were 276,748 motor vehicles. Railways. The Punjab possesses an extensive system of railway communications, served by the Northern Railway. Total length, (1980) 3,511-4 km. Aviation. There is an airport at Amritsar, and Chandigarh airport is on the north-eastern boundary; both have regular scheduled services to Delhi. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Punjab and Haryana High Court exercises jurisdiction over the states of Punjab and Haryana and the territory of Chandigarh. It is located in Chandigarh. It consists (1981) of a Chief Justice and 19 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 5,037,235; Sikhs, 8,159,172; Moslems, 114,447; Christians, 162,202; Jains, 21,383; Buddhists, 1,374. Education. Compulsory education was introduced in April 1961; at the same time free education was introduced up to 8th class for boys and 9th class for girls as well as fee concessions. The aim is education for all children of 6-11. In 1980 there were 17,784 primary schools, 1,432 middle schools and 2,313 higher secondary schools. Punjab University was established in 1947 at Chandigarh as an examining, teaching and affiliating body. It is shared with Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. In 1962 Punjabi University was established at Patiala and an agricultural university at Ludhiana. Guru Nanak University has been established at Amritsar to mark the 500th anniversary celebrations for Guru Nanak Dev, first Guru of the Sikhs. Altogether there are 202 affiliated colleges, 160 for arts and science, 18 for teacher training, 8 medical, 2 dental, 2 engineering and 12 for other studies. Health. Punjab claims the longest life expectancy (57 -9 years for women, 58-5 for men) and lowest death rate (8-9 per 1,000). There were (1980) 254 hospitals, 467 Ayurvedic and Unani hospitals and dispensaries, 129 primary health centres and 1,485 dispensaries. Singh, Khushwant, A History of the Sikhs. 2 vols. Princeton and OUP, 1964-67

RAJASTHAN HISTORY. As a result of the implementation of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the erstwhile state of Ajmer, Abu Taluka of Bombay State and the Sunel

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Tappa enclave of the former state of Madhya Bharat were transferred to the state of Rajasthan on 1 Nov. 1956, whereas the Sironj subdivision of Rajasthan was transferred to the state of Madhya Pradesh. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Rajasthan is in north-west India and is bounded north by Punjab, north-east by Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, east by Madhya Pradesh, south by Gujarat and west by Pakistan. The area of the state is 342,239 sq. km and its population (census 1981, revised), 34,261,862, density 100 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,32 • 36%. The chief cities, see p. 623. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . There is a unicameral legislature, the Legislative Assembly, having 200 members. After the election in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. The capital is Jaipur. There are 27 districts. Governor: Vasant Rao Patil. ChiefMinister: H. D. Joshi. B U D G E T . Revised estimates for 1986-87 show total revenue receipts of Rs 1,637 crores, and expenditure of Rs 1,707 crores. Receipts included: share in Central taxes, Rs 356-9 crores; state excise, Rs 96 crores, sales tax, Rs 386-9 crores; vehicles taxes, Rs 76 crores; non-tax revenue, Rs 333-3 crores. Expenditure included: Education, art and culture, Rs 389-4 crores; medical and family welfare, Rs 124-2 crores; water supply and public health, Rs 164-5 crores; agriculture, Rs 249-2 crores; irrigation, Rs 329-1 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity in Feb. 1988, 1,803 mw.; 21,409 villages and 289,574 wells had electric power. Water. In 1984 the Bhakra Canal irrigated 300,000 hectares, the Chambal Canal, 200,000 and the Rajasthan Canal, 450,000. The Rajasthan (now the Indira Gandhi canal) is the main canal system, of which (1984) 189 km. of main canal and 2,950 km of distributors had been built. Cost, at 1 March 1984, Rs 419 crores. There were 2,909 villages with drinking water in 1984—85. Minerals. The state is rich in minerals. In 1985-86, 305,670m. tonnes of gypsum and 172,989 tonnes of rock phosphate were produced. Other minerals include silver (9,852 kg., 1984 estimate), asbestos, felspar, copper, limestone and salt. Total sale value of mineral production in 1984 (estimate) was about Rs 233 crores. Leadzinc reserves have been found near Rampura-Agucha, estimated at 61 m. tonnes. Agriculture. The state has suffered drought and encroaching desert for several years. The cultivable area is (1985-86) about 26-6m. hectares, of which 4m. is irrigated. Production of principal crops (in 1,000 tonnes), 1984—85: pulses, 1,300; sugar-cane (gur), 1,300; total oilseeds, 1,000; cotton, 300,000 bales (of 180 kg). Total foodgrains (1985-86) 6,337. Livestock (1983): BufTaloes, 6,034,743; other cattle, 13,466,474; sheep, 15,389,100; goats, 15,397,993; horses and ponies, 45,381; camels, 7,528,287. I N D U S T R Y . In March 1986 there were 8,233 registered factories and 122,304 small industrial units. There were 171 industrial estates. Total capital investment Rs 4,750- 7m. Chief manufactures are textiles, cement, glass, sugar, sodium, oxygen and acetylene units, pesticides, insecticides, dyes, caustic soda, calcium, carbide, nylon tyre cords and refined copper. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 49,311 km of roads including 37,617 km of good and surfaced roads in Rajasthan; there were 15,134 km of national highway. Motor vehicles numbered 554,388 in Dec. 1985.

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Railways. Jodhpur, Marwar, Udaipur, Ajmer, Jaipur, Khota, Bikaner and Sawai Madhopur are important junctions of the north-western network. Aviation. There are airports at Jaipur, Jodhpur, Khota and Udaipur with regular scheduled services by Indian Airlines. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The seat of the High Court is at Jodhpur. There is a Chief Justice and 11 puisne judges. There is also a bench of High Court judges at Jaipur. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 23,093,895; Moslems, 1,778,275; Jains, 513,548; Sikhs, 341,182; Christians, 30,202. Education. The proportion of literates to the total population was 24-39% at the 1981 census. In 1985-86 there were 35,508 primary and upper primary schools, 2,052 secondary and 892 higher secondary schools. Elementary education is free but not compulsory. In 1985-86 there were 266 colleges. Enrolment at these was 171,000 in 1985. Rajasthan University, established at Jaipur in 1947, is teaching and affiliating (6 affiliated colleges); Jodhpur University and Udaipur University were founded in 1962. There are 2 others, at Vanasthali and Pilani. There are also 11 medical and nursing colleges, 5 engineering colleges, 21,436 adult and other education centres, 32 sanskrit institutions, 34 teacher-training colleges and 13 polytechnics. Health. In 1984 there were 995 hospitals and dispensaries, 348 primary health centres, 72 Unani, 80 homoepathic and 3 naturopathy hospitals. There were 111 maternity centres, and 3,046 Ayurvedic hospitals and dispensaries.

SIKKIM H I S T O R Y . Sikkim became the twenty-second state of the Indian Union in May 1975. It is inhabited chiefly by the Lepchas, who are a tribe indigenous to Sikkim with their own dress and language, the Bhutias, who originally came from Tibet, and the Nepälis, who entered from Nepal in large numbers in the late 19th and early 20th century. The main languages spoken are Bhutia, Lepcha and Nepali. Being a small country Sikkim had frequently been involved in struggles over her territory, and as a result her boundaries have been very much reduced over the centuries. In particular the Daijeeling district was acquired from Sikkim by the British East India Company in 1839. The Namgyal dynasty had been ruling Sikkim since the 14th century; the first consecrated ruler was Phuntsog Namgya I who was consecrated in 1642 and given the title of'Chogyal', meaning 'King ruling in accordance with religious laws', derived from Cho-religion and Gyalpo-king. The last Chogyal was deposed in 1975 and died in America in 1982. Sikkim is a land of wide variation in altitude, climate and vegetation, and is known for the great number and variety of birds, butterflies, wild flowers and orchids to be found in the different regions. It is a fertile land and to the Sikkimese is known as Denjong, The Valley of Rice. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Sikkim is in the Eastern Himalayas and is bounded north by Tibet, east by Tibet and Bhutan, south by West Bengal and west by Nepal. Area, 7,298 sq. km. Census population (1981), 314,999, of whom 36,768 lived in the capital, Gangtok. Density 43 per sq km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 50 01%. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Sikkim was joined to the British Empire by a treaty in 1886 until 1947, but that relationship ceased when Britain withdrew from India in 1947. Thereafter there was a standstill agreement between India and Sikkim until a treaty was signed on 5 Dec. 1950 between India

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and Sikkim by which Sikkim became a protectorate of India and India undertook to be responsible for Sikkim's defence, external relations and strategic communications. The Chogyal had governed Sikkim with the help of the Sikkim Council, consisting of 18 elected members and 6 members nominated by the Chogyal. Sikkim parties represented were: National Party, Sikkim National Congress and, later, Sikkim Janta Congress. Political reforms were demanded by the National Congress and the Janta Congress in March-April 1973 and Indian police took over control of law and order at the request of the Chogyal. On 13 April it was announced that the Chogyal had agreed to meet most of the political demands. Elections were held in April 1974 to a popularly-elected assembly. By the Government of Sikkim Act, June 1974, the Chogyal became a constitutional monarch with power of assent to the Assembly's legislation. By the Constitution (Thirty-Sixth Amendment) Act 1974 Sikkim became a state associated with the Indian Union. The office of Chogyal was abolished in April 1975. By the Constitution (Thirty-Eighth Amendment) Act 1975 Sikkim became the twenty-second state of the Indian Union. The Assembly hq§.32 members with a cabinet of 10 ministers including the Chief Minister. After the election of March Î985 a Sangram Parishkd government wàs retù'rnéd. ~ Governor: B. Narain Singh. Chief Minister: N. Bahadur Bhandari. The official language of the Government is English. Lepcha, Bhutia, Nepali and Limboo have also been declared official languages. Sikkim is divided into 4 districts for administration purposes, Gangtok, Mangan, Namchi and Gyalshing being the headquarters for the Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western districts respectively. Each district is administered by a District Collector. Within this framework are the Panchayats or Village Councils. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth Five-Year Plan covered 1980-85. Budget. The annual budget for 1984-85.is Rs 35 08 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There are 4 operational hydro-electric power stations; the Lagyap project is also being implemented by the Government of India as aid to meet the growing demand for electrical power for new industries. The first of its two 6 mv generators was commissioned 1 Sept. 1979. Agriculture. The economy is mainly agricultural; main food crops are rice, maize, millet, wheat and barley; cash crops are cardamom (a spice), mandarin oranges, apples, potatoes, and buckwheat. Foodgrain production, 1983, 84,000 tonnes. A tea plantation has recently been started. Forests occupy about 1,000 sq. km. of the land area (excluding hill pastures) and the potential for a timber and wood-pulp industry is being explored. Some medicinal herbs are exported. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There is a state Industrial Development Investment Corporation and an Industrial Training Institute offering 7 trades. There are two cigarette factories (at Gangtok and Rangpo), two distilleries and a tannery at Rangpo and a fruit preserving factory at Singtam. Copper, zinc and lead are mined by the Sikkim Mining Corporation. A recent survey by the Geological Survey of India and the Indian Bureau of Mines has confirmed further deposits of copper, zinc, silver and gold in Dikchu, North Sikkim. There is a jewel-bearing factory for the production of industrial jewels. A watch factory has been set up in collaboration with Hindustan Machine Tools (India). A number of small manufacturing units for leather, wire nails, storage cells batteries, candles, safety matches and carpets, are already producing in the private sector. Local crafts include carpet weaving, making handmade paper, wood carving and silverwork. To encourage trading in indigenous

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products, particularly agricultural produce, the State Trading Corporation of Sikkim has been established. Tourism. There is great potential for the tourist industry; a 78-bed lodge at Gangtok and a 50-bed tourist lodge in West Sikkim have been opened. Tourism has been stimulated by the opening of new roads from Pemayangtse to Yuksam in West Sikkim and from Yuksam to the Dzongri Glacier. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 1,201 km. of metalled roads, all on mountainous terrain, and 18 major bridges under the Public Works Department. Public transport and road haulage is nationalized. Railways. The nearest railhead is at Siliguri (115 km from Gangtok). Aviation. The nearest airport is at Bagdogra (128 km from Gangtok). Post and Broadcasting. There are 1,118 telephones (1983) and 32 wireless stations. A radio broadcasting station, Akashvani Gangtok, was built in 1982, and a permanent station was under construction in 1983. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. The state religion is Mahayana Buddhism, but a large proportion of the population is Hindu. There are some Christians, Moslems and members of other religions. Education. At the 1981 census there were 100,000 literates. Sikkim has (1983) 100 pre-primary schools, 438 primary schools, 99 junior high schools and high schools, and 11 higher secondary schools. Education is free up to class XII; text books are free up to class V. There are 500 adult education centres. There is also a training institute for primary teachers, a law college and a degree college. Estimated spending on education, 1980-S1, Rs 29 • 78m. Health. There are (1983) 4 district hospitals at Singtam, Gyalshing, Namchi and Mangan, and one central referral hospital at Gangtok, besides 16 primary health centres, 62 sub-centres and 8 dispensaries, a maternity ward, chest clinic and 2 blocks for tuberculosis patients. There is a blood bank at Gangtok. There are 81 doctors. Medical and hospital treatment is free; there is a health centre for every 20,000 of the population. Small-pox and Kala-azar have been completely eliminated and many schemes for the provision of safe drinking water to villages and bazaars have been implemented. Coelho, V. H., Sikkim and Bhutan. New Delhi, 1970 Mele, F., Sikkim. Paris, 1974

TAMIL NADU H I S T O R Y . The first trading establishment made by the British in the Madras State was at Peddapali (now Nizampatnam) in 1611 and then at Masulipatnam. In 1639 the English were permitted to make a settlement at the place which is now Madras, and Fort St George was founded. By 1801 the whole of the country from the Northern Circars to Cape Comorin (with the exception of certain French and Danish settlements) had been brought under British rule. Under the provisions of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the Malabar district (excluding the islands of Laccadive and Minicoy) and the Kasaragod district taluk of South Kanara were transferred to the new state of Kerala; the South Kanara district (excluding Kasaragod taluk and the Amindivi Islands) and the Kollegal taluk of the Coimbatore district were transferred to the new state of Mysore; and the Laccadive, Amindivi and Minicoy Islands were constituted a separate Territory. Four taluks of the Trivandrum district and the Shencottah taluk of Quilon district were transferred from Travancore-Cochin to the new Madras

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State. On 1 April 1960,405 sq. miles from the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh were transferred to Madras in exchange for 326 sq. miles from the Chingleput and Salem districts. In Aug. 1968 the state was renamed Tamil Nadu. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Tamil Nadu is in south India and is bounded north by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, east and south by the Indian ocean and west by Kerala. Area, 130,357 sq. km. Population (1981 census), 48,297,456, density of 371 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,17-23%. Tamil is the principal language and has been adopted as the state language with effect from 14 Jan. 1958. The principal towns, see p. 623. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Governor is aided by a Council of 16 ministers. There is a unicameral legislature; the Legislative Assembly has 234 members and was composed as follows after the election of May 1980: All-India Anna DMK, 129; DMK, 38; Congress (I), 30; CPM, 11; CPI, 10; others, 16. There are 18 districts. The capital is Madras. Governor: S. L. Khurana. Chief Minister: M. G. Ramachandran. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1984-85, revenue receipts, Rs 2,065-4 crores, revenue account expenditure, Rs 1,946-4 crores. Capital outlay, Rs 883 -5 crores; capital account receipts, Rs 577-9. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity 1983 amounted to 3,344 mw of which 1,344 mw was hydro-electricity and 1,170 mw thermal. 99-8% of villages were supplied with electricity. The Kalpakkam nuclear power plant became operational in 1983; initial capacity, 230 mw. Water. A joint project with Andhra Pradesh was agreed in 1983, to supply Madras with water from the Krishna river, also providing irrigation, en route, for Andhra Pradesh. In 1981-82 3 -4m. hectares were irrigated. Minerals. Value of mineral exports, 1983, Rs 1 -5 crores. The state has magnesite, salt, coal, chromite, bauxite, limestone, manganese, mica, quartz, gypsum and feldspar. Agriculture. In 1981 there were 5 -5m. cultivators and 5 -9m. agricultural labourers. The land is a fertile plain watered by rivers flowing east from the Western Ghats, particularly the Cauvery and the Tambaraparani. Temperature ranges between 18°C. and 43°C., rainfall between 25 in. and 75 in. Of the total land area (13-Olm. hectares), 6,909,357 hectares were cropped and 335,462 hectares of waste were cultivable. The staple food crops grown are paddy, maize, jawar, bajra, pulses and millets. Important commercial crops are sugar-cane, oilseeds, cashewnuts, cotton, tobacco, coffee, tea, rubber and pepper. Production 1983-84, in 1,000 tons, (and area, 1,000 hectares): rice 5,000 (2,282); millet 1,900 (1,652); sugar-cane 2,500 (132); pulses 115 (333); cotton 3m. bales (169); oilseeds 752 (825). Livestock (1982 census): BufTaloes, 3,212,242; other cattle, 10,365,500; sheep, 5,536,514; goats, 5,246,192; swine, 693,735; horses, ponies, mules, camels and donkeys, 90,632; poultry, 18,283,720. Forestry. Forest area, 1983,2,201,000 hectares, of which 1,812,000 were reserved forest. Forests cover about 17% of land area. Main products are teak, soft wood, wattle, sandalwood, pulp wood, cashew and cinchona bark. Fisheries. There were 93,825 active marine fishermen working the 1,000 km coastline in 1984. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. The number of working factories was 10,800 in 1982, employing about

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771,000 workers. The consumption of power in the industrial sector was 43% of total state consumption in 1982-83. The biggest central sector project is Salem steel plant. Cotton textiles is one of the major industries. There are nearly 180 cotton textile mills and many spinning mills supplying yarn to the decentralized handloom industry. Other important industries are cement, sugar, manufacture of textile machinery, power-driven pumps, bicycles, electrical machinery, tractors, rubber tyres and tubes, bricks and tiles and silk. Public sector undertakings include the Neyveli lignite complex, integral coach factory, high-pressure boiler plant, photographic film factory, surgical instruments factory, teleprinter factory, oil refinery, continuous casting plant and defence vehicles manufacture. Main exports: cotton goods, tea, coffee, spices, engineering goods, motor-car ancillaries. In 1982 there were 3,932 registered trade unions. Man-days lost by strikes, 1,396,452; by lockouts, 409,526. Tourism. In 1982,229,000 foreign tourists visited the state. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 April 1982 the state had approximately 35,746 km of national and state highways, major and other district roads. In 1983 there were 100,037 registered motor vehicles and 326,977 others not covered by permits. Railways. In 1983 there were 6,563 km of railway track (3,853 route km). Madras and Madurai are the main centres. Aviation. There are airports at Madras, Tiruchirapalli and Madurai, with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi. Madras is the main centre of airline routes in South India. Shipping. Madras and Tuticorin are the chief ports. Important minor ports are Cuddalore and Nagapattinam. Madras handled 13 -3m. tonnes of cargo in 1983-84, Tuticorin, 3-5m. The Inland Container Depot at Coimbatore has a capacity of50,000 tonnes of export traffic; it is linked to Cochin (Kerala). JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. There is a High Court at Madras with a Chief Justice and 18 judges. Police. Strength of armed police battalions, 1973, 4,420; strength of the armed reserve (1972) in the state and in Madras, 356,461. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 36,674,150 (89-2%), Christians, 5-75%; Moslems, 5-11%. Education. At the 1981 census 22-6m. people were literate(14-3m. males). Education is free up to pre-university level. In 1983-84 there were 37,989 schools for general education, 10-2m. students and 281,149 teachers. There were 188 general colleges (189,060 students and 13,934 teachers); 80 professional colleges (38,313 and 5,519); 19 special education colleges (2,348 and 246). There are 3 universities. Madras University (founded in 1857) is affiliating and teaching. Annamalai University, Annamalainagar (founded 1928) is residential; Madurai University (founded 1966) is an affiliating and teaching university. Statistical Information: The D e p a r t m e n t of Statistics (Fort St George, Madras) was established in 1948 and reorganized in 1953. Director:D. S. R a j a b u s h a n a m , M A . Main publications: Annual Statistical Abstract; Decennial Statistical Atlas; Season and Crop Report; Quinquennial Wages Census; Quarterly Abstract of Statistics.

TRIPURA H I S T O R Y . A Hindu state of great antiquity having been ruled by the Maharajahs for 1,300 years before its accession to the Indian Union on 15 Oct. 1949. With the reorganization of states on 1 Sept. 1956 Tripura became a Union

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Territory, and was so declared on 1 Nov. 1957. The Territory was made a Sate on 21 Jan. 1972. AREA A N D POPULATION. Tripura is bounded by Bangladesh, except in the north-east where it joins Assam and Mizoram. The major portion of the state is hilly and mainly jungle. It has an area of 10,477 sq. km and a population of 2,060,189 (1981 census); Density, 196 persq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,32-37%. The official languages are Bengali and Kokbarak. Manipuri is also spoken. G O V E R N M E N T . There is a Legislative Assembly of 60 members. The election of Jan. 1983 was won by the Communist Party of India (Marxist). The territory has 3 districts, divided into 10 administrative sub-divisions, namely, Sadar, Khowai, Kailasahar, Dharmanagar, Sonamura, Udaipur, Belonia, Kamalpur, Sabroom and Amarpur. The capital is Agartala. Governor: Gen. K. V. Krishna Rao. Chief Minister: N. Chakraborty. B U D G E T . Budget estimates 1985-86 balance at Rs 289 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity (1984), 15 mw (demand 23 mw); there were (1985) 1,710 electrified villages. Agriculture. About 24% of the land area is cultivable. The tribes practise shifting cultivation, but this is being replaced by modern methods. The main crops are rice, wheat, jute, mesta, potatoes, oilseeds and sugar-cane. Foodgrain production (1983-84), about 370,000 tonnes. There are 49 registered tea gardens producing 4,500,000 kg. per year, and employing about 10,000. Forestry. Forests cover about 55% of the land area. They have been much depleted by clearance for shifting cultivation and, recently, for refugee settlements of Bangladeshis. About 8% of the forest area still consists of dense natural forest; losses elsewhere are being replaced by plantation. Commercial rubber plantation has also been encouraged. In 1984,4,167 hectares were under new rubber plantations. INDUSTRY. Tea is the main industry. There is also a jute mill producing about 15 tonnes per day and employing about 2,000. The main small industries: aluminium utensils, saw-milling, soap, piping, fruit canning, handloom weaving and sericulture. Handloom weaving products (1983-84) were valued at Rs 9-75 crores. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of motorable roads (1974) 3,692 km, of which 1,123 km were surfaced. Vehicles registered, 31 March 1984,9,924,ofwhich3,191 were lorries. Railways. There is a railway between Dharmanagar and Kalkalighat (Assam). Aviation. There is 1 airport and 2 airstrips. The airport (Agartala) has regular scheduled services to Calcutta. EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Education. In autumn 1985 there were 1,974 primary schools (325,504 pupils); 308 middle schools (70,010); 240 high schools (40,964). There were 9 colleges of general education, 17 colleges of professional and technical education and 1,203 social education centres. Health. There were (1980) 12 hospitals, with 1,357 beds, 128 dispensaries, 297 doctors and 459 nurses. There were 26 primary health centres and about 35 other medical units.

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UTTAR PRADESH HISTORY. In 1833 the then Bengal Presidency was divided into two parts, one of which became the Presidency of Agra. In 1836 the Agra area was styled the Northwest Province and placed under a Lieut.-Governor. The two provinces of Agra and Oudh were placed, in 1877, under one administrator, styled Lieut.-Govemor of the North-West Province and Chief Commissioner of Oudh. In 1902 the name was changed to 'United Provinces of Agra and Oudh', under a Lieut.-Governor, and the Lieut.-Governorship was altered to a Governorship in 1921. In 193 5 the name was shortened to 'United Provinces'. On Independence, the states of Rampur, Banaras and Tehri-Garwhal were merged with United Provinces. In 1950 the name of the United Provinces was changed to Uttar Pradesh. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Uttar Pradesh is in north India and is bounded north by Himachal Pradesh, Tibet and Nepal, east by Bihar, south by Madhya Pradesh and west by Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. The area of the state is 294,413 sq. km. Population (1981 census), 110,862,013, a density of 377 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 25-52%. Cities with more than 250,000 population, see p. 623. The official language is Hindi. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Uttar Pradesh has had an autonomous system of government since 1937. There is a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Council has 108 members; the Legislative Assembly has 426, of which 423 are elected. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. There are 12 administrative divisions, each under a Commissioner, and 57 districts. The capital is Lucknow. Governor: M. Usman Arif. Chief Minister: V. B. Singh. B U D G E T . Budget estimates 1984-85 show revenue and capital receipts of Rs 4,356-28 crores; revenue and capital account expenditure, Rs4,629 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. The State Electricity Board had, 31 March 1985, an installed capacity of4,084mw. There were 68,301 villages with electricity in Sept. 1986. Minerals. The state has magnesite, fire-clay, coal, copper, dolomite, limestone, soapstone, gypsum, bauxite, diaspore, ochre, phosphorite, pyrophyllite, silica sand and steatite among others. Agriculture. Agriculture occupies 78% of the work force. About 9m. hectares are irrigated. The state is India's largest producer of foodgrains; production (1982-83), 26-5m. tonnes; sugar-cane 81-4m.; oilseeds, l-22m. The state is one of India's main producers of sugar. There were (1981)1,199 veterinary centres for cattle. Forests cover (1982) about 5 • 3m. sq. km. The state government in 1985 began a management programme for the ravines of the Chambal river catchment area. The programme includes stabilizing ravines, soil conservation, afforestation, pasture development and ravine reclamation. Estimated cost of a six-year programme, Rs 453 -96m. I N D U S T R Y . Sugar production is important; other industries include edible oils, textiles, distilleries, brewing, leather working, agricultural engineering, paper and chemicals. There is an aluminium smelter at Renukoot. An oil refinery at Mathura has capacity of 6m. tonnes per annum. Large public-sector enterprises have been set up in electrical engineering, pharmaceuticals, locomotive building, general engineering, electronics and aeronautics. Village and small-scale industries are important; there were 90,237 small units in 1983. About one-third of cloth output

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is from hand-looms. Total working population (1981) 30 -8m., of whom 6 -8m. were non-agricultural. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, 31 March 1983, 273,011 km of motorable roads, of which 66,034 km were metalled. (This excludes forest roads.) In 1983 there were 674,049 motor vehicles of which 391,307 were motorcycles. Railways. Lucknow is the main junction of the northern network; other important junctions are Agra, Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. Aviation. There are airports at Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi, Lalitpur and Gorakhpur. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Allahabad (with a bench at Lucknow) has a Chief Justice and 49 puisne judges including additional judges. There are 56 sessions divisions in the state. Religion. At the 1981 census Hindus numbered 92,365,968; Moslems, 17,657,735; Sikhs, 458,647; Christians, 162,199; Jains, 141,549; Buddhists, 54,542. Education. At the 1981 census 30 lm. people were literate. In 1985-86 there were 73,424 junior basic schools, 14,240 senior basic schools and 5,709 higher secondary schools. Uttar Pradesh has 19 universities: Allahabad University (founded 1887); Agra University (1927); the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (1916); Lucknow University (1921); Aligarh Muslim University (1920); Roorkee University (1948), formerly Thomason College of Civil Engineering (established in 1847); Gorakhpur University (1957); Varanasaya Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, Varanasi (1958); Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi (1963). Kanpur University and Meerut University were founded in 1966. Govind Ballabh Pant University, Pantnagar (1969); Garhwal University, Srinagar, (1973). Two universities of agriculture were founded in 1974-75 and Avadh, Kumaon, Rohilkhand and Jhansi Universities in 1975. There are also two institutions with university status: Gurukul Kangri and Dayal Bagh Educational Institute. There are 9 medical colleges. H E A L T H . In 1984-85 there were 3,405 allopathic and 1,669 ayurvedic and unani hospitals. There were 5,187 allopathic doctors and 3,556 allopathic nurses in state service. There were TB hospitals and clinics with 3,437 beds.

WEST BENGAL H I S T O R Y . For the history of Bengal under British rule, from 1633 to 1947, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 2 , p . 1 8 3 .

Under the terms of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the Province of Bengal ceased to exist. The Moslem majority districts of East Bengal, consisting of the Chittagong and Dacca Divisions and portions of the Presidency and Rajshahi Divisions, became what was then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . West Bengal is in north-east India and is bounded north by Sikkim and Bhutan, east by Assam and Bangladesh, south by the Bay of Bengal and Orissa, west by Bihar and north-west by Nepal. The total area of West Bengal is 87,853 sq. km. At the 1981 census its population was 54,580,647, an increase of 23-17% since 1971, the density of population 621 per sq. km. Population of chief cities, see p. 623. The principal language is Bengali. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The state of West Bengal came into existence as a result of the Indian Independence Act, 1947. The territory of

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Cooch-Behar State was merged with West Bengal on 1 Jan. 1950, and the former French possession of Chandernagore became part of the state on 2 Oct. 1954. Under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, certain portions of Bihar State (an area of 3,157 sq. miles with a population of 1,446,385) were transferred to West Bengal. The Legislative Assembly has 295 seats. Distribution March 1984: Communist Party of India (Marxist), 170; Forward Bloc, 27; Revolutionary Socialist Party, 19; Communist Party of India, 7; Revolutionary Communist Party of India, 2; Forward Bloc (Marxist), 2; Democratic Socialist Party, 2; Socialist Party, 3. Total "Left Front", 236. Opposition: Indian National Congress, 55; others, 2; vacant, 2. The capital is Calcutta. For administrative purposes there are 3 divisions (Jalpaiguri, Burdwan and Presidency), under which there are 16 districts, including Calcutta. The Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority has been set up to co-ordinate development in the metropolitan area (1,250 sq. km). For the purposes of local self-government there are 15 zilla parishads (district boards), 339 panchayat samities (regional boards), and 3,305 gram (village) panchayats. There are 99 municipalities, 2 Corporations, 3 Town Committees and 10 Notified Areas. The Calcutta Corporation was reconstituted in 1969 with a mayor and deputy mayor, a commissioner, aldermen and standing committees. Governor: S. Nurul Hasan. Chief Minister: i. Basu. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1986-87 showed a deficit of Rs l,126-2m. (excluding Public Account). ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity, 1985-86,3,278 raw; 38,074 villages had electricity. Water. The major irrigation and power scheme at present under construction is (1986) the Teesta barrage. Major irrigation schemes are the Mayurakshi Reservoir, Kansabati Reservoir, Mahananda Barrage and Aqueduct and Damodar Valley. During 1983-84 government canals irrigated 977,677 hectares. At March 1983 there were 5,701 tubewellsand 3,142 riverlift irrigation schemes. Minerals. Value of production, 1984, Rs 4,977-lm. The state has coal (the Raniganj field is one of the 3 biggest in India) including coking coal. Coal production (1983) 18-7m. tonnes. Agriculture. About 5m. hectares are rice-paddy, one-third of it irrigated. Total foiodgrain production, 1984-85, 9-26m. tonnes; oilseeds (provisional), 220,000 tonnes; jute, 4-3m. bales; other fibres, 7-39m. bales (180 kg.); wheat, 812,200 tonnes. The state produces 55% of the national output ofjute. Livestock (1976 census): 11,968,000 cattle, 758,000 buffaloes; 1981 census, 758,000 sheep and goats, and 15,052,000 poultry. Forests cover 13 -4% of the state. Fisheries. Landings, 1984-85, about 420,000 tonnes. During 1984-85 Rs 70-5m. was invested in fishery schemes. I N D U S T R Y . The total number of registered factories, 1984, was 7,628; average daily employment in public sector industries, 1 -6m. The coalmining industry had 112 units with average daily employment of 126,193. There is a large automobile factory at Uttarpara, and there are aluminium rolling-mills at Belur and Asansol. At Ehirgapur a major steel plant was completed in 1962. Durgapur has other industries under the state sector—a thermal power plant, coke oven plant, fertilizer factory, alloy steel plant and ophthalmic glass plant. There are a locomotive factory and cable factory at Chittaranjan and Rupnarayanpur. A refinery and fertilizer factory are operating at Haldia. Small industries are important; 18,675 units were registered in 1984-85, (estimated employment, 132,517).

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981-82 the length of national highway was 1,631 km, of state highway; in 1984-85 there were 142,000 km of metalled road. On 31 March 1984 the state had 453,113 motor vehicles. Railways. The length of railways within the state (1984-85) is 3,759 km. The main centres are Howrah, Sealdah, Kharagpur, Asansol and New Jalpaiguri. The Calcutta Metro was 60% complete by July 1986. Aviation. The main airport is Calcutta which has national and international flights. The second airport is at Bagdogra in the extreme north, which has regular scheduled services to Calcutta. Vayudoot domestic airline flies between Calcutta and district headquarters. Shipping. Calcutta is the chief port: a barrage has been built at Farakka to control the flow of the Ganges and to provide a rail and road link between North and South Bengal. A second port is being developed at Haldia, halfway between the present port and the sea, which is intended mainly for bulk cargoes. West Bengal possesses 779 km of navigable canals. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Calcutta has a Chief Justice and 36 puisne judges. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (see below) come under its jurisdiction. Police. In 1983 the police force numbered 52,772, under a director-general and an inspector-general. Calcutta has a separate force under a commissioner directly responsible to the Government; its strength was 25,010 in 1984-85. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 34,611,864; Moslems, 9,064,338; Christians, 251,752; Buddhists, 121,504; Sikhs, 35,084; Jains, 32,203. Education. At the 1981 census 22 -2m. people were literate. In 1985-86 there were 52,881 primary schools, with about 8-04m. pupils and 4,821 junior and 7,058 high and higher secondary schools with about 8m. pupils. Education is free up to higher secondary stage. The University of Calcutta (founded 1857) is affiliating and teaching; in 1983-84 it had 140,671 students. Visva Bharati, Santiniketan, was originally established in 1951 and is residential and teaching; it had 3,189 students in 1980-81. The University of Jadavpur, Calcutta (1955), had about 5,000 students in 1981-82. Burdwan University was established 15 June 1960 with 31 affiliated colleges previously under the supervision of the University of Calcutta; in 1981-82 there were 50,758 students. Kalyani University was established in 1960 (1,672 students in 1981-82). The University ofNorth Bengal (1962) had 16,000 students in 1981-82. Rabindra Bharati University with 3 affiliated colleges had 2,995 students in 1981-82. Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (1974) had 1,239 students in 1981-82.

UNION TERRITORIES A N D A M A N AND NICOBAR I S L A N D S . The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are administered by the President of the Republic of India acting through a Lieut.-Govemor. There is a Pradesh Council, 5 members of which are selected by the Chief Commissioner as advisory counsellors. The seat of administration is at Port Blair, which is connected with Calcutta (1,255 km away) and Madras (1,190 km) by steamer service which calls about every 10 days; there is a bi-weekly air service from Calcutta and a weekly service from Madras. Roads in the islands, 691 km black-topped and 26 km others. There are 2 districts. The population (1981 census) was 188,254; density 23 per sq. km.; growth rate 1971-81,63 • 5%. Port Blair ( 1981 ), 49,634. The climate is tropical, with little variation in temperature. Heavy rain (125" annually) is mainly brought by the south-west monsoon. Humidity is high.

684

INDIA

Budget estimates for 1985-86 show total revenue receipts of Rs 1,001 -82 lakhs, and total expenditure on revenue account of Rs 6,378 • SO lakhs. On 31 March 1985 there were 284 educational institutions, including a B. Ed. college, another teachers' training college, and a polytechnic. Literacy (1981 census), 51-56%. Lieut.-Governor: M. L. Kampeni. The Andaman Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal, 193 km from Cape Negrais in Burma, 1,255 from Calcutta and 1,190 from Madras. Five large islands grouped together are called the Great Andamans, and to the south is the island of Little Andaman. There are some 204 islets, the two principal groups being the Ritchie Archipelago and the Labyrinth Islands. The total area is about 6,340 sq. km. The Great Andaman group is about 467 km long and, at the widest, 51 km broad. The original inhabitants live in the forests by hunting and fishing; they are of a small Negrito type and their civilization is about that of the Stone Age. Their exact numbers are not known, as they avoid all contact with civilization. The total population of the Andaman Islands (including about 430 aboriginals) was 157,821 in 1981. Main aboriginal tribes, Andamanese, Onges, Jarawas and Sentinelese. Under a central government scheme started in 1953, some 4,000 displaced families, mostly from East Pakistan, had been settled in the islands by May 1967. Japanese forces occupied the Andaman Islands on 23 March 1942. Civil administration of the islands was resumed on 8 Oct. 1945. From 1857 to March 1942 the islands were used by the Government of India as a penal settlement for life and long-term convicts, but the penal settlement was abolished on re-occupation in Oct. 1945. The Great Andaman group, densely wooded, contains many valuable trees, both hardwood and softwood. The best known of the hardwoods is the padauk or Andaman redwood; gurjan is in great demand for the manufacture of plywood. Large quantities of softwood are supplied to match factories. Annually the Forest Department export about 25,000 tons of timber to the mainland. Coconut, coffee and rubber are cultivated. The islands are slowly being made self-sufficient in paddy and rice, and now grow approximately half their annual requirements. Livestock (1982): 27,400 cattle, 9,720 buffaloes, 17,600 goats and 21,220 pigs. Fishing is important. There is a sawmill at Blair and a coconut-oil mill at Dunbar Point. The islands possess a number of harbours and safe anchorages, notably Port Blair in the south, Port Cornwallis in the north and Elphinstone and Mayabandar in the middle. The Nicobar Islands are situated to the south of the Andamans, 121 km from Little Andaman. The British were in possession 1869-1947. There are 19 islands, 7 uninhabited; total area, 1,953 sq. km. The islands are usually divided into 3 subgroups (southern, central and northern), the chief islands in each being respectively, Great Nicobar, Camotra with Nancowrie and Car Nicobar. There is a fine land-locked harbour between the islands of Camotra and Nancowrie, known as Nancowrie Harbour. The population numbered, in 1981, 30,433, including about 22,200 of Nicobarese and Shompen tribes. The coconut and arecanut are the main items of trade, and coconuts are a major item in the people's diet. The Nicobar Islands were occupied by the Japanese in July 1942; and Car Nicobar was developed as a big supply base. The Allies reoccupied the islands on 9 Oct. 1945. CHANDIGARH. On 1 Nov. 1966 the city ofChandigarh and the area surrounding it was constituted a Union Territory. Population (1981), 450,061; density, 3,948 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971—81, 74-9%. Area, 114 sq. km. It serves as the joint capital of both Punjab (India) and the state of Haryana, and is the seat of a High Court and of a university serving both states. The city will ultimately be the capital of just the Punjab; joint status is to last while a new capital is built for Haryana.

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There is some cultivated land and some forest (27 • 5% of the territory). Evenson, N., Chandigarh. Berkeley, Cal., 1966

DADRA A N D NAGAR HAVELI. Formely Portuguese, the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli were occupied in July 1954 by nationalists, and a proIndia administration was formed; this body made a request for incorporation into the Union, 1 June 1961. By the 1 Oth amendment to the constitution the territories became a centrally administered Union Territory with effect from 11 Aug. 1961, forming an enclave at the southernmost point of the border between Gujarat and Maharashtra. Area 491 sq. km.; population (1981), 103,676 (males 52,515, females 51,161); density 211 persq. km; growth rate, 1971-81,39-78%. There is an Administrator appointed by the Government of India. The day-to-day business is done by various departments, co-ordinated by the Administrator's secretary and headed by a Collector. Headquarters are at Silvassa. The territory and 78-82% of the population is tribal and organised in 72 villages. Languages used are Bhilli, Gujarat, Bhilodi (83%), Marathi and Hindi. Administrator: Dr Gopal Singh. Collector: S. M. S. Chaudhary. Electricity. Electricity is supplied by Gujarat, and all villages have been electrified. Water. As the result of a joint project with the governments of Gujarat, Goa, Daman and Diu there is a reservoir at Damanganga with irrigation potential of 8,280 hectares. Agriculture. Farming is the chief occupation, and about 23,700 hectares were under crops in 1985-86. Much of the land is terraced and there is a 100% subsidy for soil conservation. The major food crops are rice and ragi; wheat, small millets and pulses are also grown. There is little irrigation (1,000 hectares). There are veterinary centres, a veterinary hospital, an agricultural research centre and breeding centres to improve strains of cattle and poultry. During 1985-86 the Administration distributed 264 tonnes of high yielding paddy seed, and high yielding wheat seed, and 390 tonnes of fertilizer. Forests. About 20,311 hectares or 41 -2% of the total area is forest, mainly of teak, sadad and khair. Timber production provides the largest simple contribution to the territory's revenue. There was (1985) a moratorium on commercial felling, to preserve the environmental function of the forests and ensure local supplies of firewood, timber and fodder. Industry. There is no heavy industry, and the Territory is a "No Industry District". Industrial estates for small and medium units have been set up at Piparia, Masat and Khadoli. There are 215 small units, and 8 medium scale, employing about 5,700. Concessions (25% subsidy, 15 years' sales tax holiday) are available for small industries. Communications. There are (1984) 240 km of motorable road. The railway line from Bombay to Ahmedabad runs through Vapi near Silvassa. The nearest airport is Bombay. Tourism. The territory is a rural area between the industrial centres of Bombay and Surat-.Vapi. The Tourism Department is developing areas of natural beauty to promote acceptable tourism. Justice. The territory is under the jurisdiction of the Bombay (Maharashtra) High Court. There is a District and Sessions Court and one Junior Division Civil Court at Silvassa. Education. Literacy was 26-67% of the population at the 1981 census. In 1984-85 there were 66 adult education centres (2,000 students); there were 144 government primary schools, 16 government-aided mission schools and one unaided; there were 2 higher secondary schools and 5 high schools. Total primary enrolment was 16,342; high-school and higher secondary, 2,377.

686

INDIA

Health. The territory has 1 cottage hospital, 3 primary health centres and 7 dispensaries; there is also a mobile dispensary. DELHI. Delhi became a Union Territory on 1 Nov. 1956. Area and Population. The territory forms an enclave inside the eastern frontier of Haryana in north India. Delhi has an area of 1,483 sq. km. At the 1981 census its population was 6,220,406 (density per sq. km, 4,189). Growth rate, 1971-81, 53%. In the rural area of Delhi there are 214 inhabited and 17 deserted villages and 2 7 census towns. They are distributed in 5 community development blocks. Government. The Lieut-Governor is the Administrator, assisted by 4 Executive Councillors ( 1 Chief Executive Councillor and 3 Executive Councillors) appointed by the President of India on the recommendation of the Union Home Ministry. There is a Metropolitan Council of 61 members including 5 nominated by the President of India. The Territory is covered by 3 local bodies: Delhi Municipal Corporation, New Delhi Municipal Committee and Delhi Cantonment Board. Lieut.-Governor: Air Vice Marshall (Rtd.) H. Lai Kapur. Budget. Revised estimates 1985-86 show total revenue of Rs 5,689m. and expenditure including plan expenditure: Rs 3,275m.; power, Rs 662m.; transport, Rs 534m.; water and sewerage, Rs 459-5m.; general education, Rs 199-6m.; urban development, Rs 358-4m.; medical services and public health, Rs 252 • 5m. Sanctioned budget 1986-87, Rs9,281 -3m. Agriculture. The contribution to the economy is not significant. About 91,757 hectares are cultivated. Animal husbandry is increasing and mixed farms are common. Chief crops in 1984-85, (production in 1,000 tonnes) were: Wheat, 117;jowarand bajra, 12; gram, 0-63; sugar-cane (gur), 0-04; fruit, vegetables and flowers. Industry. The modem city of Delhi and New Delhi is not only the largest commercial centre in northern India but is also an important industrial centre. Since 1947 a large number of industrial concerns have been established; these include factories for the manufacture of razor blades, sports goods, radios and television and parts, bicycles and parts, plastic and PVC goods including footwear, textiles, chemicals, fertilizers, medicines, hosiery, leather goods, soft drinks, hand and machine tools. There is also metal forging, casting, galvanising and electro-plating, printing and warehousing. The number of industrial units functioning was about 62,000 in 1984-85; average number of workers employed was 558,000. Production was worth Rs 3,300 crores and investment was about Rs 1,200 crores. Some traditional handicrafts, for which Delhi was formerly famous, still flourish; among them are ivory carving, miniature painting, gold and silver jewellery and papier mâché work. The handwoven textiles of Delhi were particularly fine; this craft is being successfully revived. Delhi publishes major daily newspapers, including the Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu (in English), Indian Express, Statesman, Nav Bharat Times and Hindustan. Roads. Five national highways pass through the city. There were (1985) 924,905 registered motor vehicles in Delhi including 8,654 taxis. The Transport Corporation had 5,398 buses in 1985-86. Railways. Delhi is an important rail junction with three main stations: Delhi, New Delhi, Hazart Nizamuddin. There is an electric ring railway for commuters. Aviation. Indira Gandhi International Airport operates international flights; Palam airport operates internal flights. Religion. At the 1981 census Hindus numbered 5,200,432; Sikhs, 393,921; Moslems, 481,802; Jains, 73,917; Christians, 61,609; Buddhists, 7,117; others, 1,608.

Education. The proportion of literates to the total population was 61 -54% at the 1981 census (68-4% of males and 53 07% of females).

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The total number of educational institutions in 1984-85 was 4,635, with an enrolment of 1,686,913 students. The University of Delhi was founded in 1922; it had 65 constituent colleges and institutions in 1985-86, with a total of 98,404 students.There are also Jawaharlal Nehru university, Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Jamia Millia Islamia; the Indian Institute of Technology at Haus Khaz; the Indian Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa; the All India Institute of Medical Science at Ansari Nagar and the Indian Institute of Public Administration are deemed universities. G O A , D A M A N A N D D I U . The coast was captured for Portugal by Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1510 and the inland area was added in the 18th century. D a m a n (Damao) on the Gujarat coast, 100 miles (160 km) north of Bombay, was seized by the Portuguese in 1531 and ceded to them (1539) by the Shar of Gujarat. The island o f D i u , captured in 1534, lies off the south-east coast of Kathia war (Gujarat); there is a small coastal area. In Dec. 1961 the territories were occupied by India and incorporated into the Indian Union. Area and Population. Goa, bounded on the north by Maharashtra and o n the east and south by Karnataka, has a coastline of 105 kin. The area of the territory is 3,813 sq. km, that of Goa itself being about 3,701 sq. km (population, 1981 census, 1,007,749); Daman, 72 sq. km (48,560); Diu, 40 sq. km (30,421). Population (1981) 1,082,117. Density, 285 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 26-15%. Estimated population, 1983, 1,146,000. Panaji is the largest town, population (urban agglomeration, 1981) 76,839. The languages spoken are Gujarati, Marathi, Konkani, Portuguese and English. Government. The Indian Parliament passed legislation in March 1962 by which Goa, Daman and Diu became a Union Territory with retrospective effect from 20 Dec. 1961. Goa is represented by 2 elected members in the Indian House of the People. For judicial purposes there is a Panaji bench of the High Court of Bombay. The capital is Panaji. There are 195 villagepanchayats. There is a Legislative Assembly of 30 members. Lieut.- Governor: Gopal Singh. Chief Minister:?. R. Rane. Budget. Annual Plan expenditure, 1984-85, Rs 655m. Electricity. Units sold, 251-9m. kwh. in 1982-53. Seventeen towns and 393 villages were supplied with electric power by March 1984. Power is generated in neighbouring states. Minerals. Resources include manganese ore and iron ore, both of which are exported. There are also reserves of bauxite, limestone and clay. Agriculture. Agriculture is the main occupation; important crops are rice, ragi, pulses, groundnuts, fruit and coconuts. The net area sown is 133,575 hectares. Area irrigated, 13,000 hectares. Area under paddy (1983-84), 37,145 hectares of high-yielding strain (producing 186,120 tonnes). Area under pulses, 11,668; ragi, 7,840. Government poultry and dairy farming schemes yielded 180m. eggs and 30,000 litres of milk in 1983-84. Fisheries. The fishing industry is important; fish is the territory's staple food. In 1983 the catch of seafish was 29,915 tonnes (value Rs 1,303-02 lakhs). The whole territory has a coastline of about 140 km. There are about 3,996 active fishing vessels. Industry. In 1983 there were 36 large and medium industrial projects and 2,943 small units registered. There were 9 government industrial estates. Small units were mainly occupied in making nylon fishing-nets, ready made clothing, pesticides, pharmaceuticals and footwear. Employment. In 1980 there were 86 unions with 42,300 members. Roads. In 1983 there were 5,721 km of motorable road (national highway, 223 km). In 1983 there were 49,714 registered vehicles.

688

INDIA

Railways. There is a metre gauge line from the Pune-Bangalore line into Goa. There are no railways on Diu or in Daman. Aviation. There are regular services to Bombay and Bangalore from Dabolim (Goa). Shipping. The main port is Marmagoa, which handled 11 -38m. tonnes of cargo, mainly iron ore, in 1983-84. There is a daily steamer service between Panaji and Bombay. Post and Telegraphs. There are (1983) 253 post offices and 40 telephone exchanges providing links to 60 countries. There are 3 telex exchanges. Justice. The territory comes under the High Court of Bombay. Religion. About 62% of the population is Hindu, 36% Christian, 2% Muslim and other communities. Education. The 1981 census recorded 57% literacy. Education is free up to grade VIII. In 1983-84 primary schools numbered 1,265 with 141,195 pupils, middle schools 430 with 79,313 pupils and secondary schools 281 with 54,088 pupils. There were 22 higher secondary schools, with'9,802 pupils, and 18 arts, commercial and science colleges with 7,570 students. Health. There were (1983) 102 hospitals (3,580 beds) including 3 tuberculosis hospitals; also mobile and specialist clinics. There were also 188 health centres and about 1,287 doctors. There is 1 medical college and 1 dental college. Richards, J. M., Goa. London, 1982 Soeiro de Brito, R., Goa e as Prafas do Norte. Lisbon, 1966

LAKSH ADWEEP. The territory consists of a group of27 islands (10 inhabited), about 300 km ofTthe west coat of Kerala. It was constituted a Union Territory in 1956 as the Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands, and renamed in Nov. 1973. The total area of the islands is 32 sq. km. The northern portion is called the Amindivis. The remaining islands are called the Laccadives (except Minicoy Island). Androth is the largest island, 4-8 sq. km, arid is nearest to Kerala. An Advisory Committee associated with the Union Home Minister and an Advisory Council to the Administrator assist in the administration of the islands; these are constituted annually. Population (1981 census), 40,249, nearly all Moslems. Density, 1,258 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971^81,26-53%. TTie language is Malayalam, but the language in Minicoy is Mahl. There were, in 1985, 9 high schools and 9 nursery schools, 18 junior basic schools, 4 senior basic schools and 2 junior colleges. There are 2 hospitals and 7 primary health centres. The staple products are copra and fish. There is a tourist resort at Bangarem, an uninhabited island with an extensive lagoon. Headquarters of administration, Kavaratti Island. Administrator:}. Sagar. PONDICHERRY. Formerly the chief French settlement in India, Pondicherry was founded by the French in 1674, taken by the Dutch in 1693 and restored to the French in 1699. The English took it in 1761, restored it in 1765, re-took it in 1778, restored it a second time in 1785, retook it a third time in 1793 and finally restored it to the French in 1814. Administration was transferred to India on 1 Nov. 1954. A Treaty of Cession (together with Karikal, Mahe and Yanam) was signed on 28 May 1956; instruments of ratification were signed on 16 Aug. 1962 from which date (by the 14th amendment to the Indian Constitution) Pondicherry, comprising the 4 territories, became a Union Territory. Area and Population. The territory is composed of enclaves on the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu and Ändhra Pradesh, with Mahe forming an enclave on the coast of Kerala. The total area of Pondicherry is 492 sq. km, divided into 4 Districts. On Tamil Nadu coast: Pondicherry (293 sq. km; population, 1981 census, 444,417), Karikal (160; 120,010). On Kerala coast: Mahe (9; 28,413). On Andhra Pradesh coast: Yanam (30; 11,631). Total population (1981 census), 604,471;

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density, 1,229 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971-81, 28-15%. Pondicherry Municipality had (1981) 162,639 inhabitants. TTie principal languages spoken are French, English, Tamil, Telegu and Malayalam. Government. By the Government of Union Territories Act 1963 Pondicherry is governed by a Lieut.-Governor, appointed by the President, and a Council of Ministers responsible to a Legislative Assembly. The election in March 1985 returned a Congress (I) government. Lieut.-Governor: Thiru T. P. Tewary. Planning. Approved outlay for 1986-87 was Rs 390m. Of this, Rs 17-5m. was for agriculture, Rs 20m. for rural development, co-operatives, Rs 25-3m., education, Rs85-6m., public works, Rs 58-6m., electricity, Rs27-9m., fisheries, Rs 16-9m. Budget. Budget estimates for 1986-87 show revenue receipts of Rs 42 02 crores. Electricity. Power is bought from neighbouring states. All main villages have electricity. Consumption, 1984-85, 242 units per head. Peak demand, 48-12 mw.; total consumption, 183-26m. units. Agriculture. Nearly 45% of the population is engaged in agriculture and allied pursuits; 90% of the cultivated area is irrigated. Production has been reduced by drought and floods. The main food crop is rice. Foodgrain production, 76,000 tonnes from 38,582 hectares in 1985-86, of which 57,200 tonnes was paddy; cash crops include oilseeds (14,520 tonnes), cotton (10,500 bales of 180 kg) and sugarcane (305,000 tonnes). Industry. There are (1986) 11 large and 19 medium-scale industries manufacturing consumer goods such as textiles, sugar, cotton yarn, paper, spirits and beer, potassium chlorate, rice bran oil, vehicle parts and soap, and employing 17,000 people. There were 16,000 people employed in 2,395 small industrial units engaged in varied manufacturing. Railways. Pondicherry is on a branch from the main Madurai-Madras line. Aviation. The nearest airport is Madras. Education. There were, in Sept. 1985, 109 pre-primary schools (5,730 pupils and 145 teachers), 356 primary schools(48,656 and 1,677), 103 middle schools (49,085 and 1,542), 64 high schools (36,627 and 1,453) and 19 higher secondary schools (22,552 and 672). There were 9 general education colleges (5,044 and 644); a medical college, a law college, a technical higher secondary school and a polytechnic had a total of 1,704 students. Health. On 31 March 1986 there were 8 hospitals, 40 health centres and 73 subcentres; there were 11 ESI dispensaries and a chest clinic; one doctor to each 1,100 population, and one hospital bed to each 250.

Capital: Jakarta Population: 163m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$540 ( 1985)

INDONESIA Republik Indonesia

H I S T O R Y . In the 16th century Portuguese traders in quest of spices settled in some of the islands, but were ejected by the British, who in turn were ousted by the Dutch (1595). From 1602 the Netherlands East India Company conquered the Netherlands East Indies, and ruled them until the dissolution of the company in 1798. Thereafter the Netherlands Government ruled the colony from 1816 to 1941, when it was occupied by the Japanese until 1945. An independent republic was proclaimed by Dr Sukarno and Dr Hatta on 17 Aug. 1945. Complete and unconditional sovereignty was transferred to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia on 27 Dec. 1949, except for the western part of New Guinea, the status of which was to be determined through negotiations between Indonesia and the Netherlands within one year after the transfer of sovereignty. A union was created to regulate the relationship between the two countries. A settlement of the New Guinea (Irian Jaya) question was, however, delayed until 15 Aug. 1962, when, through the good offices of the United Nations, an agreement was concluded for the transfer of the territory to Indonesia on 1 May 1963. In Feb. 1956 Indonesia abrogated the union and in Aug. 1956 repudiated Indonesia's debt to the Netherlands. During 1950 the federal system which had sprung up in 1946-48 (SEE THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1950, p. 1233) was abolished, and Indonesia was again made a unitary state. The provisional constitution was passed by the Provisional House of Representatives on 14 and came into force on 17 Aug. 1950. On 5 July 1959 by Presidential decree, the Constitution of 1945 was reinstated and the Constituent Assembly dissolved. For history 1960-66 see THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1982-83, p. 678.

On 11-12 March 1966 the military commanders under the leadership of Lieut.Gen. Suharto took over the executive power while leaving President Sukarno as the head of State. The Communist Party was at once outlawed and the National Front was dissolved in Oct. 1966.On 22 Feb. 1967 Sukarno handed overall his powers to Gen. Suharto. A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Indonesia, covering a total land area of 741,101 sq. miles (1,919,400 sq. km), consists of some 13,700 islands (6,000 of which are inhabited) extending about 3,200 miles east to west through three timezones (East, Central and West Indonesian Standard time) and 1,250 miles north to south. The largest islands are Sumatra, Java Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Sulawesi (Celebes) and Irian Jaya (the western part of New Guinea). Most of the smaller islands except Madura and Bali are grouped together. The two largest roups of islands are Maluku (the Moluccas) and Nusa Tenggara (the Lesser undas). The total population in 1980 (census) was 147,490,298, distributed as follows: AREA

f

Province Aceh(D.I.) Sumatera Utara Sumatera Barat Riau Jambi Sumatera Selatan Bengkulu Lampung Sumatra

Sq. km 59,904 71,104 49,333 124,084 62,150 104,363 20,760 33,866

Census 1980 2,611,271 8,360,894 3,406,816 2,168,535 1,445,994 4,629,801 768,064 4,624,785

524,097

28,016,160

690

Chief town Banda Aceh Medan Padang Pakanbaru Telanaipura Palembang Bengkulu Tanjungkarang

Census 1980 72,090 1,378,955 480,922 186,262 230,373 787,187 64,783 284,275

691

INDONESIA Province Jakarta Raya (D.C.I.) Jawa Barat Jawa Tengah Yogyakarta(D.I.) Jawa Timur

Sq. km 592 49,144 34,353 3,090 46,865

Census 1980 6,503,449 27,453,525 25,372,889 2,750,813 29,188,852

Jawa and Madura

134,044

91,269,528

157,066 156,552 33,966 202,619

2,486,068 954,353 2,064,649 1,218,016

550,203

6,723,086

24,200 88,655 83,799 32,454

2,115,384 1,289,635 6,062,212 942,302

229,108

10,409,533

5,623 21,740 48,889 14,925 83,675 421,981

2,469,930 2,724,664 2,737,166 555,350 1,411,006 1,173,875

596,833

11,071,991

Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan

Barat Tengah Selatan Timur

Kalimantan Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi

Utara Tengah Selatan Tenggara

Sulawesi Bali Nusu Tenggara Barat Nusu Tenggara Timur Loro S a e ' Maluku Irian Jaya Palau-Palau Lain Totals

Chief town Jakarta Bandung Semarang Yogyakarta Surabaya

Census 1980 6,503,449 1,462,637 1,026,671 398,727 2,027,913

Pontianak Palangkaraya Banjarmasin Samarinda

304,778 60,447 381,286 264,718

Menado Palu Ujung Padang Kendari

217,159 298,584 709,038 41,021

Denpasar Mataram Kupang Dili Amboina Jayapura

261,263 68,964 403,110 60,150 208,898 149,618

2,034,255 147,490,298 ' Formerly Portuguese East Timor.

Other major cities (census 1980): Malang, 511,780; Surakarta, 469,888; Bogor, 247,409; Cirebon, 223,776; Kediri, 221,830; Madiun, 150,562; Pekalongan, 132,558; Tegal, 131,728; Magelang, 123,484; Sukabumi, 109,994 and Probolinggo, 100,296 (all on Java); Balik papan on Kalimantan, 280,875. Estimate (1985) 163m. The principal ethnic groups are the Aceh, Bataks and Minangkabaus in Sumatra, the Javanese and Sundanese in Java, the Madurese in Madura, the Balinese in Bali, the Sasaks in Lombok, the Menadonese, Minahas, Torajas and Buginese in Sulawesi, the Dayaks in Kalimantan, Irianese in Irian Jaya, the Ambonese in the Moluccas and Timorese in Timor Timur. Bahasa Indonesia is the official language of the Republic. C L I M A T E . Conditions vary greatly over this spread of islands, but generally the climate is tropical monsoon, with a dry season from June to Sept. and a wet one from Oct. to April. Temperatures are high all the year and rainfall varies according to situation on lee or windward shores. Jakarta. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 71" (1,775 mm). Padang. Jan. 79°F(26-7°C), July 79°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 177" (4,427 mm). Surabaya. Jan. 79"F (27-2°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 51 "(1,285 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Indonesia is a sovereign, independent republic. The People's Consultative Assembly is the supreme power. It has 920 members and it sits at least once every 5 years. The House of People's Representatives has 460 members, 364 of them elected and 96 nominated by the President upon recommendation and sits for a 5-year term. General elections to the 360 elected seats in the House of Representatives were held on 4 May 1982 and 242 seats were won by the Golkar Party.

692

INDONESIA

President, Prime Minister and Minister of Defence: Gen. Suharto, elected by the People's Consultative Assembly in 1968 and re-elected in 1973,1978 and 1983. Vice-President: Gen. Umar Wirahadikusumah. Minister Coordinator for Political Affairs and Security: Gen. Reksodimedjo Surono. Minister Coordinator for the Economy, Finance, Industry and Development Supervision: Dr Ali Wardhana. Minister Coordinator for Public Welfare: H. Alamsjah Ratu Perwiranegara. State Minister and Secretary of State: Sudharmono. State Ministerfor National Development Planning and Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency: Dr J. B. Sumarlin. State Minister for Research and Technology and Chairman of the Agency for Research and Applied Technology: Prof. B. J. Habibie. State Minister for Population Affairs and the Environment: Dr Emil Salim. State Minister for Housing: Dr Cosmas Batubara. State Minister for Youth Affairs and Sports: Dr Abdul Gafur. State Minister for Administrative Reform and Vice Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency: Dr Saleh Afiff. State Minister for Women's Affairs: L. Soetanto. Minister of Home Affairs: Soepardjo Roestam. Foreign Affairs: Dr Mochtar Kusumaatmadja. Defence and Security: Gen. S. Poniman. Justice: Ismail Saleh. Information: H. Harmoko. Finance: Dr Radius Prawiro. Trade: Dr Rachmat Saleh. Cooperatives: Bustanil Arifin. Agriculture: Achmad Affandi. Forestry: Soedjarwo. Industries: Hartarto. Mines and Energy: Dr Subroto. Public Works: Suyono Sosrodarsono. Communications: Roesmin Nuijadin. Tourism, Post and Telecommunications: Achmad Tahir. Manpower: Sudomo. Transmigration: Martono. Education and Culture: Dr Nugroho Notosusanto. Health: Dr Suwardjono Suijaningrat. Religious Affairs: H. Munawir Sjadzali. Social Affairs: Nani Soedarsono. Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: Gen. L. B. Murdani. There are 5 junior ministers. Nationalflag: Horizontally red over white. National anthem: Indonesia Raya (tune by Wage Rudolf Supratman, 1928). D E F E N C E . The Indonesian Armed Forces were formally set up on 5 Oct. 1945. On 11 Oct. 1967 the Army, Navy, Air Force and Police were integrated under the Department of Defence and Security. Their commanders no longer hold cabinet rank. There is selective military service. Army. There are 2 infantry divisions: 1 armoured cavalry brigade, 3 infantry brigades, 2 airborne infantry brigades, 3 artillery regiments, 1 engineer regiment and 4 special warfare groups. There are 67 independent infant^ battalions, 15 independent artillery battalions and 7 independent cavalary battalions. Equipment includes 195 AMX-13 and 41 PT-76 light tanks. The Army has over 80 aircraft, including 4 Aviocars, 2 C-47s and 16 other fixed-wing types, and 32 Iroquois, 16 BO 105, 9 Hughes 300, 6 Bell 212 and 6 Alouette III helicopters. Delivery of 28 locally-built Bell 412 helicopters were under way in 1987. Total strength in 1987 was 216,000. Navy. The fleet comprises 2 diesel powered patrol submarines, 12 frigates, 4 fast missile boats, 2 fast attack craft, 2 fast torpedo boats, 14 patrol vessels, 2 fleet minesweepers, 8 small patrol craft, 15 landing ships, 2 landing craft, 3 training ships, 6 surveying vessels, 2 command and submarine support ships, 1 destroyer depot ship, 1 repair ship, 1 cable ship, 6 oilers, 10 auxiliaries, 60 minor landing craft, 20 service craft and 6 tugs. Of the 104 ships acquired from the USSR very few now remain. The Naval Air Arm has 86 aircraft, including 27 helicopters. There are 74 customs patrol cutters, 6 maritime security agency boats, 35 Army vessels, 6 Air Force boats and 30 armed marine police craft. More Super Puma helicopters were on order in 1986, plus up to 16 locally-built CN-235 helicopters. Naval personnel.in 1987.numbered 35,800 officers and men, including 5,000 of the Marine Commando Corps and 1,000 in the Naval Air Arm. Air Force. Operational combat units comprise two squadrons of A-4E Skyhawk attack aircraft, and single squadrons of F-5E Tiger II fighters and OV-IOF Bronco twin-turboprop counter-insurgency aircraft. There are 3 transport squadrons, equipped with turboprop C-130 Hercules, Nurtanio/CASA NC-212 Aviocar and

INDONESIA

693

F27 Friendship aircraft, and piston-engined C-47s, plus 3 specially-equipped Boeing 737 dual-purpose maritime surveillance/transports; and an assortment of other aircraft in transport, helicopter and training units including 16 Hawk attack/trainers, 25 T-34C-1 armed turboprop trainers, and 40 Swiss-built AS 202 Bravo piston-engined primary trainers. On order are 32 CN-235 twin-turboprop transports, 12 F-16 Fighting Falcon interceptors, and Super Puma and Bell 412 helicopters, all from Nurtanio of Indonesia. Personnel (1987) approximately 27,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Indonesia is a member of U N and

ASEAN.

ECONOMY Planning. The fourth Five-Year Development Plan (1984—89) gives priority to increasing production and services in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, communications and transportation, and tourist industries. Budget. The ordinary budget (in Rp. 1 m.) in 1986-87, balanced at 21,421,600m. Currency. The monetary unit is the rupiah (abbreviated Rp.), divided into 100sen. There are banknotes of 1, 2-5, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 500, 1,000; 5,000 and 10,000 rupiahs and aluminium coins of 1,5,10,25 and cupro-nickel coins of 50 sen. In March 1987 there were 2,615 rupiahs=£l sterling; 1,647 rupiahs=US$l. Banking. The Bank Indonesia, successor to De Javasche Bank established by the Dutch in 1828, was made the central bank of Indonesia on 1 July 1953. It had an original capital of Rp. 25m.; a reserve fund of Rp. 18m. and a special reserve of Rp. 84m. There are 117 commercial banks, 28 development banks and other financial institutions, 8 development finance companies and 9 joint venture merchant banks. Commercial banking is dominated by 5 state-owned banks: Bank Rakyat Indonesia provides services to smallholder agriculture and rural development; Bank Bumi Daya, estate agriculture and forestry; Bank Negara Indonesia 1946, industry; Bank Dagang Negara, mining; and Bank Expor-Impor Indonesia, export commodity sector. All state banks are authorized to deal in foreign exchange. There are 101 private commercial banks owned and operated by Indonesians. The 11 foreign banks, which specialize in foreign exchange transactions and direct lending operations to foreign joint ventures, include the Chartered Bank, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Bank of America, the City Bank, the Bank of TOkyO, Chase Manhattan and the American Express International Banking Corporation. The government owns one Savings Bank, Bank Tabungan Negara, and 1,000 Post Office Savings Banks. There are also over 3,500 rural and village savings bank and credit cooperatives. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was officially introduced in Feb. 1923, and came into full operation on 1 Jan. 1938. The following are the old weights and measures: Pikol = 136 • 16 lb. avoirdupois; Katti = 1 -36 lb. avoirdupois; Bau = 1-7536 acres; Square Pal = 227 hectares = 561 • 16 acres; Jengkal = 4 yd; Pal (Java) = 1,506 metres; Pal (Sumatra) = 1,852 metres. ENERGY AND N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Three large-scale hydro-electric plants are operating on the Jatiluhur and Brantas rivers in Java and on the Asahan River in Sumatra. Electricity produced (198 5) 28,500m. kwh. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Indonesia is the principal producer of petroleum in the Far East, production coming from Sumatra, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and Java. The 1986 output of crude oil was 67,780,000 tonnes.

694

INDONESIA

Gas. Pertamina, the state oil company, started to pump natural gas to Jakarta in 1979. Production(1985) 1,749,000m. cu. ft. Minerals. The high cost of extraction means that little of the large mineral resources outside Java is exploited; however, there is copper mining in Irian Jaya, nickel mining and processing on Sulawesi, aluminium smelting in northern Sumatra. Coal production (1985) l-94m. tons. Output (in 1,000 tons, 1982) of bauxite was 700-25; iron sand, 136-52; copper, 223-70; silver, 3,051-74 kg; gold, 222-37 kg; nickel 1,640-92. In 1985 tin production was 22,000 tons. Agriculture. Rice production (1985), 26-3m. tonnes. In 1985 production was (in 1,000 tons): Coconuts,2,177;sugar,2,196;rubber, 1,150; palm oil, 1,118; tea, 119; cloves, 51. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 6,859,000; buffaloes, 2,424,000; horses, 527,000; sheep, 4,958,000; goats, 11,173,000; pigs,4-05m. Forestry. The forest area is 113m. hectares. Production (1985): Plywood, 4 • 2m. cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1984 the catch of sea fish was 1 -67m. tonnes; inland fish was 550,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. There are shipyards at Jakarta Raya, Surabaya, Semarang and Amboina. There were (1985) more than 2,000 textile factories (total production in 1982-83, 1,708-9m. metres), large paper factories (342,300 tons, 1984-85), match factories, automobile and bicycle assembly works, large construction works, tyre factories, glass factories, a caustic soda and other chemical factories. Production (1984-85): Cement, 8,813,300 tons; fertilizers, 2,910,000 tons; 6-lm. tyres; automobiles, 153,000. Trade Unions. All unions must be affiliated to the All Indonesia Labour Federation (FBSI). About 40% of the labour force belong to unions. Strikes are forbidden by law. The total labour force (1985, estimate) was 64m. Commerce. Imports and exports (including oil) in US$ 1 m. for year April-March: Imports Exports

1983 16,351-8 21,151-7

1984 13,882-1 ...

1985 14,450-0 19,910-0

1986 12,540-0 18,100-0

The main export items (in US$lm.) in 1984 were: Oil, 10,214;gas,3,852; coffee, 511; rubber, 720; palm-oil, 63; tin ore, 259; tea, 226. Main exports went to Japan, the USA and the Netherlands. The main import items are non-crude oil, rice, consumer goods, fertilizer, chemicals, weaving yam, iron and steel, industrial and business machinery. Total trade between Indonesia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 91,704 212,066

1983 169,454 193,642

1984 181,490 186,736

1985 155,934 172,818

1986 141,242 196,629

Tourism. In 1985 about 720,000 tourists visited Indonesia mainly from USA, Australia, Japan, Netherlands, Germany, France, UK and Singapore. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Most cities on Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Bali are connected by highways or secondary roads. The Trans-Sumatra trunk road connecting Aceh (north) and Lampung'(south) and the Trans-Sulawesi highway were nearing completion in 1984. The feeder-road between West Sumatra and Riau provinces was completed with the building of the bridge over the Kampar River at Pekanbaru in 1974. Motor vehicles, at 31 Dec. 1979, totalled 577,345 passenger cars, 383,648 vans and trucks, 69,545 buses and about 2,266,183 motor cycles.

695

INDONESIA

Railways. In 1985 the State Railways totalled 6,877 km, comprising 4,922 km of 1,067 mm gauge on Java, and 1,458 km of 1,067 mm gauge and 497 km of750 mm gauge on Sumatra. In 1985-86, railways carried 4,877m. passenger-km and 7,047m. tonne-km. Aviation. Indonesia has 14 major airports: 4 on Java, 3 on Sumatra, 2 on Sulawesi and one each on Bali, Kalimantan, Timor, Maluku and Irian Jaya. A new international airport, 18 miles west of Jakarta at Cengkareng, was opened in 1985. This will replace Jakarta's present international airport. The Government and KLM in 1949 set up 'Garuda Indonesian Airways' as a mixed enterprise on a 50-50 capital basis under KLM management. Shipping. There are 16 ports for oceangoing ships, the largest of which is Tanjung Priok, which serves the Jakarta area and has a container terminal. The national shipping company Pelajaran Nasional Indonesia (PELNI) maintains interinsular communications. The Jakarta Lloyd maintains regular services between Jakarta, Amsterdam, Hamburg and London. Post and Broadcasting. In 1979 the postal and telegraph services of Indonesia ÍXLcluded 2,796 post offices. There were 660 telegraph offices which handled 3-9m. domestic and 488,000 international cables. Post offices handled 176m. letters and Rp. 250,000m. in money orders, Giro and postal cheques. Deposits with post office savings accounts, Rp. 31,210m. Number of telephones (1983), 669,301. Radio Republik Indonesia, under the Department of Information, operates 26 stations. In 1982 there were 1 -8m. television and 20m. radio receivers. Newspapers (1980). There were about 120 daily newspaper publishers with estimated daily circulation of 1 -7m. There were 270 publishers of weekly papers and magazines with a circulation of 3 • 5m. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are courts of first instance, high courts of appeal in every provincial capital and a Supreme Court of Justice for the whole of Indonesia in Jakarta. Administrative matters on judicial organization are under the direction of the Department of Justice. In civil law the population is divided into three main groups: Indonesians, Europeans and foreign Orientals, to whom different law systems are applicable. When, however, people from different groups are involved, a system of so-called 'inter-gentile' law is applied. The present criminal law, which has been in force since 1918, is codified and is based on European penal law. This law is equally applicable to all groups of the population. For private and commercial law, however, there are various systems applicable for the various groups of the population. For the Indonesians, a system of private and agrarian law is applicable; this is called Adat Law, and is mainly uncodified. For the other groups the prevailing private and commercial law system is codified in the Private Law Act (1847) and the Commercial Law Act (1847). These Acts have their origins in the French Code Civile and Code du Commerce through the similar Dutch codifications. These Acts are entirely applicable to Indonesian citizens and to Europeans, whereas to foreign Orientals they are applicable with some exceptions, mainly in the fields of family law and inheritance. Penal law was in the process of being codified in 1981. Religion. Religious liberty is granted to all denominations. About 78% of the Indonesians were Moslems in 1985 and 11% Christians. There are also about lm. Buddhists, probably for the greater part Chinese. Hinduism has 6m. members, of whom 2 • 5m. are on Bali. Education. Pupils and teachers in 1984 (1,000): Primary Secondary Technological

Schools 129 19

Pupils 25,804 6,447 316

Teachers 926 384 29

696

INDONESIA

English is the first foreign language taught in schools. Literacy rate was 72% in 1984. Total number of students in higher education (1981) 597,000 attending the 41 state, or 450 private universities and technical institutes. Health. In 1981-82 there were 1,224 hospitals, 17,000 health centres and 15,400 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Indonesia in Great Britain (157 Edgware Rd., London W2 2HR) Ambassador: ( S. Suhartoyo). Of Great Britain in Indonesia (Jalan M.H. Thamrin75, Jakarta 10310) Ambassador: Alan E. Donald, CMG. Of Indonesia in the USA (2020 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Chargé d'Affaires: Pudijanto Sadaijoen. Of the USA in Indonesia (Medan Merdeka Selatan 5, Jakarta) Ambassador: Paul D. Wolfowitz. Of Indonesia to the United Nations Ambassador: Ali Alatas. Books of Reference Economic Update 1984. National Development Information Office, Jakarta, 1984 Indonesia 1984. Department of Information, Jakarta, 1984 Bee,0. J., The Petroleum Resources of Indonesia. OUP, 1982 Bemmelen, R. W. van, Geology of Indonesia. 2 vols. The Hague, 1949 Echols, J. M., and Shadily, H., An Indonesian-English Dictionary. 3rd ed. Cornell Univ. Press, 1975 Leifer, M., Indonesia's Foreign Policy. London, 1983 McDonald, H., Suharto's Indonesia. Univ. Press of Hawaii, 1981 Papenek, G., The Indonesian Economy. Eastbourne, 1980 Polomka, P., Indonesia Since Sukarno. London, 1971

Capital: Tehran Population: 4519m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$2,160 ( 1977)

IRAN Jomhori-e-Islami-e-Irân

H I S T O R Y . Persia was ruled by the Shahs as an absolute monarchy until 30 Dec. 1906 when the first Constitution was granted. Reza Khan took control after a coup d'état on 31 Oct. 1925 deposed the last Shah of the Qajar Dynasty, and became Reza Shah Pahlavi on 12 Dec. 1925. The country's name was changed to Iran on 21 March 1935. Reza Shah abdicated on 16 Sept. 1941 (and died 25 July 1944) in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (born 26 Oct. 1919). Following widespread civil unrest, the Shah left Iran with his family on 17 Jan. 1979 (and died in Egypt 27 July 1980). The Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini; spiritual leader of the Shi'a Moslem community, returned from 15 years exile on 1 Feb. 1979 and appointed a provisional government on 5 Feb. The Shah's government resigned and Parliament dissolved itself on 11 Feb. Following a referendum in March, an Islamic Republic was proclaimed on 1 Apr. 1979. In Sept. 1980 war began with Iraq with destruction of some Iranian towns and damage to the oil installations at Abadân. The war was still in progress in early 1987. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Iran is bounded north by the USSR and the Caspian Sea, east by Afghânistàn and Pakistan, south by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, and west by Iraq and Turkey. It has an area of 1,643,958 sq. km (634,724 sq. miles), but a vast portion is desert, and the average density is only (1986)28 inhabitants to the sq. km. The population at recent censuses was as follows: (1956) 18,944,821; (1966) 25,781,090; ( 1976) 33,708,744. Estimate (1985) 45 • 19m. The areas, populations and capitals of the 24 provinces (ostân) were: Area Census Estimale Province (sq. km) 1976 1983 Capital Azerbaijan, East 67,102 3,197,685 3,854,000 Tabriz Azerbaijan, West Onimiyeh ' 38,850 1,407,604 1,779,000 Bakhtaran' 23,667 1,030,714 1,290,000 Bakhtaran 4 Boyer ahmadi and Kohkiluyeh 14,261 244,370 307,000 Yâsûj Bushehr 27,563 347,863 452,000 Bushehr Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari 14,870 394,357 503,000 ShahrKord Esfahan 104,650 1,969,965 Esfahan 2,946,000 Fars 2,035,582 Shiraz 133,298 2,575,000 Gilan 14,709 1,581,872 1,910,000 Rasht Hamadan 19,784 1,088,024 1,311,000 Hamadan Hormozgan 66,870 462,440 601,000 Bandir-e-Abbas I lâm I lam 19,044 246,024 277,000 Kerman 186,472 Kerman 1,091,148 1,390,000 KJhorasan 313,337 3,264,398 4,162,000 Mashhad Khuzestan 64,702 Ahvâz 2,187,118 2,826,000 Kordestan 24,998 782,440 970,000 Sânândâj Lorestan 31,383 933,939 Khorramabâd 1,126,000 Markazi 39,895 1,372,000 6,962,206 Mazandaran Sâri 47,375 2,387,171 3,015,000 Semnan 90,039 492,113 336,000 Semnân Zâmedàn Sistan and Baluchestan 181,578 997,000 J A ràk! Tehran (formed from Markazi) 19,118 7,709,000 Yazd 63,905 3 56', 849 446,000 Yazd Zanjan 36,398 580,570 1,376,000 Zanjàn 1 : 1 Formerly Kermânshâhàn. Estimate 1984. Formerly Rezâyeh. 4 5 Formerly Kermânshâh. Formerly Tehran.

697

698

IRAN

The principal cities were: Tehran Esfâhân Mashhad Tabriz Shiràz Ahvâz Abadàn Bakhtârân Qom Rasht Orümiyeh Hamadân

Census 1976 4,530,223 661,510 667,770 597,976 425,813 334,399 294,068 290,600 247,219 188,957 164,419 165,785

Estimate 1982 5,734,199 926,601 1,119,747 853,296 800,416 470,927 531,350 424,048 259,638 262,588 234,473

Ardabil Khorramshahr Kermân Karaj Qazvin Yazd Arâk Desful Khorramäbäd Borujerd Zanjän

Census 1976 147,865 140,490 140,761 137,926 139,258 135,925 116,832 121,251 104,912 101,345 100,351

Estimate 1982 221,970 238,777 526,272 244,265 193,282 209,932 140,918 199,627 177,524 175,374

The national language is Farsi or Persian, spoken by 45% of the population. 23% spoke related languages, including Kurdish and Luri in the west and Baluchi in the south-east, while 26% spoke Turkic languages, primarily the Azerbaijani-speaking peoples of the north-west and the Turkomen of Khorasan in the north-east. C L I M A T E . Mainly a desert climate, but with more temperate conditions on the shores of the Caspian Sea. Seasonal range of temperature is considerable. Abadan. Jan. 54°F (12-2°Q, July 97°F (36- 1°C). Annual rainfall 8" (204 mm). Tehran. Jan. 36°F(2 -2°C), July 85"F (29-4'C). Annual rainfall 10" (246 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the Islamic Republic was approved by a national referendum in Dec. 1979. It gives supreme authority to a religious leader (walifaqih), which position will be held by Ayatollah Khomeini for the rest of his natural life, and thereafter be elected by the Moslem clergy. The President of the Republic is popularly-elected for a 4-year term and is head of the executive; he appoints a Prime Minister and other Ministers, subject to approval by the Majlis. Presidents since the establishment of the Islamic Republic: Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, 4 Feb. June 1981 (deposed)

1980-22

Mohammad Ali Raja'i, 24 July 30 Aug. 1981 (assassinated).

1981-

The Cabinet was composed as follows in Dec. 1985. President: Hojatolislam Sayed Ali Khamenei (from 12 Oct. 1981, sworn in for second term 4 Sept. 1985). Prime Minister: Mir Hosein Musavi-Khamenei. Agriculture and Rural Development: Abas Ali Zali. Commerce: Hasan AbediJafari. Construction Jihad: Bizhan Namdar-Zangeneh. Culture and Higher Education: Mohammad Farhadi. Defence: Mohammed Hosein Jalali. Economic Affairs and Finance: Mohammad Javad Iravani. Education and Training: Kazem Akrami. Energy: Mohammad Taqi Banki. Foreign Affairs: Ali Akbar Velayati. Health and Medical Education: Ali Reza Marandi. Heavy Industries: Behzad Nabavi. Housing and Urban Development: Seraj-ed-Din Kazeruni. Industries: Qolam Reza Shafei. Information and Security: Mohammad MohammadaiReyshahri. Interior: Ali Akbar Mohtashemi-Pur. Islamic Guidance: Mohammad Khatami. Justice: Hasan Habibi. Labour and Social Affairs: Abol Qasem Sarhadizadeh. Mines and Metals: Mohammad Reza Ayatollahi. Petroleum: Qolam Reza Aqazadeh. Plan and Budget: Masud Roqani-Zanjani. Post, Telegraph and Telephone: Mohammad Qarazi. Revolutionary Guard: Mohsen Rafiq-Dust. Roads and Transport: Mohammad Sayyed-Kia. Legislative power is held by a 270-member Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis), directly elected for a 4-year term on 17 May 1984; but all legislation is subject to approval by a 12-member Council of Guardians who ensure it is in accordance with the Islamic code and with the Constitution. Six members of this constitutional Council are appointed by the walifaqih and six by the judiciary.

IRAN

699

Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white and red; on the borders of the green and red stripes the legend Allah Akbar in white Kufi script repeated 22 times in all; in the centre of the white stripe the national emblem in red. Local Government. The country is divided into 21 provinces (ostdn) and 2 governor-generalships; these are sub-divided into 172 shahrestan (counties), each under a farmandar (governor) and thence into 499 bakhsh (districts), each under a bakhshdar. The districts are sub-divided into dehistan (groups of villages) each under a dehddr, each village having its elected kadkhoda (headman). D E F E N C E . Two years' military service is compulsory. Army. The Army consisted (1987) of 305,000 men (about 200,000 conscripts), with some 350,000 reservists. It is organized in 3 armoured, 7 infantry and 1 airborne divisions, and auxiliary units. Equipment includes T-54/-55/-62, T-72,300 Chieftain, M-47/-48 and M-60A1 main battle tanks. There is also a 350,000-strong Revolutionary Guard Corps. The Army does operate aircraft, but strength is not known. Navy. The fleet, declining since the revolution, before the war comprised 3 very old destroyers, 4 frigates, 2 old corvettes, 8 fast attack craft (some missile-armed), 3 old coastal minesweepers, 2 inshore minesweepers, 7 patrol boats, 14 hovercraft, 2 landing ships, 1 landing craft, 2 supply ships, 1 repair ship, 2 oilers, 4 survey vessels, 1 water carrier and 3 tugs. TTiere were also 130 coastguard cutters and 22 customs craft. The Navy air service has a fleet of 20 helicopters and 14 fixed-wing aircraft. The construction of 12 fast missile craft in France was to have been completed by mid-1979, but later boats did not receive their missiles and the last 3 boats were embargoed in France. They eventually sailed on 2 Aug. 1981 but one was seized by a Royalist group off Cadiz and after she surrended to the French all three were sent to Iran in a merchant ship to obviate further trouble. Four reported sunk during the war with Iraq. Naval personnel nominally totalled 20,000 officers and ratings including marines, but fewer than 12,000 were reportedly active in 1987. With war following revolution and withdrawal of UK and US maintenance teams the fleet lacks spares and the navy has run down, several ships being laid up. The situation was worsened by cessation of foreign help in training semi-illiterate conscripts and with poor morale following general instability and casualties the above ships do not represent an efficient maritime force. Claims of sinkings during the Iran-Iraq war have not been officially confirmed. Figures for ship and personnel strengths should be interpreted with caution. Air Force. In Aug. 1955 the Air Force became a separate and independent arm, and had a strength ofabout 23 first-line squadrons (each 15 aircraft, plus reserves), with 100,000 personnel before the 1979 revolution. Strength (1987) was estimated at 35,000 personnel and 68 serviceable combat aircraft. The latter include some MiG-19/Chinese-built F-6fighter-bombers, supplied via North Korea, and surviving US fighters that include F-14 Tomcat, F-5E Tiger II and F-4D/E Phantom II fighter-bombers, plus a few RF-4E reconnaissance-fighters. Transport aircraft include F27s, C-130 Hercules, Boeing 707s and 747s, some equipped as flight refuelling tankers. The status of the large fleet of CH-47C Chinook, Bell Model 214 and other helicopters is not known; but two P-3F Orion maritime patrol aircraft remain operational. Training aircraft include Bonanza basic trainers and 35 turboprop PC-7 Turbo-Trainers. Switzerland also recently supplied 15 PC-6 TurboPorter light transports. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Iran is a member of UN, OPEC and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY

Planning. The development plan, 14,191,300m. rials (60% state).

1983-88 envisages an investment of

700

IRAN

Budget. Budget estimate for year commencing March 1985: Revenue 3,474,200m. rials; expenditure 3,868,000m. rials. Currency. The Iranian unit of currency is the rial sub-divided into 100 dinars. Notes in circulation are of denominations of 5-10,000 rials. Coins in circulation are bronze-aluminium and copper, 50 dinar, silver alloy, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 rials. In March 1987, US$ 1 = 72 -97 rials; £1 = 115 40 rials. Banking. The Bank Markazi Iran was established in 1960 as the note-issuing authority and government bank of Iran. All other banks and insurance companies were nationalized in June 1979, and re-organized into 8 new state banking corporations. From 21 March 1985 interest on accounts was abolished. Weights and Measures. By a law passed on 8 Jan. 1933, the official weights and measures are those of the metric system. The Iranian year is a solar year running from 21 March to 20 March; the Hejira year 1362 corresponds to the Christian year 21 March 1984-20 March 1985. ENERGY AND N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Capacity of generators installed at institutions affiliated to Ministry of Energy, 1985, was 11,907,600 kw., and41,724m. kwh. was generated. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. For a history of Iran's oil industry 1 9 5 1 - 7 9 , see STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1982-83.

The petroleum industry was seriously disrupted by the 1979 revolution, and many facilities, including the vast refinery at Abadan, the new refinery at Bandar Khomeini and the tanker terminal at Kharg Island, have been destroyed or put out of action during the Gulf war with Iraq. All operating companies were nationalized in 1979 and operations are now run by the National Petrochemical Company. Crude oil production, 93 • 1 m. tonnes, 1986. Gas. Natural gas production (1983) was 315,000m. cu. ft. Minerals. Iran has substantial mineral deposits relatively underdeveloped. Production figures for 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes): Iron ore, 1,804; coal, 1,021; zinc and lead, 2,236; manganese, 208; chromite, 469; salt, 152. Agriculture. In 1982, arable land and land under permanent crops totalled 14,862,000 hectares, of which 4,070,000 were irrigated and 4,929,900 hectares fallow land. Forests totalled 12 • 7m. hectares and pastures 90m. Crop production for 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat, 6,000; barley, 1,650; rice, l,100;sugar-beet,3,385;sugar-cane,2,150;tobacco, 14. Wool comes principally from Khorasdn, Kermanshah, Mazandaran and Azerbaijan. Production, 1972,20,000 tonnes. Rice is grown largely on the Caspian shores. Cigarette tobacco is grown mainly in Bandar-e-Abbas, Bushehr and West Azert>aijan ostdns. It is purchased by the Tobacco Monopoly and manufactured in the government factory at Tehran. Opium, until 1955, was an important export commodity in Iran. On 7 Oct. 1955 an Act was approved by Parliament to prohibit the cultivation and usage of opium. Livestock (1985): 34-5m. sheep, 13-6m. goats, 8-35m. cattle, 316,000 horses, 27,000 camels, (1984) 20,000 pigs, 230,000 bufTaloes, and 1 -8m. donkeys. Fisheries. The Caspian Fisheries Co. (Shilat) is a government monopoly. Exports of caviar (1975) were valued at US$72m. In 1983—84 the catch (in tonnes) was: Fish, 27,877; caviar, 225; shrimp, 973. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Production of industrial goods, 1983: Vegetable oil, 383,893 tons; sugar, 689,794 tonnes; finished cloth, 619,567,000 metres; footwear, 66,859,000 pairs; bricks, 10,682,255; cement, 10,655,404 tonnes; tractors, 13,570; combines, 619;

IRAN

701

tillers and threshers, 14,303; agricultural discs, ploughs, furrowers, etc., 21,635; pesticide sprayers, 10,690; small vans, 64,509; trucks and small trucks, 13,169; private cars, 53,582; buses, 2,077; mini-buses, 7,449; ambulances, 1,894; motor cycles, 170,794. In 1983 there were 7,128 large-scale manufacturing establishments and the labour force was 573,203. Commerce. Imports totalled 1,582,719m. rials in 1983-84. Exports totalled 94,686m. rials in 1980-81, of which 48,736m. rials was oil and hydrocarbon solvents obtained from oil. Total trade between Iran and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 225,971 333,715

¡983 100,545 629,980

1984 368,572 703,097

1985 63,317 525,589

1986 100,303 399,373

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 the total length of roads was 110,927 km, of which 457 km were freeways, 14,921 km main roads, 27,169 km by-roads, 27,431 km rural roads and 40,949 km connecting roads. In 1983 private motor vehicles numbered 2,113,465; rented vehicles, 343,308; government vehicles, 118,398. Railways. The State Railways totalled 4,567 km of main lines in 1985, of which 146 km electrified. In 1985 the railways carried 5,682m. passenger-km and 6,841m. tonne-km. Construction started in 1983 of a link from Kerman to Zahedan to connect with the network in Pakistan. Aviation. In 1983, 1,557,000 passengers arrived at Mehrabad Airport (1,431,000 on domestic flights and 126,000 on international flights) and 1,609,000 passengers departed (1,427,000 domestic and 182,000 international). The state airline carried 3,621,000 passengers and 32,250 tons of cargo and mail in 1983. Shipping. In 1983, 1,581 ships, capacity 14,348,000 tonnes, entered commercial ports, unloading 14,972,000 tonnes and loading 189,000 tonnes of goods (excluding oil products). Post and Broadcasting. Postal, telegraph and telephone services are administered by the Iranian Ministry of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones. In 1983 the number of telephones was 2,118,080, of which some 820,540 were in Tehran. Wireless sets numbered 10m. in 1980, and television sets 2 1 m. Cinemas (1983). There were 277 cinemas with 174,366 seats. Newspapers. There were in 1982,17 daily papers in Tehran and other cities. Their circulation is relatively small, Ettela'at and Kayhan leading with about 220,000 and 350,000 respectively. Two English-language and a French-language daily ceased publication in March 1979. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A new legal system based on Islamic law was introduced by the new constitution in 1979. The President of the Supreme Court and the public ProsecutorGeneral are appointed by the wali faqih (Ayatollah Khomeini). The Supreme Court has 16 branches and 109 offences carry the death penalty. Religion. The official religion is the Shia branch of Islam, known as the IthnaAshariyya, which recognizes 12 Imams or spiritual successors of the Prophet Mohammad. Of the total population, 96% are Shia, 3% are Sunni and 1% nonMoslem (including about 300,000 of the Bahai faith). Education. The great majority of primary and secondary schools are state schools. Elementary education in state schools and university education are free; small fees are charged for state-run secondary schools. Text-books are issued free of charge to pupils in the first 4 grades of elemental schools. In 1983 there were 5,994,403 pupils in primary schools, 1,817,653 in onenta-

702

IRAN

tion schools and 867,423 in general secondary schools; there were 53,980 students in technical and vocational schools and 30,285 in teacher-training establishments. Universities and other institutes of higher education had 121,048 students in 1983. The Free Islamic University was established after the revolution and in 1983 the International University of Islamic Studies was being organized. A literary movement was established in 1981 and by 1985, 3m. citizens had participated. Health. In 1983 67,734 hospital beds were available in 581 hospitals. Medical personnel included 15,945 physicians and 2,340 dentists in 1982. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Iran in Great Britain (27 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1PX) Chargé d'Affaires: Seyed Jalal Sadatian. Of Great Britain in Iran (Ave. Ferdowsi, Tehran) Head of Interests Section: H. J. Arbuthnott, CMG (at Swedish Embassy). Of Iran in the USA (3005 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. ,20008) A mbassador: (Vacant). Of the USA in Iran (260 Takhte Jamshid Ave., Tehran) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Iran to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Said Rajaie-Khorassani. Books of Reference Statistical Information. Statistical Centre of Iran, Dr Fakemi Avenue, Tehran, Iran, 14144. Afshar, H., Iran: A Revolution in Turmoil. London, 1985 Arberry, A. J. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran. 8 vols. CUP, 1968ff. Bakhash, S., The Reign of the Ayatollahs. London, 1984 Benard, C., and Zalmay, K.., 'The Government of God' Iran's Islamic Republic. Columbia Univ. Press, 1984 Haim, S., Shorter Persian-English Dictionary. Tehran, 1958 Heikal, M„ Iran: The Untold Story. New York, 1982 Hiro, D., Iran under the Ayatollahs. London, 1985 Hussain, A., Islamic Iran: Revolution and Counter-Revolution. London, 1985 Katouzian, H., The Political Economy of Iran. London, 1981 Keddie, N., Roots of Revolution. Yale Univ. Press, 1981 Lambton, A. K. S., Landlord and Peasant in Persia. OUP, 1953 —Persian Vocabulary. CUP, 1954 Looney, R. E., The Economic Development of Iran: A Recent Survey with Projections to 1981. New York, 1973 Nashat.G., Women and Revolution in Iran. Boulder, 1983 Navabpour, A. R., Iran. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Sick,G., AU Fall Down. London, 1985 Steinglass, F. J., A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary. 2nd ed. London, 1930 Stempel, J. D., Inside the Iranian Revolution. Indiana Univ. Press, 1981 Sullivan, W. H., Mission to Iran. New York, 1981 Zabih, S., Iran's Revolutionary Upheaval: An Interpretive Essay. San Francisco, 1979.—The Mosadegh Era: Roots of the Iranian Revolution. Chicago, 1982.—Iran since the Revolution. London,1982

Capital: Baghdad Population: 15-4m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$3,020 (1980)

IRAQ al Jumhouriya al 'Iraqia

Part of the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century, Iraq was captured by British forces in 1916 and became in 1921 a Kingdom under a League of Nations mandate, administered by Britain. It became independent on 3 Oct. 1932 under the Hashemite Dynasty, which was overthrown on 14 July 1958 by a military coup which established a Republic, controlled by a military-led Council of Sovereignty under Gen. Qassim. The republican régime terminated the adherence of Iraq to the Arab Federation (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1958, p. 806). In 1963 Qassim was overthrown and Gen. Abdul Salam Aref became President, to be succeeded in 1966 by his brother Abdul Rahman Aref. In 1968 a successful coup was mounted by the Ba'th Party, which brought Gen. Ahmed Al Bakr to the Presidency. His Vice-President, from 1969, Saddam Hussein, became President in a peaceful transfer of power in 1979. An attempt at succession by the Kurdish minority in the north-east of Iraq flared up in 1962, and fighting continued until the acceptance of a peace plan in June 1966. The Revolutionary Command Council formed after the 17 July 1968 coup announced in March 1970 a complete and constitutional settlement of the Kurdish issue. This was not, however, fully accepted by the Kurdish opposition leader. In Sept. 1980 Iraq invaded Iran in a dispute over territorial rights in the Shatt-alArab waterway. Fighting was continuing in early 1987 particularly around the port ofBasrah. HISTORY.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Iraq is bounded north by Turkey, east by Iran, south-east by the Gulf, south by Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and west by Jordan and Syria. The country has an area of434,924 sq. km (167,925 sq. miles) and its population census (1977) was 12,000,497 and (estimate) 1985,15 -4m. The areas, populations (1977) and capitals of the governorates were: sq. km Census 1977 83,740 466,059 5,270 592,016 5,150 3,189,700 19,070 1,008,626 8,824 250,575 622,979 13,626 19,301 587,754 14,471 541,456 269,822 57,880 14,103 372,575 49,111 215,637 27,494 389,680 1,105,671 35,726 8,507 423,006 29,004 363,819 15,756 690,557 9,659 495,425 17,308 415,140 Forming Kurdish Autonomous Region

Governorate Al-Anbar Babil (Babylon) Baghdad al-Basrah Dahuk1 DhiQar Diyala Irbil 1 Karbala Maysan Al-Muthanna an-Najaf Ninawa (Nineveh) al-Qadisiyah Salah ad-Din As-Sulaymaniyah 1 Ta'mim Wasit 1

Capital Ar-Ramadi Al-Hillah Baghdad Al-Basrah Dahuk an-Nasiriyah Ba'qubah Irbil Karbala Al-Amarah As-Samawah An-Najaf Mosul Ad-Diwaniyah Samarra As-Sulaymaniyah Kirkuk Al-Kut 1

1970 79,488 128,811 2,183,760 333,684 19,736 62,368 39,186 107,355 107,496 80,078 33,473 ! 179,160 293,079 60,553 2 62,008 98,063 207,852 58,647

Census 1965

The national language is Arabic, spoken by 81% of the population. There is a major minority group of Kurdish-speakers in the north-east (15-5%) and smaller groups speaking Turkic, Aramaic and Iranian languages. C L I M A T E . The climate is mainly arid, with small and unreliable rainfall and a large annual range of temperature. Summers are very hot and winters cold. Al-Basrah. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 92°F (33-3"C). Annual rainfall 7" (175 mm). 703

704

IRAQ

Baghdad. Jan. 50"F(1(TC), July 95"F (35°C). Annual rainfall 6" (140 mm). Mosul. Jan. 44'F(6 TC), July 90'F(32-2"C). Annual rainfall 15" (384 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Provisional Constitution was published on 22 Sept. 1968 and promulgated on 16 July 1970. The highest state authority remains the 9-member Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) but some legislative power has now been given to the 250-member National Assembly, elected 20 June 1980 for a 4-year term. The only legal political grouping is the National Progressive Front (founded July 1973) comprising the Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'th) Party and various Kurdish parties; the Iraqi Communist Party left the Front in March 1979. The President and Vice-President are elected by the RCC; the President appoints and leads a Council of Ministers responsible for administration. President: Saddam Hussein at-Takriti (assumed office 17 July 1979). Vice-President: Taha Moheddin Marouf. The RCC was composed as follows in Jan. 1986: Saddam Hussein at-Takriti (Chairman), Taha Moheddin Marouf, Izzat Ibrahim (Vice-Chairman), Na'im Hamid Haddad (Secretary-General of the National Progressive Front), Taha Yasin Ramadan (First Deputy Prime Minister), Gen. Adnan Khairallah (Deputy Prime Minister, Defence), Tariq Aziz Isa (Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs), Sa'doun Shakir Mahmud (Interior), Hasan Ali Nasar alAmiri (Trade). Besides those named above, the Council of Ministers comprises 7 Ministers of State, 19 other Ministers and 7 Presidential advisors with ministerial status. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with 3 green stars on the white stripe. Local Government. Iraq is divided into 18 governorates (liwa), each administered by an appointed Governor; three of the governorates form a (Kurdish) Autonomous Region, with an elected 57-member Kurdish Legislative Council. Each governorate is divided into qadhas (under Qaimaqams) and nahiyahs (under Mudirs). D E F E N C E . Military training is compulsory for all men when they reach the age of 18. This consists of 2 years' service with the colours and 18 years on the reserve. Army. The Army is organized into 5 armoured, 3 mechanized and 10 infantry divisions; 1 Presidential Guard division, 2 special forces divisions, 9 Reserve and 15 People's Army brigades. Equipment includes 4,500 Soviet T-54/-55/-62/-72 and 1,500 Chinese Type-69 main battle tanks. Strength (1987 estimate) 800,000, including 230,000 active reserves and the paramilitary People's Army of650,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 4 new Italian-built frigates, 1 new frigate/training ship, 6 new Italian-built missile corvettes, 12 ex-Soviet missile boats, 12 ex-Soviet torpedo boats, 3 Danish-built tank landing ships, 4 ex-Soviet but Polish-built medium landing ships, 3 ex-Soviet submarine chasers, 2 fleet minesweepers, 3 inshore minesweepers, 1 training ship, 16 gunboats, 8 coastal patrol craft, 10 harbour patrol boats, 3 mine warfare boats, 1 oiler, 1 presidential yacht, 1 harbour authority craft (former presidential yacht), 5 diving craft and 10 service tenders. In 1987 naval personnel totalled 3,000 officers and ratings, increasing on the acquisition of two latest frigates built in Italy. Air Force. Except for a few Hunter jet fighter-bombers bought from Britain and 89 Mirage F.1E/B fighters, about 40 Alouette III, 10 Super Frelon, 40 Puma and 59 Gazelle helicopters acquired from France, the combat and transport squadrons are equipped primarily with aircraft of Soviet design, including 10 Tu-22 supersonic medium bombers, 30 Su-7 and 50 Su-20 fighter-bombers, 90 MiG-23 interceptors and fighter-bombers, and 100 Chinese-built F-7 and MiG-21 interceptors, 60 Chinese-built F-6 (MiG-19) fighters, 40 Mi-24 gunship helicopters, 100 Mi-8 helicopters, and four-turbofan 11-76, turboprop An-12 and An-24/26 transports. USSR was also reported (1987) to have supplied Su-25 ground attack aircraft. A

IRAQ

705

few II-14s and smaller types are used in a transport/communications role. Hunter, L-29 Delfin and L-39 Albatros aircraft are employed for training, with Swiss-built Bravo piston-engined primary trainers, and Tucano and Pilatus PC-7 turboprop basic trainers, Soviet MiG-15UTI trainers and other types in the Air Force College and operational conversion unit. Total strength (1987) 40,000 personnel and 450 combat aircraft. Soviet 'Guideline', 'Goa', 'Gainfijl', 'Gaskin' and Roland surfaceto-air missiles are operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Iraq is a member of UN, Arab League and the Non-Aligned Movement. ECONOMY Planning. The plan for 1981-85 was introduced but has been affected, to some extent, by the hostilities with Iran. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in 1,000 Iraqi dinars) for 1981 balanced at I J?_. 19,250m. Oil revenues account for nearly 50%, customs and excise for about 26% of the total revenue. Currency. The monetaryunit is the Iraqi dinar (l.D.) = 1,000fils = 10 riyals = 20 dirhams. Silver alloy coins for 100 and 50 fils (dirham) and 25 fils are in circulation, and other coins for 10, 5 and 1 fils. Notes are for'/«, Vi and 1 dinar, and for 5 and 10 dinars. In March 1987, £1 =0-49 dinar, US$1 =0 311 dinar. Banking. All banks were nationalized on 14 July 1964. The Central Bank of Iraq is the sole bank of issue. In 1941 the Rafidain Bank, financed by the Iraqi Government, was instituted to carry out normal banking transactions with head office in Baghdad and branches in the chief towns and abroad, including London. In addition, there are 4 government banks which are authorized to issue loans to companies and individuals: the Industrial Bank, the Agricultural Bank, the Estate Bank, and the Mortgage Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1985 amounted to 21,078m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Following the nationalization of the Iraqi oil industry in June 1972, the Iraqi National Oil Company (INOC) is responsible for the exploration, production, transport and marketing of Iraqi crude oil and oil products. The total crude petroleum production was (1986) 84-3m. tonnes and of natural gas (1980) 1,760m. cu. ft. Oil exports are essential for the economy but oil terminals in the Gulf were destroyed in 1980 and the trans-Syria pipeline closed in 1982. Iraq is now wholly reliant on the 625 mile pipeline from Kirkuk to the Mediterranean via Turkey. Agriculture. The chief winter crops (1985) are wheat, 650,000 tonnes and barley, 700,000 tonnes. The chief summer crop is rice, 105,000 tonnes. The date crop is important (100,000 tonnes), the country furnishing about 80% of the world's trade in dates (exports, 1975, l.D. 11,493,000); the chief producing area is the totally irrigated riverain belt of the Shatt-el-Arab. Wool is also an important export (1975: l.D. 1,013,000). In 1975,1.D.20,000 of cotton were exported. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 1 • 5m.; buffaloes, 145,000; sheep, 8 • 5m.; goats, 2 • 35m.; horses, 50,000; camels, 55,000; chickens, 65m. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Iraq is still relatively under-developed industrially but work has begun on

706

IRAQ

new industrial plants which are being established with Soviet equipment and technical assistance. Commerce. Imports and exports for 4 calendar years were (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1981 10,530 20,922

1982 10,250 21,728

1983 9,785 12,275

1984 11,260 11,720

In 1983, crude oil formed 98-6% of all exports, of which 23% to Brazil and 12 -5% to Italy. 13-8% of imports came from Federal Republic of Germany and 11% from Kuwait. Total trade between Iraq and UK for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 79,764 875,179

1983 30,334 400,259

1984 69,047 343,120

1985 44,125 444,749

1986 66,129 443,890

Tourism. About 700,000 tourists visited Iraq in 1978. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 25,500 km of main roads in 1985. Vehicles registered in 1982 totalled 230,000 passenger cars and 145,000 commercial vehicles. Railways. The Iraqi Republic Railways were originally largely metre gauge but now comprise a 1,435 mm gauge main line from Um Qasr through Basra to Baghdad, Mosul and Tel-Kotchek on the Syrian frontier, and the remaining metre gauge route from Baghdad to Khanaqin, Kirkuk and Erbil. A 1,435 mm gauge line was opened in 1983 from Baghdad to Husaiba (404 km) on the Syrian frontier, which will form part of a through route to the Mediterranean port of Latakia, together with a branch of 155 km to serve phosphates deposits at Akashat. In 1983 the railways carried 3 • 5m. tonnes of freight and 231,722 passengers. Aviation. Baghdad airport is served by British Airways, Lufthansa, Alitalia, SAS, Swissair, KLM, Middle East Air Lines, PIA, Iraqi Airways, Air Liban, United Arab Airlines and Aeroflot. In 1982 passenger-km were 1,476m. and cargo, 37-5m. tonne-km. Shipping. The merchant fleet in 1980 comprised 142 vessels (over 100 gross tons) with a total tonnage of 1,465,949. The ports of Basra and Um Qasr have been closed since Sept. 1980. Post and Broadcasting. Wireless telegraph services exist with UK, USA, UAR, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, and wireless telephone services with UK, USA, Italy, UAR and USSR. Telephones, 1983, 624,685 (Baghdad, 302,219). In 1986 there were 2 • 5m. radio and 750,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1979). There were 87 cinemas. Newspapers (1983). In Baghdad there are 4 main daily newspapers (one of which is in English with a circulation of200,000). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The courts are established throughout the country as follows: For civil matters: the court of cassation in Baghdad; 6 courts of appeal at Baghdad (2), Basra, Babylon, Mosul and Kirkuk; 18 courts of first instance with unlimited powers and 150 courts of first instance with limited powers, all being courts of single judges. In addition, 6 peace courts have peace court jurisdiction only. Tribal law was abolished in Aug. 1958. For Shara' (religious) matters: the Shara' courts at all places where there are civil courts, constituted in some places of specially appointed Qadhis (religious judges) and in other places of the judges of the civil courts. For criminal matters: the court of cassation; 6 sessions courts (2 being presided over by the judge of the local court of first instance and 4 being identical with the courts of appeal). Magistrates' courts at all places where there are civil courts, constituted of civil judges exercising

IRAQ

707

magisterial powers of the first and second class. There are also a number of thirdclass magistrates' courts, powers for this purpose being granted to municipal councils and a number of administrative officials. Some administrative officials are granted the powers of a peace judge to deal with cases of debts due from cultivators. Religion. In 1965 there were 7,711,712 Moslems, 232,406 Christians (1979), 2,500 Jews, 69,653 Yazidis and 14,262 Sabians. Education. Primary and secondary education is free and primary education became compulsory in Sept. 1976. Primary school age is 6-12. Secondary education is for 6 years, of which the first 3 are termed intermediate. The medium of instruction is Arabic; Kurdish is used in primary schools in northern districts. There were, in 1981, 10,816 primary schools with 2,637,023 pupils, and 1,579 secondary schools with 1,028,348 pupils. 155 vocational schools had 82,307 students and 62 teacher-training colleges had 102,430 students. There are 6 universities with (1977) 71,536 students and 15 other higher educational establishments with 9,962 students. Health. In 1981 there were 7,634 doctors, and 25,443 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Iraq in Great Britain (21-22 Queen's Gate, London, SW7 5JG) Ambassador: Dr Abdul Amir Al-Anbari (accredited 29 Oct. 1985). Of Great Britain in Iraq (Sharia Salah Ud-Din, Karkh, Baghdad) Ambassador: T. J. Clark, CMG, CVO. Of Iraq in the USA ( 1801 P St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Nizar Hamdoon. Of the USA in Iraq (PO Box 2447, Alwiyah, Baghdad) Chargé d'Affaires: David G. Newton. Of Iraq to the United Nations Ambassador: Ismat Taha Kittani. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Planning, Baghdad (President: Dr Salah Al-Shaikhly) publishes an annual Statistical Abstract (latest issue 1973). Foreign Trade statistics are published annually by the Ministry of Planning. Abdulrahman, A. J., Iraq [Bibliography], Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Ghareeb,E., The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse Univ. Press, 1981 Postgate, E., Iraq: International Relations and National Development. London, 1983

IRELAND

Capital: Dublin Population: 3 • 54m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$4,440 (1984)

Eire H I S T O R Y . In April 1916 an insurrection against British rule took place and a republic was proclaimed. The armed struggle was renewed in 1919 and continued until 1921. The independence of Ireland was reaffirmed in Jan. 1919 by the National Parliament (Ddil Eireann), elected in Dec. 1918. In 1920 an Act was passed by the British Parliament, under which separate Parliaments were set up for 'Southern Ireland' (26 counties)and 'Northern Ireland' (6 counties). The Unionists of the 6 counties accepted this scheme, and a Northern Parliament was duly elected on 24 May 1921. The rest of Ireland, however, ignored the Act. On 6 Dec. 1921 a treaty was signed between Great Britain and Ireland by which Ireland accepted dominion status subject to the right of Northern Ireland to opt out. This right was exercised, and the border between Saorstdt Eireann (26 counties) and Northern Ireland (6 counties) was fixed in Dec. 1925 as the outcome of an agreement between Great Britain, the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. The agreement was ratified by the three parliaments. Subsequently the constitutional links between Saorstdt Eireann and the UK were gradually removed by the Ddil. The remaining formal association with the British Commonwealth by virtue of the External Relations Act, 1936, was severed when the Republic of Ireland Act, 1948, came into operation on 18 April 1949. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Republic of Ireland lies in the Atlantic ocean, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea to the east, and bounded north-east by Northern Ireland. Counties and county boroughs Province ofLeinster Carlow Dublin County Borough Dublin-Belgard Dublin-Fingal Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown Kildare Kilkenny Laoighis Longford Louth Meath Offaly Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Total ofLeinster Province ofMunster Clare Cork County Borough Cork Kerry Limerick County Borough Limerick Tipperary, N. R. Tipperary, S. R. 1

Area in hectares1 89,635 11,499 78,937

Males

Population, 1986 Females

Total

1,720 169,425 206,167 171,954 104,387 82,334 233,587 199,774 176,290 235,143 202,483

20,813 237,770 99,075 68,652 86,320 59,445 37,280 27,519 16,165 45,419 52,878 30,814 31,986 51,708 46,973

20,145 264,567 100,403 69,822 94,187 56,570 35,814 25,751 15,326 46,279 50,884 28,992 31,320 50,748 47,509

40,948 502,337 199,478 138,474 180,507 116,015 73,094 53,270 31,491 91,698 103,762 59,806 63,306 102,456 94,482

1,963,335

912,817

938,317

1,851,134

46,901 64,438 . 141,922 63,162 27,498 54,957 30,285 39,350

44,442 68,758 137,505 60,760 28,743 53,006 29,168 37,701

91,343 133,196 279,427 123,922 56,241 107,963 59,453 77,051

318,784 3,731 742,257 470,142 1,904 266,676 199,622 225,836

Exclusive of certain rivers, lakes and tideways.

708

IRELAND Counties and county boroughs Province ofMunster—contd. Waterford County Borough Waterford

Males

Total

19,356 26,287

20,160 25,295

39,516 51,582

2,412,738

514,156

505,538

1,019,694

593,966 152,476 539,846 246,276 179,608

22,524 67,834 14,197 58,620 28,335 28,114

24,484 63,338 12,803 56,396 26,216 27,865

47,008 131,172 27,000 115,016 54,551 55,979

1,712,172

219,624

211,102

430,726

189,060 483,058 129,093

28,170 65,723 27,009

25,711 63,705 25,323

53,881 129,428 52,332

801,211

120,902

114,739

235,641

6,889,456 1,767,499 1,769,696 Exclusive of certain nvers, lakes and tideways.

3,537,195

Province of Connacht Galway County Borough Galway Leitnm Mayo Roscommon Sligo Total of Connacht Province of Ulster (part of) Cavan Donegal Monaghan Total ofUlster (part of) 1

1

709 Population, 1986 Females

3,809 179,977

Total ofMunster

Total

Area in hectares

Principal towns (1981 census): Greater Dublin including Dun Laoghaire, 915,115; Cork, 149,792; Limerick, 75,520; Galway, 41,861; Waterford, 39,636. Vital statistics for 6 calendar years: 1980 1981 1982

Births 74,064 72,158 70,224

Marriages 21,792 20,612 20,224

Deaths 33,472 32,929 32,457

1983 1984 1985

Births 67,117 64,237 62,250

Marriages 19,467 18,355 18,552

Deaths 32,976 32,154 33,222

C L I M A T E . Influenced by the Gulf Stream, there is an equable climate with mild south-west winds, making temperatures almost uniform over the whole country. The coldest months are Jan. and Feb. (39-45° F, 4-7°C) and the wannest July and Aug. (57-61°F, 14-16°C). May and June are the sunniest months, averaging 5-5 to 6 • 5 hours each day, but over 7 hours in the extreme S.E. Rainfall is lowest along the eastern coastal strip. The central parts vary between 30-44" (750-1,125 mm), and up to 60" (1,500 mm) may be experienced in low-lying areas in the west. Dublin. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 30" (750 mm). Cork. Jan. 43°F (6 • 1°C), July 60°F (15 -6°C). Annual rainfall 41"(1,025 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Ireland is a sovereign independent, democratic republic. Its parliament exercises jurisdiction in 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland. The first Constitution of the Irish Free State came into operation on 6 Dec. 1922. Certain provisions which were regarded as contrary to the national sentiments were gradually removed by successive amendments, with the result that at the end of 1936 the text differed considerably from the original document. On 14 June 1937 a new Constitution was approved by Parliament (Ddil Eireann) and enacted by a plebiscite on 1 July 1937. This Constitution came into operation on 29 Dec. 1937. Under it the name Ireland (£ire) was restored. The Constitution provides that, pending the reintegration of the national territory, the laws enacted by the Parliament established by the constitution shall have the same area and extent of application as those of the Irish Free State. The Oireachtas or National Parliament consists, of the President and two Houses, viz., a House of Representatives, called Ddil Eireann, and a Senate, called Seanad Eireann, consisting of 60 members. The Ddil, consisting of 166 members, is elected by adult suffrage. Of the 60 members of the Senate, 11 are nominated by

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the Taoiseach (Prime Minister), 6 are elected by the universities and the remaining 43 are elected from 5 panels of candidates established on a vocational basis, representing the following public services and interests: (1) national language and culture, literature, art, education and such professional interests as may be defined by law for the purpose of this panel; (2) agricultural and allied interests, and fisheries; (3) labour, whether organized or unorganized; (4) industry and commerce, including banking, finance, accountancy, engineering and architecture; (5) public administration and social services, including voluntary social activities. The electing body is a college of about 1,109 members, comprising members of the Dail, Senate, county boroughs and county councils. A maximum period of 90 days is afforded to the Senate for the consideration or amendment of Bills sent to that House by the Dail, but the Senate has no power to veto legislative proposals. No amendment of the Constitution can be effected except with the approval of the people given at a referendum. Agreement on the establishment of a Council of Ireland was reached at a meeting held at Sunningdale on 6-9 Dec. 1973. Members of the Irish and UK governments attended together with the Northern Ireland Executive-designate. Irish is the first official language; English is recognized as a second official language. For further details of the Constitution see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1952, pp. 1123-34. President: Padraig 6hlrighile (Patrick Hillery), installed on 3 Dec. 1976 and reelected for a second 7-year term in 1983. Former Presidents: Dr Douglas Hyde (1938-45); Sean T. O. Ceallaigh (1945-59; 2 terms); Eamon de Valera (1959-73; 2 terms); Erskine Childers (1973-74; died in office); Cearbhall 6 Dalaigh (1974-76; resigned). A general election was held Feb. 1987: Fianna Fail, 81 (Nov. 1982 election, 75); Fine Gael, 51 (70); Labour Party, 12 (16); Progressive Democrats, 14; Workers' Party, 4 (2); Democratic Socialists, 1; Independents, 3 (3). There are no formal party divisions in the Senate. The Government consisted of the following members in Jan. 1987: Taoiseach (Prime Minister) and Minister for the Gaeltacht: Charles Haughey. Tanaiste (Deputy Prime Minister) and Minister for Foreign Affairs: Brian Lenihan. Finance and the Public Service: Ray McSharry. Justice: Gerry Collins. Agriculture: Michael O'Kennedy. Social Welfare: Dr Michael Woods. Industry and Commerce: Albert Reynolds. Energy: Ray Burke. Tourism, Fisheries and Forestry: Brendan Daly. Environment: Padraig Flynn. Labour: Bertie Ahern. Health: Dr Rory O'Hanlon. Defence: Michael J. Noonan. Education: Mary O'Rourke. Communications: John Wilson. There were 5 Ministers of State. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, orange. National anthem: The Soldier's Song (words by P. Kearney; music by P. Heaney). Local Government. The elected local authorities comprise 27 county councils, 5 county borough corporations, 6 borough corporations, 49 urban district councils and 25 Boards of Town Commissions. All the members of these authorities are elected under a system of proportional representation, normally every 5 years. All residents of an area who have reached the age of 18 are entitled to vote in the local election for their area. Women are eligible for election as members of local authorities in the same manner and on the same conditions as men. Elected members are not paid, but provision is made for the payment of travelling expenses and subsistence allowances. The range of services for which local authorities are responsible is broken down into 8 main programme groups as follows: Housing and Building; Road Transportation and Safety; Water Supply and Sewerage; Development Incentives and Controls; Environmental Protection; Recreation and Amenity; Agriculture,

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Education, Health and Welfare and Miscellaneous Services. Because of the small size of their administrative areas the functions carried out by town commissioners and some of the smaller urban district councils have tended to become increasingly limited, and the more important tasks of local government have tended to become the responsibility of the county councils. The local authorities have a system of government which combines an elected council and a whole-time manager. The elected members have specific functions reserved to them which include the striking of rates (local tax), the borrowing of money, the adoption of development plans, the making, amending or revoking of bye-laws and the nomination of persons to other bodies. The managers, who are paid officers of their authorities, are responsible for the performance of all functions which are not reserved to the elected members, including the employment of staff, making of contracts, management of local authority property, collection of rates and rents and the day-to-day administration of local authority affairs. The manager for a county council is manager also for every borough corporation, urban district council and board of town commissioners whose functional area is wholly witfrin thé county. D E F E N C E . Under the direction of the President, and subject to the provisions of the Defence Act, 1954, the military command of the Defence Forces is exercisable by the Government through the Minister for Defence. To aid and counsel the Minister for Defence on all matters in relation to the business of the Department of Defence on which he may consult it, there is a Council of Defence consisting of the Minister for State at the Department of Defence, the Secretary of the Department of Defence, the Chief of Staff, the Adjutant-General and the QuartermasterGeneral. Establishments provide at present for a Permanent Defence Force of approximately 18,000 all ranks including the Air Corps and the Naval Service. The Reserve Defence Force caters for 23,000 all ranks. Recruitment is on a voluntary basis. Minimum term of enlistment is 3 years in the Permanent Defence Force and 6 years in the Reserve. Since May 1978 an Irish contingent has formed part of the United Nations force in Lebanon. The contingent now comprises 745 men (all ranks). 21 Irish officers are at present serving with the UN Truce Supervision Organization and the UN Disengagement Observer Force in the Middle East. There is a small detachment with the UN force in Cyprus. Army. The Army has 4 brigades and an infantry force. Three of the brigades have two infantry battalions and one brigade has three infantry battalions. Each brigade has a field artillery regiment and a squadron/company size unit for each of the support corps. The infantry force has two infantry battalions. The establishment strength of the Army is 15,500 all ranks. Navy. The Naval Service comprises 1 new Cork-built frigate-size patrol vessel (with helicopter), 4 offshore patrol vessels built in Cork between 1972 and 1980, 1 coastal minesweeper purchased from Great Britain in 1971 for fishery protection, 1 training ship and 6 other craft. The Naval Base is at Haulbowline Island in Cork Harbour. The establishment strength of the Naval Service is 1,277 officers and men but in 1987 personnel were about 900. Air Force. The Air Corps has an establishment of 800 all ranks, and 42 aircraft. There are 6 Magister armed jet trainers, 7 SF 260W armed piston-engined trainers, 9 Alouette III, 5 Dauphin and 2 Gazelle helicopters, 3 twin-turbo prop Super Beech King 200 for coastal fishery patrol, 7 Cessna 172 for border patrol, and a BAe 125/700 twin turbofan transport: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Ireland is a member of UN, OECD, the Council of Europe and the European Communities.

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ECONOMY Budget. Current revenue and expenditure (in IR£ 1 m.): Current revenue Customs duties Excise duties Capital taxes Stamp duties Income tax Income levy Corporation tax Value-added tax Agricultural levies (EEC) Motor vehicle duties Youth employment levy Non-Tax Revenue

¡985 96-8 1,3161 32-6 119-5 2,103-1 74-0 217-2 1,402-3 14-5 122-1 82-9 749-8

1986 104-0 1,377-7 35 0 167-0 2,356-4 34 0 249-9 1,562-4 13-0 130-7 87-0 675-0

6,330-9

6,792-1

Current expenditure Debt service Industry and Labour Agriculture Fisheries, Forestry, Tourism Health Education Social Welfare Less: Receipts, e.g. social security

1,967 243 412 72 1,094 950 2,315 HI,342

2,020 274 428 71 1,130 1,003 2,524 (-)l ,431

Total (including other items)

7,615

8,042

Total

Capital expenditure amounted to £1,875m. in 1984, and£l,761m. in 1985. On 31 Dec. 1984 the liabilities totalled £18,492m. The assets included: Electricity scheme, £37m.: local loans fund, £2,307-9m.; national transport organization, £44-5m.; industrial credit company, £41 -2m.; turf development, £33-6m.; reconstruction finance, £61 -2m.; shares in companies established under State auspices, £967m.; other assets, £1,098-4m.; total, £4,599-8m. Currency. The unit of currency is the Irish pound or an punt Eireannach. From 10 Sept. 1928 when the first Irish legal-tender notes were issued, the Irish currency was linked to Sterling on a one-for-one basis. This relationship was discontinued on 30 March 1979 when, following Ireland's adherence to the European Monetary System, it became inconsistent with Ireland's obligations under that system. The Central Bank has the sole right of issuing legal tender notes; token coinage is issued by the Minister for Finance through the Bank. In March 1987, £ 1 = IR£ 1-10; US$=IR£1 -46. The volume of legal-tender notes outstanding in Dec. 1985 was £ 1,025m. Total notes and coins outstanding amounted to £ 1,081 m. Banking. The Central Bank, which was established as from 1 Feb. 1943, in accordance with the Central Bank Act, 1942, replaced the Currency Commission, which was set up under the Currency Act, 1927, and had been responsible inter alia for the regulation of the note issue. In addition to the powers and functions of the Currency Commission the Central Bank has the power of receiving deposits from banks and public authorities, of rediscounting Exchequer bills and bills of exchange, of making advances to banks against such bills or against Government securities, of fixing and publishing rates of interest for rediscounting bills, or buying and selling certain Government securities and securities of any international bank or financial institution formed wholly or mainly by governments. The Bank also collects and publishes information relating to monetary and credit matters. The Central Bank Act, 1971, gives further powers to the Central Bank in the regulation of banking including licensing of banks, the supervision of their operations and control of liquidity and reserve ratios. The capital of the Bank is £40,000, of which £24,000 has been paid up and is held by the Minister for Finance.

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The Board of Directors of the Central Bank consists of a Governor, appointed by the President on the advice of the Government, and 8 directors, all appointed by the Minister for Finance, 6 direct and 2 from among directors of the Associated Banks (the term applied to the 4 shareholding banks associated with the former Currency Commission). The principal independent commercial banks are known (following the Central Bank Act, 1942) as the Associated Banks. They are Allied Irish Banks Ltd., Bank of Ireland and two smaller banks controlled by British banks. They operate the branch banking system; on 20 Nov. 1985 their total deposit and current accounts within Ireland amounted to £6,658m. and their total gross assets in Ireland, £9,643-7m. There are also 34 Non-Associated Banks: 8 merchant banks (4 subsidiaries of the Associated Banks and 4 independent); 5 North American banks; 10 industrial banks (mainly installment credit); 14 miscellaneous (including foreign) banks. On 20 Nov. 1985 their current and deposit accounts and interbank borrowings amounted to £7,208-3m. (48-3% of total bank resources) and their lending to £4,990-8m. (43-4% of lending); total gross assets in Ireland, £7,993-6m. There are two state-owned credit corporations, one industrial and one agricultural, and several building societies. There are 4 Trustee Savings Banks and the Post Office Savings Bank which together had deposits of £ 1,001 m. in Sept. 1985. Weights and Measures. Conversion to the metric system is in progress; the imperial system is still legal (1987). ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The total generating capacity was (1986) 3,547 mw. In the year ending 31 March 1986 the total sales of electricity amounted to 9,788m. units supplied to 1,194,765 consumers. Electricity generated by fuel source (1985-86): Oil, 26%; natural gas, 47%; peat, 17%; hydro, 7%; coal, 3%. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. About 551,000 sq. km of the continental shelf has been made an exploration area; at the furthest point the limit of jurisdiction is 520 nautical miles from the coast. Since 1970,95 exploratory offshore oil wells have been drilled. A number of encouraging oil and gas flows have been recorded. In 1986, 88 blocks were held under exclusive ofTshore licences and offshore petroleum leases. A total of4,696 sq. km were held under onshore petroleum prospecting licences. Gas. There has been one commercial discovery of natural gas, off the south-west coast at Kinsale Head. Of the total reserves of 1 -35m. cu. ft. it was estimated that at 31 Dec. 1986 approximately 63% would remain to be produced. At 1986 estimated take-off this should last until 1999. Gas Transmission is controlled by the Irish Gas Board (BGE), who sell the gas into electricity generation, fertilizer production, and distribution systems for domestic, commercial and industrial use. Peat. The country has very little indigenous coal, but possesses large reserves of peat, the development of which is handled by Bord na Mona (Peat Board). To date, the Board has acquired over 200,000 acres of bog and has established 21 locations around the country. In the year ending 31 March, 1986, production totalled 2 -7m. tonnes. From this and stocks on hand 3-23m. tonnes of peat went to generate electricity and 0-9m. tonnes for the domestic market. In addition moss peat production for the year was 1 • 4m. cu. metres. Minerals. Lead and zinc concentrates are important. Metal content of production, 1985: zinc, 191,600 tonnes; lead, 34,600 tonnes. Barytes and gypsum are also important, and there is some coal, silver, quartz, dolomite, limestone, aggregates, green and black marble. Exploration activity is centred on base metals, precious metals, industrial minerals and coal and about 30 companies are prospecting. Agriculture. General distribution of surface (in hectares) in 1985: Crops and pasture, 4,702,800; other land, including grazed mountain, 2,186,400; total, 6,889,200.

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Estimated area (hectares) under certain crops calculated from sample returns: Crops Wheat Oats Barley Potatoes Sugar-beet

1983 59,000 22,600 313,400 33,500 36,400

Area 1984 77,200 24,900 304,300 35,700 34,900

1985 78,100 23,300 298,400 33,000 33,900

1986 75,400 20,400 286,100 33,000

Gross agricultural output (excluding value of changes in stocks) for the year 1985 was valued at £2,724 • 3m. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 6,907,200; sheep, 3,988,600; pigs, 1,004,000; horses, 57,700; poultry, 8,914,000. Forestry. The total area of state forests at 31 Dec. 1984 was 397,078 hectares, of which 321,011 was planted; 38,544 were reserve land for planting, the rest roads, water etc. Fisheries. The number of vessels engaged in fishing in 1984 were 3,135, of which 1,611 accounted for the greater part of the fishing effort; men 7,806. The quantities and values of fish landed during 1985 were: Demersal fish, 42,000 tonnes, value IR£23,685,000; pelagic fish, 123,000 tonnes, value IR£13,786,000; shellfish, 23,000 tonnes, value IR£ 14,294,000. Total quantity: 188,000 tonnes; total value, IR£51,765,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The census of industrial production for 1983 gives the following details of the values (in £lm.) of gross and net output for the principal manufacturing industries. The figures for net output are those of gross output minus cost of materials, including fuel, light and power, repairs to plant and machinery and amounts paid to others in connexion with products made. Slaughtering, preparing and preserving meat Manufacture of dairy products Bread, biscuit and flour confectionery Cocoa, chocolate and sugar confectionery Animal and poultry foods Brewing and malting Spirit distilling and compounding Paper and paper products Printing and publishing Manufacture of metal articles Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products Chemicals, including manmade fibres Mechanical engineering Office machinery and data-processing machinery Electrical engineering Manufacture of motor vehicles, parts and accessories Manufacture ofother means of transport Instrument engineering Textiles Footwear and clothing Timber and wooden furniture Processing rubber and plastics Gas, water and electricity All other industries Total (all industries)

Gross output 1,137-7 1,348 • 5 210-1 195-3 423 -2 218-4 115 -2 155-8 258 -6 413-4 627-0 1,283-0 265-9 1,087-3 729 -9 189-3 155-5 331-7 412-6 277-2 209 -2 299 -6 946-4 1,784-5 13,075-3

Net output 177-9 184 • 1 92 -2 66-3 66-3 136-5 56-2 59 -5 169-6 183-5 298-7 731-6 128-5 433 -5 349 -1 49-9 66-2 182 -4 145-7 130-3 90 -9 137-1 560 -6 820-7 5,317-3

Labour. The total labour force at mid-April 1985 was about 1,299,000, of which about 225,000 persons were out of work. Of the estimated 1,704,000 persons at work, 169,000 were in the agricultural sector, 305,000 in industry and 600,000 in services. The number of trade unions in Sept. 1986 was 76; total membership, 502,885. About 239,425 were organized in 4 general unions catering both for white collar

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a n d m a n u a l workers. T h e r e w e r e 16 e m p l o y e r s ' associations h o l d i n g n e g o t i a t i o n licences, w i t h m e m b e r s h i p o f 10,755. Commerce. V a l u e of i m p o r t s a n d e x p o r t s of m e r c h a n d i s e f o r c a l e n d a r years (in £): Imports Exports

1981 1982 1983 1984 6,578,406,480 6,816,154,975 7,366,775,383 8,912,170,063 4,777,570,799 5,691,441,609 6,943,836,265 8,897,524,535

1985 9,430,492,317 9,743,028,594

T h e values of t h e chief i m p o r t s a n d total e x p o r t s are s h o w n in t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e (in£): Imports Exports 1984 1985 1984 1985 Live animals and food 932,969,575 994,439,722 2,064,173,762 2,204,971,595 Raw materials 295,802,229 297,350,224 505,116,665 450,070,889 Mineral fuels and lubricants 1,106,717,585 1,122,026,740 106,838,590 123,667,458 Chemicals 1,031,930,198 1,103,239,819 1,236,288,522 1,406,424,449 Manufactured goods 1,369,689,876 1,415,039,112 845,105,966 904,081,576 Machinery and transport equipment 2,778,477,214 2,945,833,546 2,550,254,190 2,889,334,829 Manufactured articles' 1,031,807,006 1,090,507,160 991,166,311 1,080,401,748 1 Not elsewhere specified. D i s t r i b u t i o n of t r a d e , b y p r i n c i p a l c o u n t r i e s of origin in t h e case of i m p o r t s a n d d e s t i n a t i o n in t h e case of e x p o r t s (in £): , ^ , Imports Total exports Country 1984 1985 1984 1985 Belgium and Luxembourg 190,572,650 205,546,710 382,589,415 396,388,842 Canada 100,051,505 83,888,549 150,205,544 171,852,323 Denmark 82,254,293 96,688,669 67,671,740 88,526,789 Finland 81,038,717 77,288,991 45,736,987 54,650,520 France 429,306,710 456,296,177 745,785,079 821,440,261 Germany, Fed. Rep. of 677,646,273 729,566,338 902,867,322 985,745,823 HongKong 66,700,104 52,013,378 21,662,708 24,279,070 India 17,870,571 18,266,604 16,126,501 9,260,151 Iran 93,472 128,941 62,227,402 50,436,131 Iraq 236,295 248,474 30,171,333 29,599,245 Israel 20,866,461 18,713,345 15,601,353 17,447,748 Italy 215,595,185 214,020,686 278,847,904 363,918,770 Japan 299,570,006 334,350,388 151,169,966 154,340,850 Kuwait 9,166 4,681 10,781,133 11,769,951 Malaysia 24,546,949 20,192,612 8,678,279 7,115,349 Netherlands 335,002,946 356,225,320 621,789,406 663,725,047 New Zealand 9,555,144 10,907,015 15,065,428 19,408,153 Norway 34,361,797 38,108,960 79,700,319 106,376,742 Poland 57,233,864 63,766,450 9,641,178 8,711,489 Portugal 35,111,884 45,544,021 22,122,653 25,870,759 SaudiArabia 127,450 3,495,432 65,639,484 79,349,906 South Africa, Rep. of, and Namibia 17,366,430 20,405,354 38,738,778 29,551,129 Spain 100,834,524 101,022,889 94,308,947 111,216,354 Sweden 145,731,087 148,696,280 136,437,355 170,867,589 Switzerland 87,035,738 95,329,276 99,941,281 127,643,820 USSR 46,797,001 47,457,822 20,552,315 34,074,960 UK 3,822,003,513 4,026,046,392 3,064,464,657 3,211,476,648 USA 1,465,922,192 1,603,220,576 866,003,121 953,308,790 A n Anglo-Irish f r e e - t r a d e a g r e e m e n t t o r e m o v e progressively all d u t i e s b e t w e e n J u l y 1966 a n d J u l y 1975 was signed in L o n d o n o n 14 D e c . 1965. T o t a l t r a d e b e t w e e n Ireland a n d U K (British D e p a r t m e n t of T r a d e returns, in£l,000sterling): ] m I % } ] m ] m l m ImportstoUK 2,000,033 2,290,067 2,635,039 2,816,007 3,053,807 Exports and re-exports from UK 2,890,497 3,055,275 3,393,499 3,642,844 ' 3,558,372 Tourism. Total n u m b e r of visits b y foreigners (including c r o s s - b o r d e r traffic) in 1985 was 9 , 9 2 5 , 0 0 0 ; t h e y s p e n t £ 6 9 1 m . COMMUNICATIONS R o a d s . A t 31 D e c . 1984 t h e r e were 9 2 , 3 0 2 k m of p u b l i c roads, consisting of 8 k m of m o t o r w a y , 5,365 k m of n a t i o n a l roads, 10,616 k m of m a i n ( t r u n k a n d link) r o a d s

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other than national roads, 73,975 km of county roads and 2,338 km of county borough and urban roads; of the total length 87,687 km (95%) was paved. Number of lipensed motor vehicles at 30 Sept. 1985: Private cars, 709,546; public-service vehicles, 7,653; goods vehicles, 93,369; agricultural tractors, 66,040; motor cycles, 26,025; other vehicles, 12,125. The total number of km run by road motor passenger vehicles of the omnibus type during 1984 was 93,427,000. Passengers carried numbered 218,217,000 and the gross receipts from passengers were £ 108,620,000. Railways. The total length of railway open for traffic at 31 Dec. 1985 was 1,944 km (38 km electrified), all 1,600 mm gauge. Coras Iompair Eireann, the national transport undertaking, operates all rail services m the State. Railway statistics for years ending 31 Dec 1984 Passengers (no.) 15,560,000 Km run by coaching trains 8,273,000 Merchandise and mineral traffic conveyed (tonnes) 600,911,000 Km run by freight trains 4,411,000 Receipts (£) 125,276,000 Expenditure (£) 127,041,000

1985 20,090,000 9,336,000 601,014,000 4,305,000 131,865,000 124,059,000

Aviation. Aer Lmgus PLC is a state owned company. Incorporated in 1936, it operates air services within Ireland and between Ireland, Britain and Europe. Air services between Ireland and the USA are operated by Aerlinte Eireann PLC, a state owned company incorporated in 1947. During the year ended 31 March 1986 Aer Lmgus carried 1,915,167 passengers, 34,283 short tons of cargo and 1,316 short tons of mail on its European services and 351,978 passengers, 16,695 short tons of cargo and 937 short tons of mail on its trans-Atlantic services. In addition to Aer Lingus, there were in 1986 8 independent air transport operators, including Ryanair which operates scheduled services between Dublin and Luton and Waterford and Luton. Shipping. The Irish merchant fleet, of vessels of 100 gross tonnes or over, consisted of 69 vessels totalling 123,306 GRT at 31 Aug. 1986. Total cargo traffic passing through the country's ports amounted to 20m. tonnes in 1985. Inland Waterways. The principal inland waterways open to navigation are the Shannon Navigation (130 miles) and the Grand Canal and Barrow Navigation (156 miles). Merchandise traffic is not now transported on them and navigation is confined to pleasure craft operated either privately or commercially. Post and Broadcasting. Telecommunication services are provided by Bord Telecom Eireann as a statutory body set up under the Postal and Telecommunications Services Act, 1983. Number of telephones (April 1986), 694,000; public telephones, 5,000; telephone exchanges, 1,000; telex lines, 7,300; data lines, 4,200. Postal services are provided by An Post, a statutory body set up under the Postal and Telecommunications Services Act, 1983. Number of Post Offices as of Dec. 1985,2,168. Radio and television broadcasting is operated by Radio Telefis Eireann, a statutory body appointed by the Minister for Communications under the Broadcasting Authority Acts. On 31 Dec. 1985 there were 717,023 holders of current television licences. Cinemas. There were (1986) 124 cinemas and 169 (estimate) screens. Newspapers (1986). There are 7 daily newspapers (all in English) with a combined circulation of647,912; 5 of them are published in Dublin (circulation, 555,282). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Constitution provides that justice shall be administered in public in Courts established by law by Judges appointed by the President on the advice of the Government. The jurisdiction and organization of the Courts are dealt with in the Courts (Establishment and Constitution) Act, 1961, the Courts (Supplemental Provisions) Acts, 1961—86. These Courts consist of Courts of First Instance and a

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Court of Final Appeal, called the Supreme Court. The Courts of First Instance are the High Court with full original jurisdiction and the Circuit and the District Courts with local and limited jurisdiction. A judge may not be removed from office except for stated misbehaviour or incapacity and then only on resolutions passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas. Judges of the Supreme, High and Circuit Courts are appointed from among practising barristers. Judges of the District Court (called District Justices) may be appointed from among practising barristers or practising solicitors. The Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice (who is ex officio an additional judge of the High Court) and 5 ordinary judges, has appellate jurisdiction from all decisions of the High Court. The President may, after consultation with the Council of State, refer a Bill, which has been passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas (other than a money bill and certain other bills), to the Supreme Court for a decision on the question as to whether such Bill or any provision thereof is repugnant to the Constitution. The High Court, which consists of a President (who is ex officio an additional Judge of the Supreme Court) and 15 ordinary judges, has full original jurisdiction in and power to determine all matters and questions, whether of law or fact, civil or criminal. In all cases in which questions arise concerning the validity of any law having regard to the provisions of the Constitution, the High Court alone exercises original jurisdiction. The High Court on Circuit acts as an appeal court from the Circuit Court. The Court of Criminal Appeal consists of the Chief Justice or an ordinary Judge of the Supreme Court, together with either 2 ordinary judges of the High Court or the President and one ordinary judge of the High Court. It deals with appeals by persons convicted on indictment where the appellant obtains a certificate from the trial judge that the case is a fit one for appeal, or, in case such certificate is refused, where the court itself, on appeal from such refusal, grants leave to appeal. The decision of the Court of Criminal Appeal is final, unless that court or the Director of Public Prosecutions certifies that the decision involves a point of law of exceptional public importance, in which case an appeal is taken to the Supreme Court. The Offences against the State Act, 1939 provides in Part V for the establishment of Special Criminal Courts. A Special Criminal Court sits without a jury. The rules of evidence that apply in proceedings before a Special Criminal Court are the same as those applicable in trials in the Central Criminal Court. A Special Criminal Court is authorised by the 1939 Act to make rules governing its own practice and procedure. An appeal against conviction or sentence by a Special Criminal Court may be taken to the Court of Criminal Appeal. On 30 May 1972 Orders were made establishing a Special Criminal Court and declaring that offences of a particular class or kind (as set out) were to be scheduled offences for the purposes of Part V of the Act, the effect of which was to give the Special Criminal Court jurisdiction to try persons charged with those offences. The High Court exercising criminal jurisdiction is known as the Central Criminal Court. It consists of a judge or judges of the High Court, nominated by the President of the High Court. The Court sits in Dublin and tries criminal cases which are outside the jurisdiction of the Circuit Court. The country is divided into a number of circuits for the purposes of the Circuit Court. The President of the Circuit Court is ex officio an additional judge of the High Court. The jurisdiction of the court in civil proceedings is limited to £15,000 in contract and tort, £15,000 in actions founded on hire-purchase and credit-sale agreements, £5,000 in equity and £5,000 in probate and administration, save by consent of the parties, in which event the jurisdiction is unlimited. In criminal matters it has jurisdiction in all cases except murder, treason, piracy and allied offences. The Circuit Court acts as an appeal court from the District Court. The District Court has summary jurisdiction in a large number ofcriminal cases where the offence is not of a serious nature. In civil matters the Court has jurisdiction in contract and tort (except slander, libel, seduction, slander of title and false imprisonment) where the claim does not exceed £2,500; in proceedings founded on hire-purchase and credit-sale agreements, the jurisdiction is £2,500.

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All criminal cases, except those of a minor nature, are tried by a judge and a jury of 12. Juries are also used in many civil cases in the High Court. In a criminal case a majority vote of the jury (10 must agree) is necessary to determine a verdict, but in a civil case the agreement of 9 members is sufficient. Religion. According to the census of population taken in 1981 the principal religious professions were as follows: Leinster Roman Catholics 1,645,489 Church of Ireland 58,356 Presbyterians 4,337 Methodists 3,339 Other religious denominations 9,148 69,852 Not stated or no religion

Munster 949,938 18,»76 542 1,285

Connacht 406,811 5,973 345 324

2,586 25,888

753 10,204

Ulster (part of) 202,238 12,961 9,031 842 483 4,604

Total 3,204,476 95,366 14,255 5,790 12,970 110,548

Education. Elementary Elementary education is free and was given in about 3,382 national schools (including 116 special schools) in 1986. The total number of pupils on rolls in 1984-85 was 566,289, including pupils in special schools and classes; the number of teachers of all classes about 20,933, .including remedial teachers and teachers of special classes. The estimated state expenditure on elementary education for 1986 is £379,710,000, excluding the cost of administration. Special provision is made for handicapped and deprived children in special schools which are recognized on the same basis as primary schools, in special classes attached to ordinary schools and in certain voluntary centres where educational services appropriate to the needs of the children are provided. Categories of children include visually handicapped, hearing impaired, physically handicapped, mentally handicapped, emotionally disturbed, travelling children and other socially disadvantaged children. Provision is also made, on an increasing scale, for children with dual or multiple handicaps. Each class in such schools is very much smaller than ordinary classes in a primary school and, because of the size of the catchment areas involved, an extensive system of school transport has been developed. Many handicapped children who have spent some years in a special school or class are integrated into normal schools for part of their school career, if necessary with special additional facilities such as nursing services, special equipment, etc. For others who cannot progress within the ordinary school system the special schools or classes provide both the primary and post-primary level of education. There are also part-time teaching facilities in hospitals, child guidance clinics, rehabilitation workshops, special 'Saturday-morning' centres and home teaching schemes. Special schools (1984-85) numbered 116 with 8,495 pupils. There were 228 special classes attached to ordinary schools with 2,711 pupils. 797 remedial teachers were employed for backward pupils in ordinary primary schools. 30 peripatetic teachers were employed for children with hearing or visual impairments, and for travelling children. Secondary. Voluntary secondary schools are under private control and are conducted in most cases by religious orders; all schools receive grants from the State and are open to inspection by the Department of Education. The number of recognized secondary schools during the school year 1984-85 was 507, and the number of pupils in attendance was 212,342. Grants for the provision of audio visual teaching aids are available to secondary schools. Most secondary schools now have at least one television receiving set, purchased with the aid of a state grant. Vocational Education Committee schools provide courses of general and technical education. The number of vocational schools during the school year 1984-85 was 250, full-time students, 79,930. These schools are controlled by the local Vocational Education Committees; they are financed mainly by state grants and also by local rating authorities and VECs. Comprehensive Schools which are financed by the State combine academic and

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technical subjects in one broad curriculum so that each pupil may be offered educational options suited to his needs, abilities and interests. Pupils are prepared for the State examinations and for entrance to universities and institutes of further education. The number of comprehensive schools during the school year 1984-85 was 15 with 8,787 students. Community Schools continue to be established through the amalgamation of existing voluntary secondary and Vocational Education Committee schools where this is found feasible and desirable and in new areas where a single larger school is considered preferable to 2 smaller schools under separate managements. These schools provide second-level education and also provide adult education facilities for their own areas. They also make facilities available to voluntary organizations and to the adult community generally. The number of community schools during the school year 1984-85 was 43 with 28,124 students. The estimated State expenditure for post-primary education for 1986 was £440,629,000. Regional Technical Colleges and Colleges of Technology. Apprentice, technician and professional courses (and some degree courses) are provided in the technology colleges of the City of Dublin Vocational Education Committee, the Limerick College of Art, Commerce and Technology, the Cork School of Art and School of Music and 9 regional technical colleges at Athlone, Carlow, Cork, Dundalk, Galway, Letterkenny, Sligo, Tralee and Waterford. Students (full-time) 1984-85, 17,727. University Education is provided by the National University of Ireland, founded in Dublin in 1908, and by the University of Dublin (Trinity College), founded in 1592. The National University comprises 3 constituent colleges-University College, Dublin, University College, Cork, and University College, Galway. St Patrick's College, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, is a national seminary for Catholic priests and a pontifical university with the power to confer degrees up to doctoral level in philosophy, theology and canon law. It also admits lay students (men and women) to the courses in arts, Celtic studies, science and education which it provides as a recognized college of the National University. Besides the University medical schools, the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland provides medical qualifications which are internationally recognized. Courses to degree level are available at the National College of Art and Design, Dublin. There are six Colleges of Education for training primaiy school teachers. For degree awarding purposes, three of these colleges are associated with Trinity College, two with University College, Dublin, and one with University College, Cork. The Thomond College of Education, Limerick, trains post-primary teachers in physical education, rural and general science, metalwork and engineering science, woodwork and building science and commercial and secretarial subjects. Third-level courses with a technological bias, leading to degree, diploma and certificate qualifications are also provided by the National Institutes for Higher Education, Limerick and Dublin. There are also 2 Home Economics Colleges, one associated with Trinity College and the other with University College, Galway. Agricultural. An Chomhairle 6iliuna Talmhaiochta (ACOT) is the agency responsible for providing agricultural advisory and training services. Full-time instruction in agriculture is provided for all sections of the farming community. There are 4 agricultural colleges for young people, administered by ACOT, and 8 private ACOT- aided agricultural colleges, at each of which a 1-year course in agriculture is given. A second-year course in farm machinery is provided at one college. Scholarships tenable at these colleges, all of which are residential, are awarded by ACOT which also provides a comprehensive agricultural advisory service and conducts winter classes in agriculture and horticulture at local centres.. Horticultural. Two of the agricultural colleges mentioned above also provide a commercial horticultural course. A third college aided by ACOT also provides this course. A 3-year course in amenity horticulture is provided at the National Botanic Gardens in Dublin.

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A comprehensive 3-year training programme for young entrants to farming leading to a 'Certificate in Farming' involving both formal instruction and a period of supervised on-farm work experience, was introduced by ACOT in 1982. Students taking the Certificate in Farming can follow a course in general agriculture, pigs, poultry or horticulture. In the case of horticulture, the major part of this course is taken at one of the three horticultural colleges. Health Services. There are 3 categories of entitlement, based on a person's income: (i) Persons on a low income and their dependants, who qualify for the full range of health services, free of charge, i.e. family doctor, drugs and medicines, hospital and specialist services as well as dental, aural and optical services. Maternity care and infant welfare services are also provided. There is no fixed limit, but guidelines laid down by health boards, determine eligibility - each application is considered on its merit. There is provision for hardship cases. (ii) Persons whose income for the year ended 5 April 1986 was under £14,500. They and their dependants are entitled to free hospital services, both as an inpatient and an out-patient, a full maternity and infant welfare service and assistance towards the cost of prescriptions. The latter limits the nett outlay on medicines used in a calendar month to £28. (iii) Persons whose income for the year ended 5 April 1986 was £14,500 or more. They are entitled to in-patient and out-patient hospital services but they are liable for the fees of consultants. They are also entitled to assistance towards the cost of prescriptions. Drugs and medicines are made available free of charge to all persons suffering from specified long-term ailments such as diabetes, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, etc. Hospital in-patient and out-patient services are free of charge to all children under 16 years of age, suffering from specified long-term conditions such as cystic fibrosis, spina bifida, cerebral palsy, etc. Immunization and diagnostic services as well as hospital services are free of charge to everyone suffering from an infectious disease. A maintenance allowance is also payable in necessitous cases. Services for Children: Health Boards are involved, with the co-operation of a wide network of voluntary organizations, in the provision of a range of child care services including adoption, fostering, residential care, day care and social work services for families in need of support. Welfare Services: There are various services provided for the elderly, the chronic sick, the disabled and families in stress, such as social support service, day care services for children, home helps, home nursing, meals-on-wheels, day centres, cheap fuel, etc. Health Boards also provide disabled persons, without chaige, with training for employment and place them in jobs. Grants and Allowances: Disabled Persons' Maintenance Allowance is payable to the chronically disabled over the age of 16 who are not in long term care. Recipients are entitled to free travel and subject to certain conditions to electricity allowance, free TV licence, telephone rental and fuel vouchers. Mobility allowance, payable to severely disabled persons between 16 and 66 years who are unable to walk. Allowance for the Domiciliary Care of Severely Handicapped Children, payable to the mother of a severely handicapped child, maintained at home, but needing constant care and supervision. Blind welfare scheme: This scheme is in addition to the benefits for the blind operated by the Department of Social Welfare. It provides for the education of the blind in special schools. Grants up to £1,500 are paid, subject to a means test, to disabled persons towards the purchase of a car, in order that they might obtain or retain employment. Health contributions: A health contribution of one per cent of income up to a ceiling of £14,000 is payable by all. Social Security. Social-welfare services concerned primarily with income maintenance are under the general control of the Minister for Social Welfare. The services administered by the Department of Social Welfare are divided into Insurance and Assistance schemes. Insurance Services. All employees irrespective of their level of earnings are compulsorily insured from age 16 to 66 years and are liable for pay-related social insurance contributions. The majority of employees pay a contribution of 7 • 5% of their

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earnings prescribed up to a ceiling of £14,000 while a contribution of 6 • 5% of their earnings continues to be deducted up to a ceiling of £14,700. Their employers pay a further 12-33% up to a prescribed ceiling of £14,700. (The insured population is approximately l-2m.) Subject to appropriate statutory conditions (but without regard to the recipients' means) the following flat-rate insurance benefits are available: Disability benefit, invalidity pension, unemployment benefit, maternity benefit, widow's pension, deserted wife's benefit, orphan's allowance, treatment benefit, retirement pension payable at 65, old-age pension payable at 66 and a death grant. Pay-related benefit is payable with disability benefit, unemployment benefit, maternity allowance and injury benefit to persons whose employment is insurable at certain class rates of pay-related social insurance contribution. The cost of the flat-rate and pay-related benefits is met by pay-related social insurance contributions from employers and employees and by a state grant. The insurance services also provide for payment of benefits in respect of injury, disablement or death, as well as medical care resulting from an occupational accident or disease. These benefits are available to employees, irrespective of age, and are paid from an Occupational Injuries Fund which is financed by employers' contributions and income From investments. Assistance Services. Child Benefit is payable without a means test in respect of each child under 16 years of age and children between 16 and 18 who are at school or incapacitated for a prolonged period. The following Assistance services are subject to a means test: Non-contributory widows' and orphans' pensions to the survivors of persons whose lack of insurance (or inadequate insurance record) precludes payment of contributory pensions; deserted wife's allowance to women who have been deserted by their husbands and for whom the deserted wife's benefit is similarly precluded; allowances for unmarried mothers, prisoners' wives and single women between the ages of 58 and 66 years; old age pensions payable at age 66 to persons not entitled to insurance pensions; blind pensions (under the same general conditions as apply to old age pensions) payable at age 18; unemployment assistance payable during unemployment to persons not entitled to receive unemployment benefit; supplementary welfare allowance, payable when a person has no other resources or when such resources are insufficient to meet his needs. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Ireland in Great Britain (17 Grosvenor Place, London, SW1X 7HR) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Ireland (33 Merrion Rd., Dublin, 4) Ambassador: Nicholas Fenn. Of Ireland in the USA (2234 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Padraic N. MacKeman. Of the USA in Ireland (42 Elgin Rd., Ballsbridge, Dublin) Ambassador: Margaret M. Heckler. Of Ireland to the United Nations Ambassador: Robert McDonagh. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistics Office (Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin, 2) was established in June 1949, and is attached to the D e p a r t m e n t of the Taoiseach. Director: T. P. Linehan, B.E.,B.Sc. Principal publications of the Central Statistics Office are National Income and Expenditure (annually), Statistical Abstract (annually), Census of Population Reports, Census of Industrial Production Reports, Trade and Shipping Statistics (annually and monthly), Trend of Employment and Unemployment (annually), Reports on Vital Statistics (annually), Irish Statistical Bulletin (quarterly). Aspects of Ireland. (Series). Dublin D e p a r t m e n t of Foreign Affairs. Atlas of Ireland. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 1979 Facts About Ireland. Dublin D e p a r t m e n t of Foreign Affairs, 6th ed. 1985

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The Gill History of Ireland. 11 vols. Dublin Bartholomew, P. C., The Irish Judiciary. Dublin, Institute of Public Administration, 1974 Brown, T., Ireland: A Social and Cultural History, 1922-1979. London, 1981 Chubb, B., The Constitution and Constitutional Change in Ireland. Dublin, 1978 Eager, A. R., A Guide to Irish Bibliographical Material. 2nd ed. London, 1980 Encyclopaedia of Ireland. Dublin, 1968 Hickey, D. J. and Doherty, J. E., A Dictionary of Irish History since 1800. Dublin, 1980 Johnston, T. J., and others, A History of the Church of Ireland. Dublin, 1953 Lehane, B., The Companion Guide to Ireland. London, 1973 McDunphy, Michael, The President of Ireland: His Powers, Functions and Duties. Dublin, 1945 Nevill, W, E., Geology and Ireland. Dublin, 1963 Shannon, M. O., Irish Republic. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Thorn s Directory of Ireland. 2 vols. (Dublin, Street Directory, Commercial). Dublin, 1979-80 Tobin, F„ Ireland in the 1960s. Dublin, 1984

Capital: Jerusalem Population: 4-23m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$6,270 (1985)

ISRAEL Medinat Israel—State of Israel

H I S T O R Y . In 1967, following some years of uneasy peace, local clashes on the Israeli-Syrian border were followed by Egyptian mass concentration of forces on the borders of Israel. The U N emergency force was expelled and a blockade of shipping to and from Israel was imposed by Egypt in the Red Sea. Israel struck out at Egypt on land and in the air on 5-9 June 1967. Jordan joined in the conflict which spread to the Syrian borders. By 11 June the Israelis had occupied the Gaza Strip and the Sinai peninsula as far a s the Suez Canal in Egypt, West Jordan as far as the Jordan valley and the heights east of the Sea of Galilee, including Quneitra in Syria. A further war broke out on 6 Oct. 1973 when an Egyptian offensive was launched across the Suez Canal and Syrian forces struck on the Golan Heights. Following U N Security Council resolutions a ceasefire finally came into being on 24 Oct. In Dec. agreement was reached by Egypt and Israel on disengagement and a disengagement agreement was signed with Syria on 31 May 1974. A farther disengagement agreement was signed between Israel and Egypt in Sept. 1975. Developments in 1977 included President Sadat of Egypt's visit to Israel and peace inititative and in March 1978 Israeli troops entered southern Lebanon but later withdrew after the arrival of a U N peace-keeping force. In Sept. 1978 President Carter convened the Camp David conference at which Egypt and Israel agreed on frameworks for peace in the Middle East with treaties to be negotiated between Israel and her neighbours. Negotiations began in USA between Egypt and Israel in Oct. 1978 and a peace treaty was signed in Washington 26 March 1979. Under the Israel-Egypt peace treaty signed in Washington on 26 March 1979, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Desert in two phases, part was achieved on 26 Jan. 1980 and the final withdrawal by 26 April 1982. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Israel, within the boundaries defined by the 1949 armistice agreements with Egypt, Jordan, the Lebanon and Syria, is 20,770 sq. km (8,017 sq. miles), with a population (May 1972 census) of 3-2m. (estimated, 1985,4,233,000). Population of areas under Israeli administration as a result of the 6-day war was: Judaea and Samaria (West Bank), 767,300, Gaza Strip, 493,700, and the Golan Heights, 19,700. Crude birth rate per 1,000 population of Jewish population (1983), 22-4; nonJewish, 34-7; crude death rate, Jewish, 7-4; non-Jewish, 4 1 ; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, Jewish, 11-7; non-Jewish, 22. Life expectancy (1984): Males, 73 • 1 years; females, 76-6. Israel is administratively divided into 6 districts: District Northern Haifa Central Tel Aviv Jerusalem 2 Southern ' 1983.

!

Areafsq. km) 3,490 854 1,242 170 557 14,387

Population ' 656,000 575,300 830,700 1,000,000 472,900 478,800

Chief town Nazareth Haifa Ramla Tel Aviv Jerusalem Beersheba

Includes East Jerusalem, annexed from Jordan after 1967 War.

On 23 Jan. 1950 the Knesset proclaimed Jerusalem the capital of the State and on 14 Dec. 1981 extended Israeli law into the Golan Heights. Population of the 723

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main towns (1985): Tel-Aviv/Jaffa, 322,800; Jerusalem, 457,700; Haifa, 224,600; RamatGan, 116,000; Bat-Yam, 131,200;Holon, 138,800; Petach-Tikva, 129,300; Beersheba, 115,000. The official languages are Hebrew and Arabic. Immigration. The following table shows the numbers of Jewish immigrants entering Palestine (Israel), including persons entering as travellers who subsequently registered as immigrants. For a year-by-year breakdown, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1951,p. 1167. 1919-32 129,349 1940-47 101,173 1969-79 384,066 1933-39 235,170 1948-68 1,290,610 1980-84 83,637 During the period 1948-68, 45-5% of the immigrants came from Europe and America and 54-5% from Asia and Africa; during the period 1980-84,72-9% came from Europe and America and 2 7 • 1 % from Asia and Africa. The Jewish Agency, which, in accordance with Article IV of the Palestine Mandate, played a leading role in laying the political, economic and social foundations on which the State of Israel was established, continues to be instrumental in organizing immigration. C L I M A T E . From April to Oct., the summers are long and hot, and almost rainless. From Nov. to March, the weather is generally mild, though colder in hilly areas, and this is the wet season. Jerusalem. Jan. 48°F (9°C), July 73°F (23°C). Annual rainfall 21" (528 mm). Tel Aviv. Jan. 57"F (14°C), July 81°F (2TC). Annual rainfall 22" (550 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Israel is an independent sovereign republic, established by proclamation on 14 May 1948. For the history of the British Mandate, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1920-49, under PALESTINE.

In 1950 the Knesset (Parliament), which in 1949 had passed the Transition Law dealing in general terms with the powers of the Knesset, President and Cabinet, resolved to enact from time to time fundamental laws, which eventually, taken together, would form the Constitution. The first of these fundamental laws, dealing with the Knesset, Israel Lands and the President, were passed in 1958, 1960 and 1964 respectively and with the Government in 1968. National flag: White with 2 horizontal blue stripes, the blue Shield of David in the centre. National anthem: Hatikvah (The Hope). Words by N. N. Imber (1878); adopted as the Jewish National Anthem by the first Zionist Congress (1897). The Knesset, a one-chamber Parliament, consists of 120 members. It is elected for a 4-year term by secret ballot and universal direct suffrage. The system of election is by proportional representation. After the July 1984 elections the Knesset was composed as follows: Alignment, 44; Likud, 41; National Religious Party, 5; Tehiya, 5; Hadash, 4; Shas, 4; Shinui, 3; Civil Rights, 3; Yahad, 3; PLP, 2; Agudat Israel, 2; Morasha, 2; Tami, 1; Kach, 1; Ometz, 1. It was agreed that for the first 25 months of the parliamentary term Shimon Peres should be Prime Minister and Yitzhak Shamir, Deputy Prime Minister and after that the roles would be reversed. The President is elected by the Knesset by secret ballot by a simple majority; his term of office is 5 years. He may be re-elected once. Former Presidents of the State: Chaim Weizmann (1949-52); Izhak Ben-Zvi (1952-63); Zalman Shazar (1963-68); Ephraim Katzir (1968-78); Yitzhak Navon (1978-83).

President: Chaim Herzog, elected 22 March 1983 by 61 votes to 56 against with 3 abstentions. The Cabinet in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Yitzhak Shamir. Vice Prime Minister and Foreign Minister: Shimon Peres. Deputy Prime Minis-

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ter and Minister ofHousing and Construction: David Levy. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education and Culture: Yitzhak Navon. Health: Shoshana Aibeli Almoslino. Minister: Moshe Arens. Police: Haim Bar-Lev. Minister: Yigael Hurvitz. Religious Affairs: Zevulun Hammer. Minister: Ezer Weizman. Economy and Planning: Gad Ya'acobi. Minister: Yitzhak Moda'i. Agriculture: Aryeh Nehamkin. Finance: Moshe Nissim. Science and Development: Gideon Patt. Immigrants' Absorption: Ya'acov Tzur. Transport: Haim Corfu. Labour and Social Affairs: Moshe Katzav. Defence: Yitzhak Rabin. Communications: Amnon Rubinstein. Energy and Infrastructure: Moshe Shahal. Minister: Yosef Shapira. Industry and Trade: Ariel Sharon. Justice and Tourism: Avraham Sharir. Local Government. Local authorities are of three kinds, namely, municipal corporations, local councils and regional councils. Their status, powers and duties are prescribed by statute. Regional councils are local authorities set up in agricultural areas and include all the agricultural settlements in the area under their jurisdiction. All local authorities exercise their authority mainly by means of bye-laws approved by the Minister of the Interior. Their revenue is derived from rates and a surcharge on income tax. Local authorities are elected for a 4-year term of office concurrently with general elections. There are 36 municipalities (2 Arab), 115 local councils (46 Arab and 6 Druze) and 49 regional councils (1 Arab) comprising 700 villages. D E F E N C E . The Defence Service Law, provides a compulsory 36-month conscription for men. Unmarried women (Jews and Druze only) serve 24 months. The Israel Defence Force is a unified force, in which army, navy and air force are subordinate to a single chief-of-staff. The Minister of Defence is de facto commander-in-chief but from Oct. 1973 the cabinet formed a defence committee with authority to make decisions on military operations. Army. The Army is organized in 11 armoured divisions, 33 armoured brigades, 10 mechanized infantry brigades, 12 territorial/border infantry brigades and 15 artillery brigades. Equipment includes some 3,660 main battle tanks and 5,000 other armoured fighting vehicles. Strength (1987) 112,000 (conscripts 88,000), rising to 606,000 on mobilization. Navy. The Navy includes 3 diesel-electric patrol submarines (built in Britain), 25 missile vessels (4 of 500 tons with helicopter and hangar, 8 of 415 tons, 12 of 220 tons and 1 of 47 tons, the smallest missile craft yet built), 3 missile-armed hydrofoils of 105 tons, 41 coastal patrol craft, 2 transports, 3 medium landing ships, 6 landing craft, 1 'firefish', 1 support ship, 1 training ship, 4 coastguard cutters, and 3 minor landing craft. The Navy controls 3 Westwind patrol aircraft and uses 3 JetRanger helicopters. New construction planned includes 2 missile armed corvettes of 850 tons to be built in Israel, and 10 improved guided-missile hydrofoils. The former Nautical School in Haifa has been reorganized as a Naval Officers' School in Acre. The repair base at Eilat has a syncrolift. Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 800 officers and 5,800 men, of whom 3,500 are conscripts, including a Naval Commando. There are also 1,000 naval reservists available on mobilization. Air Force. The Air Force has a personnel strength (1987) of28,000, with about 629 first-line aircraft, all jets, of Israeli and US manufacture. There are 3 squadrons with about 50 F-15s, 2 squadrons with about 100 Israeli-built Kfirs, and 3 squadrons with the first 70 of a planned 144 F-16s in an interceptor role; 4 squadrons with 120 F-4E Phantoms, 3 squadrons with 65 Kfirs, and 3' squadrons with A-4E/H/N Skyhawks in the fighter-bomber/attack role; and 15 RF-4E reconnaissance fighters; supported by 4 E-2C Hawkeye airborne early warning and control aircraft and a few OV-1 Mohawk, RC-12 and RU-21 aircraft. There are transport squadrons of turboprop C-130/KC-130 Hercules, C-47, Arava, Islander, and Boeing 707 (some equipped for tanker or ECM duties) aircraft, helicopter squadrons of CH-53, Super Frelon, AH-1 HueyCobra, Hughes 500MD/TOW Defender, JetRanger, Dauphin Agusta-Bell 205,206 and 212 aircraft, and training units with locally-built Magister jet trainers, which can be used also in a light ground attack

726

ISRAEL

role. Missiles in service include surface-to-air Hawks and surface-to-surface Lances. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Israel is a member of UN. ECONOMY Budget. The budget year runs from 1 April to 31 March and in 1986 balanced at 65,100m. new shekels. Currency. The unit of currency is the new shekel introduced in Jan. 1986 its value is 1,000 old shekels. Currency in circulation on 31 Dec. 1984 was I£ 161,651m. (bank-notes and coins). In March 1987, £ 1 = 2 • 57 shekel-, US$ = 1 • 62 shekel. Banking. The Bank of Israel was established by law in 1954 as Israel's central bank. Its Governor is appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Cabinet for a 5-year term. He acts as economic adviser to the Government and has ministerial status. There are 26 commercial banks headed by Bank Leumi Le Israel, Bank Hapoalim and Israel Discount Bank, 2 merchant banks and 25 other lending institutions. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. The (metrical) dunam= 1,000 sq. metres (about 0-25 acre). Jewish Year. The Jewish year 5745 corresponds to 27 Sept. 1984-15 Sept. 1985; 5746 to 16 Sept. 1985-30ct. 1986; 5747 to 4 Oct. 1986-23 Sept. 1987. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric-power production amounted during 1985 to 15,504m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil and Gas. Oil was first discovered in Sept. 1955 at Heletz in the Negev. Crude oil production in 1983 was 13m. litres and natural gas 66m. cu. metres. Minerals. The most valuable natural resources of the country are the potash, bromine and other salt deposits of the Dead Sea, which are exploited by the Dead Sea Works, Ltd. Geological research and exploration of the natural resources in the Negev are undertaken by the Israel Mining Corporation. Potash production in 1983 was 1,518,000 tons. Agriculture. In the coastal plain (Sharon, Emek Hefer and the Shephelah) mixed farming, poultry raising, citriculture and vineyards are the main agricultural activities. The Emek (the Valley of Jezreel) is the main agricultural centre of Israel. Mixed farming is to be found throughout the valleys; the sub-tropical Beisan and Jordan plainlands are also centres of banana plantations and fish breeding. In Galilee mixed farming, olive and tobacco plantations prevail. The Hills of Ephraim are a vineyard centre; many parts of the hill country are under afforestation. In the northern Negev farming has been aided by the Yarkon-Negev water pipeline. This has become part of the overall project of the 'National Water Carrier', which is to take water from the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinnereth) to the south. The plan includes a number of regional projects such as the Lake Kinnereth -Negev pipeline which came into operation in 1964; it has an annual capacity of 320m. cu. metres. The area under cultivation (in 1,000 dunams) in 1982-83 was 4,370, of which 2,200 were under irrigation. Of the total cultivated area 2,500 dunams were under field crops, 340 under vegetables, potatoes, pumpkins and melons, 930 under citrus and orchards, 37 under fish ponds and 190 under miscellaneous crops, including auxiliary farms, nurseries, flowers, etc. Industrial'crops, such as cotton and sugar-beet, have successfully been introduced. In 1983-84 the area under cotton totalled 619,400 dunams. Livestock (1985) included 310,000 cattle, 230,000 sheep, 128,000 goats, 86,000 pigs, 4,000 horses, 34m. poultry. Characteristic types of rural settlement are, among others, the following: (1) The

ISRAEL

727

Kibbutz and Kvutza (communal collective settlement), where all property and earnings are collectively owned and work is collectively organized. (115,500 people lived in 267 settlements in 1983). (2) The Moshav Ovdim (workers' cooperative smallholders' settlement) which is founded on the principles of mutual aid and equality of opportunity between the members, all farms being equal in size; hired labour is prohibited. (140,800 in 405) (3) The Moshav Shitufi (cooperative settlement), which is based on collective ownership and economy as in the Kibbutz, but with each family having its own house and being responsible for its own domestic services. (9,100 in 43). (4) The Moshav (smallholders' settlement), which resembles the moshav ovdim but lacks the latter's rigid ideological basis; hired labour, for instance, is permitted. (5) The Moshava (village), in which land and property are privately owned and every resident is responsible for his own well-being. In 1983 there were91 Arab villages with a population of 166,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. A wide range of products is manufactured, processed or finished in the country, including chemicals, metal products, textiles, tyres, diamonds, paper», plastics, leather goods, glass and ceramics, building materials, precision instruments, tobacco, foodstuff, electrical and electronic equipment. Labour. The General Federation of Labour (Histadrut) founded in 1920, had, in 1973,1,259,200 members (including 89,000 Arab and Druze members); including workers' families, this membership represents 56-1% of the population covering 85% of all wage-earners. Several trades unions also exist representing other political and religious groups. Commerce. External trade, in US$ 1 m., for calendar years: Imports Exports

1979 7,511 4,546

1980 8,024 5,540

1982 7,960 5,017

1983 8,370 4,894

1984 8,876 6,198

1985 8,800 6,000

The main exportable commodities are citrus fruit and by-products, fruit-juices, wines and liquor, sweets, polished diamonds, chemicals, tyres, textiles, metal products, machinery, electronic and transportation equipment, flowers. The main exports were, in 1984 (USSlm.): Diamonds, 1,035; chemical and oil products, 740; agricultural products are citrus fruit, 541; metal, machinery and electronics, 1,693. In 1983 52 -2% of imports came from Europe, 20-4% from Canada and USA, 6 -9% from Africa and Asia. Of exports, 41% went to Europe, 30% to Canada and USA, 13% to Africa and Asia. Total trade between Israel and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ^ m 3 m 4 m 5 m 6 ImportstoUK 275,139 Exports and re-exports from UK 224,362

314,148 354,860

392,757 393,025

403,952 434,470

385,164 452,407

Tourism. In 1985 there were about 1 -45m. tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 5,166 km of paved roads in 1985. Registered motor vehicles in 1984 totalled 760,213, including 8,332 buses, 113,138 trucks and 599,294 private cars. Railways. Internal communications (1985) are provided by 573 km of standard gauge line. Construction is in progress of 215 km of new line linking Eilat on the Gulf of Aqaba with Sedom and the existing rail network. In 1984-85, 2-8m. passengers and 5 • 8 m. tonnes of freight were carried. Aviation. Air communications are centred in the airport of Ben Gurion, near TelAviv. In 1984, 10,208 planes landed at Israeli airports on international flights; 1,594,000 passengers arrived, 1,593,000 departed. In 1984, 67,035 tons of freight were loaded and 61,299 tons unloaded. The Israeli airline El A1 maintains regular flights to London, Paris, Rome, Amsterdam, Brussels, Athens, Vienna, New York,

728

ISRAEL

Zurich, Munich, Istanbul, Johannesburg, Nairobi, Frankfurt and Copenhagen. In 1984-8.5 El A1 carried 1 -4m. passengers. Shipping. Israel has 3 commercial ports, Haifa, Ashdod and Eilat. In 1984, 3,383 ships anchored in Israeli ports; 15-3m. tons, of freight were handled. The merchant fleet consisted in 1983 of 94 vessels, totalling 1,849,000 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. The Ministry of Communications controls the postal service, and a public company responsible to the Ministry administers the telecommunications service. In 1984 there were 598 post offices and postal agencies, 49 mobile post offices and (1985) 1 -78m. telephones. Israeli television and the state radio station, Kol Israel are controlled by the Israel Broadcasting Authority, established in 1965. Wireless licences in 1985 numbered approximately 1 • 12m. and television licences 936,000. Cinemas In 1985 there were 265 cinemas. Newspapers (1985). There were 21 daily newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Law. Under the Law and Administration Ordinance, 5708/1948, the first law passed by the Provisional Council of State, the law of Israel is the law which was obtaining in Palestine on 14 May 1948 in so far as it is not in conflict with that Ordinance or any other law passed by the Israel legislature and with such modifications as result from the establishment of the State and its authorities. Capital punishment was abolished in 1954, except for support given to the Nazis and for high treason. The law of Palestine was derived from three main sources, namely, Ottoman law, English law (Common Law and Equity) and the law enacted by the Palestine legislature, which to a great extent was modelled on English law. The Ottoman law in its turn was derived from three main sources, namely, Moslem law which had survived in the Ottoman Empire, French law adapted by the Ottomans and the personal law of the non-Moslem communities. Civil Courts. Municipal courts, established in certain municipal areas, have criminal jurisdiction over offences against municipal regulations and bye-laws and certain specified offences committed within a municipal area. Magistrates courts, established in each district and sub-district, have limited jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters. x District courts, sitting at Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv and Haifa, have jurisdiction, as courts of first instance, in all civil matters not within the jurisdiction of magistrates courts, and in all criminal matters, and as appellate courts from magistrates courts and municipal courts. The Supreme Court has jurisdiction as a court of first instance (sitting as a High Court of Justice dealing mainly with administrative matters) and as an appellate court from the district courts (sitting as a Court of Civil or of Criminal Appeal). In addition, there are various tribunals for special classes of cases, such as the Rents Tribunals and the Tribunals for the Prevention of Profiteering and Speculation. Settlement Officers deal with disputes with regard to the ownership or possession of land in settlement areas constituted under the Land (Settlement of Title) Ordinance. Religious Courts. The rabbinical courts of the Jewish community have exclusive jurisdiction in matters of marriage and divorce, alimony and confirmation of wills of members of their community other than foreigners, concurrent jurisdiction with the civil courts in such matters of members of their community who are foreigners if they consent to the jurisdiction, and concurrent jurisdiction with the civil courts in all other matters of personal status of all members of their community, whether foreigners or not, with the consent of all parties to the action, save that such courts may not grant a decree ofdissolution of marriage to a foreign subject. The courts of the several recognized Christian communities have a similar jurisdiction over members of their respective communities.

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729

The Moslem religious courts have exclusive jurisdiction in all matters of personal status over Moslems who are not foreigners, and over Moslems who are foreigners, if under the law of their nationality they are subject in such matters to the jurisdiction of Moslem religious courts. Where any action of personal status involves persons of different religious communities, the President of the Supreme Court will decide which court shall have jurisdiction, and whenever a question arises as to whether or not a case is one of personal status within the exclusive jurisdiction of a religious court, the matter must be referred to a special tribunal composed of 2 judges of the Supreme Court and the president of the highest court of the religious community concerned in Israel. Religion. Religious affairs are under the supervision of a special Ministry, with departments for the Christian and Moslem communities. The religious affairs of each community remain under the full control of the ecclesiastical authorities concerned: in the case of the Jews, the Sephardi and Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis, in the case of the Christians, the heads of the various communities, and in the case of the Moslems, the Qadis. The Druze were officially recognized in 19S7 as a n autonomous religious community. In 1985 there were: Moslems, 551,000; Christians, 97,000; Druze and others, 69,000. The Jewish Sabbath and Holy Days are observed as days of rest in the public services. Full provision is, however, made for the free exercise of other faiths, and for the observance by their adherents of their respective days of rest and Holy Days. Education. Laws passed by the Knesset in 1949 and 1978 provide for free and compulsory education from 5 to 16 years of age. There is free education until 18 years of age. The State Education Law of 12 Aug. 1953 established a unified state-controlled elementary school system with a provision for special religious schools. The standard curriculum for all elementary schools is issued by the Ministry with a possibility of adding supplementary subjects comprising not more than 25% of the total syllabus. Many schools in towns are private, a number are maintained by municipalities and some are administered by teachers' co-operatives or trustees. Statistics relating to schools under government supervision, 1984-85: Teachers Pupils Type of School1 Schools Hebrew Education 36,822 Primary schools 1,316 470,760 208 3,095 11,859 Schools for handicapped children 274 12,958 103,075 Schools of intermediate division 174,822 Secondary schools 511 | 305 21,833 84,631 Vocational schools 26 J 4,648 Agricultural schools Arab Education 314 138,207 Primary schools 6,232 15 117 1,032 Schools for handicapped children 52 20,304 Schools of intermediate division 1,448 32,006 Secondary schools 73 | 35 1,954 Vocational schools 5,247 619 Agricultural schools 2 ] ' Schools providing more than one type of education are included more than once.

There are also a number of private schools maintained by religious foundations—Jewish, Christian and Moslem—and also by private societies. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, founded in 1925, comprises faculties of the humanities, social sciences, law, science, medicine and agriculture. In 1983-84 it had 16,050 students. The Technion in Haifa had 8,270 students. The Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovoth, founded in 1949, had 480 students. Tel Aviv University had 18,390 students. The religious Bar-Ilan University at Ramat Gan, opened in 1965 had 9,970 students. The Haifa University had 6,465 students. The Ben Gurion University had 4,980 students.

730

ISRAEL

Social Welfare. In 1983 Israel had ISO hospitals with 26,402 beds and 9,000 doctors. The National Insurance Law, which took effect in April 1954, provides for oldage pensions, survivors' insurance, work-injury insurance, maternity insurance, family allowances and unemployment benefits. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Israel in Great Britain (2 Palace Green, London, W8 4QB) Ambassador: Yehuda Avner (accredited 3 Aug. 1983). Of Great Britain in Israel (192 Rehov Hayarkon, Tel Aviv 63405) Ambassador: C. W. Squire, CMG, LVO. Of Israel in the USA (3 514 International Drive, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Meir Rosenne. Of the USA in Israel (71 Hayarkon St., Tel Aviv) Ambassador: Thomas R. Pickering. Of Israel to the United Nations Ambassador: Benjamin Netanyahu. Books of Reference Statistical Information: There is a Central Bureau of Statistics and Economic Research at the Prime Minister's Office, Jerusalem. It publishes monthly bulletins of economic statistics, social statistics, foreign trade statistics and an English summary. Government Yearbook. Government Printer, Jerusalem. 1951 ff. (latest issue, 1971/72) Facts about Israel. Ministry of Foreign AfTairs, Jerusalem, 1985 Statistical Abstract of Israel. Government Printer, Jerusalem (from 1949/50) Israel Yearbook. Tel-Aviv, 1948-49 ff. Statistical Bulletin of Israel. 1949fT. Reshumoth (OfTicial Gazette) Middle East Record, ed. Y. Oron. London, 1960 fT. Laws ofthe State of Israel. Authorized translation. Government Printer, Jerusalem, 1958 ff. Alkalay, R., The Complete English-Hebrew Dictionary. 4 vols. Tel-Aviv, 1959-61 Ben-Gurion, D., Ben-Gurion Looks Back. London, 1965.—The Jews in Their Land. London, 1966.—Israel: A Personal History. New York, 1971 Gilbert, M., The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Its History in Maps. 3rd ed. London, 1981 Harris, W., Taking Root: Israeli Settlement in the West Bank, The Golan and Gaza Sinai 1967-1980. Chichester, 1981 Kieval, G. R., Party Politics in Israel and the Occupied Territories. Westport, 1983 Likhovski, E. S., Israel's Parliament: The Law of the Knesset. Oxford, 1971 O'Brien, C.C., The Siege. London, 1986 Peri, Y., Between Battles and Ballots: Israeli Military in Politics. CUP, 1983 Reich, B., Israel: Land of Tradition and Conflict. London, 1986 Sager, S., The Parliamentary System of Israel. Syracuse Univ. Press, 1986 Segev.T., ¡949: The First Israelis. New York, 1986 Sharkansky, I., The Political Economy of Israel. Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Shimshoni, D., Israeli Democracy: The Middle of the Journey. New York, 1982 Snyder, E. M., and Kreiner, E., Israel. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985 WolfTsohn, M., Politik in Israel. Opladen, 1983 National Library: The Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem.

Capital: Rome

ITALY

Population:

57-2M. (1985)

GNPper capita: US$6,096 ( 1984)

Repubblica Italiana

H I S T O R Y . On 10 June 1946 Italy became a republic on the announcement by the Court of Cassation that a majority of the voters at the referendum held on 2 June had voted for a republic. The final figures, announced on 18 June, showed: For a republic, 12,718,641 (54-3% of the valid votes cast, which numbered 23,437,143); for the retention of the monarchy, 10,718,502 (45 -7%); invalid and contested, 1,509,735. Total 24,946,878, or 89-1% of the registered electors, who numbered 28,005,449. For the results of the polling in the 13 leading cities, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1951, p. 1175. Voting -was compulsory, open to troth men and women 21 years of age or older, including members of the Civil Service and the Armed Forces; former active Fascists and a few other categories were excluded. On 18 June the then Provisional Government without specifically proclaiming the republic, issued an 'Order of the Day' decreeing that all court verdicts should in future be handed down 'in the name of the Italian people', that the Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'ltalia should be re-named Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana, that all references to the monarchy should be deleted from legal and government statements and that the shield of the House of Savoy should be removed from the Italian flag. Thus ended the reign of the House of Savoy, whose kings had ruled over Piedmont for 9 centuries and as Kings of Italy since 18 Feb. 1861. (For fuller

account of the House of Savoy, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1946, p. 1021.)

The Crown Prince Umberto, son of King Victor Emmanuel III, became Lieut.Gen. (i.e., Regent) of the kingdom on 5 June 1944. Following the abdication and retirement to Egypt of his father on 9 May 1946, Umberto was declared King Umberto II; his reign lasted to 13 June, when he left the country. King Victor Emmanuel III died in Alexandria on 28 Dec. 1947.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The population (present in actual boundaries) at successive censuses were as follows: 31 Dec. 10 Feb. 10June in., 21 A[?rii

1881 1901 191 1 mil 1931

29,277,927 33,370,138 35,694,582 37 403 956 40;?82;043

21 April 1936 ,4Nov.95 ' S O c t . 96 24 0 c t . 97 25 Oct. 1981

42,302,680 47,158,738 49,903,878 53,744,737 56,243,935

The following table gives area and population of the Regions (census 1981 and

e s t i m a t e , 1985):

Regions Piemonte Vailed'Aosta Lombardia Trentino-Alto Adige Bolzano-Bozen Trento Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia Liguria Emilia Romagna Toscana Umbria Marche Lazio

Area in sq. km (1981) 25,399 3,262 23,856 13,613 7,400 6,213 18,364 7,846 5,416 22,123 22,992 8,456 9,694 17,203

Resident pop. census, 1981 4,479,031 112,353 8,891,652 873,413 430,568 442,845 4,345,047 1,233,984 1,807,893 3,957,513 . 3,581,051 807,552 1,412,404 5,001,684 731

Resident pop. Density per estimate, 1985 sq. km (1981) 4,394,312 175 113,714 35 8,881,683 373 878,590 64 434,361 58 444,229 71 4,370,533 235 1,219,556 157 1,771,319 332 3,939,289 178 3,576,508 155 816,939 95 1,425,734 145 5,101,641 289

732

ITALY Resident pop. census, 1981 1,217,791 328,371 5,463,134 3,871,617 610,186 2,061,182 4,906,878 1,594,175

Area in sq. km (1981) 10,794 4,438 13,595 19,347 9,992 15,080 25,708 24,090

Regions Abruzzi Molise Campania Puglia Basilicata Calabria Sicilia Sardegna

57,202,345

56,556,911

301,268

Total

Resident pop. Density per estimate, 1985 sq. km (1981) 113 1,250,057 73 333,502 398 5,651,200 199 4,005,226 60 618,647 135 2,131,412 189 5,084,311 66 1,638,172 187

Vital statistics for calendar years: Living 1979 1980 1981 1 1982 1 1983 1 1984' 1985 1

Marriages 323,930 322,968 316,953 310,938 300,855 298,028 295,990

Legitimate 643,835 612,945 595,514 589,342 571,628 556,810 545,027

births Illegitimate 26,386 27,456 27,589 28,165 28,590 29,162 30,458 Provisional.

Total 670,221 640,401 623,103 617,507 600,218 585,972 575,495

Still-born 5,748 5,139 4,728 4,703 4,361 4,160 3,833

Deaths excl. of still-born 534,563 554,510 545,291 531,632 561,214 531,899 544,811

Emigrants to non-European countries, by sea and air. 1978,23,589; 1979,21,302; 1980,20,360; 1981, 20,628; 1982,22,324; 1983, 20,443. Since 1960 nearly ninetenths of these emigrants have gone to Canada, USA and Australia. Communes of more than 100,000 inhabitants, with population resident at the census of 25 Oct. 1981 and (estimate) on 31 Dec. 1985: Roma (Rome) Milano (Milan) Napoli (Naples) Torino (Turin) Genova (Genoa) Palermo Bologna Firenze (Florence) Catania Bari Venezia (Venice) Verona Messina Trieste Taranto Padova(Padua) Cagliari Brescia Modena Parma Livorno (Leghorn) Reggio di C. Prato Salerno Foggia

1981 2,840,259 1,604,773 1,212,387 1,117,154 762,895 701,782 459,080 448,331 380,328 371,022 346,146 265,932 260,233 252,369 244,101 234,678 233,848 206,661 180,312 179,019 175,741 173,486 160,220 157,385 156,467

1985 2,826,488 1,515,233 1,206,010 1,035,383 735,600 719,755 437,203 430,748 376,312 365,630 334,107 259,992 267,264 241,386 244,506 227,528 223,487 200,790 178,051 176,575 175,104 178,190 163,736 155,755 158,681

Ferrara Perugia Ravenna Pescara Reggio nell'E. Rimini Monza Bergamo Sassari Siracusa (Syracuse) La Spezia Vicenza Terni Forli Piacenza Cosenza Ancona Bolzano Pisa Torre del Greco Novara Udine Catanzaro Alessandria

1981 149,453 142,348 138,034 131,330 130,376 127,813 123,145 122,142 119,596 117,615 115,392 114,598 111,564 110,806 109,039 106,801 106,498 105,180 104,509 103,605 102,086 102,021 100,832 100,523

1985 145,062 145,703 136,347 131,543 130,174 130,344 122,287 119,427 119,871 120,949 110,117 111,119 111,302 110,730 106,365 106,001 104,917

102,111

104,244 105,091 102,619 100,469 103,177

C L I M A T E . The climate varies considerably with latitude. In the south, it is warm temperate, with little rain in the summer months, but the north is cool temperate with rainfall more evenly distributed over the year. Florence, Jan. 42'F (5-6°C), July 76°F (25'C). Annual rainfall 36" (901 mm). Milan, Jan. 35°F (2°C), July 75°F (24°C). Annual rainfall 32" (802 mm). Naples, Jan. 48°F (8-9°C), July 77°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 34" (850 mm). Palermo, Jan. 52"F (11 • 1°C), July 79°F(26- PC). Annual rainfall 28" (702 mm). Rome, Jan. 44-5'F (7°C), July IT F (25'C). Annual rainfall 26" (657 mm). Venice, Jan. 38°F (3-3°C), July 75°F(23-9°C). Annual rainfall29" (725 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.

The new Constitution was

ITALY

733

passed by t h e constituent assembly by 4 5 3 votes to 62 o n 22 Dec. 1947; it c a m e into force o n 1 Jan. 1948. T h e Constitution consists of 139 articles a n d 18 transitional clauses. Its m a i n dispositions are as follows: Italy is described as 'a d e m o c r a t i c republic f o u n d e d o n work'. P a r l i a m e n t consists of the C h a m b e r of Deputies a n d t h e Senate. T h e C h a m b e r is elected for 5 years bv universal a n d direct suffrage a n d it consists of 630 deputies. T h e Senate is elected for 5 years o n a regional basis; each Region having at least 7 senators, consisting of 315 elected senators; t h e Valle d ' A o s t a is represented b y 1 senator only. T h e President of t h e R e p u b l i c can n o m i n a t e 5 senators for life f r o m e m i n e n t m e n in the social, scientific, artistic a n d literary spheres. O n t h e expiry of his t e r m of office, t h e President of the R e p u b l i c b e c o m e s a senator by right a n d for life, unless he declines. T h e President of t h e R e p u b l i c is elected in a j o i n t session of C h a m b e r a n d Senate, to which are added 3 delegates f r o m each Regional Council (1 f r o m t h e Valle d'Aosta). A two-thirds majority is required for t h e election, b u t after a third indecisive scrutiny t h e absolute majority or votes is sufficient. T h e President m u s t be 50 years or over; his t e r m lasts for 7 years. T h e President of the Senate acts as his deputy. T h e President can dissolve the c h a m b e r s of parliament, except d u r i n g t h e last 6 m o n t h s of his t e r m of office. T h e C a b i n e t can be forced to resign only o n a motivated m o t i o n of censure; the defeat of a g o v e r n m e n t bill does not involve t h e resignation of t h e G o v e r n m e n t . A Constitutional Court, consisting of 15 judges w h o are a p p o i n t e d , 5 each, by t h e President of t h e Republic, Parliament (in joint session) a n d t h e highest law a n d administrative courts, has rights similar to those of the S u p r e m e C o u r t of the U S A . It can decide o n the constitutionality of laws a n d decrees, define t h e powers of the State a n d Regions, judge conflicts between t h e State a n d Regions a n d between t h e Regions, a n d try t h e President of t h e R e p u b l i c a n d t h e Ministers. T h e court was set u p in Dec. 1955. T h e reorganization of t h e Fascist Party is forbidden. Direct m a l e descendants of King Victor E m m a n u e l are excluded f r o m all public offices, have n o right to vote or to be elected, a n d are b a n n e d f r o m Italian territory; their estates are forfeit to the State. Titles of nobility are n o longer recognized, b u t those existing before 28 Oct. 1922 are retained as part of the n a m e . Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, red. National anthem: Fratelli d'Italia (words by G . M a m e l i ; t u n e by M. N o v a r o , 1847). Head ofState: O n 3 J u l y l 9 8 5 C h a m b e r a n d Senate in joint session elected b y an absolute majority (752 votes o u t of 9 7 7 votes cast) Francesco Cossiga (Christian D e m o c r a t ; b o r n 1928), President of t h e Republic. Former Presidents of the Republic: Luigi Einaudi (1948-55); G i o v a n n i G r o n c h i (1955-62); A n t o n i o Segni (1962-64); G i u s e p p e Saragat (1964-71); G i o v a n n i Leone (1971-78); Alessandro Pertini ( 1978-85). G e n e r a l elections for the Senate a n d C h a m b e r of D e p u t i e s took place on 2 6 J u n e 1983. Senate. Christian D e m o c r a t s , 120; C o m m u n i s t s , 107; Socialists, 38; Italian Social M o v e m e n t , 18; Social Democrats, 8; Republicans, 10; Liberals, 6; o t h e r groups, 8. Total: 315. Chamber. Christian D e m o c r a t s , 225; C o m m u n i s t s , 198; Socialists, 73; Italian Social M o v e m e n t , 42; Republicans, 29; Social Democrats, 23; Liberals, 16; Radical Party, 11 ; o t h e r groups, 13. Total: 630. T h e coalition g o v e r n m e n t was c o m p o s e d as follows in Nov. 1986 b u t see Addenda. Prime Minister: Benedetto Craxi (PSI). Vice Prime Minister: A r n a l d o Forlani (DC). Foreign Affairs: G i u l i o Andreotti (DC). Interior: Oscar Scalfaro (DC). Justice: Virginio Rognoni (DC). Budget: Pier Luigi R o m i t a (PSDI). Finance: B r u n o Visentini (PRI).

734

ITALY

Treasury: Giovanni Goria (DC). Defence: Giovanni Spadolini (PRI). Education: Franca Falcucci (DC). Public Works: Franco Nicolazzi (PSDI). Agriculture: Filippo Pandolfi (DC). Transport: Claudio Signorile (PSI). Post: Antonio Gava (DC). Industry: Valerio Zanone (PLI). Labour: Gianni De Michelis (PSI). Foreign Trade: Rino Formico (PSI). Merchant Navy: Gianuario Carta (DC). State Industry: Constante Degan (DC). Health: Carlo Donat Cattin (DC). Tourism: Nicola Capria (PSI). Culture: Antonino Gullotti (DC). EEC Affairs: Fabio Fabri (PSI). Public Administration: Remo Gaspari (DC). Scientific Research: Luigi Granelli (DC). Southern Affairs: Salvenno De Vito (DC). Regional Affairs: Carlo Vizzini (PSDI). Relations with Parliament: Oscar Mammi (PRI). Civil Protection: Giuseppe Zamberletti (DC). Ecology: Francisco De Lorenzo (PLI). Regional Administration. Italy is administratively divided into regions (regioni), provinces (province) and municipalities (comuni). Art. 116 of the 1948 constitution provided for the establishment of 5 autonomous regions with special statute (regioni autonome con statuto speciale) and 15 autonomous regions with ordinary statute (regioni autonome con statuto normale). The regions have their own parliaments (consiglio regionale) and governments (giunta regionale e presidente) with certain legislative and administrative functions adapted to the circumstances of each region. A government commissioner co-ordinates regional and national activities. The results of the last regional elections were as follows:

Regioni Piemonte Valle d'Aosta 1 Lombardia Trentino-Alto Adige ' Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia 1 Liguria Emilia-Romagna Toscana Umbria Marche Lazio Abruzzi Molise Campania Puglia Basilicata Calabria Sicilia 1 Sardegna 1

Christian ComSocial Social Election Demo mun- Social- Move- Demo-Repub-Libdate crats ists ists ment crats hcans erais Others Total 12 May 1985 19 18 8 3 3 3 3 3 60 26 June 1983 7 6 3 1 1 1 1 15 35 22 12 4 2 4 1 4 12 May 1985 31 80 20 Nov. 1983 12 May 1985

19 30

6 12

4 8

3 2

1 1

3 2

1 1

33 4

70 60

26 June 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 22 June 24 June

23 13 13 14 9 15 21 19 18 24 20 14 16 36 27

14 15 26 25 14 15 18 11 5 14 13 7 10 14 24

7 4 4 5 4 4 7 5 3 9 8 5 8 14 8

3 2 2 2 2 2 6 2 1 5 5 1 2 8 3

3 1 I 1

3 2 2 1 1 1

1 1 1

8 2 1 2

62 40 50 50 30 40 60 40 30 60 50 30 40 90 81

1983 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1986 1984

1 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 4 4

1 1 1 1 1 5 3

-

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 3

-

2 -

-

-

-

1 6 12

3 -

' Autonomous regions with special statute.

D E F E N C E . Most of the restrictions imposed upon Italy in Part IV of the peace treaty signed on 10 Feb. 1947 were repudiated by the signatories on 21 Dec. 1951, only the USSR objecting.

ITALY

735

Head of the armed forces is the Defence Chief of Staff. In 1947 the ministries of war, navy and air were merged into the ministry of defence. The technical and scientific council for defence directs all research activities. National service lasts 12 months in the Army and Air Force, and 18 months in the Navy. Army. The Army is divided into the expeditionary force and the national defence force. It is composed of 1 armoured division, 3 mechanized divisions, 2 independent mechanized and 4 independent motorized brigades, 5 Alpine brigades, 1 airborne brigade, 2 amphibious battalions and 1 missile brigade. Equipment includes 500 M-47, 300 M-60A1 and 920 Leopard I main battle tanks. The Army air corps operates 100 light aircraft and 330 helicopters. Strength (1987) 270,000 (220,000 conscripts), with 520,000 reserves. There is also the paramilitary Carabinieri of 90,000 men. Navy. Particulars of the principal surface ships in the Italian Navy: Completed

Standard displacement Tons

Name

Aircraft

Torpedo tubes

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

4 Teseo 2 launchers for Otomat; 6A/S 2 Albatross systems with octuple Aspide missiles (48)

80,000

30

73,000

32

60 6 U 000 'UUU

31

Principal armament

Light Aircraft Carrier

1985

Giuseppe Garibaldi

10,100

,,c Jo S e a l i n g hel,c °Pters

Cruisers 8 3-in.; 4 Teseo 1969

Vittorio Veneto

7,500

9 helicopters ^ " j e r r i e r '

6

missile launcher 1964 1964

Andrea D o r i a ' CaioDuilio1

I J

fi

1

nnn

°'uuu

4 helicnnters «Helicopters

8 3-in.; twin 'Terrier' missile launcher

fi0

Rated as guided-missile escort cruisers.

There are also 10 diesel-powered submarines, 4 guided-missile destroyers, 16 frigates, 8 corvettes, 4 ocean minesweepers, 11 minehunters, 14 coastal minesweepers, 5 inshore minesweepers, 7 hydrofoil missile boats, 2 landing ships, 3 surveying vessels, 2 salvage ships, 1 transport, 1 support ship, 5 training ships, 2 replenishment oilers, 14 water carriers, 1 netlayer, 6 repair craft, 18 auxiliaries, 5 coastal transports (landing craft), 5 motor transports (minor landing craft), 6 harbour oilers and 66 tugs. The Naval Air Arm has over 100 anti-submarine and training helicopters. Two submarines, 2 dock landing ships and 4 corvettes are under construction. Two destroyers, 9 corvettes and 8 minehunters are projected. The coastline of the peninsula is divided into zones, with headquarters at Spezia, Naples, Taranto and Ancona; all are under the jurisdiction of flag officers with the status of C.-in-C. The admirals commanding on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily do not rank as C.-in-C. Other localities of strategic importance under naval administration are Brindisi, where there is an admiral commanding, and Genoa, Leghorn, Augusta and Venice, each of which is under a senior naval officer. The personnel of the Navy in 1987 numbered 44,500 officers and ratings, including the naval air arm and the marine battalion.

736

ITALY

Air Force. Control is exercised through 2 regional HQ near Taranto and Milan. Units assigned to N A T O comprise .the 1st air brigade of Nike-Hercules surface-toair missiles, 4 fighter-bomber, 3 light attack, 9 interceptor and 2 tactical reconnaissance squadrons, with supporting transport, search and rescue, and training units. Two of the fighter-bomber squadrons have Tornados, others have Aeritalia G91 Ys. The light attack squadrons operate G91Rs and MB.339s. F-104S Starfighters have been standardized throughout the interceptor squadrons. The reconnaissance force operates RF-104G Starfighters. A total of 187 AM-X jet aircraft, built jointly by Aeritalia, Aermacchi and Embraer of Brazil, will replace G91R, G91Y and F-104G/S aircraft in eight squadrons in 1987-90. One transport squadron has turboprop C-130H Hercules aircraft; 2 others have turboprop Aeritalia G222s. There is a VIP and personnel transport squadron, equipped with DC-9, Gulfstream III and Falcon 50 aircraft. Electronic warfare duties are performed by specially equipped G222s, PD-808s and MB 339s. Two land-based anti-submarine squadrons operate Breguet Atlantics. Search and rescue are performed by 20 Agusta-Sikorsky HH-3F helicopters, Canadair CL-215 amphibians and smaller types. There are also strong support and training elements; some MB 339 jet trainers have armament provisions for secondary close air support and anti-helicopter roles. Air Force strength in mid-1986 was about 70,000 officers and men, about 300 combat aircraft, 300 fixed-wing second-line aircraft and over 100 helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Italy is a member of U N , N A T O and the European Communities. ECONOMY Budget. Total revenue and expenditure for fiscal years, in 1 m. lire: 1980 1981 1982

Revenue Expenditure 88,303,000 128,994,000 105,343,000 149,246,000 150,842,000 206,444,000

1983 1984 1985

Revenue 177,142,000 199,986,000 218,973,000

Expenditure 250,203,000 292,348,000 319,099,000

In the revenue for 1985 turnover and other business taxes accounted for 55,785,000m. lire, customs duties and indirect taxes for 17,674,000m. lire. The public debt at 31 Dec. 1985 totalled 585,899,796m. lire, including consolidated debt of42,090m. lire and the floating debt 261,548,138m. lire. Currency. The standard coin is the lira. From 30 March 1960 the gold standard was formally established as equal to 0 00142187 gramme of gold per lira. State metal coins are of 5,10,20, 50,100,200, and 500 lire. There are in circulation bank-notes of 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 lire; they are neither convertible into gold as foreign moneys nor exportable abroad, nor importable from abroad into Italy (except for certain specified small amounts). Circulation of money at 31 Dec. 1985: State coins and notes, 1,056,900m. lire; bank-notes, 46,970,100m. lire. In March 1987 the rate of exchange was 1,301 lire per US$1 and 2,093 lire per£l sterling. Banking. According to the law of 6 May 1926 there is only one bank of issue, the Banca d'Italia. Its gold reserve amounted to 39,530,000m. lire in Dec. 1985; the foreign credit reserves of the Exchange Bureau ( Ufficio Italiano Cambi) amounted to 17,160,000m. lire at the same date. Since 1936, all credit institutions have been under the control of a State organ, named 'Inspectorate of Credit'; the Bank of Italy has been converted into a 'public institution', whose capital is held exclusively by corporate bodies of a public nature. Other credit institutions, totalling 1,101, are classified as: (1) 6 chartered banks (Banco di Napoli, Banco di Sicilia, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, Monte dei Paschi di Siena, Istituto di S. Paolo di Torino, Banca di Sardegna); (2) 3 banks of national interest (Banca Commerciale Italiana in Milan, Credito Italiano in Genoa

ITALY

737

and Banco di Roma); (3) banks and credit concerns in general, including 158 jointstock banks and 139 co-operative banks; (4) 87 savings banks and Monti di pegno (institutions granting loans against personal chattels as security); (5) 703 Casse rurali e agrarie (agricultural banks, established as co-operative institutions with unlimited liability of associates); (6) 5 Istituti di Categoria. At 31 Dec. 1985 there were 291 credit institutes handling 95% of all deposits and current accounts, with capital and reserves of43,179,000m. lire. On 31 Dec. 1985 the post office savings banks had deposits and current accounts of77,745,000m. lire; credit institutions,459,195,000m. lire. Insurance. By a decree of 29 April 1923 life-assurance business is carried on only by the National Insurance Institute and by other institutions, national and foreign, authorized by the Government. At 31 Dec. 1985 the insurances vested in the Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni amounted to 14,189,386m. lire, including the decuple of life annuities. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Italy has greatly developed her water-power resources. In 1985 the total power generated was 183,713m. kwh., of which 43,774m. kwh. were generated by hydro-electric plants. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz and 120,125,160 and 260 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Production in 1985 amounted to 2,342,545 tonnes, of which 761,532 came from Sicily. Natural gas production (1983) 460,000m. cu. ft. Minerals. The Italian mining industry is most developed in Sicily (Caltanissetta), in Tuscany (Arezzo, Florence and Grosseto), in Sardinia (Cagliari, Sassari and Iglesias), in Lombardy (particularly near Bergamo and Brescia) and in Piedmont. Italy's fuel and mineral resources are wholly inadequate. Only sulphur and mercury outputs yield a substantial surplus for exports. In 1985 outputs, in tonnes, of raw steel were 23,897,592; rolled iron, 20,373,617; cast-iron ingots, 12,062,547; solid fuels (1984), 1,892,436. Production of metals and minerals (in tonnes) was as follows: Iron pyrites Iron ore Manganese Zinc Crude sulphur Bauxite Mercury Lead Aluminium

1980 858,992 434,374 9,165 110,150 100,852 23,260 -

42,057 271,211

1981 680,988 345,604 8,756 82,094 96,172 19,000 20,017 35,556 273,845

1982 666,964 195,034 8,727 74,142 88,848 23,810 17,163 36,360 232,861

1983 646,209 67,700 7,205 83,462 40,858 3,118

1984 442,674 273,700 9,528 81,291 20,639

1985 690,395

-

-

-

-

-

37,558 230,207

37,051 226,300

37,429 195,694

-

8,261 87,380 4,911

Agriculture. The area of Italy in 1985 comprised 301,277 sq. km, of which 263,367 sq. km was agricultural and forest land and 37,640 sq. km was unproductive; the former was mainly distributed as follows (in 1,000 hectares): Forage and pasture, 8,570; woods, 6,414; cereals, 4,818; vines, 1,106; olive trees, 1,213; garden produce, 544; leguminous plants, 283. This does not include vines and olives grown among other crops. At the third general census of agriculture (24 Oct. 1982) agricultural holdings numbered 3,270,560 and covered 23,559,924 hectares. 3,063,010 owners (93-6%) farmed directly 16,597,798 hectares (70-4%); 152,250 owners (4-7%) worked with hired labour on 6,209,702 hectares (26-4%); 130,648 share-croppers (3-6%) tilled 1,271,485 hectares (51%); the remaining 55,300 holdings (1-7%) of 752,424 hectares (3 • 2%) were operated in other ways. According to the labour force survey in July 1978 persons engaged in agriculture numbered 3 • 17m. (2 02m. males and 1 15m. females). In 1985,1,227,134 farm tractors were being used.

738

ITALY

The production of the principal crops (in 1,000 metric quintals) in 1985: Sugar beet, 96,060; wheat, 86,020; maize, 63,363; tomatoes, 63,110; potatoes, 24,948; oranges, 22,331; rice, 11,300; barley, 16,427; lemons, 7,763; oats, 3,884; olive oil, 6,161 ; tangerines, 5,011; other citrus fruit, 480; rye, 230. Production of wine, 1985,62,557,000 hectolitres; oftobacco, 166,490 tonnes. In 1985 consumption of chemical fertilizers in Italy was as follows (in 1,000 tons): Perphosphate, 722; nitrate of ammonia, 838-1; sulphate of ammonium, 352-6; potash salts, 131-3; nitrate of calcium 1 Vi6,87-6; deposed slags, 38-3. Livestock estimated in 1985: Cattle, 9,106,000; pigs, 9,041,000; sheep, 9-5m.; goats, 1,089,000; horses, 246,000; donkeys, 98,000; mules, 57,000. Fisheries. The Italian fishing fleet comprised in 1982, 23,385 motor boats (323,512 gross tons) and 11,694 sailing vessels (14,612 gross tons). The catch in 1984 was428,691 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main branches of industry are: (% of industrial value added at factor cost in 1982) Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear (17- 7%), food, beverages and tobacco (10-4%), energy products (7-9%), agricultural and industrial machines (7 • 7%), metal products except machines and means of transport (7%), mineral and non-metallic mineral products (7%), timber ánd wooden furniture (6 -6%), electric plants and equipment (6-3%), chemicals and pharmaceuticals (6 -2%), means of transport (6-1%). Production, 1985: Steel, 23,723,752; motor vehicles, 1,568,764; cement, 36,677,251 tonnes; artificial and synthetic fibres (including staple fibre and waste), 690,205 tonnes; ethylene, (1984) 1,035,420 tonnes; polyethylene resins, 640,004 tonnes. Labour. As at April 1982, 2 0 - l m . persons were employed, l-9m. unemployed (figures from a new series of statistics on the labour force, 1977, which is not comparable with previous series). Trade Unions. There are 4 main groups: Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro (Communist-dominated); Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori (Catholic); Unione Italiana del Lavoro and Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Nazionali Lavoratori. Commerce. The territory covered by foreign trade statistics includes Italy, the Republic of San Marino, but excludes the municipalities of Livigno and Campione. The following table shows the value of Italy's foreign trade (in 1 m. lire): Imports Exports

1980 1981 1982 1983 85,564,303 103,674,405 116,215,679 121,978,334 66,719,410 86,039,719 99,230,877 110,530,106

1984 148,162,029 129,026,980

1985 172,816,417 149,700,978

The following table shows trade by countries in 1 m. lire: Countries Argentina Australia Austria Belgium-Luxembourg France Germany, Fed. Rep. of Japan Netherlands Switzerland USSR UK USA Yugoslavia

Imports into Italyfrom 1983 1984 1985 597,732 775,711 951,371 648,613 990,700 1,079,092 2,149,529 2,698,224 3,084,042 4,130,520 5,464,553 6,416,424 15,371,969 18,436,260 21,541,043 19,387,095 23,665,941 28,743,420 1,688,421 2,371,574 2,828,021 5,948,062 7,246,042 8,795,592 4,734,752 6,099,618 6,665,268 5,456,765 7,096,887 5,690,519 4,749,435 6,384,263 8,540,706 7,266,382 9,110,937 10,295,281 1,540,403 1,934,286 2,197,301

Exports from Italy to 1983 1984 1985 396,148 419,735 428,312 983,091 1,124,992 1,473,184 2,601,631 2,912,338 3,293,764 3,176,962 3,732,440 4,442,514 16,251,523 18,078,148 21,003,785 18,331,327 20,781,721 24,169,718 1,201,710 1,481,441 1,765,325 3,313,461 3,708,591 4,630,186 4,574,020 5,245,889 6,070,361 2,850,225 2,786,132 2,917,634 7,019,170 8,715,611 10,423,098 8,523,434 14,045,308 18,348,478 1,516,652 1,702,205 2,262,921

In 1985 the main imports were maize, wood, greasy wool, metal scrap, pit-coal, petroleum, raw oils, meat, paper, rolled iron and steel, copper and alloys, mechanical and electric equipment, motor vehicles. The main exports were fruit and

ITALY

739

vegetables, fabrics, footwear and other clothing articles, rolled iron and steel, machinery, motor vehicles, plastic materials and petroleum by-products. Italy's balance of trade (in 1,000m. lire) has been estimated as follows: Income from Goods and services investments and Net Export Import Balance work, balance balance 1978 58,866 53,465 +5,401 +184 +5,585 +3,254 1979 74,377 71,123 +922 +4,176 83,710 93,967 -10,257 1980 +927 -9,330 1981 105,630 113,721 -1,995 -8,091 -10,086 1982 123,439 128,791 -5,352 -3,228 -8,580 1983 138,959 135,956 -3,622 -«04 +3,003 1984 162,328 165,037 -2,709 -4,710 -7,419 Remittances from Italians abroad (in US$ 1 m. until 1969 and then 1,000m. lire): 1950,72; 1960,214; 1970,289; 1975,338; 1976,385; 1977,626; 1978,785; 1979, 956; 1980,1,059; 1981,1,325; 1982,1,607; 1983,1,727; 1984,1,905. Total trade between Italy and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m l983 m 4 i m 1986 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

2,745,094 3,188,219 3,814,163 4,293,941 4,658,036 2,022,711 2,292,788 2,902,666 3,466,495 3,472,364

Tourism. In 1984, 49-2m. foreigners visited Italy; they included 10-8m. German, 10-8m. Swiss, 8-5m. French, 5m. Austrian, l-8m. Yugoslav, l-8m. British, 1 -8m. Dutch and l -8m. US citizens. They spent about 15,095,700m. lire. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Italy's roads totalled (31 Dec. 1985) 299,710 km, of which 45,765 km were state roads, 106,323 km provincial roads, 141,666 km communal roads. Motor vehicles, Dec. 1984: Cars, 20-9m.;buses, 71,981; lorries, 1,720,445; motorcycles, light vans, etc., 5,552,717. Railways. Railway history in Italy begins in 1839, with a line between Naples and Portici (8 km). Length of railways (31 Dec. 1985), 19,726 km, including 16,185 km of state railways, of which 7,247 had not yet been electrified. The first section of a new high-speed direct railway linking Rome and Florence opened in Feb. 1977. In 1985 the state railways carried 389m. passengers and 53m. tonnes of goods. The Rome Underground opened in Feb. 1980. Aviation. The Italian airline Alitalia (with a capital of 421,900m. lire, of which 99 -1% is owned by the State) operates flights to every part of the world. Aiiports include 25 international, 36 national and 75 club airports. Domestic and international traffic in 1985 registered 16,380,878 passengers arrived and 16,421,297 departed, while freight and mail (excluding luggage) amounted to 167,337 tonnes unloaded and 238,525 tonnes loaded. Shipping. The mercantile marine at 31 Dec. 1985 consisted of 2,045 vessels of 8,003,394 gross tons, not including pleasure boats (yachts, etc.), sailing and motor vessels. There were 1,344 motor vessels of 100 gross tons and over. In 1984,248,479,564 tonnes of cargo were unloaded, and 88,292,438 tonnes of cargo were loaded in Italian ports. Post and Broadcasting. On 31 Dec. 1985 there were 14,276 post offices and 13,759 telegraph offices. The maritime radio-telegraph service had 20 coast stations. On 1 Jan. 1986 the telephone service had 25,614,597 apparatus. Radiotelevisione Italiana broadcasts 3 programmes and additional regional programmes, including transmissions in English, French, German and Slovenian on medium- and shortwaves and on FM. It also broadcasts 2 T V programmes. Radio licences numbered 381,521; television and radio licences, 14,212,781. Cinemas. There were 4,885 cinemas in 1985. Newspapers. There were (1985) 72 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 6 • 71 m. copies; of the papers 14 are published in Rome and 7 in Milan. One daily each is published in German, Slovene and English.

740

ITALY

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Italy has 1 court of cassation, in Rome, and is divided for the administration of justice into 23 appeal court districts (and 3 detached sections), subdivided into 159 tribunal circonaari (districts), and these again into mandamenti each with its own magistracy (Pretura), 899 in all. There are also 90 first degree assize courts and 26 assize courts of appeal. For civil business, besides the magistracy above mentioned, Conciliatori have jurisdiction in petty plaints (those to a maximum amount of 1 m. lire). On 31 Dec. 1983 there were 25,016 male and 1,448 female prisoners in establishments for preventive custody, 10,819 males and 409 females in penal establishments and 1,255 males and 98 females in establishments for the execution of safety measures. Religion. The treaty between the Holy See and Italy, of 11 Feb. 1929, confirmed by article 7 of the Constitution of the republic, lays down that the Catholic Apostolic Roman Religion is the only religion of the State. Other creeds are permitted, provided they do not profess principles, or follow rites, contrary to public order or moral behaviour. The appointment of archbishops and of bishops is made by the Holy See; but the Holy See submits to the Italian Government the name of the person to be appointed in order to obtain an assurance that the latter will not raise objections of a political nature. Catholic religious teaching is given in elementary and intermediate schools. Marriages celebrated before a Catholic priest are automatically transferred to the civil register. Marriages celebrated by clergy of other denominations must be made valid before a registrar. In 1972 there were 279 dioceses with 28,154 parishes and 43,714 priests. There were 187,153 members (154,796 women) of about 20,000 religious houses. In 1962 there were about 100,000 Protestants and about 50,000 Jews. Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age. An optional preschool education is given to tne children between 3 and 5 years in the preparatory schools (kindergarten schools). Illiteracy of males over 6 years was 2 • 2% in 1981, of females 3-8%. Compulsory education can be classified as primary education (5-year course) and junior secondary education (3-year course). Senior secondary education is subdivided in classical (ginnasio and classical liceo), scientific (scientific liceo), language lyceum, professional institutes and technical education: agricultural, industrial, commercial, technical, nautical institutes, institutes for surveyors, institutes for girls (5-year course) and teacher-training institutes (4-year course).. University education is given in Universities and in University Higher Institutes ( 4 , 5 , 6 years, according to degree course). Statistics for the academic year 1985-86: Elementary schools Kindergarten Public elementary schools Private elementary schools Private elementary recognized schools

No. 28,613 25,369 iparificate)

Government secondary schools Junior secondary schools Classical lyceum Lyceum for science Language lyceum Teachers' schools Teachers' institutes Professional institutes Technical institutes, of which: Industrial institutes Commercial institutes Surveyors' institutes Agricultural institutes Nautical institutes Technical institutes for tourism Managerial institutes Girls technical schools Artistic studies

2,379 10,033 744 990 349 207 678 1,671 612 1,180 488 93 47 33 144 73 255

Pupils 1,633,062 3,427,768 287,829 Tola! students 2,764,635 207,828 369,247 49,246 26,709 172,013 514,197 316,696 591,570 147,520 30,436 12,691 19,672 48,664 26,895 74,365

741

ITALY Date of StuUniversities and higher founcladents institutes tion 1984-85 Ancona 1965 6,912 Arezzo 1971 1,169 Bari 1924 55,938 Bergamo 1970 3,147 Bologna 1200 60,591 Brescia 1970 6,094 Cagliari 1626 18,100 Camerino (Macerata) 1727 2,983 Cassino (Frosinone) 1968 2,718 Catania 1434 33,557 Catanzaro 1983 4,408 Chieti 1965 5,087 Cosenza 1972 5,989 Feltre (Belluno) 1969 455 Ferrara 1391 5,275 Firenze 1924 44,870 Genova 1243 31,636 L'Aquila 1956 6,216 Lecce 1959 7,201 Macerata 1290 4,728 Messina 1549 23,882 Milano 1924 123,487 Modena 1678 8,026

Teachers 1983-84 306 74 1,810 119 3,102 138 1,090 229 61 1,439 135 485 27 492 2,369 1,883 517 333 193 1,465 3,974 659

Universities and higher institutes Napoli Padova Palermo Parma Pavia Perugia Pescara Piacenza Pisa Potenza ReggiodiC. Roma Salerno Sassari Siena Teramo Torino Trento Trieste Udine Urbino Venezia Verona Viterbo

Dale of Stufoundadents tion 1984-85 1224 115,721 1222 44,993 1805 43,597 1502 14,841 1390 18,089 1276 19,470 1965 9,052 1924 644 1338 29,865 1983 .1,110 1968 9,137 1303 167,883 1944 22,391 1677 8,538 1300 10,068 1965 4,755 1404 59,991 1965 3,419 1924 13,769 1969 3,550 1564 12,666 1868 21,467 1969 8,053 1980 1,044

Teachers 1983-84 4,251 2,155 2,216 951 1,406 1,120 169 72 1,804 28 110 6,225 529 490 726 89 2,673 21! 948 232 459 777 396 78

H e a l t h . In 1 9 8 1 there w e r e 1 9 0 , 1 9 6 d o c t o r s a n d 5 2 9 , 2 2 1 h o s p i t a l b e d s . S o c i a l S e c u r i t y . S o c i a l e x p e n d i t u r e is m a d e u p o f transfers w h i c h t h e central p u b l i c d e p a r t m e n t s , local d e p a r t m e n t s a n d social security d e p a r t m e n t s , m a k e t o f a m i l i e s . P a y m e n t is p r i n c i p a l l y for p e n s i o n s , f a m i l y a l l o w a n c e s a n d h e a l t h services. E x penditure o n subsidies, public assistance to various classes of people and people injured b y p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s o r n a t i o n a l disasters are a l s o i n c l u d e d . DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f Italy in G r e a t Britain ( 1 4 T h r e e K i n g s Yard, L o n d o n , W 1 Y 2 E H ) Ambassador: B r u n o Bottai ( a c c r e d i t e d 11 D e c . 1985). O f G r e a t Britain in Italy ( V i a X X S e t t e m b r e 8 0 A , 0 0 1 8 7 , R o m e ) Ambassador: T h e Lord Bridges, K C M G . O f Italy in t h e U S A ( 1 6 0 1 F u l l e r St., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 0 9 ) Ambassador: R i n a l d o Petrignani. O f t h e U S A in Italy ( V i a V e n e t o 1 1 9 / A , R o m e ) Ambassador: Maxwell M. Rabb. O f Italy t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Ambassador: Maurizio Bucci. B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Statistical Information: The Istituto Centrale di Statistica ( 16 Via Cesare Balbo 00100 Rome) was set up by law of 9 July 1926 as the central institute in charge of census and all statistical information. President: Prof. G u i d o Mario Rey. Director-General: Dr Luigi Pinto. Its publications include: Annuario statistico italiano. 1986, Compendio statistico italiano. 1986, Bollettino mensile di statistica. Monthly, from 1950, Annuario di statistiche industriali. 1986, Annuario di statistiche demografiche. 1984, Annuario di statistica agraria. 1984, Annuario statistico della navigazione marittima. 1986, Annuario statistico del commercio interno e del turismo. 1986, Statistica annuale del commercio con l'estero. 1986, Statistica mensile del commercio con l'estero Monthly, Annuario di statistiche del lavoro. 1986, Censimento generale dell'agricoltura. 1982, Censimento generale della popolazione. 1981. Vol. I, II and III, Censimento generale dell'industria e del commercio. 1981 Sommario di Statistiche Storiche, 1926-1985.

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Italy. Documents and Notes. Servizi delle Informazioni, Rome. 1952 ff. Italian Books and Periodicals. Bimonthly from 1958 Banco di Roma, Review of the Economic Condition m Italy (in English). Bimonthly, 1947 ff. Credito Italiano, The Italian Economic Situation. Bimonthly. Milan, from June 1961 (in Italian), from June 1962 (in English) Compendio Economico Italiano. Rome, Unione Italiana delle Camere di Commercio. Annually from 1954 Carone, G., Il Turismo nell'economia internazionale. Milan, 1959 Clark, M„ Modem Italy 1871-1982. London, 1984 Di Vittorio, G. (ed.), /sindacati in Italia. Bari, 1955 Finer, S. E.,andMastropaolo, A. (eds.), The Italian Party System, 1945-80. London, 1985 Grindrod, M„ The Rebuilding of Italy, 1945-55. R. Inst, oflnt. AfTairs, 1955 Nichols, R , Italia, Italia. London, 1974 Spotts, F., and Wieser, T., Italy: A Difficult Democracy. CUP, 1986 Woolfe, S. J. (ed.), The Rebirth of Italy, 1943-50. New York, 1972 National Library: Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II Viale Castro Pretorio, Rome. Director: Dr L. M. Crisari.

JAMAICA

Capital: Kingston Population: 2 • 3m. ( 1984) GNPper capita: US$890 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and was occupied by the Spaniards between 1509 and 1655, when the island was captured by the English; their possession was confirmed by the Treaty of Madrid, 1670. Selfgovernment was introduced in 1944 and gradually extended until Jamaica achieved complete independence within the Commonwealth on 6 Aug. 1962. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The islandof Jamaica lies in theCaribbean Sea about 150 km south of Cuba. The area is 4,411 sq. miles (11,425 sq. km). The population at the census of 8 June 1982 was 2,095,878, distributed on the basis of the 14 parishes of the island as follows: Kingston and St Andrew, 565,487; St Thomas, 76,347; Portland, 70,787; St Mary, 101,442; St Ann, 132,475; Trelawny, 65,038; St James, 127,994; Hanover, 60,420; Westmoreland, 116,163; St Elizabeth, 132,353; Manchester, 136,517; St Catherine, 315,970; Clarendon, 194,885. Chief towns (census, 1982): Kingston and St Andrew, 524,638, metropolitan area; Spanish Town, 89,097; Montego Bay, 70,265; May Pen, 40,962; Mandeville, 34,502. Estimated population, in 1984, was 2-3m. The population is 76% of African ethnic origin, 3% European and 21% mixed and other groups. Vital statistics (1984): Births, 57,553 (25-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 13,405 (5 -9); migration loss, 10,474. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate but with considerable variation. High temperatures on the coast are usually mitigated by sea breezes, while upland areas enjoy cooler and less humid conditions. Rainfall is plentiful over most of Jamaica, being heaviest in May and from Aug. to Nov. The island lies in the hurricane zone. Kingston. Jan. 76'F(24-4°C), July 81°F(27 r C ) . Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was enacted with independence in Aug. 1962. The Crown is represented by a Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General is assisted by a Privy Council. The Legislature comprises two chambers, an elected House and a nominated Senate. The executive is chosen from both chambers. The Executive comprises the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party, and Ministers appointed by the Prime Minister. Together they form the Cabinet, which is the highest executive power. An Attorney-General is a member of the House and is legal adviser to the Cabinet. The Senate consists of 21 senators appointed by the Governor-General, 13 on the advice of the Prime Minister, 8 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Representatives (60 members, Dec. 1976) is elected by universal adult suffrage for a period not exceeding 5 years. Electors and elected must be Jamaican or Commonwealth citizens resident in Jamaica for at least 12 months before registration. The powers and procedure of Parliament correspond to those of the British Parliament. The Privy Council consists of 6 members appointed by the Governor-General in consultation with the Prime Minister. Governor-General: Sir Florizel Glasspole, GCMG, GCVO. National flag: A yellow diagonal cross dividing triangles of green, top and bottom, and black, hoist and fly. The elections to the House of Representatives, held on 15 Dec. 1983, returned 60 members of the Jamaica Labour Party. The People's National Party did not contest the election. 743

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JAMAICA

The Cabinet in Dec. 1986 was comprised as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Finance, Planning and Information: Right Hon. Edward Seaga, PC. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade: Hugh Shearer. Construction with responsibility for Electoral Matters: Bruce Golding. Agriculture: Dr Percival Broderick. Public Service: Clifton Store. Social Security: Dr Mavis Gilmour. Labour and Leader of Government Business in the House of Representatives: J. A. G. Smith. Education: Neville Gallimore. Health: Dr Kenneth Baugh. Local Government: James A. G. Smith. Youth and Community Development: Edmund Bartlett. Mining, Energy and Tourism: Hugh Hart. Justice: Oswald G. Harding. Public Utilities and Transport: Peamel Charles.. DEFENCE Army. The Jamaica Defence Force consists of a Regular and a Reserve Force. The Regular Force is comprised of the 1st battalion, Jamaica Regiment and Support Services which include the Air Wing and Coast Guard. The Reserve Force consists of the 3rd battalion, Jamaica Regiment. Total strength (all services, 1987), 2,100. Reserves, 1,030. Air Force. The Air Wing of the Jamaica Defence Force was formed in July 1963 and has since been expanded and trained successively by the British Army Air Corps and Canadian air force personnel. Equipment for army liaison, search and rescue, police co-operation, survey and transport duties includes 2 Defender armed STOL transports; 1 Beech King Air and 1 Cessna 337 light transports; 4 JetRanger and 3 Bell 212 light helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Jamaica is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAS, CARICOM and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 31 March (in J$ 1 m.): 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 Revenue Expenditure

1,483 1,721

1,629 1,921

1,751 2,420

2,623 2,849

The chief heads of recurrent revenue are income tax; consumption, customs and stamp duties. The other major share of current resources is generated by the Bauxite levy. The chief items of recurrent expenditure are public debt, education, health and grants to local government. Net external debt at 31 Dec. 1984, J$l,763-9m. Currency. The currency is the dollar, divided into 100 cents. Currency circulation in March 1985 was J$560m. In March 1987, £1 =J$9 03; US$1 =J$5 -49. Banking. On 1 May 1961 the Bank of Jamaica opened as Jamaica's Central Bank. It has the sole right to issue notes and coins in Jamaica, acts as Banker to the Government and to the commercial banks, and administers the island's external reserves and exchange control. There are 8 commercial banks with about 170 branches and agencies in operation, with main offices in Kingston. Six of these banks are subsidiaries of major British and North American banks, of which 4 are incorporated locally. The Workers' Savings and Loan Bank is owned by the Government, Trade Unions and the private sector. The National Commercial Bank (Jamaica) Ltd, formerly Barclays Bank Jamaica Ltd, is 100% govemment-owned. The other 6 banks which operate are: The Bank of Nova Scotia (Jamaica) Ltd, City Bank of North America, Royal Bank (Jamaica) Ltd, Bank of Commerce, Jamaica Citizens Bank Ltd and First National Bank of Chicago (Jamaica) Ltd.

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Total deposits in commercial banks, 31 Dec. 1984, J$2,674 1m., of which J$ 1,261 • 8m. were time deposits and J$ 1,412 • 3m. were savings. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Jamaica Public Service Co. is the public supplier of electricity. The bauxite companies, sugar estates and the Caribbean Cement Co. and Goodyear generate their own electricity. Total installed capacity, 1985, 1 08m. kw. Production (1985) 1,800m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Bauxite, ceramic clays, marble, silica sand and gypsum are commercially valuable. Jamaica has become the world's third largest producer of bauxite and alumina. The bauxite deposits are worked by a Canadian, an American and a Jamaican company. In 1984, 8,937,000 tonnes of bauxite ore was mined, gypsum, 180,200 tonnes; marble, 3-2m. cu. metres; sand and gravel, 3-45m. cu. metres; industrial lime, 115,140 tonnes. Agriculture (1984). Production: Sugar-cane, 2,384,000 tons; sugar (commercial), 190,000 tons; rum, 4,701,000 proof gallons; molasses, 92,500 tons; bananas, 11,100 tons; citrus fruit, 570,000 boxes; cocoa, 2,710,000 tons; spices, 3,691,000 tons; copra, 1,487,000 tons; domestic food crops, 514,646 tons. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 321,000; goats, 430,000; pigs, 238,000; poultry, 5m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Three bauxite-mining companies also process bauxite into alumina; production, 1984, 1 -74m. tonnes. From processing only a few agricultural products— sugar, rum, condensed milk, oils and fats, cigars and cigarettes—the island is now producing clothing, footwear, textiles, paints, building materials (including cement), agricultural machinery and toilet articles. There is an oil refinery in Kingston. In 1984 manufacturing contributed J$ 1,667-73m. to the total G D P at current prices. Labour. Average total labour force (1984), 978,100, of whom 728,700 were employed. Government and services employed 358,800; agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining, 246,650; manufacture 91,400; construction and installation, 30,600. Commerce. Value of imports and domestic exports for calendar years (in US$ 1 m.): 1982 1,376 743

Imports Domestic exports

1983 1,284 673

1984 1,183 731

Principal imports in 1984 (in US$): Minerals, fuels and lubricants, 359-5m. (40-4%), with fuel imports of 154-7m. from Netherlands Antilles and 88-8m. from Venezuela; food, 195- 6m. (16- 5%), with 1321m. from USA; machinery and transport equipment, 195 • 5m. (16 • 5%); manufactured goods, 191 m. (16 • 1 %). Principal domestic exports in 1984 (in US$): Crude materials, 490-4m. (67-1%), of which alumina, 305-2m. (41 -8%) and bauxite, 181-2m. (24-8%), with crude materials exports of 277 1m. to USA, 96-7m. to Canada, 35-5m. to USSR and 34 • 7m. to UK; food, 116 • 7m. (16%), of which sugar, 66m. (90%), with food exports of 59 -9m. to UK and 33 -9m. to USA; miscellaneous manufactures, 45 -8m. (6 • 3%). Total trade between Jamaica and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 61

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK.

1982 92,760 56,025

1983 95,036 116,188

1984 77,895 48,088

1985 89,684 44,290

1986 87,416 43,378

Tourism. In 1984, 843,774 tourists arrived in Jamaica, spending about US$406-6m.; direct employment, 12,634. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1984). The island has 7,826 miles of main roads, and over 2,874 miles of parochial and subsidiary roads. Main roads are constructed and maintained by the

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JAMAICA

Ministry of Construction (Works), while other roads are constructed and maintained by parish councils. In 1983 there were 65,534 licensed vehicles. Railways. There are 294 km of railway open of 1,435 mm gauge, operated by the Jamaica Railway Corporation, which also operates 31 km (Alcoa Mineral Railway) on behalf of one of the bauxite companies. In 1984 the railway carried 3m. tonnes and 958,893 passengers. Aviation. Scheduled commercial international airlines operate through the Norman Manley and Sangster international airports at Palisadoes and Montego Bay. In 1984 Norman Manley airport had 40,068 aircraft movements, handled 1,003,548 passengers and 19,894 tonnes of freight. Sangster had 33,380 movements, with 1,387,598 passengers and 2,550 tonnes of freight. Trans-Jamaica Airlines Ltd operates internal flights; in 1984 it carried 42,100 passengers. Air Jamaica, originally set up in conjunction with BOAC and BWIA in 1966, became a new company, Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd, and is affiliated to Air Canada. In 1969 it began operations as Jamaica's national airline. In 1984 Air Jamaica carried 823,000 passengers and operated at a net loss of J$ 10 • 9m. Shipping. In 1984 there were 2,055 visits to all ports; 20m. tons of cargo were handled. Kingston had 1,269 visits and handled 2m. tons. The outports had 786 visits and handled 8-8m. tons, of which 1 -6m. was loaded and 7-2m. landed. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 318 post offices and 504 postal agencies and sub-agencies. In Dec. 1984 there were 136,778 telephones in use. There was (1984) 1 commercial and 1 publicly owned broadcasting stations; the latter also operates a television service. Cinemas. In 1984 there were 34 cinemas and 3 drive-in cinemas. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Judicature comprises a Supreme Court, a court of appeal, a revenue court, resident magistrates' courts, petty sessional courts, coroners' courts, a traffic court and a family court which was instituted in 1975. The Chief Justice is head of the judiciary. All prosecutions are initiated by the Director of Public Prosecutions. Police. The Constabulary Force in 1984 stood at approximately 6,134 officers, subofficers and constables (men and women). Religion. Freedom of worship is guaranteed under the Constitution. The main Christian denominations are Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Methodist, Church of God, United Church of Jamaica, and Grand Cayman (PresbyterianCongregational) Moravian, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostal, Salvation Army, Quaker, and Disciples of Christ. Pocomania is a mixture of Christianity and African survivals. Non-Christians include Hindus, Jews, Moslems and Bahai followers. There is also a growing number of Rastafarians who believe in the deity of the late Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia. Education. In Sept. 1973 education became free for all government grant-aided schools (the majority of all schools) and for all Jamaicans entering the University of the West Indies, the College of Arts, Science and Technology and the Jamaica School of Agriculture. In 1984-85 there were 1,599 pre-primary schools and departments (123,160 pupils); 290 primary schools (177,950 pupils); 492 all-age schools (237,576 pupils). There were 141 secondary and vocational schools (166,851). Teacher-training colleges had 3,719 students; community colleges had 2,299; the College of Arts, Science and Technology had 3,456; the College of Agriculture, 198 and the University of the West Indies, 4,250. Health. In 1984 the public health service had 5,346 staff in medicine, nursing and pharmacology; 318 in dentistry; 356 public health inspectors; 59 in nutrition.

JAMAICA

747

There were 382 primary health centres, 5,639 public hospital beds and 2 5 0 private beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Jamaica in Great Britain (50 St James's St., London, SW1A US) High Commissioner: H. S. Walker. Of Great Britain in Jamaica (Trafalgar Rd., Kingston 10) High Commissioner: H. M. S. Reid, CMG. Of Jamaica in the U S A (1850 K. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20006) Ambassador: Keith Johnson. Of the U S A in Jamaica (2 Oxford Rd., Kingston 5) Ambassador: Michael G. Sotirhos. Of Jamaica to the United Nations Ambassador: Lloyd M. H. Barnett. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics, now Statistical Institute of Jamaica (2c Constant Spring Rd., Kingston 10), was set up in 1945—the nucleus being the Census Office, which undertook the operations of the 1943 Census of Jamaica and its Dependencies. Director: Mrs C. P. McFarlane. Publications of the Bureau include the Bulletin of Statistics on External Trade and the Annual Abstract of Statistics. Economic and Social Survey, Jamaica. Planning Institute of Jamaica, Kingston (Annual) Social and Economic Studies. Institute of Social and Economic Research, Univ. of the West Indies. Quarterly A Review of the Performance of the Jamaican Economy 1981-1983. Jamaica Information Service, 1985 Quarterly Economic Report. Planning Institute of Jamaica, Kingston Beckford, G. and Witter, M., Small Garden... Bitter Weed. The Political Struggle and Change in Jamaica. 2nded. London, 1982 Cassidy, F. G., and Le Page, R. B., Dictionary ofJamaican English. CUP, 1966 Floyd, B., Jamaica: An Island Microcosm. London, 1979 Ingram, K. E., Jamaica. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Kuper, A., Changing Jamaica. London and Boston, 1976 Lacey,T., Violence and Politics in Jamaica, 1960-70. Manchester Univ. Press, 1977 Manley, M., A Voice at the Work Place. London, 1975.—Jamaica: Struggle in the Periphery. London,1983 Post, K., Strike the Iron, A Colony at War: Jamaica 1939-1945. 2 vols. Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1981 Sherlock, P., Keeping Company with Jamaica. London, 1984 Stephens, E. H., and Stephens, J. D., Democratic Socialism in Jamaica. London, 1986 Stone, C., Class, Race and Political Behaviour in Urban Jamaica. Kingston, 1973. —Democracy and Clientalism in Jamaica. London and New Brunswick, N.J., 1981 Bibliography of Jamaica, 1900-1963. Jamaica Library Service, 1963 Libraries: National Library of Jamaica, Kingston. Jamaica Library Service, Kingston.

JAPAN

Capital: Tokyo Population: 121 05m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 10,474 (1984)

Nippon (or Nihon) H I S T O R Y . The house of Yamato, from about 500 B.C. the rulers of one of several kingdoms, in about A.D. 200 united the nation; the present imperial family are their direct descendants. From 1186 until 1867 successive families of Shoguns exercised the temporal power. In 1867 the Emperor Meiji recovered the imperial power after the abdication on 14 Oct. 1867 of the fifteenth and last Tokugawa Shogun Keiki (in different pronunciation: Yoshinobu). In 1871 the feudal system (Höken Seido) was abolished; this was the beginning of the rapid westernization. At San Francisco on 8 Sept. 1951 a Treaty of Peace was signed by Japan and representatives of 48 countries. For details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1953, p. 1169. On 26 Oct. 1951 the Japanese Diet ratified the Treaty by 307 votes to 47 votes with 112 abstentions. On the same day the Diet ratified a Security Treaty with the US by 289 votes to 71 votes with 106 abstentions. The treaty provided for the stationing of American troops in Japan until she was able to undertake her own defence. The peace treaty came into force on 28 April 1952, when Japan regained her sovereignty. In 1960 Japan signed the Japan-US Mutual Security Treaty, valid for 10 years, which was renewed in 1970. Of the islands under US administration since 1945, the Bonin (Ogasawara), Volcano, and Daito groups and Marcus Island were returned to Japan in 1968, and the southern Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa) in 1972. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Japan consists of 4 major islands, Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, and many small islands, with an area of 377,765 sq. km. Census population (1 Oct. 1985) 121,047,196 (males 59,495,663, females 61,551,553). Foreigners registered 31 Dec. 1985 were 850,612, of whom 683,313 were Koreans, 74,924 Chinese, 29,044 Americans, 12,261 Philippines, 6,792 British, 4,126 Vietnamese, 3,017 West Germans, 2,642 Thais, 2,546 Indians, 2,401 Canadians, 2,392 French, 1,982 stateless persons. Japanese overseas, Oct. 1984, 478,168; of these 138,184 lived in USA, 128,494 in Brazil, 17,630 in UK, 16,181 in Canada, 15,780 in Argentina, 15,622 in the Federal Republic of Germany, 10,256 in France, 8,766 in Hong Kong, 8,104 in Singapore, 7,439 in Peru. The leading cities, with population, 31 March 1985 (in 1,000), are: Akita Amagasaki Aomori Asahikawa Chiba Fujisawa Fukuoka Fukushima Fukuyama Funabashi Gifu Hachiöji Hakodate Hamamatsu Higashiosaka Himeji Hirakata Hiroshima Ichinomiya Ichikawa Iwaki Kagoshima Kanazawa Kawaguchi Kawasaki

296 509 294 364 789 328 1,160 271 360 507 412 427 319 514 523 453 382 1,044 257 398 351 530 430 403 1,089

Kitakyushu Kobe Köchi Köriyama Kumamoto Kurashiki Kure Kyoto Machida Maebashi Matsudo Matsuyama Miyazaki Nagano Nagasaki Nagoya Nana Nara Neyaga wa Niigata Nisninomiya Oita Okayama Omiya Osaka

748

1,056 1,411 312 302 556 414 226 1,479 321 277 427 427 279 337 449 2,116 304 328 258 476 421 390 572 373 2,636

Otaru Sagamihara Sakai Sapporo Sasebo Sendai Shimonoseki Shizuoka Suita Takamatsu Takatsuki Tokushima Tokyo Toyama Toyohashi Toyonaka Toyota Urawa Utsunomiya Wakayama Yao Yokkaichi Yokohama Yokosuka

172 483 818 1,543 251 700 269 468 349 327 349 258 8,354 314 322 413 308 377 405 401 276 263 2,993 427

JAPAN

749

Vital statistics (in 1,000) for calendar years: Births Deaths

1978 1,709 696

1979 1,643 690

1980 1,577 723

1981 1,529 720

1982 1,515 712

1983 1,509 740

1984 1,490 740

Crude birth rate of Japanese nationals in present area, 1984, was 12 • 5 per 1,000 population (1947: 34-3); crude death rate, 6-2; crude marriage rate, 6-2; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, 6. C L I M A T E . The islands of Japan lie in the temperate zone, north-east of the main monsoon region of S.E. Asia. The climate is temperate with warm, humid summers and relatively mild winters except in the island of Hokkaido and northern parts of Honshu facing the Japan Sea. There is a month's rainy season in June-July, but the best seasons are spring and autumn, though Sept. may bring typhoons. There is a summer rainfall maximum. Tokyo. Jan. 40-5°F (4-7°C), July 77-4°F (25-2°C). Annual rainfall 6 3 " (1,460 mm). Hiroshima. Jan. 39-7"F (4-3°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 6 1 " (1,603 mm). Nagasaki. Jan. 43-5°F (6-4°C), July 79-7°F(26-5°C). Annual rainfall 7 7 " (2,002 mm). Osaka. Jan. 42- 1°F(5-6°C), July 80-6"F (27°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,400 mm). Sapporo. Jan. 23-2°F (-4-9°C), July 68-4°F(20-2°C). Annual rainfall 4 7 " (1,158 mm). E M P E R O R . The Emperor bears the title of Nihon-koku TennO ('Emperor of Japan'). Hirohito, bom in Tokyo, 29 April 1901; succeeded his father, Yoshihito, 25 Dec. 1926; married 26 Jan. 1924, to Princess Nagako, born 6 March 1903. Living sons: (1) Prince Akihito (Tsugunomiya), born 23 Dec. 1933; formally installed as Crown Prince on 10 Nov. 1952; married to Michiko Shoda (born 20 Oct. 1934), 10 April 1959. Offspring: Prince Naruhito (Hironomiya), born 23 Feb. 1960; Prince Fumihito (Ayanomiya), born 30 Nov. 1965; Princess Sayako (Norinomiya), born 18 April 1969. (2) Prince Masahito (Hitachinomiya), born 28 Nov. 1935; married to Hanako Tsugaru, 30 Sept. 1964. By the Imperial House Law of 11 Feb. 1889, revised on 16Jan. 1947, the succession to the throne was fixed upon the male descendants. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Japan's Government is based upon the Constitution of 1947 which superseded the Meiji Constitution of 1889. In it the Japanese people pledge themselves to uphold the ideas of democracy and peace. The Emperor is the symbol of the States and of the unity of the people. Sovereign power rests with the people. The Emperor has no powers related to government. Japan renounces war as a sovereign right and the threat or the use of force as a means of settling disputes with other nations. Fundamental human rights are guaranteed. Nationalflag: White, with a red disc. . National anthem: Kimi ga yo wa (words 9th century, tune by Hiromori Hayashi, 1881). Legislative power rests with the Diet, which consists of the House of Representatives (of 512 members), elected by men and women over 20 years of age for a 4-year term, and the House of Councillors of 252 members (100 elected by party list system with proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method and 152 from prefectural districts), one-half of its members being elected every 3 years. The Lower House controls the budget and approves treaties with foreign powers. The former House of Peers is replaced by the House of Councillors, whose members, like those of the House of Representatives, are elected as representatives of all the people. The House of Representatives has pre-eminence over the House of Councillors. On 24 Dec. 1986 the House of Representatives consisted of 306 LiberalDemocrats, 87 Socialists, 57 Komeito, 29 Democratic Socialists, 27 Japan Communist Party, and 5 Independents. The Cabinet, as constituted in Jan. 1987, was as follows: Prime Minister: Yasuhiro Nakasone.

750

JAPAN

Justice: Kaname Endo. Foreign Affairs: Tadashi Kuranari. Finance: Kiichi Miyazawa. Education: Masajuro Shiokawa. Health and Welfare: Juro Saito. Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery: Mutsuki Kato. Trade and Industry: Hajime Tamura. Transport: Ryutaro Hashimoto. Postal Service: Shunjiro Karasawa. Labour: Takushi Hirai. Construction: Kosei Amano. Home Affairs: Nobuyui Hanashi. Local Government. The country is divided into 47 prefectures (Todofuken), including TSkyo-to (the capital), Osaka-fu and Kyoto-fu, Hokkai-do, and 43 Ken. Each Todofuken has its governor (Chiji) elected by the voters in the area. The prefectural government of Tokyo-to is also responsible for the urban part (formerly Tokyo-shi) of the prefecture. Each prefecture, city, town and village has a representative assembly elected by the same franchise as in parliamentary elections. New legislation, which came into effect on 1 July 1954, has given the central government complete control of the police throughout the country. DEFENCE Army. The 'Ground Self-Defence Force' had in 1987 an authorized strength of 155,000 uniformed personnel, plus a reserve of43,000 men. The Army is organized in 12 infantry divisions, 1 armoured division, 1 airborne brigade, 2 air defence brigades, 1 artillery, 5 engineer, 1 signal, 2 composite and 1 helicopter brigades in addition to 4 anti-aircraft artillery groups. Equipment includes 1,110 tanks, over 300 transport, observation and training helicopters, plus about 17 fixed-wing aircraft. The Northern Army, stationed in Hokkaido, consists of 4 divisions (1 of which is armoured), an artillery brigade, an anti-aircraft artillery brigade, a tank group and an engineering brigade. The Western Army, stationed in Kyushu, consists of 2 divisions and 1 composite brigade. The North-Eastern Army (2 divisions), the Eastern Army (2 divisions) and 1 airborne brigade, the Middle Army (3 divisions and 1 composite brigade). The infantry division establishment is approximately 9,000 with 4 infantry regiments or 7,000 (lower establishment) with 3 infantry regiments. Each infantry division has an artillery unit, an anti-tank unit, a tank battalion and an engineering battalion in addition to administrative units. Navy. The 'Maritime Self-Defence Force' comprises 44 destroyers including 2 training and 8 converted, 18 frigates, 14 submarines, 40 mine warfare vessels, 18 patrol vessels, 8 landing ships, 40 landing craft, 4 survey vessels, 25 oilers, 37 auxiliary ships, 2 submarine rescue vessels, 1 ice breaker, 3 training vessels, and 39 support ships. TTie Fleet Air Arm, numbering 6 air wings, includes 114 patrol aircraft and flying boats for anti-submarine patrol, 80 trainers and 116 helicopters plus transports, rescue planes and others. Personnel in 1987 numbered 45,600 officers and ratings including the Naval Air Arm. There are also 4,150 in civil maritime defence. The 'Maritime Safety Agency', or Coastguard, with 345 patrol vessels, most of them armed, and 288 other craft; 23 fixed-wing aircraft and 35 helicopters; and over 12,000 personnel, constitute a Naval Reserve. Air Force. An 'Air Self-Defence Force' was inaugurated on 1 July 1954. In 1987 its equipment included 4 interceptor squadrons of F-l 5J/DJ Eagles (total of 142 aircraft to be acquired by 1990) and 6 of F-4EJ Phantoms; 3 squadrons of Mitsubishi F-1 close-support fighters; 1 squadron of RF-4E reconnaissance fighters; 8 E-2C Hawkeye AWACS aircraft; ECM flight with 2 YS-1 lEs; 3 squadrons of turbofan Kawasaki C-l and turboprop C-130H Hercules and NAMC YS-11 transports. About 35 helicopters, mostly KV-107s (to be replaced with CH-47 Chinooks), and

JAPAN

751

MU-2 twin-turboprop aircraft perform search, rescue and general duties. Training units use piston-engined Fuji T-3 basic trainers, Fuji T-l jet intermediate trainers, T-33 jet trainers and supersonic Mitsubishi T-2 jet advanced trainers. The T-ls and T-33s will be replaced with Kawasaki T-4s in the late '80s. Six surface-to-air missile groups (19 squadrons) are in service. Total strength (1987) about 311 combat aircraft and 44,000 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Japan is a member of UN, the Colombo Plan and OECD. ECONOMY Planning. The 1980s Plan envisages an onward real growth rate of 4% and a nominal between 5% and 6%. The real growth rate for 1987 is envisaged at 3-5% and the nominal 4 • 6%. Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for fiscal year ending 31 March 1987 balanced at 54,088,600m. yen. Of the proposed revenue in 1986, 40,560,000m. was to come from taxes and stamps, 10,946,000m. from public bonds. Main items of expenditure: Social security, 9,834,600m.; public works, 6,223,300m.; local government, 10,185,000m.; education, 4,844,500m.; defence, 3,343,500m. The outstanding national debt incurred by public bonds was estimated in March 1985 to be 123,794,000m. yen, including 3,200m. yen of Japan's foreign currency bonds. The estimated 1986 budgets of the prefectures and other local authorities forecast a total revenue of 52,846,000m. yen, to be made up partly by local taxes and partly by government grants and local loans. Currency. Coins of 1, 5,10, 50, 100 and 500 yen are in circulation as well as notes of the Bank of Japan, of 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 yen. Bank-notes for 500 yen are still in circulation but are gradually being replaced by coins. In March 1987, £1 = 244 yen-, US$ 1 = 153-50 yen. In Dec. 1985 the currency in circulation consisted of 25,474,000m. yen Bank of Japan notes and 1,577,000m. yen subsidiary coins. Banking. The modern banking system dates from 1872. The Nippon Ginko (Bank of Japan) was founded in 1882. The Bank of Japan has undertaken to finance the Government and the banks; its function is similar to that of a Central Bank in other countries. The Bank undertakes the actual management of Treasury funds and foreign exchange control. Gold bullion and cash holdings of the Bank of Japan at 31 Dec. 1984 stood at 293,000m. yen. There were on 31 Dec. 1985, 13 city banks, 64 regional banks, 7 trust banks, 3 long-term credit banks, 69 Sogo banks (mutual savings and loan banks), 456 Shinkin banks (credit associations), 448 credit co-operatives, and 77 foreign banks. There are also various governmental financial institutions, including postal savings which amounted to 983,980m. yen in Sept. 1985. Total savings by individuals,' including insurance and securities, stood at 481,000m. yen on 30 Sept. 1985, and more than 60% of these savings were deposited in banks and the post-office. Many foreign banks operate branches in Japan including: Bank of Indo-China, Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation, Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, Bank of India, Mercantile Bank of India, Bank of Korea, Bank of China, Algemene Bank Nederland NV, National Handelsbank NV, Bank of America, National City Bank of New York, Chase Manhattan Bank, Bangkok Bank and American Express Co. Weights and Measures. The metric system was made obligatory by a law passed in March 1921, and the period of grace for its compulsory use ended on 1 April 1966.

752

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ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1984 generating facilities were capable of an output of 163,290,000 kw.; electricity produced was 648,572m. kwh. Supply 100 and 200 volts; 50 or 60 Hz. Oil and Gas. Output of crude petroleum, 1984, was 476,000 kl, almost entirely from oilfields on the island of Honshu, but 207,794,000 kl crude oil had to be imported. Output of natural gas, 1984,2,133m. cu. metres. Minerals. Ore production in tonnes, 1984, of chromite, 7,420; coal, 16,645,000; iron, 324,419; zinc, 252,700,; molybdenum (1982), 97; manganese, 61,635; copper, 43,309; lead, 48,735; tungsten, 1,610; silver, 323,575 kg.; gold, 3,220 kg. Agriculture. Agricultural workers in 1985 were 6,363,000, including 670,000 subsidiary and seasonal workers; 10-6% of the labour force as opposed to 24-7% in 1962. The arable land area in 1985 was 5,379,000 hectares (5,796,000 in 1970). Division of ordina|7 fields to non-agricultural use accounted largely for this decrease. Rice cultivation accounted for 2,315,000 hectares in 1984. The area planted with industrial crops such as rapeseed, tobacco, tea, rush, etc., was 262,900 hectares in 1984. In 1984 there were 4,492,000 power cultivators and tractors in use together with 3,711,000 power sprayers and power dusters and 2,062,000 rice power planters. Output of rice was 10-26m. tonnes in 1981, 10-27m. in 1982, 10,366,000 in 1983 and 11,878,000 in 1984. Production in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) of barley was 378; wheat, 874; soybeans, 238. Sweet potatoes, which in the past mitigated the effects of rice famines, have, in view of rice over-production, decreased from 4,955,000 tons in 1965 to 1,527,000 tons in 1985. Domestic sugar-beet and sugar-cane production accounted for only 31-8% of requirement in 1984.1n 1984,1,924,000 tonnes were imported, 25-9% of this being imported from Thailand, 28-8% from Australia, 12-3% from Cuba, 16 - 5% from Philippines, 13 • 2% from South Africa, 1 • 7% from Formosa. Fruit production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Mandarins, 2,494; apples, 907; pears, 470; grapes, 311; peaches, 205; and persimmons (1984), 297. Livestock (1985): 4,698,000 cattle (including about 2 1 m . milch cows), 23,000 horses, 10,718,000 pigs, 24,000 sheep, 51,000 goats, 328m. chickens. Milk (1984), 7 - 14m. tonnes. Forestry. Forests and grasslands cover about 25m. hectares (nearly 70% of the whole land area), with an estimated timber stand of 2,484m. cu. metres in 1981. In 1983,40,363,000 cu. metres were felled. Fisheries. Before the War, Japanese catch represented one-half to two-thirds of the world's total fishing, in 1983 it was 15%. The catch in 1984 was 12-82m. tonnes, excluding whaling. Japan now ranks first in whaling. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Japan's industrial equipment, 1983, numbered 780,280 plants of all sizes, employing 11,347,000 production workers. Since 1920 there has been a shift from light to heavy industries. The production of electrical appliances and electronic machinery has made great strides: television sets (1985:17,727,000),radio sets(1984:13,589,000),cameras(1985:16,995,000), computing machines and automation equipment are produced in increasing quantities. The chemical industry ranks third in production value after machinery and metals (1983). Production, 1984, included (in tonnes): Sulphuric acid, 6,458,000; caustic soda, 2,993,000; ammonium sulphate, 1,829,000; calcium superphosphate, 559,000. Output (1984), in 1,000 tonnes, of pig iron was 80,403; crude steel, 105,586; ordinary rolled steel, 82,765. In 1984 paper production was 11,429,000 tonnes; paperboard, 7,915,000 tonnes.

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Japan's textile industry before the War had 13m. cotton-yarn spindles. After the War she resumed with 2-78m. spindles; in 1964, 8-42m. spindles were operating. Output of cotton yarn, 1984, 437,000 tonnes, and of cotton cloth, 2,090m. sq. metres. In wool, Japan aims at wool exports sufficient to pay for the imports of raw wool. Output, 1984, 121,000 tonnes of woollen yarns and 327m. sq. metres of woollen fabrics. Output, 1984, of rayon woven fabrics, 698m. sq. metres; synthetic woven fabrics, 3,297m. sq. metres; silk fabrics, 115nr. sq. metres. Shipbuilding has been decreasing and in 1984, 9,631,000 gross tons were launched, of which 1,336,000 G R T were tankers. Labour. Total labour force, 1985, was 58 07m., of which 4-64m. were in agriculture and forestry, 450,000 in fishing, 90,000 in mining, 5 -3m. in construction, 14-5m. in manufacturing, 15-35m. in commerce and finance, 3-76m. in transport and other public utilities, 11 - 73 m. in services (including the professions) and 1 • 99m. in government work. In 1985 there were 12,418,000 workers organized in 74,499 unions. The largest federation is the 'General Council of Japanese Trade Unions' (Söhyö) with 4-3m. members. The 'Japanese Confederation of Labour' (Dömei Kaigi) had 2,154,000 members. The 'Federation of Independent Unions' (Chüritsu Rören) founded in 1956 had 1,549,000 members. In 1985, 1 -56m. (2-6%) were unemployed. In 1985, 264,000 working days were lost in industrial stoppages. Commerce. Trade (in US$ 1 m.) Imports Exports

1979 110,672 103,031

1980 140,528 129,807

1981 152,030 143,289

1982 138,831 131,931

1983 126,393 146,927

1984 136,503 170,114

1985 129,539 175,638

Distribution of trade by countries (customs clearance basis) (US$ 1 m.): Exports Africa Australia Canada China Fed. Rep. of G e r m a n y Hong Kong Latin America South-east Asia Philippines Thailand USSR UK USA

1984 2,998 5,184 4,297 7,217 6,622 6,559 8,549 36,795 1,080 2,425 2,518 4,675 59,937

1985 4,650 5,379 4,520 12,477 6,938 6,509 8,486 33,248 937 2,030 2,751 4,723 65,278

1984 1,165 7,296 4,945 5,958 2,684 842 7,230 31,883 1,419 1,040 1,394 2,267 26,862

Imports 1985 3,539 7,452 4,773 6,483 2,928 767 6,242 30,264 1,243 1,027 1,429 1,817 25,793

ipal items in 1985, with value in lm. yen were: Imports, c.i.f. Mineral fuels 13,386,000 Foodstufls 3,719,000 Metal ores and scrap 1,500,000 Machinery and transport equipment 2,971,000

Exports, f.o.b. Machinery and transport equipment 30,120,000 Metals and metal products 4,430,000 Textile products 1,496,000 Chemicals 1,843,000

Total trade between Japan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 m 3 l m }gg5 ] m ImportstoUK 2,657,977 3,355,450 3,768,019 4,117,024 Exports and re-exports from U K 681,483 797,848 925,311 1,012,436

4,932,497 1,193,933

Tourism. In 1985,2,259,894 foreigners visited Japan, 487,713 of whom came from USA, 183,863 from UK. Japanese travelling abroad totalled 4,948,366 in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total length of roads (including urban and other local roads) was

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JAPAN

1,125,217 km at 1 April 1984; the 'national' roads extended 46,418 km, of which 44,667 km were paved. Motor vehicles, at 31 Dec. 1985, numbered 45,216,000, including 27,845,000 passenger cars and 17,140,000 commercial vehicles. Railways. The first railway was completed in 1872, between TSkyo and Yokohama (29 km). Total length of railways, in March 1984, was 26,908 km, of which the national railways had 21,319 km (8,840 km electrified) and private railways, 5,589 km (4,967 km electrified). In 1984 the national railways carried 6,884m. passengers (private, 11,869m.) and 75m. tons of freight (private, 32m.). Aviation. The principal airlines are Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways. Japan Airlines, founded in 1953, operate international services from Tokyo to the USA, Europe, the Middle East and Southeast Asia, including flights to London over the North Pole and to Moscow by way of Siberia. In 1984 Japanese companies carried 43,907,100 passengers in domestic services and 6,167,000 passengers in international services. Shipping. On 30 June 1985 the merchant fleet consisted of 8,225 vessels of 100 gross tons and over; total tonnage 38m. gross tons; there were 710 ships for passenger transport (1,171,000 gross tons), 2,513 cargo ships (1,933,000 gross tons) and 1,392 oil tankers (13,610,000 gross tons). Coastguard. The 'Maritime Safety Agency' (Coastguard) consists of 11 regional MS headquarters, 65 MS offices, 52 MS bases, 14 air stations, 7 District Communications Centres, 1 Traffic Advisory Service Centre, 4 hydrographic observatories and 132 navigation aids offices (with 4,950 navigation aids facilities) and controls 44 large patrol vessels, 47 medium patrol vessels, 19 small patrol vessels, 231 patrol craft, 22 hydrographic service vessels, 5 firefighting vessels, 10 firefighting boats, 67 guard and rescue boats and 80 navigation aids service supply vessels. Personnel in 1985numbered 12,043 officers and men. The Coastguard aviation service includes 23 fixed-wing aircraft and 36 helicopters. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone services, operated by a public corporation, at 31 March 1985 had 66,636,000 instruments. O n 3 1 March 1985,99 1%of all households owned colour television sets. Cinemas (1985). Cinemas numbered 2,137 with an annual attendance of 155m. (1960:1,014m.). Newspapers (1984). Daily newspapers numbered 125 with aggregate circulation of 67,380,000, including4 major English-language newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court is composed of the Chief Justice and 14 other judges. The Chief Justice is appointed by the Emperor, the other judges by the Cabinet. Every 10 years a justice must submit himself to the electorate. All justices and judges of the lower courts serve until they are 70 years of age. Below the Supreme Court are 8 regional higher courts, district courts (Chihosaibansho) in each prefecture (4 in Hokkaido) and the local courts. The Supreme Court is authorized to declare unconstitutional any act of the Legislature or the Executive which violates the Constitution. Religion. There has normally been religious freedom, but Shinto (literally, The Way of the Gods) was given the status of guaii-state-religion in the 1930s; in 1945 the Allied Supreme Command ordered the Government to discontinue state support of Shinto. State subsidies have ceased for all religions, and all religious teachings are forbidden in public schools. In Dec. 1984 Shintoism claimed 112,107,000 adherents, Buddhism 88,965,000; these figures obviously overlap. Christians numbered 1,656,000. Education. Education is compulsory and free between the ages of 6 and 15. Almost all national and municipal institutions are co-educational. On 1 May 1985 there were 15,126 kindergartens with 98,455 teachers and 2,067,951 pupils; 24,058 elementary schools with 461,256 teachers and 11,095,372 pupils; 11,028 junior

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high schools with 285,123 teachers and 5,990,183 pupils; 5,250 senior high schools with 266,809 teachers and 5,177,681 pupils; 543 junior colleges with 17,760 teachers and 371,095 pupils. There were also 809 special schools for handicapped children (39,228 teachers, 95,401 pupils). Japan has 7 main state universities, formerly known as the Imperial Universities: Tökyö University (1877); Kyoto University (1897); Tohoku University, Sendai (1907); Kyosho University, Fukuoka (1910); Hokkaido University, Sapporo (1918); Osaka University (1931), and Nagoya University (1939). In addition, there are various other state and municipal as well as private universities of high standing, such as Keio (founded in 1859), Waseda, Rikkyo, Meiji universities, and several women's universities, among which Tökyö and Ochanomizu are most notable. There are 460 colleges and universities with (1 May 1985) 1,848,698 students and 112,249 teachers. Social Welfare. Hospitals at the end of 1984 numbered 9,574 with 1,467,050 beds. Physicians at the end of 1984 numbered 181,101; dentists, 63,145. There are in force various types of social security schemes, such as health insurance, unemployment insurance and old-age pensions. The total population come under one or more of these schemes. In 1984 17,633,481 persons and 9,475,223 households received some form of regular public assistance, the total of which came to 1,487,453m. yen. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Japan in Great Britain (43-46 Grosvenor St., London, W1X 0BA) Ambassador: Toshio Yamazaki (accredited 20 Feb. 1985). Of Great Britain in Japan (1 Ichiban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tökyö 102) Ambassador: Sir John Whitehead, KCMG, CVO. Of Japan in the USA (2520 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Nobuo Matsunaga. Of the USA in Japan (10-5, Akasaka 1 -chome, Minato-Ku, Tökyö) Ambassador: Michael J. Mansfield. Of Japan to the United Nations Ambassadors: Kiyoaki Kikuchi and Makoto Taniguchi. Books of Reference Statistics Bureau of the Prime Minister's Office: Statistical Year-Book (from 1949).— Statistical Abstract (from 1950)).—Statistical Handbook of Japan 1977.—Monthly Bulletin (from April 1950) Economic Planning Agency: Economic Survey (annual), Economic Statistics (monthly), Economic Indicators (monthly) Ministry of International Trade: Foreign Trade of Japan (annual) Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. 9 vols. Tökyö, 1983 Japan Times Year Book. (I. Year Book of Japan. II. Who's Who in Japan. III. Business Directory of Japan.) Tökyö, first issue 1933 Labor in Tokyo. Tökyö Metropolitan Government, 1986 Treaty of Peace with Japan. (Cmd. 8392). HMSO, 1951;(Cmd. 8601). HMSO, 1952 Allen, G . C . , The Japanese Economy. London, 1981 Baerwald, H . H . , Japan 's Parliament. CUP, 1974 Burks, A. W., Japan: Profile of an Industrial Power. Boulder, 1981 Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English [and English-Japanese] Dictionary. 2 vols. New ed. Cambridge, Mass., and Berkeley, Cal., 1960 Miyazaki, S., The Japanese Dictionary Explained in English. Tökyö, 1950 Morishima.U. Why has Japan 'Succeeded?CUP, 1984 Murata, K.., An Industrial Geography ofJapan. London, 1980 Nippon: A Chartered Survey of Japan. Tsuneta Yano Memorial Society. Tökyö, annual Okita, S., The Developing Economics of Japan: Lessons in Growth. Univ. of Tökyö Press, 1983 Prindl, A., Japanese Finance: Guide to Banking in Japan. Chichester, 1981 Sansom.G. B., A History of Japan. 3 vols. London, 1958-64 Tsoukalis, L., (ed.), Japan and Western Europe. London, 1982 Vogel,E. F., Japan as Number One. HarvardUniv. Press, 1979 Ward, P., Japanese Capitals. Cambridge, 1985

THE HASHEMITE K I N G D O M OF JORDAN

Capital: Amman Population:2 • 2 5m. ( 1985)E. Bank 1-25m. (1985) W. Bank GNPper capita: US$ 1,900 ( 1984)

Al Mamlaka al Urduniya al Hashemiyah H I S T O R Y . By a Treaty, signed in London on 22 March 1946, Britain recognized Transjordan as a sovereign independent state. A new Anglo-Transjordan treaty was signed in Amman on 15 March 1948. The treaty was to remain in force for 20 years, but by mutual consent was terminated on 13 March 1957. The Arab Federation between the Kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan, which was concluded on 14Feb. 1958, lapsed after the revolution in Iraq of 14 July 1958,and was officially terminated by royal decree on 1 Aug. 1958. On 25 May 1946 the Amir Abdullah assumed the title of King, and when the treaty was ratified on 17 June 1946 the name of the territory was changed to that of 'The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan'. The legislature consists of a lower house of 60 members elected by universal suffrage (30 from East Jordan and 30 from West Jordan), and a senate of 30 members nominated by the King. Since the occupation of the West Bank in June 1967 by Israeli forces, that part of Palestine has not been administratively controlled by the Jordanian government. All statistics in this section, unless otherwise stated, are thus relative to the East Bank only. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The part of Palestine remaining to the Arabs under the armistice with Israel on 3 April 1949, with the exception of the Gaza strip, was in Dec. 1949 placed under Jordanian rule and formally incorporated in Jordan on 2 4 April 1950. For the frontier lines see map in T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R BOOK, 19 51. In June 1967 this territory, known as the West Bank, was occupied by Israeli forces and has since been under Israel administration. The area presently administered by the Jordanian government, known as the East Bank, comprises 89,206 sq. km (34,443 sq. miles) following an exchange of territory with Saudi Arabia on 10 Aug. 1965. Its population at the 1979 Census was 2,123,997; latest estimate (1985) 2-25m. The area and population of the 5 districts were: Muhafaza Asimah Balqa Irbid Karak Ma'an

Sq. km

1984

17,882 1,069 22,654 4,601 43,000

1,427,300 179,000 744,800 153,100 90,800

The largest towns, with estimated population, 1984: Amman, the capital, 777,500; Zarqa, 265,700; Irbid, 136,200. West Bank: The former part of Palestine, incorporated into Jordan in 1950 but occupied by Israel since June 1967, has an area of 5,633 sq. km (2,175 sq. miles) and was divided into 3 further districts (muhafazaJ; population (estimate, 1985) 1 -25m. In 1984 registered births numbered 102,521; deaths, 8,303; marriages, 18,189; divorces, 2,652. C L I M A T E . Predominantly a Mediterranean climate, with hot dry summers and cool wet winters, but in hilly parts summers are cooler and winters colder. Those areas below sea-level are very hot in summer and warm in winter. Eastern parts 756

JORDAN

757

have a desert climate. Amman. Jan. 46°F (7 • 5°C), July 77°F (24-9°C). Annual rainfall 12" (290 mm). Aqaba. Jan. 61°F (16"C), July 89°F (31-5"C). Annual rainfall 1 - 5 " (35 mm). K I N G . The Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy headed by H M King Hussein, GCVO, eldest son of King Talal, who, being incapacitated by mental illness, was deposed by Parliament on 11 Aug. 1952 and died 8 July 1972. The King was born 14 Nov. 1935, and married Princess Dina Abdul Hamid on 19 April 1955 (divorced 1957), Toni Avril Gardiner (Muna al Hussein) on 25 May 1961 (divorced 1972), Alia Toukan on 26 Dec. 1972 (died in air crash 1977) and Elizabeth Halaby on 15 June 1978. Offspring: Princess Alia, born 13 Feb. 1956; Prince Abdulla, born 30 Jan. 1962; Prince Faisal, born 11 Oct. 1963; Princesses Zein and Aisha, born 23 April 1968; Princess Haya, born 3 May 1974; Prince Ali, born 23 Dec. 1975; Prince Hamzah, born 1 April 1980; Prince Hashem, born 10 June 1981; Princess Iman, born 4 April 1983; Princess Raya, born 9 Feb. 1986. Crown Prince (appointed 1 April 1965): Prince Hassan, younger brother of the King. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution passed on 7 Nov. 1951 provides that the Cabinet is responsible to Parliament. On 5 Feb. 1976 both Houses of Parliament approved amendments to the Constitution by which the King was empowered to postpone calling elections until further notice. The lower house was dissolved. This step was taken because no elections could be held in the West Bank which has been under Israeli occupation since June 1967. Parliament was reconvened on 9 Jan. 1984. By-elections were held in March 1984 and 6 members were nominated for the West Bank bringing Parliament to 60 members. Women voted for the first time in 1984. The Cabinet, in Jan. 1987, was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Defence: Zaid Rifai. Deputy Prime Minister and Education: Abdul Wahab Al Majali. Minister of State for Prime Ministry Affairs: Thogan Al-Hindawi. Minister ofState for Parliamentary Affairs: Dr Sami Judeh. Interior: Hassan Al-Kayed. Labour and Social Development: Khalid Al Haj Hassan. Communications: Mohyeddin Al Husseini. Foreign Affairs: Taher Al Masri. Municipal and Rural Affairs and the Environment: Marwan Al Hmoud. Awqafand Islamic Affairs: Dr Abdul Aziz Al Khayyat. Public Works: Mahmoud Al Hawamdeh. Supply, Industry and Trade: Dr Rajai Muasher. Finance: Dr Hanna Odeh. Transport: Raja Al-Dajanee. Energy and Mineral Resources: Dr Hisham Al Khatib. Planning: Dr Taher Kana'an. Higher Education: Dr Nasseruddeen Al Assad. Agriculture: Ahmad Dakhqan. Information, Culture, Tourism and Antiquities: Mohammad Al Katib. Justice: Riyadh Al Shaka's. Health: Dr Zaid Hamzeh. Occupied Territories Affairs: Dr Marwan Dodean. Youth: Eid Al Dahheait. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of black, white, green, with a red triangle based on the hoist, bearing a white 7-pointed star. The official language of the country is Arabic. DEFENCE Army. The Army is organized in 5 armoured, 1 special forces and 6 mechanized brigades, 2 independent infantry brigades, 1 independent Royal Guards brigade and 16 artillery battalions. Total strength (1987) 62,750 men. Navy. The Coastal Guard or Jordan Sea Force has 14 patrol launches and 1 support craft based at Aqaba. Personnel (1987) totalled 300 officers and ratings. Air Force. The Air Force has 2 interceptor and 3 ground attack squadrons equipped respectively with Mirage F1 and F-5E Tiger II fighters, and 2-seat F-5Fs, plus an OCU equipped with F-5A fighters and 2-seat F-5Bs. Two anti-armour squadrons have Bell AH-15 Huey Cobra helicopters. There are 6 C-130B/H Hercules and 2 CASA Aviocar turboprop transports, S-76, Gazelle, Alouette III

758

JORDAN

and Hughes 500D helicopters, piston-engined Bulldog basic trainers and T-37B jet trainers. Delivery of 14 CASA Aviojet advanced trainers is under way. Hawk surface-to-air missiles equip 14 batteries. Strength (1987) about 7,200 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Jordan is a member of the UN and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year plan (1986-90) aims at improving agriculture and the development of water resources. Budget. The budget estimates for the year 1985 provide for revenue of JD.794,500,000 and expenditure of JD.811,200,000 which included 206m. for defence. Currency. The Jordan dinar, divided into 1,000fils. The following bank-notes and coins are in circulation: 10, 5 dinars, 1 dinar, 500 fils (notes), 250, 100, 50, 25, 20 fils (cupronickel), 10, 5, 1 fils (bronze). In March 1987, £1 = JD.0-540; US$ = JD.0-341. Banking. The Central Bank of Jordan was established in 1964. In 1985 there were 9 local commercial banks including Arab Bank (the largest, with a capital of JD.22m.), 8 foreign commercial banks including Grindlays Bank and 6 foreign banks with representative offices. In 1985 there were 2 investment banks, 5 finance companies, 3 Islamic institutions and 3 real estated-linked savings and loan associations. Assets and liabilities of the Jordanian banking system (including the Central Bank, commercial banks and the Housing Bank) totalled JD.2,404- 34m. in 1984. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 2,422m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Oil was discovered in 1982 at Azraq, 70 km east of Amman and 7 new wells were under development in 1985. Deposits of oil shale, estimated at 10,000m. tonnes, have been discovered at Lajjun. Minerals. Phosphates production in 1984 was 6,119,591 tons. Potash is found in the Dead Sea. Reserves, over 800m. tonnes. A potash plant built on the southeast shore to extract compounds by solar evaporation produced 486,868 tonnes in 1984. Cement production (1984), 1,994,082 tons. Agriculture. The country east of the Hejaz Railway line is largely desert; northwestern Jordan is potentially of agricultural value and an integrated Jordan Valley project began in 1973; 21,000 hectares had been irrigated by 1980. The main crops are tomatoes and other vegetables, citrus fruit, wheat and olives. Production in 1985 included (in tonnes): Tomatoes, 220,000; olives, 40,000; citrus fruit, 63,000; wheat, 100,000. Livestock (1985): 990,000 sheep; 500,000 goats; 35,000 cattle; 15,000 camels. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production (1984): Phosphates, 6,213,000 tons; petroleum products, 2,511,000 tons; cement, 2,026,000 tons; iron, 165,000 tons; fertilizer, 30,000 tonnes and phosphoric acid as a by-product, 105,000 tonnes. Other industries include cigarettes, cosmetics, textiles, shoes, batteries, plastic products, leather tanning, pharmaceutical products, iron pipes, detergents, aluminium and ceramics. Some 50% of industry is based in Amman. Commerce. Imports in 1984 were valued at JD.l,071-3m. and exports and re-

759

JORDAN

exports at JD.290-6m. Total remittances from Jordanians working abroad reached US$l,187-5m. in 1984. Major exports in 1984 (in JD.lm.) included phosphates, 69-6; chemicals, 67-6; food and live animals, 41-7; manufactured goods, 33-7. Major imports included machinery and transport equipment, 215-8; crude oil, 203-9. Exports in 1984 (in JD.lm.) were mainly to Iraq, 67-7; Saudi Arabia, 38-6 and India, 34 • 1. Imports were mainly from Saudi Arabia, 208-7 and the US A, 119. Total trade between Jordan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): B>

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 17,487 295,274

1983 28,680 262,503

1984 18,114 192,508

1985 86,077 154,270

1986 49,766 130,385

Tourism. In 1984,2,271,557 tourists visited Jordan spending JD175m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of public highways, 4,095 km. Motor vehicles in 1980 included 73,078 private passenger cars, 11,207 taxis, 1,415 buses, 29,517 goods vehicles, 4,888 motorcycles. Railways. The 1,050 mm gauge Hejaz Jordan and Aqaba Railway runs from the Syrian border at Nassib to Ma'an and Naqb Ishtar and Aqaba Port (total, 618 km). In 1981 the railways carried 57,753 passengers and 10,000 tons of freight. Aviation. The Queen Alia International airport, at Zizya, 30 km south of Amman was inaugurated in 1983. There are other international airports at Amman and Aqaba. Jordan is served by over 20 international airlines. Shipping (1980). The port of Aqaba handled 6,598,591 tons of cargo. JD.65m. was spent between 1980-85 on developing facilities and US$1,000m. is to be provided under the 1986-90 plan on further developments including a special oil terminal and 4 new wharves. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 there were 791 post offices and 82,000 telephones in 1986. There were 280,000 TV receivers and 550,000 radios in 1985. Cinemas (1975). Cinemas numbered 40 with a total attendance of4,341,900. Newspapers (1987). There were 4 daily (including 1 in English) and 5 weekly papers, with a total circulation of 188,000. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. About 80% of the population are Sunni Moslems. Education (1980, East Bank only). There were 189 pre-primary schools with 639 teachers and 17,160 pupils; 1,095 primary schools with 13,898 teachers and 448,411 pupils; 341 secondary schools had 3,648 teachers and 80,173 pupils and 16 teacher-training institutes had 362 teachers and 8,621 students. The University of Jordan, inaugurated on 15 Dec. 1962 had in 1980-81, 10,767 students and 431 teachers. The Yarmouk University (Irbid) was inaugurated in 1976 with (1980-81) 5,677 students and 225 teachers. Health (1980). There were 1,715 physicians, 351 dentists and 35 hospitals with 2,743 beds. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Jordan in Great Britain (6 Upper Phillimore Gdns., London, W8 7HB) Ambassador: Nabih Al-Nimr (accredited 16 Oct. 1985). Of Great Britain in Jordan (Third Circle, Jebel Amman) Ambassador: A. J. Coles, CMG. Of Jordan in the USA (3 504 International Dr., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Mohammad Kamal.

760

JORDAN

Of the USA in Jordan (Jebel Amman, Amman) Ambassador: Paul Harold Boeker. Of Jordan to the United Nations Ambassador: Abdullah Salah. Books of Reference The Department of Statistics, Ministry of National Economy, publishes a Statistical Yearbook (in Arabic and English), latest issue 1968, and a Statistical Guide, latest issue 1965.—External Trade Statistics, 1968.—National Accounts and Input-Output Analysis, 1959-65, 1967 The Constitution of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. A m m a n , 1952 Gubser, P., Jordan. Boulder, 1982 Haas, J., Husseins Königreich: Jordaniens Stellung in Nahen Osten. Munich, 1975 Seton, C. R. W„ Legislation of Transjordan, 1918-30. London, 1931. [Continued by the G o v e r n m e n t of Jordan as an annual publication: Jordan Legislation. A m m a n , 1932 ff.] Toni, Y. T . , a n d M o u s a , S., Jordan: Land and People. A m m a n , 1973

KENYA

Capital: Nairobi Population: 20-33m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$280 (1985)

Jamhuri ya Kenya H I S T O R Y . Until Kenya became independent on 12 Dec. 1963, it consisted of the colony and the protectorate. The protectorate comprised the mainland dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar, viz., a coastal strip of territory 10 miles wide, to the northern branch of the Tana River; also Mau, Kipini and the Island of Lamu, and all adjacent islands between the rivers Umba and Tana. The Sultan on 8 Oct. 1963 ceded the coastal strip to Kenya with effect from 12Dec. 1963. The colony and protectorate, formerly known as the East African Protectorate were, on 1 April 1905, transferred from the Foreign Office to the Colonial Office and in Nov. 1906 the protectorate was placed under the control of a governor and C.-in-C. and (except the Sultan of Zanzibar's dominions) was annexed to the Crown as from 23 July 1920 under the name of the Colony of Kenya, thus becoming a Crown Colony. The territories on the coast became the Kenya Protectorate. A Treaty was signed (15 July 1924) with Italy under which Great Britain ceded to Italy the Juba River and a strip from 50 to 100 miles wide on the British side of the river. Cession took place on 29 June 1925. The northern boundary is defined by an agreement with Ethiopia in 1947. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Kenya is bounded by Sudan and Ethiopia in the north, Uganda in the west, Tanzania in the south and the Somali Republic and the Indian ocean in the east. The total area is 224,960 sq. miles (582,600 sq. km), of which 219,790 sq. miles is land area. In the 1979 census, the population was 15,327,061, of which 15,100,000 were Africans, 78,600 Asians, 39,900 Europeans, 39,140 Arabs. Estimate(1985)20-33m. On the coast the Arabs and Swahili predominate, farther inland the races speaking Bantu languages, and non-Bantu tribes, such as the Luo, the Nandi and Kipsigis, the Masai, the Somali and the Gallas. There are more than forty tribes. Population of the provinces (1979): Rift Valley, 3-24m.; Eastern, 2,719,000; Nyanza, 2,643,000; Central, 2,345,000; Coast, 1,342,000; Western, 1,832,000; Nairobi district, 835,000; North-Eastern, 373,000. Nairobi is the capital, and the 1979 census showed a population of 827,775. Estimate (1985) 827,800. Population of the largest towns: Mombasa, 341,000; Kisumu, 152,600; Nakuru, 92,900; Machakos, 84,000; Meru, 70,000; Eldoret, 51,000; Thika, 41,000. A new town is being developed (in 1981) at Bura, which will be the centre of a production area using irrigated water from the Tana river. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with wet and dry seasons, but considerable differences in altitude make for varied conditions between the hot, coastal lowlands and the plateau, where temperatures are very much cooler. Heaviest rains occur in April and May, but in some parts there is a second wet season in Nov. and Dec. Nairobi. Jan. 65°F (18-3°C), July 60°F (15-6°C). Annual rainfall 39" (958 mm). Mombasa. Jan. 81°F (27-2"C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 7 " (1,201 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A Constitution conferring internal self-government was brought into force on 1 June 1963, and full independence was achieved on 12Dec. 1963.On 12Dec. 1964 Kenya became a republic. President of the Republic: Daniel Arap Moi (elected 1979, re-elected 1983). Vice-President and Home Affairs: Mwai Kibaki. 761

762

KENYA

Foreign Affairs: Elijah Mwagale. Planning and National Development: Dr Robert John Ouko. The House of Representatives and the Senate were in Dec. 1966 amalgamated into one National Assembly consisting of 158 elected Members, 12 nominated members, together with the Speaker and the Attorney-General. On 10 Nov. 1964 Kenya became a one-party state of the Kenya African National Union (KANU) when the voluntary dissolution of the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) was declared. Later a second party, the Kenya People's Union (KPU) was formed but on 30 Oct. 1969 was proscribed. At general elections held in Sept. 1983 there were over 740 candidates for 153 seats. The turnout was low, ranging from 27% to 40%. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of black, red, green, with the red edged in white; bearing in the centre an African shield in black and white with 2 crossed spears behind. Administration. The country is divided into the Nairobi Area and 7 provinces and there are 40 districts. Kiswahili is the official language, but 21% speak Kikuyu as their mother tongue, 14% Luhya, 12% Luo, 11% Kamba, 11% Kalenjin, 6% Gusii, 6% Meru and 5% Mijikenda. English is spoken in commercial centres. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured, 1 armoured reconnaissance, 6 infantry, 2 artillery, 1 parachute, 1 independent air cavalry and 2 engineer battalions. Equipment includes 76 Vickers Mk 3 main battle tanks. 32 Hughes Defender helicopters, of which 15 are armed with TOW missiles and 8 new Hughes 530 helicopters. Total strength (1987) 13,000, and there is also a paramilitary police force of4,400. Navy. The Navy in 1987 consists of 2 new British built missile armed fast attack craft, 4 British built smaller missile armed attack craft, 3 British built patrol craft, 2 patrol boats and 1 tug. Personnel totalled 350 officers and ratings. The base is at Mombasa which has a dry dock with a capacity of 18,000 tons. There are also 2 British-built marine police cutters. Air Force. An air force, formed 1 June 1964, was built up with RAF assistance and is under Army command. Equipment includes 12 F-5E/F-5F supersonic combat aircraft/trainers, 12 Hawk and 5 BAC 167 Strikemaster light jet attack/trainers, 9 twin-turboprop Buffaloes for transport, air ambulance, anti-locust spraying and security duties, 8 Skyservant light twins, 12 Bulldog piston-engined primary trainers and Puma, Gazelle and Alouette helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Kenya is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1984-88 development plan aims at an average annual growth rate of 6-3%. In 1984 G D P grew by 0-9% (agriculture declining by 3-7%; manufacture increasing by 4 -3% and distribution by 4%). Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for 1986-87: Revenue, KSh.28,456m.; expenditure, KSh.38,962m. Currency. The monetary unit is the Kenya Shilling divided into 100 cents; 20 shillings=K£ 1. In March 1987, £1=25-25 Shilling-, US$1 = 15-97 Shilling. Banking. Banks operating in Kenya: The National & Grindlays Bank International, Ltd; the Standard Bank, Ltd; Barclays Bank of Kenya Ltd; Algemene Bank Nederland NV; Bank of India, Ltd; Bank of Baroda, Ltd; Habib Bank (Overseas), Ltd; Commercial Bank of Africa, Ltd; Citibank; The Co-operative Bank of

KENYA

763

Kenya, Ltd; National Bank of Kenya, Ltd; The Kenya Commercial Bank; The Central Bank of Kenya. In Jan. 1985 there were 43 non-bank finance institutions. The Kenya Post Office Savings Bank, a state savings bank established in 1978, had 1,250,000 ordinary savings accounts with total deposits of KSh.750m. at 31 Dec. 1984. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed generating capacity was 544 mw in 1986; two-thirds was provided by hydropower from power stations on the Tana river, 30% by oil-fired power stations and the rest by geothermal power. Production (1985) 1,686m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Mineral production in 1981 was: Soda ash, 159,385 tonnes; gold, 114 grammes; salt, 27,766 tonnes. Other minerals comprised barytes, magnesite, felspar, sapphires, fluorspar ore, garnets, sand and raw soda. Agriculture. As agriculture is possible from sea-level to altitudes of over 9,000 ft, tropical, sub-tropical and temperate crops can be grown and mixed farming can be advocated. Four-fifths of the country is range-land which produces mainly livestock products and wild game which constitutes the major attraction of the country's tourist industry. The main areas of crop production are the Central, Rift Valley, Western and Nyanza Provinces and parts of Eastern and Coastal Provinces. Coffee, tea, sisal, pyrethrum, maize and wheat are crops of major importance in the Highlands, while coconuts, cashew nuts, cotton, sugar, sisal and maize are the principal crops grown at the lower altitudes. All production in 1984 was affected by drought but good seasonal rains returned for the 1985 crop year and output grew by 3-5%. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes), of principal food crops: Maize, 2,650; wheat, 250; rice, 35; barley, 50; millet, 50; sorghum, 100; potatoes, 650; sweet potatoes, 280; cassava, 400; sugar-cane, 3,960. Main cash crops (1985-86): Tobacco, 9,000; coffee, 115;tea, 147; vegetables, 439; fruit, 670; flowers. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 12m.; sheep, 7m.; goats, 8-2m.; pigs, 96,000; poultry, 20m. Forestry. The total area of gazetted forest reserves in Kenya amounts to 16,800 sq. km, of which the greater part is situated between 6,000 and 11,000 ft above sealevel, mostly on Mount Kenya, the Aberdares, Mount Elgon, Tinderet, Londiani, Mau watershed, Elgeyo and Charangani ranges. These forests may be divided into coniferous, broad-leaved or hardwood and bamboo forests. The upper parts of these forests are mainly bamboo, which occurs mostly between altitudes of 8,000 and 10,000 ft and occupies some 10% of the high-altitude forests. Production (1981): Softwood, 350,000 cu. metres; hardwood, 475,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1986 industry accounted for some 13% of G D P and employed about one-fifth of the wage-earning labour force. The main activities were textiles, chemicals, vehicle assembly and transport equipment, leather and footwear, printing and publishing, food and tobacco processing. An important sub-sector was the refining of crude petroleum at Mombasa. Commerce. Total domestic exports (1984, provisional) K£745m.; imports K £ l , l 16m. Chief imports in 1984 were petroleum and petroleum products (31 • l%of total), industrial supplies (26-4%), machinery and other capital equipment (16-9%), food and drink (10-7%) and transport equipment (10-4%). Chief exports were coffee (27%), tea (25 1 %) and petroleum products (18- 3%). Imports in 1985 were mainly from the U K (14-7%), Saudi Arabia (12-3%), Japan (10%), Federal Republic of Germany (8%) and USA (6 -8%). Exports were mainly to the U K (17 • 8%), Federal Republic of Germany (11- 4%), Uganda (9 • 1 %), USA (7 • 1 %) and Pakistan (5 -8%).

764

KENYA

Total trade between Kenya and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 104,312 153,858

1983 128,464 111,249

1984 203,243 176,061

1985 185,622 160,651

1986 163,745 170,671

Tourism. In 1984, about 400,000 tourists visited Kenya. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 6,540 km of bitumen surfaced roads and 47,037 km of gravel-surfaced roads. Railways. On 11 Feb. 1977 the independent Kenya Railways Corporation was formed following break-up of the East African Railways administration. The network totals 2,654 km of metre-gauge and extensive upgrading and re-equipment was in progress in 1984. In 1983, the railways carried 2 -2m. passengers and 3-9m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. Total number of passengers handled at the 3 main aiiports (1984) was 2,058,000. Jomo Kenyatta Airport, Nairobi, handles nearly 30 international airlines as well as Kenya Airways. Shipping. A national shipping service is planned (1984) to be based in Mombasa, the Kenyan main port at Kilindini on the Indian Ocean. The port handles cargo freight both for Kenya as well as for the neighbouring East African states. The Port Authority also runs a modern harbour college. Post and Broadcasting. The Voice of Kenya operates 2 national services (SwahiliEnglish) from Nairobi and regional services in Kisumu, Nairobi and Mombasa. The television service provides programmes mainly in English and Swahili. A new television station opened in Mombasa in 1970. Telephones (1983) 216,674. Cinemas (1971). Cinemas numbered 32, with seating capacity of 18,800. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The courts of justice comprise the High Court, established in 1921, with full jurisdiction both civil and criminal over all persons and all matters in Kenya, including Admiralty jurisdiction arising on the high seas and elsewhere, and Subordinate Courts. The High Court has its headquarters at Nairobi and consists of the Chief Justice and 24 puisne judges; it sits continuously at Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru and Kisumu; civil and criminal sessions are held regularly at Eldoret, Nyeri, Meru, Kitale, Kisii and Kericho. The Subordinate Courts are presided over by Senior Resident, Resident or District Magistrates and are established in the main centres of all districts. They sit throughout the year. There are also Moslem Subordinate Courts established in areas where the local population is predominantly Moslem; they are presided over by Kadhis and exercise limited jurisdiction in matters governed by Moslem law. Religion. The indigenous African background is largely influenced by belief in God in Judaic forms, but Christianity is making an important contribution to the life of the whole territory, not only through the educational and medical services of Christian missions, but by the growth of churches under African leadership, and by its impact on the thought and policy of the country. The Roman Catholic Church (about 4m. adherents) has been developed mainly by Irish, British, Dutch and Italian missionary bodies and is now organized in 12 dioceses under the archbishop ofNairobi. The Protestant Churches (about 2-5m. adherents) were started mainly by British and American mission societies; most of them are now linked together by the National Christian Council of Kenya. The Church of the Province of Kenya, formerly the Anglican Church Province of East Africa, was inaugurated on 3 Aug. 1970; at the same time the first Archbishop of Kenya was enthroned. The East African Yearly Meeting of Friends (Religious Society of Friends) has 90,000 adherents.

KENYA

765

The Arabs on the coast are Moslems, and Islam has spread among some of the African coastal tribes and the cities. The Asians are Hindus and Moslems, with the exception of the Goans, who are Roman Catholics. Education. Primary (1983). 11,966 primary schools with 4-3m. pupils and 82,983 teachers. Secondary (1983). There were 2,230 secondary schools with a total enrolment of 494,000 and 8,797 teachers. Technical(1983). 18 technical colleges with 9,258 pupils and 368 teachers. Teacher training (1982). 14,000 students were training as teachers in 20 colleges with 900 lecturers. Higher Education. The University of Nairobi was inaugurated on 10 Dec. 1970 and provides courses in arts, science, education, agriculture, medicine, art, architecture, engineering, veterinary, law and domestic science. In 1983 there were 8,761 students and 928 lecturers. Moi University opened in 1985 with 90 students. Health. In 1981 beds in hospitals (including mission hospitals) totalled 28,108. 1,328 health centres, including sub-centres and dispensaries, were in operation. Free medical service for all children and adult out-patients was launched in 1965. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Kenya in Great Britain (45 Portland PI., London, W1N 4AS) High Commissioner: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Kenya (Bruce Hse., Standard St., Nairobi) High Commissioner:]. R. Johnson, CMG. Of Kenya in the USA (2249 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Wafula Wabuge. Of the USA in Kenya (Moi/Haile Selassie Ave., Nairobi) Ambassador: Gerald E. Thomas. Of Kenya to the United Nations Ambassador: Raphael Muli Kiilu. Books of Reference Kenya Development Plan. 1984-88. Nairobi, 1984 Kenya Economic Survey, 1983. Nairobi, 1984 Statistical Abstract. G o v e r n m e n t Printer, Nairobi, 1982 Standard English-Swahih Dictionary. Ed. Inter-territorial Language Committee of East Africa. 2 vols. London, 1939 Who's Who in Kenya 1982-1983. London, 1983 Arnold, G., Kenyatta and the Politics of Kenya. London, 1974.—Modern Kenya. London, 1982 Bienen, H., Kenya: The Politics of Participation and Control. Princeton Univ. Press, 1974 Bigsten, A., Education and Income Distribution in Kenya. Brookfield, Vermont, 1984 Bolton, K., Haramble Country: A Guide to Kenya. London, 1970 Collison, R. L., Kenya. [Bibliography] London and Santa Barbara, 1982 Harbeson, J. W., Nation-Building m Kenya: The Role of Land Reform. Northwestern Univ. Press, 1973 Hazlewood, A., The Economy of Kenya: The Kenyatta Era. O U P , 1980 Langdon, S. W., Multinational Corporations in the Political Economy of Kenya. London, 1981 Tomkinson, M., Kenya: A Holiday Guide. 5th ed. London and H a m m a m e t , 1981

KIRIBATI

Capital: Tarawa Population: 62,000 (1985) GNP per capita: US$417 (1984)

H I S T O R Y . The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were proclaimed a protectorate in 1892 and annexed (at the request of the native governments) as the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony on 10 Nov. 1915 (effective on 12 Jan. 1916). On 1 Oct. 1975 the former Ellice Islands severed its constitutional links with the Gilbert Islands and took a new name Tuvalu. Internal self-government was obtained on 1 Nov. 1976 and independence achieved on 12 July 1979 as the Republic of Kiribati. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Kiribati (pronounced Kiribass) consists of 3 groups of coral atolls and one isolated volcanic island, spread over a large expanse of the Central Pacific with a total land area of 717-1 sq. km (276-9 sq. miles). It comprises Banaba or Ocean Island (5 sq. km), the 16 Gilbert Islands (295 sq. km), the 8 Phoenix Islands (55 sq. km), and 8 of the 11 Line Islands (329 sq.km), the other 3 Line Islands (Jarvis, Palmyra and Kingman Reef) being uninhabited dependencies of the US. Population, 1985 census, 63,848 (Tarawa, 21,000). Banaba, all 16 Gilbert Islands, and 3 atolls in the Line Islands (Teraina, Tabuaeran and Kiritimati—formerly Washington, Fanning and Christmas Islands respectively) are inhabited; their populations in 1985 were as follows: Banaba (Ocean Is.) 300 Makin 1,419 Butaritari 3,149 Marakei 2,335 Abaiang 3,447 Tarawa 22,148 Maiana 1,688 Abemama 411

Kuria Aranuki Nonouti Tabiteuea Beru Nikunau Onotoa Tamana

803 850 2,284 4,157 2,212 1,829 2,034 1,349

Arorae Teraina Tabuaeran Kiritimati Aboard ships In Nauru and Overseas

1,527 416 434 1,265 255 2,299

Total

58,518

The remaining 13 atolls have no permanent population; the 8 Phoenix Islands comprise Birnie, Rawaki (formerly Phoenix), Enderbury, Kanton (or Abariringa), Manra (formerly Sydney), Orona (formerly Hull), McKean and Nikumaroro (formerly Gardner), while the others are Maiden and Starbuck in the Central Line Islands and Caroline, Flint and Vostok in the Southern Line Islands. The population is almost entirely Micronesian. C L I M A T E . The Line Islands, Phoenix Islands and Banaba have a maritime equatorial climate, but the islands further north and south are tropical. Annual and daily ranges of temperature are small and mean annual rainfall ranges from 50" (1,250 mm) near the equator to 120" (3,000 mm) in the north. Tarawa. Jan. 83°F (28-3°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 7 9 " (1,977 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the independence Constitution the republic has a unicameral legislature, comprising 36 members elected from 20 constituencies for a 4-year term. The Beretitenti (President) is both Head of State and of Government. In Sept. 1985 the government was composed as follows: President and Foreign Affairs: Ieremia Tabai, GCMG. Vice-President, Home Affairs and Decentralization: Teatao Teannaki. Trade, Industry and Labour: Teewe Arobati. Finance: Boanareke Boanareke. Health and Family Planning: Binata Tetaeka. Natural Resource Development: Babera Kirata, OBE. Education: Baitika Toum. Communications: Taomati Iuta, OBE. Minister for the Line and Phoenix Group of Islands: Uera Rabaua. Works and Energy: Tiwau Awira. Attorney-General: Michael Takabwebwe. 766

767

KIRIBATI

Flag: Red, with blue and white wavy lines in base, and in the centre a gold rising sun and a flying frigate bird. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Kiribati is a member of the Commonwealth, South Pacific Forum and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Budget estimates for 1985 show revenue, $A16,243,000; principal items: fishing licences, $A2,178,000; customs duties, $A3,400,000; direct taxation, $A920,000. Expenditure amounted to SA 16,243,000. Currency. The currency in use is the Australian dollar. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Electric power production (1985) was 40,000m. kwh. Minerals. Phosphate production was discontinued in 1979. Agriculture. Land under agriculture and permanant cultivation, 50-7%; forest, 2 -8%; other, 46 -5%. The land is basically coral reefs upon which coral sand has built up, and then been enriched by humus from rotting vegetation and flotsam which has drifted ashore. The principal tree is the coconut, which grows prolifically on all the islands except some of the Phoenix Islands. Other food-bearing trees are the pandanus palm and the breadfruit. As the amount of soil is negligible, the only vegetable which grows in any quantity is a coarse calladium (alocasia) with the local name 'babai', which is cultivated most laboriously in deep pits. Pigs and fowls are kept throughout Kiribati. Copra production is mainly in the hands of the individual landowner, who collects the coconut products from the trees on his own land. Production (1985) 12,000 tonnes. Livestock(1984): Pigs, 10,000; poultry (1982), 163,000. Fisheries. Tuna fishing is an important industry and licenses have been granted to USSR fleets. T R A D E . The principal imports (1984, in A$lm.) are: Machinery and transport equipment, 8-5; food, 5-5; manufactured goods, 3 1 ; fuels, 2-25. The value of exports for 1981 amounted to $ A3 • 6m. Exports are almost exclusively copra. Total trade between Kiribati and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1984 20 401

1985 209 775

1986 4 179

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 640 km of roads, of which 483 km suitable for vehicles. Shipping. The main port is at Betio (Tarawa). Other ports of entry are Christmas Island and Banaba. In 1980,71 vessels were handled at Betio. Aviation. Air Tungaru is the national carrier. It operates services from Tarawa to the other 15 outer Islands in the Gilbertese Group, services varying between one and four flights each week. There is a charter service weekly to Christmas Island, in the Line Islands, which continues to Honolulu. A fortnightly service operates to Funafuti and weekly to Majuro and Nandi. Air Nauru has a weekly flight between Nauru and Tarawa. Post and Broadcasting. There were 1,400 telephones in 1984. Radio Tarawa transmits daily in English and I-Kiribati. A telephone line to Australia was installed in 1981. There were (1983 estimate) 10,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 5 cinemas with a seating capacity of 2,000.

768

KIRIBATI

Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 bi-lingual weekly newspaper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. In 1985 Kiribati had a police force of 236 under the command of a Commissioner of Police. The Commissioner of Police is also responsible for prisons, immigration, fire service (both domestic and airport) and firearms licensing. Religion. The majority of the population belong to the Roman Catholic or Protestant (Congregational) church; there are small numbers of Seventh-day Adventist, Mormons, Baha'i and Church of God. Education. In 1985 the government maintained boarding school had an enrolment of 467 pupils and there were 108 primary schools, with a total of 13,308 pupils, 5 secondary schools with 970 pupils, and 2 community high schools with 587 pupils. The Government also maintains a teachers' training college with 90 students in 1985 and a marine training school which offers training for about 70 merchant seamen each year. The Tarawa Technical Institute at Betio offers a variety of parttime and evening technical and commercial courses and had 461 students in 1985. In 1978, 120 islanders were in overseas countries for secondary and further education or training. Welfare. Government maintains free medical and other services. There are few towns, and the people are almost without exception landed proprietors, thus eliminating child vagrancy and housing problems to a large extent, except in the Tarawa urban area. Destitution is almost unknown. Tliere were 16 doctors in 1986. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Kiribati to Great Britain and to the USA High Commissioner: Atenroi Ba'teke, OBE (resides in Tarawa). Of Great Britain in Kiribati (Tarawa) High Commissioner: Charles Thompson. Books of Reference Kiribati, Aspects of History. Univ. of South Pacific, 1979 Bailey, E., The Christmas Island Story. London, 1977 Cowell, R., StructureofGilbertese. Suva, 1950 Grimble, Sir Arthur, A Pattern of Islands. London, 1953.—Return to the Islands. London, 1957 Maude, H. E., Of Islands and Men. London, 1968.—Evolution of the Gilbertese Boti. Suva, 1977 Sabatier, E., Astride the Equator. Melbourne, 1978 Whincup, T.,Nareau's Nation. London, 1979

KOREA

Capital: Seoul Population: 41-8m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$2,032 (1985)

Han Kook

H I S T O R Y . Korea was united in a single kingdom under the Silla dynasty from 668. China, which claimed a vague suzerainty over Korea, recognized Korea's independence in 1895. Korea concluded trade agreements with the USA (1882), Great Britain, Germany (1883). After the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 Korea was virtually a Japanese protectorate until it was formally annexed by Japan on 29 Aug. 1910 thus ending the rule of the Yi dynasty which had begun in 1392. Following the collapse of Japan in 1945, American and Russian forces entered Korea to enforce the surrender of the Japanese troops there, dividing the country for mutual military convenience into two portions separated by the 38th parallel of latitude. Negotiations between the Americans and Russians regarding the future of Korea broke down in May 1946. On 25 June 1950 the North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. The same day, the Security Council of the United Nations asked all member states to render assistance to the Republic of Korea. When the UN forces had reached the Manchurian border Chinese troops entered the war on the side of the North Koreans on 26 Nov. 1950 and penetrated deep into the south. By the beginning of April 1951, however, the UN forces had regained the 38th parallel. On 23 June 1951 Y. A. Malik, President of the Security Council, suggested a cease-fire, and on 10 July representatives of Gen. Ridgway met representatives of the North Koreans and of the Chinese Volunteer Army. An agreement was signed on 27 July 1953. For the contributions of member-nations of the United Nations to the war, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1954, p. 1195, a n d 1956, p. 1180.

On 16 Aug. 1953 the USA and Korea signed a mutual defence pact and on 28 Nov. 1956 a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation. On 4 July 1972 it was announced in Seoul and Pyongyang (North Korea) that talks had taken place aimed at 'the peaceful unification of the fatherland as early as possible'. In Nov. 1984 agreement was reached to form a joint economic committee. A North Korean-UN agreement of 6 Sept. 1976 established a joint security area 850 metres in diameter, divided into 2 equal parts to ensure the separation of the two sides. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . South Korea is bounded north by the demilitarized zone (separating it from North Korea), east by the Sea of Japan, south by the Korea Strait (separating it from Japan) and west by the Yellow Sea. The area was (1985) 99,022 sq. km (38,232 sq. miles). The population (census, 1 Nov. 1985) was 40,466,577 (male, 20,280,857). Estimate (1987) 41,826,706. The areas (in sq. km) and 1985 estimated populations of the provinces were as follows: Province Seoul Pusan Taegu Inchon Kyonggi Kangwon North Chungchong

sq. km 627 433 455 201 10,875 16,894 7,430

Province South Chungchong North Cholla South Cholla North Kyongsang South Kyongsang Cheju

1985 9,645,824 3,516,768 2,030,649 1,387,475 4,794,240 1,726,029 1,391,084

769

sq. km 8,807 8,052 12,189 19,427 11,850 1,825

1985 3,001,538 2,202,218 3,748,442 3,013,276 3,519,121 489,458

770

KOREA

The chief cities (populations in 1984) are: Seoul Pusan Taegu Inchon

9,501,413 3,495,289 2,012,039 1,295,107

Kwangchu Taejon Ulsan Masan

869,874 842,429 535,186 440,773

Seongnam Chonchu Suweon Chongjin

434,078 421,751 402,319 328,258

C L I M A T E . The extreme south has a humid warm temperate climate while the rest of the country experiences continental temperate conditions. Rainfall is concentrated in the period April to Sept. and ranges from 4 0 " (1,020 mm) to 6 0 " (1,520 mm). Pusan. Jan. 36°F (2-2'C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,407 mm). Seoul. Jan. 23°F (-5°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 50" (1,250 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was approved by national referendum on 22 Oct. 1980 and came into force on 27 Oct. It provides for a President with reduced executive powers, to be indirectly elected for a single 7-year term (by an electoral college of 5,271 directly-elected members), a State Council of ministers whom he appoints and leads, and a National Assembly (276 members) directly elected for 4 years (184 from 2-member constituencies and 92 by proportional representation). The National Assembly elected on 25 March 1981 comprised 151 members of the Democratic Justice Party, 81 Democratic Korea Party, 25 Korean National Party, 8 from other parties and 11 independents. President of the Republic: Gen. Chun Doo-Hwan (took office 2 Sept. 1980, reelected 25 Feb. 1981). The Cabinet at Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Lho Shin-Yong. Deputy Prime Minister and Economic Planning: Kim Mahn-Je. Foreign Affairs: Choi Kwang-Soo. Home Affairs: Chong Ho-Yong. Finance: Chung In-Yong. Justice: Kim Sok-hwi. Defence: Lee Ki-Baek. Education: Son Che-Sok. Sports: Lee Se-Ki. Agriculture and Fisheries: Hwang In-Song. Trade and Industry: Na WoongBae. Energy and Resources: Choi Chang-Nak. Construction: Lee Kyu-hyo. Health and Social Affairs: Lee Hae-Won. Labour: Lee Hon-Ki. Transportation: Cha Kyu-Hon. Communications: Lee Tae-Soon. Culture and Information: Lee WungHee. Government Administration: Chung Kwan-Yong. Science and Technology: Lee Tae-Sop. Unification: Huh Moon-Do. First Minister of State for Political Affairs: Chung Jae-Chull. Office of Legislation: Lee Yang-Woo. Patriots and Veterans Affairs Agency: Kim Keun-Soo. National Security Planning Agency: Chang Se-tong. Nationalflag: White charged in the centre with the yang-um in red and blue and with 4 black pal-kwar trigrams. Local government: South Korea is divided into 9 provinces (Do) and 4 cities with provincial status (Seoul, Pusan, Taegu and Inchon); the provinces are sub-divided into 138 districts (Gun) and 46 cities (Si). D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 30 months in the Army and Marines and 3 years in the Navy and Air Force. Army. The Army is organized in 19 infantry divisions, 2 mechanized infantry divisions, 7 independent special forces brigades, 2 anti-aircraft artillery brigades, 2 surface-to-air missile brigades, 1 army aviation brigade and 2 surface-to-surface battalions. Equipment includes 350 M-47 and 950 M-48A5 main battle tanks. Army aviation equipment includes about 150 Hughes 500 and 8 AH-1G Huey Cobra helicopters for anti-armour operations, observation and liaison, plus 65 UH-1 Iroquois transport helicopters. Strength (1987) 520,000, with a Regular Army Reserve of 1 -4m. and a Homeland Reserve Defence Force of 3-3m. Paramilitary Civilian Defence Corps, 3 • 5m. Navy. The Fleet comprises 2 indigenously built modern frigates, 11 aged (1943-46)

KOREA

771

ex-US destroyers, 4 equally old ex-US frigates (former fast transports, ex-destroyer escorts), 4 new missile corvettes, 12 gun corvettes, 11 fast missile patrol craft, 60 fast attack craft, 10 fast gunboats, 13 coastal patrol boats, 8 coastal minesweepers, 8 landing ships, 9 medium landing craft, 20 utility landing craft, 1 repair ship, 7 surveying vessels, 2 salvage ships, 4 supply ships, 6 oilers, 13 auxiliary ships, 35 service craft, and 2 tugs. Nearly all South Korea's naval vessels are ex-US ships. The Navy has a small aviation element with 20 S-2A/F Tracker aircraft and 10 500MD helicopters for patrol and anti-submarine duties, and some helicopters are operated by the Marine Corps. It was reported that the first submarine built in South Korea entered service in 1983. Probably the first of a class of four or five, she displaces only 175 tons. The South Korean Coastguard operates 25 small ships and over 200 smaller vessels including rescue craft and tugs. Personnel in 1987 totalled 29,000 in the Navy; plus 25,000 in the Marine Corps. Air Force. With a 1987 strength of about 33,000 men, the Air Force is undergoing rapid expansion with US assistance. Its combat aircraft include 36 F-16C/D Fighting Falcons being delivered in 1986-87, about 55 F-4D/E Phantoms, 78 F-5A/B tactical fighters, more than 200 F-5E/F tactical fighters (being delivered from local production), 20 OV-IO Bronco light strike aircraft, 6 RF-5A reconnaissance fighters, 10 0 - 2 A forward air control aircraft and 10 Hughes 500-D Defender ASW helicopters. There are also 10 C-54 and 10 C-123 piston-engined transports, 2 HS.748s, 1 Boeing 737 and 1 DC-6 for VIP transport; UH-1, Bell 212 and Bell 412 transport helicopters, and T-41, T-28, T-33 and T-37C trainers. ECONOMY Planning. The fifth 5-year social and economic plan (1982-86) was revised in 1983 to aim at an annual growth rate of 7 • 5% from 1984-86. Budget. The 1986 budget balanced at 13,800,000m. won of which 31 % defence and 20% education. Currency. Notes are issued by the Bank of Korea in denominations of 10,000, 5,000 and 500 won and coin in denominations of 500, 100, 50, 10, 5 and 1 won. TTie exchange rate is determined daily by the Bank of Korea. In March 1987, 855 wow=US$1; 1,354 10 won=£l sterling. Banking. State-run banks include the Bank of Korea, the Korean Development Bank, the Medium & Small Industry Bank, the Citizen's National Bank, the Korea Exchange Bank, the National Agricultural Co-operatives Federation, the Federation of Fisheries Co-operatives serving as banking and credit institutions for farmers and fishermen, the Korea Housing Bank, the Export and Import Bank of Korea. There are 5 commercial banks: the Bank of Seoul & Trust Co. Ltd, the Cho Heung Bank Ltd, the Commercial Bank of Korea, the Korea First Bank, the Hanil Bank, Ltd, the Taegu Bank Ltd. The Bank of Korea is the central bank and the only note-issuing bank, the authorized purchaser of domestically produced gold. In addition, there are non-bank financial institutions consisting of 19 insurance companies, the Land Bank of Korea, the Credit Guarantee Fund, 10 short-term financial companies, 211 mutual credit companies, and the Merchant Banking Corporation. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity generated (1985) was 56,490m. kwh. Supply 100 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. The KODECO Energy Co. and the Indonesian state-run oil company Pertamin are developing an oil field off the coast of Indonesia's Madura Island. KODECO began drilling operations in 1982 and began producing oil in Sept. 1985 from the Madura field, which contains 22 • 1 m. bbls of proven oil deposits. The state-run Korean Petroleum Development Corp. (PEDCO) and the US company Hadson Petroleum International are exploring for oil in the southern part of the

772

KOREA

Fifth Continental Shelf oil mining block off the coast of the Korean Peninsula. Oil worth US$6,490m. was imported in 1985. Minerals. In 1979, 1,779 mining companies employed 79,229 people. Mineral deposits are mostly small, with the exception of tungsten; the Sangdong mine is one of the world's largest deposits of tungsten. Output, 1985, included (in tonnes): Anthracite coal, 22-4m.; iron ore, 670,000; tungsten ore, 4,643; kaolin, 634,202; copper ore, 1,228; lead ore, 18,947; gold, 2,345; silver, 126,133;zincore,92,509. Agriculture. The arable land in South Korea comprised 2,144,000 hectares in 1985, of which 1,325,000 hectares were rice paddies and 819,000 hectares dry fields. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes) of rice was 5,262; of total crops from dry fields, 1,364, including barley, 584; of cash crops: Vegetables, 7,083; fruits, 1,463. Output of tobacco manufactures, a government monopoly, was 94,524 tonnes in 1983. In 1985 cattle numbered 2,904,000; pigs, 3,098,000; poultry, 4,507,000. Fisheries. Fishery exports (1985) US$960m. In 1985,603 Korean deep-sea fishing vessels were operating overseas. In 1982, there was a total of 86,515 boats (808,570 gross tons). The fish catch (inland and marine) was 2,990,000 tonnes in 1985. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufacturing industry, which (1983) employed 3-3m. persons, was concentrated primarily in 1985 on oil, petrochemical, chemical fibre, construction, iron and steel, cement, machinery, shipbuilding, automobile and electronics. Commerce. In 1985 the total exports were US$30,273m., while imports were US$31,132m. USA provided 20 -8% and Japan 24-3% of imports; USA received 3 5 • 5% of exports, Japan 15%. Major exports, 1985, included (in US$lm.): Heavy and chemical products, 16,466; light industrial products, 11,173. Major imports included: Crude oil and raw materials, 17,400; capital goods, 11,079; grain and other goods, 1,637. Total trade between Korea and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 440,354 168,942

1984 443,819 219,406

1985 480,448 247,887

1986 661,975 288,421

Tourism. In 1984 there were 1,297,318 foreign tourists. They spent about US$673m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 53,936 km of roads. In 1985 motor vehicles totalled 1,113,430 including412,739 trucks, 128,309 buses, 556,659 passenger cars. Railways. In Dec. 1985, 6,285 km of railways existed, including 3,113 -4 km of commercial railways, 431 -7 km of which were electrified. In 1983 railways carried 469m. passengers and 49m. tonnes of freight. Shipping. In Dec. 1985, there were 24 first-grade ports and 22 second-grade ports, and 7,516,000 gross tons in various vessels. Of the total tonnage, national-flag ocean-going vessels accounted for 6,118,000 tons, chartered vessels for 966,000 tons and coastal passenger-cargo vessels for 432,000 tons. Passenger ships accounted for 43,000 tons, cargo vessels 5,954,000 tons and oil tankers 1,519,000. Aviation. In Dec. 1985, 35 countries maintained aviation agreement with Korea and had 34 air routes with 24 cities in 16 countries. The Ministry of Transportation opened Seoul-Kuala Lumpur-Bangkok cargo route and Seoul-Singapore-Bangkok and Cheju-Pusan-Tokyo passenger routes in 1985. In Dec. 1985 Korea had 108 commercial aircraft (46 Korean Air Lines passenger-cargo planes, 18 light planes and 35 helicopters). In 1985, 3-47m. passengers and 66,000 tons of cargo were carried on domestic routes and 4-41m. passengers on international routes.

KOREA

773

Post and Telecommunications. Post offices total 2,556 (1985); telephones (all government-owned) were 6,517,395 in 1985. The fourth satellite earth station was opened in Jan. 1985, bringing the number of communications circuits via satellite to 2,290. Cinemas. In 1983 there were 452 with a seating capacity of400,000. Newspapers (1982). There were 25 daily papers, including 6 national dailies and 2 in English appearing in Seoul. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. Basically the religions of Korea have been Animism, Buddhism (introduced A.D. 372) and Confucianism, which was the official faith from 1392 to 1910. Catholic converts from China introduced Christianity in the 18th century, but the ban on Roman Catholics was not lifted until 1882. Christian population in 1983 was 9,348,322. Education. In 1985 Korea had 4,856,752 pupils enrolled in 6,519 elementary schools, 2,782,173 pupils in 2,371 middle schools and 2,152,802 pupils in 1,602 high schools (including 635 vocational schools). For higher education, 1,018,236 students attended 312 universities, colleges and junior colleges in 1985. There are 86 graduate schools granting master's degrees in 2 years and doctor's degrees in 4 years, where 14,274 students attended in 1985. An Open University was inaugurated in March 1982. The Korean language belongs to the Ural-Altaic group, is polysyllabic, agglutinative and highly developed syntactically. The modern Korean alphabet of 10 vowels and 14 consonants forms a script known as Hangul. Health. In Dec. 1982 there were 28,365 physicians (including herb doctors), 4,266 dentists, 4,222 midwives (1980), 101,445 nurses (including assistant nurses, 1980), 4,712 technicians (1980) and 27,000 pharmacists. There were 11,181 hospitals and clinics in 1980. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Korea in Great Britain (4 Palace Gate, London, W8 5NF) Ambassador: Young Choo Kim (accredited 14Feb. 1985). Of Great Britain in Korea (4 Chung-Dong, Chung-Ku, Seoul) Ambassador and Consul-General: Lawrence Middleton. Of Korea in the USA (2370 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Byong Hion Lew. Of the US A in Korea (Sejong-Ro, Seoul) Ambassador: Richard L. Walker. Books of Reference A Handbook of Korea. 4th ed. Seoul, 1982 Guide to Investment in Korea. Economic Planning Board. Seoul, 1980 Korea Annual ¡983.20th ed. Seoul, 1983 Korea Statistical Year Book. Seoul, 1981 Major Economic Indicators, 1979-80. Seoul, 1980 Monthly Statistics of Korea. Seoul, 1980 Lew, H. J., New Life Korean-English, English-Korean Dictionary. 2 vols. Seoul, 1947-50 Martin, S. F. (ed.), A Korean-English Dictionary. Yale Univ. Press, 1968 Srivastava, M.P., The Korean Conflict: Search for Unification. New Delhi, 1982

NORTH

KOREA

Capital: Pyongyang Population: 20-55m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 1,170 (1984)

Chosun Minchu-chui Inmin Konghwa-guk

H I S T O R Y . In northern Korea the Russians, arriving on 8 Aug. 1945, one month ahead of the Americans, established a Communist-led 'Provisional Government'. The newly created Korean Communist Party merged in 1946 with the New National Party into the Korean Workers' Party. In July 1946 the KWP, with the remaining pro-Communist groups and non-party people, formed the United Democratic Patriotic Front. On 2 5 Aug. 1948 the Communists organized elections for a Supreme People's Assembly, both in Soviet-occupied North Korea (212 deputies) and in US-occupied South Korea (360 deputies, of whom a certain number went to the North and took their seats). A People's Democratic Republic was proclaimed on 9 Sept. 1948. Proposals for talks between North and South Korea on reunification began in 1980, but have repeatedly broken down. A series of North-South economic talks began in 1985, and an exchange of visits between divided families was held. Relations with the USSR have intensified since 1985. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . North Korea is bounded north by China, east by the sea of Japan, west by the Yellow Sea and south by South Korea, from which it is separated by a demilitarized zone of 1,262 sq km. Its area is 122,098 sq. km. Population estimate in 1986, 20-55m. Rate of population increase, 2-2% per annum. Death rate, 1979: 4-4 per mille. Marriage is discouraged before the age of 32 for men and 29 for women. Expectation of life in 1986 was 74 years. The capital is Pyongyang, with l -28m. inhabitants in 1981. Other large towns (with 1981 population): Hamhung (775,000); Chongjin (490,000); Kimchaek (formerly Songjin) (490,000); Wonsan (398,000); Sinuiju (305,000); Kaesong (259,000); Nampo (241,000); Haeju (213,000 in 1983). C L I M A T E . There is a warm temperate climate, though winters can be very cold in the north. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months. Pyongyang. Jan. 18°F (-7-8°C), July 75"F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 37" (916 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The political structure is based upon the Constitution of 27 Dec. 1972. The Constitution provides for a Supreme People's Assembly elected every 4 years by universal suffrage. Citizens of 17 years and over can vote and be elected. Elections were held in 1948, 1957, 1962, 1972, 1977,1982 and 2 Nov. 1986. At the latter it was claimed that 100% of the electorate voted for the list of single candidates presented. There are 655 deputies. The government consists of the Administration Council directed by the Central People's Committee (Secretary, Chi Chang Ik). In Nov. 1985 several Commissions were set up superordinate to ministries within the Council. In practice the country is ruled by the Korean Workers' (i.e., Communist) Party which elects a Central Committee which in turn appoints a Politburo. In March 1987 this was composed of: Marshal Kim II Sung, (General Secretary of the Party, President of the Republic, Chairman of the Central People's Committee, Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces)', Kim Jong II (Kim II Sung's son and designated successor) (Vice-President of the Republic)', O Jin U (Defence Minister) (The latter 3 constituting the Politburo's Presidium); Kang Song San; Li Jong Ok (VicePresident of the Republic)', Pak Sung Chul (Vice-President of the Republic)', Rim Chun Chu (Vice-President of the Republic); So Choi; Kim Yong Nam (Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Minister)', Kim Hwan; Yon Hyong Muk; O Guk Ryol; So Yun Sok; Li Gun Mo (Prime Minister)-, Ho Dam (Deputy Prime Minister)', Hong 774

NORTH

KOREA

775

Song Nam (First Deputy Prime Minister). There were also 10 candidate members. Ministers not full members of the Politburo include Kim Yun Hyok (Deputy Prime Ministerj; Yun Gi Jong (Finance); Chong Song Nam (Foreign Economic Affairs); Pak Nam Gi (Chairman, State Planning Commission); Kim Bok Sin; Choe Gwang, Chong Jun Gi, Kim Yun Hyok, Kim Chang Ju (Deputy Prime Ministers); Choe Jong Gun (Foreign Trade); Paek Hak Rim (Public Security). In 1981 the Party had some 2m. members. There are also the puppet religious Chongu and Korean Social Democratic Parties and various organizations combined in a Fatherland Front. National flag: Blue, red and blue horizontal stripes separated by narrow white bands. The red stripe bears a white circle within which is a red 5-pointed star. National anthem: 'A chi mun bin na ra i gang san' (Shine bright, o dawn, on this land so fair'). Words by Pak Se Yong; music by Kim Won Gyun. The country is divided into 13 administrative units: 4 cities (Pyongyang, Chongjin, Hamhung and Kaesong) and 9 provinces (capitals in brackets): South Pyongan (Nampo), North Pyongan (Sinuiju), Jagang (Kanggye), South Hwanghai (Haeju), North Hwanghai (Sariwon), North Kangwon (Wonsan), South Hamgyong (Hamheung), North Hamgyong (Chongjin), Yanggang (Hyesan). These are subdivided into 152 counties. Local government is administered by People's Assemblies at city/province, county and commune level. The latest elections were on 24 Feb. 1984. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory at the age of 16 for periods of 5 years in the Army and Navy and 3-4 years in the Air Force. In 1986 defence spending was 20% of GNP. North Korea adhered to the 1968 Non-Proliferation Treaty on nuclear weapons in 1985. Army. The Army is organized in 3 armoured, 5 motorized infantry, 24 infantry and 2 anti-aircraft divisions; 7 armoured, 9 infantry and 26 special forces brigades; 2 independent tank, 5 independent infantry and 5 river-crossing regiments; 250 artillery, 82 multiple-rocket-launcher and 5 surface-to-surface missile battalions. Equipment includes 3,100 T-34/-55/-62 and 175 Type-59 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 750,000, with 500,000 reserves. There is also a paramilitary militia of some 3m. men and a ranger commando force of 100,000. The militia (men of 18-40 not in the armed forces or reserves, single women of 18-30) is estimated at 3m. Navy. The Navy comprises 19 diesel-powered patrol submarines (15 ex-Chinese and indigenously-built and 4 ex-Soviet), 4 small frigates, 32 fast missile boats, 163 fast torpedo boats, 152 fast gunboats, 32 patrol vessels, 30 coastal patrol craft, 20 light gunboats, 6 medium landing ships, 25 utility landing craft, 20 mechanised landing craft, 100 small assault landing craft, 30 trawlers and auxiliaries, 2 exSoviet ocean tugs and 100 service craft. Up to 5 small submarines are reported as built locally with a dozen X-craft in commission. Personnel in 1987 totalled 31,000 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force had a total of about 854 combat aircraft and 55,000 personnel in 1987. Since 1985 the USSR has supplied between 30 and 50 supersonic MiG-23 interceptors and 30 SA3 surface-to-air missiles. Other equipment is believed to include about 160 supersonic MiG-21 interceptors, more than 100 F-6s (Chinese-built MiG-19s), 250 MiG-17s for ground attack and reconnaissance, 50 Su-7 fighter-bombers, 60 11-28 twin-jet light bombers, 250 AN-2 light transport aircraft, 40 Mi-4 and Mi-8 transport helicopters and 80 US Hughes 500-C helicopters. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

North Korea is a member of WHO and an observer at UN.

776

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KOREA

ECONOMY Planning. For previous plans see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1983-84. The second 7-year plan for 1978-84 gave priority to the fuel and mining industries, foreign trade development and transport, and an annual industrial growth rate of 12-2% was claimed. After a hiatus it was announced in Oct. 1986 that a third 7-year plan would run from 1987 to 1993. Budget (in 1 m. won) for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1981 20,479 20,479

1982 22,680 22,204

1983 24,384 24,018

1984 26,305 26,158

1985 27,439 27,329

1986 28,482 28,482

In 1986, 4,020m. won were spent on defence. 1984 expenditure (in lm. won): economy, 16,640; social welfare, 5,262; administration, 547. Personal taxation was abolished in 1974. Currency. The monetary unit is the won, divided into 100 jun. In March 1987, US$1 = 0-94 won\i\ = 1-44 won. Tourist rate: US$1 =2-26 won. Weights and Measures. While the metric system is in force traditional measures are in frequent use. The jungbo= 1 hectare; the ri=3,927 metres. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There are 3 thermal power stations and 4 hydro-electric plants. A nuclear power plant is being built with Soviet help. Output in 1985, was 40,000m. kwh. Installed capacity was 5-91m. kw in 1985. Hydro-electric potential exceeds 8m. kw. A hydro-electric plant and dam under construction on the Pukhan near Mount Kumgang has been denounced as a serious flood hazard by South Korea. Oil. An oil pipeline from China came on stream in 1976. Crude oil refining capacity was 80,000 barrels a year in 1981. Minerals. North Korea is rich in minerals. Estimated reserves in tonnes: Iron ore, 3,300m.; copper, 2-15m.; lead, 6m.; zinc, 12m.; coal, 11,990m.; uranium, 26m.; manganese, 6,500m. Oilwells went into production in 1957. Refining capacity in 1984: 4m. tonnes a year. 36m. tonnes of coal were mined in 1984. 16m. tonnes of iron ore were extracted in 1984. Agriculture. In 1982 there were 2 1 m . hectares of arable land, including 635,000 hectares of paddy fields. In 1982,38% of the population made a living from agriculture. Collectivization took place between 1954 and 1958.90% of the cultivated land is farmed by co-operatives, of which there were 3,700 in 1970. There is no private property in land; land belongs either to the State or to co-operatives, and it is intended gradually to transform the latter into the former. Livestock farming is mainly carried on by large state farms. There were 200 state farms in 1970. There is a large-scale tideland reclamation project. There were 37,600 km of irrigation canals in 1976. The 6-year plan (1971—76) extended irrigation so as to make possible 2 rice harvests a year. In 1982 there were 133,000 tractors (15 h.p. units). The technical revolution in agriculture (nearly 95% of ploughing, etc., is mechanized) has considerably increased the yield of grain (sown on 2-3m. jungbo of land); rice production, 1985, was 5 6m. tonnes, other grains, 4,895,000 tonnes. 1 • 85m. tonnes of potatoes were produced in 1985. Livestock, 1985:1 • lm. cattle, 2-8m. pigs, 18m. poultry. Forestry. Between 1961 and 1970,800,000 hectares were afforested. Fishery. Catch in 1983: l-6m. tonnes. There is a fishing fleet of 28,000 vessels including 19,000 motor vessels. Labour. The economically-active population was 9m. in 1982. Industrial workers make up some 40% of the work force. Average monthly wage, 1984:90 won.

NORTH

777

KOREA

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries were intensively developed by the Japanese, notably cotton spinning, hydro-electric power, cotton, silk and rayon weaving, and chemical fertilizers. Production (in tonnes) in 1982: Pig-iron, 4m.; crude steel, 4m.; rolled steel, 3-2m.; lead, 30,000; zinc, 140,000; copper, 48,000; ship-building, 400,000; chemical fertilizers, 620,000; chemicals, 20,000; synthetic resins, 90,000; cement (1984), 8,910; textiles (1984), 600m. metres; woven goods, 600m. metres; shoes, 40m. pairs; motor-cars, 15,000; TV sets (1984), 200,000; refrigerators, 10,000. 18,000 motor cars were manufactured in 1984. There is a steel complex at Kangson with an annual productive capacity of 4m. tonnes. Commerce. North Korea has 21 major trading partners. The largest have been USSR, China and Japan, but in Oct. 1986 the latter recognised North Korea's insolvency by paying export insurance to Japanese firms owed money by North Korea. Trade deficit was US$464-79m. in 1985. 51-5% of trade was with Communist countries (in 1981). In 1981 manufactured goods formed 59% of exports. In 1985 foreign debt was estimated at US$3,000m. The chief exports are metal ores and products, the chief imports machinery and petroleum products. Joint ventures with foreign firms have been permitted since 1984. Exports to the USSR in 1980(and 1981)were worth 284-2m. (250-3m.) roubles; imports from the USSR, 287 -9m. (278 -9m.) roubles. Total trade between North Korea and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 235 3,857

¡983 362 2,527

1984 456 2,935

1985 1,983 2,608

¡986 1,374 3,331

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 22,000 km of road in 1984, including 240 km of motorways. There were 180,000 motor cars in 1982. Railways. The two trunk-lines Pyongyang-Sinuiju and Pyongyang-Myongchon are both electrified, and the Pyongyang-Sariwon trunk is in course of electrification. The 'Wonra' line runs from Wonsan to Rajin and is electrified from Myongchon to Rajin and beyond to Tumangang. The Namdokchon-Toknam line was opened in 1983. Lines are under construction from Pukchong to Toksong, from Palwon to Kujang and Kanggye via Hyesan to Musan. The Hyesan-Samsok section of the latter opened to traffic in 1971. In 1984 there were 4,473 km of track, of which 2,706 km were electrified. In 1980, 87% of trains were hauled by electricity and 30-6m. tonnes were transported in 1969. A weekly service from Pyongyang to Beijing opened in 1983. Aviation. There are services to Moscow, Khabarovsk, Beijing and Hong Kong. An agreement envisaging a service from Pyongyang to Tokyo was signed in 1986. There are domestic flights from Pyongyang to Hamhung and Chongjin. Shipping. The leading ports are Chongjin and Hungnam (near Hamhung). Nampo, the port of Pyongyang, has been dredged and expanded. Pyongyang is connected to Nampo by railway and river. In 1983 the ocean-going merchant fleet numbered 56 vessels totalling 651,180 tonnes. The biggest navigable river is the Yalu, 698 km up to the Hyesan district. Post and Broadcasting. There is a central TV station at Pyongyang and stations at Kaesong and Mansudae. In 1982 there were some 200,000 television receivers. The central broadcasting station is Radio Pyongyang. There are several local stations and a station for overseas broadcasts. There were some 10,000 telephones in 1983. N e w s p a p e r s . T h e p a r t y n e w s p a p e r is Nodong

News). Circulation about 600,000.

(or Rodong)

Sinmun

(Workers' Daily

778

NORTH

KOREA

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, whose judges are elected by the Assembly for 3 years; provincial courts; and city or county people's courts. The procurator-general, appointed by the Assembly, has supervisory powers over the judiciary and the administration; the Supreme Court controls the judicial administration. Religion. According to the 1972 Constitution 'The people shall enjoy the freedom of religion as well as the freedom of anti-religious propaganda'. There are 3 religious organizations: The Buddhist League, the Chondoist Society and the Christians' League. Education. In 1975-76 the 10-year system of free compulsory universal technical education was extended to 11 years (1 pre-school year, 4 years primary education starting at the age of 6, followed by 6 years secondary). In 1980 there were some 10,000 11-year schools. In 1975-76 there were 5-6m. children in the 11-year system and nearly lm. students in higher education. In 1985 there were 216 institutes of higher education, including 3 universities—Kim II Sung University (founded 1946), Kim Chaek Technical University, Pyongyang Medical School—and an Academy of Sciences (founded 1952). In 1977-78 Kim II Sung University had some 17,000 students. Health. Medical treatment is free. In 1982 there were 1,531 general hospitals, 979 specialised hospitals and 5,414 clinics. There were 24 doctors and 130 hospital beds per 10,000 population in 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE Of North Korea to the United Nations Ambassador: Pak Gil Yon. Books of Reference An, T. S., North Korea in Transition. Westport, 1983-North Korea: a Political Handbook. Washington, 1983 Baik Bong, Kim ¡1 Sung: Biography. 3 vols. New York, 1969-70 Chung, C.-S., (ed.), North Korean Communism: A Comparative Analysis. Seoul, 1980 Kihl, Y. W „ Politics and Policies in Divided Korea. Boulder, 1984 Kim Han Gil, Modern History of Korea. Pyongyang, 1979 Kim Ii Sung, Works. Pyongyang, 1980-83 Kim, Y. S., (ed.), The Economy of the Korean Democratic People's Republic, 1945-1977. Kiel, 1979 Koh, B. C., The Foreign Policy Systems of North and South Korea. Berkeley, 1984 Park, J. K., and Kim, J.-G., The Politics of North Korea. Boulder, 1979 Scalapino, R. A., and Lee, C.-S., Communism in Korea. Part I: The Movement. Part II: The Society. Univ. of Calif. Press, 1972—and Kim, J-Y. (eds.), North Korea Today: Strategic and Domestic Issues. Univ. of California Press, 1983 Suh, D.-S., Korean Communism, 1945-1980: A Reference Guide to the Political System. Honolulu, 1981 Yang, S. C., Korea and Two Regimes: Kim II Sung and Park Chung Hee. Cambridge, Mass., 1981

KUWAIT

Capital: Kuwait Population: 1 -77m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$ 13,620 ( 1984)

Dowlat al Kuwait H I S T O R Y . The ruling dynasty was founded by Shaikh Sabah al-Owel, who ruled from 1756 to 1772. In 1899 the then ruler Shaikh Mubarak concluded a treaty with Great Britain wherein, in return for the assurance of British protection, he undertook not to alienate any of his territory without the agreement of Her Majesty's Government. In 1914 the British Government recognized Kuwait as an independent government under British protection. On 19 June 1961 an agreement reaffirmed the independence and sovereignty of Kuwait and recognized the Government of Kuwait's responsibility for the conduct of internal and external affairs; the agreement of 1899 was terminated and Her Majesty's Government expressed their readiness to assist the Government of Kuwait should they request such assistance. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Kuwait is bounded east by the Gulf, north and west by Iraq and south by Saudi Arabia, with an area of about 6,880 sq. miles (17,819 sq. km); the total population at the census of 1985 was 1,695,128, of which about 60% were non-Kuwaitis. Estimate (1986) 1 -77m. Over 78% speak Arabic, the official language, while 10% speak Kurdish and 4% Iranian (Farsi). English is also used as a second language. The country is divided into 4 govemorates: The capital (comprising Kuwait City, Kuwait's 9 islands and territorial and shared territorial waters), with an area of983 sq. km (population 167,750 at 1985 census); Hawalli, 620 sq. km (943,250); Ahmadi, 4,665 sq. km (304,662) and Jahra, 11,550 sq. km (279,466). The chief cities were (1980) Kuwait, the capital (60,525), and its suburbs Hawalli (152,402) and as-Salimiya (145,991). The Neutral Zone (3,560 sq. miles, 5,700 sq. km), jointly owned and administered by Kuwait and Saudi Arabia from 1922 to 1966, was partitioned between the two countries in May 1966, but the exploitation of the oil and other natural resources will continue to be shared. C L I M A T E . Kuwait has a dry, desert climate which is cool in winter but very hot and humid in summer. Rainfall is extremely light. Kuwait. Jan. 56°F (13 -5°C), July 99°F(36-6°C). Annual rainfall 5 " (125 mm). R U L E R . HH Shaikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah the 13 th Amir of Kuwait, succeeded on 31 Dec. 1977. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . In 1976 the Amir dissolved the Assembly and at the same time parts of the Constitution were suspended. Elections were held in Feb. 1985 for the 50-member National Assembly. The Cabinet in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: HRH Crown Prince Shaikh Saad al-Abdullah as Salim as Sabah. Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs: Shaikh Sabah al Ahmad al Jabir as Sabah. Finance and Economy: Jassim Mohammed al Kharafi. Education: Anwar Abdullah al Nuri. Waqfs and Islamic Affairs: Khaled Ahmed Saad al Jasir. Defence: Shaikh Salim as Sabah as Salim as Sabah. Justice, Legal and Administrative Affairs: Dari Abdullah al Uthman. Public Works: Abdel Rahman Ibrahim al Houti. Public Health: Dr Abdurrahman Abdullah al Awadi. Planning: Mohammed Soleiman Said Ali. Oil: Shaikh Ali al Khalifa al Adhibi as Sabah. Communications: Khalid Jumayan Salim al Jumayan. Electricity and Water: Mohammed as Saad Abdel Moshin al Rifai. Information: Shaikh Nasser Mohammed al Ahmad al Jabir as Sabah. Social Affairs and Labour: Jabir Mubarak 779

780

KUWAIT

al Hamad. Interior: Shaikh Nawaf al Ahmad al Jabir as Sabah. Trade and Industry: Faisal Abdel Razzaq al Khaled. There are 5 Ministers of State. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white, red, with a black trapezium based on the hoist. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 18 months. Army. Kuwait maintains a small, well-equipped and mobile army of 1 armoured and 2 mechanized infantry brigades and 1 surface-to-surface missile battalion. Equipment includes 70 Vickers Mk 1,10 Centurion and 160 Chieftain main battle tanks. Strength (1987) about 10,000 men. Navy. The flotillas comprise 6 fast missile craft, 2 larger fast missile gunboats (all eight West German-built); 40 coastal patrol craft built by Vosper/Thomycroft; 27 US-built very fast cutters; 10 general purpose launches; 6 Vosper Singapore-built landing craft, 4 other amphibious ships and 4 tugs. Six hovercraft are reportedly to be ordered, and probably fast attack craft, patrol vessels and minecountermeasures vessels. A Japanese firm was awarded the contract for the construction of a base to accommodate the planned expansion of the coastguard force. In 1987 personnel totalled 1,100 officers and men. Air Force. From a small initial combat force the Air Force has grown rapidly. It has 2 squadrons with 25 Mirage F1 -C fighters and 2 Mirage F1 -B 2-seat trainers; and 2 squadrons with 28 A-4KU/TA-4KU Skyhawk attack aircraft. Other equipment includes 2 DC-9 jet transports, 1 L-100-20 and 4 L-100-30 Hercules turboprop transports and 12 Hawk jet trainers (which replaced Strikemasters), 10 Puma, 6 Exocet missile-armed Super Puma and 23 missile-armed Gazelle helicopters. Hawk surface-to-air missiles are in service. Personnel strength (1987) about 2,000. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Kuwait is a member of UN, the Arab League, OPEC and OAPEC. ECONOMY Budget. The financial year runs 1 April-31 March. In 1983-84 revenue, KD 3,038m.; expenditure, KD 3,376m. Currency. The Kuwait dinar of 1,000fils replaced the Indian external rupee on 1 April 1961. In March 1987, £1 sterling = KD 0-441; US$1 = KD 0-277. Coins in circulation are, 1,5,10,20,50 and 100 fils and notes o f K D , 10,5,1,'A and'A. Banking. In addition to the Central Bank, 7 commercial banks (Bank of Kuwait and the Middle East, National Bank of Kuwait, Commercial Bank, Gulf Bank, Al-Ahli Bank, Burgan Bank and Bank of Bahrain and Kuwait) and 3 specialized banks (Credit and Savings Bank, Kuwait Real Estate Bank and Industrial Bank of Kuwait) operate in Kuwait. There is also the Kuwait Finance House, which is not subject to the control of the Central Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system was adopted in 1962. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. 18,694m. kwh. were produced in 1985. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC) was set up in 1980 to reorganize, integrate and develop the oil sector. The functions of the operating oil companies have been reallocated: Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) specializes in exploration, drilling and production in all areas; Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC) is responsible for refining, local marketing and gas liquefaction operations; Kuwait Oil Tankers Company (KOTC) is in charge of transporting crude oil, liquefied gas and oil products to various world markets; Petrochemical Industries

781

KUWAIT

Company is in charge of use of hydrocarbon resources to set up diverse petrochemical industries, and the International Marketing Department of KPC markets and sells oil and gas worldwide. Oil revenues in 1983-84 were KD2,787-6m. Crude oil production in 1986, 70 -3m. tonnes. As well as selling crude oil, Kuwait is refining, marketing refined products, and prospecting and producing abroad. Production of petroleum products in 1984,24,266,000 tonnes. Gas. Production (1983) 170,200m. cu. ft. Agriculture. Cultivable land area is 8-6%. A five-year development plan was initiated in 1981-82 to increase vegetable growing areas with the aim of meeting 40% of projected domestic demand. Major crops (production, 1985, in tonnes) are melons (2,000), tomatoes (15,000), onions (2,000), dates (2,000), radishes, clover. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 160,000; sheep, 600,000; goats, 320,000; poultry, 8m. Fisheries. Shrimp fishing is becoming one of the important non-oil industries. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries, apart from oil, include boat building, fishing, food production, petrochemicals, gases and construction. The manufacture or import of alcoholic drinks is prohibited. Labour. In 1980 the labour force totalled 813,000, with 492,000 employed. Commerce. The port of Kuwait formerly served mainly as an entrepot for goods for the interior, for the export of skins and wool, and for pearl fishing. Entrepot trade continues but, with the development of the oil industry, is declining in importance. Pearl fishing is now on a small scale. Dhows and launches of traditional construction are still built. In 1982 total imports were valued at KD2,098m.; exports, KD3,261-7m. Oil accounted for 80% of exports at KD2,610-2m. Non-oil exports (of which major domestic exports included chemical fertilizers, ammonia, metal pipes, shrimp, building materials and other chemicals) were KD651 -5m., with re-exports representing 73% ofthe total. Total trade between Kuwait and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK1 E x p o r t s a n d re-exports from U K 1

1982 1983 104,793 67,281 333,247 333,273 Including oil.

1984 141,606 301,520

1985 156,912 347,915

1986 58,517 300,586

Tourism. There were 220,000 visitors in 1980. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 3,073 km and the number of vehicles was 718,000. Aviation. There were 29,000 scheduled and unscheduled flights to and from Kuwait International Airport in 1983, carrying about 3m. passengers and 72,000 tonnes of freight. Kuwait Airways flew over 5,000 flights in 1983, carrying about 1 • 5m. passengers. Forty airlines operate at the airport. Shipping. The Kuwaiti merchant fleet in 1982 comprised 217 vessels (of over 100 tonnes) with a total gross tonnage of 2,014,379. The oil terminal is at Mina al-Ahmadi (receiving 3,400 oil tankers a year), while the main ports for other traffic are at Shuwaikh, Doha and Shuaiba. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1984), 419,200 telephones and there is a broadcasting and a television station. In 1985 there were 580,000 TV receivers and 750,000 radios. Cinemas. In 1984 there were 14 cinemas, including 2 drive-ins. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 5 daily newspapers in Arabic and 2 in English, with a combined circulation of about 418,000.

782

KUWAIT

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1960 Kuwait adopted a unified judicial system covering all levels of courts. These are: Courts of Summary Justice, Courts of the First Instance, Supreme Court of Appeal, Court of Cassation, Constitutional Court and State Security Court. Islamic Sharia is a major source of legislation. Religion. In 1980 about 78% of the population were Sunni Moslems, 14% Shia Moslems, 6% Christians and 2% others. Education. In 1983-84 there were 346,350 pupils in 485 government schools: 21,502 in kindergartens, 130,073 in primary schools, 120,325 in intermediate schools and 74,450 in secondary schools. There were also (1983-84) 87,000 pupils in 72 Arab and foreign private schools. In 1983-84 there were 2,378 students in the Teachers' Training Institute, 1,186 in the Institute of Applied Technology, 1,500 in the Religious Institute, 2,603 in the Commercial Institute and 340 in the Clinical Institute. The University of Kuwait had 14,000 students in 1984. Health. Medical services are free to all residents. There were (1983) 15 hospitals with 6,952 beds in the State and 54 clinics and health centres. The Ministry of Health employed 2,872 doctors and 8,926 nursing staffin 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Kuwait in Great Britain (45 Queen's Gate, London, SW7) Ambassador: Ghazi Mohammed Amin Al-Rayes (accredited 12 Feb. 1981). Of Great Britain in Kuwait (Arabian Gulf St., Kuwait) Ambassador: Sir Peter Moon, KCVO, CMG. Of Kuwait in the USA (2940 Tilden St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Shaikh Saud Nasir Al-Sabah. Of the USA in Kuwait (PO Box 77, Safat, Kuwait) Ambassador: Anthony Quainton. Of Kuwait to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohammad A. Abulhasan. Books of Reference Arabian Year Book. Kuwait, 1978 Annual Statistical Abstract of Kuwait. Kuwait The Oil of Kuwait: Facts and Figures. 3 r d e d . Kuwait G o v e r n m e n t Press, 1970 Sabah, Y. S. F., The Oil Economy of Kuwait. London, 1980

LAOS

Capital: Vientiane Population: 3 -67m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$220 ( 1984)

HISTORY. The Lao People's Democratic Republic was founded on 2 Dec. 1975. Until that date Laos was a Kingdom, once called Lanxang (the land of a million elephants). In 1893 Laos became a French protectorate and in 1907 acquired its present frontiers. In 1941 French authority was suppressed by the Japanese. When the Japanese withdrew in 1945 an independence movement known as Lao Issara (Free Laos) set up a government under Prince Phetsarath, the Viceroy of Luang Prabang. This government collapsed with the return of the French in 1946 and the leaders of the movement fled to Thailand. Under a new Constitution of 1947 Laos became a constitutional monarchy under the Luang Prabang dynasty, and in 1949 became an independent sovereign state within the French Union. Most of the Lao Issara leaders returned to Laos but a few remained in dissidence under Prince Souphanouvong, who allied himself with the Vietminh and subsequently formed the 'Pathet Lao' (Lao State) rebel movement. The war in Laos from 1953 to 1973 between the Royal Lao Government (supported by American bombing and Thai mercenaries) and the Patriotic Front Pathet Lao (supported by large numbers of North Vietnamese troops) ended in 1973 when an agreement and a protocol were signed. A provisional coalition government was formed by the two sides in 1974. However, after the communist victories in neighbouring Vietnam and Cambodia in April 1975, the Pathet Lao took over the running of the whole country, although maintaining the façade of a coalition. On 29 Nov. 1975 HM King Savang Vatthana signed a letter of abdication and the People's Congress proclaimed a People's Democratic Republic of Laos on 2 Dec. For the history of Pathet Lao and the military intervention of the Vietminh, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 7 1 - 7 2 , p p . 1 1 2 6 - 2 8 a n d 1 9 7 5 - 7 6 ed., p p . 1115-16.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Laos is a landlocked country of about 91,400 sq. miles (236,800 sq. km) bordered on the north by China, the east by Vietnam, the south by Cambodia and the west by Thailand and Burma. Apart from the Mekong River plains along the border of Thailand, the country is mountainous, particularly in the north, and in places densely forested. The population (census, 1985) was 3,584,803 (1,757,115 male); estimate (1986) 3-67m. TTie most heavily populated areas are the Mekong River plains by the Thailand border. Otherwise, tne population is sparse and scattered, particularly in the northern provinces, and the eastern part of the country has been depopulated by war. The majority of the population is officially divided into 4 groups: about 56% Lao-Lum (Valley-Lao), 34% Lao-Theung (Lao of the mountain sides); and 9% Lao-Soung (Lao of the mountain tops), who comprise the Meo and Yaoe. Other minorities include Vietnamese, Chinese, Europeans, Indians and Pakistanis. The Lao-Lum and Lao-Tai belong to the Lao branch of the Tai peoples, who migrated into South-East Asia at the time of the Mongol invasion of South China. The valley Lao are Buddhists, following the Hinayana (Theravada) form. The majority of the Lao-Theungma diverse group consisting of many tribes but mostly belonging to the Mon-Khmer group—are animists. The Meo and Yaoe live in northern Laos. Far greater numbers live in both North Vietnam and China, having migrated over the last century. Their religions have strong Confucian and animistic features but some are Christians. There are 16 provinces. Compared with other parts of Asia, Laos has few towns. The administrative capital and largest town is Vientiane, with a population of census (1985) 377,409. Other important towns (1973) are Luang Prabang, 44,244; Pakse, 44,860, in the extreme south, and Savannakhet, 50,690. 783

784

LAOS

Language: Lao is the official language of the country. The liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism is Pali. C L I M A T E . A tropical monsoon climate, with high temperatures throughout the year and very heavy rains from May to Oct. Vientiane. Jan. 70°F (21 • 1°C), July 8rF(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 6 9 " ( 1,715 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 2 Dec. 1975 a national congress of 264 people's representatives met and declared Laos a People's Democratic Republic. A People's Supreme Council was appointed to draw up a new Constitution. Acting President: Phoumi Vongvichit. Prime Minister, Secretary General ofthe Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party: Kaysone Phomvihane. First Deputy Prime Minister, Deputy Secretary General of the Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party: Nouhak Phounsavanh. The Politbureau of the LPRP comprises the above 3 plus: Phoumi Vongvichit Gen. Phoune Sipraseuth 1 (Minister of Foreign Affairs), Gen. Khamtai Siphandon 1 (Minister of National Defence, Supreme Commander of the Lao People's Army) and Sisomphon Lovansay (Vice-President of the Supreme People's Assembly). Ministers not in the Politbureau include Saly Vongkhamsao 1 (Chairman of Stale Planning Committee). 1

Vice-Chairman of the Council of Ministers.

There are 4 deputy prime ministers. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, blue, red, with blue of double width with in the centre a large white disc. National anthem: Peng Sat Lao (Hymn of the Lao People). Provincial Administration: All provincial administration is in the hands of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Orders come from the Central Committee through a series of 'People's Revolutionary Committees' at the province, town and village level. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 18 months. Army. The Army is organized in 4 infantry and 1 artillery divisions; 7 independent infantry regiments and 65 independent infantry companies; and 5 artillery and 9 anti-aircraft battalions. Equipment includes 30 T-34, T-55 main battle tanks. Strength ( 1987) about 50,000. Navy. There were nominally 4 squadrons comprising 42 small river patrol craft of 6 different types, of which 14 were in commission and 28 in reserve; but the situation is very uncertain. Some 70 river patrol boats were reportedly transferred from Vietnam. Naval personnel (1987) totalled about 1,700 officers and ratings. Air Force. Since 1975, the Air Force has received aircraft from the USSR, including 40 MiG-21 fighters, 6 An-24 and 3 An-26 turboprop transports and 10 Mi-8 helicopters. They may be supplemented by a few of the C-47 and C-123 transports, and UH-1 Iroquois, supplied by the USA to the former régime. Personnel strength, about 2,000 in 1987. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Laos is a member of UN. Aid. Foreign aid in 1983 (estimate), was US$50m. ECONOMY Planning. Following the completion of the original 3-year Development Plan 1978-80, a 5-year plan ( 1981-85), which was basically a list of investment projects, was drawn up by the government with Soviet assistance.

785

LAOS

Budget. Total revenue 1983, K.3,496m.; total expenditure, K.6,695m. Currency. The currency is the kip. 1 kip = 100 alt. Coinage, 1, 2 and 5 alt, banknotes, 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 kip. The official rate of exchange was (March 1987) K . 3 5 = U S $ l ; £ l = K55-58. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Only a few towns in Laos have an electricity service. The N a m Ngum D a m situated about 45 miles north of Vientiane was inaugurated in Dec. 1971 with an initial installed capacity of 30,000 kw. and a planned ultimate capacity of 150,000 kw. The generators of Phase II of the scheme were brought into operation in 1978, giving an installed capacity of 110,000 kw. The installation of a fifth generator (Phase III) was due for completion in 1984. Transmission lines to Vientiane and to Thailand have been constructed. Production (1985) 905m. kwh. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Various minerals are found, but only tin is mined to any significant extent at present, and only at 2 mines. Production of tin concentrates (1983) 352 tonnes. There are extremely rich deposits of high-quality iron in Xieng Khouang province and potash near Vientiane. Agriculture. The chief products are rice (production in 1985, l-4m. tonnes; 1978, estimate, 420,000 tonnes), maize (production 45,000 tonnes), tobacco (5,000 tonnes), cotton (8,000 tonnes), citrus fruits, sticklack, benjohn tea and in the Boloven plateau coffee (5,000 tonnes), potatoes, cardamom and cinchara. Opium is produced but its manufacture is controlled by the state. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 615,000; buffaloes, l-2m.; horses, 40,000; pigs, 1 -45m.; goats, 65,000; poultry, 6m. Forestry. The forests, which cover over 50% of the country, produce valuable woods such as teak. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry is limited to beer, cigarettes, matches, soft drinks, plastic bags, saw-mills, rice-mills, weaving, pottery, distilleries, ice, plywood, bricks, etc. but most factories have been working at limited capacity in recent years. Plans for increased production are limited by lack of funds and skilled machine operators. Commerce. In 1981 imports (estimate) amounted to US$121m. and exports to US$48m. The main imports were food and beverages, petroleum products and agricultural and other machinery. The chief supplying countries were Thailand and Japan. The main exports were timber, coffee and electricity. Total trade between Laos and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982

355 880

1983

56 626

1984

238 721

1985

6 523

1986

150 1,460

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 the national road network, consisted of 1,300 km paved, 5,300 km gravel and 3,600 km earth roads. Railways. There is no railway in Laos, but the Thai railway system extends to Nongkhai, on the Thai bank of the Mekong, which is connected by ferry with Thadeua about 12 miles east of Vientiane. Aviation. Lao Aviation provides scheduled domestic air services linking major towns in Laos and international services to Bangkok, Phnom Penh and Hanoi. Thai Airways, Aeroflot and Air Vietnam provide flights from Bangkok, Hanoi, Rangoon, Ho Chi Min City and Moscow. Shipping. The river Mekong and its tributaries are an important means of trans-

786

LAOS

port, but rapids, waterfalls and narrow channels often impede navigation and make trans-shipments necessary. Telecommunications. There is a radio network in Laos as well as a limited TV service with the main station at Vientiane. There were (1984) about 225,000 radio and 30,000 television receivers. A ground station constructed near Vientiane under the Soviet aid programme enables USSR television programmes to be received in the capital. It also provides a telephone service to Hanoi and Eastern Europe. In 1974 there were 5,506 telephones in Laos. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. The majority of the population is Buddhist (Hinayana) but 34% follow tribal religions. Education. In 1982-83 school year there were 6,525 elementary schools (481,000 pupils); 420 secondary schools (65,000 pupils); 60 senior high schools (17,000 pupils); and 5 5 vocational schools ( 13,000 students). Literacy has improved from 40% in 1975,65% in 1978to85%in 1981 according to official reports. There is 1 teachers' training college, 1 college of education, 1 school of medicine, 1 agricultural college and an advanced school of Pali. Sisavangvong University in Vientiane (founded 1958) had 1,600 students in 1984, and there are regional technical colleges in Luang Prabang, Savannakhét and Champasak. Health. In 1982 there were about 40 qualified doctors and 8,729 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES The Embassy in London closed on 22 July 1985. Of Great Britain in Laos (Rue Pandit J. Nehru, Vientiane) Ambassador: Derek Tonkin, CMG (resides in Bangkok). Of Laos in USA (2222 S St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Chargè d'Affaires: Bounkeut Sangsomsak. Of USA in Laos (Rue Bartholome, Vientiane) Chargé d'Affaires: Theresa Tuli. Of Laos to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Kithong Vongsay. Books of Reference Deuve, J., Le royaume du Laos 1949-1965. Paris, 1984 Stuart-Cox, M., Contemporary Laos. Univ. ofQueensland Press, 1983 Zasloff, J. J., The Pathet Lao: Leadership and Organization. Lexington, Toronto and London, 1973

LEBANON al-Jumhouriya al-Lubnaniya

Capital: Beirut Population: 3 - 5m. (1984) GNPper capita: No reliable figures available.

H I S T O R Y . After 20 years' French mandatory regime, Lebanon was proclaimed independent at Beirut on 26 Nov. 1941. On 27 Dec. 1943 an agreement was signed between representatives of the French National Committee of Liberation and of Lebanon, by which most of the powers and capacities exercised hitherto by France were transferred as from 1 Jan. 1944 to the Lebanese Government. The evacuation of foreign troops was completed in Dec. 1946. In early May 1958 the opposition to President Chamoun, consisting principally (though not entirely) of Moslem pro-Nasserist elements, rose in insurrection; and for 5 months the Moslem quarters of Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon and the northern Bekaa were in insurgent hands. On 15 July the US Government acceded to President Chamoun's request and landed a considerable force of army and marines who reestablished the authority of the Government. Israeli attacks on Lebanon resulted from the presence and activities of armed Palestinian resistance units. Internal problems, which had long been latent in Lebanese society, were exacerbated by the politically active Palestinian population and by the deeply divisive question of the Palestine problem itself. An attempt to regulate the activities of Palestinian fighters through the secret Cairo agreement of 1969 was frustrated both by the inability of the Government to enforce its provisions and by an influx of battle-hardened fighters expelled from Jordan in Sept. 1970. A further attempt to control the guerrillas in 1973 also failed. From March 1975, Lebanon was beset by civil disorder causing considerable loss of life and economic life was brought to a virtual standstill. By Nov. 1976 however, large scale fighting had been brought to an end by the intervention of the Syrian-dominated Arab Deterrent Force which ensured sufficient security to permit Lebanon to establish quasi-normal conditions under President Sarkis. Large areas of the country, however, remained outside Governmental control, including West Beirut which was the scene of frequent conflict between opposing militia groups. The South, where the Arab Deterrent Force could not deploy, remained unsettled and subject to frequent Israeli attacks. In March 1978 there was an Israeli invasion following a Palestinian attack inside Israel. Israeli troops eventually withdrew in June, but instead of handing over all their positions to U N Peacekeeping Forces they installed Israeli-controlled Lebanese militia forces in border areas. Severe disruption continued in the South. In June 1982, following on the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador in London, Israeli forces once again invaded, this time in massive strength, and swept through the country, eventually laying siege to and devastatingly bombing Beirut. In Sept. Palestinian forces, together with the PLO leadership, evacuated Beirut. On 23 Aug. 1982 Bachir Gemayel was elected President of Lebanon. On 14 Sept. he was assassinated. His brother, Amin Gemayel, was elected in his place on 21 Sept. Since then there has been a state o f ' n o peace, no war' with intermittent clashes between the various de facto forces on the ground. Israeli forces started a complete withdrawal on 16 Feb. 1985. A peace agreement was signed by the leaders of the Druse, Amal and (Christian) Lebanese Forces to end the civil war on 28 Dec. 1985 but its terms were not implemented. Syrian forces were acting as a peace keeping force between rival militias in early 1987. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Lebanon is a mountainous country about 135 miles long and varying between 20 and 35 miles wide, bounded on the north and east by Syria, on the west by the Mediterranean and on the south by Israel. Between 787

788

LEBANON

the two parellel mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon lies the fertile Bekaa Valley. About one-half of the country lies at an altitude of over 3,000 ft. The area of Lebanon is estimated at 10,452 sq. km (4,036 sq. miles) and the population at 3 • 5m. (1984, estimate) but there are no reliable estimates. The principal towns, with estimated population (1980), are: Beirut (the capital), 702,000; Tripoli 175,000; Zahle, 46,800; Saida (Sidon), 24,740; Tyre, 14,000. The official language is Arabic. French and, increasingly, English are widely spoken in official and commercial circles. C L I M A T E . A Mediterranean climate with short, warm winters and long, hot and rainless summers, with high humidity in coastal areas. Rainfall is largely confined to the winter months and can be torrential, with snow on high ground. Beirut. Jan. 55°F(13°C),July8rF(27°C). Annual rainfall 35-7" (893 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Lebanon is an independent republic. The first Constitution was established under the French Mandate on 23 May 1926. It has since been amended in 1927, 1929,1943 (twice) and 1947. It is a written constitution based on the classical separation of powers, with a President, a single chamber elected by universal adult suffrage, and an independent judiciary. The Executive consists of the President and a Prime Minister and Cabinet appointed by him. The system is, however, adapted to the peculiar communal balance on which Lebanese political life depends. This is done by the electoral law which allocates deputies according to the confessional distribution of the population, and by a series of constitutional conventions whereby, e.g., the President is always a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Moslem and the Speaker of the Chamber a Shia Moslem. There is no highly developed party system other than on religious confessional lines. Former Presidents of the Republic: Bishara al-Khuri, 1 Jan. 1944-23 Sept. 1952 Camille C h a m o u n , 23 Sept. 1952-23 Sept. 1958 G e n . Fouad Chehab, 23 Sept. 1958-23 Sept. 1964 Charles Helou, 23 Sept. 1964-17 J u n e 1970

Suleiman Frangie, 17 June 1970-13 Sept. 1976 Elias Sarkis, 13 Sept. 1976-23 Sept. 1982 Bachir Gemayel, 23 Aug. 1982-14 Sept. 1982 (assassinated)

President of the Republic: Amin Gemayel (elected on 21 Sept. 1982 and took office on 23 Sept.). On 1 May 1984, a new government was formed and aims to achieve constitutional and power-sharing reforms on the basis of a wide measure of consensus. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Oct. 1986: Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs: Rashid Karami. Labour and Education: Dr Selim Hoss. Public Works, Transport and Tourism: Walid Jumblatt. Posts and Communications, Health and Social Affairs: Joseph Hashem. Finance, Housing and Co-operatives: Camille Chamoun. Justice, Hydroelectricity, Minister of State for Reconstruction and for Southern Lebanon: Nabih Berri. Defence, Agriculture: Adel Osseirane. Information: Joseph Skaff. interior: Abdullah al-Rassi. Economy, Trade and Industry: Victor Kassir. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, red, with the white of double width and bearing in the centre a green cedar of Lebanon. National anthem: Kulluna lil watan lil 'ula lil* alam (words by Rashid Nachleh, tune by Mitri El-Murr). Local government: The 6 governorates (including the city of Beirut) are subdivided into 26 districts. DEFENCE. Army. The strength of the Army was about 15,000 in 1987 but it is in a state of flux

LEBANON

789

and most of its units are well below strength. Its equipment includes M-48 and AMX-13 tanks and Saladin armoured cars. In addition, there are numerous private militias under arms in Lebanon, divided between the Maronite-Christian factions, notably the Phalange of some 10,000 men, and the Muslim-Leftist groups, such as the Druze Free Lebanese Militia led by Walid Jumblatt. Navy. The small flotilla includes 4 old French-built patrol boats (replacement craft to be acquired), 2 new French-built landing craft and 8 coastal patrol craft (2 British-built). Personnel in 1987 totalled 450 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force had (1987) about 1,100 men and 50 aircraft. In addition to 6 Hunter jet fighter-bombers, it has (in storage) 9 Mirage III supersonic fighters and 1 Mirage 2-seat trainer. Other aircraft include 1 Dove light transport, 11 Alouette II and III, 4 Gazelle, 12 Puma and 12 Agusta-Bell 212 helicopters, and 10 Fouga Magister jet and 5 piston-engined Bulldog trainers. Serviceability of most aircraft is low because of the troubled national political situation. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Lebanon is a member of U N and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. Since the civil war a Development and Reconstruction Council has been responsible for co-ordinating all efforts. Budget. The budget for 198 5 provides for a total expenditure of £Leb. 10,000m. Currency. The Lebanese pound, divided into 100 piastres, is issued by the Banque du Liban, which commenced operations on 1 April 1964. There is a fluctuating official rate of exchange, fixed monthly (March 1987: £Leb. 165-23 = £1 sterling; £Leb.l06 = US$1), this in practice is used only for the calculation of ad-valorem customs duties on Lebanese imports and for import statistics. For other purposes the free market is used. Banking. Beirut was an important international financial centre, and there were about 80 banks registered with the central bank in 1979. As a result ofthe civil war, Beirut has lost much of its status as an international and regional banking centre; in general only local offices for banks remain. Weights and Measures. The use of the metric system is legal and obligatory throughout the whole o f t h e country. In outlying districts the former weights and measures may still be in use. They are: 1 okiya = 0-47 lb.; 6 okiyas= 1 oke = 2-82 lb.; 2 okes = 1 rottol= 5-64 lb.; 200 okes= 1 kantar. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power production (1985) was 13,761m. kwh. Supply 110 and 120 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. There are 2 oil refineries in Lebanon, one at Tripoli, which refines oil brought by ship from Iraq, and the other at Sidon, which refines oil brought from Saudi Arabia by a pipeline owned by the Trans-Arabian Pipeline Co. These refineries were not fully active in 1987 and the country depends on imports. Minerals. Iron ore exists but is difficult to work. Other minerals known to exist are iron pyrites, copper, bituminous shales, asphalt, phosphates, ceramic clays and glass sand; but the available information is of doubtful value. Agriculture. Lebanon is essentially an agricultural country, although owing to its physical character only about 38% of the total area of the country is at present cultivated. The estimated yield (in 1,000 tonnes) of the main crops in 1985 was as follows: Citrus fruits, 295; apples, 117; grapes, 165; potatoes, 120; sugar-beet, 80; wheat, 15; bananas, 13; olives, 20.

790

LEBANON

Livestock (estimated, 1985): Goats, 450,000; sheep, 135,000; cattle, 45,000; pigs, 20,000; horses, 2,000; donkeys, 10,000; mules, 4,000. Forestry. The forests of the past have been denuded by exploitation. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry suffered badly during the civil war. The manufacturing industry was small but had doubled in size in the 10 years before the war. As a result of the war some industrial concerns have closed but others are working at reduced capacity. Commerce. Foreign as well as local wholesale and retail trade is the principal source of income in Lebanon. Because of the protectionist policies followed in some neighbouring countries, this sector has been declining, the sectors to gain being those of banking, real estate, government and services. Reliable trade figures have not been published in recent years. Total trade between Lebanon and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): l m ] m }%4 ] m ] m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

24,237 67,640

11,521 81,435

6,859 76,223

7,888 52,751

9,845 55,867

Tourism. Receipts from tourism were £Leb.573m. in 1973; since 1975 they have been negligible, this sector having suffered badly as a result of the war. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The main roads in Lebanon are not good by international standards. The surface is normally of asphalt and they are well maintained in normal times. Roads between Beirut and the provinces were (1984) controlled by various militia. In 1985 there were about 300,000 cars and taxis. Railways. There are 3 railway lines in Lebanon, all operated by the Office des Chemins de Fer de I'Etat Libanais (CFL): (1) Nakoura-Beirut-Tripoli (standard gauge); the Nakoura-Sidon section has been idle since the establishment of Israel: (2) a narrow-gauge line running from Beirut to Riyak in the Bekaa Valley (now closed) and thence to Damascus, Syria; (3) a standard-gauge line from Tripoli to Homs and Aleppo in Syria, providing access to Ankara and Istanbul. From Homs a branch of the CFL line extends south and re-enters Lebanon, terminating at Riyak. Total length 417 km. Apart for a short section near Beirut these lines were idle in 1984-85 because of insecurity and large sections needed repairs. Aviation. Beirut International Airport is used by a few international airlines. There are 2 national airlines, Middle East Airlines/Air Liban and Trans-Mediterranean Airways. Over the past few years, Beirut airport was closed several times. Shipping. Beirut is the largest port, followed by Tripoli, Jounieh and Sidon. Illegal ports have mushroomed on the coast, very much reducing the legal ports' activity. N o reliable figures about tonnage were available in 1984. Post and Broadcasting. There is an automatic telephone system in Beirut which is being extended to other parts of the country. There are no telegraph, postal or telephone communications with Israel. Number of telephones (1986), 150,000. The state radio transmits in Arabic, French, English and Armenian. Tete-Liban, which is 50% government-owned was the only television station in operation in 1984. There were 450,000 TV sets in 1986 and 1 • 5m. radios. Cinemas (1973). There were 161 cinemas with a seating capacity of about 77,400. Newspapers (1985). There were about 30 daily newspapers in Arabic, 2 in French, 1 in English and 4 in Armenian. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. Probably less than half the population are Christians, some of whom have been indigenous since the earliest time of Christianity. The Christians include

LEBANON

791

the Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenians, Greek and Roman Catholics, Armenian Catholics and the Protestants. Moslems include the Sunnis, the Shiites and the Druzes. No reliable figures on the numbers of these communities are available. Most Jews left the country after the 1975 disturbances. Education. Government schools in 1984 comprise primary and secondary schools. There were also private primary and secondary schools. There are also 5 universities, namely the Lebanese (State) University, the American University of Beirut, the French University of St Joseph (founded in 1875), the Arab University, a branch of Alexandria, University and Beirut University College. The French Government runs the École Supérieure de Lettres and the Centre d'Études Mathématiques. The Maronite monks run the University of the Holy Spirit at Kaslik. The Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts includes schools of architecture, art, music, political and social science. Health. There are several government-run hospitals, and many private ones. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Lebanon in Great Britain (21 Kensington Palace Gdns., London, W8 4QM) Ambassador:Gen. Ahmad al-Hajj (accredited 25 May 1983). Of Great Britain in Lebanon (Shamma Bldg., Ras Beirut) Ambassador: J. W. D. Gray, CMG. Of Lebanon in the USA (2560 28th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Abdallah Bouhabib. Of the USA in Lebanon Ambassador: John Kelly. Of Lebanon to the United Nations Ambassador: Rachid Fakhoury. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Import and export figures are produced by the Conseil Supérieur des Douanes. The Service de Statistique Généralé (M. A. G. Ayad, Chef du Service) publishes a quarterly bulletin (in French and Arabie) covering a wide range of subjects, including foreign trade, production statistics and estimates o f t h e national income. Cobban, H., The Making ofModern Lebanon. London, 1985 Deeb, M., The Lebanese Civil War. New York, 1980 Gilmour, D., Lebanon: The Fractured Country. Oxford and New York, 1983 Gordon, D. C., The Republic of Lebanon: Nation in Jeopardy. London, 1983 Khairallah,S., Lebanon. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1979 LafTin, J., The War of Desperation: Lebanon 1982-85. London. 1985 Rabanovich, I., The Warfor Lebanon, 1970-1983. Cornell Univ. Press, 1984 Randal, J., The Tragedy of Lebanon. London, 1982 National Library: Dar el Kutub, Parliament Sq., Beirut.

LESOTHO

Capital: Maseru Population: 1 '47m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$470 ( 1983)

H I S T O R Y . Basutoland first received the protection of Britain in 1868 at the request of Moshoeshoe I, the first paramount chief. In 1871 the territory was annexed to the Cape Colony, but in 1884 it was restored to the direct control of the British Government through the High Commissioner for South Africa. On 4 Oct. 1966 Basutoland became an independent and sovereign member of the Commonwealth under the name of the Kingdom of Lesotho. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Lesotho, an enclave within the Republic of South Africa is bounded on the west by the Orange Free State, on the north by the Orange Free State and Natal, on the east by Natal, and on the south by Transkei. The altitude varies from 1,500 to 3,482 metres. The area is 11,720 sq. miles (30,355 sq. km). Lesotho is a purely African territory, and the few European residents are government officials, traders, missionaries and artisans. The census taken on 12 April 1976 showed a total population of 1,216,815 persons. Estimate (1984) 1 -47m. The capital is Maseru (population, 1976,45,000). The official languages are Sesotho and English. C L I M A T E . A healthy and pleasant climate, with variable rainfall, but averaging 2 9 " (725 mm) a year over most of the country. The rain falls mainly in the summer months of Oct. to April, while the winters are dry and may produce heavy frosts in lowland areas and frequent snow in the highlands. Temperatures in the lowlands range from a maximum of 90°F (32-2°C) in summer to a minimum of 20°F (-6-7°C) in winter. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Lesotho is a constitutional monarchy with HM the King as ceremonial Head of State. Parliament consists of the National Assembly (60 members elected by adult suffrage) and a Senate (22 principal chiefs and 11 members nominated by the King). The elections of 27 Jan. 1970 were declared invalid on 31 Jan. Parliamentary rule, with a National Assembly of nominated members, was reintroduced in April 1973. Chief Jonathan was deposed in a bloodless military coup on 20 Jan. 1986. Ruler: Constantine Bereng Seeiso Motlotlehi Moshoeshoe II, Paramount Chief of the Sotho people since 1940, became King at independence on 4 Oct. 1966. Chairman of the Military Council: Maj.-Gen. Justin Lekhanya. The College of Chiefs settles the recognition and succession of Chiefs and adjudicates cases of inefficiency, criminality and absenteeism among them. National flag: Diagonally white over blue over green with the white of double width charged with a brown Basotho shield in the upper hoist. Local Government. The country is divided into 10 districts as follows: Maseru, Qacha's Nek, Mokhotlong, Leribe, Butha-Buthe, Teyateyaneng, Mafeteng, Mohale's Hoek, Quthing, Thaba-Tseka. Each district is subdivided into wards, most of which are presided over by hereditary chiefs allied to the Moshoeshoe family. DEFENCE Police Mobile Unit. Formed in 1978, to facilitate deployment of men and equipment to less accessible regions, this small air wing has 2 Skyvan twin-turboprop transports, 1 Cessna 152 liaison aircraft, and a total of 7 Bell 412, BO 105, 792

LESOTHO

793

BK-117, Mi-2 and Bell 47 helicopters. The Skyvans are available also as ambulance aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Lesotho is a member of UN, OAU, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A third 5-year plan (1980-85), to exploit natural resources and promote investment in industry. Envisaged investment US$915m. Budget. Expenditure (1982-83) M269m.; revenue, M216m. The major items of expenditure in 1983-84 were education (M25-8m.), agriculture (M10 - lm.) and health (M8-4m.). The revenue situation was greatly improved by the re-negotiation of the Republic of South Africa's customs agreement in 1970. Currency. The currency is the Loti (plural Maloti) divided into 100 Lisente which is at par with the South African Rand. In March 1987, £1 = 2 07 Maloti, US$1 = 3 31 Maloti. Banking. The Standard Bank of South Africa and Barclays Bank International have branches at Maseru, Mohale's Hoek and Leribe. The Lesotho Bank has branches throughout the country. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. A feasibility study was announced (1982) to be undertaken by the Republic of South Africa and Lesotho to divert river waters from Lesotho to South Africa and to provide hydro-electricity for Lesotho. Production (1985) lm. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. The chief crops were (1985 production in 1,000 tonnes): wheat, 20; maize, 112; sorghum, (60); barley, oats, beans, peas and other vegetables are also grown. Soil conservation and the improvement of crops and pasture are matters of vital importance. A total area of 1,006,817 acres has been protected against soil erosion by means of terracing, training banks, tree planting and grass strips. Efforts are being made to secure the general introduction of rotational grazing in the mountain area. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 590,000; horses, 107,000; donkeys, 107,000; pigs, 80,000;sheep, l-4m.;goats, lm.;mules, 1,000;poultry, lm. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial development is progressing under the National Development Corporation. Diamond production (1981)52,000 carats. Commerce. Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland are members of the South African customs union, by agreement dated 29 June 1910. Total values of imports and exports into and from Lesotho (in Mm.): Imports Exports

1979 312 38

1980 372 45

1981 453 43

1982 541 38

Principal imports were food, livestock, drink and tobacco, machinery and transport equipment, mineral fuels and lubricants; principal exports were wool and mohair and diamonds. The majority of international trade is with the Republic of South Africa. Total trade between Lesotho and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m m } / m i m / m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

682 1,260

Tourism. In 1980 there were 150,000 visitors.

216 2,080

78 633

290 3,023

211 2,128

794

LESOTHO

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 311 km of tarred roads and 1,500 km of gravel-surfaced roads. In addition to the main roads there were (1983) 931 km of food aid tracks leading to trading stations and missions. Communications into the mountainous interior are by means of bridlepaths suitable only for riding and pack animals, but a mountain road of 80 miles has been constructed, and some parts are accessible by air transport, which is being used increasingly. In 1977 there were 11,509 motor vehicles. Railways. A railway built by the South African Railways, 1 mile long, connects Maseru with the Bloemfontein-Natal line at Marseilles. Aviation. There is a scheduled passenger service between Maseru and Jan Smuts Airport, Johannesburg, operated jointly by Lesotho National Airways and SAA. There are also 30 airstrips for light aircraft. Post and Broadcasting. There were 5,409 telephones in 1983. Radio Lesotho transmits daily in English and Sesotho. Radio receivers (1983), 37,786. Cinemas. In 1971 there were 2 cinemas with a seating capacity of800. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. An appeal court for Lesotho was established at Maseru on 4 Oct. 1966. The police force on 31 Dec. 1982 had an establishment of 348 officers and subordinate officers and 1,530 other ranks. Religion. About 70% of the population are Christians, 40% being Roman Catholics. Education. Education is largely in the hands of the 3 main missions (Paris Evangelical, Roman Catholic and English Church), under the direction of the Ministry of Education. In 1982 the total enrolment in 1,103 primary schools was 277,945; in 108 secondary schools, 27,799; in the National Teacher-Training College enrolment was 1,136. University education is provided at the N a t i o n a l U n i versity of Lesotho established in 1975 at Roma; enrolment in 1982-83,1,139. Health. The government medical staff of the territory consists of 1 Permanent Secretary for Health, 1 Director of Health Services, 1 medical superintendent, 8 district medical officers and a total of 102 doctors including 20 specialists. There are 11 government hospitals staffed by 308 matrons, sisters and nurses. There is accommodation for 2,175 patients in government hospitals. The 360-bed Queen Elizabeth II hospital in Maseru was completed in 1957. There are 9 mission hospitals subsidized by the Government with 153 staff and 729 beds. 116 health centres (319 beds) and mountain dispensaries provide outpatient medical facilities and maternity services to people living in remote areas. The leper settlement 5 miles out of Maseru had 67 patients in 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Lesotho in Great Britain (10 Collingham Rd., London, SW5 ONR) High Commissioner: Dr John T. Kolane (accredited 2 June 1986). Of Great Britain in Lesotho (Maseru 100) High Commissioner: P. E. Rosling, LVO. Of Lesotho in the USA (1601 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Leshele A. Thoahlane. Of the USA in Lesotho (PO Box MS 333, Maseru, 100) Ambassador^. L. Abbott. Of Lesotho to the United Nations Ambassador: Thabo Makeka. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Bureau ofStatistics, PO Box 455, Maseru, Lesotho. Ashton, H., The Basuto. 2nd ed. OUP, 1967 Hailey.Lord, The Republic of South Africa and the High Commission Territories. OUP, 1963 Murray, C., Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho. OUP, 1981 Spence, J. E„ Lesotho. OUP 1968 Stevens, C., Food, Aid and the Developing World. London, 1979

LIBERIA

Capital: Monrovia Population: 1 -9m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$490 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Liberia had its origin in the efforts of several American philanthropic societies to establish freed American slaves in a colony on the West African coast. In 1822 a settlement was formed near the spot where Monrovia now stands. On 26 July 1847 the State was constituted as the Free and Independent Republic of Liberia. The new State was first recognized by Great Britain and France, and ultimately by other powers. On 12 April 1980, President Tolbert was assassinated; his government was overthrown and the Constitution suspended. President Tolbert's party, the True Whig Party, was formed in 1860 and had been in power since 1870. Recent economic decline and pressure for change had undermined the Government. In March 1980, the newly formed People's Progressive Party was banned and its leaders arrested. The coup was led by Master-Sergeant Doe who was later installed as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the army. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Liberia has about 350 miles of coastline, extending from Sierra Leone, on the west, to the Cote d'lvoire, on the east, and it stretches inland to a distance, in some places, of about 250 miles. The total area is about 43,000 sq. miles (112,600 sq. km). A census taken in 1978 gave the total p 1984' 1985 « Revenue 1 98,810 107,165 110,918 113,843 1 15,172 125,289 127,584 Expenditure' 110,776 121,081 130,584 142,308 146,609 155,360 157,299 1 Without the revenue of loans. ! Accounts. ' Preliminary accounts. 6 ' Revised budget figures. ' Without redemption of loans. Budget figures. The revenue and expenditure of the Agriculture Equalization Fund, the Fund for Central Government roads, the Property Acquisition Fund (established in 1971), the Fund for the Development o f a fast Breeder Reactor (established in 1972 but discontinued in 1978) and of the Investment Account Fund (established in 1978) have been incorporated in the general budget.

The national debt, in 1 m. guilders, was on 31 Dec.: Internal funded debt „ floating „ Total

1980 78,090 21,433

1981 96,830 21,629

1982 122,777 21,878

1983 153,262 21,535

1984 183,312 19,806

99,523

118,459

144,655

174,797

203,118

Currency. The monetary unit is the gulden (guilder, florin) of 100 cents. In March 1987 the rate of exchange was US$ 1 = 2 07 guilders; £1 =3-33 guilders. Legal tender are bank-notes, silver 10-guilder pieces, nickel 2Vi- and 1-guilder pieces, 25-cent, 10-cent pieces and bronze 5-cent pieces. Banking. The Netherlands Bank, founded as a private institution, was nationalized on 1 Aug. 1948, the shareholders receiving, for a share of 1,000 guilders, a security of2,000 guilders on the 2'/i% National Debt. Since 1863 the bank has the sole right of issuing bank-notes. The capital amounts to 75m. guilders. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was adopted in the Netherlands in 1820.

THE

891

NETHERLANDS

ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. The total production of electrical energy (in 1 m. kwh.) amounted in 1938 to 3,688; 1958, 13,854; 1970, 40,859; 1980, 64,806; 1984, 62,778; 1985, 62,936. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Gas. Production of manufactured gas (milliard k joule): 1978, 181,033; 1979, 233,553; 1980, 210,011; 1981, 197,586; 1982, 244,438; 1983, 258,515; 1984, 267,643. Production of natural gas in 1950, 8m. cu. metres; 1955,139; 1960, 384; 1970, 31,688; 1980, 91,153; 1981, 84,617; 1982, 72,035; 1983, 76,536; 1984, 77,251; 1985,80,721. Minerals. On 1 Jan. 1975 all coalmines were closed. The production of crude petroleum (in 1,000 tonnes) amounted in 1943 (first year) to 0-2; 1953,820; 1970,1,919; 1978, 1,402; 1979, 1,316; 1980, 1,280; 1981, 1,348; 1982,1,637; 1983,2,589; 1984,3,102; 1985,3,729. There are saltmines at Hengelo and Delfzijl; production (in 1,000 tonnes), 1950, 412-6; 1960, 1,096; 1970, 2,871; 1978, 2,939; 1979, 3,951; 1980, 3,464; 1981, 3,578; 1982,3,191; 1983,3,124; 1984,3,674; 1985,4,154. Agriculture. The net area of all holdings was divided as follows (in hectares): Field crops Grass Market gardening Land for flower bulbs Flower cultivation Nurseries Fallow land Total

1982 726,591 1,178,098 69,906 14,189 5,472 6,386 4,577

1983 728,663 1,181,297 66,828 14,165 5,615 6,431 5,713

1984 738,808 1,178,534 68,110 14,558 5,824 6,498 3,763

1985 749,722 ,164,290 72,288 15,055 5,965 6,738 4,965

1986 763,075 1,141,978 72,352 15,564 6,216 7,037 6,367

2,005,219

2,008,712

2,016,095

2,019,023

2,012,589

The net areas under special crops were as follows (in hectares): Products Autumn wheat Spring wheat Rye Autumn barley Spring barley Oats Peas 1

1985 121,385 6,734 4,571 6,765 32,072 11,278 19,879

1986 110,636 5,677 4,140 9,198 32,786 6,475 22,411

Products 1985 Colza 10,120 Flax 4,368 Agricultural seeds 15,959 Potatoes, edible 1 108,745 60,241 Potatoes, industrial 2 Sugar-beet 130,507 2,242 Fodder-beet 2 Including early and seed pototoes. Including seed potatoes.

1986 5,849 3,136 19,559 107,075 59,961 137,691 1,986

The yield of the more important products, in tonnes, was as follows: Crop Wheat Rye Barley Oats Field beans Peas Colza Flax, unrippled Potatoes, edible 2 Potatoes, industrial Sugar-beet Fodder-beet

Average 1940-49 322,003 439,055 145,892 315,642 15,799 65,460 24,763 82,906 2,861,793 1,242,326 1,667,711

A verage 1950-58 348,464 454,992 258,049 464,041 5,693 93,664 18,358 138,165 2,745,505 1,003,994 2,935,881

1986 figures provisional.

1984 1,131,329 24,650 191,747 57,906 9,377 56,406 37,771 32,260 4,344,458 2,328,579 6,955,462 170,804 2

1985 851,034 19,265 197,387 58,133 10,448 71,290 30,580 35,714 4,688,386 2,461,220 6,334,835 189,113

1986 ' 872,832 .. 19,442 256,390 36,561 114,521 19,880 25,633 4,561,099

Including early potatoes.

Livestock, May 1986: 5,122,950 cattle, 13,481,358 pigs; 63,060 horses and ponies; 868,112 sheep, 92 -3m. poultry. In 1985 the production of butter, under state control, declined to 230,169 tonnes; that of cheese, under state control, increased to 541,407 tonnes. Export value (processed and unprocessed) of arable crops amounted to 18,883m. guilders; animal produce, 19,834m. guilders and horticultural produce, 10,769m. guilders.

892

THE

NETHERLANDS

Fisheries. The total produce of fish landed from the sea and inshore fisheries in 1981 was valued at 595m. guilders; the total weight amounted to 399,438 tonnes. In 1981 the herring fishery had a value of 26m. guilders and a weight of 16,710 tonnes. The quantity of oysters produced in 1981 amounted to 573 tonnes (10m. guilders). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Numbers employed (in 1,000) and turnover (in 1 m. guilders) in manufacturing enterprises with 10 employees and more, excluding building: Numbers 1983 Class in industry 7-5 Mining and quarrying Manufacturing industry 785-8 Foodstuffs and tobacco products 134 6 23-5 Textile industry Clothing 11-5 6-4 Leather and footwear 24-9 Wood and furniture industry 22-9 Paper industry Graphic industry, publishers 59-5 Petroleum industry 9-9 Chemical industry, artificial yarns and fibre industry 8 1 0 Rubber and synthetic materials processing industry 24-4 29-9 Building materials, earthenware and glass 311 Basic metal industry Metals products (excl. machinery and means of 67-8 transport) 75-1 Machinery 109-7 Electrical industry 62-1 Means of transmit 6-8 Instrument malcing and optical industry 4-3 Other industries 46-0 Public utilities

employed 1984 8-0 780-2 133-1 23-2 10 5 5-9 23-7 22-8 60-0 39-7 82-2 24-5 28-8 30-2 68-3 75-2 110-6 60-6 6-9 4-2 25-6

Turnover 1984 1983 30-2 33-6 235-9 255-8 68-2 73-3 4-3 4-7 1-5 1-3 0-8 0-9 3-8 3-8 5-7 6-5 10 2 10 9 31-2 30-8 414 36-5 5-0 5-4 5-6 5-8 8-5 10 3 10-5 12-0 19-8 11-3 0-8 0-6 20-9

11-3 14-2 21-3 11-8 0-9 0-6 22-5

Commerce. On 5 Sept. 1944 and 14 March 1947 the Netherlands signed agreements with Belgium and Luxembourg for the establishment of a customs union. On J Jan. 1948 this union came into force and the existing customs tariffs of the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union and of the Netherlands were superseded by the joint Benelux Customs Union Tariff. It applies to imports into the 3 countries from outside sources, and exempts from customs duties all imports into each of the 3 countries from the other two. The Benelux tariff has 991 items and 2,400 separate specifications. Returns of special imports and special exports (including parcel post and diamond trade, excluding unrefined and partly-worked gold, gold coins and coins in current circulation made of other metal) for calendar years (in 1,000 guilders): 1949 1959 1969 1979'

Imports Exports Imports Exports 5,331,569 3,851,126 1982' 167,345,995 176,761,363 14,968,454 13,702,927 1983 173,544,395 184,352,354 39,955,406 36,205,110 1984 198,921,511 210,691,284 134,885,386 127,689,416 1985 215,467,444 225,568,284 ' Including unrefined and partly-worked gold and gold coins.

Value of the trade (including parcel post and diamond trade, excluding unrefined and partly-worked gold, gold coins and coins in current circulation made of other metal) with leading countries (in 1,000 guilders): Country Belgium-Luxembourg France Germany (Fed. Rep.) Indonesia Italy Kuwait Sweden UK USA Venezuela ' From

Imports 1983' 1984' 19,022,569 22,278,611 11,679,557 12,941,652 38,766,349 43,685,952 676,006 779,399 5,491,628 5,786,470 1,763,250 2,779,240 3,268,993 3,717,026 15,353,133 17,298,296 15,504,698 17,716,887 352,140 299,556 1983 figures not wholly

Exports 19851 1983' 1984' 26,601,326 25,671,114 29,389,318 14,450,844 19,032,897 21,874,043 48,233,960 56,094,572 62,522,381 792,195 769,849 853,081 6,525,841 9,799,645 11,709,966 3,108,734 270,004 373,144 4,087,947 3,069,633 3,743,432 21,496,110 16,438,276 19,946,714 17,830,296 7,893,839 10,610,336 305,028 323,669 366,032 comparable with earlier years.

1985' 31,697,832 23,410,516 67,657,728 534,684 13/106,154 350,463 3,744,462 21,408,210 11,806,357 303,207

THE NETHERLANDS

893

Total trade between the Netherlands and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 4,474,663 4,653,416

1983 1984 1985 5,097,673 6,147,298 6,550,735 5,440,701 6,127,991 7,344,681

1986 6,615,851 5,442,503

Tourism. There were 3,374,900 foreign visitors in 1985 (hotels only). 612,700 came from the Federal Republic of Germany, 606,600 from UK and 584,000 from USA. Total income from tourism (1986, provisional) US$ 1,219m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 the length of the Netherlands network of surfaced inter-urban roads was 54,078 km, of which 1,870 km were motor highways. Number of private cars(1985),4-9m. Railways. All railways are run by the mixed company 'N.V. Nederlandsche Spoorwegen'. Length of line in 1984 was 2,852 km, of which 1,796 km were electrified. Passengers carried (1985), 208m.; goods transported, 19 • 9m. tonnes. Aviation. The Royal Dutch Airlines (KLM) was fSmrdetfcnT 7-Oct. 1919. The company has a paid-up capital of977m. guilders (1984-85). Revenue traffic, 1984-85: Passengers, 5 • 3m.; freight, 343m. kg; mail, 15m. kg. Sea-going Shipping. Survey of the Netherlands mercantile marine as at 1 Jan. (capacity in 1,000 GRT): ' Ships under Netherlands flag 1 Passenger ships Freighters (500 G R T and over) Tankers 1

1984 Number Capacity 7 39 495 2,669 60 854

1985 Number Capacity 6 36 486 2,691 58 734

562 3,562 550 With accommodation for 13 or more cabin passengers.

3,461

In 1985,45,237 sea-going ships of346m. gross tons entered Netherlands ports. Total goods traffic by sea-going ships in 1985 (with 1984 figures in brackets), in 1 m. tonnes, amounted to 249 • 7 (244) unloaded, of which 114(111-8) tankshipping, and 78-7 (80-7) loaded, of which 26-4 (28 -6) tankshipping. The total seaborne freight traffic at Rotterdam was 25 lm. (249-4m.) and at Amsterdam 27-9m. (27-3m.) tonnes. The number of containers and flats at Rotterdam in 1985 was: unloaded from ships, 985,101, of which 272,610 from North America, and 990,255 loaded into ships, of which 141,946 to North America. Inland Shipping. The total length of navigable rivers and canals is 4,832 km, of which about 2,387 km is for ships with a capacity of 1,000 and more tonnes. On 1 Jan. 1986 the Netherlands inland fleet actually used for transport (with carrying capacity in 1,000 tonnes) was composed as follows: Self-propelled barges Dumb barges Pushed barges

Number 5,323 429 541

Capacity 3,057 437 1,184

6,293

5,479

In 1985,254- lm. (1984: 257m.) tonnes of goods were transported on rivers and canals, of which 179m. (183m.) was international traffic. Goods transport on the Rhine across the Dutch-German frontier near Lobith amounted to 133m. (137m.) tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. On I Jan. 1985 there were 5-6m. telephone connexions (39 per 100 .inhabitants). Number of telex lines, 38,000. Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) provides 5 programmes on medium-waves and FM in cooperation with broadcasting organizations. Regional programmes are also broadcast.

894

THE

NETHERLANDS

Advertisements are transmitted. NOS broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Advertisements, in the last quarter of 1980, were restricted to 4% of the transmission time in the evening. Television sets (1 Jan. 1985) totalled 4-5m.; holders of television licences may, in addition, have wireless receiving sets. Cinemas (end 1985). There-were 471 cinemas with a seating capacity of 117,000. Newspapers (Sept. 1984). There were 79 daily newspapers with a total circulation of nearly 4-4m. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the High Court of the Netherlands (Court of Cassation), by 5 courts ofjustice (Courts of Appeal), by 19 district courts and by 62 cantonal courts; trial by jury is unknown. The Cantonal Court, which deals with minor offences, is formed by a single judge; the more serious cases are tried by the district courts, formed as a rule by 3 judges (in some cases one judge is sufficient); the courts of appeal are constituted of 3 a n d the High Court of 5 judges. All judges are appointed for life by the Sovereign (the judges of the High Court from a list prepared by the Second Chamber of the States-General). They can be removed only by a decision of the High Court. At the district court the juvenile judge is specially appointed to try children's civil cases and at the same time charged with administration of justice for criminal actions committed by young persons between 12 and 18 years old, unless imprisonment of 6 months or more ought to be inflicted; such cases are tried by 3 judges. Number of sentences, and cases in which prosecution was evaded by paying a fine to the public prosecutor (excluding violation of economic and tax laws): Major offences Minor offences 1982 81,259 1982 1,317,213 1983 90,010 1983 1,059,902 1984 91,145 1984 1,029,334 In addition, prosecution was evaded by paying a fine to the police in 1,544,681 cases in 1984.

Police. There are both State and Municipal Police. The State Police, about 9,000 men strong, serves 601, and the Municipal Police, about 20,500 men strong, serves 148 municipalities. The State Police includes ordinary as well as water, mounted and motor police. The State Police Corps is under the jurisdiction of the Police Department of the Ministry of Justice, which also includes the Central Criminal Investigation Office, which deals with serious crimes throughout the country, and the International Criminal Investigation Office, which informs foreign countries of international crimes. Religion. Entire liberty of conscience is granted to the members of all denominations. The royal family belong to the Dutch Reformed Church. The number of adherents of the Churches according to survey estimates of 1983 was: Roman Catholics, 5,180,000; Dutch Reformed Church, 2,770,000; Reformed Churches, 1,134,000; other creeds, 631,000; no religion, 4,635,000. The government of the Reformed Church is Presbyterian. On 1 July 1972 the Dutch Reformed Church had 1 synod, 11 provincial districts, 54 classes, 147 districts and 1,905 parishes. Their clergy numbered 2,000. The Roman Catholic Church had, Jan. 1973, 1 archbishop (of Utrecht), 6 bishops and 1,815 parishes and rectorships. The Old Catholics had (1 July 1972) 1 archbishop (Utrecht), 2 bishops and 29 parishes. The Jews had, in 1970,46 communities. Education. Statistics for the scholastic year 1983-84:

THE

895

NETHERLANDS

Full-time Part-time' Pupils Pupils Total Female Schools Total Female 399,453 194,654 — — — 1,094,980 541,837 — — — 98,358 30,789 822,615 434,962 79 110,450 79,810

Schools Nursery schools 7,951 Primary Schools 8,454 Special schools 1,013 Secondary general schools 1,409 Secondary vocational schools: Junior— 14,941 184 Technical, nautical 389 198,708 5,275 Agricultural 131 10,094 97 1,991 35,878 527 97,704 1 Domestic science 102,537 113 — — Other 243 45,732 27,667 Senior— Technical, nautical 128 78,929 7,199 51 6,465 Agricultural 52 17,996 3,335 36 3,469 Service trade and health 321 64,263 63 12,230 care training 69,576 Teachers' training (nursery 2,674 schools) 48 4,785 4,700 47 Other 129 86,596 39,338 501 149,246 Third level non-university training: 37,025 3,795 26 4,263 Technical, nautical 71 Agricultural 18 6,203 1,250 10 469 Arts 42 14,287 7,698 26 4,690 164 28,360 16,540 155 42,163 Teachers' training Other 140 60,745 35,043 53 17,554 ' Including apprenticeship schemes, young workers' educational institutes.

University education: Humanities Social sciences Natural sciences Technical sciences Medical sciences Agricultural sciences

Academic Year 1985-86' Full-time Students Schools Total Female 29,835 67,009 14,545 22,476 18,398 6,412 Provisional figures.

21

1

16,449 26,562 3,400 1,896 7,670 2,188

15 619 111 —

263 370 8,438 2,651 52,991 477 54 2,207 22,833 8,948

Part-time Students Total Female 825 9,105 161

443 3,350 37

93

56

Health. On 1 Jan. 1985 there were 31,185 doctors and about 68,540 licensed hospital beds. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of the Netherlands in Great Britain (38 Hyde Park Gate, London, SW7 5DP) Ambassador: Hans Jonkman (accredited 20 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in the Netherlands (Lange Voorhout, 10, The Hague) Ambassador: J. W. D. Margetson, KCMG. Of the Netherlands in the USA (4200 Linnean Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Richard H. Fein. Of the USA in the Netherlands (Lange Voorhout, 102, The Hague) Ambassador: L. Paul Bremer, III. Of the Netherlands to the United Nations Ambassador: Adriaan Jocobovits de.Szeged. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The 'Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek' at Voorburg and Heerlen, is the official Netherlands statistical service. Director-General of Statistics: Prof. Dr W. Begee^

896

THE N E T H E R L A N D S

The Bureau was founded in 1899. Prior to that year, statistical publications were compiled by the 'Centrale commissie voor de statistiek', the 'Vereniging voor staathuishoudkunde en statistiek' and various government departments. These activities have gradually been taken over and co-ordinated by the Central Bureau, which now compiles practically all government statistics. Its current publications include: Statistical Yearbook of the Netherlands. From 1923/24 (preceded by Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 1898-1922); latest issue, 1983 Statistisch zakboek (Pocket Year Book). From 1899/1924(1 vol.); latest issue, 1984 CBS Select I (Statistical Essays), 1980— CBS Select 2 (Statistical Essays), 1983 Statistisch Bulletin (From 1945; weekly statistical bulletin) Maandschrift (From 1944; monthly bulletin) Denken en meten (Statistical Essays) 85Jaren Statistiek In Tijdreeksen (historical series ofthe Netherlands 1899-1984) Nationale Rekeningen (National Accounts). From 1948-50; latest issue, 1982 Statistisch Magazine. From 1981 Statistische onderzoekingen. From 1977 Statistical Studies. From 1953

Other Official Publications Central Economic Plan. Centraal Plan bureau, The Hague (Dutch text), annually, from 1946 Netherlands. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Paris, annual from 1964 Staatsalmanak voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Annual. The Hague, from 1814 Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. The Hague, from 1814 Staatscourant (State Gazette). The Hague, from 1813 Atlas van Nederland. Government Printing Office, The Hague, 1970 and supplements up to and including 1973 Memoranda on the Condition of the Netherlands State Finances. Ministry of Finance, The Hague, from 1906 Basic Guide to the Establishing of Industrial Operations in the Netherlands 1976. Ministry of Economic Affairs, The Hague, 1976 The Kingdom ofthe Netherlands. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, Occasional Huggett, F. E., The Dutch Today. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, 1973.—The Dutch Connection. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, 1982 Aspects of Dutch Agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, The Hague, 1976

Non-Official Publications Jansonius, H., Nieuw Groot Nederlands—Engels Woordenboek Voor Studie en Praktijk. 3 vols. Leiden, 1973 (Vols. 1-3) Newton, G., The Netherlands: An Historical and Cultural Survey, 1795-1977. Boulder, 1978 Pinder, D„ The Netherlands. Folkestone, 1976 Pyttersen's Nederlandse Almanak. Zaltbommel, annual, from 1899 Commerce and Industry in the Netherlands. Amsterdam-Rotterdam Bank. Amsterdam, 1977 Foreign Investment in the Netherlands. The Hague, 1975 A Compact Geography of the Netherlands. Utrecht, 1980 National Library: De Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Prinz Willem Alexanderhof 5, The Hague. Director: Dr C. Reedijk.

ARUBA H I S T O R Y . Discovered by Alonzo de Ojeda in 1499, the island of Aruba was claimed for Spain but not settled. It was acquired by the Dutch in 1634, but apart from garrisons was left to the indigenous Caiquetios (Arawak) Indians until the 19th century. From 1828 it formed part of the Dutch West Indies and, from 1845, part of the Netherlands Antilles, with which on 29 Dec. 1954 it achieved internal self-government Following a referendum in March 1977, the Dutch government announced on 28 Oct. 1981 that Aruba would proceed to independence separately from the other islands. Aruba was constitutionally separated from the Netherlands Antilles from 1 Jan. 1986, and full independence has been promised by the Netherlands after a 10-year period.

THE NETHERLANDS

897

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The island, which lies in the southern Caribbean 24 km north of the Venezuelan coast and 68 km west of Curaçao, has an area of 193 sq. km (75 sq. miles) and a population at the 1981 census of 60,312; estimate (1985) 61,000. The chief towns are Oranjestad, the capital (17,000) and Sint Nicolaas, site of the former oil refinery ( 17,000). Dutch is the official language, but the language usually spoken is Papiamento, a Creole language. Unlike other Caribbean islands, over half the population is of Indian stock, with the balance chiefly of Dutch, Spanish and mestizo origin. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the separate constitution inaugurated on 1 Jan. 1986, Aruba is an autonomous part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands with its own legislature, government, judiciary, civil service and police force. The Netherlands is represented by a Governor appointed by the monarch. The unicameral legislature (Staten) consists of 21 members; at the general elections held on 27 Nov. 1985, 8 seats were won by the (Movimento Electoral di Pueblo, 7 by the Arubaanse Volks Partij, and 2 each by 3 smaller parties with whom the AVP formed a coalition government. Governor: Felipe B. Tromp. Prime Minister, Minister of General Affairs. J. Henny Eman. Deputy Prime Minister, Transport and Communications. Benny Nisbet. Economic Affairs and Labour: Leonard Berlinski. Justice: Watty Vos. Education and Welfare: Mito Croes. Utilities and Public Works. Charo Kelly. FinanceArmand W. Englebrecht. Flag: Blue, with 2 narrow horizontal yellow stripes, and in the canton a red 4-pointed star fimbriated in white. C L I M A T E . Aruba has a tropical marine climate, with a brief rainy season from Oct. to Dec. Oranjestad. Jan. 79°F (26-0'C), July 84°F (29 0°C). Annual rainfall 17" (432 mm). ECONOMY Budget. The 1984 budget totalled 207m. guilders revenue and 278m. guilders expenditure. Currency. From 1 Jan. 1986 the island has its own currency, the Aruban florin, at par with the Netherlands Antilles guilder. Banking. As well as the Aruba Bank, there are local branches of the Algemene Bank Nederland, Barclays Bank International, Caribbean Mercantile Bank and Citibank. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Generating capacity totals 120,000 kw. Oil. The Exxon refinery dominated the economy from 1929-85, when it was closed, resulting in unemployment reaching 40% by the end of 1985. Minerals. Gold, first discovered m 1825, is still found but in uneconomic quantities. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Tourism. Tourism is now the mam economic sector. In 1984 there were 200,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 380 km of surfaced highways. On 31 Dec. 1975 there were 15,393 motor vehicles.

898

THE NETHERLANDS

Aviation. There is an international airport (Prinses Beatrix) served by numerous airlines. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were S radio stations and 1 television station. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The Aruban judiciary is now separated from that of the Netherlands Antilles. There is a Court of First Instance and a Court of Appeal situated in Oranjestad. Religion. Over 90% of the population are Roman Catholic. Education. In 1977 there were 39 elementary schools with 11,000 pupils, 9 junior high schools with 3,000 pupils and one senior high school with 850 pupils.

THE NETHERLANDS ANTILLES De Nederlandse Antillen H I S T O R Y . Bonaire and Curaçao islands, originally populated by Caiquetios Indians, were discovered in 1499 by Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda respectively, and claimed for Spain, t h e y were settled in 1527, and the indigenous population exterminated and replaced by a slave-worked plantation economy. The 3 Windward Islands, inhabited by Caribs, were discovered by Columbus in 1493. They were taken by the Dutch in 1632 (Saba and Sint Eustatius), 1634 (Curaçao and Bonaire) and 1648 (the southern part of Sint Maarten, with France acquiring the northern part). With Aruba, the islands formed part of the Dutch West Indies from 1828, and the Netherlands Antilles from 1845, with internal self-government being granted on 29 Dec. 1954. Aruba was separated from 1 Jan. 1986. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Netherlands Antilles comprise two groups of islands, the Leeward group (Curaçao and Bonaire) being situated 100 km north of the Venezuelan coast and the Windward Islands situated 800 km away to the north-east, at the northern end of the Lesser Antilles. The total area is 800 sq. km (308 sq. miles) and the Census population in 1981 was 171,620. Estimate (1985) 183,000. Willemstad is the capital. The areas, populations and chief towns of the islands are: Island Bonaire Curaçao Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten 1 1

Sq. km 288 444 13 21 34

1981 Census 8,753 147,388 965 1,358 13,156

Chief town Kralendijk Willemstad Leverock Oranjestad Philipsburg

Population 1,200 50,000 -

6,000

The southern part belongs to the Netherlands Antilles, the northern to France.

Dutch is the official language, but the languages usually spoken are Papiamento (a creóle language) on Curaçao and Bonaire, and English in the Windward Islands. Vital statistics (1980, including Aruba): Live births, 4,018; marriages, 1,340; deaths, 1,132. C L I M A T E . All the islands have a tropical marine climate, with very little difference in temperatures over the year. There is a short rainy season from Oct. to Jan. Willemstad. Jan. 79°F(26- l'C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 23" (582 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 29 Dec. 1954, the Netherlands Antilles became an integral part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands but are fully autonomous in internal affairs, and constitutionally equal with the Nether-

THE NETHERLANDS

899

lands and Aruba. The Sovereign of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is Head of State and Government, and is represented by a Governor. The executive power in internal affairs rests with the Governor and the Council of Ministers, who together form the Government. The Ministers are responsible to a unicameral legislature (Staten) consisting of 22 members (since 1985, 14 from Curaçao, 3 from Bonaire, 3 from Sint Maarten, and 1 each from Saba and Sint Eustatius) elected by universal suffrage. In general elections held on 22 Nov. 1985, 9 seats were won by the Democratische Partij, 6 by the Nationale Volks Partij, 4 by the Movimento Antijas Nobo, and 1 each by three smaller parties. The executive power in external affairs is vested in the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom, in which the Antilles is represented by a Minister Plenipotentiary with full voting powers. On each of the insular communities, local autonomous power is divided between an Island Council (elected by universal suffrage), the Executive Council and the Lieut.-Governor, responsible for law and order. Governor: Dr Rene A. Rômer. Prime Minister: Domenico Felip Martina. —Economic Affairs: Marco de Castro. Labour and Social Affairs: Winston Laurens. Finance: Leslie Navarro. Health: Frank Rosendal. Justice, Transport and Communications: Leo Chance. Co-operation and Development: Jopie Abraham. Flag: White, with a red vertical strip crossed by a blue horizontal strip bearing 5 white stars. Dutch is the official language. In addition a 'lingua franca', Papiamento has evolved out of Spanish, Dutch and some other languages. F I N A N C E . The central budget for 1984 envisaged 342m. guilders revenue and 394m. guilders expenditure. The official rate of exchange was £1 =2-86 Antillian guilder, US$ 1 = 1 -79 Antillian guilder in March 1987. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) totalled 1,312m. kwh. Oil. The economy was formerly based largely on oil refining at the Shell refinery on Curaçao, but following an announcement by Shell that closure was imminent, this was sold to the Netherlands Antilles government in Sept. 1985, and leased to Petróleos de Venezuela to operate on a reduced scale thus retaining some (1,500) employment. Minerals. About 100,000 tons of calcium phosphate are mined annually. Agriculture. Livestock(1985): Cattle, 9,000; goats, 23,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Curaçao has one of the largest ship-repair dry docks in the western hemisphere. Curaçao has a paint factory, 2 cigarette factories, a textile factory, a brewery and some smaller industries. The Texas Instruments Co. and Electronic Fabriek have established electronic factories. Bonaire has a textile factory and a modem-equipped salt plant. Sint Maarten has a rum factory and fishing is important. Sint Eustatius and Saba are of less economic importance. Trade (1980). Total imports amounted to US$5,944m., total exports to US$6,054m. Total trade between the Netherlands Antilles and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 1983 62,946 25,871 47,396 78,879 ' Excluding Aruba.

1984 221,012 20,235

1985 163,236 19,844

1986 78,509' 17,260

Tourism. In 1983, 394,300 tourists visited the islands (Sint Maarten, 263,200;

900

THE

NETHERLANDS

Curaçao, 110,900; Bonaire, 20,200) excluding 180,300 cruise passengers (Curaçao, 107,100; Sint Maarten, 73,000). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984, the Netherlands Antilles had 820 km of surfaced highway distributed as follows: Curaçao, 550; Bonaire, 210; Sint Maarten, 3. Number of motor vehicles (31 Dec. 1975): 41,955 in Curaçao. Aviation. There are international airports on Curaçao (Dr Albert Plesman Airport), Bonaire (Flamingo Field) and Sint Maarten (Juliana Airport). Shipping (1977). There entered the port of Curaçao, 11,432 vessels of 95m, gross tons. Curaçao has a dry dock of 120,000 tons. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones, 1 Jan. 1983, 65,163. Eight radio stations are operating on medium-waves from Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, and Sint Maarten. These stations broadcast in Papiamento, Dutch, English and Spanish and are mainly financed by income from advertisements. In addition, Radio Nederl^nd and Trans World Radio have powerful relay stations operating on medium- and short-waves from Bonaire. There were (1984, including Aruba) 160,000 radio and 57,000 TV receivers. Cinemas (1973). Curaçao and Aruba had 13 cinemas with a seating capacity of 11,000. There is a drive-in for 500 cars in Curaçao, and for 200 care in Sint Maarten. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a Court of First Instance, which sits in each island, and a Court of Appeal in Willemstad. Religion. In 1980, 85% of the population were Roman Catholics, 12% were Protestants (Sint Maartin and Sint Eustatius being chiefly Protestant). Education Including Aruba, there were in 1981 32,832 pupils and 1,543 teachers in 125 primary schools, 10,931 pupils and 669 teachers in secondary schools, 10,318 students and 734 teachers in technical and teacher-training colleges. In 1982 there were 500 students in higher education. Health. Including Aruba, there were in 1975 164 doctors, 34 dentists, 17 pharmacists and21 midwives, and in 1983 there were 11 hospitals with 2,410 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE USA Consul-General:Thomas M. Coony. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Statistical publications (on population, trade, cost of living, etc., are obtainable on request from the Statistical Office, Willemstad, Curaçao. Statistical Jaarboek 1970(text in Dutch, English and Spanish). De West Indische Gids. The Hague. Monthly from 1919 ,

NEW ZEALAND

Capital: Wellington Population: 3-3m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$5,276 (1985)

H I S T O R Y . The first European to discover New Zealand was Tasman in 1642. The coast was explored by Capt. Cook in 1769. From about 1800 onwards. New Zealand became a resort for whalers and traders, chiefly from Australia. By the Treaty of Waitangi, in 1840, between Governor William Hobson and the representatives of the Maori race, the Maori chiefs ceded the sovereignty to the British Crown and the islands became a British colony. Then followed a steady stream of British settlers. The Maoris are a branch of the Polynesian race, having emigrated from the eastern Pacific before and during the 14th century. Between 1845 and 1848, and between 1860 and 1870, misunderstandings over land led to war, but peace was permanently established in 1871, and the development of New Zealand has been marked by racial harmony and integration. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . New Zealand lies south-east of Australia in the south Pacific, Wellington being 1,983 km from Sydney by sea. There are two principal islands, the North ana South Islands, besides Stewart Island, Chatham Islands and small outlying islands, as well as the territories overseas (see pp. 916-18). New Zealand (i.e., North, South and Stewart Islands) extends over 1,750 km from north to south. Area, excluding territories overseas. 268,704 sq. km.; North Island, 11,469,000 hectares; South Island, 15,046,000 hectares; Stewart Island, 174,000 hectares; Chatham Islands, 96,000 hectares; minor islands, 82,900 hectares. Census population, exclusive of territories overseas: Average anAverageannual increase Total nual increase Total population % population % — 1858 115,462 1926 1,408,139 2 06 — 1874 344,984 1936 1,573,810 113 1878 458,007 7-33 1945' 1,702,298 0-83 1881 534,030 510 1951' 1,939,472 2-37 1886 620,451 305 1956' 2,174,062 2-31 2,414,984 1891 668,632 1-50 1961' 2-12 1896 743,207 2-13 1966' 2,676,919 210 t 89 1971' 2,862,631 1-34 1901' 815,853 936,304 1906 2-75 1976' 3,129,383 1-71 2-52 1911 1,058,308 1981' 3,175,737 0-20 3,307,084 1916' 1,149,225 1 50 1986' 0-82 1921 1,271,644 2-27 The census of New Zealand is quinquennial, but the census falling in 1931 was abandoned as an act of national economy, and owing to war conditions the census due in 1941 was not taken until 25 Sept. 1945. ' Excluding members of the Armed Forces overseas.

The areas and populations of local government regions (with principal centres) at 4 March 1986 were as follows': Local Government Region (and principal centre) Northland (Whangarei) Auckland (Auckland)' Thames Valley (Thames-Coromandel) Bay of Plenty (Tauranga) Waikato (Hamilton) Tongariro (Taupo) East Cape (Gisborne) Hawke's Bay (Napier, Hastings) Taianaki (New Plymouth) Wanganui (Wanganui) Manawatu (Palmerston North) Horowhenua (Levin) Wellington (Wellington) Wairarapa (Masterton) Total, North

Island1

Area1 Total Population (sa. km) 1981 census 1986 census 12,604 113,994 126,999 5,201 827,408 887,448 4,666 54,343 58,665 9,126 172,480 187,462 13,241 221,850 228,303 12,085 40,089 40,793 11,461 53,295 53,968 12,396 137,840 140,709 7,876 103,798 107,600 9,171 68,702 69,439 6,669 113,238 115,500 1,614 . 49,296 .53,592 1,379 323,162 328,163 6,894 39,689 39,608

114,383

901

2,319,184

2,438,249

902

NEW

ZEALAND Area1 (sq. km) 10,197 12,882 22,893 17,465 19,910 28,982 10,590 27,716

Local Government Region (andprincipal centre) Nelson Bays (Nelson) Marlborough (Blenheim) West Coast (Greymouth) Canterbury (Christchurch) Aorangi (Timaru) Clutha-Central Otago Coastal-North Otago (Dunedin) Southland (Invercargill)

Total Population 1981 census 1986 census 65,934 69,648 37,557 38,225 34,942 34,178 348,712 336,846 81,294 84,772 45,402 48,771 138,164 137,393 107,905 104,618

Intercensal change (%) 5-6 1-8 2-2 3-5 -41 7-4 -0-6 -30

850,758 863,603 Total, South Island1 150.635 3,169,942 3,301,852 Total, New Zealand 1 265,018 ' Excludes Great Barrier Island and Chatham Island Counties. 2 Excludes Extra County Islands.

1-3 4-2

New Zealand-born residents made up 84-5% of the population at the 1986 census. Foreign-born (provisional): UK, 196,872; Australia, 46,839; Netherlands, 24,159; Samoa, 33,864; Cook Islands, 15,540; others (including USA and Ireland), 187,644. Maori population: 1896, 42,113; 1936, 82,326; 1945, 98,744; 1951, 115,676; 1961,171,553; 1971,227,414; 1976,270,035; 1981,279,255; 1986,294,201. Populations of statistical divisions and main urban areas as at 31 March 1986 were as follows: Auckland Christchurch Dunedin Hamilton Napier-Hastings Palmerston North Wellington Urban areas: Gisborne

889,225 333,191 113,592 167,711 115,433 93,490 352,035 32,238

Invercargill Nelson New Plymouth Rotorua Tauranga Timaru Wanganui Whangarei

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Total live births 50,474 51,636 51,798

Ex-nuptial births 11,979 12,556 12,921

Deaths 25,991 25,378 27,480

52,807 44,593 47,384 52,001 59,435 28,621 40,758 44,043

Divorces (decrees Marriages absolute) 9,750 24,678 9,166 25,272 8,607 24,657

Birth rate, 1985,15-80 per 1,000; death rate, 8-38 per 1,000; marriage rate, 7-52 per 1,000; infant mortality, 10 • 81 per 1,000 live births. External migration (exclusive of crews and through passengers) for years ended 31 M a r c h . Arrivals Departures 1981 970,427 986,636 1982 946,287 951,030 1983 915,463 900,021 Population and Migration: Part B—External Annually

Arrivals Departures 1984 922,868 912,311 1985 1,017,212 1,016,995 1986 1,111,926 1,130,444 Migration. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington,

C L I M A T E . Lying in the cool temperate zone, New Zealand enjoys very mild winters for its latitude owing to its oceanic situation, and only the extreme south has cold winters. The situation of the mountain chain produces much sharper climatic contrasts between east and west than in a north-south direction. Observations for 1983: Auckland. Jan. 65-5'F (18-6'C), July 50'F (10-2°C). Annual rainfall 41-5" (1,053 mm). Christchurch. Jan. 61-3'F (16-3°C), July 42-4"F (5-8'C). Annual rainfall 29" (737 mm). Dunedin. Jan. 57-4°F (14-1'C), July 43-2°F (6-2°C). Annual rainfall 3 8 1 " (968 mm). Hokitika. Jan. 561°F (13-4°C), July 43-5"F (6-4°C). Annual rainfall 132-2" (3,357 mm). Rotorua. Jan. 61-2°F (16 • 2°C), July 43 • 7°F (6 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 49 • 9" (1,268 mm). Wellington. Jan. 59-9°F(15• 5°C), July 46-4°F(8-0°C). Annual rainfall 51 -2" (1,300 mm).

NEW Z E A L A N D

903

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Definition was given the status of New Zealand by the (Imperial) Statute of Westminster of Dec. 1931, which had received the antecedent approval of the New Zealand Parliament in July 1931. The Governor-General's assent was given to the Statute of Westminster Adoption Bill on 25 Nov. 1947. The powers, duties and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. In the execution of the powers vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council. The following is a list of Governors-General, the title prior to June 1917 being Governor: Earl of Liverpool Viscount Jellicoe Sir Charles Fergusson, Bt Lord Bledisloe Viscount Galway Sir Cyril Newall LordFreyberg, VC LordNorne

1917-20 1920-24 1924-30 (930-35 1935-41 1941-46 1946-52 1952-57

Viscount Cobham Sir Bernard Fergusson Sir Arthur Porrit, Bt Sir Denis Blundell Sir Keith Holyoake Sir David Beattie Sir Paul Reeves

1957-62 1962-67 1967-72 1972-77 1977-80 1980-85 1985-

National flag: The British Blue Ensign with 4 stars of the Southern Cross in red, edged in white, in the fly. National anthems. God Save the Queen; God Defend New Zealand (words by Thomas Bracken, music by John J. Woods). Since Nov. 1977 both 'God Save the Queen' and 'God Defend New Zealand' have equal status as national anthems. Parliament consists of the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since 1 Jan. 1951. The statute law on elections and the life of Parliament is contained in the Electoral Act, 1956. In 1974 the voting age was reduced from 20 to 18 years. The House of Representatives from July 1984 consists of 95 members, including 4 members representing Maori electorates, elected by the people for 3 years. The 4 Maori electoral districts cover the whole country and adult Maoris of half or more Maori descent are the electors. From 1976 a descendant of a Maori is entitled to register either for a general or a Maori electoral district. Women's suffrage was instituted in 1893: women became eligible as members of the House of Representatives in 1919. The House in 1984 included 12 women members. During Parliamentary sittings the proceedings of the House are broadcast regularly on sound radio. House of Representatives as composed following the General Election in July 1984: Labour, 56; National Party, 37; Social Credit, 2. The Executive Council was composed as follows in Feb. 1986: Governor-General and C.-in-C.. The Most Rev. Sir Paul Reeves (from Nov. 1985). Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs, Security Intelligence Service. David R. Lange. Deputy Prime Minister, Attorney-General, Justice, the Legislative Department, the Government Printing Office: Geoffrey W. R. Palmer. Minister ofState, Defence, War Pensions, Rehabilitation. Francis D. O'Flynn. Labour and State Services: Stanley J. Rodger. Transport, Railways, Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Pacific Island Affairs: Richard W. Prebble. Trade and Industry: David F. Caygill. Education and Environment: Cearic R. Marshall. Maori Affairs, Lands, Forests and the Valuation Department: Koro T. Wetere. Health and Local Government: Michael E. R. Bassett. Postmaster-General, Broadcasting: JonathonL. Hunt. Inland Revenue, Friendly Societies, Finance: Roger O. Douglas. Overseas Trade and Marketing, Tourism, Publicity, Recreation and Sport: Michael K. Moore.

904

NEW Z E A L A N D

Social Welfare, Police, Women's Affairs: Margaret A. Hercus. Energy, Statistics, Science and Technology, Audit Department: Robert J. Tizard. Agriculture, Fisheries, Rural Banking and Finance Corporation: Colin J. Moyle. Works and Development, Earthquake and War Damage Commission: Fraser M. Colman. Regional Development, Employment, Immigration: Thomas K. Burke. Customs, Consumer Affairs: M. K. Shields. Internal Affairs, Civil Defence, Arts: Peter Tapsell. Housing, Government Life Insurance Corporation, State Insurance Office, Public Trust Office: Philip B. Goflf. The Prime Minister (provided with residence) had in 1985 a salary of NZ$117,500 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $19,500 per annum; Ministers with portfolio, $82,000 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $8,000 (Minister of Foreign Affairs $13,750) per annum; Minister without portfolio, $66,500 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $6,250 per annum; Parliamentary UnderSecretaries, $64,000 plus an expense allowance of $6,250 per annum. In addition, Ministers and Parliamentary Under-Secretaries not provided with residence at the seat of Government receive $600 per annum house allowance. An allowance of $110 per day while travelling within New Zealand on public service is payable to Ministers. The Speaker of the House of Representatives receives $76,000 plus an expense allowance of $10,500 per annum in addition to his electorate allowance, and residential quarters in Parliament House, and the Leader of the Opposition $82,000 plus expense allowance of $8,000 per annum, and allowances for travelling and housing. Members were paid $45,000 per annum, plus an expense allowance varying from $6,500 to $13,000 according to the area of electorate represented. There is a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members; retiring allowances are payable to a member after 9 years' service and the attainment of 50 years of age. Dollimore, H. N., The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House 3rd ed. Wellington, 1973 Scott, K. J., The New Zealand Constitution. OUP, 1962

Local Government. New Zealand is divided into 22 regions, excluding the Chatham Islands and various uninhabited minor islands. Of these, two (Auckland and Wellington Regions) are under directly-elected Regional Councils with direct rating powers, while the other twenty are under United Councils, appointed by constituent second-tier authorities upon which they precept. The regions are subdivided into (at 31 March 1986) 88 counties, 10 districts, 128 boroughs (and cities) and 3 town districts; further districts are being formed by the amalgamation of counties, boroughs and town districts, which they will eventually replace fully. Great Barrier Island and the Chatham Islands form the 89th and 90th counties outside the regional structure. There are also numerous other local authorities created for specific functions. D E F E N C E . The control and co-ordination of defence activities is obtained through the Ministry of Defence. This is a unitary department combining not only all joint-Service functions but also the former Departments of Army, Navy and Air. Army. The Chief of the General Staff commands the Army, assisted by the General Staff and the staffs of Defence Headquarters. A regular force battalion is stationed in Singapore. There are 2 infantry battalions, 1 artillery battery, 1 light armoured squadron. Regular personnel, in 1986, totalled 5,814 all ranks; reserves, 1,307 territorial personnel totalled 5,821; the cadet corps totalled (1987) 1,190 Army School cadets. Navy. The Royal New Zealand Navy is administered by the Chief of Naval Staff and the Deputy Chief of Naval Staff at Defence Headquarters. The RNZN ships include 4 frigates (including Wellington (ex-Bacchante) and

NEW Z E A L A N D

905

Southland (ex.-Dido) transferred from the Royal Navy in 1982 and 1983 respectively), 1 surveying vessel, 4 patrol craft, 4 new inshore defence boats, 2 old harbour defence motor launches, 2 survey boats, 1 oceanographic research ship, 1 driving tender, 1 training ship and 1 tug. Personnel, in 1987, totalled 2,760 officers and ratings and 440 in the naval reserve. Air Force. The Chief of Air Staff and Air Officer Commanding the RNZAF exercises command and administration of the RNZAF. Operational units of the RNZAF comprise a utility helicopter support unit (UH-1H Iroquois) based in Singapore as part of the NZ force, South-east Asia. Maritime (P-3B Orion), long and medium-range transport (Boeing 727, C-130H Hercules, Andover, F.27 Friendship) and helicopter (Sioux, Iroquois, Wasp) squadrons are based at RNZAF Base Auckland; and Hobsonville; and offensive support (A-4 Skyhawk) at RNZAF Base Ohakea. Flying training units (Airtrainer, Strikemaster, TA-4 Skyhawks, Sioux) are located at RNZAF Bases Wigram and Ohakea; ground training is carried out at RNZAF Bases Auckland, Woodboume and Wigram. The strength as at 31 March 1986 was 4,176 regular personnel, 1,003 reserves. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. New Zealand is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OECD, ASEAN, South Pacific Forum and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Budget. The following tables of revenue and expenditure relate to the Consolidated Account, which covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the general government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, etc. Revenue in the Account (in NZ$ 1 m.) was as follows: Year ended 31 March 1983 1984 1985 1986

Customs and excise 660-9 805-6 1,003-6 966-9

Sales tax 1,211-7 1,312-3 1,561-0 1,553-6

Income tax 7,455-5 7,453-3 8,348-5 10,567-2

Other taxes 536-3 617-8 666-4 724-5

Trading profits and departmental receipts 709-7 759-9 884-7 1,341-4

Interest 719-5 796-2 984-7 1,446-7

Total 11,293-6 11,744-9 13,448-9 16,600-4

Expenditure from Consolidated Account, year ended 31 March, was as follows (in N Z $ 1 m.): 1983 1984 1985 1986

Debt Social Industrial services services1 development Defence 1,636-4 7,227-5 1,641-6 652-1 2,229-2 7,618-5 2,134-8 673-0 2,781-4 8,254-1 1,984-8 756-4 3,622-4 10,041-1 1,697-3 870-5 1 Includes education, health and social welfare.

Total (including other) 12,872-1 14,221-5 16,162-4 18,451-2

Taxation receipts in 1985-86 for all purposes amounted to $ 14,236m., giving an average of $4,305 per head of mean population. Included in the total taxation is $425-6m. National Roads Fund taxation. The estimate for 1986-87 is $16,210m., the total being inclusive of an estimated $425m. of National Roads Fund taxation. The gross public debt at 31 March 1986 was $32,002m., of which $ 17,276m. was held in New Zealand, $5,349m. in Europe, $4,363m. in USA and $5,015m. in Canada, Australia and other sources. The gross annual interest charge on the public debt at 31 March 1986 was $3,302,380,000. New Zealand System of National Accounts. This replaces the National Income and Expenditure Accounts which have been produced since 1948. National Accounts aggregates for 4 years are given in the following table (in NZ$ 1 m.): Year ended 31 March 1983 1984 1985 1986

Gross domestic product 31,149 33,967 38,729 44,255

Gross national product 30,289 32,839 37,259 42,609

National income 28,084 30,257 34,226 39,091

906

NEW

ZEALAND

Currency. The monetary unit is the New Zealand dollar, divided into 100 cents. In March 1987, £1 =2-822NZ$; US$1 = 1-777NZS. Banking. The Reserve Bank is the sole note-issuing authority. Seven denominations of Reserve Bank notes are issued: NZ$ 1,2,5,10,20,50,100. The New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and 4 commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has a private savings bank subsidiary. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits to clients. The primary functions of the Reserve Bank are to act as the central bank, to advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking and overseas exchange, and to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government. At the end of March 1986 the amount on deposit at trading banks was NZ$13,730-3m., while advances amounted to NZ$10,315-3m. The weekly average of bank debits for 1985 was $9,908 • 5m. excluding government. The number of accounts with the post office savings bank at 31 March 1986 was 3-54m.; amount deposited during year ended March 1986, $8,365m.; withdrawn, $8,372m., total amount to credit of depositors at end of year, $2,771m. At 31 March 1986, $3,806m. was on deposit in Trustee Savings Banks to the credit of 3 -45m. depositors. The amount to the credit of depositors with savings accounts in the trading banks was $542-2m. at 31 March 1986. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures operates. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The general policy of the Government in regard to electric power is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of local authorities; some of these are cities and boroughs but most are electric power boards. During the year ending 31 March 1984 hydro energy provided 78% of the national electricity supply, the balance coming from coal, oil, natural gas and geothermal energy. The last is obtained from Wairakei in the thermal region; natural steam is used to drive the turbines. The transmission systems of the North and South Islands are linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission and 40 km of submarine cable in Cook Strait. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Principal statistics for 4 years ended 31 March are: 1982 Number of establishments 82 Generators (capacity) AC (1,000 kw.) 5,827 Units generated (lm. kwh.) 22,963 Revenue ($1,000) 1,440,235 Expenditure: Operating ($1,000) 773,764 Management, etc. ($1,000) 142,714 Capital charges ($ 1,000) 329,162 Capital outlay: During year ($1,000) 459,200 To date ($1,000) 3,744,100

1983 82 5,820 24,301 1,720,058

1984 89 6,382 25,855 1,852,830

1985 94 6,988 26,765 2,014,438

947,179 163,403 359,989

978,261 168,655 383,720

1,070,187 185,057 461,946

491,286 4,116,100

488,700 4,493,200

411,100 4,776,900

Natural Gas. In 1986 there were 4 gasfields in production: Kapuri (on stream 1970), Maui (1979), McK.ee (1984) and Kaimaro (1984). Natural gas represents 29% of primary energy consumption. Minerals. New Zealand's production of minerals in 1985 included 886 kg of gold, 7,400 tonnes of bentonite, 183,004 tonnes of clay for bricks, tiles, etc., 24,471 tonnes of potters' clays, 2,468,600 tonnes of iron sand, 1,241,000 tonnes of limestone for agriculture and 269,300 tonnes of limestone for industry, 1,738,200 tonnes of limestone, marl, etc., for cement, 81,700 tonnes of pumice, 44,800 tonnes of serpentine, 143,400 tonnes of silica sand. Mineral fuel production

907

NEW ZEALAND

amounted to 2,546,000 tonnes of coal. Salt produced by the solar evaporation of sea water amounted to 51,500 tonnes. Agriculture. Two-thirds of the surface of New Zealand is suitable for agriculture and grazing. The total area under cultivation at 30 June 1985 was 21,376,819 hectares (including residential area and domestic orchards). There were 9,243,385 hectares of grassland, 103,876 hectares of lucerne, 86,720 hectares of land for fruit, vegetables or nursery, 424,664 hectares of grain or fodder crops and 1,097,466 hectares of exotic timber plantations. The area of Crown lands (other than reserves) leased under various tenures at 31 March 1986 was 4,898,081 hectares. The largest freehold estates are held in the South Island. The extent of occupied holdings as at 30 June 1985 (exclusive of holdings within borough boundaries) was as follows: Size of holdings (hectares) Under 5 5-19 20-39 40-79 80-99 100-149 150-199 200-299 300-399

Number 9,886 14,735 7,840 13,013 4,338 6,795 4,683 6,429 3,289

Aggregate area (hectares) 29,492 146,232 222,214 745,125 383,649 832,117 811,605 1,567,217 1,132,067

Size of holdings Number (hectares) 400-799 4,429 800-999 785 1,000-1,199 481 1,200-1,999 945 562 2,000-3,999 4,000 and over 598 Total

78,808

Aggregate area (hectares) 2,412,096 697,307 527,476 1,444,438 1,534,328 8,891,396 21,376,819

The area and yield for each of the principal crops are given as follows (area and yield for threshing only, not including that grown for chaff, hay, silage, etc.): Crop years 1984 1985

Wheat Area (1,000 Yield(l,000 hectares) tonnes) 68-7 314-6 71-8 309-6

Barley Maize Yield(1,000 Area(1,000 Yield(l,000 Area (1,000 hectares) tonnes) hectares) tonnes) 125-4 571-0 17-6 154-3 152-3 644-4 17-8 174-6

Private air companies are carrying out such aerial work as top-dressing, spraying and crop-dusting, seed-sowing, rabbit poisoning, aerial photography and surveying, and dropping supplies to deer cullers and dropping fencing materials in remote areas. In 1984 a total area of 7,258,096 hectares was top-dressed with fertilizer and lime; 2,173,719 tonnes by ground spread and 990,499 by air. Livestock 1985: 7,921,000 cattle, 6.7-9m. sheep and 454,000 pigs. Total meat produced in the year ended 30 Sept. 1984 was estimated at l-14m. tonnes (including 469,800 tonnes of beef and 498,800 tonnes of lamb). Total liquid milk produced in the year ended 31 May 1985 was 7,459m. litres. Production of wool for 1983-84,364,000 tonnes (greasy basis). Agricultural Statistics. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington. Annual.

Forestry. Of the 6-2m. hectares of indigenous forest, most is protected in National Parks or State Forests. Declining quantities of indigenous timber are being produced from restricted areas of State Forest and from privately owned forest. There are just over lm. hectares of productive exotic forest, and this produces far more timber than the indigenous forests. Introduced pines form the bulk of the large exotic forest estate and among these radiata pine is the best multi-purpose tree, reaching log size in 25-30 years. Other species planted are Douglas fir and Eucalyptus species. The table below shows production of rough sawn timber in cu. metres for years ending 31 March:

1982-83 1983-84 1984-85

Indigenous Rimu ana Miro Beech 100,655 17,433 99,541 15,651 101,792 17,076

Total 149,824 136,286 140,766

Exotic Exotic Douglas Pines Fir 1,777,012 163,694 1,748,467 170,950 1,936,303 174,780

All Species Total 1,986,079 1,959,284 2,164,880

Total 2,135,903 2,095,570 2,305,646

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NEW

ZEALAND

Forest industries consist of423 saw-mills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 3 particle board mills, 8 pulp and paper mills and 2 fibreboard mills. The basic products of the pulp and paper mills are mechanical and chemical pulp which are converted into newsprint, kraft and other papers, paperboard and fibreboard. Production of woodpulp, 31 March 1985, amounted to 1 • 15m. tonnes and of paper (including newsprint paper and paperboard) to 770,000 tonnes. Fisheries. The total value of New Zealand Fisheries exports during the year ended 30 June 1985 was $513-7m., an increase of $144-4m. (39-1%) over the previous yearFinfish or wetfish Rock lobster Shellfish (squid, mussels, oysters, etc)

Exports. 1984 Value Quantity $ (1,000) kg(l.OOO) 191,612 90,639 54,075 2,454 102,913 47,107 140,200

Total

348,600

Exports, Quantity kg (1,000) 87,771 2,642 38,667

1985 Value $(1,000) 287,623 91,345 117,417

129,080

496,385

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Major industrial developments in recent years have included the establishment of an oil refinery, an iron and steel industry using New Zealand iron sands and an aluminium smelter using hydro-electric power. Statistics of manufacturing industries: Production year 1983-84

Persons engaged 305,841

Salaries and wages paid (NZ$1,000) 4,390,203

Cost of materials (NZ$1,000) 12,487,722

Sales and other income (NZ$1,000) 23,306,170

Value added (NZ$1,000) 7,104,076

The following is a statement of the provisional value of the products (including repairs) of the principal industries for the year 1983-84 (in NZ$ 1,000): Purchases & operating expenses

Industry group Food, beverage and tobacco manufacturing Textile, wearing apparel, leather industries Wood and wood products (including furniture) Paper and paper products, printing and publishing Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products Non-metallic mineral products (excludes products of petroleum and coal) Basic metal industries Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment Other manufacturing industries Total Census of Manufacturing.

Sales and other Value income added (NZ$1,000)

Additions to fixed tangible assets

6,527,100

6,946,340

1,919,781

473,007

1,961,726

2,089,582

725,006

82,336

1,391,666

1,489,782

478,729

71,852

2,338,005

2,456,042

830,033

174,587

2,489,878

2,568,931

669,410

1,043,161

877,487 912,386

921,391 950,630

343,096 295,541

52,924 392,757

5,210,462

5,672,145

1,772,307

205,393

193,388

211,328

70,172

10,742

21,902,097

23,306,170

7,104,076

2,506,758

Dept. of Statistics, Wellington. Annual

Labour. In Dec. 1985 there were 233 industrial unions of workers with a total of 490,206 members. The industrial distribution of the labour force as estimated in Feb. 1984 was: Primary industries, 148,400; manufacturing, 302,300; construction, 87,700; commerce, 220,900; transport and communication, 103,100; services, 315,200; armed forces, 13,000; unemployed, 77,500; total labour force, 1,371,100.

NEW ZEALAND

909

By the Accident Compensation Act 1972 immediate compensation without proof of fault is provided for every injured person and wherever the accident occurred. Compensation is paid both for permanent physical disability and also—in the case of earnersr-for income losses on an income related basis. Regular adjustment in the level of payment is provided for in accordance with variations in the value of money. Non-earners such as tourists, housewives, children, students, retired people do not normally qualify for earnings related compensation but are eligible for all other benefits. These are not taxable. Housewives—including visiting women from overseas—who are non-earners are eligible for the benefits available to non-earners and home help can be paid for or the husband compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the home until the injured wife can resume her duties. After the first week's incapacity and for the ensuing 4 weeks the earner can be paid 80% of his average earnings for the 28 days preceding the accident; after that the 80% is related to average earnings over the 12 preceding months. In addition— for earners—lump sums are payable for impairment, pain and disfigurement and for funeral expenses and weekly sums and lump payments to their widows and dependent children. All employees are covered by the Accident Compensation Act 1972. Commerce. Trade (excluding specie and bullion) in NZ$1 m. for 12 months ended 30 J u n e .

Total merchandise imported (v.f.d.)' 6,928 2 8,197 9 11,344 2 10,468 3

1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86

Exports of domestic produce 7,427 7 8,336 5 11,011 9 10,139 0 ' Value for duty

Re-exports 266 6 195 4 303 9 432 7

Total merchandise exported (f.o.b.) 7,694 3 8,531 9 11,315 8 10,571 7

The principal imports for the 12 months ended 30 June 1986: Commodity Cereals and cereal preparations Fruit and vegetables Sugar and sugar preparations Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, etc. Beverages Tobacco and manufactures Crude rubber Textile fibres Crude fertilizers and minerals other than coal Petroleum and petroleum products Organic chemicals Inorganic chemicals Dyeing, tanning, etc. materials Medicinal and pharmaceutical products Fertilizers, manufactured Plastic materials, etc. Miscellaneous chemical materials and products Rubber manufactures 1 Paper and paperboard manufactures Textile yarn and fabrics, etc. Non-metallic mineral manufactures 1 Iron and steel Non-ferrous metals Manufactures of metals General industrial machinery Electric machinery Road vehicles Professional scientific instruments Miscellaneous manufactured articles 1 Total merchandise imported 2 1

Not elsewhere specified.

2

Value (NZ$1,000) (c l.f.J 47,969 155,653 59,479 111,331 61,738 32,318 39,323 31,939 145,946 1,357,734 197,871 143,046 71,327 240,729 58,615 400,397 152,336 106,564 212,150 648,211 158,657 505,800 157,656 266,154 516,981 452,149 918,246 240,963 506,419 11,466,970

Including commodities not listed.

910

NEW

ZEALAND

T h e principal exports o f N e w Zealand produce for the 12 m o n t h s ended 3 0 June 1986 were: Value Value Commodity (NZSlm.) Commodity (NZSlm.) Forest products Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen Beef and veal 691-7 Sawn timber 110-6 39-3 Lamb 811-6 Radiata pine logs Mutton Wood pulp 219-8 122-7 651-5 Dairy products Fruit and vegetables 62-5 Skimmed milk powder 208-0 Inedible tallow Butter 538-8 Casein and caseinates 251-7 43-4 267-2 Iron ore and concentrates Cheese Hides, skins and fur skins 319-5 Aluminium and aluminium alloys 434 -9 1,281-4 Wool Carpets and carpeting 106-7 Sausage casings 66-5 Domestic electrical equipment Fish, fresh, chilled or frozen 319-8 (incl. parts) 64-5 Rock lobster (crayfish) 85-5 Total produce exported 10,571-7 The following table shows the trade with different countries for the year ended 3 0 June (in NZ$1,000): Imports v.f.d.from Exports and re-exports f.o.b. to 1986 Countries 1985 1986 1985 1,835,672 1,821,754 Australia 2,108,863 1,725,495 10,624 Bahrain 104,930 12,893 121,994 Belgium 77',433 82,130 149,888 Canada 308,181 226,566 201,874 172,717 China 78,917 83,778 298,213 229,578 Fiji 18,814 20,748 137,081 119,523 France 159,600 175,556 214,183 147,772 Germany (Fed. Rep. of) 544,123 622,635 246,301 269,868 Greece 12,773 1,994 66,108 71,748 Hong Kong 129,669 182,882 168,596 161,075 38,112 India 49,488 48,033 52,761 Iran 200 487 445,038 300,967 Italy 233,973 168,131 250,971 227,144 Japan 2,287,303 2,194,371 1,661,491 1,531,459 Korea, Republic of 83,625 83,927 213,708 153,027 Kuwait 367 64 23,836 20,247 Malaysia 62,795 50,327 162,849 117,726 Netherlands 131,176 143,459 158,106 178,130 54,704 Philippines 40,778 20,958 58,110 85,041 Saudi Arabia 269,040 210,986 124,210 Singapore 358,678 396,297 145,797 171,462 Sweden 118,451 16,109 103,515 12,905 UK 989,714 985,521 1,030,104 933,870 USSR 12,461 5,353 145,906 241,257 USA 1,879,625 1,823,091 1,635,950 1,612,219 Total trade between N e w Zealand and U K was as follows (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1 , 0 0 0 sterling): 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 Imports to UK 539,137 486,305 483,749 533,047 455,694 Exports and re-exports from U K 323,201 266,054 367,512 396,595 343,145 T o u r i s m . The country has a growing tourist industry. In the year e n d e d 31 March 1986, 6 8 9 , 0 7 3 travellers visited N e w Zealand (including 5 4 4 , 5 1 7 tourists), c o m pared with 5 9 6 , 9 9 5 (including 4 6 9 , 5 7 0 tourists) in 1985.

COMMUNICATIONS R o a d s . Total length of fqrmed roads and streets in N e w Zealand at 31 March 1985 was 9 3 , 0 3 9 km. There were 14,683 bridges o f over 3 metres in length with a total length o f 3 2 9 , 2 2 4 metres at 31 March 1985. The network o f state highways c o m p r i s e d , a t 3 1 March 1 9 8 5 , 1 1 , 5 7 1 km, including the principal arterial traffic routes. Total expenditure o n roads, streets and bridges by the central government and local authorities c o m b i n e d for the financial year 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 a m o u n t e d t o $3 36 • 7m.

911

NEW Z E A L A N D

In the main, roads are financed from the National Roads Fund which is administered by the National Roads Board. This fund which is derived largely from petrol tax is used for the maintenance and improvement of existing roads. The board's income is currently of the order of $431 m. per annum. Funds are apportioned on the following basis: 39% or more of motor revenue to local authorities, 47% or more to state highways and the remaining 14% is allocated at the discretion of the board. At 31 March 1986 motor vehicles licensed numbered 2,437,329, of which 1,531,425 were cars and 5,038 omnibuses and service vehicles. Included in the remaining numbers were 134,214 motor cycles, 895 power cycles, 305,984 trucks, 385,916 trailers and caravans and 62,827 farm tractors and other farm equipment. Railways. On 31 March 1986 there were 4,273 km of 1,067 mm gauge railway open for traffic (200 km electrified). Operating earnings from government railways, 1985-86, $484,173,000. Three rail/road ferries maintain a regular service between the North and South Islands. The total revenue (including road motor and other subsidiary services) amounted to $653 -4m., and total expenditure $661 • 3m. in 1985-86. Aviation. International services are operated to and from New Zealand by a stateowned company, Air New Zealand Ltd, and by a number of overseas companies. Air New Zealand Ltd also operates most domestic scheduled passenger services. Non-scheduled services are run by the main companies and also by a number of small operators and aero clubs. Domestic scheduled services during the 12 months ended Dec. 1985: Passengers carried, 3,255,000. International services: Passengers carried, 2,061,000; mail, 3,936 tonnes; freight, 92,227 tonnes. Shipping. Container ships operate from Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton and Port Chalmers to the UK, Europe, North America and Japan. The government-owned New Zealand Shipping Corporation has begun to increase its activity into New Zealand—UK and Pacific trades. Entrances and clearances of vessels from overseas: 1983 1984 1985

Entrances No. Tons 3,087 13,040,000 3,193 14,001,000 2,932 14,607,000

Clearances No. Tons 3,077 13,053,000 3,174 13,934,000 2,935 14,613,000

Post and Broadcasting. Receipts of the Post Office for year ended 31 March 1986 were $1,771 -2m.; total expenditure was $1,553-7m. The average staff for 1985-86 was 40,130. The telegraph and telephone systems are operated by the Post Office. At 31 March 1986 there were 2,203,000 telephones. The telecommunications receipts for the year 1985-86 were $1,139m. An earth satellite station has been built north of Auckland to link with the Pacific satellite Intelsat III to augment the Compac and Seacon telecommunications systems which link New Zealand with overseas countries. There are 2 TV channels both operated by the state-owned New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation, which also operates most of the broadcasting stations. Over 85% of New Zealand households have TV sets. There are 64 medium-wave broadcasting stations and 2 short-wave transmitters. Some commercial material is broadcast by both sound and TV services. Number of TV receiving licences at 31 March 1986 was 931,047. Cinemas. There were in 1981,154 cinemas with a seating capacity of89,364. Newspapers. There were (1986), 32 daily newspapers (8 morning and 24 evening) with a combined circulation of 1,059,105. Seven of these newspapers (2 each in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch and 1 in Dunedin) had a circulation of 711,538.

912

NEW

ZEALAND

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judiciary consists of the Court of Appeal, the High Court and District Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Other special courts include the Maori Land Court, Family Courts and Young Persons' Courts. At the end of Dec. 1985 the gaols and Borstal institutions contained 2,235 prisoners, 2,144 males and 91 females. The death penalty for murder was replaced by life imprisonment in 1961. The Criminal Injuries Act, 1963, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1964, provided for compensation of persons injured by certain criminal acts and the dependants of persons killed by such acts. However, this has now been phased out in favour of the Accident Compensation Act, 1972, except in the residual area of property damage caused by escapers. Since 1970 legal aid in civil proceedings (except divorce) has been available for persons of small or moderate means. For the year ended 31 Dec. 1985 expenditure amounted to $6,700,484 and 26,976 applications for aid were granted. Police. The police in New Zealand are a national body maintained wholly by the central government. The total strength at 31 March 1986 was 5,203, the proportion of police to population being 1 to 636. The total cost of police services for the year 1985-86 was NZ$243m., equivalent to $74 per head of population. In New Zealand the police do not control traffic. Ombudsmen. The office of Ombudsman was created in 1962. From 1975 additional Ombudsmen have been authorized. There are currently two. Ombudsmen's functions are to investigate complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of government departments, local authorities and statutory organizations. During the year ended 31 March 1986, 1,906 complaints were received, 127 of which were sustained. Religion. No direct state aid is given to any form of religion. For the Church of England the country is divided into 7 dioceses, with a separate bishopric (Aotearoa) for the Maoris. The Presbyterian Church is divided into 23 presbyteries and the Maori Synod. The Moderator is elected annually. The Methodist Church is divided into 10 districts; the President is elected annually. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into 4 dioceses, with the Archbishop of Wellington as Metropolitan Archbishop. .. i f Number oj Number of adherents clergy Religious denomination (April ¡977) 1981 census 1986 census ' Church of England 780 784,059 814,740 Presbyterian 686 586,530 523,221 Roman Catholic (including 'Catholic' undefined) 931 495,300 456,858 Methodist 349 152,955 148,512 Baptist 254 67,716 50,043 Brethren 187 24,324 Ratana 142 35,781 16,986 Protestant (undefined) 20,490 Salvation Army 241 37,686 Latter-day Saints (Mormon) 162 3,825 Congregationalist 10 11,523 Seventh-day Adventist 55 871,689 6,114 Ringatu 101,901 Christian (undefined) 13,737 Jehovah's Witnesses 125 3,360 Hebrew 7 279,768 All other religious professions 24,201 Agnostic 21,528 Atheist 108,015 Not specified 59,385 473,115 Object to state 244,152 4,712

Total 1

Provisional.

3,175,737

3,261,786

NEW ZEALAND

913

Education. New Zealand has 6 universities, the University of Auckland, University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Victoria University of Wellington, Massey University (at Palmerston North), the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch) and the University of Otago (at Dunedin). There is, in addition, Lincoln College near Christchurch, a university college of agriculture, which is a constituent college of the University of Canterbury. The number of students in 1985 was 59,868. There were 7 teachers' training colleges with 2,844 students in 1985. At 1 July 1985 there were 316 state secondary schools with 13,930 full-time teachers and 214,518 pupils. There were also 36 district high schools with 3,199 scholars in the secondary division. At 1 July 1985, 87,895 part-time pupils attended technical classes, and 31,949 received part-time instruction from the technical correspondence institute. At 1 July 1985, 1,053 pupils received tuition from the secondary department of the correspondence school. There were 16 registered private secondary schools with 437 teachers and 11,534 pupils. At 1 July 1985, there were 2,418 state primary schools (including intermediate schools and departments), with 425,771 pupils; the number of teachers was 18,653. A correspondence school for children in remote areas and those otherwise unable to attend school had 1,599 primary pupils. There were 63 registered private primary schools with 344 teachers and 10,991 pupils. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15. Children aged 3 and 4 years may enrol at the 545 free kindergartens maintained by Free Kindergarten Associations, which receive government assistance. There are also 666 play centres which also receive government subsidy. In July 1985 there were 41,658 and 14,923 children on the rolls respectively. Total expenditure out of government funds in 1985-86 upon education was NZ$2,010m. The universities and the affiliated agricultural colleges are autonomous bodies. Most secondary schools are controlled by their own boards. Virtually all state primary schools are controlled by the district education boards: there are 10 education districts. The Department of Education exercises certain defined functions in connexion with the general supervision of the education provided in state primary and secondary schools and disburses the government grants payable to controlling authorities for the running of those schools. Education in state schools is free for children under 19 years of age. Private schools are regularly visited by state school inspectors. Report of the Minister of Education ('E.l. Report'). Annually. Wellington, Government Printer NZ Committee on Secondary Education. Towards Partnership. Dept. of Education, 1976

Social Welfare. New Zealand's record for progressive legislation reaches back to 1898, when it was second only to Denmark in introducing non-contributory old-age pensions. The present system came into operation from 1 April 1972. It provides for retirement, unemployment, widowhood, invalidity and sickness, as well as hospital and other medical care. Since 1 April 1969 the scheme has been financed from general taxation. Previously there was a special social security tax on virtually all income of individuals and companies in excess of $4 a week which met approximately three-quarters of the cost of the scheme, the balance being met from general taxation. At 31 March 1986 the current weekly rates of widows', invalids', sickness, domestic purposes, unemployment and miners' benefits were $191-76 for a married couple, $115-05 for an unmarried person aged 18 years or over, and $92 • 59 for those under 18 years. There are additional payments for dependent children. All benefits except superannuation and family allowances are subject to an income test. Family Benefit. A family benefit of $6 a week is payable for each dependent child. Unemployment Benefit. The payment is subject to the condition that the applicant is capable and willing to undertake suitable employment.

914

NEW ZEALAND

Sickness Benefit. Payment is subject to medical evidence of incapacity of a person who has suffered a loss of weekly earnings as a result. Other benefits include emergency benefits and additional benefits for those in need but who either do not qualify for one of the standard benefits or who have special needs or commitments for which a benefit at the standard rate is insufficient. Medical, Hospital and Related Benefits. Medical, hospital and other related benefits are also provided under the Social Welfare scheme. These consist mainly of the payrnent of certain fees for medical attention by private practitioners, free treatment in public and mental hospitals, certain fees for treatment in private hospitals, maternity benefits (including ante-natal-and post-natal treatment and services of doctors and nurses at confinements), pharmaceutical benefits (medicines, drugs, etc., prescribed by medical practitioners), etc. There are also benefits in connexion with dental services up to the age of 16, X-ray diagnosis, massage, home-nursing, artificial aids, etc. Pensions. Provision is made for the payment of pensions and allowances to members or dependants of disabled, deceased or missing members, of the New Zealand Forces who served in the South African War, the two World Wars, the Korean War and the Vietnam War, to members of the New Zealand Mercantile Marine during the Second World War, or in connexion with any emergency whether arising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter of the United Nations or otherwise. Principal rates are: War pensions are payable to widows at a rate of $57 • 57 a week, together with a mother's allowance of $70- 71 a week, increased by $10 a week for each additional child, in addition to the normal child allowances of $6 per week for each child. These rates may be increased by an amount not exceeding $46-82 per week if the pensioner is suffering from total blindness, two or more serious disabilities or one extremely severe disability. An 'economic pension' is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is additional to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. The maximum weekly rates are $95-88 to a married person (if unmarried, $115-05); to the widow or dependent widowed mother of a member, $115-05. War veterans' allowances are $115-05 weekly for a single person and $95-88 for a married person, plus an equal amount to a wife, increased by $ 1.50 a week each at age 65, subject to income qualifications. Domestic Purposes Benefit. A domestic purposes benefit is payable to unsupported male and female solo parents including divorced, separated and unmarried persons, prisoners' spouses and also to those who are required to give full-time care to a person (other than their spouse) who would otherwise have to be admitted to hospital. Death Benefit. A death benefit of $ 1,200 is payable to a widow or widower if totally dependent on the deceased plus $600 for each dependent child but not exceeding $1,600. Social Welfare Benefits and War Pensions: Benefits

Number in force at 31 March 1986

Total payments 1985-86 (NZ$1,000)

SOCIAL W E L F A R E :

Monetary— Superannuation Widows Family care Family Invalids Minersand orphans Unemployment Sickness Domestic purposes Total

465,079 13,304 262,791 524,143 21,993 374 42,405 9,517 62,570

3,341,211 89,338 165,387 281,957 133,287 1,357 290,462 91,762 603,878

1,402,176

4,998,639

NEW ZEALAND

915 Total payments 1985-86 (NZ$1,000)

Benefits SOCIAL WELFARE (contd.):

Health, etc— Medical Hospital Maternity Pharmaceutical Supplementary

74,619 51,154 20,352 346,287 56,111 548,523

Total WAR PENSIONS a s a t 31 M a r c h 1986: Type of Person War disablement Dependants of disabled Widows Other dependants of deceased Economic War service War veteran's allowance Police

Number m Force 21,665 67 4,308

Total

34 1,502 2,103 937 32 30,648

Dependent Wives Included 1 J

Annual Value (NZS 1.000) 29,681 335 12,980

67 1,290 441

8,859 17,805 7,879 52

1,798

77,591

Reciprocity with Other Countries. There are reciprocal arrangements between New Zealand and Australia in respect of age, invalids', widows', family, unemployment and sickness benefits, and between New Zealand and the UK in respect of family, age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness and unemployment benefits. Superannuation. Following the change of Government in Dec. 1975 the earningsrelated superannuation scheme described in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1977-78, was abolished. Under the new system (operative from Feb. 1977) superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders on reaching the age of 60. It is taxable but not subject to an income test. The rates are based on the national average wage, of which married couples now receive 80% and single persons 60% of the married rate. Health. At 30 June 1985 there were 7,964 doctors on the medical register. At 31 March 1986 there were 23,759 public hospital beds, of which 2,070 were for maternity cases.

MINOR ISLANDS The minor islands (total area, 320 sq. miles, 829 sq. km) included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand (but not within any local government area) are the following: Kermadec Islands (34 sq. km), Three Kings Islands (8 sq. km), Auckland Islands (114 sq. km), Campbell Island (62 sq. km), Antipodes Islands (606 sq. km), Bounty Islands (1 sq. km), Snares Islands (3 sq. km), Solander Island (1 sq. km). With the exception of Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group (population, 5, 1981 census) and Campbell Island (population, 10, 1981 census) both of which have staffed meteorological stations, none of these islands is inhabited. The Kermadec Islands were annexed to New Zealand in 1887, have no separate administration and all New Zealand laws apply to them. Situation, 29° 10' to 131° 30' S. lat., 177° 45' to 179° W. long., 600 miles NNE of New Zealand. The largest of the group is Raoul or Sunday Island, 20 miles in circuit, while Macaulay Island is 3 miles in circuit.

916

NEW ZEALAND

TERRITORIES OVERSEAS Territories Overseas coming within the jurisdiction of New Zealand consist of Tokelau and the Ross Dependency. Tokelau. Situated some 480 km to the north of Western Samoa between 8° and 10° S. lat., and between 171" and 173* W. long., are the 3 atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu and Fakaofo of the Tokelau (Union) group. Formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, the group was transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand on 11 Feb. 1926. By legislation enacted in 1948, the Tokelau Islands were declared part of New Zealand as from 1 Jan. 1949. The area of the group is 1,011 hectares; the population at Sept. 1985 was 1,703. By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now invested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. In Dec. 1976 the territory was officially renamed 'Tokelau', the name by which it has customarily been known to its inhabitants. From 8 Nov. 1974 the office of Administrator was invested in the Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Certain powers are delegated to the district officer in Apia, Westem Samoa. Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the islanders agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. Up to March 1975, 528 migrants entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. At the request of the people the scheme has now been suspended. New Zealand Government aid to Tokelau totalled $3 • 1 m. for the year ended 31 March 1986. Ross Dependency. By Imperial Order in Council, dated 30 July 1923, the territories between 160° E. long, and 150° W. long, and south of 60° S. lat. were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. The region was named the Ross Dependency. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand. The mainland area is estimated at 400,000-450,000 sq. km and is mostly icecovered. In Jan. 1957 a New Zealand expedition under Sir Edmund Hillary established a base in the Dependency. In Jan. 1958 Sir Edmund Hillary and 4 other New Zealanders reached the South Pole. The main base—Scott Base—at Pram Point, Ross Island—is manned throughout the year, about 12 people being present during winter. Vanda Station in the dry icefree Wright Valley is manned every summer. Quartermain, L. H., New Zealand and the Antarctic Wellington, 1971

SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES OVERSEAS THE COOK ISLANDS HISTORY. The Cook Islands, which lie between 8° and 23° S. lat., and 156° and 167° W. long., were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and on 11 June 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part ofNew Zealand. In 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing territory in 'free association' with New Zealand. AREA AND POPULATION. The islands within the territory fall roughly into two groups—the scattered islands towards the north (Northern group) and the islands towards the south known as the Lower group. The names of the islands with their populations as at the census of 1 Dec. 1981 were as follows:

THE COOK ISLANDS Area Lower Group— sq.km Population Rarotonga 67-2 9,530 Mangaia 51-8 1,364 Atiu 26-9 1,225 Aitutaki 18 0 2,335 Mauke (Party Is.) 18 -4 681 Mitiaro 22-3 256 Manuaeand Teau-o-tu 6-2 12 Takutea 1-3 -

917

Area Northern Group— sq.km Population Nassau 1-2 134 Palmereton (Avarau) 2 0 51 Penrhyn (Tongareva) 9-8 608 Manihiki (Humphrey) 5-4 405 Rakahanga (Reirson) 4-1 272 Pukapuka (Danger) 5-1 796 Suwarrow(Anchorage) 0-4 — — Total 293 17,754

In 1984, 408 live births and 102 deaths were registered. In 1983 there were 24,000 Cook Islanders living abroad, mainly in New Zealand. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964, which provides for the establishment of internal self-government in the Cook Islands, came into force on 4 Aug. 1965. The Act establishes the Cook Islands as fully self-governing but linked to New Zealand by a common Head of State, the Queen, and a common citizenship, that of New Zealand. It provides for a ministerial system of government with a Cabinet consisting of a Premier and 6 other Ministers. The New Zealand Government is represented by a New Zealand Representative and the position of a Queen's Representative has recently been created by changes in the Constitution. New Zealand continues to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, subject to consultation between the New Zealand Prime Minister and the Prime Minister. The changed status of the Islands does not affect the consideration of subsidies or the right of free entry into New Zealand for exports from the group. The capital is Rarotonga, which was devastated by a hurricane in Jan. 1987. Prime Minister: Sir Thomas Davis, KBE. ECONOMY A N D TRADE Budget. Revenue is derived chiefly from customs duties which follow the New Zealand customs tariff, income tax and stamp sales. Grants from New Zealand, mainly for medical, educational and general administrative purposes totalled $7m. in 1982—83. Currency. The Cook Island dollar is at par with the New Zealand dollar. Agriculture. Livestook(1985): Pigs, 17,000; goats, 3,000. Commerce. Exports, .Tiainly to New Zealand, were valued at $6-5m. in 1984. Main items of export were fresh fruit and vegetables, fruit juice, copra and clothing. Imports totalled $30m. in 1984. The main items were foodstuffs, manufactured goods (including transport equipment), petrol and petroleum products. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. New Zealand has financed the construction of an international airport at Rarotonga which became operational for jet services in Sept. 1973. Shipping. A fortnightly cargo shipping service is provided between New Zealand, Niue and Rarotonga. Telecommunications. Wireless stations are maintained at all the permanently inhabited islands. In 1983 there were 2,052 telephones. EDUCATION A N D HEALTH Education. Twenty-eight primary schools are established in the various islands. Of these, two are Roman Catholic missionary schools and two are Seventh-Day Adventist missionary schools. Five primary schools have secondary school attachments, and there are also nine secondary schools. Two of these secondary schools

918

NEW Z E A L A N D

are run by missions; one by the Roman Catholic Mission and the other by the Seventh-Day Adventist Mission. The number of students enrolled at school on 31 March 1984, was 5,051. The instruction given at school is based on the New Zealand School syllabus and students can sit for the New Zealand School Certificate and University Entrance examinations. Most schools teach in both the English and Cook Islands Maori languages, but the use of Cook Islands Maori is restricted to the primary school level. There were 102 Government-funded students studying at overseas tertiary or technical institutes in 1983. Health. All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment in their villages, the hospital and the tuberculosis sanatorium. Cook Islands Maori patients in the hospital and the sanatorium and all schoolchildren receive free dental treatment.

NIUE History. Niue achieved internal self-government in Oct. 1974. Area and Population. Distance from Auckland, New Zealand, 1,343 miles; from Rarotonga, 580 miles. Area, 100 sq. miles; circumference, 40 miles; height above sea-level, 220 ft. Population at 1 Oct. 1986 was 2,531. During 1985 births registered numbered 84, deaths 16. Migration to New Zealand is the main factor in population change. Constitution and Government. There is a Legislative Assembly of 20 members, and legislative measures apply as in the case of the Cook Islands. Premier: Robert R. Rex, CMG, OBE. Budget. Financial aid from New Zealand, 1985-86, totalled $6,095,000. Agriculture. The most important products of the island are coconuts, passion fruit, honey, limes and root crops. Trade. Exports, 1985, $175,924 (main export, taro and yams); imports, $3,753,384. Communications. There is a wireless station at Alofi, the port of the island. A weekly commercial air service links Niue with Western Samoa, Cook Islands, American Samoa and New Zealand. Telephones (1986) 460. Education. There were 7 government schools with 834 pupils in 1985. Health. In 1986 there were 3 doctors, 3 dentists, 7 midwives and 27 nursing personnel. There is a 25-bed hospital at Alofi. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of New Zealand in Great Britain (New Zealand Hse, Haymarket, London, SW1Y 4TQ) High Commissioner: Bryce Harland. Of Great Britain in New Zealand (Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bldg., 2 The Terrace, Wellington, 1) High Commissioner: T. D. O'Leary, CMG. Of New Zealand in the USA (37 Observatory Cir., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Rt. Hon. Sir Wallace E. Rowling. Of the USA in New Zealand (29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington) A mbassador: Paul Cleveland. Of New Zealand to the United Nations Ambassador: David K. McDowell.

NIUE

919

Books of Reference Statistical Information: The central statistical office for New Zealand is the Department of Statistics (Wellington, 1). The beginning of a statistical service may be seen in the early 'Blue books' prepared annually from 1840 onwards under the direction of the Colonial Secretary, and designed primarily for the information of the Colonial Office in England. A permanent statistical authority was created in 1858. The Department of Statistics functions under the Statistics Act 1975 and reports to Parliament through the Minister of Statistics. A comprehensive statistical service has been developed to meet national requirements, and close contact is maintained with the United Nations Statistical Office and other international statistical organizations; through the Conference of Asian Statisticians assistance is being given with the development of statistics in the region. The oldest publications consist of (a) census results from 1858 onwards and (b) annual volumes of statistics (first published 1858 but covering years back to 1853). Main current publications: New Zealand Official Yearbook. Annual, from 1893 Catalogue ofNew Zealand Statistics. 1972 Statistical Reports of New Zealand. Annual Monthly Abstract of Statistics. From 1914 Pocket Digest of Statistics. Annual, 1927-31,1938 fT. Parliamentary Reports of Government Departments. Annual Pacific Islands Yearbook. Sydney, 1977 Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. 2 vols. Wellington, 1940 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 3 vols. Wellington, 1966 National Bibliography. Wellington, 1968 Alley, R., New Zealand and the Pacific. Boulder, 1984 Bedggood, D., Rich and Poor in New Zealand. Sydney, 1980 Bush, G., Local Government and Politics in New Zealand. Sydney, 1980 Easton, B., Social Policy and the Welfare Stale in New Zealùnd. Auckland, 1980 Grover, R. R., New Zealand. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Hawke, G. R., The Making of New Zealand: An Economic History. CUP, 1985 Holcroft, M. H., The Shaping of New Zealand. Auckland, 1975 Morrell, W. P., and Hall, D. O. W., A History of New Zealand Life. Christchurch and London, 1957 Oliver, W. H. (ed.), The Oxford History ofNew Zealand. OUP, 1981 Robson, J. L. (ed.), New Zealand: The Development of its Laws and Constitution. 2nd ed. London,1967 Sinclair, K., A History of New Zealand. Rev.ed. London, 1980 Thakur, R., In Defence of New Zealand. Wellington, 1984 Traue, J. E., Who's Who in New Zealand. 11th ed. Wellington, 1978 Wards, I., A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand. Wellington, Government Printer, 1976

NICARAGUA

Capital: Managua Population: 3 • 14m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$960 (1985)

República de Nicaragua

HISTORY. Active colonization of the Pacific coast was undertaken by Spaniards from Panama, beginning in 1523. After links with other Central American territories, and Mexico, Nicaragua became completely independent in 1838, but subject to a prolonged feud between the 'Liberals' of León and the 'Conservatives' of Granada. Mosquitia remained an autonomous kingdom on the Atlantic coast, under British protection until 1860. On 5 Aug. 1914 the Bryan-Chamarro treaty between Nicaragua and the US was signed, under which the US in return for US$3m. acquired a permanent option for a canal route through Nicaragua and a 99-year option for a naval base in the Bay of Fonseca on the Pacific coast and Corn Islands on the Atlantic coast. It was ratified by Nicaragua on 7 April 1916 and by the US on 22 June 1916. US Marines finally left in 1933. The Bryan-Chamarro treaty was abrogated on 14 July 1970 and the Com Islands handed back in 1971. The 46-year political domination of Nicaragua by the Somoza family ended on 17 July 1979, after the 17 years long struggle by the Sandinista National Liberation Front flared into civil war. A Government Junta of National Reconstruction was established by the revolutionáry government on 20 July 1979 and a 51-member Council of State later created; both were dissolved on 10 Jan. 1985 following new Presidential and legislative elections. On 9 Jan. 1987 the President signed the new Constitution, but immediately reimposed a state of emergency, suspending many of the liberties granted under the Constitution. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Nicaragua is bounded north by Honduras, east by the Caribbean, south by Costa Rica and west by the Pacific. Area estimated at 148,000 sq. km (57,143 sq. miles) or 139,000 sq. km (54,296 sq. miles) if the lakes are excluded. The coastline runs 540 km on the Atlantic and 350 km on the Pacific. Population at the census of April 1971 was 1,877,972. Estimate(1986)3,140,000. Nicaragua is the largest in area and most thinly populated of the Central American republics, 26 inhabitants per sq. km in 1986. In 1981, births, 104,000; marriages, 16,000; deaths, 10,000. The people of the western half of the republic are principally of mixed Spanish and Indian extraction, some of pure Spanish descent and many Indians. TTie population of the eastern half is composed mainly of Mosquito and other Indians and Zambos, and Negroes from Jamaica and other islands of the Caribbean. The main ethnic groups in 1980 were: Mestizo, 69%; white, 14%; black, 8%; amerindian, 4%. Nicaragua is administratively divided into the following 16 departments with population as in 1981: Boaco Carazo Chinandega Chontales Esteli Granada

88,862 109,450 228,573 98,462 110,076 113,102

Jinotega Léon Madriz Managua Masaya

127,159 248,704 72,408 819,679 149,015

Matagalpa Nueva Segovia Río San Juan Rivas Zelaya

220,548 97,765 29,001 108,913 202,462

The capital is Managua, situated on the lake of the same name, 180 ft above sea level, with (1985) 682,111 inhabitants. Other cities: León, 100,982; Granada, 88,636; Masaya, 74,946; Chinandega, 67,792; Matagalpa, 36,983; Esteli, 30,635; Tipitapa, 30,078; Chichigalpa, 28,889; Juigalpa, 25,625; Corinto, 24,250; Jinotepe, 23,538. 920

NICARAGUA

921

C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with a wet season from May to Jan. Temperatures vary with altitude. Managua. Jan. 79°F (26°C), July 86°F (30°C). Annual rainfall 4 5 " (1,140 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Elections for a President and Vice-President and for a 96-member National Assembly were held on 4 Nov. 1984. All elections were by direct vote, with that for the National Assembly being by proportional representation. The minimum voting age is 16 years. In the legislative elections, 61 of the 96 National Assembly seats were won by the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN), 14 by the Partido Conservador Demócrata, 9 by the Partido Liberal Independiente, 6 by the Partido Socialcristiano de Pueblo, and 6 by 3 parties of the far left. The National Assembly is charged with drafting a new Constitution by 1987, replacing the 1974 Constitution which was abrogated on 20 July 1979. President: Daniel Ortega Saavedra (elected 4 Nov. 1984, took office 10 Jan. 1985). . Vice-President: Sergio Ramírez Mercado. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of blue, white, blue, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Salve a ti Nicaragua (words by S. Ibarra Mayorga, 1937). Local government. The republic is divided into a National District and 16 departments, each of which is under a political head (appointed by the President), who has supervision of finance, education and other matters. The departments have 134 municipios, headed by a mayor (alcalde). The Mosquito Reserve now forms part of the departments of Zelaya and Río San Juan. D E F E N C E . Conscription was introduced in 1983 for men between 17 and 22 years. Army. The Army is organized into 1 motorized infantry brigade, 5 armoured, 10 infantry, 10 counter-insurgency (light infantry), and 6 engineer battalions; 1 field artillery brigade and 1 anti-aircraft artillery group. Equipment includes 110 T-54/-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 72,000 including reservists and Militia. Navy. Includes 3 ex-Soviet fast gunboats, 2 ex-North Korean fast torpedo boats, 2 ex-Soviet inshore minehunters, 4 ex-Soviet minesweeping boats, 4 coastguard cutters, 18 coastal patrol craft and 2 minor landing craft operated by the marine section of the National Guard to picket the east and west coasts. Personnel in 1987 totalled 600 officers and men. Air Force. Formed in June 1938 as the Nicaraguan Army Air Force, the Air Force has been semi-independent since 1947. Its combat units are reported to have 12 L-39 Albatross light jet attack/trainers, 4 T-33 armed jet trainers, and 3 T-28 armed piston-engined trainers but confirmation is not available. Other equipment includes 4 C-47s, Spanish-built Aviocar and 2 Israeli-built Arava STOL transports and smaller communications aircraft and helicopters, including 10 Mi-8s, 6 Mi-2s and 10 Mi-24 gunships and 6 SF.260s for counter-insurgency duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Nicaragua is a member of the UN, OAS and the Central American Common Market. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue in 1984 was 11,460m. córdobas and expenditure 14,311m. córdobas. Currency. The monetary unit is the córdoba (C$), divided into 100 centavos. On 31 Dec. 1978 total money supply was 1,887-8m. córdobas. Bills form the greater part of the currency, in denominations from 1,000 córdobas to

922

NICARAGUA

1 córdoba. Silver coins struck, but now out of circulation, are 50, 25 and 10 centavos; copper-nickel and copper-zinc coins, 1 córdoba, 50, 25, 10 and 5 centavos. March 1986,US$1 =70 córdobas; £1 =40-19 córdobas. Banking. The Central Bank of Nicaragua came into operation on 1 Jan. 1961 as an autonomous bank of issue, absorbing the issue department of the National Bank. In July 1979 private financial banking was nationalized and branches of foreign banks were prohibited from receiving deposits. Weights and Measures. Since 1893 the metric system of weights and measures has been recommended. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity for electric energy was 400,000 kw. in 1985 and 1,140 kwh. was produced. Supply 120 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Production of gold in 1980 was 67,000 troy oz.; of silver, 167,000 troy oz.; of copper, 3,000 tonnes. Large deposits of tungsten in Nueva Segovia were reported in 1961. Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal source of national wealth, finding work for 65% of the labour force. Of the total land area (about 36 • 5m. acres), about 17 • 5m. acres are under timber 900,000 acres are used for grazing and 2 1m. acres are arable. The unit of area used locally is the manzana (= 1-73 acres). Of the arable only 1 -2m. acres are actively cultivated, 780,000 in annual crop» such as cotton and rice and the remainder in perennial crops such as coffee and sugar-cane, or in two harvests a year in the cases of maize, sorghum and beans. The products of the western half are varied, the most important being cotton, coffee, now under the aegis of the new Instituto del Café, sugar-cane, cocoa, maize, sesame and beans. Production (1985): Coffee, 50,000 tonnes; sugar-cane, 2,831,000 tonnes; cotton, 69,000 tonnes. There were about 1 • 89m. head of cattle in 1985 and 540,000 pigs. Forestry. Timber production has been declining, though the forests, which cover 10m. acres, contain mahogany and cedar, which were formerly largely exported, three varieties of rosewoods, guayacán (lignum vitae) and dye-woods. Production of sawn wood in 1983,222,000 tonnes. Fishery. On the Atlantic coast fisheries are an important subsistence activity. Catch (1983) 4,500 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Chief local industries are cane sugar, cooking oil, cigarettes, beer, leather products, plastics, textiles, chemical products, metal products, cement (100,000 tonnes in 1982), strong and soft drinks, soluble coffee, dairy products, meat, plywood. Production of oil products (1983) 489,000 tonnes. Labour. In 1980 there were some 813,000 persons gainfully employed. Commerce. The foreign trade of Nicaragua, in US$1 m. (1984): Exports, 390m. consisting of cotton, coffee, chemical products, meat, sugar; imports, 750m. Total trade between Nicaragua and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 m J ¡ m l m ¡ m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

3,282 4,940

1,810 2,367

2,176 4,755

1,324 6,368

1,307 7,349

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984, 4,000 km were paved, out of a total of 25,000 km. The whole 368-5 km of the Nicaraguan section of the Pan-American Highway is now paved. The all-weather Roosevelt Highway linking Managua with the river port Rama was completed in 1968, to provide the first overland link with the Atlantic coast.

NICARAGUA

923

There are paved roads to San Juan del Sur, Puerto Somoza and Corinto. In 1981 there were 66,000 vehicles in use including 23,000 cars. Railways. The Pacific Railroad of Nicaragua, owned and operated by the Government, has a total length of 373 km, all single-track, and connects Corinto, Chinandega, León, Managua, Masaya and Granada. Passengers carried (1985) 2 -4m. and 7 • 5m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. LANICA, the Nicaraguan airline has daily flights to Miami and 6 flights a week to Guatemala and to the inner cities of Bluefields, Puerto Cabezas and the mining towns of Siuna and Bonanza. PANAM and TACA (Transportes Aéreos Centroamericanos), COPA (Compañía Panameña de Aviación), have daily services to Panama, Mexico, the other Central American countries and USA. SAM (Servicio Aéreo de Medellín) has 3 flights a week to Nicaragua and Colombia. Shipping. The Pacific ports are Corinto (the largest), San Juan del Sur and Puerto Saudino through which pass most of the external trade. The chief eastern ports are El Bluff (for Bluefields) and Puerto Cabezas. The merchant marine consists solely of the Mamenic Line with 8 vessels. In 1980,471,000 tonnes of goods were loaded and 1 • 14m. tonnes unloaded at Nicaraguan ports. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 51,237 telephones. The Tropical Radio Telegraph Company maintains a powerful station at Managua, and branch stations at Bluefields and Puerto Cabezas. The Government operates the National Radio with 47 broadcasting stations: there are 31 commercial stations and some 70 others. Number of wireless sets in 1984 was 200,000 and television sets 127,000. There are 2 television stations at Managua. Cinemas. Cinemas numbered over 100 in 1977 and seated over 60,000. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 3 daily newspapers (2 in Managua and 1 in León), with a total circulation of about 105,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice at Managua, 5 chambers of second instance (León, Masaya, Granada, Matagalpa and Bluefields) and 153 judges of inferior tribunals. Religion. The prevailing form of religion is Roman Catholic, but religious liberty is guaranteed by the Constitution. The republic constitutes 1 archbishopric (seat at Managua) and 7 bishoprics (León, Granada, Esteli, Matagalpa, Juigalpa, Masaya and Puerto Cabezas). Protestants, established principally on the Atlantic coast, numbered 54,100 in 1966. Education. There were, in 1983, 4,976 primary schools, with a total of 534,996 pupils and 14,105 teachers; and 323 secondary schools, with 151,012 pupils. It was claimed that the illiteracy rate was 12% in 1983. In 1977 there were 6 universities and technical colleges with 1,204 professors and 23,171 students. Social Welfare. In 1980 there were 1,600 physicians and 50 hospitals with 4,573 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Nicaragua in Great Britain (8 Gloucester Rd., London, SW7 4PP) Ambassador: Francisco d'Escoto. Of Great Britain in Nicaragua Ambassador and Cónsul-General: M. F. Daly (resides in San José). Of Nicaragua in the USA (1627 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Dr Carlos Tunnermann. Of the USA in Nicaragua (Km. 4'/¡ Carretera Sur., Managua) Ambassador: Harry E. Bergold, Jr.

924

NICARAGUA

Of Nicaragua to the United Nations Ambassador: Nora Astorga-Gadea. Books of Reference Dirección General Estadística y Censos, Boletín de Estadística (irregular intervals); and Indicadores Economicos. Black, G. Triumph of the People: The Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua. London, 1981 Boletín de la Superintendencia de Bancos. Banco Central, Managua Booth, J. A., The End of the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution. Boulder, 1982 Christian, S., Nicaragua: Revolution in the Family. New York, 1985 McGinnis, J., Solidarity with the People ofNicaragua. New York,, 1985 Rosset, R, and Vandermeer, J., (eds.) The Nicaragua Reader: Documents of a Revolution under Fire. New York, 1984 Walker, T. W., Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino. Boulder, 1982.—Nicaragua: The First Five Years. New York, 1985 Weber, H., Nicaragua: The Sandinista Revolution. London and New York, 1981 Woodward, R. L., Nicaragua. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Managua, D.N.

NIGER

Capital: Niamey Population: 6-6m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$240 ( 1985)

République du Niger

HISTORY. Niger was occupied by France between 1883 and 1899, and constituted a military territory in 1901, which became a part of French West Africa in 1904. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 18 Dec. 1958 and achieved full independence on 3 Aug. 1960. On 15 April 1974 the first President, Hamani Diori, was overthrown in a military coup led by Lieut.-Col. Seyni Kountché, who suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly and banned political groups. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Niger is bounded north by Algeria and Libya, east by Chad, south by Nigeria, south-west by Benin and Burkina Faso, and west by Mali. Area, 1,186,408 sq. km (458,075 sq. miles), with a population at the 1977 census of 5,098,657. Estimate (1986) 6,608,000. The major towns (populations 1983) are: Niamey, the capital (399,100 inhabitants), Zinder (82,800), Maradi (65,100), Tahoua (41,900), Agadèz (20,475 in 1977). Arlit (28,000), Akouta (26,000). The population is composed chiefly of Hausa (54%), Songhai and Djerma (23%), Fulani (10%), Beriberi-Manga (9%) and Tuareg (3%). The official language is French. C L I M A T E . Precipitation determines the geographical division into a southern zone of agriculture, a central zone of pasturage and a desert-like northern zone. The country lacks water, with the exception of the south-western districts, which are watered by the Niger and its tributaries, and the southern zone, where there are a number of wells. Niamey, 95°F(35°C). Annual rainfall varies from 22" (560 mm) in the south to 7" ( 180 mm) in the Sahara zone. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The country is administered by a Supreme Military Council of 12 officers led by the President, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him. A system of elected Development Councils at all levels has been created, culminating in a 150-member National Development Council with limited legislative powers charged with drafting a new constitution. The Council of Ministers, in July 1986, comprised: Head of State, President of SMC, Defence and Interior: Maj.-Gen. Seyni Kountché. Prime Minister: Hamid Algabid. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Mahamane Sani Bako. Finance: Boukari Adji. Planning: Almoustapha Soumeila. Commerce, Industry and Transport: Amadou Nouhou. Hydrology and Environment: Attaher Darkoye. Culture and Communication: Daouda Diallo. Civil Service and Labour: Lieut-Col. Mamadou Beidari. Mines and Energy: Sani Koutoubi. Agriculture: al-Hadji Allele Habibou. Animal Resources: Salha Waladou. National and Higher Education and Research: Ilia Maikassoua. Public Works and Housing: Moumouni Yacouba. Youth and Sports: Maj. Toumba Boubacar. Public Health and Social Affairs: Dr Abdou Moudi. Justice: Hadji Nadjir. Ministers-Delegate: Amadou Fity Maiga (Interior), Maina Moussa Boukar (Public Establishments, State and Parastatal Enterprises). There are 2 Secretaries of State. National flag: Three horizontal strips of orange, white and green, with an orange disc in the middle of the white strip. Local government: Niger is divided into 7 départements (Agadez, Diffa, Dosso, 925

926

NIGER

Maradi, Niamey, Tahoua and Zinder), each under a prefect, sub-divided into 38 arrondissements, each under a sub-prefect, and some 150 communes. D E F E N C E . Selective military service for 2 years operates. Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured reconnaissance squadrons, 6 infantry, 1 engineer, 1 parachute and 1 support company. Equipment includes 10 M-8, 18 AML-90 and 18 AML-60-7 armoured cars. Strength (1987) 2,150. There are additional paramilitary forces of some 2,550 men. Air Force. The Air Force had (1987) 120 officers and men, 2 C-l 30H and 4 Noratlas transports, 1 Boeing 737 VIP transport, 2 Cessna Skymasters and 3 Do 28D Skyservants and 1 Do 228 for communications dutiés. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Niger is a member of UN, OAÛ and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 10-year plan (1981-90) provided for an investment of 520,000m. francs CFA in the first phase (1981—85) with a prime aim of obtaining selfsufficiency in food and developing the mining sector. Budget. The ordinary budget for 1984-85 balanced at 85,900m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. Banking. The Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue, and there are 9 commercial banks in Niamey. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) amounted to 133m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. ' Oil. Deposits in the Lake Chad area, located in 1978, are to be exploited. Minerals. Large uranium deposits are mined at Arlit and Akouta, in the Air mountains of northern Niger, with French and Japanese assistance. Concentrate production (1983) 3,416 tonnes. Phosphates are mined in the Niger valley, and coal reserves are being exploited by open-cast mining. Salt and natron are produced at Manga and Agadez, tin ore in A'ir, iron ore at Say. Agriculture. The chief foodcrops in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) were: Millet, 1,450; pulses, 215; sorghum, 330; cassava, 190; sugar-cane, 145; onions, 120; rice, 56. The main cash crops are ground-nuts (40), cotton and gum arabic. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 3-53m.; horses, 290,000; asses, 505,000; sheep, 3 • 53m.; goats, 7 • 53m.; camels, 414,000; chickens, 14m. Forestry. Production (1983) 3-73m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Catch ( 1983) 6,840 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Some small manufacturing industries, mainly in Niamey, produce textiles, food products, furniture and chemicals. Trade Unions. The sole national body is the Union Nationale des Travailleurs du Niger, which has 15,000 members in 31 unions. Commerce. Imports in 1982 were valued at 145,500m. francs CFA and exports at 109,400m. francs CFA. In 1981, France provided 36% of imports and took 36% of the exports. Main exports were uranium (79%) and livestock, 12%. Total trade between Niger and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 574 17,346

1983 6,854 9,650

1984 391 10,682

1985 399 12,076

1986 848 10,367

NIGER

927

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 8,547 km of roads. Niamey and Zinder are the termini of two trans-Sahara motor routes; the Hoggar-Aïr-Zinder road extends to Kano and the Tanezrouft-Gao-Niamey road to Benin. A 648-km 'uranium road' runs from Arlit to Tahoua. There were (1982), 34,240 private cars and 8,761 commercial vehicles. Shipping. Sea-going vessels can reach Niamey (300 km. inside the country) between Sept. and March. Aviation. There are international airports at Niamey, Zinder and Maradi. Air Niger operates domestic services to over 20 other public airports. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1981) 9,320 telephones. In 1984 there were 160,000 radio and 11,000 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1970 there were 4 cinemas with a seating capacity of3,800. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper, Le Sahel, with a circulation of 3,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are Magistrates' and Assize Courts at Niamey, Zinder and Maradi, and justices of the peace in smaller centres. The Court of Appeal is at Niamey. Religion. In 1980,97% of the population was Moslem and the remainder mainly followed animist beliefs. There were about 30,000 Christians. Education. There were, in 1980-81, 228,855 pupils and 5,518 teachers in 1,664 primary schools,45,846(1981)and 1,371 teachers in secondary schools, and 2,351 students and 120 teachers in the technical and teacher-training colleges. In 1982 there were 1,825 students and 273 teaching staff at the University of Niamey. Health. In 1982 there were 2 hospitals, 36 medical centres and 116 dispensaries. In 1980 there were 136 doctors, and (in 1978) 10 dentists, 12 pharmacists, 88 midwives and 1,080 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Niger in Great Britain Ambassador (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Niger Ambassador and Consul-General:}. M. Willson (resides in Abidjan). Of Niger in the USA (2204 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador Joseph Diatta. Of the USA in Niger (PO Box 11201, Niamey) Ambassador Richard W. Bogosian. Of Niger to the United Nations Ambassador Joseph Diatta. Books of Reference Bonardi, P , La République du Niger Pans, 1960 Fugelstad, F , A History of Niger. 1850-1960. OUP, 1984 Séré de Rivières, E., Histoire du Niger Pans, 1965

NIGERIA Federai Republic ofNigeria

Capitati*»* Population: 116-2m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$630 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . The Federal Republic comprises a number of areas formerly under separate administrations. Lagos, ceded in Aug. 1861 by King Dosunmu, was placed under the Governor of Sierra Leone in 1866. In 1874 it was detached, together with Gold Coast Colony, and formed part of the latter until Jan. 1886, when a separate 'colony and protectorate of Lagos' was constituted. Meanwhile the United African Company had established British interests in the Niger valley, and in July 1886 the company obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Niger Company. This company surrendered its charter to the Crown on 31 Dec. 1899, and on 1 Jan. 1900 the greater part of its territories was formed into the protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Along the coast the Oil Rivers protectorate had been declared in June 1885. This was enlarged and renamed the Niger Coast protectorate in 1893; and on 1 Jan. 1900, on its absorbing the remainder of the territories of the Royal Niger Company, it became the protectorate of Southern Nigeria. In Feb. 1906 Lagos and Southern Nigeria Were united into the 'colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria', and on 1 Jan. 1914 the latter was amalgamated with the protectorate of Northern Nigeria to form the 'colony and protectorate of Nigeria', under a Governor. On 1 Oct. 1954 Nigeria became a federation under a Governor-General. In 1967,12 states were created and in 1976 this was increased to 19. . On 1 Oct. 1960 Nigeria became sovereign and independent and a member of the Commonwealth and on 1 Oct. 1963 Nigeria became a republic. For the history ofNigeria from 1961 to 1978, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1979-80, pp. 923-924.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Nigeria is bounded north by Niger, east by Chad and Cameroon, south by the Gulf of Guinea and west by Benin. It has an area of 356,669 sq. miles (923,773 sq. km). Census population, Nov. 1963, 55,670,052. The results of the 1973 census have been officially repudiated. There is considerable uncertainty over the total population, but one estimate based on electoral registration in 1978 is95m. Estimate(1986) 116-2m. There are 19 states and a Federal Capital Territory (Abuja): States Anambra Bauchi Bendel Benue Bomo Cross River Gongola Imo Kaduna Kano

Population Area 1984 (in sq. km) 17,675 6,029,500 64,605 4,075,800 35,500 4,125,500 45,174 4,068,600 116,400 5,025,000 27,237 5,830,800 91,390 4,367,600 11,850 6,157,000 70,245 6,868,800 43,285 9,681,000

States Kwara Lagos Niger Ogun Ondo Oyo Plateau Rivers Sokoto

Area (in sq. km) 66,869 3,345 65,037 16,762 20,959 37,705 58,030 21,850 102,535

Population 1984 2,884,400 2,825,200 1,961,800 2,596,000 4,617,200 8,732,300 3,397,500 2,883,300 7,608,900

The populations of the largest towns were (1975 estimate) as follows: Lagos, 1,060,848; and (in 1,000) Ibadan, 847; Ogbomosho, 432; Kano, 399; Oshogbo, 282; Ilorin, 282; Abeokuta, 253; Port Harcourt, 242; Zaria, 224; Ilesha, 224; Onitsha, 220; Iwo, 214; Ado-Ekiti, 213; Kaduna, 202; Mushin, 197; Maiduguri, 189;Enugu, 187;Ede, 182; Aba, 177; Ife, 176;Ila, 155;Oyo, 152;Ikere-Ekiti, 145; Benin, 136;Iseyin, 129; Jos, 123;Katsina, 122; Ilobu, 122;Sokoto, 118;Offa, 117; Owo, 109;Shaki, 103;Calabar, 103,0ndo, 101. 928

NIGERIA

929

It was announced in Feb. 1976 that the federal capital would be moved from Lagos to the Abuja area and, in Sept. 1982, Abuja was established as the future capital. C L I M A T E . Lying wholly within the tropics, temperatures everywhere are high. Rainfall varies very much, but decreases from the coast to the interior. The main rains occur from April to Oct. Lagos. Jan. 8 P F (27-2°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,836 mm). Ibadan. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 76°F (24-4'C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,120 mm). Kano. Jan. 70°F (211°C), July 79°F (261°C). Annual rainfall 35" (869 mm). Port Harcourt. Jan. 79°F (26 TC), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 100" (2,497 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution drafted and ratified in 1977-78, Nigeria is a sovereign, federal republic comprising 19 states and a federal capital district. Elections were held in Aug. 1983 and President Shagari was returned with 48% of the vote but in Dec. 1983 the military again took over control in a coup and in Jan. 1984 a Supreme Military Council under Maj.-Gen. Mohammed Buhari took office. In Aug. 1985 there was a coup following which a 28-member Armed Forces Ruling Council was sworn in on 30 Aug. 1985. Head of State, Chairman ofAFRC and C.-in-C. ofthe Armed Forces: Maj.-Gen. Ibrahim Babangida. On 12 Sept. 1985 the AFRC appointed a National Council of Ministers comprising the following in Feb. 1987: Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Development: Maj.-Gen. Gado Nasko . Communications: Lieut.-Col. Abubakar Y. Ayuba. Defence: Maj.-Gen. Domkat Yah Bali. Education: Jibril Aminu. Employment, Labour and Productivity: Brig. Ike Nwachukwu. External Affairs: Dr Bolaji Akinyemi. Federal Capital Territory: Air Cmdre. Hamza Abdullah. Finance: Chu Okongwu. Health: Koye RansomeKuti. Industry: Lieut.-Gen. A. I. Akinrinade. Information: Prince Tony Momoh. Internal Affairs: Lieut.-Col. J. N. Shagaya. Justice: Prince Bola Ajibola. Mines, Power and Steel: Buna Sherrif Musa. National Planning: Dr Kalu I. Kalu. Petroleum Resources: Rilwanu Lukman. Science and Technology: Emmanuel Emovon. Social Development, Youth and Culture: Air Cmdre. Bayo Lawal. Special Duties: Air Vice Marshal Aboyi I. Shekari. Trade: Samaila Mamman. Transport: Brig. Jeremiah T. Useni. Works and Housing: Abubakar Umar. The official language is English but Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba languages are also used in the National Assembly, i.e. the Senate and the House of Representatives as well as in each of the State Houses of Assembly. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, green. Local Government: Each of the 19 states is administered by a military governor, who appoints and presides over a State Executive Council. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured division, 2 mechanized divisions and 1 airborne and amphibious forces division, each with supporting artillery, engineer and reconnaissance units, and 1 Guards brigade. Equipment includes 40 T-55 and 72 Vickers Mk 3 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 80,000 men. Navy. The Nigerian Navy was established in 1958. It comprises the frigates Aradu (completed in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1982) and Obuma (ex-Nigeria) acting as training ship (completed in the Netherlands in 1965), 4 corvettes built in Britain in 1970-72 (Dorina and Otobo), and 1975-80 (Erinmi and Enyimiri), 6 fast missile-armed attack vedettes (3 built in France and 3 in FR Germany), 9 patrol craft, 14 coastal patrol boats, 2 tank landing ships, 2 utility landing craft, 1 survey ship, 1 training ship» 60 launches and 6 tugs. The 1986 new construction programme provided for the delivery of 30 fast light craft ordered from Great Britain (6), United States (6), France (6) and Netherlands

930

NIGERIA

(12), this urgent expansion of armed light forces being necessitated by the continuing maritime lawlessness apparently endemic off the Nigerian coast. There are also 80 small patrol launches operated by the Nigerian Police. The Navy has a small aviation component, formed recently, equipped with 7 Fokker aircraft and 3 Lynx anti-submarine helicopters. Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 550 officers and 4,500 ratings. Air Force. The Nigerian Air Force was established in Jan. 1964. Pilots were trained initially in Canada, India and Ethiopia. The Air Force was built up subsequently with the aid of a Federal Republic of Germany mission; much first-line equipment has since been received from the Soviet Union. It has 18 MiG-21 supersonic jetfighters, 16 Jaguar attack aircraft and MiG-21 U fighter-trainers, and 12 Alpha Jet light attack/trainers. About 20 BO 105 twin-turbine helicopters have been acquired from the Federal Republic of Germany for search and rescue, while 2 F.27MPAs were recently delivered for maritime patrol. Transport units operate 9 C-130H-30 and C-130H Hercules 4-turboprop heavy transports, 5 twin-turboprop Aeritalia G222s and 2 F.27s, 3 DO 228s, a Boeing 727 and a Gulfstream II for VIP use, 16 Dornier 128-6 twin-turboprop and 20 DO 28D twin-piston utility aircraft, 2 Navajos and a Navajo Chieftain. Training types include 30 Bulldog primary trainers and about 12 MB 339 jets for instrument training, transport and ambulance duties. Fourteen medium-lift Aérospatiale Puma helicopters are also in service. Personnel (1987) total about 9,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Nigeria is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, ECOWAS, OAU, OPEC and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth plan (1981-85) was launched in 1981 but was rescheduled because of lower oil prices. Budget. The 1985 budget provided for expenditure (capital and recurrent) of NI 1,270m. and revenue o f N l 1,237m. (60% from oil revenues). Currency. Since 1 Jan. 1973 a decimal currency has been issued by the Central Bank of Nigeria, consisting of Naira (N) and divided into 100 kobo (k). Notes in circulation N20,N10,N5,N1, 50k. Coins,25k, 10k, 5k, lk, '/¡k. In March 1987, £1 = N5-99; US$1 = N3 -92. The currency is unconvertible and subject to stringent exchange controls. Banking. There are 16 commercial banks: First Bank of Nigeria, Union Bank, United Bank for Africa, International Bank for West Africa, Nigeria Arab Bank, Allied Bank of Nigeria, Savannah Bank of Nigeria, National Bank of Nigeria, African Continental Bank, Bank of the North New Nigeria Bank, Habib Bank Nigeria, Société Generate Bank, Progress Bank Nigeria, Commercial Credit and Commercial International (Nigeria Limited). Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The National Electric Power Authority generated 8,175m. kwh. in 1985. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. There are refineries at Port Harcourt, Warri and at Kaduna. Oil represents 95% of exports. Production, 1986,73m. tonnes. Gas. Natural gas is being used at electric power stations at Afam and Ughelli. Reserves: 1,422,000m. cu.metres. Minerals. Production: Tin, 1980, 2,527 tonnes; columbite, 1977 (the world's largest producer), 800 tonnes; coal (1981) 114,875 tonnes. There are large deposits

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of iron ore, coal (reserves estimate 245m. tonnes), lead and zinc. There are small quantities of gold and uranium. Agriculture. Main food crops are millet and sorghum in the north, plantains and oil palms in the south, and maize, yams, cassava and rice in much of the country, the north being, however, the main food producing area. 1985 production figures (in 1,000 tonnes) are: Millet, 3,600; sorghum, 3,500; plantains, 1,350; maize, 3; yams, 18,300; cassava, 13,000; rice, 1,430. In the 1970s food imports rose rapidly, especially of rice, but import curbs have cut this since 1982 and rice production has risen rapidly. In 1985-86 imports of rice, maize and vegetable oil were banned to encourage higher local production. Production of crops for export or local industry has greatly declined since the early 1970s. Groundnut production in 1985 was 600,000 tonnes, but very little was sold to the government marketing board which until 1986 bought supplies for export and industry. Cotton lint production (1985) 17,000 tonnes. Cocoa production has declined in recent years, to 112,000 tonnes in 1985; palm kernel was 370,000 tonnes and palm oil, 770,000 tonnes. In 1986 the marketing boards were abolished. State governments and private and co-operative buyers are all now able to buy any crops, all monopolies being ended. Livestock (1985). There were 12m. cattle, 12 -85m. sheep, 26m. goats, 1 -3m. pigs and 160m. poultry. Forestries. There are plywood factories at Epe, Sapele and Calabar, and numerous saw-mills. The most important timber species include mahogany, iroko, obeche, abwa, ebony and camwood. Fisheries. The total catch (1981) was 496,200 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. There were more than 2,000 industrial establishments in 1982. Timber and hides and skins are major export commodities. Industrial products include soap, cigarettes, beer, margarine, groundnut oil, meat and cake, concentrated fruit juices, soft drinks, canned food, metal containers, ply-wood, textiles, ceramic products and cement (3m. tonnes, 1985). Of growing importance is the local assembly of motor vehicles, bicycles, radio equipment, electrical goods and sewing machines. In 1982, the Delta Steel Plant opened at Ovwian—Aladja. Under a decree on indigenization Nigerians must have a minimum of 40% shareholding in all foreign enterprises. Trade Unions. All trade unions were dissolved in 1976 and 42 new unions, each organized around a particular occupation, have since been created. Commerce. There is a great deal of internal commerce in local foodstuffs and imported goods moving by rail, lorry and pack animals overland, and by launches, rafts and canoes along an extensive and complex network of inland waterways. Total trade in Nm. for 4 years: Imports (c.i.f.) Exports and re-exports (f.o.b.)

1982 10,100 9,196

1983 6,588 7,723

1984 7,200 8,700

1985 7,853 10,750

Total trade between Nigeria and UK (according to British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 356,802 1,225,164

1983 387,975 798,276

1 984 375,796 768,449

1 985 660,410 960,703

1 986 329,036 566,176

Tourism. There were 345,169 foreign visitors in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1980). There were 108,000 km of maintained roads and 633,268 vehicles were registered. Railways. There are 3,505 route-km of line 1,067 mm gauge, which in 1984 ran 1,246m. tonne-km and carried 15 • 3m. passengers.

932

NIGERIA

Aviation. There is an extensive system of internal and international air routes, serving Europe, USA, Middle East and South and West Africa. Regular services are operated by Nigerian Airways (WAAC), British Caledonian, UTA, K L M , . S A B E N A , Swissair, PANAM and other lines. In 1981, 2-3m. passengers were carried on . domestic and international routes. Shipping. The principal ports are Lagos, Port Harcourt, Warn and Calabar. Post and Broadcasting. Postal facilities are provided at 1,667 offices and agencies; telegraph, money order and savings bank services are provided at 280 of these. Most internal letter mail is carried by air at normal postage rates. External telegraph services are owned and operated by Nigerian External Telecommunications, Ltd, at Lagos, from which telegraphic communication is maintained witH all parts of the world. There were 708,390 telephones in use in 1982, of which 249,150 were in Lagos and 33,138 in Ibadan. There is also a telex service. Federal and some state governments have established commercial corporations for sound and television broadcasting, which are widely used in schools. In 1983 there were 5-6m. radio and 455,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1974). There were 120 cinemas, with a seating capacity of 60,000. Mobile cinemas are used by the Federal and States Information Services. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 18 daily and 30 weekly newspapers. The aggregate circulation is about lm., of which the Daily Times (Lagos) has about 400,000. (Another 2 dailies were published in Lagos, 4 in Ikeja, 3 in Enugu, and 4 in Ibadan.) JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The highest court is the Federal Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice of the Republic, and up to 15 Justices appointed by AFRC. It has original jurisdiction in any dispute between the Federal Republic and any State or between States; and to hear and determine appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal, which acts as an intermediate appellate Court to consider appeals from the High Court. High Courts, presided over by a Chief Justice, are established in each state. All judges are appointed by the AFRC. Magistrates' courts are established throughout the Republic, and customary law courts in southern Nigeria. In each of the northern States of Nigeria there are the Sharia Court of Appeal and the Court of Resolution. Moslem Law has been codified in a Penal Code and is applied through Alkali courts. Religion. Moslems, 48%; Christians, 34% (17% Protestants and 17% Roman Catholic); others, 18%. Northern Nigeria is mainly Moslem; Southern Nigeria is predominantly Christian and Western Nigeria is evenly divided between Christians, Moslems and animists. Education. In 1976 primary education became free throughout the country. Literacy rate (1973) 25%. In 1982-83 there were 15,021,100 primary school pupils, and 2,421,625 secondary grammar/commercial school pupils. Teacher-training institutions totalled 157 in 1973, and in 1982-83 there were 309,442 students enrolled in Grade II teacher-training colleges and 36,772 in advanced teachers' colleges/colleges of education. There were also in 1982-83 86,290 students in secondary technical/vocational schools and 46,244 in polytechnics/colleges of technology. There are 24 universities with 121,430 full-time students in 1984 in Nigeria, providing 3-5-year courses leading to the award of a first degree in various disciplines; these include 7 Federal Universities of Technology. There are also opportunities for taking higher degrees. Free tuition was provided from 1977. Health. Most tropical diseases are endemic to Nigeria. Blindness, yaws, leprosy, sleeping sickness, worm infections, malaria are major health problems which, however, are yielding to remedial and preventative measures. In co-operation with the World Health Organization river blindness and malaria are being tackled on a

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large scale, while annual campaigns are undertaken against the danger of smallpox epidemics. Dispensaries and travelling dispensaries are found in most parts of the country. In 1980 there were 8,000 doctors and 75,000 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Nigeria in Great Britain (9 Northumberland Ave., London, WC2N 5BX) High Commissioner: George Dove-Edwin (accredited 29 May 1986). Of Great Britain in Nigeria (11 Eleke Cres., Victoria Island, Lagos) High Commissioner: Martin K. Ewans, CMG. Of Nigeria in the USA (2201 M. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Ignatius C. Olisemeka. Of the USA in Nigeria (2 Eleke Cres., Lagos) Chargè d'Affaires: Herbert D. Gelber. Of Nigeria to the United Nations Ambassador: Maj.-Gen. Joseph N. Garba. Books of Reference Nigeria Digest ofStatistics. Lagos, 1951 ff. (quarterly) Annual Abstract of Statistics. Federal Office of Statistics. Lagos, 1960 ff. Nigeria Trade Journal. Federal Ministry of Commerce and Industries (quarterly) Achebe, C., The Trouble with Nigeria. London, 1984 Adamolekun, L., Politics and Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan, 1986 Barbour, K. M. (ed.), Nigeria in Maps. London, 1982 Comhaire, J., Le Nigeria et ses populations. Brussels, 1981. Crowder, M., The Story of Nigeria. London, 1978 Ikoku, S. G., Nigeria's Fourth Coup: Options for Modern Statehood. Enugu, 1984 Kirk-Greene, A., and Rimmer, D., Nigeria since 1970. London, 1981 Nnoli, O., Path to Nigerian Development. Dakar, 1981 Nwabueze, B. O., The Presidential Constitution of Nigeria. Lagos and London, 1982 Olaloku.F. A., (ed.) Structure of the Nigerian Economy. London, 1980 Oyediran, O., Nigerian Government and Politics under Military Rule, 1966-1979. New York, 1980 Oyovbaine, S.E., Federalism in Nigeria: A Study in the Development of the Nigerian State. London, 1985 Shaw, T. M., and Aluko, O., Nigerian Foreign Policy: Alternative Perceptions and Projections. London, 1984 Simmons, M., and Obe, O. A., Nigerian Handbook 1982-83. London, 1982 Tijjani, A. and Williams, D., (eds.) Shehu Shagari: My Vision of Nigeria. London, 1981 Van Apeldoorn, G. J., Perspectives on Drought and Famine in Nigeria. London, 1981 Williams, D., President and Power in Nigeria. London, 1982 Zartman, I. W., The Political Economy of Nigeria. New York, 1983

NORWAY

Capital: Oslo Population: 4-2m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 13,687 (1985)

Kongeriket Norge

H I S T O R Y . By the Treaty of 14 Jan. 1814 Norway was ceded to the King of Sweden by the King of Denmark, but the Norwegian people declared themselves independent and elected Prince Christian Frederik of Denmark as their king. The foreign Powers refused to recognize this election, and on 14 Aug. a convention proclaimed the independence of Norway in a personal union with Sweden. This was followed on 4 Nov. by the election of Karl XIII (II) as King of Norway. Norway declared this union dissolved, 7 June 1905, and Sweden agreed to the repeal of the union on 26 Oct. 1905. The throne was offered to a prince of the reigning house of Sweden, who declined. After a plebiscite, Prince Carl of Denmark was formally elected King on 18 Nov. 1905, and took the name of Haakon VII. Norwegian 1204 1217 1263 1280 1299 1319 1343 1381 1388

Inge Baardssan Haakon Haakonssen Magnus Lagabeter Eirik Magnussen Haakon V Magnussen Magnus Eriksson Haakon VI Magnussen Olav Haakonssen Margrete

Sovereigns Erik of Pomerania 1389 Kristofer af Bavaria 1442 Karl Knutssen 1449 Same Sovereigns as in Denmark 1450-1814 Christian Frederik 1814 Same Sovereigns as in Sweden 1814-1905 Haakon VII 1905 Olav V 1957

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Norway is bounded north by the Arctic ocean, east by the USSR, Finland and Sweden, south by the Skagerrak Straits and west by the North Sea. Census Pop. per Area (sq. kmj 454 0 4,916-5 4,183-4 27,388-3 25,259-7 14,927-3 2,215-9 15,315-1 9,211-7 7,280-5 9,140-7 15,633-8 18,633-5 15,104-2 18,831-4 22,463-4 38,327-1 25,953-8 48,637-3

Fylker (counties) Oslo (City) Akershus 0stfold Hedmark Oppland Buskerud Vestfold Telemark Aust-Agder Vest-Agder Rogaland Hordaland Sogn og Fjordane Mere og Romsdal Ser-Trendelag Nord-Trandelag Nordland Troms Finnmark

population 1 Nov. 1980 452,023 369,193 233,301 187,223 180,765 214,571 186,691 162,050 90,629 136,718 305,490 391,463 105,924 236,062 244,760 125,835 244,493 146,818 78,331

Population 1 Jan. 19862 449,228 393,350 234,952 186,383 181,799 219,990 191,606 162,560 94,688 140,215 323,346 399,669 106,113 237,271 246,814 126,686 242,275 146,730 75,650

sq. km (total area) 19861 989-5 80-0 56-2 6-8 7-2 14-7 86-5 10-6 10-3 19-3 35-4 25-6 5-7 15-7 13-1 5-6 6-3 5-7 1-6

Mainland total 323,877-7' 4,092,340 4,159,325 12-8 Svalbard and Jan Mayen have an area of63,080 sq. km. Persons staying on Svalbard and Jan Mayen are registered as residents of their home Norwegian municipality. 1

!

125,049 sq. miles.

Provisional figures.

On 1 Nov. 1980, 2,874,990 persons lived in densely populated areas and 1,197,939 in sparsely populated areas. 934

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935

Population of the principal towns at 1 Jan. 1986 Oslo Bergen Trondheim Stavanger Kristiansand Drammen Tromso Skien

449,208 207,866 134,406 95,076 62,624 50,852 48,101 47,030

Sandnes Alesund Sandefjord Bode Porsgrunn Haugesund Fredrikstad Ringerike

40,805 35,173 35,152 34,496 31,322 26,909 26,831 26,821

Gjovik Halden Moss Lillehammer Harstad Moide Kongsberg Steinkjer

25,925 25,836 24,518 22,119 21,949 21,439 21,049 20,477

' Provisional. Vital statistics for calendar years: Marriages Divorces Births 1982 21,706 7,165 51,245 20,803 7,668 49,937 1983 1984 7,974 50,274 20,537 1985 ! 51,359 1 Excluding still-bom.

Still-born 324 303 261 !

Illegitimate1 9,041 9,616 10,687

Deaths 41,454 42,224 42,581 44,345

Provisional.

C L I M A T E . There is considerable variation in the climate because of the extent of latitude, the topography and the varying effectiveness of prevailing westerly winds and the Gulf Stream. Winters along the whole west coast are exceptionally mild but precipitation is considerable. Oslo. Jan. 25°F (-3-9°C), July 63°F (17°C). Annual rainfall 27" (683 mm). Bergen. Jan. 35°F(1 -5°C), July 61"F(16- 1°C). Annual rainfall 78-3" (1,958 mm). Trondheim. Jan. 26°F (-3-5°C), July 57°F (14°C). Annual rainfall 32 1" (870 mm). R E I G N I N G K I N G . Olav V, born 2 July 1903, married on 21 March 1929 to Princess Martha of Sweden (born 28 March 1901, died 5 April 1954), daughter of the late Prince Carl (son of King Oscar II). He succeeded on the death of his father, King Haakon VII, on 21 Sept. 1957. Offspring: Princess Ragnhild Alexandra, born 9 June 1930 (married, 1953, Erling Lorentzen); Princess Astrid Maud Ingeborg, born 12 Feb. 1932 (married, 12 Jan. 1961, Hr. Johan Martin Ferner); Crown Prince Harald, born 21 Feb. 1937, married, 29 Aug. 1968, Sonja Haraldsen. Offspring: Princess Martha Louise, bom 22 Sept. 1971; Prince Haakon Magnus, born 20 July 1973. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Norway is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is in direct male line in the order of primogeniture. In default of male heirs the King may propose a successor to the Storting, but this assembly has the right to nominate another, if it does not agree with the proposal. The Constitution, voted by the constituent assembly at Eidsvoll on 17 May 1814 and modified at various times, vests the legislative power of the realm in the Storting (Parliament). The royal veto may be exercised; but if the same Bill passes two Stortings formed by separate and subsequent elections it becomes the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign. The King has the command of the land, sea and air forces, and makes all appointments. Since June 1938 all branches of the Government service, including the state church, are open to women. Nationalflag: Red with a blue white-bordered Scandinavian cross. National anthem: Ja, vi elsker dette landet (words by B. Bjernson, 1865; tune by R.Nordraak, 1865). The Storting assembles every year. The meetings take place suo jure, and not by any writ from the King or the executive. They begin on the first weekday in Oct. each year, until June the following year. Every Norwegian subject of 18 years of age is entitled to vote, unless he is disqualified for a special cause. Women are, since 1913, entitled to vote under the same conditions as men. The mode of election is direct and the method of election is proportional. The country is divided into 19 districts, each electing from 4 to 15 representatives.

936

NORWAY

At the elections for the Storting held in 1985 the following parties were elected: Labour, 71; Conservative, 50; Centre Party, 12; Christian Democratic Party, 16; Socialist Left Party, 6; Party of Progress, 2. The Storting, when assembled, divides itself by election into the Lagting and the Odelsting. The former is composed of one-fourth of the members of the Storting, and the other of the remaining three-fourths. Each Ting (the Storting, the Odelsting and the Lagting) nominates its own president. Most questions are decided by the Storting, but questions relating to legislation must be considered and decided by the Odelsting and the Lagting separately. Only when the Odelsting and the Lagting disagree, the Bill has to be considered by the Storting in plenary sitting, and a new law can then only be decided by a majority of two-thirds of the voters. The same majority is required for alterations of the Constitution, which can only be decided by the Storting in plenary sitting. The Storting elects 5 delegates, whose duty it is to revise the public accounts. The Lagting and the ordinary members of the Supreme Court of Justice (the Heyesterett) form a High Court of the Realm (the Riksrett) for the trial of ministers, members of the Heyesterett and members of the Storting. The impeachment before the Riksrett can only be decided by the Odelsting. The executive is represented by the King, who exercises his authority through the Cabinet or Council of State (Statsrad), composed of a Prime Minister (Statsminster]) and (at present) 17 ministers (Statsrader). The ministers are entitled to be present in the Storting and to take part in the discussions, but without a vote. A Labour Government was formed and took office on 9 May 1986. The members of the Government were in Feb. 1987: Prime Minister: Gro Harlem Brundtland. Foreign Affairs: (Vacant). Cultural and Scientific Affairs: Hallvard Bakke. Environment: Sissel Renbeck. Industry: Finn Kristensen. Petroleum and Energy: Arne 0ien. Local Government and Labour: William Haraldseth. Development: Vesla Vetlesen. Trade and Shipping: Kurt M. Mosbakk. Fisheries: Bjame Merk Eidem. Defence: Johan Jorgen Hoist. Communications: Kjell Boigen. Justice: Helene Basterud. Finance: Gunnar Beige. Church and Education: Kirsti Kolle Grondahl. Health and Social Affairs: Tove Strand Gerhardsen. Agriculture: Gunhild 0yangen. Customer Affairs and Government Administration: Anne-Lise Bakken. The official languages are Bokmdl (or Riksmil) and Nynorsk (or Landsm&l). Local Government. For the purposes of administration the country is divided into 19 counties (fylker), in each of which the central government is represented by a county governor (fylkesmannen). In addition, there are 47 urban districts (bykommuner) and 407 rural districts (herredskommuner), each of which usually corresponds in size to a parish (prestegjeld). The districts are administered by district councils (kommunestyrer), whose membership may vary between 13 and 85 councillors, and by a committee (formannskap) which is elected by and from the members of the council. The council is four times the size of the committee. The council elects a chairman and a vice-chairman from among the committee members. Each of the 18 counties forms a county district (fylkeskommune), while the remaining one, Oslo, comprises an urban district. Hie supreme authority in a county district is the county council (fylkesting). The members of the county council are elected directly by the electors of the county and the number of representatives varies between 25 and 85. In a county district the county committee (fylkesutvalg) occupies a position corresponding to that of the committee (formannskap) in the primary districts. The county committee is elected by and from among the members of the county council. The number of county committee members is onefourth of the membership of the county council, but must be not more than 15. The county council elects from among the members of the county committee a county sheriff (fylkesordfererj and a deputy sheriff. DEFENCE. Service is universal and compulsory, liability in peace-time commencing at the age of 19 and continuing till the age of 44. The training period

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937

in the Army is 12 months, in the Navy and Air Force, 15 months. The Norwegian Defence forces are organized into 2 integrated regional commands. Army. In Northern Command the largest standing element is Brigade North. There are also 2 infantry battalions and 1 tank platoon, 1 SP field artillery battery and 1 AD battery in the North. Southern Command comprises 1 infantry battalion, 1 tank company and 1 self-propelled field artillery battery. Equipment includes 78 Leopard I and 39 M-48A5 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 20,000 (including 13,700 conscripts). Reserves number 145,000.' Navy. The Royal Norwegian Navy comprises the Navy, the Coast Guard and the Coastal Artillery. The main combattants includes 14 coastal submarines, 5 frigates, 2 corvettes, 38 missile torpedo boats, 7 coastal minesweepers, 1 minehunter, 2 minelayers, 1 submarine and missile torpedo boat tenders and 7 landing craft. In addition all 6 Coast Guard Vessels are prepared for the escort role. The Coastal Artillery includes 55 coastal batteries and other static defence systems. Eight fast torpedo boats are transferred to and operated by the Sea Home Guard which also operates 2 out of the 7 landing craft. Personnel strength (1987) approximately 8,000 officers and ratings. Reserves totalled over 30,000 officers and men. " Coastguard. The Coastguard was established in 1977 within the framework of the Armed Forces. Main tasks are Fishery Protection and Economic Zone Patrol. The Coastguard assists other government agencies in rescue service, environment, surveillance and police duties. It comprises 3 frigate-size monitors each equipped with a Lynx helicopter, 3 corvette type cutters, 7 armed trawlers, 12 survey and 8 inspection vessels. Air Force. The Royal Norwegian Air Force consists of 4 squadrons of F-16 Fighting Falcons, 1 squadron of F-5 fighter-bombers, 1 maritime patrol squadron of P-3 B Orions, 1 squadron of C-130H Hercules transports and Jet Falcons equipped for EW duties, 1 squadron with Twin Otter light transports and UH-1B helicopters, 2 squadrons ofUH-lB. Ground based air defence forces deploy 4 Nike surface-toair missile batteries and several light anti-aircraft artillery units. Hawk missiles provide area and airfield defence. Ten Westland Sea King helicopters are used for search and rescue duties; 6 Lynx helicopters are operated for the Coast Guard. Total strength (1987) is about 9,400 personnel, including 5,200 conscripts. Home Guard. The Home Guard is organized in small units equipped and trained for special tasks. Service after basic training is 1 week a year. The total strength is approximately 79,700. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Norway is a member of UN, NATO, EFTA, OECD, the Council of Europe and the Nordic Council. ECONOMY

Budget. Current revenue and expenditure for years ending 31 Dec. (in 1,000 kroner): 1981 1982 1983' 19841 19851 1986" Revenue 100,924,000 110,539,000 165,421,000 192,896,000 222,994,000 221,339,000 Expenditure 91,629,000 100,898,000 157,432,000 171,369,000 198,332,000 222,287,000 1 1 Including National Insurance. Voted budget.

National debt 1 for years ending 31 Dec. (in 1,000 kroner): 1977 66,786,000 1980 106,908,000 1983 92,406,100 1978 86,556,000 1981 107,662,000 1984 115,805,000 1979 103,605,000 1982 103,799,400 1985 142,392,600 ' At the rate of par on foreign loans: including treasury bills (in lm. kroner) which amounted to 6,000 in 1978; 9,600 in 1979; 14,600 in 1980, 17,200 in 1981, 13,880 in 1982, 13,413 in 1983,24,558in 1984and35,111 in 1985.

Currency. The Norwegian krone, of 100 ore, is of the value of about 11 kroner to £ 1

938

NORWAY

sterling. National bank-notes of 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 kroner are legal means of payment. March 1987,US$1 =6-96 kroner,£1 = 11 -06 kroner. On 31 Aug. 1986 the nominal value of the coin in circulation was 1,661m. kroner, notes in circulation, 24,048m. kroner. Banking. The Bank of Norway is governed by laws enacted by the State, and its directors are elected by the Storting, except the president and vice-president of the head office, who are nominated by the King. It is the only bank of issue. At the end of 1985 there were 27 private joint-stock banks. Their total amount of capital and funds was 10,679m. kroner (capital 5,482m., funds 5,197m.). Deposits amounted to 181,483m. kroner, of which 47,802m. kroner were at call and notice, and 133,681m. kroner on time. The number of savings banks at the end of 1985 was 198. The total amount of funds of the savings banks amounted to 8,110m. kroner, and total deposits 139,497m. kroner, of which 34,192m. kroner were at call and notice and 105,305m. kroner on time. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures has been obligatory since 1875. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Norway is a laige producer of hydro-electric energy. The potential total hydro-electric power at regulated mean water flow is estimated at 162,000m. kwh. annually. By the end of 1984 the capacity of the installations for production of thermoelectric energy was 246 mw. and the capacity for production of hydro-electric energy was 23,034 mw. In 1985 the total production of electricity amounted to 119,082m. kwh. of which 99 • 7% was produced by hydro-electric plants. Most of the electricity is used for industrial purposes, especially by the chemical and basic metal industries for production of nitrate of calcium and other nitrogen products, carbide, ferrosilicon and other ferro-alloys, aluminium and zinc. The paper and pulp industries are also big consumers of electricity. Supply 130, 150, 220 and 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. In 1963 sovereignty was proclaimed over the Norwegian continental shelf and in 1966 the first exploration well was drilled. By 1985 production was 8 times the domestic consumption of petroleum and is valued at about 20% of the GNP. Production (1986) 40-5m. tonnes. Gas. Production (1983) 895,000m. cu. ft. Minerals. Production and value of the chief concentrates, metals and alloys were: Concéntrales and minerals Copper concentrates Pyrites Titanium ore Zinc and lead concentrates

Tonnes 89,502 357,129 555,947 68,065

Metals and alloys Copper Nickel Aluminium Ferro-alloys Pig-iron Zinc Lead and tin

25,568 28,619 713,014 856,723 565,392 90,668 66

1983 1,000 kroner 223,020 59,502 128^224

6,590^680 2,467,983

Tonnes 96,286 428,438 651,834 60,218 36,821 35,548 765,083 1,003,286 545,972 94,248 62

1984 1,000 kroner 231,285 74,637 141,546

8,529,557 3,573,347

Agriculture. Norway, including Svalbard and Jan Mayen, is a barren and mountainous country. The arable soil is found in comparatively narrow strips, gathered in deep and narrow valleys and around fiords and lakes. Large, continuous tracts fit for cultivation do not exist. Of the total area, 79 • 3% is unproductive, 18% productive forest and 2 • 7% under cultivation.

939

NORWAY Principal crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats Mixedcom Potatoes Hay

Area ' (hectares) 1983 1984 1985 23,270 33,450 39,090 1,000 1,670 1,060 181,160 171,220 170,550 119,260 123,640 129,260 650 ... ... 21,100 19,170 18,610 421,980 428,868 424,747

Produce ' (tonnes) 1983 1984 1985 96,800 170,400 170,000 3,400 6,700 3,400 569,400 657,600 603,800 400,700 581,200 494,800 2,600 433,500 488,700 439,900 2,936,500 3,147,300 2,980,600

Livestock, 1 9 8 5 1 6 , 2 0 0 horses, 970,200 cattle (376,000 milch cows), 2,414,500 sheep, 97,400 goats, 692,500 pigs, 4,101,100 hens. Fur production in 1984—85 was as follows (1983-84 in brackets): Silver fox, 67,000 (53,600); silver-blue fox, 90,900 (54,600); blue fox, 240,700 (321,000); mink, 516,000 (620,000). 1

Holdings with at least 5 decares agricultural area in use.

Forestry. The area covered with productive forests is 66,600 sq. km. About 81% of this consists of conifers and 19% of broadleaves. Forests in public ownership cover 8,470 sq. km of productive area. Between 1975-76 and 1984-85 an annual average of 8 • 3m. cu. metres was cut for sale: 8 • 1 m. for industrial use, 0-2m. for fuel. Of industrial use, 4-5m. cu. metres in the lumber industry, 3m. as pulp, 200,000 as particle board. About 800,000 cu. metres are consumed annually on farms. The annual increment (estimate, 1982) is about 16m. cu. metres. Fisheries. The total number of registered fishermen in 1985 was 29,559, of whom 7,099 had another chief occupation. In 1985, the number of fishing vessels (all with motor) was 23,202, and of these, 15,256 were open boats. The value of sea fisheries in lm. kroner in 1985 was: Cod, 1,136; capelin, 451; mackerel, 143; coal-fish (saithe), 528; deep-water prawn, 800; haddock, 103; herring, 249; dogfish, 10. The catch totalled in 1985,2 • 1 m. tons, valued at 4,259m. kroner. Fish farming is a growth industry, exports 1,000m. kroner per annum. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Industry is chiefly based on raw materials produced within the country (wood, fish, etc.) and on water power, of which the country possesses a large amount. Crude petroleum and natural gas production, the manufacture of paper and paper products, industrial chemicals and basic metals are the most important export manufactures. In the following table are given figures for industrial establishments in 1984, excluding one-man units. Electrical plants, construction and building industry are not included. The values are given in 1 m. kroner. Industries Coalmining Crude petroleum and natural gas Metal-mining Other-mining Food manufacturing Beverages Tobacco Textiles Clothing, etc. Footwear Leather Wood Furniture and fixtures Pulp and paper Printing and publishing Chemical, industrial Chemical, other

Establishments 1 7 14 424 2,308 64 6 406 284 39 52 1,494 529 134 1,673 59 178

Number of Employees 755 11,215 3,395 3,164 49,460 4,321 943 8,369 4,701 722 868 20,332 8,477 13,995 33,586 8,828 7,325

Gross value of production 188 91,846 1,559 1,752 43,866 3,561 1,995 2,826 1,377 204 265 10,203 3,628 12,111 13,334 12,210 4,767

Value added 74 82,122 457 822 5,062 2,322 1,616 1,056 527 85 95 3,125 1,318 3,498 5,778 3,845 1,692

940

NORWAY

Industries Petroleum, refined Petroleum and coal Rubber Plastics Ceramics Glass Other mineral products Iron, steel and ferro-alloys Non-ferrous metals Metal products, except machinery Machinery and equipment Electrical apparatus and supplies Transport equipment Professional and scientific instruments, photographic and optical goods Other manufacturing industries Total (all included)

Establishments 3 70 74 307 32 62 474 48 60 1,554 1,216 413 935

Number of Employees 880 1,777 1,695 6,386 1,123 1,937 7,563 10,814 12,708 24,879 36,821 20,366 33,476

Gross value of production 15,001 1,875 684 3,246 258 882 4,840 8,000 16,269 9,268 23,692 9,574 14,235

Value added 61 449 306 1,082 143 368 1,788 2,667 5,494 3,875 7,458 4,121 5,168

50 298

1,250 2,830

570 934

268 411

13,268

344,961

315,019

147,152

The following table sets forth the estimated value of net production, at factor cost by industries, in 1 m. kroner Agriculture Forestry Fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Crude petroleum and gas production Electricity, gas and water Construction 2 Wholesale and retail trade Restaurants and hotels Water transport Other transport 1 Financial institutions Real estate Business services Government services, social and personal services Imputed bank service charge Net production at factor cost + Indirect taxes -Subsidies

1980 7,972 1,716 1,404 836 42,978

1981 8,852 2,260 2,048 1,179 44,845

1982 10,090 2,164 1,655 1,147 46,869

1983 9,366 2,054 2,335 1,370 51,748

1984• 10,383 2,459 2,405 1,528 58,782

1985' 10,618 2,577 2,812 1,513 61,566

32,007 4,181 14,753 23,101 3,049 6,747 10,464 10,015 8,321 6,380

37,395 5,852 17,274 27,405 3,674 6,263 12,912 12,726 9,710 7,600

39,879 7,168 19,949 31,073 4,277 3,469 14,866 15,320 11,244 9,372

47,968 9,072 21,011 32,413 5,029 2,473 16,486 16,874 12,643 10,502

59,987 10,207 22,275 36,197 5,754 4,108 17,674 16,183 14,012 12,287

65,084 11,925 23,112 38,869 6,809 5,142 18,401 18,841 15,196 14,391

49,423 57,074 64,954 71,906 78,244 85,954 -8,724 -11,349 -14,318 -15,960 -15,443 -17,379 214,623 245,720 269,178 297,289 337,044 365,431 49,024 55,696 61,747 69,733 77,757 90,954 19,960 21,795 23,662 24,439 25,708 26,953

Net domestic product (market price) 243,687 279,621 307,263 342,583 389,093 429,432 1 Provisional figures. 2 Including drilling of crude oil and natural gas wells. ] Including pipeline transport of oil and gas.

Labour. Distribution of employed persons by occupation in 1985 showed 432,000 (21%) in technical, physical science, humanistic and artistic work; 132,000 (7%) administration; 214,000 (11%) clerical; 198,000 (10%) sales; 143,000 (7%) agriculture, forestry, fishing etc.; 10,000 (0-5%) mining and quarrying; 142,000 (7%) transport and communication; 458,000 (23%) manufacturing; 270,000 (13%) service, and 13,000 (0-5%) military and occupations not specified. Source: Labour Force Sample Surveys. Commerce. Total imports and exports in calendar years (in 1,000 kroner): Imports Exports

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 83,601,605 89,687,802 99,747,271 98,407,773 113,102,212 132,563,356 91,672,433 104,265,370 113,236,296 131,396,960 154,034,540 170,732,779

NORWAY

941

Trading according to countries was as follows (in 1,000 ,000 kroner): Countries Argentina Australia and New Zealand Belgium and Luxembourg Brazil Canada Czechoslovakia Denmark Fed. RepublicofGermany Finland France India Italy Netherlands Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland UK USA USSR

Imports 346,375 619,653 3,131,709 1,062,424 2,414,509 240,072 7,214,943 16,368,204 5,472,445 5,174,666 109,543 3,532,010 3,897,590 460,245 818,068 959,042 19,413,978 1,748,186 11,610,441 10,134,607 1,660,597

1984

Exports 41,941 367,957 1,383,259 335,274 862,747 160,227 5,498,225 26,823,978 2,248,690 4,986,597 406,249 1,992,851 9,878,082 233,243 632,264 528,162 15,022,680 1,081,724 55,994,367 7,858,051 604,189

imports 326,011 695,539 3,698,414 1,182,491 2,512,297 303,439 8,961,950 21,297,332 5,382,342 5,536,51 1 143,303 4,435,407 4,686,170 423,841 1,053,081 1,291,799 23,699,533 2,058,802 13,222,638 9,554,428 1,450,358

1985

Exports 80,108 471,756 1,646,708 416,100 625,132 193,074 6,165,410 26,548,826 2,686,649 8,951,789 448,775 2,232,488 10,360,395 268,244 595,337 591,546 15,016,633 1,186,504 61,039,782 8,722,732 629,210

Principal items of import in 1985 (in 1,000 kroner): Machinery, transport equipment, etc., 50,530,014; fuel oil, etc., 11,605,540; base metals and manufactures thereof, 12,408,820; chemicals and related products, 9,133,555; textiles, 3,342,111. Principal items of export in 1985 (in 1,000 kroner): Machinery and transport equipment, 23,280,040; base metals and manufactures thereof, 19,558,680; crude oil and natural gas, 85,380,020; edible animal products, 2,537,154; pulp and paper, 6,753,335. Total trade between Norway and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): , m ] m m } /9M m 5 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

2,023,441 2,820,760 3,852,657 4,367,154 3,265,157 924,651 828,612 968,404 1,140,376 1,147,790

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 Dec. 1985 the length of the public roads (including roads in towns) was 85,882 km. Of these, 55,334 km were main roads; 55,974 km had some kind of paving, mostly bituminous and oil-gravel treatment, the rest being gravelsurfaced. Number of registered motor vehicles (31 Dec. 1985) was 2,133,696, including 1,513,954 passenger cars (including taxis), 232,591 lorries and vans, 17,082 buses, 186,610 motor cycles and'mopeds. The scheduled bus and lorry services in 1985 drove 3,712m. passenger-km and 715m. net ton-km. Railways. The length of state railways on 31 Dec. 1985 was 4,242 km; of private companies, 16 km. On 2,443 km of state and 16 km of private railways electric traction is installed. Total receipts of the state railways and road traffic in 1985 were 2,793m. kroner; total expenses (excluding depreciation and interest on capital), 3,599m. kroner. The state railways carried 25-9m. tonnes of freight (of which 15m. was iron ore on the Ofoten railway) and 35m. passengers. Aviation. Det Norske Luftfartselskap (DNL) started its post-war activities on 1 April 1946. On 1 Aug. 1946 DNL, together with DDL (Danish Airlines) and ABA/ SILA (Swedish Airlines), formed the 'Scandinavian Airlines System'—SAS. The 3 companies remained independent units, but all services were co-ordinated. In 1951 a new agreement was signed (retroactive from 1 Oct. 1950) according to which the 3 national companies became holding partners in a new organization which took over the entire operational system. Denmark and Norway hold each two-sevenths

942

NORWAY

and Sweden three-sevenths of the capital, but they have joint responsibility towards third parties. In the autumn of 1985 SAS had a fleet of 85 jet planes. Length of route network, about 252,000 km. Scheduled air services are run by SAS, Braathens SouthAmerican and Far East Air transport service (SAFE) and Wideroes Flyveselskap service. The Norwegian share of the scheduled air service run by SAS is twosevenths of the SAS service on international routes and the total SAS service in It o00 Post, luggage, freight and Norway. 1982 1983 1984 1985

1,000 km flown 56,070 59,638 59,359 63,666

Passengers carried 5,210,452 5,610,866 6,114,038 6,799,735

passengerkm 4,118,000 4,345,000 4,533,000 4,791,000

passengers (1,000 ton-km) Total Of which post 498,000 19,000 514,000 19,000 534,000 18,000 557,000 19,000

Shipping. The total registered mercantile marine on 1 Jan. 1986 was 1,454 vessels, 1 lm. gross tons (steam and motor vessels above 100 gross tons). These figures do not include fishing and catching boats, tugs, salvage vessels, icebreakers and similar special types of vessels, totalling 731 vessels of337,000 gross tons. Vessels entering Norway from foreign countries 1983 No. Norwegian 7,416 Foreign 8,101 Total entered

15,517

Total Net tons 19,980 22,309 42,289

Goods (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1983 discharged, 16,349; loaded, 39,575, of which 10,712 was Swedish iron ore shipped from Narvik. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones on 31 Dec. 1985 was 1,757,656 (42-3 per 100 of population). Receipts, 10,003-6m. kroner; expenses, 9,147-8m. kroner (interest on capital included) for State Telecommunications. Norsk Rikskringkasting is a non-commercial enterprise operated by an independent state organization and broadcasts 1 programme (PI) on long-, medium-, and shortwaves and on FM and 1 programme (P2) on FM. Local programmes are also broadcast. It broadcasts 1 TV programme from 1,918 transmitters. Colour programmes are broadcast by PAL system. Number of television licences, 1,368,631. Cinemas. There were 461 cinemas with a seating capacity of 126,662 in 1984. Newspapers. There were 63 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 1,918,000 in 1985. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicature is common to civil and criminal cases. The same professional judges, who are legally educated, preside over both kinds of cases. These judges are as such state officials. The participation of lay judges and jurors, both summoned for the individual case, varies according to the kind of court and kind of case. The ordinary Court of First Instance (Herredsrett and Byrett) is in criminal cases composed of one professional judge and 2 lay judges, chosen by ballot from a panel elected by the district council. In civil cases 2 lay judges may participate. The ordinary Court of First Instance is in general competent in all kinds of cases with the exception of criminal cases where the maximum penalty prescribed in the Criminal Code for the offence in question exceeds five years imprisonment. Altogether there are about 100 ordinary courts of first instance. In every community there is a Conciliation Council (Forliksrad) composed of 3 lay persons elected by the district council. A civil lawsuit usually begins with mediation in the council which also has judicial authority in minor civil cases. The ordinary Courts of Second Instance (LagmannsrettJ, of which there are 5, are composed of 3 professional judges. Additionally, in civil cases 2 or 4 lay judges may be summoned. In criminal cases a jury of 10 lay persons is summoned to determine whether the defendant is guilty according to the charge. Four lay persons take part in the assessment of the punishment. In civil cases, the Court of Second

NORWAY

943

Instance is an ordinary court of appeal. In criminal cases in which the lower court does not have judicial authority, it is itself the court of first instance. In other criminal cases it is an appeal court as far as the appeal is based on an attack against the lower court's assessment of the facts when determining the guilt of the defendant. An appeal based on any other alleged mistakes is brought directly before the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court (Heyesterett) is the court of last resort. There are 18 Supreme Court judges. Each individual case is heard by 5 judges. Some major cases are determined in plenary session. The Supreme Court may in general examine every aspect of the case and the handling of it by the lower courts. However, in criminal cases the Court may not overrule the lower court's assessment of the facts as far as the guilt of the defendant is concerned. The Court of Impeachment (Riksretten) is composed of 5 judges of the Supreme Court and 10 members of Parliament. All serious offences are prosecuted by the State. The Public Prosecution Authority (Patalemyrtdigheten) consists of the Attorney General (Riksadvokaten), the district attorneys (statsadvokater) and legally qualified officers of the ordinary police force. Counsel for the defence is in general provided for by the State. Religion. There is complete freedom of religion, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, however, being the national church, endowed by the State. Its clergy are nominated by the King. Ecclesiastically Norway is divided into 11 Bispedommer (bishoprics), 91 Prostier (provostships or archdeaconries) and 620 Prestegjeld (clerical districts). There were 140,202 members of registered religious communities outside the Evangelical Lutheran Church, subsidized by central government and local authorities in 1984. The Roman Catholics are under a Bishop at Oslo, a Vicar Apostolic at Trondheim and a Vicar Apostolic at Tromso. Education. In Norwav the children normally start their school attendance the year they complete 7 and finish compulsory school the year they complete 16. On 1 Oct. 1985 the number of primary schools and pupils were as follows: 3,524 primary schools, 534,000 pupils; 87 special schools for the handicapped, 2,954 pupils. On 1 Oct. 1984 the number of pupils in upper secondary schools, i.e., folk high schools, secondary general schools and vocational schools, was 204,199. There are in Norway 4 universities and 8 institutions equivalent to universities. In autumn 1985 the total number of students was 42,083. The University of Oslo, founded in 1811, had 19,243 students. The University of Bereen, founded in 1948, had 8,094 students. The University of Trondheim consists ofthe Norwegian Institute of Technology, founded in 1910, and the College of Arts and Science, founded in 1925. At each of them the number of students was in autumn 1985, 5,361 and 3,015 respectively. The University of Tromse was established in 1968; 2,068 students were registered in autumn 1985. The other university institutions had 4,302 students. On 1 Oct. 1984 there were at other schools of higher education, 51,298 students. These included 13,100 at colleges for teachers, 7,353 at colleges for engineers and 7,283 at district colleges. In 1985-86 there were 6,673 Norwegian students and pupils attending foreign universities and schools. Health. In 1984 there were 10,110 doctors and 66,298 hospital beds. Social Security. In 1985, about 76,000m. kroner were paid under different social insurance schemes, amounting to approximately 18% of the net national income. The National Insurance Act of 17 June 1966, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1967, replaced the schemes relating to old age pensions, disability benefits, widows' and mothers' pensions, benefits to unmarried women, 'survivors' benefit for children and rehabilitation aid. Schemes relating to health insurance, unemployment insurance and occupational injury insurance were revised and incorporated in National Insurance Scheme on 1 Jan. 1971. As from 1 Jan. 1981, benefits to divorced and separated supporters also are covered by the National Insurance Scheme.

944

NORWAY

The following conspectus gives a survey of schemes established by law. Many municipalities grant additional benefits to old-age, disablement and survivor's pensions. Type of scheme National insurance Medical care and sickness cash benefits2

Introduced1 Scope 1967 (1986) 1911 All residents

Nearly earners

Unemployment benefits1

Rehabilitation fits'

Disability

1939

bene-

benefits'

1961

1961

all

Principal benefits as from I May 1986

Medical benefits: all hospital expenses; cost share of expense of medical consultation, important medicines, travel expenses, etc. (such costs exceeding 880kr a calendar year are paid in fujl by the National Insurance). wage- Daily sickness allowances; kr 54 to 646 per day cash (5 days a week). The new sickness allowance scheme (1 July 1978) entitles employees to a daily allowance equal to 100% of their gross earned income (within certain limits) from and including the first day of absence; self-employed persons, ordinarily 65% of gross earned income as from the 15th day Supplementary insurance available

All female residents Maternity allowances: same as giving birth sickness allowances (time sharing with the father is possible) or a lump sum of kr. 4,000 per child Nearly all wage- Daily allowance during unemployment kr. 47 to 336 per day, earners excluding supplement for supported child(ren) (six days a week). Contributions to training and retraining, removal expenses, wage subsidies Persons unfit for work because of disablement and persons who have a substantially limited general functional capacity All residents

All residents between 16 and 67 years of age

Occupational injury benefits2 (industrial workers fishermen 1895; 1909; seamen 1913; military personnel 1953, combined in the act of occupational injury insurance 1960) For notes see p. 946.

1960

AH employed persons, school children and students; self-employed on a voluntary basis

Training; treatment; rehabilitation allowance grants and loans Full rehabilitation allowance equals old age pension (however, no special supplement is granted, see below.) A basic grant and an assistance grant to persons with special needs. Basic grant: kr 3,768 to kr 12,528 per annum. Assistance grant: kr. 6,264, may be increased for children below 18 years of age to a maximum of kr 35,088 per annum Disability pension to persons between 16 and 67 years of age, occupational^ disabled by at least 50%, unfit for rehabilitation Full disability pension equals old age pension The ordinary benefits of the National Insurance, alternative calculation of pensions etc. which in many cases are more favourable for the insured person—or his survivors than the ordinary rules An occupational injury compensation, alone or in addition to a disability pension

NORWAY Type of scheme Oldage pensions

Death grants Survivors'benefits

Children'spension

'

'

Benefits to unmarried supporters '

Benefits to divorced and separated supporters 1 Benefits to unmarried persons forced1 to live at home

Special supplement to National Insurance pensions or transitional benefits Compensation supilement to National nsurance pensions or transitional benefits

f

Family allowances

For notes see p. 946.

945

IntroPrincipal benefits duced 1 Scope as from 1 May ¡986 1937 All persons above 67 Basic pensions: Single, kr. 28,000; years of age couples, kr. 42,000 per annum; supplementary pensions based on previous pensionable income; supplement for supported spouse kr. 14 000 per annum; supplement for supported child(ren) kr. 7,000 or kr. 3,500 per child per annum; see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Compensation supplement' A certain amount fixed by the 1967 All residents Storting, for the time being kr. 4,000 1965 All residents Full pension = kr. 28,000 per annum + 55% of the supplementary pension due to the deceased, transitional benefits, child care allowance and educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Compensation supplement') 1958 Under 18 (20) years of 40% of basic amount (kr. 11.200) age. after loss of one or for first child, 25% (kr. 7,006) for both parents each additional child. If both parents are dead, full survivors' pension for first, 40% of basic amount for second, 25% third, etc., child 1965 Unmarried mothers An additional maternity benefit of kr. 7,740, transitional benefit, or fathers full amount kr. 28,000 per annum, child care allowance and educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Family allowances') 1972 Divorced and separat- Same kind of benefits as unmarried supporters above ed supporters 1965

Unmarried persons under 67 years of age having stayed at home for at least 5 years to give necessary care and attention to parents or other near relatives 1969 Pensioners and peril 984) sons with transitional allowance on basic rates

Transitional benefit or a pension kr. 28,000 per annum, educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement')

Full special supplement, 54-5% of basic amount, i.e. kr. 15,260. For a married pensioner full supplement is lower when spouse has her/his own pension (49-75%) 1970 Pensioners, persons Full compensation supplement (1984) with transitional kr. 500 for single igle persons person and kr. benefits (except 750formarrieid couples unmarried, divorced and separated supporters) or rehabilitation allowances 1946 All families with Kr. 5,256 per annum for the first (1984) children under 16 child, kr. 5,808 for the second, kr. 7,224 for the third, kr. 7,848 for years of age the fourth and kr. 8,232 for the fifth and each additional child. Single supporters receive an additional benefit of kr. 5,808 per annum for the first, kr. 1,416 for the second, kr. 624 for the third and kr. 384 for the fourth child. (Limited to 4 children)

946

NORWAY

Type of scheme War pensions

Special pension schemes: Forestry workers Fishermen Seamen

Introduced 1 Scope 1946 War victims, 1939-45 (1986)

Principal benefits asfrom / May ¡986 Pensions up to kr. 110,832 per annum for single pensioners/ couples (excluding supplement for supported children); widows' and children's pensions Persons with at least: 5 Maximum old-age pension for couples (excluding supplement for supported children): 1952 750 premium weeks Kr. 26,000 per annum (1985) (1,500 „ „) 1958 750 premium weeks Kr. 36,000 (1986) (1,500 „ „) Kr. 91,752 6 per annum (officers) 1948 (360 150 months (1986) „ service „ ) Kr. 65,544 ' „ (others)

' Date of latest revision of law in brackets. Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1971. ' Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1967. 4 Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1981. 5 Requirements for maximum pensions in brackets. 6 Supplements for service during war not included. 2

Provisions have been laid down for the integration of more than one benefit, pension, etc., so as to limit the total amount. As a main rule all running benefits are taxable, while lump sums are not taxed. Certain tax modifications apply to all pensioners and pensioners with no other income than minimum benefits are not charged for tax.

SVALBARD An archipelago situated between 10° and 35° E. long, and between 74° and 81° N. lat. Total area, 62,000 sq. km (24,000 sq. miles). The main islands of the archipelago are Spitsbergen (formerly called Vestspitsbergen), Nordaustlandet, Edgeeya, Barentsoya, Prins Karls Forland, Bjomeya, Hopen, Kong Karls Land, Kvitoya, and many small islands. The arctic climate is tempered by mild winds from the Atlantic. The archipelago was probably discovered by Norsemen in 1194 and rediscovered by the Dutch navigator Barents in 1596. In the 17th century the very lucrative whale-hunting caused rival Dutch, British and Danish-Norwegian claims to sovereignty and quarrels about the hunting-places. But when in the 18th century the whale-hunting ended, the question of the sovereignty of Svalbard lost its significance; it was again raised in the 20th century, owing to the discovery and exploitation of coalfields. By a treaty, signed on 9 Feb. 1920 in Paris, Norway's sovereignty over the archipelago was recognized. On 14 Aug. 1925 the archipelago was officially incorporated in Norway. Coal is the principal product. Of the 3 Norwegian and 3 Soviet mining camps, 2 Norwegian and 2 Soviet camps are operating. Total population on 31 Dec. 1985 was 3,936, of which 1,368 were Norwegians, 2,549 Soviet citizens, and 11 Poles. In 1985, 413,000 tonnes of coal were exported from the Norwegian and 495,500 tonnes from the Soviet mines. Norwegian and foreign companies have been prospecting for oil. So far 5 deep drillings have been made, but oil and gas finds have not been reported. There are Norwegian meteorological and/or radio stations at the following places: Bjornaya (since 1920), Hopen (1945), Isfjord Radio (1933), Longyearbyen (1930)j Svalbard Lufthavn (1975) and Ny-Alesund (1961). A research station, administered by Norsk Polarinstitutt, was erected at Ny-Alesund in 1968 for various observations and investigations. An airport near Longyearbyen (Svalbard Lufthavn) opened in 1975. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Skrifter, Oslo, from 1948 (under different titles from 1922) Greve, T., Svalbard: Norway in the Arctic. Oslo, 1975

NORWAY

947

Hisdal, V., Geography of Svalbard. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo, rev. ed., 1984 Orvin, A. K., 'Twenty-five Years of Norwegian Sovereignty in Svalbard 1925-1950' (in The Polar Record, 1951)

JAN MAYEN This bleak, desolate and mountainous island of volcanic origin and partly covered by glaciers, is situated 71° N. lat. and 8° 30' W. long., 300 miles NNE of Iceland. The total area is 380 sq. km (147 sq. miles). Beerenberg, its highest peak, reaches a height of2,277 metres. Volcanic activity, which had been dormant, was reactivated in Sept. 1970. The island was possibly discovered by Henry Hudson in 1608, and it was first named Hudson's Tutches (Touches). It was again and again rediscovered and renamed. Its present name derives from the Dutch whaling captain Jan Jacobsz May, who indisputably discovered the island in 1614. It was uninhabited, but occasionally visited by seal hunters and trappers, until 1921 when Norway established a radio and meteorological station. On 8 May 1929 Jan Mayen was officially proclaimed as incorporated in the Kingdom of Norway. Its relation to Norway was finally settled by law of 27 Feb. 1930. A LORAN station (1959) and a CONSOL station

(1968) have been established.

BOUVET ISLAND Bouvetoya This uninhabited volcanic island, mostly covered by glaciers and situated 54° 25' S. lat. and 3° 21' E. long., was discovered in 1739 by a French naval officer, Jean Baptiste Loziert Bouvet, but no flag was hoisted till, in 1825, Capt. Norris raised the Union Jack. In 1928 Great Britain waived its claim to the island in favour of Norway, which in Dec. 1927 had occupied it. A law of 27 Feb. 1930 declared Bouveteya a Norwegian dependency. The area is 50 sq. km (19 sq. miles). From 1977 Norway has had an automatic meteorological station on the island, and 5 men operated a meteorological station there during the 1978-79 season.

PETER I ISLAND Peter 10y This uninhabited island, situated 68° 48' S. lat. and 90° 35' W. iong., was sighted in 1821 by the Russian explorer, Admiral von Bellingshausen. The first landing was made in 1929 by a Norwegian expedition which hoisted the Norwegian flag. On 1 May 1931 Peter I Island was placed under Norwegian sovereignty, and on 24 March 1933 it was incorporated in Norway as a dependency. The area is 180 sq. km (69 sq. miles).

QUEEN MAUD LAND Dronning Maud Land On 14 Jan. 1939 the Norwegian Cabinet placed that part of the Antarctic Continent from the border of Falkland Islands dependencies in the west to the border of the Australian Antarctic Dependency in the east (between 20° W. and 45° E.) under Norwegian sovereignty. The territory had been explored only by Norwegians and hitherto been ownerless. Since 1949 expeditions from various countries have explored the area. In 1957 Dronning Maud Land was given the status of a Norwegian dependency. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Norway in Great Britain (25 Belgrave Sq., London, SW1X 8QD) Ambassador: Rolf T. Busch.

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Of Great Britain in Norway (Thomas Hefiyesgate 8,0264 Oslo, 2) Ambassador: J. A. Robson. Of Norway in the USA (2720 34th Street, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Kjell Eliassen. Of the USA in Norway (Drammensveien 18, Oslo, 2) Ambassador: Robert D. Stuart Jr. Of Norway to the United Nations Ambassador: Tom Eric Vraalsen. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistisk Sentralbyrä (Skippergaten 15, P.B.8131 Dep.0033, Oslo 1), was founded in 1876 as an independent state institution. Director general: Arne 0ien. The earliest census of population was taken in 1769. The Sentralbyrä publishes the series Norges Offisielle Statistikk, Norway's official statistics (from 1828), and Social Economic Studies (from 1954). The main publications are: Statistisk Ärbokfor Norge (annual, from 1880; from 1952 bilingual Norwegian-English) 0konomisk Utsyn (annual, from 1935; with English summary from 1952) Historisk Statistikk 1978 (historical statistics; bilingual Norwegian-English) Statistisk Mänedshefte (monthly, from 1880; with English index) Sosialt Utsyn 1983 (social survey). Irregular Miljöstatistikk 1983 (environmental statistics). Irregular Norges Statskalender. From 1816; annual from 1877 Facts about Norway. Ed. by Aftenposten. 20th ed. Oslo, 1986 Arntzen, J. G.,andKnudsen,B. B., Political Life and Institutions in Norway. Oslo, 1981 DeiTy, T. K., A History of Modern Norway, 1814-1972. OUP, 1973 .—A History of Scandinavia. London, 1979 Glässer, E., Norwegen [Bibliography] Darmstadt, 1978 Gleditsch, Th., Engelsk-norsk ordbok, 2nd ed. Oslo, 1948 Greve, T., Haakon VI of Norway, Founder of a New Monarchy. London, 1983 Grönland, E., Norway in English, Books on Norway... 1742-1959. Oslo, 1961 Haugen, E., Norwegian-English Dictionary, Oslo, 1965 Helvig, M., Norway: Land, People, Industries, a Brief Geography. 3rded. Oslo, 1970 Holtedahl, O. (ed.), Geology of Norway. Oslo, 1960 Hornby, A. S., and Svenkerud, H., Oxford engelsk-norsk ordbok. Oslo, 1983 Hove, O., The System of Education. Oslo, 1968 Imber, V/., Norway. Oslo, 1980 Knudsen, O., Norway at Work. Oslo, 1972 Larsen, K., A History of Norway. New York, 1948 Midgaard, J., A Brief History of Norway. Oslo, 1969 Nielsen, K., andNesheim, A., Lapp Dictionary: Lapp-English-Norwegian. 5 vols., Oslo 1963 Orvik, N. (ed.), Fears and Expectations: Norwegian Attitudes Toward European Integration. Oslo, 1972 Paine, R., Coast Lapp Society. 2 vols. Tromso, 1957-65 Popperwell, R. G., Norway. London, 1972 Sather, L. B., Norway. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Udgaard,N. M., Great Power Politics and Norwegian Foreign Policy. Oslo, 1973 Vorren, 0 . (ed.), Norway North of 65. Oslo, 1960 National Library: The University Library, Drammensvein 42b, 0255 Oslo. Director: Ben Rugaas.

OMAN

Capital: Muscat Population: 1 •1 m. ( 1983) GNPper capita: US$6,300 (1984)

Sultanate of Oman H I S T O R Y . Oman was dominated by Portugal from 1507-1649. The Al-Busaid family assumed power in 1744 and have ruled to the present day. The Sultanate of Oman, known as the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman until 1970, is an independent sovereign state, situated in south-east Arabia. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Its coastline is over 1,000 miles long and extends from the Ras al Khaimah Shaikdom near Bukha on the west side of the Musandum Peninsula to Fujairah Shaikdom on the east side, then again from the southern boundary of Fujairah to Ras Dhaibat Ali, which marks the boundary between Oman and the territory of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. The Sultanate extends inland to the borders of the Rub' al Khali ('Empty Quarter') across three geographical divisions—a coastal plain, a range of hills and a plateau. The coastal plain varies in width from 10 miles near Suwaiq to practically nothing in the vicinity of Mutrah and Muscat towns, where the hills descend abruptly into the sea. These hills are for the most part barren except at the highest part of the mountainous region of the Jebel Akhdar (summit 9,998 ft) where there is some cultivation. The plateau has an average height of 1,000 ft. With the exception of oases there is little or no cultivation. North-west of Muscat the coastal plain, known as the Batinah, is fertile and prosperous. The date gardens extend for over 150 miles. Whereas the coastline between the capital, Muscat, and the southern province of Dhofar is barren, Dhofar itself is highly fertile. Its principal town is Salalah on the coast which is served by the port of Raysut. The area has been estimated at about 105,000 sq. miles and the population at 1 • lm., chiefly Arabs; of these, some 40,000 live in Dhofar. The town of Muscat is the capital which, while formerly of some commercial importance, has now lost most of its trade to the adjacent port of Mutrah (combined populations, 80,000), the starting point for the trade routes into the interior. The population of both towns consists of pure Arabs, Indians, Pakistanis and Negroes; numerous merchants are Khojas (from Sind and Kutch) and Hindus (mostly from Gujarat and Bombay). Other ports are Sohar, Khaburah and Sur on the Gulf of Oman and, Raysut in the south; only Raysut, affords shelter from bad weather. The port of Gwadur and a small tract of country on the Baluchistan coast of the Gulf of Oman were handed over to Pakistan on 8 Sept. 1958. The Kiiria Muria islands were ceded to the UK in 1854 by the Sultan of Muscat and Oman. On 30 Nov. 1967 the islands were retroceded to the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, in accordance with the wishes of the population. • C L I M A T E . Oman has a desert climate, with exceptionally hot and humid months from April to Oct., when temperatures may reach 117°F (47°C). From Dec. to the end of March, the climate is more pleasant. Light monsoon rains fall in the south from June to Sept., with highest amounts in the western highland region. Muscat. Jan. 72°F (22-2°C), July 9 T F (33-3"C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (99 1 mm). Salalah. Jan. 72 , F(22-2'C) > July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 3-3" (81-3 mm). R U L E R . The present Sultan is Qaboos bin Said (born Nov. 1940). He took over from his father Said bin Taimur, on 23 July 1970 in a Palace coup. In Oct. 1981 the Sultan issued three decrees establishing a 45-member State consultative council. The number of council members was increased to 5 5 in 1983. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Oman is an absolute monarchy and there is no formal constitution. The Sultan legislates by decree and appoints a 949

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Cabinet to assist him; he holds the posts of Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Defence and Finance. Besides 17 departmental Ministers, the Cabinet also includes: Deputy Prime Minister for Security and Defence: Sayyid Fahar Bin-Taimur al-Said. Deputy Prime Minister for Finance and Economy: Qais Bin-Abdel-Moneim al-Zawawi. Deputy Prime Minister for Legal Affairs: Sayyid Fahad Bin-Mahmoud al-Said. Special Advisor to Sultan, Governor of Muscat: Sayyid Thuwaini Bin-Shihab al-Said. Special Advisor to Sultan on Religious and Historical Affairs: Mohammad BinAhmad. Minister of Statefor Foreign Affairs: Yusuf Bin-Alawi Bin-Abdullah. Minister of State, Governor of Dhofar: Sayyid Hilal Bin-Saud Bin-Hareb al-Busaidi. National flag: Red, with a white panel in the upper fly and a green one in the lower fly, and in the canton the national emblem in white. Local government: Oman is divided into 10 provinces (liwas) and sub-divided into 41 governates (wilayats) each under a governor (wali). DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 Royal Guard brigade; 1 armoured, 1 reconnaissance and 2 artillery regiments; 8 infantry battalions; 1 special force, 1 signals regiment, 1 engineer regiment and 1 parachute regiment. Equipment includes 6 M-60A1 and 33 Chieftain main battle tanks. Strength (1987) about 16,500. Navy. The Navy comprises 3 new very fast missile-armed corvettes, 1 fast missilearmed patrol craft, 4 fast gunboats, 4 inshore patrol craft, 1 training ship/offshore patrol vessel, 2 logistic support ships, 5 landing craft, 1 survey craft, 1 supply ship and 1 training ship. All the warships are British-built. Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 2,400 officers and ratings. The marine police operate 12 coastal patrol boats, 2 logistics support craft, 3 inshore patrol boats and 8 launches. Air Force. The Air Force, formed in 1959, had in 1985 two strike/interceptor squadrons of Jaguars, a ground attack/interceptor squadron of Hunters, a squadron of Strikemaster light jet training/attack aircraft, 1 DC-8, 3 BAC One-Eleven and 1 Falcon VIP transports, 3 C-130H Hercules, 7 Defender and 15 Skyvan light transports, 35 Agusta-Bell 205, 212, 214B and JetRanger, and Bell 214 ST helicopters for security duties, 2 Super Puma VIP helicopters and 2 Bravo piston-engined trainers. Air defence force has batteries of Rapier low-level surface-to-air missiles. Personnel (1987) about 3,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Oman is a member of UN, the Arab League, the Islamic Conference Organisation and the Gulf Co-operation Council. Treaties. The Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Britain and the Sultan signed on 20 Dec. 1951, reaffirmed the close ties which have existed between the British Government and the Sultanate of Oman for over a century and a half. A Memorandum of Understanding signed in June 1982 provided for regular consultations on international and bilateral issues. ECONOMY Planning. The third 5-year plan (1986-90) envisages expenditure of R.0.9,250m. Budget. Revenue (1985) R.0.1,719m. (1,292m. from oil); expenditure, 1,918m. Currency. The Rial Omani was introduced in Nov. 1972 replacing the Rial Saidi. It is divided into 1,000 baiza. There are notes of 100, 200 and 500 baiza and 1,5, 10, 20 and 50 Rial Omani and coins of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250 and 500 baiza. The exchange rate in March 1987 was£l =602 baiza;\JS$l =385 baiza.

OMAN

951

Banking. In 1983 there were 25 banks operating in Oman apart from the Central Bank of Oman. Weights and Measures. The metric system of measurement is in operation. Transactions in the former measurements are now illegal. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production(1985)2,082m. kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The economy of Oman is dominated by the oil industry, which provides nearly all Government revenue. In 1937 Petroleum Concessions (Oman) Ltd, a subsidiary of the Iraq Petroleum Co., was granted a 7 5-year oil concession extending over the whole of Oman, although it relinquished Dhofar in 1950. In 1951 the company's name was changed to Petroleum Development (Oman) Ltd. The company (PDO) regained the Dhofar concession area in 1969. When some of the IPC partners withdrew from Oman in 1960, Shell took over the management of PDO with an 85% interest (minority interests were held by Compagnie Française des Pétroles, 10% and Gulbenkian, 5%). At the beginning of 1974 the Oman Government bought a 25% share in PDO, increasing this retroactively to 60% fn July. A Joint Management Committee was established. Other companies active in exploration activities in Oman, with mixed success, include Amoco, Elf-Acquitaine and a consortium of Deminex, Agip and Hispanoil with BP as operator. Oil in commercial quantities was discovered in 1964 and production began at a rate of200,000 bbls per day in 1967. Production has fluctuated from year to year, peaking in 1976 at 366,000 bbls per day. Due to conditions on the international oil market, production fell to a low of282,000 bbls per day in 1980 but was restored to about 414,000 bbls per day in the third quarter of 1984. Production in 1986 was 27-3m. tonnes. Total reserves were estimated in 1984 to be 3,800m. bbls, or sufficient for 23 years at the current rate of production. Oman is not a member of OPEC or OAPEC but tends to follow OPEC pricing policy. Gas. Production (1982) 290m. cu. ft per day. In 1985 reserves were estimated at 8,240,000m. cu. ft. Water Resources. Two water desalination units were being built in 1984 which will produce 12m. gallons of drinking water water a day. The project was due to be completed in 1986. Minerals. Production of refined copper at the smelter at Sohar was about 14,000 tonnes in 1984. Agriculture. About 41,000 hectares are under cultivation. In the valleys of the interior, as well as on the Batinah, date cultivation has reached a high level, and there are possibilities of agricultural development subject to present water resources and soil surveys. The crop of dates was 75,000 tonnes in 1985, most of which is exported to India. Camels (79,000 in 1985) are bred in large numbers by the inland tribes. Fisheries. Catch (1985) 70,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Manufacturing accounts for 3% of GDP and apart from oil production, copper mining and smelting and cement production there are no industries of any importance. Fishing, water resources, soil and agricultural surveys are being undertaken. The government gives priority to import substitute industries. Commerce. The total imports for 1985 were valued at R.O. 1,162m., including machinery and transport equipment (455m.), manufactured goods (240-9m.), food and live animals (124-lm.), petroleum products (19-7m.) and chemicals (31 -7m.). In 1985, 18 -9% of imports came from Japan, 15 -4% from UK, 5 -3% from USA and 7 -3% from the Federal Republic of Germany; 66-3% of oil exports went to

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OMAN

Japan, 141% to South Korea, 6-7% to Thailand, 2-9% to Singapore and 2-7% to Taiwan. Total trade between Oman and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 46,425 265,283

1983 91,216 448,900

1984 82,655 390,275

1985 69,015 489,926

1986 87,235 399,647

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. A network of adequate graded roads links all the main sectors of population, and only a few mountain villages are not accessible by Land-Rover. In Dec. 1983 there were 3,222 km of paved roads and 18,667 km of graded roads. In 1985 there were 200,000 vehicles. Aviation. Gulf Air run regional services in and out of Seeb international airport (20 miles from Muscat) to Bahrain, Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Karachi, Bombay and operate daily flights to and from London. Other airlines serving Muscat are British Airways, KLM, Thai International, British Caledonian, Air Tanzania, MEA, Kuwait Airlines, PIA, Air India, Iran Air, TMA (cargo) and Trade Winds (cargo). Domestic flights are provided by Oman Aviation Services. Shipping. In Mutrah a deep-water port (nafned Mina Qaboos) was completed in 1974 at a cost of R.O. 18-2m. It provides 12 berths, 9 of which are deep-water berths, warehousing facilities and a harbour for dhows and coastal vessels. The annual handling capacity has been raised to 1 -5m. tons. Mina Raysut, the port of Salalah, has a capacity of 1 m. tons per year. Post and Broadcasting. There are Sultanate post offices in Muscat and Mutrah, relying solely upon a Post Office Box system for delivery. Omantel maintain a telegraph office at Muscat and an automatic telephone exchange (23,000 lines, 1984) which includes Mutrah, Bait-al-Falaj and Mina al-Fahal, the oil company terminal. A high-frequency radio link with Bahrain was opened in Aug. 1972 providing communications with other parts of the world. Internally, there are radio telephone, telex and telegraph services direct between Salalah and Muscat, and a VHF radio link between Seeb international airport and Muscat. The airport is also served by a SITA telex system. Radio Oman broadcasts daily for 17 hours in Arabic and 2 hours in English. A colour television service covering Muscat and the surrounding area started transmission in Nov. 1974. A television service for Dhofar opened in 1975. Total number of televisions, 23,500 and radios, 800,000 in 1985. Newspapers. There were (1984) 3 daily newspapers. EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Education. In 1985-86, there were 531 schools with 195,847 pupils and (1984-85) 9,236 teachers. Plans have been implemented for the development of technical and agricultural training and craft training at intermediate and secondary level. Oman's first university, the Sultan Qaboos University, opened in Sept. 1986. There are also programmes to combat adult illiteracy. Health. Health services in 1984 were widely spread with 15 hospitals in use with 2,142 beds, and 1 more planned, 21 health centres, 74 dispensaries, 572 doctors and 1,753 nurses. There are also Save the Children Fund Welfare Clinics at Sohar and Sur. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Oman in Great Britain (44A Montpelier Sq., London, SW7 1JJ) Ambassador: Hussein Mohamed Ali Allawatia. Of Great Britain in Oman (PO Box 300, Muscat) Ambassador: Robert John Alston.

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953

O f O m a n in the U S A ( 2 3 4 2 Massachusetts Ave., N W , Washington, D C . , 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: Ali Salim Bader Al-Hinai. O f the U S A in O m a n (PO Box 9 6 6 , Muscat) Ambassador: J. Countryman. O f O m a n to the United N a t i o n s Ambassador: Saoud Bin Salim Bin Hassan Al-Ansi. B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Oman in lOyears. Ministry of Information. Oman, 1980 Oman: A MEED Practical Guide. London, 1981 Clements, F. A., Oman: The Reborn Land. London and New York, 1980.—Oman. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Graz,L., The Omani's: Sentinals of the Gulf. London, 1982 Hawley, D., Oman and its Rennaissance. London, 1977 Peterson, J. E., Oman in the Twentieth Century. London and New York, 1978 Peyton, W. D., Oman before 1970: The End of an Era. London, 1985 Shannon, M. O., Oman and South-eastern Arabia: A Bibliographic Survey. Boston, 1978 Thesiger, W., Arabian Sands. London, 1959 Townsend, J., Oman. London, 1977 Wikan, U., Behind the Veil in Arabia: Women in Oman. John Hopkins Univ. Press, 1982

PAKISTAN

Capital: Islamabad Population: 96m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$390 ( 1983)

Islamic Republic of Pakistan HISTORY. Pakistan was constituted as a Dominion on 14 Aug. 1947, under the provisions of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, which received the royal assent on 18 July 1947. The Dominion consisted of the following former territories of British India: Baluchistan, East Bengal (including almost the whole of Sylhet, a former district of Assam), North-West Frontier, West Punjab and Sind; and those States which had acceded to Pakistan. On 23 March 1956 an Islamic republic was proclaimed after the Constituent Assembly had adopted the draft constitution on 29 Feb. On 7 Oct. 1958 President Mirza declared martial law in Pakistan, dismissed the central and provincial Governments, abolished all political parties and abrogated the constitution of 23 March 1956. Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan, the Army Commander-in-Chief, was appointed as chief martial law administrator and assumed office on 28 Oct. 1958, after Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza had handed all powers to him. His authority was confirmed by a ballot in Feb. 1960. He proclaimed a new constitution on 1 March 1962. On 25 March 1969 President Ayub Khan resigned and handed over power to the army under the leadership of Maj.-Gen. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan who immediately proclaimed martial law throughout the country, appointing himself chief martial law administrator on the same day. On 29 March 1970 the Legal Framework Order was published, defining a new constitution: Pakistan to be a federal republic with a Moslem Head of State; the National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies to be elected in free and periodical elections, the first of which was held on 7 Dec. 1970. At the general election the Awami League based in East Pakistan and led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gained 167 seats and the Peoples' Party 90. Martial law continued pending the settlement of differences between East and West, which developed into civil war in March 1971. The war ended in Dec. 1971 and the Eastern province declared itself an independent state, Bangladesh. On 20 Dec. 1971 President Yahya Khan resigned and Mr Z. A. Bhutto became President and chief martial law administrator. On 30 Jan. 1972, Pakistan withdrew from the Commonwealth. A new Constitution was adopted by the National Assembly on 10 April 1973 and enforced on 14 Aug. 1973. It provided for a federal parliamentary system with the President as constitutional head and the Prime Minister as chief executive. President Bhutto stepped down to become Prime Minister and Fazal Elahi Chaudhry was elected President. The Chief of the Army Staff, Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq, proclaimed martial law on 5 July 1977 and the armed forces took control of the administration; scheduled elections were postponed. Mr Bhutto was hanged (for conspiracy to murder) on 4 April 1979. Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq succeeded Fazal Elahi Chaudhry as President in Sept. 1978. Governors-General of Pakistan: Quaid-I-Azam Mohammed Ali Jinnah (14 Aug. 1947-11 Sept. 1948); Khawaja Nazimuddin (14 Sept. 1948-18 Oct. 1951; took over the premiership after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan); Ghulam Mohammad (19 Oct. 1951-6 Aug. 1955); Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza (assumed office of President on 6 Oct. 1955, elected President on 5 March 1956). Presidents of Pakistan: Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza (23 March 1956-28 Oct. 1958); Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan (28 Oct. 1958-25 March 1969); Maj.-Gen. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (31 March 1969-20 Dec. 1971); 954

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Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (20 Dec.1971-14 Aug. 1973); Fazal Elahi Chaudhri (14 Aug. 1973-16 Sept. 1978); Gen. Mohammad Ziaul-Haq (16 Sept. 1978-). E V E N T S . In Nov.-Dec. 1986 there was serious fighting in Karachi between Pathans and Mohajirs (Moslems who immigrated from India after partition). A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Pakistan is bounded north-west by Afghanistan, north by the USSR and China, east by India and south by the Arabian Sea. The total area of Pakistan is 307,293 sq. miles (796,095 sq. km); population (1981 census), 84-25m.; males, 44,232,000; females, 40,021,000. Density, 105-8 persq. km. Estimate (1985) 96-2m. Urban population, 28-3%. Compound growth rate, 1984-85, 3 1%. The crude birth rate 1982-83 was 41 (per 1,000 population); infant mortality 90 (per 1,000 live births); life expectancy, 55 years. The population of the principal cities is: Islamabad Lahore Faisalabad Rawalpindi Hyderabad

201,000 5,103,000 2,922,000 1,092,000 928,000 795,000

Census of 1981 Multan 730,000 Gujranwala 597,000 Peshawar 555,000 Sialkot 296,000 Sargodha 294,000 Quetta 285,000

Jhang Sukkur Bahawalpur Kasur Gujrat Okara

195,000 191,000 178,000 155,000 154,000 154,000

Population of the provinces (census of 1981 ) was ( 1,000):

North-west Frontier Province Federally admin. Tribal Areas Fed. Cap. Territory Islamabad Punjab Sind Baluchistan

Area (sq. km)

1981 density 1981 census population persq. km Estimated Total Male Female Urban (number) total 1985

74,521

11,061

5,761

5,300

27,219

2,199

1,143

1,056

907 205,344 140,914 347,190

340 47,292 19,029 4,332

185 24,860 9,999 2,284

155 22,432 9,030 2,048

1,665 -

204 13,051 8,243 677

148

12,287

81

2,467

376 230 135 12

379 53,840 21,682 4,908

By Jan. 1987 there were 3m. Afghan refugees in Pakistan, of whom most were in the North-west Frontier Province, and small numbers in Baluchistan and the Punjab. Language. The commonest languages are Urdu and Punjabi. Urdu is the national language while English is used in business and in central government. Provincial languages are Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushtu (North-West Frontier Province), Baluchi and Brahvi. C L I M A T E . A weak form of tropical monsoon climate occurs over much of the country, with arid conditions in the north and west, where the wet season is only from Dec. to March. Elsewhere, rain comes mainly in the summer. Summer temperatures are high everywhere, but winters can be cold in the mountainous north. Islamabad. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 90°F (32-2'C). Annual rainfall 36" (900 mm). Karachi. Jan. 6 P F (161°C), July 86°F (30°C). Annual rainfall 8 " (196 mm). Lahore. Jan. 53°F (11-7°C), July 89°F (31 -7°C). Annual rainfall 18" (452 mm). Multan. Jan. 51°F (10-6°C), July 93'F (33-9'C). Annual rainfall 7 " (170 mm). Quetta. Jan. 38°F(3-3°C), July 80°F(26-7"C). Annual rainfall 10" (239 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution of 1973 Parliament is bi-cameral, comprising the National Assembly and the Senate. The strength of the National Assembly is 210 including 10 women. The Senate consists of 63 members, 14 from each province, 5 from Federally Administered Tribal Areas and 2 from the federal capital area, elected by the members of the Provincial Assemblies. A constitutional amendment of 29 March 1976 provided 6 National Assembly seats reserved for non-Moslem minority representatives.

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With the proclamation of martial law the Constitution was kept in abeyance, but not abrogated. The Constitution obliges the Government to use such ways and means as may enable the people to order their lives collectively and individually in accordance with the principles of Islam. The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Bill, 1986, consolidated Islam as the basis of law. An Ombudsman was appointed in Jan. 1983. National elections were held in Feb. 1985 on the basis of the 1973 Constitution, amended to provide wider presidential powers. On 19 Dec. 1984 a referendum had been held to determine whether the President should continue in office for a 5-year term, following the elections; results were announced as 98% in favour. The Pakistan People's Party won 47 seats in the new Assembly, the Muslim League 17 and the Jamaat Islami Party, 9. In March 1985 the President set u p a new National Security Council, led by himself; he assumed power to appoint and dismiss ministers and retained the final decision on legislation. In April 1985 the Council was replaced by a Federal Cabinet. On 30 Dec. 1985 martial law ended. President, Establishment: Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq. Federal Cabinet in Jan. 1987: Prime Minister: Mohammad Khan Junejo. Foreign Affairs: S. Yaqub Khan. Finance and Economic Affairs: Mian M. Y. K, Wattoo. Interior: M. A. Khan Khattak. Education: Nasim A. Aheer. Food and Agriculture: M. I. Baluch. Industries: S. Husain. Information: K. A. M. Abid. Railways: N. M. Khan. States and Frontier Areas: S. Q. Shah. Justice: W. Sajjad. Housing: H. H. Tayyeb. Local Government: A. A. Chaudhary. Without Portfolio: I. A. Khan. There are 4 Ministers of State. On 18 Jan. 1986 the Prime Minister was elected leader of the Muslim League Party. National flag: Green, chaiged at the centre, with a white crescent and white 5-pointed star, a white vertical stripe at the mast to one-quarter of the flag. Local Government. Pakistan comprises the Federal Capital Territory (Islamabad), the provinces of the Punjab, the North-West Frontier, Sind and Baluchistan, and the tribal areas of the north-west. The provincial capitals are Peshawar (NW Frontier Province), Lahore (Punjab), Karachi (Sind) and Quetta (Baluchistan). Provincial governors are appointed by the President and are assisted by elected provincial councils. Within the provinces there are divisions administered by Commissioners appointed by the President; the divisions are divided into districts and agencies administered by Deputy Commissioners or Political Agents who are responsible to the Provincial Governments. The tribal areas (Khyber, Kurram, Malakand, Mohmand, North Waziristan, South Waziristan) are administered by political agents responsible to the federal government. Kashmir. Pakistan controls the northern and western portions of Kashmir, an area of about 84,160 sq. km with a population of about 2-8m. in 1985. Under a United Nations resolution of 1949 its ftiture was to be decided by plebiscite; it is still a disputed territory. The people of Azad Kashmir (the west) have their own Assembly (42 members including 2 women), their own Council (of 14 members), High Court and Supreme Court. There is a Parliamentary form of Government with a Prime Minister as the executive head and the President as the Constitutional head. Elections to the Legislative's 40 general seats are t o be held within 10 days of the general 'elections in Pakistan, according to a presidential proclamation of 8 Oct. 1977. The seat of government is Muzaffarabad. The Pakistan Government is directly responsible for Gilgit and Baltistan (the north).

PAKISTAN

957

DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured and 16 infantry divisions; 4 independent armoured, 8 independent infantry, 8 artillery and 3 anti-aircraft brigades; 6 armoured reconnaissance regiments, 7 surface-to-air missile batteries and 1 Special Services Group. Equipment includes 450 M-47/-48, 51 T-54/-55 and 1,100 Type-59 main battle tanks. The Army has an air component with about 90 fixedwing aircraft for transport, reconnaissance and observation duties and over 100 helicopters for anti-armour operations, transport, liaison and training. Strength (1987) 450,000, with a further 500,000 reservists. There are also 164,000 men in paramilitary units: National Guard, Frontier Corps, Pakistan Rangers, Coast Guard and Frontier Constabulary. Navy. The fleet comprises 6 diesel-powered patrol submarines (completed in France in 1969-80), 3 midget submarines, 1 "County" class destroyer, Babur (ex-HMS London) transferred from the Royal Navy in 1982, the ex-British very old light cruiser (harbour training ship) ejc-HMS Diadem, re-named Jahangir, 7 very old destroyers (6 ex-US and 1 ex-British), 4 ex-Chinese corvette-type patrol vessels, 8 ex-Chinese fast missile craft, 12 ex-Chinese fast gunboats, 4 ex-Chmesrltat (hydrofoil) torpedo boats, 1 seaward defence boat, 1 oceanographic survey ship, 3 coastal minesweepers, 1 fleet replenishment ship, 1 degaussing vessel, 1 rescue ship, 2 landing craft, 1 water carrier and 4 tugs. The naval air arm has 3 Atlantics and 2 F-27s for patrol and transport duties, 6 Sea King anti-submarine warfare helicopters and 4 Alouette III liaison helicopters. The principal naval base and dockyard are at Karachi. Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 1,250 officers and 13,000 ratings. Air Force. The Pakistan Air Force came into being on 14 Aug. 1947. It has its headquarters at Peshawar and is organized within 3 air defence sectors, in the northern, central and southern areas of the country. Air defence units include 2 squadrons of F-16 Fighting Falcons and at least 6 squadrons of Chinese-built F-6s (MiG-19). Tactical units include 5 squadrons of Mirage III-EP/5 supersonic fighters and 5 with A-5 fighter-bombers, 1 squadron equipped with Mirage III-RP reconnaissance aircraft, and 1 with C-130 Hercules turboprop transports. Flying training schools are equipped with Masshaq (Saab Supporter) armed piston-engined primary trainers, T-37B/C jet trainers supplied by the USA, Mirage III-DPs and Chinese-built FT-5s (two-seat MiG-17s) and FT-6s (two-seat MiG-19s). A VIP transport squadron operates the Presidential F27 turboprop aircraft, a twin-jet Falcon 20 and smaller types. There is a flying college at Risalpur and an aeronautical engineering college at Korangi Creek. Total strength in 1987 was about 375 combat aircraft and 17,600 all ranks. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS External Debt (30 June 1985), about US$ 11,452m. Membership. Pakistan is a member of the UN, the Colombo Plan, and Regional Co-operation for Development. Treaties. A mutual defence assistance agreement between Pakistan and the USA was signed in Karachi on 19 May 1954. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth 5-year plan (1983-88) envisages a total fixed investment of Rs 495,000m. including Rs 77,000m. for industry, of which Rs 62,000m. would be spent in the private sector. Real growth in GDP is planned at 6 -5% annually (agriculture 5%; industry 9%). Expenditure will be met mainly (75%) from internal resources. Allocations for energy (Rs 116,000m.), agriculture and irrigation (Rs 88,OOOm.), special development programmes (Rs 22,000m.) and family planning (Rs 1,800m.) have been made. Budget. The following table shows the budget for the years 1984-85 and 1985-86 inRs lm.:

958

PAKISTAN

Revenue receipts of which taxes Capital receipts of which External Revenue expenditure Capital expenditure

1984-85 Revised 77,776-6 52,681 0 45,719-7 14,294-2 84,114-0 38,675-2

1985-86 Budget 86,896-8 59,605-5 53,434-0 26,613-9 92,599-9 44,040-9

Currency. The monetary unit is the Pakistan rupee. In March 1987 Rs 27 -20 = £ 1; Rs 17-26 = US$1. Decimal coinage was introduced on 1 Jan. 1961. The rupee, which previously consisted of 64 pice, now consists of 100 paisas. The notes are of Rs 100, 50, 10 and 5 denominations issued by the State Bank in the name of the Government, and Rs 1 issued by the State Bank incurring no liability; the coinage in the decimal series is0-5,0-25,0-1,0-05 and0-01 rupee. Total monetary assets (including currency in circulation and deposits) in June 1985 amounted toRs 183,905m. Currency in circulation, Rs 56,447m. Banking. As from 1 Jan. 1985, banks and other financial institutions will abandon the payment of interest on new transactions. This does not apply to international business, but does apply to the domestic business of foreign banks operating in Pakistan. Investment partnerships, between bank and customer, are to replace straight loans at interest. The aim is to bring all domestic financial transactions into conformity with Islamic teaching. The State Bank of Pakistan has prepared a schedule of acceptable practice. The State Bank of Pakistan is the central bank; it came into operation as the Central Bank on 1 July 1948 with an authorized capital of Rs 30m. and was nationalized in Jan. 1974. At end June 1985 total assets or liabilities of the issue department amounted to Rs 58,859m. and those of the banking department Rs 65,083m.; total deposits, Rs 38,365m. It is the sole bank of issue for Pakistan, custodian of foreign exchange reserves and banker for the federal and provincial governments and for scheduled banks. It also manages the rupee public debt of federal and provincial governments. It provides short-term loans to the Government and commercial banks and short- and medium-term loans to specialized banks. The Bank's subsidiary Federal Bank for Co-operatives makes loans to provincial co-operative banks. There were 32 scheduled banks in Pakistan on 30 June 1985. Of these 9 were Pakistani. Pakistani scheduled banks were nationalized in Jan. 1974. In addition, there were 23 foreign banks. Time and demand deposits of all the scheduled banks stood at Rs 142,778m. on the last working day of June, 1985. The National Bank of Pakistan acts as an agent of the State Bank for transacting Government business and managing currency chests at places where the State Bank has no offices of its own. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity of the state power system (1985) by type of generation: Thermal 1,442 mw., hydro-electric, 2,897 raw.; of the Karachi Electric Supply Corporation, 1,132 mw. Total generated electrical energy in 1985, 20,420m. kwh; 60% of this was hydro-electricity, the main source being the Tarbela Dam. By 1983 30% of the population had access to electric power. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Oil comes mainly from the Potowar Plain, from fields at Meyal, Tut, Balkassar, Joya Mair and Dhullian. Production in 1986 was 2-lm. tonnes. Oil reserves were also found at Dhodak in Dec. 1976. Exploitation is mainly through government incentives and concessions to foreign private sector companies. The Pak-Arab refinery pipeline runs 865 km. from Karachi to Multan; capacity, 4-5m. tonnes of oil annually. Gas. Gas pipelines from Sui to Karachi (345 miles) and Multan (200) supply natural gas to industry and domestic consumers. A pipeline between Quetta and

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Shikarpur was constructed in 1982. There are 4 other productive fields. Reserves (1983), 500,000m. cu. metres; production in 1984-85 was 10,250m. cu. metres, or about 42% of energy needs. Water. The Indus water treaty of 1960, concluded between India and Pakistan, has created the basis for a large-scale development programme. The Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement has been subscribed by Australia, Canada, Federal Republic of Germany, New Zealand, UK and USA and is administered by the International Bank; the works to be constructed call for expenditure of US$1,000m. The main purpose of the treaty is the division of the water power of the Indus and its 5 tributaries between India and Pakistan. After the construction of some 460 miles of canals, the Indus and the 2 western tributaries will serve Pakistan and the entire flow of the 3 eastern tributaries will be released for use in India. The largest project is the construction of the Tarbela Dam, an earth-and-rock filled dam on the river Indus, 485 ft high, which has a gross storage capacity of 111m. acre feet of water for irrigation. The Lloyd Barrage and Canal Construction Scheme, consists of a barrage across the river Indus at Sukkur and 7 canals—4 on the left and 3 on the right bank. Another barrage across the Indus, 4'/2 miles north of Kotn, called the Ghulam Muhammad Barrage, was completed in 1955. The Taunsa barrage on the Indus, 80 miles downstream of Kalabagh, was completed in 1958. The Gudu barrage, 10 miles from Kashmore, was completed in 1962. The province of the Punjab set up in 1949 the Thai Development Authority to colonize the Thai desert between the Indus and Jhelum rivers. The Chashma canal will carry water 172 miles across Dera Ismail Khan from the Chashma barrage on the Indus. The Mangla Dam on the Jhelum was inaugurated in Nov. 1967. Minerals. The main agencies are the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation, the Resource Development Corporation and the Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan. Coal is mined at Sharigh and Harnai on the Sind-Pishin railway and in the Bolan pass, also in Sor Range and Degari in the Quetta-Pishin district and in the Punjab; total recoverable reserves, about 480m. tonnes, mainly low-grade. A further 55m. tonnes was found at Lakhra in 1980 and reserves of over 500m. tonnes were found in the 300 sq. mile Thatta Sadha field in 1981. Copper ore reserves at Saindak, in Baluchistan, 412m. tons, containing (1984 estimate) 1 -69m. tons of copper, 2 -24m. oz. of gold; 2 -2m. oz. of silver. Chromite is extracted in and near Muslimbagh. Limestone is quarried generally. Gypsum is mined in the Sibi district and elsewhere; reserves (1983), about 370m. tonnes. Iron ore is being worked in Kalabagh and elsewhere; reserves, about 400m. tonnes, low-grade. A further 18m. tonnes, high-grade, has been found in Baluchistan. Uranium has been found in Dera Ghazi Khan. Production (tonnes, 1984-85): Coal, 2- 16m.; chromite, 3,090; limestone, 4-6m.; gypsum, 400,264; rock salt, 573,075; fire clay, 76,551. Other minerals of which useful deposits have been found are magnesite, sulphur, barites, marble, bauxite, antimony ore, bentonite, celestite, dolomite, fireclay, fluorite, fuller's earth, phosphate rock, silica sand and soapstone. Agriculture. The entire area in the north and west is covered by great mountain ranges. The rest of the country consists of a fertile plain watered by 5 big rivers and their tributaries. Agriculture is dependent almost entirely on the irrigation system based on these rivers. It employs (1985) 52% of labour and provides about 26% of GNP and 45% of foreign exchange earnings. Growth rate, 1984-85, 9-9%. The main crops are wheat, cotton, maize, sugar-cane and rice, while the Quetta and Kalat divisions (Baluchistan) are known for their fruits and dates. Pakistan is self-sufficient in wheat, rice and sugar. Production, 1984-85, in 1,000 tonnes: Rice (cleaned), 3,315 -2; wheat, 11,703; sugar-cane, 32,140; cotton (lint, 1,000 bales), 5,976. By 31 March 1977, 3-34m. acres of land had been taken away from landlords, and 1 -48m. acres had been distributed to 137,005 tenants. An ordinance of Jan.

960

PAKISTAN

1977 reduced the upper limit of land holding to 100 irrigated or 200 non-irrigated acres; it also replaced the former land revenue system with a new agricultural income tax, from which holders of up to 25 irrigated or 50 unirrigated acres are exempt. Of about 4m. farms, 89% are of less than 25 acres. Of the surveyed area of 156m. acres, cultivated land accounts for 63m. acres, of which 1 lm. acres consist of fallow land, so that the net area sown is 52m. acres. Livestock (estimate, 1985): Cattle, 16,549,000; buffaloes, 13,070,000; sheep, 25,037,000; goats, 29,726,000; poultry, 97m. Forestry. In 1983-84 the forest departments managed 6-8m. hectares, including range-lands. Productive forests covered 1 -29m. hectares, and produced 260,000 cu. metres of timber and 409,000 cu. metres of firewood. Estimated annual demand, l-69m. cu. metres and 60-4m. cu. metres respectively. Forest lands are also used as national parks, wildlife and game reserves. Fisheries. In 1985 landings were 320,000 tonnes of marine and 70,600 of inland water fish. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Industry employs about 10% of the population, contributing (1984-85) about 19% of GDP. The growth rate in manufacturing, 1984-85, was an estimated 8 • 1 %. In 1972 public sector companies were re-organized under a Board of Industrial Management. Government policy since 1977 has been to encourage private industry, particularly small industry. The public sector, however, is still dominant in large industries; in 1981-82 its gross value added was Rs. 4,291 • 8m., number of employees 81,689, investment Rs. 45,886-98m., of which 60% was for Pakistan Steel. Steel, cement, fertilizer and vegetable ghee are the most valuable public sector industries. A public sector steel-mill (Pakistan Steel) has been built at Port Qasim near Karachi, capacity 1 • lm. tonnes; production of coke and pig-iron began in autumn 1981 and of steel in 1983. A private sector ferrous alloys plant has been approved near Peshawar, capacity 40 tonnes of ferrous silicon and manganese per day. There is an Export Processing Zone at Karachi, covering 500 acres; at 30 June 1981 investment here stood at US$58 -8m. The largest project (approved Aug. 1981) is a Pakistan-Saudi aluminium extrusion plant. Production 1984-85 (tonnes): Refined sugar, l-3m.; vegetable products, 640,319; jute textiles, 78,209; soda ash, 122,071; sulphuric acid, 77,906; caustic soda, 40,281; chip board and paper board, 69,073; cycle tyres and tubes, 1 lm. units; cotton cloth, 271-8m. sq. metres; cotton yam, 431 -7m. kg.; cement, 4-7m.; steel billets 259,121; hot-rolled steel sheets and coils, 196,794. (Cold-rolled production began Jan. 1985). Labour. The 1981 census gave the total work force as 22-62m. Estimates (1984-85) give 27m., of whom 14m. (51 • 8%) were engaged in agriculture, forestry and fishing, 4 07m. (15%) in manufacturing; the textile industry was the largest single manufacturing employer. Estimates (1984-85) give 10% of the work force employed abroad. Of the home work force, 25% were unpaid family helpers, 27-4% were wage employees. Commerce. Total value of exports during 1984-85 amounted to Rs 38,038m., and the total value of imports to Rs 89,778m. The value of the chief articles imported into and exported from Pakistan (in Rs 1 m.): Imports Petroleum and products Machinery and transport equipment Edible oils Chemicals

21,633-8 23,730-0 6,954-3 10,049-5

Exports Raw cotton Cotton cloth Textile yarns Rice Carpets, tapestries

4,506-3 4,636-5 4,093-2 2,030-7 2,325-2

Of exports, Rs 8,547-9m. went to the European Community; Rs 7,772 -2m. to the middle east, of which Rs 2,627m. was to Saudi Arabia; Rs 3,965-3m. went to USA. Of imports, Rs 16,395-9m. came from the European Community;

PAKISTAN

961

Rs 11,005-6m. from USA; Rs 23,445-8m. from the middle east, of which Rs 9,570-5m. was from Saudi Arabia. Total trade between Pakistan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 81,531 199,178

1983 80,277 191,647

1984 93,136 282,356

1985 119,006 255,419

1 986 131,296 227,064

Tourism. Earnings in 1980, US$ 154m. There were 292,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984-85 Pakistan had 101,315 km of roads, of which 40,155 km were all-weather roads. The Karakoram highway to the Chinese border, through Kohistan and the Hunza valley, was opened in 1978. An all-weather road linking Skardu and the remote NE Indus valley to the highway was built in 1980. In 1982 there were l-3m. vehicles registered, including 635,196 motor-cycles and 304,449 cars, jeeps and station wagons. Railways. Pakistan Railways had (1985) a route of 8,775 km (of which 290Tc'm electrified) mainly on 1,676 mm. gauge, with some metre gauge and narrow gauge line. In 1984-85 there were 94-7m. passengers and 10-5m. tonnes of freight. Gross earnings, 1984-85, Rs 3,68 lm. (Rs 1,972-7m. from freight). Aviation. Karachi is served by British Airways, KLM, PANAM, Lufthansa, Swissair, SAS, Iran National Airlines, Air France, Garuda, Gulf Air and by Philippine, Japanese, Chinese, East African, Syrian, Iraqui, Kuwait, Jordanian, Saudi Arabian, Romanian, Egyptian and Russian airlines. Pakistan International Airlines (founded 1955; the majority of shares is held by the Government) had 4 DC-10s, 7 Boeing 707Cs, 5 720Bs, 2 747Bs and 8 Fokker F27s in 1977; 2 other Boeing 720Bs were on lease to Air Malta. Services operate to 20 home airports, New York, Paris, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Istanbul, Athens, Rome, Cairo, Tripoli, Nairobi, Dhahran, Damascus, Amman, Baghdad, Persian Gulf points, Tokyo, Peking (Beijing), Zahedan, Singapore, Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, Colombo, London, Frankfurt, Bombay, Delhi, Dacca, Kabul, Tehran andJeddah. Shipping. There is a seaport at Karachi, dry-cargo-handling capacity 6m. tonnes a year, oil-handling, 10m. The second port, 26 miles east of Karachi, is Port Muhammad Bin Qasim; it has iron and coal berths for Pakistan Steel Mills, multi-purpose berths, bulk-cargo handling, oil and container-traffic terminals; the first seven berths were operational in 1983. Shipping entered and cleared (1984-85): Karachi 1,649 and 1,641 vessels; Port Qasim 149 and 143. Cargo handled: Karachi 14-9m. tonnes, Port Qasim 3m. The .Pakistan National Shipping Corporation had 35 vessels in 1985, of 596,973 DWT. National flag carriers now operate between Pakistan and UK; USA and Canada; the Far East; the (Persian) Gulf, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea, Black Sea and Mekran Coast; Continental Europe and the Middle East. The Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works Ltd construct all types of vessels up to 27,000 DWT and repairs all types; dry-dock and under-water repairs can be done on vessels up to 29,000 DWT, above-water repairs on vessels and drilling rigs of all sizes. Post and Broadcasting. The telegraph and telephone system is government-owned. Telephones, on 31 March 1985, numbered 533,000; a nationwide dialling system is in operation between 46 cities. In 1985 there were 11,898 post offices. Pakistan has international telephone connections by 102 satellite, 7 HF, 4 microwave and 10 carrier circuits. An international direct-dialling exchange with 25,000 connections was opened in July 1980. The Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation had 16 radio stations in Dec. 1984. Television stations operate in Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta and Rawalpindi-Islamabad. Cinemas (1983). There are about 600 cinemas. Newspapers. Dailies and periodicals numbered 1,156 in 1983: 763 were in Urdu,

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272 in English and 70 in Sindhi; 121 were dailies, 315 weeklies, 562 monthlies and 158 quarterlies. Top circulation 300,000 for an Urdu daily paper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Central Judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, which is a court of record and has three-fold jurisdiction, namely, original, appellate and advisory. There are 4 High Courts in Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta and Karachi. Under the Constitution, each has power to issue directions of writs of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari and others. Under them are district and sessions courts of first instance in each division; they have also some appellate jurisdiction. Criminal cases not being sessions oases are tried by district magistrates and subordinate magistrates. There are subordinate civil courts also. The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, as the greatest safeguard of citizens' rights. The Laws (Continuance in Force) (Eleventh Amendment) Order, 1980, prescribed the date of 14 Aug. 1981 by which the judiciary shall be separated from the executive. There is an Attorney-General, appointed by the President, who has right of audience in all courts. A Federal Shariat Court at the Supreme Court level has been established to decide whether any law is wholly or partially un-Islamic. Islamic law is to be enforced as the law of the state; penalties for offences involving intoxicating liquor, offences against property and sexual offences have been specified. Imprisonment remains as a penalty in general use, but some offences in all the above categories are liable to whipping and some property offences, to amputation. Religion. Religious groups (1981 census): Moslems, 96-68%; Christians, 1-55%; Hindus, 1 - 51%; Parsees, Buddhists, and others. There is a Minorities Wing at the Religious Affairs Ministry to safeguard the constitutional rights of religious minorities. Education. At the census of 1981, 23-3% of the population were able to read and write. Estimate (1985), 26%. Adult literacy programmes have been established. The principle of free and compulsory primary education has been accepted as the responsibility of the state; duration has been fixed provisionally at 5 years. Present policy stresses vocational and technical education, disseminating a common culture based on Islamic ideology. Figures for 1984-85 (and 1983-84) in ''OOO:

Eligible Population 15,235(14,791)

Primary Middle 1 High J ' A 3 - " (l A138) Colleges 8,999(8,737) Universities 7,220(7,010)

Enrolment 6,645(6,412) 1,738(1,676) 568(559) 92(87-7) 56(53-5) ' Numbers.

Teachers 215 (206) 60 (58) 84 (82) 24-8(23-6) 4-5(4-4)

Institutions 75-5(72) 6-2(6) 4-2(4-1) 897 (842)' 20 (20)'

Sixth plan (1983-88) expenditure: Rs. 11,000m. on primary and secondary schools; Rs. 1,300m. on colleges and Rs. 2,100m. on universities. Health. In 1984-85 (provisional) there were 633 hospitals and 3,386 dispensaries (53,603 beds) and 38,322 doctors. Sixth plan (1983-88) expenditure: Rs. 15,750m. Social Security. In 1981-82 expenditure on cash benefits under the employees' social security scheme was Rsl 5-3m., on medical care, Rs.93 -2m. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Pakistan in Great Britain (35 Lowndes Sq., London, SW1X 9JN) Ambassador: Shaharyar M. Khan (accredited 26 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in Pakistan (Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna 5, Islamabad) Ambassador: Richard Fyjis-Walker, CMG, CVO. Of Pakistan in the USA (2315 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ejaz Azim.

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O f the U S A in Pakistan (Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna, 5, Islamabad) Ambassador: D e a n e R. Hinton. O f Pakistan to the U n i t e d Nations Ambassador: S. Shah N a w a z . B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Pakistan Economic Survey 1984-85. Ministry of Finance, Islamabad, 1985 Pakistan Year-Book, Annual Ahmed, A. S., Religion and Politics in Muslim Society: Order and Conflict in Pakistan. CUP, 1973 Ali, T., Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of the State. Harmondsworth, 1983 Burke, S. M., Pakistan's Foreign Policy. OUP, 1973 Burki, S. J., Pakistan Under Bhutto. London, 1980 Griffin, K., and Khan, A. R. (ed.), Growth and Inequality in Pakistan. London and New York 1972 Hasan, M., [ed.) Pakistan in a Changing World. Karachi, 1978 Jennings, Sir Ivor, Constitutional Problems in Pakistan. CUP, 1957 Siddiqui, K., Conflict, Crisis and War in Pakistan. London, 1972

PANAMA

Capital: Panama City Population: 2- 18m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$2,159 ( 1984)

República de Panamá

H I S T O R Y . A revolution, inspired by the USA, led to the separation of Panama from the United States of Colombia and the declaration of its independence on 3 Nov. 1903. The de facto Government was on 5 Nov. recognized by the USA, and soon afterwards by the other Powers. In 1924 Colombia agreed to recognize the independence of Panama. This treaty was ratified by the USA and Colombia in 1921, and on 8 May 1924 diplomatic relations between Colombia and Panama were established. On 1 Oct. 1979 Panama assumed sovereignty over what was previously known as the Panama Canal Zone and now called the Canal Area. For the treaties regulating the relations between Panama and the USA see pp. 967-68. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Panama is bounded north by the Caribbean, east by Colombia, south by the Pacific and west by Costa Rica. Extreme length is about 480 miles (772 km); breadth between 37 (60) and 110 miles (177 km); coastline, 426 miles (685 km) on the Atlantic and 767 (1,234 km) on the Pacific; total area (including the Canal Zone) is 30,134 sq. miles (78,046 sq. km); population according to the census of 11 May 1980 was 1,830,175. Estimate(1985)2,179,000. Over 75% are of mixed blood and the remainder Indians, negroid, white and Asiatic. The largest towns (census, 1980) are Panama City, the capital on the Pacific coast (386,393); its suburb San Miguelito (156,361); Colon, the port on the Atlantic coast (59,043); and David (50,621). The areas and populations of the 9 provinces and the Special Territory were: Province Bocas del Toro Chiriquí Veraguas Herrera Los Santos Coclé Colón Terr. de San Blas Panama Darién

Sq. km Census 1980 5,711 53,579 8,758 287,801 11,086 173,195 2,427 81,866 3,867 70,200 5,035 140,320 8,167 1 166,439 3,206 J[ 12,022 830,278 26,497 16,803

Estimate 1985 75,400 347,500 206,800 99,800 83,600 156,500 í 158,500 1 39,100 976,800 36,900

Capital Bocas del Toro David Santiago Chitré Las Tablas Penonomé Colón El Porvenir Panama City La Palma

Vital statistics (1980): Births, 52,626; marriages, 8,850; deaths, 7,959. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, unvaryingly with high temperatures and only a short dry season from Jan. to April. Rainfall amounts are much higher on the north side of the isthmus. Panama City. Jan. 79° F (26- 1°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 70" (1,770 mm). Colon. Jan. 80°F (26-7'C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 127" (3,175 mm). Balboa Heights. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 70" (1,759 mm). Cristobal. Jan. 80°F(26TC), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 130" (3,255 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The 1972 Constitution, as amended in 1978 and 1983, provides a president and two vice-presidents to be elected by direct popular vote and a 67 seat Legislative Assembly to be elected on a party basis; in 28 of the 40 constituencies the party winning the vote obtaining one seat; in the other 12, the 39 remaining seats being allocated on a system of proportional party representation. Elections, the first to be held in Panama for 16 years, were held in May 1984. 964

PANAMA

965

Nicholas Barletta was elected , president and took office in Nov. 1984, but he resigned in Sept. 1985 and was succeeded by one of his vice-presidents. In the Legislative Assembly the National Democratic Union (UNADE), a coalition party, won 40 seats; the Democratic Opposition Alliance (ADO) 27 seats. President: Eric Arturo del Valle (assumed office, Sept. 1985). The Cabinet in Dec. 1986 was composed as follows: Vice-President: Roderick Lorenzo Esquivel. Agriculture and Livestock: Dr Hirisnel Sucre. Commerce and Industry: José B. Cárdenas. Education: Manuel M. Solis Palma. Finance: Dr Hector Alexander. Foreign Affairs: Dr Jorge Abadía Arias. Justice: Rodolfo Chiari. Health: Dr Francisco Sánchez Cárdenas. Housing: Ricardo Bermúdez. Presidency: Nander Pitti. Public Works: Rogelio Dumanoir. Labour: Jorge Federico Lee. Planning: Dr Ricaurte Vásquez. The official language is Spanish. National flag: Quarterly: first a white panel with a blue star, second red, third blue, fourth white with a red star. National anthem: Alcanzamos por fin la victoria (words by J. de la Ossa; tune by Santos Jorge, 1903). Local government: The 9 provinces and a Special Territory (another is envisaged) are sub-divided into 65 municipal districts and are further sub-divided into 505 corregimientos (electoral districts). DEFENCE Army. The Army (Defence Forces) numbered (1987) 11,500 men organized in 7 light infantry companies, equipped with 16 V-150 and 12 V-300 armoured cars. TTiere is one air-borne group. Navy. Divided between both coasts, the flotilla comprises 2 patrol craft, 2 coastguard cutters, 4 coastal launchers, 3 medium landing ships, 3 utility landing craft and 3 logistic support vessels. In 1987 personnel totalled 550 officers and men. Air Force. The air force has 1 Lockheed Electra, 4 C-47, 3 CASA 212, 2 Islander and 3 Twin Otter transports, 3 Cessna and 2 DHC-3 Otter liaison aircraft, a Shorts Skyvan, a Falcon and a Boeing 727 for VIP transport, 21 UH-1B/D/H Iroquois and twin-engined UH-IN helicopters plus a Super Puma for official use. Personnel (1987)200. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Panama is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. The 1987 budget provided for expenditure of 1,705m. balboas and revenue of 1,405m. balboas. Public sector debt was US$3,691 m. in 1985. Currency. The monetary unit is the balboa. Other coins are the half-balboa (equal to 50 cents US); the quarter and tenth of a balboa piece; a cupro-nickel coin of 5 cents, and a copper coin of 1 cent. US coinage is also legal tender. The only paper currency used is that of the USA. In March 1987, US$1 = 1 balboa-, £1 = 1-59 balboas. Banking. There is no statutory central bank. The Government accounts are handled through the Banco Nacional de Panama. The number of commercial banks was 132 in June 1986; 67 have a general licence, 30 an international licence and 13 a representational licence. Leading banks are the Citibank, Lloyds Bank International (Bahamas) Ltd., and the Chase Manhattan Bank of New York. Other foreign-owned banks include the Bank of America, as well as Canadian. Panama is a relatively small offshore banking centre. The total assets of Panamanian banks increased to US$41,000m. between 1976-83. Weights and Measures. English weights and measures are in general use; those of the metric system are also used.

966

PANAMA

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 3,100m. kwh. Supply 110 and 120 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. There are known to be copper deposits in the provinces of Chiriqui, Colón and Darien. The most important, containing possibly the largest undeveloped reserves in the world, is Cerro Colorado (Chiriqui) on which a feasibility study was undertaken by the Rio Tinto Zinc Coporation Ltd. If it is eventually decided to develop the mine, it is expected that the annual production of copper will reach 260,000 to 280,000 tonnes within a few years. The deposit has estimated reserves of 1,300m. tonnes, with an average grade of 0 • 76% copper. Agriculture. Of the whole area (1981) 15-6% is cultivated, 57-3% is natural or artificial pasture land and 8-6% is fallow. Of the remainder only a small part is cultivated, though the land is rich in resources. About 60% of the country's food requirements are imported. Production in 1985 totalled 1 • lm. tonnes of bananas and 160,000 tonnes of raw sugar. Oranges (34,000 tonnes) and mangoes (28,000 tonnes) are also produced. Most important food crop, for home consumption, is rice, grown on 80% of the farms; Panama's per capita consumption is very high. Production of rice was 199,000 tonnes in 1985. Other products are maize (70,000 tonnes in 1985), cocoa (1,000 tonnes), coffee (16,000 tonnes) and coconuts (22,000 tonnes). Beer, whisky, rum, 'seco', anise and gin are produced. Coffee is mainly grown in the province of Chiriqui, near the Costa Rican frontier. The country has great timber resources, notably mahogany. Livestock (1985): 1,423,000 cattle, 215,000 pigs and 6m. poultry. Fisheries. The catch in 1982 was 337,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Local industries include cigarettes, clothing, food processing, shoes, soap, cement factories; foreign firms are being encouraged to establish industries, and a petrol refinery is operating at Colón. Commerce. The imports and exports (including re-exports) for the Republic of Panama, for 6 calendar years are as follows (in 1,000 balboas; 1 balboa=US$ 1): 1980 1981 1982

Imports 1,448,400 1,539,900 1,569,300

Exports 350,200 316,600 308,100

1983 1984 1985

Imports 1,441,900 1,423,000 3,140,800

Exports 299,300 251,500 789,000

Chief exports (36-7% to the USA) in 1983 were: Food and live animals, petroleum products and manufactured goods. Chief imports (17-4% from USA), 1983, were valued (in 1 m. balboas f.o.b.) were: Mineral fuels 392-3, machines and transport equipment 324-7, basic manufactures 233-5, and chemicals 166 • 7. Total trade between Panama (including Colón Free Zone) and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K 1 1

1982 9,521 83,250

1983 5,341 42,276

1984 9,681 74,322

1985 14,612 55,424

1986 4,950 44,975

Including new shipstiuilt for foreign owners and registered in Panama.

Tourism. In 1980,392,062 people visited Panama. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Panama had on 1 Jan. 1981, 8,664 km of roads. The road from Panama City westward to the cities of David and Concepción and to the Costa Rican frontier, with several branches, is part of the Pan-American Highway. A concrete highway connects Panama City and Colón. On 1 Jan. 1980 registered motor vehicles, private and commercial, numbered 111,052, this excludes vehicles owned by government departments. Railways. The Ferrocarril de Panama (Panama Railroad) (1,524 mm gauge)

PANAMA

967

(through the Canal area), which connects Ancón on the Pacific with Cristóbal on the Atlantic, is the principal railway. It is 190 km long and runs along the banks of the Canal. As most vessels unload their cargo at Cristóbal (Colón), on the Atlantic side, the greater portion of the merchandise destined for Panama City is brought overland by the Ferrocarril de Panama. The United Brands Company runs 177 km of railway, and the Chiriqui National Railroad 126 km. Aviation. Eastern Airlines, Swissair, Varig, JAL, Alitalia, KLM, Iberia Airlines and other international companies operate at Tocumen Airport, 12 miles from Panama City. Air Panama provides services between Panama City and New York, Los Angeles, Miami, Central America and some countries in South America. The Compañía Panameña de Aviación (COPA) and Aerolíneas Las Perlas provide a local service between Panama City and the provincial towns. COPA also provides an international service to Central America. Shipping. Ships under Panamanian registry in 1986 numbered 12,000 of 44m. gross tons; most of these ships elect Panamanian registry because fees are low and labour laws lenient. All the international maritime traffic f w Colón and Panama runs through the Canal ports of Cristóbal, Balboa and Bahia Las Minas (Colon); Almirante is used for both the provincial and international trade. There is an oil transfer terminal at Puerto Armuelles on the Pacific coast. Panama Canal. On 18 Nov. 1903 a treaty between the USA and the Republic of Panama was signed making it possible for the US to build and operate a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Isthmus of Panama. The treaty granted the US in perpetuity the use, occupation and control of a Canal Zone, approximately 10 miles wide, in which the US would possess full sovereign rights 'to the entire exclusion of the exercise by the Republic of Panama of any such sovereign rights, power or authority'. In return the US guaranteed the independence of the republic and agreed to pay the republic $10m. and an annuity of $250,000. The US purchased the French rights and properties—the French- had been labouring from 1879 to 1899 in an effort to build the Canal—for $40m. and in addition, paid private landholders within what would be the Canal Zone a mutually agreeable price for their properites. Two new treaties between Panama and USA were agreed on 10 Aug. and signed on 7 Sept. 1977. One deals with the operation and defence of the canal until the end of 1999 and the other guarantees permanent neutrality. The USA maintains operational control over all lands, waters and installations, including military bases, necessary to manage, operate and defend the canal until 31 Dec. 1999. A new agency of the US Government, the Panama Canal Commission, operates the canal, replacing the Panama Canal Co. A policy-making board of 5 US citizens and 4 Panamanians serves on the Commission's board of directors. Until 1990 the canal administrator will be a US citizen and the deputy will be Panamanian. After that date the position will be reversed. Six months after the exchange of instruments of ratification Panama assumed general territorial jurisdiction over the former Canal Zone and became able to use portions of the area not needed for the operation and defence of the canal. Panamanian penal and civil codes became applicable. At the same time Panama assumed responsibility for commercial ship repairs and supplies, railway and pier operations, passengers, police and courts, all of which were among other areas formerly administered by the Canal Co. and the Canal Zone Government. 66% of the electorate of Panama agreed to the ratification of the treaties when a referendum was held on 23 Oct. 1977 and on 18 April 1978 the treaty was ratified by the US Congress. The treaty went into effect on 1 Oct. 1979. The treaty of 1936 increased the annuity to US$430,000 and, as desired by Panama, withdrew the guarantee of independence. In 1955 the annuity was increased to US$1 -93m., and the Panama Canal Co. turned over to the Republic the Panama City railroad yards and other properties valued at US$22 m. At the end of 1962 the US completed the construction of a high-level bridge over the Pacific entrance to the Canal, and the flags of Panama and the US were flown jointly over areas of the Canal Zone under civilian authority. Following the devaluation of the

968

PANAMA

dollar in 1972 and 1973, the annuity was adjusted proportionally to US$2 • 1 m. and US$2-33m. respectively. In 1986 a tripartite commission, formed by Japan, Panama and the USA, began studies on alternatives to the Panama Canal. Options are: To build a sea-level canal, to enlarge the existing canal with more locks, to improve the canal alongside upgraded rail and road facilities, to continue with the existing facilities. The Panama Canal Commission, a US Government Agency, is concerned primarily with the actual operation of the Canal. On 8 July 1974,18 Nov. 1976 and 10 Oct. 1979 tolls were increased. These were the first increases of toll rates in the history of the Canal. Tolls were raised again on 12 March 1983. The new rates are US$ 1.83 a Panama Canal ton for vessels carrying passengers or cargo and US$ 1 -46 per ton for vessels in transit in ballast. A Panama Canal ton is equivalent to 100 cu. ft of actual earning capacity. The new toll rate for warships, hospital ships and supply ships, which pay on a displacement basis, is US$1 -02 a ton. The changes were designed to continue the approximately break-even financial operating results after paying its own expenses and paying interest on the net direct investment of the US in the Canal. Administrator of the Panama Canal Commission: Dennis P. McAuliffe. Deputy Administrator: Fernando Manfredo Jr. (Panama). The total civilian and military population of the Canal area is 29,000 (estimate). The total force employed by the Panama Canal Commission on 29 Sept. 1986 was 7,503, comprising 1,236 US citizens, 6,103 Panamanians and 164 others. The Canal was opened to commerce on 15 Aug. 1914. It is 85 ft above sea-level. It is 51 • 2 statute miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific ocean, and 36 statute miles from shore to shore. The channel ranges in bottom-width from 500 to 1,000 ft; the widening of Gaillard Cut to a minimum width of 500 ft was completed in 1969. Normally, the average time of a vessel in Can?l waters is about 24 hours, 8-12 of which are in transit through the Canal proper. A map showing the Panama, Suez and Kiel canals on the sáme scale will be f o u n d in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1959 a n d a m a p in t h e 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 e d i t i o n .

Particulars of the ocean-going commercial traffic through the canal are given as follows (vessels of300 tons Panama Canal net and 500 displacement tons and over; cargo in long tons): Fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1983 1984 1985 1986

North-bound South-bound (Pacific to Atlantic) (Atlantic to Pacific) Total Vessels Cargo Vessels Cargo Vessels Cargo 5,540 57,762,250 6,167 87,828,509 11,707 145,590,759 5,455 62,211,519 5,775 78,259,299 11,230 140,470,818 5,612 64,492,298 5,903 74,150,945 11,515 138,643,243 5,712 67,229,841 6,214 72,580,652 11,926 139,810,493

Tolls levied (inUS$) 285,985,719 286,677,844 298,497,802 321,073,748

In the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1986, of the 11,926 ships which passed through the Canal, 2,164 were Panamanian; 1,270 Liberian; 1,189 Japanese; 787 US; 623 Greek; 575 Russian; 533 Ecuadorian; 484 British; 279 Fed. German; 264 Norwegian; 243 Danish. Statistical Information: The Panama Canal Commission Office of Public Affairs. Annual Reports on the Panama Canal, by the Administrator of the Panama Canal Commission. Rules and Regulations Governing Navigation of the Panama Canal. The Panama Canal Commission, Miami, Florida or Washington, DC Cameron, I., The Impossible Dream. London, 1972 Le Feber, W., The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical Perspective. OUP, 1978 McCullough, D., The Path Between the Seas. New York and London, 1978

Post and Broadcasting. There are telegraph cables from Panama to North America and Central and South American ports, and from Colón to the USA and Europe. There is also inter-continental communication by satellite. There are 93 licensed commercial broadcasting stations, nearly all operated by private companies, one of which functions in the canal. There are 6 television stations, one of them run by the

PANAMA

969

US Army at Fort Clayton. In 1980 there were 285,000 radio and 220,000 television sets. On 1 Jan. L983 there were 202,627 telephones. Cinemas. In 1977 there were 52 cinemas in the district of Panama. All films must have Spanish subtitles. Newspapers. There were (1986) 1 English language and 7 Spanish language daily morning newspapers and 1 English/Spanish evening newspaper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court consists of 9 justices appointed by the executive. There is no death penalty. Religion. 95% of the population is Roman Catholic and 5% Protestant. There is freedom of religious worship and separation of Church and State. Clergymen may teach in the schools but may not hold public office. Education. Elementary education is compulsory for all children from 7 to 15 years of age, with an estimated 633,538 students in schools in 1983-. The University of Panama at Panama City, inaugurated on 7 Oct. 1935, had a total enrolment (1978) of32,868 students. The Catholic university Sta. Maria La Antigua, inaugurated on 27 May 1965, had 1,916 students in Sept. 1978. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Panama in Great Britain (109 Jermyn St., London, SW1) Ambassador: Guillermo Vega (accredited 14 June 1984). Of Great Britain in Panama (Via España 120, Panama City 1) Ambassador: Margaret Bryan. Of Panama in the USA (2862 McGill Terr., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Kaiser Bazán. Of the USA in Panama (Ave. Balboa y Calle 3 8, Panama City) Ambassador: Arthur Davis. Of Panama to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr George Ritter. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Comptroller-General of the Republic (Contraloria General de la República, Calle 35 y Avenida 6, Panama City) publishes an annual report and other statistical publications. Jorden, W. J P a n a m a Odyssey. Univ. of Texas Press, 1984 Langstaff, E. DeS., Panama. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara 1982 Ropp, S. C., Panamanian Politics. New York, 1982 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Departamento de Información. Calle 22, Panama.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Capital: Port Moresby Population: 3 • 42m. ( 1986) GNP per capita: US$729 ( 1985)

H I S T O R Y . To prevent that portion of the island of New Guinea not claimed by the Netherlands or Germany from passing into the hands of a foreign power, the Government of Queensland annexed Papua in 1883. This step was not sanctioned by the Imperial Government, but on 6 Nov. 1884 a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the southern portion of the eastern half of New Guinea, and in 1887 Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria undertook to defray the cost of administration, and the territory was annexed to the Crown the following year. The federal government took over the control in 1901; the political transfer was completed by the Papua Act of the federal parliament in Nov. 1905, and on 1 Sept. 1906 a proclamation was issued by the Governor-General of Australia declaring that British New Guinea was to be known henceforth as the Territory of Papua. The northern portion of New Guinea was a German colony until the First World War. It became a League of Nations mandated territory in 1921, administered by Australia, and later a U N Trust Territory (of New Guinea). The Papua New Guinea Act 1949-1972 provides for the administration of the U N Australian Trust Territory of New Guinea in an administrative union with the Territory of Papua, in accordance with Art. 5 of the New Guinea Trusteeship Agreement, under the title of Papua New Guinea. Australia granted Papua New Guinea self-government on 1 Dec. 1973 and, on 16 Sept. 1975, Papua New Guinea became a fully independent state. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Papua New Guinea extends from the equator to Cape Baganowa in the Louisiade Archipelago to 11° 40' S. lat. and from the border of West Irian to 160° E. long, with a total area of462,840 sq. km. According to the census the 1980 population was 3,010,727. Estimate (1986) 3-42m. Port Moresby, (1980) 123,624; Lae, 61,617; Rabaul, 14,954; Madang, 21,335; Mount Hagen, 13,441. Area and population of the provinces: Provinces Milne Bay Northern Central National Capital District Gulf Western Southern Highlands Enga Western Highlands Chimbu Eastern Highlands Morobe Madang East Sepik West Sepik Manus West New Britain East New Britain New Ireland North Solomons

Sq.km 14,000 22,800 29,500 240 34,500 99,300 23,800 12,800 8,500 6,100 11,200 34,500 29,000 42,800 36,300 2,100 21,000 15,500 9,600 9,300

Census ¡980 Estimate ¡986 127,975 150,600 77,442 90,300 116,964 132,800 123,624 141,500 64,120 71,600 78,575 91,700 236,052 259,500 164,534 178,600 265,656 300,200 178,290 186,400 276,726 306,300 310,622 357,100 211,069 245,700 221,890 254,900 114,192 128,300 26,036 29,900 88,941 107,700 133,197 154,200 66,028 77,200 128,794 154,500

Capital Alotau Popondetta Port Moresby —

Kerema Daru Mendi Wabag Mount Hägen Kundiawa Goroka Lae Madang Wewak Vanimo Lorengau Kimbe Rabaul Kavieng Arawa

Vital statistics (1986, estimate): Crude birth rate, 39 per 1,000; crude death rate, 17. C L I M A T E . There is a monsoon climate, with high temperatures and humidity 970

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

971

the year round. Port Moresby which is in a rain shadow and is not typical of the rest of Papua New Guinea. Jan. 82°F (27-8°C), July 78°F (25-6'C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,011 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Papua New Guinea has a Westminster type of government. A single legislative house, known as the National Parliament, is made up of 109 members from all parts of the country. The members are elected under universal suffrage and general elections are held every 5 years. All persons over the age of 18 who are Papua New Guinea citizens are eligible to vote and stand for election. Voting is by secret ballot and follows the preferential system. The first Legislative Council was established in 1951. It was abolished in 1964 and replaced with the House of Assembly. In 1950 the first village council was formed which established the basis of an extensive local government system. A system of provincial government was introduced in 1976 and, since then, the importance of lower-level local government has diminished. In the national elections of 1982 a Pangu government, supported by the United „.. Party, came to power with 67 members of Parliament. In Nov. 1985 a vote of no confidence resulted in a coalition government led by the People's Democratic Movement. The administrative centre and capital is located at Port Moresby. National administration is carried out by a public service under the direction of 22 ministries. The country is divided into the National Capital District and 19 provinces: Western, Gulf, Central, Milne Bay, Northern, Southern Highlands, Enga, Western Highlands, Chimbu, Eastern Highlands, Morobe, Madang, East Sepik, West Sepik, Manus, New Ireland, East New Britain, West New Britain, and North Solomons. Each of the provincial governments has a secretariat headed by an Administrative Secretary. In many provinces the system of local governments still operates, although the provinces may make changes to this if they wish. Governor-General: Sir Kingsford Dibela, GCMG. The Cabinet in Jan. 1987 was as follows: Prime Minister: Rt. Hon. Paias Wingti, PC. Finance and Planning: Galeva Kwarara. Fisheries and Marine Resources: Neville Bourne. Agriculture and Livestock: Gai Duwabane. Deputy Prime Minister, Trade and Industry: Sir Julius Chan. Civil Aviation, Tourism and Culture: Nahau Rooney. Minerals and Energy: John Kaputin. Forests: Paul Torato. Provincial Affairs: Glaimi Warena. Transport: Legu Vagi. Justice: Warren Dutton. Defence: Steven Tago. Communications: Gabriel Ramoi. Works: Peter Kuman. Health: Albert Kipalan. Police: Micah Wes. Environment and Conservation: Tom Muliap. Lands and Physical Planning: Avusi Tanao. Foreign Affairs: Ted Diro. Education: Aruru Matiabe. Labour and Employment: Bill Ninkama. Home Affairs and Youth: Willard Wemalo. Public Service: Jacob Lemeki. Housing: Bai Waiba. Correctional Services: Sunavi Otio. The seat of the Government is at Port Moresby. National flag: Diagonally ochre-red over black, on the red a bird of paradise in gold, and on the black 5 stars of the Southern Cross in white. D E F E N C E . The Papua New Guinea Defence Force has a total strength of 3,232 (1987) consisting of land, maritime and air elements. The Army is organized in 2 infantry battalions, 1 engineer and 1 signals battalion with logistic units. The Navy has 5 large patrol craft and 1 landing craft. The Defence Force has an Air Transport Squadron with (1987) about 86 personnel. Current equipment comprises 4 C-47 transports, and 4 Australian-built N22B Nomads and 3 Israeli-built Aravas for both transport and border patrol duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Papua New Guinea is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the Colombo Plan, the South Pacific Commission and is an ACP state of EEC.

972

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

ECONOMY Budget. Revenue (in K1,000) for calendar years was:

1984 171,100 194,581 231,958 64,316 108,101

1985 181,644 220,910 235,886 27,333 106,285

712,639 770,056 ' Mainly from Australia.

772,058

Source Customs, excise and export tax Other taxes Foreign government grants 1 Loans Other revenue Total

1983 145,000 179,114 212,238 93,563 82,724

Expenditure (in K.1,000) for the same periods: Source Consumption Capital Other expenditure' 1

1983 399,770 65,140 242,020

1984 396,830 74,830 277,800

Total 706,930 749,460 Includes transfers to provincial governments.

1985 512,405 76,021 199,870 788,296

Currency. The unit of currency is the kina divided into 100 toea and is the sole legal tender. In March 1987,£1 =K1 -48; US$1 = K0-93. Banking. The Bank of Papua New Guinea assumed the central banking functions formerly undertaken by the Reserve Bank of Australia on 1 Nov. 1973. A national banking institution which has been named the Papua New Guinea Banking Corporation, has been established. This bank has assumed the Papua New Guinea business of the Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia except where certain accounts give rise to special financial or contractual problems. The subsidiaries of 3 Australian commercial banks also operate in Papua New Guinea. These are the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group (PNG) Ltd, the Bank of New South Wales (PNG) Ltd, and the Bank of South Pacific Ltd, all of which offer trading and savings facilities. As from 1 Nov. 1973 these banks operated under Papua New Guinea banking legislation. In 1983, two additional commercial banks Indosuez Niugini Bank Ltd and Niugini Lloyds International Bank Ltd began operating, each with 51% national ownership, and the remaining 49% held by the affiliate of a major international bank. In addition to these five commercial banks, the Papua New Guinea Development Bank has provided long-term development finance with a particular attention to the needs of small-scale enteiprises since 1967. The country's first merchant bank, Resources and Investment Finance Ltd (RIFL), specializing in large-scale financial services began business in late 1979. Its shares are owned by the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia and the Papua New Guinea Banking Corporation. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1985 installed capacity was 484,700 mw, production 1,566 2m. kwh. Minerals. Copper is the main mineral product. Oil companies have been searching for oil, but by 1986 no commercial deposits had been found. Gold, copper and silver are the only minerals produced in quantity. Major copper deposits in the Kieta district of Bougainville have proved reserves of about 800m. tonnes and are worked by Bougainville Copper Ltd and production of copper concentrates for export began in 1972 from this source. Copper and gold deposits which were found in the Star Mountains of the Western Province are being developed by Ok Tedi Mining Ltd at the Mt. Fubilan mine and production of gold commenced in 1984. In 1985, B.C.L. produced 581,752 tonnes of copper concentrate containing

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

973

approximately 175,048 tonnes of copper, 14-4 tonnes of gold and 46-1 tonnes of silver. Agriculture. At 31 Dec. 1983, the total area of larger holdings was 397,000 hectares, of which 242,000 hectares were for agricultural purposes, the principal crops being coffee, copra, cocoa and palm oil. Minor commercial crops include pyrethrum, tea, peanuts and spices. Locally consumed food crops include sweet potatoes, taro, bananas, rice and sago. Tropical fruits grow abundantly. There is extensive grassland. A newly-established sugar industry has made the country selfsufficient in this commodity while a beef-cattle industry is being developed. Livestock(1985): Cattle, 123,000; pigs, 1,476,000; goats, 16,000; poultry, 4m. Forestry. Timber production is of growing importance for both local consumption and export. In 1984,1 -8m. cu. metres of logs were harvested; logs exported, 1 -3m. cu. metres. Production of sawn timber, 1984, 279,000 cu. metres, exports, 18,000 cu. metres; exports of woodchips, 126,513 tonnes. Fisheries. Tuna, both skipjack and yellowfin species, is the major fisheries resource; in 1980 the catch was 33,000 tonnes but has diminished sharply since then due to oversupply conditions on world markets. Exports of various crustacea, 1985,1,468 tonnes, value K9-86m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Secondary and service industries are expanding for the local market. Industries include the manufacture of paint, gases, concrete, twist tobacco and cigarettes, matches, soap, brewing, boat-building, furniture and the assembly of electrical appliances. In 1983 there were 718 factories employing 28,694 persons. Value of output K690m. Labour. In 1980 about 733,000 were gainfully employed. Trade. Imports (in K1,000) for calendar years: Food and live animals Beverages and tobacco Crude materials, inedible, except fuels Mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials Oils and fats (animal and vegetable) Chemicals Manufactured goods, chiefly by material Machinery and transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured articles Commodities and transactions of merchandise trade, not elsewhere specified Total imports

1983 134,813 8,269 .4,876

1984 154,767 11,248 6,289

1985 153,734 9,604 6,928

167,380 2,525 64,050 130,559 232,770 60,339

156,278 3,927 68,171 140,064 243,538 70,064

153,793 3,399 65,455 134,336 262,074 74,594

9,285

12,485

10,856

814,866

866,831

874,774

Exports (in K1,000) for calendar yeans: Coconut and copra products— Copra Copra (coconut) oil Copra cake and pellets

1983

1984

1985

23,891 20,038 1,433

49,372 40,421 1,389

33,922 22,706 938

Total

45,452

91,182

57,566

Coffee beans Cocoa beans Crude rubber Tea Pyrethrum extract

94,659 41,376 2,153 10,391 397

113,317 67,084 2,543 19,057 442

117,110 62,764 3,736 13,330 704

974

PAPUA NEW GUINEA Forest and timber products Logs Sawn timber Plywood Other

1983

1984

1985

43,576 2,495 1,394 6,517

61,698 2,690 1,285 6,903

55,394 1,845 211 4,985

53,982

72,576

260,079

936 8,788 8,058 364,862 31,878

2,294 6,843 25,175 302,396 79,742

2,370 9,782 175,451 307,038 78,232

662,932

782,651

890,518

19,236

22,896

27,106

682,168

805,547

917,624

Total Crocodile skins Crayfish and prawns Gold Copper concentrate Other domestic produce Total domestic produce Re-exports Total exports

Of exports in 1985, Japan took 22%, Federal Republic of Germany, 29% and Australia, 11%; of imports, Australia fiirnished about 40%, Singapore, 10% and Japan, 17%. Total trade between Papua New Guinea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 28,031 15,911

1983 28,142 18,236

1984 68,245 14,643

1985 59,642 12,592

1986 38,474 12,084

Tourism. In 1985,there were 30,391 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Sept. 1976 there were approximately 19,538 km of roads including approximately 1,016 km of urban roads. Motor vehicles numbered (1985) 45,251 including 15,973 cars and station wagons. Aviation. Frequent air services operate to and from Australia (Sydney, Brisbane and Cairns), and there are regular flights to Djayapura (Indonesia), Manila and Singapore. A service is also maintained to Honiara in the Solomon Islands. In addition to Air Niugini, the national flag carrier, Qantas operates in and out of Papua New Guinea. Shipping. There are regular shipping services between Australia and Papua New Guinea ports, and also services to New Zealand, Japan, Hong Kong, US west coast, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Taiwan, Philippines and Europe. Small coastal vessels run between the various ports. In 1982 cargo discharged from overseas was 1 • 7m. tonnes; cargo loaded for overseas was 2 1m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. Telephones numbered 57,634 on 31 Dec. 1985. The National Broadcasting Commission operates three networks. A national service is relayed throughout the country by a series of transmitters on medium- and shortwave bands. Local services operate in each of the 19 provinces, mainly on shortwave, while the larger urban centres are also covered by a commercial FM network relayed from Port Moresby. J U S T I C E , EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1983, over 1,500 criminal and civil cases were heard in the National Court and an estimated 120,000cases in district and local courts. Police. Total uniformed strength at 31 Dec. 1985,4,822. Education. At 30 June 1985 about 351,559 children attended 2,392 primary schools and 57,597 enrolled in 215 secondary, technical and vocational schools.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

975

The University of Papua New Guinea and the Papua New Guinea University of Technology had 2,927 students enrolled in full-time courses in 1985. Health. In 1985, there were 19 hospitals, 482 health centres, 2,231 aid posts and 182 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Papua New Guinea in Great Britain ( 14 Waterloo PI., London, SW1R4AR) High Commissioner: Ilinome Frank Tama, OBE (accredited 25 Oct. 1983). Of Great Britain in Papua New Guinea (Douglas St., Port Moresby) High Commissioner: M. E. Howell, OBE. Of Papua New Guinea in the USA (1330 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Kiatro Abisinito. Of the USA in Papua New Guinea (Armit St., Port Moresby) Ambassador: Everett Biennan. Of Papua New Guinea to the United Nations Ambassador: Kiatro Abisinito. Books of Reference The Territory of Papua. Annual Report. Commonwealth of Australia. 1906-1940-41 and from 1945-46 The Territory of New Guinea. Annual Report. Commonwealth of Australia. 1914-1940-41 and from 1946-47 Papua New Guinea, Annual Report. From 1970-71 Hasluck, P., A Time for Building. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1976 Ross, A.C., and Langmore, J., Alternative Strategies for Papua New Guinea. OUP, 1974 Ryan, J., The Hot Land. London, 1970 Ryan, P. (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1972 Skeldon, R. (ed.), The Demography of Papua New Guinea. Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, 1979

PARAGUAY

Capital: Asunción Population: 3-57m.(1984) GNPper capita: US$1,175 (1984)

República del Paraguay

HISTORY. The Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spain on 14 May 1811. In 1814Dr José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia was elected dictator, and in 1816 perpetual dictator by the National Assembly. He died 20 Sept. 1840. In 1844 a new constitution was adopted, under which Carlos Antonio López (first elected in 1842, died 10 Sept. 1862) and his son, Francisco Solano López, ruled until 1870. During the devastating war against Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay (1865-70) Paraguay's population was reduced from about 600,000 to 232,000. Argentina, in Aug. 1942, and Brazil, in May 1943, voided the reparations which Paraguay had never paid. Further severe losses were incurred during the war with Bolivia (1932-35) over territorial claims in the Chaco. A peace treaty by which Paraguay obtained most of the area her troops had conquered was signed in July 1938. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Oriental province is officially estimated at 159,827 sq. km (61,705 sq. miles) and the Occidental province at 246,925 sq. km (95,337 sq. miles), making the total area of the republic 406,752 sq. km (157,042 sq. miles). The population in 1984 was 3,570,000. The capital, Asunción (and metropolitan area), had 729,307 inhabitants; other principal cities: Presidente Stroessner (110,000), Pedro Juan Caballero (80,000), Encamación (31,445), Pilar (26,352), Concepción (25,607). The capital district and 19 departments had the following populations in 1982: Asunción (city) Central Caaguazú Itapua Paraguari Cordillera San Pedro Alto Paraná Guaira Concepción Caazapá

455,517 494,575 299,227 263,021 202,152 194,826 189,751 188,351 143,374 135,068 109,510

Misiones Neembucu Amambay Canendiyú Oriente Presidente Hayes Boquerón Alto Paraguay Chaco Nueva Asunción Occidente

79,278 70,689 68,422 65,807 2,959,568 43,787 14,685 4,535 286 231 63,524

Number of births, 1984, was 40,484; deaths, 11,954. The population is overwhelmingly mestizo (mixed Spanish and Guaraní Indian) forming a homogeneous stock. There are some 46,700 unassimilated Indians of other tribal origin, in the Chaco and the forests of eastern Paraguay. There are some small traces of Negro descent. 40-1% of the population speak only Guaraní; 48 - 2% are bilingual (Spanish/Guarani); and 6-4% speak only Spanish. Mennonites who arrived in 3 groups (1927, 1930 and 1947) are settled in the Chaco and Oriental Paraguay and were estimated in 1969 to number 13,000, of whom 2,000 came from Canada and 11,000 from Germany. The Japanese colonists in the Oriental section, who first came in 1935, were reckoned to number 7,000 in 1983. Under an agreement signed with Japan in 1959 up to 85,000 Japanese were to be admitted over 30 years. An agreement with Korea was signed in 1966 and there were (1978) about 3,000 Korean families living in Paraguay. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with abundant rainfall and only a short dry season from July to Sept., when temperatures are lowest. Asunción. Jan. 81°F (27 -2°C), July 64"F (17 • 8°C). Annual rainfall 53"(1,316 mm). 976

PARAGUAY

977

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution replacing that of 1940 was drawn up by a Constituent Convention in which all legally recognized political parties were represented and was signed into law on 25 Aug. 1967. It provides for a two-chamber parliament consisting of a 30-seat Senate and a 60-seat Chamber of Deputies, each elected for a 5-year term. Two-thirds of the seats in each Chamber are allocated to the majority party and the remaining onethird shared among the minority parties in proportion to the votes cast. Voting is compulsory for all citizens over 18. The President is directly elected for a 5-year (renewable) term; he appoints the Cabinet and during parliamentary recess can govern by decree through the Council of State, the members of which are representatives of the Government, the armed forces and other bodies. On 6 Feb. 1977 elections were held for a 60-member Constitutional Assembly to revise the 1967 Constitution. President: Gen. Alfredo Stroessner, Commander-in-Chief, elected 11 July 1954 to complete the presidential period of his predecessor. He was re-elected as 'Colorado'candidate in 1958,1963,1968,1973,1978 and 1983. The following is a list of past presidents since 1940, with the date omvhich each took office: Dr Felipe Molas López, 26 Feb. 1949' (reGen. Higinio Morinigo, 7 Sept. 1940 (resigned). signed). DrJuan Manuel Frutos, 3 June 1948.' Dr Federico Chavez, 16July 1950 (resigned). Dr J. Natalicio González, 15 Aug. 1948 (deTomás Romero Pereira, 4 May 1954. posed). Gen. Raimundo Rolón, 30 Jan. 1949. 1 Provisional, i.e., following a coup d etat.

The President has a cabinet of 10 ministers which in Dec. 1986 was composed as follows: Interior: Dr Sabino A. Montanaro. Foreign Affairs: Dr Carlos A. Saldivar. Finance: César Barrientes. Education and Worship: Dr Carlos Ortiz Ramirez. Public Works and Communications: Juan A. Cáceres. Agriculture and Livestock: Hernando Bertoni. National Defence: Gen. Germán G. Martinez. Public Health and Social Welfare: Dr Adán Godoy Giménez. Justice and Labour: Eugenio Jaquet. Industry and Commerce: Dr Delfín Ugarte Centurion. National flag: Red, white, blue (horizontal); the white stripe charged with the arms of the republic on the obverse, and, on the reverse, with a lion and the inscription Paz y Justicia—the only flag in the world with different obverse and reverse. National anthem: i Paraguayos, república o muerte! (words by F. Acuña de Figueroa; tune by F. Dupey). The country is divided into 2 provinces: the 'Oriental', east of Paraguay River, and the 'Occidental', west of the same river. The Oriental section is divided into 14 departments and the capital. The more important departments are supervised by a Delegado appointed by and directly responsible to the central government. The Occidental province, or Chaco, is divided into 5 departments. D E F E N C E . The army, navy and air forces are separate services under a single command. The President of the Republic is the active Commander-in-Chief. The armed forces total about 15,970 officers and men. Army. The Army consists of 1 cavalry division, 8 infantry divisions, 2 independent infantry battalions, 1 Presidential Escort Regiment, 1 infantry regiment and supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. Equipment includes 2 M-4A3 main battle and 2 M-3A1 light tanks. Strength (1987) 12,500 (including 8,100 conscripts), and there are 30,500 reserves. Navy. The flotilla comprises 6 armoured river defence gunboats (1 new Brazilianbuilt, 2 ancient monitors of 636 tons built in Italy and 3 old «-Argentinian minesweepers of 620 tons), 1 helicopter carrying converted landing ship, 1 river

978

PARAGUAY

patrol boat, 2 patrol launches, 6 coastal patrol craft, 2 landing craft, 1 survey craft, 1 transport training ship, 12 service craft and 2 tugs. There are 8 naval fixed-wing aircraft and 7 helicopters. Personnel in 1987 totalled 2,500 officers and men including coastguard and 500 marines. Air Force. The Air Force came into being in the early thirties. After operating only transport and training aircraft for a number of years, it received 9 Xavante light jet strike/training aircraft from Brazil in 1980. Other types in service include about 12 C-47 and 4 Aviocar twin-engined transports, 1 Convair C-131 A, a Twin Otter, an Otter, 8 Brazilian-built Uirapuru primary trainers, 12 T-6 Texan and 5 Braziliansupplied Universal armed basic trainers and a number of light aircraft and helicopters. HQ and flying school are at Campo Grande, Asunción. Personnel (1987) 970. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Paraguay is a member of UN, OAS and LAI A (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY Budget. In 1985 budget balanced at Gs. 463,652,966,167. Currency. The guaraní was established on 5 Oct. 1943 equal to 100 old paper pesos. Total monetary circulation was Gs.81,531m. in Dec. 1983. The official rate of exchange for essential imports was (1985) Gs.240=US$ 1. Rate of exchange, March 1987:240 guaraníes = US$ 1; 382 guaraníes = £ 1. Banking. The Banco Central del Paraguay opened 1 July 1952 to take over the central banking functions previously assigned to the National Bank of Paraguay, which had opened in March 1943 and been reorganized as the Banco del Paraguay in Sept. 1944 with a monetary, a banking and a mortgage department. The Banco del Paraguay closed in Nov. 1961 and has been replaced, with the aid of a US loan of US$3m., by the Banco Nacional de Fomento; the latter's assets in Jan. 1979 were Gs.47,621m. The Banco Nacional de Fomento, Bank of London and South America, Ltd, Banco Exterior do Brasil, Citibank, Banco de Asunción, Banco Exterior SA, Banco Unión SA, Banco Paraguayo de Comercio, Banco Real del Paraguay SA, Banco Alemán Transatlántico, Banco Holandés Unido, Banco Nacional del Estado de Sao Paulo, Yegros y Azara, Bank of America, Chase Manhattan Bank, Bank of Boston, Interbanco, Banco Paraná and Banco de Inversiones all have agencies in Asunción and branches in some main towns. Weights and Measures. The metric system was officially adopted on 1 Jan. 1901. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity requirements are supplied by Acaray hydro-electric power plant. Production in 1985 was 1,118m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Itaipú, the largest hydro-electric dam in the world, a joint effort of the governments of Brazil and Paraguay was inaugurated in 1982 and it is estimated that the whole project will be completed in 1990. Eventually it will have 18 turbogenerators, each with a capacity of700,000 kw. In 1984 the first turbine started generating power. The Yacyretá project is being carried out by the Binational Commission Yacyretá which was created by a treaty between the governments of Argentina and Paraguay. Work is being carried out on this project and it is hoped that the plant will be in full operation by the end of this decade. Initially 20 turbines each of 135,000 kw generating capacity will be installed giving the plant an initial output of2-7m. kw. Oil. The oil refinery at Villa Elisa, which has been in operation since 1966, has a production of about 3,500 bbls a day. Exploration for petroleum in the Chaco yielded negative results but prospecting was continuing in 1983-84.

979

PARAGUAY

Minerals. Iron, manganese and other minerals have been reported but have not been shown to be commercially exploitable. There are large deposits oflimestone, and also salt, kaolin and apatite. National and international firms have acquired licences to prospect for oil and natural gas in the Chaco. Agriculture. In 1981 it was estimated that agriculture absorbs some 51 -4m. hectares. In 1985, the main agricultural products (in 1,000 tonnes) were: Mandioca (cassava), 2,200; soybeans, 700; maize, 500; cotton, 485; wheat, 105; rice, 70; tobacco, 20; sugar-cane, 1,700; coffee, 18. Wheat, soybeans, cotton, sugar, tobacco, coffee are increasing in importance, as are also essential oils and oilseeds. Yerba maté, or strongly flavoured Paraguayan tea, continues to be produced but is declining in importance; 80 tons were exported in 1983. Livestock (1985). Paraguay had about 6-4m. cattle, 330,000 horses, 1 -4m. pigs, 445,000 sheep. Forestry. In the Oriental section there are reserves of hardwoods and cedars that have scarcely been exploited. Palms, tung and other trees are exploited, for Iheir oils. The Japanese are experimenting with mulberries for silk growing. Pines and firs have been introduced under a United Nations project. In the Chaco the accessible Quebracho forests have nearly been worked out but plans are being made to open up new areas. In 1983, 82,770 tons of timber were exported and 10,841 tons of quebracho. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Production, 1983 (tons): Hides, 11,036; frozen meat, 7,506; cotton fibre, 77,157 (1,000 metres); tannin, 12,678; petit grain, 86; tung oil, 17,033; cement, 152,953; sugar, 98,199; cigarettes (lm. packets), 46,598; matches (1,000 boxes), 8,979. TTiere are 3 meat-packing plants and other factories producing vegetable oils. A textile industry in Pilar and Asunción meets a large part of local needs. Labour. Trade unionists number about 30,000 (Confederación Paraguaya de Trabajadores and Confederación Cristiana de Trabajadores). Commerce. Imports and exports (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1981 506 1 295-5

1982 581-4 329 7

1983 478-2 269-1

1984 513-0 334-5

1985 442-3 303-9

Chief exports in 1985 included (in US$1,000): Cotton, 141,811; soybeans, 100,472; vegetable oil, 13,656; sawn wood, 9,731; expeliere, 6,396; tobacco, 6,033; cattle hides, 5,221; tannin extract, 4,023; processed meat, 1,446; essential oils, 5,615. Chief imports 1985 (in US$1,000): Fuels and lubricants, 114,570; machinery, 101,699; chemical and pharmaceutical products, 34,423; transport and accessories, 30,519; drinks and tobacco, 25,058; foodstuffs, 19,811; iron and manufactures, 17,855; agricultural implements and accessories, 11,660. Imports and exports (in US$), by country, 1984: Country Argentina Belgium Brazil Federal Republic of Germany France Italy Japan Netherlands Spain Switzerland UK Uruguay USA

Imports 80,959 1,151 167,890 16,062 25,965 3,174 60,741 6,669 2,495 5,096 21,455 4,764 44,905

'

Exports 40,525 9,753 53,219 39,557 8,065 6,013 7,900 41,264 12,108 12,755 651 6,800 17,464

980

PARAGUAY

Total trade between Paraguay and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m i m 4 m 5 l m ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from U K

2,790 16,915

3,129 15,263

2,961 16,884

2,086 15,540

1,455 31,010

Tourism. Visitors numbered 239,348 in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS In 1983 there were 20,000 km of roads, of which 2,000 were paved. The principal paved roads are Route No. 2/7 running from Asunción to the bridge over the Paraná at Puerto Presidente Stroessner, and thence down to the ocean at Paranaguá; and Route No. 1 to Encarnación in the south. The other main arteries are Coronel Oviedo-Pedro Juan Caballero road (unpaved from Coronel Oviedo) in the north and the Trans-Chaco road which starts from the bridge across the river Paraguay north of Asunción and ends at Nueva Asunción on the Bolivian border. Unpaved roads are closed when it rains. In the Argentine, a paved road starts from Pilcomayo, opposite Asunción, and provides good communication with Buenos Aires. Motor cars, 1976, numbered 17,600; commercial vehicles, 15,200, and passenger vehicles, 7,580. Railways. The President Carlos Antonio López (formerly Paraguay Central) Railway runs from Asunción to Encarnación, on the Rio Alto Paraná, with a length of 441 km (1,435 mm gauge). In 1984, traffic amounted to 140,700 tonnes and 180,000 passengers. Aviation. International services are operated by 7 airlines (1 domestic and 6 foreign) and internal routes by military airlines and some small private lines. Shipping. In flood the Paraguay River, which divides the country into two distinct parts, is navigable for 12ft-draught vessels as far as Concepción, 180 miles north of Asunción, and for smaller vessels for a further distance of 600 miles northward. Drought conditions often restrict navigation to lighter traffic. The Paraná River is navigable by large boats from Corrientes up to Puerto Aguirre, at the mouth of the Yguazú River. Boats of a few hundred tons capacity navigate the tributary rivers. Asunción, the chief port, is 950 miles from the sea. The cargo fleet includes 25 vessels of 300-1,000 tons, 3 tankers of 1,100-1,700 tons, 2 passenger river boats and 1 ocean-going freighter of 713 tons. Post and Broadcasting. The national telegraph (137 offices) connects Asunción with Corrientes and Posadas in the Argentine Republic, and thus with the outside world; new direct links have been opened with the Federal Republic of Germany, USA, Bolivia and Chile. In addition, 34 stations are operated by the President Carlos Antonio López Railway; total, 2,070 miles. Three companies (12 stations) offer radio-telegraph and telex services to several countries. Telephones, 1983, 77,983, of which 59,113 were in Asunción and were automatic. There are 1 state and 9 commercial radio stations in Asunción, 22 in provincial towns, 2 commercial television stations in Asunción and 1 in Encarnación in the south. Cinemas (1986). Cinemas numbered 6 in Asunción. The larger country towns usually have an outdoor cinema. Newspapers (1986). There are 5 daily newspapers in Asunción. JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. The highest court is the Supreme Court with 5 members. There are special Chambers of Appeal for civil and commercial cases, and criminal cases. Judges of first instance deal with civil, commercial and criminal cases in 6 departments. Minor cases are dealt with by Justices of the Peace. The Attorney-General represents the State in all jurisdictions, with representatives in each judicial department and in every jurisdiction. In matters of revenue, taxes, etc., the State is represented by the Abogado del Tesoro.

PARAGUAY

981

Religion. Religious liberty is guaranteed by the 1967 constitution. Article 6 thereof recognizes Roman Catholicism as the official religion of the country. The same article states that relations between Paraguay and the Holy See shall be regulated by concordats or other bilateral agreements, but no such agreements have yet been negotiated. The Roman Catholic Church is organized into the Archdiocese of Asunción, 3 other dioceses (San Juan Bautista de las Misiones, Concepción and Villarrica); 4 Prelatures (Coronel Oviedo, Encarnación, Alto Paraná and Caacupé); and 2 Vicariates Á P 9 S t o l i c (Chaco and Pilcomayo). The bishops meet in a Conference of Paraguayan Bishops. Only civil marriages are legally valid. There are numerous non-catnolic communities, the largest of whom are the Mennonites. There is a small Anglican church in Asunción, with missions in the Chaco, which comes under the jurisdiction of an Anglican Bishop resident in Asunción. Education. Education is free and nominally compulsory. In 1984 there were 3,796 government primary schools with 559,080 pupils and 22,091 teachers; 587 private schools, with 80,807 pupils and (1983) 13,810 teachers. In 1984, 713 secondary schools had 149,019 students and (1982) 2,448 teachers. The National University in Asunción had, in 1984, 20,343 students and 2,699 professors; the Catholic University had 10,971 students and 900 professors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Paraguay in Great Britain (51 Cornwall Gdns, London, SW7 4 AQ) Ambassador: Antonio R. Zuccolillo. Of Great Britain in Paraguay (Calle Presidente Franco, 706, Asunción) Ambassador and Consul-General: John G. MacDonald, MBE. Of Paraguay in the USA (2400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Marcos Martinez Mendieta. Of the USA in Paraguay (1776 Mariscal López Ave., Asunción) Ambassador: Clyde Taylor. Of Paraguay to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Alfredo Cañete. Books of Reference Gaceta Official, published by Imprenta Nacional, Estrella y Estero Bellaco, Asunción Anuario Daumas. Asunción Anuario Estadístico de la República del Paraguay. Asunción. Annual Lewis, P. H., Paraguay under Stroessner. Univ. o f N o r t h Carolina Press, 1980 Maybury-Lewis, D. and Howe, J., The Indian Peoples of Paraguay: Their Plight and Their Prospects. Cambridge, Mass., 1980 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, De la Rosidenta, Asunción.

PERU

Capital: Lima Population: 19-7m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$980 ( 1984)

República del Perú H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Peru, formerly the most important of the Spanish vice-royalties in South America, declared its independence on 28 July 1821; but it was not till after a war, protracted till 1824, that the country gained its actual freedom. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Peru is bounded north by Ecuador and Colombia, east by Brazil and Bolivia, south by Chile and west by the Pacific ocean. Area 1,285,216 sq. km (496,093 sq. miles). The long-standing dispute with Chile over the provinces of Tacna and Arica (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOIC, 1 9 2 8 , p. 1 1 9 8 ) reached an amicable settlement on 3 June 1929 at Lima, Tacna going to Peru and Arica to Chile. In response to demands by Bolivia for permanent access to the Pacific Coast, proposals for a Bolivian corridor to the sea and a new Bolivian port to be built in the disputed area have been put forward by Chile and Peru. To date, little progress has been made. One result has been increased tension along the Chilean-Peruvian border, there is no sign of a settlement of the border dispute, and the armed forces of both countries remain on the alert in the disputed border area. Fighting broke out between Peruvian and Ecuadorian Forces, in early 1981, along part of the disputed border (the Cordillera del Condor) which has to date not been adequately mapped. A number of proposals for settling the issue permanently have been put forward but a final settlement is unlikely to be reached in the near future. For an account of the settlement of other boundary disputes, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-Book, 1 9 4 8 , p . 1173. The census taken in 1981 gave the population as 17,005,210. Estimate (1985) 19 • 7m. Children under 15 years, 7 -2m. (41 % of total population). Birth rate, 4-2%; death rate, 1 -3%. Lima, the capital, had(1983) 5,258,600 population. The area and population (at Census, 12 July 1981) of the 24 departments and the constitutional province of Callao, together with their capitals, are shown below: Department Sq. km Census 1981 Capital Census 1981 Amazonas 41,297 254,560 Chachapoyas 11,853 Ancash 36,669 818,289 Huaraz 45,116 Apurimac 20,550 323,346 Abancay 19,807 Arequipa 63,528 706,580 Arequipa 447,431 503,392 Ayacucho 44,181 Ayacucho 69,533 Cajamarca 34,930 1,045,569 Cajamarca 60,280 Callao 148 443,413 Callao 260,581 1 832,504 Cuzco 76,329 Cuzco 181,604 Huancavelica 21,079 346,797 Huancavelica 20,889 33,897 Huánuco 484,780 Huánuco 52,628 Ica 21,251 433,897 lea 111,087 Junín 41,296 852,238 Huancayo 165,132 La Libertad 23,241 962,949 Trujillo 354,557 Lambayeque 13,737 674,442 Chiclayo 280,244 33,821 4,745,877 Lima Lima 375,957" Loreto 379,025 445,368 Iquitos 178,738 Madre de Dios 78,403 33,007 Puerto Maldonado 12,693 Moquegua 101,610 Moquegua 15,709 22,224 3 Pasco 24,233 213,125 Cerro de Pasco 71,558 Piura 36,403 1,125,865 Piura 186,354 Puno 72,382 2 890,258 Puno 66,477 San Martin 319,751 52,309 Moyobamba 14,376 Tacna 15,232 143,085 Tacna .97,173 4,732 Tumbes 103,839 Tumbes 47,939 Ucayali 100,831 200,669 Pucallpa 89,604 1 ' Constitutional province. Includes Peruvian zone of Lake Titicaca (4,996 sq. km). 4 ' Estimate 1984. Municipality proper; Lima/Callao metropolitan area 4,605,043. Other major cities (1981 Census) include Chimbóte (216,406).

982

PERU

983

The official languages are Spanish (spoken by 68% of the population) and Quechua (spoken by 2 7%); 3% speak Ay mará. C L I M A T E . There is a very wide variety of climate, ranging from equatorial to desert, (or perpetual snow on the high mountains). In coastal areas, temperatures vary very little, either daily or annually, though humidity and cloudiness show considerable variation, with highest humidity from May to Sept. Little rain is experienced in that period. In the Sierra, temperatures remain fairly constant over the year, but the daily range is considerable. There the dry season is from April to Nov. Desert conditions occur in the extreme south, where the climate is uniformly dry, with a few heavy showers falling between Jan. and March. Lima. Jan. 74° F (23-3°C), July 62°F (167°C). Annual rainfall 2" (48 mm). Cuzco. Jan. 56°F (13-3°C), July 50°F(10°C). Annual rainfall 32" (804 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 3 Oct. 1968 a military junta overthrew the government of President Femando Belaúnde Terry and installed Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado as President of a 'Revolutionary Government' with a cabinet composed entirely of officers of t h r armed services.--Gen-. Velasco was ousted in bloodless coup in Aug. 1975 and was replaced by Gen. Francisco Morales Bermudez. The new democratic government, under President Fernando Belaúnde Terry, took office on 28 July 1980. The new Constitution, which became effective when a civilian government was installed in July 1980, provides for a Legislature consisting of a Senate (60 members) and a Chamber of Deputies (180 members) and an Executive formed of the President of the Republic and a Council of Ministers appointed by him. Elections were held in April 1985. They are held every 5 years with the President and Congress elected, at the same time, by separate ballots. All Peruvians over the age of 18 are eligible to vote; in May 1980 the number of registered voters was over 6m., including lm. in Lima province. Voting is compulsory; women were fully enfranchised in 1955. Presidents since 1956 were: Dr Manuel Prado y Ugarteche, 28 July 1956-July 1962. Gen. Ricardo Pérez Godoy, 18 July 1962-3 March 1963.' Gen. Nicolás Lindley López, 3 March-28 July 1963. Fernando Belaúnde Terry, 28 July 1963-3 Oct. 1968.' 1

Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado, 3 Oct. 196829 Aug. 1975.' Gen. Francisco Morales Bermudez, 29 Aug. 1975-28 July 1980. Fernando Belaúnde Terry, 28 July . 1980-28 July 1985. Deposed.

President: Alan García Pérez (sworn in 28 July 1985). The Cabinet was in Dec. 1986 composed as follows: Premier and Finance Minister: Luis Alva Castro. Ministry of the Presidency: Nicanor Mujica. Justice: Carlos Blancas. Agriculture: Remigio Morales Bermúdez. Industry: Manuel Romero. Housing: Luis Bedoya Vêlez. Transport and Communications: José Murgía. Energy and Mines: Wilfredo Huaita. Education: Grover Pango. Health: David Tejada. Interior: Abel Salinas. Fisheries: Javier Labarthe. Labour: Orestes Rodrigues. Foreign Affairs: Allan Wagner. War: Gen. Jorge Flores Torres. Navy: Adm. William Harm. There are 24 departments divided into 158 provinces (plus the constitutional province of Callao) and 1,690 districts; the province of Callao has some of the functions of a department. National flag: Three vertical strips of red, white, red, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Somos Libres, seámoslo siempre (words by J. de la Torre Ugarte; tune by J. B. Alcedo, 1821). DEFENCE. Army. While military service is compulsory youths are only conscripted to fill the

984

PERU

annual quota. The term of service is 2 years and all males of20-25 years of age are liable. The country is divided into 5 military regions. The Army comprises (1987) approximately 85,000 men (including 42,000 conscripts). There are 7 infantry divisions and 2 independent infantry groups, 1 mechanized division, 2 artillery groups, 1 anti-aircraft group, 1 surface-to-air group, 8 independent engineer groups, 1 paracommando and 3 armoured brigades, 1 jungle brigade, 1 armoured car brigade. There is an air element of 50 Mil, Bell and Aerospatiale helicopters plus about 10 light fixed-wing aircraft. Equipment consists of approximately 360 tanks (T-54/-55 and AMX-13), over 100 light armoured fighting vehicles and 105-mm./l 55-mm. field artillery. The section of the national police force with a para-military role is known as the Guardia Civil and comprises approximately 36,000 personnel. Navy. The principal surface ships of the Peruvian Navy are the cruisers:Completed Name 1953 Aguirre (ex-De Zeven Provincien) 1953 Almirante Grau1 (ex-De Ruyter)

Standard Displacement (tons)

Main Guns

9,850

46in.

9,530

8 6in.

Aircraft

Shaft horsepower

Max. Speed (knots)

3

85,000

32

_

85,000

32

1

When the Dutch cruiser De Ruyter was purchased in 1973 she was re-named Almirante Grau after Peru's principal naval hero. In consequence the cruiser whose name had been changed from Newfoundland to Almirante Grau when she was purchased from Britain in 1959 was again re-named Capitan Quinones, after an air force hero; but this ship has since been retired (latterly used as harbour training ship); and her sister ship Colonel Botognesi (ex- HMS Ceylon) was laid up in 1983. Aquirre was bought from the Netherlands in 1976.

There are also 12 submarines comprising 6 completed in Federal Republic of Germany in 1974-82,4 completed in USA in 1954-57 and 2 old Jt-USN; 2 reconstructed 'Daring' class destroyers delivered from Britain during 1973; 6 old destroyers purchased from the Netherlands in 1980-82, 2 Italian-built frigates completed in 1979 and 2 Peruvian completed to same design in 1985—86, 6 new French-built fast missile-armed corvettes, 2 medium landing ships; 5 river gunboats; 3 river patrol boats; 2 transports; 3 hospital craft; 1 research craft; 7 oilers; 7 survey vessels; 1 repair ship; 1 torpedo recovery vessel; 1 floating workshop, 4 floating docks; 4 water carriers, and 5 tugs. All naval training takes place in the Callao area at various schools. The main naval base and dockyard are also in Callao. Smaller bases are at Iquitos on the Amazon, and at San Lorenzo. Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 2,100 officers and 19,000 men including the Naval Air Arm which operates 10 S-2 Trackers and 2 F-27s for maritime patrol, 16 anti-submarine helicopters, 5 C-47 transports, 2 T-34A Mentor and 6 T-34C Turbo-Mentor trainers, 4 UH-1 Iroquois transport helicopters, and 12 Bell light helicopters. The Coast Guard includes 6 modem patrol vessels built in Peru in 1976-82,4 fast patrol craft built in Britain in 1964-65,2 former US gunboats, 3 coastal patrol boats, 3 river patrol craft and 9 minor patrol craft. Air Force. The operational force consists of 5 combat groups. No. 13 Group has 2 squadrons of Mirage 5 jet fighters; No. 9 Group has 2 squadrons of Canberra light jet bombers; No. 7 Group has 2 squadrons of A-37B light attack aircraft; No. 12 Group has Soviet-built Su-22 variable-geometry fighter bombers in 2 operational squadrons; No. 11 Group has one squadron of Su-22s and one with A-37Bs. Other aircraft in service include medium transports (1 F.28 Fellowship, 16 An-26, 6 •L-100 Hercules), light transports (19 Twin Otter, 15 Buffalo, 1 twin-jet Falcon and 12 Turbo-Porter), helicopters (2 Mi-6 and 6 Mi-8, Bell 212 and 214ST, BO 105, Alouette III and Bell 47G), 70 training aircraft (including Aermacchi MB 339, T-37 and T-41D) and a small number of miscellaneous types for photographic and communications duties. There are military airfields at Talara, Chiclayo, Piura,

PERU

985

Pisco, Lima (2), Iquitos and La Joya, and a seaplane base at Iquitos. All officers and pilots are trained at the Air Academy at Lima (Las Palmas). The approximate strength of the Peruvian Air Force (1986) 16,000 personnel and 108 combat aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Peru is a member of UN, OAS, Andean Group and LAI A (formerly LAFTA).

ECONOMY Planning. A Public Investment Programme for 1981-85 envisages expenditure of US$11,670m. Budget. The authorized budget for 1985 envisaged expenditure ofS/.23,869,000m. Currency. The monetary unit is the inti introduced 1986. One inti = 1,000 soles. In March 1987,£1 =28-98 mii;US$l = 2 0 1 8 inti. Coins include 50,000 soles (gold) and 10,000 soles (silver) coins as well as 10and 5-sole pieces (copper 75%; nickel 25%), the sol and half sol (copper 30%; zinc 70%); the 20, 10 and 5 centavos (copper-zinc) and the 2- and 1-centavo pieces (zinc) have been discontinued. Peru has a paper currency issued by the Banco Central de la Reserva in denominations of 5,000, 1,000, 500,200, 100 and 50. The 10 and 5 soles notes have been discontinued. Banking. The government bank of issue is the Banco Central de la Reserva del Perú, which was established in 1922. The Government's fiscal agent is the Banco de la Nación which, since May 1970, has control of the 'giro' market through which most non-trade foreign currency transactions are channelled. There were in 1983, 7 commercial banks (of which 3 state-owned), 4 foreign commercial banks, 9 development banks (5 state-owned), 6 regional commercial banks and a savings bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was established by law in 1869, and since 1916 has come into general use. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1985 the production of electric energy was 13,100m. kwh (60% hydro-electric). An electrification programme to construct a series of large hydroelectric power stations, was started in 1980. Supply 220 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Proven oil reserves in the jungle region amount to about 900m. bbls. The new 850 km pipeline, linking the new jungle oilfields to coastal terminals, was opened in 1977. Output amounted to 8-8m. tonnes by 1986 and Peru became an oil exporter in 1985. Minerals. Peru's mining industry produces 13 metals and 25 non-metallic minerals. Lead, copper, iron, silver, zinc and petroleum are the chief minerals exploited. In 1984 prospecting for uranium was in progress. Mineral exports in 1980: Copper, US$752m.; lead, US$383m.; zinc, US$210m.; silver, US$312m.; iron ore, US$95m.; gold, US$40m. Mineral production (in 1,000 tonnes, 1983) of iron, 2,800; zinc, 476; copper, 317; lead, 184; silver, 48m. oz. Agriculture. There are 4 natural zones: the coast strip, with an average width of 80 km; the Sierra or Uplands, formed by the coast range of mountains and the Andes proper; the Montaña or high wooded region which lies on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the jungle in the Amazon Basin, known as the Selva. In 1984 irrigation was increasing the amount of cultivable acreage in the arid coastal sections of the country, using the abundance of water flowing from the Andes mountains. Production in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Sugar-cane, 7,425; sugar, 735; cotton, 92; coffee, 91; wool, 11-3.

986

PERU

Output of cattle and buffalo hides (in tonnes), 1981,13,220; sheepskins, 7,350; goatskins, 2,100. Output of sheep wool in 1984 was 16,500 tonnes. Livestock (1985): 655,000 horses, 3-9m. cattle, l-7m. goats, 13-5m. sheep, 2,050,000 swine, 41 m. poultry. Forestry. There are 209m. acres of forests containing valuable hardwoods; oak and cedar account for about 40%. In 1983, total roundwood removals totalled 7 • 8m. cu metres. Fisheries. Until the early 1970s Peru was the world's foremost fishing nation in terms of value of catch, due mainly to anchoveta which was converted into fishmeal for export as animal feed. Hpyyever, abnormal marine conditions and overfishing combined had, by 1983 considerably reduced the anchoveta catch. Production (1983) l-48m. tonnes, including anchoveta, 118,200; chub mackerel, 21,000; sardine, 1 06m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. About 70% of Peru's manufacturing industries are located in or around the Lima/Callao metropolitan area. Products include pig-iron, blooms, billets, largets, round and round-deformed bars, wire rod, black and galvanized sheets and galvanized roofing sheets. Refractories are manufactured at Lima. The Government has a monopoly of the import and/or local manufacture and sale of guano, salt, alcohol and explosives. Labour. In 1983 the total labour was considered to number 6m. persons. The population was distributed roughly as follows in 1981: Agriculture, stock-raising and fishing, 41%; manufacturing industry, 13%; commerce, 13%; construction, 4%; mining, 1%; services and others, 28%. Trade Unions. Trade unions have about 2m. members (approximately l-5m. in peasant organizations and 500,000 in industrial). The major trade union organization is the Confederación de Trabajadores del Perú, which was reconstituted in 1959 after being in abeyance for some years. The other labour organizations recognized by the Government are the Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú, the Confederación Nacional de Trabajadores and the Central de Trabajadores de la Revolución Peruana. Commerce. The value of trade has been as follows (in US$ 1 m.): ¡978 Imports 1,601 Exports 1,941

¡979 2,090 3,474

¡980 3,062 3,898

¡98¡ 3,803 3,255

¡982 3,678 3,293

¡983 2,698 3,015

¡984 2,140 3,147

In 1984 the principal imports were: Machinery and appliances, chemicals, foodstuffs; fuel, lubricants and other non-metallic minerals. Of exports, 36% went to USA, 15% to Japan; of imports, 41 % came from USA and 8% from Japan. Total trade between Peru and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exportsand re-exports from UK

¡982 92,120 39,370

¡983 118,414 32,947

¡984 119,423 33,841

¡985 108,943 40,371

¡986 82,141 48,275

Tourism. There were 279,000 visitors in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 65,000 km, of which 7,200 km were paved and (1980) 12,323 km gravel. In 1981 there were 529,000 registered motor vehicles. Railways. Total length (1984), 1,628 km on 1,435- and 914-mm gauges. In 1983 railways carried 2 -6m. short tons and 3 • 1 m. passengers. Aviation. There are 3 international and 61 other airports.

PERU

987

Shipping. In 1983, 23-5m. tonnes of goods were loaded and unloaded, including 10 • 4m. coastal traffic. Post and Broadcasting. An earth satellite ground communication station at Lurin connects Peru through Intelsat. Ill to the US and Europe. In 1983 there were 519,703 telephones, 371,673 in Lima. Radio-telephone circuits connect Lima with distant towns. There are 1 S3 broadcasting stations, of which 29 are in Lima. Radio receivers (1984) 2 • 24m. and television receivers 520,000. Cinemas. In 1972 there were 276 cinemas. Newspapers. The main Lima newspapers are La Prensa, El Comercio, Expreso, Correo and La Crónica. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Peruvian judicial system is a pyramid at the base of which are the justices of the peace who decide minor criminal cases and civil cases involving small sums of money. The apex is the Supreme Court with a President and 12 members; in between are the judges of first instance, who usually sit in the provincial capitals, and the superior courts. Religion. Religious liberty exists, but the Roman Catholic religion is protected by the State, and since 1929 only Roman Catholic religious instruction is permitted in schools, state or private. In 1972 there were 1 Roman Catholic cardinal, 7 archbishops, 14 bishops, 3 vicars-general, 8 vicars apostolic, 2,672 priests, 506 cloistered monks and 4,558 members of religious orders. Education. Elementary education is compulsory and free for both sexes between the ages of 7 and 16; secondary education is also free. In 1984 there were 22,876 primary schools, with 94,968 teachers and (1982) 3-4m. pupils; 3,736 secondary schools, with (1982) 55,959 teachers and (1982) 1 -4m. students. In 1984 the total number ofstudentsat35 universities was 316,000. Social Welfare. There were in 1982,29,991 hospitals beds and 14,751 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Peru in Great Britain (52 Sloane St., London, SW1X 9SP) Ambassador Carlos Raffo. Of Great Britain in Peru (Edificio El Pacifico Washington, Ave. Arequipa, Lima) Ambassador John W. R. Shakespeare, CMG, LVO. Of Peru in the USA (1700 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador Luis Marchand. Of the USA in Peru (PO Box 1995, Lima) Ambassador: David C. Jordan. Of Peru to the United Nations Ambassador Carlos Alzamora. Books of Reference The official gazette is El Peruano, Lima. Anario Estadístico del Perú. Annual.—Boletín de Estadística Peruana Quarterly — Demarcación Política del Perú. (Dirección Nacional de Estadística), Lima Estadística del Comercio Exterior (Superintendencia de Aduanas). Lima Banco Central de Reserva. Monthly Bulletin.—Renta Nacional del Perú. Annual, Lima Figueroa, A., Capitalist Development and the Peasant Economy of Peru. CUP, 1984 Hemming, J , The Conquest of the Incas. London, 1970 McChntock, C., and Lowental, A. F , (eds.) The Peruvian Experiment Reconsidered Princeton Univ Press, 1983 Mejía Baca, J., and Tauro, A., Diccionario Enciclopédico del Perú. 3 vols. 1966 National Library Avenida Abancay, Lima.

PHILIPPINES

Capital: Manila Population: 56 -21 m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$597 (1985)

Republika ng Pilipinas

H I S T O R Y . Before the Spanish discovery of the Philippines, the native Filipinos came in contact with India, China and Arabia. According to the early records of China, 'some Filipinos from the country of Ma-i arrived in Canton and sold their merchandise' as early as 982. The Philippine islands were discovered by Magellan in 1521 and conquered by Spain in 1565. Following the Spanish-American war, the islands were ceded to the USA on 10 Dec. 1898, after the Filipinos had tried in vain to establish an independent republic in 1896. The Philippines acquired self-government as a Commonwealth of the USA by Act of Congress signed by President Roosevelt on 24 March 1934 and ratified by plebiscite on 14 May 1935. This provided for independence after a 10-year transitional period, at the end of which the Philippines became completely independent on 4 July 1946. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Philippines is situated between 21° 25' and 4° 23' N. lat. and between 116° and 127° E. long. It is composed of 7,100 islands and islets, 2,773 of which are named. Approximate land area, 115,830 sq. miles (300,000 sq. km). The largest islands (in sq. km) are Luzon (104,684), Mindanao (94,627), Samar (13,079), Negros (12,706), Palawan (11,784), Panay (11,515), Mindoro (9,735), Leyte (7,215), Cebu (4,421), Bohol (3,864), Masbate (3,268). Census population 1980 was 48,098,460; 36% urban. Estimate (1986) 52 -21m. The major cities (with 1980 Census populations) are Metropolitan Manila (5,925,884) including the City of Manila, the present capital (1,630,485), Quezon City, the former capital (1,165,865), Caloocan (467,816), Makati (372,631), Pasay (287,770), Paranaque (208,552) and San Juan del Monte (130,088); Angeles (188,834), Olongapo (156,430), Batangas (143,570), Cabanatuan (138,298), San Pablo (131,655), San Carlos (101,243), Naga (90,712) and Cavite (87,666), all also on Luzon; Davao (610,375), Zamboanga (343,722), Cagayan de Oro (227,312), Iligan (167,358) and Butuan (172,489) on Mindanao; Cebu (490,281) on Cebu; Bacolod (262,415), Cadiz (129,632) and San Carlos (91,627) on Negros; and Iloilo (244,827) and Roxas (81,183) on Panay. In 1980 the national language, Pilipino (based on Tagalog, a Malayan dialect) was spoken by 55% of the population, but as a mother tongue by only 23 -8%; among the 76 other indigenous languages spoken, all of the Malayo-Polynesian family, Cebuano was spoken as a mother tongue by 24-4%, Ilocano by 11 • 1%, Hiligaynon by 8% and Bikol by 5%. C L I M A T E . Some areas have an equatorial climate while others experience tropical monsoon conditions, with a wet season extending from May to Nov. Mean temperatures are high all year, with very little variation. Manila. Jan. 77°F (25°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 82" (2,083 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Presidential elections were held on 7 Feb. 1986. Ferdinand E. Marcos was opposed by Corazon Aquino. The elections proved to be fraudulent and although Marcos was proclaimed President, by the National Assembly, on 15 Feb., on 25 Feb. he fled the country. President Corazan Aquino was sworn in on 25 Feb. 988

PHILIPPINES

989

On 25 March 1986 the President abolished the Parliament and declared a provisional government. A new Constitution was ratified by referendum in 1987 with 78 • 5% of the voters endorsing it. It aims 'to secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality and peace'. President: Corazón Aquino. Prime Minister and Ministerfor Foreign Affairs: Salvador Laurel. Defence: Rafael lieto. Justice: Neptali Gonzales. Finance: Jaime Ongpin. Education: Lourdes Quisumbing. Local Government: Aquilino Pimentel. Public Works and Highways: Vincente Jayme. Trade and Industry: José Concepción. Agriculture: Ramon Mitra. Presidential Commission on Good Government: Jovito Salonga. Executive Secretary: Joker Airoyo. Presidential Spokesman: René Saguisag. Presidential Commission on Government Re-organization: Luis Villafuerte. Tourism: José Antonio Gonzales. Natural Resources: Carlos Dominquez. Information: Teodoro Locsin. Budget: Alberto Romulo. Central Bank Governor: José Fernandez. Press Secretary: Teodoro S. Benigno. Nationalflag: Horizontally blue over red, with a white triangle based on the hoist bearing a gold sun of 8 rays and 3 gold stars. National hymn: 'Tierra Adorada', 'Land of the Morning', lyric in English by M. A. Sane and C. Osias, in Spanish by José Palma (1899), tune by Julian Felipe (1898); 'Pambansang A wit ng Pilipinas', Tagalog lyric by the Institute of National Language, music by Julian Felipe. Local Government. The country is administratively divided into 13 regions, 73 provinces, 60 cities, 1,493 municipalities, 21 municipal districts, 40,207 barangays with 241,242 councilmen. On 14 Nov. 1975 the name of provincial boards and city or municipal boards or councils was changed into Sangguniang Bayan. D E F E N C E . On 14 March 1947 the Philippine and US Governments signed a 99-year military-base arrangement since reduced to 25 years and will end in 1991. The USA was granted the use of a series of army, navy and air bases, with the right to use a number of others on mutual agreement. On 21 March a second agreement provided for a US Military Advisory Group as well as military assistance. A treaty of mutual assistance was signed in Washington on 30 Aug. 1951 ; the instruments of ratification were exchanged in Manila on 27 Aug. 1952. The Philippines is also a signatory of the S.E. Asia Collective Defence Treaty. The Chief of Staffof the Armed Forces has overall command over the Army, Air Force, Navy and Constabulary. Army. The Army comprises 5 infantry divisions, 1 ranger regiment, 2 engineer brigades, 1 light armoured regiment and 4 artillery regiments. Equipment includes 28 Scorpion light tanks. Strength (1987) 70,000, with reserves totalling 95,000. There are also paramilitary forces; the Philippine Constabulary (50,000) and the Civil Home Defence Force (65,000). Navy. The fleet includes 7 very old frigates (3 former US destroyer escorts and 4 ex-USCG cutters, ex-USN seaplane tenders each displacing 2,000 tons), 10 corvettes (3 ex-US fleet minesweepers and 7 ex-US escorts), 2 ex-US PC-type patrol vessels, 8 other patrol craft, 5 gunboats, 70 coastal patrol craft, 1 training ship, 24 landing ships, 4 medium landing ships, 6 landing craft (3 LSSL and 3 LCU), 3 repair ships, 2 oilers, 3 water carriers, 1 supply ship, 6 survey ships, 5 tenders, 70 minor landing craft, 2 yachts (command ships), 6 tugs and 20 auxiliaries. There are 30 patrol craft and 60 cutters and tenders in the coast guard. The Philippine Navy was considerably increased in 1976 by taking over many vessels (nearly all former US warships) from the Vietnamese Navy which-escaped from Indo-China when the Saigon government collapsed in 1975. But some 60 of the larger ships are well over 40 years old.

990

PHILIPPINES

Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 16,400 officers and men. There are also 9,600 officers and enlisted men in the marine corps (to be raised to 15,400), and 2,000 officers and men in the coast guard. Air Force. The Air Force had (1987) a strength of 17,000 officers and men, with 390 aircraft, and was built up with US assistance. Its fighter-bomber wing is equipped with 1 squadron of F-5 A and 1 squadron of F-8H Crusaders. A strike wing is equipped with armed trainers, 2 squadrons having T-28s and 1 squadron SF.260WPs. Other units include a maritime patrol squadron with F27 Maritimes and HU-16 Albatross amphibians and 7 transport squadrons (1 with C-130/L-100 Hercules, 1 with F27s, 1 with Nomads, 1 with C-47s, 2 with UH-1 Iroquois helicopters and 1 with S-76 helicopters). Training aircraft include T-41s, T-34s, SF.260MPs and T-33 jets. Two S-70 helicopters are used as VIP transports. Police. Public order is maintained partly through the Philippine constabulary and partly through the local police forces. The constabulary now forms part of the Armed Forces and has 27,000 personnel. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Republic of the Philippines is a member of UN and the Colombo Plan. External Debt. At 31 March 1986 the external debt amounted to US$19,489m. ECONOMY Planning. A development plan, 1983-87, aimed at an average growth rate of 6 • 5%. Budget. The revenues and expenditures of the central government for calendar years were, in 1 m. Philippine pesos, as follows: Revenue Expenditure

1983 46,642 50,27 1

1984 58,174 59,103 ' Estimate.

1985 68,981 80,148

1986' 87,866 109,900

Expenditure (1983) included (in lm. pesos): National defence, 6,106; education, health and social services, 11,618; economic development, 11,618; public debt, 8,543. At July 1986 the total internal public debt outstanding of the national and local governments and monetary institutions, including those of the government corporations, stood at P. 148,234-5m. Currency. Total money supply, July 1986, was P.32,532-2m., of which P.21,176-8m. was currency in circulation and P. 11,355-4m. were demand deposits. The coins used are: 5 peso, 1 peso, one-half peso, quarter peso, media peseta (10 centavos), all contain 70 grammes copper, 18 grammes zinc and 12 grammes nickel; 5 centavo in copper and zinc, and 1 centavo in aluminium and magnesium zinc. Central Bank notes are issued in 2,5,10,20,50,100 pesos denominations. In March 1987, £ 1 = 32pesos-, US$ 1 =20-58 pesos. Banking. In 1985 there were 30 head offices and 1,722 branches of commercial banks, with 4 overseas, 1 each in New York, Hong Kong, Taipei and London. Agencies exist in Honolulu, San Francisco and Los Angeles. Total deposits of the commercial banks in June 1986 were P. 140,943 • lm. Total number of Philippine banking institutions, 1985, 3,630 with total assets P.646,851 -4m., total liabilities P.610,759 • 3m. and total net worth P.36,092 • 1 m. Under the law passed 15 June 1948 the Central Bank of the Philippines was created to have sole control of the credit and monetary supply, independent of the Treasury. It has a capital of P. 10m. furnished solely by the Government. Its total assets, at 31 Dec. 1983 were P.130,371-7m. Central Bank's total assets at June 1986 were P.299,506-9m. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was established by law in 1869, and since 1916 has come into general use but there are local units

PHILIPPINES

991

including the picul (63 • 25 kg) for sugar and fibres, and the cavan (16-5 gallons) for cereals. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Government and private electric systems furnish the Philippines with electric power, with total installed capacity of 6,290,000 mw (1985); production 22,000m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Mineral production in 1985 (in tonnes): Nickel metal, 28,160; zinc metal, 1,880; copper metal, 222,190; cobalt metal, 910; coal, l-26m.; salt, 421,060; gold, 33,060 kg; silver, 52,420 kg. Other minerals include cement, rock asphalt, sand and gravel. Agriculture. Of the total area of 30m. hectares, 7 04m. hectares are commercial forests; 5-4m. hectares non-commercial forests; 794,000 hectares open grassland; 115,000 hectares mangrove and marshes; 14,794,000 hectares cultivated. About 98 -4% of the total cultivated area is owned by Filipinos; the average size of the farm was 2-63 hectares in 1980. The principal products are unhusked-rk* (palay), Manila hemp (abaca), copra, sugar-cane, maize and tobacco. During the first quarter of 1986 9,888,000 persons were employed in agriculture (49-51% of the working population). The products (in tonnes) are (1985, provisional): Rough rice, 8-2m.; copra, 2 01m.; coconut products, 2-96m.; sugar (centrifugal muscovado and molasses), 2-75m.; shelled com, 3-44m.; tobacco, 47,063; abaca fibre, 83,690. Minor crops are fruits, nuts, root crops, vegetables, onions, beans, coffee, cacao, peanuts, ramie, rubber, maguey and kapok. Livestock, estimated in 1985:4,325,000 carabaos (water buffaloes), 1 -9m. cattle, 8,007,000 pigs, 1 -93m. goats and 62m. poultry. Forestry. The forests covered some 11,204,000 hectares in 1983. Log production, 1985,2,982,367 cu. metres, of which 454,336 cu. metres were exported. Fisheries. Fish production from all sources was 2,052,111,000 kg and was valued at P.31,297,268,000 in 1985. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufacturing is a major source of economic development contributing 24-83% to GNP in 1984. Leading growth sectors were textile, footwear and wearing apparel, chemical and chemical products, beverage industries and food manufacture. In 1982 (annual survey), there were 83,293 manufacturing establishments, of which 29,044 were engaged in food; 26,864 wearing apparel; 1,363 footwear; 4,361 textile; 1,076 beverages; 4 petroleum refineries; 3,438 furniture and fixtures; 4,675 fabricated metal products and 792 transport equipment. The nonagricultural labour force during the first quarter of 1986 was 10,084,000 out of a total of 19,972,000 employed. Commerce. The values of imports and exports (f.o.b.) for calendar years are stated as follows in US$ 1 m.: Imports Exports

1982 7,667 5,021

1983 7,487 5,005

1984 6,070 5,391

1985 5,111 4,629

The principal exports in 1985 were (in USSlm.): Electronics, 1,020; garments, 623; coconut oil (crude), 347; copper concentrates, 84; gold, 100; fresh bananas, 113; petroleum products refined, 39; nickel, 52. Main imports in 1985 (in USSlm.): Petroleum products and related materials, 1,392; machinery other than electric, 125; textile yarns, fabrics, made-up articles and related products, 140; electric machinery apparatus and appliances, 253; cereals and cereal preparations, 278; iron and steel, 135; industrial machinery, equipment and machine parts, 107; metal manufactures, 74; organic chemicals, 137; artificial resins and plastic materials, 94. For over a half-century the foreign trade has been chiefly with the USA.

992

PHILIPPINES

Total trade between the Philippines and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 127,061 97,908

1983 160,701 102,949

1984 199,659 91,751

1985 179,979 94,370

1986 182,852 79,809

Tourism. In 1985,773,074 tourists visited the Philippines spending US$507m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 highways totalled 161,709 km; of this, 9,188 km were concrete; 12,050, asphalt; 9,722, earth; 9,722, macadam. In 1985 there were registered 1,120,172 motor vehicles of all types. Railways. The National Railways totals 1,027 km of 1,067 mm gauge on Luzon, and Phividec Railways operates 116 km on Panay Island. In 1983, 4,307,588 passengers and (1985) 54,000 tonnes of freight were carried by rail. Aviation. The Philippine Air Lines, Inc., with a working capital of P.3,061m., in 1983 carried 4,288,385 passengers, 43,171,880 kg of cargo and 459,171 kg of mail. Shipping. In 1985 there were 302 public and 240 private ports, many serving coastal shipping. In 1984,63,726 vessels of24,097,000 net tons entered and 63,175 vessels of23,449,000 net tpns cleared all ports. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were in operation 2,108 post offices and 2,113 telegraph stations. The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Co. had 820,291 telephones in service (company-owned and subscriber-owned) in 1985. Other major operators had 62,429 connexions in 1983. Licensed radio stations in 1985 numbered 51,429, including 2,879 ship stations and 971 aircraft stations. Newspapers (1986). There were 472 registered publications (288 published in Manila), 32 of which were dailies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court which is composed of a chief justice and 14 associate justices; it can declare a law or treaty unconstitutional by the concurrent votes of the majority sitting. There is an intermediate appellate court, which consists of a presiding appellate justice and 49 associate appellate justices. There are 13 regional trial courts, one for each judicial region, with a presiding regional trial judge in its 720 branches. There is a metropolitan trial court in each metropolitan area established by law, a municipal trial court in each of the other cities or municipalities and a municipal circuit trial court in each area defined as a municipal circuit comprising one or more cities and/or one or more municipalities. The Supreme Court may designate certain branches of the regional trial courts to handle exclusively criminal cases, juvenile and domestic relations cases, agrarian cases, urban land reform cases which do not fall under the jurisdiction of quasijudicial bodies and agencies and/or such other special cases as the Supreme Court may determine. Religion. In 1970 there were 31,169,488 Roman Catholics, 1,434,688 Aglipayans, 1,584,963 Moslems, 1,122,999 Protestants, 475,407 members of the Iglesia ni Kristo, 33,639 Buddhists and 863,302 others. The Roman Catholics are organized in 12 archbishoprics, 30 bishoprics, 12 prelatures nullius, 4 apostolic vicariates, 4 apostolic prefectures and some 1,633 parishes. The Philippine Independent Church, founded in 1902, arid comprising about 3 -9% of the population, denies the spiritual authority of the Roman Pontiff. It is divided into two groups, one of which has accepted ordinations by the Episcopalian Church. Education. Formal education consists of 3 levels: elementary, secondary and further education. Public elementary education is free and public elementary schools are established in almost every barangay or barrio. The majority of the

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secondary and post-secondary schools are private, sectarian or non-sectarian. The number of years required to complete the elementary and secondary levels are 6 and 4 years respectively, while the tertiary level requires at least 4 years for an academic degree. Pre-school education is also offered mostly in private schools to children from ages 3-6. Non-formal education consists of adult literacy classes, agricultural and farming training programmes, occupation skills training, youth clubs, and community programmes of instructions in health, nutrition, family planning and cooperatives. Public and private schools in 1984-85 enrolled 8,793,773 pupils in primary schools, 3,323,063 in secondary schools and 1,110,460 students in further education. The University of the Philippines (founded in 1908) had 15,316 students in 1984. Health. In 1982 there were 46,579 registered physicians and (1983) 76,653 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Philippines in Great Britain (9 A Palace Green, London, W8 4QE) Ambassador Juan T. Quimson (accredited 8 July 1986). Of Great Britain in the Philippines (115 Esteban St., Manila) Ambassador: Robin J. T. McLaren, CMG. Of the Philippines in the USA (1617 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador Manuel N. Pelaez. Of the USA in the Philippines ( 1201 Roxas Blvd., Manila) Ambassador Stephen W. Bosworth. Of the Philippines to the United Nations Ambassador• Salvador P. Lopez. Books of Reference Philippine Yearbook 1987 National Census and Statistics Office, Manila, 1987 National Power Corporation. Annual Report '83 Foreign Trade Statistics of the Philippines, 1985 National Census and Statistics Office, Manila, 1985 Bresnan, J., Crisis in the Philippines The Marcos Era and Beyond. Princeton Univ Press, 1986 Burley, T M., The Philippines An Economic and Social Geography London, 1973 Lightfort, K., The Philippines. London, 1973 M a y , R . J , and Nemenzo, F (eds.), The Philippines after Marcos. London and Sydney, 1985 Poole, F .andVanzi, M., Revolution in the Philippines New York, 1984

PITCAIRN ISLAND

H I S T O R Y . It was discovered by Carteret in 1767, but remained uninhabited until 1790, when it was occupied by 9 mutineers of HMS Bounty, with 12 women and 6 men from Tahiti. Nothing was knowp of their existence until the island was visited in 1808. In 1856 the population having become too large for the island's resources, the inhabitants (194 in number) were, at their own request, removed to Norfolk Island; but 43 of them returned in 1859-64. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Pitcairn Island (1 -75 sq. miles; 4-6 sq. km) is situated in the Pacific Ocean, nearly equidistant from New Zealand and Panama (25' 04'S. lat., 130° 06' W. long.). The population on 30 Aug. 1986 was 64. The uninhabited islands of Henderson (12 sq. miles), Ducie (l'A sq. miles) and Oeno (2 sq. miles) were annexed in 1902 and are included in the Pitcairn group. C L I M A T E . An equable climate, with average annual rainfall of 80" (2,000 mm), spread evenly throughout the year. Mean monthly temperatures range from 75°F (24°C) in Jan. to 66°F (19°C) in July. C O N S T I T U T I O N . Pitcairn was brought within the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific in 1898 and transferred to the Governor of Fiji in 1952. When Fiji became independent in Oct. 1970, the British High Commissioner in New Zealand was appointed Governor. The Local Government Ordinance of 1964 constitutes a Council of 10 members, of whom 4 are elected, 5 are nominated (3 by the 4 elected members and 2 by the Governor) and the Island Secretary is an ex-officio member. The Island Magistrate, who is elected triennially, presides over the Council; other members hold office for only 1 year. Liaison between Governor and Council is through a Commissioner in the Auckland, New Zealand, office of the British Consulate-General. Governor: T. D. O'Leary, CMG (resides in Wellington). Island Magistrate: Brian Young (elected Dec. 1984). Flag: British Blue Ensign with the whole arms of Pitcaim in the fly. T R A D E . Fruit, vegetables and curios are sold to passing ships; fuel oil, machinery, building materials, flour, sugar and other foodstuffs are imported. R O A D S . There were (1986) 6 km of roads. In Aug. 1986 motor cycles provided the sole means of personal automotive transport; there were 10 2-wheelers, 16 3-wheelers and 1 4-wheeled motor cycle. J U S T I C E . The Island Court consists ofthe Island Magistrate and 2 assessors. E D U C A T I O N . In 1985 there was 1 teacherand 15 pupils. Books of Reference A Guide to Pitcairn. Pitcairn Island Administration, Auckland, revised ed. 1982 Ball, I., Pitcairn: Children of the Bounty. London, 1973 Ross, A. S. C., and Moverly, A. W., The Pitcairnese Language. London, 1964

994

POLAND

Capital: Warsaw Population: 37m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$6,190 ( 1984)

Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa H I S T O R Y . In 1966 Poland celebrated its millennium, but modem Polish history begins with the partitions of the once-powerful kingdom between Russia, Austria and Prussia in 1772,1793 and 1795. For 19th century events see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1980-81. On 10 Nov. 1918 independence was proclaimed by Jozef Pilsudski, the founder of the Polish Legions during the war. On 28 June 1919 the Treaty of Versailles recognized the independence of Poland. On 1 Sept. 1939 Germany invaded Poland, on 17 Sept. 1939 Russian troops entered eastern Poland, and on 29 Sept. 1939 the fourth partition of Poland took place. After the German attack on Russia, the Germans occupied the whole of Poland. By March 1945 the country had been liberated by the Russians. In July 1944 the USSR recognized the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego) established in Lublin as an executive organ of the National Council of the Homeland (Krajowa Rada Narodowa). The Committee was transformed into the Provisional Government in Dec. 1944, and on 28 June 1945, supplemented by members of the Polish Government in London (which had been recognized by the UK. and USA), it was re-established—in Moscow—as the Polish Provisional Government of National Unity and on 6 July recognized as such by the UK and USA. Elections were held on 19 Jan. 1947. Of the 12 -7m. votes cast, 1 l-24m. were recognized as valid and 9m. were given for the Communist-dominated 'Democratic Bloc'. After riots in Poznan in June 1956 nationalist anti-Stalinist elements gained control of the Communist Party, under the leadership of Wladyslaw GomuHca. In 1970 the Federal Republic of Germany recognized Poland's western boundary as laid down by the Potsdam Conference of 1945 (the 'Oder-Neisse line'). In Dec. 1970 strikes and riots in Gdansk, Szczecin and Gdynia led to the resignation of a number of leaders including GomuHca. He was replaced by Edward Gierek. The introduction of price rises in June 1976 was again followed by strikes and riots. The rises were withdrawn and some demonstrators were imprisoned. In the campaign of protest which followed a Committee for the Defence of the Workers (KOR) was formed. The raising of meat prices on 1 July 1980 resulted in a wave of strikes which broadened into generalized wage demands and eventually by mid-Aug. acquired a political character. Workers in Gdansk, Gdynia and Sopot elected a joint strike committee, led by Lech Walesa demanding the right to strike and form independent Trade Unions, the abolition of censorship, access to the media and the release of political prisoners. On 24 Aug. Gierek reshuffled the Party and Government leadership, and Jozef Pinkowski replaced Edward Babiuch as Prime Minister. On 31 Aug. the Government and Walesa signed the 'Gdansk Agreements' permitting the formation of independent Trade Unions. On 5 Sept. Gierek suffered a heart attack and was replaced as First Secretary by Stanislaw Kama (Gierek was expelled from the Party in July 1981). On 17 Sept. various Trade Unions decided to form a national confederation ('Solidarity') and applied for legal status, which was granted on,24 Oct. after some Government resistance. On 9 Feb. Pinkowski was replaced as Prime Minister by the Defence Minister, Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski. At an extraordinary Communist Party congress in July a 995

996

POLAND

new leadership was elected. At Solidarity's first national congress (4-10 Sept. and 2-8 Oct. 1981) Walesa was re-elected chairman and a radical programme of action was adopted. On 18 Oct. Kania resigned from the Party leadership and was replaced by Jaruzelski. On 13 Dec. 1981 the Government imposed martial law (stan wojenny), banning a wide range of civil liberties, and establishing the rule of a 20-member Military Council of National Salvation (WRON). Solidarity was proscribed and its leaders detained. Martial law was approved by the Sejm on 26 Jan. 1982 with one dissident vote and 5 abstentions. The Party Central Committee approved the measure on 25 Feb. Wafc?sa was released in Nov. 1982. On 8 Oct. the Sejm voted (with 12 dissident votes and 9 abstentions) a law dissolving all registered trade unions including Solidarity. These have been replaced by workplace unions which are required to pledge support for the Communist Party and the Constitution. Martial law was suspended in Dec. 1982 and finally lifted in July 1983. An amnesty of 21 July 1984 freed 35,000 common and 652 political prisoners, including 7 Solidarity and 4 KOR leaders. In Nov. 1985 Jaruzelski resigned the Prime Ministership in favour of Zbigniew Messner, and was elected Chairman of the Council of State. In July and Sept. 1986 the Government granted an amnesty to all political prisoners except those accused of terrorism or spying. In Oct. Solidarity leaders establised a Provisional Council, but it has not been granted legal status. In Dec. the government established a 56-member Advisory Council of independents from various social spheres. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Poland is bounded north by the Baltic and the RSFSR, east by Lithuania, White Russia and the Ukraine, south by Czechoslovakia and west by the German Democratic Republic. Poland comprises an area of 312,683 sq. km (120,628 sq. miles). The country is divided into 49 voivodships (wojewodztwo) and these in turn are divided into 812 towns and 2,121 wards (gmina). The capital is Warsaw (Warszawa). Area (in sq. km) and population (in 1,000, with % urban in brackets) in 1984. Voivodship Biaja Podlaska Biatystok Bielsko-Biata Bydgoszcz Chehn Ciechanow Czestochowa Elbl^g Gdansk Gorzow Jelenia Gora Kalisz Katowice Kielce Konin Koszalin Krakow (Cracow) Krosno Legnica Leszno Lodz Lomia Lublin Nowy S^cz Olsztyn

Area 5,348 10,055 3,704 10,349 3,866 6,362 6,182 6,103 7,394 8,484 4,378 6,512 6,650 9,211 5,139 8,470 3,254 5,702 4,037 4,154 1,523 6,684 6,792 5,576 12,327

Population 296 (32-5) 666 (57-7) 865 (48-9) 1,074 (62-8) 239 (39-9) 416 (33 0) 763 (51 2) 463 (58-6) 1,387 (76-2) 479 (60-4) 507 (65-3) 691 (44-5) 3,896 (87-7) 1,101 (44-4) 455 (38-6) 483 (61 0) 1,205 (69-1) 470 (32-8) 485 (66-6) 373 (46-1) 1,149 (91-4) 337 (35-7) 977 (55-5) 659 (35 5) 717 (56-4)

Voivodship Opole Ostroteka Pita Piotrkow Ptock Poznan Przemysl Radom Rzeszöw Siedlce Sieradz Skierniewice Shipsk SuwaHci Szczecin Tarnobrzeg Tarnow Torun Wafcrzych Warsaw Wtoctawek Wroctaw Zamosc Zielona Göra

Area 8,535 6.498 8,205 6,266 5,117 8,151 4,437 7,294 4,397 8.499 4,869 3,960 • 7,453 10,490 9,981 6,283 4,151 5,348 4,168 3,788 4,402 6,287 6,980 8,868

Population 1,006 (50-9) 382 (30-9) 461 (53-9) 628 (45-3) 507 (45-7) 1,289 (69-7) 393 (35-7) 725 (44-5) 683 (37-7) 633 (28 - 7) 399 (33-1) 408 (42-2) 391 (53-8) 443 (49-9) 933 (73-9) 577 (34-6) 634 (34-2) 634 (60-8) 2,396 (88-5) 732 (73-0) 424 (44-9) 1,109 (72-4) 486 (24-9) 639 (59 0)

Population (in 1,000) of the largest towns (1985): Warsaw Lodz Krak6w (Cracow) Wroclaw (Breslau) Poznan Gdansk (Danzig) Szczecin (Stettin) Katowice

1,649 849 716 636 553 467 391 363

Bydgoszcz Lublin Sosnowiec Czestochowa Biatystok Gdynia Bytom Radom

361 324 255 247 245 243 239 214

Gliwice Kielce Zabrze Torun Tychy Bielsko-Biala Ruda Styska Olsztyn

213 201 198 186 182 174 165 147

POLAND

997

At the census of 7 Dec. 1978 the population was 35,061,000 (17m. males; 58% urban). Population on 1 Jan. 1985, 37,063,000 (18-9m. females; 22-2m. urban), density, 119 per sq. km. Vital statistics, 1984 (per 1,000): Marriages, 7-7; divorces, 1 -4; live births, 18 -9; deaths, 9 -9; infant mortality (per 1,000 live births), 19 1. TTie rate of natural growth, 1984, 9 per 1,000. Expectation of life in 1984 was 66-8 years. In 1984,55% of the population was under 30. Ethnic minorities are not identified. There were estimated to be 1 -2m. Germans in 1984. In 1982 there were 900 immigrants and 32,100 emigrants. In 1983 19,200 Germans emigrated. There is a large Polish diaspora, some 65% in USA. CLIMATE.Climate is continental, marked by long and severe winters. Rainfall amounts are moderate, with a marked summer maximum. Warsaw. Jan. 25°F (-3-9°C), July 66°F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 22 1" (553 mm). Gdansk. Jan. 29°F (-1 -TC), July 63'F (17-2'C). Annual rainfall 22" (559 mm). Krakow. Jan. 27°F (-2-8'C), July 67°F (19-4°C). Annual rainfall 29" (729 mm). Poznan. Jan. 30°F (-l l'C), July 67°F (19-4°C). Annual rainfall 21" (523 mm). Stettin. Jan. 30°F (-1 • 1°C), July 65'F (18-3°C). Annual rainfall 22" (550 mm). Wroclaw. Jan. 30°F (-1 • 1°C), July 66°F (18 -9°C). Annual rainfall 23" (574 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present Constitution was adopted on 22 July 1952. Amendments were adopted in 1976and 1983. The titular head of state is the Chairman of the Council of State, Wojciech Jaruzelski. Deputy Chairmen: Kazimierz Barcikowski, Zenon Komender, Tadeusz Mlynczak, Tadeusz Szelachowski. Since 1983 the Constitution has defined the position of political parties as follows: 'The alliance and cooperation of the Polish United Workers' (i.e. Communist) Party with the United Peasant Party and the Democratic Party in the construction of socialism and their cooperation with those social organizations and associations that are grounded in the principles of the system of the Polish People's Republic form the basis of the Patriotic Movement of National Renaissance.' (PRON). The latter was set up on 15 Oct. 1982. The National Unity Front was dissolved in July 1983. At the 9th, extraordinary, congress of the Communist Party on 19 July 1981 a new Politburo was elected by democratic vote. Only four of the 16 former members were re-elected. Changes were made in the Party and Government leadership in July and Oct. 1982, and in Nov. 1985. In March 1987 the Politburo consisted of: Wojciech Jaruzelski (First Secretary and Chairman, Council of State)-, Kazimerz Barcikowski (Deputy Chairman, Council ofState)', Jozef Baryla; Jozef Czyrek; Jan Glowczyk; Gen. Czeslaw Kiszczak (Minister of the Interior); Zbigniew Messner (Prime Minister)-, Alfred Miodowicz; Wtodzimierz Mokrzyszczak; Zygmunt Muranski; Marian Orzechowski (Foreign Minister)-, Tadeusz Porebski; Gen. Florian Siwicki (Defence Minister)-, Zofia Stepien; Marian Wozniak. Candidate members: Stanislaw Bejger; Bogumil Ferensztajn; Janusz Kubasiewicz; Zbigniew Michalek; Gabriela Rembisz. Ministers not in the Politburo include 5 Deputy Prime Ministers: Manfred Gorywoda (Chairman, State Planning Commission); Zbigniew Gertvch; Wladyslaw Gwiazda; Jozef Koziol; Zbigniew Szalajda; Gen. Tadeusz Hupatrowski (Chairman, Supreme Chamber of Control); Bazyli Samojlik (Finance); Andrzej Wojcik (Foreign Trade); Jerzy Jozwiak (Home Trade); Lech Domeracki (Justice); Stanislaw Gebala (Labour); Jerzy Urban (Head of Government Press Office). In 1986 the Polish United Workers' Party had 2,115,000 (3,091,900 in 1980) members (39% workers, 89% over 30 in 1984), the United Peasants' Party had 471,000 in 1986, and the Democratic Party, 112,000 members. The Socialist Youth Union claimed nearly 2m. members in 1983. The authority of the republic is vested in the Sejm, elected for 4 years by all citir zens over 18. The Sejm elects a Council of State and a Council of Ministers. The last elections for the Sejm were held on 13 Oct. 1985, having been postponed from March 1984. 410 seats were contested by 2 candidates each, and 50 seats by one candidate who had to obtain 50% of the vote, these latter being mainly Government leaders and 16 independents. All candidates had to support the poll-

998

POLAND

cies of PRON. Turn-out was said officially to be 78-86%. Solidarity, which had called for a boycott of the election, claimed a turn-out of 66%. (Turn-out was 98-87% in the 1980 election). The 460 seats are distributed as follows: 245 United Workers' Party, 106 United Peasants' Party, 35 Democratic Party, 74 independents, including 21 Catholics. The Speaker of the Sejm is Roman Malinowski. Local government is carried out by People's Councils elected every 4 years at voivodship and community level. Alongside these are the offices of state administration. TTie chairman of the People's Council is the Secretary of the regional organization for the area. Local elections due in 1982 were postponed until 17 June 1984. The Government announced that 74-95% of the 25 -9m. electorate had voted (a figure claimed by Solidarity to be inflated by 12-15%). There were some 220,000 candidates, all selected by PRON. National flag: Horizontally white over red. National anthem: Jeszcze Polska nie zgin^la (words by J. Wybicki, 1797; tune by M.Ogiriski, 1796). D E F E N C E . A National Defence Committee was set up in Nov. 1983 with Gen. Jaruzelski at its head. Poland is divided into 3 military districts: Warsaw (the eastern part of Poland); Pomerania (Baltic coast, part of central Poland; headquarters at Bydgoszcz); Silesia (Silesia and southern Poland; headquarters at Wroclaw). Armed forces are on Soviet lines and divided into army and air force (2 years' conscription), navy (3 years), anti-aircraft, rocket and radio-technological units (3 years) and internal security forces (2 years). In 1965 the security forces were taken away from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and placed under the Defence Ministry. The military age extends from the 19th to the 50th year. The strength of the armed forces was (1986) 319,000, plus 85,000 security and frontier forces. Security forces include armoured brigades. Army. The Army consists of 5 armoured, 8 mechanized, 1 airborne and 1 amphibious assault divisions; 3 artillery brigades and 1 regiment; 3 anti-tank regiments; 4 surface-to-surface missile brigades; 1 air defence brigade and 9 regiments. Equipment includes 3,400 T-54/-55 and 70 T-72 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 295,000 (including 215,000 conscripts). Navy. The fleet comprises 3 old ex-Soviet diesel propelled patrol submarines, 2 missile armed modern corvettes, 24 fleet minesweepers, 13 missile craft, 23 patrol boats, 7 torpedo boats, 45 coastal patrol boats, 2 inshore minesweepers, 23 medium landing ships, 3 intelligence vessels, 8 training ships, 3 degaussing vessels, 2 salvage ships, 2 torpedo recovery vessels, 18 minor landing craft, 23 minesweeping boats, 6 surveying vessels, 7 oilers, 20 tugs and 40 auxiliaries and tenders. The Fleet Air Arm has 95 somewhat dated fixed-wing aircraft (including 40 MiG-17s and 40 MiG-2 Is) and 40 helicopters (5 modem). Personnel in 1987 totalled 19,000 comprising 5,200 afloat, 2,500 under training, 4,000 of coastal defence, 2,300 in naval aviation and 5,000 on shore support. Air Force. The Air Force had a strength (1987) of some 88,000 officers and men and 675 first-line jet aircraft of Soviet design, forming 4 air divisions. There are 11 air defence regiments (33 squadrons) with about 400 MiG-21 and MiG-23 supersonic interceptors, and 6 regiments (18 squadrons) operating variable-geometry MiG-23BM and Su-20, Su-7B and MiG-17 close-support fighters. There are also reconnaissance, ECM, transport, helicopter (including Mi-2s for observation and Mi-24 gunships) and training units. Soviet 'Guideline' 'Goa', 'Ganef, 'Gainful' and 'Gaskin' surface-to-air missiles are operational. - Two Soviet armoured 993; middle schools, 111,099; high schools, 50,499; teacher training colleges, 2,852; special and vocational schools, 1,634; technical schools, 3,648; university (1985), 1,605. There were (1984) 12,497 teachers excluding lecturers. Education is free apart from a nominal contribution to school funds, and hostel fees at post-primary schools. Instruction from Grade I to Standard 2 is in Setswaria, while Standard 3 to senior standards are taught in English. The education is controlled by the Department of Education with a budget of R187m. Health. In 1986 there were lOhospitals, 149 clinics, 6,303 hospital and clinic beds, 105 doctors and 3,342 nurses. The health budget in 1986-87 was R84m.

TRANSKEI

1097

Book of Reference Five Years of Independence: Republic ofBophuthatswana. Mafikeng, 1983

TRANSKEI H I S T O R Y . Transkei is the homeland of the Xhosa nation and was granted selfgovernment by the Republic of South Africa in 1963. Over 1 -5m. Transkeians live permanently in the Republic of South Africa but were deprived of their South African citizenship on independence. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The total area is 16,910 sq. miles (43,798 sq. km). Population (1983 estimate) 2 5m., of which (1976) Coloured 7,650 and Whites lO.OOO.The capital is Umtata (population (1976) 24,805; 20,196 Blacks, 1,067 Coloured and 3,542 Whites). Other towns include Gcuwa, Kwabhaca, Umzimvubu and Lusikisiki. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Status of Transkei Bill passed its third reading in the South African House of Assembly on 11 June 1976 and received its second reading in the Senate on 17 June.. The Bill gave Transkei a unicameral National Assembly instead of the then existing Legislative Assembly. Independence was achieved 25 Oct. 1976. General elections were held on 29 Sept. 1976 and the Transkei National Independence Party gained 69 of the 75 elective seats in the National Assembly. Members were elected for a 5-year period. In addition there are 75 traditional (coopted) members (70 chiefs and 5 paramount chiefs). President: Paramount Chief Dr K. D. Matanzima. Prime Minister Chief George Matanzima. Defence, Police, Foreign Affairs and Information: G. T. Vika. Finance and Auditor-General: R. Madikizela. Local Government and Local Tenure: G. S. Ndabankulu. Interior: S. N. Sigcau. Education: H. H. Bubu. Works and Energy, Commerce and Industry: W. S. Mbanga. Posts, Telecommunications and Transport. A. N. Jonas. Health: D. D. P. Ndamase. Prisons and Justice• T. T. Letlaka. Agriculture and Forestry: E. Z. Booi. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of ochre, white, green. F I N A N C E . The budget (1982-83) balanced at R627m. A G R I C U L T U R E . Notable examples of successful commercial enterprises in agriculture are the Magwa tea estate and various fibre plantations. 70,000 hectares of land are under indigenous forests and 61,000 hectares have been put under exotic plantations. There are 28 sawmills in the country. Livestock (1976): Cattle, 1-3m.; sheep, 2 5m.; goats, 1 25m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are above 8,800 km of roads. Railways. There is a 209 km railway line linking Umtata with the port of East London in the Republic of South Africa. Aviation. An international airport exists at Umtata. Shipping. A start was made in 1978 on a 'free port' at Mnganzana. It will be completed in 5-6 years at a cost of R125m. by a French consortium. Post. There were 11,498 telephones in 1978. E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Education. In 1976 there were more than 500,000 pupils in nearly 2,000 schools with 10,000 teachers. The national university was inaugurated in Umtata in 1977.

1098

REPUBLIC O F S O U T H AFRICA

Health. There are 31 hospitals with a total of 7,561 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES No country, other than the Republic of South Africa, has recognized Transkei as an independent state.

VENDA H I S T O R Y . Traditionally the territory of the Vhavenda, the country was granted self-government in 1973, and became the third black homeland to be granted independence by the Republic of South Africa on 13Sept. 1979. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The total area is 6,500 sq. km. Ofthe 381,000 Vhavenda living m the Republic of South Africa in 1970, nearly 70% lived in Venda. In 1980 the de jure population of Venda was estimated at 513,890, the de facto population at 343,480. The capital is Thohoyandou. Vital statistics, 1981: Births, 13,568; deaths, 1,069; marriages, 228. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected for the duration of each Parliament, which consists of the President and the National Assembly; legislative power is vested in Parliament. In addition to the National Assembly there is an Executive Council, or Cabinet, and a judiciary independent of the Executive. The National Assembly comprises the 28 chiefs, 15 members designated by 4 regional councils, 42 members elected by popular vote and 3 members nominated by the President. A new Assembly must be elected after every 5 years, but it may be dissolved at any time by the President. All existing tribal, community and regional councils were retained with their status and powers unchanged, like those ofthe tribal leaders. The first general election was held in Aug. 1973; the sole political party, the Venda Independence People's Party (VIPP) won 10 of the 18 contested seats. Shortly after, the Chief Minister, Chief Mphephu, formed the Venda National Party (VNP); in the second general election ofJuly 1978 the VIPP won 31 of the 42 contested seats, VNP the remaining 11. Chief Mphephu was re-elected Chief Minister. President: Paramount Chief P. R. Mphephu. Foreign Affairs: Chief A. M. Madzivhandila. Economic Affairs. Headman F. N. Ravele. Education. Headman E. R. B. Nesengani. Urban Affairs and Land Tenure • Chief C. A. Nelwamondo. Justice: Chief J. R. Rambuda. Health and WelfareChief C. N. Makuya. Agriculture and Forestry: G. M. Ramabulana. Internal Affairs. Chief M. M. Mphaphuh. Transport, Works and Communications. A. A. Tshivhase. Deputy for Posts and Telecommunications. Headman B. R. Nemulodi. Deputy for Information and Broadcasting and of Public Service Commission. W. R. Rabuma. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow, and brown, with a brown V on the yellow stripe, and a blue vertical strip in the hoist. D E F E N C E . The Venda Defence Force was formed in 1983. It includes a small aviation component operating 1 Alouette III and 1 BK-117 helicopter. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Aid. The Republic of South Africa granted aid of R45m. in 1981-82. ECONOMY Budget. The 1983-84 budget envisaged expenditure of R152,074,050. Currency. South African Rand.

VENDA

1099

NATURAL RESOURCES Water. In Oct. 1982 there were 118 hectares of canals, 250 dams and 520 boreholes. Minerals. Venda is relatively poor in mineral resources, although there are large supplies of stone for construction. Coal is the most important mineral; there are large deposits in the west near Makhado and in the north-east, bordering on the Kruger National Park, which it is hoped will soon be exploited. In addition there are deposits of graphite, copper sulphides, phosphates and magnesite; m 1978 the 2 graphite and 2 magnesite mines provided employment for 233 people, and the value of their output was R963,900. Agriculture. About 85% of Venda is suitable only for the raising of livestock because of insufficient rainfall and poor soils, while some 10% is suited to dry-land crop production. Over 10,965 hectares have been given over to forest, mainly pine and eucalyptus. Eighteen irrigation schemes are being developed and there is extensive reclamation and conservation of eroded or overgrazed land; nearly R2m. were spent on these projects in 1980-81. Only maize is grown on a comparatively large scale, but tea, sisal, groundnuts, coffee and sub-tropical fruits are increasing in importance. A fish-breeding project produced 3 tonnes in 1980-81. Over 80% of the working population are engaged in agriculture. The Venda Agricultural Corporation (Agriven) was established on 1 April 1982 to promote agricultural development. INDUSTRY. Industrial development is still in its early stages, and since Venda's location is unfavourable, the Government is concentrating on the promotion of agro-industries utilizing local produce, and small-scale industries. A chutney factory has recently been established, in addition to a tea processing plant, a furniture factory and several saw-mills. A copper-chrome arsenate preservation plant has been established at Phiphidi. At Shayandima a 20-hectare industrial area has been prepared. The construction industry is particularly important owing to the substantial increase in the demand for buildings caused by the recent expansion of government, educational and health services. In Dec. 1982 total investment in industry was estimated at R18-9m. The Venda Development Corporation was established in 1975 to promote and finance economic developments. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 1,226 km of roads, of which 50 km had a permanent surface. Aviation. An airline, inaugurated in 1981, operates between Nwangundu in Thohoyandu and Johannesburg via Pietersburg and Pretoria. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 30 post offices and postal agencies. Telephones (1982) numbered, 1,547. In 1984 the government-owned Radio Thohoyandu broadcast 17 hours daily. EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Education. The Department of Education assumed responsibility for education on independence. Education is free up to Standard 2, and pupils are taught in the native tongue, Luvenda, for the first 4 years (up to Standard 2), after which English is gradually introduced. Secondary education comprises Standards 6 to 10. The number of primary schools increased from 233 (1970) to 502 (1984), the number of pupils from 65,500 (1970) to 157,014 (1982) and the number of teachers from 956 (1970) to 4,586 (1982). In 1970 there were 12 secondary schools, which had increased to 112 by 1982. Pupils numbered 2,465 in 1970,33,432 in 1982, while the number of teachers increased from 100 (1970) to 1,062 (1982). In addition there is a technical school at Sibasa with about 320 pupils, an agricultural school at Dimani with 476 pupils, and a school for the handicapped at Shay-

1100

REPUBLIC O F S O U T H AFRICA

andima. There are 2 teacher-training colleges; enrolment was 704 in 1982. The University ofVenda was established in 1981; 1,358 students (1984). Health. In 1984 there were 5 hospitals/homes with 1,556 beds and 47 clinics. White doctors numbered 10 and coloured, 3; there were 712 nurses. Welfare. In 1981-82 the Government spent R7-3m. on grants and pensions to 22,249 recipients. There is one welfare home. Book of Reference Venda 1983 Dept. of Information and Broadcasting. Sibasa, 1984

CISKEI HISTORY. On 4 Dec. 1981 the Republic of South Africa gave independence to Ciskei the fourth ofthe tribal homelands. AREA A N D POPULATION. Ciskei lies between latitudes 32° and 33°35' and longitudes 26°20' and 27*48', and has a coastal boundary between East London and Port Alfred. The total area is about 8,300 sq. km. The population was (1981) 2 • 1 m. but only 660,000 live in Ciskei. The remainder work in the Republic of South Africa and as a result can be deported as aliens. Populations of towns (1984): Mdantsane, 300,000; Zwelitsha, 47,000; Sada, 30,000; Dimbaza, 17,800 and Litha, 5,326. The capital, Bisho, is under construction. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. In 1981 Ciskei became an independent democratic republic with an Executive Council consisting of the President, Vice-President and 11 ministers appointed by the President. The legislature is a National Assembly consisting of (1984) 41 Hereditary Chiefs, 22 elected and 5 nominated Members and the Paramount Chiefs representatives of 37 are traditional leaders, the others being elected on the basis of adult suffrage every five years. President. Dr Lennox Sebe. Flag: Blue, a broad diagonal band from lower hoist to upper fly, charged with a black crane. National Anthem. Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika, composed by Enoch Sontonga. DEFENCE. There is a small Ciskei Defence Force. Its aviation element is equipped with 2 Skyvan and 3 Islander transports, and 3 BK-117 and 1 BO 105 helicopter. ECONOMY Budget. In 1984-85, revenue was R366,013,000 and expenditure R438,197,000. Currency. South African Rand. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Ciskei is totally dependent on power supply lines maintained by the Republic of South Africa. Minerals. Mineral resources are mainly undeveloped and in 1984 only one mine existed in Ciskei. Agriculture. In 1977-78, total agricultural production was valued at R8 -26m. In 1983-84, the dryland products included (in tons): Maize, 1,075; wheat, 1,015; dry beans, 304; pumpkins, 14,500; potatoes, 21,750. The main crops produced under irrigation were (1979-80, in tons): Potatoes, 385; lucerne, 364; maize, 333; beans, 77; wheat, 64.

CISKEI

1101

Livestock (1985): 81,177 cattle, 235,550 sheep, 283,877 goats, 15,567 pigs. Forestry. In 1983-84, 5,500 hectares were planted mainly with conifers. The indigenous forest covered some 18,000 hectares. In 1984-85 (estimate), production of timber was valued at R.600,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1983 total investment was R275-2m. The chief manufactures include textiles, timber products, electronic components, steel products and leather goods. Commerce. International trade is mainly with the Republic of South Africa and no separate figures are available. The main exports are pineapples, timber and manufactured goods. Tourism. Tourism is an important and developing industry. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 324 km of tarred roads and 3,222 km of gravel roads. Railways. There are two main railway lines serving the southern part of Ciskei only. Aviation. Ciskei uses East London's airport and there is a new international airport at Bulembu, near Bisho. Shipping. Ciskei has no harbour of its own but has full access to the facilities of East London in the Republic of South Africa. Post and Broadcasting. All major centres have post offices and manual and automatic telephone exchanges; telex facilities are available. There were (1986) 13,981 telephones. Radio Ciskei broadcasts from Bisho and Radio Xhosa broadcasts daily. Newspapers (1986). There were two Ciskeian newspapers, one of which, Imvo, was first published in 1884. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court acts as Court of Appeal for the eight Magistrates' Courts, which in turn act as Courts of Appeal for the chiefs' courts. Appeals from the Supreme Court are heard by the Appellate Division ofCiskei in Bisho. Religion. In 1980 (estimate) the population was 24% Methodists, 21% Independent, 8% Presbyterian Congregationalism, 7% Anglicans, 6% Roman Catholics, 2% Dutch Reformed Church, 2% other Christians, 28% ancestor worship and 2% other religions. Education. In 1981 there were 499 primary schools with 184,736 pupils and 4,240 teachers; 126 secondary and teacher-training schools with 48,838 pupils and 1,576 teachers; and 2 vocational schools with 304 pupils and 32 teachers. The University of Fort Hare had a total of2,304 students in 1981. Health. In 1983-84, there were 25 hospitals with 2,458 beds, and a total of 2,763 nursing staff. Social Welfare. Pensions paid in 1984-85: Old age Blind Disability War veterans Leprosy

Beneficiaries 42,573 564 5,421 72 11

A mount (R1,000) 20,435 270 2,602 38 5

Books of Reference Charlton, N., Ciskei. Economics and Politics of Dependence in a South African Homeland. London, 1980 Pauw, B. A., Christianity and the Xhosa Tradition. OUP, 1975 VanderKooy, R, (ed.) The Republic of Ciskei. A Nation in Transition. Pretoria, 1981

SOUTH GEORGIA AND SOUTH SANDWICH

ISLANDS

H I S T O R Y . South Georgia was probably first sighted by a London merchant, Antonio de la Roche, and then in 1756 by a Spanish Captain, Gregorie Jerez. The first landing and exploration was undertaken by Captain James Cook, who formally took possession in the name ofGeorge III on 17 Jan. 1775. British sealers arrived in 1788 and American sealers in 1791. Sealing reached its peak in 1800. A German team was the first to carry out scientific studies there in 1882-83. Whaling began in 1904 when the Compania Argentina de Pesca formed by C. A. Larsen, a Norwegian, established a station at Grytviken. Six other stations were established up to 1912. Whaling ceased in 1966 and the civil administration was withdrawn. Argentine forces invaded South Georgia on 3 April 1982. A British naval task force recovered the Island on 25 April 1982. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . South Georgja lies 800 miles south-east of the Falkland Islands and has an area of 1,450 sq. miles. The South Sandwich Islands are 470 miles south-east of South Georgia and have an area of 130 sq. miles. There has been no permanent population in South Georgia since the whaling station at Leith was abandoned in 1966. There is a small military garrison. The British Antarctic Survey have a biological station on Bird Island. The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited. C L I M A T E . The climate is wet and cold with strong winds and little seasonal variation. 15°C is occasionally reached on a windless day. Temperatures below -15°C at sea level are unusual. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the new Constitution which came into force on 3 Oct. 1985 the Territories ceased to be dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Executive power is vested in a Commissioner who is the officer for the time being administering the Government of the Falkland Islands. The Commissioner is obliged to consult the officer for the time being commanding Her Majesty's British Forces in the South Atlantic on matters relating to defence and internal security (except police). The Commissioner whenever practicable consults the Executive Council of the Falkland Islands on the exercise of functions that in his opinion might affect the Falkland Islands. There is no Legislative Council. Laws are made by the Commissioner. Commissioner: G. W. Jewkes, CMG. Economy. The total revenue of the Territories (estimate, 1986-87) £246,760, mainly from philatelic sales and investment income. Expenditure estimate £255,390. Communications. There is occasional direct sea communication between the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands by means of the Royal Research Ships John Biscoe and Bransfield and the ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance. Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships, which serve the garrison, run regularly to South Georgia. Mail is dropped from military aircraft. Justice. There is a Supreme Court for the Territories and a Court of Appeal in the United Kingdom. Appeals may go from that court to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. There is no magistrate permanently in residence. The Officer Commanding the garrison is usually appointed a magistrate. Book of reference Headland, R. K„ The Island of South Georgia. CUP, 1985

1102

SPAIN

Capital: Madrid Population: 39-3m. GNPper

(mS)

capita. US$4,341 (1985)

España

H I S T O R Y . Although Spain has traditionally been a monarchy there have been two Republics, the first in 1873, which lasted for 11 months, and the second 1931-39; both were democratically and peacefully proclaimed. Part of the army rebelled against the republican government on 18 July 1936, thus beginning the

Spanish Civil W a r , see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1939, p p . 1 3 2 5 - 2 6 . T h e n e w

regime was led by Gen. Franco, who had been proclaimed Head of State and Government in 1936, and its institutions were based on single party rule, with the Falange as the only legal political organization. In July 1969, Prince Don Juan Carlos de Borbon y Borbon, grandson of Alfonso XIII, was sworn in as successor to the Head of State and he had the title of HRH Prince of Spain until he became King. Gen. Francisco Franco y Bahamonde died on 20 Nov. 1975 and on 22 Nov. Prince Juan Carlos de Borbon y Borbon took the oath as Juan Carlos I, King of Spain. On 23 Feb. 1981 there was an attempted militaiy coup. For 18 hours the deputies of the lower house of Parliament and the Cabinet were held hostage. The King, the only high authority who kept his liberty, obtained the surrender of the rebels without bloodshed. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Spain is bounded north by the Bay of Biscay and the Pyrenees (which form the frontier with France and Andorra), east and south by the Mediterranean and the Straits ofGibraltar, south-west by the Atlantic and west by Portugal and the Atlantic. Continental Spain has an area of 492,592 sq. km, and including the Balearic and Canary Islands and the towns of Ceuta and Melilla 504,750 sq. k m (194,884 sq. miles). P o p u l a t i o n 39,310,648.

(estimate,

1985),

The growth of the population has been as follows:

Census year 1860 1910 1920 1930 1940

Population 15,655,467 19,927,150 21,303,162 23,563,867 25,877,971

Area and population M a r c h 1981: Autonomous community Area Province (sq. km) 87,268 Andalusia 8,774 Almería Cádiz 7,385 13,718 Córdoba Granada 12,531 Huelva 10,085 13,498 Jaén 7,276 Málaga Seviltjí 14,001 47,669 Aragón 15,671 Huesca 14,804 Teruel

Rate of annual increase 0-34 0-72 0-69 106 0-98

Census year 1950 I960 1970 1981

Population 27,976,755 30,903,137 33,823,918 37,746,260

Rate of annual increase 0-81 0-88 0 94 1 15

of the a u t o n o m o u s c o m m u n i t i e s a n d provinces, census of 1

Population 6,441,755 405,513 1,001,716 717,213 761,734 414,492 627,598 1,036,261 1,477,428 .1 ,213,099 219,813 150,900

Persq. km 73 47 135 52 60 41 46 142 105 25 14 10

Autonomous community Area Persq. Province (sq. km) Population km 17,194 Zaragoza 842,386 48 Asturias 10,565 1,127,007 106 5,014 685,088 136 Baleares Basque Country, The 7,261 2,134,967 296 3,047 260,580 85 Álava Guipúzcoa 692,986 347 1,997 Vizcaya 2,217 1,181,401 532 Canary islands 7,273 1,444,626 200 756,353 185 Palmas, Las 4,065 Santa Cruz de Tenerife 3,208 688,273 217

1103

1104

SPAIN

Autonomous community Area Per sq. (sq. km) Population km Province Cantabria 5,289 510,816 96 Castilla-La Mancha 79,226 1,628,005 20 Albacete 14,858 334,468 22 Ciudad Real 19,749 468,327 23 17,061 210,280 12 Cuenca 143,124 11 Guadalajara 12,190 15,368 471,806 30 Toledo 27 Castilla-León 94,147 2,577,105 22 8,048. 178,997 Ávila 14,269 363,474 25 Burgos León 15,468 517,973 33 186,512 Palencia 8,029 23 Salamanca 12,336 368,055 29 Segovia 6,949 149,286 21 98,803 9 Soria 10,287 Valladolid 8,202 489,636 59 21 Zamora 10,559 224,369 Catalonia 31,930 5,958,208 186 Barcelona 7,773 4,618,734 598 Gerona 5,886 467,945 80 Lérida 12,028 355,451 29 1

Autonomous community Province Tarragona Extremadura Badajoz Cáceres Galicia Coruña, La Lugo Orense Pontevedra Madrid Murcia Navarra Rioja, La Valencian Community Alicante Castellón Valencia Ceuta' Melilla' Total

Area (sq. km) 6,283 41,602 21,657 19,945 29,434 7,876 9,803 7,278 4,477 7,995 11,317 10,421 5,034

Per sq. Population km 82 516,078 1,050,119 25 635,375 29 414,744 20 2,753,836 93 1,083,415 137 399,185 40 411,339 56 859,897 192 4,726,986 591 957,903 84 507,367 48 253,295 50

23,305 . 5,863 6,679 10,763 18 14

3,646,765 1,148,597 431,755 2,066,413 70,864 58,449

156 195 64 192

504,750

37,746,260

74

Ceuta and Melilla are municipalities located in the northern coast of Morocco.

The capitals of the autonomous communities are as follows: Andalusia, cap. Sevilla (Seville); Aragón, cap. Zaragoza (Saragossa); Asturias, cap. Oviedo; Baleares (Balearic Islands), cap. Palma de Mallorca; The Basque Country, cap. Vitoria; Canary Islands, dual and alternative capital, Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife; Cantabria, cap. Santander; Catalonia, cap. Barcelona; Extremadura, cap. Mérida; Galicia, cap. Santiago de Compostela; Madrid, cap. Madrid; Murcia, cap. Murcia (but regional parliament in Cartagena); Navarra, cap. Pamplona; La Rioja, cap. Logroño; Valencian Community, cap. Valencia. Castilla-La Mancha and Castilla-León had not chosen (1986) a capital town; the actual seats of their legislative and executive institutions are at Toledo and Valladolid respectively. The capitals of the provinces are in the towns from which they take the name, except in Álava (capital Vitoria), Asturias (Oviedo), Baleares (Palma de Mallorca), Cantabria (Santander), Guipúzcoa (San Sebastián), La Rioja (Logroño), Navarra (Pamplona) and Vizcaya (Bilbao). In 1981 there were 19,216,496 females and 18,529,764 males. 1985 estimate: 20,000,776 females and 19,309,872 males. By decree of 21 Sept. 1927 the islands which form the Canary Archipelago were divided into 2 provinces, under the name of their respective capitals: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. The province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is constituted by the islands of Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera and Hierro, and that of Las Palmas by Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, with the small barren islands of Alegranza, Roque del Este, Roque del Oeste, Graciosa, Montaña Clara and Lobos. The area of the islands is 7,273 sq. km; population (census 1981), 1,444,626. Places under Spanish sovereignty in Morocco are: Alhucemas, Ceuta, Chafarinas, Melilla and Peñón de Vélez. The following were the registered populations of principal towns at census 1981: Town Albacete Alcalá de Henares Alcorcón Algeciras Alicante Almería

Population 117,126 142,862 140,657 86,042 251,387 140,946

Town Avila Badajoz Badalona Baracaldo Barcelona Bilbao

Population Town 86,584 . Burgos 114,361 Cáceres 227,744 Cádiz 117,422 Cartagena 1,754,900 Castellón 433,030 Córdoba

Population 156,449 71,852 157,766 172,751 126,464 284,737

1105

SPAIN PopuTown lation Cornellá 90,956 232,356 Coruña, La Elche 162,873 Ferrol, El 91,764 Fuenlabrada 77,626 Gerona 87,648 Getafe 127,060 Gijón 255,969 Granada 262,182 294,033 Hospitalet Huelva 127,806 Jerez de la Frontera 176,238 96,424 Jaén Laguna, La 112,635 Leganés 163,426 131,134 León 109,573 Lénda Logroflo ! 10,980

PopuTown lation 73,986 Lugo 3,188,297 Madrid 503,251 Málaga Mataró 96,467 149,649 Móstoles Murcia 288,631 Orense 96,085 Oviedo 190,123 Palencia 74,080 Palma de Mallorca 304,422 366,454 Palmas, Las Pamplona 183,126 Reus 80,710 Sabadell 184,943 Salamanca 167,131 San Baudilio del Llobregat 74,550 San Fernando 71,846

Town San Sebastián Santa Coloma de Gramanet Santa Cruz de Tenerife Santander Santiago de Compostela Sevilla Tarragona Tarrasa Torrejón de Ardoz Valencia Valladolid Vigo Vitoria Zaragoza

Population 175,576 140,588 190,784 180,328 93,695 653,833 111,689 155,360 75,398 751,734 330,242 258,724 192,773 590,750

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Marriages 258,070 246,349 213,363 199,057 188,597 183,068

Births 636,892 601,992 565,401 532,255 509,685 477,291

Deaths 296,781 291,213 287,621 286,400 282,266 296,188

Languages. The Constitution states that 'Castilian is the Spanish official language of the State', but also that 'All other Spanish languages will also be official in the corresponding Autonomous Communities'. Catalan is spoken by a majority of people in Catalonia and Baleares, and by a large minority in Valencian Community (where it is frequently called Valencian language); in Aragón, a narrow strip close to Catalonia and Valencian Community boundaries, speaks Catalan. Galician, a language very close to Portuguese, is spoken by a majority of people in Galicia. Basque, by a significant minority in the Basque Country (33-3%, 1981 census); 54 3% in Guipúzcoa province, 25 -7% m Vizcaya province and 11 -7% in Álava province. Basque is also spoken by a small minority in north-west Navarra. In bilingual communities, both Spanish and the regional language are taught in the schools. C L I M A T E . Most of Spain has a form of Mediterranean climate with mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers, but the northern coastal region has a moist, equable climate, with rainfall well-distributed throughout the year, mild winters and warm summers, though having less sunshine than the rest of Spain. Madrid. Jan. 4 T F (5°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 16-8" (419 mm). Barcelona. Jan. 46°F (8°C), July 74°F (23-5°C). Annual rainfall 21" (525 mm). Cartagena. Jan. 5rF(10-5°C), July 75°F(24°C). Annual rainfall 14 9 " (373 mm). La Coruña. Jan. 51°F (10-5°C), July 66°F (19°C). Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). Sevilla. Jan. 5 1 T (10-5°C), July 85°F (29 5°C). Annual rainfall 19 5" (486 mm). Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands). Jan. 51°F (1 PC), July 77°F (25°C), Annual rainfall 13-6" (347 mm). Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands). Jan. 64°F (17 -90C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 7 • 72" (196 mm). KÍNG. Juan Carlos I, born 5 Jan. 1^38. The eldest son of Don Juan, Conde de Barcelona. Juan Carlos was given precedence over his father as pretender to the Spanish throne in an agreement in 1954 between Don Juan and Gen. Franco. Don Juan resigned his claims to the throne in May 1977. King (then Prince) Juan Carlos married, in 1962, Princess Sophia of Greece, daughter of the late King

1106

SPAIN

Paul of the Hellenes and Queen Frederika. Offspring: Elena, bom 20 Dec. 1963; Cristina, 13 June 1965; Felipe, Prince of Asturias, Heir to the throne, 30 Jan. 1968. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Cortes (Parliament) was freely elected on 15 June 1977. The text of the new Constitution was approved by referendum on 6 Dec. 1978, and came into force 29 Dec. 1978. It established a parliamentary monarchy, with King Juan Carlos I as head of state. Legislative power is vested in the Cortes, a bicameral parliament composed of the Congress of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house). The Congress of Deputies has not less than 300 nor more than 400 members (350 in the general elections of 1977, 1979, 1982 and 1986), all elected in a proportional system regarding the population of every province. The members of the Senate are elected in a majority system: the 47 peninsular provinces elect 4 senators each, regardless of population; the insular provinces electing 5 (Baleares, Las Palmas) or 6 (Santa Cruz de Tenerife); and Ceuta and Melilla, 2 senators each. There are 208 senators, to whom are added some other members of the upper house elected by the parliaments of the autonomous communities. Deputies and senators are elected in universal (but not compulsory), direct, free, equal and secret suffrage, for a term of 4 years, liable to dissolution. Executive power is vested in the President of the Government (prime minister), with his Cabinet; he is elected by the Congress of Deputies. A general election took place on 22 June 1986. Congress of Deputies (350 members): Spanish Workers Socialist Party (PSOE), 184; Popular Alliance (AP, conservative), 84 (including its ally Liberal Party); Popular Democratic Party (PDP, Christian democrat), 21; Social and Democratic Centre (CDS, centrist), 19; Convergence and Union (CiU, Catalan nationalists), 18; Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), 6; United Left (communist dominated coalition, IU), 7; Herri Batasuna (HB, Basque independentists), 5; Euskadido Eskerra (non-radical Basque independentists), 2; four conservative regional parties from Galicia, the Canaries, Aragón and Valencia, 1 each. Presidente (speaker) of the Congress of Deputies, Félix Pons Irazazábal (PSOE). Senate: 208 members, excluding those elected by regional parliaments (250 including them): PSOE, 124 (145); AP and PDP, 63 (73); Cill, 8 (10); PNV, 7 (9); HB, 1(1); Independents from the Canaries, 2 (2); Ct>S, 3 (3). Presidente (speaker) of the Senate, José F. de Carvajal (PSOE). The Council of Ministers appointed 26 July 1986 was composed as follows in March 1987: President of the Government (Prime Minister): Felipe González Márquez (Secretary-General of PSOE). Vice-President of the Government (Deputy Premier): Alfonso Guerra González. Foreign Affairs: Francisco Fernández Ordóñez. Economy, Finance and Commerce: Carlos Solchaga Catalán. Industry and Energy: Luis Carlos Croissier. Interior: José Banionuevo. Defence: Narcis Serra i Serra. Public Administration: Joaquín Almunia Amann. Education and Science: José Maria Maravall. Public Works: Javier Sáez de Cosculluela. Justice: Fernando Ledesma Bartret. Culture: Javier Solana Madariaga. Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: Carlos Romero Herrero. Health and Consumers Affairs: Julián Garcia Vargas. Labour and Social Security: Manuel Chaves. Transport, Tourism and Communications: Abel Caballero Alvarez. Relations with the Cortes and Secretary of the Cabinet: Virgilio Zapatero. All ministers are members of PSOE. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, yellow, red, with the yellow of double width, and charged near the hoist with the national arms. National anthem: Marcha real. Regional and local government. The Constitution of 1978 establishes a semifederal system of regional administration, with the autonomous community (Comunidad Autónoma) as its basic element. There are 17 autonomous communities, each of them having a Parliament, elected by universal vote, and a regional government' all possess exclusive legislative and executive power in many matters, as listed in tne national Constitution and in their own fundamental law (estatuto de

1107

SPAIN

autonomía). The Basque Country and Catalonia elected their first parliaments in March 1980, Galicia in Oct. 1981 and Andalusia in May 1982. All others in May 1983. Basque, Catalan, Galician and Andalusian parliaments were renewed in their regional elections of Feb. 1984, April 1984, Nov. 1985 and June 1986 respectively. Basque parliament, again in Nov. 1986. There are 7 autonomous communities composed of one only province, i.e., Asturias (ex-Oviedo province), Cantabria (ex-Santander province), La Rioja (exLogrofto province), Navarra, Baleares, Murcia and Madrid. The other 10 are formed by 2 or more provinces. In all, there are in Spain 50 provinces, since the administrative division established in 1833; Ceuta and Melilla, municipalities in the northern coast of Morocco, are not part of any province. The provincial council (Diputación Provincial) is the administrative organ of the province, except in the 7 autonomous communities composed of one only province, where there are only the regional legislative and executive powers. The provincial council is indirectly elected. Each of the 7 main islands of the Canaries (provinces of Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife) has a directly elected corporation, the Cabildo Insular, to rule its special interests; in the main islands of the Balearics there are also elected Consell Insular. — The provinces are constituted by the association of municipalities (8,022 in 1981 census). Municipalities are autonomous in their own sphere. At their head stands the municipal council (Ayuntamiento), members of which are elected in a universal ballot every 4 years, and they, in turn, elect one of them as Mayor (Alcalde). D E F E N C E . On 26 Sept. 1953 the US and Spain signed three agreements covering the construction and use of militaiy facilities in Spain by the US, economic assistance, and military end-item assistance. These agreements were renewed several times, the last in July 1982. The American naval and aif base at Rota (near Cádiz) is connected by pipelines with the American bomber bases at Morón de la Frontera (near Seville), Torrejón (near Madrid) and Zaragoza. Length of service is 12 months in the army, 16 months in the navy and 12 months in the air force. In March 1986 a referendum was conducted to establish whether Spain should remain in NATO. 52 • 5% of the voters were for the resolution. Army. The Army is divided into 2 principal parts: the Immediate Intervention Forces and Territorial Defence Forces. The former consist of 1 armoured, 1 mechanized and 1 motorized divisions; 1 armoured cavalry, 1 parachute and 1 airportable brigades; and supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. The Territorial Defence Forces (to be disbanded 1985—88) are divided between 8 Military Regions, and include 2 mountain divisions and 8 infantry brigades. There are also other reserve and independent units, and the Army Aviation forces. Equipment includes 319 AMX-30, 350 M-47E and 110 M-48 tanks. The aviation element of the Army consists of about 180 helicopters, including 70 BO 105s, 60 UH-1 Iroquois, 15 OH-58 Kiowas, 18 Chinooks and 6 AB.212s. Strength (1987) 230,000 (including 170,000 conscripts). Of these 5,800 are stationed on the Balearic Islands, 16,000 on the Canary Islands and 19,000 in Ceuta/Melilla. The paramilitary National Police number 47,000 men and the Civil Guard 63,500. Navy. Particulars of the principal ships:

Completed

Name

1987

Principe de Asturias Dédalo'

1943

Standard displacement Tons

Guns

Aircraft

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

Aircraft Carriers 12,000

13,000

4 Meroka 20 mm (12 barrels)CIWS 22 40-mm. A. A.

7 VSTOL aircraft and 13 helicopters 7 VSTOL a i r c r a f t

and 20 helicopters

46,400

26

100,000

32 (original) now 24

1

The former US fixed-wing aircraft carrier Cabot, converted in 1966 and transferred to Spain on loan in 1967 and purchased in 1973. Classed as a helicopter carrier until Harrier 'jump-jet' fixed wing aircraft were embarked.

1108

SPAIN

There are also 8 diesel-powered patrol submarines (4 new French-built, 4 modern French-built), 10 destroyers, 12 frigates, 4 old corvettes, 12 new fast attack craft, 10 new patrol vessels, 4 ocean minesweepers, 8 coastal minesweepers, 38 coastal patrol craft, 33 inshore patrol launches, 1 dock landing ship, 6 survey ships, 3 landing ships, 5 landing craft, 140 minor landing craft, 1 replenishment ship, 12 oilers, 2 attack transports, 2 tenders, 2 training ships, 1 boom defence vessel, 1 fishery protection trawler, 30 tugs, 1 royal yacht, 10 water carriers, 40 auxiliary craft and 36 service barges. The Spanish Navy is being renewed and modernized. Ships under construction include 4 missile-armed frigates. Ships projected include 3 submarines, 4 destroyers, 1 more missile armed frigate and 6 corvettes, while a modified new construction programme is being considered including 3 submarines, 5 frigates, 8 minesweepers and 4 minehunters. Shipbuilding is mainly carried on at the dockyards at El Ferrol and Cartagena, Cádiz having a smaller share in it. Barcelona, Bilbao, Seville and Cádiz are the chief naval yards. There are naval radio telegraphic stations at Cádiz, Barcelona, Mahón, Pontevedra, Cartagena and El Ferrol. In 1987 naval personnel totalled 64,700, comprising 5,200 naval officers, 37,900 ratings, 9,400 civil branch and 700 marine officers and 11,500 marine other ranks. The Naval Air Service operates 16 fixed-wing aircraft and 44 helicopters. Air Force. The Air Force is organized as an independent service, dating from 1939. It is administered through 4 operational commands. These comprise Air Combat Command which controls interceptor squadrons (including USÁF elements) and the control and warning radar network, Tactical and Transport Commands, and Air Command of the Canaries. Strength (1987) 33,000 and 215 combat aircraft. The Tactical Air Command has 2 fighter-bomber squadrons of Spanish-built Northrop SF-5s, 1 aero-naval co-operation squadron with 6 P-3A Orion antisubmarine aircraft, and a liaison flight at Tablada with CASA 127s. Air Combat Command has 2 squadrons of Mirage III-Es, 2 squadrons of F-4C/RF-4C Phantom lis and 2 squadrons of Mirage Fl-Cs, plus a flight of CASA/Domier Do27 127 liaison aircraft. Five KC-130H tankers support the F-4C squadrons. Three wings of Air Transport Command operate C-130 Hercules, Caribou and Spanish-built CASA Aviocars. Air Command of the Canaries has 3 squadrons, equipped with Aviocar transports; Mirage F1 fighter-bombers; F27 Maritime aircraft and Super Puma helicopters for search and rescue. Other equipment includes 2 DC-8s, 5 Falcons and helicopters for VIP transport; and aircraft for photographic, firefighting, target towing and research duties. Air-sea rescue units have Aviocars and Super Puma helicopters. Delivery of 72 F-18 Hornets began in 1986. American-built F33 Bonanza and T-34A piston-engined aircraft are used for basic training, after which pupil pilots progress to CASA C-101 jet aircraft. Twoseat versions of operational types are used as advanced trainers. Other training types include Beechcraft King Air C90s for instrument flying and liaison duties. The T-34As are being replaced by Chilean-built Pillan basic trainers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Spain is a member of UN, the Council of Europe, NATO, the European Communities and OECD. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure in 1 m. pesetas: Revenue Expenditure

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 2,823,000 3,533,820 4,513,305 5,399,997 6,113,086 7,164,232 2,823,000 3,533,820 4,513,305 5,399,997 6,113,086 7,164,232

The budget is made up as follows (in 1 m,. pesetas): Revenue (1986) Directtaxes Indirect taxes Levies and various revenues Current transactions

2,130,500 2,401,100 321,163 268,953

Revenue (1986) continued Real estate income Miscellaneous income Deficit (financed with public debt, treasury loans, etc)

209,147 42,100 1,691,269

1109

SPA TN

Expenditure (1986) H.M. House 470 8,246 Cortes (Parliament) Court of Accounts 1,625 Constitutional Court 725 399 Council of State Public Debt 1,039,145 Civil Service Pensions 387,479 General Council ofthe Judicial Power 902 Presidency ofthe Government 25,175 Ministry of Foreign Affairs 37,842 98,124 ,, Justice 630,984 Defence 119,996 Finance Interior 269,874 „ Public Works and

Expenditure (1986) continued Housing 200,170 „ Education and Science 560,670 Labour and Social Security 1,453,418 Ministry of Industry and Energy 263,390 Agriculture and Food 168,830 Transport, Tourism and Communications 367,400 Culture 32,941 ,, Territorial Administration 20,112 „ Health and Consumer Affairs 23,704 Regional governments 909,580 Regional Compensation Fund 158,472 Expenses in several ministries 384,561

Currency. The peseta is divided into 100 céntimos; but céntimos are no longer in legal use since 1 July 1984. Bank-notes of 5,000, 2,000, 1,000, 500, 200 and 100 pesetas and coins of 1 peseta (copper and aluminium), 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200 pesetas (nickel and copper) are in circulation. In July 1984 the circulation of bank-notes was 1,953,518m. pesetas and of coins, 109,056m. pesetas. In March 1986, £1 =202 pesetas; US$1 = 139. Banking. On 1 Jan. 1922 the Bank of Spain came under the Bank Ordinance Law, according to which the Government participate in its net profits. The 10 largest banks are: Banco Central; Banco Español de Crédito; Banco Hispano Americano; Banco de Bilbao; Banco de Vizcaya; Banco de Santander; Banco Popular Español; Banco Exterior de España; Banco Pastor, Banco de Sabadeli. All are privately owned except the Banco Exterior de España. Private banks deposits and savings bank deposits (Popular Savings Banks) in Spain, 30 June 1983, amounted to 17,322,272m. pesetas. The Post office savings bank opened on 12 March 1916. Deposits, 30 June 1983, amounted to 316,919m. pesetas. Weights and Measures. On 1 Jan. 1859 the metric system of weights and measures was introduced. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power-stations in 1985 had a total installed capacity of 38 • 5m. kw. The total output 1985, amounted to 127,216m. kwhofwhich33,186m. hydroelectric and 28,043m. nuclear. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Natural Gas. Production in 1984 was 148,000 tonnes. Oil. Crude oil production ( 1986) 1 • 1 m. tonnes. Minerals. Spain is relatively rich in minerals. The production of the more important minerals in 1982 were as follows (in 1,000 tonnes; net metal content): Anthracite 1 Coal' Lignite 1 Uranium 1

5,150 9,094 22,401 273

Iron Lead Copper Mercury 1 1984.

3,690 0 730 48 0

21

J

Tin Zinc Wolfram

0-5 1670

051

1981

Agriculture. Spain is mainly an agricultural country. In 1985 the total value of agricultural produce was l,506-6m. pesetas; of livestock, l,037-3m.; of forestry, 69-6m. Land under cultivation in 1983 (in 1,000 hectares) included: Cereals, 7,432-7; vegetables, 473; potatoes, 340. In 1982, 580,053 tractors and 47,174 harvesters were in use.

1110 Principal crops Wheat Barley Oats Rye Rice Maize Potatoes Sugar-beet Sunflower

SPAIN

1982 2,662 3,615 442 212 68 418 338 259 843

Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1984 1983 2,603 2,306 3,735 4,025 454 479 217 231 41 73 354 440 340 348 249 221 1,007

1985 2,025 4,155 465 222 74 516 327 178 1,125

1982 4,410 5,270 443 169 402 2,330 5,222 9,085 654

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1984 1983 6,044 4,268 6,662 10,695 464 790 325 253 224 437 1,803 2,495 5,163 5,949 8,814 9,619 682 968

1985 5,326 10,680 719 295 459 3,331 5,770 7,349 915

In 1983, 1,645,000 hectares were under vines; production of wine was (1985) 33-2m. hectolitres. The area of onions was (1985) 38,000 hectares, yielding (1985) 1,263,000 tonnes. Production of oranges and mandarines was 2,918,000 tonnes, lemons, 454,000. Other products are esparto, flax, hemp and pulse. Spain has important industries connected with the preparation of wine and fruits. Industrial crops (1985 in 1,000 tonnes): Cotton, 186; olives, 159; olive oil, 352; tobacco, 43 (1983). Livestock products (1984 in 1,000 tonnes): Pigmeat, 1,191; poultry meat, 789; cattle meat, 389; cows' milk, 6,244. Livestock (1985): Horses, 245,000; mules, 139,000; cattle, 5m.; sheep, 17-5m.; goats, 2-4m.; pigs, 11 -4m.; poultry, 53m. Forestry. Total forests (1983) 11 -8m. hectares; production, 1983, 11,296,000 cu. metres of wood. Fisheries. The most important catches are those of sardines, whiting, anchovy and hake. The total catch amounted in 1985 to 1 • 11 m. tons. In the tinned fish industry there were, in 1978, 405 factories, producing 129,265 tons. The Spanish fishing fleet in 1983 consisted of 17,740 vessels of 698,813 tonnes, with a total crew of 103,494. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The manufacture of cotton and woollen goods is important, principally in Catalonia. In 1981, the principal textile productions were (in 1,000 tonnes: Wool yam, 32; cotton yarn, 102; fabrics yarn, 178; wool cloth, 15; cotton cloth, 101; fabrics cloth, 102. In 1981, 2'5m. tonnes of writing, printing, packing and other paper were produced. The production of cement reached 23,618,000 tonnes in 1984. Steel production (1984) 12-9m. tonnes; the three great blast-furnaces concentrations are in Bilbao area, Avilés (Asturias) and Sagunto (Valencia). The chemical industry is located in the areas of Madrid, Barcelona and Bilbao; sulphuric acid production (1982), 2m. tonnes; nitrogenous fertilizers, 822,000 tonnes. The 9 oil refineries refined (1984) 39,854,000 tonnes of crude oil. In 1982 900,000 TV sets (550,000 colour sets) were manufactured. 815,723 refrigerators, 1,071,000 washing machines and 875,892 bicycles were manufactured in 1984. Spain has important toys and shoe industries, toys especially in Alicante and Barcelona provinces and shoe in Alicante province and the Balearic islands. Spanish shipyards launched 241,419 BRT in 1985.1n 1985, 1,344,736 vehicles were built, including 1,125,678 passenger cars. Labour. The daily minimum wage for workers is 1,405 pesetas (Jan. 1987). The economically active population numbered 13,345,500 in Dec. 1985. Of these, 10,411,500 were employed: 1,786,000 in agriculture and fishing, 2,560,800 in manufactures, 746,500 in construction industry, 5,175,300 in trade and other public and personal services and 142,900 in unspecified jobs. 22% of the active population was unemployed at the end of 1985 (2,934,000 persons). Trade Unions. The Constitution guarantees the establishment and activities of trade unions provided they have a democratic structure. The two most important trade unions are Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), founded in 1888 by Pablo Iglesias (who had founded in 1879 the Spanish Workers Socialist Party,

SPAIN

1111

PSOE), and Comisiones Obreras, which was gradually established 1958-63, then as a clandestine labour organization. Commerce. Foreign trade of Spain (Peninsula, Baleares, Canaries, Ceuta, Melilla) (in 1 m. pesetas): Imports Exports

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 2,450,652 2,970,435 3,473,208 4,176,470 4,628,991 5,073,239 1,493,187 1,888,422 2,260,198 2,838,601 3,778,071 4,104,143

In 1985 the most important items of import were (in lm. pesetas): Crude petroleum, 1,470,264 (28-98% of total); petroleum products, 159,733 (3 15%); vehicle parts, 126,984 (2• 50%); oleaginous seeds and fruits, 80,083 (1-58%); scrap iron, 113,656 (2-24%); natural and industrial gas, 82,317 (1-62%); computers, 110,374 (2-18%), and related machinery, 97,854 (1 -93%); maize, 83,956 (1-65%); coal, 74,409(1-47%). The most important exports in 1985 (in lm. pesetas) were: Vehicles, 360,977 (8-79% of total); petroleum products, 335,579 (8-18%); iron and steel castings, 196,985 (4-80%); fresh fruits, 144,767 (3-53%); footwear, 138,930 (3-39%); iron and steel sheets, 83,776 (2-04%); computers and related machinery, 7&,8&1 (1-92%); vehicle parts, 114,959 (2-80%); vegetables and pulses, 77,720 (1-89%); liquid vegetal oils, 77,167(1-88%). Distribution of Spanish foreign trade (in 1 m. pesetas) according to origin and destination, for calendar years: Europe EEC France Germany, Federal Republic UK Italy EFTA Comecon USA LA1A (ex LAFTA) Mexico Venezuela Saudi Arabia Iran Japan Libya Oceania

Imports 1984 1985 1,942,829 2,232,067 1,547,536 1,828,360 471,091 398,048 537,432 458,737 281,082 329,620 232,726 195,321 235,170 266,077 120,174 145,753 552,982 519,278 543,603 582,776 278,691 292,647 27,094 42,498 59,728 157,801 193,511 150,770 141,787 172,778 186,248 170,249 33,073 34,079

Exports 1984 1985 2,260,885 2,512,695 1,853,300 2,055,225 566,573 636,417 361,795 393,137 343,042 351,254 225,641 289,488 237,979 256,258 93,911 120,977 361,126 408,562 209,941 245,159 33,324 41,552 26,554 30,325 77,999 92,811 47,013 47,913 58,924 53,821 42,809 29,128 18,498 23,092

Total trade between Spain and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Bl '

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 1984 1985 1986 1,110;029 1,604,405 1,770,862 1,777,341 1,128,439 1,234,584 1,553,424 1,905,479

Total trade of the Spanish territories and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Canary Islands NorthAfrica

1984 83,456 ...

Imports to UK 1985 1986 64,625 63,529 44 ...

Exports from UK 1984 1985 1986 78,850 48,946 66,949 3,248 2,893 2,762

Tourism. In 1985, 43,235,363.tourists visited Spain (from France, 1 lm.; Portugal, 7-73m.; Federal Republic of Germany, 5-59m.; UK, 5-03m.). Receipts of foreign currency (1985) US$8 15m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 the total length ofhighways and roads in Spain was 150,256 km, of which 123,788 km were macadamized or had.other good surface. Motorways,

1112

SPAIN

2,008 km. Number of cars was 8,874,442, lorries, 1,444,884, buses, 41,161 and motorcycles, 706,017 in 1984. Railways. The total length of the state railways in 1984 was 13,575 km, mostly 1,676-mm gauge, but on 1 Jan. 1985 905 km (6-6% of that length) were closed down and another 930 km closed to passenger traffic. There are 6,196 km of lines electrified and 2,488 km of double track. On 1 Feb. 1941 the Spanish railways, of broad gauge only, passed into state ownership; they are under a board known as the Red Nacional de Ferrocarriles Españoles (RENFE). The gauge of the principal Spanish railways has, for strategic reasons, been kept different from that of France; passengers therefore must change trains at the French frontier stations except by certain trains having variable gauge axles. In 1985 freight carried was 41m. tonnes and 15,979m. passenger-km. There are several regional railways including Basque Cata lunya and FEVE railways. Aviation. The most important Spanish airline is 'Iberia': it maintains a regular service with Europe, America, Africa and the Middle and Far East. Its fleet included 6 B-747s (for 430 passengers each), 8 DC- 10s (for 266), 6 Airbus-300Bs (for 253), 35 B-727s (for 161) and 30 DC-9s (for 110) in 1985. 'Aviaco' operates mainly internal flights. 'Spantax', based on Palma de Mallorca, operates charter flights only. There are 43 airports open to civil traffic; those of Madrid, Palma de Mallorca and Barcelona are the most active. A small airport in Seo de Urgel, in the Pyrenees, used especially for the air service of Andorra was opened in 1982. Aircraft movements in 1985,248,245 internal and 282,817 international, carrying 20,967,132 passengers on internal and 22,083,855 on international flights, and (in 1984) 360,680 tonnes of merchandise. Shipping. The merchant navy in 1984 contained 1,105 vessels of a gross tonnage of 6,377,000. In 1984 (provisional), 83,981 ships entered Spanish ports, carrying 6,763,000 passengers and discharging 434 • 10m. tonnes of cargo. Post and Broadcasting. The receipts of the post office in 1984 were 75,075m. pesetas; expenses, 84,345m. pesetas. There were in 1984, 13,299 post offices and 13,825,000 telephones, these all privately operated. Radio Nacional de España broadcasts 4 programmes on medium-waves and FM, as well as many regional programmes; it does not broadcast advertising. There is another state broadcasting network, Radio-Cadena Española, this self-financing with advertising. The greatest radio audience is that of a private network, Sociedad Española de Radiodifusión (SER); Cadena de Ondas Populares Españolas (COPE) belongs to the Roman Catholic church. Two private broadcasting networks were established in 1982 covering the whole of Spain, Antena 3 and Radio 80. Televisión Española broadcasts 2 programmes. Since 1983 TV3 broadcasts entirely in Catalan and Eusko Telebista about 90% in Basque. Colour transmissions are carried by PAL system. Number of receivers (1979): radio, 9-6m.; television, 9 4 m . (about 50% colour sets). In 1985 broadcasting on TV in Galician commenced. Cinemas (1981). There were 3,970 cinemas with an estimated seating capacity of 4m. Newspapers (1985). There were about 100 daily newspapers with a total daily circulation of about 5m. copies. In 1985 the following dailies had a daily circulation of more than 100,000 copies: El Pais (Madrid, 347,512), La Vanguardia (Barcelona, 194,189), ABC (Madrid, 157,205), As (Madrid, [sports], 143,341), El Periódico (Barcelona, 127,777), Diario 16 (Madrid, 127,514), Marca (Madrid, [sports], 113,155)and£/ Correo Español-El Pueblo Vasco (Bilbao, 108,834). JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. Justice is administered by Tribunales and Juzgados (Tribunals and Courts), which conjointly form the Poder Judicial (Judicial Power). Judges and magistrates cannot be removed, suspended or transferred except as set forth by law.

SPAIN

1113

The Constitution of 1978 has established a new organ, the Consejo General del Poder Judicial (CGPJ, General Council of the Judicial Power), formed by 1 President and 20 magistrates, judges, attorneys and lawyers, governing the Judicial Power in full independence from the other two powers of the State, the Legislative (Cortes) and the Executive (President of the Government and his Cabinet); all members of the CGPJ, magistrates, etc., have been appointed by the Cortes since 1985. Its President is that of the Tribunal Supremo. The territorial organization of justice is being gradually changed, adapting it to the new map of the country in Autonomous Communities and when completed, in each of these it will be a Tribunal Superior de Justicia as the highest judicial organ, responsible only to the national Tribunal Supremo. The Judicature is composed of the Tribunal Supremo (Supreme High Court); 16 Audiencias Territoriales (Division High Courts); 50 Audiencias Provinciales (Provincial High Courts); 518 Juzgados de Primera Instancia (Courts of First Instance), 755 Juzgados de Distrito (District Courts) and 7,532 Juzgados Municipales y de paz (Municipal and Peace Courts, court of lowest jurisdiction held by Justices of the Peace). ^ The Tribunal Supremo consists of a President (appointed by the King", on~pfoposal from the Consejo General del Poder Judicial) and various judges distributed among 6 chambers: 1 for trying civil matters, 3 for administrative purposes, 1 for criminal trials and 1 for social matters. The Tribunal Supremo has disciplinary faculties; is court of cassation in all criminal trials; for administrative purposes decides in first and second instance disputes arising between private individuals and the State, and in social matters resolves in the last instance all cases involving over 100,000 pesetas. The Audiencias Territoriales have power to try in second instance sentences passed by judges in civil matters. The Audiencias Provinciales try and pass sentence in first instance on all cases filed for delinquency. The jury system, re-established by the art. 125 of the Constitution, had not been applied by Jan. 1987, pending its parliamentary regulation. The Juzgados Municipales try small civil cases and petty offences. The Juzgados Comarcales deal with the same charges, but their jurisdiction embraces larger districts. Military cases are tried by the Consejo Supremo de Justicia Militar but its sentences can now pass to the (civil) Tribunal Supremo, as final cassation instance. The Tribunal Constitucional (Constitutional Court) has power to solve conflicts between the State and the Autonomous Communities, to determine if legislation passed by the Cortes is contrary to the Constitution and to protect constitutional rights of the individuals violated by any authority. Its 12 members are appointed by the King in the following way: 4, on proposal of the Congress of Deputies; 4, on proposal of the Senate; 2 on proposal of the Consejo General del Poder Judicial; and 2 on proposal of the Cabinet. It has a 9 year term, a third of the membership renewed every 3 years. The death penalty was abolished in 1978 by the Constitution (art. 15). Divorce is again legal since July 1981 and abortion since Aug. 1985. The prison population was, on 11 Nov. 1985,23,401. Religion. Roman Catholicism is the religion of the majority. There are 11 metropolitan sees and 52 suffragan sees, the chief being Toledo, where the Primate resides. The archdioceses of Madrid-Alcalá and Barcelona depend directly from the Vatican. The Constitution guarantees full religious freedom and states that no religion has an established legal condition (art. 16); so, since 29 Dec. 1978 there has been no official religion in Spain. A report issued in 1982 by the Episcopal Conference of the Roman Catholic Church claims that 82 • 76% of all children born in 1981 were baptized in that church. There are about 250,000 other Christians, including several Protestant denominations, Jehovah Witnesses (about 60,0()0) and Mormons. The British and Foreign Bible Society was, on 10 March 1963, allowed to resume its activities.

1114

SPAIN

The first synagogue since the expulsion of the Jews in 1492 was opened in Madrid on2Óct. 1959. The number ofJews is estimatedat about 13,000. Education. Primary education is compulsory and free between 6 and 14 years of age. In 1984-85 pre-primary education (under 6 years) was conducted by 39,274 schools, with 38,999 teachers and 1,148,973 pupils. Primary or basic education (6 to 14 years): 186,101 schools, 193,788 teachers and 5,644,717 pupils. Secondary education (14-17 years) is conducted on two branches: Middle schools (Institutos), and vocational and technical centres (Formación Profesional), with 2,583 and 2,334 school units, 72,919 and 47,601 teachers and 1,314,518 and 725,057 pupils. For adult education there were (in 1984-85) 2,749 school units, with 3,150 teachers and 118,237 students. For the physically or mentally disabled there were 5,004 school units, with 5,015 teachers and 51,954 pupils. In 1986 there were in all 33 universities: 22 State. Universities, in Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Granada, Sevilla, Santiago de Compostela, Zaragoza, Bilbao (University of the Basque Country), Oviedo, Valladolid, Salamanca (founded in 1215), La Laguna (Canaries), Murcia, Málaga, Córdoba, Badajoz-Cáceres (University of Extremadura), Cádiz, León, Santander, Alicante, Palma de Mallorca and Alcalá de Henares; 4 Polytechnic Universities, in Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Las Palmas (Canaries); 2 Autonomous Universities, in Madrid and Barcelona; 4 private (catholic) universities, in Deiisto (Bilbao), Pamplona, Salamanca and Madrid (University of Comillas); and the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (National University for Education at Home), which teaches by mail, radio and TV, with its central seat at Madrid (40,000 students, 1984-85). There were 744,173 university students (1984-85) including 24,033 students at private universities. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Spain in Great Britain (24 Belgrave Sq., London SW1X 8QA) Ambassador: José Joaquín Puig de la Bellacasa, GCVO. Of Great Britain in Spain (Calle de Fernando el Santo, 16, Madrid, 4) Ambassador: Lord Nicholas Gordon Lennox, CMG, LVO. Of Spain in the USA (2700 15th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) A mbassador: Gabriel Mañueco de Lecea. Of the USA in Spain (Serrano 75, Madrid) Ambassador: Reginald Bartholomew. Of Spain to the United Nations Ambassador: Fernando Moran López. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Paseo de la Castellana, 183, Madrid) combines the administrative work of a government department attached to the Presidency of the Government with a centre of statistical studies. Director-General: Luis RuizMaya. Its publications include: Anuario Estadístico de España. Annual. Edición manual (latest vol., 1984).—Reseñas estadísticas provinciales.—Nomenclátor de las ciudades, yillas lugares, caldeas, y demás entidades de población de España. 52 vols. Madrid, 1984.—Poblaciones de Derecho y de Hecho de los Municipios Españoles: Censo de Poblacíon de 1981. Madrid, 1982.—Diccionario Corogràfico de España. 4 vols. Madrid, 1948.—Boletín de Estadística. Madrid. (No. l,Jan.-March 1939: monthly from 1948).—Estadística española. Revista trimestral (hora 1959). Altamira y Crevea,R., A History of Spain. New York and London, 1950 Bell, D., (ed.). Democratic Politics in Spain: Spanish Politics after Franco. London, 1983 Can, R., Modern Spain, 1S75-1980.0VP, 1980 Collins, R„ The Basques. Oxford, 1986 Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada. 70 vols., lOappendices, 10 supplements. Madrid Graham, R., Spain: Change of a Nation. London, 1984 Gunther, R,, (et al) Spain after Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System. Univ. of California Press, 1986 ,:

WESTERN SAHARA

1115

Harrison, J., The Spanish Economy in the Twentieth Century. London, 1985 Hooper,J., The Spaniards: A Portrait of The New Spain. London, 1986 Lieberman, S., The Contemporary Spanish Economy: A Historical Perspective. London, 1982 McNair, J. M., Education for a Changing Spain. Manchester, 1984 Maravall, J., The Transition to Democracy in Spain. London, 1982 Morris, J., Spain. London, 1979 Preston, P., The Triumph of Democracy in Spain. London and New York, 1986 Preston, P., and Smyth, D„ Spain, the EEC and NATO. London, 1984 Reay-Smith,3., Living in Spain in the Ws. London, 1983 Russell, P. E. (ed.), Spain: A Companion to Spanish Studies. 6th ed. London, 1973 Shields, G. J., Spain. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid.

FORMER PROVINCE IN AFRICA (WESTERN SAHARA) The colony of Spanish Sahara became a Spanish province in July 1958. On 14 Nov. 1975 Spain, Morocco and Mauritania had reached agreement on the transfer of power over Western Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania on 28 Feb. 1976. Morocco occupied al-Aiaun in late Nov. and on 12 Jan. 1976 the Spanish army withdrew from Western Sahara which had ceased to be a Spanish province on 31 Dec. 1975. The country was partitioned by Morocco and Mauritania on 28 Feb. 1976; Morocco reorganized its sector into 3 provinces. In Aug. 1979 Mauritania withdrew from the territory it took over in 1976. The area was taken over by Morocco and reorganized into a fourth province. A liberation movement, Frente Polisario, launched an armed struggle against Spanish rule on 20 May 1973 and, in spite of occupation of all western centres by Moroccan troops, Saharawi guerrillas based in Algeria continue to attempt to liberate their country. They have renamed it the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic and hold most of the desert beyond a defensive line built by Moroccan troops encompassing Smara, Bu Craa and Laayoune. In 1982 the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic became a member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). President: Mohammed Abdelaziz. Area 266,769 sq. km (102,680 sq. miles). The population at the census held by Morocco in Sept. 1982 was 163,868; estimate (1986) 180,000. Another estimated 165,000 Saharawis live in refugee camps around Tindouf in south-west Algeria. The main towns (1982 census) are Laayoune (al-Aaiun), the capital (96,784), Dakhla (17,822) and as-Smara (17,753). The population is Arabic-speaking, and virtually entirely Sunni Moslem. Rich phosphate deposits were discovered in 1963 at Bu Craa. Morocco holds 65% of the shares of the former Spanish state-controlled company. While production reached 5-6m. tonnes in 1975, exploitation has been severely reduced by guerrilla activity but in 1984 produced lm. tonnes. After a nearly complete collapse, production and transportation of phosphate resumed in 1978, ceased again, and then resumed in 1982. There are about 6,100 km of motorable tracks, but only about 500 km of paved roads. There are airports at Laayoune and Dakhla. As most of the land is desert, less than 19% is in agricultural use, with about 2,000 tonnes of grain produced annually. There are (1983) about 22,000 sheep, as well as goats and camels raised. Electricity produced (1983) 78m. kwh. Books of Reference Damis, J., Conflict in Northwest Africa: The Western Sahara Dispute. Stanford, 1983 Hodges, T., Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara. London, 1982.—Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War. London and Westport, 1984 Sipe, L. F., Western Sahara: A Comprehensive Bibliography. New York, 1984 Thompson, V. and Adlofif, R., The Western Saharans: Background to Conflict. London,1980

SRI

Capital: Colombo Population: 15-8m.(1985) GNPpercapita:\JS$36l (1984)

LANKA

Ceylon H I S T O R Y . According to the Mahawansa chronicle, an Indian prince from the valley of the Ganges, named Vijaya, arrived in the 6th century B.C. and became the first icing of the Sinhalese. The monarchical form of government continued until the beginning of the 19th century when the British subjugated the Kandyan Kingdom in the central highlands. In 1505 the Portuguese formed settlements on the west and south, which were taken from them about the middle of the next century by the Dutch. In 1796 the British Government annexed the foreign settlements to the presidency of.Madras. In 1802 Ceylon was constituted a separate colony. Ceylon became an independent Commonwealth state when the Ceylon Independence Act, 1947, came into force on 4 Feb. 1948. Sri Lanka became a republic in 1972. War between northern Tamil separatists and government forces began in 1983. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian Ocean, south of the Indian peninsula from which it is separated by the Palk Strait. On 28 June 1974 the frontier between India and Sri Lanka in the Palk Strait was redefined, giving to Sri Lanka the island of Kachchativu. Area (in sq. km.) and census population on 17 March 1981. Provinces Western Central Southern Northern Eastern North-Western

Area 3,708-61 5,583 5,559 8,882 9,951 7,812

Population 3,919,807 2,009,248 1,882,661 1,109,404 975,251 1,704,334

Provinces North-Central Uva Sabaragamuwa Total

Area 10,723-59 8,487-91 4,901-55

Population 849,492 914,522 1,482,031

65,609-86

14,846,750

Population (1981 census), 14,846,750, an increase of 17% since 1971. Population (in 1,000) according to race and nationality at the 1981 census: 10,980 Sinhalese, 1,887 Ceylon Tamils, 1,047 Ceylon Moors, 39 Burghers, 47 Malays, 819 Indian Tamils, 28 others. Non- nationals ofSri Lanka totalled 635,150. By agreement with the Government of India in 1964 and 1974, Indian nationals who have not been granted Sri Lanka citizenship were to be repatriated. The 1964 agreement covered 525,000 people; the 1974 agreement, 75,000. Vital statistics, 1984: birth-rate (per 1,000 population), 24-8; death-rate, 6-5; infant death-rate (per 1,000 live births), 29-5(1981). The urban population was 21 • 5% of the total in 1981. The principal towns and their population according to the census of 1981 are: Colombo (the capital), 587,647; Dehiwela-Mt. Lavinia, 173,529; Moratuwa, 134,826; Jaffna, 118,224; Kotte, 101,039; Kandy, 97,872; Galle, 76,863; Negombo, 60,762; Trincomalee, 44,313; Batticaloa, 42,963; Matara, 38,843; Ratnapura, 37,497; Anuradhapura, 35,981; Badulla, 33,068; Kalutara, 31,503. Population of the Greater Colombo area, 1980, about lm. The national languages are Sinhala, English and Tamil; Sinhala is the official language and Tamil is used in the northern and eastern provinces. C L I M A T E . Sri Lanka has an equatorial climate with low annual temperature variations, but it is affected by the north-east Monsoon (Dec. to Feb.) and the south-west Monsoon (May to Sept.). Rainfall is generally heavy but never lasts long; it is heaviest in the south-west and central highlands while the north and east are relatively dry. Thirty-year averages, 1951-80: Colombo. Jan. 79-7°F (26-5°C), July 81 • 1°F (27-3°C). Annual rainfall 99-5" (2,527 mm). Trincomalee. Jan. 1116

SRI LANKA

1117

78-6°F (25-9°C), July 86-2°F (30TC). Annual rainfall 63-60" (1,615 mm). Kandy. Jan. 73-9°F (23-3°C), July 75-9T (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 76-6" (1,947 mm). Nuwara Eliya. Jan. 58-5°F (14-7"C), July 60-3°F (15-7°C). Annual rainfall 80 04" (2,044 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A new constitution for the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka was promulgated in Sept. 1978. The Executive President is directly elected by the people and has to receive more than one-half of the valid votes cast. His term of office is six years and he shall not hold the office for more than two consecutive terms. He is the Head of the State, the Head of the Executive and of the Government and the Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. He does not have any veto power over legislation; even in a time of public emergency, he must act with Parliamentary control and approval. Parliament consists of one chamber, composed of 168 members elected by universal suffrage. The Senate was abolished by constitutional amendment in Oct. 1971. The term of Parliament is six years. In Nov. 1982 Parliament voted to extend its present term (expiring Aug. 1983) for a further six years. The vote was subject to national referendum on 20 Dec. 1982; 71% of the electorate voted and 55% approved the extension. The Prime Minister and other Ministers, who must be members of Parliament, are appointed by the President. The President is head of the Cabinet. The electorate consists of all who are 18 years of age and over. National flag: A yellow field bearing 2 panels: in the hoist 2 vertical strips of green and orange; in the fly, dark red with a gold lion holding a sword and in each corner a gold 'bo' leaf. The Cabinet was as follows in Dec. 1986: President, Defence, Higher Education, Janata Estates Development, State Plantations, Power and Energy, and Plan Implementation:}. R. Jayawardene. Prime Minister, Leader of the House, Local Government, Highways, Housing and Construction, Emergency Civil Administration: Ranasinghe Premadasa. Land, Land Development and Mahaweli Development: Gamini Dissanayake. Foreign Affairs: A. C. S. Hameed. Home Affairs: K. W. Devanayagam. National Security: Lalith W. Athulathmudali. Rural Development: Wimala Kannangara. Justice: N. P. Wijeyeratne. Finance and Planning: Ronnie de Mel. Labour: P. C. Imbulana. Industries and Scientific Affairs: R. Denzil Fernando. Cultural Affairs:E. L. B. Hurulle. Fisheries: M. F. W. Perera. Health: R. Atapattu. Post and Telecommunications: D. B. Wijetunge. Parliamentary Affairs and Sports, Chief Government Whip: M. Vincent Perera. Transport, Transport Boards, Private Omnibus Transport, Security of Commercial and Industrial Establishments:^. H. Mohamed. Agricultural Development and Research: G. Javasuriya. Food and Cooperatives: W. Dahanayake. Public Administration and Plantation Industries: M. Jayawickreme. Textile Industry: W. Mendis. Social Services: Asoka Karunaratne. Rural Industrial Development: S. Thondaman. Youth Affairs, Education and Employment Manpower Mobilization: R. Wickremasinghe. State: A. de Alwis. Regional Development: C. Rajadurai. Women's Affairs and Teaching Hospitals: S. Ranasinghe. Trade and Shipping: M. S. Amarasiri. Without Portfolio: M. A. Bakeer Markar. For purposes of general administration, the island is divided into 25 districts, administered by government agents. There are 12 Municipal Councils and 24 District Councils. DEFENCE Army. The Army was constituted on 10 Oct.,,1949. It consists of 5 infantry brigades, 2 reconnaissance, 2 field artillery and 1 engineer regiment, 1 special forces and 1 signals battalion. Equipment includes 18 Saladin armoured cars and 15 Ferret scout cars. Strength (1987) 30,000 including active reservists. There are

1118

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also paramilitary forces: Police Force (28,000), Volunteer Force (500, when fully mobilized) and Home Guard. Navy. The Navy was constituted on 9 Dec. 1950. It comprises 6 recently acquired Surveillance Command Ship (ex-mercantile), 2 new Colombo-built patrol vessels, 5 (ex-Chinese) fast gunboats, 28 small patrol boats, 2 landing craft and 1 service craft. Emphasis is now on indigenous building. Gemunu and Rangalla are commissioned as shore establishments. The naval base is at Trincomalee. Personnel in 1987 numbered 245 officers and 3,070 ratings. Naval personnel are sent to the UK for training. There is also a Volunteer Naval Reserve of 50 officers and 540 ratings, and a Naval Reserve of 65 officers and 430 men. Air" Force. The Air Force was formed on 10 Oct. 1950. Its flying bases are at Katunayake and China Bay, Trincomalee. Equipment of 4 squadrons comprises 6 SF.260 and 4 Cessna 150/152 trainers, 4 Herons, 2 HS748,2 DC-3s, 2 Super King Airs, 3 Cessna Skymasters, 1 Cessna 421 and a Cessna Cardinal for general transport and utility purposes; 3 Doves for navigation training; and 2 Dauphin, 12 Bell 212,4 Bell 412 and over 20 JetRanger helicopters for internal security operations. China was delivering, in 1987, 6 Y-12 turboprop-powered light transports. Total strength about 2,500 officers and airmen. There is also an Air Force Reserve. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Sri Lanka is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Movement, the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation and the Colombo Plan. External debt. External debt in Dec. 1985 was Rs67,673 -2m. (provisional). ECONOMY Planning. The 1984-88 plan aims at 5 • 5% annual growth rate. Investment allocated is mainly for agriculture, including the Mahaweli energy and irrigation scheme. Total public investment, about Rsl06,307m. Budget. Revenue and expenditure of central government in Rs lm. for financial years ending 31 Dec.: Year 1983 1984 1985'

Revenue 25,210 37,731 38,041 1

Expenditure Recurrent Capital 25,083 16,707 31,842 19,521 29,964 22,418 Estimate.

Total 41,790 51,363 52,382

The principal sources of revenue in 1984 were (in Rs lm.): Income tax, 5,481; import duties, 7,945; export duties, 3,175; other indirect taxes, 14,533. The principal items of recurrent expenditure in 1984 (in Rs lm.): Administration including defence, 5,505; food subsidies and food stamps, 1,527; education, social services and health, 4,288; interest on public debt, 7,472. Capital expenditure on agriculture, 1,634; communications, 2,160. Currency. The Monetary Law Act provides that the standard monetary unit is the Ceylon rupee. The Central Bank is the sole authority for the issue of currency and all currency notes and coins issued by the Central Bank are legal tender for the payment of any amount, except notes of Rs 50 and Rs 100 dated before 25 Oct. 1970. Currency notes are issued in the denominations of Rs 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000. Coins are issued in the denominations of 1,2,5,10,25 and 50 cents; Rs 1,2 and 5. The total circulation was Rs 6,326- lm. on 30 June 1985. In March 1987, £1 = Rs 45-40; US$1 =Rs28-74. Banking. The narrow money supply (Ml)at 30 June 1985 stood at Rs 17,339-3m. The main commercial banks in Sri Lanka are: The Bank of Ceylon and the People's Bank (state-managed), the State Bank of India, Grindlays Bank, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Standard Chartered Bank,

SRI LANKA

1119

the Commercial Bank of Ceylon, the Hatton National Bank, the Habib Bank (Overseas) Ltd., Irido-Suez Bank, Bank of Credit and Commerce International, American Express and the Indian Overseas Bank Ltd. Total assets of 25 commercial banks at 30 June 1985,Rs59,442-6m. The state-owned Ceylon Insurance Corporation and the National Insurance Corporation have a monopoly of all insurance business. Sri Lanka National Savings Bank at.30 June 1985 had a.balance to depositors' credit ofRs 12,181 -7m. Sri Lanka State Mortgage and Investment Bank, National Development Bank, Development Finance Corporation, the National Housing Authority and the Housing Development Finance Corporation of Sri Lanka Ltd. are the main long-term credit institutions. Weights and Measures. The metric system has been established by the Weights and Measures (Amendment) Law No. 24 of 1974, and subsequent legislation. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity of electric energy (1985)? 1,016,000 kw. Energy produced, 2,464m. kwh; the main source is hydro-electricity (746 mw or 73% of total capacity). The Mahaweli power scheme had 2 large hydro-power plants commissioned in 1985: Victoria and Kothmale. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Water. The Mahaweli Ganga irrigation scheme has entered phase 2 and will benefit 896,000 acres. Two major river diversions, at Polgolla near Kandy and at Bowatenna on the Amban Ganga River, will benefit 120,000 acres of land already cultivated and irrigate an extra 104,000 acres of new land. There is a Water Resources Board (set up in 1966) and a National Water Supply and Drainage Board (1974). Water supply to the city and area of Colombo comes from the Labugama and Kalatuwawa reservoirs. Consumption within Colombo city limits is estimated at 10,000m. gallons a year. All domestic consumers receive a free water allowance; commercial consumers do not. Minerals. Gems are among the chief minerals mined and exported. Precious and semi-precious stones are found among the layers of older alluvium and river gravels of quaternary age in the valleys of the Ratnapura district in the southwest. The most important are sapphire, ruby, crysoberyl, beryl, topaz, spinel, garnet, ziran and tourmaline. Value of gemstones exported in 1985, Rs 874m. Graphite is also important. The State Graphite Corporation was set up in 1971. There were 3 large mines (Bogala, Kahatagaha and Kalangaha), and several smaller mines. Graphite produced (tonnes), 1984,5,623; 1985,7,413. The Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation was established in 1957, mainly to extract ilmenite. Production of ilmenite, 1985, 114,954 tonnes. Some rutile is also produced (8,605 tonnes in 1985). Salt extraction is the oldest industry in Sri Lanka and is now controlled by the National Salt Corporation. The method is solar evaporation of sea-water. Production, 1985,76,858 tonnes. Agriculture. The area of the island is 6,560,963 hectares, of which 2,194,778 hectares are under cultivation. Agriculture engages about 45% of the labour force. The main crops in 1985 were as follows: Paddy (2-6m. tonnes from 885,000 hectares), rubber (137,000 tonnes), tea (214,000 tonnes) and coconuts (2,958m. nuts). Livestock in 1985 (estimate): l -8m. cattle, 967,000 bufTaloes, 84,000 swine, 540,000 goats, 27,000 sheep, 1 -7m. poultry. Fisheries. Production for 1985 was 175,409m. tons including 140,266m. tons of coastal water fish, 32,743m. tons of fresh water fish and 2,400m. tons from deepsea fisheries. In 1985 (provisional) there were 28,606 fishittg craft, of which 14,432 were not motorized. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Average annual growth rate, 1978-85,5 -1%. The private sector has been

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encouraged since 1977, with Investment Promotion Zones and freedom for imports; the public sector still accounts for about 60% of total production, although present government policy is against further large-scale investment. The main industries are food, beverages and tobacco; textiles, clothing and leather goods; chemicals, petroleum, rubber and plastics. The Greater Colombo Economic Commission has charge of the two Investment Promotion Zones: Katunayake and Biyagama. Trade unions. The registration and control of trade unions are regulated by the Trade Unions Ordinance (Ch. 138 of the Legislative Enactments). In 1985 there were 957 registered trade unions with a membership of 1,565,394. Commerce. The values of total imports'and exports (imports excluding bullion, specie and postal articles; exports, including re-exports and ship's stores) for calendar years (in Rs 1,000): Imports Exports

1982 1983 36,875,519 42,020,529 20,728,491 24,843,439

1984 46,913,266 36,540,767

1985 49,068,542 34,238,046

Principal exports (domestic) in 1985 (in Rs lm.): Tea, 11,914-3; rubber, 21,569-7 copra, coconut oil and desiccated coconut, 2,383; other crops, 856-3; textiles and garments, 8,463-6; precious and semi-precious stones, 906 -2. Principal imports (Rs lm.) in 1985 were petroleum, 10,638m.; machinery and equipment, 4,765m.; vehicles and transport equipment, 2,747; food and beverages, 7,857. In 1985 the principal sources of imports were (in Rs lm.): Saudi Arabia, 4,700; Japan, 7,668; UK, 2,619; USA, 3,503; India, 2,028; Iran, 4,538; Singapore, 2,003; FRG. 2,675; South Korea, 1,247. Principal export destinations 1985 were (in Rs lm.): UK, 1,865; USA, 7,650; Japan, 1,748; Pakistan, 742; FRG, 1,868; Saudi Arabia, 1,293. Total trade between Sri Lanka and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 42,000 60,211

1983 39,784 70,136

1984 77,163 61,179

1985 73,956 79,234

1986 51,860 83,315

Tourism. About 275,456 tourists visited the country in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are about 25,580 km. of motorable roads, of which 77% are blacktopped. Number of motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1985, 523,723, including 148,587 private cars and cabs, 98,859 lorries, 75,474 tractors, 161,373 motor cycles, 38,309 buses. Railways. In 1985 there were about 1,453 km of railway open, of which 1,394 km were broad gauge and 59 narrow gauge. In 1985 railways ran 2,101m. passengerkm and 232m. tonne-km. Aviation. Air Lanka operates international services. Foreign airlines which operate scheduled services to Sri Lanka are British Airways, India Airlines Corporation, Swissair, Aeroflot, KLM, Singapore Airlines, Thai Airways International, Pakistan International Airlines, Korean Airways, Gulf Air, Royal Nepal Airlines, Kuwait Airways, Saudi Air, Emirates and UTA French Airlines; various others operate charter services. Internal services are operated by Upali, Air Taxis and Consolidated Engineering. Shipping. In 1985, merchant vessels totalling 22 -4m. GRT entered the ports of Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Shipping Corporation began functioning as ship-owners, charterers, brokers and shipping agents in 1971. The Sri Lanka Port Authority was established in 1979. Post and Broadcasting. In 1985 there were 479 post offices and 3,201 sub-post offices. In 1982 there were 1,900 telegraph offices and 109,900 telephones.

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Throughout the Greater Colombo Area inter-dialling facilities are now available between 52 stations. The Overseas Telecommunication Service operates telegraph and telephone services to most parts of the world. Broadcasting is provided by the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, which assumed the functions of Radio Ceylon on 5 Jan. 1967. Cinemas. In 1985 there were 229 cinemas. The National Film Corporation established in 1971 has exclusive rights to import films and arrange distribution of foreign and local films. Films released, 1985,154. Newspapers. There are 6 main newspaper groups: Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd (5 daily and 3 weekly papers and other periodicals); Express Newspapers (Ceylon) Ltd (2 daily and 2 weekly papers); Independent Newspapers Ltd. (3 daily and 3 weekly papers and other periodicals); Upali Newspapers Ltd. (2 daily, 2 weekly papers and other periodicals); Wijeya Publications (1 weekly paper and other periodicals); Eelanadu Ltd (1 daily). There are 7 daily and 21 weekly papers in Sinhala; 7 daily and 5 weekly in Tamil; 5 daily and 10 weekly in English. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The systems of law which obtain in Sri Lanka are the Roman-Dutch law, the English law, the Tesawalamai, the Moslem law and the Kandyan law. The Kandyan law applies to the Kandyan Sinhalese in respect of all matters relating to inheritance, matrimonial rights and donations. The law of England is observed in most commercial matters. The law of Tesawalamai is applied to all Tamil inhabitants of Jaffna, in all matters relating to inheritance, marriages, gifts, donations, purchases and sales of land. The Moslem law is applied to all Moslems in respect of succession, donations, marriage, divorce and maintenance. These customary and religious laws have been modified in many respects by local enactments. The courts of original jurisdiction are the High Court, District Courts, Magistrates' Courts and Primary Courts. The High Court tries mqjor crimes and also exercises admiralty jurisdiction. The District Court has unlimited civil jurisdiction in civil, revenue, trust, insolvency and testamentary matters, over persons and estates of persons of unsound mind, and wards. Family Courts were estabished in 1978; District Courts act as Family Courts. The Magistrates' Courts exercise criminal jurisdiction carrying the power to impose terms of imprisonment not exceeding 2 years and fines not exceeding Rs 1,500. The Primary Courts which were established in 1978 exercise civil jurisdiction where the value of the subject matter does not exceed Rs 1,500 and also have jurisdiction in respect of by-laws of local authorities and matters relating to the recovery of revenue of such local authorities. Primary Courts exercise exclusive criminal jurisdiction in respect of offences which may be prescribed by regulation by the Minister. The Primary Courts have the power to impose sentences of imprisonment not exceeding three months and fines not exceeding Rs 250. The Constitution of 1978 provided for the establishment of two superior courts, the Supreme Court and the Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and exercises jurisdiction in respect of constitutional matters, jurisdiction for the protection of fundamental rights, final appellate jurisdiction, consultative jurisdiction, jurisdiction in election petitions and jurisdiction in respect of any breach of the privileges of Parliament. Parliament may provide by law that the Supreme Court exercises the power to grant and issue any of the orders in the nature of Writs of Certiorari, Prohibition, Procedendo, Mandamus or Quo Warranto. The Court of Appeal has appellate jurisdiction to correct all errors in fact or law-committed by any court, tribunal or institution; it can grant and issue orders in the nature of the above Writs, and of Writs of Habeas Corpus and injunctions; it can also try election petitions in respect of election of members of Parliament. Police. The strength of the police service in 1985 was 20,095.

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Religion. Buddhism was introduced from India in the 3rd century B.C. and is the religion of 69-3% of the inhabitants. There were (1981) 10,288,325 Buddhists, 2,297,806 Hindus, 1,130,568 Christians, 1,121,717 Moslems and 8,334 others. Education. Education is free from the kindergarten to the university and is imparted in the medium of the mother tongue. In 1981 about 87% of the population (10 years old and older) was literate. In 1985 there were 10,051 schools including 9,634 government schools; the rest were private and estate schools, and Pirivenas. The government schools had 141,831 teachers and 3 • 6m. students from grades kindergarten to XII. Ministry of Education expenditure (1985), Rs 3,3 56 • 3m. Education is now administered under 31 regional directors. The overall control of the education regions is vested in the Ministry of Education. There are 7 Universities: Peradeniya, Colombo, Jaffna, Sri Jayawardenepura, Moratuwa, Kelaniya and Ruhuna, an Open University and one University College at Batticaloa. Dumbara Campus comes under Peradeniya University. There are 6 Institutes (3 for postgraduate and 3 for undergraduate studies). In 1985 there were 18,913 students and 2,051 teachers in the 7 Universities and 1 University College. The Open University had 9,287 students. Postgraduate Institutes had 519 students, the others, 1,214. There were 23 institutions for technical education, 9 of which had grade I status; total enrolment (1985), 20,796. Health. In 1985 there were 490 hospitals, including 88 maternity homes, and 338 central dispensaries. Hospitals had 44,754 beds and there were 2,150 Department of Health doctors. Total state budget expenditure on health, 1985,Rs 1,966m. Social Security. The activities of the Department of Social Services include: (1) Payment of Public Assistance, monthly allowance, tuberculosis assistance and leprosy allowance to all needy persons. (2) Relief for those affected by widespread distress, such as floods, drought, eyclone. (3) Custodial care and welfare services to the elderly and infirm. (4) Vocational 'training, rehabilitation, aids and appliances for the physically handicapped. (5) Custodial care, vocational training and rehabilitation for socially handicapped persons. (6) Distribution of Food Stamps and Kerosene Oil Stamps. (7) Study of social problems affecting the community with a view to finding appropriate solutions. (8) Financial assistance to voluntary institutions that provide welfare services. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Sri Lanka in Great Britain (13 Hyde Park Gdns., London, W2 2LU) High Commissioner: Chandra Monerawela (accredited 15 May 1984). Of Great Britain in Sri Lanka (190 Galle Rd., Kollupitiya, Colombo 3) High Commissioner: J. A. B. Stewart, CMG, OBE. Of Sri Lanka in the USA (2148 Wyoming Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: W. S. L. De Alwis. Of the USA in Sri Lanka (210 Galle Rd.,.Kollupitiya, Colombo 3) Ambassador: James Spain. Of Sri Lanka to the United Nations Ambassador Nissanka Wijewardane. Books of Reference The Sri Lanka Year Book. Department of Census and Statistics. Colombo, Annual Census Publications from 1871

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Economic Allas. Department ofCensus and Statistics. Colombo, 1980 Performance 1985. Ministry of Plan Implementation, Colombo. 1985 Review ofthe Economy. Central Bank of Ceylon. Annual StatisticalPocket-Book. Department ofCensus and Statistics. Colombo, 1984 Statistical Abstract. Department ofCensus and Statistics, Colombo, 1982 Coomaraswamy, R., Sri Lanka: The Crisis of the Anglo-American Constitutional Traditions in a Developing Society. Colombo, 1984 de Silva, K. M. (ed.), Sri Lanka: A Survey. London, 1977.—A History of Sri Lanka. London, 1980 Ferguson's Ceylon Directory. Annual (from 1858) Fernando, T., Sri Lanka: An Island Republic. Epping, 1985 Johnson, B. L. C., and Scrivenor, M. le M., Sri Lanka: Land, People and Economy. London, 1981 Manor, J., Sri Lanka: In Change and Crisis. London, 1984 Piyadasa, L., Sri Lanka: The Holocaust and After. London, 1984 Ponnambalam, S., Dependent Capitalism in Crisis: The Sri Lankan Economy 1948-80. London, 1980 Ratnasuriya, M. D., and Wijeratne, P. B. F., Shorter Sinhalese-English Dictionary. Colombo, 1349 . . . . . Richards, P., and Gooneratne, W., Basic Needs, Poverty and Government Policies in Sri Lanka. Geneva, 1981 Robinson, M. S., Political Structure in a Changing Sinhalese Village. CUP, 1975 Samaraweera, V., Sri Lanka. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Schwarz, W., The Tamils of Sri Lanka. London, 1983 Tambiah, S. J., Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. London, 1986 Wilson, A. J., Politics in Sri Lanka 1947- 73. London, 1974.—The Gaullist System in Asia: the Constitution of Sri Lanka. London, 1980

SUDAN Jamhuryat es-Sudan

Capital: Khartoum Population: 20-56m. (1983) GNPper capita: US$400 (1983)

H I S T O R Y . Sudan was proclaimed a sovereign independent republic on 1 Jan. 1956. On 19 Dec. 1955 the Sudanese parliament passed unanimously a declaration that a fully independent state should be set up forthwith, and that a Council of State of 5 should temporarily assume the duties of Head of State. The Codomini, the UK and Egypt, gave their assent on 31 Dec. 1955. For the history of the Condominium and the steps leading to independence, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, p p . 3 4 0 - 3 4 1 .

On 8 July 1965 the Constituent Assembly elected Ismail El-Azhari as President of the Supreme Council. Following a crisis in the coalition Cabinet the Prime Minister, Mohammed Ahmed Mahgoub resigned on 23 April 1969. For political history see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1973-74, p. 1333. The Government was taken over by a 10-man Revolutionary Council on 25 May 1969 under the Chairmanship ofCol. Jaafar M. al Nemery. This Council was dissolved in 1972. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Sudan is bounded north by Egypt, north-east by the Red Sea, east by Eritrea and Ethiopia, south by Kenya, Uganda and Zaire, west by the Central African Republic and Chad, north-west by Libya. Sudan covers an area of967,500 sq. miles (2,505,813 sq. km) and the population at the census of 14 Feb. 1983 was 20,564,364; latest estimate (1984) 21,440,000. The chief cities (census, 1983) are the capital, Khartoum (476,218), its suburbs Omdurinan (526,287) and Khartoum North (341,146), Port Sudan (206,727), Wadi Medani (141,065), al-Obeid (140,024), Kassala (98,751 in 1973), Atbara (73,009), alQadarif(66,465 in 1973), Kosti (65,257 in 1973)and Juba(56,737 in 1973). The northern and central thirds of the country are populated by Arab and Nubian peoples, while the southern third is inhabited by Nilotic and Negro peoples; Arabic, the official language, is spoken by 51%, Darfurian by 6% and other northern languages by 12%, while Nilotic languages (chiefly Dinka and Nuer) are spoken by 18%, Nilo-Hamitic by 5%, Sudanic by 5% and others by 3%. In 1986 there were 1 • 16m. refugees in Sudan (448,000 from Ethiopia). The area and population (census, 1983) of the regions are as follows: Region Northern Eastern Central Kurdufan Khartoum (province)

Sq.km 183,941 129,086 53,716 146,932 10,883 1

1983 1,083,024 2,208,209 4,012,543 3,093,294 1,802,299

Region Dafur Equatoria 1 Bahral-Ghazal 1 Upper Nile'

Sq.km 196,555 76,495 77,625 92,269

1983 3,093,699 1,406,181 2,265,510 1,599,605

Re-united in 1985 as Southern Region.

Local government: Sudan is divided into Khartoum Province (centrally administered) and 6 Regions, each with an elected Regional Assembly and government, and sub-divided into 18 more Provinces. C L I M A T E . Lying wholly within the tropics, the country has a continental climate and only the Red Sea coast experiences maritime influences. Temperatures are generally high throughout the year, with May and June the hottest months. Winters are virtually cloudless and night temperatures are consequently cool. Summer is the rainy season inland, with amounts increasing from north to south, but the northern areas are virtually a desert0 region. On the Red Sea coast, most rain falls in winter. Khartoum. Jan. 74°F (23-3 C), July 89°F (31 • 7°C). Annual rainfall 1124

SUDAN

1125

6 " (157 mm). Juba. Jan. 83'F (28 3°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 9 " (968 mm). Port Sudan. Jan. 74°F (23 -3"C), July 94°F (34-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 " (94 mm). Wadi Haifa. Jan. 60°F (15-6'C), July 90'F (32 2°C). Annual rainfall 0 - 1 " (2 5 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution was introduced in 1973 (amended in 1975). Legislative power lies with a National Assembly of 151 members. The President is directly elected for 6 years. A measure of autonomy has been given to southern Sudan and a People's Assembly of 60 was elected in May 1980. The Assembly is situated at Juba. President Nemery was deposed in a military coup on 6 April 1985. A Military Council was established to which the Cabinet was responsible prior to elections held in April 1986 for the 301-seat National Assembly. Voting was postponed in some southern constituencies. The Assembly was drafting a new Constitution in 1987. Chairman of the Transitional Military Council: Lieut.-Gen. Abdel-Rahman "Swaral-Dahab. Prime Minister: D r Guzuli Dafalla. Deputy Prime Minister Samuel Aru Bol. Defence Brig.-Gen. Osman Abdullah Mohammed. Foreign Affairs. Ibrahim Taha Ayoub. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with a green triangle based on the hoist. D E F E N C E . Conscription had been legislated but not implemented in 1985. Army. The Army is organized in 1 Republican Guard brigade, 2 armoured, 1 parachute and 7 infantry brigades, with 3 artillery and 1 engineer regiments, and 3 Air Defence brigades. Equipment includes 120 T-54 and T-55, about 30 Chinese Type-59 and 20 M-60A3 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 53,000 (including 3,000 in Air Defence brigades). Paramilitary forces are National Guard (500) and Border Guard (2,500). Navy. The Navy was established in 1962 to operate in the Red Sea and the River Nile, with 4 patrol boats built in Yugoslavia and a training mission from the Yugoslav Navy until 1972. There are also 1 larger ex-Yugoslav patrol craft, 3 ex-Iranian coastal patrol craft, 4 ex-Iranian very small coastguard cutters, 2 ex-Yugoslav landing craft, 1 small oiler, 1 small survey vessel and 1 water carrier. Two fast attack craft and 6 patrol craft are ordered. Personnel in 1987 totalled 2,000 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force was built up with Soviet and Chinese assistance, and is now receiving equipment from the USA. Two combat squadrons are equipped with about 10 MiG-21 fighters and 12 F-5 (Chinese-built MiG-17) fighterbombers. There is 1 transport squadron, with 6 C-130H Hercules, 6 A v i o c a r s a n d 4 D H C - 5 D Buffalo turboprop transports; 2 Turbo-Porter light transports; 2 helicopter squadrons have 12 AB.212sand 10 BO 105s, 12 Romanian-built Pumas, 10 Mi-8s; there are 3 Jet Provost, 3 Strikemaster and 1 F-5F jet armed trainers, and some Chinese-built FT-5 (MiG-17) advanced trainers. Personnel totalled (1987) about 3,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Sudan is a member of U N , O A U , the Arab League and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1984-88, development plan envisaged a total investment of £S2,700m. Budget. The 1984-85 budget envisages revenue of £S1,640m. and expenditure of £S2,663m.

1126

SUDAN

Currency. The monetary unit is the Sudanese pound (£S) divided into 100 piastres and 1,000 milliemes. Sudanese bank-notes of £S10, £S5, £S1, 50 and 25 piastres and Sudanese coins of P. 10, 5, 2; m/ms 10, 5, 2, 1 are in circulation. In March 1987,£1 =£S3-97;US$1 =£S2-45. Banking. The Bank of Sudan opened in Feb. 1960 with an authorized capital of £S1 -5m. as the central bank of the country; it has the sole right to issue currency. All foreign banks were nationalized in 1970. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985)1,188m. kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Two oil wells in the south-west produce 15,000 bbls per day of high quality oil. Production of petrol (1982) 150,000 tonnes. Minerals. Minerals known to exist include: gold, graphite, sulphur, chromium-ore (estimate, 9,900m. tonnes in 1982), iron-ore, manganese-ore, copper-ore, zinc-ore, fluorspar, natron, gypsum and anhydrite, magnesite, asbestos, talc, halite, kaolin, white mica, coal, diatomite (kieselguhr), limestone and dolomite, pumice, leadore, wollastonite, black sands, vermiculite pyrites. Gold is being exploited on a small scale at Gabeit and at Abirkateib (in Kassala Province); alluvial gold is occasionally exploited in Southern Fung and Equatona. Iron-ore was discovered in Red Sea area in 1976. Manganese mining activities started in the 1950s but this industry did not develop well and in 1982 only 200 tonnes was produced. Processed and scrap white mica have been mined since the late fifties; it went out of production for almost a decade, but started again in 1970 when 170 tonnes were produced; 1982, 200 tonnes. A big deposit of vermiculite and a medium-sized deposit of pyrophyllite are known to occur in the Sinkat District. Reserves of metallurgical grade chromite occur in the Ingessana Hills, Blue Nile Province. Huge reserves of chrysotile asbestos are proved in this vicinity and also in Qala El Nahal area, Kassala Province. Deposits of magnesite, with or without talc, are known to occur in the Ingessana Hills and Qala El Nahal areas in addition to other occurrences in the Halaib area, Red Sea Province. Agriculture. The Sudan is a predominantly agricultural country. Cotton is by far the most important cash crop on which the Sudan depends for earning foreign currency. The two types of cotton grown in the Sudan are: (a) long staple sakellaridis and sakel types (derivatives of sakellaridis), grown in Gezira, White Nile, Abdel Magid and private pump schemes; (b) short staple, mainly American types, in Equatona and Nuba Mountains, generally by rain cultivation. Production (1985) in 1,000 tonnes: Sorghum, 4,271; sugar-cane, 4,800; groundnuts, 344; seed cotton, 560; millet, 558; wheat, 79; sesame, 228; cotton seed, 360. One of the largest sugar complexes in the world was opened at Kenana in March 1981. It is capable of processing 330,000 tonnes a year. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 20m.; sheep, 19m.; goats, 13-5m.; poultry, 28m. Forestry. Gum arable, mainly hashab gum from Acacia Senegal, is the sole forest produce exported on a major scale. Production (1983) 38 • 16m. cu. metres. COMMERCE. Total trade for calendar years, in US$1,000: Imports Exports

1983 703,000 514,000

1984 556,000 519,000

In 1983, Saudi Arabia provided 14-3%ofimportsandtheUK 10%, while 171% of exports went to Saudi Arabia and 10% to Italy; cotton formed 49% by value of exports and groundnuts 2%, sesame 9% and gum arabic 9%.

SUDAN

1127

Total trade between Sudan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 9,929 136,636

1983 18,693 133,432

¡984 16,858 95,627

1985 21,323 103,635

1986 12,826 83,335

Tourism. There were 24,000 visitors in 1980. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were about 3,000 km of tarmac roads, including the new 1,190 km road from Khartoum to Port Sudan, and 45,000 km of tracks. There were 34,600 passenger cars and 38,000 commercial vehicles in 1980. Railways. The main railway lines run from Khartoum to El Obeid via Wadi Medani, Sennar Junction, Kosti and El Rahad (701 km); El Rahad to Nyala via Abu Zabad, Babanousa and Ed-Daein (698 km); Sennar Junction to Kassala via Gedaref (455 km) and to Roseires via Singa (220 km); Kassala to Port Sudan via 0aiy9. Junction ^nd Sinkat (550 km)- Khartoum to Wadi Haifa via Shendi, El Dammer, Atbara, Berber and Abu Hamad Junction (924 km); Abu Hamad to Karima (248 km); Atbara to Haiya Junction (271 km); Babanousa to Wau (444 km). The main flow of exports and imports is to and from Port Sudan via Atbara and Kassala. The total length of line open for traffic (1982) was 4,786 km. The gauge is 1,067 mm. In 1981-82, the railways carried 1,149m. passenger-km and 1 7m.tonne-km. Aviation. Sudan Airways is a government-owned airline, with its headquarters in Khartoum, operating domestic and international services. In 1980 Sudan Airways carried 519,000 passengers and 6 -8m. ton-kg of mail and freight. Shipping. Supplementing the railways are regular river steamer services of the Sudan Railways, between Karima and Dongola, 319 km; from Khartoum to Kosti, 319 km; from Kosti to Juba, 1,436 km, and from Kosti to Gambeila, 1,069 km. Port Sudan is the country's only seaport; it is equipped with 13 berths. A modernization programme began in Feb. 1980. Post and Broadcasting Number of telephones in 1983 was 68,838 (44,756 in Greater Khartoum). Radio receivers (1982) 5m. The television service broadcasts for 35 hours per week. There were (1982) 1 m. TV receivers. Cinemas. In 1975 there were 58, seatingcapacity 112,000 and also 43 mobile units. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judiciary is a separate and independent department of state directly and solely responsible to the President of the Republic. The general administrative supervision and control of the judiciary is vested in the High Judicial Council. Civil Justice is administered by the courts constituted under the Civil Justice Ordinance, namely the High Court of Justice—consisting of the Court of Appeal and Judges of the High Court, sitting as courts of original jurisdiction—and Province Courts—consisting of the Courts of Province and District Judges. The law administered is 'justice, equity and good conscience' in all cases where there is no special enactment. Procedure is governed by the Civil Justice Ordinance. Justice in personal matters for the Moslem population is administered by the Mohammedan law courts, which form the Sharia Divisions of the Court of Appeal, High Courts and Kadis Courts; President of the Sharia Division is the Grand Kadi. The religious law of Islam is administered by these courts in the matters of inheritance, marriage, divorce, family relationship and charitable trusts. Criminal Justice is administered by the courts constituted under the Code of Criminal Procedure, namely major courts, minor courts and magistrates' courts. Serious crimes are tried by major courts, which are composed of a President and 2 members and have the power to pass the death sentence. Major Courts are, as a rule, presided over by a Judge of the High Court appointed to a Provincial Circuit

1128

SUDAN

or a Province Judge. There is a right of appeal to the Chief Justice against any decision or order of a Major Court, and all its findings and sentences are subject to confirmation by him. Lesser crimes are tried by Minor Courts consisting of 3 Magistrates and presided over by a Second Class Magistrate, and by Magistrates' Courts. Religion. In 1980 about 73% of the population was Moslem. The population of the 12 northern provinces is almost entirely Moslem (Sunni), while the majority of the 6 southern provinces are animist (18%) or Christian (9%). Education (1980). 5,729 primary schools had l-4m. pupils; there were 428,703 pupils in secondary schools and 28,985 in tertiary education. In 1979 Khartoum University with 10 faculties had 8 ,777 students. The Khartoum branch of Cairo University with 4 faculties had about 5,000 students and the Islamic University of Omdurman with 3 faculties had 1,472 students. Juba University, founded in 1975 with 5 faculties had 425 students. Health. In 1976 the Ministry of Health maintained 151 hospitals, 1,500 dispensaries and dressing stations, 139 health centres and 620 clinics (with together 17,324 beds) and 1,652 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Sudan in Great Britain (3 Cleveland Row, London, SW1A 1DD) Ambassador: Sayed Ibrahim Mohamed Ali (accredited 23 July 1985). Of Great Britain in Sudan (PO Box No. 801, Khartoum) Ambassador: John Beaven. Of Sudan in the USA (2210 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Salah Ahmed. Of the USA in Sudan (Sharia Ali Abdul Latif, Khartoum) Ambassador: Hume A. Horan. Of Sudan to the United Nations Ambassador: Amin M. Abdoun. Books of Reference Sudan Almanac. Khartoum (annual) Daly, M. W„ Sudan. [Bibliography] Oxford1 and Santa Barbara, 1983 G u r d o n , C S u d a n in Transition: A Political Risk Analysis. London, 1986 Holt, P. M., A Modern History of the Sudan. "New York, 3rd ed. 1979 Iten, O., Le Soudan. Zurich, 1983

SURINAME

Capital: Paramaribo Population: 370,000 (1984) GNP per capita: US$2,980 (1984)

H I S T O R Y . At the peace of Breda (1667) between Great Britain and the United Netherlands, Suriname was assigned to the Netherlands in exchange for the colony of New Netherland in North America, and this was confirmed by the treaty of Westminster of Feb. 1674. Since then Suriname has been twice in British possession, 1799-1802 (when it was restored to the Batavian Republic at the peace of Amiens) and 1804-16, when it was returned to the Kingdom of the Netherlands according to the convention of London of 13 Aug. 1814, confirmed at the peace of Paris of 20 Nov. 1815. On 25 Nov. 1975, Suriname gained full independence and was admitted to the U N on 4 Dec. 1975. On 25 Feb. 1980 the Governtffelirwas ousted in a coup, and a National Military Council (NMC) established. A further coup on 13 Aug. replaced several members of the NMC, and the State President. Other attempted coups took place in 1981 and 1982, with the N M C retaining control. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Suriname is situated on the north coast of South America and bounded on the north by the Atlantic ocean, on the east by the Marowijne River, which separates it from French Guiana, on the west by the Corantijn River, which separates it from Guyana, and on the south by forests and savannas, which separate it from Brazil. Area, 163,820 sq. km. Census population (1980), 354,860. Estimate (1984) 370,000. The capital, Paramaribo, had (1971 census) 103,738 inhabitants. Annual rate of growth decreased from 4-2% during 1950-64 to 2% during 1964-71, mainly through severe migration primarily to the Netherlands. It is estimated that Suriname lost a total of 150,000 persons by migration (1975-80). Suriname is divided into 9 districts (populations census 1980): Paramaribo (urban district), 67,905; Commewijne, 14,351; Coronie, 2,777; Marowijne, 23,402; Nickerie, 34,480; Saramacca, 10,335; Suriname, 166,494; Brokopondo, 20,249 and Para, 14,867. The official languages are Dutch and English. English is widely spoken next to Hindi, Javanese and Chinese as inter-group communication. A vernacular, called 'Sranan Tongo' or 'Surinamese', is used as a lingua franca. In 1976 it was announced that Spanish would become the nation's principal working language. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with uniformly high temperatures and rainfall. There is no recognized dry season. Paramaribo. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 8 9 " (2,225 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Supreme power remains with the National Military Council ruling through an appointed Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Constitution has been suspended, and the 39-member elected legislature (Staten) replaced by an advisory Assembly. The state of emergency ended in Feb. 1986. Elections are promised for 1988. Head of State, Chairman of National Military Council: Lieut.-Col. Deysi Bouterse. Flag: Horizontally green, red, green with the red of double width with yellow 5pointed star in centre of red bar. DEFENCE Army. Armed forces of the Republic of Suriname consist of regular local officers 1129

1130

SURINAME

and conscripted personnel with a strength of about 2,535 in 1987. Equipment includes 3 Defender twin-engined light transports operated alongside Cessna 206 liaison aircraft. Officers' ranks were abolished in Feb. 1986. Navy. The flotilla comprises 3 patrol vessels, 3 coastal patrol craft, 3 river patrol launches and 1 coastal cutter all built in the Netherlands. In 1987 personnel totalled 125 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Suriname is a member of UN, OAS and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. For 15 years from independence approximately 3,500m. guilders is available from the Netherlands to carry out an extensive social and economic development programme. Budget. The expenditures and local revenues (derived from import, export and excise duties, taxes on houses and estates, personal imports and some indirect taxes) are as follows (in 1,000 Suriname guilders): Revenues Expenditures

1978 623,100 650,500

1979 429,800 412,500

1980 480,400 454,900

1981 527,000 569,700

1982 556,600 657,900

1983 509,300 711,900

Outstanding loans in 1983: Local, 491 • lm.; foreign, 37-3m. Suriname guilders. Public debt in 1980,100 • 7m. Suriname guilders. Currency. Notes ranging from 5 to 1,000 Suriname guilders are legal tender. Currency notes of 1 -00 and 2 • 50 guilders are issued by the Government. In March 1987, US$1 = 1 79 Suriname guilders; £1 sterling=2 83 Suriname guilders. Banking. The Central Bank of Suriname is a bankers' bank and also a bank of issue; the Surinaamsche Bank, the Algemene Bank Nederland and the Handels-, Kredieten Industriebank, are commercial banks; the Suriname People's Credit Bank operates under the auspices of the Government; Surinaamse Postspaarbank (postal savings bank); Surinaamse Hypotheekbank NV (mortgage bank); Surinaamse Investerings Mij. NV (investment bank); Agentschap van de Maatschappij tot financiering van het Nationaal Herstel NY (long-term investments); National Development Bank; The Agrarian Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 1,610m. kwh. Minerals. Bauxite is the most important mineral; it is being mined in the Suriname and Marowijne districts but in 1987 several mines have been closed by attacks by anti-govemment rebels. Fresh deposits have been found in the western areas. The ore is exported mainly to USA and the Dominican Republic, but partly processed locally into alumina and aluminium. Production (1983 in 1,000 tonnes): Bauxite, 2,641; alumina, 1,084; aluminium, 34 • 5. Agriculture. Agriculture is restncted to the alluvial coastal zone; cultivated area in 1982, 87,442 hectares. The staple food crop is rice; 72,571 hectares of paddy were planted in 1982, chiefly in the Nickerie, Commewijne, Saramacca and Coronie districts. Principal products (in 1,000 units) in 1982: Sugar (kg) Cocoa (kg) Coffee (kg) Paddy (kg)

7,049 30 44 301,130

Maize on cob (kg) Bananas (kg) Rum 50% (litres) Molasses (litres)

211 42,399 1,047 1,891

Orange (pieces) 30,866 Grapefruit (pieces) 2,394 Coconuts (pieces) 7,177 Palm oil (kg) 5,691

Livestock (1985): 58,000 head of cattle, 4,000 sheep, 10,000 goats, 18,000 pigs, lm. poultry.

SURINAME

1131

Forestry. Suriname has great timber resources. Production in 1983 included 204,251 cu. metres of logs, 18,420 cu. metres of sleepers (1982), 18,134 cu. metres of plywood and 3,15 5 cu. metres of particle board. Fishery. The fish catch in 1980 amounted to 2,100 tonnes and the shrimp catch, 3,100 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. In 1981, there were 3 large bauxite plants, 1 alumina and 1 aluminium smelting plants, sugar- and rice-mills, 3 paint factories, 2 fruit-juice plants, 3 shrimp freezing plants, a plywood factory, timber-mills, a milk pasteurization plant, a butter and margarine factory and a number of various medium and small industries. Shortage of skilled personnel inhibits expansion. Commerce. Imports and exports in calendar years (in 1 m. Suriname guilders): Imports Exports

1979

733-5 792-7

1980

1981

900-3 1,013-7 918-2 845-7 ' Estimate.

1982

921-2 765-1

1983'

762-5 605-4

Principal exports in 1982 (in 1,000 Suriname guilders): Alumina, 411,500; bauxite, 52,400; aluminium, 124,000; rice, 72,100; shrimp, 53,300; wood and wood products, 20,600; bananas, 13,200. Principal imports in 1982 (in 1,000 Suriname guilders): Raw and auxiliary materials, 356,700; fuels and lubricants, 209,900; investment goods, 117,800; foodstuffs, cars and motorcycles, 73,100; textile yam and fabrics, 9,600. Total trade between Suriname and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982

7,593 10,586

1983

11,584 8,914

1984

18,316 9,593

1985

15,405 9,398

1986

15,554 9,743

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 1,335 km of main roads. Two of them lead from Paramaribo to the bauxite centres of Smalkalden (29 km) and Paranam (30 km) and to the airport of Zanderij (49 km). Another main road runs across the districts of Saramacca (71 km) and Coronie (68 km), a fourth across the Commewijne district (41 km) and a fifth in the Marowijne district, from the bauxite centre Moengo to Albina (45 km). The 'East-West connexion' is almost completed, linking the Corantijn and the Marowijne rivers (375 km). In 1983 there were 29,418 passenger cars, 9,452 trucks, 1,813 buses, 31,051 powered bicycles and 1,438 motorcycles. Railway. There is a single-track railway, running from Onverwacht to Bronsweg (86 km); part of the track, from Paramaribo to Onverwacht (34 km) has been removed. Another single-track railway runs from Apoera to the Bakhuis Mountains. Aviation. Regular air services are maintained by KLM, SLM, Aero Cubano and Cruzeiro do Sul. The international airfield at Zanderij is capable of handling all types of planes. Suriname Airways Ltd provides daily services between all major districts and maintains also a charter service. In 1975, 1,205 aircraft landed at Zanderij airport with 40,416 passengers and 1,225 tons of incoming mail and freight. Shipping. The Royal Netherlands Steamship Co. plies between Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg and Paramaribo, and New York, Baltimore, New Orleans and Paramaribo. Regular sailings are made to Georgetown, Ciudad Bolivar and most Caribbean ports. The Suriname Navigation Co. maintains services from Paramaribo to Georgetown and Cayenne, and once a month to the Caribbean area. A French and an Italian company maintain passenger services to Europe. The Alcoa Steamship Co. has a fortnightly service to New York, Balti-

1132

SURINAME

more, Mobile and New Orleans; a Japanese line sails once a month from Hong Kong and Yokohama to Paramaribo; the Boomerang Line maintains a monthly freight and passenger service between Suriname and Australia. In 1981, 1,021 vessels totalling 4-93m. GRT entered Paramaribo. Post and Broadcasting. Automatic telephone service links most of the districts in the interior. In 1982 there were 27,495 telephones. Wireless telephone connects Suriname with the Netherlands, USA, Curaçao, Guyana, French Guiana and Trinidad. There are 6 broadcasting and 1 television stations. In 1974 there were 170,000 radios and 36,000 TV sets. Automatic telex was established in 1972. Cinemas. In 1981 there were 18 cinemas and 1 drive-in cinema. Newspapers (1983). There is one daily newspaper, De Ware Tijd. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a court ofjustice, whose members are nominated by the President. There are 3 cantonal courts. Religion. There is entire religious liberty. At the end of 1983 the main religious bodies were: Hindus, 97,170; Roman Catholics, 80,922; Moslems, 69,638; Moravian Brethren, 55,625; Reformed, 6,265; Lutheran, 2,695; Jehovah's Witnesses, 1,626; Seventh Day Adventists, 1,061 ; others, 24,627. Education. In 1980-81 there were 285 primary schools with 2,803 teachers and 75,139 pupils, and there were 1,854 teachers and 29,790 pupils at secondary schools. There wère 5 technical schools with (1978-79) 249 teachers and 4,394 students, and 5 teacher-training colleges with 148 teachers and 1,275 students. There was also a University with 2,353 students and 15 5 teaching stafT. Social Security. There were (1980) 13 modern hospitals in the country, 4 of which are operated by missions, 2 by a private company, 1 by the military forces and 6 by the Government. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Suriname Ambassador: D. P. Smale (resides in Georgetown). Of Suriname in the USA (2600 Virginia Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Donald A. McLeod. Of the USA in Suriname (Dr Sophie Redmondstraat 129, Paramaribo) Ambassador: Robert E. Barbour. Of Suriname to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Statistical Information: The General Bureau of Statistics in Paramaribo was established on 1 Jan. 1947. Its publications comprise trade statistics, Suriname in Figures (including, from 1953, the former Handelsstatistiek) and Statistische Berichten. Economische Voorlichting Suriname. Ministry of Economic Affairs, Paramaribo Annual Report of the Central Bank of Suriname

SWAZILAND

Capital: Mbabane Population. 676,049 (1986) GNP per capita. US$900 (1984)

H I S T O R Y . The Swazi migrated into the country to which they have given their name, in the last half of the 18th century. They settled first in what is now southern Swaziland, but moved northwards under their chief, Sobhuza-known also to the Swazi as Somhlolo. Sobhuza died in 1838 and was succeeded by Mswati. The further order of succession has been Mbandzeni and Bhunu, whose son, Sobhuza II, was installed as King of the Swazi nation in 1921 after a long minority. The independence of the Swazis was guaranteed in the conventions of 1881 and 1884 between the British Government and the Government of the South African Republic. In 1890, soon after the death of Mbandzeni, a provisional government was'established representative of the Swazis, the British, and the. South African Republic Governments. In 1894 the South African Republic was given powers of protection and administration. In 1902, after the conclusion of the Boer War, a special commissioner took charge, and under an order-in-council in 1903 the Governor of the Transvaal administered the territory, through the Special Commissioner. Swaziland became independent on 6 Sept. 1968. On 25 April 1967 the British Government gave the country internal self-government. It changed the country's status to that of a protected state with the Ngwenyama, Sobhuza II, recognized as King of Swaziland and head of state. King Sobhuza died on 21 Aug. 1982. On 25 April 1986, King Mswati III was installed as King of Swaziland. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Swaziland is bounded on the north, west and south by the Transvaal Province, and on the east by Mozambique and Zululand. The area is 6,705 sq. miles (17,400 sq. km). The country is divided geographically into 4 longitudinal regions running from north to south; 3 of roughly equal width-Highveld (westernmost), Middleveld, Lowveld-and the Lubombo plateau in the east. The mountainous region on the west rises to an altitude of over 6,000 ft (1,800 metres). The Middleveld is mostly between 1,700 and 3,000 ft, while the Lowveld has an average height of not more than 1,000 ft (300 metres). Population (census 1986), 676,049. Mbabane, the administrative capital (census 1976,23,109). The main urban areas with 1983 populations are: Manzini (18,818); Havelock Mine (4,838); Siteki (1,362); Big Bend (2,083); Mhlume (3,921); Nhlangano (2,097) and Pigg's Peak (2,192). C L I M A T E . A temperate climate with two seasons. Nov. to March is the wet season, when temperatures range from mild to hot, with frequent thunderstorms. The cool, dry season from May to Sept. is characterised by clear, bright sunny days. Mbabane. Jan. 68°F (20°C), July 54"F (12-2'C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,402 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Britain's protection ended at independence, when a Constitution similar to the 1967 Constitution was brought into force. The general elections (by universal adult franchise) in April 1967 gave the royalist and traditional Imbokodvo National Movement all 24 seats. The Parliament consists of a House of Assembly, with 24 elected and 6 nominated members and the Attorney-General, who has no vote, and a Senate comprising 12 members, 6 of whom are elected by the House of Assembly and 6 appointed by the King. The executive authority is vested in the King and exercised through a Cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister, and consisting of the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Minister and up to 8 other ministers. In April 1973 the King assumed supreme power and the Constitution was suspended and in 1976 it was abolished. On 28 Oct. 1983 a general election took place to elect an electoral 1133

1134

SWAZILAND

college of 80 members. This college elected 40 members for the National Assembly. The Queen Regent nominated 10 additional members. His Majesty the King: Mswati III. In Dec. 1986, the Cabinet was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Sotja E. Dlamini. Foreign Affairs: S. J. S. Sibanyoni. Labour and Public Service: Prince Phiwokwakhe Dlamini. Agriculture and Co-operatives: H. S. Mamba. Commerce, Industry and Tourism: D. Von Wissel. Works and Communications: K. Mtetwa. Education: Prince Khuzulwandle Dlamini. Finance: B.S. Dlamini. Health: Chief Sipho Shongwe. Justice: D. J. Matse. Interior and Immigration: P. Mamba. Defence and Youth: Brig. F. Dube. Natural Resources, Land Utilization and Energy: M. M. Mnisi. National flag. Horizontally 5 unequal stripes of blue, yellow, crimson, yellow, blue; in the centre of the crimson strip an African shield of black and white, behind which are 2 assegais and a staff, all laid horizontally. Local Government. The country is divided into the 4 regions of Shiselweni, Lubombo, Manzini and Hhohho. They are administered by Regional Administrators. DEFENCE Army Air Wing. First military aircraft acquired by Swaziland, in mid-1979, were 2 Israeli-built Arava light twin-turboprop transports with underwing weapon attachments for light attack duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Swaziland is a member of UN, OAU, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in 1,000 emalangeni) for financial years ending 31 March: 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 Revenue Expenditure

208,780 227,798

218,317 225,575

252,416 263,294

Currency. The currency in circulation in Swaziland is the emalangeni, but remains in the rand monetary area. In March 1987, £1=3-32 emalangeni; US$l=2-07 emalangeni. Banking. Barclays Bank International and the Standard Bank Ltd maintain branches at Mbabane and Manzini; sub-branches and agencies are operated in 17 other places. Bank rates are those in force throughout South Africa and are prescribed by the main South African offices of the 2 banks. The Swaziland Credit and Savings Bank, now known as The Swazi Bank, a statutory body, was opened in 1965. It specializes in credit for agriculture and low-cost housing. Its head office is in Mbabane and it has branches or agencies at 3 other places. A fourth bank, The Bank of Credit and Commerce International opened in Sept. 1978; its head office is in Manzini and it has a branch in Mbabane. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 84m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Swaziland produces asbestos from the Havelock Mine (25,130 tonnes in 1985). Coal is mined at Mpaka (166,079 tonnes in 1985). Quarry stone is also mined (83,903 cu. metres in 1985). A railway has been built from the Ngwenya haematite deposits to Goba, in Mozambique, chiefly for the transportation of iron ore. The extensive deposits of low-volatile bituminous coal in the Lowveld are being worked to provide coal for the railway, sugar-mills and export.

SWAZILAND

1135

Agriculture. In 1983 the cultivated area was 125,350 hectares, the grazing area 1,147,255 hectares and the commercial forest area 100,916 hectares. The main crops are sugar, citrus and rice, all of which are grown under irrigation, and cotton, maize (the staple product), sorghum, tobacco and pineapples. It is usually necessary to import maize from South Africa. Sugar, first produced in 1958, and woodpulp and other forest products are the two main agricultural exports. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 620,000; goats, 310,000; sheep, 37,000; poultry, lm. C O M M E R C E . By agreement with the Republic of South Africa, Swaziland is united in a customs union with the republic and receives a pro rata share of the customs dues collected. Total fexports (1984) amounted to E331,615,400, of which E104,937,300 to the Republic of South Africa. The chief items were (in El,000): Sugar, 140,565; unbleached woodpulp, 66,771 ; wood and wood products, 22,706; citrus fruit, 20,987; chrysolite asbestos, 17,937; canned fruit and juices, 17,890; manufactures (including engineering products, clothing and textiles), 14,644. TotarImports (April 1984-March 1985) amounted to E661,546,000, of which E604,752,000 from the Republic of South Africa, and included (in El,000): Machinery and transport equipment, 177,562; minerals, fuels and lubricants, 107,120; manufactured items, 65,159; food and live animals, 52,765; chemicals and chemical products, 34,593. Total trade between Swaziland and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 1982 1983 1984 1 985 1986 23,884 40,049 23,965 41,786 41,281 48,194 7,132 7,654 3,536 2,430 3,122 3,922

Tourism. There were 122,905 visitors in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There is daily (except Sundays) communication by railway motor-buses between Manzini, Mbabane and Breyten; Manzini, Mankayana and Piet Retief. There are631 km of tarred trunk roads. Total length of roads (1983) 2,723 km. Railways. In 1985 the system comprised 370 km of route, and carried 863,000 tonnes of freight. Aviation. The country's chief airport is at Matsapa, near Manzini. It is served by Royal Swazi National Airways connecting with Johannesburg, Durban, Lusaka, Nairobi, Harare and Gaborone. Lesotho National Airways flies to Harare and Maputo through Matsapa. In 1986 Zambian Airways inaugurated their weekly flight to Matsapa via Gaborone. Post. There were (1986) 57 post offices, 2 telephone-telegraph agencies and 10 telephone agencies. There were, 31 Dec. 1985, 18,484 telephones, 8,349 exchange connexions and 309 telex exchange connexions. Cinemas. There were 5 cinemas in 1980 with a total seating capacity of 1,625. Newspapers. There were in 1986 two dailies, one weekly and one monthly newspaper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice. A Hiçh Court having full jurisdiction and subordinate courts presided over by Magistrates and District Officers are in existence. During 1984 there were 4,198 convictions in subordinate courts, 6,231 convictions in Swazi national courts and 224. convictions in the High Court. There is a Court of Appeal with a President and 3 Judges. It deals with appeals from the High Court. There are 16 Swazi courts of first instance, 2 Swazi courts of appeal and a Higher Swazi Court of Appeal. The channel of appeal lies from Swazi

1136

SWAZILAND

Court of first instance to Swazi Court of Appeal, to Higher Swazi Court of Appeal, to the Judicial Commissioner and thence to the High Court of Swaziland. Religion. In 1984 there were about 120,000 Christians and about 30,000 adults holding traditional beliefs. A large number of churches and missionary societies are established throughout the country and, in addition to evangelism, are doing important work in the fields of education and medicine. In the larger centres there are churches of several denominations—Protestant, Roman Catholics and others. Education. In 1986 there were 571 schools with 142,206 pupils in primary classes and 30,489 in secondary classes. The Swaziland Agricultural College and University Centre at Luyengo was opened in Oct. 1966. The College is now named the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Swaziland, which is situated in Matsapa. Technical and vocational training classes are run at the Government's Swaziland College of Technology and the Swaziland Institute of Management and Public Administration. The Government also operates a police college and the Institute of Health Sciences which trains para-medical staff for the hospitals and clinics. There are 3 teacher training colleges with 935 students in 1985-86. There were 540 students enrolled at the Swaziland College of Technology and 1,282 at the University of Swaziland in 1985-86. Health. In 1984 there were 80 doctors, 13 dentists and 1,608 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Swaziland in Great Britain (5 8 Pont St., London SW1X 0AE) High Commissioner: George Mbikwakhe Mamba (accredited 16 Feb. 1978). Of Great Britain in Swaziland (Allister Miller St., Mbabane) High Commissioner: J. G. Flynn. Of Swaziland in the USA (4301 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Peter H. Mtetwa. Of the USA in Swaziland {PO Box 199, Mbabane) Ambassador: Harvey F. Nelson, Jr. Of Swaziland to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Timothy L. L. Dlamini. Books of Reference Booth, A., Swaziland: Tradition and Change in a Southern African Kingdom. Aldershot and Boulder, 1984 Grotpeter, J. J., Historical Dictionary of Swaziland. Metuchen, 1975 Jones, D., Aid and Development in Southern Africa. London, 1977 Matsebula, J. S. M., A History of Swaziland. London, 1972 Nyeko, B., Swaziland. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982

SWEDEN

Capital: Stockholm Population: 8 -4m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 11,510 ( 1984)

Konungariket Sverige

HISTORY. Organized as an independent unified state in the 10th century, Sweden became a constitutional monarchy in 1809. In 1809 she also ceded Finland to Russia. In 1815 German possessions were ceded to Prussia and Sweden was united with Norway, which union lasted until 1905. AREA AND POPULATION. The first census took place in 1749, audit.was repeated at first every third year, and, after 1775, every fifth year. Since 1860 a general census has been taken every 10 years and, in addition, in 1935,1945,1965 and 1975. Latest census figures: 1940, 6,371,432 (annual increase since 1935: 0-38%); 1950, 7,041,829 (1 1% since 1945); 1960, 7,495,316 (0-64% since 1950); 1965, 7,766,424 (1 04% since 1960); 1970, 8,076,903 (1 04% since 1965); 1975, 8,208,544(1 02% since 1970); 1980,8,320,438 (1 01% since 1975). Land area: sq. km 6,488 6,989 6,061 10,563 9,944 8,451 11,166 3,140 2,941 6,089 4,939 5,454 5,141 11,395 7,937 17,582 8,520 6,302 28,264 18,191 21,711 49,915 55,401 98,916

Counties (Län) Stockholm Uppsala Södermanland Östergötland Jönköping Kronoberg Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Kristianstad Malmöhus Hailand Göteborg and Bohus Älvsborg Skaraborg Värmland Örebro Västmanland Kopparberg Gävleborg Västernorrland Jämtland Västerbotten Norrbotten Total

411,503' 1

Census population 15 Sept. 1980 1,527,330 243,273 252,515 393,141 303,354 173,619 241,851 55,362 153,880 280,071 743,746 230,679 711,934 425,189 269,715 284,477 274,580 259,789 287,250 294,165 268,385 135,084 243,723 267,321 8,320,438

Estimated population 31 Dec. 1985 1,578,299 251,852 249,701 393,585 300,753 173,972 238,176 56,144 150,959 280,354 750,140 240,063 715,728 426,698 270,468 279,183 270,211 254,761 283,880 289,153 262,314 134,190 245,255 262,300

Pop. per sq. km 31 Dec. 1985 243 36 41 37 30 21 21 18 51 46 152 44 139 37 34 16 32 40 10 16 12 3 4 3

8,358,139

20

Total area of Sweden, 449,964 sq. km.

On 31 Dec. 1985 there were4,127,110malesand4,231,029 females. On 31 Dec. 1985 aliens in Sweden numbered 388,641. Of these, 138,622 were Finns, 38,409 Yugoslavs, 26,445 Norwegians, 25,105 Danes, 21,538 Turks, 15,455 Poles, 11,972 West Germans, 9,379 Greeks, 9,238 Chileans, 8,939 Britons, 8,342 Iranians, 6,374 Americans and 4,009 Italians. 1137

1138

SWEDEN

Vital statistics for calendar years:

1982 1983 1984 1985

To mothers Total living single, divorced births or widowed 92,748 38,915 91,780 40,059 93,889 41,887 98,463 45,640

Stillborn 374 340 381 388

Marriages 37,051 36,210 36,849 38,297

Divorces 20,766 20,618 20,377 19,763

Deaths exclusive of still-born 90,671 90,791 90,483 94,032

Immigration: 1982,30,381; 1983,27,495; 1984,31,486; 1985,33,134. Emigration: 1982,28,381; 1983,25,269; 1984,22,825; 1985,22,041. In 1860 the urban population numbered 435,000 (11% of the total population) and on 31 Dec. 1965, 4,177,212 (54%); including other densely populated areas, the urbanized population in 1965 was 77 -4%. On 15 Sept. 1980, population in densely populated areas was 6,910,431 (83-1%). Population of largest communities, 31 Dec. 1985: Stockholm 659,030 Halmstad 77,151 Kalmar 54,165 Gôteborg 425,495 Karlstad 74,439 Falun 51,653 Malmô 229,936 Skellefteâ 74,282 49,785 Môlndal Uppsala 70,209 Solna 49,648 154,859 Huddinge Norrkoping 118,567 69,752 Trollhàttan Kristianstad 49,173 Luleâ Kungsbacka Ôrebro 118,043 66,557 48,760 Vàsterâs 117,706 Vàxjô 66,554 Hâssleholm 48,446 Linkôping 116,838 Botkyrka 66,326 48,212 Sollentuna Jônkôping 107,362 Nykôping 64,404 Skôvde 46,431 Helsingborg 105,468 Haninge 61,166 Varberg 46,253 Borâs 99,963 Ôrnskôldsvik 59,891 45,858 Borlânge Sundsvall 93,181 Nacka 59,688 Uddevalla 45,816 Eskilstuna 88,528 Karlskrona 59,393 Norrtàlje 42,204 Ostersund Gàvle 87,784 56,446 Motala 41,350 Umeâ 85,108 56,144 Sandviken Gotland 40,423 Lund 82,015 Jârfalla 56,020 Vâstervik 39,975 Sôdertàlje 79,764 54,185 Tâby Befolkningsforandringar (Population Changes). Annual. 3 vols. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm Folkmanga31 Dec. (Population). Annual. 3 vols. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm

C L I M A T E . North Sweden suffers from severe winters, with snow lying for 4-7 months. Summers are fine but cool, with long daylight hours. Further south, winters are less cold, summers are warm and rainfall generally well-distributed over the year, though with a slight summer maximum. Stockholm. Jan. 24-4T (-4-2°C), July 59-9°F(15-5°C). Annual rainfall 25" (632 mm). R E I G N I N G KING. Carl XVI Gustaf, born 30 April 1946, succeeded on the death of his grandfather Gustaf VI Adolf, 15 Sept. 1973, married 19 June 1976 to Silvia Renate Sommerlath, born 23 Dec. 1943 (Queen of Sweden). Daughter and Heir Apparent: Crown Princess Victoria Ingrid Alice Désirée, Duchess of Vastergotland, born 14July 1977; son: Prince Carl Philip Edmund Bertil, DukeofVârmland, born 13 May 1979; daughter: Princess Madeleine Thérèse Amelie Josephine, Duchess ofHâlsingland and Gâstrikland, born 10 June 1982. Sisters of the King. Princess Margaretha, born 31 Oct. 1934, married 30 June 1964 to Mr John Ambler; Princess Birgitta (Princess of Sweden), born 19 Jan, 1937, married 25 May 1961 (civil marriage) and 30 May 1961 (religious ceremony) to Johann Georg, Prince of Hohenzollern; Princess Désirée, born 2 June 1938, married 5 June 1964 to Baron Niclas Silfverschiôld; Princess Christina, born 3 Aug. 1943, married 15 June 1974 to Tord Magnuson. Uncles of the King. Sigvard, Count of Wisborg, bom on 7 June 1907; Prince Bertil, Duke of Halland, born on 28 Feb. 1912, married 7 Dec. 1976 to Lilian May Davies, bom 30 Aug. 1915 (Princess of Sweden, Duchess ofHalland); Carl Johan, Count of Wisborg, bom on 31 Oct. 1916. Aunt of the King. Princess Ingrid (Princess of Sweden), bom 28 March 1910, mar-

SWEDEN

1139

ried 24 May 1935 to Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark (King Frederik IX), died 14 Jan. 1972. The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden, with the dates of their accession from the accession of the House of Vasa: House of Vasa GustafI 1521 Eric XIV 1560 Johan III 1568 Sigismund 1592 Carl IX 1599 Gustaf II Adolf 1611 Christina 1632 House of Pfalz-Zweibrucken Carl X Gustaf 1654 Carl XI 1660

House of Pfalz-Zweibrucken (contd.) Carl XII 1697 UlricaEleonora 1719 House of Hesse FredrikI 1720 House ofHolsteinGottorp AdolfFredrik 1751 Gustaf III 1771 Gustaf IV Adolf 1792 Carl XIII 1809

House of Bernadotte Carl XIV Johan 1818 Oscar I 1844 CarlXV 1859 Oscar II 1872 GustafV 1907 Gustaf VI Adolf 1950 Carl XVI Gustaf 1973

The royal family of Sweden have a civil list of 12-45m. kronor, this does not include the maintenance of the royal palaces. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Sweden's present Constitution came into force in 1975 and replaced the 1809 Constitution. Under the present Constitution Sweden is a representative and parliamentary democracy. Parliament (Riksdag) is declared to be the central organ of government. The executive power of the country is vested in the Government, which is responsible to Parliament. The King is Head of State, but he does not participate in the government of the country. Since 1971 Parliament has consisted of one chamber. It has 349 members, who are elected for a period of 3 years in direct, general elections. Every man and woman who has reached the age of 18 years on election-day itself, and who is not under wardship has the right to vote and to stand for election. The manner of election to the Riksdag is proportional. The country is divided into 28 constituencies. In these constituencies 310 members are elected. The remaining 39 seats constitute a nation-wide pool intended to give absolute proportionality to parties that receive at least 4% of the votes. A party receiving less than 4% of the votes in the country is, however, entitled to participate in the distribution of seats in a constituency, if it has obtained at least 12% of the votes cast there. The Riksdag, elected 1985, has 159 Social Democrats, 76 Conservatives, 44 Centre Party, 51 Liberals and 19 Communists. The Social Democratic Cabinet was composed as follows in Jan. 1987: Prime Minister and Minister with special responsibility for Research and Environment: Ingvar Carlsson. Agriculture: Mats Hellstrom. Finance: Kjell-Olof Feldt. Health and Social Affairs: Gertrud Sigurdsen. Housing: Hans Gustafsson. Labour: Anna-Greta Leijon. Special responsibility for international development co-operation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Lena Hjelm-Wallen. Industry: Thage Peterson. Foreign Affairs: Sten Andersson. Justice: Sten Wickbom. Transport and Communications: Sven Hulterstrom. Education and Cultural Affairs: Lennart Bodstrom. Education, with special responsibility for cultural affairs, the mass media and comprehensive schools: Bengt Goransson. Labour, with special responsibility for immigrant affairs: Georg Andersson. Environment and Energy: Birgitta Dahl. Defence: Roine Carlsson. Public Administration: Bo Holmberg. Foreign Trade: Anita Gradin. Special responsibility for wages in public administration, Ministry of Finance: Bengt Johansson. Special responsibility for family policy, the disabled and elderly, Ministry of Health and Social Affairs: Bengt Lindquist. Special responsibility for tourism, recreation and sports, youth, Ministry of Agriculture: Ulf Lonnquist. Ministerial decisions are formally made by the Cabinet collectively and not (with some exceptions) by individual ministers.

1140

SWEDEN

Public administration in Sweden is characterized by a unique degree of functional decentralization. The Ministries are not really administrative agencies. Their main function is to prepare the decisions of the Cabinet; such decisions may concern bills for the Riksdag, general government directives and higher appointments. Only to a small extent does the Cabinet make individual administrative decisions. The routine administrative work is attended to by the central boards (céntrala ámbetsverk). Each board is in principle subordinate to the government; its sphere of activity depends on the appropriations granted by the Riksdag. The Government often asl« the boards' opinion on proposed measures. Nationalflag: Blue with a yellow Scandinavian cross. National anthem Du gamla, du fria, du fjállhóga nord (words by R. Dybeck, 1844; folk-tune). The official language is Swedish. The capital is Stockholm. Regional and Local Government. For national administrative purposes Sweden is divided into 24 counties (lan), in each of which the central government is represented by a state county administrative board (lánsstyrelse). The governor (landshovding), appointed by the government, is chairman of the board, which in addition to the governor has 14 members elected by the county council. Local government and the levying of local taxes are based on the Instrument of Government (the Swedish Constitution) and are regulated by the local government act and special acts. According to the local government act Sweden is divided into municipalities in which all men and women who have reached the age of 18 on election-day itself, and not under wardship, are entitled to elect the municipal council. These councils are named kommunfullmaktige. The number of municipalities has, since 1951, been reduced from about 2,500 to 284. The municipalities deal with a great variety of different tasks such as social welfare, education and culture, public health, town planning, housing etc. Each county, except Gotland, which consists of only one municipality, has a county council (landsting) elected by men and women who enjoy local suffrage. The county councils chiefly administer the health services and medical care. The municipalities of Gothenburg and Malmó do not belong to county councils. Ecclesiastical affairs in all parishes with more than 500 inhabitants entitled to vote are dealt with by church councils (kyrkofullmaktige); smaller parishes may make the same arrangement. All elections are conducted on a proportional basis. Boalt, G., The Political Process. Stockholm, 1984 Gustafsson, A., Local Government in Sweden. Stockholm, 1983 Lewin, L., Jansson, B., and Sorbom, D., The Swedish Electorate ¡887-1968. Stockholm, 1972 Stromberg, L., and Westerstahl, J., The New Swedish Communes. Gothenburg, 1984 Vinde, P., Swedish Government Administration. 2nd rev. ed. Stockholm, 1978

D E F E N C E . A Supreme Commander is, under the Government, in command of the three services. He is assisted by the Defence Staff under a chief of staff. The military forces are recruited on the principle of national service, supplemented by voluntarily enlisted personnel who form the permanent cadres for training purposes, staff duties, etc. Liability to service commences at the age of 18, and lasts till the end of the 47th year. The period of training for the Army and Navy is 7'/2-15 months and for the Airforce 8-15 months. The territorial organization consists of 6 military commands each one under a general officer commanding. Army. The C.-in-C. of the Swedish Army has at his disposal the Army Staff under a chief of staff. The peace-time Army consists for training purposes of 16 infantry, 2 cavalry, 6 armour, 5 artillery, 5 AA, 3 engineer, 2 signal and 3 Army Service Corps units, most of which are called 'regiments' (regementen). The Army Aviation Corps comprises 2 Battalions operating 18 Bulldog aircraft and 20 JetRanger helicopters for observation, 12 AB.204B transport helicopters, and 25 Hughes 269 helicopters and 2 DO 27 aircraft for training. The Army is organized and equipped with regard to the varying geographical

SWEDEN

1141

and climatic conditions of the country. The voluntary Home Guard (Hemvarnet) with a total strength of more than 100,000 men ready for action within 2 hours, raised during the War continues to be in force. Sweden's ground forces, total 850,000 men (including the voluntary Home Guard), can be said to consist of an Army which for the most part is on indefinite leave, but which on short notice can be ready for action. One of the basic principles of the Swedish system of mobilization is the local recruitment of as many units as possible. The storage of equipment and supplies is decentralized on more than 3,000 places. The active personnel of the Army comprises (1987) about 47,000, including 38,000 conscripts doing basic training. Navy. The C.-in-C. of the Swedish Navy is assisted by the Chief of Naval Staff, the Chief of Naval Material and the Commander-in-Chief of Coastal Fleet. The Navy is divided into two branches, the Navy and the Royal Coast Artillery. There are 4 Naval Command Areas: those of the southern, eastern, western and northern coasts. The coast artillery defence areas are those of the Stockholm archipelago, Blekinge, Gothenburg, Gotland and Norrland. There are 5 coastal artilleryregiments. There are 12 diesel-powered patrol submarines, 2 missile-armed small corvettes (leaders for fast attack craft), 28 fast missile craft, 4 fast torpedo boats, 4 patrol craft, 3 minelayers, 1 mine countermeasures support ship, 13 coastal minelayers, 4 new minehunters, 9 coastal minesweepers, 18 inshore -minesweepers, 32 coastal patrol craft, 2 mine transports, 1 surveillance ship, 3 torpedo recovery vessels, 17 tenders, 5 surveying vessels, 7 icebreakers, 3 oilers, 1 salvage vessel, 10 artillery landing craft, 83 utility landing craft, 36 minor landing craft, 2 sail training ships, 1 supply ship, 2 water carriers and 17 tugs. Four submarines, 4 missile armed fast attack craft leaders (officially classed as corvettes), 6 coastal minelayers and 3 more minehunters are under construction or projected. The Naval Air Arm comprises 10 Boeing Vertol 107 helicopters and 10 JetRanger helicopters. Three fixed-wing and 4 heavy helicopters are to be acquired for anti-submarine warfare. The personnel of the navy and coast artillery in 1987 totalled 9,700 officers and men, comprising 3,500 regulars and 6,200 national servicemen. 6,250 conscripts train annually. The Coast Guard operates 130 cutters, patrol boats and service craft and lists 5 aircraft. Personnel in 1987 numbered 570. Air Force. The C-in-C. of the Swedish Air Force has at his disposal the Air Staff under a chief of staff. The combat force consists of 3 fighter-interceptor, 3 ground-attack and 3 mixed interceptor/reconnaissance wings (flottiljer), each with 2-3 squadrons of 12-15 aircraft, including 3 reconnaissance squadrons (divisioner). Total peace-time strength ofthe combat units is 19 squadrons with nearly 400 first-line aircraft. Night and all-weather fighters are the Swedish-built Saab J35 Draken, equipping 3 squadrons, and JA37 Viggen, equipping 8 squadrons. The ground-attack wings have 5 squadrons of Saab AJ37 Viggens, and there is provision for 4 light groundattack squadrons of twin-jet Saab- 105s (Sk60s), which could be withdrawn in wartime from training units. The 3 reconnaissance squadrons have SF37 (photo) and SH37 (maritime, radar) Viggen reconnaissance aircraft; and there are transport, helicopter and other support units. The Sk60A is the Air Force's standard advanced trainer, to which pupils progress after initial training on piston-engined Bulldogs. Other trainers in service include the Sk61 Bulldog, Sk35C Draken and Sk37 Viggen. Active strength (1987) 8,000 personnel, including 4,500 conscripts. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Sweden is a member of UN and EFTA.

1142

SWEDEN

ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure of the total budget (Current and Capital) for financial years ending 30 June (in 1 m. kr.): 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84

Revenue 167,131 191,280 221,165

Expenditure 235,164 277,880 298,265 1

1984-85 1985-86'

Revenue 260,596 275,105

Expenditure 329,136 322,026

Preliminary.

The preliminary revenue and expenditure for the financial year 1 July 1985 to 30 June 1986 was as follows (in lm. kr.): Revenue Taxes: Taxes on income, capital gains and profits Statutory social security fees Taxes on property Value-added tax Other taxes on goods and services Total revenue from taxes Non-tax revenue Capital revenue Loan repayment Computed revenue Total revenue

60,411 50,819 8,159 63,524 50,172 233,085 29,692 288 7,605 4,435 275,105

Expenditure Royal Household and residences Justice Foreign Affairs Defence Health and Social Affairs Transport and Communications Ministiy of Finance Education and Cultural Affairs Agriculture Labour Housing and Physical Planning Industry Civil Service Affairs Parliament and agencies Interest on National Debt, etc. Unforeseen expenditure Changed appropriation of short-term credits Total expenditure

33 10,334 9,277 25,392 81,055 11,222 16,500 40,059 6,764 20,527 13,646 16,225 4,335 464 66,509 28 -340 322,026

On 31 Dec. 1985 the national debt amounted to 595,645m. kr. Riksgaldskontoret (National Debt Office), arsbok. Annual. Stockholm, from 1920 Riksskatteverket (National Tax Board), arsbok. Annual. Stockholm, from 1971 The Swedish Budget. Ministry of Economic Affairs and Ministry of the Budget, from 1962/63

Currency. The monetary unit is the Swedish krona, of 100 ore. In March 1987, £1 = 10-28 krona\ US$1 =6-44 krona. Gold coins do not exist as a currency. Central banknotes for 5,10,50,100,500, 1,000 and 10,000 kr. are legal means of payment. Banking. The Riksbank, or Central Bank of Sweden, belongs entirely to the State and is managed by directors elected for 3 years by the Parliament, except the chairman, who is designated by the Government. The bank is under the guarantee of the Parliament, its capital and reserve capital are fixed by its constitution. Since 1904, only the Riksbank has the right to issue notes. On 31 Dec. 1985 its note circulation amounted to 48,095m. kr.; its gold and foreign-exchange reserves totalled 44,644m. kr. There are 15 commercial banks. On 31 Dec. 1985 their total deposits amounted to 257,840m. kr.; advances to the public amounted to 256,452m. kr. On 31 Dec. 1985 there were 139 savings banks; their total deposits amounted to 116,930m. kr.; advances to the public were 83,142m. kr. Co-operative banks had total deposits of30,264m. kr.; advances to the public were 19,801 m. kr. Sveriges Riksbank, arsbok. Annual. Stockholm, from 1908 Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken, Kvartalskrift. Quarterly Review (in English). Stockholm, from 1920

Weights and Measures. The metric system is obligatory. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Sweden is rich in hydro-power resources. The total electric energy production in 1985 was 129,600m. kwh. About 55% of this energy was produced in hydro-electric plants. Additional electric energy consumption will in the future mainly be covered by nuclear power and conventional thermal power. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz.

SWEDEN

1143

Minerals. Sweden is one of the leading exporters of iron ore. The largest deposits are found north of the polar circle in the area of Kiruna and Gallivare-Malmberget. The ore is exported via the Norwegian port of Narvik and the Swedish port of Lule&. There are also important resources of iron ore in southern Sweden (Bergslagen). The most important fields are Grangesberg and Str&ssa and the ores are shipped via the port of Oxelosund. Some of the southern deposits have, in contrast to the fields in North Sweden, a low phosphorus content. There are also some deposits of copper, lead and zinc ores especially in the Boliden area in the north of Sweden. These ores are often found together with pyrites. Non-ferrous ores, except zinc ores, are used in the Swedish metal industry and barely satisfy domestic needs. The total production of iron ores amounted to 17-8m. tons in 1984 and exports to 10-5m. tons. The production of copper ore was 364,666 tons, of lead ore 118,590 tons, of zinc ore 382,725 tons. There are also deposits of raw materials for aluminium not worked at present. In southern Sweden there are big resources of alum shale, containing oil and uranium. Agriculture. According to the farm register which is revised annually the following data was provided for 1985. The number of farms in cultivation of more than 2 "hectares of arable land, was 109,029; of these there were 64,635 of 2-20 hectares; 40,882 of 20-100 hectares; 3,512 of above 100 hectares. Of the total land area of Sweden (41,161,500 hectares), 2,921,522 1 hectares were arable land, 343,684' hectares cultivated pastures and (1981) 22,742,235 hectares forests. Chief crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats Mixed grain Peas and vetches Potatoes Sugarbeet Tame hay Oil seed

Area (1.000 hectares)' ¡983 ¡984 ¡985 346 7 325-8 286-7 64-9 64 9 48-3 659-9 686-6 710-7 432-1 458-1 474-7 660 68 6 56-1 330 45-5 49-8 37-5 39 3 37-7 52-9 52-6 51-9 696-5 691 9 676-1 172-0 169 9 172-5

Production (¡,000 tonnes) 1983 ¡984 ¡985 1,721 1,776 1,338 237 246 157 2,026 2,732 2,309 1,904 1,268 1,668 939 1,922 4,560 373

1,307 2,508 3,185 382

1,266 2,156 4,121 371

Area of rotation meadows for pasture was (in 1,000 hectares'): 1981, 192; 1982, 193; 1983,184; 1984,182; 1985,181. Total production of milk (in 1,000 tonnes); 1981, 3,514; 1982, 3,652; 1983, 3,715; 1984,3,821; 1985,3,724. Butter production in the same years was (in 1,000 tonnes): 64,69,72,78,75; and cheese 108,114,115,116,115. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 1 -8m.; sheep, 425,000; pigs, 2-6m.; poultry, 111m. Number offarm tractors in 1981,189,654; combines in 1981,48,990. The number of pelts produced in 1983-84 was as follows: Fox, 51,378; mink, 1-33m.; others, 14,704. 1

Figures refer to holdings of more than 2 hectares of arable land.

Forestry. In 1980-84 the forests covered an area of 23-6m. hectares, i.e. roughly 57% of the country's land area. Municipal and State ownership accounts for onefourth of the forests, companies own another fourth, and the remaining half is in private hands. In the felling seasons, 1983-84 and 1984-85 respectively, 51 -8m. and 50-3m. cu. metres (solid volume excluding bark) of wood were removed from the forests in Sweden. Tne sawmill, wood pulp and paper industries are all of great importance. The number of sawmills in 1984 was about 2,500,370 of which were commercial sawmills, with more than 90% of the total production of sawn hardand soft-wood. In 1985 the total production was about 11-5m. cu. metres. The wood pulp factories total output amounted to 9-lm. tons (including dissolving pulp) (dry weight). Fisheries. In 1985 the total catch of the sea fisheries was 225,907 tons, landed weight, value 712 • 9 m. kr. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Manufacturing. The most important sector of Swedish manufacturing is the

1144

SWEDEN

production of metals, metal products, machinery and transport equipment, covering almost half of the total value added by manufacturing. Production of highquality steel is an old Swedish speciality. A large part of this production is exported. The production of ordinary steel is slightly decreasing and is still short of domestic demand. The total production of steel amounted to 4- lm. tons in 1983. There is also a large production of other metals (aluminium, lead, copper) and rolled semi-manufactured goods of these metals. These basic metal industries are an important basis for the production of more developed metal products, machinery and equipment, which are to a large extent sold on the world market, i.e., hand tools, mining drills, ball-bearings, turbines, pneumatic machinery, refrigerating equipment, machinery for pulp and paper industries, etc., sewing machines, machine tools, office machinery, high-voltage electric machinery, telephone equipment, cars and trucks, ships and aeroplanes. Another important manufacturing sector is based on Sweden's forest resources. This sector includes saw-mills, plywood factories, joinery industries, pulp- and paper-mills, wallboard and particle board factories, accounting for about 20% of the total value of manufacturing. A fast increasing sector is the chemical industry, especially the petro-chemical branch. Minerals industries include production of building materials, decorative arts products of glass and china. No. of of No. establishments establishments 1984 1983 112 110 32 34 80 76 9,223 9,220

Industry groups Mining and quarrying Metal-ore mining Other mining Manufacturing Manufacture of food, bever856 ages and tobacco Textile, wearing apparel and 689 leather industries Manufacture of wood products 1,485 including furniture Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing 1,061 and publishing Manufacture of chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, 680 rubber and plastic products Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products, except products of petroleum and coal 401 Basic metal industries 161 Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery andequipment 3,782 Other manufacturing industries 105 Electricity, gas and water 820 Electricity, gas and steam 694 Water works and supply 126

849

Average no. no. of of Average wage-earners wage-earners 1983 1984 9,270 8,506 7,412 8,128 1,094 1,142 528,977 533,028 50,179

50,225

Sales value of production (gross) in lm. kr. I 1983 1984 5,667 4,764 4,113 4,966 652 901 421,228 475,963 58,370

65,568

650

25,624

25,297

9,130

10,052

1,462

46,988

47,270

29,092

39,980

1,076

66,116

66,063

57,736

68,913

696

40,369

40,983

69,329

75,336

399 161

16,571 37,882

16,309 36,961

9,274 33,724

10,076 38,297

242,298 247,170 2,950 2,750 11,542 ... 10,942 10,791 600 ...

153,258 1,315 56,26 7 54,848 1,419

173,371 1,369

3,826 104 ... 691 ...

61,418

Arbetsmarknadsstatistik (Labour Market Statistics). Monthly. National Labour Market Board, Stockholm, from 1963 Arbetsmarknadsstatistisk Arsbok (Year Book of Labour Statistics). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, from 1973 Historisk statistik for Sverige, II (Climate, land surveying, agriculture, forestry, fisheries). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, 1959 Johansson, O., The Gross Domestic Product of Sweden and its Composition 1861—1955. Stockholm, 1967 Jorberg, L., A History of Prices in Sweden 1732-1914.2 vols. Stockholm, 1972 Thalberg, B., and Marno, N., eds., Economic Growth, Welfare and Industrial Relations: A Comparative Study of Japan and Sweden. Tokyo, 1984 Jordbruksekonomiska meddelanden (Journal of Agricultural Economics, published monthly by the National Agricultural Market Board). Stockholm, from 1939

1145

SWEDEN

Jordbruksstatistisk arsbok (Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, from 1965 The Swedish Economy Ministry of Economic Affairs and National Institute of Economic Research. Stockholm, from 1960

Trade Unions. The Swedish Federation of Trade Unions (LO) had 24 member unions with a total membership of2,262,931 in 1985; the Swedish Central Organization of Salaried Employees (TCO) had 21, with 1,203,378; the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations (SACO-SR) had 25, with 280,457. Commerce. The imports and exports of Sweden, unwrought gold and coin not included, have been as follows (in 1 m. kr.): Imports Exports

1978 92,717 98,205

1979 122,952 118,147

1980 141,641 131,002

1981 146,040 144,876

1982 173,932 168,134

Imports and exports by products (in 1 m. kr.): Food and live animals chiefly for food Cereals and cereal preparations Vegetables and fruit Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices and manufactures thereof Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals) Beverages and tobacco Crude materials, inedible, except fuels Hides, skins and furskins; raw Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed) Cork and wood Pulp and waste paper Textile fibres (other than wool tops) and their wastes (not manufactured into yarn or fabric) Crude fertilizers and crude minerals (excluding coal, petroleum and precious stones) Metalliferous ores and metal scrap Mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials Coal, coke and briquettes Petroleum, petroleum products and related materials Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. Artificial resins and plastic materials, and cellulose esters and ethers Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, of paper or of paperboard Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s. Iron and steel Non-ferrous metals Machinery and transport equipment Power generating machinery and equipment Machinery specialized for particular industries Metal working machinery General industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s. and machine p^rts, n.e.s. Office machines and automatic data processing equipment

Imports 1984 1985 12,775 13,094 792 811 4,141 4,055

1983 200,368 210,516

1984 217,876 242,485

Exports 1984 1985 5,586 6,138 1,680 2,168 344 370

3,376

3,515

524

532

1,316 1,718

1,112 1,851

95 262

96 329

9,689 490

10,765 503

27,944 622

26,179 838

551 1,417 556

537 1,887 587

136 10,227 11,330

148 9,565 9,627

408

403

352

362

1,358 3,375

1,453 3,773

433 4,421

436 4,729

42,668 1,935

46,226 2,510

13,844 196

12,736 164

39,603 20,473

42,168 23,151

12,921 15,099

11,599 16,236

5,829

6,216

4,237

4,430

34,928

36,704

62,223

67,631

2,420

2,706

22,843

25,283

5,844 3,024 8,234 5,411 68,193

6,322 3,356 8,154 5,310 80,067

2,935 2,624 15,501 5,177 98,568

3,288 2,798 17,109 4,904 108,683

5,238

5,464

6,573

6,628

6,458 1,827

8,114 2,127

10,829 2,157

12,188 2,513

10,786

11,958

15,936

17,281

8,216

10,421

6,300

7,972

1146

SWEDEN

Telecommunications and sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment Electrical machinery apparatus and appliances, n.e.s., and electrical parts thereof (including non-electrical counterparts, n.e.s., of electrical household type equipment) Road vehicles (including air cushion vehicles) Other transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured articles

Imports 1984 1985

Exports 1984 1985

4,681

5,772

9,342

11,409

13,085 14,623 3,280 26,302

14,880 17,592 3,739 30,187

8,709 33,757 4,965 16,476

9,469 35,780 5,445 19,085

Principal import and export countries (in 1 m. kr.): Belgium-Luxembourg Denmark Federal Republic ofGermany Finland France Italy Netherlands Norway Switzerland USSR UK USA

Imports 1984 5,849 14,317 38,418 13,846 9,363 7,003 9,392 16,805 4,226 6,421 29,868 17,767

from 1985 6,651 16,354 43,618 15,941 11,331 7,978 9,532 14,730 4,651 5,607 34,361 20,445

Exports to 1984 1985 8,983 10,270 20,126 21,482 28,136 29,919 13,954 14,671 12,177 12,542 8,670 8,690 10,847 11,451 22,370 27,208 3,986 4,641 2,344 2,664 24,859 25,708 27,582 30,143

Total trade between Sweden and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): , m m 2 ]9g3 j m m 5 Imports to UK 1,673,165 2,051,931 2,416,383 2,465,582 2,756,536 Exports and re-exports from UK 1,935,264 2,937,464 2,888,625 3,006,890 2,307,900 Historisk Statistik jor Sverige, 3: Vtrikeshandel [Foreign Trade], 1732-1970. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, 1972 Vtrikeshandel, arsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Annual Bulletin]. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. 5 vols. Statistical Reports, Series H Vtrikeshandel, manadsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Monthly Bulletin]. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. Vtrikeshandel, kvartalsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Quarterly Bulletin], Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. January - December. Exports respectively imports. Statistical Reports, Series H Vtrikeshandel, drs statistik [Foreign Trade, Annual]. Official Statistics of Swedefi, Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. Imports and exports. Distribution by country and commodity according to the SITC Vtrikeshandel, arsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Annual], Official Statistics of Sweden, Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. Imports and exports. Commodities according to the CCCN.

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1986 there were 200,000 km of public roads comprising Stateadministered roads, 98,174 km, municipal, 32,000 km, private roads with subsidies, 75,687 km, of which 67,723 km were surfaced. Motor vehicles on 31 Dec. 1985 included 3,151,195 passenger cars, 231,442 buses and lorries and 26,259 motor cycles (all in use). Railways. At the end of 1985 the total length of railways was 11,745 km; 7,464 km were electrified. In 1985 the number of passengers on the railways was 90m.; weight ofgoods, 56m. tonnes. Aviation. Commercial air traffic is maintained in (1) Sweden and other parts of the world by Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), of which AB Aerotransport (ABA = Swedish Air Lines) is the Swedish partner (DDL = Danish Air Lines arid DHL = Norwegian Air; Lines being the other two); (2) only within Sweden by Linjeflyg AB. Scandinavian Airlines System have a joint paid-up capital of about Sw. kronor 733m. Capitalization of ABA, Sw. kronor 346m., pf which 50% is owned by the Government and 50% by private enterprises. Capitalisation of Linjeflyg, Sw. kronor 130m., of which 50% is owned by SAS and 50% by AB^.

SWEDEN

1147

In scheduled air traffic during 1985 the total number of km flown was 80m.; >assenger-km, 6,364-6m.; goods, 171-7m. ton-km; mail, 21-6m. ton-km. These igures represent the Swedish share of the SAS traffic (Swedish domestic and threesevenths of international traffic) and the Linjeflyg traffic. Shipping. The Swedish mercantile marine consisted on 30 June 1986 of438 vessels of 2-3m. gross tons (only vessels of at least 100 gross tons, and excluding fishing vessels and tugs). Stockholm and Goteborg, with together 194 vessels of 2-1 m. gross tons in Dec. 1985, are the two major home ports for the Swedish mercantile marine. Vessels entered from and cleared for foreign countries, exclusive of passenger liners and ferries, with cargoes and in ballast, in 1984, are as follows (only vessels of at least a gross tonnage of 75): With cargoes, 26,696 with agross tonnage of90-3m.; in ballast, 13,849 with a gross tonnage of48 0m. Post and Broadcasting. On 1 Jan. 1986 there were 5,242,497 main telephone lines. Number of combined radio and television reception fees paid at the end of 1985 was 3,257,000, of which 3m. included extra fees for colour television. As- frnm 1 April 1978, special sound broadcasting licences were discontinued. Sveriges Radio AB is a non-commercial semi-governmental corporation, transmitting 3 programmes on long-, medium-, and short-waves and on FM. There are also regional programmes. It also broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Colour programmes are broadcast by PAL system. The overseas radio-telegraph and radio-telephone services are conducted by the Swedish Telecommunications Administration. The number of post offices at the end of 1984 was 1,831. For receipts of the post and telecommunication services see the section on Economy. Cinemas (1985). There were 1,165 cinemas. Newspapers (1985). There were 188 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 4-8m.

f

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The administration of justice is entirely independent of the Government. The Justitiekansler, or Attorney General (a royal appointment) and the Justitieombudsman (Parliamentary Commissioners appointed by the Diet), exercise a check on the administration. In 1968 a reform was carried through which meant that the offices ofthe former Justitieombudsman (Ombudsman for civil affairs) and the Militieombudsman (Ombudsman for military affairs) were turned into one sole institution with 3 Ombudsmen, each styled Justitieombudsman. They exert a general supervision over all courts of law, the civil service, military laws and the military services. In 1985-86 they received altogether 3,440 cases; of these, 85 were instituted on their own initiative and 3,323 on complaints. The Riksaklagaren (a royal appointment) is the chief public prosecutor. The kingdom has a Supreme Court of Judicature and is divided into 6 Courts of Appeal districts (hovratter) and 97 district-court divisions (tingsratter). There is also a Housing Appeal Court and 12 rent and tenancy tribunals. Of the district courts 27 also serve as real estate courts and 6 as water rights courts. These district courts (or courts of first instance) deal with both civil and criminal cases. Each member of the court has an individual vote and is legally responsible for the decision. In the voting, the majority rules. When the votes are evenly divided in a criminal case, the opinion implying the least severe sentence applies, and in cases where there is no opinion that could be considered the mildest, the Chair has the casting vote, as is also the case in family civil cases and matters; petty cases are tried by the judge alone. Civil cases are tried as a rule by 3 to 4 judges or in minor cases by 1 judge. Disputes of greater consequence relating to the Marriage Code or the Code relating to Parenthood and Guardianship are tried by a judge and a namnd of 3-4 lay assessors. When cases concerning real estate are being tried the court consists of 2 qualified lawyers, 1 specialist on technical matters and 2 lay assessors.

1148

SWEDEN

Criminal cases are tried by a judge and a jury of 5 members (lay assessors) in felony cases, and of 3 members in misdemeanour cases. The cases in Courts of Appeal are generally tried by 4 or 5 judges, but the same cases, which are tried with a judge and a namnd in the first instance, are tried by 3 or 4 judges and a namnd of 2-3 members. In cases concerning real estate the court consists of a specialist on technical matters in place of one of the judges and in water-right cases of 3 or 4 judges and 1 or 2 specialists on technical water matters. Those with low incomes can receive free legal aid out of public funds. In criminal cases a suspected person has the right to a defence counsel, paid out of public funds. The Attorney-General (Justitiekanslern) arid the Parliamentary Commissioner (Justitieonibudsmantien) for the Judiciary and Civil Administration supervise the application in the public sector of acts of parliament and regulations. The Attorney-General is the Government's legal adviser and also the Public Prosecutor. The holders of the office of Parliamentary Commissioner are 4 in number. There were 76 penal and correctional institutions for offenders, with 4,332 male and 191 female inmates on 1 Oct. 1985 (including offenders in remand prison). Besides, there were 577 children or young people registered for care in treatment and/or residential homes on 31 Dec. 1985, admitted under the 'Care of Young Persons' Act. Anderman, S., ed., Law and the Weaker Party: An Anglo-Swedish Comparative Study. Abingdon, 1981-83 Bruzelius, A., and Ginsburg, R. B., The Swedish Code of Judicial Procedure. South Hackensack, Rev. ed., 1979 Stromholm, S., An Introduction to Swedish Law. Stockholm, 1981 al-Wahab,I., The Swedish Institution of Ombudsmen. Stockholm, 1979 Justitieombudsmannens ambetsberattelse avgiven tillRiksdagen. Annual. Stockholm The Penal Code of Sweden: As Amended 1 Jan. 1972. South Hackensack, 1972 Rattsstatistisk arsbok (Year Book of Legal Statistics). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, from 1975

Religion. The overwhelming majority of the population belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church, which is the established national church. In 1986 there were 13 bishoprics (Uppsala being the metropolitan see)and 2,565 parishes. The clergy are chiefly supported from the parishes and the proceeds of the church lands. The nonconformists mostly still adhere to the national church. The largest denominations, on 1 Jan. 1985, were: Pentecost Movement, 100,640; The Mission Covenant Church ofSweden, 79,629; Salvation Army, 30,895; Swedish Evangelical Mission, 23,609; Swedish Baptist Church, 20,924; Orebro Missionary Society, 22,042; Swedish Alliance Missionary Society, 13,496; Holiness Mission, 5,980. There were also 118,646 Roman Catholics (under a Bishop resident at Stockholm). Parliament and Convocation (Kyrkomotet) decided in 1958 to admit women to ordination as priests. Education. By the Swedish Higher Educational Act of 1977 a unified educational system was created by integrating institutions which had previously been administered separately. This new hogskola includes not only traditional university studies but also those of various former professional colleges as well as a number of study programmes earlier offered by the secondary school system. One of the goals of the 1977 university reform was to introduce an increased element of vocational training into part of Swedish higher education and to widen admission. A Certificate of Education (B.Sc., M.Sc., U.C. etc.) is awarded on completion of a general study programme. This certificate states the number of courses taken as well as the points and grades obtained on each course in the study programme. In autumn i984 there were, in these new integrated institutions for higher education,ftogsfco/a,about 164,600 enrolled for undergraduate studies of whom 110,100 were distributed by sector as follows: Education for technical profeissions, 27,400; education for social work, economic and, administrative professions, 30,500; education for medical and paramedical professions, 22,900; education for the teaching professions, 23,300; and education for information, communication and

SWEDEN

1149

cultural professions, 6,000. The number of students enrolled for post-graduate studies was 13,200. In autumn term in the school year 1984-85 there were 630,000 pupils in primary education (grades 1-6 in compulsory comprehensive schools). Secondary education at the lower stage (grades 7-9 in compulsory comprehensive schools) comprised 328,600 pupils. In secondary education at the higher stage (the integrated upper secondary school), there were 267,500 pupils (excluding about 43,100 pupils in the 4-year technical line regarded as thira-level education). The folk high schools, 'people's colleges', had 14,400 pupils in courses of more than 15 weeks. In municipal adult education there were 155,900 pupils (corresponding to a gross number of 345,000 participants). Basic education for adults had 18,000 pupils. There are also special schools for pupils with visual and hearing handicaps (about 1,800 in 1984-85) and for those who are mentally retarded (about 12,700 pupils). Education Policyfor Planning: Goals for Educational Policy in Sweden. OECD, Paris, 1980 Educational Reforms in Sweden. OECD, Paris, 1981 ' " Science and Technology Policies in Sweden. Ministry of Education and Cultural Affaire, Stockholm, 1986 Boucher, L., Tradition and Change in Swedish education. OUP, 1982 During, A., Swedish Research. Stockholm, 1985 Gotberg, B., and Svard, S., The Swedish 'Folk High School': Its Background and its Present Situation. Kim, L., Widened Admission to Higher Education in Sweden. Stockholm, 1982 Marklund, S., Educational Administration and Educational Development. Univ. of Stockholm, 1979.—The Democratization ofEducation in Sweden. Univ. ofStockholm, 1980 Paulston,C. B., Swedish Research and Debate about Bilingualism. Stockholm, 1983 Stenholm, B., The Swedish School System. Stockholm, 1984 Sundgvist, A., New Rules for Swedish Study Circles. Stockholm, 1983 Ueberschlag, G., La Folkhogskola. Paris, 1981

Social Welfare. The social security schemes are greatly expanding. Supported by a referendum, the Diet in 1958 and 1959 decided that the national pensions should be increased successively until 1968 and supplementary pensions paid from 1963. These pensions are of invariable value. In 1969 the Diet decided that as from 1 July 1969 an increment to the basic pension was to be paid to persons without supplementary pensions, and this amount is to be successively increased in a 10-year period. The basic and supplementary pensions consist ofold-age and family pensions, as well as pensions paid to the disabled. The financing of the supplementary system is based on the current-cost method. The most important social welfare schemes are described in the conspectus below.

Intro-

Type of scheme Sickness insurance (compulsory-current law, 1962)

duced 1955

Scope All residents

Principal benefits Hospital fees, most private doctors charge the insured person normally 55 kr., district physicians and doctors in hospitals charge the insured person only 50 kr. for full medical treatment, some reimbursement of cost of transportation as well as costs of physiotherapy, convalescent care, etc., medicines at reduced prices or free of charge. During sickness daily allowance 90% of the yearly income in between 6,000 and 174,800 kr. There is generally no maximum benefit period. Dental care is available to all residents from 20 years of age, the maximum payable by the patient being 60% up to 2,500 kr. and 25% thereafter. Before 20 years of age dental care is given free through the national dental service.

1150

SWEDEN Introduced 1901

Scope All employed persons

Principal benefits Medical treatment, medicine and medical appliances, hospital care, sickness benefit 100% of the yearly income in between 6,000 and 174,800 kr. (first 90 days covered by sickness insurance), disability annuities, funeral benefit and survivor's pensions.

1935

Members of recognized unemployment insurance societies (about 70% ofall employees)

130-360 kr. per day subject to tax.

Basic pensions (current law, 1962) Old-age

1914

All citizens

Payable from the age of 65 or, at a reduced rate, from the age of 60. 58,950 kr. per annum for married couples, 33,552 kr. for others (including the special increment of 22,368 kr. and 11,184 kr. respectively for those without supplementary pension); about half of them receive municipal housing supplement.

Disability

1914

All citizens

Payable before the age of 65. Full pension 44,736 kr. per annum (including the special increment of 22,368 kr.).

Survivors

1948

All citizens

Widow's pension is payable before the age of 65. The pension is 33,552 kr. (including the special increment of 11,184 kr.) but less for those who have become widows before the age of 50 and have no child below 16. Many of them receive municipal housing supplements. Child pension is payable before the age of 18. The pension amounts to 9,553 kr. (fatherless or motherless) and 14,446 kr. (orphans).

Supplementary pensions (current law, 1962) Old-age

1960

All gainfully occupied persons

Payable from the same age as the basic pension (see above). The pension is in principle 60% of the insured person's average annual earnings during the best 15 years except an amount corresponding to the basic pension and subject to a ceiling.

Disability

1960

All gainfully occupied persons

Payable before the age of 65. Full pension corresponds in principle to supplementary old-age pension.

Type of scheme Employment injury insurance (compulsory-current law, 1976)

Unemployment insurance (current law, 1973)

Type of scheme Survivors

Introduced 1960

SWEDEN

1151

Scope All gainfully occupied persons

Principal benefits Payable to widow and children, before the age of 19, of a deceased person as a certain percentage of the deceased's supplementary pension.

Partial pensions (current law, 1979)

1976

The pension is payable between 60All employees between 60-65 65 years of age. The insured must have reduced his working time by years of age 5 hours on an average a week and the part-time work must thereafter comprise at least 17 hours per week. Furthermore the insured must have worked during at least 5 of the last 12 months and achieved a right to supplementary pension .for J D . years after the age of45. The partial pension is paid out by 50% of the loss of income in connection with the change-over to part-time work.

Parents benefit

1974

All resident par- Parents cash benefit of 48 kr. a day ents in connec- during 360 days until the child tion with conreaches 4 years of age. Employed finement parents entitled to daily parents cash benefit of 90% of the daily income (in between 6,000174,800 kr. yearly) for 270 days. Maximum daily parents cash benefit 431 kr. and for the last 90 days 48 kr. a day will be paid.

Temporary parents benefit

1974

All resident parents

Temporary parents cash benefit with the same amount as for parents cash benefit for care of each child which is ill during 60. days for the parents together until the child reaches 12 years of age.

Children's allowances

1948

All children below 16

From 1 Jan. 1987 5,820 kr. per annum. An additional allowance is paid out for the third child with one-half of an allowance and a full allowance for each additional child.

Children at school 16-18

485 kr. per month during schoolcourses.

Total social expenditure, including also hygiene, care of the sick and social assistance, amounted to 242,526m. kr. in 1984, representing 31 % of the GDP. The Cost and Financing of the Social Services in Sweden, 1981. Stockholm, 1983 Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, The Evolution of the Swedish Health Insurance. Stockholm, 1978 Socialnytt (Official Journal of the National Board of Health and Welfare). Stockholm, from 1968 Fry, John (ed.), Limits of the Welfare State: Critical Views on Post- war Sweden. Famborough, 1979 Heclo, H., Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden: From Relief to Income Maintenance. New Haven, 1974 Holgersson, L., The Evolution of Swedish Social Welfare. Stockholm, 1975 Lagerström, L., Pension Systems in Sweden. Stockholm, 1976.—Social Security in Sweden. Stockholm, 1976

1152

SWEDEN

Wilson, D., The Welfare State in Sweden: A Study in Comparative Social London, 1979

Administration.

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Sweden in Great Britain (11 Montagu Place, London, W1H 2 AL) Ambassador: Leif Leifland, GCVO (accredited on 10 Nov. 1982). Of Great Britain in Sweden (Skarpögatan 6-8,11527 Stockholm) A mbassador: Sir Richard Parsons, KCMG. Of Sweden in the USA (600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) A mbassador: Count Wilhelm H. F.Wachtmeister. Of the USA in Sweden (Strandvägen 101,115 27 Stockholm) Ambassador: Gregory J. Newell. Of Sweden to the United Nations Ambassador: Anders Ferm. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Statistics Sweden, (Statistiska, Centralbyrän, S-11581 Stockholm) was founded in 1858, in succession to the Kungl. Tabellkommissionen, which had been set up in 1756. Director-General: Sten Johansson. Its Publications include: Levnadsßrhällanden, ärsbok (Living Conditions). Annual. From 1975.—Rapport. From 1976 Statistisk ärsbok för Sverige (Statistical Abstract of Sweden). From 1914 Siffror om Sverige (Sweden). From 1971. Also in English as Sweden Historisk statistikfor Sverige (Historical Statistics of Sweden). 1955 ff. (4 vols, to date) Allmän manadsstatistik (Monthly Digest of Swedish Statistics). From 1963 Statistiska meddelanden (Statistical Reports). From 1963 Andersson, L., A History of Sweden. Stockholm, 1962 Atlas over Sverige. Stockholm, 1953-71. [Publ. in separate parts dealing with population, economics, etc.] Publications on Sweden. Stockholm, 1985 Documents on Swedish Foreign Policy, 1981. Stockholm, 1983 Derry, T. K., A History of Scandinavia. Univ. ofMinnesota Press, 1979 Fullerton, B., and Williams, A. F., Scandinavia. London, 1972 Furer, H. B. (ed.), The Scandinavians in America 986-1970. A Chronology and Fact Book. Dobbs Ferry, 1972 Gullberg, I. E., Swedish-English Dictionary of Technical Terms.—Svensk-Engelsk Fackordbok. Stockholm, 2nd ed. 1977 Hadenius, S., Swedish Politics during the Twentieth Century. Stockholm, 1985 Linton, M., The Swedish Road to Socialism. London, 1985 Nordic Council, Yearbook of Nordic Statistics. From 1962 (in English and one Nordic Language) Scott, F. D., Sweden: The Nation's History. Univ. ofMinnesota Press, 1983 Stähle,N. K., Alfred Nobel and the Nobel Prizes. Stockholm, 1978 Toyne,S. M., The Scandinavians in History. Freeport, 1970 Turner, B., Sweden. London, 1976 Sveriges statskalender. Published by Vetenskapsakademien. Annual, from 1813 National Library: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Director: Lars Tynell.

SWITZERLAND

Capital: Bern Population: 6-5m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 14,300 ( 1984)

Schweiz—Suisse—Svizzera

H I S T O R Y . On 1 Aug. 1291 the men of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden entered into a defensive league. In 1353 the league included 8 members and in 1513, 13. Various territories were acquired either by single cantons or by several in common, and in 1648 the league became formally independent of the Holy Roman Empire, but no addition was made to the number of cantons till 1798. In that year, under the influence of France, the unified Helvetic Republic was formed. This failed to satisfy the Swiss, and in 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte, in the Act of Mediation, gave a new Constitution, and out of the lands formerly allied or subject increased.the number of cantons to 19. In 1815 the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland and the inviolability of her territory were guaranteed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Spain and Sweden, and the Federal Pact, which included 3 new cantons, was accepted by the Congress of Vienna. In 1848 a new Constitution was passed. The 22 cantons set up a Federal Government (consisting of a Federal Parliament and a Federal Council) and a Federal Tribunal. This Constitution, in turn, was on 29 May 1874 superseded by the present Constitution. In a national referendum held in Sept. 1978, 69-9% voted in favour of the establishment ofa new canton, Jura, which was established on 1 Jan. 1979. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area and population, according to the census held on 1 Dec. 1980 and estimate 1 Jan. 1986. Cantori Zürich (Zürich)(1351) Bern (Berne) (1553) Luzern (Lucerne) (1332) Uri (1291 ) Schwyz (1291) Obwalden (Obwald) (1291 ) Nidwaiden (Nidwald) ( 1291 ) Glarus (Glaris) (1352) Zug (Zoug) (1352) Fribourg (Freiburg) ( 1481 ) Solothurn (Soleure) (1481) Basel-Stadt (Bäle-V.) (1501) Basel-Land (Bäle-C.) ( 1501 ) Schaffhausen (Schaflhouse) ( 1501 ) Appenzell A.-Rh. (Rh.-Ext.) (1513) Appenzell I.-Rh. (Rh.-Int.) (1513) St Gallen (St Gall)(1803) Graubünden (Grisons) (1803) Aargau (Argovie) ( 1803) Thurgau (Thurgovie) (1803) Ticino (Tessin)( 1803) Vaud (Waadt) (1803) Valais (Wallis) (1815) Neuchätel (Neuenburg) (1815) Genève (Genf) (181-5) Jura(1979) Total 1

Area (sq. km) 1,729 6,049 1,492 1,076 908 491 276 685 239 1,670 791 37 428 298 243 172 2,014 7,106 1,405 1,013 2,811 3,218 5,226 797 282 837

Census 1 Dec. 1980 1,122,839 912,022 296,159 33,883 97,354 25,865 28,617 36,718 75,930 185,246 218,102 203,915 219,822 69,413 47,611 12,844 391,995 164,641 453,442 183,795 265,899 528,747 218,707 158,368 349,040 64,986

Estimate 1 Jan. 1986 1,282,200 922,900 303,900 33,500 102,100 27,300 30,600 36,400 80,300 192,400 218,700 195,900 225,000 69,600 49,100 13,100 401,200 165,600 468,200 190,700 275,300 543,700 229,500 154,900 362,100 64,600

Pop. per sq. km, 1980 650 151 198 31 107 53 104 54 318 111 276 5,485 513 233 196 75 195 23 323 181 95 164 42 199 1,237 78

41,293'

6,365,960

6,484,800

154

15,943 sq. miles.

1153

1154

SWITZERLAND

The German language is spoken by the majority of inhabitants in 19 of the 25 cantons above (French names given in brackets), the French in 6 (Fribourg, Vaud, Valais, Neuchâtel, Jura and Genève, for which the German names are given in brackets), the Italian in 1 (Ticino). In 1980, 65% spoke German, 18-4% French, 9-8% Italian, 0-8% Romansch and 6% other languages; counting only Swiss nationals, the percentages were 73-5, 20 1, 4-5, 0-9 and 1. On 8 July 1937 Romansch was made the fourth national language; it is spoken mostly in Graubiinden. At the end of 1985 the 5 largest cities were Zürich (351,500); Basel (174,600); Geneva (159,900); Berne (138,600); Lausanne (125,000). At the end of 1985 the population figures of the 'agglomérations' or conurbations were as follows: Zürich, 840,000; Basel, 363,600; Geneva, 382,000; Bern, 301,100; Lausanne, 260,200; other towns (and their conurbations) were Winterthur, 84,400 (107,400); St Gallen, 73,200 (125,400); Luzern, 60,600 (160,000); Biel, 52,000 (83,000). The number of foreigners resident in Switzerland in Jan. 1985 was 960,700. Of these, 186,600 were in Zürich canton, 109,100 in Vaud and 122,900 in Geneva. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births Total Illegitimate 73,700 3,400 74,700 4,300 74,700 4,200

Marriages 37,600 38,600 38,800

Divorces 11,700 11,200 11,400

Stillbirths 360 350 340

Deaths 60,700 58,600 59,600

In 1983 there were 91,300 emigrants and 88,000 immigrants; in 1984, 85,000 and 97,000; in 1985,85,000 and 99,000. C L I M A T E . The climate is largely dictated by relief and altitude and includes continental and mountain types. Summers are generally warm, with quite considerable rainfall; winters are fine, with clear, cold air. Bern. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July, 65°F (18 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 39-4" (986 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Switzerland is a republic. The highest authority is vested in the electorate, i.e., all Swiss citizens of over 20. This electorate—besides electing its representatives to the Parliament—has the voting power on amendments to, or on the revision of, the Constitution. It also takes decisions on laws and international treaties if requested by 50,000 voters or 8 cantons (facultative referendum), and it has the right of initiating constitutional amendments, the support required for such demands being 100,000 voters (popular initiative). The Federal Government is supreme in matters of peace, war and treaties; it regulates the army, the railway, telecommunication systems, the coining of money, the issue and repayment of bank-notes and the weights and measures of the republic. It also legislates on matters of copyright, bankruptcy, patents, sanitary policy in dangerous epidemics, and it may create and subsidize, besides the Polytechnic School at Zürich and at Lausanne, 2 federal universities and other educational institutions. There has also been entrusted to it the authority to decide concerning public works for the whole or great part of Switzerland, such as those relating to rivers, forests and thè construction of national highways and railways. By referendum of 13 Nov. 1898 it is also the authority in the entire spheres of common law. In 1957 the Federation was empowered to legislate on atomic energy matters and in 1961 on the construction of pipelines of petroleum and gas. Nationalflag: Red with a white couped cross. National anthem: Trittst im Morgenrot daher (words by Leonard Widmer, 1808-68; tune by Alberik Zwyssig, 1808-54); adopted by the Federal Council in 1962. The legislative authority is vested in a.parliament of 2 chambers, a Ständerat, or Council of States, ànd a Nationalrat, or National.Council. The Ständerat is composed of 46 members, chosen and paid by the 23 cantons of

SWITZERLAND

1155

the Confederation, 2 for each canton. The mode of their election and the term of membership depend entirely on the canton. Three of the cantons are politically divided—Basel into Stadt and Land, Appenzell into Ausser-Rhoden and InnerRhoden, and Unterwalden into Obwalden and Nidwalden. Each of these 'halfcantons'sends 1 member to the State Council. The Nationalrat—after the referendum taken on 4 Nov. 1962—consists of 200 National Councillors, directly elected for 4 years, in proportion to the population of the cantons, with the proviso that each canton or half-canton is represented by at least 1 member. The members are paid from federal funds at the rate of 150 francs for each day during the session and a nominal sum of 10,000 francs per annum. In 1980 the 200 members were distributed among the cantons1 as follows: Zurich (Zurich) 35 Appenzell—Outer- and Inner-Rhoden 3 Bern (Berne) 29 St Gallen (St Gall) 12 Luzern (Lucerne) 9 Graubünden (Grisons) 5 Uri 1 Aargau (Argovie) 14 Schwyz 3 Thurgau (Thurgovie) 6 Unterwalden-Upper and Lower 2 Ticino (Tessin) 8 Glarus (Glaris) 1 Vaud(Waadt) Zug (Zoug) 2 Valais (Wallis) 7 Fribourg (Freiburg) 6 Neuchätel (Neuenburg) 5 Solothurn (Soleure) 7 Geneve (Genf) 11 Basel (Bale)—town and country 14 Jura 2 Schaffhausen (Schaflhouse) 2 1 The name of the canton is given in German, French or Italian, according to the language most spoken in it, and alternative names are given in brackets.

Composition of the National Council in 1983: Social Democrats, 47; Radicals, 54; Christian-Democratic People's Party, 42; Swiss People's Party, 23; Liberals, 8; Independents, 8; National Campaign/Vigilance, 5; Evangelical Party, 3; Progressive Organizations, 3; Environmentalists, 3; Others, 4. Council of States (1983): Christian Democrats, 18; Radicals, 14; Social Democrats, 6; Swiss People's Party, 5. A general election takes place by ballot every 4 years. Every citizen of the republic who has entered on his 20th year is entitled to a vote, and any voter, not a clergyman, may be elected a deputy. Laws passed by both chambers may be submitted to direct popular vote, when 50,000 citizens or 8 cantons demand it; the vote can be only 'Yes' or 'No'. This principle, called the referendum, is frequently acted on. Women's suffrage, although advocated by the Federal Council and the Federal Assembly, was on 1 Feb. 1959 rejected, but in a subsequent referendum, held on 7 Feb. 1971, women's suffrage was carried. The chief executive authority is deputed to the Bundesrat, or Federal Council, consisting of 7 members, elected from 7 different cantons for 4 years by the Vereinigte Bundesversammlung, i.e., joint sessions of both chambers. The members of this council must not hold any other office in the Confederation or cantons, nor engage in any calling or business. In the Federal Parliament legislation may be introduced either by a member, or by either House, or by thé Federal Council (but not by the people). Every citizen who has a vote for the National Council is eligible for becoming a member of the executive. The President of the Federal Council (called President of the Confederation) and the Vice-President are the first magistrates of the Confederation. Both are elected by the Federal Assembly for 1 calendar year and are not immediately re-eligible to the same offices. The Vice-President, however, may be, and usually is, elected to succeed the outgoing President. President of the Confederation. (1987): Pierre Aubert. The 7 members of the Federal Council—each of whom has a salary of 203,000 francs per annum, while the President has 215,000 francs—act as ministers, or chiefs of the 7 administrative departments of the republic. The city of Berne is the seat ofthe Federal Council and tne central administrative authorities. The Federal Council was composed as follows in 1986. Foreign Affairs: Pierre Aubert.

1156

SWITZERLAND

Interior: Flavio Cotti. Justice and Police: Elisabeth Kopp. Military: Arnold Koller. Finance: Otto Stich. Public Economy: Jean-Pascal Delamuraz. Transport, Communications and Energy: Léon Schlumpf. Local Government. Each of the cantons and demi-cantons is sovereign, so far as its independence and legislative powers are not restricted by the federal constitution; all cantonal governments, though different in organization (membership varies from 5 to 11, and terms of office from 1 to 5 years), are based on the principle of sovereignty ofthe people. In all cantons a body chosen by universal suffrage, usually called der Grosse Rat, or Kantonsrat, exercises the functions of a parliament. In all the cantonal constitutions, however, except those of the cantons which have a Landsgemeinde, the referendum has a place. By this principle, where it is most fully developed, as in Zurich, all laws and concordats, or agreements with other cantons, and the chief matters of finance, as well as all revisions of the Constitution, must be submitted to the popular vote. In Appenzell, Glarus and Unterwalden the people exercise their powers direct in the Landsgemeinde, i.e., the assembly in the open air of all male citizens of fìlli age. In all the cantons the popular initiative for constitutional affairs, as well as for legislation, has been introduced, except in Lucerne, where the initiative exists only for constitutional affairs. In most cantons there are districts (Amtsbezirke) consisting of a number of communes grouped together, each district having a Prefect (Regierungsstatthalter) representing the cantonal government. In the larger communes, for local affairs, there is an Assembly (legislative) and a Council (executive) with a president, maire or syndic, and not less than 4 other members. In the smaller communes there is a council only, with its proper officials. D E F E N C E . There are fortifications in all entrances to the Alps and on the important passes crossing the Alps and the Jura. Large-scale destructions of bridges, tunnels and defiles are prepared for an emergency. Army. Switzerland depends for defence upon a national militia. Service in this force is compulsory and universal, with few exemptions except for physical disability. Those excused or rejected pay certain taxes in lieu. Liability extends from the 20th to the end of the 50th year for soldiers and of the 55th year for officers. The first 12 years are spent in the first line, called the Auszug, or Élite, the next 10 in the Landwehr and 8 in the Landsturm. The unarmed Hilfsdienst comprises all other males between 20 and 50 whose services can be made available for non-combatant duties of any description. The initial training of the Swiss militia soldier is carried out in recruits' schools, and the periods are 118 days for infantry, engineers, artillery, etc. The subsequent trainings, called 'repetition courses', are 20 days annually; but after going through 8 courses further attendance is excused for all under the rank of sergeant. The Landwehr men are called up for training courses of 13 days every 2 years, and the Landsturm men have to undergo a refresher course of 13 days. The Army is divided into 3 field corps each of 1 armoured and 2 infantry divisions, 11 independent frontier brigades, 3 mountain divisions, and independent redoubt-, fortress- and territorial-brigades, organized in 4 army corps. Strength on mobilization (1987): 580,000, and 400,000 reserves. The administration of the Swiss Army is partly in the hands of the Cantonal authorities, who can promote officers up to the rank of captain. But the Federal Government is concerned with all general questions and makes all the higher appointments. In peace-time the Swiss Army has no general; only in time of war the Federal Assembly in joint session of both Houses appoints a general. The Swiss infantry are armed with the Swiss automatic rifle and with machineguns, bazookas and mortars. The field artillery is armed with a Q.F. shielded 10-5 Bofors and field howitzers of 10-5 cm calibre. The heavy artillery is armed with

SWITZERLAND

1157

guns of 10 - 5 cm and howitzers of 15 cm calibre. The armoured troops are equipped with the light French AMX, the British Centurion and a modern Swiss tank. Air Force. The Air Force has 3 flying regiments, with about 270 combat aircraft. The fighter squadrons are equipped with Swiss-built F-5E Tiger lis (7 squadrons), Mirage IIIS supersonic interceptor/ground-attack (2 squadrons), Mirage IIIRS fighter/reconnaissance (1 squadron), and Hunter interceptor/ground-attack (9 squadrons) aircraft. Bloodhound surface-to-air missile batteries are operational. Training aircraft are Pilatus P-3 and PC-7 Turbo-Trainer and Vampire; there are also communications and transport aircraft and helicopters. Personnel (1987), 45,000 on mobilization. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Switzerland is a member of OECD, EFTA and the Council of Europe. In a referendum on 16 March 1986 the electorate voted against joining the UN. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure of the Confederation, in 1 m. francs, for calendar years: lg?g m ( j m l m 2 /9iW m 4 m 5 Revenue Expenditure

15,050 16,764

16,460 17,532

17,400 17,570

18,900 19,300

19,400 20,300

20,770 21,400

22,200 22,900

The public debt, including internal debt, of the Confederation in 1980 amounted to 24,409m. francs; 1981,24,677m.; 1982,24,968m.; 1983,25,249m. Schweizerisches Finanz-Jahrbuch.

Bern. Annual. From 1899

Currency. The franc of 100 Rappen or centimes is the monetary unit. On 10 May 1971 there was a revaluation to 0-21759 gramme of fine gold. The legal gold coins are 20- and 10-franc pieces; cupro-nickel coins are 5, 2, 1 and Vi franc, 20, 10 and 5 centimes; bronze, 2 and 1 centime. Notes are of 1,000, 500,100,50,20,10 and 5 francs. On 10 July 1981 the notes in circulation (of francs of nominal value) was as follows: In 1,000 franc notes, 8,685- lm. francs; in 500, 4,201 -9m. francs; in 100, 6,687-3m. francs; in 50, l,058-3m. francs, and in lower denominations l,195-8m. In March 1987, £ 1 = 2 -49 francs' US$ 1 = 1 • 54francs. Banking. The National Bank, with headquarters divided between Bern and Zürich, opened on 20 June 1907. It has the exclusive right to issue bank-notes. In 1984 the condition of the bank was as follows (in lm. francs): Gold, 11,904, foreign exchange (currency), 38,800; currency in circulation, 26,500. In 1985 there were 1,669 banking institutions with total assets of 689,106m. Swiss francs. They included 29 cantonal banks (134,337m. francs), 5 big banks (368,229m.), 217 regional banks (59,954m.), 1,232 loan and Raiffeisen banks (18,863m.), 186 other banks(107,723m.). On 31 Dec. 1984 the total amount of savings deposits in Swiss banks was 109,926m. francs National Bank: Bulletin mensuel.—Das schweizerische Bankwesen. Yearly. From 1920

Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was made compulsory by the federal law on 3 July 1875 and since 1 Jan. 1887 only metric units have been legal. By the federal law of 24 June" 1909 the international electric units were also adopted. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The total production of energy amounted to 56,765m. kwh. in 1985; 30,872m. kwh. were generated by hydro-electric plants in 1984. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Gas. The production of gas in 1984 was 50 -46m. cu. metres.

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SWITZERLAND

Minerals. There are 2 salt-mining districts; that in Bex (Vaud) belongs to the canton, but is worked by a private company, and those at Schweizerhalle, Rheinfelden and Ryburg are worked by a joint-stock company formed by the cantons interested. The output of salt of all kinds in 1982 was 361,964 tonnes. Agriculture. Of the total area of the country of4,129,315 hectares, about 1,057,794 hectares (2 5-6%) are unproductive. Of the productive area of 3,071,521 hectares, 1,051,991 hectares are wooded. The agricultural area, in 1985, totalled 1,076,339 hectares, of which 287,049 hectares arable land, 13,450 hectares vineyards, 7,229 hectares intensive fruit growing and 642,194 hectares permanent meadow and pasture land. In 1985 there were 119,731 farms. The gross value of agricultural products was estimated at 7,243 • 1 m. francs in 1980 and 8,325m. francs in 1983. In 1985, 100,806 hectares were planted with bread grains; 83,113 hectares fodder cereals; 20,063 hectares potatoes; 14,247 hectares sugar-beet; 42,218 hectares silo and green maize. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Potatoes, 848; sugar-beet, 790; wheat, 547; barley, 270; rye, 24; tobacco, 1. Milk production (in 1,000 tonnes): 1960, 3,112; 1970, 3,204; 1979, 3,671; 1980, 3,679; 1981, 3,680; 1982,3,687; 1983,3,733; 1984,3,790; 1985,3,867. The fruit production (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1985 was: Apples, 390; pears, 138; plums, 36; cherries, 47; nuts, 7. Wine is produced in 18 of the cantons. In 1985 Swiss vineyards yielded 1,250,730 hectolitres of wine. Livestock (1985): 46,000 horses, 357,000 sheep, 1,926,000 cattle (including about 826,000 milch cows), 1,988,000 pigs, 6m. poultry. Forestry. Of the forest area of999,795 hectares, 56,876 were owned by the Federation or the cantons, 636,069 by communes and 306,850 by private persons or companies in 1982. Production (1985) 3,488 cu. metres of softwood and 1,073 cu. metres of hardwood. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. The chief food producing industries, based on Swiss agriculture, are the manufacture of cheese, butter, sugar and meat. The production in 1985 was (in tonnes): Cheese, 126,400; butter, 37,800; sugar, 147,000; meat, 3,239,000. There are 46 breweries, producing in 1978,4-05m. hectolitres of beer. Tobacco products in 1982: Cigars, 373 08m.; cigarettes, 26,497m. Among the other industries, the manufacture of textiles, wearing apparel and footwear, chemicals and pharmaceutical products, bricks, glass and cement, the manufacture of basic iron and steel and of other metal products, the production of machinery (including electrical machinery and scientific and optical instruments) and watch and clock making are the most important. In 1981 there were 8,738 factories with 693,243 workers. In 1982,41,200 were working in textile industries, 45,000 in the manufacture of clothing and footwear, 70,200 in chemical works, 194,700 in the construction industry, 168,600 in manufacture of metal products, 252,000 in the manufacture of machinery and 55,300 in watch and clock making and in the manufacture of jewellery. Production in 1982 was: Woollen and blended yam, 15,467 tonnes; woollen and blended cloth, 7,534 metres; footwear (1981), 5-87m. pairs; cement, 4,099,874 tonnes; raw aluminium, 75,256 tonnes; chocolate, 76,605 tonnes, 25-38m. watches and clocks were exported (19 81). Labour. In 1985, the total working population was 3,170,900, of which 209,700 were active in agriculture and forestry, 1,204,000 in manufacture and construction and 1,757,200 in services. The foreign labour force with permit, of temporary residence was 756,000 in Aug. 1985. Of the number recorded 281,800 were Italians, 89,400 Spaniards, 79,700 Frenchmen, 67,600 Germans and 28,700 Austrians. The Swiss Federal Union of Administrative and Public Service Workers had, in 1985, a membership of 123,300. The Federation of Trade Unions had about 451,000 members.

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Commerce. The special commerce, excluding gold (bullion and coins) and silver (coins), was (in 1 m. Swiss francs) as follows: Imports Exports

1978 42,299 41,779

1979 48,730 44,024

1980 60,859 49,607

1981 60,094 52,821

1982 58,059 52,658

1983 61,064 53,723

1984 69,024 60,654

The following table, in lm. francs, shows the distribution of the special trade of Switzerland among the principal countries: Imports from 1982 Countries 1983 1984 Federal Rep. of Germany 17,261-9 17,413-2 20,128-0 France 6,657-2 7,131 1 7,565-2 Italy 5,732-8 6,140-7 6,808-2 Netherlands 2,500-7 2,691-3 3,031-9 Belgium-Luxembourg 2,345-5 2,490-9 2,910-4 UK 3,180-6 3,303-2 4,974-7 612-6 Denmark 517-8 556-1 309-2 Ireland 197-8 240-9 107-8 Greece 75-1 79-1 EEC Total

1985

1982

Exports to 1983 1984

3,009-4 1,404-4 1,252-3 1,461-7 1,344-5 5,425-2 3,268-1 3,481-5- 4,834-6. $¿98-9 614-5 730-2 677-6 662-9 889-8 154-0 354-2 175-1 162-6 153-1 422-9 380-1 135-1 302-2 406-0

38,469-4 40,046-5 46,448-0 51,514-0 25,389-1 26,424-2 30,521-0 33,471-7

Austria Norway Sweden Portugal Finland Iceland

2,153-6 2,166-8 2,430-9 168-0 222-2 238-9 1,096-1 1,030-1 1,199-1 168-5 183-3 228-2 319-9 419-4 350-0 45-5 90-2 74-4

2,666-1 2,141-6 2,211-1 302-5 439-2 419-1 1,377-2 1,033-9 1,067-2 244-1 444-6 390-8 418-5 441-8 453-9 66-9 17-1 17-1

EFTA

3,951-6 4,042-7 4,509-9

5,075-4 4,518-2

Spain 655-0 Gibraltar, Malta 2-6 German Dem. Republic 81-6 Poland 82-4 Czechoslovakia 185-9 Hungary 191-5 Yugoslavia 141-9 Bulgaria 31-9 Romania 38-2 USSR 1,683-4 Turkey 119-2 Other European countries 10-6 Europe Total Egypt Sudan Libya Tunisia Algeria Morocco Ivory Coast Guinea Ghana Nigeria Zaire Angola S Africa, Rep. of

1985

22,912-7 9,572-5 10,697-6 11,853-3 13,103-2 8,344-2 4,729-4 4,640-8 5,022-7 5,552-5 7,243-0 3,973-4 3,803-7 4,461-0 4,956-4 3,412-6 1,249-9 1,420-4 1,602-3 1,767-4

2,359-5 2,582-6 491-7 560-0 1,204-5 1,317-3 372-2 377-8 477-1 530-0 18-4 20-3

4,559-2 4,923-4

5,388-0

883-1 16

978-7 2-3

1,089-8 4-1

1,263-8 20-6

1,264-7 23-8

1,176-4 23-3

1,186-4 25-0

916 75-1 199-0 229-0 199-6 25-0 32-5 1,412-6 118-3

111-3 143-1 189-8 378-3 181-4 49-8 38-4 1,217-1 140-3

133-3 134-2 194-6 351-2 197-7 33-4 48-9 1,196-4 200-1

221-6 179-8 222-4 335-0 437-2 166 1 78-4 437-2 368-9

145-6 191-2 244-9 305-9 421-7 225-2 48-5 463-0 408-0

148-7 257-6 261-7 307-0 465-3 287-8 59-4 466-1 427-9

189-8 300-2 310-2 335-1 462-3 233-3 84-8 636-5 590-1

18-3

12-6

23-2

31-1

33-1

38-6

45-1

45,645 -2 47,374-9 54,482-0 60,196 -3 33,669-4 34,759-0 39,364-2 43,258-5 81-8 1-0 526-9 44-2 264-0 23-6 40-9 2-1 27-4 454-4 15-6 14-1 154-0

616 4-2 868-2 159-6 523-3 18-4 33 6 3-1 32-6 155-8 5-9 13-3 193-5

82-8 10-1 1,038-1 150-0 447-3 24-9 510 1-4 23-9 160-1 5-1 16-6 203-7

58-2 2-9 949-1 21-6 417-6 23-6 67-3 1-8 30-3 439-0 6-2 6-4 171-4

573-2 48-9 175-6 50-4 152-8 69-7 33-6 7-4 11-3 517-2 31-3 40-4 530-3

414-5 67-2 209-1 52-1 162-6 82-6 39-8 9-7 20-6 340-3 28-7 15-1 489-3

437-9 50-4 242-7 50-4 203-3 75-3 42-9 10-9 20-6 242-4 34-4 17-4 549-5

395-9 44-9 170-4 52-0 242-3 90-2 46-2 114 21-5 344-6 38-0 37-3 482-9

1160

SWITZERLAND 1985 5-7 34-3 3-9 35-0

1982 24-3 36-5 21-4 38-6

Exports to 1983 1984 12-3 17-8 24-8 30-6 26-5 26-5 31-1 30-7

1985 19-2 32-8 26-6 35-6

117-5

442-1

399-9

199-5

216-4

Africa Total

1,829-8 2,257-0 2,407-4 2,391-8 2,805-0 2,426-2

2,283-2

2,308-2

Syria Lebanon Israel Iraq Kuwait Iran Saudi Arabia UAE Pakistan India Thailand Malaysia Singapore China Hong Kong Taiwan Korea, Rep. of Japan Philippines Indonesia Other Asian countries

0-7 5-4 1-8 3-1 115-0 129-1 55-4 70-3 78-3 76-9 355-5 138-1 303-4 215-8 255-5 260-3 511-8 549-6 0-2 5-2 3-7 1-2 680-4 419-9 2-4 6-3 6-3 5-3 255-8 202-9 148-8 89-2 124-2 66-7 391-1 642-8 349-2 307-7 1,544-3 1,717-1 293-1 387-1 52-2 227-5 7-0 96-3 333-6 275-3 41-9 51-7 47-7 46-9 101-6 136-6 152-0 140-6 149-9 173-8 345-9 301-6 102-2 118-8 163-1 155-7 125-7 175-2 44-6 47-2 54-6 72-2 95-9 186-1 242-4 84-6 85-3 93-8 347-0 422-7 157-4 146-3 194-5 218-0 263-3 262-6 644-6 688-6 802-7 867-2 875-2 776-3 173-2 181-9 231-6 233-7 172-5 240-9 165-4 155-1 210-1 227-9 134-5 174-7 2,147-5 2,342-4 2,631-3 2,960-2 1,365-4 1,508-2 35-3 33-4 44-8 41-0 103-4 93-4 47-5 43-4 52-7 70-2 204-5 152-4

79-2 144-5 597-7 241-6 195-6 662-1 1,571-7 408-4 158-8 368-7 224-9 128-3 586-5 291-0 932-0 260-9 205-7 1,998-0 87-9 186-4

95-3 81-4 843-0 256-5 189-1 475-6 1,410-7 342-0 197-8 381-4 248-5 142-2 457-7 589-1 1,086-4 265-6 252-8 1,122-2 101-2 155-9

448-2

543-4

Asia Total

4,937-5 4,915-0 5,743-5 5,962-8 8,745-0 9,013-7 9,778-1 10,237-8

Canada USA Mexico Guatemala Honduras Costa Rica Panama Cuba Colombia Venezuela Brazil Uruguay Argentina Chile Bolivia Peru Ecuador

262-2 575-2 288-6 270-9 274-7 518-5 4,153-2 4,993-3 4,562-6 4,390-9 4,095-2 4,594-1 52-4 37-5 36-3 43-6 410-0 180-8 48-4 41 3 43-3 47-3 29-5 21-5 34-1 40-6 38 6 50-5 16-8 26-7 43-7 46-3 49-4 68-4 7-9 10-4 192-5 241-8 270-9 428-8 217-8 268-9 14 2 11-7 13-9 14-5 35-6 56-0 65-3 84-7 119-3 140-6 120-7 120-0 7-9 160 10-3 17-3 242-1 166-8 282-0 271-7 352-2 421-9 414-3 383-1 28-2 28-2 27-6 26 1 24-0 27-5 113-7 113-0 109-2 132-0 354-9 228-2 20-5 17-4 180 18-1 80-1 72-7 2-6 3-1 5-1 2-5 10-8 6-3 23-7 28-8 19 9 35-7 99-9 69-9 9-2 15-4 14-8 23-5 62-9 48-0

Countries Zambia Zimbabwe Tanzania Kenya Other African countries

Other American countries Australia and Oceania

1982 26-0 35-7 5-3 27-7 85-1

112-4

Imports from 1984 1983 9-7 13-9 43 5 49-4 5-0 6-9 26-9 37-1 94-6

57-3

89-3

83-0

73-6

430-6

409-3

554-4 759-8 5,943-2 6,870-8 258-5 358-5 30-7 28-1 29-4 20-2 15-7 15-2 307-8 233-6 56 1 65-8 107-1 160-9 205-2 190-0 358-3 473-5 29-6 29-3 228-4 293-1 80-6 83-0 12-2 9-4 74-2 86-0 68-4 52-3

94-2

104-8

132-0

126-7

229-8

185-3

238-3

338-5

132-0

128-5

134-8

149-5

489-6

483-1

646-6

735-1

Custom receipts (in 1,000 francs): 1980, 3,170,700; 1981, 3,243,631; 1982, 3,243,000; 1983,3,382,000; 1984,3,393,000; 1985,3,449,000. Total trade between Switzerland (including Liechtenstein) and UK for calendar years (British Department of Trade, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1,669,922 2,154,085 2,490,593 2,371,090 2,989,112 1,196,203 1,385,694 1,549,469 1,306,757 1,575,247

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Federal Customs Office, Statistique mensuelle du commerce extérieur de la Suisse. From 1925.—Statistique annuelle du commerce extérieur de la Suisse. 2 vols. From 1840. —Rapport annuel de la statistique du commerce Suisse. From 1889

Tourism. Tourism is an important industry. In 1985, overnight stays in hotels and sanatoria were 35,000,000 and in other accommodation 38,700,000 (35,180,000 by foreign visitors). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 66,544 km of main roads, including 1,170 km of 'national roads' for motor cars only. There is a postal autobus service, which, in 1976, carried 53-7m. passengers. Motor vehicles, as at 30 Sept. 1985, numbered 3,222,000, including 2,617,000 private cars, 202,000 trucks, 218,000 motor cycles, 10,000 buses and 175,000 commercial and agricultural vehicles. Railways. Railway history in Switzerland begins in 1847. In 1984 the length of the general traffic railways was 5,002 km, and of special lines (funiculars etc.), 889 km. The operating receipts of general traffic lines amounted to (1984) 2,763,400,000 francs; operating expenses, 5,073,000,000 francs. Traffic (1985) was 44 • 5m. tonnes and 224 • 6m. passengers. There are many privately-owned lines, the most important of which are the Bern-Lotschberg-^Simplon (115 km) and Rhaetian (363 km) networks. Aviation. In 1985 Swiss aviation on domestic and international routes carried 7,498,000 passengers. The air transport organization Swissair (founded in 1931) in 1982 carried 189,139 tonnes of freight and 7,168,567 passengers. Swissair had a capital of422m. francs on 15 May 1977. Its fleet consisted of 53 aircraft in Jan. 1983. Shipping. A merchant marine was created by a decree of the Swiss Government dated 9 April 1941, the place of registry of its vessels being Basel. In 1985 it consisted of 39 vessels with a total of 225,434 GRT. In 1981, 8,277,359 tonnes of goods were handled in the port of Basel. Post and Broadcasting. In 1985 there were 3,880 post offices. On 1 Jan. 1985 there were 5,435,800 telephones, all integrated in one dial system. Wireless communication is furnished by 3 main medium-wave stations and 1 short-wave station. There are 3 television studios and more than 100 transmitters. TV programmes are financed by licence fees and advertisements. Advertisements are limited to 15 minutes each day. All stations are operated by the Federal Post, Telephone and Telegraph (PTT) services. Radio-telegraph circuits are operated by Radio Suisse SA, radio-telephone circuits by the PTT. Radio licences, 1985, 2,467,200; television licences, 2,186,500. The total expenditure of the PTT in 1985 was 7,812 -4m. francs, the total gross receipts 8,098-3m. francs. Cinemas (1985). There were 437 cinemas with a seating capacity of 128,000. Newspapers (1985). The number of daily newspapers was estimated to be 399. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Federal Tribunal (Bundes-Gericht), which sits at Lausanne, consists of 26-28 members, with 11-13 supplementary judges, appointed by the Federal Assembly for 6 years and eligible for re-election; the President and Vice-President serve for 2 years and cannot be re-elected. The President has a salary of 170,000 francs a year, and the other members 158,000 francs.-The Tribunal has original and final jurisdiction in suits between the Confederation and cantons; between cantons and cantons; between the Confederation or cantons and corporations or individuals, the value in dispute being not less than 8,000 francs; between parties who refer their case to it, the value in dispute being at least 20,000 francs; in such suits as the constitution or legislation of cantons places within its authority; and in many classes of railway suits. It is a court of appeal against decisions of other

1162

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federal authorities, and of cantonal authorities applying federal laws. The Tribunal also tries persons accused of treason or other offences against the Confederation. For this purpose it is divided into 4 chambers: Chamber of Accusation, Criminal Chamber (Cour d Assises), Federal Penal Court and Court of Cassation. The jurors who serve in the Assize Courts are elected by the people, and are paid 100 francs a day when serving. On 3 July 1938 the Swiss electorate accepted a new federal penal code, to take the place of the separate cantonal penal codes. The new code, which abolished capital punishment, came into force on 1 Jan. 1942. By federal law of 5 Oct. 1950 several articles of the penal code concerning crime against the independence of the state have been amended with a view to reinforcing the security of the State. Religion. There is complete and absolute liberty of conscience and of creed. No one is bound to pay taxes specially appropriated to defraying the expenses of a creed to which he does not belong. No bishoprics can be created on Swiss territory without the approbation ofthe Confederation. According to the census of 1 Dec. 1980 Roman Catholics numbered 3,030,069 (47-6%) of the population; Protestants, 2,822,266 (44-3%) and others, 513,625 (8 • 1 %). In 1960 Protestants were in a majority in 10 of the cantons and Catholics in 12. Of the more populous cantons, Zurich, Bern, Vaud, Neuchatel and Basel (town and land) were mainly Protestant, while Luzern, Fribourg, Ticino, Valais and the Forest Cantons are mainly Catholic. The Roman Catholics are under 6 Bishops, viz., of Basel (resident at Solothurn), Chur, St Gallen, Lugano, Lausanne-GenevaFribourg (resident at Fribourg) and Sitten (Sion), all of them immediately subject to the Holy See. The Old Catholics have a theological faculty at the university of Bern. Education. Education is administered by the cantons and is compulsory. Before the year 1848 most of the cantons had organized a system of primary schools, and since that year elementary education has steadily advanced. In 1874 it was made obligatory for the whole country (the school age varying in the different cantons) and placed under the civil authority. In some cantons the cost falls almost entirely on the communes, in others it is divided between the canton and communes. In all the cantons primary instruction is free. In 1985-86 there were 123,128 pupils in nursery schools and 376,512 in primary schools. In most cantons there are also secondary schools for youths of from 12 to 15, gymnasia, higher schools for girls, teachers seminaries, commercial and administrative schools, trade schools, art schools, technical schools, schools for the instruction of girls in domestic economy and other subjects, agricultural schools, schools for horticulture, for viticulture, for arboriculture and for dairy management. There are also institutions for the blind, the deaf and dumb and feeble-minded. In 1985-86 there were 318,849 pupils in secondary schools, 558,381 in grammar, technical and vocational schools, and 109,727 students at tertiary level. There are 7 universities in Switzerland. These universities are organized on the model of those of Germany, governed by a rector and a senate, and divided into 4 faculties of theology, jurisprudence, philosophy and medicine. In 1980-81 the Federal Institute of Technology at Zurich (founded in 1855) had 658 teachers and (1981-82) 7,556 matriculated students; the Federal Institute of Technology at Lausanne, independent of the university since 1946, had 217 teachers and (1981-82) 2,316 students; the St Gall School of Economics and Social Sciences, founded in 1899, had 148 teachers and (1981-82) 2,008 matriculated students. University statistics in the winter of 1981 -82: Teach-

TheEco- Mediingstaff ology Law nomics cine Science Others Total (1980-81) Basel (1460) 191 • 905 537 1,676 1,167 1,554 6,030 506 Zurich (1523 & 1833) 222 2,529 1,044 3,122 2 , 0 7 1 - 6 , 4 6 4 15,452 1,618 Bern (1528 & 1834) 224 1,556 488 1,823 1,405 2,312 7,808 810 Geneve(1559' & 1873') 126 986 870 1,498 1,382 5,454 10,316 831 Lausanne (1537'& 18902) 93 818 717 1,491 780 1,809 5,708 433 Fribourg (1889) 432 635 593 375 471 2,012 4,518 465 Neuchatel (1866 & 1909) 52 215 237 91 463 926 1,984 215 1 ! Founded as an academy. Reorganized as a university.

SWITZERLAND

1163

These numbers are exclusive of 'visitors', but inclusive of women students. In 198 5-86 there were 74,806 students attending universities. Health. In 1980 there were 16,624 doctors, 37,360 nurses and 7,392 physiotherapists. Social Security. The Federal Insurance Law against illness and accident, of 13 June 1911, entitles all Swiss citizens to insurance against illness; foreigners may be admitted to the benefits. Compulsory insurance against illness does not exist as yet, but cantons and communities are entitled to declare insurance obligatory for certain classes or to establish public benefit (sick fund) associations, and to make employers responsible for the payment of the premiums of their employees. Unemployment insurance is based since 13 June 1976 upon a Constitution amendment which stipulates unemployment insurance as compulsory for all wage-earners. Insurance against accident is compulsory for all officials, employees and workmen of all the factories, trades, etc., which are under the federal liability law. On 6 July 1947 a federal law was accepted by a referendum, providing compulsory old age and widows and widowers insurance for the whole population,, as from 1 Jan. 1948. In March 1981 the number of normal pensioners was 983,063, the number of interim pensioners, 34,379. In March 1981, 184,174 invalids received a regular annuity and 20,731 invalids an interim annuity. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Switzerland in Great Britain (16-18 Montagu Place, London, W1H 2BQ) Ambassador: François-Charles Pictet (accredited 9 Feb. 1984). Of Great Britain in Switzerland (Thunstrasse 50,30005 Bern) Ambassador:]. R. Rich, CMG. Of Switzerland in the USA (2900 Cathedral Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Klaus Jacobi. Of the USA in Switzerland (Jubilaeumstrasse 93,3005, Bern) Ambassador: Faith R. Whittlesey. Books of Reference Stalistical Information: The Bureau fédéral de statistique (Hallwylstr. 15, 3003 Bern) was established in 1860. Director: J.-J. Senglet. Its principal publications are: Annuaire statistique de la Suisse. Bâle. From 1891 Statistique de la Suisse. From 1930 Contributions à la Statistique Suisse. From 1930 Bibliographie Suisse de statistique et d'économie politique. Annual, from 1937 Swiss Confederation Annuaire; Budget; Message du Budget; Compte d'Etat (annual) Feuille Fédérale; Recueil des Lois fédérales (weekly) Recueil systématique des lois et ordonnances, 1848-1947 (in German, French and Italian). Bern 1951 Sammlung der Bundes- und Kantonsverfassungen (in German, French and Italian). Bern, 1937 Federal Department of Economics La vie économique (and supplements). Monthly. From 1928 Législation sociale de la Suisse. Annual, from 1928 Imhof, E. (ed.), Atlas der Schweiz. Bern, 1965 ff. McPhee, J., The Swiss Army. London, 1985 Riklin, A., et al, Handbuch der schweizerischen Aussenpolitik. Bern, 1975 Schwarz, Ü., The Eye of the Hurricane: Switzerland in World War Two. Boulder, 1980 National Library: Bibliothèque Nationale Suisse, Hallwylstr. 15, 3003, Bern. Director: F. G. Maier.

Capital: Damascus Population: 10-96m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$2,000 (1984)

SYRIA al-Jumhuriya al-Arabya as-Suriya

H I S T O R Y . For the history of Syria from 1920 to 1946 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1957, pp. 1408 f. Complete independence was achieved on 12 Apr. 1946. Syria merged with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic from 2 Feb. 1958 until 29 Sept. 1961, when independence was resumed following a coup the previous day. Lieut.-Gen. Hafez al-Assad became Prime Minister following the fifth coup of that decade on 13 Nov. 1970, and assumed the Presidency on 22 Feb. 1971. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Syria is bounded by the Mediterranean and the Lebanese Republic on the west, by Israel and Jordan on the south, by Iraq on the east and by Turkey on the north. The frontier between Syria and Turkey (NisibimJeziret ibn Omar) was settled by the Franco-Turkish agreement of 22 June 1929. The area of Syria is 185,180 sq. km (71,498 sq. miles), of which 35,000 sq. km have been surveyed. The census of 1981 gave a total population of 9,050,204. Estimate (1986) 10-96m. of whom 49% were urban. The areas and populations (1981 Census) of the 14 mohafaza (districts) are: Sq. km 1981 Census Sq. km 1981 Census

City of Damascus Dimashq (Damascus) Aleppo Homs Hama Lattakia Dayr az-Zawr

105 18,032 18,500 42,223 8,883 2,297 33,060

1,112,214 917,364 1,878,701 812,517 736,412 554,384 409,130

Idlib Hasakah Raqqah Suwaydâ Dara Tartous Qunaytirah

6,097 23,334 19,616 5,550 3,730 1,892 1,861

579,581 669,887 348,383 199,114 362,969 443,290 26,258

Principal towns (census 1981), Damascus, 1,251,028; Aleppo, 976,727; Homs, 354,508; Lattakia, 196,791;Hama, 176,640. Arabic is the official language, spoken by 89% of the population, while 6% speak Kurdish (chiefly Hasakah governorate), 3% Armenian and 2% other languages. C L I M A T E . The climate is Mediterranean in type, with mild wet winters and dry, hot summers, though there are variations in temperatures and rainfall between the coastal regions and the interior, which even includes desert conditions. The more mountainous parts are subject to snowfall. Damascus. Jan. 45°F (7°C), July 81°F (27°C). Annual rainfall 9 " (225 mm). Aleppo. Jan. 43°F (6-PC), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 16" (401 mm). Homs. Jan. 4 5 ' F (7-2°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (300 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was approved by plebiscite on 12 March 1973 and promulgated on 14 March. It confirmed the Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'ath) Party, in power since 1963, as the 'leading party in the State and society'. Legislative power is held by a 195-member People's Council, elected for a 4-year term. At the latest elections on 10 Nov. 1981, all seats were won by the National Progressive Front, a coalition of the Ba'ath Party and 4 smaller ones. President: Lieut.-Gen. Hafez al-Assad (re-elected for further 7-year terms in 1978 and 1985). First Vice-President: Abdul Halim Khaddam (Political and Foreign Affairs). Second Vice-President: Rifaat al-Assad (Defence and Security). Third VicePresident: Mohammed Zuhair Mashrqa (Party Affairs).

1164

SYRIA

1165

Prime Minister: Dr Abdul Rauf al-Kasm. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with 2 green stars on the white stripe. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory fora period of 30 months. Army. The Army is organized into S armoured and 3 mechanized divisions, 2 mechanized, 6 artillery brigades, 8 para-commando regiments, 3 surface-to-surface missile regiments and 30 surface-to-air missile batteries. Strength (1987) about 320,000 (including 135,000 conscripts) and reserves 50,000. There are a further 25,000 men in paramilitary forces. Equipment includes 1,800 T-54/-55, 1,300 T-62 and 1,100 T-72/-72M main battle tanks. Navy. The Navy includes 2 old ex-Soviet diesel-powered patrol submarines (and another used as a battery changing platform), 2 small frigates, 22 missile boats, 8 torpedo boats, 3 minesweepers, 2 coastal minesweepers, 4 inshore minesweepers, 3 coastal patrol craft and 1 diving ship (all ex-Soviet). Personnel in 1987 totalled 2,500 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force, including Air Defence Command, was believed (1557) to have about 70,000 personnel and about 480 first-line jet combat aircraft, made up of about 200 MiG-21, 60 MiG-23 and 24 MiG-25 supersonic interceptors, 60 MiG-23, 40 Su-7, 60 Su-22 and 50 MiG-17 fighter-bombeis, plus some MiG-25 reconnaissance aircraft. Additional aircraft are being purchased from the USSR. Training units have Spanish-built Flamingo piston-engined primary trainers and Czechoslovakian L-29 Delfin and L-39 jet basic trainers. There are also transport units with 11-76, An-12, An-24/26,11-14 and other types, and helicopter units with Soviet-built Ka-25s, Mi-6s, Mi-8s and Mi-24 gunships, and French-built Gazelles. 'Guideline', 'Goa', 'Gainful' and 'Gaskin' surface-to-air missiles are widely deployed in Syria by Air Defence Command, and 'Gammon' long-range surfaceto-air missiles in Lebanon. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Syria is a member of UN and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. The total investment envisaged in the fifth 5-year plan (1981-85) £Syr. 101,493m. Budget. The ordinary budget for the calendar year 1984 provides for expenditure of £Syr.41,289m. Currency. The monetary unit is the Syrian pound, divided into 100 piastres. In March 1987,£1 =£Syr.6-23;US$l =£Syr.3-93. Banking. The Central Bank has the sole right of issuing currency. Other banks were nationalized in March 1963, namely, the Omaya Bank and its subsidiary, the Popular Mortgage Bank; the Orient Arab Bank; the Bank of Syria and Overseas; the Agricultural Bank; the Arab World Bank. Number of branches, 1973: Central Bank of Syria, 9; Commercial Bank of Syria, 22; Industrial Bank, 3; Agricultural Co-operative Bank, 50; Real Estate Bank, 3; Bank of Popular Discount, 27. Weights and Measures. A decree dated 22 Aug. 1935 makes the use of the metric system legal and obligatory throughout the whole of the country. In outlying districts the former weights and measures may still be in use. They are: 1 okiya = 0-47 lb.; 6 okiyas = 1 oke = 2-82 lb.; 2 okes - 1 rottol = 5-64 lb.; 200 okes = 1 kantar. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production(1985)6,919m. kwh. Oil. A branch of the Iraq Petroleum Co.'s oil pipeline from Kirkuk crosses-Syria

1166

SYRIA

between Makaleb in the east and Nahr el Kebir valley in the west. The Iraq Petroleum Co. has constructed a new pipeline from Kirkuk to the small fishing port of Banias (south of Lattakia), which came into use in April 1952; the Trans-Arabian Pipeline Co.'s line to Sidon crosses southern Syria. Crude oil production (1986) 10m. tonnes. Reserves(1983) 1,521m. bbls. Gas. Gas reserves (1982) 700,000m. cubic ft. Production (1983) 75-86m. cu. metres. Minerals. Phosphate deposits have been discovered at two places near al-Shargiya and at Khneifis. Production, 1983, l-23m. tonnes; other minerals were salt, 87,000 tonnes and gypsum 350,000 tonnes. There are indications of lead, copper, antimony, nickel, chrome and other minerals widely distributed. Sodium chloride and bitumen deposits are being worked. Agriculture. In 1984, 170,000 hectares were under cotton, 1,099,000 hectares under wheat and 1,281,000 hectares under barley. The total cultivable area in 1983 was 14,592,000 hectares, including 500,000 hectares of forest and 8,444,000 hectares of steppe and pasture. Production of principal crops, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat, 1,714; barley, 1,037; seed cotton, 487; olives, 185; lentils, 48; millet, 7; sugar-beet, 489. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 740,000; asses, 194,000; sheep, 13,665,000; goats, 1 06m.; poultry, 15m. Fishing. The total catch in 1983 was 3,777 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. The most important industries are flour, oils, soap, cement, tanning, tobacco, textiles, knitwear, glassware, spinning, sugar, margarine, hosiery, footwear and brassware. Industrial production in 1980 included (in 1,000 tonnes): Woollen fabrics, 1,200; cement, 2,310; sugar, 141; salt, 111; cotton yarn, 25-2; manufactured tobacco, 9-9. Commerce. Trade in calendar years in £Syr. 1 m. was as follows: Imports Exports

1981 19,781 8,254

1982 15,727 7,954

1983 17,829 7,548

1984 16,154 7,275

In 1984 imports came from Iran (22-7%), Libya (7-7%), Federal Germany (5 -9%), France (5' 1%), Italy (4-6%) and included crude oil and power generating machinery. Exports went to Romania (28-2%), Italy (19-8%), USSR (11-5%) and France (12-2%) and included petroleum products (63 -1%). Total trade between Syria and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 6 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 25,644 89,535

1983 18,859 72,320

1984 59,245 91,909

1985 78,575 80,901

1986 31,298 55,511

Tourism. In 1981,1,075,100 tourists visited Syria. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1980 there were 13,000 km of asphalted roads, 1,300 km of macadam non-asphalted road and 6,000 km of earth roads. The first-class roads are capable of carrying all types of modern motor transport and are usable all the year round, while the second-class roads are usable during the dry season only, i.e., for about 9 months. The motor vehicles registered in 1981 were 93,000 motor cycles, 9,935 buses, 75,200 cars and 93,300 goods vehicles. Railways. Network totals 1,686 km of 1,43 5 mm gauge (Syrian Railways) and 246 km of 1,050 mm gauge (Hedjaz-Syrian Railway). In 1984 the Syrian Railways network carried 2-9m. passengers and 3-9m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. In 1980, 12,557 aircraft arrived at Damascus and Aleppo airports, disembarking 559,430 passengers.

SYRIA

1167

Shipping. The amount of cargo discharged in 1980 was 2-6m. tons and the amount loaded 430,000 tons. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1983), 468,922; of these, 152,203 were in Damascus and 71,135 in Aleppo. There were 1-8m. radio sets in 1983 and 405,000 television receivers. Newspapers. There were (1984) 3 national daily newspapers in Damascus; other dailies and periodicals appear in Hama, Homs, Aleppo and Lattakia. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Syrian law is based on both Islamic and French jurisprudence. There are 2 courts of first instance in each district, one for civil and 1 for criminal cases. There is also a Summary Court in each sub-district, Under Justices of the Peace. There is a Court of Appeal in the capital of each governorate, with a Court of Cassation in Damascus. Religion. The population is composed 90% of Sunni Moslems and there are also Shiites and Ismailis. There are also Druzes and Alawites. Christians include Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Protestants, Maronites, Syrian Catholics, Latins, Nestorians and Assyrians. There are also Jews and Yezides. Education. The Syrian University was founded in 1924, although the faculties of law and of medicine had existed previously. In 1975 there were 3 universities with 94,794 students. In 1983-84 there were 8,489 primary schools with 67,086 teachers and 1,823,684 pupils; secondary and intermediate schools, with 26,366 teachers and 701,330 pupils; vocational and teacher-training schools had 5,447 teachers and 64,596 pupils; 41 higher education establishments had 123,735 students. Health. In 1984 there were 11,595 hospital beds (1 per 875 persons) in 182 hospitals; there were also 5,543 doctors, 2,045 dentists, 2,367 pharmacists, 2,071 midwives and 7,923 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Syria in the USA (2215 Wyoming Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Rañc Jouejati. Of the USA in Syria (Abu Rumaneh, Al Mansur St., Damascus) Ambassador: William L. Eagleton, Jr. Of Syria to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Diplomatic relations with Syria were broken offby the UK on 31 Oct. 1986. Books of Reference Statistical Information: There is a Central Statistics Bureau affiliated to. the Council of Ministers, Damascus. It publishes a monthly summary and an annual Statistical Abstract (in Arabic and English). Abd-Allah, U. F., The Islamic Struggle in Syria. Berkeley, 1983 Barthélémy, A., Dictionnaire arabe-français. Dialectes de Syrie. 4 vols. Paris, 1935-50 Devlin, J. F., Syria: Modem State in an Ancient Land. Boulder, 1983 Maoz, M., and Yaniv, A., Syria under Assad. New York, 1986 Seale, P., The Struggle for Syria. London, 1986 Seccombe, I. J., Syria. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987

TANZANIA Jamhuri ya Mwungano wa Tanzania

Capital: Dodoma Population: 2\lim. (1985) GNPper capita: US$210 (1984)

H I S T O R Y . German East Africa was occupied by German colonialists from 1884 and placed under the protection of the German Empire in 1891. It was conquered in the First World War and subsequently divided between the British and Belgians. The latter received the territories of Ruanda and Urundi and the British the remainder, except for the Kionga triangle, which went to Portugal. The country was administered as a League of Nations mandate until 1946 and then as a UN trusteeship territory until 9 Dec. 1961. Tanganyika achieved responsible government in Sept. 1960 and full self-govemmenton 1 May 1961,On9Dec. 1961 Tanganyika became a sovereign independent member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. It adopted a republican form of government on 9 Dec. 1962. For history from the end of the 17th century until 1884 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1982-83, p. 1170.

On 24 June 1963 Zanzibar became an internal self-governing state and on 9 Dec. 1963 she became independent. On 24 June 1963 the Legislative Council was replaced by a National Assembly. On 12 Jan. 1964 the sultanate was overthrown and the sultan sent into exile by a revolt of the Afro-Shirazi Party leaders who established the People's Republic of Zanzibar. On 26 April 1964 Tanganyika, Zanzibar and Pemba combined to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar (named Tanzania on 29 Oct.). AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Tanzania is bounded north-east by Kenya, north by Lake Victoria and Uganda, north-west by Rwanda and Burundi, west by Lake Tanganyika, south-west by Zambia and Malawi and south by Mozambique. Total area 945,050 sq. km (364,886 sq. miles). The census of Aug. 1978 gave 17,551,925 for the United Republic, of which 17,076,270 were counted in mainland Tanzania and 475,655 in Zanzibar and Pemba. Estimate (1985) 21 -73m. There were also (1986) about 209,000 refugees living in Tanzania. The chief towns (1978 census populations) are Dar es Salaam, the chief port and former capital (757,346), Zanzibar Town (110,669), Mwanza(l 10,611), Dodoma, the capital (45,703), Tanga(103,409), Arusha (55,281), Mbeya (76,606), Morogoro (61,890), Mtwara (48,510), Tabora (67,392), Iringa (57,182), and Kigoma (50,044). The United Republic is divided into 25 administrative regions of which 20 are in mainland Tanzania, 3 in Zanzibar and 2 in Pemba. The 1985 estimated population of the islands was 571,000, of which 45% (256,950) were in Pemba and 55% (314,050) in Zanzibar. The estimated populations of the 20 mainland regions were as follows in 1985: Arusha Dares Salaam Dodoma Iringa Kagera Kigoma Kilimanjaro

1,183,000 1,394,000 1,171,000 1,100,000 1,298,000 782,000 1,093,000

Lindi Mara Mbeya Morogoro Mtwara Mwanza Pwani

604,000 862,000 1,335,000 1,134,000 878,000 1,736,000 578,000

Rukwa Ruvuma Shinyanga Singida Tabora Tanga

603,000 691,000 1,662,000 730,000 1,089,000 1,236,000

Kiswahili is the national language and English is the official language. C L I M A T E . The climate is very varied and is controlled very largely by altitude and distance from the sea. There are three climatic zones: the hot and humid coast, the drier central plateau with seasonal variations of temperature, and the semitemperate mountains. Dodoma. Jan. 75°F (23-9°C), July 67°F (19-4°C). Annual 1168

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rainfall 23" (572 mm). Dar es Salaam. Jan. 82'F (27-8'C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,064 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A permanent Constitution was approved in April 1977. The country is a one-party state. The Tanganyika African National Union and the Afro-Shirazi Party in Zanzibar merged into one revolutionary party, ChamachaMapinduzi, in Jan. 1977. The President of the United Republic is head of state, chairman of the party and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The second vice-president is head of the executive in Zanzibar.The Prime Minister and first vice-president is also the leader of government business in the National Assembly. According to the Constitution of 1977, as amended in Oct. 1984, the National Assembly is composed of a total of 244 members: 169 Members of Parliament elected from the Constituencies (119 from the mainland and 50 from Zanzibar); 15 National Members elected by the National Assembly; 15 women members elected by the National Assembly, 5 from Zanzibar; 5 members elected by the House of Representatives in Zanzibar; 25 ex-officio Members (20 Regional Commissioners from the mainland and 5 from Zanzibar) and 15 Nominated Members tby the President), 5 from Zanzibar. In Dec. 1979 a separate Constitution for Zanzibar was approved. Although at present (1981) under the same Constitution as Tanzania, Zanzibar has, in fact, been ruled by decree since 1964. The Government was in Dec. 1986 composed as follows: President of the United Republic: Ndugu Ali Hassan Mwinyi (sworn in 5 Nov. 1985 for 5-year term). Prime Minister and First Vice President: Joseph S. Warioba. President of Zanzibar and Second Vice President: Idris A. Wakil. Without Portfolio: Rashidi Kawawa. Deputy Prime Minister, Defence and National Service: Salim Ahmed Salim. Finance, Economic Affairs and Planning: Damas Mbogoro. Foreign Affairs: Benjamin Mkapa. Agriculture and Livestock Development: Paul Bomani. Local Government and Co-operatives: K. Ngombale Mwiru. Communications and Works: Mustapha Nyang'anyi. Labour and Manpower Development: Daudi Mwakawago. Home Affairs: Muhiddin Kimario. Education: Jackson Makwetta. Mineral Resources and Energy: A1 Noor Kassum. Natural Resources and Tourism: Getrude Mongella. Industries and Trade: Basil Mramba. Health and Social Welfare: Dr Aaron Chiduo. Justice and Attorney General: Damian Lubuva. Land, Water, Housing and Urban Development: Dr Pius Ng'wandu. Community Development, Culture, Youth and Sports: Fatma Saidi Ali. There are 5 Ministers of State and 10 Deputy Ministers. National flag: Divided diagonally green, black, blue, with the black strip edged in yellow. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 8 infantry brigades; 1 tank, 2 artillery, 2 anti-aircraft, 2 mortar, 1 surface-to-air missile, 2 anti-tank and 2 signals battalions. Equipment includes 30 Chinese Type-59 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 38,500. There is also a Citizen's Militia of 100,000 men. Navy. There are 10 fast gunboats (6 ex-Chinese and 4 ex-GDR), 4 ex-Chinese fast torpedo hydrofoil boats, 4 ex-North Korean patrol craft, 4 ex-Chinese coastal patrol boats, 1 survey launch, 1 research vessel and 2 ex-Chinese minor landing craft. Personnel in 1987 totalled some 700. Air Force. The Tanzanian People's Defence Force Air Wing was built up initially with the help of Canada, but combat equipment is now being acquired from China. Personnel totalled about 1,000 in 1987, with about 10 F-7 (MiG-21), 10 F-6 (MiG-19)and3F-5(MiG-17) jet fighters; 1 F28 Fellowship VIP transport; 5 Buffalo twin-engined STOL transports; 3 HS 748 turboprop transports; 2 Cessna 404 liaison aircraft; 2 Agusta-built Chinook helicopters; 6 Agusta-Bell AB.205 trans-

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port helicopters, and 2 JetRanger and 2 Bell 47G light helicopters; and Piper Cherokee, Cessna 310 and FT-2 (Chinese-built MiG-15 UTI) trainers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Tanzania is a member of UN, OAU, the Commonwealth, NonAligned Movement and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth 5-year development (1981-86) plan envisaged investment of Sh. 40,200m. and a growth rate of 6%. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Tanzanian Sh. 1 m.) for financial years ending 30 June: Revenue Expenditure

1980-81 12,296 1 14,802-4

1981-82 1982-83' 10,460 10,700 13,687 14,144 'Estimate.

1983-84' 12,500 15,620

1984-85' 18,000 20,674

Currency. The monetary unit is the Tanzanian shilling divided into 100 cents. The Tanzanian coinage has denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50 cents, 1 Sh., 5 Sh., 20 Sh. and 1,500 Sh.; notes, 10 Sh., 20 Sh. and 100 Sh. In March 1987, £1 = Sh. 87-70; US$=Sh. 55-38. Banking. On 14 June 1966 the central bank called the Bank of Tanzania, with a government-owned capital of Sh. 20m., began operations. On 6 Feb. 1967 all commercial banks with the exception of National Cooperative Banks were nationalized and their interests vested in the National Bank of Commerce on the mainland and the Peoples' Bank in Zanzibar. Weights. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. A 21 mw hydro-electric power-station on the Pangani River was commissioned in 1964. The first phase of the Kidatu power-station in Morogoro region with an installed capacity of 100 mw was commissioned in 1975. The second phase with an additional 100 mw was commissioned in 1981. The third phase (Mtera power-station) with a capacity of 80 mw is scheduled for completion in 1988. Production (1985) 816m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Production (1984): Diamonds, 53,195 grammes; gold, 96,530 grammes; salt, 29,907 tonnes; gemstones, 38,884 kg. Large deposits of coal and tin exist but mining is on a small scale. Exploration is going on to establish economic deposits of copper, cobalt and nickel, and feasibility studies to exploit iron ore deposits in south-western Tanzania. Work is under way to utilize natural gas deposits at Songo Songo off the coast south of Dar es Salaam. Agriculture. Production of main agricultural crops in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) was: Sisal, 40; seed cotton, 136; sugar-cane, 1,310; coffee, 56; tobacco, 17; maize, 2,093; wheat, 83; cashew nuts, 45; citrus, 30. Production of sisal has been declining since 1967. The Tanganyika Sisal Corporation has embarked on a diversification programme by introducing various new crops. Crops already planned are cardamom, beans, cashew nuts, citrus, cocoa, coconuts, cotton, maize and timber. Cattle ranching, dairying and twine spinning have also been introduced. Zanzibar provides the greater part of the world's supply of cloves, which account for over 90% of foreign earnings. There are about 40,000 hectares under cloves with about 1 -5m. trees; five-sixths of the clove output is produced on Pemba. The clove industry is undergoing a rehabilitation programme to increase production, which in 1980-81 was 7,497 tons; 1984-85,over8,700 tons. A 10-year programme to rehabilitate the coconut industry started in 1980. By 1985 over 23m. trees were under plantation on the mainland and Zanzibar. Chillies, cocoa, limes, other tropical fruits and coil tobacco are also cultivated. The chief food crops are rice, bananas, cassava, pulses, maize and sorghum.

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Livestock (1985, including Zanzibar): 14m. cattle, 4 1 m . sheep, 6 45m. goats, 30m. poultry. Forestry. Total production (1983) 114,900 cu. metres. Fisheries. A Fisheries Development Co. is catching sardines and tuna for export. Catch (1983) 237,148 tonnes of which, inland waters, 202,662 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry is limited and is mainly textiles, petroleum and chemical products, food processing, tobacco, brewing and paper manufacturing. Commerce. Total trade (in Sh. 1 m.): Imports Exports

1979 8,941 4,296

1980 10,047 4,165

1981 10,065 5,248

1982 7,781 4,117

1983 8,877 4,138

1984 11,953 5,661

irts(in T a n z a n i a n S h . l m . ) , b y c o u n t r y , 1984: Country Bahrain Belgium China Denmark Federal Republic of Germany India

Imports 207 3 510 1 250 8 273 4

Exports

1,294 2 1800

1,206 8 361 5

-

79 2 400 29 7

Country Iran Italy Japan Netherlands Sweden Switzerland Thailand

imports 795 3 990-8 1,167 5 560 0 476 6 207 7 338 0

Exports -

320 306 399 12 217 5

7 1 1 5 1 6

Major export items 1984 (in Sh. lm.): Coffee, 2,216; cotton, 713; sisal, 146; cloves, 136; tea, 330; tobacco, 110; cashew nuts, 439; diamonds, 327. Total trade between Tanzania and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 46,525 62,056

1984 43,179 60,440

1985 46,640 88,622

1986 40,268 62,869

Tourism. In 1982 about 71,000 tourists visited Tanzania. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 45,202 km of roads and (1983) 43,248 cars and 12,579 licenced commercial vehicles of which 11,290 were trucks and 1,289 buses. Railways. On 23 Sept. 1977 the independent Tanzanian Railway Corporation was formed following the break-up of the East African Railways administration. The network totals 2,600 km (metre-gauge), excluding the Tan-Zam Railway 969 km in Tanzania (1,067 mm gauge) operated by a separate administration. In 1984, the state railway carried 2-9m. passengers and 915,620 tonnes of freight while in 1983-84 the Tan-Zam Railway carried 950,000 tonnes of freight and lm. passengers. Aviation. There are 53 aerodromes and landing strips maintained or licensed by Government; of these, 2 are of international standards category (Dar es Salaam and Kilimanjaro) and 18 are suitable for Dakotas. Air Tanzania Corporation provide regular and frequent services to all the more important towns within the territory and to Mozambique, Zambia, Seychelles, Comoro, Rwanda, Burundi and Madagascar. There is an all-weather landing-ground in Zanzibar and a smaller all-weather landing-ground in Pemba. Shipping. In 1980 there were 1,296 ships of3,176,000 NRT. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 99,885 telephones. There are 2 broadcasting stations and colour television operates in Zanzibar. In 1984 there were 9,000 television receivers (on Zanzibar only) and 2m. radio receivers. Newspapers (1985). There were 3 dailies, 2 weeklies and several monthly magazines.

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TANZANIA

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Judiciary is independent in both judicial and administrative matters and is composed of a 4-tier system of Courts: Primary Courts; District and Resident Magistrates' Courts; the High Court and the Court of Appeal. The Chief Justice is head of the Court of Appeal and the Judiciary Department. The Court's main registry is at Dar es Salaam; its jurisdiction includes Zanzibar. The Principal Judge is head of the High Court, also headquartered at Dar es Salaam, which has resident judges at 7 regional centres. Religion. In 1984 some 40% were Christian, including Roman Catholics under the Archbishops of Dar es Salaam and Tabora, Anglicans under the Archbishop of Tanzania, and Lutherans. Moslems amount to 33%, but reach 66% in the coastal towns; Zanzibar is 96% Moslem and 4% Hindu. Some 23% follow traditional religions. Education. In 1984 there were 10,110 primary schools with 3,493,469 pupils, and 170 secondary schools (85 private) with 74,208 students. Technical and vocational education is provided at several secondary and technical schools and at the Dar es Salaam Technical College. There were, in 1984, 63 teachers' colleges, including the college at Chang'ombe for secondary-school teachers, with 14,270 students. The University of Dar es Salaam, independent since 1970, has faculties of law, arts, social sciences, medicine, engineering, commerce and management. Sokoine University of Agriculture, established in 1984, has faculties of agriculture, forestry and veterinary medicine. The total number of students in both universities was 3,320 in 1984. Health. In 1984 there were 1,065 doctors and 152 hospitals with 22,800 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Tanzania in Great Britain (43 Hertford St., London, W1) High Commissioner: Anthony Balthazar Nyakyi. Of Great Britain in Tanzania (Hifadhi Hse., Samora Ave., Dar es Salaam) High Commissioner: Colin H. Imray, CMG. Of Tanzania in the USA (2139 R St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Asterius M. Hyera. Of the USA in Tanzania (36 Laibon Rd., Dar es Salaam) Ambassador: Donald Petterson. Of Tanzania to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Wilbert K. Chagula. Books of Reference Atlas of Tanganyika. 3rded. Dares Salaam, 1956 Tanganyika Notes and Records. Tanganyika Society, Dar es Salaam. (Twice yearly, from 1936) The Economic Development of Tanganyika. Report... by the International Bank. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press and OUP, 1961 Ayany, S. G., A History of Zanzibar. Nairobi, 1970 Coulson, A., Tanzania: A Political Economy. OUP, 1982 Nyerere, J., Freedom and Development. New York, 1976 Resnick, I. N., The Long Transition: Building Socialism in Tanzania. New York and London, 1981 SamoEF, J., Tanzania: Local Politics and the Structure of Power. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1975 Yeager, R., Tanzania: An African Experiment. Aldershot, 1982

THAILAND

Cap/fa/: Bangkok Population: 52 • 8m. ( 1986) GNP per capita: US$ 1,030 ( 1984)

Prathes Thai, or Muang-Thai

H I S T O R Y . Until 24 June 1932 Siam was an absolute monarchy. On that date a coup d'étal was effected and a Provisional Constitution Act was promulgated on 27 June. This was replaced by the constitution of 10 Dec. 1932, which in turn was superseded by new constitutions. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Thailand is 513,115 sq. km (198,456 sq. miles)'and is bounded west by Burma and the Indian Ocean, southby Malaysia, east by the Gulf of Thailand, Cambodia and east and north by Laos. At the census taken in 1980 the registration gave a population of46,961,338, of whom 30-4% lived in the Central region, 35-2% in the Nprth-East region, 12-5% in the South region, 21-9% in the North region. Estimate (1986) 52-8m. (26-lm. females) Vital statistics, 1983: Births, 1,055,802 (520,728 females); deaths, 252,592 (107,776 females). Thailand is divided into 73 provinces. Provinces with over lm. population 1986 were Nakhon Ratchasima (2,243,845), Ubon Ratchathani (1,758,868), Udon Thani (1,690,356), Khon Kaen (1,600,732), Nakhon Si Thamarat (1,359,740), Buri Ram (1,316,393), Chiang Mai (1,285,662), Si Saket (1,222,743), Surin (1,203,943), Roi Ed (1,157,174), Nakhon Sawan (1,047,163) and Songkhla (1,008,198). Bangkok Metropolis is the capital (population 1986, 5,446,708). Other towns (1980 census) are Chiang Mai (101,595), Hat Yai (93,519), Khon Kaen, (85,863), Phitsanulok (79,942), Nakhon Ratchasima (78,246), Udon Thani (71,142), Songkhla (67,945), Nakhon Sawan (63,935), Nakhon Si Thammarat (63,162), Ubon Ratchathani (50,788), Ayutthaya (47,189), Nakhon Pathom (45,242), Lampang (42,301 ) and Ratchaburi (40,404). Thai is the national language. Several Chinese dialects are also spoken in Bangkok and the north and some Malay in the south. English is increasingly used in tourist areas. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with high temperatures and humidity. Over most of the country, 3 seasons may be recognized. The rainy season is June to Oct., the cool season from Nov. to Feb. and the hot season is March to May. Rainfall is generally heaviest in the south and lightest in the north east. Bangkok. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,400 mm). R E I G N I N G KING. Bhumibol Adulyadej, bom 5 Dec. 1927, younger brother of King Ananda Mahidol, who died on 9 June 1946. King Bhumibol married on 28 April 1950 Princess Sirikit, and was crowned 5 May 1950. Children: Princess Ubol Ratana (born 5 April 1951, married Aug. 1972 Peter Ladd Jensen), Crown-Prince Vajiralongkom (bom 28 July 1952, married 3 Jan. 1977 Soamsawali Kitiyakra), Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhom (bom 2 April 1955), Princess Chulabhorn (born 4 July 1957, married7 Jan. 1982 Virayudth Didyasarin). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The military government resigned on 14 Oct. 1973 and a new government was formed. A new Constitution designed to restore democracy was promulgated in Dec. 1978. A general election 1173

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was held on 27 July 1986. Of the 347 seats in Parliament, the Democrat Party won 100, the Chart Thai Party 63. The cabinet in Nov. 1986 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Gen. Prem Tinasulanonda. Deputy Prime Ministers: Bhichai Rattakul, Maj.-Gen. Chatichai Choonhavan, Pong Sarasin, Adm. Sonthi Boonyachai, Gen. Tienchai Sirisumpun. Ministers of the Prime Minister's Office: Meechai Ruchupan, Chirayu Isarankun Na Ayuthaya, Flight-Lieut. Sulee Mahasanthana, Chaisiri Ruangkanchanases, Amnuay Suwankiri, Vichit Saengthong. Interior: Gen. Prachuab Soontarangkun. Industry: Pramuan Sapavasu. Communications: Banham Silpa-acha. Commerce: Montree Pongpanit. Education: Marut Bunnag. Agriculture, and Cooperatives: Gen. Han Leenanond. Finance: Suthee Singsaneh. Public Health: Therdpong Chaiyanand. Defence: Air Chief Marshal Panieng Kantarat. Science, Technology and Energy: Banyat Banthadthan. University Affairs: Subin Pinkhayan. Foreign Affairs: Air Chief Marshal Siddhi Savetsila. Justice: Sa-ad Piyawan. Nationalflag: Five horizontal stripes of red, white, blue, white, red, with the blue of double width. Local Government. For purposes of administration Thailand is divided into 73 provinces (changwads), each under the control of a changwad governor. The changwads are subdivided into 640 districts (amphurs) and 83 sub-districts (king amphurs), 6,331 communes (tambons) and 56,608 villages (moobans). Local legislative and executive bodies with limited powers are being established with functions, procedure and method of election modelled on those of central Assembly. D E F E N C E . Under the Ministry of Defence Organization Act of 1960 the Ministry of Defence has assumed the Supreme Command and the control of the Army, Navy and Air Force with the advice of the Defence Council headed by the Ministry of Defence. The National Defence College, the Armed Forces Staff College and the Military Preparatory School serve the education of officers. Each service has its own C.-in-C., service council, schools of arms and Command and General Staff College. Under the Military Service Act of 1954 every able-bodied man between the ages of 21 and 30 is liable to serve 2 years with the colours; 7 years in the first reserve; 10 years in the second reserve; 6 years in the third reserve. Army. The Army is organized in 4 Regions and consists of 1 cavalry, 1 armoured, 7 infantry, 2 special forces, 1 artillery and 1 anti-aircraft divisions; 11 engineer and 8 independent infantry battalions; and 4 reconnaissance companies. Equipment includes 65 M-48A5 and 300 M-41 main battle tanks. There is also an Army Aviation force including over 100 transport helicopters (mostly UH-1 Iroquois) and 50 O-l Bird Dog observation aircraft and 5 C-47 and 2 Shorts 330 twinturboprop transports. Strength (1987) 166,000, with 500,000 reserves. Navy. The Fleet includes 4 frigates (1 modern built in Britain, 2 very old ex-US, and 1 very old ex-US destroyer escort), 4 corvettes (small frigates) - 2 new missilearmed and 2 modernised - all US-built, 3 fast large attack gunboats, 6 fast missile craft, 4 coastal minesweepers, 10 patrol vessels, 1 mine counter-measures support ship, 20 gunboats, 26 coastal patrol boats, 8 landing ships, 12 landing craft, 42 minor landing craft, 5 minesweeping boats, 3 surveying ships, 3 surveying boats, 40 river patrol craft, 2 transports, 5 oilers, 3 training ships (old frigate, old corvette, old escort minesweeper), 2 transports, 2 water carriers and 4 tugs. The air element comprises 10 S-2 Trackers, 3 F27 Maritimes, 5 N24A Nomads and 2 CL-215s for maritime patrol, 3 C-47s and 2 F27s fortransport duties, 9 Cessna 337 armed light transports, and 8 Bell 212 and 4 UH-1H Iroquois helicopters. A third missile-armed corvette similar to the two built by Tacoma is planned to be built in Thailand. Naval personnel in 1987 totalled 32,200, including 18,300 naval officers and

THAILAND

1175

ratings, 900 in the Naval Air Arm and 13,000 in the Marine Corps. The Royal Naval Academy is at Paknam. At the mouth of the Chao Praya River are the Paknam forts. The naval dockyard was reconstructed. The coast guard force operates 4 patrol vessels, 3 coastal patrol craft, 8 river patrol boats and a considerable number of service craft. Air Force. The Royal Thai Air Force was reorganized with the assistance of a US Military Air Advisory Group. It had a strength (1987) 48,000 personnel, and is made up of a headquarters and Combat, Logistics Support, Training and Special Services Groups. Combat units comprise 2 squadrons of F-5E/F interceptors, 1 squadron of F-5A/B fighter-bombers and RF-5A reconnaissance aircraft, 1 squadron with A-37B light jet attack aircraft, 2 with OV-IO Bronco light reconnaissance/attack aircraft, 1 squadron with T-33 A/AT-33 armed jet trainers, 1 with AT-28A armed piston-engined trainers, and 2 with AU-23A Peacemakers and 1 squadron with C-47s for security duties. Three Aravas are used for electronic intelligence gathering. There are transport units equipped with a total of about 70 C-130H/H-30 Hercules, DC-8-62F, HS 748, C-123B Provider, C-47 and smaller aircraft, including 20 Australian-built Missionmasters; there are 25 UH-1H and 18 S-58T helicopters; 20 O-l Bird Dog observation aircraft; training units with Air trainer CT/4 primary trainers built in New Zealand, Italian-built SF.260MTs, T-37 intermediate and T-33A advanced trainers. In 1984, delivery began of 31 Model 400 and 16 Model 600 Fantrainers, of which the first 6 were built in the Federal Republic of Germany, the remainder are being partially manufactured and assembled in Thailand. Twenty T-33 As were received from Singapore in 1986 and 12 F-16 Fighting Falcons are on order for delivery from 1988. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Thailand is a member of UN, ASEAN and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Planning. The Sixth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1987-91) envisages emphasis on the less capital-intensive industries and on export growth. Budget.Expenditure(1986, lm.baht)218,000: Economy,34,088(ofwhich 17,202 for agriculture); education, 39,978; defence, 41,257; internal security, 10,829; public health, 23,792; administration, 5,823; debt, 50,719. Revenue, 185,000 (lm. baht). Currency. The unit of currency is the baht, formerly called in English the tical, which is divided into 100 satang.Only nickel, copper, tin and bronze coins are now minted, in denominations of 1,2,5 baht, 25,50 satang. Currency notes, first issued in 1902, now comprise, 5,10,20,50,100,500 baht notes. On 31 March 1976 the total amount of notes and coins in circulation was 30,280m. baht. In March 1987, £1 =40-90 bahf, US$1 =25-91 baht. Banking. In 1942 the Bank of Thailand was established under the Bank of Thailand Act, B.E. 2485 (1942)and began operations on 10 Dec. 1942, with the functions of a central bank. The Bank has its banking activities entirely separate from the management of the note issue. The Bank also took over the note issue previously performed by the Treasury Department of the Ministry of Finance. Although the entire capital is owned by the Government, the Bank is an independent body. Banks incorporated under Thai law include the Bangkok Bank Ltd, the Bangkok Bank of Commerce Ltd, the Bank of Asia for Industry & Commerce Ltd, the! Bank of Ayudhya Ltd, Bangkok Metropolitan Bank Ltd; the Laem Thong Bank Ltd, the Siam City Bank Ltd, the Siam Commercial Bahk Ltd, First Bangkok City Bank Ltd, Union Bank of Bangkok Ltd, the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, the Government :Housing Bank, the Sayam Bank and the "Wang Lee Chan Bank Ltd. Foreign banks, include the Chattered Bank,' the Hongkdng and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Mercantile Bank Ltd, Banque de l'lndochine,

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THAILAND

Bank of Canton Ltd, Bank of China Ltd, Bank of America, N.T. & S.A., the Mitsui Bank Ltd, The Asia Trust Bank Ltd, Bharat Overseas Bank Ltd, The Chase Manhattan Bank, United Malayan Banking Corporation and the Bank of Tokyo Ltd. The commercial Thai banks had, in 1983, 1,709 branches in Thailand and 19 abroad. The deposits held by commercial banks in Oct. 1985 amounted to 539,325m. baht and had reserves of21,700m. baht. Government-owned banks include Government Savings Bank, which was established as an independent organization in 1947, the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Co-operatives and the Government Housing Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system was made compulsory by a law promulgated on 17 Dec. 1923. The actual weights and measures prescribed by law are: Units of weight: 1' standard piciil = 60 kg; 1 standard catty ('Aoo picul) = 600 grammes; 1 standard carat = 20 centigrammes. Units of length: 1 sen=40 metres; 1 wah(Viosen)=2 metres; 1 sauk(Vi wah)=0-50metre; 1 keup ('h sauk)=0-25 metre. Units of square measure: 1 rai(l sq. sen) = 1,600 sq. metres: 1 ngan (V* rai)=400 sq. metres; 1 sq. wah ('/ioo ngan) = 4 sq. metres. Units of capacity: 1 standard kwien = 2,000 litres; 1 standard ban (Vi kwien) = 1,000 litres; 1 standard sat ('/so ban) = 20 litres; 1 standard tannan ('Ao sat) = 1 litre. Legislation passed in 1940 provided that the calendar year shall coincide with the Christian Year, and that the year of the Buddhist era 2484 shall begin on 1 Jan. 1941. (The New Year's Day was previously 1 April.) The years B.E. 2517-2518 therefore correspond to A.D. 1974 and 1975. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1981, steam power accounted for 52% of production (81% of the fuel being imported) and hydro-electric power for 34%. A lignite-fuelled plant at Mae-Moh had 7 generators producing 825,000 km in 1985. A natural gas-fuelled plant (1 -82m. kw) opened at Bang Pakong in 1985. Production (1985) 20,700m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Thailand is heavily dependent on oil. There is extensive oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of Thailand. Production of crude oil (1986) 1 • 6m. tonnes providing 48% of needs. Gas. Production of natural gas (1985) 132,272m. cu. ft. Minerals. The mineral resources are extensive and varied, including cassiterite (tin ore), wolfram, scheelite, antimony, coal, copper, gold, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, rubies, sapphires, silver, zinc and zircons. Ore output in 1985 (in tonnes): Iron, 93,800; manganese, 4,412; tin, 22,995; lead, 46,245; antimony, 2,917; zinc, 276,910; lignite, 5,146,150; gypsum, 1,273,459; tungsten, 1,137; fluorite, 354,613. Agriculture. The chief produce of the country is rice, which forms the national food and the staple article of export. The area under paddy is about 18m. acres. In 1984 44% ofthe total land area was cultivated. Output of the major crops in 1985 was (in 1,000 tonnes): Paddy, 20,589; maize, 5,030; sugar-cane, 24,000; jute and kenaf, 266; tobacco, 38; tapioca-root, 19,263; soybeans, 308; coconut, 98 l;mung beans, 323;cotton, 102; groundnuts, 171. Livestock, 1985 (in 1,000): horses, 20; buffaloes, 6,250; cattle, 4,800; pigs, 4,300; poultry, 94,000. Forestry. About 25% of the land area of Thailand was under forest in ,1984. In the north, mixed deciduous forests with teak (Tectona grandis, Linn.), growing in mixture with several other species, predominate. In the north-eastern section hardwood of the Dipterocarpus species, especially Shorea pbtusa and Pentacme Siamensis, Kurz exist in most pahs. In all other regions of the country tropical evergreen forests are found, wph the well-known timber of commerce, Yang (Dipterocarpus-alatus, Roxb and Diptexocarptis spp.) as the outstanding crops. Most of the teak timber exploitedjn northern Thailand is floated down to Bangkok. About one-third of the teak-forest areais being exploited by the Forest Industry

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1177

Organization, and the remaining two-thirds is to be worked by timber company lessees and other private enterprises. Output of main forestry products in 1985: Teak, 39,200 cu. metres; yang and other woods, 1,843,500 cu. metres. By-products in 1985: firewood, 690,600 cu. metres; charcoal, 363,900 cu. metres; 16m. bamboo and 139,711 decalitres of yang oil (1984). Rubber production (in 1,000 tonnes), 1955, 133-3; 1960, 170-8; 1969, 281-8; 1973, 384; 1978, 467; 1979, 531; 1980, 501; 1981, 510; 1982, 540; 1983, 587; 1984,629; 1985,722. Fisheries. In 1984 the catch of sea fish was 1,973,000 tonnes including marine prawns, shrimps and crabs, 117,400 tonnes; of freshwater fish, 161,800 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production of manufactured goods in 1984 included 8,239,970 tonnes of cement, 60,927 tonnes of white cement, 2,431,054 tonnes of sugar, 82,073 tonnes of sweetened condensed milk, 15,495 tonnes of evaporated milk, 163-9m. litres of beer, and in 1983 included 975m. sq. yd of cotton textiles, 1,226-9m. sq.yd'of man-made textiles, 3,990,000 sheets of plywood, 65,500 tonnes of paper, 36,127 passenger cars and 74,910 commercial vehicles. Trade Unions. The Thai National Trade Union Congress is a member of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. Commerce. The foreign trade (in 1 m. baht) was as follows: Imports (c.i.f.) Exports (f.o.b.)

1980 188,686 133,197

1981 216,746 153,001

1982 193,332 157,203

1983 217,475 146,438

1984 245,155 178,237

1985 254,300 191,800

In 1984 the main imports (in lm. baht, provisional): Fuels and lubricants, 57,353; machinery, 71,988; base metals, 21,374; electrical machinery and parts, 16,909; vehicles and parts, 11,834; chemicals, 20,730. In 1984 the main items of export (in lm. baht, provisional): Rice, 25,930; tapioca products, 16,600; rubber, 13,004;maize, 10,147; sugar, 5,222; tin, 5,280. In 1981 imports from Japan (24%), Saudi Arabia (14%), USA (13%), Singapore (7%). Exports to Japan (14%), USA (13%), Netherlands (12%) and Singapore (8%). Total trade between Thailand and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1982 ImportstoUK 76,529 Exports and re-exports from UK. 104,825

1983 87,823 131,833

1984 112,353 149,742

1985 131,806 157,723

1986 182,756 158,195

Toorism. In 1985 2,438,270 foreigners visited Thailand. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 the total length of roads was 156,776 km, of which 44,534 km (29%) were national highways and 112,242 km (71%) provincial roads. Motor vehicles registered in 1982 included 492,742 passenger cars, 32,114 buses (1979), 419,143 lorries (1979) and 1,401,918 motor cycles. Railways. In 1985 the State Railway totalled 3,735 km (metre gauge) and carried 78m. passengers and 5 • 6m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. Thai Airways Co. Ltd (TAC), established in 1947, is the sole Thai air transport enterprise, with authorized capital of 300m. baht. The Company operates 11 domestic routes and 3 international routes and carried more than lm. passengers in 1984. On 24 Aug. 1959 Thai Airways and the Scandinavian Airlines System set up a new company, Thai International Airways, to operate the international air services from Thailand. In 1984, more than 2-7m. passengers were carried. Shipping. In 1983, 3,137 vessels of 14,174,828 NRT entered and 2,648 of 11,663,452 NRT cleared the port of Bangkok.

1178

THAILAND

The port of Bangkok, about 30 km from the mouth of the Chao Phya River, is capable of berthing ocean-going vessels of 10,000 gross tons and 28 ft draught. Bangkok is now a port of entry for Laos, and goods arriving in transit are sent up by rail to Nong Khai and ferried across the river Mekhong to Vientiane. Post and Broadcasting. In 1974 there were 555 post offices proper, 341 licensed and Amphur post offices and 545 railway-station post offices. In 1985 there were 576,082 telephones, of which 389,096 were in Bangkok. In 1985, there were 275 radio stations and 9 television stations,7,629,998 radios and 4,122,000 televisions. Cinemas (1983). There were 651 cinemas with a seating capacity of438,787. Newspapers (1986). There are 23 daily newspapers in Bangkok, including 3 in English and 7 in Chinese, with a combined circulation of about 2m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The judicial power is exercised in the name of the King, by (a) courts of first instance, (b) the court of appeal (Uthom) and (c) the Supreme Court (Dika). The King appoints, transfers and dismisses judges, who are independent in conducting trials and giving judgment in accordance with the law. Courts of first instance are subdivided into 20 magistrates' courts (Kwaeng) with limited civil and minor criminal jurisdiction; 85 provincial courts (Changwad) with unlimited civil and criminal jurisdiction; the criminal and civil courts with exclusive jurisdiction in Bangkok; the central juvenile courts for persons under 18 years of age in Bangkok. The court of appeal exercises appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases from all courts of first instance. From it appeals lie to Dika Court on any point of law and, in certain cases, on questions of fact. The Supreme Court is the supreme tribunal of the land. Besides its normal appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters, it has siemi-original jurisdiction over general election petitions. The decisions of Dika Court are final. Every person has the right to present a petition to the Government who will deal with all matters of grievance. Religion. In 1983 there were 47,049,223 Buddhists, 1,869,427 Moslems, 267,381 Christians and 64,369 Hindus, Sikhs and others. Education. Primary education is compulsory for children between the ages of 7-14 and free in local municipal schools. In 1980 there were 8,231,767 students enrolled in 32,825 government schools and 1,145,574 in 2,324 private schools. In 1980 there were 36 teachers' training colleges with 5,317 teachers and 63,983 students and about 180 government vocational schools and colleges with 11,240 teachers and 208,088 students. In 1986 there were 14 universities 3 of which were private: Chulalongkorn University (1917), Thammasat University (1934), Universities of Medical Science, Agriculture and Fine Arts; Ramkamhaeng University (1971)—all in Bangkok; Chiengmai University (1964), the Khon Kaen University (1966) in the north-east and Prince of Songkhla University (1968) in the south. Health. The Primary Health Care Programme had provided health services in 95% of villages in 1986. In 1982 there were 434 hospitals and 6,496 health centres. In 1982 there were 6,550 physicians, 1,122 dentists and (1981) 2,680 pharmacists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Thailand in Great Britain (30 Queen's Gate, London, SW7 5 JB) Ambassador: Dr Suthu Prasartvinijehai (accredited 4 Nov. 1986). Of Great Britain in Thailand (Wireless Rd., Bangkok) Ambassador: Derek Tonkin, CMG. Of Thailand in the USA (2300 Kalorama Rd., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: M. R. Kasem S. Kasemsri.

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Of the U S A in Thailand (95 Wireless Rd., Bangkok) Ambassador: William A. Brown. Of Thailand to the United Nations Ambassador.^. L. Birabhongse Kasemsri. B o o k s of Reference Thailand into the80's. Office ofthe Prime Minister, Bangkok, Rev. ed., 1984 Thailand Statistical Yearbook. National Statistical Office, Bangkok Thailand in Brief. 7th ed. Bangkok, 1985 Bibliography of Materials About Thailand in Western Languages. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 1960 Douner, W., The Five Faces of Thailand. Hamburg and London, 1978 Girling, J. I. S., Thailand: Society and Politics. Cornell Univ. Press, 1981 Haas, M.R., Thai-English Student's Dictionary. OUP, 1966 Morrell, D. and Samudavanija, C., Political Conflict in Thailand. Cambridge, Mass., 1981 Watts, M., Thailand. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986

Capital: Lomé Population: 3 •09m. ( 1986) GNP per capita: US$280 ( 1983)

TOGO République Togolaise

H I S T O R Y . A German protectorate from July 1884, Togo was occupied by British and French forces in Aug. 1914 and subsequently partitioned between the two countries on 20 July 1922 under a League of Nations mandate. British Togo subsequently joined Ghana. The French mandate was renewed by the UN as a trusteeship on 14 Dec. 1946. On 28 Oct. 1956a plebiscite was held to determine the status of the territory. Out of438,175 registered voters, 313,458 voted for an autonomous republic within the French Union and the end of the trusteeship system. The trusteeship was abolished on the achievement of independence on 27 April 1960. On 13 Jan. 1963 the first President Sylvanus Olympio was murdered by n.c.o.s. of the army. Nicolas Grunitzky, a former prime minister and Olympio's brotherin-law, was appointed President. On 13 Jan. 1967 in a bloodless coup the army under Lieut.-Col. Etienne Eyadema made President Grunitzky 'voluntarily withdraw'. On 14 April 1967 Col. Eyadema assumed the Presidency. There was a return to constitutional government on 13 Jan. 1980. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Togo is bounded west by Ghana, north by Burkina Faso, east by Benin and south by the Gulf of Guinea. Area is 56,785 sq. km. The population of Togo in 1981 (census) was 2,700,982; 1986 (estimate) 3,086,000. The capital is Lome (population, 1983, 366,476), other towns (1981, population) being Sokode (48,098), Kpalime (31,800), Atakpame (27,100), Bassar (21,800), Tsevie (17,000) and Aneho (14,000). The areas, populations and chief towns of the 5 regions are: Region Des Savanes De La Kara Centrale Des Plateaux Maritime

Sq. km 8,602 11,630 13,182 16,975 6,396

Census 1981 326,826 432,626 269,174 561,656 1,039,700

Chieftown Dapaong Kara Sokodé Atakpamé Lomé

The south is largely populated by Ewe-speaking negro peoples (forming 47% of the population) and related groups, while the north is mainly inhabited by Hamitic groups speaking Voltaic (Gur) languages such as Kabre (22%), Gurma (14%) and Tem (4%). The official language is French but Ewe and Kabre are also taught in schools. In 1984,27% lived in urban areas and (1981)48% were male. C L I M A T E . The tropical climate produces wet seasons from March to July and from Oct. to Nov. in the south. The north has one wet season, from April to July. The heaviest rainfall occurs in the mountains of the west, south-west and centre. Lomé. Jan. 8rF(27-2*C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 35" (875 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Following approval in a referendum on 30 Dec. 1979, a new Constitution came into force on 13 Jan. 1980, when the Third Togolese Republic was proclaimed. It provides for an Executive President, directly elected for a 7-year term, and for a National Assembly of 77 deputies, elected on a regional list system for a 5-year term. Elections to the Assembly were held on 24 March 1985. All candidates are approved by the Rassemblement du peuple togolais, the sole legal Party since 1969; it is administered by a 22-member Central Committee and a 9-member Political Bureau appointed by the President. The government in Nov. 1986 was composed as follows: 1180

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President, Minister of Defence: Gen. Gnassingbé Eyadéma (re-elected for a 7-yearterminDec. 1986). Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Atsu-Koffi Amega. Rural Development: Koffi Walla. Interior: Kpotivi Téví-Djidjogbé Laclé. Economy and Finance: Komlan Alipui. Equipment, Mines, Posts and Telecommunications: Barry Moussa Barque. Planning and Industry: Yaovi Adodo. Public Works, Labour and Civil Service: Yagninim Bitokotipou. Rural Planning: Samon Kortho. Minister-Delegate to Presidency in charge of Information: Gbegnon Amegboh. Youth, Sports and Culture: Bloua Yao Agbo. National Education and Scientific Research: Komlan Agbétiafa. Justice, Keeper of the Seals: Mawugbe Anani. Commerce and Transport: Pali Yao Tchalla. Public Health, Social and Women's Affairs: Dr Ayissah Agbetra. State Enterprises: Koffi Djondo. Technical and Professional Training: Koffi Edoh. National flag: Five horizontal stripes of green and yellow, a red quarter with a white star. Local Government: There are 5 regions, each under an inspector appointed by the President; they are divided into 21 prefectures, each administered by a district chief assisted by an elected district council. D E F E N C E . Armed forces numbered (1985) about 5,080, all forming part of the Army. Army. The Army consists of 2 infantry, 1 Presidential Guard commando and 1 para-commando regiments, with artillery and logistic support units. Equipment includes 7 T-34 and 2 T-54/-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 4,000, with a further 1,550 men in a paramilitary force. Navy. In 1987 there were 2 coastal patrol craft, 2 defence launches and a naval base at Lomé. Naval personnel, 105 officers and men. Air Force. An Air Force, established with French assistance, has 6 Brazilian-built EMB-326 Xavante (Aermacchi MB.326) armed jet trainers; 4 Alpha Jet advanced trainers, with strike capability, 1 DC-8 and 1 twin-turbofan F28 Fellowship for VIP use, 2 turboprop BufFalo transports; 2 Beech Barons and 2 Cessna 337s for liaison; 3 Epsilon basic trainers; 1 Puma and 2 Lama helicopters. Personnel (1987) 260.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Togo is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth 5-year development plan (1981-85) provided for investment of 368,490m. francs CFA, of which 116,397m. were for rural development, 98,625m. for industrial development and 100,690m. for infrastructure. Budget. The ordinary budget for 1986 balanced at 87,283m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. The rate of exchange (March 1987) was490-13 francs CFA to £1 ; US$1 =340-60. Banking. The bank of issue is the Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. Seven commercial and 3 development banks are based in Lomé. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) 83m. kwh. There is a hydro-electric plant at Kpalimé. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. A Mines Department was set up in 1953 after the discovery of very rich deposits of phosphate and bauxite; mining began in 1961. Output of phosphate rock (1984) 2-8 tonnes. Other mineral deposits are limestone, estimated at 200m. tons; iron ore, estimated at 550m. tons with iron content varying between

1182

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40% and 55%, and marble estimated at 20m. tonnes. Salt production (1982) 600,000 tonnes. Agriculture. Inland the country is hilly, rising to 3,600 ft, with streams and waterfalls. There are long stretches of forest and brushwood, while dry plains alternate vyith arable land. Maize, yams, cassava, plantains, groundnuts, etc., are cultivated; oil palms and dye-woods grow in the forests; but the main commerce is based on coffee, cocoa, palm-oil, palm-kernels, copra, groundnuts, cotton, manioc. There are considerable plantations of oil and cocoa palms, coffee, cacao, kola, cassava and cotton. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Cassava, 439; yams 336; maize, 208; millet, 71 ; seed cotton, 54; rice, 16; groundnuts, 22; coffee 10. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 240,000; sheep, 850,000; swine, 240,000; horses, 1,000; asses, 1,000; goats, 740,000. Forestry. Forests cover 31% of the land surface. Roundwood production (1983) 745,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. Catch (1983) 14,556 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There is a cement works (production, 1982; 279,000 tonnes); a second is being built in co-operation with Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire with a capacity of 1 -2m. tonnes per annum. An oil refinery of 1 m. tonne capacity opened in Lomé in 1978 and a steel mill (20,000 tonne capacity) in 1979. Industry, though small, is developing and there are about 40 medium sized enterprises in the public and private sectors, including textile and food processing plants. Trade (in lm. francs CFA): Imports Exports

1980 116,357 71,285

1981 117,769 56,241

1982 128,354 58,173

1983 108,141 61,921

1984 118,460 83,588

In 1985, of the exports, phosphates amounted to 38%, cotton 11%, coffee 11% and cocoa beans 6% by value; 22% of exports went to France and 18% to the Netherlands. Of the imports, France supplied 27%, the Netherlands, 11% and UK, 10%. Total trade between Togo and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK • Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 1,827 21,881

1983 2,161 12,212

1984 3,224 12,166

1985 4,597 17,034

1986 5,008 17,488

Tourism. There were about 126,300 tourists in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1981, 7,850 km of roads, of which 1,500 km were paved. In Dec. 1980 there were 26,067 passenger cars and 14,017 commercial vehicles. Railways. There are 4 metre-gauge railways connecting Lomé, with Aného (continuing to Cotonou in Benin), Kpalimé, Tabligbo and (via Atakpamé) Blitta; total length 525 km. In 1982 the railways carried 16m. tonne-km and 105m. passenger-km. Aviation: Air services connect Tokoin airport, near Lomé, with Paris, Dakar,Abidjan, Douala, Accra, Lagos, Cotonou and Niamey and by internal services with Sokoidé, Mango, Dapaong, Atakpamé and Niamtougou. Shipping. In 1983, vessels landed 654,000 tonnes and cleared 683,000 tonnes at Lomé; 31,058 containers passed through the port in 1981. The merchant marine comprised (1984) 8 vessels of 43,200 DWT. In 1981 some 2-2m. tonnes of phosphate were loaded at the port of Kpémé. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1973) 338 post offices and 11,105 telephones. Togo is connected by telegraph and telephone with Ghana, Benin, Côte d'Ivoire

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and Senegal, and by wireless telegraphy with Europe and America. There were 8,500 television receivers and 190,000 radio receivers in 1984. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (circulation 10,000). J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court and two Appeal Courts are in Lomé, one for criminal cases and one for civil and commercial cases. Each receives appeal from a series of local tribunals. Religion. In 1980,28% of the population were Catholics, 17% Moslem (chiefly in the north) and 9% Protestant; while 46% follow animist religions. Education. In 1982 there were 498,639 pupils and 9,619 teachers in 2,251 primary schools, 122,925 pupils and 3,982 teachers in 248 secondary schools, 6,932 (1981) students and (1978) 326 teachers in technical schools and 374 students and 22 teachers at the teacher-training college. The University of Benin at Lomé (founded in 1970) had4,500 students in 1982. . ,.„, Health. In 1979 there were 69 hospitals with (1982) 3,655 beds; and in 1985, 168 doctors, 7 dentists, 51 pharmacists, 586 midwives (1979) and 1,763 nursing staff (1979). D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Togo in Great Britain (30 Sloane St., London SW1 ) Ambassador: Assiongbon Agbenou (accredited 10 Oct. 1986). Of Great Britain in Togo A mbassador: (Vacant). Of Togo in the USA (2208 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ellom-Kodjo Schuppius. Of the USA in Togo (Rue Pelletier Caventou, Lomé) Ambassador: Owen W. Roberts. Of Togo to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Kwam Kouassi. Books of Reference Cornevin, R., Histoire du Togo. 3rd ed., Paris, 1969 Feuillet, C., Le Togo en general. Paris, 1976 Piraux, M , , L e Togo aujourd'hui. Paris, 1977

TONGA

Capital: Nuku'alofa Population: 104,000(1986) GNP per capita: US$580 (1986)

Friendly Islands

H I S T O R Y . The Kingdom of Tonga attained unity under Taufa'ahau Tupou (George I) who became ruler of his native Ha'apai in 1820,ofVava'uin 1833 and of Tongatapu in 1845. By 1860 the kingdom had become converted to Christianity (George himself having been baptized in 1831). In 1862 the king granted freedom to the people from arbitrary rule of minor chiefs and gave them the right to the allocation of land for their own needs. These institutional changes, together with the establishment of a parliament of chiefs, paved the way towards the democratic constitution under which the kingdom is now governed, and provided a background of stability against which Tonga was able to develop her agricultural economy. The kingdom continued up to 1899 to be a neutral region in accordance with the Declaration of Berlin, 6 April 1886. By the Anglo-German Agreement of 14 Nov. 1899 subsequently accepted by the USA, the Tonga Islands were left under the Protectorate of Great Britain. A protectorate was proclaimed on 18 May 1900, and a British Agent and Consul appointed. On 4 June 1970 the UK Government ceased to have any responsibility for the external relations of Tonga. The Tongatapu group was discovered by Tasman in 1643. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The kingdom consists of some 169 islands and islets with a total area of 289 sq. miles (748 sq. km; including inland waters), and lies between 15° and 23° 30' S. latand 173° and 177° W. long., its western boundary being the eastern boundary of Fiji. The islands are split up into the following groups reading from north to south: The Niuas, Vava'u, Ha'apai, Kotu, Nomuka, Otu Tolu and Tongatapu. The 3 main groups, both from historical and administrative significance, are Tongatapu in the south, Ha'apai in the centre and Vava'u in the north. The capital is Nuku'alofa on Tongatapu, population (1984) 27,740. The islands to the east, being mostly of limestone formation, are low lying and with but a few exceptions seldom exceed 100 ft above sea-level. The islands to the west are of a volcanic nature, approximately 11, average between 350 and 3,433 ft in height. After a violent volcanic eruption in Sept. 1946 on the island of Niuafo'ou (Tin Can Island to philatelists, so named because of the method that was used of collecting and delivering mail) the 1,300 inhabitants were evacuated, most of them to Tongatapu and 'Eua, but more than 600 have returned since 1958. Census population (1984) 96,592 (males, 48,693); estimate, 1986,104,000. C L I M A T E . Generally a healthy climate, though Jan. to March is hot and humid, with temperatures of 90°F (32-2°C). Rainfall amounts are comparatively high, being greatest from Dec. to March. Nuku'alofa. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 70°F (21-PC). Annual rainfall 63" (1,576 mm). Vava'u. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 110" (2,750 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present Constitution is almost identical with that granted in 1875 by King George Tupou I. There is a Privy Council, Cabinet, Legislative Assembly and Judiciary. The legislative assembly, which meets annually, is composed of 9 nobles elected by their peers, 9 elected representatives of the people and the Privy Councillors (numbering 8); the King appoints one of the 9 nobles to be the Speaker. The elections are held triennially. In 1960, women voted for the first time. King: HM King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, GCVO, GCMG, KBE, born 4 July 1918, 1184

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1185

succeeded on 16 Dec. 1965 on the death of his mother, Queen Salote Tupou III; his coronation took place on 4 July 1967. Prime Minister: HRH Prince Fatafehi Tu'pelehake, KCMG, KBE, younger brother of the King. Deputy Prime Minister: Hon. Baron Tuita, CBE. Foreign Affairs and Defence: HRH Crown Prince Tupouto'a. Nationalflag: Red with a white quarter bearing a red couped cross. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Tonga is a member of the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure in T$ 1,000: Revenue Expenditure

1984-85 1985-86' 22,628 22,788 22,265 22,760 1 Estimate.

1986-87' 2£,112 26,112

The principal sources of revenue are import dues, income tax, port and service tax, wharfage, philatelic revenue and telephone rentals. Public debt at 30 June 1985,T$35-4m. Currency. There is a government note issue ofpa'anga (T$) 20, 10, 5, 2, 1 and Vi and coin issue of T$2, T$1 and seniti 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1. In March 1987, £1 = 2 • 34 pa'anga; US$ 1 = 1 -47 pa 'anga. Banking. The Bank of Tonga and the Tongan Development Bank are both situated in Nuku'alofa. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1985) 8m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes) consisted of coconuts (47), fruit and vegetables (19), copra (5) and cassava (17). Livestock (1985): Cattle, 8,000; horses, 9,000; pigs, 65,000; goats, 11,000; poultry (1982), 175,000. Fisheries. Catch (1982) 2,500 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Commerce. In 1985, imports were valued at T$58,929,518 while exports and reexports were T$7,169,812 and T$613,496. Main imports (1985, in T$): Food 13,265,519, beverages and tobacco 3,101,086, crude materials 3,095,696, fuel and lubricants 7,598,200, oils and fats 144,753, chemicals 3,854,357, manufactured goods 10,849,205, machinery and transport equipment 11,246,783, miscellaneous manufactured articles 5,476,885. Main exports (1985, in T$): Coconut, oil 2,742,355, vanilla 400,927, ¿ananas 823,251, dessicated coconut $27,346,'water melons 234,750, knitted clothes 331,845, tarotaruas 152,340. Principal destinations for Tongan exports/re-exports in 198 5 were: New Zealand (T$3,647,308), Australia (T$2,655,355), USA (T$226,435), U K (TS819). Of 1985 imports (in T$), New Zealand furnished 22,971,695; Australia, 14,454,046; Japan, 5,332,763; Singapore, 1,181,097; Fiji, 3,120,095; China (Mainland), 711,279; UK, 1,066,139. Total trade between Tonga and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m J m ] m ] m Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from UK

25 648

328 842

70 699

86 936

1186

TONGA

Tourism. There were 85,000 visitors in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 3,374 registered motor vehicles and (1982) 433 km of roads (263 km paved). Aviation. International air service connexions to Tongatapu are now provided by Air New Zealand, Polynesian Airlines, Air Pacific and Hawaiian Air with 5 flights per week to Auckland, 3 to Apia and 6 to Suva. Hawaiian Air provides a twice weekly service to Hawaii via Pagopago. Internal air service flights are operated during the week to 'Eua, Ha'apai, Vava'u and Niuatoputapu by Friendly Island Airways. Shipping. Pacific Forum Line maintains a three weekly service New Zealand-FijiSamoas-Tonga from Sydney, Australia-Noumea-Fiji-Samoas-Tonga. Wamer Pacific Line maintains a monthly service New Zealand-Tonga-Samoas-TongaNew Zealand and a monthly service Tonga-New Zealand-Australia-FunufutiTarawa-Samoas-Tonga. Post and Broadcasting. The kingdom has its own issue of postage stamps. Telephones numbered 3,500 in 1986 and there were 65,000 radio receivers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Since the lapse of British extra-territorial jurisdiction British and foreign nationals charged with an offence against the laws of Tonga (the enforcement of which is a responsibility of the Minister of Police) are fully subject to the jurisdiction of the Tongan courts to which they are already subject in all civil matters. Religion. The Tongans are Christian, over 30,000 being adherents of the Wesleyan Church. Education. In 1986 there were 100 government and 11 denominational primary schools, with a total of 17,072 pupils. There were 5 government and 45 mission schools and 1 private school offering secondary education, with a total roll of 15,673. There was one government teacher-training college with 115 students; 3 government technical and vocational schools with 117 trainees and 8 non-govemment technical and vocational schools with 323 trainees. 201 students were undertaking tertiary training overseas under an official scholarship in 1985. Health. In 1986 there were 39 doctors, 11 dentists, 2 pharmacists, 27 midwives, 191 nursing personnel and 4 hospitals with 307 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Tonga in Great Britain (New Zealand Hse., Haymarket, London, SW1Y 4TE) High Commissioner: S. T. 'Aho (accredited 17 Feb. 1986). Also Ambassador to the USA. Of Great Britain in Tonga (Nuku'alofa) High Commissioner: A. P. Fabian. Books of Reference Churchward, C. M., Tongan Dictionary. London, 1959 Luke, Sir Harry, Queen Salote and Her Kingdom. London, 1954 Packett, C. N., Travel and Holiday Guide to Tongatapu Island. Bradford, 1984

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Capital: Port-of-Spain Population: 1 -2m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$6,360 ( 1985)

H I S T O R Y . Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1498 and colonized by the Spaniards in the 16th century. During the French Revolution a large number of French families settled in the island. In 1797, Great Britain being at war with Spain, Trinidad was occupied by the British and ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Trinidad and Tobago were joined in 1889. Under the Bases Agreement concluded between the governments of the U K and the USA on 27 March 1941, and the concomitant Trinidad-US Bases Lease of 22 April 1941, defence bases were leased to the US Government for 99 years. On 8 Dec. 1960 the US agreed to abandon 21,000 acres of leased land and the US has since given up the remaining territory, except for a small, tracking station. On 31 Aug. 1962 Trinidad and Tobago became an independent member state of the British Commonwealth. A Republican Constitution was adopted on 24 Sept. 1976. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area: Trinidad, 1,864 sq. miles (4,828 sq. km); Tobago, 116 sq. miles (300 sq. km). Population (census 1980): 1,055,763 (526,234 males and 529,529 females) (Trinidad, 1,016,239; Tobago, 39,529). Capital, Portof-Spain, 55,800; other important towns, San Fernando (38,395) and Ari'ma (24,112). The majority are of African descent (40-8%), the balance being made up of Indians (40-7%), mixed races (16-3%), European, Chinese and others (2-2%). English is spoken generally. Estimated population in 1986,1 -2m. Vital statistics (rate per 1,000), 1980: Births, 26-4; deaths, 7; infant deaths, 19-7. Proportion of population under 15 years(1984)39-2%. Tobago is situated about 30-7 km north-east of Trinidad. Main town is Scarborough. Principal goods shipped from Tobago to Trinidad are copra, cocoa, livestock and poultry, fresh vegetables, coconut oil and coconut fibre. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate whose dry season runs from Jan. to June, with a wet season for the rest of the year. Temperatures are uniformly high the year round. Port-of-Spain. Jan. 78'F (25-6°C), July 79°F (26-TC). Annual rainfall 6 5 " (1,631 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1976 Constitution provides for a bicameral legislature of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate consists of 31 members, 16 being appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister, 6 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and 9 at the discretion of the President. Tobago has a 15-man House of Assembly (with limited powers). The House of Representatives consists of 36 (34 for Trinidad and 2 for Tobago) elected members and a Speaker elected from outside the House. The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister, appointed by the President, and other Ministers, including the Attorney-General. At the general elections in Dec. 1986 the National Alliance for Reconstruction won 33 seats. President: Noor Hassanali. Prime Minister and Minister of Finance and Economy: A. N. R. Robinson. Nationalflag: Red with a diagonal black strip edged in white. D E F E N C E . The Defence Force has a regular and a reserve infantry battalion and 1187

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T R I N I D A D A N D TOBAGO

a support battalion equipped with 81 mm mortars, and there is also a small air element, equipped with a Cessna 402 light transport, and 2 S-76 and 1 Gazelle helicopters for surveillance, liaison and casualty evacuation. Personnel in 1987 totalled2,130. In 1986 there were 2 Swedish (Karlskrona)-built patrol vessels, 4 British (Vosper, Portsmouth)-built patrol craft, 7 minor patrol boats, 1 survey vessel, 2 research craft and 1 sail training ship. A Commodore is Chief of Defence Staff while a Commander directs the Coast Guard. Of total defence personnel (1987) 590 were coastguard. The Police operate 6 coastal patrol cutters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Trinidad and Tobago is a member, of UN, the Commonwealth, OAS, Caricom and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The 1987 budget envisaged revenue (in TT$) as 5,845-5m. and expenditure as 5,545-6m. ' Total external debt at 31 Dec. 1986, TT$5,600m. Currency. The currency is the Trinidad and Tobago dollar of 100 cents. £1 = TT$5-72;US$1 =TT$3-60 (March 1987). Banking. Banks operating: Republic Bank of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; Royal Bank of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; Bank of Commerce, Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; Bank of Nova Scotia; United Bank of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; National Commercial Bank of Trinidad and Tobago; Workers' Bank of Trinidad and Tobago; Trinidad Co-operative Bank Ltd. A Central Bank began operations in Dec. 1964. Government savings banks are established in 69 offices, with a head office in Port-of-Spain. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1986, 3,014m. kwh was generated. Supply 115 and 230 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Oil production is one of Trinidad's leading industries and an important source of revenue. Commercial production began in 1909; production of crude oil in 1986 was 8-5m. tonnes. Trinidad also possesses 2 refineries, with rated distillation capacity of 305,000 bbls annually; crude oil is imported from Venezuela, Indonesia, Ecuador, Nigeria, Brazil, and Saudi Arabia and refined in Trinidad. The 'Pitch Lake' is an important source of asphalt; production, 1985,21,300 tonnes. Gas. In 1985 production was 7,413m. cu. ft., of which 1,601m. cu. ft. was flared and lost. Agriculture. Hectares under cultivation and care include (1984): Cocoa, 21,000; sugar, 18,000. Sugar production in 1986 was 92,300 (1985: 80,900) tonnes. The territory is still largely dependent on imported food supplies, especially flour, dairy products, meat and rice. Areas have been irrigated for rice, and soil and forest conservation is practised. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 77,000; sheep, 12,000; goats, 50,000; pigs, 83,000; poultry, 8 m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1985, 474,300 tonnes of iron and steel were produced at the first integrated steelworks to be constructed in the Caribbean which was opened in 1981. Other manufacturing includes ammonia (production, 1985, 1,323,500 tonnes), fertilizers (1985 production, 1,660,000 tonnes), methanol (358,260 tonnes, 1985), urea (340,000 tonnes, 1985), sugar, cement, paints, plastics and petrochemicals. Labour. The working population in 1986 was 471,200 and unemployment was about 16 • 6%; about 30% of the labour force belong to unions.

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Commerce. Exports in 1985 were TT$5,301-2m. of which TT$4,194-9m. was mineral fuels and products and chemicals, TT$679-3m. USA took 61-8% of exports. Imports totalled TT$3,735-8m. of which TT$ 1,134-9m. was for machinery and transport of which the USA supplied 38 • 5% and UK, 9-2%. Total trade of Trinidad and Tobago with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 65,154 158,436

1983 52,748 148,811

1 984 164,715 113,312

1985 81,719 93,897

1986 41,662 79,029

Tourism. In 1985,163,207 foreigners visited Trinidad and Tobago. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1985) about 6,435 km of main and local roads. Motor vehicles registered in 1984 totalled 317,937, including 124,717 private cars, 28,416 hired and rented cars, and 33,014 goods vehicles. Aviation. The following airlines, ope rate scheduled passenger, mail and freight services. British West Indian Airways, Ltd, Air Canada, PANAM, KLM, Linea Aeropostal Venezolana, Leeward Islands Air Transport, Caribair, British Airways, American Airlines, Guyana Airways, ALM Antillean Airline, Cruzeiro (Brazil), Eastern Airlines, Caribbean Airways and Viasa. Shipping. In 1977 48m. tons of cargo were handled. Post and Broadcasting. International communications to all parts of the world are provided by Trinidad and Tobago External Telecommunications Co. Ltd (TEXTEL) by means of a satellite earth station and various high quality radio circuits. The marine radio service is also maintained by TEXTEL. Number of post offices (1984), 69; postal agencies, 166; number of telephones (1985), 127,730. Four wireless stations are maintained by the Trinidad Government and 3 by airline companies. There were 500,000 radio and 300,000 television receivers in 1985. A meteorological station is maintained at Piarco airport. Cinemas (1986). There are 57 cinemas and 3 drive-in cinemas. Newspapers (1986). There are 4 daily newspapers with a total daily circulation (1984) of 166,380,2 Sunday newspapers with a total circulation (1984) of 161,832, and 3 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The High Court consists of the Chief Justice and 11 puisne judges. In criminal cases a judge of the High Court sits with a jury of 12 in cases of treason and murder, and with 9 jurors in other cases. The Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice and 3 Justices of Appeal; there is a limited right of appeal from it to the Privy Council. There are 3 High Courts and 12 magistrates' courts. Religion. In 1980, 15% of the population were Anglicans (under the Bishop of Trinidad and Tobago), 33-6% Roman Catholics (under the Archbishop of Port-ofSpain), 25% Hindus and 5-9% Moslems. Education. In 1985 there were 467 primary and intermediate schools (government assisted) and 91 secondary schools and 45 new sector (comprehensive) schools, 6 vocational and 1 university. There were 169,853 pupils on roll in the primary and intermediate schools, 90,805 in the secondary schools and 59,862 in the new sector schools (government and assisted). Education in government and assisted secondary schools was made free in 1960. There were also 5 training colleges. Technical and commercial education is provided by 4 government sponsored technical schools. Health. State medical services are free and in 1972 a National Insurance Scheme was established.

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TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Trinidad and Tobago in Great Britain (42 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X 8NT) High Commissioner: Dr Basil A. Ince (accredited 26 March 1986). Of Great Britain in Trinidad and Tobago (Furness Hse., 90 Independence Sq., Port-of-Spain) High Commissioner: Sir Martin Berthoud, KCVO, CMG. Of Trinidad and Tobago in the USA (1708 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Dr James O'Neil-Lewis. Of the USA in Trinidad and Tobago (15 Queen's Park West, Port-of-Spain) Ambassador: Sheldon, J. Krys. Of Trinidad and Tobago to the United Nations Ambassador: D. H. N. Alleyne. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Office, Government of Trinidad and Tobago, 2 Edward St., Port-of-Spain. Director: J. Harewood. Publications include Annual Statistical Digest, Quarterly Economic Report, Annual Overseas Trade Report, Population and Vital Statistics Annual Report, Report on Education Statistics. Facts on Trinidad and Tobago. Ministry of Information, Port-of-Spain, 1983 Immigration Guidelines. Government Printer, Port-of-Spain, 1980 Oil and Energy, Trinidad and Tobago. Government Printer, Port-of-Spain, 1980 Trinidad and Tobago Year Book. Port-of-Spain. Annual (from 1865) Chambers, F., Trinidad and Tobago. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Cooper, St G. C. and Bacon, P. R. (eds.), The Natural Resources of Trinidad and Tobago. London,1981 Central Library: The Central Library of Trinidad and Tobago, Queen's Park East, Port-ofSpain. Acting Librarian: Mrs L. Hutchinson.

TUNISIA

Capital: Tunis Population: 7 • 32m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 1,280 ( 1985)

al-Jumhuriya at-Tunisiya

H I S T O R Y . Tunisia was a French protectorate from 1883 and achieved independence on 20 March 1956. The Constituent Assembly, elected on 25 March 1956, abolished the monarchy (of the Bey of Tunis) on 25 July 1957 and proclaimed a republic. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The boundaries are on the north and east the Mediterranean Sea, on the west Algeria and on the south Libya. The area is about 154,530 sq. km (59,664 sq. miles), including that portion of the Sahara which is to the east of the Djerid (salt marsh), extending towards Ghadames. At the census of 30 March 1984 there were 6,966,173 inhabitants (3,547,487 males and 3,419,026 females) of whom 52-8% were urban. Estimate (1986) 7,317,000. The census populations of the 23 gouvernorats were as follows as at 30 March 1984: Aryanah Bajah (Beja) Banzart (Bizerta) Bin Arus Jundubah (Jendouba) Kaf(Le Kef) Madaniyin (Medenine) Mahdiyah (Mahdia) Munastir (Monastir) Nabul (Nabeul) Qabis (Gabes) Qafsah (Gafsa)

Sq. km 1,558 3,558 3,685 761 3,102 4,965 8,588 2,966 1,019 2,788 7,175 8,990

1984 374,192 274,706 394,670 246,193 359,429 247,672 295,889 270,435 278,478 461,405 240,016 235,723

Sq. km Qasrayn (Kassérine) 8,066 Qayrawan (Kairouan) 6,712 Qibili (Kebili) 22,084 7,545 Safaqis (Sfax) Sidi BuZayd 6,994 (Sidi Bouzid) Silyanah (Siliana) 4,631 Susah (Sousse) 2,621 Tatawin (Tataouine) 38,889 Tawzar (Tozeur) 4,719 Tunis 346 Zaghwan (Zaghouan) 2,768

1984 297,959 421,607 95,371 577,992 288,528 222,038 322,491 100,329 67,943 774,364 118,743

Tunis, the capital, had (census, 1984) 596,654 inhabitants: Sfax, 231,911; Aryanah, 98,655; Bizerta, 94,509; Djerba, 92,269; Gabes, 92,259; Sousse, 83,509; Kairouan, a holy city of the Moslems, 72,254; Bardo, 65,669; La Goulette, 61,609; Gafsa, 60,870; Beja, 46,708. Vital statistics (1982). Births, 221,027; deaths, 49,200; marriages, 50,177. The official language is Arabic but the use of French is widespread. C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from warm temperate in the north, where winters are mild and wet and the summers hot and dry, to desert in the south. Tunis. Jan. 48°F (8 -90C), July 78°F (25 -6°C). Annual rainfall 16" (400 mm). Bizerta. Jan. 52°F (11-PC), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 25" (622 mm). Sfax. Jan. 52°F (11 • l'C), July 78°F (25 -6°C). Annual rainfall 8" (196 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the republic was promulgated on 1 June 1959. The President and the National Assembly are elected simultaneously by direct universal suffrage for a period of 5 years. The President cannot be re-elected more than 3 times consecutively, however on 18 March 1975 the National Assembly proclaimed Bourguiba 'President for Life'. An amendment to the Constitution in 1969 gives the Prime Minister power to act as President in case of a sudden vacancy of the Presidency. Elections were held on 2 Nov. 1986, when all 125 seats in the National Assembly were won by the Front National, an alliance of the ruling Parti Socialiste Destour1191

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TUNISIA

ien and the Union générale des travailleurs tunisiens. The elections were boycotted by opposition parties. President of the Republic and Head of Government: Habib Ben Ali Bourguiba (elected 25 July 1957, re-elected 8 Nov. 1959, 8 Nov. 1964, 2 Nov. 1969, Nov. 1974). Declared President for life in 1975. The Cabinet in Nov. 1986 was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Interior: Rachid Sfar. Director of Presidential Cabinet: Habib Bourguiba, Jr. Justice: Salah Ayari. Foreign Affairs: Beji Caied Essebsi. Defence: Salaheddine Bali. Planning and Finance: Ismail Khelil. Interior: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. Housing and Equipment: Mohamed Sayah. Information: Abderrazak El Kefi. National Education, Higher Education and Scientific Research: Amor Chedli. Agriculture: Lassaad Ben Osman. Public Health: Dr Souad Yacoubi. Communications: Brahim Ktlouaja. Transport: Mohamed Kraiem. Youth and Sports: Hamed Karoui. Cultural Affairs: Zakaria Ben Mustapha. Agricultural Production and A gro-Industry: Mohamed Ghedira. Social Affairs: Abdelaziz Ben Dhia. Director ofPresidential Cabinet and Minister of Civil Service and Administrative Reform: Mansour Skhiri. Secretary of State for International Co-operation: Ahmed Ben Arfa. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs: Hedi Mabrouk. Local Government. The country is divided into 23 gouvernorats, sub-divided into 199 districts and then into communes and imadas. Flag: Red with a white circle in the middle, on which is a 5-pointed red star encircled by a red crescent. DEFENCE. Selective military service is 1 year. Officer-cadets are being trained in France. Army. The Army consists of 2 combined arms, 1 Sahara and 1 para-commando brigades; 2 armoured reconnaissance, 3 field, 2 anti-aircraft and 1 engineer regiments. Equipment includes 14 M-48 and 54 M-60A3 main battle, and 45 AMX-13 and 10 M-41 light tanks. Strength (1987) 30,000. There are also the paramilitary gendarmerie (3,300 men) and National Guard (7,000 men). Navy. The flotilla consists of 1 frigate (ex-US 44-year-old destroyer-escort), 3 fast missile craft, 2 fast gunboats (ex-Chinese), 2 fast attack craft (British-built in 1977), 2 ex-coastal minesweepers used as patrol ships, 4 patrol vessels (French built), 10 coastal patrol boats, 4 protection launches and 1 large tug. In 1987 naval personnel totalled 2,600 officers and ratings. Air Force. Equipment of the Air Force, acquired from various Western sources, includes 1 squadron ofAermacchiM.B.326K/Ljet light attack aircraft; 1 squadron of F-5E/F Tiger II fighters; 12 SF.260W piston-engined light trainer/attack aircraft; 2 C-130H Hercules transports, 2 S.208 liaison aircraft, 6 SF.260M trainers, 7 M.B.326B jet trainers, 6 UH-1H, 18 AB.205, 6 Ecureuil and about 12 Alouette II and III helicopters. Personnel (1987) about 3,500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Tunisia is a member of UN, OAU, the Islamic Conference and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. A sixth development plan (1982-86) envisaged investment of 8,000m. dinars. Budget (in dinars). Budget estimates, 1984, revenue, 2,613m.; expenditure, 2,575m. Currency. On 1 Nov. 1958 a new currency, the dinar, divided into 1,000 millimes, was established. Note circulation, Aug. 1980, was 910m. dinars. Currency consists of coins of 1,2, 5,10,20,50,100 and 500 millimes, and notes

TUNISIA

1193

of 500 millimes, 1 dinar, 5 and 10 dinars. £1 = 1-31 dinar; US$1 =0-80 dinar (March 1987). Banking. The Central Bank of Tunisia is the bank of issue. In 1983 there were 39 banks operating m Tunisia, including 7 off-shore banks. In 1984 there were 8 development banks. Bank deposits amounted to 2,115m. dinars at 31 Dec. 1982. Weights and Measures. The metric sy stem of weights and measures has almost entirely taken the place of those of Tunisia, but corn is still sold in kaffis and wibas. The kfiz (of 16 wiba, each of 12 ,sa ) = 16 bushels. The ounce = 31 -487 grammes. The principal measure o'f length is the metre. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electrical energy generated was 3,750m. kwh. in 1985. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Crude oil production ( 1986) 5 5m. tonnes. Gas. Natural gas production (1984) 430m. cu. metres. Minerals. Mineral production (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1984 (and 1981): Phosphate, 5,385 (4,978); iron ore, 309 (400); lead ore, 6-5(14); zinc ore, 12 -1(15). Processed minerals (in 1 ,000 tonnes) in 1982: Pig iron, 97; crude steel, 105. Agriculture. Tunisia may be divided into 5 districts—the north, characterized by its mountainous formation, having large and fertile valleys (e.g., the valley of the Medjerdah and the plains of Mornag, Mateur and Béja); the north-east, with the peninsula of Cap Bon, the soil being specially suited for the cultivation of oranges, lemons and tangerines; the Sahel, where olive trees abound; the centre, the region of high table lands and pastures, and the desert of the south, famous for its oases and gardens, where dates grow in profusion. Agriculture is the chief industry, and large estates predominate. Of the total area of 15,583,000 hectares, about 9m. hectares are productive, including 2m. under cereals, 3-6m. used as pasturage, 900,000 forests and 1 -3m. uncultivated. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) wheat, 1,400; barley, 686; olive oil, 115; citrus fruits, 225; dates, 60. Wine ( 1985) 67,000 tonnes. Other products are apricots, pears, apples, peaches, plums, figs, pomegranates, almonds, shaddocks, pistachios, esparto grass, henna and cork. Livestock (1985): Horses, 55,000; asses, 215,000; mules, 74,000; cattle, 620,000; sheep, 5-22m.; goats, 940,000; camels, 180,000; pigs, 4,000. Fisheries. In 1980, 6,209 boats with 22,555 men were engaged in fishing. In 1984 the catch amounted to 73,500 tonnes; 1981, 57,500. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Major modern plants include a sugar refinery in Béja (57,700 tonnes in 1975), a cellulose plant in Kassérine (22,000 tonnes in 1976), a petroleum refinery in Bizerta and a steel plant at Menzel Bourguiba. There is a marble work plant and a tyre factory at Mégrine. Production, 1984 (in 1,000 tonnes): Crude steel, 166; cement, 2,742; lime, 484; phosphoric acid, 550; petrol, 215. Trade Unions. The Union Générale des Travailleurs Tunisiens won 27 seats in the parliamentary elections (1 Nov. 1981). There are also the Union Tunisienne de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de l'Artisanat (UTICA, the employers' union) and the Union National des Agriculteurs (UNA, farmers' union). Commerce. The imports and exports for calendar years (in 1,000 dinars) were as follows: I97Ç m Q m l m 2 m 3 m 4 Imports Exports

1,156,800 1,428,400 1,866,000 2,008,000 2,116,100 2,472,500 726,700 904,100 1,234,000 1,188,000 1,263,900 1,396,800

Exports to France m 1984 totalled 287m. dinars, and imports from France,

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TUNISIA

606m. dinars and exports to USA were valued at 267m. dinars and imports from USA were valued at 173m. dinars. Total trade between Tunisia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): im ms 1986 m 2 198 ,j ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

12,628 38,632

18,125 44,559

21,086 47,077

39,826 43,209

17,292 39,824

Tourism. In 1984, 1 -5m. tourists visited Tunisia, not counting ships' passengers in transit. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 26,200 km of roads, of which 11,000 km were main roads. Number of motor vehicles, 1982, included 141,185 private cars, 141,426 commercial vehicles and 11,669 motorcycles. Railways. In 1983 there were 2,136 km of railways (465 km of 1,435 mm gauge and 1,673 km of 1,000 mm gauge), ofwhich21 km electrified and ran 1,650m. tonnekm and 802m. passenger-km. A suburban railway links Tunis and La Marsa, and a light rail network opened in Tunis in 1985. Aviation. The national airline is Tunis-Air. There are 5 international airports, the main one is at Tunis-Carthage. In 1983,3,420,600 passengers were carried. Shipping. The main port is Tunis, and its outer port is Tunis-Goulette. These two ports and Sfax, Sousse and Bizerta are directly accessible to ocean going vessels. The port of La Skhirra, in the south, is used for the shipping of Algerian and Tunisian oil. In 1983,5,370 ships of 19,224,000 tons entered Tunisian ports. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1983, 218,808 telephones. There were, in 1978,403 post offices, and 6 wireless transmitting stations. Wireless sets in use in 1985 were 115m. Television began in 1966 and in 1985 there were 400,000 sets. Cinemas (1976). There were 175 cinemas with a seating capacity of44,000. Newspapers. There were ( 1985) 2 Arabic and 4 French daily newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are 51 magistrates' courts, 13 courts of first instance, 3 courts of appeal (in Tunis, Sfax and Sousse) and the High Court in Tunis. A Personal Status Code was promulgated on 13 Aug. 1956 and applied to Tunisians from 1 Jan. 1957. This raised the status of women, made divorce subject to a court decision, abolished polygamy and decreed a minimum marriage age. Religion. The constitution recognizes Islam as the state religion. There are about 20,000 Roman Catholics, under the Prelate of Tunis. The Greek Church, the French Protestants and the English Church are also represented. Education. All education was in 1956 made dependent on the Ministry of National Education. The 208 independent koranic schools have been nationalized and the distinction between religious and public schools has been abolished. All education is free from primary schools to university. A teachers' training college (école normale supérieure) was established in 1955. There are also a high school of law, 2 centres of economic studies, 2 schools of engineering, 2 medical schools, a faculty of agriculture, 2 institutes of business administration and one school of dentistry. In 1983-84 there were 3,074 primary schools with 33,546 teachers and 1,201~;645 pupils; 326 secondary schools with 17,500 teachers and 378,349 pupils. In 1980-81 there were 60,137 students at technical and vocational schools and 4,101 students in teacher-training. The University of Tunis had 38,829 students and 5,019 teaching stafTin 1984-85. Health. In 1980 there were 98 hospitals (13,571 beds). The registered medical

TUNISIA

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personnel in Tunisia comprised 1,800 doctors, 313 pharmacists, 176 dentists and 60 veterinaries. Social Security. A system of social security was set up in 1950 (amended 1963, 1964 and 1970). DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Tunisia in Great Britain (29 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1QG) Ambassador.Hamadi Khouini (accredited 12 March 1987). Of Great Britain in Tunisia (5 Place de la Victoire, Tunis) Ambassador and Consul-General: W. J. Adams, CMG. Of Tunisia in the USA (2408 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Habib Ben Yahia. Of the USA in Tunisia ( 144 Ave. de la Liberté, Tunis) Ambassador: Peter Sebastian. Of Tunisia to the United Nations Ambassador: Néjib Bouziri. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Institut National de la Statistique (27 Rue de Liban, Tunis) was set up in 1947. Its main publications are: Annuaire statistique de la Tunisie (latest issue, 1975). Findlay, Allan M., Findlay, Anne M., and Lawless, R. I., Tunisia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Ling, D. L., Tunisia: From Protectorate to Republic. Indiana Univ. Press, 1967 Rudebeck, L., The Tunisian Experience: Party and People. London, 1970 Salem, N., Habib Bourguiba, Islam and the Creation of Tunisia. London, 1984 Tomkinson, M., Tunisia: A Holiday Guide. London and Hammamet, 1984

Capital: Ankara Population: 50-67m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$990 ( 1984)

TURKEY Turkiye Cumhuriyeti

H I S T O R Y . The Turkish War of Independence (1919-22), following the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, was led and won by Mustafa Kemal (Atatiirk) on behalf of the Grand National Assembly which first met in Ankara on 23 April 1920. On 20 Jan. 1921 the Grand National Assembly voted a constitution which declared that all sovereignty belonged to the people and vested all power, both executive and legislative, in the Grand National Assembly. The name 'Ottoman Empire' was later replaced by 'Turkey'. On 1 Nov. 1922 the Grand National Assembly abolished the office of Sultan and Turkey became a republic on 29 Oct. 1923. Religious courts were abolished in 1924, Islam ceased to be the official state religion in 1928, women were given the franchise and western-style surnames were adopted in 1934. On 27 May 1960 the Turkish Army, directed by a National Unity Committee under the leadership of Gen. Cemal Gursel, overthrew the government of the Democratic Party. The Grand National Assembly was dissolved and party activities were suspended. Party activities were legally resumed on 12 Jan. 1961. A new constitution was approved in a referendum held on 9 July 1961 and general elections were held the same year. On 12 Sept. 1980, the Turkish armed forces overthrew the Demirel Government (Justice Party). Parliament was dissolved and all activities of political parties were suspended. The Constituent Assembly was convened in Oct. 1981, and prepared a new Constitution which was enforced after a national referendum on 7 Nov. 1982. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Turkey is bounded west by the Aegean Sea and by Greece, north by Bulgaria and the Black Sea, east by the USSR and Iran, and south by Iraq, Syria and the Mediterranean. The area (including lakes) is 779,452 sq. km (300,947 sq. miles). Area in Europe (Trakya), 23,764 sq. km. Area in Asia (Anadolu), 755,688 sq. km; population (census 1985), 50,664,458. The census population is given as follows: 1927 1935 1940 1945

Total 13,648,270 16,158,018 17,820,950 18,790,174

Total 20,947,188 24,064,763 27,754,820 31,391,421

1950 1955 1960 1965

1970 1975 1980 1985

Total 35,605,176 40,347,719 44,736,957 50,664,458

The population of the provinces, at the census in 1985, was as follows: Adana 1 ,725,940 430,728 Adiyaman Afyonkarahisar 666,978 421,131 Agri 358,289 Amasya Ankara 2 ,306,327 891,149 Antalya 226,338 Art vin 743,419 Aydin 910,282 Balikesir 160,909 Bilecik 241,548 Bingòl 300,843 Bitlis 504,778 Bolu 248,002 Burdur Bursa 1 ,324,015 417,121 Çanakkale

Çankiri Çorum Denizli Diyarbakir Edirne Elâzig Erzincan Erzurum Eskiçehir Gaziantep Gire^un Gùmujhane Hakkari Hatay lsparta ïçel Istanbul

1196

263,964 599,204 667,478 934,505 389,638 483,715 299,985 856,175 597,397 966,490 502,151 283,753 182,645 1,002,252 382,844 1,034,085 5,842,985

Izmir 2 ,317,829 K a h r a m a n m a r a ; 840,472 722,431 Kars 450,353 Kastamonu 864,060 Kayseri 297,098 Kirklareli 260,156 Kirçehir 742,245 Kocaeli ,769,050 Konya 543,384 Kiitahya 665,809 Malatya ,050,130 Manisa 652,069 Mardin 486,290 Mugla 339,492 Mu§ 278,129 Nev$ehir 560,386 Nigde

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TURKEY Ordu Rize Sakarya Samsun Sanhurfa Siirt

763,857 374,206 610,500 1,108,710 795,034 524,741

Sinop Sivas Tekirdag Tokat Trabzon

280,140 772,209 402,721 679,071 786,194

Tunceli U§ak Van Yozgat Zonguldak

151,906 271,261 547,216 545,301 1,044,945

The population of towns of over 100,000 inhabitants, at the census of Oct. 1985, was as follows: Istanbul Ankara Izmir Adana Bursa Gaziantep Konya Kayseri Eski^ehir l8m., in all languages, 5 - 7m. EDUCATION. In 1984-85 there were 3-3m. pupils at 8,700 elementary and secondary schools; 243 technical colleges with 278,600 students, 55 higher educational institutions with 282,800 students, and 207 research institutes with 39,800 scientific personnel. The Kazakh Academy of Sciences, founded in 1945, had, in 1985, 31 institutions, the scientific staff of which numbered 4,309. 960,000 children were attending pre-school institutions. H E A L T H . In 1984 there were 57,500 doctorsand210,900 hospital beds. Books of Reference Istoriya Kazakhskoi SSR. 2 vols. Alma-Ata, 1957-59

SOVIET C E N T R A L ASIA Alampiev, P , Soviet Kazakhstan. Moscow, 1959

Moscow, 1958.— Where Economic

1271 Inequality

is No More

TURKMENISTAN Tiurkmenostan Soviet Sotsialistik Respublikasy H I S T O R Y . The Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on 27 Oct. 1924 and covers the territory of the former Trans-Caspian Region of Turkestan, the Chaijiui vilayet of Bokhara and a part of Khiva situated on the right bank of the Oxus. In May 1925 the Turkmen Republic entered the Soviet Union as one of its constituent republics. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Turkmenistan is bounded on the north by the Autonomous Kara-Kalpak Republic, a constituent of Uzbekistan, by Iran and Afghanistan on the south, by the Uzbek Republic on the east and the Caspian Sea on the west. The principal Turkmen tribes are the Tekkes of Merv and the Tekkes of the Attok, the Ersaris, Yomuds and Goklans. All speak closely related varieties of a Turkic language (of the south-western group); many are Sunni Moslems. The country passed under Russian control in 1881, after the fall of the Turkoman stronghold of GokTepe. Census (1979) 68-4% of the population were Turkmenians, most of whom were nomads before the First World War. 12-6% are Russians living mostly in urban areas, and 8-5% Uzbeks. There are also Kazakhs (2 9%), Tatars, Ukrainians, Armenians and others. The area of Turkmenistan is 488,100 sq. km (186,400 sq. miles), and its population in Jan. 1986 was 3,270,000. There are 5 regions: Chardzhou, Mary, Ashkhabad, Tashauz and Krasnovodsk, comprising 42 rural districts, 15 towns and 74 urban settlements. The capital is Ashkhabad (Poltoratsk); other large towns are Chardzhou (152,000), Mary (Merv) (81,000), Nebit-Dag(78,000) and Krasnovodsk (55,000). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Supreme Soviet, elected in 1985, consists of 330 deputies (1 per 5,000 population); 118 are women, 222 Communists. A new Constitution was adopted in April 1978. At elections to regional, district, urban and rural Soviets (24 Feb. 1985), of 27,754 deputies returned, 13,865 (50%) were women, 15,870 (57 2%) non-party and 19,486 (70 • 2%) industrial workers and collective farmers. Chairman, Presidium ofthe Supreme Soviet. B. Yazkuliev. Chairman, Council ofMinisters. A. Kh. Khodzhamuradov. First Secretary, Communist Party S. A. Niyazov. F I N A N C E . Budget estimates (in lm. rubles), 1987,1,639; 1986,1,511. A G R I C U L T U R E . The main occupation of the people is agriculture, based on irrigation. Turkmenistan produces cotton, wool, Astrakhan fur, etc. It is also famous for its carpets, and produces a special breed of Turkoman horses and the famous Karakul sheep. There were 353 collective farms and 130 state farms in 1985, with 40,000 tractors and 1,400 grain combines. There were 608 rural power stations. A considerable area is under Egyptian cotton, and from it has been evolved an original Soviet long-fibred cotton. The main grain grown is maize. Sericulture, fruit and vegetable growing are also important; dates, olives, figs, sesame and other southern plants are grown. There is fishing in the Caspian. 1,004,200 hectares were under cultivation in 1985 (1913, 318,000; 1940,411,000). Between 1958 and 1970 the Kara-Kum Canal was extended to 860 km. In 1971 the fourth section, to reach the Caspian, was begun to reach 1,000 km. By 1982 over 1,011,000 hectares had been irrigated.

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UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST

REPUBLICS

Livestock on 1 Jan. 1985: Cattle, 704,100; pigs, 210,100; sheep and goats, 4 -4m. Output of main agricultural products (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1984: Cotton, 1,204-8; vegetables, 297; melons, 213; grapes, 95 -2; meat, 84-4; milk, 333-9; eggs, 280-6m.; wool, 14-6. I N D U S T R Y . Turkmenistan is rich in minerals, such as ozocerite, oil, coal, sulphur and salt. Industry is being developed, and there are now chemical, tailoring, textile, light, food, agricultural implements, cement and other factories, oil refineries, as well as ore-mining. In the Kara-Kum Desert deposits of magnesium, minerals and coal have been discovered, as well as some 50 new saltmines. Here a new oil town, Nebit-Dag, has sprung up. On the Kara-Bogaz bay a sulphate industry has been developed. Industrial output in 1984 included 6-7m. sq. metres window glass, 355,000 tonnes cotton fibre, 5-3m. pairs hosiery, 4-3m. pairs leather footwear, 131m. bricks. Electric power output was 10,079m. kwh. in 1984. In 1985 there were 811,000 industrial and office workers in the national economy. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . Length of motor roads in 1985,19,800km(15,200km hard surface). Motor communication exists between Ashkhabad and Meshed (Iran). Length of railways, 2,120 km. The line Chardzhou-Kungrad crosses the Chardzhou and Tashauz regions of Turkmenia and runs across Uzbekistan. Another line connects Chardzhou and Urgench. Inland waterways, 1,300 km. Airlines connect Leninsk and Tashauz, and Ashkhabad and remote areas in the west, north and east. Newspapers (1984). Of 69 newspapers, 56 were in the Turkmen language. Daily circulation of Turkmenian-language newspapers, 875,000; in all languages, 1,076,000. E D U C A T I O N . In 1984-85 there were 1,900 primary and secondary schools with 800,000 pupils, 9 higher educational institutions with 39,900 students, 35 technical colleges with 36,900 students, and 11 music and art schools. The Turkmen Academy of Sciences, founded in 1951, directs the work of 15 learned institutions with a staff of 1,059 scientific staff; there were 58 research institutions in all, with 5,500 research workers, in 1985. In Jan. 1985,148,000 children were attending pre-school institutions. H E A L T H . In 1984 there were9,900 doctors and33,100 hospital beds. Book of Reference Istoriya Turkmenskoi SSR. 2 vols. Ashkhabad, 1957

UZBEKISTAN Ozbekiston Soviet Sotsialistik Respublikasy H I S T O R Y . In Oct. 1917 the Tashkent Soviet assumed authority, and in the following years established its power throughout Turkestan. The semi-independent Khanates of Khiva and Bokhara were first (1920) transformed into People's Republics, then (1923-24) into Soviet Socialist Republics and finally merged in the Uzbek SSR and other republics. The Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on 27 Oct. 1924 from lands formerly included in Turkestan. It includes a large part of the Samarkand region, the southern part of the Syr Darya, Western Ferghana, the western plains of Bukhara, the Kara-Kalpak ASSR and the Uzbek regions of Khorezm. In May 1925

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Uzbekistan, by the decision of the Congress of Soviets of the USSR, was accepted as one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Uzbekistan is bordered on the north by the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, on the east by the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic and the Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic, on the south by Afghanistan and on the west by the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic. The Uzbeks, who form 68 -7% (1979 census) of the population, were the ruling race in Central Asia until the arrival of the Russians during the third quarter of the 19th century. The several native states over which Uzbek dynasties formerly ruled were founded in the 15th century upon the ruins of Tamerlane's empire. The Uzbek speak Jagatai Turkish, which is related to Osmanli and Azerbaijan Turkish; many are Sunni Moslems. Russians numbered (census 1979) 10-8%, Tadzhiks, 3-9%, Tatars4-2%. The area of Uzbekistan is 447,400 sq. km (172,741 sq. miles). The population in Jan. 1986 was 18,487,000 (42% urban). The country comprises the following regions: Andizhan, Bukhara, Dzhizak, Ferghana, Kashkadar, Khorezm, Namangan, Navoi, Samarkand, Surkhan-Darya, Syr-Darya, Tashkent and the Autonomous Soviet'Socialist Republic of Kara Kalpakia. The capital of the Repnbttc is Tashkent; other large towns are Samarkand, Andizhan, Namangan. There are 109 towns, 93 urban settlements and 156 rural districts. On 19 Sept. 1963 the Supreme Soviet of the USSR confirmed decisions of the Supreme Soviets of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, transferring over 40,000 sq. km from the former to the latter to ensure more efficient use of the 'Hungry Steppe'. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Supreme Soviet, elected in 1985, consists of 510 deputies (1 per 15,000 population); 183 are women, 346 Communists. A new Constitution was adopted in April 1978. At elections to the regional, district, urban and rural Soviets (24 Feb. 1985), of 104,512 deputies returned, 51,640 (49-4%) were women, 59,140 (56-6%) nonparty and 72,417 (69 • 3%) industrial workers and collective farmers. President, Presidium of the Supreme Soviet: A. Salimov. Chairman, Council ofMinisters: G. Kh. Kadyrov. First Secretary, Communist Party: I. B. Usmankhodjayev. F I N A N C E . Budget estimates (in lm. rubles), 1987,8,902; 1986,8,125. A G R I C U L T U R E . Uzbekistan is a land of intensive farming, based on artificial irrigation. It is the chief cotton-growing area in the USSR and the third in the world. About 3-7m. hectares of collective and state farmland have irrigation networks, totalling over 150,000 km in length, and all are in full use. In 1939 the Ferghana Canal (270 km) was built. During 1940, among the irrigation canals completed were: the North Ferghana Canal (165 km), and Andreyev South Ferghana Canal (108 km) and the first section of the Tashkent Canal (63 km). A canal from the Amu-Darya to Bokhara across the Kzyl-Kum and Ust-Urt deserts (180 km) was completed in 1965. A 200-km canal joining the river Zeravshan with the Kashka Darya at the village of Paruz was completed in Aug. 1955; it is part of the Iski-Angara Canal. The first section (93 km) of a canal irrigating the southern 'Hungry Steppe' was opened in 1960; 500,000 hectares of this desert were under cultivation in 1967. Agriculture flourishes, particularly in the well-watered, warm, rich oases areas, such as the Ferghana valley, Zeravshan, Tashkent and Khorezm, where cotton, fruit, silk and rice are cultivated. In the higher-lying plains grain is grown; the wide desert and semi-desert area of Western Uzbekistan is mainly given to pasture land and the breeding of the Karakul sheep; there is a Karakul institute at Samarkand. Orchards occupied 213,000 hectares and the vineyards 118,000 hectares in 1982. The Central Asian Branch of the Scientific Research Institute of Viticulture in Tashkent has produced new frost resistant grapes by crossing the wild Amur grape with Central Asian and European types. In 1985 there were 862 collective farms and 1,105 state farms, with 182,700 tractors and 11,300 cotton picking and

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UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

grain combines. Ploughing, cotton-sowing and cultivation are completely mechanized; cotton picking over 46%. Uzbekistan provides 65% of the total cotton, 50% of the total rice and 60% of the total lucerne grown in the USSR. The area under crops was 2,189,000 hectares in 1913,3,036,000 hectares in 1940 and 4,175,000 hectares in 1985. Livestock on 1 Jan. 1985: 4 0m. cattle, 9-4m. sheep and goats and 719,100 pigs. Output of main agricultural products (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1984: Meat, 385 -1; milk, 2,444; eggs, 1,825; wool, 23-9; cotton, 5,292; potatoes, 251; vegetables, 2,480; fruit, 638; grapes, 612. Afforestation over an area of50,000 hectares has been carried out to protect the Bokhara and Karakul oases from the advancing Kzyl-Kum sands and to stop the sand-drifts in a number of districts of Central Ferghana. I N D U S T R Y . Of its mineral resources, in addition to oil and coal, copper and building materials and ozocerite deposits are now also exploited. New very rich coal deposits were discovered in 1944 and 1947 near Tashkent. There are over 1,600 factories and mills. They include a factory of agricultural machinery (in Tashkent), a cement factory, a sulphur-mine, an oxygen factory, a paper-mill, a leather factory, textile-mills, clothing factories, iron and steel works, the Chirchik electro-chemical plant, a superphosphate plant in Kokand and oil refineries, coalmines, etc. Output in 1984 included 26,100 tractors, 1,846m. bricks, 319m. sq. metres cotton fibre, 135-9m. sq. metres silk fabrics, 34m. pairs leather footwear, 802m. cans of preserves, 53-2m. pairs hosiery. Gold is being worked at Muruntau, Chadak and Kochbulak. The Tashkent power station (2m. kw.) was completed in 1971. Power output in 1984 was 44,600m. kwh. (481m. kwh. in 1940). Two natural-gas pipelines (Djaikak-Tashkent, Ferghana-Kokand) and a third from Bokhara to the Urals are operating. Natural gas output(1976) was 36,100m. cu. metres. In 1985 there were 4,834,000 industrial and office workers in the national economy. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . TTie total length of railway in 1985 was 3,480 km. Branches lead to Karshe-Kitab, Kerki-Termez, Jalal-Abad, Namangan, Andijan and other centres. In 1947-55 a new line was built from Chardzhou to Kungr^d. The Great Uzbek Highway was completed in April 1941. Total length of motor roads in 1985 was 76,900 km (hard surface, 61,900 km). Inland waterways, 1,100 km. An airline, serving all of Central Asia, is most developed in Uzbekistan. Newspapers (1984). There were 195 newspapers in the Uzbek language out of a total of 286. Daily circulation of Uzbek-language newspapers, 4m.; m all languages, 5-3m. E D U C A T I O N . In 1984-85 there were 9,300 elementary and secondary schools with 4-4m. pupils, 42 higher educational establishments with 289,500 students and 247 technical colleges with 273,000 students. Uzbekistan has an Academy of Sciences, founded in 1943, with 37 institutions and 4,072 academic staff; there were 188 research institutes with a scientific stafTof37,900 in Jan. 1985. There are universities and medical schools in Tashkent and Samarkand. In Jan. 1985, 1,092,000 children were attending pre-school institutions. The Uzbek Arabic script was in 1929 replaced by the Latin alphabet which in 1940 was superseded by one based on the Cyrillic alphabet. H E A L T H . In 1984 there were 58,700 doctors and 214,300 hospital beds. Book of Reference Istoriya Uzbekskoi SSR. 4 vols. Tashkent, 1967-68 Waterson, N.,(ed.), Uzbek-English Dictionary. London, 1980

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K A R A K A L P A K A U T O N O M O U S SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC Area, 164,900 sq. km (63,920 sq. miles); population (Jan. 1985), 1,080,000. Capital, Nukus (127,000). The Karakalpaks are first mentioned in written records in the 16th century as tributary to Bokhara, and later to the Kazakh Khanate. In the second half of the 19 th century, as a result of the Russian conquest of Central Asia, they came under Russian rule. On 11 May 1925 the territory was constituted within the then Kazakh Autonomous Republic (of the Russian Federation) as an Autonomous Region. On 20 March 1932 it became an Autonomous Republic within the Russian Federation, and on 5 Dec. 1936 it became part of the Uzbek SSR. Census (1979) Karakalpaks were 3 1 1 % of population, Uzbeks, 31 • 5% and Kazakhs, 26-9%. 185 deputies were elected to its Supreme Soviet on 20 Feb. 1980, of whom 69 were women and 118 Communists. Its manufactures are in the field of light industry—bricks, leather goods, furniture, canning, wine. In Jan. 1985 cattle numbered 332,200 and sheep and goats; 594,500. There were 38 collective and 124 state farms. The total cultivated area in 1985 was 350,400 hectares. In 1984-85 there were 287,600 pupils at schools, 19,700 at technical colleges, and 6,169 at university. There is a branch of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences with 190 scientific staff. There were 2,600 doctors and 12,800 hospital beds.

TADZHIKISTAN Respublikai Sovieth Sotsialistii Tojikiston H I S T O R Y . The Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from those regions of Bokhara and Turkestan where the population consisted mainly of Tadzhiks. It was admitted as a constituent republic of the Soviet Union on 5 Dec. 1929. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Tadzhikistan is situated between 39° 40' and 36° 40' N. lat. and 67° 20' and 75° E. long., north of the Oxus (Amu-Darya). On the west and north it is bordered by Uzbekistan and by the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic; on the east by Chinese Turkestan and on the south by Afghanistan. It includes three regions (Leninabad, Kurgan-Tyube and Kulyab) and 43 rural districts, 18 towns and 49 urban settlements, together with the Gomo-Badakhshan Autonomous Region. Its highest mountains are Communism Peak (7,495 metres) and Lenin Peak (7,127 metres). Even the lowest valleys in the Pamirs are not below 3,500 metres above sea-level. The huge mountain glaciers are the source of many rapid rivers—the tributaries of the Amu-Darya, which flows from east to west along the southern border of Tadzhikistan. About 58 -8% of the population are Tadzhiks. They speak an Iranian dialect, little different from Persian, and they are considered to be the descendants of the original Aryan population of Turkestan. Unlike the Persians, the Tadzhiks are mostly Sunnis. Of the rest, 22-9% are Uzbeks living in the north-west of the republic. Russians and Ukrainians number 10-4% (1979 census). The area of the territory is 143,100 sq. km (55,240 sq. miles). Population (Jan. 1986), 4,648,000. The capital is Dushanbe. Other large towns are Leninabad (143,000), Kurgan-Tyube, Kulyab. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Supreme Soviet, elected in 1985, consists of 350 deputies (1 per 5,000 population); 126 are women and 238 Communists. A new Constitution was adopted in April 1978. At elections to the district, urban and rural Soviets and the regional Soviet of

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U N I O N O F SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Gomo-Badakhshan (24 Feb. 1985), out of 27,754 deputies returned 13,865 (50 0%) were women, 15,870 (57 2%) non-Party and 19,486 (70 2%) industrial workers and collective farmers. Chairman, Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, G. Pallaev. Chairman, Council ofMinisters: I. Kh. Khaeev. First Secretary, Communist Party: K. M. Makhkamov. F I N A N C E . Budget estimates (in lm. rubles), 1987,1,977; 1986,1,714. A G R I C U L T U R E . The occupations of the population are mainly farming, horticulture and cattle breeding. Area under crops in 1985 was 789,100 hectares (1913, 494,000; 1940, 807,000). There are 43,000 km of irrigation canals: the irrigation networks cover about 634,000 hectares of land. Tadzhikistan grows many varieties of fruit, including apricots, figs, olives, pomegranates, a local variety of lemons and oranges, and in the south sugar-cane has been grown. Even on the highest mountain plateaux of the Pamirs, 'the roof of the world', the biological station of Tadzhikistan (3,860 metres above sea-level) has succeeded in raising crops of 60 varieties of barley, 10 varieties of oats, 4 of wheat, as well as vegetables. Eucalyptus and geranium are grown for the perfumery industry. Jute, rice and millet are also grown. Tadzhikistan contains rich pasture lands, and cattle breeding is a very important branch of its agriculture. Livestock on 1 Jan. 1985: 1 -3m. cattle, 3-2m. sheep and goats and 183,600 pigs. The Gissar sheep is famous in the south for its meat and fat; the Karakul sheep is widely bred for its wool. There were 158 collective farms (all with electric power) and 297 state farms m 1985, with 34,300 tractors and 1,600 cotton and grain combine harvesters. Output of main agricultural products (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1984: Meat, 104; milk, 538-5; eggs, 421 2m.; wool, 5; cotton, 932; potatoes, 161; vegetables, 447; fruit, 213; grapes, 157. I N D U S T R Y . The original small-scale handicraft industries have been replaced by big industrial enterprises, including mining, engineering, food, textile, clothing and silk factories. There are rich deposits of brown coal, lead, zinc and oil (in the north of the republic), rare elements, such as uranium, radium, arsenic and bismuth. Asbestos, mica, corundum and emery, lapis lazuli, potassium salts, sulphur and other minerals have been found in other parts of the republic. Industrial output in 1984 included 411,000 tonnes mineral fertilizer, 1,046,000 cu. metres ferroconcrete, 303-8m. bricks, 258,900 tonnes cotton fibre, 12-lm. items knitwear, 32 • 8m. pairs hosiery, 8 • 8m. pairs leather footwear. There are 80 big electrical stations. The hydro-electric Varzob station began to operate in 1954, that at Kairak-Kum on the Syr Darya River was completed in 1957 and 2 more at Murgab in 1964. Output in 1984 was 15,172m. kwh. (in 1940, 62m. kwh.). Construction of an electro-chemical combine, the largest in the USSR, has begun in the Yavan steppe in south Tadzhikistan, and the 3 - 2m. kw. power station in the upper reaches of the Vakhsh River was near completion in 1979. In 1985 there were 1,101,000 industrial and office workers in the national economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Jan. 1985 there were 19,300 km ofmotor roads. Of these, 16,200 km are hard surface, including the Osh-Khorog (700 km), Yasui-Bazar-Charm (107 km) and Dushanbe-Khorog in the Pamirs (557 km) roads. Railways. A railway line between Termez and Dushanbe (258 km) connects the republic with the railway system of the USSR. The mountainous nature of the republic makes ordinary railway construction difficult; accordingly 345 km of

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1277

narrow gauge railways have been constructed (Kurgan-Tyube-Piandzh and Dushanbe-Kurgan-Tyube, connecting Dushanbe with the cotton-growing Vakhsh valley are particularly important). Length of railways, 1985,470 km. Aviation. Dushanbe is connected by air with Moscow, Tashkent, Baku and the regional and district centres ofthe republic. Shipping. A steamship line on the Amu-Darya runs between Termez, Sarava and Jilikulam on the river Vakhsh (200 km). Newspapers (1984). There were 70 newspapers, 60 in Tadzhik. Daily circulation of Tadzhik-language newspapers, 1,050,000; in all languages, 1,373,000. E D U C A T I O N . In 1984-85 there were 3,100 primary and secondary schools with 1 2m. pupils, 10 higher educational institutions with 58,900 students and 39 technical colleges with 40,500 students; the Tadzhik state university had 12,467 students. In Jan. 1985,121,000 children were attending pre-school institutions. In 1951 an Academy of Sciences was established; it has 16 institutions, the scientific staff of which numbers 1,503; there are 61 research institutions in all, with 8,300 scientific personnel in Jan. 1985. The Pamir research station is the highest altitude meteorological observatory in the world. In 1940 a new alphabet based on Cyrillic was introduced. H E A L T H . There are 277 hospitals as well as maternity homes, clinics and special institutes to combat tropical diseases. There were 11,700 doctors in 1984 and 47,000 hospital beds.

GORNO-BADAKHSHAN AUTONOMOUS REGION Comprising the Pamir massif along the borders of Afghanistan and China, the region was set up on 2 Jan. 1925. Area, 63,700 sq. km (24,590 sq. miles); population (Jan. 1985), 146,000 (83% Tadjiks, 11% Kirghiz). Capital, Khorog (14,800). The inhabitants are predominantly Ismaili Moslems. Mining industries are developed (gold, rock-crystal, mica, coal, salt). Wheat, fruit and fodder crops are grown and cattle and sheep are bred in the western parts. In 1985 there were 73,400 cattle, 345,500 sheep and goats. Total area under cultivation, 18,400 hectares. In 1984—85 44,800 pupils were attending 266 schools. Books of Reference Academy of Science of Tadzhikistan, Isloriya Tadzhikskogo 1963-65 Luknitsky, P , Sonet Tajikistan [In English]. Moscow, 1954

Naroda.

3 vols. Moscow,

KIRGHIZIA Kyrgyz Sovietik Sotsialistik Respublikasy HISTORY. After the establishment of the Soviet regime in Russia, Kirghizia became part of Soviet Turkestan, which itself became an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the RSFSR in April 1921. In 1924, when Central Asia was reorganized territorially on a national basis, Kirghizia was separated from Turkestan and formed into an autonomous region within the RSFSR. On 1 Feb. 1926 the Government of the RSFSR transformed Kirghizia into an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the RSFSR, and finally in Dec. 1936 Kirghizia was proclaimed one of the constituent Soviet Socialist Republics of the USSR.

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AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The territory of Kirghizia covers 198,500 sq. km (76,460 sq. miles), and its population in Jan. 1986 was 4,051,000. The republic comprises 3 regions: Issyk-Kul, Naryn and Osh. There are 18 towns, 31 urban settlements and 40 rural districts. Its capital is Frunze (formerly Pishpek). Other large towns are Osh (188,000), Przhevalsk (56,000), Kyzyl-Kiya, Tokmak. Kirghizia is situated on the Tien-Shan mountains and bordered on the east by China, on the west by Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, on the north by Kazakhstan and in the south by Tadzhikistan. The Kirghizians are of Turkic origin and form 47-9% (1979 census) of the population; the rest are Russians (25-9%), Ukrainians (3 • 1 %), Uzbeks (12 • 1 %) and Tatars (2%). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Supreme Soviet, elected in 1985, consists of350 deputies (1 per 5,000 population); 127 are women, 235 Communists. A new Constitution was adopted in April 1978. At elections to the regional, district, urban and rural Soviets (24 Feb. 1985), of the 28,014 deputies returned, 14,043 (50-1%) were women, 15,823 (56-5%) nonparty and 19,403 (69 • 2%) industrial workers and collective farmers. Chairman, Presidium of the Supreme Soviet: T. Kh. Koshoev. Chairman, Council of Ministers: A. D. Dzhumagulov. First Secretary, Communist Party: A. M. Masaliev. F I N A N C E . Budget estimates (in 1m. rubles), 1987,2,266; 1986,2,146. A G R I C U L T U R E . Kirghizia is famed for its livestock breeding. On 1 Jan. 1985 there were 1,051,200 cattle, 319,100 pigs, 10 - 5m. sheep and goats. Yaks are bred as meat and dairy cattle, and graze on high altitudes unsuitable for other cattle. Crossed with domestic cattle, hybrids are produced much heavier than ordinary Kirghiz cattle and giving twice the yield of milk. The Kirghizian horse is famed for its endurance, but it is of small stature; it has in recent years been crossed with Don, Arab and other breeds. On 1 Jan. 1985 there were 179 collective and 287 state farms. Area under crops (1984), 1 -3m. hectares (1913,640,000; 1940,1,056,000). There were 27,900 tractors and 5,100 grain combine harvesters in 1985; nearly all collective and state farms received electric power. Kirghizia raises wheat sufficient for its own use and other grains and fodder, particularly lucerne; also sugar-beet, hemp, kenaf, kendyr, tobacco, medicinal plants and rice. Sericulture, fruit, grapes and vegetables and bee-keeping are major branches of Kirghiz agriculture. Agriculture is highly mechanized; nearly all the area under crops is worked by tractors. In 1983 irrigation networks in collective and state farms covered 974,000 hectares; practically all were in use. A canal in the western Tien-Shan ranges and a reservoir in the Urto-Tokoi mountains are being constructed. The health resorts of Jety-Oguz (7,200 ft) and Jalal-Abad are famous for their mild alpine climate and mineral springs. Output of main agricultural products (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1984: Meat, 172 -7; milk, 730-1; eggs, 490m.; wool, 36-2; cotton, 69; sugar-beet, 228; potatoes, 297; vegetables, 505; fruit, 181; grapes, 55. I N D U S T R Y . Kirghizia contains over 500 large modern industrial enterprises including sugar refineries, tanneries, cotton and wool-cleansing works, flour-mills, a tobacco factory, food, timber, textile, engineering, metallurgical, oil and mining enterprises. Production in 1984 included 391-2m. electric lamps, 18m. items knitwear, 220,000 washing machines, 893,400 cu. metres ferroconcrete, 18-5m. pairs hosiery, 10-9m. pairs leather footwear, 127-7m. cans conserves. Hydro-electric power stations are being built in the Central Tien-Shans and the cotton-growing districts in the Osh Region, the Chui valley and on the shore of Lake Issyk-Kul. Power output (1984) was 10,886m. kwh.

SOVIET C E N T R A L ASIA

1279

There were, in 1985, 1,239,000 industrial and office workers in the national economy. COMMUNICATIONS. In the north a railway runs from Lugovaya through Frunze to Rybachi on Lake Issyk-Kul. Towns in the southern valleys are linked by short lines with the Ursatyevskaya-Andizhan railway in Uzbekistan. Total length of railway (Jan. 1985) is 370 km. Most of the traffic is by road; there were 28,600 km of motor roads (21,900 hard surface) in 1985. A road tunnel through the TienShan mountains at an altitude of9,600 ft, connecting Frunze and Osh, is being constructed. Inland waterways, 600 km. Airlines link Frunze with Moscow and Tashkent. Newspapers (1984). Of 111 newspapers with a daily 1 3m. circulation, 62 with 781,000 circulation are in the Kirghiz language. EDUCATION. Kirghizia had 1,800 primary and secondary schools with 900,000 pupils in 1984-85; 168,000 children were attending pre-school institutions. There werc.aJso.10 higher educational instituUpnswitfi 58,900 students, 45 technical and teachers' training colleges with 51,500 students, as well as music and art schools. The Kirghizian Academy of Sciences was established in 1954. In 1985 there were 18 research institutes, with 1,501 scientific staff, operating under its auspices; altogether there were 8,900 scientific staff in 1985. A university was opened in 1951. In Sept. 1940 a new alphabet, based on Cyrillic, was introduced. H E A L T H . In 1984 there were 12,800 doctors and47,100 hospital beds. Books of Reference Istonya Kirgizskoi SSR. 5 vols. Frunze, 1984fF. Ryazantsev, S. N., Kirghizia. Moscow, 1951

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Fédéral Capital: Abu Dhabi Population. 1 77m. (1986) GNPpercapita. US$24,000 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . From Sha'am, 35 miles south-west of Ras Musam dam, for nearly 400 miles to Khor al Odeid at the south-eastern end of the peninsula of Qatar, the coast, formerly known as the Trucial Coast, of the Gulf (together with 50 miles of the coast of the Gulf of Oman) belongs to the rulers of the 7 Trucial States. In 1820 these rulers signed a treaty prescribing peace with the British Government. This treaty was followed by further agreements providing for the suppression of the slave trade and by a series of other engagements, of which the most important are the Perpetual Maritime Truce (May 1853) and the Exclusive Agreement (March 1892). Under the latter, the sheikhs, on behalf of themselves, their heirs and successors, undertook that they would on no account enter into any agreement or correspondence with any power other than the British Government, receive foreign agents, cede, sell or give for occupation any part of their territory save-to the British Government. British forces withdrew from the Gulf at the end of 1971 and the treaties whereby Britain had been responsible for the defence and foreign relations of the Trucial States were terminated, being replaced on 2 Dec. 1971 by a treaty of friendship between Britain and the United Arab Emirates. The United Arab Emirates (formed 2 Dec. 1971) consists of the former Trucial States: Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Shaijah, Ajman, Umm al Qawain, Ras al Khaimah (joined in Feb. 1972) and Fujairah. The small state of Kalba was merged with Shaijah in 1952. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Emirates are bounded north by the Gulf and Oman, east by the Gulf of Oman and Oman, south and west by Saudi Arabia, north-west by Qatar. The area of these states is approximately 32,300 sq. miles (83,657 sq. km). The total population at census (1985), 1,621,000. Estimate (1986) l -77m. In 1980, 69% were male and 72% lived m urban areas. About onetenth are nomads. Population of the 7 Emirates, 1985 census: Abu Dhabi, 670,125; Ajman, 64,318; Dubai, 419,104; Fujairah, 54,425; Ras al-Khaimah, 116,470; Shaijah, 268,722; Umm al Qawain, 29,229. The chief cities (1980 census) are Dubai (265,702), Abu Dhabi, the federal capital (242,975), Shaqah (125,149), Al-Ain (101,663)and Ras al-Khaimah (42,000). C L I M A T E . The country experiences desert conditions, with rainfall both limited and erratic. The period May to Nov. is generally rainless, while the wettest months are Feb. and March. Temperatures are very high in the summer months. Dubai. Jan. 74°F (23-4°C), July 108"F (42-3°C). Annual rainfall 2-4" (60 mm). Shaijah. Jan. 64*F (17 • 8"C), July 91°F (32°C). Annual rainfall 4 • 2" (105 mm). G O V E R N M E N T . The Emirates are a federation, headed by a Supreme Council which is composed of the 7 rulers and which in tum appoints a Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers drafts legislation and a federal budget; its proposals are submitted to a federal National Council of 40 elected members which may propose amendments but has no executive power. President: HH Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan al Nahyan, Ruler of Abu Dhabi. Members of the Supreme Council of Rulers: HH Sheikh Rashid bin Said al-Maktoum, Vice-President and Ruler of Dubai. HH Sheikh Sultan bin Mohammed al-Qasimi, Ruler of Shaijah. HH Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammed al-Qasimi, Ruler of Ras al-Khaimah. HH Sheikh Rashid bin Ahmed al-Mualla, Ruler of Umm al Qaiwain. HH Sheikh Hamad bin Mohammed al Sharqi, Ruler of Fujairah. HH Sheikh Humaid Rashid bin al-Nuaimi, Ruler of Ajman. 1280

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

1281

The Council of Ministers in Jan. 1986 was: Prime Minister H.H. Sheikh Rashid bin Said al-Maktoum. Deputy Prime Ministers. Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid al-Maktoum; Sheikh Hamdan bin Muhammad al-Nahayan. Interior Sheikh Mubarak bin Muhammad al-Nahayan. Finance and Industry Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid al-Maktoum. Defence Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid al-Maktoum. Economy and Trade Saif al-Jarwan. Information and Culture Sheikh Ahmed bin Hamed. Communications. Muhammad Saeed al-Mualla. Public Works and Housing: Muhammad Khalifa al-Kindi. Education and Youth. Faraj al-Mazroui. Petroleum and Mineral Resources. Dr Mana Said al-Oteiba. Electricity and Water Hamaid Nasser al-Owais. Justice Abdullah Hamid alMazroui. Health. Hamad Abdul Rahman al-Madfa. Labour and Social Affairs. Khatean Muhammad al-Roumi. Planning: Sheikh Humaid al-Mualla. Agriculture and Fisheries. Saeed al-Raghbani. Minister of Stale for Internal Affairs. Hamouda bin All Dhahiri. Minister of State for Foreign Affairs. Rashid Abdulla A1 Nuaimi. Minister of State for Cabinet Affairs. Said al-Ghaith. Minister of State for Supreme Council Affairs. Sheikh Abdel Aziz bin Humaid al-Qasimi. Islamic Affairs and A WQAF Sheikh Muhammad bin Hassan al-Khazraji. Minister of State for Finance and Industry Ahmad Hamid al-Tayer Without Portfolio. Shaikh Ahmad bin Sultan al-Qasimi. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white, black, with a vertical red strip in the hoist. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 Royal Guard bngade, 5 armoured, 9 infantry, 3 artillery and 3 air defence battalions. Equipment includes 100 AMX-30 and 36 Lion QF-40 Mk 2 main battle tanks. The strength was (1987) 40,000. Navy. The naval flotilla includes 6 new German-built missile armed fast attack craft, 9 British-built patrol craft, 1 maintenance craft and 2 tenders. Personnel m 1987 numbered 1,200 officers and ratings. The Coast Guard flotilla comprises 11 armed coastal patrol craft, 20 armed small patrol cutters, 26 light launches, 1 amphibious craft, 2 diving tenders, 1 water carrier and 5 tugs. Air Force. Formation of an air wing in Abu Dhabi, to support land forces, began in 1968 with the purchase of some light STOL transports and helicopters. Expansion has been rapid. Current equipment includes 24 Mirage 5 supersonic fighterbombers, 3 Mirage 5R tactical reconnaissance aircraft and 3 Mirage 5D 2-seat trainers (to be replaced by Mirage 2000s, with delivery of first 18 beginning early in 1987); 4 C-130 Hercules and 4 Buffalo turboprop transports; 4 CASA C-212 Aviocar ECM/elint aircraft; about 40 Gazelle, Alouette III, Puma, Super Puma and Agusta-Bell 205 helicopters; 23 PC-7 Turbo-Trainers and 15 Hawk light attack/ trainers. Initial personnel were mostly British but considerable assistance is now being received from Arab countries and from Pakistan. The air wing became the Air Force of Abu Dhabi in 1972, in which year 3 JetRanger helicopters were transferred to the air wing of the Union Defence Force, since combined with the Dubai Police Air Wing to form a single component of the United Emirates Air Force. Current equipment of the Dubai Air Wing of the UEAF, bought mainly in Italy, comprises 4 Aermacchi MB 326K jet light attack aircraft, 1 Aeritalia G222 twinturboprop transport, 1 piston-engined SF.260W armed basic trainer, 5 SF.260TP turboprop trainers, and 2 MB 326L, 2 MB 339 and 8 Hawk jet trainers, 4 Bell 205A-1, 3 Bell 212 and 6 JetRanger helicopters and 1 Cessna 182 liaison aircraft, plus 2 L-100-30 Hercules transports and a variety of other types for VIP use. Shaqah formed a small aviation force, the Amiri Guard Air Wing, at the end of 1984. The service is essentially an internal security and transport force operating 1 Short 330 and 1 Skyvan for transport duties and 3 JetRanger helicopters, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The UAE is a member of UN and of the Arab League.

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UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

ECONOMY Planning. The first 5-year plan (1981-85) envisaged expenditure o f U D 13,000m. Budget. Revenue is principally derived from oil-concession payments. The federal budget(1985)wasexpenditureDH 16,630m. and revenue 12,970m. Currency. The UAE issued its own currency in 1972 based on the dirham. 1 UAE dirham = 10 dinar = 1,000 fils. There are notes of 1, 5, 10, 50, 100 and 1,000 dirham and coins of 1, 5, 10,25, 50 and 100 fils. Rate of exchange, March 1987: £ 1 = 5 • 84 dirham; US$ 1 = 3 • 67 dirham. Banking. The UAE Central Bank was established in 1981. The Union Bank of the Middle East took over the Emirates National Bank in Jan. 1985 and the Dubai Bank in April 1985. Three of Abu Dhabi's largest local banks (Khaleej Commercial Bank, Emirates Commercial Bank and Federal Commercial Bank) merged in May 1985 to form Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, with authorized capital of 1,500m. dirhams and paid-up capital of 1,250m. dirhams. 60% of its shares are owned by the Abu Dhabi government and the balance by private investors. The National Bank of Abu Dhabi had a paid-up capital of 880m. dirhams at the end of 1984. By Dec. 1984, the net foreign assets of commercial banks were DH 23,600m. The government-funded Emirates Industrial Bank was established in 1983. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 15,807m. kwh. Supply in Abu Dhabi 230 volts; Dubai 220 volts and in the remaining Emirates 240 volts; all 50 Hz. Oil. Total production of crude oil (1984) 476m. bbls. Reserves (1984) 32,400m. bbls. Abu Dhabi. Ownership in 1976 was as follows: ADPC, 60% Government; 9-5% BP; 9-5% Shell; 9-5% CFP; 4-75% Mobil; 2% Partex. ADM A, 60% Government; 26-7% BP/Japan Oil Development Co.; 13-3% CFP. A Japanese company, Abu Dhabi Oil Co. (ADOCO) began production from its Mubarraz field in 1973. There are other companies which have concessions in the State: Japan's Middle East Oil; a US consortium led by Pan Ocean Oil and Sunningdale Oils of Canada. A State Petroleum Co., the Abu Dhabi National Oil Co. (ADNOC), was formed in 1971 and began to set up its own tanker fleet known as the Abu Dhabi National Tankers Co. (ADNATCO). At the end of 1972 Abu Dhabi signed a participation agreement which would have given it an immediate 25% interest in the companies, rising to 51 % by 1982. Oil production, 1986,46 -2m. tonnes. Dubai. In July 1975 Dubai decided to take full control of all foreign oil and gas operations in the State. The companies were to remain however. A Dubai producing group was set up to comprise the foreign interests-US and continental companies. Dubai Petroleum Co. (DPC-a subsidiary of Continental Oil) has a 30% interest in this group; the other members are Dubai Marine Areas (Compagnie Française des Pétroles) with 50%; Deutsche Texaco with 10%; Dubai Sun Oil 5%; and Delfzee Dubai Petroleum (Wintershall) 5%. Oil production (1986) 16-4m. tonnes. Sharjah. In Shaijah the concession is given to Crescent Oil, its shareholders are: Ashland Oil, Skelly Oil, Kerr-McGee, Cities Services and Juniper. Other oil concessions have recently been given to the Crystal Oil Co. of USA and the Reserves Oil and Gas Co. Oil production, 1986,3m. tonnes. Ajman. An oil concession was awarded to United Refining in 1974. Umm al Qawain. The concession here was given to US Occidental Petroleum; another was awarded to a consortium led by the US company United Refinery. Ras al-Khaimah. The Dutch olJTirm Vitdl töok over Union's concession in 1973. Shell began prospecting in 1969 but pulled out in 1971. A concession in the same area was awarded to Peninsula Petroleum, a subsidiary of the US California Time Group, in 1973. Gas. Abu Dhabi has reserves of natural gas, nationalized in 1976. The Abu Dhabi

1283

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Gas Liquefaction Plant at Das Island (51% ADNOC) has a capacity of 2m. tons LNG, 1 m. tons LPG, 220,000 tons of light distillate and 230,000 tons of pelletized sulphur. Gas exports (1983) DH5,000m. Water. Production (1984) 58,000m. gallons. In 1986 the solar-powered Umm al Nar station produced 15,000 gallons a day. The biggest solar-operated water production plant in the Gulf region (with an estimated daily capacity of 20m. gallons and 265 mw of electricity) was scheduled to be completed at Al Taweela in 1987. Agriculture. The fertile Buraimi Oasis, known as Al Am, is largely in Abu Dhabi territory, but owing to lack of water and good soil there is little agriculture in the rest of UAE. Cultivated area (1984) 285,000 donums. Production (1985): Red meat, 12,000 tonnes; poultry, 6,000 tonnes; dates, 60,000 tonnes; vegetables, 216; wheat, 1. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 31,000; camels, 70,000; sheep, 155,000; goats, 450,000. Fisheries. Shaijah exports shrimps and prawns; a fishmeal plant is operating in Ras al-Khaimah and plants are planned for Ajman and Shaijah. Catch (1984) 74,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. A fertilizer plant at Ruwais in Abu Dhabi, opened in 1984, produces sulphur, ammonia and urea. Umm al-Nar has a plant producing salt, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, caustic soda and distilled water. There were 16companies intheJebel Ali industrial zone in Dubai by Dec. 1985, including an aluminium smelter and power and desalination plant, opened in 1979. Production of aluminium in 1984, 155,355 tonnes, 96% of which was exported. There were 7 cement plants in 1986 (3 of them in Ras al-Khaimah), with an eighth due to be completed by 1987 in Umm al Qaiwain. The home market for cement amounted to 25% of the total installed capacity of 6m. tonnes in 1986. The 2 main steel rolling mills are in Dubai and Shaijah. Plastics are produced at factories in Dubai and Shaijah and mechanical dies and tools in Dubai. Fujairah has rockwool and ceramics factories. Ship repairs and steel fabrication are carried on in Ajman. Commerce. Imports in 1984 for UAE were DH29,727m. Exports and re-exports (non-oil) totalled DH7,595m. Oil exports accounted for DH45,307m. and gas. DH5,000m. Total trade between the UAE (excluding Abu Dhabi) and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 82,706 286,079

1983 107,574 254,862

1984 60,550 296,948

1985 71,688 374,616

1986 59,428 413,651

Total trade between Abu Dhabi and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m m 3 m 4 m 5 m 6 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

184,253 272,889

202,232 312,902

21,981 215,947

24,866 246,732

14,584 168,111

Tourism. In 1984 there were 78 hotels with 10,151 rooms for tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 2,200 km of roads and 230,000 vehicles. Aviation. In 1984 there were 5 international airports handling 7m. passengers. A number of cargo airlines also fly regularly to the country's major airports. An airtaxi service, Emirates Air Services, flying between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, began in June 1976. Dubai set up the airline, Emirates, in 1985. Shipping. In 1984 there were 14 commercial sea ports. Jebel Ali is the largest. Abu

1284

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Dhabi has dry docks and there are smaller ports at Shaijah and Ras al-Khaimah. Jebel Ali is a port and industrial estate 35 km south-west of Dubai city and had (1982) 66 berths. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 319,246 telephones, of which 113,629 were in Abu Dhabi and 98,010 in Dubai. In Shaijah a new telephone company has been formed and the other Northern States are now linked by telephone. The new Cable and Wireless Station at Jebel Ali in the State of Dubai links the system with the international communication network. Television stations are at Abu Dhabi and Dubai, with extension of the service well advanced to the rest of the Emirates. Stations for The Voice of the Gulf Cooperation Council, a 6-state radio station, began broadcasting from Abu Dhabi in Aug. 1985. Estimated radios (1984) 190,000 and television sets over 110,000. Newspapers ( 1985). There are a number of daily and weekly publications mostly in Arabic, but some in English, notably The Emirates News of Abu Dhabi, The Gulf News, a daily, published in Dubai and the Khaleej Times (daily), also published in Dubai. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. UAE subjects and citizens of all Arab and Moslem states are subject to the jurisdiction of the local courts. In the local courts the rules of Islamic law prevail. A new code of law is being produced for Abu Dhabi. In Dubai there is a court run by a qadi, while in some of the other States all legal cases are referred immediately to the Ruler or a member of his family, who will refer to a qadi only if he cannot settle the matter himself. In Abu Dhabi a professional Jordanian judge presides over the Ruler's Court. Religion. Nearly all the inhabitants are Moslem of the Sunni and Shi'ite sects. Education In 1984-85 there were 30,012 pupils in kindergarten, 138,628 in primary schools, 38,148 in preparatory schools and 18,662 in secondary schools. There were 1,712 students in religious schools, 597 in technical schools and 5,683 at university. There were 17,088 teachers and 551 schools in 1984-85. Health. In 1984 there were 28 hospitals (4,853 beds) and 119 clinics. There were 1,840 physicians. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the UAE in Great Britain (30 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1PT) Chargé d'Affaires: Ali Mubarak Al Mansoori. Of Great Britain in the UAE Ambassador: M. L. Tait, LVO (at the British Embassy, Abu Dhabi). Of the UAE in the USA (600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Ahmed S. Al-Mokarrab. Of the USA in the UAE (Al-Sudan St., Abu Dhabi) Ambassador: George Quincy Lumsden, Jr. Of the UAE to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohammed Hussain Al-Shaali. Books of Reference Middle East Annual Review. London Bey, F. H., From Trucial States to United Arab Emirates. London, 1982 Heard-Bay, F., From Trucial States to United Arab Emirates. London, 1982 Khalifa, A. M., The U. A.E.: Energy Development. London, 1980 Mallakh, R.S., The Economic Development of the United Arab Emirates, London, 1981 Mostyn, T., UAE-A MEED Practical Guide. London, 1982 Soflfan, L. U., Women of the United Arab Emirates. London, 1980 Zahlan, R. S., The Origins ofthe United Arab Emirates. London, 1978

Capital. London U N I T E D K I N G D O M Population. 55 78m. (1981) OF GNPper capita. US$7,640 ( 1984) GREAT B R I T A I N AND NORTHERN IRELAND

'Great Britain' is a geographical term describing the main island of the British Isles which comprises England, Scotland and Wales (so called to distinguish it from 'Little Britain' or Brittany). By the Act ofUnion, 1801, Great Britain and Ireland formed a legislative union as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland: Since the separation of Great Britain and Ireland m 1921 Northern Ireland remained within the Union which is now the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom does not include the Channel Islands or the Isle of Man which are direct dependencies of the Crown with their own legislative and taxation systems.

GREAT

BRITAIN

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Area (in sq. km) and population (present on census night) at the census taken 5 April 1981 Area 130,357 20,761 78,762

Total 46,362,836 2,791,851 5,130,735

229,880

54,285,422

Divisions England Wales (inci Monmouthshire) Scotland

Population at the 4 previous decennial censuses: Divisions England Wales Scotland Army, Navy and Merchant Seamen abroad Total

1931 37,359,045 2,158,374 4,842,980

1951 41,159,213 2,598,675 5,096,415

1961 43,460,525 2,644,023 5,178,490

1971 46,019,000 2,731,000 5,228,963

48,854,303

51,283,038

53,978,963

434,532 44,794,931

Population (usually resident) at the census of 1981 Divisions England Wales(incl. Monmouthshire) Scotland

Males 22,288,395 1,336,323 2,428,472

Females 23,483,561 1,413,317 2,606,843

Total 45,771,956 2,749,640 5,035,315

Great Britain

26,053,190

27,503,721

53,556,911

In 1981 in Wales and Monmouthshire 21,283 persons 3 years of age and upwards were able to speak Welsh only, and 482,276 able to speak Welsh and English (preliminary figures): these totals represent 19% of the total population. In Scotland in 1981, 79,307 of the usually resident population could speak Gaelic (1 3%); 3,113 could read or write Gaelic, but could not speak it. At the census of 1981, in England and Wales, there were 17,706,492 private households; in Great Britain, 19,500,113. 1285

1286

UNITED

KINGDOM

T h e age distribution in 1981 of the 'usually resident' population o f England and Wales and Scotland was as follows (in 1,000): Great Britain Age-group England and Wales Scotland Under 5 2,910 308 3,219 344 5 and under 10 3,207 3,551 3,846 425 4,271 15 10 „ 447 20 4,020 4,467 15 „ 3,564 394 3,959 20 „ 25 7,632 25 „ 35 6,931 701 35 „ 45 5,885 588 6,473 5,474 575 6,049 45 „ 55 541 55 „ 65 5,410 5,951 241 65 „ 70 2,426 2,667 70 „ 75 2,062 204 2,265 2,280 221 2,501 75 „ 85 85 and upwards 507 46 552 Total

48,522

5,035

53,557

A t 3 0 June 1985 the estimated population o f G r e a t Britain was 5 5 , 0 6 0 , 0 0 0 . A g e and sex distribution: between 0 and 15, 5 , 5 3 0 , 9 0 0 males, 5 , 1 4 9 , 7 0 0 females; 15 and under 65, 1 8 , 0 8 6 , 2 0 0 males; 15 and under 6 0 , 1 6 , 4 0 8 , 8 0 0 females; aged 6 5 and over, 3 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 0 males; 6 0 and over, 6 , 6 9 1 , 1 0 0 females. England and Wales: T h e census population, (present o n census night) o f England and Wales 1801 to 1981: Date of Pop. per Date of Pop. per enumeration Population sq. mile enumeration Population sq. mile1 1801 8,892,536 152 1891 29,002,525 497 10,164,256 174 1901 558 1811 32,527,843 1821 36,070,492 12,000,236 206 1911 618 13,896,797 1921 37,886,699 649 1831 238 1841 685 15,914,148 273 1931 39,952,377 1851 17,927,609 307 1951 43,757,888 750 344 1861 20,066,224 1961 46,104,548 791 22,712,266 389 1971 48,749,575 323 1871 325 1881 25,974,439 445 1981 49,154,687 1 Per sq. km from 1971 There is o n l y o n e other major country in Europe, Netherlands (population density 421 persons per sq. km), more crowded than England and Wales. T h e birth places of the 1981 'usually resident' population were: England, 4 1 , 5 5 2 , 5 0 0 ; Wales, 2 , 7 5 8 , 0 2 6 ; Scotland, 7 5 2 , 1 8 8 ; Northern Ireland, 2 0 9 , 0 4 2 ; Ireland, 579,833; C o m m o n w e a l t h , 1,429,407; foreign countries, 1,209,091. Local authority areas in being from April 1974. Area in sq. k m and population estimate 3 0 June 1985: ENGLAND Non-Metropolitan Area Area Metropolitan counties sq. km Population counties—contd. sq. km Population Greater London 1,580 6,767,500 Derbyshire 2,631 912,400 Greater Manchester 1,286 2,582,600 Devon 6,715 988,000 652 1,481,000 Dorset 2,654 627,700 Merseyside South Yorkshire 1,560 1,303,200 Durham 2,436 600,900 Tyne and Wear 540 1,139,900 East Sussex 1,795 682,400 West Midlands 2,641,800 Essex 3,674 1,504,700 899 West Yorkshire 2,039 2,052,800 Gloucestershire 2,638 511,400 Hampshire 3,772 1,523,900 Non-metropolitan Hereford and Worcester 3,92 7 650,800 1,634 counties Hertfordshire 986,100 Avon 1,338 942,000 Humberside 3,512 850,000 Bedfordshire 1,235 516,700 Isle ofWight 381 122,900 Berkshire 1,256 724,000 Kent 3,732 1,495,200 1,883 601,600 Lancashire 3,043 1,380,300 Buckinghamshire Cambridgeshire 3,409 621,400 Leicestershire 2,553 872,200 2,322 942,400 Lincolnshire 5,885 560,300 Cheshire Cleveland Norfolk 719,100 583 559,900 5,355 Cornwall and Isles of Northamptonshire 2,367 546,100 Scilly 3,546 443,800 Northumberland 5,033 300,600 Cumbria 6,809 484,400 North Yorkshire 8,317 696,600

1287

GREAT BRITAIN on-Metropolitan counties—contd. Nottinghamshire Oxfordshire Shropshire Somerset Staffordshire Suffolk Surrey Warwickshire West Sussex Wiltshire

Area sq. km 2,164 2,611 3,490 3,458 2,716 3,800 1,655 1,981 2,016 3,481

Total England

Population 1,005,900 565,400 390,300 447,000 1,020,400 624,200 1,013,700 479,700 687,700 540,800

Clwyd Dyfed Gwent Gwynedd Mid-Glamorgan Powys South Glamorgan West Glamorgan

47,111,700

Total—England and Wales

WALES

Area sq. km 2,425 5,765 1,376 3,868 1,019 5,077 416 815

Total Wales

Population 397,900 335,900 440,200 233,600 533,900 111,400 394,800 364,100 2,811,800 49,923,500

County districts with populations of over 90,000 (estimate, 30 June 1985): ENGLAND

Allerdale Aml?er Valley Arun Ashfield Ashford Aylesbury Vale Barnsley Basildon Basingstoke and Deane Bassetlaw Beverley Birmingham Blackburn Blackpool Bolton Bournemouth Bracknell Bradford Braintree Breckland Brighton Bristol Broadland Broxtowe Bury Calderdale Cambridge Canterbury Carlisle Charnwood Chelmsford Cherwell Chester Chesterfield Chichester Chiltern Chorley Colchester Coventry Crewe and Nantwich Dacorum Darlington Derby Doncaster Dover Dudley Easington East Devon East Hampshire East Hertfordshire 1 Eastleigh

95,600 108,800 126,600 106,900 91,000 139,400 223,300 156,300 137,600 104,200 108,300 1,007,500 141,100 145,800 261,200 149,700 90,700 463,500 115,600 100,600 143,100 393,800 99,800 105,600 173,300 191,700 98,700 127,400 101,300 143,500 147,900 119,100 116,600 96,800 101,700 91,100 93,500 143,100 312,200 96,300 133,100 99,700 215,300 288,500 102,500 300,800 97,100 112,200 97,000 116,900 99,000

East Lindsey East Staffordshire Elmbndge Epping Forest Erewash Exeter Fareham Gateshead Gedling Gillingham Gloucester Gravesham Grimsby Guildford Halton Harrogate Hartlepool Havant Hinckley and Bosworth Horsham Huntingdon Ipswich King's Lynn and West Norfolk Kingston upon Hull Kirklees Knowsley Lancaster Langbaurgh Leeds Leicester Lichfield Liverpool Luton Macclesfield Maidstone Manchester Mansfield Mendip Mid-Bedfordshire Middlesbrough Mid-Sussex Milton Keynes Newark and Sherwood Newbury Newcastle under Lyme Newcastle upon Tyne New Forest Northampton Northavon North Bedfordshire North-East Derbyshire North Hertfordshire

108,700 94,000 111,400 7 T 4,700 105,000 99,700 94,200 208,100 107,400 95,200 91,100 94,300 90,900 125,300 122,900 144,500 91,600 118,500 93,300 104,100 137,300 118,500 126,000 262,000 376,900 166,300 128,500 147,700 710,500 282,900 90,600 491,500 166,100 151,500 132,500 451,100 100,700 93,400 108,100 144,800 118,700 153,200 106,100 130,600 118,400 282,200 155,600 169,800 124,100 133,900 97,000 111,400

1288

UNITED KINGDOM ENGLAND—contd.

North Tyneside North Wiltshire Norwich Nottingham Nuneaton and Bedworth Oldham Oxford Peterborough Plymouth Poole Portsmouth Preston Reading Reigate and Banstead Rochdale Rochester upon Medway Rotherham Rushcliffe St Albans St Edmundsbury St Helens Salford Salisbury Sandwell Scarborough Sedgemoor Sefton Sevenoaks Sheffield Shrewsbury and Atcham Slough Solihull Southampton South Bedfordshire South Cambridgeshire Southend on Sea South Kesteven South Lakeland South Norfolk South Oxfordshire South Ribble South Somerset South Staffordshire South Tyneside Spelthorne Stafford Staffordshire Moorlands Stockport Stockton on Tees Stoke on Trent Stratford on Avon Stroud

193,200 108,500 122,300 279,400 112,500 219,700 115,000 144,600 253,400 124,500 187,900 124,400 135,300 116,600 206,100 145,600 252,700 95,600 128,800 90,300 188,300 240,000 102,500 303,300 103,300 93,000 298,400 110,100 538,700 90,500 98,600 201,900 202,300 108,600 115,000 158,200 99,900 97,400 98,800 133,300 99,200 139,100 103,300 157,600 90,200 117,800 95,900 291,200 175,800 248,700 104,600 104,500

ENGLAND—contd.

Suffolk Coastal Sunderland Swale Tameside Taunton Deane Teignbridge Tendring Test Valley Thamesdown Thanet ' Thurrock Tonbridge and Mailing Torbay TrafTord Tunbridge Wells Vale ofWhite Horse Vale Royal Wakefield Walsall Warrington Warwick Waveney Waverley Wealden Welwyn Hatfield West Lancashire West Wiltshire Wigan Winchester Windsor and Maidenhead Wirral Wokingham Wolverhampton Woodspring Worthing Wrekin Wychavon Wycombe Wyre Wyre Forest York WALES

Cardiff Newport Ogwr Rhymney Valley Swansea TaffEly Torfaen Vale of Glamorgan Wrexham Maelor

103,600 298,800 110,800 215,500 90,900 100,600 121,200 98,700 159,800 122,500 124,400 99,600 117,900 217,800 98,500 108,400 113,500 310,200 262,900 177,500 116,800 103,200 112,500 124,800 94,000 107,500 103,000 306,700 93,700 133,400 336,500 135,400 253,200 173,900 94,800 129,900 98,100 156,800 98,700 93,100 102,200 278,900 129,500 132,900 104,000 187,400 94,400 90,200 115,900 114,600

T h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e s h o w s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e u r b a n a n d r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n of E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s in 1951 ,1961,1971, a n d 1981.

1951 1961 1971 1981

England and Wales 43,757,888 46,071,604 48,755,000 49,011,417

Population Urban districts ' Rural districts1 35,335,721 8,422,167 36,838,442 9,233,162 38,151,000 10,598,000 37,686,863 11,324,554 ' As existing at each census.

Percentage iUrban1 Rural 80-8 19-2 80 0 20 0 78-2 21-5 23-1 76-9

Conurbations. These are aggregates of local-authority areas with high population densities. In April 1981 there were 6 in England and Wales, with a population of 14-7m. (30% of total population): Greater London, 6-7m.; Tyneside, 0-7m.; W. Yorks., 1 -67m.; S.E. Lancs.,2-24m.;Merseyside, 1 13m.; W. Midlands, 2-24m.

GREAT Greater London Barking and Dagenham Bamet Bexley Brent Bromley Camden Croydon Ealing Enfield Greenwich Hackney

BRITAIN

1289

Boroughs. Estimated population o n 30 June 1985. Hammersmith Lambeth 148,600 and Fulham 150,900 Lewisham 301,200 Hanngey 197,200 Merton 218,500 Harrow Newham 201,700 254,900 Havering 238,500 Redbridge 297,900 Hilhngdon 232,300 Richmond-onHounslow 180,400 195,600 Thames 319,000 Islington 167,900 South wark 292,400 Kensington and Sutton 265,000 Chelsea 137,600 Tower Hamlets 216,200 Kingston upon Waltham Forest 187,500 Thames Wandsworth 133,900 Westminster

243,500 232,400 164,500 208,600 228,000 161,500 215,900 169,600 147,100 216,200 258,800 179,100

The City of London (677 acres) is part of the County of Greater London but retains some independent powers. Resident population (1985 estimate) 5,100. Census of England and Wales, 1961 HMSO 1961-65 Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London, Report. HMSO, 1960 (Cmnd. 1164) Census 1971, England and Wales. HMSO. 1971-75 Census 1971, Great Britain, Advance Analysis. HMSO, 1972 Census 1981, Great Britain. HMSO, 1981-83 Census 1981, England and Wales. HMSO, 1981-83 Scotland: Area 78,762 sq. km, including its islands, 186 in number, and inland water 1,580 sq. km. Population (including military in the barracks and seamen on board vessels in the harbours) at the dates of each census: Date of Pop per Date of Pop. per Population enumeration sq. mile enumeration Population sq. mile1 1,805,864 1811 60 1901 4,472,103 150 2,091,521 4,760,904 1821 70 1911 160 4,882,497 164 1831 2,364,386 79 1921 2,620,184 1841 88 4,842,980 163 1931 2,888,742 97 171 1851 1951 5,096,415 3,062,294 5,179,344 174 1861 100 1961 1871 3,360,018 113 1971 5,229,963 68 3,735,573 125 1981 5,130,735 66 1881 4,025,647 135 1891 1 persq. km from 1971 The 1981 population present on census night included 2,466,000 males, 2 , 6 6 4 , 0 0 0 females. Estimated Population of the local authority areas: Area population Regions Districts sq.km 1985 Borders 4,662 101,705 Berwickshire 18,602 Ettrick and Lauderdale 33,296 Roxburgh 35,294 Tweeddale 14,513 Central

Dumfries and Galloway

Fife

Clackmannan Falkirk Stirling

Annandale and Eskdale Nithsdale Stewartry Wigtown Dunfermline Kirkcaldy N.E. Fife

2,590

272,426 47,747 143,532 81,147

6,475

146,562 35,945 57,149 23,058 30,410

1,308

344,019 128,115 148,894 66,010

1290

UNITED KINGDOM

Districts

Regions Grampian

Aberdeen City Banff and Buchan Gordon Kincardine and Deeside Moray

Highland

Badenoch and Strathspey Caithness Inverness Lochaber Nairn Ross and Cromarty Skye and Lochalsh Sutherland

Lothian

E. Lothian Edinburgh City Midlothian W. Lothian

Strathclyde

Tayside

Argyll and Bute Bearsden and Milngavie Clydebank Clydesdale Cumbernauld and Kilsyth Cumnock and Doon Valley Cunninghame Dumbarton E. Kilbride Eastwood Glasgow City Hamilton Inverclyde Kilmarnock and Loudoun Kyle and Carrick Monklands Motherwell Renfrew Strathkelvin Angus Dundee Perth and Kinross

Island A uthority A reas Orkney Islands Shetland Islands Western Isles

Area sq. km 8,550

Estimated population 1985 500,566 215,246 83,341 70,170 46,788 85,021

26,136

198,617 10,422 27,302 58,849 19,409 10,180 47,889 11,308 13,238

1,756

745,229 82,160 439,672 81,453 141,944

13,856

2,358,727 65,873 40,154 49,966 58,246 62,970 43,750 137,094 79,385 81,952 56,530 733,794 107,569 97,932 81,078 113,290 108,155 149,185 203,447 89,357

7,668

394,322 94,288 177,676 122,360

974 1,427 2,901

19,351 23,440 31,545

Population of cities and large towns:

Glasgow Edinburgh Dundee Aberdeen Paisley Greenock

Census population Estimate 1981 1985 733,794 762,288 419,187 439,672 174,746 177,674 215,246 190,200 84,789 57,324

1971 893,790 453,025 182,930 181,785 95,067 69,171

Census population Kilmarnock Dunfermline Clydebank Hamilton Coatbridge

1971 48,992 51,738 48,170 46,376 51,985

1981 52,080 52,057 51,656 51,529 50,866

GREAT BRITAIN

1291

New Towns (1985, estimate): East Kilbride, 69,900; Irvine, 56,300; Cumbernauld, 49,500; Livingstone, 39,200; Glenrothes, 37,400. The birthplaces of the 1981 "usually resident" population were: Scotland, 4,548,708; England, 297,784; Wales, 12,733; Northern Ireland, 33,927; Ireland 27,018; Commonwealth, 48,515; foreign countries, 65,384. The population ofthe Central Clydeside conurbation in 1985 was 1,682,079. At 30 June 1984 the estimated sex distribution of the population in Scotland was: between 0 and 15, 522,800 males, 497,000 females; 15 and 65, 1,686,100 males, 15 and 60, 1,560,500 females; 65 and over, 274,600 males, 60 and over, 604,600 females. Isle ofMan and Channel Islands. Islands Isle of Man Jersey Guernsey, Herrn and Jethou Alderney Sark, Bfechou and Lihou

Area in sq. km 572 116 64 I 8

6) ' 1985

Vital statistics f o r E n g l a n d a n d Wales: Estimated home population Total live Illegitimate at JO June 1 births live births 1980 49,603,000 656,234 77,372 634,492 1981 49,634,300 80,983 89,857 1982 49,601,400 625,931 629,134 99,211 1983 49,653,700 1984 49,763,600 110,465 636,818 656,417 1985 49,923,500 126,250 ' The population actually in

1961 48,151 57,200 47,178

Population 1971 56,289 69,329 53,734

Deaths Marriages 581,385 370,022 577,890 351,973 581,861 342,166 344,334 579,608 566,881 349,186 590,734 346,389 England and Wales.

1986 55,482 80,212 1 64,282

Divorces, annulments and dissolutions 148,301 145,713 146,698 147,479 144,501 160,300

In 198 5 the proportion of male to female births was 1,054 male to 1,000 female; the live birth rate was 13 1 and the death rate 11-8 per 1,000 of the population; infant mortality rate 9-4 per 1,000 of live births. The average age at marriage in 1985 was 30-2 years for males and 27 -5 years for females. Vital statistics for Scotland: Divorces,

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

annulments Estimated home population Total Illegitimate and disbirths Deaths Marriages solutions at 30 June' births 68,892 63,299 10,530 5,153,000 7,678 38,501 36,237 69,054 8,447 9,895 5,149,500 63,828 5,166,557 65,022 34,942 66,196 9,395 11,288 63,454 5,150,405 65,078 9,581 34,962 13,238 5,145,722 10,640 62,345 11,915 65,106 36,253 12,362 5,136,509 66,676 63,967 36,385 13,373 1 Includes merchant navy at home and forces stationed in Scotland.

In 1985 the proportion of male to female births was 1,048 male to 1,000 female; the live birth rate was 13 and the death rate 12 -5 per 1,000 of the population; infant mortality rate, 9-4 per 1,000 live births. The average age of marriage was 29 years for males and 26 years for females. Emigration and Immigration. During the last hundred years the UK has most often been a net exporter of population. Throughout the period 1881-1931 there was a consistent net loss from migration, though the fifteen years 1931-46 brought a reversal of the trend as a result of immigration from Europe. Since the Second World War the loss has largely continued. However, during the Five years 1956-1961, increased immigration particularly from the new Commonwealth and Pakistan, resulted in a net gain. There were also net gains in 1979,1983 and 1984 but these were due to decreased emigration. The latest year, 1984, shows a net gain of59,000 due to continuing low in emigration and increased immigration.

1292

UNITED KINGDOM

Since 1964 migration figures have been available from the International Passenger Survey. This is a sample survey conducted by the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, covering all the principal air and sea routes between the UK and overseas, except those to and from the Republic of Ireland. For the years 1964-73 the survey shows an average annual net loss for the UK of 63,000. During the decade 1974-1983 the annual net outflow has been an average of37,000. The table below, derived from the International Passenger survey, summarizes migration statistics for 198 5 (in 1,000): By country of last orfuture intended residence All Countries Australia, Canada, New Zealand India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka Other Commonwealth EEC USA South Africa Rest of World By sex/age Males 0-14 15-24 25-44 45 and over All ages

Into UK 232-3 30-8 12 9 350 530 23-5 17-8 59-3 24-7 24-2 36-6 13-5 98-9

14-1 24-1 40-6 12-3 91-1

+ 10-5 +0-1 -4-0 + 1-1 +7-8

Females

240 46-6 52-9 9 9 133-3

17-5 21-1 34-4 9-6 82-6

+6-5 +25-5 +18-5 +0-3 +50-8

0-14 15-24 25-44 45 and over All ages

Out from UK 173-7 32-8 3-5 28-5 29-4 24-0 5-2 50-2

Balance +58-6 -2-1 +9-4 +6-5 +23-5 -0-6 + 12-6 +9-1

Walvin, J., Passage to Britain: Immigration in British History and Politics. London, 1984

C L I M A T E . The climate is cool temperate oceanic, with mild conditions and rainfall evenly distributed over the year, though the weather is very changeable because of cyclonic influences. In general, temperatures are higher in the west and lower in the east in winter and rather the reverse in summer. Rainfall amounts are greatest in the west, where most of the high ground occurs. London. Jan. 40°F (4-5°C), July 64°F (18°C). Annual rainfall 24" (600 mm). Aberdeen. Jan. 39°F (4°C), July 5TF (14°C). Annual rainfall 33" (823 mm). Belfast. Jan. 40°F (4-5°C), July 61°F (161°C). Annual rainfall 34-6" (865 mm). Birmingham. Jan. 38°F(3-3°C), July 61°F(16- l'C). Annual rainfall 30" (749 mm). Cardiff Jan. 40°F (4-4°C), July 61°F (16- 1°C). Annual rainfall 42-6" (1,065 mm). Edinburgh. Jan. 38°F (3-5°C), July 58°F (14-5°C). Annual rainfall 28" (708 mm). Glasgow. Jan. 39°F (4°C), July 60°F (15-5°C). Annual rainfall 37-2" (930 mm). Manchester. Jan. 41 °F (5°C), July 62° F (16• 5"C). Annual rainfall 3 4 1 " (853 mm). Q U E E N , H E A D O F T H E C O M M O N W E A L T H . Elizabeth II Alexandra Mary, born 21 April 1926 daughter of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth; married on 20 Nov. 1947 Lieut. Philip Mountbatten (formerly Prince Philip of Greece), created Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth and Baron Greenwich on the same day and created Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, 22 Feb. 1957; succeeded to the crown on the death of her father, on 6 Feb. 1952. Offspring: Charles Philip Arthur George, Prince of Wales (Heir Apparent), born 14 Nov. 1948, married Lady Diana Spencer on 29 July 1981. Offspring: William Arthur Philip Louis, bom 21 June 1982; Henry Charles Albert David, born 15 Sept. 1984. Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise, born 15 Aug. 1950, married Mark Anthony Peter Phillips on 14 Nov. 1973. Offspring: Peter Mark Andrew, born 15 Nov. 1977; Zara Anne Elizabeth, born 15 May 1981. Prince Andrew, Albert Christian Edward, created Duke of York, 23 July 1986, born 19 Feb. 1960, married Sarah Margaret Ferguson on 23 July 1986; Prince Edward Antony Richard Louis, born 10 March 1964. The Queen Mother: Queen Elizabeth, born 4 Aug. 1900, daughter of the 14th Earl

GREAT BRITAIN

1293

of Strathmore and Kinghorne; married the Duke of York, afterwards King George VI, on26 April 1923. Sister of the Queen. Princess Margaret Rose, bom 12 Aug. 1930; married Antony Armstrong-Jones (created Earl of Snowdon, 3 Oct. 1961) on 6 May 1960; divorced, 1978. Offspring: David Albert Charles (Viscount Linley), born 3 Nov. 1961; Lady Sarah Frances Elizabeth Armstrong-Jones, born 1964. Children of the late Duke of Gloucester (died 10 June 1974): William Henry Andrew Frederick, born 18 Dec. 1941,died 28 Aug. 1972; Richard Alexander Walter George, Duke of Gloucester, born 26 Aug. 1944, married Birgitte van Deurs on 8 July 1972 (offspring: Alexander Patrick Gregers Richard Windsor, Earl of Ulster, born 24 Oct. 1974; Davina Elizabeth Alice Benedikte Windsor, born 19 Nov 1977; Rose Victoria Birgitte Louise Windsor, born 1 March 1980). Children of the late Duke of Kent (died 25 Aug. 1942): Edward George Nicholas Patrick, Duke of Kent, bom 9 Oct. 1935, married Katharine Worsley on 8 June 1961 (offspring: George Philip Nicholas, Earl of St Andrews, born 26 June 1962; Lady Helen Windsor, born 28 April 1964; Lord Nicholas Charles Edward Jonathan Windsor, bom 25 July 1970). Alexandra Helen Elizabeth Olga ChnstabeJ, born 25 Dec. 1936; married 24 April 1963, Angus Ogilvy (offspring: James Robert Bruce, born 29 Feb. 1964, Marina Victoria Alexandra, born 3T July 1966). Michael George Charles Franklin, born 4 July 1942; married Marie-Christine von Reibnitz on 30 June 1978 (offspring: Lord Frederick Michael George David Louis Windsor, bom 6 April 1979; Lady Gabriela Marina Alexander Ophelia Windsor, bom 23 April 1981).

The Queen's legal title rests on the statute of 12 and 13 Will. Ill, ch. 3, by which the succession to the Crown of Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and the 'heirs of her body being Protestants'. By proclamation of 17 July 1917 the royal family became known as the House and Family of Windsor. On 8 Feb. 1960 the Queen issued a declaration varying her confirmatory declaration of 9 April 1952 to the effect that while the Queen and her children should continue to be known as the House of Windsor, ner descendants, other than descendants entitled to the style of Royal Highness and the title of Prince or Princess, and female descendants who marry and their descendants should bear the name of Mountbatten-Windsor. For the Royal Style and Titles of Queen Elizabeth see Commonwealth section. By letters patent of 30 Nov. 1917 the titles of Royal Highness and Prince or Princess are restricted to the Sovereign's children, the children of the Sovereign's sons and the eldest living son of the eldest son ofthe Prince of Wales. Provision is made for the support of the royal household by the settlement of the Civil List soon after the beginning of each reign. (For historical details, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1908, p. 5, and 1935, p. 4). According to the Civil List Act of 1 Jan. 1972 and the Civil List (Increase of Financial Provision) Order 1975, the Civil List of the Queen, after the usual surrender of hereditary revenues, was (1987) £ 4 , 3 2 6 , 1 0 0 .

The Civil List of 1987 provides for an annuity of £130,400 to the Princess Anne; £209,300 to Prince Philip; £375,300 to Queen Elizabeth (the Queen Mother); £127,000 to the Princess Margaret; £50,000 to the Duke of York; £20,000 to Prince Edward. Sovereigns of Great Britain, from the Restoration (with dates of accession): House of Stewart Charles II 29 May James II 6Feb. ,, . ^ House oj Stewart-Orange W.jham and Mary 13 Feb. Wllllaml " 28 Dec. House of Stewart Anne 19 March George I George II

House of Hanover

1660 1685 ¡689 1694 1702

1 Aug. 1714 11 June 1727

George III George IV WilliamlV Victoria

25 Oct. 1760 29 Jan. 1820 26Junel830 20 June 1837

House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Edward VII 22Jan. 1901 ,, , r„r „ „ House of Windsor George V 6 May 1910 Edward VIII 20 Jan. 1936 George VI 11 Dec. 1936 Elizabeth II 6 Feb. 1952

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The supreme legislative power is vested in Parliament, which in its present form, as divided into two Houses of

1294

UNITED KINGDOM

Legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the middle of the 14th century. Parliament is summoned by the writ of the sovereign issued out of Chancery, by advice of the Privy Council, at least 20 days previous to its assembling. A Parliament may last up to 5 years, normally divided into annual sessions. A session is ended by prorogation, and all public Bills which have not been passed by both Houses then lapse. A Parliament ends by dissolution, either by will of the sovereign (that is, on the advice of the Prime Minister) or by lapse of the 5-year period. A dissolution is commonly followed by a general election. Under the Parliament Acts 1911 (1 and 2 Geo. V, ch. 13) and 1949 (12,13 and 14 Geo. VI, ch. 103), all Money Bills (so certified by the Speaker of the House of Commons), if not passed by the House of Lords without amendment, may become law without their concurrence on the Royal Assent being signified within 1 month. Public Bills, other than Money Bills or a Bill extending the maximum duration of Parliament, if passed by the House of Commons in 2 successive sessions, whether of the same Parliament or not, and rejected each time, or not passed, by the House of Lords, may become law without their concurrence on the Royal Assent being signified, provided that 1 year has elapsed between the second reading in the first session of the House of Commons and the third reading in the second session. All Bills coming under this Act must reach the House of Lords at least 1 month before the end of the session. The House of Lords consists of: (1) 791 hereditary peers and peeresses sitting by virtue of creation or descent, other than those who have disclaimed their titles for life under the provisions of the Peerage Act, 1963; (2) life peers being (a) 21 Lords of Appeal (active and retired), under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, as amended; (b) (30 Dec. 1986) 334 life peers (including 45 women peers) under the Life Peerages Act, 1958: (3) 2 archbishops and 24 bishops of the Church of England (as long as they hold their sees). The full House thus consists of 1,172, and the average attendance is about 320; at the end of Dec. 1986 137 peers were on leave of absence and 88 peers (including 3 minors) were without writs of summons. The House of Commons consists of members (of both sexes) representing constituencies determined by the Boundary Commissions. Persons under 21 years of age, Clergy of the Church of England and of the Scottish Episcopal Church, Ministers of the Church of Scotland, Roman Catholic clergymen, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, policemen, most judicial officers and other office-holders named in the House of Commons (Disqualification) Act are disqualified from sitting in the House of Commons. No English or Scottish peer can be elected to the House of Commons unless he has disclaimed his title for life under the Peerage Act, 1963, but Irish peers and holders of courtesy titles, who are not members of the House of Lords, are eligible. In Aug. 1911 provision was first made for the payment of a salary of £400 per annum to members, other than those already in receipt of salaries as officers of the House, as Ministers or as officers of Her Majesty's household. As from 1 Jan. 1987 the salaries of members are £18,500 per annum, with income-tax relief on expenses incurred in the course of parliamentary duties. There is a secretarial allowance of up to £19,000 per annum and a living allowance, for an additional home, of up to £7,133 per annum. Members of the House of Lords are unsalaried but may recover expenses incurred in attending sittings of the House within maxima for each day's attendance of £20 for day subsistence, £52 for night subsistence and £20 for secretarial and research assistance or general office expenses. Additionally, Members of the House who are disabled may recover the extra cost of attending the House incurred by reason of their disablement. In connection with their attendance at the House and for parliamentary duties within the UK Lords may also recover the cost of travelling to and from their main place of residence. Select Committees consisting of 10-15 Members of all parties exist in order to investigate most areas of public policy. The Representation of the People Act 1948, abolished the business premises and

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University franchises, and the only persons entitled to vote at Parliamentary elections are those registered as residents or as service voters. No person may vote in more than one constituency at a general election. Persons may apply on certain grounds to vote by post or by proxy. All persons over 18 years old and not subject to any legal incapacity to vote and who are either British subjects or citizens of Ireland are entitled to be included in the register of electors for the constituency containing the address at which they were residing on the qualifying date for the register and are entitled to vote at elections held during the period for which the register remains in force. Members of the armed forces, Crown servants employed abroad, and the wives accompanying their husbands, are entitled, if otherwise qualified, to be registered as 'service voters' provided they make a 'service declaration'. To be effective for a particular register, the declaration must be made on or before the qualifying date for that register. The Representation of the People Act 1969, abolished the occupier's qualification for voting in Local Government elections. The House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Acts 1944, 1949 and 1958, provided for the setting up ofBoundary Commissions fbrEngland, Wales; Scotland and Northern Ireland. The Commissions are required to make general reports at intervals of not less than 10 and not more than 15 years and to submit reports from time to time with respect to the area comprised in any particular constituency or constituencies where some change appears necessary. Any changes giving effect to reports of the Commissions are to be made by Orders in Council laid before Parliament for approval by resolution of each House. The electorate of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland in the register in 1986 numbered 43,391,831, of whom 36,158,417 were in England, 2,159,361 in Wales, 3,986,654 in Scotland and 1,087,399 in Northern Ireland. At the general election held in June 1983,650 members were returned, 523 from England, 72 from Scotland, 38 from Wales and 17 from Northern Ireland. Every constituency returns a single member. The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments called since Nov. 1935. Reign George V.Edward VIII and George VI George VI George VI and Elizabeth II Elizabeth II

When met When dissolved 26 Nov 1935 15Junel945 1 Aug. 1945 3 Feb. 1950 5 Oct. 1951 1 Mar 1950 31 Oct. 1951 6Mayl955 7Junel955 18 Sept. 1959 2 0 0 c t . 1959 25Sept. 1964 27 0ct. 1964 10 Mar 1966 18 Apr 1966 29 May 1970 29 June 1970 8 Feb. 1974 12 Mar 1974 20 Sept. 1974 22 Oct. 1974 7 April 1979 9 May 1979 13 May 1983 15 June 1983 —

Duration I years and days) 9 205 4 188 1 219 3 188 4 105 4 341 1 134 4 81 3 225 0 224 4 167 4 4 — —

The executive government is vested nominally in the Crown, but practically in a committee of Ministers, called the Cabinet, which is dependent on the support of a majority in the House of Commons. The head of the Ministry is the Prime Minister, a position first constitutionally recognized, and special precedence accorded to the holder, in 1905. His colleagues in the Ministry are appointed on his recommendation, and he dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown. Heads of the Administrations since 1935 (C. = Conservative, L. = Liberal, Lab. = Labour, Nat. = National, Coal. = Coalition, Care. = Caretaker):

S.Baldwin (Nat.) N. Chamberlain'(Nat.) W S. Churchill (Coal.) W S. Churchill (Care.) C. R. Attlee (Lab.) W S. Churchill (C ) Sir Anthony Eden (C.)

7 June 1935 28 May 1937 10Mayl940 23 May 1945 26Julyl945 26 Oct. 1951 6 Apr. 1955

H. Macmillan (C ) Sir Alec Douglas-Home (C ) H. Wilson (Lab.) E. Heath (C.) H. Wilson (Lab.) J CaHaghan(Lab.) M. Thatcher (C.)

10 Jan. 1957 18 Oct. 1963 160ct. 1964 19 June 1970 12 Mar 1974 5 Apr 1976 4Mayl979

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In March 1987 the Government consisted of the following members: (a) M E M B E R S OF T H E

CABINET

1. Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for Civil Service: Rt Hon. Margaret Thatcher, MP, born 1925. (Salary £33,145 per annum.) 2. Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Lords: Rt Hon. Viscount Whitelaw, CH, MC, bom 1918. (£36,390.) 3. Lord Chancellor: Rt Hon. The Lord Hailsham,CH, born 1907. (£36,390.) 4. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs: Rt Hon. Sir Geoffrey Howe, QC, MP, bom 1926. (£33,145.) 5. Chancellor of the Exchequer: Rt Hon. Nigel Lawson, MP, bom 1932. (£33,145.) 6. Secretary of State for the Home Department: Rt Hon. Douglas Hurd, CBE, MP,bom 19.30. (£33,145.) 7. Secretary of State for Energy: Rt Hon. Peter Walker, MBE, MP, bom 1932. (£33,145.) 8. Secretary of State for Defence: Rt Hon. George Younger, TD, MP, bom 1931. (£33,145.) 9. Secretary of State for Wales: Rt Hon. Nicholas Edwards, MP, bom 1934. (£33,145.) 10. Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Commons: Rt Hon. John BifFen, MP,bom 1930. (£33,145.) 11. Secretary of State for Social Services: Rt Hon. Norman Fowler, MP, bom 1938. (£33,145.) 12. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster: Rt Hon. Norman Tebbit, MP, bom 1931. 13. Secretary of State for Northern Ireland: Rt Hon. Tom King, MP, bom 1933. (£33,145.) 14. Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: Rt Hon. Michael Jopling, MP, bom 1930. (£33,145.) 15. Secretary of State for the Environment: Rt Hon. Nicholas Ridley, MP, bom 1929. (£33,145.) 16. Secretary of State for Employment: Rt Hon. The Lord Young of Graflham, bom 1932. 17. Secretary of State for Education and Science: Rt Hon. Kenneth Baker, MP, bom 1934. (£33,145.) 18. Paymaster General and Minister for Employment: Rt Hon. Kenneth Clarke, QC, MP, bom 1940. (£33,145.) 19. Chief Secretary to the Treasury: Rt Hon. John MacGregor, OBE, MP, bom 1937. (£33,145.) 20. Secretary of State for Scotland: Rt Hon. Malcolm Rifkind, QC, MP, bom 1946. (£33,145.) 21. Secretary of State for Trade and Industry: Rt Hon. Paul Channon, MP, bom 1935. (£33,145.) 22. Secretary of State for Transport: Rt Hon. John Moore, MP, bom 1937. (£33,145). (b) L A W

OFFICERS

23. Attorney-General: Rt Hon. Sir Michael Havers, QC, MP, bom 1923. (£35,345.)

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24. Lord Advocate: Rt Hon. Lord Cameron of Lochbroom, QC, bom 1931. (£36,460.) 25. Solicitor-General: Rt Hon. Sir Patrick Mayhew, QC, MP, bom 1929. (£28,625.) 26. Solicitor-General for Scotland: Peter Lovat Fraser, QC, MP, bom 1945. (£24,085.) (c) M I N I S T E R S NOT IN THE

CABINET

27. Parliamentary Secretary, Treasury (Chief Whip): Rt Hon. John Wakeham, MP, bom 1932. (£27,255.) 28. Minister of State, Privy Council Office, Minister for the Arts. Rt Hon. Richard Luce, MP, bom 1936. (£22,875.) 29. Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office: Rt Hon. The Baroness Young, bom 1926. (£30,640.) 30. Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office: Lynda Chalker, MP, bom 1942. (£22,875.) 31. Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Minister for Overseas Development: Christopher Patten, MP, bom 1944. (£22,875.) 32. Minister ofState, Foreign and Commonwealth Office: Timothy Renton, MP, bom 1932. (£22,875.) 33. Financial Secretary, Treasury: Rt Hon. Norman Lamont, MP, bom 1942. (£22,875.) 34. Economic Secretary, Treasury: lan Stewart, MP, bom 1935. (£22,875.) 35. Minister ofState, Treasury: Hon. Peter Brooke, MP, bom 1934. (£22,875.) 36. Minister of State, Home Office: Rt Hon. David Waddington, QC, MP, bom 1929. (£22,875.) 37. Minister of State, Home Office: David Mellor, MP, bom 1949. (£22,875.) 38. Minister of State, Home Office: The Earl ofCaithness, bom 1948. (£30,640.) 39. Minister of State, Department of Energy: Rt Hon. Alick Buchanan-Smith, MP, bom 1932. (£22,875.) 40. Minister of State, Ministry of Defence, Armed Forces. Rt Hon. John Stanley, MP, bom 1942. (£22,875.) 41. Minister of State, Ministry of Defence, Defence Procurement: The Lord Trefgame, bom 1941. (£30,640.) 42. Minister of State, Department of Health and Social Security, Minister for Health: Antony Newton, OBE, MP, bom 1937. (£22,875.) 43. Minister of State, Department of Health and Social Security, Minister for Social Security and the Disabled: John Major, MP,bom 1943. (£22,875.) 44. Minister of State, Northern Ireland Office• Nicholas Scott, MBE, MP, bom 1933. (£22,875.) 45. Minister of State, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: Rt Hon. John Selwyn Gummer, MP, bom 1939. (£22,875.) 46. Minister of State, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: Rt Hon. The Lord Belstead, bom 1932. (£3Q,640.) 47. Minister of State, Department of the Environment, Minister for Local Government. Dr Rhodes Boyson, MP, bom 1925. (£22,875.)

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48. Minister of State, Department of the Environment, Minister for the Environment, Countryside and Planning: Hon. William Waldegrave, MP, born 1946. (£22,875.) 49. Minister of State, Department of the Environment, Minister for Housing, Urban Affairs and Construction: John Patten, MP, born 1945. (£22,875.) 50. Minister of State, Department of Education and Science: Angela Rumbold, MP, bom 1932. (£22,875.) 51. Minister of State, Scottish Office: The Lord Glenarthur, bora 1918. (£30,640.) 52. Minister of State, Department of Trade and Industry, Minister for Information Technology: Rt Hon. Geoffrey Pattie, MP,born 1936. (£22,875.) 53. Minister of State, Department of Trade and Industry, Minister for Industry: Giles Shaw, MP, bom 1931. (£22,875.) 54. Minister of State, Department of Trade and Industry, Minister for Trade: Hon. Alan Clark, MP, born 1928. (£22,875.) 55. Minister of State, Department of Transport: David Mitchell, MP, bom 1928. (£22,875.) Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons: Rt Hon. Neil Kinnock, MP, born 1942. (£30,225.) Leader of the Opposition in the House ofLords: The Lord Cledwyn of Penrhos, born 1916. (£26,460.) The Constitution of the House of Commons after the general election held on 9 June 1983 was'as follows: Conservative, 397; Labour, 209; Alliance 23 (Liberals, 17, SDP, 6); Others, 21. Ball, A., British Political Parties: The Emergence of a Modern Party System. 1981 Butler, D., and Butler, G., British Political Facts, 1900-85. London, 1986 Butler, D., and Kavanagh,D., The British General Election of1983. 1984 Jennings, Sir I., Cabinet Government. 3rd. ed. CUP, 1959.—The British Constitution. 5th ed. CUP, 1966.—Parliament. 2nd ed. CUP, 1957 —Party Politics. 3 vols. CUP, 1960-62 King, A. (ed.), The British Prime Minister. Rev. ed. London, 1985.—British Members of Parliament. London,1974 Laundy, P., The Office of Speaker. London, 1964 Mackintosh, J. P., The British Cabinet. 3rd ed. London, 1977.—The Government and Politics of Britain. 4th ed. London, 1977 May, SirT. E., Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament. 20th ed., London, 1983 Mellors, C., The British MP. London, 1982 Pelling, H., A Short History of the Labour Party. London, 1976 Rush, M., and Shaw, House of Commons. London, 1974 Taylor, E., The House of Commons at Work. 9th ed. London, 1979 The Times Guide to the House of Commons, June 1983. London, 1983 Wilding, N., and Laundy, P., An Encyclopaedia of Parliament. 4th ed. London, 1972

European Parliament: On 14 June 1984 Great Britain elected 81 representatives to the European Parliament, of which 66 came from England, 8 from Scotland and 4 from Wales, each constituency returning a single member by a first past the post system. Northern Ireland returned 3 members by single transferable vote. The seats were won as follows: Conservative 45, Labour 32, Scottish Nationalists 1, Ulster Unionists 1, Democratic Unionists 1, Social, Democratic and Labour Party 1. Local Government. Local Administration is carried out by four different types of bodies, namely: (i) local branches of some central ministries, such as the Department of Health and Social Security; (ii) local sub-managements of nationalized industries; (iii) specialist authorities such as water authorities; and (iv) the system of

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local government described below. The phrase 'local government' Has come to mean that part of the local administration conducted by elected councils. There are two separate systems: one for England and Wales and one for Scotland, but both systems are financed by a species of tax on property, levied locally, supplemented by government grants. This local tax is called 'the rate*. The system of financing local government was the subject of a major review in 1975 and a further review in 1985 led to the publication of the Green Paper Paying for Local Government. The key proposals were: Abolition of domestic rates and introduction of a community charge to be paid at a flat rate by each adult; setting of a uniform, national non-domestic rate; and a streamlined grant system. The new system will start to come into effect in 1989 in Scotland and 1990 in England and Wales. Local Government: England and Wales—Outside London. England and Wales have slightly differing systems. Each country has three types of councils namely, county, district and English parish or Welsh Community Councils. In addition, England has some metropolitan district councils. Councillors are elected by their local electors for 4 years. The chairman of the council is one of the councillors elected by the rest. In a district with the status of city or borough his title is mayor, or in a few famous places Lord Mayor. Any parish or community council can by simple resolution adopt the style 'town council' and the status of town for the parish or community. The chairman of the council will be known as the town mayor. Counties and Districts: There are 47 non-metropolitan counties (of which 8 are in Wales). The 6 metropolitan counties (Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Yorkshire and West Midlands) have no councils, the metropolitan districts having most of the county functions. Within the counties there are 369 districts (36 metropolitan and 333 non-metropolitan, of which 37 are in Wales). Parishes and Communities: There are some 10,000 parishes within the English districts, of which 8,000 or so have councils. About 300 are former small boroughs or urban districts which became successor parishes. In Wales, parishes are known as communities. Unlike England, where some urban areas are not in any parish, communities have been established for the whole of Wales. There is one for each former parish, county borough, borough or urban district (or part thereof where the former area is divided by a new boundary). There are about 1,000 communities altogether, of which 800 or so have councils, The Local Government Act 1972 laid down the boundaries for all the counties and districts in England and Wales except the English non-metropolitan districts. Permanent Local Government Boundary Commissions for England and for Wales advise the Secretaries of State on boundaries and electoral arrangements. A council has only those powers which have been conferred upon it expressly by Act of Parliament, and no more. The relationship between the different types of council is one of specialization, not of hierarchy. The larger do not supervise the smaller, each being, within its own sphere, entitled to make its own decisions. Government sanction, however, is required to borrow money and to sell land below its market value, and certain types of land use are subject to planning control. Councils are kept within the law by a system of publicly regulated audit, and in the last resort they can be restrained from exceeding their powers by the courts. Local government functions may be classified into county, district and parish or community functions, but whereas county and district functions are distinct, the parish and community functions are mostly concurrent with those of the districts. Arrangements may, however, be made so that any council may discharge functions of any other as its agent. The following is the classification of powers given above: Parish and Community Functions. Allotments, burial and cremation, halls, meeting places and entertainments, facilities for exercise and recreation, public lavatories, street lighting, offstreet vehicle parking, footpaths, the support of local arts and crafts, the encouragement of tourism and the right to be consulted by the district council on planning

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applications and certain byelaws. District Functions. In addition to the Parish and Community functions, aerodromes, civic restaurants, housing, markets, refuse collection, the administration of planning control, the formulation of local plans, sewerage on behalf of the water authority, museums, the licensing of places of entertainment and refreshment, and the constitutional oversight of parishes and communities. County Functions. The formulation of structure plans, traffic, transportation and roads, education, public libraries and museums, youth employment and social services. There are, in addition, a number of special arrangements. Four district councils in Wales are designated as library authorities and Welsh district councils have powers in relation to allotments currently with community councils. The county councils in England and Wales separately or jointly appoint the fire and police authorities, and the bodies responsible for national parks. In Metropolitan counties, there are no county councils and all functions are performed by the districts (in some cases jointly). The total number of local government electors in England and Wales was 38,318,926 in 1986. Greater London. From 1965-86 London was governed by the Greater London Council, covering the whole metropolitan area, and by 32 London boroughs and the Corporation of the City of London, each with responsibilities in its own area. The GLC was abolished on 1 April 1986. In the City and the 12 boroughs covering the inner part of Greater London, education is now the responsibility of the directly elected Inner London Education Authority, while in the 20 outer boroughs the individual borough councils are the education authorities'. Fire services in Greater London are the responsibility of the London Fire and Civil Defence Authority, whose members are appointed by the boroughs and the City. Flood prevention is the responsibility of the Thames Water Authority. Waste regulation for the whole of Greater London is the function of the London Waste Regulation Authority. Waste collection is the responsibility of the boroughs. Waste disposal is the responsibility of the boroughs acting individually or in groups. Except in the City, the police authority is the Metropolitan Police, which is responsible to central government. London Regional Transport is likewise responsible to central government for passenger transport. Other local government functions are the responsibility of the boroughs, acting either individually or jointly, and the City. Estimated population of Greater London in June 1985 was 6,756,038, and rateable value at 1 April 1985 was £2,044,917,167. Estimated gross revenue expenditure of the GLC in 1985-86 was£2,307-4m. (including £1,077-2m. for the ILEA). Estimated gross capital expenditure, 1985-86 was £312m., including ILEA £23m. and £12- lm. for housing loans. The GLC outstanding debt at 1 April 1985 was £ 1,721 • 2m. (including 201 • 5m. for the ILEA). Scotland. Under the system, which came into effect in 1975, the Scots mainland is divided into 9 regions, and in addition there are the 3 islands areas of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles. The regions are divided into districts which total 53. All these units have a council consisting of councillors elected for 4 years and a chairman elected by the councillors for 4 years. Community councils have been established under schemes submitted by district and islands councils. These community councils cannot claim public funds as of right, nor do they have powers directly conferred by Statute: consequently they are not local authorities in the sense that Welsh Community Councils are. As in England and Wales a permanent Local Government Boundary Commission advises the Secretary of State on Local Authority Boundaries and electoral arrangements. On the mainland, functions are allocated between regional and district authorities, in the same way (with minor exceptions) as they are allocated between English counties on the one hand and English districts and parishes on the other, but the councils of the islands areas, which have no districts, perform both sets of functions. Despite differences of nomenclature the effect of the reforms of 1972 (England) and 1973 (Scotland) is to assimilate the systems of mainland Scotland and of England and Wales more closely than has been the case in the past.

GREAT

BRITAIN

1301

The total number of local government electors in Scotland was 3,957,390 in 1985. Complaints. Under both systems, complaints, by members of the public, of maladministration may be investigated by a Commissioner for Local Administration. Initially a complaint must be referred to him through a councillor, but a direct approach to him is possible if this fails. He can deal only with matters for which there is no other remedy; he reports to the council concerned and may publish his report. For map of regions see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1 9 7 4 - 7 5 . Our Changing Democracy Devolution to Scotland and Wales. HMSO, 1975 Arnold-Baker, C., The Local Government Act ¡972. London, 1973 D E F E N C E . The Defence Council was established on 1 April 1964 under the chairmanship of the Secretary of State for Defence, who is responsible to the Sovereign and Parliament for the defence of the realm. Vested in the Defence Council are the functions of commanding and administering the Armed Forces. Thé Secretary of State heads the Ministry of Defence as a Department of State. There are 4 subordinate Ministers; 3 Ministers of State and 1 Parliamentary Under Secretary of State. Defence Council membership comprises the Secretary of State, 3 Ministers of State, the 1 Parliamentary Under-Secretary, the Chief of the Defence Staff, the 3 single Service Chiefs of Staff, the Vice-Chief of Defence Staff, the Chief of Defence Procurement, the Chief of Defence Equipment Collaboration, the Chief Scientific Adviser, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State and the Second Permanent Under Secretary of State. There are 3 Service Boards, each of which enjoys delegated powers for the administration of matters relating to the naval, military and air forces respectively. Defence policy decision making is a collective Governmental responsibility. Important matters of policy are considered by the full Cabinet or, more frequently, by the Defence and Oversea Policy Committee under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister. Other members of this Committee include the Secretary of State for Defence, the Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary and the Home Secretary.

Logistics Services. Since the inception of a unified Ministry of Defence in 1964, progress has been made in the rationalization of the logistics services of the Royal Navy, the Army and the Royal Air Force. The Air Force Department is responsible for accommodation stores for maintenance and for the initial furnishing of new buildings; the Army Department is the single management authority for the design, development, procurement and inspection of clothing other than certain specialized clothing; the Navy Department has for some time been responsible for ration policy provisioning, procurement, storing and distribution of food to main depots and to Army forward supply depots in BAOR and is responsible for water transport to its tri-service responsibilities. The supply of Naval air stores has been integrated with those of the RAF. The Procurement Executive. An important development in 1971 was the creation of a Procurement Executive to combine the Defence Procurement responsibilities of the Ministry of Defence and the former Ministry of Aviation Supply. Service Strengths at 30 Nov. 1986, all ranks, males andfemales, UK personnel only: Royal Navy and Royal Marines, 66,718; Army, 161,498; Royal Air Force, 93,509; total, 321,874. The Ministry of Defence employed 167,406 civilians in Dec. 1986. Defence Budget Estimates: 1987-88, £18,784m.; 1988-89, £18,980m; 1989-90, £19,470m. Army. Control of the British Army is vested in the Defence Council and is exercised through the Army Board. The Secretary of State for Defence is Chairman of the Army Board. The other civilian members are the 4 subordinate Ministers; the

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Controller Research and Development Establishments, Research and Nuclear and the Second Permanent Under Secretary of State. The Military members of the Army Board are the Chief of the General Staff, the Adjutant-General, the Quartermaster-General and the Master-General of the Ordnance. The Chief of the General Staff is the professional head of his Service and the professional adviser to Ministers on the Army aspects of military matters. He is responsible for the fighting efficiency of his Service; for Army advice on the conduct of operations; and for the issuing of such single Service operational orders as may be appropriate resulting from defence policy decisions. He is also responsible for the Territorial Army. The Chief of the General Staff is a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee which is collectively responsible to HM Government for professional advice on strategy and military operations and on the military implication of defence policy. This advice is tendered to the Secretary of State for Defence by the Chief of the Defence Staff. The Adjutant-General is responsible for Army manpower within the policy set by the General Staff; for recruiting and selection; for the administration and individual training of military personnel; for the discipline of the Army; for pay and allowances and pensions; for legal services; for the veterinary and remount services; for the Army Cadet Forces; for questions of Army welfare and education including school children overseas; and for resettlement and sports. The Quartermaster-General is responsible for logistic planning for the Army; for the storage, distribution, maintenance, repair and inspection of equipment, stores and ammunition; for development of stores; for supply, transport and accommodation; for the development, production and inspection of clothing; for military movements and transportation; for the Army postal, catering, salvage and fire services; and for questions connected with canteens, institutes and military labour. The Master General of the Ordnance is a member of both the Army Board and of the Procurement Executive Management Board. He is responsible to the Chief of Defence Procurement for the financial and technical management of the approved programme for the procurement of land service equipment for the Armed Services, and to the Army Board for the co-ordination of the Army's total equipment programme. Headquarters United Kingdom Land Forces at Wilton commands all Army units in UK except Ministry of Defence controlled units. The Ministry of Defence retains direct operational control of units in Northern Ireland. Command by HQ United Kingdom Land Forces is exercised through 9 district headquarters. There are 3 major overseas Commands: Land Forces Cyprus, Hong Kong and the British Army of the Rhine. There are also garrisons in Berlin, Gibraltar, Falkland Islands and Belize. The air element is an independent corps with 370 helicopters (120 Lynx, 190 Gazelle, 50 Scout, 9 Alouette and 4 A. 109) and about 30 fixed-wing aircraft for liaison and training. The strength of the Regular Army (less the Brigade of Gurkhas and locally enlisted personnel) on 1 Jan. 1986 was 155,500 men and 6,600 women. Strength of reserve forces were: Regular reserves, 151,700; territorial army, 76,100. The Territorial Army role is to provide a national reserve for employment on specific tasks at home and overseas and to meet the unexpected when required; and, in particular, to complete the Army Order of Battle of N A T O committed forces and to provide certain units for the support of NATO Headquarters, to assist in maintaining a secure UK base in support of forces deployed on the Continent of Europe and to provide a framework for any future expansion of the Reserves. In addition, men who have completed service in the Regular Army normally have some liability to serve in the Regular Reserve. All members of the TA and Regular Reserve may be called out by a Queen's Order in time of emergency of imminent national danger and most of the TA and a large proportion of the Regular Reserve may be called out by a Queen's Order when warlike operations are in preparation or in progress. There is a special reserve force in Northern Ireland, the Ulster Defence Regiment, 6,500 strong, which gives support to the regular army. Men, women and juniors enlist in the Army for 22 years' active and reserve

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service. However, under a scheme introduced in May 1981 they are entitled to give 12 months' notice (18 months' for women) to leave active service provided they serve for a minimum of 3 years. Alternatively, they can agree to serve for 6 or 9 years to receive the benefit of higher rates of pay. Those enlisting in certain technical trades must agree to serve for a minimum of 6 years. Recruits under the age of 1 Vh on reaching the age of 18 are entitled either to confirm their original engagement or to reduce their period of service to 3 years. Women serve in both the Regular Army and the TA in the Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps, the Ulster Defence Regiment and the Women's Royal Army Corps, the latter's employments including communications, motor transport, clerical and catering duties. Some officers of the Women's Royal Army Corps are employed on the staffs of military headquarters. Blaxfbrd, G., The Regiments Depart A History ofthe British Army 1945-70 London, 1971 Brereton, J M , The British Soldier London, 1985 Johnson, F A., Defence by Ministry The British Ministry of Defence 1944-1974. London, 1980 Stanhope, H., The Soldiers. An Anatomy of the British Army London, 1979

Navy. Control of the Royal Navy is vested in the Defence Council and is exercised through the Admiralty Board, which consists of 7 civilian and 4 service members. The Secretary of State for Defence is chairman of the Admiralty Board. The other civilian members are the Ministers and Under Secretaries of State for the Armed Forces and for Defence Procurement; the Second Permanent Under Secretary of State; the Controller, Research and Development Establishments, Research and Nuclear. The duties of the civilian members of the Admiralty Board are as described in the section on the Army. The naval members are the Chief of the Naval Staff and First Sea Lord (professional head of the Royal Navy) responsible for fighting efficiency, planning and operations advice (aided by the Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff); the Chief of Naval Personnel and Second Sea Lord, responsible for the manning of the Fleet, service conditions, training, discipline and welfare; the Controller of the Navy, responsible for research and development, design, production, inspection, repair and maintenance of ships, their weapons and equipment; the Chief of Fleet Support, responsible for the provision of naval armament, victualling and medical stores and fuels, and for the movement of material, transport of persons, and head of the naval dockyard organization and servicing the Fleet and of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary. The Commander in Chief Fleet at Northwood exercises Command of the Fleet. Naval Air Stations and units at non-naval Air Stations and establishments in the United Kingdom are commanded by the Flag Officer Naval Air Command. Command of all other naval establishments in the UK, except Ministry of Defencecontrolled units including Royal dockyards and the Naval Air Repair Organization, and those under the full command of the Commandant General Royal Marines, is exercised by the C.-in-C. Naval Home Command at Portsmouth through Area Flag Officers. The Royal Naval Reserve (RNR) and the Royal Marines Reserve (RMR) currently have provision for 5,500 and 1,500 personnel respectively. The role of the RNR is to provide a reserve of trained personnel who will be available in times of war to undertake such duties as Naval Control of Shipping, Mine CounterMeasures (manning minesweepers, etc); HQ Command and Communications, and Rotary Wing Aircrew. The main roles of the RMR are to provide reinforcements and to carry out other specialist tasks with the UK-Netherlands Amphibious Force. In addition, men who have completed service in the Royal Navy and the Royal Marines have à liability to serve in the Royal Fleet Reserve. All members of the RNR, the RMR and the Royal Fleet Reserve have a liability to be called out under the provisions of the Reserve Forces Act 1980. Officers of the Retired and Emergency Lists and Pensioners also have a Reserve liability. Royal Navy ratings enlist to complete 22 years' active service with the option to

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leave at 18 months notice on completion of a minimum of 2Vi years' productive service. Those who leave before completing 22 years have a liability for up to 3 years' service in the Royal Fleet Reserve. Royal Marine ranks, WRNS ratings and QARNNS ratings enlist to complete an initial 9 year engagement but they may apply to re-engage to complete 14 years and 22 years. Servicewomen have no reserve liability. Women serve in both the WRNS and the QARNNS, and their reserves. In the former, they are employed on a wide range of duties including communications, stores accounting, catering, education, training support and motor transport. The following is a summary of the more important units: Category Aircraft carriers Submarines Destroyers Frigates

1979 3 31 14 56

1980 3 31 14 55

1981 3 32 15 47

1982 3 33 13 47

1983 3 31 14 46

1984 3 32 15 48

1985 3 32 14 42

1986 3 32 13 39

1987 3 30 13 36

There are also 2 assault ships, 1 helicopter support ship, 2 aviation training ships, 1 repair ship, 2 maintenance ships, 1 ice patrol ship, 15 patrol vessels of corvette size; 9 surveying vessels, 26 minehunters, 9 coastal minesweepers, 10 deep (fleet) minesweepers, 1 mine countermeasures support ship, 4 trials ships, 1 submarine tender, 2 diving support ships, 6 patrol craft, 19 coastal training craft, 11 mooring, salvage and boom vessels, 4 fleet replenishment ships, 14 fleet oilers, 40 other auxiliaries, 7 logistic landing ships, SO minor landing craft, 14 fleet tugs, 46 other tugs, and 55 tenders. In the following table the principal surface warships are listed, in descending order of modernity. Completed

Name

Standard displacement Tons

Aircraft

Armament

Shaft horse- Speed power knots

Carriers1 Twin 'Sea Dart' surface-to-air missile launchers; 8 Sea Harriers; 2 Phalanx guns; 9 ASW Sea Kings; 112,000 , s n QinArk Royal), 3 AEW Sea Kings; (gas) 2 8 - 0 2 20 mm guns 5 Sea Harriers; 9 Sea King helicopters (being replaced by 3 'Goalkeeper' systems

Light Aircraft

1985 Ark Royal 1982 Illustrious 1 1980 Invincible '

}

16,000

(

1 Two AEW (airborne early warning) Sea Kings added to complement - to be increased to three in each ship. 1 Originally designed as 'Command Cruiser', subsequently re-rated as 'Through-deck Cruiser' (meaning long underdeck hangar with flat-top or near full-length flight deck) and later designated 'Anti-Submarine Cruiser'. Officially listed as anti-submarine warfare carrier in 1980. Slightly angled deck and 7 degree ski-jump ramp, like Illustrious, but Ark Royal has 12 degree ski-jump for Harriers. During the Falklands campaign Invincible embarked ten Harriers and nine Sea Kings. In 1986 she paid off for 2-year refit at Devonport to include a higher, 12-degree, ski-jump ramp, greater capacity for 22 aircraft and improved armament and sensors. 1 The aircraft carrier Hermes, 24,000 tons, was sold to India in 1986 and renamed Virat; she was refitted at Devonport before becoming operational in the Indian Navy.

Note: For disposals.of the Ark Royal and Eagle, large fixed-wing aircraft carriers; the original sister ships of Hermes (Bulwark, Albion and Centaur) and the rebuilt Victorious; the helicopter cruisers Blake and Tiger, original sister ship Lion, and the other orthodox cruisers Belfast (museum ship on the Thames), Ceylon, Newfoundland, Birmingham, Jamaica, Superb, Kenya, Swiftsure, Bermuda, Mauritius, Sheffield and Gambia, see 1983-84 and earlier editions. (Tiger was towed to Spain in Sept. 1986 for breaking up).

GREAT

BRITAIN

1305

Capital (Strategicj Submarines Displacement (submerged) tons 8,400

Missile Shaft Tubes Nuclear horseSpeed Class No. Knots (vertical) Reactors power "R" 4' 16 Polaris 1 15,000 25 dived 20 surface A3 ' Renown, Repulse, Resolution and Revenge (former battleship names) completed in 1967-69. All also have six 21 -in. torpedo tubes.

Other submarines are of the following classes: 'Trafalgar' (nuclear propelled), 4; 'Swiftsure' (nuclear propelled), 6; 'Churchill' (nuclear propelled), 3; 'Valiant' (nuclear propelled), 2; 'Oberon', 11. The destroyers of the Royal Navy are of the following classes: Type 42, twelve; Type 82, one. Frigates are of the following classes; Type 22, seven; Type 21, six; 'Leander', 23. Ships under construction or on order include 1 nuclear armed ('Trident') and nuclear powered submarine displacing 15,000 tons dived, Vanguard; 3 nuclear propelled submarines, 4 diesel driven patrol submarines, 8 frigates, and 5 mine counter-measures vessels. The Fleet Air Arm has 14 operational squadrons, 3 with Sea Harrier fighter/ reconnaissance aircraft, 6 with Sea King, 1 with Lynx and 1 with Wasp antisubmarine helicopters, 1 with Sea King and 1 with Wessex helicopters for commando transport, and 1 with Sea King helicopters converted for airborne early warning. There are 7 training and second-line squadrons, all equipped with helicopters except for 1 with Jetstream aircraft. The total number of male and female personnel (including Royal Marines) was (in 1,000) 1982-83,70-4; 1983-84,71-7; 1984-85,71-1; 1985-86,68-2. Blackman, R. V. B., The World's Warships. London, annual Blackman, R. V. B., Ships of the Royal Navy. London, annual Sharpe, R G. (ed.), Jane's FightingShips. London,annual

Air Force. In May 1912 the Royal Flying Corps first came into existence with military and naval wings, of which the latter became the independent Royal Naval Air Service in July 1914. On 2 Jan. 1918 an Air Ministry was formed, and on 1 April 1918 the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service were amalgamated, under the Air Ministry, as the Royal Air Force. In 1937 the units based on aircraft carriers and naval shore stations again passed to the operational and administrative control of the Admiralty, as the Fleet Air Arm. In 1964 control of the RAF became a responsibility of the Ministry of Defence. The Royal Air Force is administered by the Air Force Board, of which the Secretary of State for Defence is Chairman. The Minister of State for the Armed Forces is Vice-Chairman, and normally acts as Chairman on behalf of the Secretary of State. Other members of the Board are the Minister of State for Defence Procurement, the Under-Secretary of State for the Armed Forces, the Under-Secretary of State for Defence Procurement, the Chief of the Air Staff, Air Member for Personnel, Air Member for Supply and Organization, Controller of Aircraft, Second Permanent Under-Secretary of State and Controller R & D Establishments, Research and Nuclear. The RAF is organized into commands: Home Commands. Strike and Support Commands. The Air Training Corps and the Air Sections of the Combined Cadet Force are under the administrative control of Support Command and functionally controlled by the Ministry of Defence. The RAF College, which trains general-duties, engineering, and supply and secretarial graduates for permanent commissions, is at Cranwell. The RAF Staff College is at Bracknell. The Department of Air Warfare is at Cranwell. The RAF Central Flying School is at Scampton. Estimated strength in Nov. 1985, including WRAF and boys, was 93,334. Strike Command is made up of 3 Groups. Nos 1 and 38 Groups merged in late 1983 to form a new No 1 Group, responsible for the strike/attack, reconnaissance, tanker, battlefield support and transport forces. The Tornado GR1 and Jaguar provide the strike/attack and reconnaissance. Victor and Hercules tanker aircraft are being supplemented by ex-civil VClOs and TriStars converted to air refuelling.

1306

UNITED

KINGDOM

Battlefield support forces comprise Harrier GR3s, and Chinook, Puma and Wessex support helicopters. The strategic and tactical transport force comprises VClOs and Hercules, and communications aircraft. No 11 Group controls the air defence forces: Lightning and Phantom supersonic all-weather intercepters, Bloodhound surface-to-air missiles, and ground environment radars, the associated communication systems, and the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System at Fylingdales. No 11 Group also controls the Hawks of the Tactical Weapons Units which, in war, would supplement air defence fighters at bases throughout the UK. UK air defence is undergoing major improvements. The Tornado F2 entered service in Nov. 1984 and will gradually replace the Lightning and some Phantoms. The Boeing E-3 will enter service in 1990-91, replacing the Shackleton, and in the ground environment, there are new radars and communications systems entering service. No 18 Group is responsible for maritime air operations. ASW is the duty of the Nimrod Mk 2, which also has a capability against surface ships, although Buccaneers provide the main offensive force against a maritime surface threat. No 18 Group also operates Canberras in a multitude of roles, including photo-reconnaissance, target towing and ECM training, as well as Nimrod special-purpose aircraft. Search and rescue units are equipped with Sea King and Wessex helicopters. RAF Regiment short-range air defence squadrons, armed with Rapier, and the field squadrons form part of 1 Group, as does The Queen's Flight, which has 2 BAe 146s and 2 Wessex helicopters. The Military Air Traffic Operations organization also has the status of a Group. Strike Command has NATO commitments, but is available for overseas reinforcement. The training element of RAF Support Command utilizes Bulldog and Chipmunk primary trainers, Jet Provost basic trainers (to be replaced by turboprop Tucanos), Hawk advanced trainers, Jetstreams for multi-engine pilot training, twin-jet Dominies for training navigators and other non-pilot aircrew, and Gazelle and Wessex helicopters. Overseas Commands. Royal Air Force Germany. Small units in Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands, Belize, Cyprus and Hong Kong. Squadrons of RAF Germany, which form part of NATO'S 2nd Allied Tactical Air Force under SACEUR, have Tornado GR1, Harrier GR3 and Jaguar attack and reconnaissance aircraft, Phantom fighters, Chinook and Puma Helicopters, Pembroke communications aircraft, and Rapier surface-to-air missile squadrons of the RAF Regiment. The Harrier GR3s will be replaced by new Harrier GR5s from 1987, and the Pembrokes will be superseded by Andovers. A squadron of Phantom aircraft, a squadron of Chinook and Sea King helicopters for transport and search and rescue, and a flight of Harriers and a flight of Hercules tankers are based in the Falkland Islands; a squadron of Wessex helicopters is based in Hong Kong. The Royal Air Force, 1939-45. Vols. I, II, III. HMSO, 1953-54 Taylor J. W. R. (ed.), Jane's All the World's Aircraft. London. Annual from 1909 INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. The UK is a member of UN, Commonwealth, the European Communities, OECD, the Council of Europe, NATO and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY

Budget. Revenue and expenditure for years ending 31 March, in £ sterling: Estimated in the Actual receipts into More than Revenue Budgets the Exchequer estimates 1984 87,800,000,000 88,700,000,000 900,000,000 1985 98,000,000,000 98,400,000,000 400,000,000 1986 106,500,000,000 105,800,000,000 - 700,000,000 1987 108,600,000,000 111,100,000,000 2,500,000,000 The Budget estimate ofordinary revenue for 1987-88 is £ 117,500m.

GREAT Expenditure 1984 1985 1986 1987

Budget and supplementary estimates 95,600,000,000 103,400,000,000 159,500,000,000 163,900,000,000

1307

BRITAIN

Actual payments out of the Exchequer 97,400,000,000 105,800,000,000 157,700,000,000 164,900,000,000

More than estimates 1,800,000,000 2,400,000,000 - 1,800,000,000 - 1,000,000,000

The Budget estimate ofordinary expenditure for 1987-88 is £173,500m.

The imperial revenue in detail for 1986-87 and the expenditure, are given below, as is the budget estimate for 1987-88 (in £ 1 m.): Net receipts 1986-87

Budget estimate 1987-88

35,300 13,400 1,260 1,050 55 990 1,840

39,900 15,000 1,680 1,300 20 1,100 2,100

56,900

61,100

21,500 7,500 4,700 4,200 760 980 20 1,290 220

23,300 7,800 4,800 4,300 800 1,100 20 1,350 230

41,200

43,800

Vehicle Excise duties

2,500

2,600

Miscellaneous receipts: Broadcasting receiving licences Interest and dividends G a s levy Other, including oil royalties

1,010 870 520 8,100

1,030 1,020 490 7,600

111,100

117,500

Sources of revenue Inland Revenue: Income Corporation tax Petroleum revenue tax Capital Gains tax Development land tax Capital transfer tax (inheritance tax) Stamp duties Total Inland Revenue Customs and Excise: Value Added Tax Oil Tobacco Spirits, beer, wine, cider and perry Betting and gaming Car tax Other excise duties Customs duties Agricultural levies Total Customs and Excise

Total Consolidated Fund Revenue

The following are the branches of expenditure for year ended 31 March 1987 and the e s t i m a t e s for the year 1 9 8 7 - 8 8 ( i n £ l m . ) : Social Security Defence Health and Personal Social Services Educational and Science Other

Estimates

Estimates

1986-87 44,600 18,200 18,000 15,700 47,900

1987-88 46,000 18,800 19,100 16,600 49,600

Privatization proceeds.

-4,400

-5,000

Interest Payments Other Adjustments

140,000 17,500 4,200

148,600 17,900 5,400

164,900

173,500

Total

1308

UNITED

KINGDOM

A single graduated income tax came into operation on 6 April 1973, replacing the existing income tax and surtax. Rates of Personal Taxfrom 6 April 1987 Income between £0-£l 7,900 £17,901-£20,400 £20,401-£25,400 £25,401-£33,300 £33,301-£41,200 Over £41,201

% 27 40 45 50 55 60

Under the tax system, the amounts of the personal allowances are adjusted so that they retain their equivalent in relation to earned income. Personal Allowances Single person 1 Wife's earned income I Married man Additional allowance Dependent relative: Single woman claimant Others Housekeeper Relative taking charge of younger brother or sister Daughter's services Blind person

1987-88 £ 2 425 ' 3,795 1,370 145 100 100 100 55 540

Deductions of tax under PAYE extend over the full range of unified tax rates and not merely the basic rate. Similarly, assessment on business profits and on other income which was directly assessed to tax, such as rents and interest on bank deposits, are made by reference to the full scale of rates, including where appropriate the investment income surcharge. The standard rate of 27% is the rate at which tax is deducted from payments of interest, etc., and corresponds under the corporation tax system, to the tax credit on dividends. Where an individual's total income is such that he is liable on this taxed investment income at rates exceeding 27%, or if his investment income is high enough to make him liable to the surcharge, the higher rate or surcharge liability on this taxed investment income will in general be assessed separately after the end of the tax year. Corporation Tax. Corporation Tax applies, with certain exceptions, to trades or businesses carried on by bodies corporate or by unincorporated societies or other bodies and this tax came into force from April 1966 replacing Profits Tax. Corporation Tax for companies was 35% for 1987-88. Small companies rates, 1987-88,27%. Capital Gains Tax. Gains resulting from the disposal of capital assets (other than British Government and Government guaranteed securities and certain exempted forms of property such as a private car and personal residences) are taxed under the Finance Act 1965. In 1987-88 exemption was granted for all gains made in a financial year which in total did not exceed £6,600 and most trusts on the first £3,300. Inheritance Tax. Formerly Capital Transfer Tax. From 18 March 1986 there is no lifetime charge on gifts between individuals. Value Added Tax. Value Added Tax was introduced from 1 April 1973 at the rate of 10% on the supply of goods (with certain exceptions) and services. From 18 June 1979 the rate of tax was fixed at 15%. Kay, J. A. and King, M. A., TheBrilish TaxSystem.

OUP, 1980

Local Taxation. The rateable value on which rates were leviable in England and

GREAT BRITAIN

1309

Wales on 1 April 1985 was £7,822m. In England and Wales, the average amount of the rates collected per £ of rateable value was £0-34 in 1913-14; and estimated to be 192-7p for 1985-86. In Scotland the rateable value on which rates are leviable on 1 April 1984 was £1,325m. and the average amount per £ of rateable value of the rates was 129 -3p. The average domestic rate for combined water services was about 43p in the £1. Under the Local Government Planning and Land Act 1980, the Government gives general financial assistance to local authorities by means of rate support grants. The Rate Support Grant Supplementary Report (England) 1984-85 deals with the distribution of these grants to local authorities in England only. The grants for 198 5-86 contain (i) Block Grant £8,439m., the object of which is to give authorities sufficient grant to . put them in a position where they can provide similar standards of service for a similar rate in the £, and (ii) Domestic Grant £699m., which will provide a relief of 18'/2p for domestic ratepayers except for those in the Cities of London and Westminster where the relief provided is 37p and 25p respectively. There is also provision in the 1980 Act for payment of National Parks Supplementary Grant (£5-8m.) to county councils with all or part of a national park in their area, and Transport Supplementary Grant (£160m.)payable to county councils and the Greater London Council. Grants are also payable on revenue expenditure for specific services, including police and housing, and capital expenditure on certain services also attracts grant. In Scotland, rate support grants are paid under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1966 as amended. The total rate support grant and the amounts of the component parts for the local authority financial year 1987-88, as prescribed in the Rate Support Grant (Scotland) Order 1987 are as follows: total £l,896-76m. comprising needs element £l,608-56m.; resources element £197-lm.; domestic element £91-lm. The needs element is designed to provide varying levels of support to take account of variations in the demand for services and the cost of providing them with a similar degree of efficiency per head of population in different areas. The resources element, by compensating for deficiencies in local rating resources, enables local authorities receiving it to raise the same amount in rates per head of population for the same rate poundage. The domestic element is paid to rating authorities to offset the cost of reducing by 7p in the £ rates payable on domestic properties. As in England and Wales capital and revenue grants are also payable on expenditure for certain specified services. Rates and Rateable Values, 1974-75. HMSO Rates and Rateable Values in Scotland, 1977-78. HMSO Estimates, 1982-83. GLC Analysis of Rateable Values List. GLC, 1977 Report on Rate Support Grant Order 1979. HMSO

Gross National Product: Expenditure (ilm.) Consumers' expenditure Central government final consumption Gross domestic fixed capital formation Value of physical increase in stocks and work in progress Total domestic expenditure at market prices Exports of goods and services Less Imports of goods and services Less Taxes on expenditure Subsidies Gross domestic product at factor cost

1946

I960

1970

1980

7,273

1985

16,939

31,773

135,738

213,208

2,282

4,206

8,961

48,424

74,012

925

4,190

9,462

39,411

60,118

-126

562

425

-2,706

528

10,354 1,775

25,897 5,153

50,581 11,533

220,867 63,158

347,866 102,304

-2,083 -1,573 384

-5,549 -3,378 493

-11,122 -8,416 884

-57,913 -36,882 5,308

-98,603 -56,812 7,710

8,855

22,616

43,460

194,538

302,465

1310

UNITED

Factor incomes (ilm.) Income from employment Income from selfemployment 1 Gross trading profits of companies ' Gross trading surplus of public corporations 1 Gross trading surplus of other public enterprises' Rent 2

KINGDOM

1946 5,758

I960 15,174

1970 30,404

1980 136,050

1985 195,350

1,126

2,008

3,735

17,581

29,859

1,476

3,730

5,935

27,708

52,977

20

534

1,447

6,222

7,106

86 429

189 1,086

151 2,833

242 13,390

264 20,541

8,895 -125

22,863 -122 -125

44,837 -1,090 -287

203,304 -6,456 -2,310

308,778 -3,037 -3,276

8,770

22,616

43,460

194,538

302,465

85

233

559

-273

3,400

8,855

22,849

44,019

194,265

305,865

Less Capital consumption -2,047 -4,420 -27,223 National income 20,802 39,599 167,042 1 Before providing for depreciation and stock appreciation. 2 Before providing for depreciation.

-41,846 264,019

Total domestic income before providing for depreciation and stock appreciation Less Stock appreciation Residual error Gross domestic product at factor cost Net property income from abroad Gross national product

National Economic Development Council. The NEDC (Neddy), which first met in 1962, is the national forum for economic consultation between government, management and unions. It includes leading representatives of the Government, CBI and TUC and also chairmen of nationalized industries and independent members. It meets usually under the chairmanship of the Chancellor of the Exchequer although the Prime Minister takes the chair from time to time. Discussions at the monthly council meetings are normally based on papers, presented by the participating parties, which deal primarily with questions of medium-term national economic performance and prospects, besides seeking to agree on ways of improving industrial efficiency. Council meetings are held in.private to encourage the frank exchange of views between members, and discussions are summarized at a press conference taken by the Director-General of the National Economic Development Office (NEDO) following each meeting. The Economic Development Committees (Little Neddies), like the NEDC, bring together representatives of management and unions and officials from Government, who use this neutral meeting place to study the efficiency and prospects of individual industries and sectors and to suggest ways in which these could be improved. The National Economic Development Office (NEDO) provides the professional staff for the NEDC and the EDCs. Currency. The monetary unit of Great Britain is the pound sterling. A gold standard was adopted in 1816, the sovereign or twenty-shilling piece weighing 7-98805 grammes 0-9162/i fine. Currency notes for £1 and 10i. were first issued by the Treasury in 1914, replacing the circulation of sovereigns. The issue of £1 and 105. notes was taken over by the Bank of England in 1928. The issue of 1 OÍ. notes ceased on the issue of the 50p coin in 1969. Following the general international currency re-alignment of Dec. 1971, the rate for the pound, in terms of the US$, was fixed at £1 = $2.6057 but in June 1972 the pound was allowed to float. March 1987, £1 =US$ 1-59. When the pound was floated in June 1972 measures were also introduced to control payments between the 'Scheduled Territories' (i.e., the UK including the

GREAT

1311

BRITAIN

Channel Islands, the Isle of Man and Ireland), and the rest of the Sterling Area as well as the rest of the world. Exchange control restrictions were lifted in Oct. 1979 except for Zimbabwe and these were lifted in Dec. 1979. Coinage. The sovereign (£1) weighs 123-27447 grains, or 7-98805 grammes, 0-916% (or eleven-twelfths) fine, and consequently it contains 113-00159 grains or 7 -32238 grammes of fine gold. On 15 Feb. 1971 (Decimalization Day) a decimal currency system was introduced retaiiting the pound sterling as the major unit but now divided into 100 new pence instead of 240 old pence. The decimal coins are the £1 (22-5 mm diameter, 9 -5 grammes weight); 50p (equilateral curve heptagon, 30 mm diameter, 13-5 grammes); 20p (equilateral curved heptagon 21 -4 mm diameter, 5 grammes); 1 Op (28-5 mm, 11-31 grammes); 5p(23-6 mm, 5-65 grammes); 2p (25-9 mm, 7-12 grammes) and l p (20-3 mm, 3-56 grammes). The 'Ap was demonetized on 31 Dec. 1984. The Decimal Currency Act, 1967 and the Proclamation of27 Dec. 1968 required that the 50p, lOp and 5p be made of cupro-nickel and the 2p, lp and '/ip of mixed metal; copper, tin and zinc (bronze). The Decimal Currency Act, 1969, provided that the coins of the Queen's Maundy Money should continue to be made in silver to a millesimal fineness of925. By Proclamation dated 28 July 1971, which came into force on 30 Aug. 1971, the crown, double-florin, the florin, the shilling and the sixpence are to be treated as coins of the new currency and as being of the denominations respectively of 25, 20, 10, 5 and 2Vi new pence. The sixpence was demonetised on 30 June 1980 and the'/¡p on Dec. 1984. The Coinage Act, 1971, specified that the legal tender limits for coins were: Gold coins, for payment of any amount; coins of cupro-nickel and silver of denominations of more than lOp, for payment of any amount not exceeding £10; coins of cupro-nickel and silver of not more than lOp, for payment of any amount not exceeding £5; coins of bronze, for payment of any amount not exceeding 20p. The £ 1 coin is legal tender to any amount. UK coins issued in the 12 months up to March 1986totalled£410m. It is estimated that the following coins were in circulation in the UK at 31 March 1986, in millions: £1 724, 50p 802, 20p 945, lOp 1,630, 5p 1,960, 2p 2,550, l p 3,900,'/¡p 1,400. The '/¡p was withdrawn from circulation on 31 Dec. 1984. Bank-notes. The Bank of England issues notes in denominations of £5, £10, £20 and £50 for the amount of the fiduciary note issue. Under the provisions of the Currency and Bank Notes Act, 1954, which came into force on 22 Feb. 1954, the amount of the fiduciaiy note issue was fixed at £1,575m., but this figure might be altered by direction of HM Treasury after representations made by the Bank of England. All Bank of England notes are legal tender in England and Wales. The banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland have certain note-issuing powers. The total amount of Bank of England notes issued at 31 Dec. 1986 was £13,482m., of which £13,474m. were in the hands of other banks and the public and £8m. in the Banking Department of the Bank of England. Banking. The Bank of England, Threadneedle Street, London, is the Government's banker and the 'banker's bank'. It has the sole right of note issue in England and Wales and manages the National Debt. The Bank operates under royal charters of 1694 and 1946 and the Bank of England Act, 1946. The capital stock has, since 1 March 1946, been held by the Treasury. The statutory return is published weekly. End-Dec. figures for the past 5 years are as fol lows (in £ 1 m.): 1983 1984 1985 1986

Notes in circulation 12,623 13,477 12,863 13,482

Notes and coin in Banking Public deposits Department (government) 7 51 13 106 7 104 163 8 Including Special Deposits.

Other deposits 2,152 2,082 2,006 2,499

1312

UNITED

KINGDOM

The fiduciary note issue was £13,490m. at 31 Dec. 1986. All the profits of the note issue are passed on to the National Loans Fund. Official reserves of gold and convertible currencies, SDR and reserve position in the IMF at the end of Dec. 1986 were US$21,923m. The value of paper debit bank clearings for 1985, £8,173,039m. Paper credit clearings for 1986, £80,426m. Automatic direct debits, 1985, £105,529,000m.; automatic credit transfers, 1986, £ 195,849nv. The following statistics relate to the London and Scottish banks' groups at 31 Dec. 1986. Total deposits (sterling and currency), £236,560m.; sterling market loans £42,899m.; advances (sterling and currency), £135,997m.; sterling investments£l 1,373m. Total net profits from the operations of the main London clearing bank groups in 1986 amounted to £l,971m., of which £457m. in gross dividends, £l,529m. transferred to reserves. The clearing banks cover all aspects of banking business in U K including corporate business, and are also actively involved in international banking.

Trustee Savings Banks (TSB). Trustee Savings Banks started in Scotland in 1810 and incorporated in Scotland on 21 Oct. 1985 as TSB Group pic. An offer was made to the public to purchase shares on 12 Sept. 1986. On 20 Nov. 1986 the total assets of TSB totalled £13,200-2m., the total number of accounts exceeded 1 lm.

National Savings Bank. Statistics for 1984 and 1985:

Accounts open at 31 Dec. Amounts— Received Interest credited Paid Due to depositors at 31 Dec. Average amount due to each depositor in active accounts

Ordinary accounts 1984 1985 15,286,307' 15,193,626'

Investment accounts 1984 1985 2,878,420 3,197,212

£1,000

£1,000

£1,000 673,529 79,6232 760,425 1,740,096

£1,000 655,913 78,589 ! 780,475 1,694,123

1,472,422 488,368 1,416,692 4,956,190

1,264,662 595,875 1,310,196 5,506,531

£113-72

£111-45

£1,721-84

£1,722-29

'Excluding non-computerized accounts, amounting to £107-4m. in 1984 and £104m. in 1985. 2 The interest credited to depositors for the Ordinary account for 1985 has been calculated on the same basis as 1984. (6% per annum payable on accounts with a minimum balance of £500, 3% on accounts with a minimum balance of less than £500).

The amount due to depositors in Ordinary Accounts on 1 Jan. 1987 was approximately £1,683,389,104 and in Investment Accounts £6,143,078,884. The National Girobank (founded 1968) had (1986) l-95m. customers with balances of £ 1,019m. Bank of England Quarterly Bulletin. Bank ofEngland Bank of England Annual Report. Bank ofEngland British Banking and other Financial Institutions. H M S O , 1977 Central Statistical Office, Financial Statistics. H M S O (monthly) Report of the Committee on the Working of the Monetary System. H M S O , 1959 Report of the Select Committee on Nationalised Industries—The Bank ofEngland. 1970 The Royal Mint. 6th ed. H M S O , 1977 Sayers,R. H., TheBankofEngland 1891-1944. CUP, 1976

HMSO,

GREAT

BRITAIN

1313

Weights and Measures. Conversion to the metric system was in progress (1987) which will replace the imperial system at present in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. The electricity industry was vested in the British Electricity Authority on 1 April 1948. Following the re-organization of the electricity supply industry after the passing of the Electricity Act, 1957, the statutory bodies comprising the electricity service in England and Wales are the Electricity Council, the Central Electricity Generating Board and the 12 Area Electricity Boards. The Electricity Council has functioned from Jan. 1958 as the central council for the supply industry in England and Wales for consultation on, and formulation of, general policy; its main functions are to advise the Secretary of State for Energy on all matters affecting the supply industry, and to promote and assist the maintenance and development by the Central Electricity Generating Board and the Area Boards (known collectively as Electricity jBoards) of an efficient, co-ordinated and economical system of electricity supply. The Council can also perform services for the Boards, and, in addition, has certain specific functions, particularly in matters of finance, research and industrial relations. The Central Electricity Generating Board is responsible for the generation and bulk supply of electricity to the 12 Area Boards in England and Wales. It therefore plans the provision of new generating and transmission capacity, including the siting and construction of new generating stations, both conventional and nuclear, and is responsible for the operation and maintenance of generating stations and the main transmission system. Area Electricity Boards. Each of the 12 Area Electricity Boards acquires bulk supplies of electricity from the Generating Board and is responsible for distribution networks and sales of electricity to its Area consumers. Thus distribution and utilization of electricity, and also the contracting and sale of appliances side of the industry, are their responsibilities. The number of power stations owned by the Generating Board in England and Wales on31 March 1986 was 79 withatotal output capacity,of 52,101 mw. Total number of customers in England and Wales on 31 March 1986 was 21,486,941 (on 31 March 1985,21,265,176). Electricity sold in England and Wales in 1985-86 amounted to 213,178m. units. Operating profit before MWCA in 1985-86 was £944-2m. Coal used for electricity generation in 1985-86 amounted to 79m. tonnes (40-5m. tonnes in 1984-85). Total fuel (coal equivalent) used in 1984-85 amounted to 97-2m. tonnes and in 1985-86 to 100-72m. tonnes. Ten nuclear stations of total output capacity 5,029 mw provided 16-7% of total units supplied in 1985-86. Eight of these are gas cooled graphite-moderated stations using natural uranium fuel canned in magnesium alloy (Magnox) and 2 are advanced gas-cooled stations (AGR). The number of persons employed by the Generating Board, the Electricity Council and Area Boards at the end of March 1986 was 131,466. The North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board, established under the HydroElectric Development (Scotland) Act 1943, is a nationalized authority responsible for the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of electricity to its 578,000 consumers. The Board's district coveis a quarter of the land mass of Great Britain and lies generally north and west of a line joining the firths of Clyde and Tay as well as all the island groups extending to the Outer Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland. Over 99% of potential consumers have now been provided with supply. On the mainland the Board operates generating stations with a total installed generating capacity of 3,216 mw consisting of 1,762 mw of hydro power and

1314

UNITED KINGDOM

pumped storage, together with 1,320 mw of steam. Diesel stations with a total installed capacity of 102 mw supply the principal island groups together with 32 mw gas turbine. A 1,320 mw of oil/gas fired thermal plant is now operating at Peterhead. The main transmission system consists of 5,097 circuit km of275 kv and 132 kv lines linking the power stations and the bulk supply points serving the distribution networks, "file system control centre at Pitlochry co-ordinates the operation of the transmission system and power stations together with the continuous interchange of power with the South of Scotland Electricity Board. The number of staff at the end of the year was 3,767. The South of Scotland Electricity Board was established in April 1955 by the Electricity Reorganisation (Scotland) Act 1954, replacing in South Scotland 2 Electricity Boards and 2 Divisions of the British Electricity Authority. The area of Scotland served by the Board lies south of a line from the Firth of Clyde to the Firth of Tay and extends to about 8,000 sq. miles (21,000 sq. km), including the industrial belt of Scotland, with a population of 4m. By special arrangement a small part of North-East England is also supplied. The remainder of Scotland is served by the North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board. The Board differs from those established in England and Wales in that its responsibilities cover not only the distribution of electricity and retail sale of electrical appliances but also the generation and transmission of bulk power within South Scotland. At 31 March 1986 the Board operated 17 generating stations (including 2 nuclear and 8 hydro-electric stations) with a total output capacity of6,230 mw (total effective capacity however, has been reduced by placing 1,284 mw of plant at 1 station in storage for an indefinite period). In 1985—86 the Board sold 18,774m. units to more than 1 -65m. consumers and had a total revenue of £887m. The number of staff employed at the end of the year was 11,883. Oil. Production 1985, in 1,000 tonnes (1984 in brackets): Throughput of crude and process oils, 79,431 (79,117); refinery use, 5,197 (5,350); gases, 1,496 (1,656); naphtha, 2,883 (3,206); motor spirit, 22,254 (22,236); kerosene, 7,564 (7,418); diesel oil, 21,701 (21,547); fuel oil, 12,896(13,071); lubricating oils, 1,188(1,108); bitumen, 1,764 (1,795). Total output of refined products, 72,904 (73,187). Gas. Following the Gas Act of 1986, British Gas pic became the successor company to the British Gas Corporation. Its primary activities are the purchase, distribution and sale of gas, supported by a broad range of services to customers. It also explores for and produces gas. It is organized into a headquarters and twelve Regions. British Gas explores for gas through 3 wholly owned subsidiary companies: Gas Council (Exploration) Limited (UK onshore and Denmark offshore); Hydrocarbons Great Britain Limited (Irish Sea and Cardigan Bay); Hydrocarbons Ireland Limited, (offshore Eire). British Gas owns and operates two gas fields, Morecambe and Rough field. The latter is used as a gas store and both have been developed to help meet peak whiter demand. In 1985—86, British Gas sold 18,701m. therms ofgas. There were 16-2m. domestic customers, who used 10,047m. therms; 87,000 industrial customers, who used 5,915m. therms; and 501,000 commercial customers, who used 2,739m. therms. Gas sales continued to increase, the industry winning 270,000 new customers. The turnover of British Gas in 1985-86 was £7,687m. Current cost operating profit was £688m. before tax. In March 1986, there were 89,000 people employed directly by the industry. Minerals. Coal. The number of National Coal Board producing collieries on 29 March 1986 was 133. Statistics of the coalmining industry (including licensed mines) for recent years are as follows:

GREAT Saleable output of coal: Total deep-mined (1 m. tonnes) Opencast (1 m. tonnes) Average weekly number of wageearners on colliery books (1,000): All workers (NCB only) Underground workers (NCB only) Coal exports: Total (lm. tonnes) 1

1315

BRITAIN

¡982-83

1983-84 '

1984-852

1985-86

105-6 15-2

90-8 14-4

28-2 14-5

89-2 15-3

207-6 167-9

191-5 155-8

175-4 142-7

154-6 126-0

6-8

3-5

3-3

53 week year.

7-1 1

Strike year.

Total stocks of coal on 29 March 1986 amounted to 31-2m. tonnes (22-9m. tonnes distributed, 8 -3m. tonnes undistributed). Trading profit made by the NCB for the year ended 29 March 1986 amounted to £3 89m. Interest payable was £437m., of which to the Secretary of State for Energy, £383m. There was a Deficit grant of£50m. from the Government for the year ended 29 March 1986. Production of coke (including coke breeze), 1985-86,1-7m. tonnes. In 1985-86 inland consumption (in lm. tonnes) of coal is estimated to have been 118-5, some of the principal users being: Power stations, 86-1; coke ovens, 11-5; domestic, 8-8; other conversion industries, 2-3; collieries, 0-4; industry, 7-8. The UK is among the 10 largest steel producing countries in the world. Output in recent years was as follows (in 1,000 tonnes):

1984 1985 1986

Pig-iron 9,562 10,458 9,785

Crude steel 15,120 15,722 14,730

Home consumption Finished steel Crude steel products equivalent 11,451 14,290 11,855 14,240

Exports of finished steel products were 5 • 1 m. tonnes in 1986 and imports 4-lm. tonnes. The industry is divided between the 'public sector' and the 'private sector'. The British Steel Corporation, which was established by the Iron and Steel Act 1967, took over the 14 largest UK iron and steel making concerns (and their subsidiaries) in July 1967 and merged them into a single publicly owned business. With a turnover of more than £3,735m. in 1985-86, the British Steel Corporation ranks as one of Britain's major manufacturing industries and is one of the world's largest steel makers. The number of employees at the end of 1986 was 52,400. A substantial part of the British steel industry remains in private ownership and there were in 1986 a number of significant producers in mixed public/private ownership. Companies other than the British Steel Corporation are now responsible for about 22% of total UK liquid steel production, and 33% of finished steel production. The independent producers are represented by BISPA (British Independent Steel Producers Association) and for some products such as wire rod, reinforcement steel, bright bars, wire, open-die forgings and high speed and tool steels, they cover nearly all UK production. Pig iron produced in blast furnaces was 10-45m. tonnes in 1985 (9-56m. in 1984). Consumption of pig iron in steelworks, 10- 13m. tonnes in 1985 (9-27m. in 1984); in iron foundries, 160,000 tonnes ( 190,000). Production of non-ferrous metals in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Refined copper, 125-5 (136-9 in 1984); refined lead, 307-7 (338-4); tin metal, 13-8 in 1984; virgin aluminium, 275 -4 (287 -9); slab zinc, 74-3 (85 -6). Agriculture. The total land area of the UK is 24m. hectares, of which 18-70m. (1985) is agricultural.

1316

UNITED

KINGDOM

Distribution of the cultivated area in the UK (in 1,000 hectares): 1984 4,037 1,056 5 56 42 1,794 5,105

Corn'crops 1 Green crops 2 Hops Fruit Bare fallow Rotation grasses including lucerne Permanent pasture

1985 4,015 1,150 5 54 41 1,796 5,019

' Includes wheat, barley, rye and oats. Green crops include beans, potatoes, turnips and swedes, mangolds, sugar-beet, cabbage, etc., for fodder, vegetables, and allother crops. 2

The number of workers employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing in the UK was, in June 1985,339,000; 318,000 were solely engaged in agriculture; there were also (June 1985) 291,700 farmers, partners and directors. Principal crops in the UK as at June in each year: Wheat

Barley

Oats

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

1,491 1,663 1,695 1,939 1,902

2,327 2,222 2,143 1,978 1,965

144 129 108 106 133

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

8,710 10,310 10,880 14,970 12,050

10,230 10,960 10,080 11,070 9,740

Fodder crops

Beans Potatoes Area (1.000 hectares) 58 191 52 192 45 195 42 198 56 191

Total product (1,000 tonnes) 620 209 6,215 229 575 6,875 465 188 4,780 515 223 7,395 615 243 6,895

Sugarbeet

Rapefor oilseed

222 166 180 191 229

210 204 199 199 269

125 174 222 205 296

7,945 7,565 6,160 7,085 6,655

7,395 10,005 7,494 9,015 7,715

325 581 563 925 895

Livestock in the UK as at June in each year (in 1,000): Cattle Sheep Pigs Poultry

1981 13,137 32,091 7,828 132,286

1982 13,242 33,053 8,023 135,363

1983 13,290 34,069 8,174 128,260

1984 13,213 34,802 7,689 127,507

1985 12,865 35,628 7,865 128,968

Forestry. On 31 March 1985 the area of productive woodland in Britain was 2,037,000 hectares of which the Forestry Commission managed 892,000 hectares and the private sector 1,145,000 hectares. The Forestry Commission employed 6,275 staff in 1985. In addition a further 10,900 were employed in private forestry with an estimated 8,100 engaged in the wood processing industry. In 1984-85 a total of4-77m. eu. mètres of timber was thinned and felled. New Planting (1984-85) 21,200 hectares (5,200, Forestry Commission; 16,000, private woodlands). James, N. D. G., A History of English Forestry. London, 1981

Fisheries. Quantity (in 1,000 tonnes) and value (in £1,000) of fish of British taking landed in Great Britain (excluding salmon and sea-trout): Quantity Wet fish Shellfish Value Wet fish Shell fish

1981 664-6 62-9

1982 689-4 60-0

1983 659 2 66-9

1984 646-2 67-6

1985 668-4 69-4

727-5

749-4

726-1

713-8

737-8

188,152 34,405

213,108 38,685

224,625 47,243

235,852 53,404

253,021 59,542

222,557

251,793

271,868

289,256

312,563

GREAT

1317

BRITAIN

The fishing fleet of England and Wales comprised (1985) 6,137 vessels including 1,894 trawlers and 741 line fishing vessels; the Scottish fleet (1985) 2,198 vessels including 734 trawlers and 983 shell fishing vessels other than nephrops (Norway lobster) trawlers. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Statistics of a cross-section of industrial production are as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Sulphuric acid Synthetic resins Cotton single yarn Wool tops Woollen yarn Man-made fibres (rayon, nylon, etc.) Newsprint Other paper and board Cement Fabricated aluminium (to consumers)

1983 2,629 1,411 41 39 56 389 80 3,21« 13,396 461

1984 2,654 1,442 38 43 61 383 236 3,352 13,481 474

1985 2,525 1,402 39 45 64 504 349 3,335 13,339 466

Engineering. Manufacturers' sales (in £lm.) for 1985 (1984 in brackets): Motor vehicles and engines, 6,725 {5,493); motor vehicle bodies and parts, 3,688 (3,604); boilers and process plant, 1,575 (1,621); constructional steelwork, 1,476 (1,366); mechanical lifting and handling equipment, 1,561 (1,451); refrigerating, spaceheating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment, 1,150 (1,134); construction and earth-moving equipment, 1,011 (878), wheeled tractors, 980 (1,016); industrial (including marine) engines, 883 (920). Electrical Goods. Manufacturers' sales (in £lm.) for 1985 (1984 in brackets): Radio and electronic capital goods, 2,663 (2,467); basic electrical equipment, 2,296 (2,343); electronic data processing equipment, 3,178 (2,393); telephone and telegraph apparatus and equipment, 1,654 (1,475); domestic electrical appliances, 1,205(1,140). Textile Manufacturers. Production of woven cloth for 1985 (1984 in brackets): cotton (lm. metres), 274 (265); man-made fibres (lm. metres), 206-6 (182-7); woven woollen and worsted fabrics ( 1 m. sq. metres), deliveries, 90-9 (90• 7). Construction. Total value (in £1 m.) of constructional work by all agencies in 1985 was 27,850 (26,203 in 1984), including new work, 14,921 (14,192) of which new housing, 4,766 (4,908). Houses for private developers, 3,848 (3,831). New work (other than housing) for private developers, 6,368 (5,452), for public authorities, 3,786(3,833). Annual Abstract of Statistics. HMSO Statistical Summary of the Mineral Industry HMSO, annual

Labour. The distribution of total manpower in Great Britain was in June 1985 (in 1,000): Total working population, 26,930 (16,042 males, 10,888 females). Total employed in armed forces and women's services, 326. Total in civil employment, 21,003, including agriculture, 309; energy and water supply, 605 (of which coalmining, 216); manufacture, 5,431; public administration and defence, 1,529; transport and communications, 1,286; construction, 947; distributive trades, 3,104; insurance, banking, business services, 1,946; education, 1,542; medicine, 1,321. The average monthly numbers (based on claimants in 1,000) of registered unemployed in Great Britain were: 1980, 1,591 (1,129 males; 461 females); 1981, 2,422 (1,773; 649); 1982,2,809 (2,056; 753); 1983,2,988 (2,134;854); 1984,3,038 (2,110; 929); 1985,3,149 (2,164; 986).

1318

UNITED

KINGDOM

Trade Unions. In Jan. 1986 there were 88 unions affiliated to the Trades Union Congress with a total membership of9,585,729 (including about 3m. women). The unions affiliated to the TUC in 1986 ranged in size from the Transport and General Workers' Union, with 1,434,005 members, to the Sheffield Wool Shear Workers' Society with 26 members. Non-manual workers accounted for nearly a third of the total TUC membership. The TUC's executive body, the General Council, is elected at the annual Congress. It is composed of 48 members made up of 31 members nominated by unions with a membership of over 100,000, entitled to automatic representation in proportion to their size, 11 members elected by and from unions smaller than 100,000 and 6 members elected by Congress as a whole to represent women workers. The General Secretary is elected by the Congress but is not subject to annual reelection. The TUC General Council appoints committees, which draw upon the services of specialist departments in preparing policies on economic, education, international, employment, industrial organization, and social questions. The TUC is affiliated to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the Trade Union Advisory Committee of OECD, the Commonwealth Trade Union Council and the European Trade Union Confederation. The TUC provides a service of trade union education. It provides members to serve, with representatives of employers, on joint committees advising the Government on issues of national importance (e.g., National Economic Development Council and various Royal Commissions) and on the managing boards of such bodies as the Health and Safety Commission; Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service; and Manpower Services Commission. The following table relates to trade disputes for recent years: 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

No. of workers involved 1,499,000 2,103,000 571,000 1,391,000 791,000

Working days lost through stoppages 4,266,000 5,313,000 3,754,000 27,135,000 6,402,000

Commerce. Value of the imports and exports of merchandise (excluding bullion and specie and foreign merchandise transhipped under bond) of the UK for 6 recent years (in £ 1,000): 1981 1982 1983

Total imports 51,163,579 56,940,267 65,993,096

Total exports 50,995,080 55,538,408 60,533,692

1984 1985 1986

Total imports 78,705,170 84,789,605 86,066,650

Total exports 70,511,345 78,331,360 73,009,049

The value of goods imported is generally taken to be that at the port and time of entry, including all incidental expenses (cost, insurance and freight) up to the landing on the quay. For goods consigned for sale, the market value in this country is required and recorded in the returns. For exports, the value at the port of shipment (including the charges of delivering the goods on board) is taken.. Imports are entered as from the country whence the goods were consigned to the UK, which may, or may not, be the country whence they were last shipped. Exports are credited to the country of ultimate destination as declared by the exporters. For details ofimports and exports for 1985 and 1986,.see pp. 1319-23. Trade according to countries for 1985 and 1986 (in £1,000):

GREAT BRITAIN

1319

Imports of merchandise from 1985' 1986'

Countries

Foreign countries Europe and Overseas PossessionsAlbania Austria Belgium and Luxembourg Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark and Faroe Islands Finland France German Dem. Rep. Germany (Fed. Rep. of) Greece Hungary Iceland Italy Netherlands Netherlands Antilles Norway Poland Portugal, Azores and Madeira Romania Spain Canary Islands Sweden Switzerland and Liechtenstein Turkey USSR Yugoslavia European Communities EFTA Africa— Algeria Angola Burundi Cameroon Côte d'Ivoire Liberia Libya Mali Mauritania Morocco Mozambique Rwanda Senegal South Africa, Republic of S.W Africa/Namibia Sudan Tunisia Zaire Asia— Afghanistan Bahrain Burma China Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Korea (South) Kuwait 1

Exports of merchandise to 1985' 1986'

212 630,586 4,016,889 22,291 120,017 1,736,616 1,324,792 6,632,410 204,293 12,601,387 320.131 84,114 128,281 4,293,941 6,550,734 163,236 4,367,154 320,276 695,744 102,946 1,770,862 64,625 2,465,582 2,371,090 538,462 724,453 122.132 38,946,732 11,983,229

129 705,732 4,083,883 32,459 125,399 1,773,554 1,346,058 7,348,574 195,513 14,139,097 308,644 77,228 173,140 4,658,036 6,615,851 79,085 3,265,157 309,746 768,470 86,730 1,777,385 63,529 2,756,536 2,989,112 406,605 694,624 145,127 44,505,878 11,235,735

5,252 381,047 3,347,596 109,970 100,452 1,377,161 705,365 7,751,751 63,797 8,947,055 335,352 107,226 76,914 3,466,495 7,344,681 19,844 1,140,376 184,143 439,499 78,474 1,556,317 48,946 3,006,890 1,306,757 460,220 536,555 177,530 36,207,329 7,056,849

2,887 403,000 3,832,605 80,504 108,841 1,217,346 664,461 6,210,216 81,276 8,542,196 356,020 101,557 73,640 3,472,364 5,442,503 24,232 1,147,790 182,841 472,078 82,011 1,908,241 66,949 2,307,900 1,575,247 433,753 539,368 188,390 35,003,469 6,172,036

251,462 150,639 3,367 73,746 116,699 162,162 13,805 5,967 311,764 4,804 6,311 74,820 6,908 3,998 17,671 989,757 21,920 21,323 39,826 35,198

140,860 43,147 3,074 7,634 117,058 328,053 22,343 7,574 136,390 8,282 2,184 65,419 1,335 7,487 13,881 829,305 6,826 12,826 17,292 17,192

176,596 43,187 1,592 44,806 29,514 471,091 66,089 15,957 237,639 7,294 2,069 92,658 11,343 3,565 13,514 1,009,629 4,084 103,635 43,209 34,975

129,624 30,896 2,324 34,368 34,266 371,007 50,049 22,056 260,529 4,121 2,496 84,510 13,175 1,681 12,328 849,557 2,915 83,335 39,824 34,217

52,061 45,219 9,944 307,963 155,934 63,317 44,125 403,952 4,117,024 85,077 480,448 156,912

11,913 19,732 6,092 327,032 141,242 100,303 66,129 385,164 4,932,497 49,766 661,975 58,517

13,882 161,560 20,221 396,156 172,818 525,589 444,749 434,470 1,012,436 154,270 247,887 347,915

11,444 130,991 10,835 535,943 196,629 399,373 443,890 462,407 1,193,933 130,385 288,421 300,586

Provisional figures.

1320

UNITED

KINGDOM Imports of merchandise from 1985' 1986'

Countries Asia—(contd.j Lebanon Pakistan Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Syria Thailand America— Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala Haiti Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Puerto Rico Uruguay USA Venezuela Total (including those not specified above) Commonwealth countries: In Europe— Cyprus Gibraltar Malta In Africa West Africa: Gambia Ghana Nigeria, Federation of Sierra Leone South Africa: Botswana Lesotho Malawi Swaziland Zambia Zimbabwe East Africa: Kenya Mauritius Tanzania Uganda Seychelles St Helena In Asia— Bangladesh Hong Kong India Malaysia Singapore Sri Lanka 1

Exports of merchandise to 1985' ¡986'

7,888 119,006 179,979 32,607 483,634 78,575 131,806

9,845 131,296 182,852 29,587 435,930 31,298 182,756

52,751 255,419 94,370 142,065 1,256,081 80,901 157,723

55,867 227,064 79,809 112,143 1,507,062 55,511 158,195

2,032 t4,434 610,624 134,750 112,486 22,646 7,273 7,900 19,015 1,662 5,176 1,512 11,139 236,811 1,324 14,612 2,086 108,943 126,971 28,824 9,919,689 238,879

28,635 10,225 552,559 128,007 94,112 30,318 8,555 7,599 11,339 1,323 8,098 899 5,280 116,078 1,307 4,950 1,455 82,141 81,131 41,366 8,468,160 96,339

3,815 10,443 211,512 73,914 82,639 14,413 59,332 14,595 58,628 8,507 13,397 5,048 9,026 203,404 6,368 55,424 15,540 40,371 117,861 15,513 11,498,802 165,268

10,115 3,663 295,152 67,459 58,084 12,007 58,760 15,178 46,673 6,917 9,288 5,147 9,213 162,328 7,349 44,975 31,010 48,275 49,620 24,465 10,379,585 170,101

74,332,765

75,731,040

65,896,549

61,296,656

93,689 3,582 51,794

124,198 6,021 49,197

150,921 47,052 101,247

140,387 46,200 101,877

2,823 99,410 660,410 17,435

2,273 103,480 329,036 11,599

11,918 116,883 960,703 23,620

16,707 113,218 566,176 17,403

20,998 290 87,218 41,281 27,879 90,398

16,652 277 56,983 48,194 27,260 80,702

6,680 3,023 20,525 3,122 85,949 73,571

8,629 2,128 28,557 3,922 77,840 61,937

185,622 122,829 46,640 48,571 1,663 4,515

163,745 153,271 40,268 50,870 938 380

160,651 28,512 88,622 39,925 9,561 7,914

170,671 32,087 62,869 26,046 9,639 8,196

35,348 1,175,984 431,785 383,860 441,345 73,956

34,117 1,530,786 440,681 350,058 462,878 51,860

69,420 949,180 894,708 281,671 612,920 79,234

48,218 960,956 941,169 226,912 547,419 83,316

Provisional figures.

GREAT

Countries Oceania— Australia Fiji Islands Nauru New Zealand Papua New Guinea Western Samoa In America— Bahamas Barbados Belize Bermuda Canada Falkland Islands Guyana Jamaica Leeward Islands (Anguilla, St. Kitts-Nevis; Antigua and Barbuda; Montserrat) Trinidad and Tobago Windward Islands (Dominica, St. Lucia; St. Vincent and the Grenadines) In

Imports of merchandise from 19851 1986'

Exports of merchandise to 1985' 1986'

738,986 38,328 479 32,716 59,642 292

643,238 66,500 148 455,694 38,474 622

1,373,184 9,843 1,199 396,595 12,592 619

1,227,647 8,775 1,239 343,145 12,084 433

70,763 13,512 15,050 6,394 1,652,812 7,434 52,377 89,684

10,266 17,954 1,262 1,499,600 14,286 55,535 87,416

74,059 36,856 8,329 28,024 1,692,487 9,502 18,406 44,290

95,816 38,338 8,232 26,180 1,698,372 11,135 13,737 43,378

8,090 81,719

6,916 41,622

38,138 93,897

28,844 79,029

84,496

107,628

28,407

29,509

7,640,833

7,281,803

8,791,967

8,154,021

2,816,007

3,053,807

3,642,844

3,558,372

84,789,605 86,066,650 ' Provisional figures.

78,331,360

73,009,049

Total, Commonwealth countries (including those not specified above) Ireland Grand Total

1321

BRITAIN

11,661

Imports and exports for 1985 and 1986 (Great Britain and Northern Ireland) (in £ 1,000). ¡mpori values c i.f. Export values fo.b 0. Food and Live Animals Live animals (excluding zoo animals, dogsandcats) Meat and meat preparations Dairy products and eggs Fish and fish preparations Cereals and cereal preparations Fruit and vegetables Sugar, sugar preparations, honey Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices Feeding stuff for animals Miscellaneous food preparations

Total imports 1985' 1986' 238,400 1,400,994 606,060 600,750 713,278 2,037,022 443,425 1,205,663 488,601 308,951

293,411 1,465,501 653,335 748,667 769,332 2,184,378 530,321 1,220,802 527,311 326,888

261,960 494,976 281,110 260,296 834,212 205,309 220,796 390,815 121,839 179,664

299,907 521,928 331,530 323,568 1,177,089 251,738 170,374 363,992 139,285 160,639

Total of Section 0

8,043,144

8,719,946

3,250,977

3,740,050

843,798 386,753

1,008,272 338,764

1,253,720 465,369

1,331,668 406,271

1,230,551

1,347,036

1,719,089

1,737,939

238,893 238,819

216,377 271,253

288,258 90,597

260,183 155,505

228,506 895,250 505,726 663,099

203,581 1,000,399 523,309 546,891

173,472 25,735 24,684 428,276

183,040 22,913 25,015 373,020

354,103 316,955 Provisional figures.

278,852

272,281

1 Beverages and Tobacco Beverages Tobacco and tobacco manufactures Total of Section 1 2 Crude Materials, Inedible, except Fuels Hides, skins and furskms, undressed Oil seeds, oil nuts and oil kernels Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed) Wood and cork Pulp and waste paper Textile fibres and their waste Crude fertilizers and crude minerals (excluding fuels) 1

Domestic 1985'

exports 1986'

1322

UNITED

Import values c. If Export valuesf.o.b. 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, except Fuels—Contd. Metalliferous ores and metal scrap Crude animal and vegetable materials, not elsewhere specified

KINGDOM Total imports 1986' 1985'

1,371,744

1,139,774

Domestic exports 1985' 1986' 644,810

538,593

360,994

404,164

94,255

110,390

Total of Section 2

4,857,134

4,622,702

2,048,939

1,940,940

3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials Coal, coke and briquettes Petroleum and petroleum products Gas, natural and manufactured

735,882 8,173,683 1,607,492

479,523 4,393,537 1,380,102

179,216 16,049,838 482,595

190,888 8,221,244 271,244

10,517,056

6,294,083

16,711,649

8,683,376

531,729

365,132

95,892

105,279

2,790,968

2,783,337

3,722,887

3,708,712

310,930

396,544

692,038

763,295

Total 2 of Section 3 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats 5. Chemicals Chemical elements and compounds Dyeing, tanning and colouring materials Medicinal and pharmaceutical products Essential oils and perfume; toilet and cleansing preparations Fertilizers, manufactured Plastic materials

590,447

679,664

1,425,879

1,532,790

443,349 217,323 1,764,486

480,276 212,666 1,985,787

767,926 74,773 1,330,801

807,770 67,394 1,401,435

Total 2 of Section 5

6,902,973

7,345,713

9,411,022

9,691,770

6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material Leather and dressed furs Rubber Wood and cork (excluding furniture) Paper, paperboard Textile yarn, fabrics Non-metallic mineral manufactures Iron and steel Non-ferrous metals Manufactures of metal, not elsewhere specified

250,340 527,434 632,615 2,533,199 3,032,244 2,243,628 1,716,368 1,904,014

247,931 589,750 686,571 2,702,999 3,162,566 2,661,661 1,796,339 1,836,184

295,188 554,230 84,115 767,437 1,701,273 2,163,316 1,856,847 1,379,623

321,610 611,899 77,239 824,334 1,711,509 2,549,241 1,866,690 1,551,482

1,508,094

1,643,853

1,620,287

1,464,989

Total of Section 6

14,347,935

15,327,853

10,422,316

10,978,993

1,996,009

2,238,013

3,076,079

3,248,615

5,457,529 4,511,597

5,763,271 4,545,107

6,537,413 3,746,691

6,718,008 3,561,693

6,410,703 8,523,485

6,848,681 9,374,129

4,677,317 6,646,646

4,785,367 7,035,243

26,899,322

28,769,201

24,684,145

25,348,927

7. Machinery and Transport Equipment Boilers, engines, motors and powerunits Agricultural and Industrial machinery Office machinery Electrical machinery, apparatus, not elsewhere specified Transport equipment Total of Section 7 1 1

Provisional figures. Includes items not specified here.

GREAT Import values c.i.f. Export values f.o.b. 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures Furniture Travel goods, handbags and similar articles Clothing Footwear Scientific instruments; cameras, watches and clocks Miscellaneous manufactured articles, not elsewhere specified Total ofSection 8 9. Commodities and Transactions Classified According to Kind

Total imports 1985' 19861

Domestic 1985'

exports 19861

177,425 662,800

216,700 776,027

134,717 357,645

126,275 356,359

174,927 2,094,680 671,550

199,865 2,386,678 735,020

29,397 1,171,923 159,195

30,576 1,228,286 167,209

2,937,439

3,077,792

2,968,361

3,127,684

3,418,911

3,998,874

3,175,194

3,539,146

10,137,731

11,390,957

7,996,432

8,575,536

not

Total ofSection 9 Total 2 ofall classes 1

1323

BRITAIN

Provisional figures.

1,322,029

1,884,027

1,990,900

2,205,241

84,789,605

86,066,650

78,331,360

73,009,049

1

Includes items not specified here.

Tourism. There were an estimated 13-75m. overseas visitors in 1986. Foreign exchange from tourism was approximately £7,000m. including fares paid to British air and shipping lines. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Central government responsibility for highways in England rests with the Secretary of State for Transport. His responsibilities are administered by the Department of Transport through a number of Directorates at Headquarters together with 9 Regional Offices. For Welsh and Scottish roads central government responsibility rests with the Secretaries of State for Wales and Scotland respectively. The Secretary of State is the highway authority responsible for all trunk roads. The Shire County Councils, the Metropolitan District Councils, the London Borough Councils and the Common Council of the City of London are the highway authorities responsible for local roads in their own areas. The Secretary of State has powers to provide roads designed for limited classes of motor traffic, and to confirm schemes for the provision of such special roads by local authorities. The former have the status of trunk roads; the latter principal roads. 2,968 km of motorway were open to traffic in Great Britain in 1986 (2,606 km of trunk motorway in England, 237 km in Scotland and Wales and 125 km of principal motorway) and some 75 km of motorway under construction. The design and supervision of the construction of major trunk road schemes is carried out by firms of consulting engineers and by local authorities which act as the Secretary of State's agents. The Regional Offices ensure that schemes progress in accordance with the Secretary of State's statutory and financial responsibilities. Directors (Transport) are responsible for smaller trunk road schemes and for the maintenance of all trunk roads, including motorways. Local authorities can act as the Secretary of State's agents for construction and maintenance. The work is carried out by them or by contractors on their behalf and the cost borne by Central Government. Aid to local authorities' transport expenditure is now given through Rate Support Grant and through Transport Supplementary Grant; the latter is paid to all local highway authorities on capital expenditure on roads and traffic regulation accepted by the Secretary of State as being of more than local importance.

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UNITED KINGDOM

Public highways in Great Britain in 1986, excluding lengths of unsurfaced roads (green lanes), totalled 350,607 km (England, 266,984 km; Wales, 32,870 km; Scotland, 50,753 km). There were 12,363 km of all-purpose trunk roads, 2,968 km of trunk and principal motorways, 34,770 km of principal roads (excluding motorways) and 300,454 km of other roads. Motor vehicles for which licences were current under the Vehicle (Excise) Act, 1971, at 31 Dec. 1985, numbered 21-17m., including 16-45m. private cars and light goods vehicles, l-15m. mopeds, scooters and motor cycles, 120,000 public transport vehicles and 2 -29m. goods vehicles. New vehicle registrations in 1985 numbered 2 • 31 m. Road casualties in Great Britain numbered in 1985, 318,000 including 5,165 killed; in 1984,324,000 including 5,599 killed. Railways. The British Railways Board as a public authority owns and manages British Rail, the national rail network, British Rail Engineering Ltd., British Rail Property Board, Freightliners Ltd., Transportation Systems and Market Research Ltd. (Transmark) and Travellers-Fare. The role of the Board is to determine policies and objectives, establish the organisation to carry them out, monitor performance and take major decisions. The Group turnover 1985-86 was £3,145-2m. and just over 173,760 staff were employed, of which 142,757 were involved in the railway business. The management of the railways is the responsibility of the Vice-Chairman. He establishes plans and budgets for the achievement of objectives set by the Board, monitors and achieves results against the plans and budgets, and directs the organisation and deployment of manpower resources. He is assisted by other Board members with responsibility for functions such as Engineering, Research, Finance and Planning, Marketing, Operating, Productivity and Personnel. In the year ending 31 March 1986, British Rail carried 139- 7m. tonnes of freight and parcels and 708 -2m. passenger journeys were made. The rail business is split into 5 sectors and directors act on behalf of the ViceChairman to control policy. The sectors are InteiCity, Network South East, Provincial, Freight and Parcels. A director is responsible for efficient operation and budgeting within his sector, each of which bears its fair share of the fixed costs of operation, such as signalling and track maintenance. The day-to-day running of the rail network is the responsibility of 5 geographical regional general managers to whom local area and station managers report. Passenger Receipts and Traffic 1 Receipts Passenger journeys Passenger miles (estimated) Freight Train Traffic Receipts Traffic Net tonne miles (trainload and wagonload) Locomotives Diesel Electric High Speed Tains Power cars Passenger carriages Coaching vehicles Freight vehicles (excluding brake vans) Stations Route open for traffic

1

1984-85 1

1985-86

£m. m. m.

1,490-8 857-2 22,600 0

1,319-6 708-2 18,800-0

£m. m. tonnes

401-6 96-8

528-5 139-7

m.

9,844-0

9,971-0

2,467 244

2,338 243

197 709 14,303

197 722 14,062

45,174 2,524 10,441

39,007 2,526 10,395

miles 15 months.

The London Regional Transport (formerly London Transport Executive) is the authority responsible for the operation of the capital's Underground and bus ser-

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vices. Overall policy and financial control is exercised by the Secretary of State for Transport. In Jan. 1986, London Underground had 241 route miles of railway open for traffic and also operated over 10 route miles owned by British Rail. Rolling stock owned: Underground, 3,875 (2,475 motor cars, 1,400 trailer cars); buses, 4,670. In the financial year 1985-86, the number of train miles run in passenger service was 29 • 7m.; number of bus miles run in passenger service was 162m. The number of passenger journeys was: Underground 762m.; buses 1,146m. Aviation. Pursuant to the Civil Aviation Act 1980, the business and undertaking of British Airways Board was transferred to and vested in a limited liability company, British Airways Pic, with effect from 1 April 1984. Although HM Government initially held all the shares in the new company, the company was denationalized in Feb. 1987. British Airways is engaged in the provision of air transport services for passengers, cargo and mail worldwide, both on scheduled and charter services. It operates long and short haul international services, as well as an extensive domestic network. In 1985-86, it carried 19 7m. passengers, and at 31 March 1986 it had a fleet of 187 aircraft (including 29 helicopters, which were subsequently sold) and it employed 39,969 personnel. In addition to British Airways, there were in 1985 about 50 independent air transport operators, the principal ones being British Caledonian Airways, Britannia Airway and British Midland Airways. In recent years there has been a significant expansion of the independent operators. Following the Civil Aviation Act 1971, the Civil Aviation Authority was established as an independent public body responsible for the economic and safety regulation of British civil aviation. It took over the responsibilities of the former Air Transport Licensing Board and Air Registration Board, and also runs the National Air Traffic Services in conjunction with the.Ministry of Defence. In addition to the public transport operators there are a number of companies engaged in miscellaneous aviation activities such as crop-spraying, aerial survey and photography, and flying instruction. The operating and traffic statistics of the UK airlines on scheduled services during the calendar year 1985 (and 1984) are as follows: Aircraft km flown, 371m. (351m.); revenue passengers earned, 24 • 8 m. (22 • 6m.); cargo (freight and mail) carried 358,927 (363,461) tonnes. Traffic between the UK. airports and places abroad in 1985 (and 1984) on all services included 579,303 (566,319) air transport aircraft movements. There were 10,796 and 11,237 civil aircraft registered in the UK at 31 Dec. 1985 and 1986 respectively. Shipping. The UK flag merchant fleet in July 1986 totalled 16m. DWT (dry cargo, 6-9m. DWT; tankers 9 1 m . DWT) representing 2 5% of the world fleet. The total number of UK flag ships was 961. The number of UK nationality seafarers was about 29,000 as at 31 Dec. 1986. Capital investment in new tonnage and facilities by British shipping companies 1979-85 (inclusive) was over £2,200m. In 1985 capital expenditure was an estimated £242m. The average age of UK owned and registered tonnage in mid-1986 was 10-1 years. Total gross earnings by UK owned and registered ships in 1985 amounted to £2,496m. The net contribution to UK balance of payments was £745m. and, in addition, there were gross import savings of £637m. On 30 Nov. 1986,46 UK flag ships (435,000 DWT) were laid up out of a world total of954 ships (23 -9m. DWT). Inland Waterways. There are approximately 2,500 miles of navigable canals and locked river navigations in Great Britain. Of these, the British Waterways. Board is responsible for some 350 miles of commercial waterways (maintained for freight traffic) and some 1,200 miles of cruising waterways (maintained for pleasure cruising, fishing and amenity). The Board is also responsible for a further 600 miles of canals, some of which are no longer navigable and whose future is being considered in conjunction with local authorities; a number of these lengths have been restored

1326

UNITED KINGDOM

for cruising or as local amenities. The Board's turnover for the 12 months to 31 March 1986 were £18 - 15m. The total freight traffic on the Board's waterways for the same period was 4 07m. tonnes. The most important of the river navigations and canals under other authorities include the rivers Thames, Great Quse, Nene and Yorkshire Ouse, the Norfolk Broads and the Manchester Ship Canal. The Port of Manchester was opened to maritime traffic in 1894 by the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, which is 35'A miles in length and owned and operated by the Manchester Ship Canal Company. The entrance lock is 80 ft (24-38 metres) wide and the maximum width of other Jocks within the canal is 65 ft (19-81 metres). Ships up to 28 ft 10 in. (8 -78 metres) freshwater draught can navigate 'to Ince Oil Berth; ships up to 24 ft (7-31 metres) draught can navigate to Manchester docks but within these docks draught is limited to 22 ft (6 • 70 metres). The Port of Manchester includes the Queen Elizabeth II Oil Dock at Eastham (separate entrance lock 100 ft wide), the oil docks at Stanlow and a considerable number of public and private wharves and installations along the panal, as well as the container terminal at Ellesmere Port. Total sea-borne and barge traffic in 1985 amounted to 9 75m. tonnes; operating revenue, £21 2m.; loss after tax, £1 85m. The total issued share capital at 31 Dec. 1985 was £8m. Farnie, D. A., The Manchester Ship Canal and the Rige ofthe Port of Manchester Manchester Univ. Press, 1980 Hadfield, C„ British Canals. 6th ed. Newton Abbot, 1979

Posts and Telecommunications. In Oct. 1981 the Post Office ceased to control telecommunications services, which became the responsibility of a separate corporation, British Telecom. The Post Office provides: Royal Mail general collection and delivery services, handling 46m. letters and parcels a day; Premium Services including guaranteed delivery to UKaddresses on the same day and overnight (Datapost), and by facsimile transmission to many UK and overseas centres; International Datapost offering guaranteed swift delivery to 91 countries; postal, National Girobank and many agency services on behalf of government departments and other public sector organizations at 21,000 post office counters; full banking facilities through National Girobank, a separately managed business within the Corporation. Number of post offices at 31 March 1986 was 21,305; number of posting boxes including those at post offices, over 100,000; staff employed, 185,000 (including 20,000 sub-postmasters employed on an agency basls

)Correspondence (incl. registered items) posted Parcels handled

¡982-83 (lm.)

1983-84 (lm.)

1984-85 (lm.)

1985-86 (lm.)

10,500 193

10,700 195

11,200 203

11,700 194

Income (1985-86) £3,247 • 5m. Profit retained, £97 5m. On 31 Oct. 1986 there were 6,399 local exchanges, 508 trunk exchanges and 6 international exchanges operated by British Telecom. On 30 Sept. 1986 there were 4,295,000 business and 17,343,0(50 residential telephone exchange connexions and 109,000 telex exchange connexions. On 31 Dec. 1986 over 55,000 customers were connected to Cellnet, the cellular mobile radio network launched in Jan. 1985 and run jointly by BT and Securicor and 60,000 customers are connected to cable TV systems. On 31 Oct. 1986 BT employed a total staff of224,427. Daunton, M.}., Royal Mail: The Post Office since 1840. London, 1985

Broadcasting. Radio and television services are provided by the BBC and by the Independent Broadcasting Authority and its programme contractors. The BBC, constituted by Royal Charter until 3BBC, constituted by Royal Charter until 31 Dec. 1996, has responsibility for providing domestic ana external broadcast services, the former financed from the television licence revenue, the latter by Government grant. The domestic services include 2 national television services, 4 national radio network services and an expanding local radio service. The IBA constituted until 31 Dec. 2005 provides an independent television

GREAT BRITAIN

1327

service on a regional basis, with programmes provided by its programme contractors. The 1981 Act provided for the establishment of the fourth television channel and of the Welsh Fourth Channel Authority (WFCA) which provides a Welsh service on that channel in Wales; they started broadcasting in Nov. 1982. The IBA also provides independent local radio services. All these services are financed by the sale of broadcast advertising time. The BBC's domestic radio services are available on LF, MF and VHF; those of the IBA on MF and VHF. The television services of the 2 authorities BBC 1, BBC2, ITV, and Channel 4 are broadcast at UHF in 625-line definition and m colour. The broadcasting authorities, whose governing bodies are appointed (by HM the Queen in the case of the BBC and by the Home Secretary in the case of the IBA and WFCA) as trustees for the public interest in broadcasting, are independent of government in matters of programme content and are publicly accountable to Parliament for the discharge of their responsibilities. In 1981 the Broadcasting Complaints Commission was set up to consider and adjudicate upon complaints of unfair or unjust treatment in broadcast programmes or of unwarranted infringement of privacy in or in the making of programmes. The number of broadcast receiving licences in force on 31 Dec. 1986 was 18-9m., including 16-4m. for colour. Cinemas. In 1984 there were 1,200 screens in 70 cinemas and there were 55m. admissions. Newspapers. In 1983 there were 11 national dailies. Benn's Press Directory Tunbndge Wells, Annual

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. England and Wales. The legal system of England and Wales, divided into civil and criminal courts has at the head of the superior courts, as the ultimate court of appeal, the House of Lords, which hears each year a number of appeals in civil matters, including a certain number from Scotland and Northern Ireland, as well as some appeals m criminal cases. In order that civil cases may go from the Court of Appeal to the House of Lords, it is necessary to obtain the leave of either the Court of Appeal or the House itself, although in certain cases an appeal may lie direct to the House of Lords from the decision of the High Court. An appeal can be brought from a decision of the Court of Appeal or the Divisional Court of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court in a criminal case provided that the Court is satisfied that a point of law 'of general public importance' is involved; and either the Court or the House of Lords is of the opinion that it is desirable-in the public interest that a further appeal should be brought. As a judicial body, the House of Lords consists ofthe Lord Chancellor, the Lords' of Appeal in Ordinary, commonly called Law Lords, and sufch other members of the House as hold or have held high judicial office. The final court of appeal for certain of the Commonwealth countries is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which, in addition to Privy Counsellors who are or have held high judicial office in the UK, includes others who are or have been Chief Justices or Judges of the Superior Courts of Commonwealth countries. Civil Law. The main courts of onginal civil jurisdiction are the county courts for less important cases, and the High Court for the more important ones. There are about 300 county courts located throughout the country, grouped in districts, and each presided over by a circuit judge. They have a general jurisdiction to determine all actions founded on contract or tort involving sums of not more than £5,000 and can also deal with other classes of oase, such as landlord and tenant, probate, equity and admiralty, up to certain limits. Certain matters, such-gs actions of libel and slander, are entirely reserved for the High Court. In addition, certain, designated county courts have jurisdiction in matrimonial proceedings. Divorce proceedings must now commence in these courts and, subject to being transferred to the High Court upon becoming defended, are determined in the countycourt.

1328

UNITED KINGDOM

The High Court has both appellate and original jurisdiction, covering virtually all civil causes not determined in the county court. The judges of the High Court are attached to one of its 3 divisions: Chancery; Queen's Bench; and Family; each with its separate field ofjurisdiction. The presidingjudges of the 3 divisions are the Lord ChiefJustice (Queen's Bench), the Vice Chancellor (Chancery), and the President of the Family Division. In addition there are 77 High Court judges, called puisne judges. For the hearing of cases at first instance, the High Court judges sit singly Appellate jurisdiction is usually exercised by Divisional Courts consisting of 2 (sometimes 3) judges, though in certain circumstances a judge sitting alone may hear the appeal. The Restrictive Practices Court was set up in 1956 under the Restrictive Trade Practices Act, and is responsible for deciding whether a restrictive trade agreemerit is in the public interest. It is presided over by a High Court judge, but laymen sit on the bench also. Another specialist court is the Employment Appeal Tribunal, with similar composition, which hears appeals in employment cases from lower tribunals. The Court of Appeal (Civil Division) hears appeals in civil actions from the High Court and county courts and certain special courts such as the Restrictive Prac-' tices Court and the Employment Appeal Tribunal. Its President is the Master of the Rolls, aided by 23 Lords Justices of Appeal sitting in 6 or 7 divisions of 2 or 3 judges each. Civil proceedings are instituted by the aggrieved person, but, as they are a private matter, they are frequently settled by the parties to a dispute through their lawyers before the matter actually comes to court. In some cases, at the instance of either party, a jury may sit to decide questions of fact and award of damages. Criminal Law. At the base of the system of criminal courts in England and Wales are the magistrates' courts which try over 97% of criminal cases. In general, in exercising their summary jurisdiction, they have power to pass a sentence of up to six months imprisonment and to impose a fine of up to £2,000. They also deal with the preliminary hearing of cases triable only at the Crown Court. In addition to dealing summarily with over 2m. cases, which include thefts, assaults, road traffic infringements, drug abuse, etc, they also have a limited civil jurisdiction. Magistrates' courts normally comprise three lay justices. Although unpaid they are entitled to loss of earnings and travel and subsistence allowance. They undergo training after appointment and they are advised by a professional justices' clerk. In central London and in some provincial areas full-time stipendiary magistrates have been appointed. They possess the same powers as the lay bench, but they sit alone. On 1 Jan. 1986 the total strength of the lay magistracy was 27,687 including 11,264 women. Justices are appointed on behalf of the Queen by the Lord Chancellor, except in Greater Manchester, Merseyside and Lancashire where they are appointed by the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Specially qualified justices sit in juvenile courts to deal with cases involving persons under 17 years of age charged with criminal offences (other than homicide and other grave offences) or brought before the court as being in need of care or control. These courts normally sit with threeJustices, including at least one man or one woman, and are accommodated separately from other courts. Justices also sit in Domestic Proceedings courts which deal with matrimonial applications, custody, guardianship and maintenance of children, affiliation and adoption. These courts normally sit with three justices including at least one man or one woman. Above the magistrates' courts is the Crown Court. This was set up by the Courts Act 1971 to replace quarter sessions and assizes. Unlike quarter sessions and assizes, which were individual courts,- the Crown Court is a single court which is capable of sitting anywhere in England and Wales. It has power to deal with all trials on indictment and has inherited the jurisdiction of quarter sessions to hear appeals, proceedings on committal of persons for sentence, and certain original proceedings on civil matters under individual statutes. The jurisdiction of the Crown Court is exercisable by a High Court judge, a

GREAT BRITAIN

1329

Circuit judge or a Recorder (who is a part-time judge) sitting alone, or, in specified circumstances, with justices of the peace. The Lord Chief Justice has given directions as to the types of case to be allocated to High Court judges (the more serious cases) and to Circuit judges or Recorders respectively. Appeals from magistrates' courts go either to a Divisional Court of the High Court (when a point of law alone is involved) or to the Crown Court where there is a complete re-hearing. Appeals from the Crown Court in cases tried on indictment lie to the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division). Appeals on questions of law go by right, and appeals on other matters by leave. The Lord Chief Justice or a Lord Justice sits with judges of the High Court to constitute this court. There remains as a last resort the invocation of the royal prerogative exercised on the advice of the Home Secretary. In 1965 the death penalty was abolished for murder. All contested criminal trials, except those which come before the magistrates' courts, are tried by a judge and a jury consisting of 12 members. The defence may object, without showing cause, to up to 3 jurors. The prosecution may ask that any number may 'stand by' until the jury panel is exhausted, and only then need to show cause. When these peremptory challenges have been exhausted further challenges may only be made for cause and this rarely happens. The juiy decides whether the accused is guilty or not. The judge is responsible for summing up on the facts and explaining the law; he sentences convicted offenders. If, after at least 2 hours of deliberation, a jury is unable to reach a unanimous verdict it may, provided that in a full jury o f l 2 at least 10 of its members are agreed, bring in a majority verdict. The failure of a jury to agree on a unanimous verdict or to bring in a majority verdict involves the retrial ofthe case before a new jury. The Employment Appeal Tribunal. The Employment Appeal Tribunal which is a superior Court of Record with the like powers, rights, privileges and authority of the High Court, was set up in 1976 to hear appeals on questions of fact and law against decisions of industrial tribunals and of the Certification Officer. The appeals are heard by a High Court Judge sitting with 2 members (in exceptional cases 4) appointed for their special knowledge or experience of industrial relations either on the employer or the trade union side, with always an equal number on each side. Industrial tribunals are responsible for deciding questions under Employment Protection (Consolidation) Act, 1978, Equal Pay Act, 1970, Sex Discrimination Act 1975 as amended by the Sex Discrimination Act 1986, Employment Protection Act 1975, Employment Act 1980, Race Relations Act, 1976, and Employment Acts 1980 and 1982. The great bulk of their work is concerned with the problems which can arise between employees and their employers. The Certification Officer is responsible for deciding questions under the Trade Union Act 1913, the Trade Union (Amalgamations, etc.) Act 1964, the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act 1974 and the Employment Protection Act 1975. Military Courts. Offences by persons subject to service law against the system of military law created under the powers of the Army Act, Air Force Act or Naval Discipline Act are dealt with either summarily or by courts-martial. Petitions may be made to the Defence Council. Subsequent appeals lie to a Courts-Martial Appeals Court, and from that court an appeal may lie to the House of Lords. The Personnel ofthe Law. All judicial officers except the Lord Chancellor (who is a member of the Cabinet) are independent of Parliament and the Executive. They are all appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister or the Lord Chancellor and hold office until retiring age. The legal profession is divided; barristers, who advise on legal problems and conduct cases in court, usually act for the public only through solicitors, who deal directly with the legal business brought to them by the public. Most judicial appointments are made from barristers of long standing, though solicitors are eligible for appointment as Recorders, who may, after 3 years, be appointed Circuit Judges. Legal Aid. Broadly there are 3 kinds of legal aid. Firstly there is legal advice and assistance, otherwise known as the 'Green Form' scheme. This includes advice and help on any question of English law, both civil and criminal, but does not-normally

1330.

UNITED KINGDOM

cover any form of representation before a court or tribunal. As an extension of the scheme, however, assistance by way of representation has been available for certain proceedings, chiefly civil, in magistrates' courts. Secondly, under Part I of the Legal Aid Act 1974, there is legal aid for civil court proceedings. Under the provisions of the Act, aid is available to those of low or moderate means either free or subject to a contribution, depending on means. In 1985-86 there were over lm. payments for advice and assistance under the Legal Advice and Assistance Scheme and over 230,000 civil legal aid certificates were issued. The cost of legal aid in civil cases is met from (a) contributions from assisted persons; (b) the operation of the statutory charge which gives the Law Society a first charge on money or property recovered or preserved for an assisted person to the extent of that person's liability for his own costs; (c) costs recovered from opposing parties and (d) a grant from the Exchequer. The net cost of civil legal aid to the state (excluding administration costs of the scheme) in the year 1985—86 amounted to £95-lm. and the cost of the legal advice and assistance scheme was £62 -8m. of which £11 • lm. was accounted for by assistance by way of representation. Under Part II of the Legal Aid Act 1974 a court dealing with criminal proceedings may order legal aid to be given if it considers it is desirable in the interests of justice and if it also considers that the defendant (or appellant) requires financial assistance in meeting the costs he may incur. The interests ofjustice are not statutorily defined but may include, for example, situations where the defendant is in real danger of going to prison or losing his job, where substantial questions of law are to be argued or where the defendant is unable to follow the proceedings and explain his case due to inadequate knowledge of English, mental illness or other mental or physical disability. Legal aid must be granted, subject to means, in the following circumstances: where a person is committed for trial on a charge of murder, where the prosecutor appeals or applies for leave to appeal from the criminal division of the Court of Appeal or the Courts-Martial Appeal Court to thé House of Lords, and in certain circumstances where the court is considering depriving a defendant of his liberty. The costs of legal aid in criminal proceedings are paid by the central government, but courts have power to require legally aided persons to contribute towards the cost of legal aid given to them. The net cost of legal aid in criminal proceedings in the year 1985-86 was £154-9m., £74-4m. of this was for legal aid in the higher courts which is paid for out of the Lord Chancellor's vote and £80 • 2m. for legal aid in the magistrates' courts which is paid from the legal aid fund. The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, which came into operation on 1 Jan. 1986, gave suspects the right to free legal advice under the Green Form Scheme. A 24-hour duty solicitor scheme was set up to ensure that solicitors are available to assist suspects. The cost of this scheme in the first 15 months of its operation is expected to be in the region of £20m. Police. The authorized establishment of the police force in England and Wales in Dec. 1986 was 123,514: the actual strength was 109,842 men and 11,708 women. In addition there were 16,070 special constables (including 4,930 women). Total police net expenditure (estimated) in England and Wales for 1985-86 was £2,853,509,000. SCOTLAND. The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland and has jurisdiction in all cases of crime committed in any part of Scotland, unless expressly excluded by statute. It consists of the Lord Justice-General, the Lord Justice-Clerk and 22 other judges, who are the same judges as of the Court of Session, the Scottish supreme civil court. One judge is seconded to the Scottish Law Commission. The Court, which is presided over by the Lord Justice-General, whom failing, the Lord Justice-Clerk, exercises an appellate jurisdiction as well as one of first instance, sits as business requires in Edinburgh both as a Court of Appeal (the quorum being 3 judges) and as a court of first instance afld on circuit as a court of first instance. The decisions of the Court in either case are not subject to review by the House of Lords. One judge sitting with a jury of 15 persons can, and usually does, try cases, but 2 or more (with a jury) may do so in important or com-

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plex cases. It has a privative jurisdiction over cases of treason, murder, rape, deforcement of messengers and breach of duty by magistrates. It also, in practice, is the only court which tries serious crimes against person or property and generally those cases in which a sentence greater than imprisonment for 2 years may be imposed either under statute or common law. Moreover, the Court has inherent power to try and to punish all acts which are plainly criminal though previously unknown and not dealt with by any statute. The appellate jurisdiction of the High Court of Justiciary extends to all cases tried on indictment, whether in the High Court or the Sheriff Court, and persons so convicted may appeal to the Court against conviction or sentence or both except that there is no appeal against any sentence fixed by law. The Lord Advocate may refer a point of law which has arisen during a trial on indictment in which accused has been acquitted for the opinion of the Court. By such an appeal, a person may bring under review of the High Court of Justiciary any alleged miscarriage ofjustice including any alleged miscarriage ofjustice on the basis of the existence and significance of additional evidence which was not heard at the trial and which was not available and could not reasonably have been made available at the trial. It is also a court of Feview from courts of summary criminal jurisdiction, and on the final determination of any summary prosecution a convicted person may appeal to the Court by way of stated case on questions of law, etc., but not on questions of fact, except in relation to a miscarriage of justice alleged by the person accused on the basis of the existence and significance of additional evidence which was not heard at the trial and which was not available and could not reasonably have been made available at the trial. A prosecutor may appeal only on a point of law. A further or complementary form 01 process of review which can be resorted to by convicted persons in these courts is by Bill of Suspension (and Liberation), but it is of strictly limited application. A prosecutor in cases tried on indictment or under summary criminal procedure may also bring under review a decision in law, prior to final judgment of the case, by way of Bill of Advocation. The Court also hears appeals under the Courts-Martial (Appeals) Act 1951. The Sheriff Court has an inherent universal criminal jurisdiction (as well as an extensive civil one) limited in general to crimes and offences committed within a sheriffdom (a specifically defined region), which has, however, been curtailed by statute or practice under which the High Court of Justiciary has exclusive jurisdiction in relation to the crimes above-mentioned. This Court is presided over by a Sheriff-Principal or Sheriff, and when trying cases on indictment sits with a jury of 15 persons. His power of awarding punishment involving imprisonment is restricted to 2 years in the maximum, but he may under certain statutory powers remit the prisoner to the High Court for sentence. The Sheriff also exercises a wide summary criminal jurisdiction and when doing so sits without a jury; and he has concurrent jurisdiction with every other court within his Sheriff Court District in regard to all offences competent for trial in summary courts. The great majority of offences which come before the courts are of a minor nature and, as such, are disposed of in the Sheriff Courts. In cases to be tried on indictment either in the High Court of Justiciary or in the Sheriff Court, the judge may, and in some cases must, before the trial, hold a Preliminary Diet to decide questions of a preliminary nature, whether to the competency or relevancy or otherwise. Any decision at a preliminary diet can be the subject of an appeal to the High Court of Justiciary prior to the trial. District Courts in each local authority district have jurisdiction in minor offences occurring within the district. These courts are presided over by lay magistrates, known as justices, and have limited powers of fine and imprisonment. The Court of Session, presided over by the Lord President (the Lord JusticeGeneral in criminal cases), is divided into an Inner House comprising 2 divisions of 4 judges each with mainly appellate function, and an Outer House comprising 15 single judges, sitting individually at first instance; it exercises the highest civil jurisdiction in Scotland, with the House of Lords as a court of appeal. Police. The police forces in Scotland at the end of 1985 had an authorized establishment of 13,465; the strength was 12,540 men and 764 women. There were 2,046 part-time special constables. The total police net expenditure in Scotland was£273-5m. for 1984-85.

1332

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KINGDOM

JUDICIAL

STATISTICS

1983

ENGLAND AND WALES

Appellate Courts Judicial Committee of the Privy Council House of Lords Court of Appeal High Court of Justice (appeals and special cases from inferior courts) Courts of First Instance (excluding Magistrates' Courts and Tribunals) High Cöurt of Justice: Chancery Division' Queen's Bench Division2 Family Division: Principal Registry matters 3 District Registry wardships Official Referee's County courts: Matrimonial suits" Other 5 Restrictive Practices Court

1984

1985

58 86 1,452

77 72 1,491

59 79 1,545

1,619

2,053

1,910

18,340 180,178 990 1,338 990 176,745 2,177,427 10

19,478 191,336 1,266 1,456 965 186,074 2,204,905 8

21,176 209,967 1,279 1,850 1,150 194,534 2,224,667 17

11 32,673 39,862 149,500

6 27,158 46,540 142,718

SCOTLAND

House of Lords (Appeals from Court of Session) Court of Session—General Department Sheriff's Ordinary Cause Sheriff's Summary Cause 1

Including Companies Court, Bankruptcy petitions and Patents Court. Including Admiralty Court. ' Adoption, guardianship and wardship. 4 Including petitions filed at Principal Registry. '.Plaint, Admiralty, Bankruptcy and Companies, Adoption, Guardianship and miscellaneous. 2

CRIMINAL

STATISTICS

ENGLAND AND WALES

Aged 10 and over Proceeded against in magistrates' courts2 Found guilty at magistrates' courts Found guilty at the Crown Court Cautioned' Aged 10 and under 17 Proceeded against in magistrates' courts2 Found guilty at magistrates' courts Found guilty at the Crown Court Cautioned'

Total number of offenders 1984. 1985

Indictable offences1 1984 1985

2,184,300

2,147,167

521,326

519,318

1,888,329

1,828,870

374,782

361,776

74,667 190,336

82,047 218,717

74,667 124,056

82,047 145,381

104,673

93,909

78,479

71,442

91,745

80,991

68,649

61,507

1,512 119,848

1,640 134,567

1,512 99,056

1,640 112,460

' Includes offences which can be tried either at the Crown Court or at magistrates' courts. Almost all defendants are initially proceeded against in magistrates' courts. Offenders who, on admission of guilt, are given an oral caution by or on the instruction of a senior police officer as an alternative to court proceedings. Such cautions are not given for motoring offences. 2 J

GREAT CRIMINAL SCOTLAND

All persons and companies Proceeded against in all courts Charge proved

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All Crimes and Offences 1984 1985 210,230 189,328

210,748 190,240

1984

Crimes'

68,569 59,504

1985 71,766 62,302

Children (aged 8-15/ Proceeded against in all courts 604 608 378 401 Given formal police warning/ 22,464 23,335 17,362 18,102 referred to reporter 1 Crimes are generally the more serious criminal acts and offences the less serious. 'Crimes' are not equivalent in coverage to 'indictable/triable either way offences'

Average population in prisons, youth custody centres and detention centres (1985) in England and Wales was 46,233 (convicted 37,870; untned 8,132, and231 non-cnminal prisoners); in Scotland (1985), 5,273 (sentenced, 4,178; remanded, 1,092 and 3 others}. Criminal statistics, Englandand Wales. HMSO, 1985 Prison statistics, Englandand Wales, 1983 HMSO, 1984 Paterson, A., The Law Lords. London, 1982

Religion. The Anglican Communion has originated from the Church of England and parallels in its fellowship of autonomous churches the evolution of British influence beyond the seas from colonies to dominions and independent nations. There is no terrestrial head of the Anglican Communion; the Archbishop of Canterbury presides as primus inter pares at the decennial meetings of the bishops of the Anglican Communion at the Lambeth Conference. The next Conference will be held in Canterbury in 1988. The Anglican churches, in addition to the Church of England, comprise the churches, councils, and provinces in communion with the see of Canterbury; which are situated in Wales; Ireland; Scotland; United States of America; Canada; Australia; New Zealand; West Indies; Brazil; Southern Africa; Central Africa; West Africa; Jerusalem and the Middle East; South East Asia; Burma; Sri Lanka; Japan; South America; China; Indian Ocean; Papua New Guinea; Melanesia; Nigeria; Uganda; Kenya; Tanzania; Burundi, Rwanda and Zaire; Sudan. In addition to the dioceses included within the Provinces of Canterbury and York, there are several dioceses overseas over which the Archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical jurisdiction, while Church of England chaplaincies in North and Central Europe formerly under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of London now form the diocese of Europe. There are also two small Iberian churches which have been accepted into membership. England and Wales. The established Church of England, which baptizes about 30% of the children born in England (i.e. excluding Wales but including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands), is Protestant Episcopal. Civil disabilities on account of religion do not attach to any class of British subject. Under the Welsh Church Acts, 1914 and 1919, the Church in Wales and Monmouthshire was disestablished as from 1 April 1920, and Wales was formed into a separate Province. The Queen is, under God, the supreme governor of the Church of England, with the right, regulated by statute, to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics. The Queen, on the advice of the First Lord of the Treasury, also appoints to such deaneries, prebendaries and canonries as are in the gift of the Crown, while a large number of livings and also some canonries are in the gift of the Lord Chancellor. There are 2 archbishops (at the head of the 2 Provinces of Canterbury and York), and 42 diocesan bishops including the bishop of the diocese of Europe, which is part of the Province of Canterbury. Each archbishop has also his own [»articular diocese, wherein he exercises episcopal, as in his Province he exercises metropolitan, jurisdiction. In Dec. 1986 there were 63 suffragan and assistant bishops, 37 deans and provosts of cathedrals and 105 archdeacons. The General Synod, in

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England, consists of a House of Bishops, a House of Clergy and a House of Laity, and has power to frame legislation regarding Church matters. The first two Houses consist of the members of the Convocations of Canterbury and York, eachof which consists of the diocesan bishops and elected representatives of the suffragan bishops, 6 for Canterbury province and 3 for York (forming an Upper House), deans, provosts, and archdeacons, and a certain number of proctors elected as the representatives of the inferior clergy, together with, in the case of Canterbury Convocation, 4 representatives of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, London and the Southern Universities and in the case of York 2 representatives for the Universities of Durham and Newcastle and the other Northern Universities; the chaplains in the Forces and 2 representatives of the Religious Communities (forming the Lower House). The House of Laity is elected by the lay members of the Deanery Synods but also includes 3 representatives of the Religious Communities and ex-officio Church Commissioners and Ecclesiastical Judges. Parochial affairs are managed by annual parochial church meetings and parochial church councils. Every Measure passed by the General Synod must be submitted to the Ecclesiastical Committee, consisting of IS members of the House of Lords nominated by the Lord Chancellor and 15 members of the House of Commons nominated by the Speaker. This committee reports on each Measure to Parliament, and the Measure receives the Royal Assent and becomes law if each House of Parliamentresolvesthat the Measure be presented to the Queen. At31 Dec. 1985 there were 13,369 ecclesiastical parishes, inclusive of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. These parishes do not, in many cases, coincide with civil parishes. Owing to the pastoral re-organization, although most parishes have their own churches, not every parish nowadays can have its own incumbent or minister; so that in some areas one or more parishes may be served by a clergyman, who must be in priest's orders, and in these cases he holds the parishes in plurality or as part of a united benefice. In Dec. 1986 there were 6,908 beneficed clergymen excluding dignitaries, 1,296 other clergymen of incumbent status and 1,757 assistant curates working in the parishes. Private persons possess the right of presentation to over 2,000 benefices; the patronage of the others belongs mainly to the Queen, the bishops and cathedrals, the Lord Chancellor, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In addition to the 9,961 parochial incumbents and assistant curates, there were (1986) 374 dignitaries, 306 non-parochial clergymen working within the diocesan framework and approximately 2,000 non-parochial clergymen outside the framework. In 1984 there were estimated to be l-7m. Easter and l-7m. Christmas Communicants. Of the 40,440 churches and chapels registered for the solemnization of marriages at 30 June 1985, 16,614 belonged to the Established Church and the Church in Wales and 23,826 to other religious denominations. Of the 346,389 marriages celebrated in 1985 (349,186 in 1984), 34% were in the Established Church and the Church in Wales, 18% in churches or chapels of other denominations and 49% were civil marriages in a Register Office. Roman Catholics in England and Wales were 4,196,037 in 1986. There were 5 archdioceses and 16 dioceses, 6,472 clergy and 2,792 parish churches and 1,342 other churches open to the public. Convents, 1,342. The Unitarians have about 250 places of worship and 8,000 members. The Salvation Army, had, in British Territory, 1985, over 2,000 officers. They operate 40 eventide homes, 52 centres for the homeless, 12 homes for children and adolescents and 9 alcoholic rehabilitation centres. The following is a summary of recent statistics of certain churches: Denomination

Methodist Independent Methodist Wesleyan Reform Union United Reform Baptist Calvinistic Methodist Church ofWales Moravian Society of Friends

Full members 458,592 3,972 3,309 133,512 168,300 85,041 4,000 18,076

Ministers in charge 3,457 138 24 1,848 1,485 230 40

Local and lay preachers 13,984

—

—

: — — — —

tc

GREAT BRITAIN

1335

There were (1986) about 330,000 Jews in the UK with about 295 synagogues; Moslems (900,000); Sikhs (175,000); Hindus ( 140,000). Scotland. The Church of Scotland (established in 1560 at the Reformation and re-established in 1688 as part of the Revolution Settlement) is Presbyterian, the ministers all being of equal rank. There is in each parish a kirk session consisting of the minister and a number of laymen called elders. There are presbyteries (formed by groups of parishes), meeting frequently throughout the year, and these are again grouped in synods, which meet half-yearly and can be appealed to against the decisions of the presbyteries. The supreme court is the General Assembly, which now consists of some 1,250 members, half clerical and half lay, chosen by the different presbyteries. It meets annually in May (under the presidency of a Moderator appointed by the Assembly, the Sovereign being present or represented by a Lord High Commissioner, appointed by the Queen on the nomination of the Government of the day), and sits for 7 days. Any matters not decided during this period may be left to a Commission which will sit if required. On 2 Oct.' 19*29 the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church Of Scotland were reunited under the name of The Church of Scotland, and the two bodies met in General Assembly in Edinburgh as one. The united Church had, m Scotland, on 31 Dec. 1983, 1,780 congregations, 902,714 members; 18,633 teachers and 104,552 scholars in attendance in Sunday schools. The Church courts are the General Assembly, 12 synods, 46 presbyteries in Scotland, 1 in England and 2 on the Continent. Income in 1981 was £41,740,070. There are divinity faculties in 4 Scottish universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and St Andrews, with 60 professors and lecturers who are mostly ministers of the Church of Scotland. The Episcopal Church of Scotland is a province of the Anglican Church and is one of the historic Scottish churches. It consists of 7 dioceSes. As at 31 Dec. 1986 it had 269 churches and missions, 265 clergy and 62,626 members, of whom 37,731 were communicants. There are in Scotland some small outstanding Presbyterian bodies and also Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists and Unitarians. The Roman Catholic Church which celebrated the centenary of the restoration of the Hierarchy in 1978, had in Scotland (1986) 1 cardinal, 2 archbishops and 9 bishops, 1,093 clergy, 477 parishes, and 806,950 adherents. The proportion of marriages in Scotland according to the rites of the various Churches in 1985 was: Church of Scotland, 39-3%; Roman Catholic, 13 2%; Episcopal, 1 -4%; United Free, 0-4%; others, 4-4%; civil, 41-2%. Education. The Publicly Maintained System of Education England and Wales. Compulsory schooling begins at the age of 5 and the iqinimum leaving age for all pupils is 16. No tuition fees are payable in any publicly maintained school (but it is open to parents, if they choose, to pay for their children to attend other schools). The post-school stage, which is voluntary, includes universities* polytechnics and other further education establishments (including those which provide courses for the training of teachers), as well as adult education and the youth service. Financial assistance is generally available to students on higher education courses in the university and non-university sectors and to some students on other courses in farther education. Nursery Education. Provision for children under 5 is made in either nursery schools or in nursery or infant classes in pripiary schools. In the public sector no fees are payable. There were (Jan. 1986) 560 maintained nursery schools and 4,199 primary schools with nursery classes. There were 49,383 pupils under 5 attending nursery schools and 459,240 pupils under 5 in nursery and infant classes. Just over 49% of all these children were attending part-time. Primary Schools. These provide for pupils from the age of 5 up to the age of 11. In January 1986 there were 18,928 primary schools in England of which 2,971 were infant schools providing for pupils up to the age of about 7, the remainder mainly

1336

UNITED

KINGDOM

taking pupils from age 5 through to 11. Nearly all primary schools take both boys and girls. Just over 22% of primary schools had 100 full time pupils or less. There are 1,822 primary schools in Wales. In those primary schools (and some secondary schools) which are in the predominantly Welsh-speaking areas, the main language of instruction is Welsh. There are also 'Welsh', or, more accurately, bilingual schools in mainly English-speaking parts of Wales. Generally children transfer from primary to secondary schools at 11. 1 As a result of the Education (School Leaving Dates) Act 1976, one of the two former leaving dates was amended. This means that pupils whose dates of birth fall between 1 Feb. and 31 Aug. (inclusive) cease to be of compulsory school age on the Friday before the last Monday in May Some of these pupils will leave school before theif 16th birthdays. Pupils whose dates of birth fall between 1 Sept. and 31 Jan. (inclusive) remain of compulsory school age until the end of the Easter term following their 16th birthdays.

Middle Schools. A number of local education authorities operate a middle school system. These provide for pupils from the age of8,9 or 10 up to the age of 12,13 or 14. In January 1986 there were 1,244 middle schools in England deemed either primary or secondary according principally to the age range of the school concerned. This number is 41 fewerthan in 1985. Secondary Schools. These usually provide for pupils from the age of 11 upwards. In Jan. 1986 there were 3,663 secondary schools in England. Some local education authorities have retained selection at age 11 for entry to grammar schools of which there were 155 such schools in 1986. There were a small number of technical schools in 1986 which specialise to a greater or lesser extent in technical studies. There were 245 secondary modern schools in 1986 providing a general education up to the minimum school leaving age of 16, although exceptionally some pupils may be allowed to stay on beyond that age in these schools. All local education authorities operate a system of comprehensive schools to which pupils are admitted without reference to ability or aptitude. In Jan. 1986 there were 3,226 such sohools in England with just under 2-9m. pupils. With the development of comprehensive education various patterns of secondary schools have come into operation. Principally these are: 1. all through schools with pupils aged 11 to 18 or 11 to 16; pupils over 16 being able to transfer to an 11 to 18 school or a sixth form college providing for pupils aged 16 to 19. (There were 108 sixth form collegesin England in 1986). 2. local education authorities operating a three-tier system involving middle schools where transfer to secondary school is at ages 12,13 or 14. These correspond to 12 to 18,13 to 18 and 14 to 18 comprehensive schools respectively; or 3. in areas where there are no middle schools a two-tier system of junior and senior comprehensive schools for pupils aged 11 to 18 with optional transfer to these schools at age 13 or 14. There were a number of other secondary schools of various combinations of grammar, technical or modern. Direct Grant Grammar /Schools, These were schools which were independent of local education authorities and which received grants direct from the Department of Education and Science for pupils in their secondary departments (upper schools). The system began to be phased out m 1976 and in Jan. 1987 only one grammar school was in receipt of the grant. It is expected that direct grant payments to grammar schools will cease, in 1987. Assisted Places Scheme. In order to give able children a wider range of educational opportunity the government set up, in 1981, the assisted places scheme to give help with tuition fees at independent schools to parents who could not otherwise afford them. In the school year 1986-87, the 226 participating schools offered a total of 5,506 agisted places, 4,486 for entry at age 11,12 or 13, and 1,020 for entry at sixth form level. Special Education. Since 1971, when the education of severely mentally handicapped children became the responsibility of the education service, the right to education ofall handicapped children has been recognised. The Education Act 1981, which came into force in April 1983, switched the focus of attention from a child's disability to his or her special educational needs.

G R E A T BRITAIN

1337

The Act restated the Government's policy that no child should be placed in a special school if his or her needs can be met in an ordinary school and many children with special educational needs are being educated in ordinary schools. The Act provided that local education authorities should maintain 'statements' on children whom they had assessed as having special educational needs and for whom they were of the opinion that they should determine the special educational provision which should be made to meet these needs - that is, the more severely affected children. The majority of children with statements of special educational needs attend special schools, of which there are at présent around 1,493, including hospital special schools. Some 100,000 pupils with statements are educated in special schools, of whom around 1,300 are in hospital special schools. Additionally, around 5,700 pupils with statements are educated in independent schools under arrangements made by local education authorities. Of maintained special schools, 1,126 are day schools, 194 are mainly boarding schools and there are 85 hospital special schools. Attendance is compulsory from ren under 5 who are likely to have a learning difficulty when over this age, or whose learning difficulty would be likely to persist if special educational provision were not made for them. Authorities also have a duty to make special educational provision either in a school or in a college of further education for children aged 16-18 who have been assessed as being in need of, and who want, such provision. In addition to the provision in ordinary and special schools, authorities can make special arrangements for educating children at home, in small groups or in hospitals. There are also some establishments which provide further education, P.E. vocational training and for assessment for employment purely for handicapped school leavers. The statistics in the preceding paragraphs on special education are for England only and were valid at Jan. 1985. The figures are not comparable with those given for 1984 (when transitional arrangements were in force) or previous years because of changes in the way statistics are collected as a result of the 1981 Act. Ancillary Services. Local education authorities may provide registered pupils at any school maintained by them with milk, meals and refreshment and they may make such charges as they think fit for anything they provide. For pupils whose parents are in receipt of supplementary benefit or family income supplement, however, authorities are required to ensure that such provision is made for the pupil at mid-day as appears to them to be requisite and anything which is provided must be free of charge. Authorities are also required to remit the whole or part of any charge for anything they provide for other pupils if having regard to their circumstances, they consider it appropriate to do so. Facilities must also bé provided, free of charge, for consuming any meals or other refreshments which pupils bring to school themselves. , Local education authorities also have, power to provide milk, meals and refreshment for pupils in non-maintained schools, if they wish to do so, under such terms as may be agreed with the proprietors as long as the cost does not exceed what it would have been if the pupils had been at a school maintained by an authority. Further and Higher Education (Non-University). In Nov. 1985 there were about 496 institutions in England providing courses of further education, ranging from shorthand instruction to degree-level, postgraduate work and courses of teachertraining. Course enrolments numbered 582,233 full-time (including 74,419 sandwich students) and 1 -5m. part-titne and evening (including 469,821 students released by their employers). There were in addition -2,616 adult education centres (formerly known as evening institutes), which' provided mamly part-time courses of non-advànced general education and were attended by 1,418,159 students. The major providers of higher education, outside the university sector, are the 29 polytechnics. These are engaged-mainlyin highereducation, offering CNAA degrees of a standard comparable to those of universities, professional qualifications and courses in a wide range of disciplines leading to awards of the Business and Tech-

1338

UNITED KINGDOM

nician Education Council. Many other colleges of further education are however involved to a greater or lesser extent in the higher education sector of further education. Most polytechnics and further education colleges cater for a mixture of full and part-time students, and also sandwich students whose periods of study at college alternate with periods of practical training in industry or other employment. The Secretary of State receives advice on the funding and management of advanced further education from the National Advisory Body for Public Sector Higher Education (NAB) whose remit covers almost all non-university provision at this level, most of which is maintained by local education authorities. Courses were also provided by the Workers' Educational Association (8,188), the University extramural departments (8,684) and the Welsh National Council of YMCAs (65). The total number of students registered at these courses was 306,004. Education at institutions of further education is not free, but fees are generally low, and are remitted for most students under the age of 18 by the local authority. The Youth Service. A wide range of facilities for the leisure-time recreation and informal social education of young people primarily of post-school age is provided by local education authorities and voluntary youth organizations. A duty is laid upon local education authorities by the provisions of the 1944 Education Act to secure the adequacy of such facilities for young people in their area; to this end they either provide, maintain and staff youth clubs, centres and other facilities themselves or assist voluntary agencies to do so. Grants to voluntary agencies to help meet the cost of regional and national capital projects and to national voluntary bodies towards their headquarters and training expenses are made by the Government. Awards to Students. Local education authorities are responsible for making mandatory awards to suitably qualified students taking first-degree and comparable courses, courses of initial teacher-training and certain other advanced level courses. These awards cover fees and maintenance but the maintenance grants are subject to the income of the student and his parents or spouse. In addition scholarships may be available both from universities and other sources. The authorities may also give discretionary awards to students who do not qualify for mandatory awards including those taking non-degree level courses. In 1983-84 there were 431,659 full value awards current in all, 46% at university and 31,034 were for teacher-training courses. Lesser value awards, for which the maxirtium rate of grant payable is below the full cost of the student's fees and maintenance, were also made by the authorities. There were 94,616 such awards taken up in the academic year 1983-84. The Research Council'gave over 6,800'new awards in 1985-86 and there were more than 14,300 current awards in that academic year. The British Academy and the Department gave 1,497 new awards (870 state studentships and 627 state bursaries) in 1984-85 and in 1985-86 awards totalled 1,497. Teachers. In order to qualify for work in maintained schools, most teachers take a course of professional training. Graduates and holders of some specialist qualifications obtained before 1 Jan. 1970 are regarded as qualified to teach without training, but anyone obtaining these qualifications after that date is obliged to take a training course before being appointed for the first time to a primary or special school, and since 1 Jan. 1974 before first appointment to a secondary school. In 1986 there were some 60 non-university institutions (including 19 polytechnics) and 31 university departments of education providing courses of initial teacher-training in England and Wales. In Nov, 1986 there were about 30,000 students on initial teacher-training courses. On 30-Sept. 1985,409,000 full-time teachers were employed by local education authorities in maintained nursery, primary and secondary schools in England and Wales.

G R E A T BRITAIN

1339

Finance. Total.current and capital expenditure on education in England (including Universities GB, and Mandatory Awards England and Wales) from public funds is estimatedat£15,339m. for 1986-87 as compared with£13,893m. for 1985-86. Scotland. The statistics on schools relate to education authority and grant-aided schools. From 1974-75 all teachers employed in these schools require to be qualified; figures given are full-time equivalents. Nursery Education. In Sept. 1984 there were 559 nursery schools and departments, with a total enrolment of38,120 pupils. Primary Education. In Sept. 1984 there were 2,462 primary schools and departments and the number on the registers was 443,604. In Sept. 1984,21,760 teachers were employed in primary schools and departments. Secondary Education. In Sept. 1984 there were 459 secondary schools with 387,195 pupils. Of these schools, 382 were all-through comprehensive establishments providing the full range of Scottish Certificate of Education courses and also non-certificate courses. A further 59 schools were comprehensive in intake and provided both lion-certificate'and certificate" courses! the latter However only up to Ordinary grade. The remaining 18 schools, these were selective in intake providing certificate courses only (Ordinary grade and Higher grade). Pupils who start their secondary education in schools which do not cater for courses beyond Ordinary grade may in the light of their performance, or for other reasons, be transferred at the end of their second or fourth year to schools providing Higher grade courses. There were 28,290 teachers in secondary schools at Sept. 1984. Special Schools. In Sept. 1984 there were 328 special schools and departments. The total number of handicapped children under instruction was 11,053, 5,202 had general learning difficulties, 2,262 had social and emotional handicaps, 1,966 were physically handicapped, 704 had visual handicap and 750 had hearing difficulties, and 827 were otherwise handicapped. Children can have more than one handicap. At Sept. 1983 there were 20 'List D' schools (these establishments correspond to Community Homes in England and Wales) with a total enrolment of 891. Further Education. Centres and colleges for formal further education numbered 168 in 1984-85. The student population was 240,828, of whom 54,787 attended full-time (advanced courses, 29,071; non-advanced, 25,761) and 186,041 part-time (advanced courses, 29,825; non-advanced, 156,216). Teacher- Training. In Nov. 1984 there were 2,957 students in 7 colleges of education on pre-service courses of teacher-training. Finance. Total expenditure on education met from revenue in 1984-85 was £ 1,504m. (excluding university education and loan charges). Independent Schools. Outside the state system of education there were in England 2,300 independent schools in Jan. 1986, ranging from large 'public' schools to small local ones. There were (Jan. 1986) 502,456 full-time and 15,054 part-time pupils in these schools. In Wales 11,013 full-time pupils attended 67 independent schools. Fees are charged by all these schools, which receive no grant from central government sources. All independent schools in England are required to be registered by the Department and are liable to the inspection by HM Inspector. The term 'public schools' refers to independent schools in membership of the Headmasters' Conference, Governing Bodies Association or the Governing Bodies of Girls' Schools Association. Qualifications under which a school may be represented at the Headmasters' Conference include the measure of independence enjoyed by the governing body and the amount of advanced courses undertaken. Some of these schools are for boarders only, but the majority include non-resident 'daypupils'. In Scotland there were 103 independent schools, with a total of 31,899 pupils in Sept. 1985. A small number of the Scottish independent schools are of the 'public school' type but they are not known as 'public schools' since in Scotland this term is used to denote education authority (i.e., state) schools.

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•• The earliest of the schools were founded by, and attached to, the medieval churches. Many were founded as 'grammar' (classical) schools in the 16th century, receiving charters from the reigning sovereign. Reformed mainly in the middle of the 19th century, these schools now provide the highest form of English preuniversity education. Among the most well-known independent schools are Eton College, founded in 1440 by Henry VI, with 1,259 pupils; Winchester College, 1394, founded by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, 649 pupils; Harrow School, founded in 1560 as a grammar school by John Lyon, a yeoman, 760 pupils; Charterhouse, 1611, 704 pupils. Among the earliest foundations are King's School, Canterbury, founded 600 (with 716 pupils); King's School, Rochester, 604 (569); St Peter's, York, 627 (666). Universities. In England there are 34 traditional degree-giving universities. In addition there are the London and Manchester Business Schools and the Open University. Eight new universities have been established since 1961 and 8 former Colleges of Advanced .Technology gained university status in the 1960's. In Wales thère is 1 university, the University of Wales, with colleges at Aberystwyth, Bangor, Cardiff, Lampeter and Swansea. The University of Wales School of Medicine is a school of the University, and the University of Wales Institute ofScience and Technology became a constituent college in Nov. 1967. In Scotland there are 8 universities, St Andrew's, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh Universities date from the 15 th and 16th centuries while the others, Strathclyde, Heriot-Watt, Stirling and Dundee have been formally established since the early 1960s. All these universities and colleges are independent, self-governing institutions, although they receive substantial aid from the State (in the case of the Open University by direct grant from the Department of Education and Science, and the traditional universities through the University Grants Committee). The UGC is a committee appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science designed to advise the Government on the needs of the universities, to prepare plans for their future development and to distribute grants between the universities. The members are drawn from education and industry. The Government receives advice on the universities' requirements for central computing facilities from the Computer Board for the Universities and Research Councils whose members are also drawn from the universities and industry. The Royal College of Art and the Cranfield Institute of Technology are primarily postgraduate institutions which award higher degrees under charters granted in 1967 and 1969 respectively. They receive grants direct from the Department of Education and Science. The local education authorities have no responsibility for universities. The Open University received its Royal Charter on 1 June 196*9 and is an independent, self-governing institution, awarding its own degrees. It is financed by thé Government through the Department of Éducation and Science and by the receipt of students' fees. Tuition is by means of correspondence textbooks, radio and television broadcasts and summer schools. Students can also attend one of260 local study centres. No formal qualifications are required for entry to undergraduate or associate student courses. Anyone resident in the UK aged 18 or over may apply. There are 134 undergraduate courses; many are available on a one-off basis to associate students. In 1986 it had 66,191 undergraduates, about 60,000 continuing education students and clients and some 1,028 postgraduate students. The university has 2,600 full-time staff working at its Milton Keynes headquarters and in 13 regional offices throughout the country. There are 5,00i0 part-time tutors and counsellors. The University of Buckingham offers two-year degree courses. The.academic year commencing in Jan. and consisting of four ten-week terms. There are four Schools of Studies: Accounting, Business, and Economics; Humanities; Law; and Sciences. A number of postgraduate courses are also offered. In 1986, there were 620 full-time students. Opened in 1976, the University of Buckingham received its Royal Charterin March 1983.

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All universities charge fees, but financial help is available to students from several sources. The universities themselves provide scholarships of various kinds and all local education authorities have a system of awards to help suitable students to attend university. The amount of aid given generally depends upon the parents' means. The majority of the students at the English and Welsh universities are in receipt of some form of financial assistance. Awards known as state studentships are offered on a competitive basis by the Department from among candidates considered by the universities and other higher education institutions to be qualified for postgraduate studies in the humanities; similar awards, tenable at universities or other higher education institutions, are offered by the Research Councils to students studying topics within the broad spectrum of agriculture and food; the biological sciences; man's natural environment; science and engineering and the social sciences at post-graduate level. The following table gives the number of professors, lecturers, etc., and students (full-time and sandwich courses) for 1985-86: University or college Students Aston ' 3,626 Bath 3,630 Birmingham 8,941 Bradford 4,279 Bristol 7,032 Brunei 2,820 Cambridge 12,036 City 3,251 Durham 4,954 EastAnglia 4,164 Essex 3,037 Exeter 4,960 Hull 4,690 Keele 2,706 Kent 4,146 Lancaster 4,317 Leeds 10,300 Leicester 4,685 Liverpool 7,679 London Business School 230 London 40,313 Loughborough 5,345 Manchester Business School 219 Manchester 11,111 Univ. of Manchester Inst, of 3,932 Science and Technology 7,711 Newcastle 7,069 Nottingham 12,020 Oxford

Staff 357 465 1,479 492 1,160 3,74 1,751 362 586 520 380 534 511 302 459 590 1,465 683 1,096 70 8,224 719 48 1,705 656 1,192 1,085 2,000

University or college Reading " Salford Sheffield Southampton Surrey Sussex Warwick York

Students 5,674 3,704 7,783 6,370 3,208 4,565 5,611 3,490

Wales— Aberystwyth U.C. Bangor U.C. CardiffU.C. St David's, Lampeter Swansea U.C. Univ. ofWales Institute of Science and Technology Univ. ofWales Medical School Scotland— Aberdeen Dundee Edinburgh Glasgow Heriot-Watt St Andrews Stirling Strathclyde

Staff 739 431 1,056 1,074 560 634 735 463

2,946 2,702 5,392 727 4,121

374 359 651 69 480

2,991

365

785

344

5,481 3,222 10,039 10,412 3,319 3,560 2,589 7,586

756 488 1,627 1,404 371 415 333 974

Women students are admitted on equal terms with men. Number of women students: England, 90,754; Wales, 8,360; Scotland, 19,324. There are, however, colleges exclusively for female students at Oxford and Cambridge. Total number of full-time or sandwich students at universities listed above: England, 229,608; Wales, 19,664; Scotland, 46,208; total, 295,480. Mcintosh, N. E., Calder, J.A. and Swift, B., A Degree ofDifference. London, 1976 Perry, W., Open University: A Personal Account. Open Univ. Press, 1976

The British Council. The British Council was established in Nov. 1934 and incorporated by Royal Charter in 1940. Its aims are the promotion of an enduring understanding and appreciation of Britain in other countries through cultural, educational and technical co-operation. The Council's total budget in 198 5-86 amounted to £218 • 6m. Funds included a grant-in-aid of £50- lm. from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (Diplomatic Wing) and contributions of £24-2 m. from the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The ODA provided a further £85-7m. representing reimbursement of sums expended by the British Council on technical co-operation schemes, including the costs of their administration. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office provided a further £8-7m. The

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balance of £50m. was derived from Council earnings and from international agencies, overseas governments, etc. for educational services. The Council is governed by a board consisting of up to 30 members, 2 of whom are nominated by Ministers. There are advisory committees for Scotland and Wales and also advisory committees for the main branches of the Council's work. In Feb. 1987 the Council had staffin 80 countries. The Council is designated by the British Government to carry out over 30 bilateral cultural agreements, including that with the Soviet Union. The Council's work broadly divides into English language teaching; education and training; the development of university links and interchange; the promotion of wider use and availability of British books and periodicals; the development of personal contacts and the provision of information abroad on-British experience and resources in the fields of education, medicine, science, technology and the arts. The general policy in the field of English language teaching is to advise and assist education authorities overseas, particularly in curriculum and materials development and the training of local teachers of English; courses are provided in Britain and abroad for the further training of English language teaching experts from overseas. In many countries the Council runs its own English teaching centres. The Council acts as a centre for the dissemination of information about British educational thought and practice at all levels and, through its complement of education specialists working overseas, it has become closely involved with the administration of aid on behalf of the Overseas Development Administration. It assists in producing English teaching and other educational television and radio programmes overseas and arranges overseas consultancies and training in TV, radio and the application of media to development both in Britain and overseas. A prominent aspect of its education work is the assistance given in developing countries to the adoption of modern and locally relevant methods of science and mathematics teaching in schools. Following the merger with TETOC in 1982, the Council is responsible for advising ODA on its policies in the fields of technical education, industrial training, agricultural education, public administration and management development. Over 1,500 teachers of English or advisers, recruited by the British Council are working overseas. The Council is concerned to promote closer international academic collaboration through a variety of interchange and linking schemes, and through the provision of information and advice on educational institutions; it also administers the British Government's Technical Co-operation Training Programme and scholarship programmes on behalf of a large number of international organizations, notably UN and EEC. It administers examinations on behalf of a number of British examining boards. During recent years the Council has collaborated with British educational institutions and firms in designing and implementing a wide range of education projects, for which overseas authorities or multilateral agencies pay the full cost. The sciences, including medicine, technology and agriculture, form an increasingly important part of Council work. Contacts are built up and information collected and distributed through the specialist departments in London and the qualified scientists serving overseas, who also advise on training in Britain and the provision of experts abroad. The importance of the arts as a medium for fostering cultural relations is reflected in the Council's encouragement of the appreciation of British achievements in the performing and the visual arts, both by supporting local activity and by sending theatre ana ballet companies, orchestras and chamber groups, and exhibitions both of fine arts, crafts and photographs, from Britain on tours overseas. The Council also produces booklets, records and tapes on a wide range of literary and artistic subjects and in addition makes extensive use of films and video casse.ttes in support of its arts and educational work. The Council runs, or is associated with, over 100 libraries in the countries in which it is represented. It arranges touring exhibitions of new British books and periodicals. Additional publicity for British books is provided by the publication British Book News, and the distribution of specialized book lists. The Council also administers ODA funds for the presentation of books to educa-

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tional institutions in developing countries and the subsidized publication of lowpriced books for students under the imprint of the English Language Book Society. The Council arranges short advisory tours overseas by British experts. In a number of countries it is also the overseas administrative arm of the British Volunteer Programme. It awards scholarships and bursaries and arranges study programmes for some 25,000 visitors a year in Britain. It administers central government funds for youth exchanges with other countries. In Britain the Council administers the programmes of award schemes for overseas students, meets many students on arrival from overseas, and provides an accommodation service for students from overseas for whom it has a special responsibility. The Council runs offices in Britain, mainly in university cities, for these purposes. The Council is increasingly called on to administer training schemes and educational services financed by overseas authorities, or by multilateral agencies, on a contractual basis. The Council's specialist courses and summer schools provide advanced study in a number of fields, notably medicine, science, literature and the arts, English language and education. Payment is made by the student, or his parent organization, or by some other sponsor. The Council produces the following periodicals: Studying in Britain, Media in Education and Development, British Book News and Britain Abroad, Other publications include the series Writers and their Work, Notes on Literature, British Education, British Books and Libraries and a number of booklets including Scholarships Abroad, Introducing Wales, How to Live in Britain and Statistics of Overseas Students in the United Kingdom. The Council has sponsored two major series of literature recordings, The Complete Works of Shakespeare and The English Poets from Chaucer to Yeats. Chairman: Sir David Orr, MC. Director-General: Richard Francis. Headquarters: 10 Spring Gdns., London, SW1A2BN.

Arts Council of Great Britain. The Arts Council is an independent organization established by Royal Charter in 1946, and is the principal channel for British Government aid to the arts. The Council's objects are to develop and improve the knowledge, understanding and practice of the arts, to increase their accessibility to the public, and to advise and co-operate with government departments, local authorities and other organizations. The Council consists of a Chairman and not more than 19 other members who are appointed by the Minister for the Arts, after consultation with the Secretaries of State for Scotland and Wales. The Council is advised by panels and committees concerned with different aspects of the arts. With the approval of the appropriate Minister, the Council appoints committees for Scotland and Wales known respectively as the Scottish Arts Council and the Welsh Arts Council. The Council receives a grant-in-aid from the Government voted annually by Parliament. The grant-in-aid for 1987 is £ 138 -4m. (inclusive of an earmarked sum of £24m. as replacement after the abolition of the GLC and other metropolitan counties). As well as giving financial help and advice to several hundred artistic organizations from the major opera, dance, drama companies, orchestras and festivals, to the smallest touring théâtre and experimental group, the Council encourages such diverse interests as contemporary dance, photography, art films, and helps professional creative writers, dramatists, poets, musicians, composers, artists and photographers by means of bursary and award schemes. The Council provides funds for specialist training courses in the arts, and gives information on projects for the construction of new buildings, or improvements to existing ones under its 'Housing the Arts'scheme. A growing proportion of the Council's funds is channelled to the network of regjonal arts associations which covers the whole of England and Wales. The regional arts associations are not branches of the Arts Council, but are autonomous bodies, financed by a combination of Arts Council, local authority and private funds. The Council is responsible for the administration of the South Bank Arts

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complex including the Hayward Gallery, the Wigmore Hall and Serpentine Gallery. The Council mounts art exhibitions at the Hayward and Serpentine and other galleries throughout the regions. Other direct promotions include tours of opera and drama companies, of the Council's own films on the arts and of music groups under the Contemporary Music Network scheme. The Council has a library of contemporary British poetry at its headquarters and library and information service covering cultural policy, also administration and funding. Chairman: Sir William Rees-Mogg. Secretary-General: Luke Rittner. Headquarters: 105 Piccadilly, London W1V OAU. The Scottish Arts Council: 19-20 Charlotte Sq., Edinburgh, EH2 4DF. The Welsh Arts Council: 9 Museum Place, Cardiff, CF1 3 NX.

National Insurance. The National Insurance Act, 1946, came into operation on 5 July 1948, repealing the existing schemes of health, pensions and unemployment insurance. This Act, along with later legislation, was consolidated as the National Insurance Act, 1965. The Social Security Act 1975 introduced, from 6 April 1975, a new system of national insurance contributions to replace the previous system of flat-rate and graduated contributions. Since 6 April 1975, Class 1 contributions have been related to the employee's earnings and are collected with PAYE income tax, instead of by affixing stamps to a card. Class 2 and Class 3 contributions remain flat-rate, but, in addition to Class 2 contributions, those who are self-employed may be liable to pay Class 4 contributions, which for the year 1987-88 will be at the rate of 6-3% on profits or gains between £4,590 and £15,340, which are assessable for income tax under Schedule D. The non-employed and others whose contribution record is not sufficient to give entitlement to benefits are able to pay a Class 3 contribution voluntarily to qualify for a limited range of benefits. Class 2 weekly contributions for 1987-88 for men and women are £3 -85. Class 3 contributions are £3 • 75 a week. From 6 April 1978 the Social Security Pensions Act 1975 introduced earningsrelated retirement, invalidity and widows' pensions. Employee's national insurance contribution liability depends on whether he is in contracted out or not contracted out employment. For non contracted-out employment in 1987-88: On earnings between £39 and £64.99 a week, employee and employer both pay 5%; on earnings between £65 and £99.99 a week, employee and employer both pay 7%; on earnings between £100 and £149.99 a week, employee and employer both pay 9%; on earnings between £150 and £295 a week the employee pays 9% and the employer pays 10-45%; on earnings of over £295 a week the employee pays 9% of £295 but the employer pays 10-45% on all earnings. For contracted-out employment in 1987-88: On earnings between £39 and £64.99 a week the employee pays 5% on the first £39 and 2 -85% on the remainder and the employer pays 5% on the first £39 and 0-9% on the remainder; on earnings between £65 and £99.99 a week the employee pays 7% on the first £39 and 4-85% on the remainder and the employer pays 7% on the first £39 and 2-9% on the remainder; on earnings between £100 and £149.99 a week the employee pays 9% on the first £39 and 6 -85% on the remainder and the employer pays 9% on the first £39 and 4 • 9% on the remainder, on earnings between £ 150 and £295 a week the employee pavs 9% on the first £39 and 6-85% on the remainder and the employer pays 10-45% on the first £39 and 6-35% on the remainder, on earnings exceeding £295 a week the employee pays 9% on the first £39 and 6-85% on earnings between £39 and £295 and the employer pays 10-45% pn the first £39, 6 • 3 5% on earnings between £39 and £295 and 10 • 45% on the remainder. The State supplements the contributions paid by contributors and employers, from general taxation. Contributions and supplement together with interest on investments form the income of the National Insurance Fund from which benefits are paid. Statutory Sick Pay (SSP). Employers are now responsible for paying statutory sick pay (SSP) to their employees for up to 28 weeks in any period of incapacity for work. Basically, all employees aged 16 years and over are covered by the scheme

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whenever they are sick for 4 or more days consecutively. For most employees SSP completely replaces their entitlement to State sickness benefit which is not payable as long as any employer's responsibility for SSP remains. Benefits. Qualification for any benefit depends upon fulfilment of the appropriate contribution conditions. Persons who are incapable of work as the result of an industrial accident may get sickness benefit followed by invalidity benefit without having to satisfy the contributions conditions. Employed persons may qualify for all the benefits; self-employed may not qualify for unemployment benefit. Sickness Benefit. From 6 April 1987 the rate is £30-05 a week plus £18-60 a week for an adult dependant. Unemployment Benefit is paid through the local unemployment benefit offices of the Department of Employment. The rate is £31 • 45 a week plus £ 19 40 a week for an adult dependant. Invalidity Benefit replaces sickness benefit after 168 days of entitlement. It comprises a basic invalidity pension of £39-50 weekly and an invalidity allowance of £8 • 30 if incapacity began before age 40: £5 • 30 if incapacity began between 40 and 50 or £2 • 65 if it began between 50 and 60 (5 5 for women). Increases are: £23 • 75 for an adult dependant plus £8-05 for each child for whom child benefit is payable. Invalidity allowance is reduced or extinguished by the amount of any additional invalidity pension and/or guaranteed minimum pension to which there is title. Maternity Benefit. For a confinement a woman may receive a maternity grant of £25 and, where 2 or more children are born at the confinement, a further grant of £25 for each additional child who is alive 12 hours after its birth. There are no contribution conditions. The grant is paid on the satisfaction of a simple 'presence in Great Britain' test by the mother. Maternity grant was abolished in April 1987, but a payment of £80 may be payable to mothers on Supplementary Benefit or Family Income Supplement. If the woman has been gainfully employed or self-employed, and has paid sufficient full-rate national insurance contributions in the relevant income tax year, she may receive a maternity allowance of £29 -15 a week normally payable for 18 weeks commencing 11 weeks before the expected week of confinement, but not for any part of that period she does any paid work. From April 1987, title will depend on a revised work test and will be paid either by the State or the employer depending on the claim and status. Maternity allowance may be increased in certain circumstances in respect of dependants in the same way as sickness and unemployment benefits. Widow's Benefit. On her husband's death a widow normally qualifies for 26 weeks for an allowance of £55-35 a week for herself plus an increase of £8-05 a week for each child for whom child benefit is payable. At the end of the 26 weeks she may qualify for a widowed mother's allowance of £39-50 for herself, and the increases for the children for whom child benefit is payable continue at the same rate as for the first 26 weeks of widowhood. She may also receive her allowance at the personal rate of £39 - 50 a week if she has living with her a son or daughter who is under 19. The child increase for widow's allowance and widowed mother's allowance is, generally speaking, payable only in respect of a child for whom child benefit is payable. A widow's pension may be paid to: (i) A widow after the termination of her widow's allowance, if she does not qualify for widowed mother's allowance and was aged 40 or more when her husband died; (ii) A widow after she ceases to be entitled to a widowed mother's allowance if she is then aged 40 or more.The standard rate of this pension is £39-50 a week if the widow was 50 or more when her husband died or when her entitlement to widowed mother's allowance ended. If she was between 40 and 50, however, the standard rates of total pension range in 7% steps from 93% of the full age-50 rate (i.e., £36 -74 a week) for the widow who was 49 at that time to 30% (i.e., £11 -85 a week) for the widow who was then 40. Child's Special Allowance An allowance may be payable for the children of

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divorced parents where the father has died. It is payable to the mother if she has not remarried and her former husband was contributing, or legally liable to contribute, at least 25p a week towards the children's support in cash or kind or if she took reasonable steps to enforce maintenance and she was entitled to child benefit for the child(ren) when her former husband died or it is her child by her former husband and he was entitled to child benefit for the child(ren) when he died. It is similar to the increases for widow's children and is payable at the same rates. Child Special Allowance was abolished from 6 April 1987. If a former husband dies after 6 April 1987 no allowance is payable. Guardian's Allowance. A person who is responsible for an orphan child may be entitled to a guardian's allowance of £8-05 a week in addition to the amount of child benefit payable in respect of that child. Normally both the child's parents must be dead but when the child is illegitimate, or the parents were divorced, or one parent is missing, or serving a long sentence of imprisonment, the allowance may, in certain circumstances, be paid on the death of one parent only. Retirement Pension. In order to receive a retirement pension, men between 65 and 70, and women between 60 and 65 must have retired from regular employment. From 6 April 1979 a woman divorced over the age of 60 must satisfy the retirement conditions before a pension is payable. The standard rates of basic pensions are £39 • 50 a week for a man or woman on his or her own contributions and £23-75 for a married woman through her husband's contributions. Proportionately reduced pensions are payable where contribution records are deficient. For a person who reaches pension age on or after 6 April 1979, additional pension may also be payable. This is based on the earnings on which he or she has paid Class 1 contributions in each complete tax year between April 1978 and pension age. If the person has been a member of a contracted-out occupational pension scheme, that scheme will be responsible for paying the whole or part of the additional pension. An increase of £23 -75 a week may be payable for a dependent wife. If she resides with the beneficiary the increase is gradually reduced for earnings over £45 -09 a week. This tapered earnings rule does not apply to new claims from 16 Sept. 1985. From that date the following earnings rule will apply in these circumstances. When the spouse/woman looking after the claimant's child is living with the claimant an adult dependant's allowance will only be payable if the dependant's earnings do not exceed the standard rate of unemployment benefit for a person under pensionable age (currently £31 -45). If she does not reside with the beneficiary an increase is not payable if she earns more than £23 -75 a week. In addition £8 -05 a week may be payable for each child for whom child benefit is payable. In certain circumstances an increase of £23-75 a week may be payable for a woman having care of the pensioner's children. In addition, a man who had paid graduated contributions receives 5p per week for every £7 • 50 of graduated contributions paid, and a woman 5p per week for every £9 paid. Although no further graduated contributions have been paid after April 1975, pension already earned will be paidalong with the basic pension in the normal way. If, after being awarded a retirement pension, a man under 70 or a woman under 65 earns more than £75 in a calendar week the pension for the next pension week, including any increase for dependants, will be reduced by 5 p for every 1 Op earned between £7 5 and £79 and by 5p for every 5p earned over £79. If retirement is postponed after minimum pension age increments of all components of the pension can be earned for periods of deferred retirement. From 6 April 1979 increments are earned at the rate of one-seventh penny per £1 of basic pension for every 6 days (excluding Sundays) for which pension has been foregone. Any days for which another benefit has been paid will not count. These increments must be at least 1% of the pension rate unless the minimum was earned under the arrangements which applied before 6 April 1979. For periods between 6 April 1975 and that date, the rate was one-eighth penny per £1 of the basic pension rate for every 6 days and for periods of deferred retirement before 6 April 1975 increments were based on the number of contributions paid as an employed or selfemployed person. At age 70 for a man (65 for a woman) the pension for which a person has qualified may be paid in full whether a person continues in work or not irrespective of the amount of earnings. At the age of 80 an age addition of £0-25 a

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week is payable. In addition non-contributory pensions are now payable, subject to residence conditions, to persons aged 80 and over who do not qualify for a retirement pension or qualify for one at a low rate. The rates of these pensions, which are financed by Exchequer funds, are £23 -75 a week for a single person and £14-20 for a married woman. These amounts do not include the £0-25 age addition. From 22 Dec. 1984 the lower rate of category D retirement pension payable to married women was abolished. Death Grant. This is a lump sum paid on the death of an insured person or his close relative. The normal amount of the payment is: For an adult, £30; for a child aged 6 but under 18, £22 • 50; for a child aged 3 but under 6, £ 15; for a child under 3, £9. For the death of a person who was within 10 years of pensionable age on 5 July 1948 (i.e., a man over 55 and a woman over 50 on that date) only half the standard amount is payable. No grant is payable for the death of a person who was over the pensionable age on 5 July 1948. Death grant will no longer be payable for deaths occuring on or after 6 April 1987. However, subject to certain qualifying conditions help with funeral expenses can be claimed from the new Social Fund. The Industrial Injuries Provisions of the Social Security Act, 1975. The Industrial Injuries Act, which also came into operation on 5 July 1948, with its later amending Acts, was consolidated as the National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) Act, 1965. This legislation was incorporated in the Social Security Act, 1975. The scheme provides a system of insurance against 'personal injury by accident arising out of and in the course of employment' and against certain prescribed diseases and injuries due to the nature of the employment. It takes the place of the Workmen's Compensation Acts and covers persons who are employed earners under thfe Social Security Act. There are no contribution conditions for the payment of benefit. Three types of benefit are provided: (1) Disablement benefit. This is payable where, as the result of an industrial accident or prescribed disease, there is a loss of physical or mental faculty. The loss of faculty will be assessed as a percentage by comparison with a person of the same age and sex whose condition is normal. If the assessment is 14%, or more, benefit will be a pension varying according to the assessment, from £12 90 a week to £64-50 a week. If the assessment is under 14% benefit will normally be paid. Allowances or increases of disablement benefit may be payable (i) where the loss of faculty causes special hardship, i.e., it prevents the beneficiary from undertaking his regular job or one of an equivalent standard of earnings; (it) there is a need for constant attendance; (iii) there is exceptionally severe disablement and the need for constant attendance is likely to be permanent. Pensions for persons under 18 are at a reduced rate. When injury benefit was abolished for industrial accidents occurring and prescribed diseases commencing on or after 6 April 1983, a common start date was introduced for the payment of disablement benefit 90 days (excluding Sundays) after the date of the relevant accident or onset of the disease. (2) Death Benefit. On the death of a person as the result of an industrial accident or a prescribed disease, certain dependants may qualify for benefit. Benefit for a widow is a pension normally of £55-35 weekly for the first 26 weeks and thereafter £40-05, depending on such factors as age, entitlement to a child's allowance and permanent incapacity for self-support. If the conditions for pension at the higher rate are not satisfied the widow may receive a pension of £11 - 85 a week. Child allowances may be payable to the widow, or other person, entitled to child benefit for children of the deceased. For widows, these allowances are usually at the rate of £8 -05 a week for each child; other persons do not normally qualify for these allowances. An allowance of £1 is payable to a woman having care of a child of the deceased, benefit for widowers, parents and certain other relatives takes the form of pensions, allowances or gratuities according to the relationship to, and degree of maintenance by, the deceased. War Pensions. The number of beneficiaries in receipt of war (1914-18) pensions or allowances as at 26 Sept. 1986 was 11,830. The number of beneficiaries in receipt of war (1939-45 and later) pensions or allowances in payment as at 26 Sept.

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1986 was 262,780. The expenditure for both wars for 1984-85 was £544m. The expenditure is exclusive of administrative expenses. National Insurance Fund. At 1 April 1985 the balance of the National Insurance Fund amounted to £4,977,510,000. Income during the period 1 April 1985 to 31 March 1986, consisting of contributions from insured persons and employers, payments frorti the Exchequer and interest on investments, etc., was £23,495,938,000. Payments of benefit in respect of unemployment were £1,588,688,000; injury and sickness, £266,727,000; invalidity, £2,367,448,000; maternity, £163,722,000; widows, £796,784,000; guardian's allowance and child's special allowance, £1,839,000; retirement pension, £ 16,521,164,000; death grants, £18,282,000; disablement benefits, £407,594,000; death benefit, £5«,518,000. Included in these figures are the following estimated amounts of additional component, £300,843,000; earnings related supplement having ceased. Administrative and other payments cost approximately £989,658,000. The balance at 31 March 1986 was £5,293,024,000. From 1 April 1975 the National Insurance Reserve Fund and the Industrial Injuries Fund were merged with the National Insurance Fund. All basic scheme contributions payable under the 1975 Social Security Act are paid into the single fund out of which the existing range of benefits will continue to be financed. The new national insurance fund will continue to receive a Treasury Supplement; for 1985-86 this was set at a level of 9% of total contribution income. Child Benefit. Child benefit is a tax-free cash allowance for all children. The weekly rate for each child is £7 -25 from 6 April 1987. Child benefit is payable for all children under age 16 and for those under age 19 receiving full-time non-advanced education at a college or school. One Parent Benefit. This is a tax-free cash allowance for certain people bringing up children alone. It is payable for the first or only child in the family in addition to child benefit. The weekly rate from 6 April 1987 is £4 70. Family Income Supplement. Family income supplement is payable to families with at least 1 dependent child where the man or woman is in remunerative work for at least 30 hours a week (24 hours for lone parents), and where the family's normal gross weekly income (but excluding child benefits) is below a prescribed amount. The prescribed amount for families is currently £88-80 per week plus an amount of£l 1 -90, £12-95 or £14 00 according to the age of each dependent child. The weekly rate of benefit payable is one-half of the difference between the prescribed amount and the family's normal income, subject to a maximum weekly payment of£25-85 plusanamountof£2-60,£315 or £3-65 according to the age of each dependent child. Benefit is usually payable for 52 weeks and is not affected by changes in circumstances. Attendance allowance. This is a tax-free non-contributory allowance for severely disabled people, including children aged 2 or over, who require a lot of help from another person. There are 2 rates, the higher rate of £31 -60 a week for those who require attention or supervision by day and night, and the lower rate of £21 10 a week for those who need the attendance either by day or night. In addition to the medical requirements a simple test of residence and presence in Great Britain must also be satisfied. Invalid Care Allowance. This is a non-contributory taxable benefit which may be paid to those under pensionable age who stay at home to care for a person who is receiving attendance allowance or constant attendance allowance. Current rate £23 - 75 a week, with increases for dependants. Supplementary Benefit. Under the Supplementary Benefits Act, 1976, as amended by the Social Security Act 1980, benefit is payable to any persons in Great Britain aged 16 years or over (excluding persons at school or college or anyone directly involved in a trade dispute) who are not in full-time remunerative work and who are without resources, or whose resources (including national insurance benefits) need to be supplemented in order to meet their requirements. A person who is excluded from benefit under the normal rules may, nevertheless, receive payments

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1349

to meet urgent need. The general standards by reference to which supplementary benefit is granted are determined by statutory regulations approved by Parliament. Persons who are dissatisfied with the amount of benefit granted to them may appeal to an independent Appeal Tribunal established under the Act. During the financial year 1985-86 net payments on supplementary benefit amounted to £7,508,768. Newman, T. S., Digest of British Social Insurance London, 1947 (and supplements, to date)

National Health. The National Health Service in England and Wales started on 5 July 1948 under the National Health Service Act, 1946. There is a separate Act for Scotland and also one for Northern Ireland, where the Health Services are run on similar lines to those in England and Wales. The National Health Service, which is available to every man, woman and child, is a charge on the national income in the same way as the armed forces and other facilities. Every person normally resident in this country is entitled to use any complete part of the services, and no insurance qualification is necessary. Most of the cost of running the service is met from the national exchequer, i.e., from taxes. Since Sept. 1957 a small weekly National Health Service contribution has been payable by contributors and where applicable by their employers. For convenience this contribution is collected with the National Insurance contribution and for 1983-84 is estimated to be £2,024m. for Great Britain. Organization. Under the provisions of the NHS Act 1977 and the Health Service Act 1980, the administration of the National Health Service in England and Wales is organized under a system of regional and district health authorities accountable to the Secretary of State for the Social Services and the Secretary of State for Wales. In Scotland the National Health Service is administered under the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978, by 15 Health Boards and a Common Services Agency all accountable to the Secretary of State for Scotland. There are 191 district health authorities in England responsible for the administration and development of health services in their district. Fourteen regional health authorities, each consisting of a number of health districts, are responsible for allocating resources between the district health authorities in their regions and for monitoring their performance. The regional authorities are responsible for developing strategic plans and priorities and for carrying out certain executive functions. Services. The National Health Service broadly consists of hospital and specialist services, general medical, dental and ophthalmic services, pharmaceutical services, community health services and school health services. All these services are free of charge except for such things as prescriptions, spectacles, dentures and dental treatment, amenity beds in hospitals and for some of the community services, for which charges are made with certain exemptions. The total cost of the Health and Personal Social Services (Great Britain) is estimated at £22,600m. for 1986-87 and the estimated net expenditure by the Exchequer (except for the Local Authority Personal Social Services, where the rates and the Exchequer grants are estimated at about £3,270m.) in 1986-87 is £18,200m. The provisional number of abortions performed in 1985 under the provisions of the Abortion Act, 1967, was 171,873, of which 141,101 related to England and Wales residents. Of these 141,101 abortions, 87,213 (61-8%) were to single women, 37,698 (26-7%) were to married women, and 16,190 (11-5%) were to widowed, divorced or separated women and to women who did not state their marital status. The number of abortion notifications received in Scotland in 1985 under the provisions of the Abortion Act 1967, was 9,110, of which 9,096 related to Scottish residents. Of these 9,096 notifications, 5,749 (63-2%) were to single women, 2,286 (25-1%) were to married women, and 1,061 (11 -7%) were to widowed, divorced or separated women and to women who did not state their marital status. In Great Britain in 1985 there were 31,465 general medical practitioners, 16,744

1350

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KINGDOM

(1986) general dental practitioners and 219,900 qualified nurses and midwives. There were ( 1984) 430,752 average daily available hospital beds in the UK. Personal Social Services. Under the Local Authority Social Services Act 1970 and in Scotland the Social Work (Scotland) Act 1968 the welfare and social work services provided by local authorities were made the responsibility of a new local authority department—the Social Services Department in England and Wales, and Social Work Departments in Scotland headed by a Director of Social Work. The social services thus administered include: the fostering, care and adoption of children, welfare services and social workers for the mentally disordered, the disabled and the aged, and accommodation for those needing residential care services. In Scotland the social work departments' functions also include the supervision of persons on probation, of adult offenders and of persons released from penal institutions or subject to fine supervision orders. The number of supported residents in residential accommodation for the elderly and younger disabled was as follows: England and Residential Wales accommodation Scotland (31 March) Adults and Children (31 March) 1983 132,749 1983 1984 129,093 1984 1 1985 128,000 1985 1 Provisional.

Residential accommodation Adults and Children 15,685 15,416 15,794

England and Wales. Expenditure and income relating to the personal social services administered by local authorities (in £1,000 sterling): Year ended 31 March 1983 1984 1985 1986

Gross current expenditure 2,430,706 2,625,060 2,781,541 2,947,560

Year ended 31 March 1983 1984 1985 1986

Gross expenditure 83,559 95,903 106,708 109,468

Income from sales, fees and charges 359,321 378,520 390,122 412,756 ' Provisional.

Capital

Spending Income from sales of fixed assets 11,277 17,940 23,041 29,357

Net current expenditure 2,071,385 2,246,540 2,391,419 2,534,804

Net expenditure 72,282 77,963 83,667

80,111

Scotland. The total local authority expenditure for 1984-85 in respect of residential accommodation and welfare services under the Social Work (Scotland) Act, 1968, was £308 -8m. Central Government expenditure on social work totalled £21-5m. Klein,R., The Politics of the National Health Service. London, 1983 Watkin, B., The National Health Service. London, 1978

D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of the USA in Great Britain (Grosvenor Sq., London, W1A 1AE) Ambassador: Charles H. Price II. Of Great Britain in the USA (3100 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Sir Antony Acland, KCMG, KCVO. Of Great Britain to the United Nations Ambassador: Crispin Tickell.

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Books of Reference The annual and other publications of the various Public Departments, and the Reports, etc. of Royal Commissions and Parliamentary Committees. (These may be obtained from HM Stationery Office.) Bickmore, D P , a n d Shaw,M A. (ed.), The Alias ofGreat Britain and Northern Ireland. OUP, 1963 Central Statistical Office Annual Abstract of Statistics HMSO —Monthly Digest of Statistics HMSO Central Office of Information. Britain. An Official Handbook HMSO, annual. Demangeon, A., The British Isles. 3rded. London, 1952 Directory of British Associations. Becken ham, annual Government Statistical Service. Social Trends. HMSO —Regional Statistics. HMSO Government Statistics. A Brief Guide to Sources. HMSO, 1984 Halsey, A. H„ Trends in British Society Since 1900. London, 1972 History of the Second World War HMSO, 1949 ff. Jenkin, M., British Industry and the North Sea. London, 1981 Kendall, M. G (ed.), The Source and Nature of the Statistics of the United Kingdom. 2 vols. London,1952-1957 Mitchell, B. R., Abstract of British Historical Statistics. OUP, 1962 Oxford History of England. 15 vols. OUP, 1936-75 Woodward, Sir E. L„ and Butler, R„ Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919-39 HMSO, 1957 ff. Scotland Scottish Council (Development and Industry). Inquiry into the Scottish Economy. 1900-61 Edinburgh, 1961 Scottish Office. Scottish Economic Bulletin. HMSO (quarterly).—Scottish Abstract of Statistics. HMSO (annual) The New Scottish Local Authorities Organisation and Management Structures. HMSO, 1973 Brand, J., The National Movement in Scotland. London, 1978 Campbell, R. H„ The Rise and Fall of Scottish Industry, 1707-1939 Edinburgh, 1981 Donaldson, G (ed.) The Edinburgh History of Scotland. 4 vols. Edinburgh, 1965-75 Drucker, N. and H M , The Scottish Government YearBook. London, 1980 Grant, E., Scotland. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Hogg, A.,andHutcheson, A. MacG., Scotland and Oil 2nd ed. Edinburgh, 1975 Johnston, T L., Structure and Growth in the Scottish Economy London, 1971 Kellas, J G , Vie Scottish Political System. 2nd ed. CUP, 1975 Meikle, H. W (ed.), Scotland A Description of Scotland and Scottish Life London, 1947 Turnock, D., Patterns of Highland Development. London, 1970 Wales Wales. The WayAhead(Cmnd 3334.) HMSO, 1971 Wales. Employment and the Economy Cardiff, 1972 Digest of Welsh Statistics. HMSO (annual) Thomas, B. (ed.), The Welsh Economy Cardiff, 1962 Williams, D , A History of Modem Wales Newed. London, 1977 Williams, G , (ed.) Social and Cultural Change in Contemporary Wales. London, 1978

NORTHERN IRELAND AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area (revised by the Ordnance Department) and population were as follows: District Antrim Ards Armagh Ballymena Ballvmoney Banbridge Belfast Carrickfergus Castlereagh Coleraine Cookstown

Population Population (usually resident) estimate 30 June 1985 1981 Census' 45,016 45,900 57,792 62,200 49,223 50,400 54,813 55,800 22,946 23,800 30,110 31,600 301,600 314,270 28,625 28,400 60,785 58,400 46,739 47,300 28,257 27,900

Area 1Hectares) 41,510 36,789 66,733 63,384 41,687 44,174 11,140 8,484 8,426 47,763 51,207

Survey

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Population Population (usually resident) estimate Area District 1981 Census' 30 June 1985 (Hectares) Craigavon 73,260 75,300 27,945 Down 53,193 55,400 63,835 Dungannon 43,883 43,900 76,266 Fermanagh 51,594 51,400 169,952 Lame 29,076 28,600 33,744 Limavady 26,964 28,900 58,523 Lisbum 83,998 90,900 43,595 Derry (Londonderry) 89,101 95,300 37,258 Magherafelt 32,494 33,000 56,186 Moyle 14,396 15,000 49,378 NewryandMourne 76,574 84,700 88,589 Newtownabbey 72,246 72,100 15,956 North Down 66,264 69,300 7,329 Omagh 44,288 44,900 112,354 Strabane 36,279 35,800 86,090 Northern Ireland 1,532,186 1,557,800 1,348,297 ' Arising from difficulties during the Census taking, a number of households were not enumerated. The population effect of this non-enumeration is estimated at about 50,000 and is included in this column.

Chief towns (population, estimate 1983): Belfast, 322,600; Londonderry, 96,100. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983 1984' 1985'

Marriages 9,636 9,913 9,990 10,361 10,343

Divorces 775 1,383 1,678 1,547 1,602 1 Provisional.

Births 27,302 27,028 27,255 27,693 27,635

Deaths 16,256 15,918 16,039 15,692 15,955

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom. As such it is subjected to the fundamental constitutional provisions which apply to the rest of the United Kingdom. However, in the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973 and the Northern Ireland Act 1982, Parliament provides for a measure of devolved government in Northern Ireland. This can only be introduced if both Houses of Parliament agree that the arrangements for devolution are likely to command widespread acceptance throughout the community in Northern Ireland. Such matters as the Crown, Parliament, international relations, the armed forces and the raising of taxes cannot be devolved in any circumstances and remain the responsibility of the UK Parliament and Government. In the event of agreement on widely-acceptable arrangements for devolution, powers over a range of social and economic matters would be devolved first. The Northern Ireland Assembly would have power to make laws on these subjects and Members of the Assembly would be appointed as heads of the relevant Northern Ireland government departments. Such powers were devolved on 1 Jan. 1974, following an agreement among the Northern Ireland political parties to form a power-sharing Executive. This collapsed on 28 May 1974 and there had been no devolution by 31 Dec. 1985. In the interim and in the absence of devolved arrangements which command widespread acceptance, Northern Ireland is governed by 'direct rule' under the provisions of the Northern Ireland Act 1974. This provides for Parliament to approve all laws for Northern Ireland and places the Northern Ireland departments under the direction and control of a UK Cabinet Minister, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. A 78-member Assembly was elected by proportional representation in 1982. In May 1984 the Assembly set up a Committee on Devolution to consider and report on how the Assembly might be strengthened and progress made towards legislative and selective devolution. The Committee's third report was published in Oct. 1985. The Assembly was dissolved on 23 June 1986. In Nov. 1985 the governments of the UK and the Republic of Ireland entered into a formal Agreement which is designed to promote peace and stability in Northern Ireland, help to reconcile the two major traditions in Ireland, create a new climate of friendship and co-operation between the people of the two

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countries and improve co-operation in combating terrorism. Under the Agreement an Intergovernmental Conference was established in which the Irish Government will put forward views and proposals concerning stated aspects of Northern Ireland affairs; in which the promotion of cross-border co-operation will be discussed; and in which determined efforts will be made to resolve any differences between the two governments. A Secretariat was also established by the two governments to service the Conference. What began ostensibly as a Civil Rights campaign in 1968 escalated into a fullscale offensive designed to overthrow the State. This offensive was originally mounted by an illegal organization, the Irish Republican Army (not to be confused with the legitimate Army of the Republic of Ireland). At times counter-measures have required the services of over 20,000 regular troops, in addition to the Royal Ulster Constabulary, the RUC Reserve and the part-time Ulster Defence Regiment. Secretary ofStatefor Northern Ireland: Right Hon. Tom King, MR Local Government. Northern Ireland has a single-tier system of 26 district councils based on main centres of population. The district councils are responsible for the provision of a wide range of local services including refuse collection and disposal, street cleansing, litter prevention, consumer protection, environmental health, miscellaneous licensing including dog control, the provision and management of recreational and cultural facilities, the promotion of tourist development schemes, the enforcement of building regulations and gas supply. They have in addition both a representative role in which they send forward representatives to sit as members of statutory bodies including the Northern Ireland Housing Council, the Fire Authority and the Area Boards for health and personal social services and education and libraries; and a consultative role under which the Department of Environment (NI) and the Northern Ireland Housing Executive, among others, have an obligation to consult them regarding the provision of the regional services for which these bodies are responsible. TTie Government's policy for the future development of the Province is contained in the Regional Physical Development Strategy 1975-95 which was published in May 1977. Basically the policy advocates that the main town in each District Council area should be developed to fulfil its function as the prime centre in the district and for any other specialized roles it may have such as an industrial centre, port or tourist resort. The Strategy also recognizes that the smaller towns and villages have an important role to play, depending on the availability of services, as locations for smaller scale industries service centres and as dormitory centres for people not wishing to live in the towns where they find employment. The Regional Strategy provides a framework within which development plans can be prepared for all the districts. Since its adoption of the Strategy the Department has been engaged in formulating the detailed policies and proposals for future communications, the location of industry, housing and major services in the light of anticipated population growth and distribution. A development plan sets down the broad policies and proposals for the development or other use of land in the area covered by the plan over a period of up to 15 years ahead. Development plans covering almost all of Northern Ireland have been published and work is progressing on the remaining areas, together with review of some earlier plans. F I N A N C E . There exists a separate Northern Ireland Consolidated Fund from which is met the expenditure of Northern Ireland Departments. Its main sources of revenue are: (i) The Northern Ireland attributed share of UK taxes; (ii) A nonspecific grant in aid of Northern Ireland's revenue, payable by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland; (iii) Rates and other receipts of Northern Ireland Departments. The general principle underlying the financial arrangements is that Northern Ireland should have parity of taxation and services with Great Britain. Since the financial year 1984-85 the income of the Northern Ireland Consolidated Fund has been as follows (in £ sterling):

1354

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Attributed share of UK taxes Payments by UK Government: Grant in Aid Refund of value added tax Regional and district rates Other receipts Total 1 2

KINGDOM

1984-85 1,647,473,044"

1985-86 1,808,174,9742

1986-87 1,901,530,000'

905,000,000 24,760,697 192,400,000 315,801,944

955,000,000 26,804,048 208,000,000 336,783,368

950,099,200 30,000,000 230,000,000 331,329,738

3,085,435,685

3,334,762,390

3,442,958,938

Including final adjustment for 1983-84. Including final adjustment for 1984-85. ' Provisional.

The public debt at 31 March 1986 was as follows: Ulster Savings Certificates, £168,851,000; Ulster Development Bonds, £36,950; borrowing from UK Government, £1,024,053,399; borrowing from Northern Ireland Government Funds, £400,642,390; European Investment Bank Loan, £17,168,661; total, £1,610,752,000. The above amount of public debt is offset by equal assets in the form of loans from Government to public and local bodies and of cash balances. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The planning, generation and distribution of electricity supplies are the responsibility of the Northern Ireland Electricity Service. The installed capacity of the system is 2,400 mw largely provided from 4 thermal power-stations. The total sales of electricity in Northern Ireland in the year ended 31 March 1985 amounted to 4,776m. units supplied to a total of555,581 consumers. Water Supplies and Sewerage. The Department of the Environment Water Service is responsible for water supply and sewerage. Some 691 megalitres of water are supplied throughout Northern Ireland per day to approximately 97% of the population. Approximately 92% of the population live in property which is connected to sewers or modem septic tanks. The Department is also responsible for the conservation and planned development of the water resources of Northern Ireland. Minerals. The output of minerals (in 1,000 tonnes) during 1984 was approximately: Basalt and igneous rock (other than granite), 6,856; grit and conglomerate, 2,578; limestone, 3,707; sand and gravel, 3,506; and other minerals (rocksalt, flint, sandstone, diatomite, granite, chalk, clay and shale), 629. Lignite has been discovered near Crumlin in County Antrim and in some other areas. Agriculture. Estimated gross output in 1985:

«m m

Quantity

Fat cattle 10 Calves Store cattle 6 Exports of breeding head livestock 5 Fat sheep and lambs 855 1,148 Fat pigs Poultry (tonnes) 56 Eggs: for human consumption (dozen) 77,121 Wool (tonnes) 2,210 1,325,964 Milk (litres) 282 Potatoes , 4 Oats 1 Barley f tonnes 53 Wheat J 12

Value 1 9 2 3

1 5 26 1 72 6 41 7 28 8 2 2 191 8 13 6 0-4 6 1 14

Grass seed ] Hay and straw Fruit f tonnes Vegetables Mushrooms J Flowers Other items

Quantity (1.000)

Value (£m.)

5 25 23 8

03 4 0 3 7 9 8 6 2 62 2

— —

Total receipts Value of changes in stocks due to volume

752 8 -12 2

Gross output

740-6

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1355

Area (in 1,000 hectares) of crops at June census (1984 and 1985): Oats Wheat Barley Other cereals and pulses Potatoes Tumips, s'wedes, kale and cabbage' Vegetables

1984 2-7 31 45-1 0-4 141 0-7 1-2

1985 2-6 50 46-1 0-4 130

1984 Other crops 6-2 2-2 Fruit Grass for mowing 257-6 Grass for grazing 508-7 Rough grazing (excluding common land) 188-4

0-7 11 1 Stock feeding only.

1985 5-7 21 265-4 500-7 185-4

Livestock (1,000) at June census (1984 and 1985): Dairy cows Beefcows Total cattle Breedingewes

1984 299 196 1,507 709

1985 294 201 1,514 769

Total sheep Breeding sows Total pigs Totalpoultry

1984 1,450 63 615 10,825

1985 1,590 64 517

16,061

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1986 (June) employment in manufacturing and construction amounted to 117,320, just under 25 -8% of the total workforce. Of this number, 28,750 (24-3%) were engaged in the engineering and allied industries, which include shipbuilding and aircraft manufacture. The former predominance of shipbuilding has diminished, and the engineering sector now produces an impressive variety of goods; from textile machinery, air-conditioning plant and oilfield equipment to automobile and aero-engine components, data-processing equipment, and electronic components. The textile and man-made fibre industries, with a workforce of 11,930 includes longer established sectors such as spinning and weaving as well as more recently established activities such as the production of carpets, man-made fibres and hosiery. The related clothing and footwear sector employs 16,060 people. Taken together, food, drink and tobacco account for 18,630 jobs, the remainder of the manufacturing sector comprising a multiplicity of activities, such as chemicals, rubber and plastic goods, and furniture accounting for 21,590. The construction industry employs 20,360 people. In Dec. 1985 the average number of unemployed was 121,470, this represents 20-9% of all employees. The Department of Economic Development provides an all-age guidance and placement service through a network of jobmarkets situated in the principal towns of Northern Ireland. They maintain registers of persons voluntarily seeking employment (either full- or part-time) and those already in employment who wish to change their job. In the financial year 1985-86,31,263 persons (adult and young people) were placed into employment in Northern Ireland by the Employment Service. A further 15,550 persons were placed into training. The Government offers a comprehensive range of incentives to encourage the establishment of new and the expansion of existing industry. In June 1986 there were 195 new projects and 235 expansions of existing projects giving employment to 70,162 workers. Through the Department of Economic Development, there are various employment and training grants available to assist employers with recruitment and training of workers. These grants cover a wide spectrum of industry, age groups, and types of training. Assistance is available to employers who transfer key workers temporarily or permanently to Northern Ireland from other countries or within Northern Ireland in connection with the establishment or expansion of an industrial undertaking. The Department of Economic Development maintains a register of disabled persons who are in the employment field and under the provisions of the Disabled Persons (Employment) Acts (NI) 1945 and 1960, makes efforts to find suitable work for those who are unemployed. Employment rehabilitation courses are provided at

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the Employment Rehabilitation Unit at Felden House, Newtownabbey and training courses at various locations are available to assist unemployed disabled persons to readjust themselves to working conditions and to enhance their prospects of obtaining suitable employment. Allowances are paid to persons attending these courses. The Department of Economic Development and the Department of Education co-ordinate jointly a Youth Training Programme which aims to provide for the vocational education and training needs of all young people aged 16'and 17, whether in employment, full-time education or unemployed. The programme provides: (a) a first year of broad-based, lull-time training offering each young person aged 16, who does not wish to continue in full-time education, a balanced programme of off-the-job training, work experience and further education; (b) a second year of employment with training (YTP Workscheme) or further project based full-time training; (c) additional vocational preparation for young people remaining in full-time education. In 1986-87 the Programme provided some 8,850 training places in a variety of schemes. Provision was also made for up to 5,000 entrants to YTP Workscheme, a scheme which encourages employers to recruit and train 17 year old employees. Enterprise Ulster is an independent statutory body whose objective as a direct labour organization is to give employment to the long term and less skilled unemployed. Employment is provided through a structured industrial approach with an emphasis on: (a) rehabilitation into the disciplines of work; (b) training in semiskilled and traditional trades; (c) placement in more conventional employment. Work that is carried out mainly for public bodies and projects, which might not otherwise be done, is of community and amenity value. In Jan. 1987, 180 projects were providing employment for 1,400 employees. The Action for Community Employment Scheme, which came into operation in April 1981, provides temporary employment for long-term unemployed adults by funding projects which are of benefit to the community. In Sept. 1986 some 990 such projects were operational, providing employment for some 6,000 people. There are 12 Training Centres in Northern Ireland which provide over 3,000 training places and an annual output of over 5,000 trainees. Training Centres contribute to the Youth Training Programme having up to 2,200 places available for 16-17 year olds who have been unable to find employment. A special six-month broad-based modular course provides basic training in a wide variety of skills and the six-month craft skill courses provide initial apprentice training. Advanced vocational training is available to young people who have completed the basic training course and have been unable to Obtain a place in an apprentice course. The remaining places are for adult trainees. To supplement the Training Centres facilities, arrangements have been made for the use of spare training capacity in industry and commerce to attach people to firms for training courses. By this means a wide variety of training is made available and this has been further supplemented by use of spare capacity in other training agencies and in Colleges of Further Education. The Department of Economic Development administers an Entry to Management Programme for unemployed trainees and a Management Development Programme for private sector firms. The former Programme contains training opportunities schemes for those wishing to enter or re-enter management or to set up new businesses - at the peak time of the training year up to 220 people can be in training. The latter Programme is designed to encourage companies to develop management structures and to train individual managers to a high level of competence. Each year about 2,000 grants are awarded to support training courses or training places in companies. Also, up to 2,000 places were available in the financial year 1986-87 under the Enterprise Allowance Scheme, to encourage unemployed people to set up in business, by paying them £40 a week for up to 52 weeks as a business receipt to compensate for Toss of unemployment Or supplementary benefit.

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Labour. The main sources of statistics in Northern Ireland are the census of employment which was last conducted in 1981 and the quarterly employment enquiry. In June 1986 there were 455,090 jobs for employees in Northern Ireland; of which 237,750 were taken up by males. T O U R I S M . Tourism earns a substantial amount of revenue for Northern Ireland and total spending by some 863,000 visitors in 1985 was £78 • 5m. Altogether tourism provides over 9,000 full-time jobs. The Northern Ireland Tourist Board has the main responsibility for promoting tourist traffic in Northern Ireland. Scenic beauty, scientific and nature interest, and wildlife are protected by the Department of the Environment under the Access to the Countryside (NI) Order 1983, the Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands (NI) Order 1985 and the Wildlife (NI) Order 1985. The Department is advised by the Ulster Countryside Committee and the Committee for Nature Conservation. Eight Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty and 48 Areas of Scientific Interest have been designated, where special attention is given respectively to the amenity and scientific aspects of planning applications. Country Parks have been established at Crawfordsbum, Redburn and Scrabo, Co. Down, at the Roe Valley and Ness Wood, Co. Derry, and at Castle Archdale, Co. Fermanagh. At The Birches in N. Armagh a Peatlands Park is being developed. The Lagan Valley between Belfast and Lisbum is Northern Ireland's first Regional Park. Forty-one National Nature Reserves have been declared, and more are being acquired. The Department is advised by the Historic Monuments Council on the exercise of its powers under the Historic Monuments Act (NI) 1971 in respect of the conservation of historic monuments and the preservation of objects of archaeological or historic interest. At present there are some 160 monuments in State care and approximately 690 are scheduled. The Department, advised by the Historic Buildings Council, is also responsible for listing buildings of special architectural or historic interest and for designating areas of similar interest the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance. To date some 6,922 buildings have been listed and 24 conservation areas have been designated. Grants are payable by the Department to assist in the repair or maintenance of listed buildings and for schemes of enhancement in conservation areas. COMMUNICATIONS Road and Rail. All train services are operated by the Northern Ireland Railways Co. Ltd which is a subsidiary of the Northern Ireland Transport Holding Co. The number of track miles operated is 357; passenger route miles, 210. In 1985-86 railways carried 5 • 5m. passengers. Most bus services are operated by two other subsidiaries, Ulsterbus Ltd and Citybus Ltd. UJsterbus runs services outside the Belfast area (except for a few services provided by 2 privately owned bus undertakings) while all the services within the Belfast area are run by Citybus. The Department of the Environment (NI) administers a licensing system for professional hauliers with the objective of maintaining standards and conditions necessary for the safe operation of vehicles and fair competition between hauliers. The level of services provided and the rates charged by the industry are determined by the normal economic forces of supply and demand. At 31 March 1986 there were 1,478 professional hauliers and 2,475 vehicles licensed to engage in road haulage. The number of motor vehicles licensed at 31 Dec. 1985 was 454,790, comprising private cars, 413,940; motor cycles, 12,360; hackney vehicles, 2,460; goods vehicles, 17,660; agricultural tractors, 8,370. In addition, there were 13,241 vehicles which were not subject to licence duty. The Department of the Environment (NI) is responsible for the provision and maintenance of all public roads, bridges and street lighting in the Province, the provision and operation of car parks, and for the operation of the Strangford Ferry. In addition to Headquarters Division the Roads Service of the Department operates through Divisional Offices in Ballymena, Belfast, Coleraine, Craigavon, Downpatrick and Omagh and smaller offices in other centres.

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At 1 April 1986 the total mileage of roads was 14,746, graded for administrative purposes as follows: Motorway 70 miles; Class I, dual carriageway, 81 miles; Class I, single carriageway, 1,283 miles; Class III, 2,944 miles; unclassified, 8,595 miles. Aviation. Northern Ireland Airports Ltd is responsible for the operation of Belfast International Airport. A major 4-stage development programme was started m 1977; 2 stages have been completed, Stage 3 is under way. The completion of the programme will leave the airport better equipped to handle traffic growth in the foreseeable future. Passenger and freight services operate between Belfast International Airport and anports throughout the UK. In 1985-86, 1 7m. passengers and 30,000 tonnes of freight and mail were handled. Scheduled air services are available from Belfast (Harbour) Airport to 7 destinations in the U K . There are 3 other licensed airfields in Northern Ireland and apart from some scheduled services during the summer months, these airfields are used principally by flying clubs, by private owners and by expanding air taxi businesses flying to destinations in Ireland, the U K and continental Europe. Shipping. Passenger services operate between Belfast and Liverpool and between Larne and{i) Cairnryan and (ii) Stranraer. Conventional cargo services have given way in many cases to container, unit load and drive on/drive off services. The latter type of service now operates between Belfast and Larne to various ports in U K . JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D

WELFARE

Justice. The Lord Chancellor has responsibility for the administration of all courts in Northern Ireland through the Northern Ireland Court Service, and is responsible for the appointment of judges and resident magistrates. The court structure in Northern Ireland has 3 tiers-the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland (comprising the Court of Appeal, the High Court and the Crown Court), the County Courts and the Magistrates' Courts. There are 25 Petty Sessions districts which when grouped together for administration purposes form 7 County Court Divisions and 4 Circuits. The County Court has general civil jurisdiction subject to an upper monetary limit of £5,000. Appeals from the Magistrates' Courts lie to the County Court, while appeals from the County Court lie to the High Court or, on a point of law, to the Court of Appeal by way of case stated. Circuit Registrars have jurisdiction to deal with most defended actions up to £500 and most undefended actions up to £5,000. They also deal, by an informal arbitration procedure, with small claims whose value does not exceed £300. An appeal from the decision of a Circuit Registrar lies to the High Court other than in small claims cases. Police The police force consists of the Royal Ulster Constabulary, supported by the Royal Ulster Constabulary Reserve, a mainly part-time force. Religion. According to the census of 1981 of the total enumerated population of 1,481,959 there were: Roman Catholics, 414,532; Presbyterians, 339,818; Church of Ireland, 281,472; Methodists, 58,731. Those belonging to other Churches and of no stated denomination numbered 387,406. 18 5% of the enumerated population failed to answer the voluntary question on religion. Education. Education in Northern Ireland is administered centrally by the Department of Education and locally by 5 education and library boards. The Department is concerned with the whole range of education from nursery education through to higher education and continuing education; for sport and recreation; for youth services; for the arts and culture (including libraries) and for community relations and community development. District councils are the m a m providers of sport, recreation and community facilities and the education and library boards have a responsibility where the facilities are intended primarily for education and youth service activities. The Department assists with grants as far as the district councils are concerned and meets the full cost in relation to education and library boards. The 5 education and library boards which took over responsibility for the local

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administration of the education and library services on 1 Oct. 1973 are required to ensure that there are sufficient schools of all kinds to meet the needs of their area. They provide primary and secondary schools, special schools for handicapped pupils and institutions of further education. The boards also make contributions towards the cost of maintaining voluntary schools; award university and other scholarships; meet the tuition fees of the great majority of pupils attending grammar schools; provide milk and meals; free books and transport for pupils; enforce school attendance; regulate the employment of children and young people and secure the provision of recreational and youth service' facilities. They are also required to develop a comprehensive and efficient library service for their areas. The following are the statistics for the 1984-85 academic year: Universities. Northern Ireland now has 2 Universities of Higher Education, the Queen's University of Belfast (QUB) and the newly-established University of Ulster (UU). The Queen's University of Belfast (founded in 1849 as a college of the Queen's University of Ireland and reconstituted as a separate university in 1908) had 98 professors, 242 readers and senior lecturers, 615 lecturers and tutors and 6,936 full-time students in 1984-85. The University of Ulster, formed on 1 Oct. 1984 by the merger of the New University of Ulster and the Ulster Polytechnic has campuses in Belfast, Coleraine, Jordanstown and Londonderry. In 1984—85 the University had 45 professors, 170 readers and senior lecturers, 514 lecturers and demonstrators and 7,475 full-time students. Secondary Education. 78 grammar schools with 58,348 pupils and 3,646 full-time teachers; 182 secondary (intermediate) schools with 101,887 pupils and 6,781 fulltime teachers. Primary Education. 1,013 primary schools with 180,978 pupils and 7,745 teachers; 84 nursery schools with 4,642 pupils and 154 teachers. Further Education. 26 institutions of further education with 2,157 full-time and 2,065 part-time teachers apd an enrolment of 14,191 full-time, 19,920 part-time day and 20,124 evening students on vocational courses; and 43,561 students on non-vocational (mostly evening) courses. Special Educational Treatment. 33 special schools, including hospital schools with 2,869 pupils and 353 teachers. Teachers. There were 20,797 full-time teachers (8,520 men and 12,277 women) in grant-aided schools and institutions of further education. The principal initial teacher-training courses are the Bachelor of Education (3 year and 4 year honours), general or honours BA and BSc. degrees with education (3,4 and 5 year) and the one year Certificate of Education for graduates. There were 1,563 students (399 men and 1,164 women) in training at the 2 Colleges of Education and the 2 Universities during 1984-85. Expenditure by the Department ofEducation (1984-85) £583 -3m. Health and Personal Social Services. Under the provisions of the Health and Personal Social Services (NI) Order 1972, the Department Of Health and Social Services is responsible for the provision of integrated health and personal social' services in Northern Ireland, designed to promote the physical and mental health of the people of Northern Ireland through the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illness, and also to promote their social welfare. Four Health and Social Services Boards, Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western, established under the above Order, administer health and personal social services, as the Department directs, within their designated areas. Social Security. The social security schemes in Northern Ireland are similar to those in force in Great Britain. National Insurance. During the year ended 31 March 1986, £14-2m. sickness benefit was paid to an average of 9,487 persons and £48-9m. unemployment benefit was paid to an average of 30,661 persons. Widows' benefits amounting to £28-9m. were paid to 13,293 persons and retirement pensions totalling £365-6m. were paid to an average of 208,250 persons. Invalidity pensions and allowances

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totalling £103 lm. were paid to approximately 37,799 persons. Industrial disablement benefit amounting to £11-9m. was paid to an average of 5,365 persons. Maternity benefit totalling £5 4m. was paid to approximately 11,915 persons. Receipts, of the Northern Ireland Insurance Fund in the year ended 31 March 1986 were £556 -7m. and payments were £611 0m. Child Benefit. During the year ended 31 March 1986, £172 8m. was paid to an average of 215,764 families. Supplementary Benefits. In 1985-86, £304 9m. was paid to an average of 185,111 persons. Family Income Supplement. In 1985-86, £11-8m. was paid to an average of 14,747 persons. Books of Reference The annual and other publications of the various Departments and the Reports, etc., of Parliamentary Committees may be obtained from HM Stationery Office, Belfast. Northern Ireland Social Security Statistics Ulster Year Book, 1985 (Bi-annual). Belfast, HMSO, 1985 Census of Population Reports, Northern Ireland. Belfast, HMSO, 1981 Annual Abstract of Statistics. Belfast, HMSO Northern Ireland: A Trade Directory Belfast, HMSO, lsted. 1985 Reports on the Census of Production of Northern Ireland. Belfast, HMSO The Statutes Revised. Northern Ireland. HMSO, 1982 Bell,G„ The Protestants of Ulster London, 1976 Biggs-Davison, J , The Hand is Red. London, 1974 Flackes, W D„ Northern Ireland: Political Directory 1968-83 London, 1983 Kelly, K., The Longest War Northern Ireland and the IRA Dingle, Westport and London, 1982 Kenny, A., The Road to Hillsborough. London, 1986 Wallace, M., British Government in Northern Ireland: From Devolution to Direct Rule Newton Abbot, 1982 Watt,D. (ed.), The Constitution of Northern Ireland. London, 1981

ISLE OF M A N A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area, 221 sq. miles (572 sq. km); resident population census April 1986, 64,282. The principal towns are Douglas (population, 20,368), Ramsey (5,778), Peel (3,660), Castletown (3,019). Vital statistics, 1985: Births, 703; deaths, 1,049; marriages, 333. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Isle of Man is administered in accordance with its own laws by the Court of Tynwald, consisting of the Governor, appointed by the Crown; the Legislative Council, composed of the Lord Bishop of Sodor and Man, the Attorney-General (who does not voter) and 8 members selected by the House of Keys, total 10 members; and the House of Keys, a representative assembly of 24 members chosen on adult suffrage. The Island is not bound by Acts of the Imperial Parliament unless specially mentioned in them. A special relationship exists between the Isle of Man and the European Economic Community providing for free trade and adoption by the Isle of Man of the EEC's external trade policies with third countries. The Island remains free to levy its own system of taxes. An Executive Council to advise the Governor on all matters of government was set up under the Isle of Man Constitution Act, 1961. It consists at present of 9 members chosen from the House of Keys and the Legislative Council. Lieut.-Governor: Maj.-Gen. Laurence New, CB, CBE. Government Secretary: P. J. Hulme. Chief Financial Officer: W. Dawson. Flag: Red, with 3 steel-coloured legs armoured and spurred (knees and spurs, yellow) in the centre.

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ECONOMY Budget. Revenue is derived from customs duties, value added tax and from income tax. In 1986-87 the budget allowed for expenditure of £152-8m. Income tax was 20p in the £. There are no inheritance or capital gains taxes. Company registration tax is levied at a flat rate of £250 on every company incorporated in the Isle of Man which trades and is controlled outside the island. The Island currently makes an annual contribution to the UK Government towards the cost of defence and other common services provided by the UK Government. That contribution currently amounts to about £ 1 1 m. Currency. The Isle of Man Government issues its own notes and coin on a par with £ sterling. £50, £20, £10, £5, £1 and 50p notes and £5, £2, £1, 50p, 20p, lOp, 5p, 2p and lp coins are issued. Various commemorative coins have been minted together with legal tender gold coins and a platinum bullion coin. Banking. Government regulation of the banking sector is exercised through the Financial Supervision Commission. The Commission was established in 1982 and is responsible for the licensing and supervision of banks, deposit-takers and certain financial intermediaries giving financial advice" arid fecelving client' ffiOTlfeS Tot investment and management. There were (1986) 43 licensed banking institutions and 10 deposit-taking licence holders. In June 1986 the deposit base was £2,900m. AGRICULTURE. The area farmed is about 120,000 acres out of a total land area of around 140,000 acres. About 65,000 acres is devoted to grass whilst a further 40,000 acres are accounted for by rough grazing. Barley accounts for most of the remaining land under cultivation and some barley is exported. There are approximately 141,000 sheep, 34,000 cattle, 79,000 poultry and 7,000 pigs on farms in the Island. Agriculture contributes less than 3% of the Island's GNP. T O U R I S M . In 1984-85 tourism contributed 11% of national income; there were 340,000 visitors during the 1986 summer season. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 500 miles of good roads. The International TT Motor Cycle Races and cycle races take place annually. Omnibus services operate to all parts of the island. There were (1986) about 37,000 licensed vehicles on the roads, including 2,700 motorcycles. Railways. Several novel transport systems operate on the Island during the summer season, including 100-year-old horse-drawn trams, and the Manx Electric Railway, linking Douglas, Ramsey and Snaefell Mountain (2,036 ft). The Isle of Man Steam Railway also operates between Douglas and Port Erin. Aviation. Ronaldsway Airport handles scheduled services operated by Manx Airlines, Aer Lingus, Jersey European and Loganair to and from London, Manchester, Belfast, Dublin, Glasgow, Liverpool, Blackpool, etc. Air taxi services also operate. Shipping. Car ferries of the Isle of Man Steam Packet Co. link the Island with Heysham throughout the year and similar services operate to Liverpool, Fleetwood, Stranraer, Dublin and Belfast during the summer season. Broadcasting. The first constitutionally licensed commercial radio station in the British Isles, Manx Radio, is operated by Government on medium and VHF wavelengths from Douglas. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 5 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE A N D EDUCATION Police. The police force numbered 179 all ranks in 1986. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. In 1986 there were 33 primary schools with 5,041 pupils in attendance. The net expenditure on

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education for 1986-87 amounted to £19-9m. There are 7 secondary schools, 5 provided by the Board of Education (4,478 registered pupils), 1 direct grant school for girls (139 senior and 104 junior registered pupils), 1 independent public school for boys (221 senior and 104 junior registered pupils), 1 college of further education (450 full-time pupils in 1986). Books of Reference Isle of Man Digest of Economic and Social Statistics, 1985 Isle of Man Government, 1985 Isle of Man Family Expenditure Survey 1981-82 Isle of Man Government, 1983 Tynwald Companion 1985 Isle of Man Government, 1985 Kinvig, R. H., History of the Isle of Man. Oxford, 1945 —The Isle of Man. A Social, Cultural and Political History Liverpool Univ Press, 1975 Mais, S. P B„ Isle of Man. London, 1954 Solly, M., The Isle of Man. A Low Tax Area. London, 1984 Stenning, E. H., Portrait ofthe Isle of Man. London, 1984

CHANNEL ISLANDS AREA. The Channel Islands are situated off the north-west coast of France and are the only portions of the 'Duchy of Normandy' now belonging to the Crown of England, to which they have been attached since the Conquest. They consist of Jersey (28,717 acres), Guernsey (15,654 acres) and the following dependencies of Guernsey-Alderney (1,962), Brechou (74), Great Sark (1,035), Little Sark (239), Herm (320), Jethou (44) and Lihou (38), a total of48,083 acres, or 75 sq. miles (194 sq. km). The climate is mild. Total rainfall (1985), Jersey, 797 -1 mm; Guernsey, 761 9 mm. Temperature registered (1985):.highest, Jersey, 30- PC.; Guernsey, 26-4°C., lowest, Jersey, - 9 • 3°C.; Guernsey, - 4 7°C. C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Lieut.-Governors and Cs.-in-C. of Jersey and Guernsey are the personal representatives of the Sovereign, the Commanders of the Armed Forces of the Crown and the channel of communication between the Crown and the insular governments. They are appointed by the Crown and have a voice but no vote in the Assemblies of the States (the insular legislatures). The Secretaries to the Lieut.-Governors are their staff officers. The Bailiffs are appointed by the Crown and are Presidents both of the Assembly of the States and of the Royal Courts of Jersey and Guernsey. They have m the States a casting vote. L A N G U A G E . The official languages are French and English, but English is the main language. In the country districts of Jersey and Guernsey and throughout Sark some people also speak a Norman-French dialect; that of Aldemey has died out. TRADE. From 1958 the trade of the Channel Islands with the UK has been regarded as internal trade. COMMUNICATIONS Road. Omnibus services operate in all parts of Jersey and Guernsey. Aviation. Scheduled air services are maintained by British Airways, British Caledonian, Aer Lingus, Air UK, Jersey European, British Midland, Aurigny Air Services, Dan-Air, Brymon Airways, Guernsey Airlines, NLM City Hopper and other companies between the islands and airports in the UK, Ireland, the Netherlands and France. During the summer months these services are greatly increased, both in the number of airports served and in the frequency of flights. Shipping. Passenger and cargo services between Jersey, Guernsey and England are maintained by British Channel Island Ferries; between Guernsey, Jersey and England and St Malo by the Commodore Shipping Co.; between Guernsey,

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Jersey, Alderney and France by Condor Ltd (hydrofoil), and between Guernsey and Alderney and England and Guernsey and Sark by local companies. Post and Broadcasting. Postal and overseas telephone and telegraph services are maintained by the respective Postal Administrations of each bailiwick. The local telephone services are maintained by the insular authorities. There were, in 1985, 38,049 working telephones (including 157 public telephones) in Jersey and 47,004 subscribers in Guernsey. There is an independent television station in Jersey and local radio stations, BBC Radio Jersey and Guernsey, opened in 1982. JUSTICE A N D RELIGION Justice. Justice is administered by the Royal Courts of Jersey and Guernsey, each of which consists of the Bailiff and 12 Jurats, the latter being elected by an electoral college. There is an appeal from the Royal Courts to the Courts of Appeal of Jersey and of Guernsey. A final appeal lies to the Privy Council in certain cases. A stipendiary magistrate in each, Jersey and Guernsey, deals with minor civil and criminal cases. Church. Jersey and Guernsey each constitutes a deanery within the diocese of Winchester. The rectories (12 in Jersey; 10 in Guernsey) are in the gift of the Crown. The Roman Catholic and various Nonconformist Churches are represented. Books of Reference Ambriére, F , Les lies Anglo-Normandes. Paris, 1971 Coysh, V , The Channel Islands. A New Study Newton Abbot, 1977 Cruickshank, C , The German Occupation of the Channel Islands. London, 1975 Jee, N., The Landscape ofthe Channel Islands. Chichester, 1982 Lempriére, R., Portrait of the Channel Islands. London, 1970.—History of the Islands. London, 1974 Myhill, H., Introducing the Channel Islands. London, 1964 Uttley, J., The Story of the Channel Islands. London, 1966

Channel

JERSEY P O P U L A T I O N (census 1986), 80,212. In the year ended 31 Dec, 1985 there were 907 births and 875 deaths. The town is St Helier on the south coast. C O N S T I T U T I O N . The States consist of 12 senators (elected for 6 years, 6 retiring every third year), 12 Constables (triennial) and 29 Deputies (triennial), all elected on universal suffrage by the people. The island legislature is 'The States of Jersey'. The States comprises the Bailiff, the Lieut.-Governor, 12 Senators, the Constables of the 12 parishes of the island, 29 Deputies, the Dean of Jersey, the Attorney-General and the Solicitor-General. They all have the right to speak in the Assembly, but only the 53 elected members (the Senators, Constables and Deputies) have the right to vote; the Bailiff has a casting vote. General elections for Senators and Deputies are held every third year. Except in specific instances, enactments passed by the States require the sanction of The Queen-in-Council. The Lieut.-Governor has the power of veto on certain forms of legislation. Flag: White with a red diagonal cross. In the top centre of the flag a shield of the arms of Jersey ensigned with the Plantagenet Crown. Lieut.-Governor and C.-in-C. of Jersey: Mm. Sir William Pillar, GBE, KCB. Secretary and ADC to the Lieut.-Governor: Cdr D. M. L. Braybrooke, LVO, RN (Retd). Bailiff of Jersey and President ofthe States: Peter Crill, CBE. Deputy Bailiff: V. A. Tomes.

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ECONOMY Budget (year ending 31 Dec. 1985). Revenue, £172,951,614; expenditure, £159,278,038; public debt, £1,042,906. The standard rate of income tax is 20p in the pound. No super-tax or death duties are levied. Parochial rates of moderate amount are payable by owners and occupiers. Currency. The States issue bank-notes in denominations of£ 10, £5 and £ 1. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Principal activities: Tourism; total number of hotel and guesthouse bedrooms (1985), 24,904; expenditure oftourists (1985), £190m. Agriculture, total output (1985), £34- lm.; total exports (1985), £22-8m. Light industry, mainly electrical goods, textiles and clothing. Total exports (1980), £29m. Banking and finance, total bank deposits and balances due to parent companies by deposittaking institutions (1985), £22,500m. Commerce (1980). Principal imports: Machinery and transport equipment, £57-3m.; manufactured goods, £43-4m.; food, £40m.; mineral fuels, £21-5m.; chemicals, £15-lm., and miscellaneous, £53-6m. Principal exports (1980): Machinery and transport equipment, £28m.; food, £22-2m; manufactured goods, £ 15 • 6m., and miscellaneous, £24 • 1 m. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. The Jersey airport is situated at St Peter. It covers approximately 375 acres. Number of aircraft movements (1985) in 33,743, out 33,739; number of passenger arrivals, 790,511. Shipping (1985). All vessels arriving in Jersey from outside Jersey waters report at St Helier or Gorey on first arrival. There is a harbour of minor importance at St Aubin. Number of vessels entering St Helier, 11,938; number of registered craft (of 8 ft and over), 4,451. Passengers arrived in 1985,431,959. EDUCATION (1985). There were 4 States secondary schools and 1 high school, and 22 States primary schools; 5,518 pupils attended the primary schools, 4,858 the secondary schools. There were 8 private primary/secondary schools with 1,223 pupils and 4 private secondary schools with 854 pupils. Highlands College offers full- and part-time courses to Ordinary and National Certificate ànd Diploma levels or similar standards and, together with Les Quennevais Adult Community Centre, evening classes in technical and recreational subjects. Books of Reference Balleine, G. R., Biographical Dictionary of Jersey. London, 1948.—A History of the Island of Jersey. London, 1950.—The Bailiwick of Jersey. 3rd ed. London, 1970 Bois,F.deL., The Constitutional History of Jersey. Jersey, 1970 Carre, A. I*., English-Jersey Language Vocabulary. Jersey, 1972 Le Maistre, F., Dictionnaire Jersiais-Français. Jersey, 1966 Powell, G. C., Economic Survey of Jersey. Jersey, 1971 States of Jersey Library: Royal Square, St Helier. Librarian:}. K. Antill, FLA.

GUERNSEY P O P U L A T I O N . Census population (1986) 55,482. Births during 1985 were 677; deaths, 636. The town is St Peter Port. C O N S T I T U T I O N . The government of the island is conducted by committees appointed by the States. The States of Deliberation, the Parliament of Guernsey, is composed of the following members: The Bailiff, who is President ex officio; 12 Conseillers; H.M.

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Procureur and H.M. Comptroller (Law Officers of the Crown), who have a voice but no vote; 33 People's Deputies elected by popular franchise; 10 Douzaine Representatives elected by their Parochial Douzaines; 2 representatives of the States of Alderney. The States of Election, an electoral college, elects the Jurats and Conseillers. It is composed of the following members: The Bailiff(President ex officio)-, the 12 Jurats or 'Jurés-Justiciers'; the 12 Conseillers; H.M. Procureur and H.M. Comptroller; the 33 People's Deputies; 34 Douzaine Representatives; and (for the election of Conseillers) 4 representatives of the States of Alderney. Since Jan. 1949 all legislative powers and functions (with minor exceptions) formerly exercised by the Royal Court have been vested in the States of Deliberation. Projets de Loi (Bills) require the sanction of The Queen-in-Council. Flag: White bearing a red cross of St George, with an argent with a cross gules superimposed on the cross. Lieut.-Governor and C-iti-C of Guernsey and its Dependencies. Lieut.-Gen. Sir Alexander Boswell, KCB, CBE. Secretary and ADC to the Lieut.-Governor Capt. D. P. L. Hodgetts.

Bailiff ofGuernsey and President ofthe States: Sir Charles Frossard. Deputy Bailiff of Guernsey: G. M. Dorey. F I N A N C E (year ending 31 Dec. 1985). Revenue, including Alderney, £81,200,137; expenditure, including Alderney, £65,644,466. TTie standard rate of income tax is 20p in the pound. States and parochial rates are very moderate. No super-tax or death duties are levied. C O M M E R C E (1985). Principal imports: Coal, 29,692 tonnes; petrol and oils, 125,452,456 litres. Principal exports: Tomatoes (1985), £9,545,995; flowers and fern, £17,544,589; sweet peppers, £140,134; aubergines, £29,770; other vegetables, £1,422,394; plants, £1,148,829. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. The airport in Guernsey, situated at La Villiaze, has a landing area of approximately 124 acres and a tarmac runway of 4,800 ft. In 1985, passenger arrivals totalled 656,364. Shipping. The principal harbour is that of St Peter Port, and there is a harbour at St Sampson's (used mainly for commercial shipping). In 1985 passenger arrivals totalled 361,533. Ships registered m Guernsey at 31 Dec. 1985 numbered 960 and 485 fishing vessels. In 1985,9,559 yachts visited Guernsey. E D U C A T I O N . There are 2 public schools in the island: Elizabeth College, founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1563, for boys, and the Ladies' College, for girls. The States grammar school provides for education up to University entrance requirements, and there are numerous modern secondary and primary schools and a College of Further Education. The total number of school children was (1985) 8,449. Facilities are available for the study of art, domestic science and many other subjects of a technical nature. There is also a convent school with boarding facilities for girls. A L D E R N E Y . Population (1981 estimate, 2,086). The island has an airport. The constitution of the island (reformed 1949) provides for its own popularly elected President and States (12 members), and its own Court. The town is St Anne's. Flag: White with a red cross with the island badge in the centre. President ofthe States. J. Kay-Mouat. Clerk of the States. D. V. Jenkins. Clerk of the Court. P. J. Beer.

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SARK. Population (1984 estimate, 420). The Constitution is a mixture of feudal and popular government with its Chief Pleas (parliament), consisting of 40 tenants and 12 popularly elected deputies, presided over by the Seneschal. The head of the island is the Seigneur. Sark has no income tax. Motor vehicles, except tractors, are not allowed. Flag: White with a red cross and a red first quarter bearing two gold lions. The Seigneur J. M. Beaumont. Seneschal: L. P. de Carteret. Books of Reference Carteret, A. R. de, The Story of Sark London, 1956 Clark, L., Sark Discovered. London, 1956 Coysh, V , Alderney Newton Abbot, 1974 Durand, R., Guernsey. Present and Past Guernsey, 1933 —Guernsey under German London,1946 Hathaway, Sybil, Dame ofSark. An Autobiography London, 1961 LeHuray,C. P., The Bailiwick of Guernsey London, 1952 Murr,L.}., A History of Guernsey Guernsey, 1982 Robinson, G. W S., Guernsey Newton Abbot, 1977 Wood, A. and M. S., Islands in Danger 2nd ed. London, 1957 Wood, J , Herrn, Our Island Home London, 1973

Rule

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Capital: Washington, D.C. Population. 238 7m. (1985) GNP per capita. US$11,338 (1984)

H I S T O R Y . The Declaration of Independence of the 13 states of which the American Union then consisted was adopted by Congress on 4 July 1776. On 30 Nov. 1782 Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the USA, and on 3 Sept. 1783 the treaty of peace was concluded and was ratified by the USA on 14 Jan. 1784. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Population of USA at each census from 1790 to 1980, and for USA including Alaska and Hawaii, from 1960. Residents of Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Virgin Islands of the USA, Northern Mariana Islands, the remainder of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Midway, Wake, Johnston and US population abroad are excluded from the figures [Stable. Residents of Indian reservations are excluded prior to 1890. Decennial

Other increase White Negroes 1 Total % races ' 3 — — 3,172,464 3,929,672 1790 757,208 — 1,002,037 1800 4,306,446 5,308,483 35 1 — 1810 5,862,073 1,377,808 7,239,881 36 4 — 7,866,797 1,771,562 1820 9,638,359 33 1 — 1830 10,537,378 2,328,642 12,866,020 33 5 — 1840 14,195,805 2,873,648 32 7 17,069,453 — 1850 19,553,068 3,638,808 23,191,876 35 9 4 26,922,537 78,954 31,443,321 35-6 1860 4,441,830 33,589,377 38,558,371 22 6 1870 s 4,880,009 88,985 18705 34,337.292 5.392.172 88,985 39,818,449 26-6 43,402,970 6,580,793 172,020 50,155,783 30 1 1880 62,947,714 25 5 1890 55,101,258 7,488,676 357,780 21 0 1900 66,868,508 8,834,395 509,265 76,212,168 9,828,667 587,459 1910 81,812,405 21 0 92,228,531 10,463,607 14 9 ' 1920 94,903,540 654,421 106,021,568 1930 110,395,753 ' 11,891,842 915,065 123,202,660 16 1' 12,865,914 941,384 132,165,129 7 3 1940 118,357,831 135,149,629 15,044,937 14 5 1950 1,131,232 151,325,798 I960» 158,831,732 18,871,831 1,619,612 179,323,175 18 5 1970 177,748,975 22,580,289 2,882,662 203,211,926 13 3 188,371,622 1980 26,495,025 11,679,158 226,545,805 U 4 1 Seventeen southern states (including D.C.) in 1900 had 7,922,969 Negroes (89 7% of the total Negro population); in 1920, 8,912,231 (85 2%); in 1940, 9,904,619 (77%); in 1950, 10,225,407 (68%); in 1960, 11,311,607 (59 9%); in 1970, 11,969,961 (53%); in 1980, 14,048,000(53%). 2 1870: 63,199 Chinese, 55 Japanese and 25,"731 Indians; 1880, 105,465 Chinese, 148 Japanese and 66,407 Indians; 1890, 107,488 Chinese, 2,039 Japanese and 248,253 Indians; 1900, 118,746 Chinese, 85,716 Japanese, 237,196 Indians, 67,607 other races; 1910, 94,414 Chinese, 152,745 Japanese, 276,927 Indians, 2,767 Filipino, 60,606 other races; 1920, 85,202 Chinese, 220,596 Japanese, 244,437 Indians, 26,634 Filipino, 77,552 other races; 1930, 343,352 Indians, 102,159 Chinese, 278,743 Japanese, 108,424 Filipino, 82,387 other races; 1940, 345,252 Indians, 106,334 Chinese, 285,115 Japanese, 98,535 Filipino, 106,148 other races, 1950, 357,499 Indians, 326,379 Japanese, 150,005 Chinese, 122,707 Filipino, 174,642 other races; 1960, 523,591 Indians, 464,332 Japanese, 237,292 Chinese, 176,310 Filipino, 218,087 other races; 1970, 792,730 Indians, 591,290 Japanese, 435,062 Chinese, 343,060 Filipino, 720,520 other races; 1980, 1,364,033 Indians, 700,974 Japanese, 806,040 Chinese, 774,652 Filipino, 8,033,459 other races. 3 Made up of Anglo-Scottish, 89 1%; German, 5-6%; Dutch, 2 5%; Irish, 1 9%; French, 0-6%. 4

34,933 Chinese and 44,021 Indians. Enumeration in 1870 incomplete. Figures in italics represent estimated corrected population. [Footnotes continued on p. 1368 ] 5

1367

1368

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

Total population in 1980 at 226,545,805 comprised 110,053,161 males and 116,492,644 females; 167,054,638 were urban and 59,491,167 were rural. Negroes, 12,519,189 males and 13,975,836 females. Estimated population, including Alaska and Hawaii, and armed forces overseas, o n 1 July 1950, 152,271,000; 1955, 165,931,000; 1960, 180,671,000; 1965, 194,303,000; 1970, 204,878,000; 1975, 215,973,000; 1980, 227,658,000; 1982, 232,100,000; 1983,234,200,000; 1984,236,600,000; 1985,238,740,000.

The age distribution by sex of the total population of the US (excluding armed forces overseas, US population abroad and outlying areas) at the 1980 census was as follows: Age-group Under 5 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-59 60-64 65-74 7 5 and over Total

Male 8,362,009 8,539,080 9,316,221 10,755,409 10,663,231 18,381,903 12,569,719 11,008,919 5,481,863 4,669,892 6,756,502 3,548,413

Female 7,986,245 8,160,876 8,925,908 10,412,715 10,655,473 18,699,936 13,064,991 11,790,868 6,133,391 5,417,729 8,824,103 6,420,409

Total 16,348,254 16,699,956 18,242,129 21,168,124 21,318,704 37,081,839 25,634,710 22,799,787 11,615,254 10,087,621 15,580,605 9,968,822

110,053,161

116,492,644

226,545,805

The following table includes population statistics, the year in which each of the original 13 states ratified the constitution, and the year when each of the other states was admitted into the Union. Postal abbreviations for the names of the states are shown in brackets. Land area includes land temporarily or partially covered by water, and lakes, etc., of less than 40 acres. (For census population by states and regions in 1940 and 1 9 5 0 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 2 , pp. 5 5 2 and 553.) Geographic divisions and slates United States New

England

(Me) Manie (1820) New Hampshire (1788) (NH.) Vermont (1791) (Vt.) Massachusetts (1788) (Mass.) Rhode Island (1790) (R.I ) (Conn.) Connecticut (1788) Middle

Atlantic

New York (1788) NewJersey(1787) Pennsylvania (1787)

(N Y ) (N.J.) (Pa.)

Land area. sq. miles 1980

Census population 1 April 1970

Census population 1 April 1980

Pop per sq. mile. 1980

3,539,289

203,302,031

226,545,805

64 0

63,012

11,847,186

12,348,493

196 0

30,995 8,993 9,273 7,824 1,055 4,872

993,663 737,681 • 444,732 5,689,170 949,723 3,032,217

1,124,660 920,610 511,456 5,737,037 947,154 3,107,576

99,733

37,283,339

36,786,790

368 9

47,377 7,468 44,888

18,241,266 7,168,164 ,11,793,909

17,558,072 7,364,823 11,863,895

370-6 986-2 264 3

36 102 55 733 897 637

3 4 2 3 8 8

' Between the 1910 census (15 April 1910) and the 1920 census (1 Jan. 1920), the period covered was J16 months (less than a full decade). Adjusting for this, the exact rate of increase for the decade was 15 -4%. Similarly correcting for the 123 months between the 1920 and 193Ó censuses, the true rate ofincrease was 15 7%. 7 Figures for 1930 have been revised to include Mexicans (1,422,533), who were classified with 'Other Races' in the 1930 census reports. • Figures for 1960 strictly comparable with those given for other years (i.e , excluding Alaska and Hawaii) are: White, 158,454 956, Negroes, 18,860,117; other races, 1,149,163; total, 178,464,236; decennial increase, 18 4%.

1369

U N I T E D S T A T E S 'OF AMERICA Geographic divisions and states East North Central Ohio (1803) Indiana (1816) Illinois (1818) Michigan (1837) Wisconsin (1848)

(Oh.) (Ind.} (III.) (Mich.) (Wis.)

West North Central Minnesota(1858) Iowa (1846) Missouri (1821) North Dakota (1889) South Dakota (1889) Nebraska (1867) Kansas(1861)

(Minn.) (la.) (Mo.) (ND.) (S.D.) (Nebr.) (Kans.)

South Atlantic Delaware (1787) (Del.) Maryland (1788) (Md.) Dist. of Columbia (1791) (DC.J (Va.) Virginia (1788) (W Va.) West Virginia (1863) North Carolina (1789) (NC.) (S.C.) South Carolina (1788) Georgia (1788) (Ga.) (Fla.) Rorida (1845) East South Central Kentucky (1792) Tennessee (1796) Alabama (1819) Mississippi (1817)

(Ky.) (Tenn.) (Al.) (Miss.)

West South Central Arkansas (1836) Louisiana (1812) Oklahoma (1907) Texas(1845)

(Ark.) {La.) (Okla.) (Tex.)

Mountain Montana (1889) Idaho(1890) Wyoming (1890) Colorado(1876) New Mexico (1912) Arizona (1912) Utah (1896) Nevada (1864)

(Mont.) (Id.) (Wyo.) (Colo.) (N Mex.) (Ariz.) (Ut.) (Nev.)

Pacific Washington (1889) Oregon (1859) California (1850) Alaska (1959) Hawaii(1960)

(Wash.) (Oreg.) (Calif.) (Ak.) (Hi.)

Pop per sq. mile. ¡980

Land area. sq. miles 1980

Census population 1 April 1970

Census population ¡April ¡980

243,961

40,252,678

41,682,217

170 9

41,004 35,932 55,645 56,954 54,426

10,652,017 5,193,669 11,113,976 8,875,083 4,417,933

10,797,630 5,490,224 11,426,518 9,262,078 4,705,767

263 152 205 162 86

508,1 ÌÌ

16,344,389

17,183,453

33 8

79,548 55,965 68,945 69,300 75,952 76,644 81,778

3,805,069 2,825,041 4,677,399 617,761 666,257 1,483,791 2,249,071

4,075,970 2,913,808 4,916,686 652,717 690,768 1,569,825 2,363,679

51 2 52 1 71 3 9 4 9 1 20-5 28 9

266,910

30,671,337

36,959,123

138 5

1,932 9,837 63 39,704 24,119 48,843 30,203 58,056 54,153

548,104 3,922,399 756,510 4,648,494 1,744,237 5,082,059 2,590,516 4,589,575 6,789,443

594,338 4,216,975 638,333 5,346,818 1,949,644 5,881,766 3,121,820 5,463,105 9,746,324

307 6 428 7 10,132 3 134 7 80-8 120-4 103-4 94 1 180-0

178,824

12,804,552

14,666,423

82-0

39,669 41,155 50,767 47,233

3,219,311 3,924,164 3,444,165 2,216,912

3,660,777 4,591,120 3,893,888 2,520,638

92 3 1116 76-7 53 4

427,271

19,322,458

23,746,816

55-6

52,078 44,521 68,655 262,017

1,923,295 3,643,180 2,559,253 11,196,730

2,286,435 4,205,900 3,025,290 14,229,191

43 94 44 54

855,193

8,283,585

LI,372,785

13 3

145,388 82,412 96,989 103,595 121,335 113,508 82,073 109,894

694,409 713,008 332,416 2,207,259 1,016,000 1,772,482 1,059,273 488,738

786,690 943,935 469,557 2,889,964 1,302,894 2,718,215 1,461,037 800,493

5 4 11 5 4 8 27 9 10-7 23 9 17 8 7 3

896,253

26,525,774

31,799,705

35 5

66,511 96,184 156,299 570,833 6,425

3,409,169 2,091,385 19,953,134 302,173 769,913

4,132,156 2,633,105 23,667,902 401,851 964,691

62 1 27-4 151-4 0-7 150-1

3 8 3 6 5

9 5 1 3

1370

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA Geographic divisions and states

Land area. sq. miles 1980

Census population 1 April 1970

Census population 1 April 1980

4,691

4,720,306

3,565,376

760

3,515 132 77 209 184 70 271 192 2 3

2,712,033 62,438 27,159 84,996 9,640 22,888 47,202 11,210 2,220 1,647 1,007

3,196,520 96,569 32,297 105,979 16,780 30,873 73,160 12,116 453 302 327

909 731 419 507 91 441 270 63 226 100

Outlying Territories, total Puerto Rico (1898) Virgin Islands (1917) American Samoa (1900) Guam (1898) Northern Marianas(1947) Marshall Islands (1947) Micronesia,"Fed. States (1947) Palau(1947) Midway Islands (1867) Wake Island (1898) Johnston and Sand Islands (1858)

Pop. per sq. mile. 1980

The 1980 census showed 9,323,946 foreign-born Whites. The 9 countries contributing the largest numbers who were foreign-born were Mexico, 2,199,221; Germany, 849,384; Canada, 842,859; Italy, 831,922; UK, 669,149; Cuba, 607,814; Philippines, 501,440; Poland, 418,128; USSR, 406,022. Increase or decrease of native White, and foreign-bftm White, population from 1860 to 1980, by decades: Native White 1860 1870 1880 1890 ¡900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

Total 22,825,784 28,095,665 36,843,291 45,979,391 56,595,379 68,386,412 81,108,161 96,303,335 106,795,732 124,780,860 149,543,638 169,385,451 179,711,066

Increase 5,513,251 5,269,881 8,747,626 9,018,732' 10,615,988 11,791,033 12,721,749 15,195,174 10,492,397 17,985,128 24,762,778 19,841,813 10,325,615

Per cent increase 31 8 23 1 31 1 24 5 23 1 20-8 18 6 18 7 10 9 16 8 19 8 13 3 60

Foreign-born White Increase or Percent. change Total decrease ( -1 82 8 4,096,753 1,856,218 34 1 5,493,712 1,396,959 6,559,679 1,065,967 19-4 9,121,867 2,562,188 39 1 10,213,817 1,091,950 120 30 7 13,345,545 3,131,728 13,712,754 2 8 367,209 13,983,405 270,651 20 -2,564,267 11,419,138 -18 3 -1,257,970 -110 10,161,168 9,293,992 - 867,176 - 8 5 8,733,770 - 560,225 - 6 0 590,176 6 7 9,323,946

1 Exclusive of population specially enumerated in 1890 in Indian Territory and on Indian reservations.

The population of leading cities (with over 100,000 inhabitants) at the censuses of 1970 and 1980 were as follows: Cities New York, N.Y Chicago, III. Los Angeles, Calif. Philadelphia, Pa. Houston,Tex. Detroit, Mich. Dallas, Tex. San Diego, Calif. Phoenix, Ariz. Baltimore, Md. San Antonio, Tex. Indianapolis, Ind. San Francisco,Calif. Memphis, Tenn. Washington, D.C. Milwaukee, Wise. San José, Calif. Cleveland, Ohio Columbus, Ohio

I April ¡970 7,895,563 3,369,357 2,811,801 1,949,996 1,233,535 1,514,063 844,401 697,471 584,303 905,787 645,153 736,856 715,674 623,988 756,668 717,372 459,913 750,879 540,025

I April 1980 7,071,639 3,005,072 2,966,850 1,688,210 1,595,138 1,203,339 904,078 875,538 789,704 786,775 785,880 700,807 678,974 646,356 638,333 636,212 629,442 573,822 564,871

Cities Boston, Mass. New Orleans, U . Jacksonville, Fla. Seattle, Wash. Denver,Colo. Nashville-Davidson, Tenn. St Louis, Mo. Kansas City, Mo. El Paso, Tex. Atlanta, Ga. Pittsburgh, Pa. Oklahoma City, Okla. Cincinnati, Ohio Fort Worth, Tex. Minneapolis, Minn. Portland, Oregon Honolulu, Hawaii Long Beach, Calif.

I April 1970 641,071 593,471 504,265 530,831 514,678

1 April 1980 562,994 557,515 540,920 493,846 492,365

426,029 622,236 507,330 322,261 495,039 520,089 368,164 453,514 393,455 434,400 379,967 324,871 358,879

455,651 453,085 448,159 425,259 425,022 423,938 403,213 385,457 385,164 370,951 366,383 365,048 361,334

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1 April Cities 1970 Tulsa, Okla. 330,350 Buffalo, N Y 462,768 Toledo, Ohio 383,062 Miami, Fla. 334,859 Austin, Tex. 253,539 Oakland, Calif. 361,561 Albuquerque, N Mex, 244,501 Tucson, Ariz. 262,933 Newark, N.J 381,930 Charlotte, N.C 241,420 Omaha, Nebr 346,929 Louisville, Ky 361,706 Birmingham, Ala. 300,910 Wichita, Kans. 276,554 Sacramento, Calif. 257.105 Tampa, Fla. 277,714 St Paul, Minn. 309,866 Norfolk, Va. 307,951 Virginia Beach, Va. 172.106 Rochester, N Y 295,011 St Petersburg, Fla. 216,159 Akron, Ohio 275,425 Corpus Chnsti, Tex. 204,525 Jersey City, N.J 260,350 Baton Rouge, La. 165,921 Anaheim, Calif. 166,408 Richmond, Va. 249,332 Fresno, Calif. 165,655 Colorado Springs, 135.517 Colo. 182,064 Shreveport, La. Lexington-Fayette, Ky 108,137 Santa Ana, Calif. 155,710 Dayton, Ohio 243,023 Jackson, Miss. 153,968 Mobile, Ala. 190,026 Yonkers, N Y 204,297 Des Moines, Iowa 201,404 Grand Rapids, Mich. 197,649 Montgomery, Ala. 133,386 Knoxville, Tenn. 174,587 Anchorage, Alaska 48,081 Lubbock, Tex. 149,101 Fort Wayne, Ind. 178,269 Lincoln, Nebr 149.518 Si»kane,Wash. 170,516 Riverside, Calif. 140,089 Madison, Wise. 171,809 Huntington Beach, 115,960 Calif. 197,297 Syracuse, N Y 119,923 Chattanooga, Tenn. 155,028 Columbus, Ga. 125,787 Las Vegas, Nev 175,885 Salt Lake City, Utah 176,572 Worcester, Mass. Warren, Mich. 179,260 Kansas City, Kans. 168,213 Arlington, Tex. 90,229 Flint, Mich. 193,317 Aurora, Colo. 74,974 Little Rock, Ark. 132,483 Tacoma, Wash. 154,407 Providence, R.I. 179,116 Greensboro, N.C 144,076 Fort Lauderdale, Fla. 139,590 Mesa, Ariz. 63,049

1 April 1980 360,919 357,870 354,635 346,865 345,496 339,337 331,767 330,537 329,248 314,447 314,255 298,451 284,413 279,272 275,741 271,523 270,230 266,979 262,199 241,741 238,647 237,177 231,999 223,532 219,419 219,311 219,214 218,202 215,150 205,820 204,165 203,713 203,371 202,895 200,452 195,351 191,003 181,843 177,857 175,030 174,431 173,979 172,196 171,932 171,300 170,876 170,616 170,505 170,105 169,565 169,441 164,674 163,033 161,799 161,134 161,087 160,113 159,611 158,588 158,461 158,501 156,804 155,642 153,279 152,453

1 ApYil 1970 Cities Springfield, Mass. 163,905 Gary, Ind. 175,415 Raleigh, N.C 122,830 Stockton, Calif. 109,963 Amanllo, Tex. 127,010 Hialeah, Fla. 102,452 Newport News, Va. 138,177 Bridgeport, Conn. 156,542 Huntsville, Ala. 139,282 Savannah, Ga. 118,349 Rockford, 111. 147,370 Glendale, Calif. 132,664 Garland, Tex. 81.437 Paterson, N.J 144,824 Hartford, Conn. 158,017 Springfield, Mo. 120,096 Fremont, Calif 100,869 Winston-Salem, N.C 133,683 Evansville, Ind. 138,764 Lansing, Mich. 131,403 Torrance, Calif. 134,968 Orlando, Fla. 99,006 New Haven, Conn. 137,707 Peona, 111. 126,963 Garden Grove, Calif. 121,155 120,779 Hampton, Va. 106,873 Hollywood, Fla. Erie, Pa. 129,265 Pasadena, Calif. 112,951 Beaumont, Tex. 117,548 San Bernadino, Calif. 106,869 Macon, Ga. 122,423 Youngstown, Ohio 140,909 Topeka, Kans. 125,01 1 Chesapeake, Va. 89,580 Lakewood, Colo. 92,743 Pasadena, Tex. 89,957 Independence, Mo. 111,630 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 110,642 Irving,Tex. 97,260 South Bend, Ind. 125,580 Sterling Heights, Mich. 61,365 Oxnard, Calif. 71,225 Ann Arbor, Mich. 100,035 Tempe, Ariz. 63,550 Sunnyvale, Calif. 95,976 Modesto, Calif. 61,712 Elizabeth, N.J 112,654 Eugene, Oregon 79,028 Bakeisfield, Calif. 69,515 Livonia, Mich. 110,109 Portsmouth, Va. 110,963 Allentown, Pa. 109,871 Berkeley, Calif. 114,091 Concord, Calif. 85,164 Waterbury.Conn, 108,033 Davenport, Iowa. 98,469 Alexandria, Va. 110,927 Stamford, Conn. 108,798 Boise City, Idaho 74,990 Fullerton, Calif. 85,987 Albany, N Y 11-5,781 Pueblo, Colo. 97,774 Waco, Tex. 95,326 Columbia, S.C 113,542 Durham, N.C 72,863 Reno, Nev 92,115 Roanoke, Va. 95.438

1371 1 April 1980 152,319 151,953 150,255 149,779 149,230 145,254 144,903 142,546 142,513 141,390 139,712 139,060 138,857 137,970 136,392 133,116 131,945 13-1,885 130,496 130,414 129,881 128,291 126,109 124,160 123,307 122,617 121,323 119,123 118,550 118,102 117,490 116,896 115,436 115,266 114,486 112,860 112,560 111,806 110,243 109,943 109,727 108,999 108,195 107,966 106,743 106,618 106,602 106,201 105,624 105,611 104,814 104,577 103,758 103,328 103,255 103,266 103,264 103,217 102,453 102,451 102,034 101,727 101,686 101,261 101,208 100,831 100,756 100,220

1372

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Vital Statistics: Vital statistics are based on records of births, deaths, fœtal deaths, marriages and divorces filed with registration officials of states and cities. Figures for the US include Alaska beginning with 1959 and Hawaii beginning with 1960. Annual collection of mortality records from a national death-registration area was inaugurated in 1900. A national birth-registration area was established in 1915. These areas, which at their inception comprised 10 states and the District of Columbia, expanded gradually until 1933, when both the birth- and deathregistration areas covered the entire continental US. Marriage and divorce statistics are compiled from reports furnished by state and local officials. Data on annulments are included in the divorce statistics. The marriage-registration area was established in 1957 with 30 states and 3 other areas. The divorce-registration area Was established in 1958 with 14 states and 2 other areas. In Jan. 1980 the marriageregistration area included 42 states and D.C., and the divorce-registration area included 30 states. Deaths Maternal under Live births* Deaths' Marriages' Divorces4 deaths' 1 year6 1900 — 343,217 709,000 56,000 — — 1940 2,777,000 696,856 948,000 83,000 — — 1920 2,950,000 1,118,070 1,274,476 170,505 16,320 170,911 1930 2,618,000 1,327,240 1,126,856 195,961 14,915 143,201 1940 2,559,000 1,417,269 1,595,874 264,000 8,876 110,984 1950 3,632,000 1,452,454 1,667,231 385,144 2,960 103,825 1960 4,257,850' 1,711,982 1,523,000 393,000 1,579 110,873 1970 3,731,386' 1,921,031 2,158,802 708,000 803 74,667 2,390,252 1,189,000 334 45,526 1980 3,612,258 1,989,841 2,444,000 1,179,000 290 40,627 1983 3,638,933 2,019,201 1984« 3,697,000 2,047,000 2,487,000 1,155,000 220 39,200 1985 « 3,749,000 2,084,000 2,425,000 1,187,000 350 39,500 ' Figures through 1959 include adjustment for under-registration (the 1959 registered count was 4,244,796); beginning 1960 figures represent number registered. 2 Excluding fœtal deaths and deaths among the armed forces overseas. ' Estimates for all years except 1970. 4 Includes reported annulments. Estimated for all years. ' D e a t h s for 1979-81 (Ninth Revision, International Classification of Diseases, 1975). Deaths from complications of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium. Deaths for 1968-78 were classified according to the Eighth Revision, International Classification of Diseases, adopted, 1965. Deaths for 1958-67 were classified according to the Seventh Revision of the International Lists of Diseases and Causes of Death, those for 1949-57 according to the Sixth Revision and those for 1939-48, according to the Fifth Revision. 7 ' Excluding foetal deaths. Based on a 50% sample. ' Provisional.

The crude birth rate, based on total live-birth estimates per 1,000 total population, fell from 29-5 in 1915 to 18-4 in 1933; it rose to a peak of 26-6 in 1947—its highest for 25 years. This peak reflects demobilization (1945-46), the record marriage rate that followed, and the high levels of employment and income. The decrease in the following 3 years was moderate. In 1951 the rate moved upward and levelled off in 1957 at about 25 per 1,000 population. Since 1957 the crude birth rate declined every year to 18-4 live births per 1,000 population in 1966. The crude birth rate for 1985 was 15-7. Estimated number of illegitimate births in 1983 was 737,893, a ratio of202 -8 illegitimate births per 1,000 registered live births. Deaths, excluding foetal deaths (per 1,000 population), declined from 17 2 in 1900 to 10 in 1946. The death rate has been below 10 per 1,000 since 1947, fluctuating slightly from year to year, mainly under the impact of occurrences of outbreaks of severe respiratory diseases. The rate for 1970, 9-5; 1980, 8 -8; 1981, 8-6; 1982,8-6; 1983,8-6; 1984,8 7; 1985,8-7. Leading causes of death, 1985, per 100,000 population: Diseases of heart, 325; malignant neoplasms, 191-7; cerebrovascular diseases, 64; accidents, 38-6; suicides, 12; homicides, 8 -1. The marriage rate per 1,000 population for selected years are: 1920, 12; 1932, 7 9; 1946, 16-4; 1951, 10-4; 1961, 8-5; 1970, 10-6; 1975, 10; 1980, 10 6; 1981, 10-6; 1982,10-8; 1983, 10-5; 1984,10-5; 1985, 10-2. The divorce rates per 1,000 population for selected years are: 1920,1-6; 1946,4-3; 1951,2 5; 1961,2-3; 1971, 3-7; 1979,5-3; 1980,5 2; 1981,5-3; 1982,5-1; 1983,5; 1984,4-9; 1985,5.

1373

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Maternal mortality rates (deaths of mothers from conditions associated with deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium) per 100,000 live births, were 1915-19, 727-9 and thereafter declined: 493-9 for 1935-39; 376 for 1940; 207-2 for 1945; 83-3 for 1950; 47 for 1955; 37 1 for 1960; 3 1 6 for 1965; 21 5 for 1970; 12-8 for 1975; 9-2 for 1980; 8-5 for 1981; 8-9 for 1982; 8 for 1983. The 1983 rate for white women was 5-9 and for all other women 16-3. The infant mortality rates, per 1,000 live births were: 1915-19, 95-7; 1920-24, 76-7; 1925-29,69; 1930-34,60-4; 38 3 in 1945; 29-2 in 1950; 26-4 in 1955; 26 in 1960; 20 in 1970; 16 1 in 1975; 12-6 in 1980; 119 in 1981; 11-2 in 1982; 10-9 in 1983; 10-7 in 1984; 10-6 in 1985. In 1983 the rate for whites was 9-7; for all other, 16-8. Immigration. The Immigration and Nationality Act, as amended, provides for the numerical limitation of most immigration. Public Law 96-212, the Refugee Act of 1980, reduced the worldwide numerical limitation to 280,000 for 1980 and 270,000 thereafter, with a maximum of20,000 visas available for one country. The colonies and dependencies of a foreign state are limited to 600 per year, chargeable to the country limitation of the mother country. Visas are allocated under a system of 6 preference categories, 4 of which are designed to reunite close relatives of US citizens and resident aliens of the US, and 2 for skilled and professional workers. Visa numbers not used in the preference categories are made available to qualified non-preference immigrants. The non-preference category has not been available since 1978 due to high demand in other categories. Immigrants not subject to any numerical limitation are spouses, children, and parents of US citizens, who are 21 years of age or older; certain former US citizens; ministers of religion; certain longterm US government employees; and refugees adjusting to immigrant status. Immigrant aliens admitted to US for permanent residence, by country or region ofbirth. Country or region of birth All countries Europe Germany (GDR and FRG) Greece Italy Poland Portugal Spain UK Yugoslavia Other Europe Asia China and Taiwan Hong Kong India Japan Korea (North and South) Philippines Thailand Other Asia North America Canada Mexico Cuba Dominican Republic Haiti Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago Other Caribbean Central America Other North America

530,639

admitted 1984 543,903

1985 570,009

60,845

72,121

64,076

63,043

6,314 5,090 6,174 4,413 7,085 1,933 13,907 2,171 13,758

6,595 4,699 5,467 4,725 8,408 1,879 15,485 2,099 22,764

6,875 2,865 3,130 9,466 3,779 1,393 13,949 1,569 21,050

7,235 2,579 3,214 9,464 3,781 1,413 13,408 1,662 19,987

189,293

236,097

256,273

264,691

24,264 4,119 19,708 4,048 29,248 41,300 3,194 63,412

27,651 3,860 22,607 4,225 32,320 42,316 4,115 99,003

35,841 5,465 24,964 4,043 33,042 42,768 4,885 105,265

157,579

164,772

166,706

39,682 5,171 26,026 4,086 35,253 47,978 5,239 101,256 182,045

13,772 52,096 15,585 17,519 6,433 19,714 5,225 9,598 17,547 90

13,609 56,680 15,054 17,245 6,540 18,970 5,154 10,333 20,968 219

10,791 57,557 10,599 23,147 9,839 19,822 2,900 7,958 24,088 5

1979 460,348

Immigrants

11,385 61,077 26,334 23,787 10,165 18,923 2,831 7,241 26,302

1374

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Country or region of birth South America

1979 35,344

Immigrants 1980 39,717

admitted 1984 37,460

1985 39,058

Colombia Ecuador Other South America

10,637 4,383 20,324

11,289 6,133 22,295

11,020 4,164 22,276

11,982 4,482 22,594

12,838 1,999 2,450

13,981 2,209 1,742

15,540 1,903 1,945

17,117 2,041 2,014

Africa Australia and New Zealand Other countries

The total number of immigrants admitted from 1820 up to 30 Sept. 1985 was 52,520,358; this included 7,031,370 from Germany (GDR and FRG), and from Italy 5,330,064. Aliens coming to the US for temporary periods of time are classified as nonimmigrants. During fiscal year 1985, a total of 9,675,650 non-immigrants were admitted. This is inclusive of multiple entry documents and excludes border crossers, crewmen and insular travellers. Tourists, primarily from Mexico, Japan, the UK, the Caribbean, Germany (GDR and FRG) and Canada numbered 3,600,947 (total tourists, 6,608,590). There were 1,066,862 aliens expelled during fiscal year 1985. Of this number, 20,560 were deported and 1,046,302 were required to depart without formal orders of deportation. In accordance with the Immigration and Nationality Act, 5,381,106 aliens reported their address in Jan. 1980. Of this total, 4,532,647 were permanent residents and 848,459 were aliens here temporarily. Of the permanent resident aliens who reported the best represented nationalities were the following: Mexico, 992,765; Canada, 301,085; Cuba, 279,100; UK, 273,521; Philippines, 223,743; Italy, 163,700; Germany (GDR and FRG), 147,647. Over 76% of the permanent resident aliens reported their states of residence as: California, 1,261,069; New York, 690,383; Texas, 411,163; Florida, 335,457; Illinois, 256,091; New Jersey, 238,883; Massachusetts, 152,916, and Michigan, 118,588. In the year ended 30 Sept. 1985, 244,717 persons became US citizens through naturalization; this includes, 214,831 naturalized under the general provisions of 5-year residence in the US, 23,520 spouses and children of US citizens, 3,266 military and 43 who were naturalized under other provisions. Of the total, there were 10,487 former nationals of Cuba, 28,954 of the Philippines, 15,150 of China and Taiwan, 16,824 of Korea, 8,833 ofUK, 3,816 of Italy, 23,042 of Mexico and 4,809 of Jamaica. C L I M A T E . For temperature and rainfall figures, see entries on individual states as indicated by regions, below, of mainland USA. Pacific Coast. The climate varies with latitude, distance from the sea and the effect of relief, ranging from polar conditions in North Alaska through cool to warm temperate climates further south. The extreme south is temperate desert. Rainfall everywhere is moderate. See Alaska, California, Oregon, Washington. Mountain States. Very varied, with relief exerting the main control; very cold in the north in winter, with considerable snowfall. In the south, much higher temperatures and aridity produce desert conditions. Rainfall everywhere is very variable as a result of rain-shadow influences. See Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming. High Plains. A continental climate with a large annual range of temperature and moderate rainfall, mainly in summer, although unreliable. Dust storms are common in summer and blizzards in winter. See Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota. Central Plains. A temperate continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters, except in the extreme south. Rainfall is plentiful and comes at all seasons, but there is a summer maximum in western parts. See Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas. Mid- West. Continental, with hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall is moderate, with a summer maximum in most parts. See Indiana, Iowa, Kansas.

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

1375

Great Lakes. Continental, resembling that of the Central Plains, with hot summers but very cold winters because of the freezing of the lakes. Rainfall is moderate with a slight summer maximum. See Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin. Appalachian Mountains. The north is cool temperate with cold winters, the south warm temperate with milder winters. Precipitation is heavy, increasing to the south but evenly distributed over the year. See Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, West Virginia. Gulf Coast. Conditions vary from warm temperate to sub-tropical, with plentiful rainfall, decreasing towards the west but evenly distributed over the year. See Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana. Atlantic Coast. Temperate maritime climate but with great differences in temperature according to latitude. Rainfall is ample at all seasons; snowfall in the north can be heavy. See Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia. New England. Cool temperate, with severe winters and warm summers. Precipitation is well distributed with a slight winter maximum. Snowfall is heavy m winter. See Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont. See also Hawaii and Outlying Territories. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The form of government of the USA is based on the constitution of 17 Sept. 1787. By the constitution the government of the nation is composed of three co-ordinate branches, the executive, the legislative and the judicial. The National Government has authority in matters of general taxation, treaties and other dealings with foreign Powers, foreign and inter-state commerce, bankruptcy, postal service, coinage, weights and measures, patents and copyright, the armed forces (including, to a certain extent, the militia), and crimes against the USA; it has sole legislative authority over the District of Columbia and the possessions of the US. The 5th article of the constitution provides that Congress may, on a two-thirds vote of both houses, propose amendments to the constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of all the states, call a convention for proposing amendments, which m either case shall be valid as part of the constitution when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, whichever mode of ratification may be proposed by Congress. Ten amendments (called collectively 'the Bill of Rights') to the constitution were added 15 Dec. 1791; two in 1795 and 1804; a 13th amendment, 6 Dec. 1865, abolishing slavery; a 14th in 1868, including the important 'due process' clause; a 15th, 3 Feb. 1870, establishing equal voting rights for white and coloured; a 16th, 3 Feb. 1913, authorizing the income tax; a 17th, 8 April 1913, providing for popular election of senators; an 18th, 16 Jan. 1919, prohibiting alcoholic liquors; a 19th, 18 Aug. 1920, establishing woman suffrage; a 20th, 23 Jan. 1933, advancing the date of the President's and Vice-President's inauguration and abolishing the 'lameduck' sessions of Congress; a 21 st, 5 Dec. 1933, repealing the 18th amendment; a 22nd, 26 Feb. 1951, limiting a President's tenure of office to 2 terms, or to 2 terms plus 2 years in the case of a Vice-President who has succeeded to the office of a President; a 23rd, 30 March 1961, granting citizens of the District of Columbia the right to vote in national elections; a 24th, 4 Feb. 1964, banning the use of the polltax in federal elections; a 25th, 10 Feb. 1967, dealing with Presidential disability and succession; a 26th, 22 June 1970, establishing the right of citizens who are 18 years of age and older to vote. National flag: Seven red and 6 white alternating stripes, horizontal; with a blue canton, extending down to the lower edge of the 4th red stripe from the top, and displaying 50 white 5-pointed stars, one for each state. The stars have one point directed vertically upward, and they are arranged in 6 rows of 5 each, alternating with 5 rows of 4 each. On the admission of additional states, stars are added, effective on 4 July following the date of admission. Congress, by law of 22 Dec. 1942, has codified 'existing rules and customs' pertaining to the display of the flag, for civilians.

1376

UNITED

STATES

OF

AMERICA

National anthem: The Star-spangled Banner, 'Oh say, can you see by the dawn's early light' (words by F. S. Key, 1814; tune by J. S. Smith; formally adopted by Congress 3 March 1931). National motto: 'In God we trust'; formally adopted by Congress 30 July 1956. Presidency. The executive power is vested in a president, who holds office for 4 years, and is elected, together with a vice-president chosen for the same term, by electors from each state, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress. The President must be a natural-born citizen, resident in the country for 14 years, and at least 35 years old. The presidential election is held every fourth (leap) year on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Technically, this is an election of presidential electors, not of a president directly; the electors thus chosen meet and give their votes (for the candidate to whom they are pledged, in some states by law, but in most states by custom and prudent politics) at their respective state capitals on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December next following their election; and the votes of the electors of all the states are opened and counted in the presence of both Houses of Congress on the sixth day of January. The total electorate vote is one for each senator and representative. If the successful candidate for President dies before taking office the VicePresident-elect becomes President; if no candidate has a majority or if the successful candidate fails to qualify, then, by the 20th amendment, the Vice-President acts as President until a president qualifies. The duties of the Presidency, in absence of the President and Vice-President by reason of death, resignation, removal, inability or failure to qualify, devolve upon the Speaker of the House under legislation enacted 18 July 1947. And in case of absence of a Speaker for like reason, the presidential duties devolve upon the President pro tern, of the Senate and successively upon those members of the Cabinet in order of precedence, who have the constitutional qualifications for President. The presidential term, by the 20th amendment to the constitution, begins at noon on 20 Jan. of the inaugural year. This amendment also installs the newly elected Congress in office on 3 Jan. instead of—as formerly—in the following December'. The President's salary is $200,000 per year, plus $50,000 to assist in defraying expenses resulting from official duties. Also he may spend up to $100,000 non-taxable for travel and $20,000 for official entertainment. The office of Vice-President carries a salary of $91,000, plus $ 10,000 allowance for travel, all taxable. The President is C.-in-C. of the Army, Navy and Air Force, and of the militia when in the service of the Union. The Vice-President is ex-officio President of the Senate, and in the case of'the removal of the President, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of his office', he becomes the President for the remainder of the term. President of the United States: Ronald Reagan, of California, bom at Tampico, Illinois,in 191 l;Governorof California, 1967-75. At the Presidential election on 6 Nov. 1984 total vote cast, including men and women in the armed services, was 92,267,879, of which Ronald Reagan (R.) received 54,455,075 (59%), Walter Mondale (D.) 37,577,185 (41%) and David Bergland (Libertarian Party) 235,619. Electoral college votes: Reagan 525; Mondale 13; Bergland 0. PRESIDENTS

Name George Washington John Adams Thomas Jefferson James Madison James Monroe John Quincy Adams

OF THE

From state Virginia Massachusetts Virginia Virginia Virginia Massachusetts

USA

Term ofservice 1789-97 i 797-1801 1801-09 1809-17 1817-25 1825-29

Born 1732 1735 1743 1751 1759 1767

Died 1799 1826 1826 1836 1831 1848

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

Name Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren William H. Harrison John Tyler James K. Polk Zachary Taylor Millard Fillmore Franklin Pierce James Buchanan Abraham Lincoln Andrew Johnson Ulysses S. Grant Rutherford B. Hayes James A. Garfield Chester A. Arthur Grover Cleveland Benjamin Harrison Grover Cleveland William McKinley Theodore Roosevelt William H.Taft Woodrow Wilson Warren Gamaliel Harding Calvin Coolidge Herbert C. Hoover Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Richard M. Nixon Gerald R. Ford James Earl Carter Ronald Reagan

From state Tennessee New York Ohio Virginia Tennessee Louisiana New York New Hampshire Pennsylvania Illinois Tennessee Illinois Ohio Ohio New York New York Indiana New York Ohio New York Ohio New Jersey Ohio Massachusetts California New York Missouri New York Massachusetts Texas California Michigan Georgia California

VICE-PRESIDENTS

John Adams Thomas Jefferson Aaron Burr George Clinton Elbridge Gerry Daniel D. Tompkins John C. Calhoun Martin Van Buren Richard M. Johnson John Tyler George M. Dallas Millard Fillmore William R. King John C. Breckinridge Hannibal Hamlin Andrew Johnson Schuyler Colfax Henry Wilson William A. Wheeler Chester A. Arthur Thomas A. Hendricks Levi P. Morton 1

Massachusetts Virginia New York New York Massachusetts New York South Carolina New York Kentucky Virginia Pennsylvania New York Alabama Kentucky Maine Tennessee Indiana Massachusetts New York New York Indiana New York

OF

Term of service Born 1767 1829-37 1837-41 1782 Mar-Apr. 1841 1773 1841-45 1790 1845-49 1795 1849-July 1850 1784 1850-53 1800 1853-57 1804 1857-61 1791 1861-Apr. 1865 1809 1865-69 1808 1822 1869-77 1822 1877-81 Mar.-Sept. 1881 1831 1881-85 1830 1885-89 isai 1889-93 1833 1893-97 1837 1897-Sept. 1901 1843 1901-09 1858 1857 1909-13 1913-21 1856 1921-Aug. 1923 1865 1872 1923-29 1874 1929-33 1933-Apr. 1945 1882 1884 1945-53 1953-61 1890 1961-Nov. 1963 1917 1963-69 1908 1969-74 1913 1974-77 1913 1924 1977-81 19811911 THE USA 1789-97 1735 1797-1801 1743 1801-05 1756 1 1805-12 1739 1813-14' 1744 1774 1817-25 1825-32 1 1782 1833-37 1782 1837-41 1780 1 Mar.-Apr. 1841 1790 1792 1845-49 1 1800 1849-50 1 Mar.-Apr. 1853 1786 1857-61 1821 1861-65 1809 1 Mar.-Apr. 1865 1808 1823 1869-73 1873-75 1 1812 1877-81 1819 Mar.-Sept. 1881 1 1830 1 Mar.-Nov. 1885 1819 1824 1889-93

Position vacant thereafter until commencement of the next presidential term.

1377 Died 1845 1862 1841 1862 1849 1850 1874 1869 1868 1865 1875 1885 1893 1881 1886 1908 1901 1908 1901 1919 1930 1924 1923 1933 1964 1945 1572 1969 1963 1973 — — — —

1826 1826 1836 1812 1814 1825 1850 1862 1850 1862 1864 1874 1853 1875 1891 1875 1885 1875 1887 1886 1885 1920

1378

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Name Adlai Stevenson Garret A. Hobart Theodore Roosevelt Charles W. Fairbanks James S. Sherman Thomas R. Marshall Calvin Coolidge Charles G. Dawes Charles Curtis John N. Garner Henry A. Wallace Harry S. Truman Alben W. Barkley Richard M. Nixon Lyndon B. Johnson Hubert H. Humphrey Spiro T. Agnew Gerald R.Ford Nelson Rockefeller Walter Mondale George Bush 1

From state Illinois New Jersey New York Indiana New York Indiana Massachusetts Illinois Kansas Texas Iowa Missouri Kentucky California Texas Minnesota Maryland Michigan New York Minnesota Texas

Term of service 1893-97 1897-99' Mar.-Sept. 1901 1 1905-09 1909-12' 1913-21 1921-Aug. 1923' 1925-29 1929-33 1933-41 1941-45 1945-Apr. 1945 1 1949-53 1953-61 1961-Nov. 1963 1 1965-69 1969-73 1973-74 1974-77 1977-81 1981-

Born 1835 1844 1858 1855 1855 1854 1872 1865 1860 1868 1888 1884 1877 1913 1908 1911 1918 1913 1908 1928 1924

Died 1914 1899 1919 1920 1912 1925 1933 1951 1935 1967 1965 1972 1956 — 1973 1978 — — 1979 — —

Position vacant thereafter until commencement of the next presidential tenti.

Cabinet. The administrative business of the nation has been traditionally vested m several executive departments, the heads of which, unofficially and ex officio, formed the President's Cabinet. Beginning with the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1887, however, an increasing amount of executive business has been entrusted to some 60 so-called independent agencies, such as the Veterans Administration, Housing and Home Finance Agency, Tariff Commission, etc. All heads of departments and of the 60 or more administrative agencies are appointed by the President, but must be confirmed by the Senate. The Cabinet consisted of the following (Feb. 1987): 1. Secretary of State (created 1789). George P. Shultz; businessman, Secretary of Labor, 1969-70, Secretary of the Treasury, 1972-74; born 1920. 2. Secretary of the Treasury (1789). James Addison Baker III, of Texas, lawyer; Presidential Chief of Staff 1981—85; born 1930. 3. Secretary of Defense (1947). Caspar Weinberger, Vice-President of the Bechtel Power Corporation; lawyer, former Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare; born 1918. 4. Attorney-General (Department of Justice, 1870). Edwin Meese, of California; lawyer and special counsellor to the President; born 1931. 5. Secretary of the Interior (1849). Donald P. Hodel, of Oregon, lawyer; former Secretary of Energy; born 1935. 6. Secretary ofAgriculture (1889). Richard E. Lyng, of California, farming consultant, Deputy Secretary ofAgriculture 1981-85; born 1918. 7. Secretary of Commerce (1903). Malcolm Baldridge, of Connecticut; manufacturer, born 1922. 8. Secretary of Labor (1913). William Emerson Brock; Chairman, Republican National Committee 1977-80, Special Trade Representative 1981-85; born 1930. 9. Secretary of Health and Human Services (1953). Otis R. Bowen, of Indiana, physician, Governor of Indiana 1973-81;bom 1918. 10. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (1966). Samuel J. Pierce, of New York; lawyer, bom 1922.

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

1379

11. Secretary of Transportation (1967). Elizabeth H. Dole, of North Carolina; lawyer, Federal Trade Commissioner 1973-79, President's public liaison assistant, 1981;bom 1936. 12. Secretary of Energy (1977). John Herrington, of California, lawyer; formerly special assistant to the President; born 1939. 13. Secretary of Education (1979). William Bennett; chairman of National Endowment of the Humanities 1981-85; born 1943. Each of the above Cabinet officers receives an annual salary of $80,100 and holds office during the pleasure of the President. Congress. The legislative power is vested by the Constitution in a Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives. Electorate: By amendments of the constitution, disqualification of voters on the ground of race, colour or sex is forbidden. Accordingly, the electorate consists theoretically of all citizens of both sexes over 18 years of age, but the franchise is not universal. There are requirements of residence varying in the several states as to length from 6 months to 2 years and differing requirements as to registration. In 20 states the ability to read (usually an extract from the constitution) is required—in Alaska the ability to read English; in Hawaii, English or Hawaiian; in Louisiana, English or one's native tongue. In Alabama the voter must take an 'antiCommunist oath' and fill out a questionnaire to the satisfaction of the registrars. In some southern states voters are required to give a reasonable explanation of what they read. In most states convicts are excluded from the franchise, in some states duellists and fraudulent voters. Legislation designed to discourage the rise of third parties has been adopted m a few states, In Illinois a new party must present a petition signed by at least 25,000 voters, including at least 200 in each of 50 of the 102 counties. The method of balloting varies greatly. Seventeen states use different ballots for federal, state and local elections. In Delaware and South Carolina the various political parties flirnish their own ballot-papers to the voters as he or she enters the polling-booth. Senate: The Senate consists of 2 members from each state, chosen by popular vote for 6 years, one-third retiring or seeking re-election every 2 years. Senators must be no less than 30 years of age; must have been citizens of the USA for 9 years, and be residents in the states for which they are chosen. The Senate has complete freedom to initiate legislation, except revenue bills (which must originate in the House of Representatives); it may, however, amend or reject any legislation originating in the lower house. The Senate is also entrusted with the power of giving or withholding its 'advice and consent' to the ratification of all treaties initiated by the President with foreign Powers, a two-thirds majority of senators present being required for approval. (However, it has no control over 'international executive agreements' made by the President with foreign governments; such 'agreements', representing an important but very recent development, cover a wide range and are actually more numerous than formal treaties.) It also has the power of confirming or rejecting major appointments to office made by the President, but it has no direct control over the appointment by the President of 'personal representatives' or 'personal envoys' on missions abroad. Members of the Senate constitute a High Court of Impeachment, with power, by a two-thirds vote, to remove from office and disqualify any civil officer of the USA impeached by the House of Representatives, which has the sole power of impeachment. The Senate has 16 Standing Committees to which all bills are referred for study, revision or rejection. The House of Representatives has 22 such committees. In both Houses each Standing Committee has a chairman and a majority representing the majority party of the whole House; each has numerous sub-committees. The jurisdictions of these Committees correspond largely to those of the appropriate executive departments and agencies. Both Houses also have a few special Committees with limited duration; there were (1987) 4 Joint Committees.

1380

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

House of Representatives: The House of Representatives consists of 43 5 members elected every second year. The number of each state's representatives is determined by the decennial census, in the absence of specific Congressional legislation affecting the basis. The states, in 1987, had the following representatives: Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois

7 1 5 4 45 6 6 t 19 10 2 2 22

Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland 'Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana

10 6 5 7 8 2 8 11 18 8 5 9 2

Nebraska 3 Nevada 2 New Hampshire 2 New Jersey 14 New Mexico 3 New York 34 North Carolina 11 North Dakota 1 Ohio 21 Oklahoma 6 Oregon 5 Pennsylvania 23 Rhode Island 2

South Carolina 6 1 South Dakota Tennessee 9 27 Texas Utah 3 Vermont 1 Virginia 10 Washington 8 4 West Virginia Wisconsin 9 Wyoming 1

The Supreme Court decided on 17 Feb. 1964, that the federal constitution requires congressional districts within each state to be substantially equal in population. By almost invariable custom the representative lives in the district from which he is elected. Representatives must be not less than 25 years of age, citizens of the USA for 7 years and residents in the state from which they are chosen. The District of Columbia, Guam, American Samoa and the Virgin Islands have one non-voting delegate each. The House also admits a 'resident commissioner' from Puerto Rico, who has the right to speak on any subject and to make motions, but not to vote; he is elected in the same manner as the representatives but for a 4-year term. Each of the two Houses of Congress is sole judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members'; and each of the Houses may, with the concurrence of twothirds, expel a member. The period usually termed 'a Congress' in legislative language continues for 2-years, terminating at noon on 3 Jan. The salary of a senator is $75,100 per annum, with tax-free expense allowance and allowances for travelling expenses and for clerical hire. The salary of the Speaker of the House of Representatives is $97,900 per annum, with a taxable allowance. The salary of a Member ofthe House is $75,100. No senator or representative can, during the time for which he is elected, be appointed to any civil office under authority of the USA which shall have been created or the emoluments of which shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the USA can be a member of either House during his continuance in office. No religious text may be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the USA or in any state. The 100th Congress (1987-89) was constituted (Jan 1987) as follows: Senate, 45 Republicans, 55 Democrats; House of Representatives, 259 Democrats, 176 Republicans. Indians: By an Act passed on 2 June 1924 full citizenship was granted to all Indians born in the USA, though those remaining in tribal units were still under special federal jurisdiction. Those remaining in tribal units constitute from one-half to three-fourths of the Indian population. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 gave the tribal Indians, at their own option, substantial opportunities to selfgovernment and of self-controlled corporate enterprises empowered to borrow money, buy land, machinery and equipment; these corporations are controlled by democratically elected tribal councils; by 1945 roughly a third of the Indians had taken advantage of this Act. Recently a trend towards releasing Indians from federal supervision has resulted in legislation terminating supervision over specific tribes. Indian lands( 1981) amounted to 52,473,000 acres, of which 41,062,000 was tribally owned and 10-96m. in trust allotments. Indian lands are held free of taxes. Total Indian population at the 1980 census was 1,418,195, of which Oklahoma, Arizona, California and New Mexico accounted for 628,400. State and Local Government: The Union comprises 13 original states, 7 states which were admitted without having been previously organized as territories, and

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

1381

30 states which had been territories—50 states in all. Each state has its own constitution (which the USA guarantees shall be republican in form), deriving its authority, not from Congress, but from the people of the state. Admission of states into the Union has been granted by special Acts of Congress, either (1) in the form of'enabling Acts' providing for the drafting and ratification of a state constitution by the people, in which case the territory becomes a state as soon as the conditions are fulfilled, or (2) accepting a constitution already framed, and at once granting admission. Each state is provided with a legislature of two Houses (except Nebraska, which since 1937 has had a single-chamber legislature), a governor and other executive officials, and a judicial system. Both Houses of the legislature are elective, but the senators (having larger electoral districts usually covering 2 or 3 counties compared with the single county or, in some states, the town, which sends 1 representative to the Lower House) are less numerous than the representatives, while in 38 states their terms are 4 years; in 12 states the term is 2 years. Of the 4-year senates, Illinois, Montana and New Jersey provide for two 4-year terms and one 2-year term in each decade. Terms of the lower houses are usually shorter; in 45 states, 2 years. Members of both Houses are paid at the same rate, which varies from $200 per biennium (New Hampshire) to $46,800 per year (Alaska). The trend is towards annual sessions of state legislatures; in 1987, 36 were constitutionally required to meet annually (in 1939, only 4), the other 14 holding biennial sessions, 12 m the odd-numbered and 2 in the even-numbered years. Of these 14, 6 met annually in practice by invoking flexible constitutional powers to reconvene at intervals during the biennium. The Governor has power to summon an extraordinary session, but not to dissolve or adjoum. The duties of the two Houses are similar, but in many states money bills must be introduced first in the Lower House. The Senate sits as a court for the trial of officials impeached by the other House, and often has power to confirm or reject appointments made by the Governor. State legislatures are competent to deal with all matters not reserved for the federal government by the federal constitution nor specifically prohibited by the federal or state constitutions. Among their powers are the determination of the qualifications for the right of suffrage, and the control of all elections to public office, including elections of members of Congress and electors of President and Vice-President; the criminal law, both in its enactment and in its execution, with unimportant exceptions, and the administration of prisons; the civil law, including all matters pertaining to the possession and transfer of, and succession to, property; marriage and divorce, and all other civil relations; the chartering and control of all manufacturing, trading, transportation and other corporations, subject only to the right of Congress to regulate commerce passing from one state to another; labour; education; charities; licensing; fisheries within state waters, and game laws (apart from the hunting of migratory birds, which is a federal concern under treaties with Canada and Mexico). Taxes on income were left to the states until 1913, when the 16 th amendment authorized the imposition of federal taxes on income without regard to apportionment. The Governor is chosen by direct vote of the people over the whole state. His term of office varies in the several states from 2 to 4 years, and his salary from $35,000 (Arkansas, Maine) to $100,000 (New York). His duty is to see to the faithful administration of the law, and he has command of the military forces of the state. He may recommend measures but does not present bills to the legislature. In some states he presents estimates. In all but one of the states (North Carolina) the Governor has a veto upon legislation, which may, however, be overridden by the two Houses, in some states by a simple majority, in others by a three-fifths or twothirds majority. In some states the Governor, on his death or resignation, is succeeded by a Lieut.-Governor who was elected at the same time and has been presiding over the state Senate. In several states the Speaker of the Lower House succeeds the Governor. The chief officials by whom the administration of state affairs is carried on (secretaries, treasurers, members of boards of commissioners, etc.) are usually chosen

1382

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

by the people at the general state elections for terms similar to those for which governors hold office. Local Government. The chief unit of local government is the county, of which there were (1986) 2,992 with definite functions; in addition, Rhode Island has 5 'counties' which have no functions; Alaska does not have 'counties' as such and, since Oct. 1960, there has been no active county government in Connecticut. Louisiana has 64 'parishes'. The counties maintain public order through the sheriff and his deputies, who may, in a crisis, be drawn temporarily from willing citizens; in many states the counties maintain the smaller local highways; other functions are the granting of licences and the apportionment and collection of taxes. In a few states they also manage the schools. The unit of local government in New England is the rural township, governed directly by the voters, who assemble annually or oftener if necessary, and legislate in local affairs, levy taxes, make appropriations and appoint and instruct the local officials (selectmen, clerk, school-committee, etc.). Townships are grouped to form counties. Where cities exist, the township government is superseded by the city government. The District of Columbia, ceded by the State of Maryland for the purposes of government in 1791, is the seat of the US Government. It includes the city of Washington, and embraces a land area of 61 sq. miles. The Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1967 instituted a Mayor Council form of government with appointed officers. In 1973 an elected Mayor and elected councillors were introduced; in 1974 they received power to legislate in local matters. Congress retains power to enact legislation and to veto or supersede the Council's acts. Since 1961 citizens have had the right to vote in national elections. On 23 Aug. 1978 the Senate approved a constitutional amendment giving the District full voting representation in Congress. This has still to be ratified. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam and the Virgin Islands each have a local legislature, whose acts may be modified or annulled by Congress, though in practice this has seldom been done. Puerto Rico since its attainment of commonwealth status on 25 July 1952, enjoys practically complete self-government, including the election of its governor and other officials. The conduct of foreign relations, however, is still a federal function and federal bureaux and agencies still operate in the island. General supervision of territorial administration is exercised by the Office of Territories in the Department of Interior. Congress and the Nation, 4 vols., Congressional Quarterly, Washington, from 1965 —Congressional Ethics, Rev ed., 1980.—Congressional Quarterly Almanac, annual Constitution of the US, National and State 2 vols, [with subsequent amendments]. Dobbs Ferry, 1962 Political profiles. 5 vols. New York, from 1978 Adrian, C R., State and Local Government. 4th ed. New York, 1977 Barone, M. (ed.), The Almanac of A merican Politics. New York and London, Annual Bone, H. A.., American Politics and the Party System. 4th ed. New York, 1971 Brenner,P, The Limits and Possibilities of Congress. New York, 1983 Corwin, E. S., Presidential Power and the Constitution. Cornell Univ Press, 1976 Egger, R. A., Ihe President of the United Slates. 2nd ed. New York, 1972 Ferguson, J H., and McHenry, D. E., Elements of American Government. 6th ed. New York, 1963—The American Federal Government. 12th ed. New York, 1973.—The American System of Government. 12th ed. New York, 1973 Fisher, L., Presidential Spending Power Princeton Univ Press, 1975 Hardin, C M., Presidential Power aqd Accountability Towards a New Constitution. Univ of Chicago Press, 1974 Kelly, A. H., and Harbison, W A., The American Constitution, Its Origin and Development. 4th ed. New York, 1970 Koenig, L. W , The Chief Executive 3rd ed. New York, 1975 Levine, E. L., An Introduction to American Government. 2nd ed. New York, 1974 Maddox, R. W., and Fuquay, R. F„ Slate and Local Government. 3rd ed. New York, 1975 Pritchett, C. H., The American Constitution. 2nd ed. New York, 1968.—The American Constitutional System. New York, 1977 Ripley, R. B., American National Government and Public Policy New York, 1974

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Robinson, J A., State Legislative Innovation. New York, 1973 Scheer, R., America after Nixon. The Politics of the New World Order New York, 1975 Seymour-Ure, C , The American President. Power and Communication. London, 1982 Tugwell, R. G., The Emerging Constitution. New York, 1974 White, T H., The Making of (he President. New York, I 9 6 0 — The Making of the President, 1964 New York, 1965— The Making ofthe President, 1968. New York, 1969

D E F E N C E . The President is C.-in-C. of the Army, Navy and Air Force. The National Security Act of 1947 provides for the unification of the Army, Navy and Air Forces under a single Secretary of Defense with cabinet rank. The President is also advised by a National Security Council and the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization. The major components of the Department of Defense are the Office of the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who provide immediate staff assistance and advice to the Secretary; the departments of the Army, Navy and Air Force, each separately organized under a civilian head (not of cabinet rank); and the unified and specified commands. Army. Secretary of the Army: John O. Marsh Jr. Central Administration. The Secretary of the Army is the head of the Department of the Army. Subject to the authority of the President as C.-in-C. and of the Secretary of Defense, he is responsible for all affairs of the Department. The Secretary of the Army is assisted by the Under Secretary of the Army, 5 Assistant Secretaries of the Army (Civil Works, Financial Management, Installations and Logistics, Manpower and Reserve Affairs, Research, Development and Acquisition), Chief of Public Affairs, Chief of Legislative Liaison, General Counsel, Administrative Assistant, and the Army Staff headed by the Chief of Staff, US Army. The Office of the Under Secretary of the Army includes a Deputy Under Secretary (Operations Research). The Chief of Staff is the principal military adviser to the Secretary of the Army, and performs his duties under the direction of the Secretary of the Army, except as otherwise prescribed by law, by* the President or by the Secretary of Defense. He has supervision of all members and organizations of the Army. The Vice Chief of Staff assists and advises the Chief of Staff. The Army General Staff is the principal element of the Army Staff and includes the Offices of the Chief of Staff, Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics, Deputy Chief of Staff for Research, Development and Acquisition, the Comptroller of the Army, the Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence, and Assistant Chief of Staff for Information Management. Other elements of the Army Staff are the offices of the Judge Advocate General, Surgeon General, Adjutant General, Inspector General and the Auditor General, Chief of Chaplains, Chief, Army Reserve, Chief, National Guard Bureau, and Chief of Engineers. The Army consists of the volunteer Army, the Army National Guard of the US, the Army Reserve and civilian workforce; and all persons appointed to or enlisted into the Army without component; and all persons serving under call or conscription, including members of the National Guard of the States, etc., when in the service of the US. The strength of the Army was (1987) 770,904 (including some 76,000 women). The US Army Forces Command, with headquarters at Fort McPherson, Georgia, commands the Third US Army and the continental US Armies and all assigned Active Army and US Army Reserve troop units in the continental US, Alaska, Hawaii, Panama, Guam, Johnston Island, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands of the USA. The headquarters of the continental US Armies are: First US Army, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland; Second US Army, Fort Gillem, Georgia; Fourth US Army, Fort Sheridan, Illinois; Fifth US Army, Fort Sam Houston, Texas; Sixth US Afmy, Presidio of San Francisco, California. The US Army Training and Doctrine Command, with headquarters at Fort Monroe, Virginia, co-ordinates and integrates the total combat development effort of the Army as well as developing, managing and supervising the training of indivi-

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duals of the US Army and authorized foreign nationals. The US Army Health Services Command, with headquarters at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, provides health services in the continental US for the US Army and provides professional education and training for medical personnel of the US Army and authorized foreign national personnel. The US Army Materiel Command, with headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia, is responsible for all US Army operations dealing with equipment development, procurement, delivery, supply and maintenance. The US Army Communications Command, with headquarters at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, provides worldwide communication to the Department of the Army and supports the Defense Communications Systems. The US Army Military District of Washington, with headquarters at Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. provides support to the Department of the Army and the Department of Defense at the seat of Government. Some 40% of the Army is deployed overseas. Two divisions, two-thirds of which are located in the USA, keep equipment in the Federal Republic of Germany and can be flown there in 48-72 hours. Headquarters of US Seventh and Eighth Armies are in Europe and Korea respectively. Operational Commands and Weapons. The larger commands are the theater army and the corps. The typical theater army may consist of a variable number of corps; combat forces of armour and infantry; air defense artillery and Pershing missile battalions; combat support forces of aviation, engineer and signal elements; and combat service support forces. A typical corps consists of a variable number and mixture of infantry, mechanized infantry, armoured, air assault, and airborne divisions; one or more separate infantry, mechanized infantry or armoured brigades; one or more armoured cavalry regiments; corps artillery (155-mm howitzer, 203-mm howitzer, multiple launch rocket system (MLRS), Lance missile battalions); an air defense element of a size commensurate with the hostile air threat (Patriot, Hawk and Chaparral/Vulcan battalions), and a target acquisition unit; combat support and combat service support forces. US Army Divisions have a common base (containing command, aviation, divisional artillery, combat support units and combat service support units) and a varying mixture of combat manoeuvre battalions (usually 10 in number in 3 brigades) to make up airborne, infantry, armoured, mechanized infantry and airborne divisions. Divisions can in this way be 'tailored' to fit a variety of strategic or tactical situations. An infantry division, with about 18,600 soldiers, may have 8 infantry battalions, an armoured battalion and a mechanized infantry battalion; a mechanized infantry division, with about 17,100 soldiers, may have 5 mechanized infantry battalions and 5 armoured battalions; an armoured division, with about 16,800 soldiers, may have 4 mechanized infantry battalions and 6 armoured battalions; an airborne division, with 13,100 soldiers, may have 9 infantry (airborne) battalions. The newly created 10,800-man light divisions consist of infantry, airborne or air assault forces. All offer rapid strategic force projection, especially the airborne division. Infantry divisions can operate in all environments and are general purpose forces. The air assault division is a highly specialized force capable of battlefield helicopter operations for infantry, artillery and necessary support forces. Small arms include the M-16 and the M-249 Squad Automatic Weapon both of which fire a 5-56-mm cartridge. The standard general-purpose machine-gun is the M-60 (23 lb.; 550 rounds of 7-62-mmper minute). Infantry weapons also include M-203 grenade launcher attachment for the M-16A1 rifle, which fire a 40-mm grenade up to 400 metres, the Tow and Dragon anti-tank missile system, and the M-72 rocket, a light anti-tank weapon. Combat vehicles of the US Army are the tank, armoured personnel carrier, infantry fighting vehicle, and the armoured command vehicle. The first-line tanks are the M L Abiams tank, and the M60A3 with 105-mm main armament The standard armoured infantry personnel carrier is the M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV); it carries a mechanized infantry squad, a 25-mm Bushmaster gun and Tow missile launchers. The BFV is also being utilized as the ground scout vehicle in armoured cavalry regiments, squadrons and in scout platoons of armoured and mechanized infantry battalions.

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The approved calibres of artillery are: light, 105-mm howitzer, medium 155-mm howitzer; the heavy, 203-mm howitzer. The 107-mm mortars and the 81-mm mortar are used by the combat manoeuvre elements. The Tow is the primary antitank weapon. Chaparral, Vulcan and Stinger, forward-area air-defence weapons, provide tne capability of low-altitude defence against high-performance aircraft. The Army has two categories of missiles—surface-to-surface (field artillery) and surface-to-air (air defence artillery). Surface-to-surface missiles are: Pershing II, terminally-guided, nuclear warhead, range about 1,000 miles (1,800 km) operational; Lance, guided, nuclear warhead, storable, liquid propellant, operational. Surface-to-air missiles, for air defence, are: Patriot, guided, field or fixed installation, conventional warhead, operational; Hawk, homing type, low-to-midaltitude, field operational (an improved system has replaced the basic Hawk); Chaparral, infra-red homing, low-altitude, forward area, operational (improvements to the basic system are under development); Stinger, hand-held, infra-red homing, low-altitude, forward area, operational. Anti-tank missiles are: Tow, tube launched, optically tracked, wire guided, anti-armour, forward area, operational; Hellfire, terminal homing under development and Dragon, light wire-guided, antiarmour, forward area, operational. The Army employs rotary- and fixed-wing aircraft as organic elements of its ground formations where their use is required on a full-time basis and their immediate and constant availability is essential. The front line commander exploits the benefits of aviation technology to perform traditional land battle tasks in the third dimension. This concept of airmobility for ground formation utilizes aerial vehicles as a highly integrated team to perform all five functions of land combat: reconnaissance, command and control, logistics and that inseparable combination, firepower and manoeuvre. The Army has nearly 9,000 aircraft, all but about 500 of them helicopters. The principal types are 3,500 UH-1 Iroquois and 800 UH-60 Black Hawk transport helicopters, 1,900 OH-58 Kiowa observation helicopters, 1,200 AH-1 Huey Cobra anti-armour helicopters, and 450 Chinook medium-lift helicopters. Enlistment, Terms of Service. Since 1974 the Army has operated a 'zero draft' system making it, in effect, an all-regular force both regular and reserve components. Terms of service may be 2,3,4,5 or 6 years. Men and women who enlist incur an 8-year obligation and must serve in the reserve any part of the period not served on active duty. The Army National Guard is the only reserve military component with a dual mission: a state and federal role. Enlistment is voluntary. The members are recruited by each state, but are equipped and paid by the federal government (except when performing state missions). Training is supervised by the active Army (FORSCOM), and unit organization parallels that for the active army; training facilities are made available by the USA and each state. As the organized militia of the several states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the Territories of the Virgin Islands and Guam, the Guard may be called into service for local emergencies by the chief executives in those jurisdictions; and may be called into federal service by the President to thwart invasion or rebellion or to enforce federal law. In its role as a reserve component of the Army, the Guard is subject to the order of the President in the event of national emergency. The Army Reserve is designed to supply qualified and experienced units and individuals in an emergency. US Army Forces Command is charged with the command, support and training supervision of US Army Reserve units. Members of units are assigned to one category, the Ready Reserve. The Ready Reservist is subject to call by the President in case of national emergency without declaration of war by Congress. The Standby Reserve and the Retired Reserve may be called only after declaration of war or national emergency by Congress. The Army Almanac Dept. ofthe Army, Washington, D.C Coker, C , US Military Power m the 1980s. London, 1984 Kinnell, S., Military History ofthe United States. An Annotated Bibliography Santa Barbara, 1986

Navy. Secretary ofthe Navy Hon. John H. Lehman, Jr.

Oxford and

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AMERICA

The Department of the Navy is administered under the Secretary of Defense by the Secretary of the Navy, assisted by the Under Secretary; 4 Assistant Secretaries, for Financial Management; for Shipbuilding and Logistics; for Manpower and Reserve Affairs; and for Research, Engineering and Systems, as well as by the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commandant of the Marine Corps. The 3 divisions of the Department of the Navy are: Navy Department, comprised of staff offices of the Secretary for Legislative Affairs, Information, the Judge Advocate General, Auditor General, Program Appraisal, General Counsel, Naval Research and Comptroller; offices of the Chief of Naval Operations which include the Vice Chief, the Assistant Vice Chief/ Director of Naval Administration, 6 Deputy Chiefs and 8 Directors; Naval Inspector General; the Surgeon General; Bureau of Naval Personnel; and Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps. The Shore Establishment comprises commands dealing with air, naval acquisition support, space and warfare systems, facilities engineering, sea (including ordnance) and supply systems; and other commands: Space, Medical, Education and Training, Data Automation, Telecommunications, Intelligence, Oceanography, Legal Service, Security Group, and Investigative Service; as well as supporting establishment of the Marine Corps and Marine Corps Reserve. The Operating Forces are the Military Sealift Command, U. S. Naval Forces Europe, the Atlantic and Pacific Fleet including Fleet Marine Forces; operating forces of the Marine Corps, the Mine Warfare Command, Operational Test and Evaluation Force, Naval Forces Southern and Central Commands, and the Naval Reserve Forces. Major shore activities include 8 shipyards, 27 air stations and facilities, 2 amphibious bases, 5 submarine bases and 13 naval stations and bases. By agreement dated 2 Sept. 1940, Britain granted leases for naval and air bases in Newfoundland, Bermuda, Bahamas, Jamaica, St Lucia, Trinidad, Antigua and Guyana; but these are not all now active. Naval appropriations in recent fiscal years: 1980, $47,084m.; 1981, $57,834m.; 1982, $68,792m.; 1983, $81,936m.; 1984, $81,999m.; 1985, $95,549m.; 1986, $100,207m.; and 1987, $103,533m. (planned). The active personnel on duty in 1987 was 592,700 Navy officers and enlisted men, plus 200,300 Marine Corps officers and men. The following is a tabulated statement of US vessels listed on 31 Dec.: Category Multi-purpose aircraft carriers ASW and other carriers Helicopter carriers Command ships Nuclear powered submarines Submarines (conventional) Battleships Cruisers Destroyers Frigates

1979 15 51 11 3J 115 10 4 32 4 96 s 69 s

1980 15 51 12 31 118 10 4 29 4 98 s 67'

1981 15 41 12 33 124 8 4 314 93 ' 77 6

1982 15 51 25 2 3' 129 6 4 32 4 88 5 82'

1983 14 51 25 2 3' 135' 6 4 33 4 86 ! 102'

1984 14 5 ' 25 2 3J 139' 5 4 324 845 105'

1985 14 5 ' 25 2 3 ' 140' 5 4 344 83 s 112'

¡986 15 5 ' 25 2 3' 140' 5 4 32 4 82 s 115

1 Comprises 1 training carrier and 2 anti-submarine carriers and 2 other Essex class carriers in reserve. 2 Comprises 5 flat-top hangar/dock heavy amphibious assault ships and 7 lighter flat-top hangar ships and 13 lighter semi-flat-top amphibious transports dock. 1 Includes 1 Middle East Flagship (converted amphibious transport dock). 4 Includes 24 frigates (destroyer leaders, DLG) reclassified as cruisers in 1975and 1980. 5 Includes 10 frigates (destroyer leaders, D L G ) reclassified as destroyers in 1975. Of the 82 destroyers 40 are classified as D D G . ' Includes 65 escort ships reclassified as frigates on 1 July 1975. ' Includes 8 Trident (Ohio class) ballistic missile armed very large (see Table) vessels, 29 other ballistic missile submarines and 103 attack submarines.

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The table below shows principal surface ships, guns under 3-in. calibre not given: Completed

Standard displacement Tons Aircraft

Name

Multi-Purpose 1987 1982 1977 1975

81,600 81,600 81,600 81,600

90

1968 1965

John F.Kennedy 61,000 America 60,300

85

1962

Enterprise

75,700

84

1962

Constellation

61,000

85

1961

Kitty Hawk

61,000

85

1959 1957

Independence Ranger

60,000 60,000

80 to 75

3 BPDMS'launchers with Sea Sparrow . missiles

1956 Saratoga 1955 Forrestal 1950 •Oriskany 1

59,100 59,100

80 to 75 70

33,250

70

Coral Sea 2

52,500

75

1945

Principal armament

Speed Knots

(Former Attack) Aircraft Carriers

Theodore Roosevelt Carl Vinson Eisenhower Nimitz

1947

Shaft horsepower

2

3 BPDMS launchers with NATO Sea Sparrow missiles 3 NATO Sea Sparrow missile launchers 3 Sea Sparrow missile launchers 3 BPDMS launchers with NATO Sea Sparrow missiles 3 BPDMS launchers with Sea Sparrow missiles 3 BPDMS launchers with Sea Sparrow missiles 2 5-in.guns 2 Sea Sparrow missile launchers 2 Sea Sparrow missile launchers

Midway 51,000 75 *Bon Homme 4 5-in. guns 33,100 70 Richard' 1 In reserve, Bon Homme Richard CVA, Oriskany CV. 2 Sister ship Franklin D. Roosevelt was stricken in 1977. 5 Basic Point Defence Missile System.

260,000 (nuclear power)

33

280,000

34

300,000 I (nuclear • power) J

35

280,000

34-

280,000

34

280,000

34

260,000

33

150,000

33

212,000

33

212,000

33

150,000

33

1944

A nti-Sub marine Support Aircraft

Carriers

1944 f*Bennington 33,000 45 4 5-in.guns 150,000 33 1943 I ' H o r n e t 1 'Sister ship Intrepid was stricken in 1982 to become a memorial ship at New York City. Shangri La was scrapped in 1983.

Training

Carrier

Removed 150,000 33 1943 Lexington 32,800 — The 'Essex' class originally comprised 24 ships, the Essex, Yorktown, Intrepid, Hornet, Franklin, Lexington, Bunker Hill, Wasp, Ticonderoga, Hancock, Randolph, Bennington, Bon Homme Richard, Shangri-La, Tarawa, Antietam, Boxer, Kearsarge, Lake Champlain, Leyte, Philippine Sea, Princeton, Valley Forge, Oriskany. Only the above 4* now remain in reserve. For dates and other details of the 18 stricken during 1964-81, and of the 'Bogue' class, 'Commencement Bay' class, and other former aircraft carriers, see 1981-82 and earlier editions.

Helicopter Carriers

1

(Amphibious

Assault

Ships)

1981 Pelileu 26 to 42 i 2 Sea Sparrow 1980 Nassau 39,300 helicopters J missile launchers 1978 Belleau Wood 24 140,000 (full load) (orV/STOL I (BPDMS); 1977 Saipan 2 aircraft) I 3 5-in. guns 1976 Tarawa 1 According to official statistics eleven of the 12 amphibious transports dock (the other is a command ship) of the Austin class; of 12,000 tons,and the two of the Raleigh class, each with a capacity of six helicopters, are now listed under the generic heading of helicopter carriers. 2 In many ways these five heavy through deck hangar ships are equivalent to orthodox large aircraft carriers in other principal navies.

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Compleled 1970 1968 1966 1965 1963 1962 1961

Name

Tons

Aircraft

Principal armament

Helicopter Carriers 1 (Amphibious Assault Ships) Inchon 20 to 26 New Orleans helicopters I 2 Sea Sparrow Tripoli 18,800 (or4V/STOL J missile launchers Guam' (full load) aircraft | (BPDMS); Guadalcanal instead of I 4 3-in. guns Okinawa helos) Iwojima

Shaft horsepower

23,000

Speed Knots

23

' Guam was modified in 1971-72 as 'interim' sea control ship and operated Harrier fixed wing aircraft but reverted to the amphibious role in 1974 Ships 1 2 Sea Sparrow 1 missile launchers; helicopter 4 3-in. guns (twin)

Command 1971 1970

Mount Whitney Blue Ridge

19,100 (full load)

22,000

23

1

Northampton, originally heavy cruiser; and: Wright, originally light fleet aircraft earner, converted into Command Ships were stricken from the Navy List in 1977-78 The amphibious transport dock Coronado was converted to a command ship to relieve La Salle as flagship of the Middle East Force.

1944 .[Missouri1 1 Wisconsin 45,000

Battleships 9 16-in., 20 5-in. (Missouri has been and Wisconsin is being refitted with guided missiles like sister ships below 9 16-in., 12 5m., 8 quadruple Tomahawk cruise missile launchers; 4 quadruple Harpoon launch cannisters

1943 iNew i I o w a Jersey ' 1

212,000

33

1 All laid up in reserve since 1955-58 but reactivation scheduled for recommissioning and modernisation and conversion to cruise missile earner in 1984 (Iowa) followed by Missouri deployed at sea in 1986 and Wisconsin in 1988 (scheduled). 1 Reactivated in 1967 and commissioned 1968-69, reserve 1969 to July 1981 Reactivated Oct 1981 and recommissioned Dec. 1982 on modernisation and conversion to cruise missile earner Began first operational deployment in March 1983

Cruisers 1987 1987 1987 1986 1986 1986 1985 1984 1983

LeyteGulf Antietam Mobile Bay Bunker Hill Thomas S.Gates Valley Forge Vincennes Yorktown Ticonderoga 1

1961

Long Beach

9,000 helicopters

14,200

deck for helicopter

2 vertical missile launchers and 8 quadruple Tomahawk launchers in first 5 80,000 ships, other four (gas) 8 quadruple 'Harpoon' and 2 twin Standard/ ASROC launchers, 2 5-in. 2 quadruple Harpoon, 2 quadruple 80,000 'Tomahawk' (nuclear and 2 twin Terner/ Standard; guided mis- power) sile launchers; 2 5-in.

30

30

1 Onginally rated as guided missile destroyers. Ticonderoga, DDG 47, was redesignated CG47 in 1980 when the new type were reclassified as guided missile cruisers.

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Completed

Standard displacement Tons

Name

Aircraft

Principal armament

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

Cruisers 1949 Salem 2 I n nnn 1 9 8-in., 12 5-in; 120,000 32 — 1948 Des Moines I "'uuu 1 20 3-in. 2 Sistership Newport News was stricken from the Navy List on 31 July 1978. Albany and Chicago were to have been disposed of in 1980 but in 1981 it was planned to retain these ships in reserve for a minimum of three years and Oklahoma City retained for logistic support but she was again listed for disposal in 1983 Chicago was again listed for disposal in 1984 (possible naval memorial) and Albany was deleted from the list in 1986. For conversions and disposals ofother cruisers of the 'Oregon City', 'Baltimore', 'Cleveland' and 'Juneau' classes see 1981 -82 and earlier editions. Cruisers, Former Frigates (Destroyer 1980 1978 1977 1976

Arkansas Mississippi Texas Virginia

1974 1973

South Carolina } 9,560 California

1967

Truxtun

1962

Bainbridge

9,600

100,000 (nuclear power)

33

—

[ 2 quadruple Harpoon; \ 2 single Standard; I 2 5-in.

60,000 (nuclear power)

30

8 400

helicopter —

I 60,000 r (nuclear power)

30

7,800

2 quadruple Harpoon; • 1 twin 'Standard', . 1 5-in., . 2 quadruple Harpoon; . 2 twin 'Standard' I 2 quadruple Harpoon; j 'Tomahawk'being fitted; I 1 twin Standard; 1 5-in.

85,000

34

J 2 quadruple Harpoon; 1 2 twin Standard

85,000

34

'

1964-67 9 Belknap Class' 6,570 1962-64 9 Leahy Class 2

{

Leaders)

2 quadruple Harpoon; 2 quadruple Tomahawk; 2 twin Standard/ ASROC', 2 5-in.

5,670

hehc^pter

—

' The 'Belknap' class comprises Belknap, Biddle, Fox, Home, Josephus Daniels, Jouett, Sterett, Wainwright and William H Standley 2 The 'Leahy' class comprises Dale, England, Gridley, Halsey, Harry E. Yarnell, Leahy, Reeves, Richmond K. Turner and Worden. The 10 'Coontz' class comprises Coontz, Dahlgren, Dewey, Farragut, King, Luce, Macdonough, Mahan, Preble and William V Pratt. They were reclassified from frigates (DLG) to destroyers (DDG) on 1 July 1975 when the later frigates above were reclassified as cruisers. See 1981-82 edition for earlier destroyer leader/frigates. Capital (Strategicj

Submarines

1

Shaft Missile Nuclear HorseSpeed Tubes Reactors power Knots Class No. ( Vertical) 30 dived 24 '726' 8 1 60,000 120 surface Trident 30 dived 16 '640' 12 2 8,500 1 15,000 Poseidon 120 surface 30 dived 16 '616' 17 2 8,250 1 15,000 [ 21 surface Poseidon Completion:- '726' or 'Ohio' class in 1981-86 (three more to follow in 1987-90); '640' or 'Benjamin Franklin' class 1965-67; '616' or 'Lafayette' class in 1963-64; '608' or 'Ethan Allen' class (formerly Polaris armed) in 1961-63; '598' or 'George Washington' class (formerly Polaris armed) in 1959-61. All ballistic missile armed submarines also have four 21-inch torpedo tubes. 1 Of the '608' or Ethan Allen class reclassified as fleet submarines. Ethan Allen (608) stricken in 1983 (target), Thomas A Edison and Thomas Jefferson deleted in 1985. Three of'598' or George Washington class converted to fleet submarines (Of which George Washington and Patrick Henry have been stricken) and two scrapped, Theodore Roosevelt (600) and Abraham Lincoln (602) both targets. 2 Six converted to Trident missile system. Displacement (submerged) Tons 18,700

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In addition to the above named principal surface ships there are 140 nuclearpowered submarines (including the ballistic missile armed vessels in the table), 5 conventionally propelled submarines, 82 destroyers, 115 frigates, 21 ocean minesweepers, 4 patrol vessels, 6 hydrofoil missile patrol craft, 70 amphibious warfare ship«, 150 landing craft, 40 replenishment ships, 100 sealift ships, 130 fleet support ships and auxiliaries, 60 oilers, 100 minor landing craft and 1,000 service craft. Ships under construction include 5 submarines of 18,700 tons submerged with nuclear propulsion and ballistic missiles, 14 nuclear propelled attack (fleet) submarines of 6,900 tons submerged; the giant nuclear propelled aircraft carriers Abraham Lincoln and George Washington each of 93,500 tons full load; 7 guided missile cruisers, 1 destroyer and 1 guided missile frigate. Projected new construction includes 11 more 'Ohio' class nuclear propelled deterrent or 'strategic' submarines; 16 more nuclear propelled fleet or 'attack' submarines; 12 guided missile cruisers and 28 guided missile destroyers. Naval Aviation. The official figures for the total personnel 1986, were: 6,267 in the Navy and Marine Corps, of which 5,413 are active and 4,550 are operating. The main fighters are the F-14 Tomcat and F/A-18 Hornet; the A-6 Intruder, A-7 Corsair, F/A-18 Hornet, A-4 Skyhawk and AV-8 Harrier are assigned to strike missions; the E-2C Hawkeye is used for airborne early warning; the EA-6B Prowler is used for electronic countermeasures support; the P-3 Orion and S-3 Viking for anti-submarine warfare and maritime patrol; the SH-2 Seasprite, SH-3 Sea King and SH-60 Sea Hawk helicopters for ASW and anti-shipping; transports include the C-130 Hercules, C-2 Greyhound and C-9 Skytrain II aircraft plus UH-1 Iroquois, CH-46 Sea Knight and CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters; the T-34C Turbo-Mentor, T-39 Saberliner, T-44 King Air, F-5E/F Tiger II, F-2 Kfir and TH-57 Sea Ranger helicopters are used for primary and advanced training. The US Coast Guard operates under the Department of Transportation in time of peace and as a part of the Navy in time of war or when directed by the President. The act of establishment stated the Coast Guard 'shall be a military service and branch of the armed forces of the United States at all times'. The Coast Guard did operate as part of the Navy during the First and Second World Wars. It also had some units serving in Vietnam. It comprises 234 ships including cutters of destroyer, frigate, corvette and patrol vessel types, powerful icebreakers, and paramilitary auxiliaries and tenders, plus over 2,000 rescue and utility craft. It also maintains 68 fixed-wing aircraft and 112 helicopters. The Coast Guard missions include maintenance of aids to navigation, enforcement of maritime laws, enforcement of international treaties, environmental protection (especially waterway pollution), commercial vessel safety programmes, recreational boating safety, and search and rescue efforts. In the new construction programme are 7 cutters of frigate size and utility each capable of carrying a helicopter and 8 patrol craft. The strength of personnel in 1987 was 5,140 officers, 1,420 warrant officers and 30,600 enlisted personnel and 700 cadets. Air Force. Secretary of the Air Force: Edward C. Aldridge, Jr. The Department of the Air Force was activated within the Department of Defense on 18 Sept. 1947, under the terms of the National Security Act of 1947. It is administered by a Secretary of the Air Force, assisted by an Under Secretary and 3 Assistant Secretaries (Research, Development and Logistics; ' Financial Management; and Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Installations). The USAF, under the administration of the Department of the Air Force, is supervised by a Chief of Staff, who is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He is assisted by a Vice Chief of Staff, Assistant Vice Chief of Staff, and 5 Deputy Chiefs of Staff (Manpower and Personnel; Programs and Resources; Research, Development and Acquisition; Plans and Operations; and Logistics and Engineering). The USAF consists of active duty Air Force officers and enlisted personnel, civilian employees, the Air National Guard and the Air Force Reserve. For operational purposes the service is organized into 13 major commands, 16 separate operating agencies and 5 direct reporting units. The Strategic Air Command, equipped with long-range bombers based both in the USA and overseas, and with intercon-

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

1391

tinental ballistic missiles, is maintained primarily for strategic air operations anywhere on the globe. Tactical Air Command is the Air Force's mobile strike force, able to deploy US general-purpose air forces anywhere in the world for tactical air combat operations. The Military Airlift Command provides air transportation of personnel and cargo for all military services on a worldwide basis; and is also responsible for Air Force audio-visual products, weather service, and aerospace rescue and recovery operations. The other major commands are the Air Force Systems Command, Air Force Logistics Command, Air Force Communications Command, Electronic Security Command, Air Training Command, Alaskan Air Command, Pacific Air Forces, Air Force Space Command, United States Air Forces in Europe, and Air University. The Alaskan, Pacific and European commands conduct, control and coordinate offensive and defensive air operations according to tasks assigned by their respective theatre commanders. The separate operating agencies are the Air Force Accounting and Finance Center, Air Force Audit Agency, Air Force Commissary Service, Air Force Engineering and Services-Center, Air Force Inspection and Safety Center, Air Force Intelligence Service, Air Force Office of Security Police, Air Force Military and Personnel Center, Air Force Office of Medical Support, Air Force Management Engineering Agency, Air Force Service Information and News Center, Air Force Legal Services Center, Air Force Office of Special Investigations, Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center, Air Force Reserve, and Air Reserve Personnel Center. Air Force direct reporting units are the Air Force Academy, Air National Guard, Air Force Technical Applications Center, Air Force District of Washington, D.C., Air Force Civilian Personnel Management Center and USAF Historical Research Center. Of the fighter and interceptor aircraft in service, the F-15 Eagle, F-5 Tiger II, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-106 Delta Dart, F- 111 and F-4 Phantom II fly faster than the speed of sound in level flight and can carry a variety of armament. The E-3 Sentry (AWACS) is a large long-range airborne warning and control aircraft; the EF-111A Raven is a tactical electronics jamming aircraft produced by conversion of the F-111A fighter. The subsonic A-7 Corsair II, the A-10 Thunderbolt and the AC-130H are close air support aircraft. The 0-2A, OA-37 and the OV-IO are observation aircraft. Strategic bombers are the B-52 Stratofortress and the B-1B heavy bombers and the 'swing-wing' FB-111A. The Strategic Air Command also operates the KC-10A Extender and the KC-135 Stratotanker for aerial refuelling and the SR-71 Blackbird and the U-2 and TR-1 for reconnaissance. Primary transports include the C-141 Starlifter the C-5 Galaxy, KC-10A Extender and the turboprop-powered C-130 Hercules. Intercontinental ballistic missiles in USAF service are the Minuteman II and III and Peace Keeper (M-x) now being deployed. United States Air Forces in Europe operates the Ground Launched Cruise Missiles. In 1987, the Air Force had about 605,805 military personnel. The service operates approximately 9,500 aircraft in the active Air Force, the Air National Guard and the Air Force Reserve. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. USA is a member of UN, OAS, NATO, OECD and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Budget. The budget covers virtually all the programmes of federal government, including those financed through trust funds, such as for social security, Medicare and highway construction. Receipts of the Government include all income from its sovereign or compulsory powers; income from business-type or market-orientated activities of the Government is offset against outlays. Budget receipts and outlays (in$lm.):

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Year ending Surplus (+) Receipts2 Outlays2 or deficit (-) 30 June 1945 45,159 92,712 -47,553 42,562 - 3,119 1950 39,443 68,444 1955 65,451 - 2,993 1960 92,492 92,191 + 301 192,812 1970 195,649 - 2,837 1981 ' 599,272 678,209 -78,936 1982 617,766 745,706 -127,940 600,562 808,327 -207,764 1983 1984 -185,324 666,457 851,781 1985 734,057 -212,266 946,323 1986' 995,440 -230,233 765,2,07 J -143,914 1987 831,176 975,090 ' From 1977 the fiscal year changed from a 1 July-30 June basis to a 1 0ct.-30 Sept. basis. 2 From 1970, revised to include Medicare premiums and collections. ' Aug. 1986 estimates.

Budget receipts, by source, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Source Individual income taxes Corporation income taxes Social insurance taxes and contributions Excisetaxes Estate and gift taxes Customs Miscellaneous Total

1985 334,531 61,331 265,163 35,992 6,422 12,079 18,539

1986' 349,101 61,555 284,246 32,351 6,703 12,374 18,877

19871 381,666 74,963 304,640 32,507 6,550 12,786 18,064

734,057

765,207

831,176

' Aug. 1986 estimates.

Budget outlays, by function, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Source National defence 1 International affairs General science, space, and technology Energy Natural resources and environment Agriculture Commerce and housing credit Transportation Community and regional development Education, training, employment and social services Health Medicare Income security Social Security Veterans benefits and services Administration ofjustice General government General purpose fiscal assistance Interest Allowances 2 Undistributed offsetting receipts 1 2

1985 252,748 16,176 8,627 5,685 13,357 25,565 4,229 25,838 7,680 29,342 33,542 65,822 128,200 188,623 26,352 6,277 5,228 6,353 129,436

1986 271,401 16,258 8,975 5,631 13,467 31,865 6,305 28,718 7,803 30,481 36,380 69,006 119,707 199,464 26,667 6,811 6,454 5,574 138,926

-32,759

-34",452

1987 282,150 15,793 9,293 2,695 12,444 18,738 804 25,805 6,890 28,611 35,944 67,139 120,730 207,504 26,029 7,073 5,682 2,413 139,042 1,378 -41,068

Total budget outlays 946,323 995,440 975,090 Includes allowances for civilian and military pay raises for the Department of Defense. Includes allowances for civilian agency pay raises and contingencies.

Budget outlays, by agency, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.):

Agency Legislative branch The judiciary ' Executive Office of the President Funds.appropriated to the President Agriculture Commerce Defence—Military'

1985 1,610 966 111 12,050 55,523 2,140 245,371

1986 1,886 1,062 111 12,916 60,906 2,042 263,456

1987 2,003 1,202 113 11,497 42,371 2,102 274,382

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA Agency Defence—Civil Education 2 Energy 2 Health and Human Services, except Social Security Health and Human Services, Social Security Housing and U rban Development Interior Justice Labor State Transportation Treasury Environmental Protection Agency General Services Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration Veterans Administration Office of Personnel Management Small Business Administration Other Independent Agencies Allowances' Undistributed offsetting receipts Total budget outlays

1393

¡985 18,831 16,682 10,587 132,103 183,434 28,720 4,825 3,586 23,893 2,645 25,020 165,132 4,490 -218 7,251 23,727 680 26,333 9,783

¡986 20,587 17,472 11,258 142,694 191,287 14,887 5,098 3,826 23,550 2,827 27,968 181,724 4,823 191 7,401 23,920 603 26,586 12,721

-58,951

-66,362

¡987 20,922 16,181 10,110 137,183 201,982 13,746 4,525 4,227 23,267 3,331 25,016 181,556 4,434 -521 7,582 26,691 144 25,959 10,046 1,378 -76,341

946,323

995,440

975,090

1

Includes allowances for civilian and military pay raises for the Department of Defense. The Administration proposed in the 1983 Budget that the Departments of Education and Energy be eliminated and that their programmes be transferred to other agencies. Many of the Education programmes went to the proposed Foundation for Education Assistance. 5 Includes allowances for civilian agency pay raises and contingencies. 2

National Debt: Gross federal debt outstanding (in $ 1 m.), and per capita debt (in $ 1 ) on 30 June to 1970 and then o n 3 0 Sept.: Per capita2 Public debt Public debt Per capita2 1919 1 25,485 243 1970 382,603 1,867 1920 914,317 4,021 24,299 228 1980 1930 1 16,185 132 1981 1,003,941 4,365 1940 50,696 382 1982 J 4,900 1,137,131 1950 256,853 1,687 1,273,505 5,420 1983 1 290,862 1960 1,610 ' O n 31 Aug. 1919 gross debt reached its First World War (1914-18) peak of $26,596,702,000, which was the highest ever reached up to 1934; on 31 Dec. 1930 it had declined to $16,026m., the lowest it has been since the First World War On the 30 Nov 1941, just preceding Pearl Harbor, debt stood at $61,363,867,932 The highest Second World War debt was $279,764,369,348 on 28 Feb. 1946. 2 Per capita figures, beginning with 1960, have been revised; they are based on the Census Bureau's estimates of the total population of the US, including Alaska and Hawaii. ' Estimate. State and Local Finance: R e v e n u e of the 5 0 states and all local governments ( 8 2 , 3 4 0 in 1984) from their o w n sources a m o u n t e d to $ 5 5 5 , 0 6 2 m . in fiscal year 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 ; in addition they received $ 9 6 , 9 3 5 m . in revenue from fiscal aid, shared revenues and reimbursements from the federal government, bringing total revenue from all sources to $ 6 5 1 , 9 9 7 m . O f the revenue from state and local sources, taxes provided $ 3 2 0 , 1 9 4 m . , o f which property taxes (mainly i m p o s e d by local governments) yielded $ 9 6 , 4 5 7 m . or 30% o f all tax revenue; and sales taxes, both general sales taxes and selective excises, provided $ 1 1 4 , 0 9 7 m . (36%). State tax revenue totalled $ 1 9 6 , 7 9 5 m . in fiscal year 1984. Largest sources o f state tax revenue are general sales taxes (imposed during 1984 by 4 5 states), motor fuel sales taxes (all states), individual i n c o m e (44 states), motor vehicle and operators' licences (all states), corporation i n c o m e (46 states), tobacco products (all states) and alcoholic beverage sales taxes (all states). General revenue o f local units from o w n sources in fiscal year 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 totalled $ 1 9 6 , 5 0 4 m . In addition they received $ 1 2 6 , 6 1 5 m . from state and federal aids. Property taxes provided 29% o f total general revenue. Total expenditures of state and local governments were $ 6 0 0 , 6 6 7 m . in 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 ,

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

of which approximately 72% was for current operation. Education took $176,108m. in current and capital expenditure; highways, $39,419m.; welfare (chiefly public assistance), $64,709m., and health and hospitals, $46,419m. Capital outlays (construction, equipment and land purchases) totalled $70,651 m. Gross debt of state and local governments totalled $505,030m. or $2,139 per capita at the close of their 1983-84 fiscal year. Total cash and investment assets of state and local governments were $669,293m., about 21% being in cash and deposits, and the remainder in investments, mainly non-governmental securities. US Bureau of the Census, Governmental Finances in 1982-83. Washington, 1984 American Economic Association, Readings in Fiscal Policy. Homewood, 111., 19 5 5 Brookings Institute and National Bureau of Economic Research, Role of Direct and Indirect Taxes in the Federal Revenue System. Washington, D.C., 1964

National Income. The Bureau of Economic Analysis of the Department of Commerce prepares detailed estimates on the national income and product of the United States. The principal tables are published monthly in Survey of Current Business; the complete set of national income and product tables are published in the Survey regularly each July, showing data for recent years. The National Income and Product Accounts of the United States, 1929-1982: Statistical Tables (1986) and the July 1986,1984 Survey contain complete sets of tables from 1929 through 1985. The conceptual framework and statistical methods underlying the US accounts were described in National Income, 1954. Subsequent limited changes were described in US Income and Output (1958), and in Survey of Current Business( Aug. 1965, Jan. 1976,Dec. 1980,Oct. 1985andDec. 1985). These latest figures1 in $ 1,000m. for various years are as follows: I. Gross National Product

!9292 1933' 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 103-9 56 0 288-3 515-3 1,015-5 2,732-0 3,998-1

(a) Personal consumption expenditures 77-3 (b) Gross private domestic investment 16-7 (c) Net exports of goods and services 1-1 (d) Government purchases of goods and services 8-9 1. G N P less capital consumption allowances with capital consumption adjustment, indirect business tax and non-tax liability, business transfer payments, statistical discrepancy, plus subsidies less current surplus of government enterprises, equals: 2. National Income 84-7 which, less corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments, contributions for social insurance, wage accruals less disbursements, plus government transfer payments to persons, interest paid by government to persons and business less interest received by government, interest paid by consumers, personal dividend income, business transfer payments, equals: 3. Personal income 84-3 whereof 4. Personal tax and non-tax payments take 2-6 leaving 5. Disposal personal income divided into 81-7 (e) Personal outlays 4 79-2 (f) Personal saving 2-6

45-8 192-1 330-7 1-6 55-1 78-2 0-4 2-2 5-9 8-3

38-8

100-6

640-0 1,732-6 2,600-5 148-8 437 0 661-1 8-5 32-1 -78-9 218-2

530-3

815-4

39-4 239-8 424-9

832-6 2,203-5 3,222-3

46-3 228-1 409-4

831-8 2^58-5 3,314-5

1-4

20-6

50-5

44-9 207-5 358-9 46-5 194-8 338-1 -1-6 12-6 20-8

116 2

340-5

486-5

715-6 1,918-0 2,828-0 657-9 1,781-1 2,684-7 57-7 136-9 143-3

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA IA. G N P in Constant (1982) $s

1395

19291 1933> 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 709-6 498-51,203-7 1,665-3 2,416-2 3,187-1 3,585-2

(a) Personal consumption expenditures 471-4 378-7 733-2 1,005-1 1,492-0 2,000-4 2,324-5 (b) Gross private domestic investment 139-2 22-7 234-9 260-5 381-5 509-3 647-7 (e) Net exports of goods and services 4-7 -1-4 4-7 - 4 - 0 -30-0 57-0 -108-2 (a) Government purchases of goods and services 94-2 98-5 230-8 403-7 572-6 620-5 72.1-2 II. National Income composed of Compensation of employees (g) Salaries and wages (h) Supplements to wages and salaries Proprietors'income1 (i) F a r m 5 (j) Business and professional 5 Personal income from rents* Net interest Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capitai consumption adjustments (k) Tax liabilities (I) Inventory valuation adjustment (m) Capital consumption adjustment (n) Dividends (o) Undistributed profits

84-7

39-4 239-8 424-9

51 1 29-6 50-5 29-0 0-7 0-6 14-4 5-4 6-1 2-5 8-3 2-9 4-9 2-0 4-7 4-1 9-6 1-4 0-5 -0-9 5-8 2-8

-1-5 0-5 -2-1 -0-3 2-0 -1-6

155-4 296-7 147-2 272-8 8-2 23-8 38-8 52-2 13-6 11-6 25-2 40-5 7-7 15-3 3-0 11-3 34-9 17-9 -5-0 -3-0 8-8 16-2

49-5 22-7 -0-2 -0-3 12-9 14-3

832-6 2,203-5 3,222-3 618-3 1,638-2 2,368-2 551-5 1,372-0 1,965-8 66-8 266-3 402-4 80-2 180-7 254-4 14-7 20-5 29-2 65-4 160-1 225-2 18-2 6-6 7-6 41-2 200-9 311-4 74-7 34-4 -6-6 5-2 22-5 19 2

177-2 84-8 -43-1 -16-8 54-7 97-6

280-7 918 -0-6 58-1 81-6 49-8

1 The inclusion of statistics for Alaska and Hawaii beginning in 1960 does not significantly affect the comparability o f t h e data. 2 3 Peak year between First and Second World Wars. Low point o f t h e depression. 4 Includes personal consumption expenditures, interest paid by consumers and personal transfer payments to foreigners (net). 5 With inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustment. 6 With capital consumption adjustment.

Currency. Prior to the banking crisis that occurred early in 1933, the monetary system had been on the gold standard for more than 50 years. An Act of 14 March 1900 required the Secretary ofthe Treasury to maintain at a parity with gold all forms of money issued by the USA. For a description of these, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 3 4 , p . 4 9 1 .

The old gold dollar had a par value of 49-32d., or $4 -8666 to the £ sterling; it contained 25-8 grains (or 1 -6718 grammes) of gold 0-900 fine. By the act of 12 May 1933 the President of the USA was given authority to reduce the gold content of the dollar by not more than 50% and by the Gold Reserve Act of 30 Jan. 1934 the minimum reduction which he could make was fixed at 40%; on 31 Jan. 1934 he fixed its value at 59-06%, or 155/JI grains of gold 0-900 fine. This was equal to a price for gold of $35 a fine oz. (old price, $20-67183). The President's power to alter the gold content of the dollar to 50% of its value, which was extended by Congress in 1937,1939 and 1941, was not yet again extended in 1943. The Par Value Modification Act (Public Law 92-268), enacted on 31 March 1972, authorized and directed the Secretary of the Treasury to take the steps necessary to establish a new par value of the dollar of $1 =0-818513 gramme of fine gold or $38 per fine troy oz. of gold. The Secretary of the Treasury, pursuant to the statutory directive, proposed the new par value for the US dollar to the International Monetary Fund, which par value became effective on 8 May 1972. In Public Law 93-110, enacted on 21 Sept. 1973, Congress amended the Par Value Modification Act of 1972, and authorized and directed the Secretary of the Treasury to take the steps necessary to establish a new par value of $1 equals 0-828948 Special Drawing Right or 1/42% of a fine troy ounce of gold. Pursuant to the statutory directive, the Secretary of the Treasury notified the International Monetary Fund that, effective 18 Oct. 1973, the par value of the dollar would be changed from 1/38 to 1/42% a fine troy ounce of gold. Expressed in terms of gold, the new par value of the dollar was 0 -736662 gramme of gold per dollar, or $42.2222 per fine troy ounce of gold. Expressed in percentage, the change in the par value of the dollar amounted to a reduction of 10% in the former gold content

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U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

of the dollar. This is the equivalent to an 11 • 1 % increase in the former dollar price ofgold. The USA, on 1 April 1978, accepted the second amendment to the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund. The par value of the dollar is no longer defined in terms of the Special Drawing Right and gold, and the USA is not obliged to establish and maintain a par value for the dollar. At the time of the banking crisis in March 1933 gold payments by banks and the Treasury were suspended by the Government, and an embargo was placed on gold exports. Steps were taken to withdraw from circulation all gold coin and gold certificates and to prohibit the private ownership of all gold certificates, gold bullion and gold coin except for numismatic purposes. Public Law 93-373, 14 Aug. 1974, amended the Par Value Modification Act so as to provide for the termination of all governmental restrictions on private ownership of gold, including gold coins, no later than 31 Dec. 1974. Currency in the USA for many years has comprised several varieties. Prior to May 1933 the legal tender qualities of the classes varied, but in that month all types of currency were made equally legal tender. Under the Coinage Act of 1965, all coins and currencies of the USA, regardless of when coined or issued, are legal tender for all debts, public and private. Only one of the eight kinds of notes outstanding is now significant: Federal Reserve notes in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The issue of (a) $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000 Federal Reserve notes; of (b) silver certificates, and of (c) $100, $5 and $2 US notes have been discontinued, although they are still outstanding. The following issues were stopped many years ago and have been in process of retirement: (1) Federal Reserve Bank notes; (2) National Bank notes; (3) Treasury notes of 1890; (4) fractional currency. Federal Reserve notes are obligations of the USA and a first lien on the assets of the Federal Reserve Banks, through which they are issued. Each of the 12 banks issues them against the security of an equal volume of collateral. Gold coins (of the old weight and fineness) were $20. $10, $5 and $2'/2 pieces called double eagles, eagles, half-eagles and quarter-eagles. The old eagle weighed 258 grains or 16-7181 grammes 0-900 fine, and therefore contained 232-2 grains or 15 -0463 grammes of fine gold. Except for collector's holdings, these are no longer in circulation. The stock of gold bullion held by the Treasury on 31 Aug. 1982 was 264m. fine oz., valued at $11,100m.; stock of silver bullion was 38-7m. fine oz. (excluding 137-5m. fine oz. held for defence stockpile). Estimated stock of domestic coin in circulation on 30 June 1983 was $13,909m., including standard silver dollars and silver and other subsidiary coin. The silver dollar weighs 412-5 grains or 26-7296 grammes 0-900 fine, and contains 371-25 grains or 24-0566 grammes of fine silver. Subsidiary, 0-900 fine, silver coins contain 347-22 grains of fine silver per dollar. These are the half-dollar, quarter-dollar and dime (one-tenth). Minor coins currently issued are the cupronickel 5-cent piece and tne bronze 1 -cent piece. Pursuant to the Coinage Act of 1965, Congress authorized the minting and issuance of new silver clad half-dollars containing 40% silver and cupro-nickel quarter-dollars and dimes containing no silver. In an amendment to the Coinage Act enacted on 31 Dec. 1970, Congress provided that all coins minted thereafter, including dollar and half-dollar coins, be made of cupro-nickel composition. Howfcver, a provision in the 1970 law permitted the coining of 1 •500 inch dollar coins containing 40% silver. These dollar coins, which bear the likeness of the late President Eisenhower, are sold at premium price to coin collectors. In Oct. 1978 there was authorization of a new dollar bearing the likeness of suffragette Susan B. Anthony. The new dollars, which are 1 -043 inches in diameter and weigh 8-1 grammes, replace the cupro-nickel Eisenhower dollars. In 1981 the Mint began producing 1-cent coins made of 97-6% zinc and 2-4% copper (zinc and copper alloy blanks, barrel electro-plated with copper), pursuant to its authority under 31 USC 317(b) to alter the composition of the alloy of the 1 -cent coin. In 1983 it was in the process of phasing out production of bronze cents and will shortly only be producing zinc cents. Banking. On 30 June 1985 there were 14,579 insured commercial banks and insured mutual savings banks with deposits of $ 1,777,076m. filing report of condition and income statements with the Federal Reserve Board.

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

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The Federal Reserve System, established under an Act of 1913, comprises the Board of 7 Governors, the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks with their 25 branches, the Federal Open Market Committee and the Federal Advisory Council. The 7 members of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Each Governor is apprinted to a full term of 14 years or an unexpired portion of a term, one term expiring every 2 years. No two may come from the same Federal Reserve District. The Board supervises the Reserve Banks and the issue and retirement of Federal Reserve notes; it designates 3 of the 9 directors of each Reserve Bank and designates the Chairman ana Deputy Chairman; it passes on the admission of state banks to the System and has power to correct unsound conditions in State member banks or violations of banking law by them, including, if necessary, disciplinary action to remove officers and directors for unsafe or unsound banking practices or for continuous violations of banking laws; it also authorizes State member bank branches and approves mergers and consolidations if the acquiring, assuming or resulting bank is to be a State member; and it has power to control the expansion of bank holding companies and to require divestment of certain non-banking interests. The 12 members of the Federal Open Market Committee include the 7 members of the Board of Governors and i of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents. The latter serve 1 -year terms on the Committee in rotation except for the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, who is a permanent member. The Federal Open Market Committee influences credit market conditions, money and bank credit, by buying or selling US Government securities; and it also supervises System operations in foreign currencies for the purpose of helping to safeguard the value of the dollar in international exchange markets and facilitating co-operation and efficiency in the international monetary system. The Board also influences credit conditions through powers to set reserve requirements, to approve discount rates at Federal Reserve Banks, and to fix margin requirements on stock-market credit. The Reserve Banks advance funds to depository institutions, issue Federal Reserve notes, which are the principal form of currency in the US, act as fiscal agent for the Government, and afford nation-wide cheque-clearing and fund transfer arrangements. They may discount paper for depository institutions and increase or reduce the country's supply of reserve funds by buying or selling Government securities and other obligations at the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee. The purchase and sale of securities in the open market is conducted by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Their capital stock is held by the member banks, but it carries no voting rights except in the election of directors. Every member bank is required to subscribe to stock in the Reserve Bank of its district in an amount equal to 6% of its paid-up capital and surplus. Only one-half of the par value of the stock is paid in, the other half remaining subject to call by the Board of Governors. However, no call has been made for the second half of the subscription. All depository institutions with certain transaction accounts and time deposits are required to hold reserves with the Federal Reserve. From 1968, the Congress passed a number of consumer financial protection acts, the first of which was the Truth in Lending Act, for which it has directed the Board to write implementing regulations and assume partial enforcement responsibility. Others include the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, Home Mortgage Disclosure Act, Consumer Leasing Act, Fair Credit Billing Act, and Electronic Fund Transfer Act. To manage these responsibilities the Board has established a Division of Consumer and Community Affairs. To assist it, the Board consults with a Consumer Advisory Council, established by the Congress as a statutory part of the Federal Reserve System. The Consumer Advisory Council was established by Congress in 1976 at the suggestion of the Board of Governors. Representing both consumer/community and financial industry interests, the Council meets several times a year to advise the Board on its implementation of consumer regulations and other consumer related matters. Another statutory body, the Federal Advisory Council, consists of 12 members (one from each district); it meets in Washington at least four times a year to advise the Board of Governors on general business and financial conditions. Following the passage of the Monetary Control Act of 1980, the Board of Gover-

1398

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

nors established the Thrift Institutions Advisory Council to provide information and views on the special needs and problems of thrift institutions. The group is comprised of representatives of mutual savings banks, savings and loan associations, and credit unions. Banks which participate in the federal deposit insurance fund have their deposits insured against loss up to $100,000 for each depositor. The fund is administered by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation established in 1933; it obtains resources through annual assessments on participating banks. All members of the Federal Reserve System are required to insure their deposits through the Corporation, and non-member banks may apply and qualify for insurance. On 31 Dec. 1984, 14,506 commercial banks and 267 mutual savings banks with insured deposits of $ 1,400,000m. were members of the insurance fund. There are also 37 co-operative Farm Credit Banks, supervised by the Farm Credit Administration, that make agricultural and rural housing loans as well as loans to farmer co-operatives and to businesses providing on-farm services. In this system, farm mortgage loans are originated by local federal land bank associations, while farm production loans are made by local production credit associations. Moreover, the Federal Home Loan Bank System, which includes 12 district banks, is one of several government-sponsored agencies established for the public purpose of assisting home ownership. The Federal Home Loan Banks borrow in the financial markets and lend these funds to savings and loan associations and savings banks, which hold most of their assets in home mortgages. The Federal Home Loan Bank System is privately owned and does not receive any direct federal funding, although it seems to carry an implicit promise of financial support from the federal government because of its public purpose. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions. 7th ed., 1984.—Federal Reserve Bulletin. Monthly.—Annual Report.— Annual Statistical Digest.—The Federal Reserve Act, As Amended Through 1984 Chandler, L. V., Economics of Money and Banking. 7th ed. New York, 1977 Horovitz, P. M., Monetary Policy and the Financial System. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1979 Meek, P., U.S. Monetary Policy and Financial Markets. New York, 1982 Timberlake, R. H., The Origins of Central Banking in the United States. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1978

Weights and Measures. British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Winchester bushel and wine gallon are used instead of the new or Imperial standards: Wine gallon = 0-83268 Imperial gallon; Bushel = 0-9690 Imperial bushel. Instead of the British cwt of 112 lb., one of 100 lb. is used; the short or net ton contains 2,000 lb.; the longor gross ton, 2,240 lb. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (public utilities only, 1985) 2,679,857,000m. kwh. Minerals. Total value of non-fuel minerals produced in US (including Alaska and Hawaii) in 1984 was estimated at $23,150m. ($21,100m. in 19.83). Details are given in the following tables. Production of metallic minerals (long tons, 2,240 lb.; short tons, 2,000 lb.): 1983 Metallic minerals Bauxite (dried equiv.) tonnes Copper (recoverable content), tonnes Gold (recoverable content), troy oz. Iron ore (usable) 1 ,1,000 long tons, gross Lead (recoverable content), tonnes Molybdenum (content of concentrate), 1,0001b. Silver (recoverable content), 1,000 troy oz. Zinc (recoverable content), tonnes Other metals Total metals

Quantity 679 1,038,098 1,956,400 44,295 449,216

1984 Quantity 856 1,091,284 2,058,784

Value ($1,000) 15,643 1,608,422 742,517

32 f, 897

181,305

48,805

166,612

102,405

326,780

43,415 275,294

496,671 251,204 177,066

44,440 252,768 —

361,773 270,833 2,469,263

—

5,977,000

—

5,837,000 Excluding by-product iron sinter. —

1

Value ($1,000) 11,309 1,751,476 829,514 1,938,496 214,708

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

The US is wholly or almost wholly dependent upon imports for industrial diamonds, bauxite, tin, chromite, nickel, strategic-grade mica and long-fibre asbestos; it imports the bulk of its tantalum, platinum, manganese, mercury, tungsten, cobalt and flake graphite, and substantial quantities of antimony, cadmium, arsenic, fluorspar, zinc and bismuth. In 1984 precious metals were mined mainly in Idaho, Nevada, Montana, Utah and Arizona (in order of combined output of gold and silver). Statistics of important non-metallic minerals and mineral fuels are: 1983 Non-metallic minerals Boron minerals, short tons Cement: Portland, 1,000 short tons Masonry, 1,000 short tons Clays, 1,000 short tons Gypsum, 1,000 short tons Lime, 1,000 short tons Phosphate rock, 1,000 tonnes Potassium salts, 1,000 tonnes (KJO equivalent) Salt (common), 1,000 short tons Sand and gravel, 1,000 short tons Stone, 1,000 short tons Sulphur (Frasch-process), 1,000 tonnes Other non-metallic minerals Total non-metallic minerals Mineral fuels Coal: Bitum. and lignite, 1,000 short tons Pennsylv anthracite, 1 1,000 short tons Gas: Natural gas, 2 1 m. cu. ft Petroleum (crude), 1,000 bbls of 42 gallons

1984

Quantity 1,303,000

Value ($1,000) 439,181

Quantity 1,367,000

Value ($1,000) 456,687

67,183 2,921 40,858 12,884 14,867 42,573

3,315,690 186,240 931,091 101,361 757,611 1,021,095

74,376 3,281 44,236 14,319 15,922 49,197

3,810,446 219,877 1,037,233 113,671 811.183 1,182,244

1,513 34,573 681,720 862,690 4,111

1,639 39,225 803,280 957,157 5,001

—

220,800 597,081 2,270,200 3,474,843 414,210 1,533,554

—

241,800 675,099 2,621,200 3,910,549 546,106 1,546,465

—

15,263,000

—

17,173,000

1981 823,800 21,510,000 5,400 240,000 19,690,000 39,950,009

1982 824,000 22,380,000 200,000 4,200 8,090,000 44,580,000

3,129,000 99,400,000 3,165,000 90,330,000 Includes a small quantity of anthracite mined in states other than Pennsylvania. 1 Value at wells. Minerals Yearbook. Bureau of Mines. Washington, D.C. Annual from 1932-33;. continuing the Mineral Resources of the United States series (1866-1931); from 1963 in 3 vols. (Metals, Minerals, Fuels, Area Reports, Domestic; and Area Reports, International) 1

Agriculture. Agriculture in the USA is characterized by its ability to adapt to widely varying conditions, and still produce an abundance and variety of agricultural products. From colonial times to about 1920 the major increases in farm production were brought about by adding to the number of farms and the amount of land under cultivation. During this period nearly 320m. acres of virgin forest were converted to crop land or pasture, and extensive areas of grass lands were ploughed. Improvident use of soil and water resources was evident in many areas. During the next 20 years the number of farms reached a plateau of about 6 • 5m., and the acreage planted to crops held relatively stable around 330m. acres. The major source of increase in farm output arose from the substitution of powerdriven machines for horses and mules. Greater emphasis was placed on development and improvement of land, and the need for conservation of basic agricultural resources was recognized. A successful conservation programme, highly coordinated and on a national scale—to prevent further erosion, to restore the native fertility of damaged land and to adjust land uses to production capabilities and needs—has been in operation since early in the 1930s. Following the Second World War the uptrend in farm output has been greatly accelerated by increased production per acre and per farm animal. These increases are associated with a higher degree of mechanization; greater use of lime and fertilizer, improved varieties, including hybrid maize and grain sorghums; more effective control of insects and disease; improved strains of livestock and poultry; and wider use of good husbandry practices, such as nutritionally balanced feeds, use of

1400

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

superior sites and better housing. During this period land included in farms decreased slowly, crop land harvested declined somewhat more rapidly, but the number of farms declined sharply. Some significant changes during these transitions are: All land in farms totalled less than 500m. acres in 1870, rose to a peak of over 1,200m. acres in the 1950s and declined to 1,232m. acres in 1982, even with the addition of the new States of Alaska and Hawaii in 1960. The number of farms declined from 6-35m. in 1940 to 2-37m. in 1983, as the average size of farms doubled. The average size of farms in 1983 was 437 acres, but ranged from a few acres to many thousand acres. In 1978,215,088 farms (128,254 in 1974) were less than 10 acres; 475,241 (379,543), 10-49 acres; 814,689 (827,884), 50-179 acres; 596,356 (616,098), 180-499 acres; 215,112 (207,297), 500-999 acres; 98,521 (92,712), 1,000-1,999 acres; 63,635 (62,225) 2,000 acres or more. Farms operated by owners or part-owners, 1978, were 2,165,000 (87% of all farms), by all tenants, 314,000 (13%). The average size of farms in 1978 was 235 acres for full-owners, 792 acres for part-owners and 396 acres for tenants. Farms with white operators numbered 2,398,726, and those with operators who were black or of other races were 79,916. A higher proportion of blacks and operators of other races were tenants and operated a significantly smaller acreage than white operators. In 1983 (with 1960 figures in parentheses) large-scale, highly mechanized farms with sales of agricultural products totalling $20,000 and over per farm made up 39-5% (8-6%) of all farms and accounted for 93-2% (48-3%) of the value of farm >roducts sola. Farms selling between $19,999 and $2,500 worth of products per arm were 391% (44-8%) of all farms and sold 6-2% (43-3%) of all sales. The remaining 21 -4% (46-6%) of all farms sold less than $2,500 worth of products per farm, 0-6% (8 -4%) of total sales. Operators in every sales category received off-farm income, but operators selling less than $20,000 per year received more of their average income from non-farm sources than from farming in 1983. Total income per operator: farms with sales of $500,000 and over, $444,808 (of which $416,205 is from farm sources); sales $200,000-$499,999, income $50,007 ($35,397); sales $20,000-$39,999, income $13,850 ($303); sales under $5,000, income $20,407 (farm losing $687). A century ago three-quarters of the total US population was rural, and practically all rural people lived on farms. In April 1980 26% of the population was rural, and 6m. Farm residents accounted for 3% of the total population. Hired farm workers, July 7-13,1985,3 -9m., and farm family workers, including operators, about 2 -2m. In 1950 there were nearly 10m. farm workers. At that time each farm worker supplied farm products for 15 people; in 1974, 55 people, in 1977,60 people and in 1982,76 people. Cash receipts from farm marketings and government payments (in $ 1 m.):

f

1932 1945 1950 1960 1970 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Crops 1,996 9,655 12,356 15,259 20,976 63,394 69,026 74,920 74,353 69,516

Livestock and livestock products 2,752 12,008 16,105 18,989 29,563 68,522 67,405 68,478 70,199 69,203

Government payments —

742 283 702 3,717 1,375 1,286 1,930 3,492 9,294

Total 4,748 22,405 28,744 34,950 54,256 133,291 137,717 145,328 148,043 148,014

Realized gross farm income (including government payments), in $lm., was 160,000 in 1981,164,400 in 1982 and 163,200 in 1983; net income of farm operators (only from farm sources), 30,966 in 1981,22,339 in 1982 and 16,100 in 1983. Farm real estate debt including farm households, in 1982, was $105,539m.; 1983, $ 109,507m.; in 1984 $ 111,600m. US agricultural exports, fiscal year, totalled: 1974-75, $21,854m.; 1975-76, $22,760m.; 1976-77, $23,974m.; 1977-78, $27,290m.; 1978-79, $31,975m.; 1979-80, $40,48 lm.; 1984, $38,000m.

1401

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Total area of farm land under irrigation in 1982 was 49,002,000 acres. Federal income taxes paid by farm people: $15m. in 1941, $l,365m. in 1948, SI,182m. in 1967, $3,434m. in 1971, $5,309m. in 1972, $8,364m. in 1973 and $8,277m. in 1974. Total taxes levied on farm real estate were $3,039m. in 1977, $3,021m. in 1978, $3,215m. in 1979, $3,450-9m. in 1980, $3,695 5m. in 1981; $3,907 lm. in 1982. According to census returns and estimates of the Economic Research Service, the acreage and specified values of farms has been as follows (area in 1,000 acres; value in $1,000): 1910 1930 1940 1950 1959 1969 1978

Crop land available Value, land, bldgs, Value of products sold Farm area 1 machinery, livestock in preceding year for crops 878,798 432,000 41,089,000 986,771 9,609,924 480,000 57,815,000 1,060,852 467,000 41,829,000 6,681,581 1,158,566 478,000 99,366,000 22,051,129 1,125,508 448,100 164,200,000 30,492,721 1,063,346 459,048 206,751,000 44,519,658 461,341 1,029,695 5,653,400,000 108,113,519 1 Acreages are for the preceding year except for 1959

The areas and production of the principal crops for 3 years were: Harvested 1,000 acres

1982 Production 1.000

Yield per acre

Harvested 1.000 acres

1983 Production 1,000

Corn for grain 72,719 8,235,101 113 2 51,483 4,174,678 (bu.) Oats(bu.) 10,258 592,630 57 8 9,072 476,961 Barley (bu.) 9,013 515,935 57 2 9,731 508,925 All wheat (bu.)77,937 2,764,967 35 5 61,390 2,419,824 Ricc (cwt.) 3,262 153,637 4,710 2,169 99,720 Soybeans for beans (bu.) 69,442 2,190,297 31 5 62,525 1,635,772 Flaxseed (bu.) 735 10,278 140 580 6,903 Cotton 9,734 (bales) 11,963 590 7,348 7,771 4 Potatoes (cwt.) 1,267 355,131 280 1,243 333,911 913 1,994,494 2,185 Tobacco (lb.) 789 1,428,969

Yield per acre

Harvested 1,000 acres

1984 ProducHon 1,000

Yield per acre

81 1 71,776 7,649,995 106-6 52 6 8,123 471,921 58 1 52 3 11,171 596,546 53-4 39-4 66,928 2,595,479 38-8 4,598 2,782 137,033 4,926 26 2 66,093 1,860,783 11 9 538 7,022

28 2 13 1

508 10,461 13,291 8 610 269 1,300 361,648 278 1,811 797 1,744,078 2,187

Corn (Maize). The chief corn-growing states (1984) were (estimated yield, corn for grain in 1,000 bu.): Iowa, 1,444,800; Illinois, 1,247,160; Nebraska, 799,250; Indiana, 705,510; Minnesota, 689,080; Ohio, 460,200; Wisconsin, 344,500. Wheat. The chief wheat-growing states (1984) were (estimated yield in 1,000 bu.): Kansas, 431,200; N. Dakota, 284,190; Oklahoma, 190,800; Washington, 160,350; Texas, 150,000; S. Dakota, 126,038; Minnesota, 120,711; Colorado, 115,300; Montana, 104,655. Cotton. Leading production, 1984, by state (in 1,000 bales, 480 lb. net weight) was: Texas, 4,028; California, 2,920; Mississippi, 1,650; Arizona, 1,160; Louisiana, 1,045; Arkansas, 600; Alabama, 451; Tennessee, 340; Georgia, 280; Oklahoma, 195; Missouri, 195; S.Carolina, 170. Tobacco. Output (1,000 lb.) of the chief tobacco-growing states (92% of the crop) was, in 1984: N. Carolina, 592,530; Kentucky, 535,525; Tennessee, 158,730; Virginia, 117,235; S.Carolina, 106,320; Georgia, 85,800. Fruit. A wide variety of fruits are grown; the chief products are as follows:

Apples Citrus Fruit Grapes

1982-83 Production Value 1,000 tons $1,000 4,176 809,004 13,608 1,731,060 5,360 1,066,393

1983-84 Production Value 1,000 tons $1,000 4,104 959,796 10,789 1,750,110 5,095 837,958

1984-85 Production Value 1,000 tons $1,000 10,460

2,149,913

Dairy produce. In 1984, production of milk was 135,400m. lb.; cheese solid,

1402

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

4,673-78m. lb.; butter, 1,103-3m. lb.; ice-cream, 883 -5m. gallons; non-fat dry milk for human consumption, l,158-9m. lb.; cottage cheese, 961 -6m. lb. Livestock (1985). Cattle, 116m. (in July); pigs, 42m. (major producing states, Sept.); sheep, 10-4m. (in Jan.); goats, 1 -55m. (major producing state, Jan.). On 1 Dec. 1984 there were 373 95m. chickens, excluding broilers. In 1984 171 3m. turkeys were raised; 4,282m. broilers were produced, 1 Dec. 1983-30 Nov. 1984.Eggs produced,same period,68,193m. (value $4,108 9m.). The value (in $1,000) was: Cattle ofall kinds 54,292,044 Sheep and lambs 903,332 Swine (hogs and pigs)' 4,113,725 ' At 1 Dec. of previous year.

m 2

]g8J2

47,966,517 46,749,210 737,777 615,691 4,783,560 Preliminary

Total value of livestock, excluding poultry and goats and, from 1961, horses and mules (in $ 1 m.) on farms in the USA on 1 Jan. was; 1930,6,061; 1933 (low point of the agricultural depression), 2,733; 1970, 22,886; 1978, 31,952; 1979, 50,612; 1980,60,598; 1981,60,016; 1982,53,601; 1983 (preliminary), 52,148. In 1982 the production of shorn wool was 105m.lb. from 13-lm. sheep (average 1970-74, 320m. lb. from 18 2m. sheep); of pulled wool, 1 15m. lb. (1970-74, 10-lm. lb.). Forestry. In 1977 the US forest lands, including Alaska and Hawaii, capable of producing timber for commercial use, covered 482,485,900 acres (more than onefifth of the land area), classified as follows: Saw-timber stands, 215,435,700 acres; pole timber stands, 135,609,900 acres, seedling and sapling stands, 115,032,100 acres; non-stocked and other areas, 16,408,200 acres. Ownership of commercial forest land is distributed as follows: Federal government, 99,410,400 acres; state, county, municipal and Indian, 36,311,200 acres; privately owned, 346,764,300 acres, including 115,777,100 acres on farms. Of the saw-timber stand (2,578,940m. bd ft) Douglas fir constitutes 514,317; Southern pine, 321,563; Western yellow (ponderosa and Jeffrey) pine, 192,070; other softwoods, 957,458; hardwoods, 255,189. In 1976 growing stock timber removals amounted to 14,229,023,000 cu. ft compared to net annual growth of about 21,664,316,000 cu. ft. Saw-timber removals amounted to 65,176,618,000 bd ft against an annual growth of 74,620,832,000 bd ft. The net area of the 156 national forests and other areas in USA and Puerto Rico administered by the US Department of Agriculture's Forest Service, including commercial and non-commercial forest land, was in Oct. 1985, 191m. acres. Fire takes a heavy annual toll in the forest; total area burned over in 1985 was 4,274,471 acres; 1,500m. acres of land are now under organized fire-protection service. The area planted or seeded in forest and wind barrier nursery stock in the year ending 30 Sept. 1984 was 463,398 acres. Land Areas of National Forest System. Forest Service, US Dept. of Agriculture, 1985 Report of the Forest Service, 1985

Fisheries. Total US catch (edible and industrial), 1985, 2-8m. tonnes valued at $2,300m.; harvest outside the US (mostly tuna) and joint venture operations (mostly Alaskan pollock), 1 1 m . tonnes valued at $277m.; foreign catch in the 200 mile wide US fishery zone (mostly Alaskan pollock, 73%; Pacific flounders, 13% and Pacific cod, 6%), 1 -2m. tonnes. Major species caught, 1985: Menhaden, 2,700m. lb, value $101m. (44% of total US catch); salmon, 727m. lb, $440m.; crabs, 338m. lb, $390m.; shrimp, 473m. lb, $306m.; cod, 303m. lb, $54m.; sea herring, 199m. lb, $50m.; tuna, 516m. lb, $212m. Major landing areas, 1985: By value (in $lm.): Alaska, 591; Massachusetts, 232; Louisiana, 229; Texas, 177; Florida, 171. By volume (in l m . lb): Louisiana, 1,700; Alaska, 1,200; Virginia, 723; Mississippi, 471; California, 363. Exports, 1985, totalled $l,100m.; imports, $6,700m. Per capita consumption, 1985,14 • 5 lb edible meat; estimated live weight equivalent about 43 lb per capita. Tennessee Valley Authority. Established by Act of Congress, 1933, the TVA is a

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1403

multiple-purpose federal agency which carries out its duties in an area embracing some 41,000 sq. miles, in 125 counties (aggregate population, about 4- 7m.) in the 7 Tennessee River Valley states: Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, North Carolina, Georgia and Virginia. In addition, 76 counties outside the Valley are served by TVA power distributors. Its 3 directors are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate; headquarters are in Knoxville, Tenn. There were 30,376 employees in Aug. 1986. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Tennessee Valley offered the world a model of the first effort to develop all resources of a major river valley under one comprehensive programme, the Tennessee Valley Authority. The multipurpose development of the Tennessee River for flood control, navigation, and electric power production was the first big task for TVA. But there were other needs; controlling erosion on the land, introducing better fertilizers and new farming practices, eradicating malaria, demonstrating ways electricity could lighten the burdens in the home and increase production on the farm, and a multitude of potential job-producing enterprises. In the depression year, 1933, the per capita income in the Valley was $1.63, compared with the national average of $375. Through the years, TVA has placed a strong emphasis on the economic development of the Valley. In recent years average income levels in the region have been nearly 80% ofthe national level. Taming the Tennessee River has had two positive effects on the Valley: flood damages averted by river control now total more than $3,000m., and a navigable channel system 650 miles long, connecting with the American system of inland waterways, provides a readily accessible transportation system for industry. In 1984,33 2m. (estimate) tons of barge-traffic travelled the TVA river system. Another activity is experimentation in the development and manufacture of chemical fertilizers, accompanied by programmes designed to encourage proper fertilizer use in all parts of the United States and the world. TVA's National Fertilizer Development Center is recognized world-wide for its expertise in fertilizer technology. TVA also works closely with other federal agencies, and with state and local authorities in combating soil erosion, improving forest resources, improving agriculture, and in the development of local industries based on natural resources. In recent years, attention has focused mainly on TVA's power programme. TVA supplies electric power to 160 local distribution systems serving 2 -9m. customers. The power system originated with the water-power development of the Tennessee River, but has become predominantly a coal-fired system as power requirements have outgrown the region's hydro-electric potential. In fiscal year 1985, the TVA system generated 104,705m. kwh. Installed capacity in 1985 was 32- lm. kw, with another 5 2m. kw under construction at TVA's nuclear plants. Power operations are financially self-supporting from revenues. In fiscal year 1985 power revenues were $4,547m. Power facilities are financed from revenues and the sale of revenue bonds and notes, and TVA is repaying appropriations previously invested in power facilities. Other TVA resource development programmes continue to be financed from congressional appropriations. Annual Report of the TVA Knoxville, 1934 to date Clapp, G R., The TVA, An Approach to the Development of a Region. Univ of Chicago Press, 1955 Lilienthal, D. E., TVA, Democracy on the March. 20th Anniversary ed. New York and London,1953 Owen,M., The Tennessee Valley Authority New York, 1973 Tennessee Valley Authority A History ofthe Tennessee Valley Authority Knoxville, Tennessee, 1982.—TVA. The First Twenty Fears (ed. R. C Martin), Univ ofiennessee Press, 1956

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The following table presents industry statistics of manufactures as reported at various censuses from 1909 to 1982 and from the Annual Survey of Manufactures for years in which no census was taken. The figures for 1958 to 1982 include data for some establishments previously classified as non-manufacturing. The figures for 1939, but not for earlier years, have been revised to exclude data for establishments classified as non-manufacturing in 1954. The figures for 1909-33

1404

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

were previously revised by the deduction of data for industries excluded from manufacturing during that period. The statistics for 1958,1963,1967,1972,1977 and 1982 relate to all establishments employing 1 or more persons anytime during the year, for 1950, 1956-57, 1959-62, 1966 and 1968-74 on a representative sample of manufacturing establishments of 1 or more employees; for 1929 through 1939, those reporting products valued at $5,000 or more; and for 1909 and 1919, those reporting products valued at $500 or more. These differences in the minimum size of establishments included in the census affect only very slightly the year-to-year comparability of the figures. The annual Surveys of Manufactures carry forward the key measures of manufacturing activity which are covered in detail by the Census of Manufactures. The estimate for 1950 is based on reports for approximately 45,000 plants out of a total of more than 260,000 operating manufacturing establishments; those for 1956-57 on about 50,000, and those for 1959-62,1966 and 1968-74 on about 60,000 out of about 300,000. Included are all large plants and representative samples of the much more numerous small plants. The large plants in the surveys account for approximately two-thirds of the total employment in operating manufacturing establishments in the US.

1909 1919 1929 1933 1939 1950 1960 1963 1967 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1982 1983 1984

Number of establishments 264,810 270,231 206,663 139,325 173,802 260,000 306317 305,680

31 ¿',662

35ÓJ57

358^385

Production workers (averagefor year) 6,261,736 8,464,916 8,369,705 5,787,611 7,808,205 11,778,803 12,209,514 12,232,041 13,955,300 14,357,800 13,528,000 12,874,900 13,526,500 14,233,100 13,970,900 12,567,900 13,051,200 13,691,000 14,228,700 14,537,800 13,900,100 12,401,600 12,203,000 12,580,800

Production workers' wages total ($1,000) 3,205,213 9,664,009 10,884,919 4,940,146 8,997,515 34,600,025 55,555,452 62,093,601 81,393,600 93,459,600 91,609,000 93,231,700 105,494,700 118,332,300 124,983,200 121,427,200 137,564,000 157,163,700 176,416,800 192,881,500 198,164,000 204,787,200 212,416,400 231,975,800

by

Value added manufacture ($1,000) 8,160,075 23,841,624 30,591,435 14,007,540 24,487,304 89,749,765 163,998,531 192,082,900 261,983,800 304,440,700 300,227,600 314,138,400 353,974,200 405,623,500 452,468,400 442,485,800 511,470,900 585,165,600 657,412,000 747,480,500 773,831,300 824,117,700 882,014,500 983,645,500

' For the period 1954-67 value added represents adjusted value added and for earlier years unadjusted value added. Unadjusted is obtained by subtracting cost of materials, supplies and containers, fuel, electricity and contract work from the value of shipments for products manufactured plus receipts for services rendered. Adjusted value added also takes into account value added by merchandizing operations plus net change in finished goods and work-inprocess inventories between the beginning and end of the year.

For comparison of broad types of manufacturing, the industries covered by the Census of Manufactures have been divided into 20 general groups according to the Standard Industrial Classification. Value

Production Production added by manuworkers workers ' Code (average wages, total facture ' No. Industry group Year for year) ($1,000) ($1,000) 1982 1,047,000 16,440,000 88,419,000 20. Food and kindred products 93,437;800 1983 1,012,700 16,637,000 1984 1,009,500 17,061,400 98,037,400 1982 45,000 957,100 8,965,000 21. Tobacco products 1983 41,900 958,100 9,692,100 1984 10,786,600 38,600 933,200 1 Figures represent adjusted value added. For definitions see footnote to previous table.

U N I T E D STATES OF

Code No.

Industry

group

22. Textile mill products 23 Apparel and other textile products 24 Lumber and wood products 25 Furniture and fixtures 26 Paper and allied products 27 Printing and publishing 28. Chemical and allied products 29 Petroleum and coal products 30. Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products 31 Leather and leather products 32. Stone, clay and glass products 33 Primary metal industries 34 Fabricated metal products 2 35 Machinery (except electncal) 36 Electric and electronic equipment 37 Transportation equipment 2 38. Instruments and related p r o d u c t s ! 39 Miscellaneous manufacturing

Year 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984

1405

AMERICA

Production workers (average for year) 616,000 624,000 611,200 1,010,000 995,900 977,100 479,000 531,400 541,500 351,000 359,300 383,700 461,000 460,800 468,100 711,000 722,600 733,400 508,000 496,000 490,700

Production workers' wages, total ($1,000) 6,936,000 7,803,100 7,852,300 8,832,000 9,193,400 9,280,300 6,446,000 7,507,800 7,860,000 4,189,000 4,564,000 5,148,700 9,040,000 9,736,700 10,515,«00 11,307,000 12,052,500 12,916,200 10,544,000 10,867,600 11,444,400

95,100 89,800 523,000 527,200 573,800 171,000 161,900 145,200 408,000 408,300 416,400 638,000 585,100 623,300 1,073,000 1,050,400 1,112,200 1,358,000 1,234,200 1,297,600 1,198,000 1,187,700 1,287,400 1,060,000 1,072,100 1,159,800 363,000 348,300 358,100 281,000 280,000 263,400

2,723,300 2,648,600 7,691,000 8,229,100 9,439,400 1,623,000 1,613,000 1,482,600 7,164,000 7,508,800 8,039,000 14,466,000 13,642,400 15,107,600 18,456,000 18,979,300 21,158,500 25,093,000 23,588,400 26,749,100 19,281,000 20,370,100 23,493,100 24,379,000 26,917,400 30,768,000 5,917,000

100,000

2,612,800

6,001,100

6,533,600 3,414,000 3,415,800 3,544,000

Value added by manufacture ' ($1,000) 18,550,000 21,333,400 22,110,400 26,061,000 27,339,400 28,858,800 15,377,000 19,530,500 21,035,100 12,829,000 14,282,200 15,905,600 33,376,000 35,611,600 40,884,700 54,423,000 60,062,000 67,021,600 77,315,000 86,472,400 94,728,200 22,069,000 21,043,500 16,163,400 27,219,000 29,804,700 34,183,400 4,773,000 4,852,600 4,510,700 22,986,000 25,326,200 27,706,600 33,291,000 35,996,600 42,290,900 58,928,000 61,326,800 67,644,800 102,270,000 94,752,800 112,346,300 84,605,000 92,519,800 110,322,000 84,932,000 99,642,900 114,498,700 33,672,000 35,258,100 39,869,900 14,059,000 13,702,400 14,740,400

1 Figures represent adjusted value added. For definitions see footnote to previous table, p. 1404. 2 Figures for 1967 are not comparable to 1972 due to revisions in the Standard Industrial Classification System.

Iron and Steel: Output of the iron and steel industries (in net tons of 2,000 lb.), according to figures supplied by the American Iron and Steel Institute, was:

1406

1932' 1939 1944 4 1950 1960 1970 1980 1984 1985

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA Furnaces in blast 3! Dec 44 195 218 234 114 152

Pig-iron (including ferroalloys) Raw steel 9,835,227 15,322,901 35,677,097 52,798,714 62,866,198 89,641,600 66,400,311 96,336,075 68,566,384 99,281,601 87,933,000 131,514,000 70,329,000 111,835,000 51,904,000 92,528,000 50,446,000 88,259,000

Steel by method of production 1 Open Baste Bessemer Oxygen hearth Electric1 270,044 13,336,210 1,715,925 48,409,800 3,358,916 1,029,067 80,363,953 5,039,923 4,237,699 86,262,509 4,534,558 6,039,008 86,367,506 1,189,196 8,378,743 3,346,156 — 20,162,000 63,330,000 48,022,000 — 13,054,000 31,166,000 67,617,000 — 31,369,000 52,822,000 8,336,000 6,428,000 — 29,946,000 51,885,000

1 The sum of these 4 items should equal the total in the preceding column; any difference appearing is due to the very small production ofcrucible steel, omitted prior to 1950 1 Includes crucible production beginning 1950. ' Low point of the depression. 4 Peak year of war production.

Wholesale price index of iron and steel mill products (1967 = 100) was: 1950, 59-4; 1960, 96-4; 1970, 114-3; 1980, 302 7; 1982, 349-7; 1983, 352 5; 1984,366-1; 1985,366-2. The iron and steel industry in 1985 employed 150,906 wage-earners (compared with 449,888 in 1960), who worked an average of 38 hours per week and earned an average of $16.00 per hour: total wages were $4,806m. and total salaries for 57,262 employees were $2,082m. A nnual Statistics Report. American Iron and Steel Institute

Labour. The American labour movement comprises about 190 national and international labour organizations plus a large number of small independent local or single-firm labour organizations. In 1985 total membership was approximately 20- lm. The American Federation of Labor (founded 1881 and taking its name in 1886) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merged into one organization, named the AFL-CIO, in Dec. 1955, representing 16-8m. workers in 1980. Unaffiliated or independent labour organizations, inter-state in scope, including those organizing coalminers, teamsters and government employees and railroad workers, had an estimated total membership excluding all foreign members (1980) ofabout6-8m. Labour organizations represented 19-9% (19-3m.) of the labour force in 1986; 17 • 5% (17m.) were actual members of unions. The Labor-Management Relations (Taft-Hartley) Act, 1947, applicable to industries affecting inter-state commerce, prohibits the closed shop, but permits union shop arrangements except where forbidden by state laws. Statutes regulating, restricting or prohibiting union shop or other types of union security agreements are in effect in 21 states (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia and Wyoming). Colorado and Wisconsin ban all-union agreements unless a certain percentage of employees have voted for them; in Hawaii an all-union agreement may be entered into unless a majority of employees votes against it. Thirteen states have acts to prevent industrial disputes between public utilities and their employees by means of compulsory arbitration or seizure; however, a number of these laws have been declared unconstitutional in so far as industries in inter-state commerce are concerned. Laws to restrict or regulate picketing or other strike activities have been enacted in over half the states. About one-half of the states also prohibit certain types of strikes, as 'sit down', jurisdictional or sympathy strikes.

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1407

The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 protects the interests of workers and their beneficiaries who are entitled to benefits from employee pension and welfare plans. The law requires disclosure of plan provisions and financial information and establishes standards of conduct for trustees and administrators of welfare and pension plans. It provides funding, participation and vesting requirements for pension plans and makes termination insurance available for most pension plans. The law does not require a company to establish a welfare or pension plan. Minimum wage laws governing private employers are in operation in 45 jurisdictions: 41 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have minimum wage laws and minimum wage rates. As of 1 Aug. 1978, all but one of the laws cover men, women and, usually, minors. The exception covers only women and minors. The minimum wage rate under federal law is $3.35 per hour for employees who are engaged in commerce, in the production of goods for commerce or in certain enterprises which are engaged in commerce as well as federal employees. A total of 69 strikes and lockouts of 1,000 workers or more occuiieii ill 1986, involving 533,000 workers and 11 -9m. idle days; the number of idle days was 0 -05% ofthe year's total working time of all workers. There are 3 federal agencies which provide formal machinery for the adjustment of labour disputes: (1) The Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, now an independent agency, whose mediation services are available 'in any labor dispute in any industry affecting commerce'; under Executive Order 11491, as amended, to federal agencies and organizations of federal employees involved in negotiation disputes; and in state and local government collective bargaining disputes when adequate dispute resolution machinery is not available to the parties. Its aim is to prevent and minimize work stoppages. (2) The National Mediation Board (1934) provides much the same facilities for the railroad and air-transport industries pursuant to the Railway Labor Act. (3) The National Railroad Adjustment Board (1934) acts as a board of final appeal for grievances arising over the interpretation of existing collective agreements under the Railway Labor Act; its decisions are binding upon both sides and enforceable by the courts. The National Labor Relations Act, as amended by the Labor-Management R e l a t i o n s ( T a f t - H a r t l e y ) A c t , 1947 (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, p.

617), was amended by the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act, 1959, and again amended in 1974. The 1959 Act requires extensive reporting and disclosure of certain financial and administrative practices of labour organizations, employers and labour relations consultants. In addition, certain powers are vested in the Secretary of Labor to prevent abuses in the administration of trusteeships by labour organizations, to provide minimum standards and procedures for the election of union officers and to establish rules prescribing minimum standards for determining the adequacy of union procedures for the removal of officers. Other provisions impose a fiduciary responsibility upon union officers and provide for the exclusion of those convicted of certain named felonies from office for specified periods; more stringently regulate secondary boycotts and banning of 'hot' cargo agreements; put limitations upon organizational and recognition picketing and permit States to assert jurisdiction over labour disputes where the National Labor Relations Board declines to act. The Act also contains a 'Bill of Rights' for union members (enforceable directly by them) dealing with such things as equal rights in the nomination and election of union officers, freedom of speech and assembly subject to reasonable union rules, and safeguards against improper disciplinary action. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated that in 1986 the labour force was 119,540,000 (65-6% ofthose 16 years and over); the resident armed forces accounted for 1,706,000 and the civilian labour force for 117,834,000, of whom 109,597,000 were employed and 8,237,000—or 7%—were unemployed. The

1408

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

following table shows civilian employment by industry and sex and percentage distribution of the total: Industry Group Employed ( 1,000 persons): Agriculture, forestry and fisheries Mining Construction Manufacturing: Durable goods Non-durable (including not specified) Transportation, communication and other public utilities Wholesale and retail trade Finance, insurance and real estate Services Private households Other services Professional services Public administration

Percentage distributio 100 0 2 9 0-8 6 6

Male 60,892 2,511 736 6,663

Female 48,706 652 143 625

Total 109,597 3,163 880 7,288

9,289 4,936

3,315 3,421

12,605 8,357

11 5 7 6

5,553 11,990 3,021 13,199 184 13,015 7,229 2,992

2,097 10,823 4,380 21,137 1,057 20,080 14,945 2,112

7,650 22,813 7,401 34,337 1,241 33,096 22,174 5,104

7 0 20-8 6 8 31 3 1 1 30 2 20-2 4 7

Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Dept. of Labor Directory of National Unions and Employee Associations in the US. 1979 —Brief History of the American Labor Movement. 1976.— Analysis of Work Stoppages. 1979 —Employment and Earnings. Monthly A Guide to Basic Law and Procedures under the National Labor Relations Act, National Labor Relations Board, Washington, D.C., 1976 Brody, D , Workers in Industrial America. Essays on the Twentieth-century Struggle New York, 1980

Commerce. The subjoined table gives the total value of the imports and exports of merchandise by yearly average or by year (in $ 1 m.): 1946-50 1951-55 1956-60 1961-65 1970 1

Total 11,829 15,333 19,204 24,006 43,224

Exports USmdse1 11,673 15,196 19,029 24,707 42,590

Excludes re-exports.

General imports 6,659 10,832 13,650 17,659 39,952 1

1980 1982 1983 1984 1985

Exports2 Total USmdse' 220,783 216,668 212,275 207,158 200,538 195,969 217,888 212,057 213,146 206,925

General imports2 245,262 243,952 258,048 325,726 345,276

Includes US Virgin Islands trade with foreign countries.

For a description of how imports and exports are valued, see Explanation of Statistics of Report FT990, Highlights of US Export and Import Trade, Bureau of the Census, US Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C , 1946. The 'most favoured nation' treatment in commerce between Great Britain and US was agreed to for 4 years by the treaty of 1815, was extended for 10 years by the treaty of 1818, and indefinitely (subject to 12 months' notice) by that of 1827

Imports and exports of gold and silver bullion and specie in calendar years (in S1'000»:

Gold 1932 1940 1944 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1984 1985

Exports 809,528 4,995 959,228 7,257 1,647 1,285,097 36,887 429,278 2,787,431 1,284,700 919,400

Imports 363,315 4,749,467 113,836 104,592 335,032 101,669 227,472 406,583 2,508,520 2,395,300 2,109,500

Silver Exports 13,850 3,674 126,915 8,331 25,789 54,061 53,003 104,086 1,326,878

Imports 19,650 58,434 23,373 72,932 57,438 64,769 58,838 274,106 1,336,009

1409

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

The domestic exports of US produce, including military, and the imports for consumption by economic classes for 3 calendar years were (in $m.):

Food and live animals Crude materials Machinery and transport equipment Chemicals Total of the above main groups

Exports ( US merchandise) 1984 1983 1985 24,166 24,463 19,268 20,249 18,596 16,939

Imports for consumption 1984 1983 1985 15,412 18,649 17,973 10,391 9,590 11,082

82,578 19,751

89,973 22,336

94,278 21,759

86,131 10,779

119,192 13,697

137,263 14,533

145,091

157,021

152,244

121,912

163,928

180,836

Leading exports of US merchandise are listed below for the calendar year 1985: Special category merchandise is included. Data for major subdivisions of certain classes are also given: Commodity Machinery, total Power generating machinery Metalworking machinery Agricultural machines and tractors Office machinery and computers Telecommunications apparatus Electrical machinery and apparatus Electrical power apparatus and switchgear Road motor vehicles (and parts) Aircraft and spacecraft (and parts) Grains and preparations Wheat (and flour)

$lm. 59,488 9,272 1,249 1,601 14,928 4,167 12,489 2,616 19,364 14,373 11,050 3,780

Commodity Sim. Chemicals 21,759 Chemical elements and compounds 9,290 Plastic materials and resins 3,777 Soybeans 3,906 Cotton 1,633 Textiles and apparel 2,366 Tobacco and cigarettes 2,701 Iron and steel-mill products 1,152 Non-ferrous base metals and alloys 1,472 Pulp, paper and products 1,946 Coal 4,554 Fruits and vegetables 2,377 Petroleum and products 4,707 Firearms ofwar and ammunition 2,878

Chief imports for 27 commodity classes for consumption for the calendar year 1985: Commodity Petroleum products, crude and refined Petroleum Petroleum products Non-ferrous metals Copper Aluminium Nickel Lead Tin Paper, paperboard and products Newsprint Wood pulp Fertilizers Sugar Iron and steel-mill products Cattle, meat and preparations Automobiles and parts Fish (and shellfish) Fruit and vegetables Alcoholic beverages

Sim. 49,607 33,034 16,572 7,008 1,146 1,995 604 522 426 5,977 3,633 1,499 967 936 9,693 2,538 55,740 695 3,978 2,966

Commodity Wool and other hair Metal manufactures n.e.s. Diamonds (excl. industrial) Rubber Textile yarn, fabrics and products Clothing Cotton fabrics, woven Machinery, total Agricultural machinery and tractors Office machinery Coffee Chemicals and related products Chemicals Oils and fats Cocoa beans Glass, pottery and china Footwear Toys and sports goods Furs, undressed Telecommunications apparatus Artworks and antiques Natural and manufactured gas

$lm. 166 6,560 3,006 654 4,890 14,949 837 75,299 1,431 11,562 3,130 14,533 7,977 672 564 2,195 5,695 4,075 173 18,659 2,188 4,136

Total trade beween the USA and the UK for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exportsand re-exports from U K

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 6,638,250 7,442,671 9,356,029 9,919,689 8,468,160 7,457,114 8,336,97910,149,479 11,498,802 10,379,585

1410

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Imports and exports by continents, areas and selected countries for calendar years (in $lm.): Area and country Western Hemisphere Canada 20 Latin American Republics Central American Common Market Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama Latin American FTA Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Mexico Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela Dominican Republic Haiti Bahamas Netherlands Antilles Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago Europe Western Europe OECD Countries European Economic Community Belgium and Luxembourg Denmark France Germany (Fed. Rep.) Greece Ireland Italy Netherlands UK Turkey EFTA countries Austria Norway Portugal Sweden Switzerland Finland Iceland Spain Yugoslavia Soviet bloc. Poland USSR 1

General imports 1984 1985 114,373 115,916 69,006 66,478 42,341 43,448 1,757 1,722 501 473 390 396 444 409 393 375 57 41 328 410 38,861 39,943 954 1,069 99 155 7,621 7,526 745 781 1,146 1,331 1,837 1,695 19,132 18,020 41 24 1,342 1,087 563 557 6,543 6,537 982 1,018 377 390 1,173 626 2,048 808 377 273 1,360 1,258

Exports met. re-exports 1984 1985 78,271 76,209 46,524 47,251 26,302 27,850 1,622 1,659 423 422 427 445 377 405 322 308 112 42 757 675 24,414 22,820 721 900 106 120 2,640 3,140 805 682 1,450 1,468 655 591 11,992 13,635 64 99 751 496 80 64 3,377 3,399 646 742 419 396 555 786 427 648 404 495 504 601

71,153 70,626 57,360 3,139 1,418 8,113 16,996 355 844 7,935 4,069 14,492 433

79,756 79,165 64,761 3,387 1,665 9,482 20,239 395 901 9,674 4,081 14,937 602

58,019 57,486 46,976 5,301 605 6,037 9,084 456 1,354 4,375 7,554 12,210 1,249

56,763 56,084 45,776 4,918 706 6,096 9,050 498 1,342 4,625 7,269 11,273 1,295

714 1,904 477 3,244 3,117 782 207 2,391 478 2,154 220 554

834 1,164 546 4,124 3,476 895 248 2,515 542 1,936 220 409

375 859 961 1,542 2,563 350 51 2,561 432 4,188 318 3,284

441 666 695 1,925 2,288 438 38 2,524 595 3,215 238 2,423

'Special category' exports are included in these totals.

1411

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA General imports 1984 1985 120,132 131,884 8,062 6,267 84 54 700 725 124 474 1,750 2,123 260 184 7 19 3,741 1,907

Area and country

Asia2 Near East Bahrain Iran Iraq Israel Kuwait Lebanon Saudi Arabia

Japan Other Asia Bangladesh Hong Kong India Indonesia Korea, Republic of Malaysia Singapore Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand Taiwan (Formosa) Vietnam > China Oceania Australia New Zealand and W Samoa Africa Algeria Egypt Ethiopia Libya Morocco Ghana Liberia Nigeria Kenya Zaire South Africa, Republic o f 4

Exports incl. re-exports 1984 1985 64,533 60,745 11,133 9,709 145 107 162 74 664 427 2,194 2,580 636 551 141 286 5,564 4,474

57,135 59,930 133 8,266 2,552 5,462 9,353 2,721 3,979 244 2,430 272 1,326 14,768

68,783 59,236 196 8,396 2,295 4,569 10,013 2,300 4,260 274 2,145 282 1,428 16,396

23,575 37,931 303 3,062 1,570 1,216 5,983 1,856 3,675 1,093 1,766 92 1,113 5,003

3,065

3,862

3,004

3,856

3,558 2,675 791

3,819 2,837 883

5,745 4,793 712

6,399 5,441 729

14,355 3,638 170 82 9 34 47 98 2,508 64 502 2,488

11,964 2,333 79 43 44 39 90 83 3,002 92 401 2,071

8,827 520 2,704 174 200 526 46 97 577 74 82 2,265

7,388 430 2,323 203 311 279 54 73 676 97 105 1,205

1

22,631 34,239 219 2,786 1,642 795 5,956 1,539 3,476 1,042 1,379 73 849 4,700

1

See note on previous page Excludes Yemen (Aden) (formerly Southern Yemen). ' Included in China from 1984. 4 Includes also South-West Africa (Namibia). 2

US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Report FT 990, Highlights of US Export and Import Trade

Tourism. In 1985, 21m. tourists visited the USA and spent over US$11,663m. They came mainly from Canada (10-9m.), Europe (2-9m.) and Mexico (2m.). Approximately 28-3m. US tourists travelled abroad, mainly to Canada (12 lm.), Europe (6 -4m.), Mexico (3 • 5m.) and the Caribbean and Central America (3 -6m.). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 Dec. 1985 the total US public road1 mileage, including rural and urban roads, amounted to 3,861,934 miles, of which 3,480,267 miles were surfaced roads. The total mileage cited includes 773,249 miles of rural roads under control of the states, 2,181,535 miles of local rural roads, 226,157 miles of federal park and

1412

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

forest roads, and 690,947 miles of urban roads and streets. Expenditures for construction and maintenance amounted to $38,088m. in 1984. By the end of 1984, toll roads, financed by private capital through bond issues and administered by state toll authorities, totalled 4,773 miles (including some under construction) compared with 344 miles in 1940. Motor vehicles registered in the calendar year 1985 were (Federal Highways Administration) 171,690,733, including 132,108,164 automobiles, 593,527 buses and 38,989,042 trucks. Inter-city trucks (private and for hire) averaged 502,000m. revenue net ton-miles in 1982. Of the 583,671 buses in service in 1984,471,461 were school buses. Intercity service operated a total of 1,140m. bus-miles and carried a total of 390m. revenue passengers in 1982. There were 43,795 deaths in road accidents in 1985. 1 Public road mileage excludes that mileage not open to public travel, not maintained by public authority, or not passable by standard four-wheel vehicles. This excluded mileage was reported to the US Federal Highway Administration prior to 1981.

Railways. Railway history in the USA commences in 1828, but the first railway to convey both freight and passengers in regular service (between Baltimore and Ellicott's Mills, Md., 13 miles) dates from 24 May 1830. Mileage rose to 52,922 miles in 1870; to 167,191 miles in 1890, and to a peak of 266,381 miles in 1916, falling thereafter to 261,871 in 1925; 246,739 in 1940 and 222,164 in 1969 (these include some duplication under trackage rights and some mileage operated in Canada by US companies). The ordinary gauge is 4 ft 8'/J in. (about 99-6% of total mileage). The USA has about 29% of the world's railway mileage. In addition to the independent railroad companies, railway service is provided by two federally-assisted organizations, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak), and the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail). Amtrak was set up on 1 May 1971 to maintain a basic network of inter-city passenger trains with government assistance, and is responsible for almost all noncommuter services with 40,000 miles of route including 1,256 km owned (555 electrified) and carried 21m. passengers in 1985. From 1 Jan. 1983, an Amtrak commuter division took over from Conrail all commuter services not acquired by State or regional agencies. Conrail was established on 1 April 1976 to run freight services in the industrial north-east formerly operated by the bankrupt Penn Central, Reading, Lehigh Valley, Central of New Jersey, Erie Lackawanna, Lehigh & Hudson railroads, and Pennyslvania-Reading Seashore Lines which was returned to the private sector in 1985. The following table, based on the figures of the Interstate Commerce Commission, shows some railway statistics for 4 calendar years: I960 1970 19801 1985 12 Classes I and II Railroads Mileage owned (first main tracks) 223,779 204,621 157,078 140,921 Revenue freight originated (1 m. short tons) 1,421 1,572 1,318 1,537 Freight ton-mileage (1 m. ton-miles) 771,012 876,984 591,550 932,748 3 Passengers carried (1,000) 488,019 289,469 281,503 3 Passenger-miles (1 m.) 31,790 10,786 6,557 Operating revenues ($ 1 m.) 9,587 12,209 28,708 27,586 Operating expenses ($ 1 m.) 7,135 9,806 26,761 25,225 Net railway operating income ($ 1 m.) 1,055 506 1,364 1,746 Net income after fixed charges ($ 1 m.) 855 126 2,029 2,459 Class I Railroads: Locomotives in service 40,949 27,086 22,816 28,240 — — — Steam locomotives 25,640 Freight-train cars (excluding caboose cars) 1,721,269 1,423,921 1,101,343 807,767 Passenger-train cars 57,146 11,177 684 2,219 Average number of employees 1,220,784 566,282 458,996 301,879 Average wage per week ($ 1) 72.59 188.71 474.21 672.90 ' Class I railroads only. From 1981, Class II railroads were no longer required to file annual reports. 2 Data for National Railroad Passenger Corporation excluded. ' This data has been discontinued.

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1413

Aviation. In civil aviation there were, on 31 Dec. 1985, 709,540 certified pilots (including 146,652 student pilots) and 273,979 registered civil aircraft. Airports on 31 Dec. 1985: Air carrier, 700; general aviation, 15,379. Of these airports, 12,648 were conventional land-based, while 384 were seaplane bases, 2,982 were heliports and 65 stolports (STOL—Short Take-Offand Landing). Statistics from the Department of Transportation indicate that for 12 months ended June 1986 on US flag carriers in scheduled international service there were 24-8m. enplanements with 365-4m. aircraft miles (excludingall-cargo) f o r a total of 64,933m. revenue passenger-miles. The non-scheduled airlines had a total of 13,788m. revenue passenger-miles internationally and domestically. Domestically US scheduled airlines in 1986 had 370-9m. enplanements with a total of 3,084-7m. aircraft miles for 282,744m. revenue passenger-miles. (A revenue passenger-mile is one paying passenger carried per mile.). Shipping. On 1 Sept. 1986 the US merchant marine included 735 sea-goingvessels of 1,000 gross tons or over, with aggregate dead-weight tonnage of 24m. This included 255 tankers of 15 -4m. DWT. On 1 Sept. 1986 US merchant ocean-going vessels were employed as follows: Active, 385 of 16-3m. DWT, of which 149 of 5-2m. tons were foreign trade, « 9 of 9 5m. tons in domestic trade and 67 of 1 -6m. tons in other US agency operations. Inactive vessels totalled 8m. DWT; 89 of 4-4m. DWT privately owned were laid up and 261 of 3 -6m. tons were Government-owned National Defense reserve fleet. Of the total vessels in the US fleet, 464 of 21 m. DWT were privately owned. US exports and imports carried on dry cargo and tanker vessels in the year 1985 totalled 643 - lm. long tons, of which 27-4m. long tons or 4 -3% were carried in US flag vessels. Post and Broadcasting. Until the beginning of 1984 the telephone business was largely in the hands of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT & T) and its telephone operating subsidiaries, which together were known as the Bell System. Pursuant to a government anti-trust suit, the Bell System was broken up, with the telephone operating companies being divested from AT & T to create seven regional companies for providing local service. There are also many hundreds of smaller telephone companies having no common ownership affiliation with the Bell companies, but which connect with them for universal service, countrywide and worldwide. In addition, several new entrants have begun to compete with AT & T in the long-distance telephone market. The message telegraph and telex services are in the hands of The Western Union Telegraph Company, and the international record carriers, which compete with the telephone industry in providing leased private lines. Western Union also provides an inter-city telephone service. The number of telephones in service in the USA has increased in the period since 1945 at a much faster rate than has the population. Among principal reasons are the significant increase in the percentage ofhouseholds with telephone service and the enormous growth in the number of extension telephones. In marked contrast, the number of public telegrams has decreased by a substantial amount. Telegrams have lost favour due to shifts in user preference to the airmail and to the telephone. The telex services of the telegraph company have also found broad acceptance in place of telegrams for business purposes. The following table contains key data items on a comparative basis for the domestic telephone and message telegraph services: 1960 1970 1980 All telephone systems: Total telephones 74,342,000 120,218,000 180,425,000 Bell System: Total telephones 60,735,100 96,561,000 141,674,000 Average daily telephone calls 219,093,000 368,363,000 580,230,000 Local 209,373,000 346,505,000 527,543,000 Longdistance 9,720,000 21,858,000 52,687,000 Total plant in service ($1,000) 24,072,499 54,813,202 132,831,794 Total operating revenues ($1,000) 7,958,125 17,094,846 51,203,404 Employees, number 580,405 772,980 847,768 1

Preliminary

2

1981

1983'

181,891,000» 142,386,000 ! 601,200,000 2 544,886,000 * 56,314,000* 163,052,567 69,229,482

1414

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

¡960 Westem Union Telegraph Co . Public telegrams for year 102,931,000 Total plant ($1,000) 398,023 Revenue from public telegrams ($1,000) 160,746 Total operating revenues ($1,000) 262,365 Employees, number 32,655 •Preliminary.

1970

1980

1983'

46,084,000 1,029,149

40,801,398 2,101,007

29,805,460 2,285,678

126,739 402,456 24,293 ' 1981.

115,612 696,972 12,649

116,143 722,096

International communication services, providing overseas connexions with all parts of the world, are furnished principally by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and three telegraph companies. The old submarine cable telegraph systems have all been abandoned in favour of using telegraph circuits derived from voice channels in the newer telephone ocean cables, which have also made inroads on the use of high-frequency radio. More recently, satellite communications facilities have been utilized not only for telephone and telegraph services but for television and data transmission as well. International overseas telegrams, inbound to and outbound from the continental US, numbered 9-2m. in 1982 (11 -7m. in 1980). This service has tended to decline in volume in recent years. It first lost ground to the air-mail and then to the telex and telephone services. For the US and its possessions the volume of international overseas telephone calls has grown enormously with the availability of the excellent voice-transmission qualities provided in the telephone ocean cables and in the satellite radio relays. Whereas international telephone calls were 990,000 in 1955, the last year in which there was no cable service available, there were 149 -6m. such calls in 1980. Postal business for the years ended 30 Sept. included the following items: 1983 1984 1985 1982 Numberofpost offices, on 30 June ' 30,155 29,990 29,750 29,557 ! Postal operating revenue ($1,000) 22,599,937 23,581,667 25,313,554 27,736,071 Postal expenses ($1,000) J 22,826,217 24,083,073 26,357,353 29,207,201 ' The US Postal Service was established 1 July 1971 Financial statements prior to that date are those of the Post Office Department. Such statements for 1968-71 have been restated tobe in a format and on an accounting principle basis generally consistent with 1972 2 Operating revenue excludes government appropriations, operating reimbursements and other income. 1 Operating expenses are stated net of operating reimbursements and exclude certain costs financed by revenue.

On 1 Jan. 1975 there were in the USA and Territories, 7,068 authorized commercial radio stations, 711 commercial television stations: of non-commercial stations 717 were for radio, 241 for television. Cinemas. Cinemas increased from 17,003 in 1940 to 20,239 in 1950 and decreased to 42,187 in 1967. Newspapers. Of the daily newspapers being published in the USA in 1971, 339 were morning papers with a circulation of 26,116,000, and 1,425 were evening papers with a circulation of 36,115,000. The 590 Sunday papers had a total circulation of 49-7m. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. Legal controversies may be decided in two systems of courts: the federal courts, with jurisdiction confined to certain matters enumerated in Article III of the Constitution, and the state courts, with jurisdiction in all other proceedings. The federal courts have jurisdiction exclusive of the state courts in criminal prosecutions for the violation of federal statutes, in civil cases involving the government, in bankruptcy cases and in admiralty proceedings, and have junsdiction concurrent with the state courts over suits between parties from different states, and certain suits involving questions of federal law. The highest court is the Supreme Court of the US, which reviews cases from the lower federal courts and certain cases originating in state courts involving questions of federal law. It is the final arbiter of all questions involving federal statutes

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

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and the Constitution; and it has the power to invalidate any federal or state law or executive action which it finds repugnant to the Constitution. This court, consisting of 9 justices who receive salaries of $104,100 a year (the Chief Justice, $ 108,400), meets from Oct. until June every year and disposes of about 4,450 cases, deciding about 380 on their merits. In the remainder of cases it either summarily affirms Tower court decisions or declines to review. A few suits, usually brought by state governments, originate in the Supreme Court, but issues of fact are mostly referred to a master. The US courts of appeals number 13 (in 11 circuits composed of 3 or more states and 1 circuit for the District of Columbia and 1 Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit); the 168 circuit judges receive salaries of$83,200 a year. Any party to a suit in a lower federal court usually has a right of appeal to one of these courts. In addition, there are direct appeals to these courts from many federal administrative agencies. In the year ending 30 June 1986, 35,455 appeals were filed in the courts of appeals. TTie trial courts in the federal system are the US district courts, of which there are 89 in the 50 states, 1 in the District of Columbia and 1 each in the territories of Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Guam and the Northern Marianas. Each state has at least 1 US district court, and 3 states have 4 apiece. Each district court has from 1 to 27 judgeships. There are 575 US district judges ($78,700 a year), who handle about 254,800 civil cases and 57,000 criminal defendants every year. In addition to these courts of general jurisdiction, there are special federal courts of limited jurisdiction. US Claims Court (16 judges at $70,200 a year) decides claims for money damages against the federal government in a wide variety of matters; the Court of International Trade (9 judges at $78,700) determines controversies concerning the classification and valuation of imported merchandise. The judges of all these courts are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate; to assure their independence, they hold office during good behaviour and cannot have their salaries reduced. This does not apply to the territorial judges, who hold their offices for a term of years or to judges of the US Claims Court. The judges may retire with fiill pay at the age of 70 years if they have served a period of 10 years, or at 6 5 if they have 15 years of service, but they are subject to call for such judicial duties as they are willing to undertake. Only 9 US judges up to 1986 have been involved in impeachment proceedings, of whom 4 district judges and 1 commerce judge were convicted and removed from office. Of the 254,828 civil cases filed in the district courts in the year ending 30 June 1986, about 113,392 arose under various federal statutes (such as labour, social security, tax, patent, securities, antitrust and civil rights laws); 42,326 involved personal injury or property damage claims; 88,352 dealt with contracts; and 10,674 were actions concerning real property. Of the 41,490 criminal cases filed in the district courts in the year ending 30 June 1986, about 2,010 were charged with alleged infractions of the immigration laws; 340, the transport of stolen motor vehicles; about 3,540 larceny and theft; 8,570, embezzlement and fraud; and 7,890 narcotics laws. Persons convicted of federal crimes are either fined, released on probation under the supervision of the probation officers of the federal courts, confined in prison for a period of up to 6 months and then put on probation (known as split sentencing) or confined in one of the following institutions: 3 for juvenile and youths; 7 for young adults; 7 for intermediate term adults; 7 for short-term adults; 2 for females; 1 hospital and 15 community service centres. In addition, prisoners are confined in centres operated by the National Institutes of Mental Health. In addition, prisoner drug addicts may be committed to US Public Health Service hospitals for treatment. Prisoners confined in institutions operated by the US Bureau of Prisons for the year ending 30 Sept. 1982, numbered 28,133. The state courts have jurisdiction over all civil and criminal cases arising under state laws, but decisions of the state courts of last resort as to the validity of treaties or of laws of the US, or on other questions arising under the Constitution, are subject to review by the Supreme Court of the US. The state court systems are generally similar to the federal system, to the extent that they generally have a number of trial courts and intermediate appellate courts, and a single court of last resort. The highest court in each state is usually called the Supreme Court or Court

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

of Appeals with a Chief Justice and Associate Justices, usually elected but sometimes appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the State Senate or other advisory body; they usually hold office for a term of years, but in some instances for life or during good behaviour. Their salaries range from $24,000 to $84,584 a year. The lowest tribunals are usually those of Justices of the Peace; many towns and cities have municipal and police courts, with power to commit for trial in criminal matters and to determine misdemeanours for violation of the municipal ordinances; they frequently try civil cases involving limited amounts. The death penalty is illegal in Alaska, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, Oregon, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Michigan; in North Dakota it is legal only for treason and first-degree murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence for first-degree murder, in Rhode Island only for murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence and in Vermont and New York for the murder of a peace officer in the line of duty and for first-degree murder by those who kill while serving a life sentence for murder. The death penalty is legal in 37 states. Until 1982 it had fallen into disuse and had been abolished de facto in many states. The US Supreme Court had held the death penalty, as applied in general criminal statutes, to contravene the eighth and fourteenth amendments of the US constitution, as a cruel and unusual punishment when used so irregularly and rarely as to destroy its deterrent value. In 1967 only 2 persons were executed under civil authority; both for murder. There were no executions 1968-76. In 1977 a convicted murderer requested that he should be executed and after a lengthy legal dispute the sentence was carried out at Utah state prison. Six persons were executed between 1977 and 1982. In Jan. 1983,1,050 prisoners in 31 states were reported under sentence of death. The total number of civilian executions carried out in the US from 1930 to 1982 was 3,866. Federal Political' Crimes. Prosecutions for what may be loosely described as 'political' offences, or crimes directed towards the overthrow by violence of the federal government, which were somewhat numerous in the early 1950s, have declined sharply over the last 20 years and are now exceedingly rare. A Guide to Court Systems. Institute of Judicial Administration. New York, 1960 The United States Courts. Administrative Office ofthe US Courts, Washington, D.C., 20544 Blumberg, A. S., Criminal Justice: Issues and Ironies. 2nd ed. New York, 1973 Huston,L. A., The Department ofJustice. New York, 1967 Huston, L. A., and others, Roles ofthe Attorney General ofthe United States. New York, 1968 McCloskey, R. G., The Modern Supreme Court. Harvard Univ. Press, 1972 McLauchlan, W. P., American Legal Processes. New York, 1977 Walker, S. E., Popular Justice. New York, 1980

Religion. The Yearbook of American and Canadian Churchesfor 1986, published by the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA, New York^presents the latest figures available from official statisticians of church bodies. The large majority of reports are for the calendar year 1984, or a fiscal year ending 1984. The 1984 reports indicated that there were 142,172,000 (140,816,385 in 1985) members with 338,244 local churches. There were 329,802 clergymen serving in local congregations in 1982. The principal religious bodies (numerically or historically) or groups of religious bodies are showti below: Local Total Denominations churches membership Summary: Protestant bodies 307,147 78,702,000 Roman Catholic Church 24,260 52,286,000 Jews' 3,500 5,817,000 Eastern Churches 1,656 4,052,000 Old Catholic, Polish National Catholic and Armenian Buddhists 436 1,025,000 Miscellaneous 2 100 100,000 1,145 1,902,000 1984 totals 338,244 142,172,000' ' Includes Orthodox, Conservative and Reformed bodies. 2 Includes non-Christian bodies such as Spiritualists, Ethical Culture, Unitarian-Universalists. 3 Care should be taken in interpreting membership statistics for the US Churches. Some statistics are accurately compiled and others are estimates. Also statistics are not always comparable.

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

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Protestant Church Membership Total membership Baptist bodies Southern Baptist Convention 14,341,821 National Baptist Convention, USA 5,500,000 ' National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 2,668,799 1 National Primitive Baptist Convention 250,000 1 American Baptist Churches in the USA 1,620,153 American Baptist Association 225,000 Conservative Baptist Association of America 225,000 Regular Baptist Churches 300,839 Free Will Baptists 212,527 Baptist Missionary Association of America 228,868 Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 1,132,510 Christian Churches and Churches of Christ 1,043,642 Church of the Nazarene 516,020 Churches ofChrist 1,600,500 The Episcopal Church 2,775,424 Latter-Day Saints: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 3,602,000 Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 192,445 Lutheran Bodies: Lutheran Church in America 2,910,281 The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod 2,628,133 The American Lutheran Church 2,339,946 Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod 415,630 Methodist Bodies: United Methodist Church 9,291,936 African Methodist Episcopal Church 2,210,000 African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church 1,202,229 Christian Methodist Episcopal Church 718,922 Pentecostal Bodies: Assemblies ofGod 2,036,453 Church ofGod (Cleveland, Tenn.) 505,775 United Pentecostal Church, International, Inc. 475,000 Presbyterian Bodies: ' United Presbyterian Church in the USA 3,092,151 Others 351,446 Reformed Churches: Reformed Church in America 341,886 Christian Reformed Church 224,764 The Salvation Army 420,971 Seventh-day Adventists 638,929 United Church of Chnst 1,696,107 1 Figures date from 1976 or earlier Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches. Annual, from 1951 New York Clarke, E. T., The Small Sects in America. Rev ed. New York, 1949

Education. Under the system of government in the USA, elementary and secondary education is committed in the main to the several states. Each of the SO states and the District of Columbia has a system of free public schools, established by law, with courses covering 12 years plus kindergarten. There are 3 structural patterns in common use; the K.8-4 plan, meaning kindergarten plus 8 elementary grades followed by 4 high school grades; the K6-3-3 plan, or kindergarten plus 6 elementary grades followed by a 3-year junior high school and a 3-year senior high school; and the K6-6 plan, kindergarten plus 6 elementary grades followed by a 6-year high school. All plans lead to high-school graduation, usually at age 17 or 18. Vocational education is an integral part of secondary education. In addition, some states have, as part of the free public school system, 2-year colleges in which education is provided at a nominal cost. Each state has delegated a large degree of control of the educational programme to local school districts (numbering 15,747 in autumn 1983), each with a board of education (usually 3 to 9 members) selected locally arid serving mostly without pay. The school policies of the local school districts must be in accord with the laws and the regulations of their state Departments of Education. While regulations differ from one jurisdiction to another, in general it may be said that school attendance is compulsory from age 7 to 16.

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

The Census Bureau estimates that in Nov. 1979 only lm. or 0-6% of the 170m. persons who were 14 years of age or older were unable to read and write; in 1930 the percentage was 4-8. In 1940 a new category was established—the 'functionally illiterate', meaning those who had completed fewer than 5 years of elementary schooling; for persons 25 years of age or over this percentage was 2 -7 in March 1985 (for the non-white population alone it was 6%); it was 0-8% for white and 0-5% for non-whites in the 25-29-year-old group. Hie Bureau reported that in March 1985 the median years of school completed by all persons 25 years old and over was 12-6, and that 19-4% had completed 4 or more years of college. For the 25-29-year-old group, the median school years completed was 12-9 and 22-2% had completed 4 or more years of college. In the autumn of 1985, 12,247,000 students (5,818,000 men and 6,429,000 women) were enrolled in 3,340 colleges and universities; 2,292,000 were first-time students. About 27-8% of the population between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in colleges and universities. Public elementary and secondary school revenue is supplied from the county and other local sources (43-7% in 1984-85), state sources (49-6%) and federal sources (6 • 6%). In 1984-8 5 expenditure for public elementary and secondary education totalled about $137-8m., including $125-5m. for regular day school programmes, $2-4m. for other programmes, $7-5m. for capital outlay and $2-4m. for interest on school debt. The current expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance was about $3,440. The total cost per pupil, also including capital outlay and interest, amounted to about $3,720. Estimated total expenditures, for private elementary and secondary schools in 1984-85 were about $12-4m. In 1983-84 the 3,331 universities and colleges expended $84,113m. from current funds, of which $54,565m. was spent by institutions under public control. The federal government contributed 12-6% of total current-fund revenue; state governments, 28 • 6%; student tuition and fees, 22 • 8%; and all other sources, 36 • 1 %. Vocational education below college grade, including the training of teachers to conduct such education, has been federally aided since 1918. During the school year 1979-80 enrolments in the vocational classes were: Agriculture, 879,000; distributive occupations, 961,000; health occupations, 834,000; home economics, 3,938,000; trade and industry, 3,216,000; technical education, 499,000; office occupations, 3-4m.; other programmes, 2,726,000. Federal support funds were $745,481,000. Summary of statistics of regular schools (public and private), teachers and pupils in autumn 1984 (compiled by the US National Center for Education ics;: Schools by level Elementary schools: Public Private Secondary schools: Public Private Higher education: Public Private Total

Number of schools 1983-84

Teachers autumn 1984

Enrolment autumn 1984

59,082 20,872

1,189,000 243,000 1

23,645,000 4,300,000 1

23,947 7,862

960,000 97,000 1

15,660,000 1,400,000'

1,481 1,803

506,000' 194,000'

9,460,000 2,782,000

3,189,000 115,047 1 Estimated.

57,247,000

Most of the private elementary and secondary schools are affiliated with religious denominations. Of the children attending private elementary and secondary schools in 1983, nearly 3,200,000 or 55-9% were enrolled in Roman Catholic schools. During the school year 1983-84 high-school graduates numbered about 2,783,000 (about 49 • 5% boys and 50-5% girls). Institutions of higher education conferred 974,309 bachelor's degrees for the academic year 1983-84,482,319 to men and 491,990 to women; 284,263 master's degrees, 143,595 to men and 140,668 to

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

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women; 33,209 doctorates,.22,064 to men and 11,145 to women; and 74,900 first professional degrees, 51,644 to men and 23,256 to women. During the academic year, 1984-85, 342,100 foreign students were enrolled in American colleges and universities. The percentages of students coming from various areas in 1984-85 were: South and East Asia, 42; Middle East, 16-5; Latin America, 14-2; Africa, 11-6; Europe,9'7;North America,4-7;Oceania, 1-2. School enrolment, Oct. 1985, embraced 96% of the children who were 5 and 6 years old; 99% of the children aged 7-13 years; 95% of those aged 14-17, 52% of those aged 18and 19, 35% of those aged 20 and21, and 17% ofthose aged 22-24 years. The US Center for Education Statistics estimates the total enrolment in the autumn of 1986 at all of the country's elementary, secondary and higher educational institutions (public and private) at 57,442,000 (57,333,000 in the autumn of 1985); this was23-8% ofthe total population ofthe USA as of 1 Sept. 1986. Enrolment at the elementary and secondary school level was expected to rise by 0-4% in autumn 1986 and total enrolment in the colleges and universities to decline by about 0-7%. The number of teachers in regular public and private elementary and secondary schools in the autumn of 1986 was expected to increase slightly to 2,530,000. The average annual salary ofthe public school teachers was about $25,250 in 1985-86. Digest of Education Statistics. Annual. Dept. of Education, Washington 20202, D.C. (from 1962) American Community, Technical and Junior Colleges. 9th ed. American Council on Education. Washington, 1984 American Universities and Colleges. 12th ed. American Council on Education. Washington, 1983 Ayer's Directory ofNewspapers and Periodicals. Annual, from 1880. Philadelphia .

Health and Welfare. Admission to the practice of medicine (for both doctors of medicine and doctors of osteopathic medicine) is controlled in each state by examining boards directly representing the profession and acting with authority conferred by state law. Although there are a number of variations, the usual time now required to complete training is 8 years beyond the secondary school with up to 3 or more years of additional graduate training. Certification as a specialist may require between 3 and 5 more years of graduate training plus experience in practice. In academic year 1984-85 the 142 US schools (15 osteopathic and 127 allopathic) graduated 17,697 physicians. About 32% of first-year students were women. In Dec. 1985 the estimated number of active physicians (MD and DO—in all forms of practice) in the US, Puerto Rico and outlying US areas was 520,700 (1 active physician to 459 population). The distribution of physicians throughout the country is uneven, both by state and by urban-rural areas. In 1984-85 the 60 dental schools graduated 5,410 dentists. Active dentists in Dec. 1985 numbered 140,800 (1 active dentist to 1,704 population). In academic year 1983-84, there were 1,477 registered nursing programmes in the US and 80,312 graduates. In Dec. 1985 registered nurses employed full- or part-time were 1 to 159 population. Number of hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association in 1984 was 6,872, with 1,339,000 beds and 37,938,000 admissions during the year, average daily census was 970,000. O f t h e total, 341 hospitals with 112,000 beds were operated by the federal government; 1,662 with 203,000 beds by state and local government; 3,366 with 717,000 beds by non-profit organizations (including church groups); 786 with 100,000 beds are proprietary. The categories of nonfederal hospitals are 5,814 short-term general and special hospitals with 1,020,000 beds; 131 non-federal long-term general and special hospitals with 30,000 beds; 579 psychiatric hospitals with 175,000 beds; 7 tuberculosis hospitals with 1,000 beds. Social welfare legislation was chiefly the province of the various states until the adoption of the Social Security Act of 14 Aug. 1935. This as amended provides for a federal system of old-age, survivors and disability insurance; health insurance for the aged and disabled; supplemental security income for the aged, blind and dis-

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U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

abled; federal state unemployment insurance; and federal grants to states for public assistance (medical assistance for the aged and aid to families with dependent children generally) and for maternal and child-health and child-welfare services. The Social Security Administration of the Department of Health and Human Services has responsibility for the programmes—old-age, survivors and disability insurance and supplemental security income. The Family Support Administration has federal responsibility for the programmes—aid to families with dependent children, low income energy assistance, child support enforcement, refugee and entry assistance and community services block grant. The Health Care Financing Administration, an agency of the same Department, has federal responsibility for health insurance for the aged and disabled (Medicare) and medical assistance (Medicaid). The Department's Office of Human Development administers human service programmes for such groups as the elderly, children, youth, native Americans and persons with developmental disabilities, and its Public Health Service supports maternal and child-health services. Unemployment insurance is the responsibility of the Department of Labor. The Social Security Act provides for protection against the cost of medical care through the two-part programme of health insurance for people 65 and over and for certain disabled people under 65, who receive disability insurance payments or who have permanent kidney failure (Medicare). During fiscal year 1985, payments totalling $47,710m. were made under the hospital part of Medicare on behalf of 30 • 1 m. people. During the same period, $21,808m. was paid under the voluntary medical insurance part of Medicare on behalf of 29 • 5m. people. In 1986 about 123m. persons worked in employment covered by old-age, survivors and disability insurance. In June 1986 over 37 -3m. beneficiaries were on the rolls, and the average benefit paid to a retired worker (not counting any paid to his dependants) was about $480 per month. Benefits paid during calendar year 1985 totalled $185,988m., including $ 18,836m. paid to disabled workers and their dependants. In Dec. 1985, 10-9m. persons (adults and children) were receiving payments under aid to families with dependent children (average monthly payment, $3 39 per family). Total payments under aid to families with dependent children were $15,200m. for the calendar year 1985. In June 1986, about 4-2m. persons were receiving supplementary security income payments, including 1 • 5m. persons aged 65 or over; 82,000 blind persons, and over 2-6m. disabled persons. Payments, including supplemental amounts from various states, totalled $10,750m. in 1985. In 1986, federal appropriations for the social services block grant amounted to $2,584m. In addition, 1986 federal appropriations for human development and family social services to selected target groups totalled $2,790m. Included in this amount were $ 1,955m. for children and youth; $67 lm. for the elderly; $77m. for persons with developmental disabilities; and $28m. for native Americans. During 1986, the Public Health Services awarded a total of $457-4m. for maternal and child health services, $388-8m. as block grants to the states and the remaining $68-6m. for special projects of regional and national significance. In addition, approximately $195-5m. was spent for research and $11 -5m. for training in the fields of maternal and child health. Other block grants awarded by the Public Health Service in 1986 included $88m. for preventive health; $469m. for alcohol, drug abuse and mental health; and$580 -6m. for the primary care block grant. The latter amount included $396m. for community health centres; $3-3m. for black lung clinics; $44 • 9m. for migrant health; and $ 136• 4m. for family planning. Burns, E. M., Social Security and Public Policy. New York, 1956 (Repr. 1976).—Health Services for Tomorrow. New York, 1973

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the United States in Great Britain (Grosvenor Sq., London, W1A 1AE) Ambassador: Charles H. Price II (accredited 20 Dec. 1983).

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Of Great Britain in the USA (3100 Massachusetts Ave., Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Sir Antony Acland, KCMG, KCVO. Of the United States to the United Nations Ambassador;Gen. Vemon A. Walters. Books of Reference I.

STATISTICAL

INFORMATION

Within the federal government of the USA, responsibilities for the collection, compilation, analysis and publication of statistics are decentralized among a number of agencies, with specified responsibilities for general-purpose statistics in particular areas. In addition, most agencies of the Government collect statistical data as a by-product of their administrative or operating responsibilities in specific fields. Responsibility for co-ordinating the decentralized statistical activities rests in the Olfice of Statistical Standards Bureau of the Budget, Washington 25, D.C., as a part of the Executive Office of the President. This Office reviews all proposed collections of statistical data to avoid duplication or overlapping; promotes the use ofimproved statistical techniques; develops standard definitions and classifications so that the data collected by different agencies are comparable; serves as liaison between federal agencies and international organizations and as an information centre o n government statistical programmes. The Division does not itself collect or publish statistics. The major general-purpose statistical agencies and their principal areas of responsibility are: (1) Bureau of the Census in the Department of Commerce (A. Ross Eckler, Director). Decennial censuses of population and housing and quinquennial censuses of agriculture, manufactures and business; current statistics on population and the labour force, manufacturing activity and commodity production, retail and wholesale trade and services, foreign trade, and state and local government finances and operations. (2) Bureau of Labor Statistics in the Department of Labor (Geoffrey H. Moore, Commissioner). Current statistics on employment, earnings, man-hours, labour turnover, industrial accidents, work stoppages, wage rates; collective bargaining agreements; construction; industrial productivity; wholesale prices, retail prices and urban consumers' price indexes; income and expenditures of urban families. (3) Statistical Reporting Service and Economic Research Service in the Department of Agriculture. Statistics on crop and livestock production and inventories; crop forecasts; food processing and food consumption; farm population, labour and wages; farm management; farm ownership values, transfers; taxation and finance; prices farmers pay and receive; farm income; accidents; studies of land and water uses. (4) National Center for Health Statistics in the Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Theodore D. Woolsey, Chief). Current statistics on births, deaths, marriages and divorce. (5) Bureau of Mines in the Department of the Interior (John F. O'Leary, Director). Statistics on production, consumption and stocks of metals and minerals, and on injuries in mineral industries. Other agencies in which statistics are an important by-product of regulatory or other administrative functions include: Social Security Administration in the Department of Health, Education and Welfare; Internal Revenue Service in the Treasury Department; Federal Power Commission; Federal Trade Commission; Interstate Commerce Commission, and the Securities and Exchange Commission. Among the more important statistical publications of a fairly general nature are: Statistical Abstract of the United States, published by the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce. Annual. Important summary statistics on the industrial, social, political and economic organization of the USA, with a representative selection from most of the important statistical publications. Survey of Current Business, published by the Office of Business Economics, Department of Commerce. Monthly. Interpretative text and charts reviewing business trends, etc.; official estimates of national income. Economic Indicators, prepared by the Council of Economic Advisers and published by the Congressional Joint Committee on the Economic Report. Monthly. Tables and charts presenting current data on the total output of the economy; prices; employment and wages; production and business activity; purchasing power; money, banking and federal finance. Monthly Labor Review, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department ofLabor. Federal Reserve Bulletin, published by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Monthly. Current data on money and banking and selected other economic series. Federal Reserve indexes of industrial production, etc.; international financial statistics. Treasury Bulletin, published by the Office of the Secretary, Department of the Treasury. Monthly. Current coverage of federal fiscal statistics; inter-

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

national capital movements. Minerals Yearbook, published by the Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior Annual. Agricultural Statistics, published by the Department of Agriculture. Annual. Crops and Markets, published by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in the Department of Agriculture. Monthly Crop report and market statistics. Foreign Agriculture, published by the Office of Foreign Agriculture Service, Department of Agriculture Monthly Foreign agricultural production, foreign government policies relating to agriculture and international trade in agricultural products. Vital Statistics of the United States, published by the Public Health Service, US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Monthly and Annual. Natality and mortality data tabulated by place of occurrence, with supplemental tables for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands; and tabulated by place of residence. An annotated bibliography of about 100 periodical statistical publications is included in Statistical Services of the United States Government, a pamphlet issued by the Division of Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, describing the general organization of the statistical system of the USA and the principal types of economic statistics. II.

OTHER

OFFICIAL

PUBLICATIONS

Guide to the Study of the United States of America. General Reference and Bibliography Division, Library of Congress. 1960. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957 A Statistical Abstract Supplément Washington, 1960.—Continuation to 1962 and Revisions, 1965 United States Government Manual Washington. Annual. The official publications of the USA are issued by the US Government Printing Office and are distributed by the Superintendent of Documents, who issued in 1940 a cumulative Catalog of the Public Documents of the Congress and of All the Departments of the Government of the United States. This Catalog is kept up to date by United States Government Publications, Monthly Catalog with annual index and supplemented by Price Lists. Each Price List is devoted to a special subject or type of material, e g„ American History or Census. Useful guides are Schmeckebier, L. F , and Eastin, R. B. (eds.), Government Publications and Their Use 2nd ed., Washington, D C , 1961, Boyd, A M., United States Government Publications. 3rd ed. New York, 1949, and Leidy, W P , Popular Guide to Government Publications. 2nd ed. New York and London, 1963 Treaties and other International Acts of the United Stales of America (Edited by Hunter Miller), 8 vols. Washington, 1929-48. This edition stops in 1863 It may be supplemented by Treaties, Conventions Between the US and Other Powers, 1776-1937 (Edited by William M Malloy and others). 4 vols. 1909-38 A new Treaty Series, US Treaties and Other International Agreements was started m 1950. Writings on American History Washington, annual from 1902 (except 1904-5 and 194147). III.

NON-OFFICIAL

PUBLICATIONS

A. Handbooks National Historical Publications Commission. Guide to Archives and Manuscripts in the United States, ed. P M. Hamer YaleUniv Press, 1961 Adams, J T (ed.), Dictionary of American History 2nd ed. 7 vols. New York, 1942 Dictionary of American Biography, ed. A. Johnson and D Malone. 23 vols. New York, 192964—Concise Dictionary of American Biography New York, 1964 Current Biography New York, annual from 1940; monthly supplements Handlin, O., and others. Harvard Guide to American History Cambridge, Mass., 1954 Herstein, S. R. and Robbins, N , United States of America. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Lord, C L. and E. H., Historical Atlas of the US. Rev ed. New York, 1969 Who's Who in A merica. Chicago, 1899-1900 to date; monthly Supplement. 1940 to date B. General History Barck, Jr, O. T , and Blake, N M., Since 1900: A History of the United Stales. 5th ed. New York, 1974 Bellot, H. H., American History and American Historians. London, 1952, repr 1974 Brogan, H., The Longman History of the United Slates of America. London, 1985 Carman, H. J., and others, A History of the American People 3rd ed. 2 vols. New York, 1967 Commager, H. S. (ed.), Documents of American History 8th ed. New York, 1966 Divine, R. A., Since 1945 Politics and Diplomacy m Recent American History New York, 1975 Hicks, J D., The American Nation, A History of the United States from 1865 5th ed. Boston, 1971 Link, A. S., and Catton, W B., American Epoch. A History of the United States Since the 1890s. 4th ed. New York, 1967 Monson,S. E., The Oxford History of the American People OUP, 1968

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1423

Monson, S. E., with Commager, H. S., The Growth of the American Republic 2 vols. 5th ed. OUP, 1962-63 Nicholas, H. G , The Nature of A merican Politics. OUP, 1980 Parkes, H. B., The United States of America, A History 3rd ed. New York, 1968 Scammon, R. N (ed.), American Votes. A Handbook of Contemporary American Election Statistics. Washington, D.C , 1956 to date (biennial) Schlesinger, A. M , The Rise of Modern America, 1865-1951 4th ed. New York, 1951 —The Age of Roosevelt. 4 vols. New York and London, 1957-62.—A Thousand Days. John F Kennedy in the White House New York and London, 1965 Snowman, D., America Since 1920. London, 1978 Watson, R. A., The Promise and Performance of American Democracy 2nd ed. New York, 1975 C Minorities Bennett, M. T., American Immigration Policies. A History Washington, D.C., 1963 Burma, J }.,Spantsh-speakmgGroups inthe US. Duke University Press, 1954, repr 1974 Frazier, E. F., The Negro Family in the United States. Chicago Univ Press, 1966 McNickle, D., The Indian Tribes of the United States. OUP, 1962.—Native American Tribalism. OUP, 1973 Sklare.M., The Jew m American Society. New York, 1974 Wissler, Clark, Indians of the United Stales. Rev ed. New York, 1966 D. Economic History The Economic History of the United States. 9 vols. New York, 1946 ff. Bining, A. C., and Cochran, T C., The Rise of American Economic Life 4th ed. New York, 1963 Dorfman, J , The Economic Mind in American Civilization. 5 vols. New York, 1946-59 Faulkner, H. U , American Economic History 8th ed. New York, 1960 Friedman, M., and Schwartz, A. J., A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960. New York, 1963 Mund, V A., Government and Business. 4th ed. New York, 1965 E. Foreign Relations Documents on American Foreign Relations. Princeton, from 1948. Annual The United States in World Affairs. 1931 ff. Council on Foreign Relations. New York, from 1932 Annual Allison, G., and Szanton, P., Remaking Foreign Policy The Organizations Connection. New York, 1976 Bartlett, R. (ed.), The Record of A merican Diplomacy; Documents and Readings m the History of American Foreign Relations. 4th ed. New York, 1964 Beloff, M., The United Stales and the Unity of Europe London, 1963, repr 1976 Connell-Smith, G., The United Slates and Latin America. London, 1975 DeConde, A., The American Secretary of State London, 1963, repr 1976 Morgan, R., The United States and West Germany, 1945-73. OUP, 1975 Schwab, G., (ed.), United Stales Foreign Policy at the Crossroads. Westport, 1982 Smith, R. F , The United States and Cuba. Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960. New York, 1962 Stebbins, R. P., and Adam, E. A., Documents of American Foreign Relations, 1968-69 New York, 1972 Vance,C , Hard Choices. Critical Years in America's Foreign Policy New York, 1983 Wilcox, F O., and Frank, R. A., The Constitution and the Conduct of Foreign Policy New York, 1976 F National Character Coan, O. W., America in Fiction, An Annotated List of Novels. 5th ed. Stanford Univ Press, 1967 Curti.M.B., The Growth of American Thought. 3rd ed. New York, 1964 Degler, C. N., Out ofOur Past. The Forces That Shaped Modern America. Rev. ed. New York, 1970 Duigan, P., and Rabushka, A., (eds.), The United Slates in the 1980s. Stanford, 1980 Fawcett, E.,and Thomas, T., America and the Americans. London, 1983 National Library The Library of Congress. Washington 25, D.C. Librarian. Lawrence Qumcy Mumford, AB, MA, BS.

STATES AND TERRITORIES For information as to State and Local Government, see under pp. 1380-82.

U N I T E D STATES,

1424

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Against the names of the Governors and the Secretaries of State, (D.) stands for Democrat and (R.) for Republican. Figures for the revenues and expenditures of the various states are those of the Federal Bureau of the Census unless otherwise stated, which takes the original state figures and arranges them on a common pattern so that those of one state can be compared with those of any other. Official publications of the various states and insular possessions are listed in the Monthly Check-List ofState Publications, issued by the Library of Congress since 1910. Their character and contents are discussed in J K. Wilcox's Manual on the Use of State Publications (1940). Of great importance bibliographically are the publications of the Historical Records Survey and the American Imprints Inventory, which record local archives, official publications and state imprints. These publications supplement those of state historical societies which usually publish journals and monographs on state and local history. An outstanding source of statistical data is the material issued by the various state planning boards and commissions, to which should be added the annual Governmental Finances issued by the US Bureau of the Census. The Book of the States. Biennial. Council ofState Governments, Lexington, 1953 fT. State Government Finances. Annual. Dept. of Commerce, 1966 ff. Regionalism Odum, H. W., American Regionalism, A Cultural-Historical Approach to National Integration. New York, 1938 Visher, S. X., Climatic Atlas of the USA. Harvard Univ Press, 1954 A. North-East Gottman, J., Megalopolis, the Urbanized North-eastern Seaboard of the US. New York, 1964 B. The South Clement, E., A History of the Old South. New York, 1949 Ezell,J. S., The South Since ¡865 New York and London, 1963 Heseltine, W B., and Smiley, D. L., The South in American History 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1960 Stephenson, W H., and Coulter, E. M. (ed.), A History of the South. 10 vols. Louisiana State Umv Press, 1947-67 C The Middle West Lynd, R. S. and H. M., Middletown. A Study in Contemporary American Culture New York and London, 1929.—Middletown in Transition. A Study in Cultural Conflicts. New York and London,1937 Nye, R. B., Midwestern Progressive Politics, 1870-1938. Michigan State Univ Press, 1959 D. The West Fogelson, R. U., The Fragmented Metropolis. Los Angeles, 1850-1930. Harvard Umv Press, 1967 Fuller, G. W., History of the Pacific Northwest. 2nd ed. New York, 1938 Johansen, D. O., and Gates, C M., Empire of the Columbia. A History of the Pacific NorthWest, New York, 1957 Parnsh, P H., Before the Covered Wagon. Portland, Oreg., 1931 Quiett,G. C , They Built the West. An Epic of Rails and Cities. New York and London, 1934 Scott, H. W., History of the Oregon Country 6 vols. Cambridge, Mass., 1924 Winther, O O., The Great Northwest A History 2nded.,rev New York, 1950

ALABAMA H I S T O R Y . Alabama, settled in 1702 as part of the French Province of Louisiana, and ceded to the British in 1763, was organized as a Territory, 1817, and admitted into the Union on 14 Dec. 1819. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Alabama is bounded north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico and west by Mississippi. Area, 51,998 sq. miles, including 1,535 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,893,888, an increase of 13-06% over that of 1970. Estimate (1985) 4,021,500. Births, 1984,58,604(14-7per 1,000 population); deaths, 37,551 (9-4); infant deaths (under 1 year), 812 (13-9 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 47,487 (11 -9); divorces, 25,483 (6 -4).

ALABAMA

1425

Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

While 1,228,832 1,700,«44 2,283,609

Negro 908,282 944,834 980,271

1970 1980

2,533,831 2,872,621

903,467 996,335

Indian 909 465 1,726

Asiatic 70 105 915

All others 6,867 24,932

Total 2,138,093 2,646,248 3,266,521

Persq. mile 414 51 -3 640

3,444,165 3,893,888

66-7 74-9

Of the total population in 1980,49% were male, 61% were urban and 65% were 21 years or older. The large cities (1980 census) were: Birmingham, 284,413 (metropolitan area, 847,487); Mobile, 200,452 (443,536); Huntsville, 142,513 (308,593); Montgomery (capital), 177,857 (272,687); Tuscaloosa, 75,211 (137,541). C L I M A T E . Birmingham. Jan. 46°F(7-8°C), July 80°F(26-7°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,346 mm). Mobile. Jan. 52°F (11 • PC), July 82°F (27-8'C). Annual rainfall 63" (1,577 mm). Montgomery. Jan. 49°F(9-4°C), July 81"F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,321 mm). See GulFCoast, p. 1375. The growing season ranges from t W days (north) to 270 days (south). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1901; it has had 461 amendments (at 14 Oct. 1986). The legislature consists of a Senate of 35 members and a House of Representatives of 105 members, all elected for 4 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Govemor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 7 representatives. Applicants for registration must take an oath of allegiance to the United States and fill out a questionnaire to the satisfaction of the registrars. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 872,849 votes, Mondale, 551,899. Montgomery is the capital. Governor: Guy Hunt (R.), 1987-91 ($70,223). Lieut.-Governor: Jim Folsom, Jr. (D.) ($2,100 a month plus allowances). Secretary of State: Glen Browder(D.) ($36,234). B U D G E T . The total net revenue for the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1985 was $ 11,642m.($3,026m. from tax, $ 1,341 m. from federal payments); total net expenditure was $11,986m. ($2,094m. on education, $568m. on highways, $498m. on public welfare, $579m. on health). The outstanding debt on 30 Sept. 1985 amounted to $1,357m. Per capita income (1985) was $10,813. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Principal minerals (1985): Coal, limestone, petroleum (21 • 7m. bbl.) and natural gas (144,711m. cu. ft.). Total mineral output (1985) was valued at $2,467m. of which fuels, $2,025. Agriculture. The number of farms in 1984 was 54,000, covering 1 l-5m. acres; average farm had 213 acres and was valued at about $183,000. Cash receipts from farm marketings, 1983: Crops, $854m.; livestock and poultry products, $l,259m.; and total, $2,112m. Principal crops: soybeans, cotton, wheat, corn and peanuts; potatoes, hay, sorghum, pecans and tomatoes are also important. In 1983, poultry accounted for the largest percentage of cash receipts from farm marketings; cattle and calves were second, soybeans third, peanuts fourth. Forestry. Area of national forest lands, Oct. 1983, 644,432 acres; state-owned forest, 147,400; industrial forest, 4,458,000; private non-industrial forest, 16m.; other government-owned forest, 324,200. I N D U S T R Y . Alabama is predominantly industrial. In 1983 manufacturing establishments employed 338,000 workers; government, 289,000; trade, 271,000;

1426

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

services, 218,000; transport and public utilities, 70,000 (total workforce 1 3m.). T O U R I S M . In 1985 about 33m. travelled to or through Alabama from other states. Total income from tounsm (including receipts from Alabama holidaymakers) was about $3,600m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Paved roads of all classes at 1 Jan. 1984 totalled 59,173 miles; total highways, 87,598 miles. Railways. At 1 Jan. 1984 the railways had a length of4,576 miles. Aviation. In 1985-86 the state had 88 publicly owned and 30 privately owned licensed airfields. Shipping. There are 1,200 miles of navigable inland water and 50 miles of Gulf Coast. The only deep-water port is Mobile, with a large ocean-going trade; total tonnage (1983), 34-9m. tons. The docks can handle 33 ocean-going vessels at once. The 9-ft channel of the Tennessee River traveises North Alabama for 200 miles; the Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway (232 miles), open Feb. 1985, connects the Tennessee River with the Tombigbee River for access to the Gulf of Mexico. The Warrier-Tombigbee system (476 miles) connects the Birmingham industrial area to the Gulf. The Coosa-Alabama River system reaches central Alabama as far north as Montgomery from Mobile and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. The Alabama State Docks also operates a system of 11 inland docks; there are several privately-run inland docks. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The prison population on 30 Sept. 1984 was 10,301. From 1 Jan. 1927 to 1 June 1983 there were 154 executions (electrocution): 122 for murder, 25 for rape, 5 for armed robbery, 1 for burglary ana 1 for carnal knowledge. Before 1 Jan. 1927, persons executed in Alabama were hanged locally by the sheriffs in the counties of tneir conviction. In 41 counties the sale of alcoholic beverage is permitted, and in 26 counties it is prohibited; but it is permitted in 6 cities within those 26 counties. Religion. Chief religious bodies (in 1980) are: Southern Baptist Convention (about 1,182,018), Churches of Christ (113,919), United Methodist (about 344,790), Roman Catholic (106,123), African Methodist Episcopal Zion (139,714), Christian Methodist Episcopal (about 53,493) and Assemblies ofGod (48,610). Education. In the school year 1985-86 the 1,326 public elementary and high schools required 36,585 teachers to teach 726,085 pupils enrolled in grades K.-12. In 1985 there were 16 senior public institutions with 102,065 students and 5,416 faculty members. In 1986 the 14 junior colleges had 38,169 students and 838 teachers, 20 technical schools had 22,191 students and 1,118 teachers. Health. In 1986 there were 112 hospitals (20,239 beds) licensed by the State Board of Health. In 1982-83 hospitals for mental diseases had 2,545 beds. Facilities for the mentally retarded(1 Sept. 1983)had 1,455 cases. Pensions and Security. In Aug. 1984 Alabama paid supplements (to federal welfare payments) to 13,992 recipients of old-age assistance, receiving an average of $59.76 each; 5,244 permanently and totally disabled, $63.78; 131 blind, $60.54. Combined state-federal aid to dependent children was paid to 54,752 families, average $111.40 per family. Books of Reference Alabama OJJkialand Statistical Register. Montgomery. Quadrennial Alabama Encyclopadia. Vol. I. Northport, 1965 Economic Abstract of Alabama. Center for Business and Economic Research, Univ of Alabama, 1975 The Deep South in Transformation. A Symposium. Univ of Alabama Press, 1964 Farmer,H., The Legislative Process in Alabama. Univ. of Alabama, 1949

ALASKA

1427

ALASKA HISTORY. Discovered in 1741 by Vitus Bering, its first settlement, on Kodiak Island, was in 1784. The area known as Russian America with its capital (1806) at Sitka was ruled by a Russo-American fur company and vaguely claimed as a Russian colony. Alaska was purchased by the United States from Russia under the treaty of 30 March 1867 for $7 2m. It was not organized until 1884, when it became a 'district' governed by the code of the state of Oregon. By Act of Congress approved 24 Aug. 1912 Alaska became an incorporated Territory; its first legislature in 1913 granted votes to women, 7 years in advance of the Constitutional Amendment. Alaska officially became the 49 th state of the Union on 3 Jan. 1959. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Alaska is bounded north by the Beaufort Sea, west and south by the Pacific and east by Canada. It has the largest area of any state, being more than twice the size of Texas. The gross area (land and water) is 591,004 sq. miles; the land area is 586,412 sq. miles of which 85% was in federal ownership in 1984. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 401,851, mcludingmriitary personnel, an increase of 33 5% over 1970. Estimate (1985), 521,000. Births, 1984, were 12,247 (24-5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 1,993 (4); infant deaths, 147 (12 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 6,519 (13); divorces, 3,904 (7 8). Population in 5 census years was: 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 39,170 92,808 174,649 236,767 309,728

Negro

8,911 13,643

All Others 33,354 35,835 51,518 54,704 78,480

Total 72,524 128,643 226,167 300,382 401,851

Per sq. mile 0 13 0 23 0 40 0-53 0 70

Of the total population m 1980, 53-01% were male, 64-34% were urban and 68 57% were aged 21 years or over. The largest city is Anchorage, which had a 1980 census area population of 174,430 (1983 estimate, 227,100). Other census area populations, 1980 (and 1983 estimate), Fairbanks North Star, 53,983 (64,800); Juneau, 19,528 (26,000); Kenai Peninsula, 25,282 (34,900); Ketchikan Gateway, 11,316 (12,700); Kodiak Island, 9,939 (12,900); Matanuska-Susitna 17,816 (29,800). There are 11 boroughs and 142 incorporated cities. C L I M A T E . Anchorage. Jan. 12°F(-11 1°C), July 57"F(13 9°C). Annual rainfall 15" (371 mm). Fairbanks. Jan. -1 l'F(-23 9°C), July 60°F(15-6°C). Annual rainfall 12" (300 mm). Sitka. Jan. 33°F (0-6°C), July 55°F (12 8°C). Annual rainfall 87" (2,175 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1374. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . An important provision of the Enabling Act is that the state has the right to select 103 55m. acres of vacant and unappropriated public lands in order to establish 'a tax basis'; it can open these lands to prospectors for minerals, and the state is to derive the pnncipal advantage in all gpins resulting from the discovery of minerals. In addition, certain federally administered lands reserved for conservation of fisheries and wild life have been transferred to the state. Special provision is made for federal control of land for defence in areas of high strategic importance. The constitution of Alaska was adopted by public vote, 24 April 1956. The state legislature consists of a Senate of 20 members (elected for 4 years) and a House of Representatives of 40 members (elected for 2 years). The state sends 2 senators and 1 representative to Congress. The franchise may be exercised by all citizens over 18. The capital is Juneau. A new capital site near Anchorage was chosen in 1976. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 138,392 votes, Mondale, 62,018.

Governor Stephen Cowper (D.), 1986-90 ($81,648). Lieut.-Governor Steve McAlpine(D.) 1986-90($76,188).

1428

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

ECONOMY Budget. Total state government revenue for the year ended 30 June 1984 (Annual Financial Report figures) was $3,935-8m. ($2,914m. from petroleum revenue, $109-4m. from taxation). Total expenditure was $3,931 -3m. In 1976 a Permanent Fund was set up for the deposit of at least 25% of all mineral-related revenue; total assets at 30 June, 1984, $5,530-8m. General obligation bonds at 30 June 1984, $ 169 • 5m. Per capita income (1984) was $17,155. Banking. Total bank assets 1981, $2,782m., total deposits $2,216m. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Oil and Gas. Commercial production of crude petroleum began in 1959 and by 1961 had become the most important mineral by value. Production: 1961, 6-3m. bbls (of 42 gallons); 1976,67m. bbls; 1977, 169m. bbls; 1981, 587m. bbls; 1984, 630m. bbls. Oil comes mainly from Prudhoe Bay, the Kuparuk River field and several Cook Inlet fields. Natural gas marketed production, 1984, 200,296,680m. cu. ft. Value of crude oil and gas (1981), $ 12,479m. Alaska receives 84% of its total revenue from petroleum. Revenue to the state from oil production in 1984 was $2,861 -6m. from corporate petroleum tax $265- lm. and from royalties $l,047-5m., severance tax, $l,393 1m., property tax, $131m., bonus sale, $10- lm., rents, $3-8m., intergovernmental receipts, $111m. Oil from the Prudhoe Bay arctic field is now carried by the Trans-Alaska pipeline to Prince William Sound on the south coast, where a tanker terminal has been built at Valdez. Minerals. Value of production, 1983: gold (169,000 troy oz.) $67-6m.; antimony (22,400 lb.) $25,000; platinum $100,000; silver (33,200 troy oz.) $332,000; tin (215,000 lb.) $ 1 1 m.; jade and soapstone (2 3 tons) $42,000; sand and gravel (50m. short tons) $120m.; building stone (5-27m. short tons) $25m.; coal (803,(K)0m. short tons) $ 18m. Total value, $232,399,000. Agriculture. In some parts of the state the climate during the brief spring and summer (about 100 days in major areas and 152 days in the south-eastern coastal area) is suitable for agricultural operations, thanks to the long hours of sunlight, but Alaska is a food-importing area. In 1985 about 2m. acres was farmland; 90% of this was unimproved pasture primarily government leases for grazing of sheep and beef cattle in south-west Alaska. In 1980 (preliminary) there were 8,400 cattle, 1,100 milch cows, 1,800 hogs and 4,300 sheep stock. Farm income in 1984: $25m. of which $18m. was from crops (mainly hay and potatoes) and $7m. from livestock and dairy products. There were about 25,000 reindeer in western Alaska in 1980, owned by individual Eskimo herders except for 750 at Nome owned by the Government. Forestry. In south-eastern Alaska timber fringes the shore of the mainland and all the islands extending inland to a depth of 5 miles. The state's enormous forests could produce an estimated annual sustained yield of 1,500m. bd ft of lumber, nearly twice Alaska's record 1973 cut. Alaska has 2 national forests: the Tongass of 16-9m. acres and the Chugach of 5-9m. acres. An estimated total of 446m. bd ft was cut in 1981, of which 387-5m. came from national forests and 53,687,000 from state forests, 4,275,000 from land held by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and 362,000 from the Bureau of Land Management. Alaska has 2 large pulp-mills at Ketchikan and Sitka. Fisheries. The catch for 1982 was 1,300m. lb. of fish and shellfish having a value to fishermen of $600m. and a wholesale value of over $ 1,000m. King crab, 39m. lb., snow (tanner) crab, 69m. lb., herring, 52m. lb., shrimp, 17m. lb. Salmon accounts for more than half of the US catch. I N D U S T R Y . Main industries with employment, 1984: Government, 66,400; trade, 44,700; services, 42,300; contract construction, 22,200; manufacturing, 9,600; mining including oil and gas, 7,900; transport, communication and utilities,

ALASKA

1429

19,600; finance, insurance and property, 11,400; agriculture, forestry and fishing, 1,360 in 1982. The major manufacturing industry was food processing, followed by timber industries. Total non-agricultural employment, 1984, 224,100. Total wages and salaries, 1983, $6,075 7m. T O U R I S M . About 691,200 tourists visited the state in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Alaska's highway and road system, 1984, totalled 15,315 miles, including marine highway systems, local service roads, borough and city streets, national park, forest and reservation roads and military roads. Registered motor vehicles, 1983,475,378. The Alaska Highway extends 1,523 miles from Dawson Creek, British Columbia, to Fairbanks, Alaska. It was built by the US Army in 1942, at a cost of $138m. The greater portion of it, because it lies in Canada, is maintained by Canada. Railways. There is a railway of 111 miles from Skagway to the town ofWhitehoise, the White Pass and Yukon route, in the Canadian Yukon region (this service was suspended in 1982 but may reopen). The government-owned Alaska Railroad runs from Seward to Fairbanks, a distance of 471 miles. This is a freight service with only occasional passenger use. A passenger service operates from Anchorage to Fairbanks via Denali National Park in the tourist season. Aviation. In 1982 the state had about 1,070 airports, of which about half were publicly owned. Commercial passengers by air from Alaska's largest international airports Anchorage and Fairbanks numbered 1 • lm. at Anchorage and 273,512 at Fairbanks. General aviation aircraft in the state per 1,000 population was about ten times the US average. Shipping. Regular shipping services to and from the US are furnished by 2 steamship and several barge lines operating out of Seattle and other Pacific coast ports. A Canadian company also furnishes a regular service from Vancouver, B.C. Freight handled at the Port of Anchorage, 1981 (short tons): Bulk petroleum, 365,999; vans, flats and containers, 1,154,060; cement and drilling mud, 32,497; vehicles, 39,822; total 1 65m. A 1,435 nautical-mile ferry system for motor cars and passengers (the 'Alaska Marine Highway') operates from Seattle, Washington and Prince Rupert (British Columbia) to Juneau, Haines (for access to the Alaska Highway) and Skagway. A second system extends throughout the south-central region of Alaska linking the Cook Inlet area with Kodiak Island and Prince William Sound. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. There is no death penalty in Alaska. Religion. Many religions are represented, including the Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist and other denominations. Education. During 1984 there were 100,000 pupils at public schools, 3,868 at private schools. The Bureau of Indian Affairs schools had 1,005 pupils attending schools in the state. The University of Alaska (founded in 1922) had (Spring 1984) 11,808 students in Fairbanks, Anchorage and Juneau and 19,296 in community colleges. Other colleges had 1,775 students in 1984. Health. In 1983 there were 26 acute care hospitals with 1,800 beds, of which 7 were federal public health hospitals; there was 1 mental hospital; there were 24 mental health clinics. Welfare. Old-age assistance was established under the Federal Social Security Act; in 1982 aid to dependent children covered a monthly average of 6,617 households; payments, an average of $409 per month; aid to the blind and to the disabled was given to a monthly average of 2,170 persons receiving on average $185 per month. An average of 5,492 people per month received Medicaid.

1430

UNITED

STATES OF

AMERICA

Books of Reference Statistical Information: Department of Commerce and Economic Development, Economic Analysis Section, Juneau. Alaska Blue Book, Department ofEducation, Juneau. Biennial Alaska Economic Outlook, Department of Labor, Juneau. Alaska Economy, The. Division of Economic Enterprise, Juneau. Annual Alaska Statistical Review. Office ofthe Governor, Juneau. Biennial Annual Financial Report, Department of Administration, Juneau. Gardey, J A l a s k a : The Sophisticated Wilderness. London, 1976 Hulley, Clarenc eC., Alaska Past and Present. Portland, Oregon, 1970 Hunt, W. R., Alaska, a Bicentennial History. New York, 1976 Pearson, R. W., and Lynch, D. F., Alaska, a Geography. Boulder, 1984 Thomas, L., Jr., Alaska and the Yukon. New York, 1983 Tourville, M., Alaska, a Bibliography, 1570-1970. 1971 State Library: Pouch G, Juneau. Librarian: Richard Engen.—Alaska Historical Library, Pouch G, Juneau. Librarian: Phyllis de Muth.

ARIZONA H I S T O R Y . Arizona was settled in 1752, organized as a Territory in 1863 and became a state on 14 Feb. 1912. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Arizona is bounded north by Utah, east by New Mexico, south by Mexico, west by California and Nevada. Area, 113,417 sq. miles, including 347 sq. miles of inland water. Of the total area in 1985,28% was Indian Reservation, 18% was in individual or corporate ownership, 16% was held by the US Bureau of Land Management, 15% by the US Forest Service, 13% by the State and 10% by others. Census population on 1 April 1980 was 2,718,425, an increase of 53-4% over 1970. Estimate (1986) 3,296,000. Births, 1985, 59,344; deaths, 24,577; infant deaths (1983), 509; marriages, 35,723; divorces, 21,157. Population in 5 census years: 1910 1930 1960

While 171,468 378,551 1,169,517

Negro 2,009 10,749 43,403

1970 1980

1,604,498 2,260,288

53,344 74,159

Indian 29,201 43,726 83,387

Chinese 1,305 1,110 2,937 All others 117,557 383,768

1

Japanese 371 879 1,501

Total Persq. mile 204,354 1 -8 435,573 3-8 1,302,161 11-3 1,775,399 2,718,215

1

15-6 23-9

Preliminary.

Of the population in 1980, 1,375,214 were male, 2,278,728 were urban and 1,872,447 were aged 20 and over. The 1980 census population of Phoenix was 789,704 (1986 estimate, 881,640); Tucson, 330,537 (384,385); Scottsdale, 88,412 (108,447); Tempe, 106,743 ( 132,942); Mesa, 152,453 (239,587); Glendale, 97,172 (122,392). C L I M A T E . Phoenix. Jan. 52°F (11 • 1°C), July 90°F (32-2°C). Annual rainfall 8" (191 mm). Yuma. Jan. 55°F (12-8'C), July 91°F (32-8°C). Annual rainfall 3 " (75 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1374. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The state constitution (1910, with 103 amendments) placed the government under direct control of the people through the Initiative, Referendum and the Recall. The state Senate consists of 30 members, and the House of Representatives of 60, all elected for 2 years. Arizona sends to Congress 2 senators and 5 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 669,353 votes, Mondale, 325,924. The state capital is Phoenix. The state is divided into 15 counties.

ARIZONA

1431

Governor Evan Mecham (RJ, 1987-91 ($75,000). Secretary of State Rose Mofford (D.) ($50,000). B U D G E T . General revenues, year ending 30 June 1985 (US Census Bureau figures), were $2,197m. (taxation, $2,049-4m.); general expenditures, $3,133m. (education, $1,329 7m.; transport $438m., and public health and welfare, $769-4m.). Per capita income (1985) was $ 12,454. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mining industries of the state are important, but less so than agriculture and manufacturing. By value the most important mineral produced is copper. Production (1985) 887,052 short tons; gold and silver are both largely recovered from copper ore. Other minerals include sand and gravel and lead. Total value of minerals mined in 1985 was$l,532-6m. Agriculture. Arizona, despite its dry climate, is well suited for agriculture along the water-courses and where irrigation is practised on a large scale from great reservoirs constructed by the US as well as by the state government and private interests.Irrigated area, 1984, 1 07m. acres. The wide pasture lands are favourable for the rearing of cattle and sheep, but numbers are either stationary or declining compared with 1920. In 1983 Arizona contained 7,334 farms and ranches with 1 05m. acres of crop land, out of a total farm and pastoral area of 37 -7m. acres. The average farm was estimated at 5,148 acres. Farming is highly commercialized and mechanized and concentrated largely on cotton picked by machines and by Indian, Mexican and migratory workers. Area under cotton (1985), 415,300 acres; 1,037,000m. bales (of480 lb.) of cotton were harvested. Cash income, 1985, from crops, $896-3m.; from livestock, $686-3m. Most important cereals are wheat, corn and barley; other crops include oranges, grapefruit and lettuce. On 1 Jan. 1985 there were 1,050,000 all cattle, 82,000 milch cows, 306,OOd sheep. Forestry. The national forests in the state had an area (1983) of 11 -22m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 there were 3,482 manufacturing establishments with 163,445 production workers, earning $3,792m. T O U R I S M . In 1982 15-7m. tourists visited Arizona; direct employment, 71,700; indirect, 114,600; state tax revenue, $204m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 76,290 miles of public roads and streets; 2,215,549 motor vehicles were registered in the state. Aviation. Airports, 1984, numbered 251, of which 82 were for public use; 6,079 aircraft were registered. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A 'right-to-work' amendment to the constitution, adopted 5rNov. 1946, makes illegal any concessions to trade-union demands for a 'closed shop'. The Arizona prisons 30 June 1983 held 6,889. There have been no executions since 1963; from 1930 to 1963 there were 38 executions (lethal gas) all for murder, and all men (28 whites, 10 Negro). Religion. The leading religious bodies are Roman Catholics and Mormons (Latter Day Saints); others include Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists and Episcopalians. No recent statistics of membership are available. Education. School attendance is compulsory to grade 9 (from 198,5—86) and to grade 10 (from 1986-87). In autumn 1985 there were 513,498 pupils enrolled in grades K-12. The state maintains 3,universities: the University of Arizona (Tucson)

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U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

with an enrollment of 32,318 in autumn 1985; Arizona State University (Tempe) with 38,029; Northern Arizona University (Flagstaff) with 11,935. Health. In 1985 there were 88 hospitals reported by the State Department of Health; capacity 13,890 beds; the hospitals had J,522 physicians and dentists, 8,437 registered nurses and 1,503 licensed practical nurses. Social Security. Old-age assistance (maximum depending on the programme) is given, with federal aid, to needy citizens 65 years of age or older. In June 1984, federal Social Security Insurance payments of $6,802,000 went to 10,448 aged, 598 blind, 19,643 disabled; 2,412 persons receive state-administered supplementation. Average weekly benefit for total unemployment was $102.41 in 1983; average weekly number of beneficiaries 16,762. Books of Reference Arizona Statistical Review. 42nd ed. Valley National Bank, Phoenix, 1986 Federal Writers' Project. Arizona: The Grand Canyon State. 4th ed. New York, 1966 Comeaux, M. L., Arizona: a Geography. Boulder, 1981 Goff, J. S., Arizona Civilization. 2nd ed. Cave Creek, 1970 Mason, B. B., and Hink, H., Constitutional Government of Arizona. 7th ed.Tempe, 1982 State Library: Department of Library, Archives and Public Records, Capitol, Phoenix 85007. Director: Sharon G. Turgeon.

ARKANSAS H I S T O R Y . Arkansas was settled in 1686, made a territory in 1819 and admitted into the Union on 15 June 1836. The name originated with the Quapaw Indian tribe. The constitution, which dates from 1874, has been amended 59 times. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Arkansas is bounded north by Missouri, east by Tennessee and Mississippi, south by Louisiana, south-west by Texas and west by Oklahoma. Area, 53,187 sq. miles (1,109 sq. miles being inland water). Census population on 1 April 1980 was 2,286,435, an increase of 18-9% from that of 1970. Estimate (1984) 2,349,000. Births, 1983, were 34,904 (15-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 23,086 (10-1); infant deaths, 373 (10-6 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 30,066 (13 1); divorces 15,681 (6-9). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,131,026 1,375,315 1,395,703

Negro 442,891 478,463 388,787

1970 1980

1,565,915 1,890,332

352,445 373,768

Indian 460 408 580

Asiatic 72 296 1,202

All others 4,935 22,335

Total 1,574,449 1,854,482 1,786,272

Per sq. mile 30 0 35-2 34 0

1,923,295 2,286,435

37 0 43-9

Of the total population in 1980, 48 -3% were male, 51-6% were urban, 60-2% were 21 years of age or older. Little Rock (capital) had a population of . 158,461 in 1980; Fort Smith, 71,626; North Little Rock, 64,288; Pine Bluff, 56,636; Fayetteville, 36,608; Hot Springs, 35,781; Jonesboro, 31,530; West Memphis, 28,138. The population of the largest standard metropolitan statistical areas: Little Rock-North Little Rock, 393,774; Fayetteville-Springdale, 178,609; Fort Smith (Arkansas portion), 132,064; Pine Bluff, 90,718; Memphis (Arkansas portion), 49,499; Texarkana (Arkansas portioq),.37,766. C L I M A T E . Little Rock. Jan. 42°F (5-6°C), July 81°F (27-2'C). Annual rainfall 49" (1,222 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1375. G O V E R N M E N T . The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 35 members

ARKANSAS

1433

elected for 4 years, partially renewed every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. The sessions are biennial and usually limited to 60 days. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 2 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 4 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 533,624 votes, Mondale, 338,829. The state is divided into 75 counties; the capital is Little Rock. Governor' Bill Clinton (D.), 1987-91 ($35,000). Lieut.-Governor Winston Bryant (D.) ($ 14,000). Secretary of State W. J. McCuen (D.) ($22,500). FINANCE Budget. The state's general revenue for the fiscal year 1983 was $2,739 lm., of which taxation furnished $1,337 9m. and federal aid, $710-2m. General expenditure was $2,487 -8m., of which education took $945 5m.; highways, $291 -7m., and public welfare, $392m. Net long-tefm debt forthe fmahcial year 1983 was $55 -2m. Per capita income (1985) was $ 10,180. Banking. In 1985 total bank deposits were $14,393-3m. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. In 1983 crude petroleum amounted to 18-7m. bbls; natural gas (1982), 150-7m. cu. ft; the state is an important source of bauxite, bromine and special abrasive silica stone; it is one of three states producing tripoli. Value of non-fuel mineral production, 1984, $272-6m. Agriculture. In 1985 53,000 farms had a total area of 16m.acres; average farm was of 302 acres; 7,800,000 acres were harvested cropland; 2,022,695 acres were irrigated. The largest sources of income in 1984 were chickens including broilers ($1,018-7m.); soybeans ($525-6m.); cattle and calves ($290-2m.); rice ($467-2m.); wheat ($176-7m.). Cash farm income (1984) was $3,336m.; from crop», $ 1,462 5m., and from livestock, $ 1,873 -5m. Livestock on 1 Jan. 1986 included l -8m. all cattle, 78,000 milch cows and 436,000 swine. I N D U S T R Y . In Aug. 1986 total employment averaged 1,005,500 (55,100 agricultural, 215,700 manufacturing, 190,300 wholesale and retail trade, 134,200 government). The Arkansas Department of Labor estimated that 175,800 factory production workers earned an average $320.95 per week (42 hours). The most important manufacturing group was food and kindred products employing 43,000, followed by electric and electronic equipment (22,800) and lumber and wood products (19,700). Construction employed 40,700. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage, 82,631 miles. State-maintained highways (1 Jan. 1986) total 16,117 miles; local county highways, 49,648 miles; city streets, 9,627 miles; federal roads, 1,639 miles; roads not publicly maintained, 5,600 miles. In 1985 there were 1,818,100 registered motor vehicles. Railways. In 1986 there were in the state 3,313 miles of commercial railway. Aviation. Six air carrier and 2 commuter airlines serve the state; there were, in 1985,156 airports (81 public-use and 75 private). Waterways. There are about 1,000 miles of navigable streams, including the Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, White and Ouachita Rivers. The Arkansas River/ Kerr-McClellan Channel flows diagonally eastward across the state and gives access to the sea via the Mississippi River.

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. Protestant churches in 1980: Baptist (603,844), Methodist (214,925), Church of Christ (90,671), Assembly of God (53,555), Roman Catholics (1980), 56,911. Education. In the school year 1984-85 public elemental and secondary schools had 433,410 enrolled pupils and 18,148 classroom teachers. Average salaries of teachers in elementary schools was $16,658, secondary $19,464. Expenditure on elementary and secondary education was $ 1,093 • 3m. An educational TV network began operating in 1966 with a full 12-hour-day telecasting; it had 5 stations in 1984. Higher education is provided at 32 institutions: 9 state universities, 1 medical college, 12 private or church colleges, 10 community or junior colleges. Total enrolment in institutions of higher education, 1985-86, was 73,320. There were (1985-86) 24 vocational-technical schools with 30,055 students, including extension class students. Total expenditure, $29 -4m. Health. There were 105 licensed hospitals (12,570 beds) in 1986, and 221 licensed nursing homes (21,523 beds). Social Welfare. In Oct. 1983,409,000 persons were drawing old-age assistance at an average amount of $317.85 per month; 22,085 families (43,618 children), $ 130.43 per family; 44,000 persons were receiving disability benefits at an average of $409.09 per month. State prisons in Oct. 1985 had 4,620 inmates (197 per 100,000 population). Books of Reference Current Employment Developments. Arkansas Employment Security Division, Little Rock Arkansas State and County Economic Data. Industrial Research and Extension Center, Little Rock State Government Finances. U.S. Dept. afCommerce, Bureau ofthe Census. Agricultural Statistics for Arkansas. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Crop Reporting Service, Little Rock, 1985 Ferguson and Atkinson, Historic Arkansas. Little Rock, 1966

CALIFORNIA HISTORY. California, first settled in July 1769, was from its discovery until 1846 politically associated with Mexico. On 7 July 1846 the American flag was hoisted at Monterey, and a proclamation was issued declaring California to be a portion of the US. On 2 Feb. 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, the territory was formally ceded by Mexico to the US, arid was admitted to the Union 9 Sept. 1850 as the thirty-first state, with boundaries as at present. AREA A N D POPULATION. Area, 158,693 sq. miles (2,120 sq. miles being inland water). In 1984 the federal government owned 46m. acres (45% of the land area); in 1975, 546,000 acres were under.jurisdiction of the Bureau of Indian AfTairs, of which 472,000 acres were tribal. Public lands, vacant in 1975, totalled 15,607,125 acres, practically all either mountains or deserts. Census population, 1 April 1980,23,667,902, an increase of 18-5% over 1970, making California the most populous state of the USA (New York: 17,557,288). Estimate (1983) 25,174,000. Births in 1984,455,075 (17 8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 195,430 (7-6); infant deaths, 4,245 (9-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 226,560 (8-8); divorces,dissolutions andnullities, 129,131 in 1983 (5 1). Population in 5 census years was: Tolajlinc! 1910 1930 1960 1970

White 2,259,672 ' 5,408,260 14,455,230 17,761,032

Negro 21,645 81,048 883,861 1,400,143

Japanese 41,356 97,456 157,317 213,280

Chinese 36,248 37,361 95,600 170,131 V

1980

18,030,893

1,819,281

All other 3,817,728

all others) 2,377,549 5,677,251 15,717,204 19,953,134

Per sq. 15 35 99 125

mile 0 8 0 7

'

23,667,902

149 1

1435

CALIFORNIA

Of the 1980 population 49 3% were male, 91 3% were urban and 67 2% were 21 years old or older. The largest cities with 1980 census population are: Los Angeles San Diego San Francisco San José Long Beach Oakland Sacramento

2,966,850 875,538 678,974 629,546 361,334 339,337 275,741

Anaheim 219,494 Fresno 217,289 Santa Ana 204,023 Riverside 170,591 Huntington Beach 170,505 Stockton 149,779 Glendale 139,060

Fremont Torrance Garden Grove San Bernardino Pasadena Oxnard

131,945 129,881 123,307 118,794 118,550 108,195

Urbanized areas (1980 census): Los Angeles-Long Beach, 9,477,926; San Francisco-Oakland, 3,191,913; San Diego, 1,704,352; San José, 1,243,900; Sacramento, 796,266; San Bernardino-Riverside, 703,316; Oxnard-VenturaThousand Oaks, 378,420; Fresno, 331,551. CLIMATE. Los Angeles. Jan. 55°F (12 8°C), July 70"F (21 IX). Annual 15" (381 mm). Sacramento. Jan. 45°F (7-2'C), July 74°F(23-3"C). Annual 19" (472 mm). San Diego. Jan. 55°F (12 8°C), July 69°F (20-6°C). Annual 10" (259 mm). San Francisco. Jan. SO'FUCC), July 59°F(15°C). Annual 22" (561 mm). Death Valley. Jan. 52°F(11°C), July 100°F(38°C). Annual 1 -6" (40 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1374.

rainfall rainfall rainfall rainfall rainfall

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution became effective from 4 July 1879; it has had numerous amendments since 1962. The Senate is composed of 40 members elected for 4 years—half being elected each 2 years—and the Assembly, of 80 members, elected for 2 years. Two-year regular sessions convene in Dec. of each even-numbered year. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. California is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 45 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 5,291,747 votes, Mondale, 3,803,913. The capital is Sacramento. The state is divided into 58 counties. Governor George Deukmejian (R.), 1987-91 ($49,100). Lieut.-Governor heo McCarthy (D.), 1987-91 ($42,500). Secretary ofState March Fong Eu (D.) ($42,500). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1986 total General Fund revenues were $33,509m.; total General Fund expenditures were $34,302m. ($15,868m. for education, $8,850m. for health and welfare). The long-term state debt (general obligation bonds outstanding) was $5,160m. on 30 June 1985. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 16,065. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. California is one of the three most important petroleum-producing states of the US (Texas and Louisiana being the other two); crude oil output was estimated at 424,200m. bbls in 1985. Output of natural gas was 494,100m. cu. fi; of natural gas liquids, (1985) 340m. bbls. Gold output was 223,097 troy oz. (1985); asbestos, boron minerals, diatomite, tungsten, sand and gravel, salt, magnesium compounds, lead, zinc, copper and iron ore are also produced. The estimated value of all the minerals produced was $2,218m. in 1985. Agriculture. Extending 700 miles from north to south, and intersected by several ranges of mountains, California has almost every variety of climate, from the very wet to the very dry, and from the temperate to the semi-tropical. In 1982 there were 82,000 farms, composing 32m. acres; average farm, 390 acres. Cotton, fruit, poultry and vegetables are important. Cash receipts, 1984,

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U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

from crops, $8,459m.; from livestock and poultry, $4,471 m. Dairy produce, cattle, grapes, nursery products, hay, flowers and foliage, and oranges (in that order) are the main sources of farm income. Production of cotton lint, 1985, was 747,400 short tons; other field crops included sugar-beet (4-8m. short tons). Principal crops include wine, table and raisin grapes (5 -2m. short tons); peaches (735,500 short tons); pears (292,500 short tons); apricots (128,000 short tons); prunes (139,000 short tons); plums, nectarines, avocados, olives and cherries. Citrus fruit crops were: oranges, 1 9m. short tons; lemons, 752,400 short tons; grapefruit, 258,800 short tons. On 1 Jan. 1984 the farm animals were: 962,000 milch cows, 5m. all cattle, 900,000 sheep and 155,000 swine. Forestry. Total forest area in 1985 was 20,578,000 acres, of which 8,286,000 acres were commercial forest. California ranks third to Oregon and Washington in volume of standing timber; total annual cut is about 3,786m. bd ft ( 1985). National forest service land in 1985 was 20 -6m. acres. Fishery. California ranks sixth as a fishing state (by value of fishery products). The catch in 1985 was 363m. lb.; leading species were mackerel, sole and squid. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985, manufacturing employed about 2m. The fastest-growing industries were transport equipment, printing and publishing and textile mill products. The aerospace industry is important, as is also food-processing. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 California had 55,397 miles of roads inside cities and 118,684 miles outside. In 1985 there were about 14-6m. registered cars and over 4-4m. commercial vehicles, leading all states in all items by a wide margin. Railways. Total mileage of railways in 1986, was 8,044 miles. There are 2 systems: Amtrak and Southern Pacific Railroad commuter trains. Amtrak carries about 1 -7m. passengers per year on the intra-state routes. Southern Pacific carries about 5-4m. on a commuter route. Amtrak services run from San Francisco and Los Angeles. Southern Pacific runs the Caltrains commuter route from San Francisco to San José. There is a metro (BART) and light rail (Muni) system in San Francisco. There is a light rail line in San Diego and others under construction in Sacramento and San José. Aviation. In 1986 there were 283 public airports and 739 private airstrips. Shipping. The chief ports are San Francisco and Los Angeles. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State prisons, 1 Jan. 1985, had 45,761 male and 2,581 female inmates. From 1893 to 1942, 307 inmates were executed by hanging. From 1938 to 1976, 194 inmates were executed by lethal gas. No further death sentences were passed until 1980. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is much stronger than any other single church; next are the Jewish congregations, then Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists and Episcopalians. Education. Full-time attendance at school is compulsory for children from 6 to 16 years of age for a minimum of 175 days per annum, and part-time attendance is required from 16 to 18 years. In autumn 1984 there were 4m. pupils enrolled in elementary and secondary schools. Estimated expenditure on public schools, 1985-86, was$12,409m. Community Colleges had 1,106,232 students in autumn 1985. California has two publicly supported higher education systems: the University of California (1868) and the California State University and Colleges. In autumn 1985, the University of California with campuses for resident instruction and research at Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Francisco and 6 other centres, had 144,589

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full-time students. California State University and Colleges with campuses at Sacramento, Long Beach, Los Angeles, San Francisco and IS other cities had 316,005 full-time students. In addition to the 28 publicly supported institutions for higher education there are 117 private colleges and universities which had a total estimated enrolment of 195,275 in the autumn of 1985. Health. In 1986 there were 513 general hospitals; capacity, 105,691 beds. On 30 June 1986 state hospitals for the mentally disabled had 4,973 patients. Social Security. On 1 Jan. 1974 the federal government (Social Security Administration) assumed responsibility for the Supplemental Security Income/State Supplemental Program which replaced the State Old-Age Security. The SSI/SSP provides financial assistance for needy aged (65 years or older), blind or disabled persons. An individual recipient may own assets up to $1,500; a couple up to $2,250, subject to specific exclusions. There are federal, state and county programmes assisting the aged, the blind, the disabled and needy children. In July 1984, 462,000 families with one or more children were receiving an average of $439 per month per family. Books of Reference California Almanac, 1984-85 Fay, J S.,(ed.) Oxford, 1984 California Government and Politics. Hoeber, T R., et al, (eds.) Sacramento, Annual California Handbook. California Institute, 1981 California Statistical Abstract. 26th ed. Dept. of Finance, Sacramento, 1986 Economic Report of the Governor Governor's Office, Sacramento, Annual Lavender, D S., California. New York, 1976 State Library The California State Library, Library-Courts Bldg, Sacramento 95814

COLORADO H I S T O R Y . Colorado was first settled in 1858, made a Territory in 1861 and admitted into the Union on 1 Aug. 1876. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Colorado is bounded north by Wyoming, north-east by Nebraska, east by Kansas, south-east by Oklahoma, south by New Mexico and west by Utah. Area, 104,090 sq. miles (496 sq. miles being inland water). Federal lands, 1974,23,974,000 acres (36% of the land area). Census population, 1 April 1980, was 2,889,964, an increase of 680,368 or 30-8% since 1970. Estimated (1985), 3,231,128. Births, 1985, were 55,115 (17 1 per 1,000 population); deaths, 20,234 (6-4); infant deaths, 519 (9 per 1,000 live births);marriages,33,616(12 5);dissolutions, 19,193(6-6). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1970

White 783,415 1,018,793 1,296,653 2,112,352

Negro 11,453 11,828 20,177 66,411

1980

2,571,498

101,703

Indian 1,482 1,395 1,567 8,836

Asiatic 2,674 3,775 5,870 10,388

All others 216,763

Total 799,024 1,035,791 1,325,089 2,207,259

Per sq. mile 7 7 10 0 12 7 21 3

2,889,964

27 7

Of the total population in 1980,49-6% were male, 80-6% were urban; 68% were aged 20 years or older. Large cities with 1980 census population (and 1985 estimate): Denver, 492,365 (510,911); Colorado Springs, 215,150 (262,775); Aurora, 158,588 (217,807); Lakewood, 112,860 (121,335); Pueblo, 101,686 (101,510); Arvada, 84,576 (89,983); Boulder, 76,685 (78,674); Fort Collins, 65,092 (75,238); Wheat Ridge, 30,293 (54,995); Greeley, 53,006 (58,323); Westminster, 50,211 (61,907). Main metropolitan areas (1985): Denver-Boulder, 1,821,478; Fort Collins,

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U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

170,280; Colorado Springs, 368,746; Greeley, 136,563; Pueblo, 127,022; Front Range Urban Area, 2,624,089. C L I M A T E . Denver. Jan. 3 P F (-0-6°C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 14" (358 mm). Pueblo. Jan. 30°F (-11°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (312 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1374. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution adopted in 1876 is still in effect with (1983) 78 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 35 members elected for 4 years, one-half retiring every 2 years, and of a House of Representatives of 65 members elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual, beginning 1951. The Governor? Lieut.-Governor, Attorney-General, Secretary of State and Treasurer are elected for 4 years. Qualified as electors are all citizens, male and female (except convicted, incarcerated criminals), 18 years of age, who have resided in the state and the precinct for 32 days immediately preceding the election. The state is divided into 63 counties. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 6 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 768,711 votes, Mondale, 434,560. The capital is Denver. Governor: Roy Romer(D.), 1987-91 ($60,000). Lieut.-Governor: Nancy Dick (D.), 1987-91 ($32,500). Secretary of State: Natalie Meyer (R.), 1987-91 ($32,500). B U D G E T . The state's total budget, 1985-86, is $3,497m., of which taxation and other revenue furnish $2,859m. and federal grants $637m. Education takes $l,708m.; health, welfare and rehabilitation, $1,037m., and highways, $440m. Total state and local taxes per capita (1984) were $ 1,339. The state has no general obligation debt. The net long-term debt (in revenue bond) on 30 June 1985 was $ 139m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 14,812. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Colorado has a variety of mineral resources. Among the most important are crude oil, metals and coal. Mineral production in 1984 (estimate) $ 1,900m. in value. An estimated 24,700 people were employed in extracting petroleum and natural gas in 1984; 5,500 in metals and 4,500 in coal and non-metals. Agriculture. In May 1984 farms numbered 27,000, with a total area of 34-6m. acres. (66-7% of the land area); 6,806,700 acres (1984) were harvested crop land; average farm (1984), 1,282 acres. Cash income, 1984, from crops $2,200m.; from livestock, $2,020m. In 1984 there were 3,200,000 acres under irrigation. Production of principal crops in 1984: Maize for grain, 134m. bu. (from 680,000 acres); wheat, 115-3m. bu. (3-0m.); hay, 3-3m. tons (1 -4m.); dry beans, 2-26m. cwt (170,000); potatoes, 19-2m. cwt (51,400); sugar-beet, 920,600 tons (46,000); oats, barley and sorghums are grown, as well as fruit. On 1 Jan. 1984 the number of farm animals was: 75,000 milch cows, 3 1m. all cattle, 690,000 sheep, 210,000 swine. The wool clip in 1984 yielded 7m. lb. of wool. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 1,420,000 were employed in non-agricultural sectors, of which 347,000 were in trade; 318,000 in services; 254,000 in government; 192,000 in manufacturing; 92,000 in construction; 87,000 in transport and public utilities; 35,000 in mining; 97,000 in finance, insurance and property. In manufacturing the biggest employers were non-electrical machinery, foods and kindred products, and printing. Value added by manufacturing was $7,748m. (1984 estimate). T O U R I S M . In 1985 about 20m. people spent holidays in Colorado, of Whom about 3% were Colorado residents. Overall expenditure, $4,500m.

COLORADO

1439

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway system (1983) included 9,232 miles of highway. County roads totalled 56,898, and city streets, 9,352 miles. Total road mileage, 80,483, of which 5,001 miles are unmaintained county and city roads. Railways. In 1982 there were in the state 4,500 miles of main-track and branch railway. Aviation. There were (1984) 233 airports in the state. Of these, 68 are publicly owned and open to the public; 16 are privately owned and open to the public; 149 are private and not open to the public. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. At 30 Sept. 1984 there were 3,050 people committed to the State Department of Corrections, inmates of the State Penitentiary, the State Reformatory and other institutions. In 1967 there was 1 execution; since 1930 executions (by lethal gas) numbered 47, including 41 whites, 5 Negroes and 1 other, all were for murder. Colorado has a Civil Rights Act (1935) forbidding places of public accommodation to discriminate against any persons on the grounds of race, religion, sex, colour or nationality. No religious test may be applied to teachers or students in the public schools, *nor shall any distinction or classification of pupils be made on account of race or colour'. In 1957 the General Assembly prohibited discrimination in employment of persons in private industry and in 1959 adopted the Fair Housing Act to discourage discrimination in housing. A 1957 Act permits marriages between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes. Religion. In 1984 the Roman Catholic Church had 550,300 members; the ten main Protestant denominations had 350,900 members; the Jewish community had 45,000 members. Buddhism is among other religions represented. Education. In autumn 1984 the public elementary and secondary schools had 526,336 pupils and 34,500 teachers and administrators; total instructional salaries averaged $25,000. Enrolments in universities and larger colleges, autumn 1983, were: US Air Force Academy (Colorado Springs), 6,000 students; University of Colorado (Boulder), 25,500; University of Colorado (Denver), 10,560; University of Colorado (Colorado Springs), 5,500; University of Colorado (Medical Center), 1,585; Colorado State University (Fort Collins), 17,500; University of Denver (Denver), 9,300; Colorado School of Mines (Golden), 3,200; University of Northern Colorado (Greeley), 10,700; University of Southern Colorado (Pueblo), 5,000; Western State College (Gunnison), 1,700; Adams State College (Alamosa), 2,000; Metropolitan State College (Denver), 17,690; Colorado College (Colorado Springs), 1,950; Fort Lewis College (Durango), 3,650; Mesa College (Grand Junction), 3,400. Health. Approved hospitals, 1983, numbered 98. In 1983, there were 25 public mental health centres and clinics. Social Security. A constitutional amendment, adopted 1956, provides for minimum old age pensions of $100 per month, which may be raised on a cost-ofliving basis; for a $5m. stabilization fund and for a $10m. medical and health fund for pensioners. In 1984 the maximum monthly retirement pension (for citizens of 65 and older) was $703; maximum monthly benefit for a disabled worker, $854. Books of Reference Directory of Colorado Manufacturers, ¡986. Business Research Division, School of Business, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, 1982 State of Colorado Business Development Manual. Office of Business Development, Denver, 19.86 Economic Outlook Forum, 1986. Colorado Division of Commerce and Development, and the College of Business, Univ. of Colorado, Denver, 1981 Griffiths, M.,andRubright,L., Colorado: a Geography. Boulder, 1983 Sprague, M., Colorado: A History. New York, 1976 State Library: Colorado State Library, State Capitol, Denver, 80203.

1440

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

CONNECTICUT H I S T O R Y . Connecticut was first settled in 1634 and has been an organized commonwealth since 1637. In 1629 a written constitution was adopted which, it is claimed, was the first in the history of the world formed under the concept of a social compact. This constitution was confirmed by a charter from Charles II in 1662, and replaced in 1818 by a state constitution, framed that year by a constitutional convention. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Connecticut is bounded north by Massachusetts, east by Rhode Island, south by the Atlantic and west by New York. Area, 5,018 sq. miles(147 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,107,576, an increase of 2 5% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 3,138,000. Births (1984) were 39,237 (12-4 per 1,000 population); deaths, 27,633 (8-8); infant deaths, 320 (8-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 25,080 (8); divorces, 11,226(3-6). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,098,897 1,576,700 2,423,816

Negro 15,174 29,354 107,449

Indian 152 162 923

Asiatic 533 687 3,046

Total 1,114,756 1,606,903 2,535,234

1970 1980

2,835,458 2,799,420

181,177 217,433

4,533

All others 15,074 18,970

3,031,709 3,107,576

Per sq. 231 328 517

mile 3 0 5

629 0 634 3

Of the total population in 1980, 1,498,005 persons were male, 2,449,774 persons were urban. Those 19 years old or older numbered 2,228,805. The chief cities and towns, with census population 1 April 1980, are: Bridgeport Hartford New Haven Waterbury Stamford Norwalk

142,546 136,392 126,109 103,266 102,453 77,767

New Britain West Hartford Danbury Greenwich Bristol Meriden

73,840 61,301 60,470 59,578 57,370 57,118

Larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Hartford, 726,114; Bridgeport, 395,455; New Haven, 417,592; Waterbury, 228,178; Stamford, 198,854. C L I M A T E . New Haven: Jan. 28°F (-2 2"C), July 72°F (22-2'C). Annual rainfall 46" (1,151 mm). See New England, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The 1818 Constitution was revised in June 1953 effective 1 Jan. 1955. On 30 Dec. 1965 a new constitution went into effect, having been framed by a constitutional convention in the summer of 1965 and approved by the voters in Dec. 1965. The 1965 Constitution provides for 30 to 50 members of the Senate (instead of 24 to 36) and for 125 to 225 members of the House of Representatives, to be elected from assembly districts, rather than 2 or 1 from each town, as in the former constitution. TTie convention has added a new provision for a 3-day session following each regular or special session, solely to reconsider bills vetoed by the Governor. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 36 members and a House of Representatives of 151 members. Members of each House are elected for the term of 2 years (annual salary $9,500 first year, $7,500 second year, expenses $2,000 and mileage allowance). Legislative sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. All citizens (with necessary exceptions and the usual residential requirements) have the right of suffrage. Connecticut is one of the original 13 states of the Union. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives.

CONNECTICUT

1441

In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 883,486 votes, Mondale, 560,712. The state capital is Hartford. Governor William A. O'Neill (D.), 1987-91 ($65,000). Lieut.-Governor Joseph J. Fauliso (D.), ($40,000). Secretary ofState- Julia Tashjian (D.) ($35,000). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1982 (state government figures) general revenues were $5,588m. (taxation, $3,723m., and federal aid, $998m.); general expenditures were $5,330m. (education, $ 1,843m., highways, $376m., and public welfare, $737m.). The total long-term debt on 30 June 1982 was $4,452m. Per capita income, 1984, was $ 16,369. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The state has some mineral resources: sheet mica, sand, gravel, clays and stone; total production in 1982 was valued at $56m. Agriculture. In 1985 the state had 4,000 farms with a total area of about 500,000 acres; average farm was of 118 acres, valued at $3,208 per acre. Total cash income, 1984, was $363m., including $139m. from crops and $221m. from livestock and products (mainly from dairy products and poultry). Principal crops are hay, silage, forest, greenhouse and nursery products, tobacco, potatoes, sweet corn, tomatoes, apples, peaches, pears, vegetables and small fruit. Livestock (1 Jan. 1980): 108,000 all cattle (value $70-7m.), 5,200 sheep ($387,000), 11,000 swine ($699,000) and 5-8m. poultry ($12m.). Forestry. The state had (1980) 137,782 acres of state forest land, which is about 4-2% of the total land area. I N D U S T R Y . Manufacturing establishments employed 417,560 production workers in Aug. 1980 who earned average weekly wages of $294.47; value added by manufacture (1980), $15,973m. Total non-agricultural labour force in 1984 was 1,526,000. The main employers are manufacturers (419,000 workers mainly in transport equipment, non-electrical machinery and fabricated metals); trade (334,000 workers); services (336,000) and government (186,000). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1 Jan. 1981) maintains 4,035 miles of highways, all surfaced. Motor vehicles registered in 1979 numbered 2,229,000 (licences issued 1980, 1,688,373). Railways. In 1981 there were 950 miles of railway track. Aviation. In 1981 there were 61 airports (27 commercial including 5 state-owned, and 34 heliports). J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. In 1981 there were no executions; since 1930 there have been 22 executions (19 by electrocution, 3 by hanging), including 19 whites and 3 Negroes, all for murder. In 1984 there were 5,718 inmates of the state and federal prisons. The Civil Rights Act makes it a punishable offence to discriminate against any person or persons 'on account of alienage, colour or race' and to hold up to ridicule any persons 'on account of creed, religion, colour, denomination, nationality or race'. Places of public resort are forbidden to discriminate. Insurance companies are forbidden to charge higher premiums to persons 'wholly or partially of African descent'. Schools must be open to all 'without discrimination on account of rape or colour'. Religion. The leading religious denominations (1980) m the state are the Ronjan

1442

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Catholic (1 -4m. members), United Churches of Christ, Protestant Episcopal, Jewish, Greek Orthodox, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian. Education. Elementary instruction is free for all children between the ages of 4 and 16 years, and compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 16 years. In 1983 there were 719 public elementary schools, 237 secondary schools and 25 combined. In 1983 there were 478,000 pupils and 32,500 elementary and secondary teachers. The 17 state vocational technical schools had 527,152 students in 1982. Expenditure of the state on public schools, 1985, $2,131 m. Average salary of teachers in public schools, 1985, $24,600. Connecticut has 47 colleges, of which one state university, 4 state colleges, 5 state technical colleges and 12 regional community colleges are state funded. The University of Connecticut at Storrs, founded 1881, had 1,253 faculty and 22,407 students in 1980-81. Yale University, New Haven, founded in 1701, had 2,088 faculty and 9,626 students. Wesleyan University, Middletown, founded 1831, had 297 faculty and 2,775 students. Trinity College, Hartford, founded 1823, had 145 faculty and 2,007 students. Connecticut College, New London, founded 1915, had 203 faculty and 1,974 students. The University of Hartford, founded 1877, had 305 faculty and 9,836 students. The regional community colleges (2-year course) had 514 faculty and 34,082 students. Health. Hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association, 1983, numbered 65, with 18,200 beds. The state operated one general hospital, one veterans' hospital, 8 hospitals for the mentally ill (2,450 patients in Jan. 1981), 2 training schools for the mentally retarded (and 12 regional centres), one chronic disease hospital (56 in-patients in Jan. 1981) and a state-aided institution for the blind. Social Security. Disbursements during the year ending 30 June 1981 amounted to $10,751,924 for old-age assistance, and medical aid to the aged, $5,413,444. The average monthly number of cases, 1980-81, was 4,782. In other areas of welfare, there was an average of 47,096 cases for aid to families with dependent children; 889 cases for such aid where the parent is unemployed; 84 cases for aid to the blind; 6,357 for aid to the disabled; 1,411 for Connecticut Assistance and Medical Aid to the disabled. Books of Reference The Register and Manual of Connecticut. Secretary of State. Hartford. Annual The Structure of Connecticut's State Government. Connecticut Public Expenditure Council. Hartford, 1973 Adams, V Q., Connecticut. The Story of Your Slate Government Chester, 1973 Smith, Allen R., Connecticut, a Thematic Atlas. Newington, 1974 State Library Connecticut State Library, Capitol Avenue, Hartford, 06015 Slate Clarence R. Walters.

Librarian.

DELAWARE HISTORY. Delaware, permanently settled in 1638, is one of the original 13 states of the Union, and the first one to ratify the Federal Constitution. AREA AND POPULATION. Delaware is bounded north by Pennsylvania, north-east by New Jersey, east by Delaware Bay, south and west by Maryland. Area 2,044 sq. miles (112 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980 was 594,338, an increase of 46,234 or 8-4% since 1970. Estimate (1986), 633,000. Births in 1985,8,980; deaths, 5,001; infant deaths, 138; marriages, 5,613; divorces, 2,991. Population in 5 census years was:

DELAWARE 1910 1930 1960

While 171,102 205,718 384,327

Negro 31,181 32,602 60,688

1970 1980

466,459 488,002

78,276 96,157

Indian 5 5 597

1443 Asiatic 34 55 410

All others 3,369 10,179

Total 202,322 238,380 446,292

Per sq. mite 1030 120-5 224 0

548,104 594,338

276-5 290-8

Of the total population in 1980,48 -4% were male, 70-7% were urban and 65 • 7% were 21 years old or older. The 1980 census figures show Wilmington with population of 70,195; Newark, 25,241; Dover, 23,512; Elsmere Town, 6,493; Milford City, 5,356; Seaford City, 5,256. C L I M A T E . Wilmington. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 4 3 " (1,076 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1375. . C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution (the fourth) dates from 1897, and has had 51 amendments; it was not ratifiedfBy tfie electorate but promulgated by the Constitutional Convention. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 21 members elected for 4 years and a House of Representatives of 41 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. With necessary exceptions, all adult citizens, registered as voters, who are bona fide residents, and have complied with local residential requirements, have the right to vote. Delaware is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 1 representative, elected by the voters of the whole state. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 151,494 votes, Mondale, 100,632. The state capital is Dover. Delaware is divided into 3 counties. Governor: Michael N. Castle (R.), 1984-88 ($70,000). Lieut. - Governor: S. B. Woo (D.),($ 19,200). Secretary of State: Michael Harkins (R.) ($49,300) (appointed by the Governor). F I N A N C E . For the year ending 30 June 1986 total revenue was $l,987m., of which federal grants were $297 • 7m. Total expenditure was $799m. On 30 June 1986 the total debt was $603 • 1 m. Per capita income (1985) was $14,272. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. The mineral resources of Delaware are not extensive, consisting chiefly of clay products, stone, sand and gravel and magnesium compounds. Value of mineral production in 1980 was $2m. Agriculture. Delaware is mainly an industrial state, but 650,000 acres is in farms, which in 1985 numbered 3,500; average farm was of 186 acres. The average farm was valued (land and buildings) at $323,500 in 1984. Cash income, 1985, from crops and livestock, $491 -2m., of which $383 • 5m. was from livestock and products. The chief crops are corn and soybeans. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufacturing establishments employed 72,100 people; value added by manufacture (1982), $2,466m., mainly from chemicals, transport equipment and food. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in 1986 maintained 4,702 miles of roads and streets and 1,387 miles of federally-aided highways. There were also 601 miles of municipal maintained streets. Vehicles registered in year ended 30 June 1986,503,828.

1444

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Railways. In 1986 the state had 285 miles of railway. Aviation. Delaware had 12 airports, all of which were for general use in 1986. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State prisons, 1 July 1985-30 June 1986, had daily average of 2,621 inmates. The death penalty was illegal from 2 April 1958 to 18 Dec. 1961. Executions since 1930 (by hanging) have totalled 12 (none since 1946). Religion. Membership, 1979-80: Methodists, 60,489; Roman Catholics, 103,060; Episcopalians, 18,696; Lutherans, 10,000. Education. The state has free public schools and compulsory school attendance. In Sept. 1986 the elementary and secondary public schools had 94,410 enrolled pupils and 5,883 full-time equivalent classroom teachers. Another 21,800 children were enrolled in private and parochial schools. Appropriation for public schools (financial year 1985-86) was about $359 • 5m. Average salary of classroom teachers (financial year 1985-86), $24,624. The state supports the University of Delaware at Newark (1834) which had 783 full-time faculty members and 18,631 students in Sept. 1986, Delaware State College, Dover (1892), with 157 full-time faculty members and 2,327 students, and the 4 campuses of Delaware Technical and Community College (Wilmington, Stanton, Dover and Georgetown) with 124 fulltime faculty members and 6,000 students. Health. In 1986 there were 7 short-term general hospitals. During financial year 1982 patients in mental hospitals numbered 1,963. Social Security. In 1974 the federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programme lessened state responsibility for the aged, blind and disabled. SSI payments in Delaware (1984), $13-lm. Provisions are also made for the care of dependent children; in 1983 there were 26,000 recipients in 9,500 families (average monthly payment per family, $246). The total state programme for the year ending 30 June 1984 was $27m. for the care of dependent children. Books of Reference Information: Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Hall of Records, Dover. Delaware Data Book. Delaware Development Office. Dover, 1985 State Manual, Containing Official List of Officers, Commissions and County Officers. Secretary of State, Dover. Annual Hoffecker, C. E., Delaware: a Bicentennial History. New York, 1977 Smeal, L., Delaware Historical and Biographical Index. New York, 1984 Weslager, C. A., Delaware Indians, aHistory. Rutgers Univ. Press, 1972 Topical History of Delaware. Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs. Dover, 1977

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA H I S T O R Y . The District of Columbia, organized in 1790, is the seat of the Government of the US, for which the land was ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia to the US as a site for the national capital. It was established under Acts of Confess in 1790 and 1791. Congress first met in it in 1800 and federal authority over it became vested in 1801. In 1846 the land ceded by Viiginia (about 33 sq. miles) was given back. AREA AND POPULATION. The District forms an enclave on the Potomac River, where the river forms the south-west boundary of Maryland. The area of the District of Columbia is 68-68 sq. miles, 6 sq. miles being inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 638,333, a decrease of 16% from that of 1970. Estimate (1983) 623,000. Metropolitan statistical area of Washington, D.C.-Md-Va. (1980), 3m. Density of population in the District, 1980, 10,453 per sq. mile. Births, 1984, in the District were 19,123 (30-7 per 1,000 population); resi-

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

1445

dent deaths, 8,302 (13-3); infant deaths, 393 (20-6 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,488 (8-8); divorces, 2,874 (4-6). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 236,128 353,981 345,263

Negro 94,446 132,068 411,737

1970 1980

209,272 171,768

537,712 448,906

Indian 68 40 587

Chinese and Japanese 427 780 3,532

Alt others 9,526 17,659

Total 331,069 486,869 763,956

Persq. mile 5,517-8 7,981-5 12,523-9

756,510 638,333

12,321-0 10,184-0

C L I M A T E . Washington. Jan. 34°F ( I P C ) , July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,064 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1375. G O V E R N M E N T . Local government, from 1 July 1878 until Aug. 1967, was that of a municipal corporation administered by a board of 3 commissioners, of whom 2 were appointed from civil life by the President, and confirmed by the Senate, for a term "of 3 years eaclf. TBe other commissioner was detailed by the President from the Engineer Corps of the Army. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1967 submitted by the President to Congress on 1 June 1967 abolished the Commission form of government and instituted a new Mayor Council form of government with officers appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. On 24 Dec. 1973 the appointed officers were replaced by an elected Mayor and councillors, with full legislative powers in local matters as from 1974. Congress retains the right to legislate, to veto or supersede the Council's acts. The 23rd amendment to the federal constitution (1961) conferred the right to vote in national elections; in the 1984 presidential election Mondale polled 172,459 votes, Reagan, 26,805. On 23 Aug. 1978 the Senate approved a constitutional amendment giving the District full voting representation in Congress. In order to become part of the constitution the amendment must be ratified by 38 state legislatures within 7 years. It would give the District 2 senators and a number of representatives according to population. B U D G E T . The District's revenues are derived from a tax on real and personal property, sales taxes, taxes on corporations and companies, licences for conducting various businesses and from federal payments. In financial year 1982 the Council authorized a budget of $ 1,513,255,700. The District of Columbia has no bonded debt not covered by its accumulated sinking fund. Per capita personal income, 1984, $16,845. I N D U S T R Y . The District's main industries (1984) are government service (258,000 workers); services (204,000); wholesale and retail trade (63,000); finance, real estate, insurance (35,000), communications, transport and utilities (26,000); total workforce, 1984,612,000. T O U R I S M . About 17m. visitors stay in the District every year and spend about $ 1,000m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Within the District are 340 miles of bus routes. There are 1,101 miles of streets maintained by the District; of these, 673 miles are local streets, 262 miles are major arterial roads. Railways. There is a rapid rail transit system including a town subway system. This coordinates with the bus system and connects with Union railway station and the National Airport. Nine rail lines serve the District. Aviation. The District is served by 3 general airports; across the Potomac River in Arlington, Va., is National Airport, in Chantilly, Va., is Dulles International Airport and in Maryland is Baltimore—Washington International Airport.

1446

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. Since 1958 there have been no executions; from 1930 to 1957 there were 40 executions (electrocution) including 3 whites for murder and 35 Negroes for murder and 2 for rape. The death penalty was declared unconstitutional in the District ofColumbia on November 16,1973 The District's Court system is the Judicial Branch of the District of Columbia. It is the only completely unified court system in the United States, possibly because of the District's unique city-state jurisdiction. Until the District of Columbia Court Reform and Criminal Procedure Act of 1970, the judicial system was almost entirely in the hands of Federal Government. Since that time, the system has been similar in most respects to the autonomous systems of the states. Religion. The largest churches are the Protestant and Roman Catholic Christian churches; there are also Jewish, Eastern Orthodox and Islamic congregations. Education. In 1983-84 there were about 89,000 pupils in secondary and elementary schools. Expenditure on public schools, 1985, $38 lm. In 1985, public school teachers' average salary was $28,600. There were also 17,560 pupils in private elementary and secondary schools in 1981-82. Higher education is given through the Consortium of Universities of the Metropolitan Washington Area, which consists of six universities and three colleges: Georgetown University, founded in 1795 by the Jesuit Order (12,000 students in 1982); Geoige Washington University, non-sectarian founded in 1821 (17,000); Howard University, founded in 1867 (11,000); Catholic University of America, founded in 1887 (7,700; American University (Methodist) founded in 1893 (12,500); University of D.C., founded 1976 (13,500); Gallandet College, founded 1864 (1,000); Mount Vernon College, founded 1875 (500); Trinity College, founded 1897 (1,000). There are altogether 18 institutes of higher education with total enrollment (1982), 83,000. All benefit from such facilities as the 12 museums of the Smithsonian Institution, the Library of Congress, National Archives, and the Legal Libraries of the US Supreme Court and Department of Justice. Social Security The District government provides primary health care for residents, mainly through its Department of Human Services, (about 6,280 employees). Departmental budget, 1981, $470m. of District, Federal and other funds. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Metropolitan Washington Board of Trade publications. Reports ofthe Commissioners ofthe District ofColumbia. Annual. Washington Federal Writers' Project. Washington, D. C.: A Guide to the Nation's Capital. New York

FLORIDA H I S T O R Y . White men, probably Spaniards but possibly English, saw Florida for the first time in the period 1497-1512. Juan Ponce de Leon sighted Florida on 27 March 1513. Going ashore between 2 and 8 April in the vicinity of what is now St Augustine, he named the land 'Pasqua de Flores' because his landing was 'in the time of the Feast of Flowers'. The first permanent settlement in the entire US was made at St Augustine, 8 Sept. 1565. It was claimed by Spain until 1763, then ceded to England; back to Spain in 1783, and to the US in 1821. Florida became a Territory in 1821 and was admitted into the Union on 3 March 1845. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Florida is a peninsula bounded west by the Gulf of Mexico, south by the Straits of Florida, east by the Atlantic, north by Georgia and north-west by Alabama. Area, 58,664 sq. miles, including 4,510 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 9,746,324, an increase of 43-4% since 1970. Estimate (April 1 1984) 10,930,389. Births in 1983 were

FLORIDA

1447

148,678; deaths, 114,493; infant deaths, 2,738; marriages, 118,965; divorces, 71,226. Population in 5 federal census years was: 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 1,381,986 2,166,051 4,063,881 5,719,343 8,319,448

Negro 514,198 603,101 880,168 1,041,651 1,342,478

AllOthers 1,230 2,153 7,493 28,449 84,398

Total 1,897,414 2,771,305 4,952,788 6,789,443 9,746,324

Per Sq. Mile 35 0 51 1 91 5 125 6 180 1

Of the population in 1980,48% of the total were male; 84-3% were urban and 72 -4% were 20 years of age or over. The largest cities in the state, 1980 census (and 1984 estimates) are: Jacksonville, 540,898 (571,427); Miami, 346,931 (383,027); Tampa, 271,523 (275,512); St Petersburg, 236,893 (242,115); Fort Lauderdale, 153,256 (152,053); Hialeah, 145,254 (157,137); Orlando, 128,394 (137,043); Hollywood, 117,188 (123,483); Miami Beach, 96,298 (97,340); Clearwater, 85,450 (93,648); Tallahassee, 81,548 (113,564); Gainesville, 81,371 (168,243); West Palm Beach, 62,530 (65,731); Largo, 58,977 (61,527); Pensacola, 57,619 (60,584). C L I M A T E . Jacksonville. Jan. 55°F (12 -80C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,353 mm). Key West. Jan. 70°F(21 1°C), July 83"F (28- 3°C). Annual rainfall 39" (968 mm). Miami. Jan. 67°F(19-4°C), July 82°F(27 8°C). Annual rainfall 60" (1,516 mm). Tampa. Jan. 61'F(16-1°Q, July 81°F(27 2°C). Annual rainfall 51" (1,285 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1968 Legislature revised the constitution of 1885. The state legislature consists of a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and House of Representatives with 120 members elected for 2 years. Sessions are held annually, and are limited to 60 days. The Governor is elected for 4 years, and can hold two terms in office. Two senators and 19 representatives are elected to Congress. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,512,318 votes and Mondale, 1,373,137. The state capital is Tallahassee. The state is divided into 67 counties. Governor Bob Martinez (R.), 1987-91 ($69,550). Lieut.-Governor Wayne Mixson (D.), 1987-91 ($60,455). Secretary of State George Firestone (D.), 1987-91 ($59,385). F I N A N C E . There is no state income tax on individuals. For the year ending 30 June 1984 the state had a total revenue of $25,073m. and total expenditure of $22,562m. General revenue fund expenditure was $5,980m., of which education took $3,450m.; public welfare, $510m.; and highways, $28m. Net long-term debt, 30 June 1981, amounted to $ 1,940-8m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 12,763 (preliminary). NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Chief mineral is phosphate rock, of which marketable production in 1984 was 37-9m. tonnes, leading all states (national production 42-6m. tons). Total value of mineral production, 1983, $1,275m. Agriculture. In 1983, there were 58,000 farms; net income per farm was $37,231. Total value of all farm land and buildings, 1981, $19,600m. There were 665,400 acres in citrus groves and 12-7m. acres of other farms and ranches. Total cash receipts from crops and livestock (1984), $4,587m., of which crops provided $3,496m. Oranges, grapefruit, melons and vegetables are important. Other crops are soybeans, sugar-cane, tobacco and peanuts. On 1 Jan. 1985 the state had 2 2m. cattle, including 164,000 milch cows, and 190,000 swine. The national forests area in Sept. 1980 was 1,097,930 acres. There were (1983) 16m. acres of commercial forest.

1448

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Fisheries. Florida has extensive fisheries for oysters, shrimp, red snapper, crabs, mackerel and mullet. Catch (1984), 207m. lb. valued at $178m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 there were 13,903 manufacturers. They employed 507,830 persons. The metal-working, lumber, chemical, woodpulp, food-processing and instruments industries are important. TOURISM. During 1983 38 9m. tourists visited Honda. They spent $22,800m. making tourism one of the biggest industries in the state. There are 127 state parks, 4 state forests, 1 national park and 4 national forests. The state parks were visited by 14-4m. people in 1984-85, l-2m. of them campers. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1982) had 93,797 miles of road and streets including 8,854 miles of primary federally-aided highways. In 1982-83,11 -4m. vehicle licence plates were issued. Railways. In 1981 there were 3,421 miles of railway. Aviation. In 1984 Florida had 591 airports, including 137 public use airports of which 16 are international, 20 have air carrier service and 10 have scheduled commuter service. There are 3 public and 9 private seaplane bases. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Since 1968 there have been 13 executions, by electrocution, for murder; from 1930 to 1968 there were 168 executions (electrocution), including 130 for murder, 37 for rape and 1 for kidnapping. State prisons, 30 June 1985, had 28,281 m-mates. Religion. The main Christian churches are Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian and Episcopalian. Education. Attendance at school is compulsory between 7 and 16. In 1984-85 the public elementary and secondary schools had 1,524,107 enrolled pupils. Total expenditure on public schools (1983-84) was $4,493-3m. The state maintains 28 community colleges with 698,718 enrolments in 1983-84. There are 9 universities in the state system, namely the University of Florida at Gainesville (founded 1853) with 31,908 students in 1983; the Florida State University (founded at Tallahassee m 1857) with 21,267 students; the University of South Florida at Tampa (founded 1960) with 26,172 students; Florida A. & M. University at Tallahassee (founded 1887) with 4,894 students; Florida Atlantic University (founded 1964) at Boca Raton with 9,388 students; the University of West Florida at Pensacola with 5,922 students; the University of Central Florida at Orlando with 15,648 students; the University of North Florida at Jacksonville with 5,458 students; Florida International University at Miami with 14,868 students. Health. Hospitals, 1985, numbered 269 with 62,795 beds; there were 220 general, 48 special and 1 tuberculosis hospitals. Social Security. From 1974 aid to the aged, blind and disabled became a federal responsibility. The state continued to give aid to families with dependent children and general assistance. Monthly payments 1983-84: aid to 2,624 blind averaged $220.90; aid to 186,460 dependent children averaged $73.17; aid to 82,239 disabled averaged $215.61; aid to 70,769 aged averaged $189.42. Books of Reference Florida Population. Summary ofthe 1980 Census. Univ of Florida Press, 1981 Florida Statistical Abstract. Univ of Florida Press, 1983 Florida Tourist Study- Florida Department of Commerce, Tallahassee. Annual Report Florida Secretary of State. Tallahassee Biennial Report of the Comptroller Tallahassee. Biennial Morris, Allen. The Florida Handbook. Tallahassee Biennial Fernald, E. A.,(ed.) Atlas of Florida. Florida State Univ , 1981 State Library Gray Building, Tallahassee Librarian. Barratt Wilkins.

1449

GEORGIA

GEORGIA H I S T O R Y . Georgia (so named from George II) was founded in 1733 as the 13th original colony; she became the 4th original state. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Georgia is bounded north by Tennessee and North Carolina, north-east by South Carolina, east by the Atlantic, south by Florida and west by Alabama. Area, 58,910 sq. miles, of which 854 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 5,464,265. Estimate (1983), 5,732,000. Births, 1984, were 91,761 (15 7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 47,303 (8 1); infant deaths, 1,221 (13 3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 75,817 (13); divorces and annulments, 34,084 (5 8). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,431,802 1,837,021 2,817,223

Negro 1,176,987 1,071,125 1,122,596

1970 1980

3,391,242 3,948,007

1,187,149 1,465,457

Indian 95 43 749

Asiatic 237 317 2,004

All others 11,184 50,801

Total 2,609,121 2,908,506 3,943,116

Per sq. mile 44 4 49 7 67 7

4,589,575 5,464,265

79 0 92 7

Of the 1980 population, 2,641,030 were male, 3,406,171 were urban and those 20 years of age and over numbered 3,601,895. The largest cities are: Atlanta (capital), with population, 1980 census, of422,293 (urbanized area, 2,010,368); Columbus, 168,598 (238,593); Savannah, 133,672 (225,581 ); Macon, 116,044 (251,736); Albany, 74,471 (112,257). C L I M A T E . Atlanta. Jan. 43°F (6-IX), July 78'F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 49" (1,234 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was ratified in the general election of 2 Nov. 1976, proclaimed on 22 Dec. 1976 and became effective 1 Jan. 1977. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 56 members and a House of Representatives of 180 members, both elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Legislative sessions are annual, beginning the 2nd Monday in Jan. and lasting for 40 days. Georgia was the first state to extend the franchise to all citizens 18 years old and above. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 representatives. Registered voters, 1976, numbered 2,178,623. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,050,852 votes, Mondale, 696,181. The state capital is Atlanta. Georgia is divided into 159 counties. Governor: Joe F. Harris (D.), 1987-91 ($79,358). Lieut.-Governor: Zell Miller (D.), ($41,496). Secretary of State: Max Cleland (D.), ($51,896). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 general revenue was $9,009m. (taxes, $4,666m.; federal aid, $2,158m.); general expenditure was $8,401m. (education, $2,900m.; public welfare, $895m.; hospitals, $ 1,384m.). On 30 June 1982 total liability was $6,877m. Estimated per capita personal income ( 1984), was $ 11,441. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Georgia is the leading producer of kaolin. The state ranks first in production of crushed and dimensional granite, second in production of fuller's earth and marble (crushed and dimensional). Mineral products, 1982, had a value of $718m. Agriculture. In 1985, 50,000 farms covered 14m. acres; average farm was of 280 acres; average value per acre, $865. For 1982 cotton output was 235,000 bales (of

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U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

480 lb.). Other crops include tobacco, corn, soybeans, peanuts and pecans. Cash income, 1984, $3,667m: from crops, $ 1,739m.; from livestock, $1,849m. On 1 Jan. 1985 farm animals included 1 -8m. all cattle, including 118,000 milch cows, and 1 -2m. swine. Forestry. The forested area in 1980 was 25m. acres. INDUSTRY. In 1984 the state's manufacturing establishments had 545,000 workers; the main groups were textiles, transport equipment, food, wood products and paper, chemicals. Trade employed 608,000, services 440,000. T O U R I S M . In 1982 tourists spent $6,380m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage (Dec. 1980) was 134,500 including 88,900 rural and 11,850 primary federal-aided. Motor vehicles registered, 1981, numbered 3,850,000. Railways. In 1976 there were 5,417 miles of railways. A metro opened in Atlanta in 1979. Aviation. In 1981 there were 125 public and 168 private airports. Shipping. The principal port is Savannah. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State and federal prisons, 31 Dec. 1984, had 15,731 inmates. Since 1964 there have been two executions (for murder). From 1924 to 1964 there were 415 executions (electrocution), including 75 whites and 268 Negroes for murder, 3 whites and 63 Negroes for rape and 6 Negroes for armed robbery. Under a Local Option Act, the sale of alcoholic beverages (not including malt beverages and light wines) is prohibited in more than half the counties. Religion. An estimated 78% of the population are church members. Of the total population, 74 • 3% are Protestant, 3 • 2% are Roman Catholic and 1 • 5% Jewish. Education. Since 1945 education has been compulsory; tuition is free for pupils between the ages of 6 and 18 years. In 1983 there were 1,303 public elementary schools and 438 public secondary schools; in autumn 1983 they had lm. pupils and (1985) 56,310 teachers. Teachers' salaries averaged $21,200 in 1985. Expenditure on public schools (1985), $2,192m. Integration in public schools is now an accepted practice. The University of Georgia (Athens) was founded in 1785 and was the first chartered State University in the US. Other institutions of higher learning include Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta), Emory University (Atlanta), Agnes Scott College (Decatur), Georgia College (Milledgeville), Georgia State University (Atlanta) and Mercer University (Macon). The Atlanta University Center, devoted primarily to Negro education, includes Clark College and Morris Brown College, co-educational, Morehouse, a .liberal arts college for men, Interdenominational Theological Center, a co-educational theological school, and Spelman College, the first liberal arts college for Negro women in the US. Atlanta University serves as the graduate school centre for the complex. Wesleyan College near Macon is the oldest chartered women's college in the US. Total enrolment, 1982, was 198,000 in 80 institutions of higher education. Health. Hospitals licensed by the Department of Human Resources, 1983, numbered 191 with 33,500 beds. State facilities for the mentally retarded had 1,363 resident patients in 1980; there were 4,527 in mental care hospitals. Social Security. In Dec. 1980,71,100 persons were receiving SSI old-age assistance of an average $104 per month; 89,900 families were receiving as aid to dependent children an average of $133 per family; aid to 80,500 disabled persons was $163 monthly.

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1451

Books of Reference Georgia History in Outline. Univ. of Georgia Press, Athens, 1978 Bonner, J. C., and Roberts, L. E., eds., Studies in Georgia History and Government. Reprint Company, Spartanburg, 1940 Repr. Pound, M. B.,andSaye, A. a., Handbook on the Constitution of the U.S. and Georgia. Univ. of Georgia Press, Athens, 1978 Rowland, A. R., A Bibliography of the Writings on Georgia History. Hamden, Conn., 1978 Saye, A. B., A Constitutional History of Georgia, 1732-1968. Univ. of Georgia, Athens, Rev. ed., 1970 Stale Library: Judicial Building, Capital Sq., Atlanta. Stale Librarian: John D. M. Folger.

HAWAII H I S T O R Y . The Hawaiian Islands, formerly known as the Sandwich Islands, were discovered by Capt. James Cook in Jan. 1778. During the greater part of the 19th century the islands formed an independent kingdom, but in 1893 the reigning Queen, Liliuokalani (died 11 Nov. 1917), was deposed and a provisional government formed; in 1894 a Republic was proclaimed, and in accordance with the request of the people of Hawaii expressed through the Legislature of the Republic, and a resolution of the US Congress of 6 July 1898 (signed 7 July by President McKinley), the islands were on 12 Aug. 1898 formally annexed to the US. On 14 June 1900 the islands were constituted as a Territory of Hawaii. Statehood was granted to Hawaii on 18 March 1959. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Hawaiian Islands lie in the North Pacific Ocean, between 18° 50' and 28° 15' N. lat. and 154" 40' and 178° 15' W. long., about 2,090 nautical miles south-west of San Francisco. There are more than 20 islands in the group, of which 7 are inhabited. The land and inland water area of the state is 6,471 sq. miles, with census population, 1 April 1980, of 964,691, an increase of 194,778 or 25-4% since 1970; density was 163 -8 persq. mile. The principal islands are Hawaii, 4,035 sq. miles (population, 1980, 92,053); Maui, 735 (62,823); Oahu, 618 (762,534); Kauai, 558 (38,856); Molokai, 264 (6,049); Lanai, 141 (2,119); Niihau, 71 (226); Kahoolawe, 46 (0). The capital Honolulu, on the island of Oahu, had a population in 1980 of 365,048 and Hilo on the island of Hawaii, 35,269. Figures for racial groups, 1980, are: 331,925 White, 239,734 Japanese, 132,075 Filipinos, 118,251 Hawaiian, 55,916 Chinese, 17,453 Korean, 17,687 Negroes, 51,650 all others. Of the total, approximately 93% were citizens of the US. Inter-marriage between the races is popular. Of the 13,483 persons married in the calendar year 1982,35-7% married a wife or husband of a different race. Births, 1984, were 18,756; deaths, 5,942; infant deaths, 205; marriages, 14,982; divorces and annulments, 4,769. C L I M A T E . All the islands have a tropical climate, with an abrupt change in conditions between windward and leeward sides, most marked in rainfall. Temperatures vary little. Honolulu. Jan. 71°F(21-7°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 31" (775 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution took effect on 21 Aug. 1959. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 25 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 51 members elected for 2 years. The constitution provides for annual meetings of the legislature with 6Q-day. regular sessions. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The registered voters, 1984, numbered 418,904. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 185,050 votes, Mondale, 147,154.

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U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

Governor: John Waihee (D.), 1986-90 ($80,000). BUDGET. Revenue is derived mainly from taxation of sales and gross receipts, real property, corporate and personal income, and inheritance taxes, licences, public land sales and leases. For the year ending 30 June 1984 state general fund receipts amounted to $l,314-5m.; special fund receipts, $848-6m., and federal grants, $364-9m. (included as $10-8m. of general funds and $354-lm. of special funds). State expenditures were $2,077-67m. (education, $696-2m.; highways, $49m.; public welfare, $328 -4m.; figures include both special and general funds). Net long-term debt, 31 Dec. 1984, amounted to $2,715 • 7m. Estimated per capita personal income (1984) was $ 13,767. N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. Total value of mineral production, 1983, amounted to $52,411,000. Cement shipped from plants amounted to 222,000 short tons; stone, 5,532,000 short tons. Agriculture. Farming is highly commercialized, aiming at export to the American market, and highly mechanized. In 1982 there were 4,400 farms with an acreage of 1 -96m. Sugar and pineapples are the staple crops. Income from crop sales, 1984, was $466-8m., and from livestock, $87 0m. The sugar crop was valued at $256 -2m.; pineapples, $89 -9m.; other crops, $ 120 • 7m. Forestry. Commercial forests totalled 948,000 acres (1977 census); state lands in 1985,1 -2m. acres. Land held by the federal government totalled 327,406 acres. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1982 manufacturing establishments employed 16,000 production workers who earned an estimated $217 • 5m. Commerce. In 1983 imports of newsprint, fertilizer, lumber, feed, crude oil and other products from foreign countries such as Saudi Arabia, Indonesia and Japan were $ 1,828m.; exports, primarily food and manufactures, amounted to $203 -3m. Tourism. Tourism is an outstanding factor in Hawaii's economy. Tourist arrivals numbered 109,798 in 1955, and reached 4-85m. in 1984. Tourist expenditures, totalling $55m. in 1955, contributed $4,582m. to the state's economy in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 717,171 motor vehicles, and a total of3,887 • 54 miles of highways (including 57 miles of federally assisted highways in 1984). Aviation. There were 8 commercial airports in 1984; passengers arriving from overseas numbered 5 -26m., and there were 7 • 6m. passengers between the islands. Shipping. Several lines of steamers connect the islands with the mainland USA, Canada, Australia, the Philippines, China and Japan. In 1982, 10,276 inbound vessels entered Hawaiian ports. Post. There were 728,352 telephones at 31 Dec. 1981. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There is no capital punishment in Hawaii. Religion. The residents of Hawaii are mainly Christians, though there are many Buddhists. A sample survey in 1979 showed that 31% were Roman Catholic, 34% Protestant, 12% Buddhist, 2 • 5% Latter Day Saints. Education. Education is free, and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 18. The language in the schools is English. In 1984-85 there were 231 public

IDAHO

1453

schools (163,860 pupils with 8,060 teachers) and 141 private schools (37,009 pupils and 2,393 teachers) ranging from kindergarten through the 12th grade. The University of Hawaii, founded in 1907, had 21,112 day students in 1983; total university and college attendance 1984-85, 63,429 at the University and Community colleges, 8,620 at private colleges. Social Security. During 1983 the state spent $303-7m., the federal government provided $133-4m. of this. In 1983 there were 23 non-military hospitals (2,387 beds) listed by the Department of Health. During 1984 the average number of persons served by major welfare programmes was 62,430. Books of Reference Government in Hawau. Tax Foundation of Hawaii. Honolulu, 1985 Guide to Government in Hawaii. 8th ed. Legislative Reference Bureau. State of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1984 All About Hawaii. Thrum's Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide Honolulu, 1875 to 1974 Allen, G E., Hawaii's War Years 2 vols. Hawaii Umv Press, 1950-52 Bellr&~l.,.Last Among Equals. Hawaiian Statehoodand American Politics. Honolulu, 1984. Kuykendall, R. S., and Day, A. G , Hawaii, A History Rev ed. New Jersey, 1961 Morgan, J R . , H a w a i i . Boulder, 1982 P u k u i , M K., and Elbert, S. H., Hawaiian-English Dictionary Honolulu, 1957

IDAHO HISTORY. Idaho was first permanently settled in 1860, although there was a mission for Indians in 1836 and a Mormon settlement in 1855. It was organized as a Territory in 1863 and admitted into the Union as a state on 3 July 1890. AREA AND POPULATION. Idaho is bounded north by Canada, east by the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, south by Nevada and Utah, west by Oregon and Washington. Area, 83,564 sq. miles, of which 1,153 sq. miles are inland water. In 1983 the federal government owned 34,282,000 acres (65% of the state area). Census population, 1 April 1980, 943,935, an increase of 32-4% since 1970. Estimate(1984) 1,001,000. Births, 1984, 17,996 (18 per 1,000 population); deaths, 7,229 (7-2); infant deaths, 174 (9 7 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 13,264 (13 3); divorces, 6,210 (6 2).

Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970

White 319,221 438,840 657,383 693,375

Negro 651 668 1,502 3,655

1980

901,641

2,716

Indian 3,488 3,638 5,231 5,413

Asiatic 2,234 1,886 2,958 2,526

All others 39,578

Total 325,594 445,032 667,191 713,008 943,935

Persq. 3 5 8 8

mile 9 4 1 5

11 3

Of the total 1980 population, 471,155 were male, 509,702 were urban and those 20 years of age or older 600,242. The largest cities are Boise (capital) with 1980 census population of 102,160 (1984 estimate, 107,188); Pocatello, 46,340 (45,334); Idaho Falls, 39,734 (41,774); Lewiston, 27,986 (28,050); Twin Falls, 26,209 (28,168); Nampa, 25,112 (27,347). CLIMATE. Boise. Jan. 29°F (-1-7°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (303 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1374. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution adopted in 1890 is still in force; it has had 104 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 42 members and a House of Representatives of 84 members, all the legis-

1454

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

lators being elected for 2 years. The Governor, Lieut.-Governor and Secretary of State are elected for 4 years. Voters are citizens, over the age of 18 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 279,523 votes, Mondale, 108,510. The state is divided into 44 counties. The capital is Boise. Governor.Cecil Andrus(D.), 1987-91 ($50,000). Lieut.-Governor: C. L. Otter(R.), 1987-91 ($14,000). Secretary of State: Pete Cenarrusa (R.), 1987-91 ($37,500). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1985 (State Auditor's Office) general revenues were $551-lm. and general expenditures, $555-5m. (which includes $3 -4m. outstanding obligations). Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 10,174. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Production of the most important minerals (1984): Silver, 18 • 87m. troy oz.; copper, 3,701 tonnes; antimony, 557 short tons. There is some gold, lead, zinc and vanadium. Non-metallic minerals include phosphate rock (4-7m. tonnes), lime (87,000 short tons), garnet, gypsum, perlite, pumice, tungsten, molybdenum, crushed stone (1 -8m. short tons), sand and gravel and dimension stone. Value of total mineral output was $412m. in 1984. Agriculture. Agriculture is the leading industry, although a great part of the state is naturally arid. Extensive irrigation works have been carried out, bringing an estimated 4m. acres under irrigation; 83 reservoirs have a total capacity of 10-4m. acre-ft, 7 • 3 m. acre-ft of which is primarily used for irrigation. In 1985 there were 24,600 farms with a total area of 14-7m. acres (27% of the land area); average farm had 598 acres with land and buildings valued at approximately $749 per acre. In 1984 there were 51 soil conservation districts, managed by local farmers and ranchers, covering most of the state. Cash receipts from marketings, 1984, was $2,289m. ($ 1,386m. from crops and $903m. from livestock). The most important crops are potatoes and wheat— potatoes leading all states; in 1984 the production amounted to 86-6m. cwt, cash receipts $415 m. Other crops are sugar-beet, alfalfa, barley, field peas and beans, onions and apples. On 1 Jan. 1985 the number of sheep was 313,000; milch cows, 165,000; all cattle, 1 -78m.; swine, 112,000. Forestry. In 1983 a total of 20,635,700 acres (37-6% of the state's area) was in forests; 13,540,600 acres of this was commercial (non-reserved) forest. The volume of sawtimber in commercial forests was 139,600m. bd ft. The stumpage value of forest products was about $124m., and about $53lm. was added by processing. Ownership of commercial forests is 70% federal, 6-5% state and local government, 0-5% Indian, 22-3% private. Some 16,100 workers are involved in forestry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982 there were about 1,404 manufacturing establishments and they employed about 47,600 workers; value added by manufacture was $2,076-5m. T O U R I S M . Money spent by travellers in 1984 was about $l,200m. Estimated state and local tax receipts from tourism, $48m. Jobs generated, 25,000 (pay-roll over $300m.). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state maintained in 1985, 4,954 miles of the total of 68,808 miles of public roads; 745,462 passenger vehicles were registered in 1985. Railways. The state had (1985) 1,910 miles of railways (including 2 AMTRAK routes).

ILLINOIS

1455

Aviation. There were 68 municipally owned airports in 1985. Shipping. Water transport is provided from the Pacific to the Port of Lewiston, by way of the Columbia and Snake nvers, a distance of464 miles. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. The death penalty may be imposed for first degree murder, but the judge must consider mitigating circumstances before imposing a sentence of death. Since 1926 only 4 men (white) have been executed, by hanging (1 in 1926,2 in 1951 and 1 in 1957). At 1 Oct. 1985 14 prison inmates (13 men and 1 woman) were under sentence of death. Execution is now by lethal injection. The state prison system, 1 Oct. 1985,had 1,260 inmates. Religion. The leading religious denominations are the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon Church), Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Lutherans. Education. In 1984-85 public elementary schools {grades K to 6) had 118,647 pupils and 5,481 classroom teachers; secondary schools had 92,053 pupils and 4,980 classroom teachers. Average salary, 1984-85, of elementary and secondary classroom teachers, $20,032. The University of Idaho, founded at Moscow in 1889, had 459 professors and 8,970 students in 1984-85. TTiere are 9 other institutions of higher education; 5 of them are public institutions with a total enrolment (1984—85) of 21,914 (excluding vocational-technical colleges). Social Welfare. Old-age assistance is granted to persons 65 years of age and older. In Aug. 1985,1,014 persons were drawing an average of $105.86 per month; 6,023 families with 10,858 children were drawing an average of $243.85 per case (or $90.10 per eligible person); 28 blind persons, $73.21; 569 children were receiving $248.88 per child for foster care; 1,827 permanently and totally disabled persons, $133.69. Health. In Sept. 1985 skilled nursing covered 4,761 beds; intermediate care, 107; intermediate care for the mentally retarded 528. Hospitals had 3,547 beds and home health agencies totalled 36. Books of Reference Idaho Blue Book Secretary of State. Boise, 1983-84 Idaho. Idaho First National Bank Idaho Almanac Division of Economic and Community Affairs, 1977 Idaho s Yesterdays. State Historical Society Quarterly

ILLINOIS HISTORY. Illinois was first discovered by Joliet, and Marquette, two French explorers, in 1673. In 1763 the country was ceded by the French to the British. In 1783 Great Britain recognized the United States' title to the land that became Illinois; it was organized as a Territory in 1809 and admitted into the Union on 3 Dec. 1818. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Illinois is bounded north by Wisconsin, northeast by Lake Michigan, east by Indiana, south-east by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Kentucky), west by the Mississippi ¡liver (forming the boundary with Missouri and Iowa). Area, 56,400 sq. miles, of which 652 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1980, 11,426,518, an increase of 2-71% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 11,535,000. Births in 1984 were 175,907 (15-3 per l,000 population); deaths, 98,151 (8-5); infant deaths, 2,073 (11 -8 per 1,000 live births); marriages 102,504 (8 -9); divorces, 48,914(4-2).

1456

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

While 5,526,962 7,295,267 9,010,252

Negro 109,049 328,972 1,037,470

1970 1980

9,600,381 9,233,327

1,425,674 1,675,398

Indian 188 469 4,704

AH others 2,392 5,946 28,732

All others 87,921 517,793

Total 5,638,591 7,630,654 10,081,158

Per sq. mile 100 6 136 4 180 3

11,113,976 11,426,518

199 4 203 0

Of the total population in 1980, 5,537,737 were male, 9,518,039 persons were urban and 5,597,360 were 18 years of age or older. The most populous cities with population (1980 census), are: Chicago Rockford Peona Springfield (cap.) Decatur Joliet Aurora Evanston Waukegan Arlington Heights

3,005,072 139,712 124,160 99,637 94,081 77,956 81,293 73,706 67,653 66,116

Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area population, 1980 census (and 1985 estimate): Chicago, 7,102,378 (7,580,800); East St Louis, 565,874 (570,400); Peoria, 365,864 (347,700); Rockford, 279,514 (279,800); Springfield, 176,089 (189,600); Decatur, 131,375 (128,200). C L I M A T E . Chicago. Jan. 25°F(-3-9°C), July 73°F(22-8"C). Annual rainfall 33" (836 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution became effective 1 July 1971. The General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives of 118 members, elected for 2 years and a Senate of 59 members who are divided into three groups; in one, they are elected for terms of four years, four years, and two years; in the next, for terms of four years, two years, and four years; and in the last, for terms of two years, four years, and four years. Sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected as a team for 4 years; the Comptroller and Secretary of State are elected for 4 years. Electors are citizens 18 years of age, having the usual residential qualifications. The state is divided into legislative districts, in each of which 1 senator is chosen; each district is divided into 2 representative districts, in each of which 1 representative is chosen. Illinois is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 22 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,667,721 votes, Mondale, 2,036,337. The capital is Springfield. The state has 102 counties. Governor: James R. Thompson (R.), 1987-91 ($88,825). Lieut. - Governor: George Ryan(R.), 1987-91 ($62,700). Secretary of State: Jim Edgar, 1987-91 ($78,375). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1985 general revenues were $18,312m. and general expenditures were $ 17,991 m. Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1985, was $9,861 m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $ 12,626. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Chief mineral product is coal; 52 operative mines had an output (1985) of 60-5 m. tons. Mineral production also included: Crude petroleum, fluorspar tripoli and lime. Total value of mineral products, 1984, was$3,616-9m.

ILLINOIS

1457

Agriculture. In 1986, 87,000 farms had an area of 28 -7m. acres; the average farm was 330 acres. Cash receipts, 1985, from crops, $5,379m.; from livestock and livestock products, $2,176m. Illinois is a large producer of maize and soybeans, the state's leading cash commodities. Output, 1985: soybeans, 382-5m. bu; wheat, 36-7m. bu; maize, l,534-9m. bu. In Jan. 1986 there were 230,000 milch cows, 2-47m. all cattle; 109,000 sheep and (Dec. 1985)5-4m. swine. "Die wool clip in 1985 was lm. lb. Forestry. National forest area under the US Forest Service administration, Sept. 1985, was 262,291 acres. Total forest land, 5 -2m. acres. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1983, manufacturing establishments employed 1,024,300 workers; annual payroll, $22,908-9m. Largest industry was food and kindred products. Gross state product, 1985, $ 192,749,000. Labour. In 1985 there were 4-76m. employees, of whom 981,000 were in manufacturing, 1 -2m. in trade, 1 • 1 m. in services, 693,000 in government. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 6 • 5m. passenger cars, 1 -26m. trucks and buses, 16,384 taxis, liveries and ambulances, 502,316 trailers and semi-trailers, 222,448 motor cycles and 26,258 other vehicles registered in the state. At 31 Dec. 1985 there were 13,168-78 miles of state primary roads of which 1,621-9 miles were interstate; 3,864-02 miles of state supplementary roads and 269 • 18 miles of toll roads and toll bridges. Railways. There were, 1984, 8,841 miles of Class I railway. Chicago is served by Amtrak long-distance trains on several routes, and by a metro (CTA) system, and by 7 groups of commuter railways controlled by the Northeast Illinois Railroad Corporation (now called Metra). Shipping. In 1983 the seaport of Chicago handled 24,454,287 short tons of cargo. Aviation. There were (1986) 127 public airports and 722 restricted landing areas. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1985 there were no executions; since 1930 there have been 90 executions (electrocution), including 58 white men, 1 white woman and 31 Negro men, all for murder. In June 1986 the total average daily prison population was 18,513. A Civil Rights Act (1941), as amended, bans all forms of discrimination by places of public accommodation, including inns, restaurants, retail stores, railroads, aeroplanes, buses, etc., against persons on account of'race, religion, colour, national ancestry or physical or mental handicap'; another section similarly mentions 'race or colour.' The Fair Employment Practices Act of 1961, as amended, prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, colour, sex, religion, national origin or ancestry, by employers, employment agencies, labour organizations and others. These principles are embodied in the 1971 constitution. The Illinois Human Rights Act (1979), prevents unlawful discrimination in employment, real property transactions, access to financial credit, and public accommodations, by authorizing the creation of a Department of Human Rights to enforce, and a Human Rights Commission to adjudicate, allegations of unlawful discrimination. Religion. Among the larger religious denominations are: Roman Catholic (3 -6m.), Jewish (50,000), Presbyterian Church, USA (200,000), Lutheran Church in America (200,000), Lutheran Church Missouri Synod (325,000), American Baptist (105,000), Disciples of Christ (75,000), and United Methodist (505,000), Southern Baptist (265,000), United Church of Christ (192,000), Church of Nazarene (50,000), Assembly of God (63,000).

1458

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Education. Education is free and compulsory for children between 7 and 16 years of age. In autumn 1985 public school elementary enrolments were 1,246,496 pupils and 57,279 teachers; secondary enrolments, 597,982 pupils and 29,848 teachers. Enrolment (1985-86) in non-public schools was 261,950 elementary and 84,233 secondary. Teachers' salaries, 1985-86, averaged $25,812. Total enrolment in 179 institutions ofhigher education (autumn 1985) was 698,521. Colleges and universities with over 3,000 students: Founded 1851 1857 1867 1867 1869 1870 1890 1895 1895 1897 1898 1899 1940 1945 1961

Name Northwestern University Illinois State University University of Illinois Chicago State University' Southern Illinois University Loyola University University ofChicago Eastern Illinois University Northern Illinois University Bradley University DePaul University Western Illinois University Illinois Institute of Technology ! Roosevelt University Northeastern Illinois University'

Place Evanston Normal Urbana Chicago Carbondale Chicago Chicago Charleston DeKalb Peoria Chicago Macomb Chicago Chicago Chicago

Autumn 1985 Enrolment Control Methodist 15,861 Public 21,178 Public 65,169 Public 7,327 33,614 Public Roman Catholic 14,406 Non-Sect. 9,636 Public 10,491 Public 24,311 Non-Sect. 4,950 Roman Catholic 12,836 Public 11,845 Non-Sect. 6,227 Non-Sect. 6,385 Public 10,081

' Formerly Illinois Teachers College (South). Illinois Institute of Technology formed in 1940 by merger of two older technical schools. ' Formerly Illinois Teachers' College (North).

2

Health. In 1984 hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association numbered 277, with 69,403 beds. At June 1985 state institutions had 4,637 developmentally disabled and 3,488 mentally ill residents. Social Security. State-administered Supplemental Security Income (SSI) was paid to 45,830 recipients in financial year 1986; gross payments (no adjustments) totalled $53 -2m.; medical payments, $ 130m. Aid to families with dependent children was paid to 243,868 families, average monthly payment per family, $308-23; total payments, $902m.; medical payments, $484-8m. Books of Reference Blue Book of the Stale of Illinois. Edited by Secretary of State. Springfield. Biennial Angle, P. M., and Beyer, R. L., A Handbook of Illinois History. Illinois State Historical Society, Springfield, 1943 Clayton, J., The Illinois Fact Book and Historical Almanac ¡673-1968. Southern Illinois Univ., 1970 Howard, R. P., Illinois: A History of the Prairie State. Grand Rapids, 1972 Pease,T.C., The Story of Illinois. 3rd ed. Chicago, 1965 The Illinois State Library: Springfield, 11.62756. Stale Librarian: Jim Edgar.

INDIANA HISTORY. Indiana, first settled in 1732-33, was made a Territory in 1800 and admitted into the Union on 11 Dec. 1816. AREA AND POPULATION. Indiana is bounded west by Illinois, north by Michigan and Lake Michigan, east by Ohio and south by Kentucky across the Ohio River. Area, 36,185 sq. miles, of which 253 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 5,490,224, an increase of 294,832 or 5-7% since 1970. Estimate (1985) 5,499,000. In 1984 births were 79,883 (14-6 per 1,000 population); deaths 47,228 (8-6); infant deaths, 838 (10-5 per 1,000 live births); marriages53,719(9-8).

INDIANA

1459

Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 2,639,961 3,125,778 4,388,554

Negro 60,320 111,982 269,275

1970 1980

4,820,324 5,004,394

357,464 414,785

Indian 279 285 948

Asiatic 316 458 2,447

All others 15,881 71,045

Total 2,700,876 3,238,503 4,662,498

Per sq. mile 74 9 89 4 128 9

5,193,669 5,490,224

143 9 152 8

Of the total in 1980,2,665,805 were male, 3,525,298 were urban and 3,545,431 were 21 years of age or older. The largest cities with census population, 1980 (and 1984 estimates), are: Indianapolis (capital), 711,539 (710,280); Fort Wayne, 172,196(165,416); Gary, 151,9 5 3 (143,096); Evansville, 130,496 (130,333); South Bend, 109,727 (107,117); Hammond, 93,714 (89,364); Muncie, 77,216 (74,190); Anderson, 64,695 (61,771); Terre Haute, 61,125 (58,767). CLIMATE. Indianapolis. Jan. 29°F (-1-7°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 41" (1,034 mm). See The Mid-West, p. 13 74. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution (the second) dates from 1851; it has had (as of Nov. 1983) 34 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. A constitutional amendment of 1970 allows the legislators to set the length and frequency of sessions, which are currently held annually. The Governor and Lieut. Govemor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,332,679 votes, Mondale, 814,659. The state capital is Indianapolis. The state is divided into 92 counties and 1,008 townships. Governor Robert D. Orr (R.), 1984-88 ($66,000 plus expenses). Lieut.-Governor John Mutz (R.), 1984-88 ($51,000 plus expenses). Secretary of State: Evan Bayh (D.), 1986-90 ($46,000). BUDGET. In the fiscal year 1983-84 (US Census Bureau figures) total revenues were $7,163 2m. ($l,420-6m. from federal government, $4,043 4m. from taxes), total expenditures were $6,416-4m. ($1,350m. for education, $690 4m. for public welfare and $495 • 1 m. for highways). Total long-term debt, on 30 June 1984, was$l,391 5m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 11,725. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The state produced 26-7m. short tons of crushed stone and 159,000 short tons of dimension stone in 1984; the output of coal was 30-9m. short tons; petroleum, 5m. bbls (of 42 gallons). Agriculture. Indiana is largely agricultural, about 75% of its total area being in farms. In 1983, 87,000 farms had 17m. acres (average, 193 acres). Cash income, 1983, from crops, $2,180m.; from livestock and products, $ 1,829m. The chief crops (1982) were maize (815m. bu.), winter wheat (46-4m. bu.), oats (6-lm. bu.), soybeans (183-2m. bu.), popcorn, rye, barley, hay (alfalfa, clover, timothy), lespedeza seed, mint, clover seed, apples, strawberries, tomatoes, watermelons and tobacco. The livestock on 1 Jan. 1982 included 1 -75m. all cattle, 207,000 milch cows, 138,000 sheep and lambs, 4-lm. swine, 21-9m. chickens. In 1982 the wool clip yielded 852,000 lb. of wool from 124,000 sheep. Forestry. The national forests area, 9 Sept. 1983, was 188,252 acres; 13 state forests and 2 state nurseries totalled 142,336 acres in July 1983.

1460

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

INDUSTRY. Manufacturing establishments employed, in 1983, 580,800 workers, earning $ 13,124 -4m. The steel industry is the largest in the country. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 91,654 miles of highways, roads and streets, of which 66,412 miles were county highways and 11,148 miles state highways. Motor vehicles registered, 1985,4,460,976. Railways. In 1980 there were 5,252 miles of mainline railway, 921 miles of secondary track and 3,295 miles of side and yard track. Aviation. Of airports, 1984, 127 were for public use, 401 were private and 3 were military. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1963-80 there were no executions; there have since been 4, for murder. State correctional institutions, 31 Aug. 1986, had 10,873 inmates. The Civil Rights Act of 1885 forbids places of public accommodation to bar any persons on grounds not applicable to all citizens alike; no citizen may be disqualified for jury service 'on account of race or colour'. An Act of 1947 makes it an offence to spread religious or racial hatred. A 1961 Act provided ' a l l . . . citizens equal opportunity for education, employment and access to public conveniences and accommodations' and created a Civil Rights Commission. Religion. Religious denominations include Methodists, Roman Catholic, Disciples ofChrist, Baptists, Lutheran, Presbyterian churches, Society of Friends. Education. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 16 years. In 1985-86 public and parochial schools, had 1,071,485 pupils and 51,972 teachers. Teachers' salaries, grades 1-12, averaged $23,093 (1984—85). Total expenditure for public schools, $2,318-2m. The principal institutions for higher education are ( 1983-84): Founded 1801 1824 1837 1842 1850 1859 1870 1874 1898 1963

Institution Vincennes University Indiana University, Bloomington De Pauw University, Greencastle University of Notre Dame Butler University, Indianapolis Valparaiso University, Valparaiso Indiana State University, Terre Haute Purdue University, Lafayette Ball State University, Muncie Indiana Vocational Technical College, Indianapolis

Control State State Methodist R.C Independent Evangelical Lutheran Church State State State State

Students (full-time) 4,228 25,503 1,991 8,571 2,269 4,195 10,641 32,054 13,699 9,186

Health. Hospitals listed by the Indiana State Board of Health (1981) numbered 120 (23,929 beds). On 30 June 1983, 11 state mental hospitals had 6,273 patients enrolled (4,472 present). Social Security. Old-age assistance, assistance to the blind and to the disabled were transferred from state to federal programmes in June 1974. In July-Dec. 1985, state supplemental assistance and/or Federal Supplemental Security assistance was paid to an average of 12,173 elderly persons per month (total $8-6m.), 1,234 blind ($1 -6m.) and 32,217 disabled ($39 9m.). Books of Reference Indiana State Chamber of Commerce. Here is Your Indiana Government. 22nd ed. Indianapolis, 1985 State Library: Indiana State Library, 140 North Senate, Indianapolis 46204. Director C. Ray Ewick.

IOWA

1461

IOWA HISTORY. Iowa, first settled in 1788, was made a Territory in 1838 and admitted into the Union on 28 Dec. 1846. AREA AND POPULATION. Iowa is bounded east by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Wisconsin and Illinois), south by Missouri, west by the Missouri River (forming the boundary with Nebraska), north-west by the Big Sioux River (forming the boundary with South Dakota) and north by Minnesota. Area, 56,275 sq. miles, including 310 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,913,387, an increase of 317% since 1970. Estimate, 1984, 2,836,890. Births, 1984, were 42,340; deaths, 26,972; infant deaths, 376; marriages, 26,366; dissolutions of marriages, 10,509. Population in 5 census years was: 1870 1930 1960

White 1,188,207 2,452,677 2,729,286

Negro 5,762 17,38j0 25,354

1970 1980

2,782,762 2,838,805

32,596 41,700

Indian 48 660 1,708

Asiatic 3 222 1,022

All others 10,010 32,882

Tola! 1,194,020 2,470,939 2,757,537 2,825,368 2,913,387

Persq. mile 21-5 44.1 49-2 50-5 51-7

At the census of 1980, 1,416,195 were male, 1,624,547 were urban and 1,971,502 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities in the state, with their census population in 1980 are: Des Moines (capital), 191,003; Cedar Rapids, 110,243; Davenport, 103,243; Sioux City, 82,003; Waterloo, 75,985; Dubuque, 62,321; Council BlufTs, 56,449; Iowa City, 50,508; Ames, 45,775; Cedar Falls, 36,322; Clinton, 32,828; Mason City, 30,144; Burlington, 29,529; Fort Dodge, 29,423; Ottumwa, 27,381. C L I M A T E . Cedar Rapids. Jan. 18-5°F (-7-5°C), July 74-3°F (23 '5°C). Annual rainfall 36" (903 mm). Des Moines. Jan. 18-6°F (-7-5°C), July 76-3°F (29-6°C). Annual rainfall 31" (773 mm). See The Mid-West, p. 1374. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution of 1857 still exists; it has had 37 amendments. The General Assembly comprises a Senate of 50 and a House of Representatives of 100 members, meeting annually for an unlimited session. Senators are elected for 4 years, half retiring every second year: representatives for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Govemor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. Iowa is divided into 99 counties; the capital is Des Moines. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 698,239 votes, Mondale, 601,946. Governor: Terry Branstad (R.), 1987-91 ($64,000). Lieut.-Governor: Joann Zimmerman (D.), 1987-91 ($21,900). Secretary of State: Elaine Baxter (D.) ($41,000). BUDGET. For fiscal year 1984 state tax revenue was $l,977-8m. General expenditures were $l,120m. for education, $448-5m. for public welfare, and $41 • 3 m. for transport. On 30 June 1982 the net long-term debt was $857 -3m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $12,090. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The leading products by value are crushed stone (28-4m. tons in 1983) and cement (1 -68m. short tons in 1983). Coalfields produced 526,929 tons in 1982. The value of mineral products, 1983, was $247 -4m. Agriculture. Iowa is the wealthiest of the agriculture states, partly because nearly

1462

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

the whole area (95 -5%) is arable and included in farms. It has escaped large-scale commercial farming. The average farm (in 1985) was 306 acres. Cash farm income (1984 estimate) was $9,313m.; from livestock, $5,007m., and from crops, $4,306m. Production of corn in 1984 was 1,445m. bu. Red meat production in 1983 totalled 7,450m. lb. On 1 Dec. 1984 livestock included swine, 14-2m. (leading all states); milch cows, 345,000; all cattle, 5-8m., and sheep and lambs, 340,000. The wool clip (1984) yielded 3 • 3m. lb. of wool. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 manufacturing establishments employed 211,000 people: Trade, 271,000; services, 225,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1984 number of miles of streets and highways was 112,484; there were 2 -6m. licensed drivers and 2 -96m. registered vehicles. Railways. The state, 1984, had 4,695 miles of track, and 6 Class I railways. Aviation. Airports (1983), numbered 350, including 138 lighted airports and 93 all-weather runways. There were almost 3,100 private aircraft. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D

WELFARE

Justice. There is now no capital punishment in Iowa. State prisons, 14 Oct. 1984, had 2,703 inmates. Religion. Chief religious bodies in 1980 were: R o m a n Catholic (542,698 members); United Methodists, 258,252; American Lutheran, 200,712 baptised members; United Presbyterians, 85,000; United Church of Christ, 50,679. Education. School attendance is compulsory for 24 consecutive weeks annually during school age (7-16). In 1983-84 545,387 were attending primary and secondary schools; 50,422 pupils attending non-public schools. Classroom teachers numbered 20,140 with average salary of $20,000. Total expenditure on public schools in 1983-84 was $1,323,969,054. Leading institutions for higher education ( 1983-84) were: Founded 1843 1847 1847 1852 1853 1858 1876 1881 1881 1894

Institution Clarke College, Dubuque University of Iowa, Iowa City Grinnell College, Grinnell Wartburg College, Waverly Cornell College, Mount Vemon Iowa State University, Ames Univ. of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls Drake University, Des Moines Coe College, Cedar Rapids Morningside College, Sioux City

Full-time Control Professors Independent 50 State 1,601 102 Independent American Lutheran 65 Independent 63 1,554 State State 570 Independent 273 75 Independent Methodist 66

Students 906 29,599 1,131 1,140 962 26,020 11,204 6,008 1,371 1,233

Health. In 1985, the state had 136 hospitals (18,615 beds). In Oct. 1984 hospitals for mental diseases had 1,372 resident patients. Social Security. Iowa has a Civil Rights Act (1939) which makes it a misdemeanour for any place of public accommodation to deprive any person o f ' f u l l and equal enjoyment' of the facilities it offers the public. Supplemental security income (SSI) assistance is available for the aged (65 or older), the blind and the disabled. In Aug. 1985, 8,593 elderly persons were drawing an average of $102 per month, 878 blind persons $192 per month, and 16,831 disabled persons $194 per month. Aid to dependent children, established in 1974, was received by 39,813 families representing 123,762 persons at a monthly average of $335 per family. Books of Reference Statistical Information: State Departments of Health, Public Instruction and Social Services; State Aeronautics, Commerce and Development Commissions; Crop and Livestock Reporting Services, Des Moines; Iowa Dept. of Transportation, Ames; Geological Survey, Iowa City; Iowa College Aid Commission.

KANSAS

1463

Annual Survey of Manufactures. US Department ofCommerce Government Finance US Department of Commerce Official Register Secretary of State. Des Moines. Biennial Petersen, W J , Iowa History Reference Guide Iowa City, 1952 Smeal, L., Iowa Historical and Biographical Index New York, 1984 Vexier, R I., Iowa Chronology and Factbook Oceana, 1978 Iowa Stale Library Des Moines 50319

KANSAS HISTORY. Kansas, settled in 1727, was made a Territory (along with part of Colorado) in 1854, and was admitted into the Union with its present area on 29 Jan. 1861. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Kansas is bounded north by Nebraska, east by Missouri, with the Missouri River as boundary in the north-east, south by Oklahoma and west by Colorado. Area, 82,277 sq. miles, including 499 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,364,236, an increase of 5 1% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 2,328,000. Vital statistics, 1984: Births, 38,570 (15-8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 21,742 (8 9); infant deaths, 336 (8 7 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 24,795 (10-2); divorces 12,915 (5 3). Population in 5 federal census years was: 1870 1930 1960

White 346,377 1,811,997 2,078,666

Negro 17,108 66,344 91,445

1970 1980

2,122,068 2,168,221

106,977 126,127

Indian 914 2,454 5,069

Asiatic — 204 2,271

All others 17,533 69,888

Total 364,399 1,880,999 2,178,611 2,249,071 2,364,236

Persq. 4 22 26

mile 5 9 3

27 5 28 8

Ofthe total population in 1980,1,156,941 were male, 1,575,899 were urban and those 20 years of age or older numbered 1,620,368. Cities, with 1980 census population, are Wichita, 279,835; Kansas City, 161,148; Topeka (capital), 115,266; Overland Park, 81,784; Lawrence, 52,738. C L I M A T E . Dodge City. Jan. 29°F (-1 -7'C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 21" (518 mm). Kansas City. Jan. 30°F (-1 • PC), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 38" (947 mm). Topeka. Jan. 28°F(-2-2°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 35" (875 mm). Wichita. Jan. 31'F (-0-6°C), July 81"F (27 2°C). Annual rainfall 31" (777 mm). See Mid-West, p. 1374. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The year 1861 saw the adoption of the present constitution; it has had 78 amendments. The Legislature includes a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 125 members, elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The right to vote (with the usual exceptions) is possessed by all citizens. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 5 representatives. The state was the first (of 42 states) to establish in 1933 a Legislative Council; this is now called the Legislative Coordinating Council and has 7 members. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 649,423 votes, Mondale, 321,010. The capital is Topeka. The state is divided into 105 counties. Governor Mike Hayden (R,), 1987-91 ($65,000). Lieut.-Governor Thomas Docking (D.), 1987-91 ($18,207). Secretary of State: Bill Graves (R.) ($50,000). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1986 (Governor's Budget Report)general revenue fund was $ 1,863m. General expenditures were $ 1,738m.

1464

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

Bonded debt outstanding for 1982 amounted to $316 • 9m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $13,319. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Important minerals are coal, petroleum, natural gas, lead and zinc. Value of production (1982), $3,111m. of which fuels, $2,855m. Agriculture. Kansas is pre-eminently agricultural, but sometimes suffers from lack of rainfall in the west. In 1985, 72,000 farms covered 48m. acres; average farm, 667 acres. Cash income, 1984, from crops was $2,328m.; from livestock and products, $3,620m. Kansas is a great wheat-producing state. Its output in 1982 was 462m. bu. Other crops in 1982 (in bushels) were maize, 140-2m.; sorghum, 207-7m ; soybeans, 47m.; oats, 7-5m.; barley, 2-3m. The state has an extensive livestock industry, comprising, on 1 Jan. 1985, 108,000 milch cows, 5-86m. all cattle, 245,000 sheep and lambs l-6m. swine. Wool clip (1981), 1,684,000 lb. from 230,000 sheep. I N D U S T R Y , Employment distribution (1984): total workforce 961,000, of which 238,000 were in trade; 186,000 in government; 184,000 in services; 177,000 in manufacturing; 64,000 in transport and utilities; 52,000 in finance, insurance and real estate; 42,000 in construction. Value added by manufacture in 1980 was $7,498m. The slaughtering industry, other food processing, aircraft, the manufacture of transport equipment and petroleum refining are important. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in Dec. 1982 had 135,087 miles of roads and streets including 8,916 miles of interstate and other primary and federally-aided highways. Railways. There were 7,273 miles of railway in Jan. 1982. Aviation. There were 384 airports and landing strips in 1983, of which 168 were public. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There were 4,238 prisoners in state institutions, 30 June 1984. The death penalty (by hanging) for murder was abolished in 1907 and restored in 1935; there have been no executions since 1968; executions 1934 to 1968 have been 15 (all for murder). For the various Civil Rights Acts forbidding racial or political discrimination, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, p . 6 6 6 . T h e 1965 K a n s a s A c t against

Discrimination declared that it is the policy of the state to eliminate and prevent discrimination in all employment relations, and to eliminate and prevent discrimination, segregation or separation in all places of public accommodations covered by the Act. Religion. The most numerous religious bodies are Roman Catholic, Methodists and Disciples of Christ. Education. In 1982-83 organized school districts had 1,519 elementary and secondary schools which had 407,074 pupils and 26,053 teachers. Average salary of public school teachers, $18,231 (elementary and secondary). There were 20 independent colleges, 20 community colleges, 2 Bible colleges, 1 municipal university. Kansas has 6 state-supported institutions of higher education: the University of Kansas, Lawrence, founded in 1865; Kansas State University, Manhattan (1863); Emporia State University, Emporia; Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg; Fort Hays State University, Hays and Wichita State University, Wichita. The state also supports a two-year technical school, Kansas Technical Institute, at Salina. Health. In 1983 the state had 165 hospitals (18,300 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association; hospitals had an average daily occupancy rate of70 3%.

KENTUCKY

1465

Social Security. In Dec. 1980, 92,100 persons received state and federal aid under programmes of aid to the aged or disabled and aid to dependent children. Total payments amounted to $ 114 9m. in 1980. Books of Reference Annual Economic Report of the Governor Topeka Directory of State Officers, Boards and Commissioners and Interesting Facts Concerning Kansas. Topeka, Biennial Drury, J W , The Government ofKansas. Lawrence, Univ ofKansas, 1970 Zomow, W F , Kansas. A History of the Jayhawk Stale Norman, Okla., 1957 Slate Library Kansas State Library, Topeka.

KENTUCKY HISTORY. Kentucky, first settled in 1765, was originally part of Virginia; it was admitted into the Union on 1 June 1792 and its first legislature met on 4 June. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Kentucky is bounded north by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Illinois, Indiana and Ohio), north-east by the Big Sandy River (forming the boundary with West Virginia), east by Virginia, south by Tennessee and west by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Missouri). Area, 40,409 sq. miles, of which 740 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1980 3,660,777, an increase of 13-6% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 3,723,000. Births in 1984, 53,294 (14-4 per 1,000 population); deaths, 33,585 (9 0); infant deaths, 616 (11 -6 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 42,147 (11 4); divorces, 17,114 (4 6). Population in 5 census years was: 1930 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 2,388,364 2,742,090 2,820,083 2,981,766 3,379,006

Negro 226,040 201,921 215,949 230,793 259,477

All others 185 795 2,124 6,147 22,294

Total 2,614,589 2,944,806 3,038,156 3,218,706 3,660,777

Persq.mile 65 1 73 9 76 2 81 2 92 3

Of the total population in 1980,1,789,039 were male, 1,862,183 were urban and 2,359,614 were 21 years old or older. The principal cities with census population in 1980 are: Louisville, 298,694 (urbanized area, 654,938); Lexington-Fayette, 204,165; Owensboro, 54,450; Covington, 49,585; Bowling Green, 40,450; Paducah, 29,315; Hopkinsville, 27,318; Ashland, 27,064; Frankfort (capital), 25,973. C L I M A T E . Kentucky has a temperate climate. Temperatures are moderate during both winter and summer, precipitation is ample without a pronounced dry season, and there is little snow during the winter. Lexington. Jan. 33°F(0-6°C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,126 mm). Louisville. Jan. 33°F(0-6°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,077 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution dates from 1891; there had been 3 preceding it. The 1891 constitution was promulgated by convention and provides that amendments be submitted to the electorate for ratification. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 38 members elected for 4 years, one half retiring every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. A constitutional amendment approved by the voters in Nov. 1979, changes the year in which legislators are elected from odd to even numbered years and establishes an organizational session of the legislature, limited to ten legislative days, in odd-numbered years. The amendment provides for regular sessions limited to 60 legislative days between the first Tuesday after the first

1466

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

Monday of Jan. and 15 April of even numbered years. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. All citizens are (with necessary exceptions) qualified as electors; the voting age was in 1955 reduced from 21 to 18 years. Registered voters, May 1985: 2,086,773. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 822,782 votes, Mondale, 539,589. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 7 representatives. The capital is Frankfort. The state is divided into 120 counties. Governor Martha Layne Collins (D.), 1983-87 ($63,036).' Lieut.-Governor Stephen L. Beshear (D.)($53,589).' Secretary ofState Drexell R. Davis (D.)($53,589).' 1

1986. Salaries are revised annually by the percentage change in the Consumer Price Index.

BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1986 revenues received within the five major operating funds amounted to $5,223-8m. Included in this figure are $2,736-8m. General Fund revenues and $1,373-7m. Federal Fund revenues. Total expenditures amounted to $4,857 -7m. including education and humanities, $l,310-8m.; human resources benefits payments, $543-9m.; and transport, $467-8m. The general obligation bonded indebtedness on 30 June 1986 was $ 164 • 7m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 10,585. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The principal mineral product of Kentucky is coal, 159-5m. short tons mined in 1984, value $4,488m. Output of petroleum, 11m. bbls (of 42 gallons); natural gas, 66,179m. cu. ft; stone, 36-3m. short tons, value $127m.; clay 719,000 short tons, value $2-4m.; sand and gravel, 6-5m. short tons, value $15-6m. Total value of non-fuel mineral products in 1984 was $259,699,000. Other minerals include fluorspar, ball clay, lead, zinc, silver, cement, lime, industrial sand and gravel, oil shale and tar sands. Agriculture. In 1986,99,000 farms had an area of 14-5m. acres. The average farm was 146 acres. Cash income, 1985, from crops, $l,519m., and from livestock, $l,351m. The chief crop is tobacco: production, in 1985, 428m. lb., ranking second to N. Carolina in US. Other principal crops include com, soybeans, wheat, barley, sorghum grain, hay, Oats and rye. Stock-raising is important in Kentucky, which has long been famous for its horses. The livestock in 1986 included 234,000 milch cows, 2-5m. cattle and calves, 27,000 sheep, 800,000 swine. Forestry. Total forests area, 1978,12,160,800 acres. Total commercial forest land, 1978,11,901,900 acres; 92% is privately owned. INDUSTRY. In 1985 the state's 3,474 manufacturing plants had 190,717 production workers; value added by manufacture in 1984 was $14,945-2m. The leading manufacturing industries (by employment) are non-electrical machinery, electrical equipment, apparel and other fabric products and foods. Direct foreign investment in manufacturing was $2,300m. in 1986. T O U R I S M . In 1985 tourist expenditure was $3,236m., producing over $230m. in tax revenues and generating 112,990 jobs. The state had (1985) 765 hotels and motels, 229 campgrounds and 43 state parks. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 the state had over 69,980 miles of federal, state and local roads. There were over 2 -6m. motor vehicle registrations in 1985. Railways. In 1985 there were about 3,245 miles of railway. Aviation. There are (1986) 73 publicly-used airports and 2,265 registered aircraft in Kentucky.

LOUISIANA

1467

Shipping. There is an increasing amount ofbarge traffic on 1,090 miles of navigable rivers. There are 5 river ports, 2 under construction and 2 planned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 10 prisons within the Department of Adult Institutions; average daily population (1985-86), 5,020. There has been no execution since 1962. A session of Congress in 1976 limited the death penalty to cases of kidnap and murder. Total executions, 1911-62, were 162, including 76 whites and 86 Negroes; 144 were for murder, 7 for rape, 6 for criminal offences, 5 for armed robbery. Religion. The chief religious denominations in 1980 were: Southern Baptists, with 883,096 members, Roman Catholic (365,277), United Methodists (234,536), Christian Churches and Church of Christ (81,222) and Christian (Disciples of Christ) (78,275). Education. Attendance at school between the ages of 5 and 15 years (inclusive) is compulsory, the normal term being 175 days. In 1985-86, 21,433 teachers were employed in public elementary and 11,417 in secondary schools, in which 42*^391 — and 214,512 pupils enrolled respectively. Expenditure on elementary and secondary day schools in 1985-86 was $l,790-2m.; public school classroom teachers' salaries (1985-86) averaged $20,948. There were also 4,251 teachers working in private elementary and secondary schools with 70,670 students. The state has 24 universities and senior colleges, 5 junior colleges and 13 community colleges, with a total (autumn 1985) of 131,383 students. Of these universities and colleges, 22 are state-supported, and the remainder are supported privately. The largest of the institutions of higher learning are (autumn 1985): University of Kentucky, with 20,966 students; University of Louisville, 20,096 students; Western Kentucky University, 11,259 students; Eastern Kentucky University, 12,229 students; Murray State University, 7,294 students; Morehead State University, 5,695 students; Northern Kentucky University, 8,697 students. Five of the several privately endowed colleges of standing are Berea College, Berea; Centre College, Danville; Transylvania University, Lexington; Georgetown College, Georgetown; and Bellarmine College, Louisville. Health. In 1986 the state had 106 licensed acute care hospitals (16,594 beds), 10 psychiatric hospitals (1,903 beds) and 2 children's hospitals (136 beds). There were 2 drug-dependency treatment centres (125 beds) and 2 acute rehabilitation hospitals (164 beds). Welfare. In July 1986 there were 264,125 persons receiving financial assistance; 94,541 of these persons received the Federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI); 31,734 of them were aged, 2,033 blind, 60,774 disabled. Also, in the all state funded Supplementation programme, payments were made in July 1986 to 7,179 persons, of which 3,740 were aged, 98 blind and 3,341 disabled. The average State Supplementation payment was $120.30 to aged, $58.07 to blind and $127.60 to disabled. In the Aid to Families with Dependent Children Programme as of July 1986, aid was given to 162,405 persons in 61,983 families. "Hie average payment per person was $71.78, per family $192.72. In addition to money payments, medical assistance, food stamps and social services are available. Books of Reference Kentucky 1986 Economic Statistics. 23rd ed. D e p a r t m e n t of Economic Development, Frankfort, 1986

LOUISIANA HISTORY. Louisiana was first settled in 1699. That part lying east of the Mississippi River was organized in 1804 as the Territory of New Orleans, and

1468

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

admitted into the Union on 30 April 1812. The section west of the river was added very shortly thereafter. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Louisiana is bounded north by Arkansas, east by Mississippi, with the Mississippi River forming the boundary in the north-east, south by the Gulf of Mexico and west by Texas, with the Sabine River forming most of the boundary. Area, 52,453 sq. miles, including lakes, rivers and coastal waters inside 3-mile limit; land area, 44,873 sq. miles. Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,205,900, an increase of 15 5% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 4,438,000. Births, 1984, 83,195 (18-6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 36,549 (8-2); infant deaths, 1,037 (12 5 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 41,295 (9 -3); divorces, 17,377 (1982). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

While 941,086 1,322,712 2,211,715

Negro 713,874 776,326 1,039,207

1970 1980

2,541,498 2,911,243

1,086,832 1,237,263

Indian 780 1,536 3,587

1

Asiatic 648 1,019 2,004

All others 12,976 55,466 Preliminary.

Total 1,656,388 2,101,593 3,257,022

Per sq. mile 36 5 46 5 72 2

3,641,306 4,203,972'

81 1 93 5

Of the 1980 total, 2,039,894 were male, 2,885,535 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 2,699,100. llie largest cities with their 1980 census population are: New Orleans, 557,482; Baton Rouge (capital), 219,486; Shreveport, 205,815; Lafayette, 81,961; Lake Charles, 75,051; Kenner, 66,382, C L I M A T E . New Orleans. Jan. 54"F (12 2°C), July 83°F (28 3°C). Annual rainfall 58" (1,458 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1974. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 39 members and a House of Representatives of 105 members, both chosen for 4 years. Sessions are annual; a fiscal session is held in odd years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. A Governor may serve a second consecutive term. Qualified electors are (with the usual exceptions) all registered' citizens with the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,030,091 votes, Mondale, 648,040. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes (corresponding with the counties of other states). Governor'Edwin W. Edwards (D.), 1984-88(573,440). Lieut.-Governor Robert Freeman (D.), 1980-84 ($63,367). Secretary of State- James Brown (D.), 1984-88 ($60,169). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 (Louisiana State Budget Office figures) general revenues were $6,091,714,373, of which $1,236,983,444 were federal funds; total expenditures were $6,067,203,315 (education, $2,077,432,518; transport and development, $416,170,800; health, hospitals and public welfare, $ 1,578,334,592). Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 10,850. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The yield in 1984 of crude petroleum was 515m. bbls; marketed production of natural gas, 5,824,000m. cu. ft. Rich sulphur mines are found in the state,

LOUISIANA

1469

and wells for the extraction of sulphur by means of hot water and compressed air are in operation; output, 1980,2 • 6m. tonnes. Louisiana is the USA's main salt producer. Output of salt (1980) was 12-6m. short tons valued at $132-2m. Total output of minerals in 1982 was valued at $31,364m., of which $30,946m. was from fiiel minerals. Agriculture. The state is divided into two parts, the uplands and the alluvial and swamp regions of the coast. A delta occupies about one-third of the total area. Manufacturing is the leading industry, but agriculture is important. In 198S there were about 36,000 farms with annual average sales of at least $ 1,000; average farm, 278 acres; average value per acre $ 1,256. Cash income, 1984, from crops $ 1,050m.; from livestock, $478m. Production of crops(1983): Corn for grain, 5m. bu.; cotton lint, 540,000 bales; hay, 735,000 tons; soybeans, 67m. bu.; wheat, 7 • 5m.bu. Rice and sugar are also important. In 1983 the state contained 102,000 milch cows, l-4m. all cattle, 9,000 sheep and 135,000 swine. Forestry. Forests, 14-5m. acres, represent 47% of the state's area. Income from manufactured products exceeds $2,500m. annually. In 1982 pulpwood cut, 3,867,994-3 cords; sawtimbercut, 927-4m. bd ft. I N D U S T R Y . The manufacturing industries are chiefly those associated with petroleum, chemicals, lumber, food, paper. In 1984 182,000 were employed in manufacturing, 381,000 in trade and 312,000 in service industries. T O U R I S M . Travellers spent an estimated $3,300m. in 1982. State tax revenue, $99 -3m. (3% of state tax revenue). New Orleans is the site of the Louisiana World Exposition in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state has more than 16,326 miles of public roads. In June 1982, over 4 • 6m. vehicles were registered in the state. Railways. In 1980 the railways in the state had a length of about 3,700 miles. Aviation. There were, 1981, about 240 commercial and private airports. Shipping. In 1981 New Orleans handled 188 -9m. tons of cargo. The Mississippi and other waterways provide 7,500 miles of navigable water. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. State and federal prisons, Oct. 1984, had 13,919 inmates. Execution is by electrocution; there were 135 between 1930 and 1961; between 1977 and 1985 there were 6. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest denomination in Louisiana. The leading Protestant Churches are Southern Baptist and Methodist. Education. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, both inclusive. In 1983 there were 782,000 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools. In 1985 the 41,700 instructional staff had an average salary of $19,800. There are 16 four-year public colleges and universities and 12 non-public four-year institutions of higher learning. There are 53 state trade and vocational-technical schools. Superior instruction is given in the Louisiana State University system with 56,520 students (1982). Tulane University in New Orleans had 10,400; The Roman Catholic Loyola University in New Orleans had 4,550; Dillard University in New Orleans had 12,000; and the Southern University system, 11,800. Health. In 1983 the state had 158 licensed hospitals (26,400 beds); there were 3 mental hospitals. Social Security. In Dec. 1982, assistance was being given to 94,264 elderly persons; 64,709 families with dependent children; 4,120 general assistance cases and 635

1470

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees. Supplemental Security assistance was given to 68,915 blind and physically disabled people. Aid was from state and federal sources. Books of Reference Louisiana,Almanac. New Orleans, 1979-80 The History and Government of Louisiana. Legislative Council, Baton Rouge, 1975 Louisiana State Agencies Handbook. Public Affairs Research Council of Louisiana. Baton Rouge, 1979 The State of the Slate: an Economic and Social Report to the Governor. Louisiana State Planning Office, New Orleans, 1978 Statistical Abstract of Louisiana. Division of Business and Economic Research, Univ. o f N e w Orleans, 1977 Davis, E. A.,, Louisiana, the Pelican State. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 1975 Hansen, H., (ed.), Louisiana, a Guide to the State. Rev. ed. New York, 1971 Kniffen, F. B., Louisiana, its Land and People. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 1968 State Library: The Louisiana State Library, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. State Librarian: Thomas F. Jaques.

MAINE HISTORY. After a first attempt in 1607, Maine was settled in 1623. From 1652 to 1820 it was part of Massachusetts and was admitted into the Union on 15 March 1820. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Maine is bounded west, north and east by Canada, south-east by the Atlantic, south and south-west by New Hampshire. Area, 33,265 sq. miles, of which 2,269 are inland water. Of the state's total area, about 17-2m. acres (87%) are in timber and wood lots. Census population, 1 April 1980 1,125,027, an increase of 13-29% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 1,146,000. In 1984 live births numbered 16,513 (14-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 10,796 (9-3); infant deaths, 119 (7-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 12,430 (10-8); divorces 5,864 (5 1). Population for 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950

White 739,995 795,185 910,846

Negro 1,363 1,096 1,221

1970 1980

985,276 1,109,850

2,800 3,128

Indian 892 1,012 1,522

Asiatic 121 130 185

All others 3,972 12,049

Total 742,371 797,423 913,774

Persq. mile 24-8 . 25-7 29-4

992,048 1,125,027

310 36-3

Of the total population in 1980,48 • 5% were male, 40 • 7% were urban and 60 • 5% were 21 years or older. The largest city in the state is Portland with a census population of 61,572 in 1980. Other cities (with population in 1980) are: Lewiston, 40,481; Bangor, 31,643; Auburn, 23,128; South Portland, 22,712; Augusta (capital), 21,819; Biddeford, 19,638; Waterville, 17,779. C L I M A T E . Average maximum temperatures range from 56-3°Fin Waterville to 48-3°F in Caribou, but record high (since c. 1950) is 103°F. Average minimum ranges from 36-9°F in Rockland to 28-3°F in Greenville, but record low (also in Greenville) is -42°F. Average annual rainfall ranges from 48-85" in Machias to 36-09" in Houlton. Average annual snowfall ranges from 118-7" in Greenville to 59 -7" in Rockland. See New England, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1820 is still in force, but it has been amended 153 times. In 1951, 1965 and 1973 the Legisla-

MAINE

1471

ture approved recodifications of the constitution as arranged by the Chief Justice under special authority. The Legislature consists of the Senate with 35 members and the House of Representatives with 151 members, both Houses being elected simultaneously for 2 years. Apart from these legislators and the Governor (elected for 4 years), no other state officers are elected. The Justices of the Supreme Judicial Court give their opinion upon important questions of law and upon solemn occasions when required by the Governor, Senate or House of Representatives. The suffrage is possessed by all citizens, 18 years of age; persons under guardianship for reasons of mental illness have no vote. Indians residing on tribal reservations and otherwise qualified have the vote in all county, state and national elections but retain the right to elect their own tribal representative to the legislature. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 336,500 votes, Mondale, 214,515. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. The capital is Augusta. The state is divided into 16 counties. Governor: John McKernan (R.), 1987-91 ($35,000). Secretary of State: Rodney S. Quinn (D.), 1987-91 ($30,000). B U D G E T . For the financial year ending 30 June 1986 general revenue was $932m. and expenditure was $927m. Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1984 was $294 • 5m. Per capita personal income (Dec. 1984) was $ 10,678. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Minerals include sand and gravel, stone, lead, clay, copper, peat, silver and zinc. Non-fuel mineral output, 1982, was valued at over $35 -4m. Agriculture. In 1985, 8,000 farms occupied 2m. acres; the average farm was 250 acres. Cash receipts, 1983, $413-lm., of which $91-7 came from potatoes; Maine is the third largest producer of potatoes (about 7% of the country's total of 325 -7m. cwt). Other important items include eggs ($94m.), daiiy products ($107-5m.) and poultry ($29 -7m.); these with potatoes provide 78% of receipts. Sweet corn, peas and beans, oats, hay, apples and blueberries are also grown. On 1 Jan. 1983 the farm animals included 57,000 milch cows, 146,000 all other cattle, and 14,000 sheep. Forestry. Lumber, wood turnings and pulp are important. In 1982 the cut of softwood was 769,195m. bd ft; hardwood, 150,878m. bd ft, and pulpwood, 3,417,586 cords. Spruce and fir, white pine, hemlock, white and yellow birch, sugar maple, northern white cedar, beech and red oak are the most important species cut. There were (1982) 17,6(X),000 acres of commercial forest (98% in private ownership). National forests comprise 37,500 acres; other federal, 35,800; state forests, 163,000 acres; municipal, 75,200 acres. Wood products industries are of great economic importance; in 1982 the lumber, wood and paper industries' production was valued at $3,355,731. There were (1982) 342 primary manufacturers and over 1,400 secondary. Fisheries. In 1983, 202,657,000 lb. offish and shellfish (valued at $107,889,000 were landed; the catch included 21,976,000 lb. of lobsters (valued at $51,234,000). 1 -97m. lb. of scallops ($10-8m.); 4- 14m. lb. of soft clams ($7-24m.); 12-31m. lb of dabs ($6 0m.); 42-4m. lb. of menhaden ($846,000); 40m. lb. of herring ($2- 14m.). I N D U S T R Y . Total non-agricultural workforce, 1984, 446,000. Manufacturing employed 110,000; trade, 102.000; services, 91,000; government, 84,000; the main manufacture is paper at 47 plants, producing about 34% of manufacturing value added. L A B O U R . The four largest employers are government, education, health and tourism.

1472

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

T O U R I S M . In 1983 there were about 4m. tourists (including state residents on holiday), generating about $655-5m. in business. Eating, drinking and accommodation produce 12-4% of sales tax. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 22,098 miles of roads, of which 3,973 miles were state highways and 4,359 miles were state-aided; town streets and miscellaneous, 13,766 miles. In July 1984, 847,922 motor vehicles were registered, including 669,240 passenger vehicles, 87,267 commercial vehicles and 40,361 motorcycles. Railways. In 1984 there were 1,516 miles of mainline railway tracks. Aviation. Licensed airports, 1984, numbered 76, including 37 commercial public airports, 12 non-commercial and 4 commuter airports, 15 commercial and 4 noncommercial seaplane bases, and 4 air-carrier airports. There were also 2 military airports and 23 private landing strips. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state's penal system in Sept. 1984 held 435 adults in the State Prison, 237 in the Correctional Center and 332 juveniles in the Youth Center. There is no capital punishment. Inmates serving life sentences are eligible for parole consideration after 15 years, less remission for good conduct, provided they were imprisoned before the passage of a new Criminal Code by the 107 th Maine Legislature, which abolished the parole system. Religion. The largest religious bodies are: Roman Catholic (270,283 members), Baptists (36,808 members) and Congregationalists (40,750 members), and other Christian Churches (34,066 members). Education. Education is free for pupils from 5 to 21 years of age, and compulsory from 7 to 17. In 1983-84 the 756 public schools (610 elementary, 105 secondary and 41 combined elementary and secondary) had 12,283 staff and 209,753 enrolled pupils. In 1983-84 there were 126 private schools with 1,035 teachers and 15,461 pupils. Public school teachers' salaries, 1983-84, averaged $17,328. Total public expenditure on public elementary and secondary education in 1982-83, $461,252,847. The state University of Maine, founded in 1865, had (1983-84) 1,003 teaching staff and 28,591 students at 7 locations; Bowdoin College, founded in 1794 at Brunswick, (107 and 1,371); Bates College at Lewiston, (104 and 1,424); Colby College at Waterville, (125 and 1,733); Husson College, Bangor, (31 and 1,465); Westbrook College at Westbrook, (56 and 1,120); Unity College at Unity, (23 and 325), and the University of New England (formerly St Francis College) at Biddeford, (55 and 848). Health. In 1984 the state had 42 general hospitals (4,571 beds for acute care); 3 hospitals for mental diseases, acute and psychiatric care (541 beds); 144 nursing homes (10,220 beds). Social Security. Supplemental Security Income (SSI) (maximum payment for single person, $324-30 per month) is administered by the Social Security Administration. It became effective on 1 Jan. 1974 and replaces fanner aid to the aged, blind and disabled, administered by the state with state and federal funds. SSI is supplemented by Medicaid for nursing home patients or hospital patients. State payments for SSI recipients for Jan. 1983 totalled $381,000, covering 21,000 cases. Aid to families with dependent children is granted where one or both parents are disabled or absent and income is insufficient; aid was being granted in Aug. 1984 to 17,209 families (32,592 children) with an average payment per family of $292-95 per month. Total aid under the programme, Aug. 1984,$5-4m. Payments under Maine Medicaid Assistance programme totalled $217m. for the financial year 1983-84. There is a programme of assistance for catastrophic illness. Child welfare services include basic child protective services, enforcing child support, establishing paternity and finding missing parents, foster home placements, adop-

1473

MARYLAND

tions; services in divorce cases and licensing of foster homes, day care and residential treatment services, and public guardianship. There are also protective services for adults. Books of Reference Maine Register, State Year-Book and Legislative Manual. Annual Banks, R., Maine Becomes A State. Wesleyan U.P., 1970 Caldwell, B., Rivers of Fortune. Gannett, 1983 Calvert, M. R., Dawn over the Kennebec. Private Pr., 1983 Clark, C., Maine. New York, 1977

Tower Publishing, Portland.

MARYLAND H I S T O R Y . Maryland, first settled in 1634, was one of the 13 original states. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Maryland is bounded north by Pennsylvania, east by Delaware and the Atlantic, south by Virginia and West Virginia, with the Potomac River forming most of the boundary, and west by West Virginia. Chesapeake Bay almost cuts off the eastern end of the state from the rest. Area, 10,460 sq. miles, of which 623 sq. miles are inland water; in addition, water area under Maryland jurisdiction in Chesapeake Bay amounts to 1,726 sq. miles. Census population, 1 April 1980,4,216,975, an increase since 1970 of 293,078 or 7-5%. Estimate (1985) 4,392,000. In 1985 births were 67,985 (15-5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 36,607 (8 -3); infant deaths, 811 (11-9 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 46,063 (10• 5); divorces, 16,187(3-7). Population for 5 federal censuses was: 1920 1930 1960

White 1,204,737 1,354,226 2,573,919

Negro 244,479 276,379 518,410

1970 1980

3,194,888 3,158,838

499,479 958,150

Indian 32 50 1,538

Asiatic 413 871 5,700

All others 28,032 99,987

Total 1,449,661 1,631,526 3,100,689

Persq. mile 145-8 1650 3140

3,922,399 4,216,975

396-6 428-7

Of the total population in 1980, 2,042,810 were male, 3,386,555 persons were urban and those 20 years old or older numbered 2,890,196. The largest city in the state (containing 17-2% of the population) is Baltimore, with 786,741 in 1980 (and 753,655 in 1985); Baltimore metropolitan area, 2-3m. Maryland residents in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area total more than l-5m. Other cities (1980) are Dundalk (71,293); Towson (51,083); Silver Spring (72,893); Bethesda (62,736), Bowie (33,695), Hagerstown (34,132), Annapolis (capital), 31,740. Incorporated places: Cumberland, 25,933; Cambridge, 11,703; Frederick, 28,086; Gaithersburg, 26,424; Rockville, 43,811. C L I M A T E . Baltimore. Jan. 36°F (2-2°C), July 79°F (26-l°C). Annual rainfall 41" (1,026 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1867; it has had 125 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 47, and a House of Delegates of 141 members, both elected for 4 years, as are the Governor and Lieut.-Governor. Voters are citizens who have the usual resi-. dential qualifications. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 836,295 votes, Wonidale, 757,635. Maryland sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. The state capital is Annapolis. The state is divided into 23 counties and Baltimore City. Governor: William D. Schaefer (D.), 1987-97 ($75,000).

1474

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

Lieut.-Governori. Joseph Curran(D.), 1987-91 ($62,500). Secretary ofState: Patricia Holtz ($45,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1985 general revenues were $6,170,089,000 ($4,334,579,000 from taxation). General expenditures, $6,060,235,000, including $1,422,008,000 for education and $1,868,245,000 for public welfare and health; $987,283,000 for transport. Total authorized long-term state debt, 30 June 1985 was $3,062,638,000. (Issued and outstanding, $2,231,295,000; authorized but not issued, $831,343,000.) Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 15,864. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Value of non-fuel mineral production, 1984, was $241 -7m. Sand and gravel (14-2m. short tons) and stone (22 - lm. short tons) account for over 58% of the total value. Coal is the leading mineral commodity by value followed by Portland cement, stone, sand and gravel. Output of coal was 4 1 m . short tons, valued at about $114m. Natural gas is produced from 1 field in Garrett County; 60m. cu. ft in 1984. A second gas field in the same county is used for natural gas storage. Agriculture. Agriculture is an important industry in the state. In 1985 there were approximately 18,000 farms with an area of 2 -7m. acres (42% of the land area). Farm animals, 1 Jan. 1986, were: Milch cows, 124,000; all cattle, 370,000; swine, 205,000; sheep, 19,000; chickens(not broilers),4-8m.. The most important crops, 1985, were: corn for grain, 70-4m. bu.; soybeans, 12-8m. bu.; tobacco, 28-4m. lb., and bay, 664,000 tons. Cash receipts from farm marketings, 1985, were $l,173m.; from livestock and livestock products, $767m., and crops, $406m. Dairy products and broilers are important. INDUSTRY. In 1983 manufactories had 140,300 production workers earning $2,635m.; value added by manufacture, $10,735 -8m. Chief industries are electrical and electronic equipment, food and kindred products, chemicals and products, primary metals. T O U R I S M . Tourism is one of the state's leading industries. In 1985 tourists spent over $4,389m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway department maintained, 1 Jan. 1986, 5,226 miles of highways, of which 82 miles were toll roads. The 23 counties maintained 17,730 miles of highways, and the 159 municipalities (including the city of Baltimore) maintained 3,990 miles of streets and alleys. Total mileage, 1 Jan. 1986, of public highways, streets and alleys, 26,947 miles. In 1985, about 3 -4m. automobiles were registered. Railways. Railways, in 1986, had 1,057 miles of line. Aviation. There were, 1986,41 commercially licensed airports. Shipping. In 1984 Baltimore was the sixth largest US seaport in value of trade, seventh in tonnage handled. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Prisons on 6 Oct. 1986 had about 12,830 men and 435 women; the total equalled 300 per 100,000 population, a high rate, which may be explained by the fact that Maryland incarcerates domestic relations law violators in state prisons; state prisons also receive a considerable number of persons committed for misdemeanours by magistrates' courts of the counties as well as from Baltimore's court system. Since 1930 there have been 68 executions (by lethal gas since 1957; earlier by

MASSACHUSETTS

1475

hanging)—7 whites and 37 Negroes for murder, and 6 whites and 18 Negroes for rape. Last execution was June 1961. Maryland's prison system has conducted a work-release programme for selected prisoners since 1963. All institutions have academic and vocational training programmes. In accordance with the 1950 Supreme Court decisions declaring segregation unconstitutional, the University of Maryland and other public and private colleges admitted Negro students in Sept. 1956. Elementary and secondary schools accept the ruling, and gradual integration is under way in all counties under different methods. Religion. Maryland was the first US state to give religious freedom to all who came within its borders. Present religious affiliations of the population are approximately: Protestant, 32%; Roman Catholic, 24%; Jewish, 10%; remaining 34% is non-related and other faiths. Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age. In Sept. 1985 the public elementary schools (including kindergartens and secondary schools) had 671,560 pupils. Teachers and principals in the elementary and secondary schools numbered 40,876. Average salary, teachers and principals (1984-85) was $26,180. Current expenditure by local school boards on education, 1984-85, was $2,487 -6m., of which the state's contribution was $994m. In 1985 there were 29 degree-granting 4-year institutions and 23 2-year colleges. The largest two were the University of Maryland system, with 65,524 students (Sept. 1985) and Towson State College with 14,990 students (Sept. 1985). Health. In July 1986, 84 hospitals (21,553 beds) were licensed by the State Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. The Maryland State Department of Health, organized in 1874, was in 1969 made part of the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene which performs its functions through its central office, 23 county health departments and the Baltimore City Health Department. For the financial year 1985 the department's budget was $l,294-8m., of which $904-2m. were general funds and $29-2m. special funds appropriated by the General Assembly. The balance of the budget, $361 -4m., derives from federal funds. During financial year 1985 Maryland's programme of medical care for indigent and medically indigent patients covered an average of 380,664 persons. The programme, which covers in-patient and out-patient hospital services, laboratory services, skilled nursing home care, physician services, pharmacy services, dental services and home health services, cost approximately $622m. Social Security. Under the supervision of the Department of Human Resources, local social service departments administer public assistance for needy persons. In March 1986 families with dependent children received $21,396,889 (196,983 recipients, average actual monthly payment $108.62); general public assistance payments were $3,002,123 (21,608 recipients, average actual monthly payments $138.94). Books of Reference Statistical Information: Maryland Department of Economic and Community Development, Annapolis, 21401. Maryland Manual: A Compendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information Relating to the State of Maryland. Annapolis. Biennial DiLisio, J. E., Maryland. Boulder, 1982 Papenfuse, E. C., et al., Maryland, a New Guide to the Old Line State. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1976 Rollo, V. F., Maryland's Constitution and Government. Maryland Hist. Press, Rev. ed., 1982 State Library: Maryland State Library, Annapolis. Director: Michael S. Miller.

MASSACHUSETTS HISTORY. The first permanent settlement within the borders of the present state was made at Plymouth in Dec. 1620, by the Pilgrims from Holland, who were

1476

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

separatists from the English Church, and formed the nucleus of the Plymouth Colony. In 1628 another company of Puritans settled at Salem, forming eventually the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1630 Boston was settled. In the struggle which ended in the separation of the American colonies from the mother country, Massachusetts took the foremost part, and on 6 Feb. 1788 became the sixth state to ratify the US constitution. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Massachusetts is bounded north by Vermont and New Hampshire, east by the Atlantic, south by Connecticut and Rhode Island and west by New York. Area, 8,284 sq. miles, 460 sq. miles being inland water.The census population 1 April 1980, was 5,737,037, an increase of 47,867 or 0-8% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 5,741,000. Births, 1984 were 79,386 (13-7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 59,104 (10-2 per 1,000); infant deaths, 739 (9-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 53,198 (9 -2); divorces, 16,957 (2-9). Population at 4 federal census years was: 1950 1960 1970 1980

While 4,611,503 5,023,144 5,477,624 5,362,836

Negro 73,171 11 1,842 175,817 221,279

Other 5,840 13,592 35,729 152,922

Total 4,690,514 5,148,578 5,689,170 5,737,037

Per sq. mile 598-4 656-8 725-8 732-0

Of the total population in 1980, 47-6% were male, 83-8% were urban and 32% were 21 years old or older. In 1980 the population of the principal towns and cities was: Boston Worcester Springfield New Bedford Cambridge Brockton

562,994 161,799 153,319 98,478 95,322 95,172

Fall River Lowell Quincy Newton Lynn Somerville

92,574 92,418 84,743 83,622 78,471 77,372

Framingham Lawrence Waltham Medford Weymouth Chicopee

65,113 63,175 58,200 58,076 55,601 55,112

The largest of 10 standard metropolitan statistical areas, 1980 census were: Boston, 2,763,357; Springfield-Chicopee-Holyoke, 530,668; Worcester, 372,940. C L I M A T E . Boston. Jan. 28°F (-2 -20C), July 71°F (21 -7°C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,036 mm). See New England, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution dates from 1780 and has had 116 amendments. The legislative body, styled the General Court ofthe Commonwealth of Massachusetts, meets annually, and consists of the Senate with 40 members, elected biennially, and the House of Representatives of 160 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 11 representatives to Congress. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,293,367 votes, Mondale, 1,219,513. Electors are all citizens 18 years of age or older. The capital is Boston. The state has 14 counties, 39 cities and 312 towns. Governor: Michael S. Dukakis(D.), 1987-91 ($75,000). Lieut. - Governor: (Vacant). Secretary of the Commonwealth: Michael J. Connolly (D.) ($60,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1984 the total revenue of the state was $8,763,776,497 ($5,659-5m. from taxes and $l,800-3m. from federal aid); general expenditures, $8,649,394,825 ($603-4m. for education, $330-5m. for highway and transport construction and $2,097m. for public welfare). The net long-term debt on 30 June 1984 amounted to $3,346m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 14,574. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. There is little mining within the state. Total mineral output in 1983 was valued at $95 • 7m., of which most came from sand, gravel and stone.

1477

MASSACHUSETTS

Agriculture. On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 5,300 farms (11,179 in 1959) with an area of598,900 acres. Cash income, 1983, totalled $366-9m.; dairy, $91 -3m.; greenhouse and nursery, $100m.; poultry, $26-8m.; vegetables, $32m.; tobacco, $4-5m.; cranberries, $65m.; other fruit, $18 • 1 m.; potatoes, $2 -3m.; all other, $27 • 1 m. Principal 1983 crops include cranberries, 1,460,000 bbls; apples, 2-3m. (42-lb. units); potatoes, 646,000 cwt, and tobacco, 0-8m. lb. On 1 Jan. 1982 farms in the state had 48,000 milch cows, 98,000 all cattle, 49,000 swine. In 1982 farms produced 145,000 turkeys and0-8m. chickens. Forestry. About 68% of the state is forest. State forests cover about 256,000 acres. Total forest land covers about 3m. acres. Commercially important hardwoods are sugar maple, northern red oak and white ash; softwoods are white pine and hemlock. About 240m. bd ft of timber are cut annually. Fisheries. The 1983 catch amounted to 324-7m. lb. of finfish valued at $117m.; 27-8m. lb. of shellfish ($74m.); including 12-6m. lb. oflobster($29-6m.). INDUSTRY. In 1984, 10,500 manufacturing establishments employed an average of 676,000 workers. The 3 most important manufacturing groups, based on employment, were electric and electronic equipment, machinery (except electrical), instruments and related products. L A B O U R . In May 1984 the work force was 3,019,000. Changes in the industrial pattern have caused the loss ofjobs in the shoe and textile industries. In 1981 there were 102 work stoppages involving 28,700 workers which resulted in 696,000 man-days idle. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Oct. 1984 the state had 33,800 miles of roads and streets and in 1984 registered 4m. motor vehicles. Railways. In 1984 there were 1,310 miles of mainline railway. Aviation. There were, in 1983, 52 aircraft landing areas for commercial operation, of which 27 were publicly owned. Shipping. The state has 3 deep-water harbours, the largest of which is Boston (port trade (1983), 16,767,585 short tons). Other ports are Fall River and New Bedford. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. On 12 Sept. 1984 state penal institutions held 4,970 inmates. There have been no executions since 1947. Religion. The principal religious bodies are the Roman Catholics, Jewish Congregations, Methodists, Episcopalians and Unitarians. Education. A regulation effective from 1 Sept. 1972 makes school attendance compulsory for ages 6-16. In 1984-85 expenditure by cities and towns on public schools was $3,384m., including debt retirement and service payments. In 1983-84 there were 49,754 classroom teachers and 882,283 pupils. Within the state there were (1982) 126 degree-granting institutions of higher learning (including 89 colleges and universities) with (1982-83) 14,274 full-time teaching staff and about 415,320 students. Some leading institutions are: Year opened 1636 1793 1821 1837 1843 1852 1861

Name and location of universities and colleges Harvard University, Cambridge ' Williams College, Williamstown ' Amherst College, A m h e r s t ' Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley 2 College o f t h e Holy Cross, Worcester 1 Tufts University, Medford 1 , 5 Mass. Institute of Technology, Cambridge

Students 1982 21,252 2,006 1,561 1,979 2,511 6,778 9,510

1478

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA Year opened 1863 1863 1865 1869 1870 1875 1879 1885 1887 1894 1898 1899 1948 1 2

Name and location of universities and colleges University of Massachusetts, Amherst 1 Boston College (RC), Chestnut Hill 1 Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester Boston University, Boston ' Wellesley College, Wellesley 2 Smith College, Northampton ' Radcliffe College, Cambridge 1 Springfield College, Springfield 1 Clark University, Worcester 1 University of Lowell 1 Northeastern University, Boston ' State 453 State 650

Students 10,473 3,311 3,103 6,283 36,127 4,495 9,856 114,800 18,782 1,948 7,768 16,038 7,827 4,546 9,150 11,881 23,000 5,245 49,241 1 9,147 14,600

Health. In 1983, the state had 562 hospitals (84,900 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association; on 1 Jan. 1980 mental hospitals had 6,559 resident patients and state institutions for the mentally retarded, 11,178 resident patients (1980). Social Security. Aid is from state and federal sources. Old-age assistance (SSI) was being granted in Dec. 1980 to 146,800 persons, who received an average of $101 per month; aid was given to 320,000 dependent children (average payment per family ,$ 109 per month).

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Books of Reference Texas Almanac. Dallas. Biennial Texas Factbook. Univ. of Texas, 1983 Benton, W.E., Texas, its Government and Politics. 4th ed., Englewood Cliffs, 1977 Cruz, G. R. and Irby, J. A. (eds.), Texas Bibliography. Austin, 1982 Jordan, T. G., and Bean, J. L., Jr., Texas. Boulder, 1983 MacCorkle,S. A.,andSmith, D., Texas Government. 7th ed. NewYork, 1974 Richardson, R. N., Texas, the Lone Star State. 3rded. NewYork, 1970 Legislative Reference Library: Box 12488, Capitol Station, Austin, Texas 7881 1. Director: James R. Sanders.

UTAH H I S T O R Y . Utah, which had been acquired by the US during the Mexican war, was settled by Mormons in 1847, and organized as a Territory on 9 Sept. 1850. It was admitted as a state into the Union on 4 Jan. 1896 with boundaries as at present. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Utah is bounded north by Idaho and Wyoming, east by Colorado, south by Arizona and west by Nevada. Area, 84,899 sq. miles, of which 2,826 sq. miles are water. The federal government (1967) owned 35,397,274 acres or 67-1% of the area of the state. The area of unappropriated and unreserved lands was 23,268,250 acres in 1974. The Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1974 administered 3,03 5,190 acres, all of which were allotted to Indian tribes. Census population, 1 April 1980, 1,461,037, an increase of 38% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 1,645,000. Births in 1984 were 39,677 (24 per 1,000 population); deaths, 9,295 (5 -6); infant deaths, 407 (10-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 17,579(10-6); divorces, 8,134(4-9). Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 366,583 499,967 873,828 1,031,926 1,382,550

Negro 1,144 1,108 4,148 6,617 9,225

Indian 3,123 2,869 6,961 11,273 19,256

Asiatic 2,501 3,903 5,207 6,230 15,076

Total 373,851 507,847 890,627 1,059,273 1,461,037

Persq. mile 4-5 6-2 10-8 12-9 17-7

Of the total in 1980, 724,501 were male, 1,232,908 persons were urban; 860,304 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities are Salt Lake City (capital), with a population (census, 1980) of 162,960; Provo, 74,007; Ogden, 64,444; Bountiful, 32,877; Orem, 52,399; Sandy City, 51,022 and Logan, 26,844. C L I M A T E . Salt Lake City. Jan. 29"F(-1 -7°C), July 77°F(25°C). Annual rainfall 16" (401 mm). See Mountain States, p. 13'74. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Utah adopted its present constitution in 1896 (now with 61 amendments). It sends to Congress 2 senators and 3 representatives. The Legislature consists of a Senate (in part renewed every 2 years) of 30 members, elected for 4 years, and of a House of Representatives of 75 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The constitution provides for the initiative and referendum. Electors are all citizens, who, not being insane or criminal, have the usual residential qualifications. The capital is Salt Lake City. There are 29 counties in the state. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 464,535 votes, Mondale, 154,239. Governor: Norman Bangerter (R.), 1985-88 ($52,000). Lieut. - Governor: W. Val Oveson (R.), 1985-88 ($35,500).

UTAH

1537

B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1982 general revenue was $2,490m. ($ 1,332m. from taxes, $612m. from federal aid) while general expenditures were $2,490m. ($l,104m. on education, $279m. on highways, $234m. on public welfare). The net long-term debt on 30 June 1982 was about $2,171 m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $9,719. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals The principal minerals are: copper, gold, petroleum, lead, silver and zinc. The state also has natural gas, clays, tungsten, molybdenum, uranium and phosphate rock. Total value of mineral production, 1982, $2,096m. of which fuels, $ 1,474m. Agriculture. In 1985 Utah had 14,000 farms covering 12m. acres, of which about 2m. acres were crop land and about 300,000 acres pasture. About lm. acres had irrigation; the average farm was of857 acres. Of the total surface area, 9% is severely eroded and only 9-4% is free from erosion; the balance is moderately eroded. Cash income, 1984, from crops, $136m. and from livestock, $444m. The principal crops (1983) are: Barley, 1 lm. bu.; wheat (spring and winter), 8m. bu.; oats, 884,000 bu.; potatoes, l -2m. cwt; hay (alfalfa, sweet clover and lespedeza), 270,000 tons; maize, 1 -5m. bu. In 1985 there were 515,000 sheep; 80,000 milch cows; 800,000 all cattle; 28,000 swine. Forestry. Area of national forests, 1981, was 9,129,000 acres, of which 8 05m. acres were under forest service administration. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 manufacturing establishments had 94,000 workers. Leading manufactures by value added are primary metals, ordinances and transport, food, fabricated metals and machinery, petroleum products. Service industries employed 121,000; trade, 141,000; government, 131,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state has about 50,000 miles of highway. In 1980 there were 1,009,000 motor vehicles registered. Railways. On 1 July 1974 the state had 1,734 miles of railways. Aviation. In 1981 there were 57 public and 45 private airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The number of inmates of the state prison in 1984 was 1,419. Since 1930 total executions have been 14 (13 by shooting, 1 by hanging—the condemned man has choice), all whites, and all for murder. Religion. Latter-day Saints (Mormons) form about 73% of the church membership of the state; their church is a substantial property-owner. The Roman Catholic church and most Protestant denominations are represented. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 6 to 18 years of age. There are 40 school districts. Teachers' salaries, 1985, averaged $21,500. There were (autumn 1983) 379,000 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools, and 16,200 classroom teachers. In 1985 estimated public school expenditure was $l,021m. The University of Utah (1850) (24,364 students in 1983) is in Salt Lake City; the Utah State University (1890) (11,112 students) is in Logan. The Mormon Church maintains the Brigham Young University at Provo (1875) with 2,700 students. Other colleges include: Westminster College, Salt Lake City, 1,120 students in 1982; Weber State College, Ogden, 10,000; Southern Utah State College, Cedar City, 2,400; College of Eastern Utah, Price, 1,250 in 1982; Snow College, Ephraim,

1538

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Lake City, Health. In 1 9 8 3 , the state had 4 4 hospitals ( 5 , 4 0 0 beds) listed by the Utah Department of Social Services. Mental hospitals had 317 resident patients on 1 Jan. 1980; state facilities for the mentally retarded had 763. Social Security. The state department of public welfare provided assistance during Dec. 1 9 8 0 to 4 3 , 7 0 0 persons receiving aid to dependent children at an average $314 per family per month; aid to the aged, the blind and disabled is provided from federal funds. 1,404

in

1982; Dixie College, St George, 2 , 0 1 0 ; L.D.S. Business College, Salt 8 9 5 . Total higher education students in 14 institutions, 1 9 8 2 , 9 9 , 0 0 0 .

Books of Reference Compiled Digest of Administrative Reports. Secretary of State, Salt Lake City. Annual Statistical Abstract of Government in Utah. Utah Foundation, Salt Lake City. Annual Utah Agricultural Statistics. Dept. of Agriculture, Salt Lake City. Annual Utah: Facts. Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Univ. of Utah, 1975 Arlington, L., Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-Day Saints, 1900. Cambridge, Mass., 1958 Petersen, C. S., Utah, a History. New York, 1977

1830-

VERMONT HISTORY. Vermont, first settled in 1724, was admitted into the Union as the fourteenth state on 4 March 1791. The first constitution was adopted by convention at Windsor, 2 July 1777, and established an independent state government. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Vermont is bounded north by Canada, east by New Hampshire, south by Massachusetts and west by New York. Area, 9,614 sq. miles, of which 341 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 511,456, an increase of 15% since 1970. Estimate (1985) 535,000. Births, 1984, were 7,419 (14 per 1,000 population); deaths, 4,455 (8-4); infant deaths, 68 (9-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,375 (10-1); divorces, 2,173 (4-1). Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

While 354,298 358,966 389,092 442,553 506,736

Negro 1,621 568 519 761 1,135

Indian 26 36 57 229 984

Asiatic 11 41 172 787 1,355

Total 355,956 359,611 389,881 444,732 511,456

Per sq. mile 390 38 8 420 480 55-1

Of the population in 1980, 249,080 were male, 172,735 persons were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 343,666. The largest cities are Burlington, with a population in 1980 of37,712; Rutland, 18,436; Barre, 9,824. CLIMATE. Burlington. Jan. 17°F (-8-3°C), July 70°F (21 • PC). Annual rainfall 33" (820 mm). See New England, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution was adopted in 1793 and has since been amended. Amendments are proposed by two-thirds vote of the Senate every 4 years, and must be accepted by two sessions of the legislature; they are then submitted to popular vote. The state Legislature, consisting of a Senate of 30 members and a House of Representatives of 150 members (both elected for 2 years), meets in Jan. in odd-numbered years. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 2 years. Electors are all citizens who possess certain residential qualifications and have taken the freeman's oath set forth in the constitution. The state is divided into 14 counties; there are 251 towns and cities and other minor civil divisions. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 1 representative, who are elected by the voters of the entire state.

VERMONT

1539

In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 134,252 votes, Mondale, 94,518. The capital is Montpelier (8,241, census of 1980). Governor: Madeleine Kunin (D.), 1987-89 ($50,003). Lieut.-Governor: Howard Dean (D.) ($22,006). Secretary of State: James Douglas (R.) ($29,993). B U D G E T . The total revenue for the year ending 30 June 1984 was $763-9m.; total disbursements, $786-9m. Total net long-term debt, 1 July 1984, was $273,900,000. Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 10,692. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Stone, chiefly granite, marble and slate, is the leading mineral produced in Vermont, contributing about 60% of the total value of mineral products. Other products include asbestos, talc, peat, sand and gravel. Total value of mineral products, 1982, $50m. . Agriculture. Agriculture is the most important industry. In 1985 the state had 7,000 farms covering 2m. acres; the average farm was of 286 acres. Cash income, 1984, from livestock and products, $369m.; from crops, $31m. The dairy farms produce about 2,300m. lb. of milk annually. The chief agricultural crops are hay, apples and maple syrup. In 1981 Vermont had 355,000 cattle, 11,000 sheep, 9,000 swine, 425,000 poultry. Forestry. In 1982 the harvest was 82m. bd ft hardwood and 93m. bd ft softwood saw-logs, and 267,000 cords of pulpwood and boltwood. About 600,000 cords was cut for firewood. The state is nearly 80% forest, with 12% in public ownership. National forests area (1983), 285,000 acres. State-owned forests, parks, fish and game areas, 250,000 acres; municipally-owned, 38,500 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984, manufacturing establishments employed an average 49,000 workers; main manufactures include machine tools and electronic components. Service industries employed 52,000 and trade, 47,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had 14,000 miles of roads in 1984, including 12,900 miles of rural roads. Motor vehicle registrations, 1984,510,267. Railways. There were, in 1983, 756 miles of main line railway, 300 of which was leased by the state to private operators. Aviation. There were 22 airports in 1983, of which 10 were state operated, 2 municipally owned and 10 privately owned but open to public use. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. In financial year 1984 6 prisons and centres had an average of524 inmates; average total inmates, 576; there were an average of4,350 people on probation and 313 on parole. Religion. The principal denominations are Roman Catholic, United Church of Christ, United Methodist, Protestant Episcopal, Baptist and UnitarianUniversalist. Education. School attendance during the full school term is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years of age, unless they have completed the 10th grade or undergo approved home instruction. In 1982-83 the public elementary schools had 48,166 enrolled pupils; the public secondary schools had 43,344 pupils; the 82 private schools had 8,580 pupils. Full-time teachers for public elementary schools numbered 2,941, secondary schools 3,310. Teachers' salaries for 1983 averaged

1540

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

$15,794 (elementary) and $16,747 (secondary). Total expenditure on public schools, 1984,$301m. The University of Vermont (1791) had 9,218 full-time students in 1981-82, of whom 7,833 were undergraduates; Middlebury College (1800), 1,932 students; Norwich University (1834 but founded as an academy 1819), 2,308 students (including Vermont College); St Michael's College, 1,721 students; the 5 state colleges, 3,796 students; all other colleges, 3,120. Health. In Sept. 1983 the state had 16 general hospitals (898 beds), 2 mental hospitals and 1 T.B. hospital. There was 1 federal general hospital with 224 beds. Social Security. Old-age assistance (SSI) was being granted in 1980 to 2,400 persons, drawing an average of $108 per month; aid to dependent children was being granted to 24,300 persons, drawing an average of $340 per family per month; and aid to the permanently and totally disabled was being granted to 5,200 persons, drawing an average of $ 192. Books of Reference Legislative Directory. Secretary of State, Montpelier. Biennial Vermont Facts and Figures. Office of Statistical Co-ordination, Montpelier Vermont Year-Book, formerly Walton's Register. Chester. Annual Basse« T., and Seymour D. (eds.), Vermont: A Bibliography of its History, Boston, 1981 Delorme, D. (ed.), Vermont Atlas and Gazetteer, Rev. ed., Freeport, 1983 Morrissey, C. T., Vermont, New York, 1981 Slate Library: Vermont Dept.of Libraries, Montpelier. Stale Librarian: Patricia Klinck.

VIRGINIA HISTORY. The first English Charter for settlements in America was that granted by James I in 1606 for the planting of colonies in Virginia. The state was one of the 13 original states in the Union. Virginia lost just over one-third of its area when West Virginia was admitted into the Union ( 1863). AREA AND POPULATION. Virginia is bounded north-west by West Virginia, north-east by Maryland, east by the Atlantic, south by North Carolina and Tennessee and west by Kentucky. Area, 40,767 sq. miles including 1,063 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 5,346,818, an increase of 695,370 or 14-9% since 1970. Estimate 1984 5,636,000. In 1985 there were 85,984 births (15 per 1,000 population); 45,236 deaths (7-9); 990 infant deaths (11-5 per 1,000 live births); 66,541 marriages and 24,131 divorces. Population for 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,389,809 1,770,441 3,142,443

Negro 671,096 650,165 816,258

1970 1980

3,761,514 4,230,000

861,368 1,008,311

Indian 539 779 2,155

Asiatic 168 466 4,725

All others 25,612 108,517

Total 2,061,612 2,421,851 3,966,949

Per sq. mile 51-2 60-7 99-3

4,648,494 5,346,818

116-9 134-7

Of the total population in 1980,49% were male, 66% were urban and 59% were 21 years of age or older. The population (census of 1980) of the principal cities was: Norfolk, 266,979; Virginia Beach, 262,199; Richmond, 219,214; Newport News, 144,903; Hampton, 122,617; Chesapeake, 114,226; Portsmouth, 104,577; Alexandria, 103,219; Roanoke, 100,427; Lynchburg, 66,743. CLIMATE. Average temperatures in Jan. are 41°F in the Tidewater coastal area and 32*F in the Blue Ridge mountains; July averages, 78°F and 68°F respectively. Precipitation averages 36" in the Shenandoah valley and 44" in the south. Snowfall is 5-10" in the Tidewater and 25-30" in the western mountains. Norfolk. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 79°F (26TC). Annual rainfall 46" (1,145 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1375.

VIRGINIA

1541

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1971. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Delegates of 100 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Qualified as electors are (with few exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age, fulfilling certain residential qualifications, who have registered. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 10 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,325,516 votes, Mondale, 793,711. The state capital is Richmond; the state contains 95 counties and 41 independent cities. Governor: Gerald L. Baliles(D.), 1986-90 ($75,000). Lieut-Governor: L. Douglas Wilder (D.) $20,000. Secretary of the Commonwealth: Sandra D. Bowen (D.) ($45,959). B U D G E T . General revenue for the year ending 30 June 1985 was $6,652,678,000 (taxation, $4,489,878,000, and federal aid, $1,298,159,000); general expenditures, $5,844,421,000 ($1,644",836,000 for education, $ 1,079,596,000 for transport and $ 1,950,440,000 for public welfare). Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1984,amountedto$521,032,000. Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 13,067. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals (1984). Coal is the most important mineral, with output of 35,500,000 short tons. Lead and zinc ores, stone, sand and gravel, lime and titanium ore are also produced. Total mineral output was 53m. tons. Agriculture. In 1985 there were 55,000 farms with an area of 10m. acres; average farm had 182 acres and was valued at $ 106,220. Income, 1984, from crops, $673m., and from livestock and livestock products, $1,12 lm. The chief crops (1982) are corn, hay and peanuts (330-8m. lb.), tobacco (158m. lb.). Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1985 included 162,000 milch cows, l-76m. all cattle, 125,000 sheep and 370,000 swine (Dec. 1984). Forestry. National forests, 1984, covered 1,634,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . The manufacture of cigars and cigarettes and of rayon and allied products and the building of ships lead in value of products. T O U R I S M . Tourists spend about $4,100m. a year in Virginia, attracted mainly by the state's outstanding scenery, coastline and historical interest. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highways system, 31 Dec. 1983, had 61,977 miles of highways, of which 8,958 miles were primary roads. Motor registrations, 1984,3 -4m. Railways. In 1985 there were 3,693 miles of railways. Aviation. There were, in 1985,81 airports, of which 58 were publicly owned. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. Executions (by electrocution) since 1930 totalled 100. Prison population, 31 Dec. 1983,9,855 in federal and state prisons. Religion. The principal churches are the Baptist, Methodist, Protestant-Episcopal, Roman Catholic and Presbyterian. Education. Elementary and secondary instruction is free, and for ages 6-17 attendance is compulsory. No child under 12 may be employed in any mining or manufacturing work.

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In 1984 the 135 school districts had, in primary schools, 578,305 pupils and 34,167 teachers and in public high schools, 369,956 pupils and 26,286 teachers. Teachers' salaries (1983-84) averaged $19,676. Total expenditure on education, 1982-83, was $2,773-5m. The more important institutions for higher education (1984) were: Founded Name arid place of college 1693 William and Mary College, Williamsburg (State) 1749 Washington and Lee University, Lexington 1776 Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney (Pres.) 1819 University of Virginia, Charlottesville (State) 1832 Randolph-Macon College, Ashland (Methodist) 1832 University of Richmond, Richmond (Baptist) 1838 Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond 1839 Virginia Military Institute Lexington (State) 1865 Virginia Union University, Richmond 1868 Hampton University 1872 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 1882 Virginia State University, Petersburg 1908 James Madison University, Harrisonburg 1910 Radford University (State) 1930 Old Dominion University, Norfolk 1956 George Mason University (State)

Staff 504 142 73 1,579 100 364 1,876 98 102 297 1,942 263 542 341 717 760

Students 6,640 1,694 750 16,379 964 4,300 19,984 1,338 1,333 4,260 21,455 3,474 3,920 6,806 14,966 15,548

Health. In 1983 the state had 135 hospitals {31,300 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association. Social Security. In 1938 Virginia established a system of old-age assistance under the Federal Security Act; in March 1983 persons in 2,034 cases were drawing an average grant of $202.79; aid to permanently and totally disabled, 1,766 cases, average grant $218.96; aid to dependent children, 164,383 persons, average grant $85.77; general relief, 6,642 persons, average grant $146.62. Books of Reference Virginia Facts and Figures. Virginia Division of Industrial Development, Richmond. Annual Dabney, V., Virginia, the New Dominion. 1971 Friddell,G., The Virginia Way. Burda, 1973 Gottmann, J., Virginia in our Century. Charlottesville, 1969 Morton, R. L., Colonial Virginia. 2 vols. Univ. Press of Virginia, 1960 Rouse, P. Virginia: a Pictorial History. Scribner, 1975 Rubin, L. D., Jr., Virginia: a Bicentennial History. Norris, 1977 State Library: Virginia State Library, Richmond 23219. State Librarian: Ella Gaines Yates.

WASHINGTON H I S T O R Y . Washington, formerly part of Oregon, was created a Territory in 1853, and was admitted into the Union as a state on 11 Nov. 1889. Its settlement dates from 1811. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Washington is bounded north by Canada, east by Idaho, south by Oregon with the Columbia River forming most of the boundary, and west by the Pacific. Area, 68,139 sq. miles, of which 1,627 sq. miles are inland water. Lands owned by the federal government, 1977, were 12-4m. acres or 29-1% of the total area. Census population, 1 April 1980 (preliminary), 4,130,163, an increase of730,994 o r 2 1 -4% since 1970. Estimated population (1985), 4,409,000. Births, 1984 were 73,605 (16-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 35,212 (81); infant deaths, 690 (9-4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 44,730 (10-3); divorces and annulments, 27,313 (6-3). Population in 5 federal census years was: .... J

1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 1,109,111 1,521,661 2,751,675 2,351,055 3,777,296

Negro 6,058 6,840 48,738 71,308 105,544

Indian 10,997 11,253 21,076 33,386 60,771

Asiatic and others 15,824 23,642 31,725 53,420 186,552

Total 1,141,990 1,563,396 2,853,214 3,409,169 4,130,163

Per sq. mile 17 1 23-3 42-8 51-2 62 0

WASHINGTON

1543

Of the total population in 1980, 2,051,369 were male, 3,037,765 persons were urban; 2,837,607 were 20 years of age or older. There are 24 Indian reservations, the largest being held by the Yakima tribe. Indian reservations in Sept. 1979 covered 2,496,423 acres, of which 1,996,018 acres were tribal lands and 497,218 acres were held by individuals. Total Indian population, 1980,60,771. Leading cities are Seattle, with a population (1980 census) of491,897; Spokane, 170,993; Tacoma, 158,101; Bellevue, 73,711. Others : Yakima, 49,826; Everett, 54,413; Vancouver, 42,834; Bellingham, 45,794; Bremerton, 36,208; Richland, 33,578; Longview, 31,052; Renton, 30,612; Edmonds, 27,526; Walla Walla, 25,618. Urbanized areas (1980 census): Seattle-Everett, 1,600,944; Tacoma, 482,692; Spokane, 341,058. CLIMATE. Seattle. Jan. 40°F (4-4°C), July 63°F (17-2°C). Annual rainfall 34" (848 mm). Spokane. Jan. 27°F (-2-8°C), July 70°F (21 • l°C). Annual rainfall 14" (350 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1374. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. The constitution, adopted in 1889, has had 63 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 49 members elected for 4 years, half their number retiring every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 98 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 7 representatives to Congress. Qualified as voters are (with some exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age, having the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 939,124 votes, Mondale, 731,440. The capital is Olympia (population, 1980 census, 27,447). The state contains 39 counties. Governor: Booth Gardner (D.), 1985-89 ($63,000). Lieut.-Governor: John A. Cherberg (D.), 1985-89(528,600). Secretary ofState: Ralph Munro (R.), 1985-89 ($31,000). B U D G E T . For the 2-year budget period 1981-83 the state's total revenue is (projected) $13,545-2m.; general expenditure is (projected) $13,873-5m. (education, $6,150-7m.; transportation, $706-6m., and human resources, $3,636m.). Total outstanding debt in 1982 was $2,492m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $12,728. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. With about 20% of potential water-power resources of US, the state is first in developed and potential hydro-electricity. Electric energy produced in 1982,99 684m. kw. Minerals. Mining and quarrying employed about 3,000 in 1981, and the sector is not as important as forestry, agriculture or manufacturing. Uranium is mined but figures are not disclosed; other minerals include sand and gravel, stone, coal and clays. Agriculture. Agriculture is constantly growing in value because of more intensive and diversified farming and because of the lm.-acre Columbia Basin Irrigation Project. Irrigated land in farms (1974) amounted to 1,286,412 acres. In 1985 there were 38,000 farms with an acreage of 16m.; average farm was of 421 acres. Average value per acre, $923. Cash return from farm marketing, 1984, was $3,104m. (from crops, $l,903m.; from livestock and dairy products, $ 1,030m.). Wheat, cattle and calves, milk and apples are important. On 1 Jan. 1985 animals on farms included 211,000 milch cows, l-47m. all cattle, 53,000 sheep and 45,000 swine. Forestry. Forests cover about 23m. acres, of which 9m. acres are national forest. In

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1982, lumber production was 3,014m. bd ft; plywood, 1,200m. bd ft, and pulp wood (1981)3,494,000 short tons. Fisheries. Washington ranks second only to Alaska in the catch of salmon and halibut; total catch, 1984,156m. lb.; value, $76m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1981 manufacturing employed 301,900 workers, of whom 79,100 were in aerospace and 61,200 in the forest products industry. Gross manufacturing income (1 Oct. 1980-30 Sept. 1981): aerospace, $8,380-6m.; forest products, $6,415-6m., of which paper and pulp made $2,571-4m.; food products, $4,801 -4m.; primary metals, $2,728-9m.; refining petroleum, $2,227 -2m. Abundance of electric power has made Washington the leading producer of primary aluminium. In 1984 manufacturing employed 285,000; trade, 403,000; service industries, 350,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1979) maintained 6,920 miles of highway; the counties, 40,767 miles; municipalities, 9,888 miles. Motor vehicle registrations (1980), 3,566,639. Railways. The railways had, in 1980,6,057 miles. Aviation. There were in 1979, 365 airports, 120 publicly owned. In 1978 SeattleTacoma Airport traffic was 8-3m. passengers, 48,000 tons of mail and 185,000 tons of freight and express. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The average daily adult population in state prisons in 1983 was 6,701. Since 1963 there have been no executions; total 1930-63 (by hanging) was 47, including 40 whites, 5 Negroes and 2 other races, all for murder, except 1 white for kidnapping. Religion. Chief religious bodies are the Roman Catholic, United Methodist, Lutherail, Presbyterian, Latter-day Saints and Episcopalian. Education. Education is given free to all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years, and is compulsory for children from 8 to 15 years of age. In autumn 1983 there were 736,(XX) pupils in public elementary and secondary schools, with 35,200 classroom teachers. In 1985 the average salary of teaching staff was $25,600. The total expenditure on public elementary and secondary schools for the school year 1985 was $2,798m. The University of Washington, founded 1861, at Seattle, had, autumn 1982, 34,769 students, and Washington University at Pullman, founded 1890, for science and agriculture, had 16,829 students. Twenty-seven community colleges had (1981 ) a total enrolment of 161,244 students (89,263 full-time equivalent). Health. In 1981 the 2 state hospitals for mental illness had a daily average of 1,204 patients; schools for handicapped children, 1,999 residents in Sept. 1981. In 1982 the state had 121 general hospitals (15,700 beds); in 1981, 3 licensed psychiatric hospitals (181 beds) and 3 alcoholism hospitals (174 beds). Social Security. Old-age assistance is provided for persons 65 years of age or older without adequate resources (and not in need of continuing home care) who are residents of the state. In July 1981, 14,287 people were drawing an average of $130-93 per month; aid to 139,514 children in 52,781 families averaged $333-86 per family monthly; to 500 blind persons, $218-05 per person monthly; to 25,557 totally disabled, $216-59 monthly. 5,057 persons, under foster care, received payments of $366-11 per person. Total unemployment in 1981 averaged 176,000 (9-1% of the population). In June 1980 the unemployment insurance system covered 90-5% of employers (103,391). Benefits ranged from $41 to $150 per week and averaged $ 117 • 7 5 per week.

WEST VIRGINIA

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Books of Reference Washington State Research Council, Handbook A Compendium of Statistical and Explanatory Information about State and Local Government m Washington. 4th ed. Olympia, 1973 —The Book of Numbers. A Statistical Handbook on Washington State Government Olympia, 1977 Washington (State) Office of Financial Management. Pocket Data Book ¡978 Avery, M. W , Washington, a History of the Evergreen Slate Univ of Wash. Press, 1965.— Government of Washington State Univ ofWash. Press,revised ed. 1973 State Library Washington State Library, Olympia. State Librarian. Roderick Swartz.

WEST V I R G I N I A HISTORY. In 1862, after the state of Virginia had seceded from the Union, the electors of the western portion ratified an ordinance providing for the formation of a new state, which was admitted into the Union by presidential proclamation on 20 June 1863, under the name of West Virginia. Its constitution was adopted by the voters almost unanimously on 26 March 1863. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . West Virginia is bounded north by Pennsylvania and Maryland, east and south by Virginia, south-west by the Sandy River (forming the boundary with Kentucky) and west by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Ohio). Area, 24,282 sq. miles, of which 102 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1 April 1980,1,949,644, an increase of 11 -8% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 1,936,000. Births, 1985, 24,102 (12 6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 19,409(9 8); infant deaths, 257 (11 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 14,577 (7 9); divorces, 9,847 (4 9). Population in 5 federal census years was: 1910 1940 1960 1970 1980

White 1,156,817 1,614,191 1,770,133 1,673,480 1,874,751

Negro 64,173 114,893 89,378 67,342 65,051

Indian 36 18 181 751 1,610

Asiatic 93 103 419 1,463 5,194

Total 1,221,119 1,729,205 1,860,421 1,744,237 1,949,644

Persq. mile 50 8 71 8 77 3 71 8 80-3

Of the total population in 1980,945,408 were male, 705,319 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 1,319,566. The 1980 census (and 1985 estimate) population of the principal cities was: Huntington, 63,684 (61,086); Charleston, 63,968 (59,371). Others: Wheeling, 43,070 (42,082); Parkersburg, 39,967 (39,399); Morgantown, 27,605 (27,786); Weirton, 24,736 (23,878); Fairmont, 23,863 (22,822); Clarksburg, 22,371 (21,379). C L I M A T E . Charleston. Jan. 3 4 T (1 1°C), July 76°F (24 4°C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,010 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in 1872; it has had 60 amendments. The Legislature consists of the Senate of 34 members elected for a term of 4 years, one-half being elected biennially, and the House of Delegates of 100 members, elected biennially. The Governor is elected for 4 years and may succeed himself once. Voters are all citizens (with the usual exceptions) 18 years of age and meeting certain residential requirements. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 4 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 396,332 votes, Mondale, 322,142. The state capital is Charleston. There are 55 counties. Governor Arch Moore Jr. (R.), 1985-89 ($72,000). Secretary of State Ken Hechler(D.), ($43,200). F I N A N C E . General revenues for the year ending 30 June 1985 were $2,777m. ($1,506 -5m. from taxes, $717m. from federal funds); general expenditures were $2,914m. (education, $1,189 • 5m.; highways, $574m.; public welfare, $571 m.).

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Debts outstanding were $942 • 3 m. on 30 June 1985. Estimated per capita personal income (1985) was $10,193. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. 48-6% of the state is underlain with mineable coal; 131m. short tons of coal were produced in 1984. Petroleum output, 3- lm. bbls; natural gas production was 143,230m. cu. ft. Salt, sand and gravel, sandstone and limestone are also produced. The total value of mineral output in 1984 was $5,291 -8 m. Agriculture. In 1986 the state had 21,000 farms with an area of 3-6m. acres; average size of farm was 171 acres and valued at $537 per acre. Livestock farming predominates. Cash income, 1985, from crops was $49-4m.; from government payments, $4 3m., and from livestock and products, $191 -6m. Major crops harvested, 1985: hay (1 2m. tons); all corn (7 7m. bu.); tobacco (3 4m. lb.). Apples and peaches are important fruit crops. Livestock on farms, 1 Jan. 1986, included 520,000 cattle, of which 34,000 were milch cows; sheep, 78,000; hogs, 37,000; chickens, 710,000 excluding broilers. Production, 1985, included 25 7m. broilers, 121m. eggs; 2-4m. turkeys. Forestry. State forests, 1985, covered 79,365 acres; national forests, 1,673,000 gross acres; 7 5% of the state is woodland. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985, 1,600 manufactories had 88,879 production workers who earned $2,148m. Leading manufactures are primary and fabricated metals, glass, chemicals, wood products, textiles and apparel, and machinery. In 1985 non-agricultural employment was 569,599 of whom 134,421 were in trade, 127,600 in government and 99,238 in service industries. The first commercial coal liquefaction plant in the USA is being built near Morgantown with the co-operation of the governments of Federal Republic of Germany and Japan and the Gulf Oil Co. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total highways on 30 June 1985, 37,557 miles (state maintained, 33,850 miles; inter-state, 393 miles; national parks and other roads, 4,314 miles). Registered motor vehicles, financial year ending 30 June 1985, numbered 1,442,803. Railways. In 1985 the state had 3,482 miles of railway, all operated by diesel or electric trains. Aviation. There were 42 licensed airports in 198 5. Post and Broadcasting. There are 65 AM radio stations, 61 FM radio stations. Television stations number 9 VHF and 5 UHF. Newspapers. Daily newspapers number 26; weekly newspapers 65. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state court system consists of a Supreme Court and 31 circuit courts. The Supreme Court of Appeals, exercising original and appellate jurisdiction, has 5 members elected by the people for 12-year terms. Each circuit court has from 1 to 7 judges (as determined by the Legislature on the basis of population and case-load) chosen by the voters within each circuit for 8-year terms. Effective on 1 July 1967, the West Virginia Human Rights Act prohibits discrimination in employment and places of public accommodations based on race, religion, colour, national origin or ancestry. There are 5 penal and correctional institutions which had, on 30 June 1985, 1,574 inmates. In 1965 the state legislature abolished capital punishment. Religion. Chief denominations in 1985 were United Methodist (159,000 members, estimate), Baptists (119,000) and Roman Catholics (110,000).

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Education. Public school education is free for all from 5 to 21 years of age, and school attendance is compulsory for all between the ages of 7 and 16 (school term, 200 days—180-185 days of actual teaching). The public schools are non-sectarian. In autumn 1984 public elementary and secondary schools had 357,324 pupils and 26,389 classroom teachers. Average salary of teachers in 1984, $19,596. Total 1984 expenditures for public schools, $ 1,108m. Leading institutions of higher e d u c a t i o n in 1985: Founded 1837 1837 1867 1868 1872 1872 1872 1891 1895 1895 1901 1972 1976

Marshall University, Huntington School of Medicine West Liberty State College, West Liberty Fairmont State College, Fairmont West Virginia University, Morgantown School of Medicine Concord College, Athens Glenville State College, Glen ville Shepherd College, Shepherdstown West Virginia State College West Virginia Institute of Technology, Montgomery Bluefield State College, Bluefield Potomac State College of West Virginia Univ., Keyser West Virginia College of Graduate Studies School of Osteopathic Medicine, Lewisburg

Full-time students 11,350 191 2,487 4,989 18,031 1,510 2,355 1,780 3,777 4,462 2,890 2,401 1,018 2,768 236

In addition to the universities and state-supported schools, there are 3 community colleges (8,253 students in 1985), 10 denominational and private institutions of higher education (9,470 students in 1985) and 18 business colleges. Health. In 1985 the state had 67 hospitals and 48 licensed personal care homes, 83 skilled-nursing homes and 3 mental hospitals. Social Security. The Department of Human Services, originating in the 1930s as the Department of Public Assistance, is both state and federally financed. In the year ending 30 June 1986 day care for 4,563 children per month was provided; aid was given to 25,225 families with dependent children (average award, $229.90 per month); handicapped children's services conducted 109,643 examinations; 91,091 families per month received food stamps. On 1 Jan. 1974 all blind, aged and disabled services were converted to the Federal Supplemental Security Income programme. Books of Reference West Virginia Blue Book. Legislature, Charleston. Annual, since 1916 West Virginia Statistical Handbook, 1974. Bureau of Business Research, W. Va. Univ., Morgantown, 1974 Bibliography of West Virginia. 2 parts. Dept. of Archives and History, Charleston, 1939 West Virginia History. Dept. of Archives and History. Charleston. Quarterly, from 1939 Conley, P., and Doherty, W. T., West Virginia History. Charleston, 1974 Davis, C. J., and others, West Virginia State and Local Government. West Virginia Univ. Bureau for Government Research, 1963 Rice, O. K., West Virginia: A History. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1985 Williams, J. A., West Virginia: A Bicentennial History. New York, 1976 State Library: Division of Archives and History, Dept. of Culture and History, Charleston.

WISCONSIN HISTORY. Wisconsin was settled in 1670 by French traders and missionaries. Originally a part of New France, it was surrendered to the British in 1763 and in 1783, when ceded to the US, became part of the North-west Territory. It was then contained successively in the Territories of Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. In 1836 it became part of the Territory of Wisconsin, which also included the present states

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

of Iowa, Minnesota and parts of the Dakotas. It was admitted into the Union with its present boundaries on 29 May 1848. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Wisconsin is bounded north by Lake Superior and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois, west by Iowa and Minnesota, with the Mississippi River forming most of the boundary. Area, 56,154 sq. miles, including 1,439 sq. miles of inland water, but excluding any part of the Great Lakes. Census population, 1 April 19804,705,642, an increase of 6-5% since 1970. Estimated population (1986), 4,789,122. Births in 1984 were 73,647 (15 -4 per 1,000 population); deaths, 41,434 (8 -7); infant deaths, 674 (9 • 2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 40,014 (8 • 4); divorces and annulments, 16,596(3-5). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 2,320,555 2,916,255 3,858,903 4,258,959 4,443,035

Negro 2,900 10,739 74,546 128,224 182,592

All others 10,405 12,012 18,328 30,750 80,015

Total 2,333,860 2,939,006 3,951,777 4,417,933 4,705,642

Per sq. mile 42-2 53-7 72-2 80-8 86-4

Of the total population in 1980, 49% were male, 64-2% were urban and 67% were 20 years old or older. Population of the larger cities, 1980 census, was as follows: Milwaukee Madison Racine Green Bay Kenosha West Allis Wauwatosa

636,297 170,616 85,725 87,889 77,685 63,982 51,308

Appleton Oshkosh La Crosse Sheboygan Janesville Eau Claire Waukesha

58,913 49,620 48,347 48,085 51,071 51,509 50,365

Beloit Fond du Lac Manitowoc Wausau Superior Brookfield

35,207 35,863 32,547 32,426 29,571 34,035

Population of larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Milwaukee, 1,207,008; Madison, 213,678; Duluth-Superior (Minn.-Wis.), 132,585; Racine, 118,987; Green Bay, 142,747. C L I M A T E . Milwaukee. Jan. 19'F (-7-2°C), July 70"F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 29" (727 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1375. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution, which dates from 1848, has 123 amendments. The legislative power is vested in a Senate of 33 members (1987 term: 19 Democrats, 11 Republicans, 3 vacancies) elected for 4 years, one-half elected alternately, and an Assembly of 99 members (1987 term: 54 Democrats, 45 Republicans) all elected simultaneously for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. All 6 constitutional officers serve 4-year terms. Wisconsin has universal suffrage for all citizens 18 years of age or over; but, as there is no official list of voters, the size of the electorate is unknown; 2,211,689 voted for President in 1984. Wisconsin is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 9 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,198,584 votes, Mondale, 995,740. The capital is Madison. The state has 72 counties. Governor: Tommy G. Thompson (R.), 1987-91 ($86,149). Lieut.-Governor: Scott McCallum (R.), 1987-91 ($46,360). Secretary of State: Douglas La Follette (D.), 1987-91 ($42,089). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1986 (Wisconsin Bureau of Financial Operations figures) total revenue for all funds was $14,178,972,188 ($5,204,500,469 from taxation and $2,069,991,841 from federal aid). General expenditure from all funds was $10,531,746,868 ($2,957,454,638 for education, $2,936,429,835 for human resources).

WISCONSIN

1549

Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 13,154. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. There were, Dec. 1985, 89 hydro-electric power plants (15 of them municipal, 59 private in Wisconsin; 15 private outside the state) operated by public utilities with a total installed capacity of 455,020 kw.; output, 1985, was 2,493,541mwh. The 15 outside plants are in Michigan; installed capacity 99,990 kw., output 543,61 Omwh. Fossil fuel and nuclear plants numbered 23 (4 municipal); the former had a total installed capacity of 7,152,528 kw.; total output, (1985), 25,068,522mwh; the 2 nuclear plants had an installed capacity of 1,540,682 kw. and a total output (1985) of 10,654,941mwh. There were also 32 internal combustion reciprocating plants (one in Michigan), with a total installed capacity of 116,042 kw. and a total output of (1985) 4,962mwh., and 17 internal combustion turbine plants with a total installed capacity of 1,285,950 kw.; total output was (1985) 15,212mwh. There was a total of 161 plants, with a total installed capacity of 10,550,222 kw. andatotal output of(1985) 38,237,178mwh. Minerals. Sand and gravel, crushed stone and lime are the chief mineral products. Mineral production in 1985 was valued at $ 125 • 1 m. This value included $51 m. for sand and gravel, $42m. for crushed stone and about $19m. for lime. Value of all other minerals including natural abrasives, peat, cement and gemstones, $ 13m. The large Forest County sulphide deposit (5,000 ft long, about 200 ft wide and over 2,000 ft deep and almost vertical) south of Crandon is estimated at over 77m. tons, averaging 5% zinc, 1 % copper and lesser amounts of lead, silver and gold. Agriculture. The total number of farms has declined in the last 50 years, but farms have become larger and more productive. On 1 Jan. 1986 there were 83,000 farms with a total acreage of 17-7m. acres and an average size of 213-3 acres, compared with 142,000 farms with a total acreage of 22 -4m. acres and an average of 158 acres in 1959, Cash income from products sold by Wisconsin farms in 1985, $5,052m.; $3,982m. from livestock and livestock products and $ 1,070m. from crops. Wisconsin ranked first among the states in 1985 in the number of milch cows, milk and butter production, output of American, both Brick and Munster, Italian and Blue Mold Cheese. Production of all cheese accounted for 38-2% of the nation's total. The state also ranked first in bulk whole condensed milk, bulk sweetened skim condensed milk lactose for human use, whey solids in wet blends and dry whey. In crops the state ranked first for snap beans and green peas for processing, all hay and corn for silage. Production of the principal field crops in 1985 included: Corn for grain, 358-5m. bu.; corn for silage, 1 l-25m. tons; oats, 51-5m. bu.; all hay, 111m. tons. Other crops of importance 24-lm. cwt of potatoes, 17-6m. lb. of tobacco, l -2m. bbls of cranberries, l -6m. cwt of carrots and the processing crops of 668,800 tons of sweet corn, 160,900 tons of green peas and 248,800 tons of snap beans. Forestry. Wisconsin has an estimated 14-8m. acres of forest land (about 41 -5% of land area). Of more than 14m. acres of commercial forest (June 1985) national forests covered l -4m. acres; state forests, 0-7m.; county and municipal forests, 2-2m.; forest industry, 1 -2m.; private land, 8-6m. Growing stock(1985), 15,500m. cu. ft, of which 11,900m. cu. ft is hardwood and 3,600m. cu. ft, softwood. Largest timber stands: maple and birch, 4m. acres; aspen, 3 • 3 m.; conifers, 2 • 8m. I N D U S T R Y . Wisconsin has much heavy industry, particularly in the Milwaukee area. Non-electrical machinery is the major industrial group (19% of all manufacturing employment). Wood-using industries come second in value of product (over $8,500m. in 1985). Also important are food processing, fabricated

1550

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

metals, electrical machinery, paper and products, transport equipment, primary metals and printing. Manufacturing establishments in 1985 provided 26% of all employment, 31% of all earnings. The total number of establishments was 8,818 in 1985; the biggest concentration is in the south-east. T O U R I S M . The tourist-vacation industry ranks among the first three in economic importance. The decline of lumbering and mining in the northern section of the state has increased dependency on the recreation industry. The Division of Tourism of the Department of Development spent $2,156,792 to promote tourism in financial year 1985-86. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had on 1 Jan. 1986,108,370 miles of highway. 75% of all roads in the state have a bituminous (or similar) surface. There are 11,890 miles of state trunk roads and 19,532 miles of county trunk roads. In the year ending 1 Jan. 1986 Wisconsin registered 3,418,789 motor vehicles. Railways. On 1 Aug, 1985 the state had 4,675 road-miles of railway. Aviation. There were, in 1986,97 publicly operated airports. Twelve scheduled air carrier airports were served by 8 regional and national air carriers. Shipping. With the opening of the St Lawrence Seaway in 1959, 14 Wisconsin ports became accessible to ocean-going vessels. Green Bay, Kenosha, Manitowoc, Marinette, Milwaukee, Sheboygan and Superior (one of the world's largest iron-ore and grain ports) have developed foreign waterbome commerce. Cargo is also carried by barge on the river Mississippi. Other ports handle mainly Great Lakes traffic. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The state's penal, reformatory and correctional system on 30 June 1986 held 5,055 men and 244 women in 14 state-owned and other institutions for adult arid juvenile offenders; on 31 May 1986 the probation and parole system was supervising 20,658 men and 4,196 women. Wisconsin does not impose the death penalty. Religion. Wisconsin church affiliation, as a percentage of the 1980 population, was estimated at 32-2% Catholic, 20 06% Lutheran, 3-74% Methodist, 10-41% other churches and 32-6% un-affiliated. Education. All children between the ages of 7 and 16 are required to attend school full-time to the end of the school term in which they become 16 years of age. Children living in a district with a vocational school must attend until 18. In 198586 the public school grades kindergarten-8 had 502,035 pupils and 29,553 (fulltime equivalent) teachers; school grades 9-12 had 266,199 pupils and 16,950 teachers. Grade kindergarten-8 teachers' salaries, 1986-87, averaged $25,950; grade 9-12 teachers, $27,133. In 1985-86 vocational, technical and adult schools had an enrolment of 439,974, and there were 6,738 faculty members (full-time equivalent). There is a school for the visually handicapped and a school for the deaf. The University of Wisconsin, established in 1848, was joined by law in 1971 with the Wisconsin State Universities System to become the University of Wisconsin System with 13 degree granting campuses, 13 two-year campuses in the Center System, and the University Extension. The 26 campuses had, in 1985-86, 6,941 full-time professors and instructors and 1,951 (full-time equivalent) teaching assistants. In autumn 1985, 164,783 students enrolled (10,913 at Eau Claire, 5,062 at Green Bay, 9,318 at La Crosse, 45,050 at Madison, 26,213 at Milwaukee, 11,613 at Oshkosh, 5,225 at Parkside, 5,636 at Platteville, 5,284 at River Falls, 9,525 at Stevens Point, 7,705 at Stout, 2,076 at Superior, 11,027 at Whitewater and 10,118

WYOMING

1551

in the Center System freshman-sophomore centres). There are also several independent institutions of higher education. These (with 1985-86 enrolment) include 2 universities (12,469), 18 liberal arts colleges (18,205), 5 technical and professional schools (4,067), and 4 theological seminaries (466). The total expenditure, 1985-86, for all public education (except capital outlay and debt service) was $4,479m. The state maintains an educational broadcasting and television service. Health. In Oct. 1986 the state had 141 general and allied special hospitals (20,156 beds), 18 mental hospitals (1,876 beds), 10 treatment centres for alcoholism and 1 rehabilitation centre. Patients in state mental hospitals and institutions for the mentally retarded in June 1986 averaged 2,632. Social Security. On 1 Jan. 1974 the US Social Security administration assumed responsibility for financial aid (Supplemental Security Income) to persons 65 years old and over, blind persons and totally disabled persons, who satisfy requirements as to need. Recipients receive a federal payment plus a federally administered state supplementary payment, except for those who reside in a medical institution. In Oct. 1986, there were 73,892 SSI recipients in the state. In Oct. 1986 payments were $438 for a single individual, $489 for an eligible individual with an ineligible spouse, and $668 for an eligible couple. A special payment level of $537 for an individual and $1,018 for a couple may be paid with special approval for SSI recipients who are developmentally disabled or chronically mentally ill, living in a non-medical living arrangement not his or her own home. All SSI recipients receive state medical assistance coverage. Under the Aid to Families with Dependent Children programme, 97,980 families constituting 297,910 persons received an average of $499.65 per family in Aug. 1986. In Aug. 1986 there were 3,907 county foster care cases (average cost per case of $240.80) and 153 state cases ($459.10). Medicaid in financial year 1984 cost $1,001 2m. Books of Reference Wisconsin Statistical Abstract. Wis. Dept. of Administration, State Bureau of Planning a n d Budget, Madison, 1979 Dictionary of Wisconsin Biography Wis. Historical Society, Madison, 1960 Wisconsin Blue Book Wis. Legislative Reference Bureau, Madison. Biennial Current, R. N , The History of Wisconsin, Vol. II. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1976.— Wisconsin, a History New York, 1977 Nesbit, R. C., Wisconsin, A History State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1973 Smith, Alice E., The History of Wisconsin, Vol. 1 State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1973 Vexler, R. I., Wisconsin Chronology andFactbook. New York, 1978 State Information Agency Legislative Reference Bureau, State Capitol, Madison, Wis. 53702. Chief: Dr H. R u p e r t Theobald.

WYOMING H I S T O R Y . Wyoming, first settled in 1834, was admitted into the Union on 10 July 1890. The name originated with the Delaware Indians. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Wyoming is bounded north by Montana, east by South Dakota and Nebraska, south by Colorado, south-west by Utah and west by Idaho. Area 97,809 sq. miles, of which 820 sq. miles are water. The Yellowstone National Park occupies about 2,221,733 acres; the Grand Teton National Park has 310,350 acres. TTie federal government in 1979 owned 28,888,546 acres (46-1% of the total area of the state). The Federal Bureau of Land Management administers 17,546,188 acres. Census population, 1 April 1980, 469,557, an increase of 41-25% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 485,111. Births in 1984 were 9,741 (20 per 1,000 population); deaths, 3,172 (6-4); infant deaths, 104 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,783; divorces, 3,705.

1552

UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA

Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 140,318 221,241 322,922

Negro 2,235 1,250 2,183

1970 1980

323,619 446,488

2,568 3,364

Indian 1,486 1,845 4,020

Asiatic 1,926 1,229 805

All others 6,229 19,705

Total 145,965 225,565 330,066

Per sq. mile 1-5 2-3 3-4

332,416 469,557

3-4 4-8

Of the total population in 1980, 240,560 were male, 295,898 were urban and those over 21 years of age numbered 295,908. The largest towns are Cheyenne (capital), with census population in 1980 of 58,429; Casper, 59,287; Laramie, 24,410; Rock Springs, 19,458. C L I M A T E . Cheyenne. Jan. 25"F (-3-9"C), July 66°F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 15" (376 mm). Yellowstone Park. Jan. 18°F(-7-8°C), July 6 P F ( 1 6 1 ° C ) . Annual rainfall 18" (444 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1374. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution, drafted in 1890, has since had 43 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 30 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 64 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 1 representative, elected by the voters of the entire state. The suffrage extends to all citizens, male and female, who have the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 131,998 votes, Mondale, 53,154. The capital is Cheyenne. The state contains 23 counties. Governor: Mike Sullivan (D.), 1987-90 ($70,000). Secretary of State: Kathy Karpan (D.), 1987-90 ($52,500). B U D G E T . In the fiscal year ending 1 July 1986 (State Treasurer's figures) general revenues were $1,949,255,098; general expenditures were $1,587,571,799. Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 12,238. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Wyoming is largely an oil-producing state. In 1985 the output of petroleum was valued at $3,128m.; natural gas, $l,485m. Other mining: Coal, $l,231m.; trona, $95-8m.; uranium, $21 -8m.; other minerals mined include iron ore, feldspar, gypsum, limestone, phosphate, sand, gravel and marble, taconite, bentonite and hematite. Agriculture. Wyoming is semi-arid, and agriculture is carried on by irrigation and by dry farming. In 1985 there were 9,000 farms and ranches; total land area 34-8m. acres. Cash receipts, 1985, from crops, $122-4m.; from livestock and products, $478 -8m. Principal commodities are wheat, cattle and calves, lambs and sheep, sugar-beet, barley, hay and wool. Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1986 included 11,000 milch cows, 1 -33m. all cattle, 820,000 sheep and lambs and 34,000 swine. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1986 there were 518 manufacturing establishments. There were 1,053 mining companies or producers. A large portion of the manufacturing in the state is based ori'naturalresources, mainly oil and farm products. Leading industries are food, wood products (except furniture) and machinery (except electrical). There were 2,208 new business incorporations in 1985. The Wyoming Industrial Development Corporation assists in the development of small industries by providing credit.

OUTLYING TERRITORIES

1553

Labour. Mining is the largest employer in the state with average 23,600 workers in 1986. The total civilian labour force for June 1986 was 262,659; non-agricultural, 205,800. The average unemployment rate was 9 2% and average weekly earnings $595 28 for mining (production workers). Tourism. There are over 5 m. tourists annually, mainly sportsmen. The state has the largest elk and pronghorn antelope herds in the world, 11 fish hatcheries and numerous wild game. Receipts from hunters and fishermen in 1986, $ 14,628,081. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The roads in 1985 comprised 5,726 miles of federal highways, 353 miles of state highways and 917 miles of inter-state highway. There were (1984) 592,359 registered motor vehicles and 11 bus companies. Railways. The railways, 1985, had a length of2,071 mainline miles. Aviation. There were 10 towns with commuter air services and 2 towns on jet routes in 1985. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The state penitentiary in Aug. 1986 held 675 inmates, the Womens' Center, 45. There are 2 other state correctional institutions. There have been 14 executions in Wyoming, 8 by hanging and 6 by lethal gas. Religion. Chief religious bodies are the Roman Catholic (with 45,917 members in 1974), Mormon (28,954 in 1971) and Protestant churches (83,327 in 1974). There were 5,000 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1972. Education. In 1984-85 public elementary and secondary schools had 101,261 pupils. Enrolment in the parochial elementary and secondary schools was about 4,000. Approximately 7,791 public school teachers earned an average of $25,439. The average total expenditure per pupil for 1983-84 was $4,484. The University of Wyoming, founded at Laramie in 1887, had in autumn 1985, 9,869 students. There are 2-year colleges at Casper, Riverton, Torrington, Cheyenne, Powell, Rock Springs and Sheridan with 21,907 students in 1984-85. Social Welfare. In Jan. 1974 the federal government assumed many of the previous state programmes including old age assistance, aid to the blind and disabled. In 1986 financial year, $282,440 was distributed in food stamps; $13,703,220 in aid to families with dependent children; $6,672,862 in general assistance. Total state expenditure on public assistance and social services programmes, financial year 1985, $68 9m. Health. In 1986 the state had 30 hospitals. There are 29 registered nursing homes. Books of Reference News of Big Wyoming. Cheyenne, 1975 Official Directory Secretary of State. Cheyenne. Biennial 1985 Wyoming Data Handbook Dept. of Administration and Fiscal Control. Division of Research and Statistics, Cheyenne, 1985 Brown, R. H., Wyoming: A Geography Boulder, 1980 Larsen, T A., History of Wyoming. Rev ed. Univ of Nebraska, 1979 Treadway, T., Wyoming. New York, 1982 Vexler, R I., Wyoming Chronology and Factbook. New York, 1978

OUTLYING

TERRITORIES

Non-Self-Governing Territories. Summaries of Information Transmitted to the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations. Annual Perkins, W T , The United Slates and its Dependencies. Leiden, 1962 Wiens, H . J , Pacific Island Bastions ofthe US. New York and London, 1962

1554

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

GUAM H I S T O R Y . Magellan is said to have discovered the island in 1521; it was ceded by Spain to the US by the Treaty of Paris (10 Dec. 1898). The island was captured by the Japanese on 10 Dec. 1941, and retaken by American forces from 21 July 1944. Guam is of great strategic importance; substantial numbers of naval and air force personnel occupy about one-third ofthe usable land. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Guam is the largest and most southern island of the Marianas Archipelago, in 13° 26' N. lat., 144° 43' E. long. The length is 30 miles, the breadth from 4 to 10 miles, and there are about 209 sq. miles (541 sq. km). Agana, the seat of government is about 8 miles from the anchorage in Apra Harbour. The census on 1 April 1980 showed a population of 105,979, an increase of 20,983 or 24-7% since 1970; those of Guamanian ancestry numbered about 50,794; foreign-bom, 28,572; density was 507 per sq. mile. Estimated population (1984), 115,756. On 1 July 1980 transient residents connected with tne military were estimated at 20,000. The Malay strain is predominant. The native language is Chamorro; English is the official language and is taught in all schools. C L I M A T E . Tropical maritime, with little difference in temperatures over the year. Rainfall is copious at all seasons, but is greatest from July to Oct. Agana. Jan. 8rF(27-2"C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 93" (2,325 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Guam's constitutional status is that of an 'unincorporated territory' of the US. Entry of US citizens is unrestricted; foreign nationals are subject to normal regulations. In 1949-50 the President transferred the administration of the island from the Navy Department (who held it from 1899) to the Interior Department. The transfer conferred full citizenship on the Guamanians, who had previously been 'nationals' of the US. There was a referendum on status, 30 Jan. 1982. 38% of eligible voters voted; 48-5% of those favoured Commonwealth status. The Governor and his staff constitute the executive arm of the government. The Legislature is unicameral; its powers are similar to those of an American state legislature. At the general election of Nov. 1982, the Democratic Party won 14 seats and the Republicans 7. All adults 18 years of age or over are enfranchised. Guam returns one non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives. Governor: Ricardo Bordallo (D.), 1982-85. ($50,000). Lieut.-Governor: Edward D. Reyes (D.), 1982-85. ECONOMY Budget. At 30 Sept. 1983 total assets were $65 • 1 m.; federal grants $35-2m., taxes, $26-7m.: total liabilities were $149-3m. Banking. Recent changes in banking law make it possible for foreign banks to operate in Guam. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Water. Supplies are from springs, reservoirs and groundwater; 65% comes from water-bearing limestone in the north. The Navy and Air Force conserve water in reservoirs. The Water Resources Research Centre is at Guam University. Agriculture. The major products of the island are sweet potatoes, cucumbers, water melons and beans. In 1982 there were 140 full-time and 1,904 part-time farmers. Livestock (1985) included 2,000 cattle, 8,000 pigs, and (1984) 36,430 poultry. Commercial productions (1983) amounted to.6-6m. lb. of fruit and vegetables ($3-4m.), 567,000 doz. eggs ($811,093). There is an agricultural experimental station at Inarajan. Fisheries. Fresh fish caught in 1982, 319,300 lb. Offshore fishing produced 100,687 lb., including 6,080 lb. of shrimps.

1555

GUAM

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Guam Economic Development Authority controls three industrial estates: Cabras Island (32 acres); Calvo estate at Tamuning (26 acres); Harmon estate (16 acres). Industries include textile manufacture, cement and petroleum distribution, warehousing, printing, plastics and ship-repair. Other main sources of income are construction and tourism. Labour. In 1983 51% of employment was in government, 18% in trade, 5% in construction, 13% in services, 4% in manufacturing, 5% in transport and 4% in finance. Trade. Guam is the only American territory which has complete 'free trade'; excise duties are levied only upon imports of tobacco, liquid fuel and liquor. In the year ending 31 Dec. 1980 imports were valued at $544- lm. and accounted for 90% of trade. Tourism. Tourism is developing; there were 1,900 visitors in 1964 and 345,805 in 1983,294,429 of them from Japan. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 419 miles of all-weather roads. Aviation. Seven commercial airlines serve Guam. Post and Broadcasting. Overseas telephone and radio dispatch facilities are available. In 1983 there were 23,442 telephones. TTiere are 4 commercial stations, a commercial television station, a public broadcasting station and a cable television station with 24 channels. Newspapers. There is 1 daily newspaper, a twice-weekly paper, and 4 weekly publications (all of which are of military or religious interest only). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Organic Act established a District Court with jurisdiction in matters arising under both federal and territorial law; the judge is appointed by the President subject to Senate approval. There is also a Supreme Court and a Superior Court; all judges are locally appointed except the Federal District judge. Misdemeanours are underthe jurisdiction ofthe police court. The Spanish law was superseded in 1933 by 5 civil codes based upon California law. Religion. About 98% of the Guamanians are Roman Catholics; others are Baptists, Episcopalians, Bahais, Lutherans, Mormons, Presbyterians, Jehovah's Witnesses and members ofthe Church of Christ and Seventh Day Adventists. Education. Elementary education is compulsory. There are Chamorro Studies courses and bi-lingual teaching programmes to integrate the Chamorro language and culture into elementary and secondary school courses. There were, Dec. 1983, 24 elementary schools, 6 junior high schools, 5 senior high schools, one vocationaltechnical school for high school students and adults and 1 school for handicapped children. There were 17,725 elementary school pupils, 7,418 junior high and 5,776 senior high school pupils. Department of Education staff included 1,258 teachers. The Catholic schools system also operates 3 senior high schools, 3 junior high and 5 elementary schools. The Seventh Day Adventist Guam Mission Academy operates a school from grades 1 through 12, serving over 100 students. St John's Episcopal Preparatory School provides education for 530 students between kindergarten and the 9th grade. The University of Guam (an accredited institution) had 2,774 students, 1983-84. r

Health. There is a hospital, 8 nutrition centres, a school health programme and an extensive immunization programme. Emphasis is on disease prevention, health education and nutrition.

1556

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

Books of Reference Report (Annual) ofthe Governor ofGuam to the US Department of Interior Guam Annual Economic Review. Economic Research Center, Agana Carano, P., and Sanchez, P. C., Complete History of Guam. Rutland, Vt., 1964

FREELY-ASSOCIATED STATES H I S T O R Y . Under the Treaty of Versailles (1919) Japan was appointed mandatory to the former German possessions north of the Equator. In 1946 the US agreed to administer the former Japanese-mandated islands of the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana groups (except Guam) as a Trusteeship for the United Nations; the trusteeship agreement was approved by the Security Council 27 April 1947 and came into effect on 18 July 1947. The Trust Territory was administered by the US Navy until 1951, when all the islands except Tinian and Saipan in the Marianas were transferred to the Secretary of the Interior. In 1962 the Interior Department assumed responsibility for them also. On 17 June 1975 the voters of the Northern Mariana Islands, in a plebiscite observed by the UN, adopted the covenant to establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Union with the USA. In April 1976 the US government approved the convenant and separated the administration of the Northern Marianas from that of the rest of the Trust Territory. The rest was 3 entities, each with its own constitution: the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Kosrae, Truk and Pohnpei) and the Republic of Palau. The US Congress agreed compacts of free association with all except Palau in 1985-86; free association gives the USA the authority to control military and defence activities in return for federal government assistance and budget supports to the autonomous constitutional governments. In Dec. 1986 Palau returned a 66% vote in favour of the new status, but 75% is required by the constitution. Accordingly Palau remains under the UN Trusteeship Agreement and is not a Freely-Associated State. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The territories extend from 1* to 22° N. lat. and from 137" to 172° E. long. The area is generally known as Micronesia, or 'land of the small islands' (Guam, Kiribati and Nauru, not part of the territories, are also ethnically and geographically Micronesian). Areas, populations and headquarters: Kosrae Pohnpei Truk Yap Federated States ofMicronesia Marshall Islands Northern Marianas Total

Sq. miles 42 134 49 46 271 70 184 525

1980 Census 5,491 22,081 37,488 8,100 73,160 30,873 ' 16,780 120,813

Estimate 1984 6,262 26,922 44,596 10,595 88,375 34,923 19,635

Headquarters Lelu Kolonia Moen Colonia Kolonia Majuro Saipan

142,933

Nine different languages are spoken, each with variations; English is used in the schools and is the official language. C L I M A T E . Marked by high temperatures throughout the year and high rainfall. Marshall Islands, Jaluit. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 161" (4,034 mm). Caroline Islands, Ponape. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 79°F (26 1°C). Annual rainfall 194" (4,859 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Hie Northern Marianas form a Commonwealth with an elected governor and lieutenant-governor, both serving 4-year terms; the bicameral parliament has a 9-member Senate, elected for four years, and a 15-member House of Representatives (elected for two). The Federated

REPUBLIC OF PALAU

1557

States of Micronesia has a congress, a Federal President and Vice-President, both elected for four-year terms; each state has an elected governor (four years) and a unicameral assembly. The congress consists of 1 four-year Senator from each state, and 10 two-year Senators elected on a population basis. The Marshall Islands form a republic with an elected assembly and an elected president, both serving fouryear terms. The assembly has 33 members, and a presidential candidate must be a member. INDUSTRY. Tourism is the main source of income from overseas; industrial development is limited. There is some commercial fishing and agriculture, a coconut-processing plant and a tuna-freezing plant. Small scale manufacturing has begun, mainly of garments, buttons (from trochus shell) and handicraft goods. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. The island groups are served by Continental Air Micronesia, Japan Airlines and Air Nauru providing connexions to the South Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Japan, Hawaii and Guam. Several small commuter airlines connect Guam and the Northern Marianas, Yap and Ulithi, Pohinpei and Kosrae, Pihgelap and Mokil. Air Marshall Islands serves the Marshall Islands, Kosrae and Pohnpei. There are connexions to international routes in Guam. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Local constitutions and government statutes are the basis for law. Local customs are recognized and protected in legal practice, when not in conflict with higher law. Religion. Freedom of religion is guaranteed in all constitutions. Education. Education is free and compulsory through elementary school (grades 1-8). There are public and private elementary and secondary schools and government post-secondary education. The College of Micronesia and the Northern Marianas College are both 2-year. Health. The public health system, which includes 7 main hospitals as well as other hospitals in population centres and dispensaries on outlying islands, is carried on by a staff consisting chiefly of trained Micronesian medical and dental officers and assistants, US doctors, UN volunteers and local support staff. Books of Reference Report to the United Nations Trusteeship Council, ¡979. Dept. of State, Washington, D.C., 1984 Basic Information. Office of Freely Associated States' Affairs, Department ofState, Washington D.C. 20520; Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan; Office of the President, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Majuro; Office of the President, Federated States of Micronesia, Ponape, Caroline Islands.

REPUBLIC OF PALAU The Republic is the only one of the former Trust Territory of the Pacific entities to remain as such. It lies west of the Federated States of Micronesia, and has a land area of 192 sq. miles, divided between 26 larger islands and more than 300 islets. The largest island is Babelthuap (143 sq. miles). Population (1980 census) 12,116; 1984 estimate, 13,000. The language is Palauan. The headquarters is Koror. The Republic has a bicameral parliament with an 18-member Senate, and 16-member House of Delegates, both elected for four years as are the president and vice-president. The Constitution, adopted in July 1980, provided for ultimate free-association status, but it also defines Palau as a nuclearfree zone; this is in conflict with the United States' intention of basing nuclear

1558

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

weapons on the islands, as part of the defence responsibility included in the Free Association Compact.

AMERICAN SAMOA HISTORY. The Samoan Islands were first visited by Europeans in the 18th century; the first recorded visit was in 1722. On 14 July 1889 a treaty between the USA, Germany and Great Britain proclaimed the Samoan islands neutral territory, under a 4-power government consisting of the 3 treaty powers and the local native government. By the Tripartite Treaty of 7 Nov. 1899, ratified 19 Feb. 1900, Great Britain and Germany renounced in favour of the US all rights over the islands of the Samoan group east of 171° long, west of Greenwich, the islands to the west of that meridian being assigned to Germany (now the Independent State of Western Samoa, see p. 1592). The islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u were ceded to the US by their High Chiefs on 17 April 1900, and the islands of the Manu'a group on 16 July 1904. Congress accepted the islands under a Joint Resolution approved 20 Feb. 1929. Swain's Island, 210 miles north of the Samoan Islands, was annexed in 1925 and is administered as an integral part of American Samoa. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The islands (Tutuila, Aunu'u, Ta'u, Olosega, Ofu and Rose) are approximately 650 miles east-north-east of Fiji. The total area of American Samoa is 76-1 sq. miles (197 sq. km); population, 1980, 32,297, nearly all Polynesians or part-Polynesians. The island's 3 Districts are Eastern (population, 1980, 17,311), Western (13,227) and Manu'a (1,732). There is also Swain's Island, with an area of 1 • 9 sq. miles and 29 inhabitants (1980), which lies 210 miles to the north west. Rose Island (uninhabited) is 0-4 sq. mile in area. In 1981 there were 1,158 births and 153 deaths. C L I M A T E . A tropical maritime climate with a small annual range of temperature and plentiful rainfall. Pago-Pago. Jan. 83°F (28-3°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 194" (4,850 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT, American Samoa is constitutionally an unorganized unincorporated territory of the US administered under the Department of the Interior. Its indigenous inhabitants are US nationals and are classified locally as citizens of American Samoa with certain privileges under local laws not granted to non-indigenous persons. Polynesian customs (not inconsistent with US laws) are respected. Fagatogo is the seat of the Government. The islands are organized in 15 counties grouped in 3 districts; these counties and districts correspond to the traditional political units. On 25 Feb. 1948 a bicameral legislature was established, at the request of the Samoans, to have advisory legislative functions. With the adoption of the Constitution of 22 April 1960, and the revised Constitution of 1967, the legislature was vested with limited lawmaking authority. The lower house, or House of Representatives, is composed of 20 members elected by universal adult suffrage and 1 non-voting member for Swain's Island. The upper house, or Senate, is comprised of 18 members elected, in the traditional Samoan manner, in meetings of the chiefs. Governor: A. P. Lutali. Lieut.-Governor: Eni F. Hunkin, Jr. ECONOMY Planning. The first formal Economic Development and Planning Office completed its first year in 1971. Much has been done to promote economic expansion within the Territory and a large amount of outside investment interest has been stimulated. The Office initiated the first Territorial Comprehensive Plan. This plan when

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completed will, with periodic updating, provide a guideline to territorial development for the next 20 years. The planning programme was made possible under a Housing and Urban Development '701' grant programme, and Economic Development Administration '302' planning programmes. The focus will be on physical development and the problems of a rapidly increasing population with severely limited labour resources. Budget. The chief sources of revenue are annual federal grants from the US, and local revenues from taxes, and duties, and receipts from commercial operations (enterprise and special revenue funds), utilities, rents and leases and liquor sales. During the financial year 1983-84 the Government had a revenue of $76-6m. including local appropriations of $9-5m., federal appropriations of $39-6m. and enterprise funds of $ 17 • 5m. Banking. The American Samoa branch of the Bank of Hawaii and the American Samoa Bank offer all commercial banking services. The Development Bank of American Samoa, government owned, is concerned primarily through loans and guarantees with the economic advancement of the Territory. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Net power generated (financial year 1981) was 72-2m. kwh., of which 23- lm. kwh. was supplied to large power users and 20-2m. kwh. to householders. All the Manu'a islands have electricity. Agriculture. Of the 48,640 acres of land area, 11,000 acres are suitable for tropical crops; most commercial farms are in the Tafuna plains and west Tutuila. Principal crops are taro, bread-fruit, yams, bananas and coconuts. Local sales (1982): taro, 770,315 lb.;bananas, lm. lb.; vegetables, 584,143 lb. Livestock (1985): Pigs, 10,000; (1984) goats, 8,000; poultry, 45,000. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Fish canning is important, employing the second largest number of people (after government). Attempts are being made to provide a variety of light industries. Tuna fishing and local inshore fishing are both expanding. Commerce. In 1982 American Samoa exported goods valued at $186,782,060 and imported goods valued at $119,416,918. Chief exports are canned tuna, watches, pet foods and handicrafts. Chief imports are building materials, fuel oil, food, jewellery, machines and parts, alcoholic beverages and cigarettes. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are (1983) about 76 miles of paved roads and 16 miles of unpaved within the Federal Aid highway system. There are 21 miles of other unpaved roads. Motor vehicles registered, 1983,3,657. Aviation. South Pacific Island Airways and Polynesian Airlines operate daily services between American Samoa and Western Samoa. South Pacific Island Airways also operates between Pago Pago and Honolulu, and between Pago Pago and Tonga. The islands are also served by Air Nauru which operates between Pago Pago, Tahiti and Auckland, and Air Pacific (Fiji and westward). South Pacific and Manu'a Air Transport run local services. Shipping. The harbour at Pago Pago, which nearly bisects the island of Tutuila, is the only good harbour for large vessels in Samoa. By sea, there is a twice-monthly service between Fiji, New Zealand and Australia and regular service between US, South Pacific ports, Honolulu and Japan. Post and Broadcasting. A commercial radiogram service is available to all parts of the world through 2 principal trunks, United States and Western Samoa. Commercial phone and telex services are operated to all parts of the world on a 24-hour service. Number of telephones (Sept. 1983), 6,029; telex subscribers, 78.

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JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Judicial power is vested firstly in a High Court. The trial division has original jurisdiction of all criminal and civil cases. The probate division has jurisdiction of estates, guardianships, trusts and other matters. The land and title division decides cases relating to disputes involving communal land and Matai title court rules on questions and controversy over family titles. The appellate division hears appeals from trial, land and title and probate divisions as well as having original jurisdiction in selected matters. The appellate court is the court of last resort. Two American judges sit with 5 Samoan judges permanently. In addition there are temporary judges or assessors who sit occasionally on cases involving Samoan customs. There is also a District Court with limited jurisdiction and there are 69 village courts. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 18. The Government (1983) maintains 24 consolidated elementary schools, 5 senior high schools with technical departments, 1 community college, special education classes for the handicapped and 92 Early Childhood Education Centres for pre-school children. Total elementary and secondary enrolment (1983), 8,300; in ECE schools, 1,611; classes for the handicapped, 68; total elementary and secondary classroom teachers, 480. Ten private schools had 2,108 students. Learning is by a variety of media including television. Health. The Department of Health provides the only curative and preventive medical and dental care in American Samoa. It operates a general hospital (173 beds including 49 bassinets), 3 dispensaries on Tutuila, 4 dispensaries in the Manu'a group, 1 on Aunu'u and 1 on Swain's Island. A $3-5m. tropical medical centre was completed and placed in service in 1968. This now embraces the general hospital as well as preventive health services and out-patient clinics for surgery, obstetrics, gynaecology, emergencies, family practice, internal medicine, paediatrics; there are clinics for treatment of the eye, ear, nose and throat, dental and public health departments. In 1983 there were 27 doctors, 7 dentists, 2 optometrists, 3 nurse anaesthetists, and 3 physician assistants. Total number of health service employees, 397.

OTHER PACIFIC TERRITORIES Johnston Atoll. Two small islands 1,150 km south-west of Hawaii, administered by the U S Air Force. Area, under 1 sq. mile; population (1980 census) 327, with Sand Island. Midway Islands. Two small islands at the western end of the Hawaiian chain, ad-' ministered by the US Navy. Area, 2 sq. miles; population (1980 census) 453. Wake Island. Three small islands 3,700 km west of Hawaii, administered by the US Air Force. Area, 3 sq. miles; population ( 1980 census) 302.

COMMONWEALTH OF PUERTO RICO H I S T O R Y . Puerto Rico, by the treaty of 10 Dec. 1898 (ratified 11 April 1899), was ceded by Spain to the US. The name was changed from Porto Rico to Puerto Rico by an Act of Congress approved 17 May 1932. Its territorial constitution was determined by the 'Organic Act' of Congress (2 March 1917) known as the 'Jones Act', which ruled until 25 July 1952, when the present constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was proclaimed. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Puerto Rico is the most easterly of the Greater Antilles and lies between the Dominican Republic and the US Virgin Islands. The

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island has a land area of 3,459 sq. miles and a population, according to the census of 1980, of 3,196,520, an increase of484,487 or 17 9% over 1970. Of the population in 1970 about 529,000 were bilingual, Spanish being the mother tongue and (with English) one of the two official languages. Urban population (1980)2,134,365(66 8%). Vital statistics (1983-84): Births, 63,321 (19-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 21,733 (6 -6); deaths under 1 year, 991 (15 • 7 per 1,000 live births). Chief towns (1980) are: San Juan, 434,849; Bayamón, 196,207; Ponce, 189,046; Carolina, 165,954; Caguas, 117,959; Mayaguez, 96,193; Arecibo, 86,766. The Puerto Rican island of Vieques, 10 miles to the east, has an area of 51 7 sq. miles and 7,662 inhabitants. The island of Culebra, with 1,265 inhabitants, between Puerto Rico and St Thomas, has a good harbour. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Puerto Rico has representative government, the franchise being restricted to citizens 18 years of age or over, residence (1 year) and such additional qualifications as may be prescribed by the Legislature of Puerto Rico, but no property qualification may be imposed. Women were enfranchised in 1932 (with a literacy test) and fully in 1936. Puerto Ricans do not vote in the US presidential elections, though individuals living on the mainland are free to do so subject to the local electoral laws. The executive power resides in a Governor, elected directly by the people every 4 years. Fourteen heads of departments form the Governor's advisory council, also designated as his Council of Secretaries. The legislative functions are vested in a Senate, composed of 27 members (2 from each of the 8 senatorial districts and 11 senators at large), and the House of Representatives, composed of 51 members (1 from each of the 40 representative districts and 11 elected at large). Puerto Rico sends to Congress a Resident Commissioner to the US, elected by the people for a term of 4 years, but he has no vote in Congress. Puerto Rican men are subject to conscription in US services. On 27 Nov. 1953 President Eisenhower sent a message to the General Assembly of the UN stating 'if at any time the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico adopts a resolution in favour of more complete or even absolute independence' he 'will immediately thereafter recommend to Congress that such independence be granted'. For an account of the constitutional developments prior to 1952, see THE STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1952, p. 742. The new constitution was drafted by a Puerto Rican Constituent Assembly and approved by the electorate at a referendum on 3 March 1952. It was then submitted to Congress, which struck out Section 20 of Article 11 covering the 'right to work' and the 'right to an adequate standard of living'; the remainder was passed and proclaimed by the Governor on 25 July 1952. At the election on 4 Nov. 1984 the Popular Democratic Party, headed by Rafael Hernández Colon, polled 822,783 votes (47 8% of the total); the New Progressive Party, headed by Carlos Romero Barceló, polled 768,742 votes (44-6% of the total); the Independence Party (full independence by constitutional means), 61,316 (3 6% of the total); Renewal Puerto Rican Party, 69,865 votes (3 -6% of the total). Governor Rafael Hernández Colon (Popular Democratic Party), 1984-88 ($35,000). ECONOMY Budget. Central Government budget, year ending 30 June 1983: Balance at 1 July 1982, $238,296,000; receipts, $5,143,330,000; disbursements, $5,225,926,000. Assessed value of property, 30 June 1985, was $9,544-6m., and bonded indebtedness (30 June 1985),$ 1,942m. The US administers and finances the postal service and maintains air and naval bases. US payments in Puerto Rico, including direct expenditures {mainly military), grants-in-aid and other payments to individuals and to business totalled: 1980-81, $3,426 5m.; 1981-82, $3,553 6m„ 1982-83, $3,704 6m„ 1983-84, $3,699-6m; 1984-85, $3,882 9m„ 1985-86, $4,229 5m.

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Banking. Banks on 30 June 1986 had total deposits of $18,521 -9m. Bank loans were $8,855-9m. This includes 18 commercial banks, 2 government banks and 3 trust companies. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Production: Cement (1984-85), lm. short tons; stone (1984), 5-8m. short tons, value $27 • 7m. Total value of mineral production in 1984 (estimate) was $120m. Agriculture. In 1974 there were 47 'proportional profit' farms of 22,051 cords (about 22,704 acres) (mostly sugar-cane). The land had been bought from the big corporations by the Land Authority. Production of raw sugar, 96 degrees basis, 1986 crop year, was 95,739 tons. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 599,511; pigs, 213,757; goats, 15,400; and poultry, 8-2m. COMMERCE. In 1985-86 imports amounted to $10,107-8m„ of which $6,115-8m. came from US; exports were valued at $ll,587-8m., of which $10,107 -6m. went to US. In financial year 1986 the US took: Sugar, 18,042 short tons; tobacco and products, 462,207,851 lb.; rum, 20,786,259 proof gallons. Puerto Rico is not permitted to levy taxes on imports. Total trade between Puerto Rico and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 33,445 25,735

1983 58,804 35,936

1984 76,854 72,695

1 985 126,971 117,861

1986 81,131 49,620

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Department of Public Works had under maintenance in June 1985, 6,876 1 km of paved road. Motor vehicles registered 30 June 1985,1,263,000. Shipping. In financial year 1985-86, 8,241 American and foreign vessels of 48,910,668 gross tons entered and cleared Puerto Rico. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 103 broadcasting stations and 14 television companies. There were (1985) 769,137 telephones (excluding Puerto Rico Communication Authority). Cinemas (1983-84). Cinemas had an annual attendance of 5 -6m. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 5 main newspapers, El Nuevo Dia had a daily circulation of about 198,170 (Dec. 1985); El Vocero, 212,470 (Oct. 1986); San Juan Star, 47,000 (May 1986); El Mundo, 122,000 (1985) and El Reportern, 44,000 (Oct. 1986). JUSTICE AND EDUCATION Justice. The Commonwealth judiciary system is headed by a Supreme Court of 7 members, appointed by the Governor, and consists of a Superior Tribunal with 11 sections and 92 superior judges, a District Tribunal with 38 sections and 99 district judges, and 60 municipal judges all appointed by the Governor. The police force (1984) consisted of 10,052 men and women. Education. Education was made compulsory in 1899, but in 1981, 3-6% of the children still had no access to schooling. The percentage of illiteracy in 1980 was 10-3% of those 10 years of age or older. Total enrolment in public schools, 1985-86, was 686,914. Accredited private schools had 99,488 pupils (1985-86). All instruction below senior high school standard is given in Spanish only. The University of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras, 7 miles from San Juan, had 55,380 students in 1985-86 of which 3,595 were in 8 Regional Colleges. Higher education is also available in the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico (40,690 students in 1985-86), the Catholic University of Puerto Rico (12,627),

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the Sacred Heart College (8,453) and the Fundación Educativa Ana G. Méndez ( 17,800). These and other private colleges and universities had 98,402 students. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The area of Economic Research and Evaluation of the Puerto Rico Planning Board publishes: (a) annual Economic Report to the Governor; (b) Statistical Yearbook (since 1940-41); (c) External Trade Statistics (annual report); (d) Economic Bulletin (monthly); (e) Reports on national income and balance of payments; (J) Socio-Economic Statistics (since 1940); (g) Puerto Rico Monthly Economic Indicators. In addition there are annual reports by various Departments. Annual Reports. Governor of Puerto Rico. Washington Bird, A., Bibliografía Puertorriqueña, 1930-45. Social Science Research Centre, Univ. of Puerto Rico. 2 vols. 1946-47 Bloomfield, R. J., Puerto Rico: The Search fora National Policy. Boulder, 1985 Carr, R., Puerto Rico: A Colonial Experiment. New York Univ. Press, 1984 Cevallos, E., Puerto Rico. [Bibliography], Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985 Crampsey, R. A., Puerto Rico. Newton Abbot, 1973 Jones, C. F., and Pico, R. (eds.), Symposium on the Geography of Puerto Rico. Univ. of P.R. Press, 1955 Commonwealth Library: Univ. of Puerto Rico Library, Rio Piedras. Librarian: José Lázaro.

VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE U N I T E D STATES H I S T O R Y . The Virgin Islands of the United States, formerly known as the Danish West Indies, were named and claimed for Spain by Columbus in 1493. They were later settled by Dutch and English planters, invaded by France in the mid-17th century and abandoned by the French c. 1700, by which time Danish influence had been established. St Croix was held by the Knights of Malta between two periods of French rule. They were purchased by the United States from Denmark for $25m. in a treaty ratified by both nations and proclaimed 31 March 1917. Their value was wholly strategic, inasmuch as they commanded the Anegada Passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean Sea and the approach to the Panama Canal. Although the inhabitants were made US citizens in 1927, the islands are, constitutionally, an 'unincorporated territory'. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Virgin Islands group, lying about 40 miles due east of Puerto Rico, comprises the islands of St Thomas (28 sq. miles), St Croix (84 sq. miles), St John (20 sq. miles) and about 50 small islets or cays, mostly uninhabited. The total area of the 3 principal islands is 132 sq. miles, of which the US Government owns 9,599 acres as National Park. The population, according to the census of 1 April 1980, was 95,591, an increase of 33,123 or 53% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 100,000. Population had slowly declined since 1835, when it stood at 43,000, but began to recover in the 1940s, and increased greatly after 1960. Population of St Croix, 49,013; St Thomas, 44,218; St John, 2,360. About 20-25% are native-born, 35-40% from other Caribbean islands, 10% from mainland USA and 5% from Europe. St Croix has over 40% of Puerto Rican origin or extraction, Spanish speaking. In financial year 1984, live births were 2,445 and deaths, 590. The capital and only city, Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas, had a population (1980) of 11,756; there are two towns on St Croix. Christiansted with 2,856 and Frederiksted with 1,054. C L I M A T E . Average temperatures vary from 77°F to 82°F throughout the year; humidity is low. Average annual rainfall, about 45 inches. The islands lie in the hurricane belt; tropical storms with heavy rainfall can occur in late summer, but hurricanes rarely.

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C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Organic Act of 22 July 1954 gives the US Department of the Interior full jurisdiction; some limited legislative powers are given to a single- chambered legislature, composed of 15 senators elected for 2 years representing the two legislative districts of St Croix and St Thomas-St John. The Governor is elected by the residents. Since 1954 there have been four attempts to redraft the Constitution, to provide for greater autonomy. Each has been rejected by the electorate. The latest was defeated in a referendum in Nov. 1981,50% of the electorate participating. For administration, there are 13 executive departments, 12 of which are under commissioners and the other, the Department of Law, under an Attorney-General. The US Department of the Interior appoints a Federal Comptroller of government revenue and expenditure. The franchise is vested in residents who are citizens of the United States, 18 years of age or over. In 1984 there were 30,430 voters, of whom 22,274 (or 73-2%) participated in the local elections that year. They do not participate in the US presidential election but they have a nonvoting representative in Congress. The capital is Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas Island. Governor: Alexander A. Farrelly ($62,400). Lieut.-Governor: Derek N. Hodge ($57,000). ECONOMY Budget. Under the 1954 Organic Act finances are provided partly from local revenues—customs, federal income tax, real and personal property tax, trade tax, excise tax, pilotage fees, etc.—and partly from Federal Matching Funds, being the excise taxes collected by the federal government on such Virgin Islands products transported to the mainland as are liable. Budget for financial year 1985, $245m. Currency and Banking. United States currency became legal tender on 1 July 1934. Banks are the Chase Manhattan Bank; the Bank of Nova Scotia; the First Federal Savings and Loan Association of Puerto Rico; Barclays Bank International; Bank of America; Citibank; First Pennsylvania Bank, Banco Popular de Puerto Rico, and the Royal Bank of Canada. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. The Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority provides electric power from generating plants on St Croix and St Thomas; St John is served by power cable and emergency generator. Water. There are 6 de-salinization plants with maximum daily capacity of 8 • 7m. gallons of fresh water. Three others are being established. Rain-water remains the most reliable source. Every building must have a cistern to provide rain-water for drinking, even in areas served by mains (10 gallons capacity per sq. ft of roof for a single-storey house). Agriculture. With the phasing out of the sugar-cane industry in St Croix, and the accelerated construction activities carried on in all three islands, the number of farms decreased, but there has recently been a revival of interest in food crops. Land for fruit, vegetables and animal feed is available on St Croix, and there are tax incentives for development. Sugar has been terminated as a commercial crop and over 4,000 acres of prime land could be utilized for food crops. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 5,792; goats, 4,600; pigs, 2,300; sheep, 2,889. Fisheries. There is a fishermen's co-operative with a market at Christiansted. There is a shellfish-farming project at Rust-op-Twist, St Croix. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. The main occupations on St Thomas are tourism and government ser-

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vice; on St Croix manufacturing is more important. Manufactures include rum (the most valuable product), watches, pharmaceuticals and fragrances. Industries in order of revenue: tourism, refining oil, watch assembly, rum distilling, construction. The Martin Marietta Alumina plant processed bauxite from Africa for refining in mainland USA; it closed in 1985. The Virgin Islands offer liberal tax exemptions to persons, firms or companies prepared to invest $50,000 in new industries or in the promotion of tourism. Commerce. Exports, calendar year 1984, totalled $3,600m. and imports $4,700m. Total trade between the US Virgin Islands and UK (financial years, British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 9,706 4,981

1984 56,871 3,657

1 985 514 4,060

1986 5,455 5,955

Tourism. Tourism is the most important business. There were about 1 32m. visitors in 1985 spending $445m. About 541,640 tourists came on cruise ships which made 790 calls, mainly at St Thomas which has a good, natural deepwater harbour. About 698,562 came by air. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Virgin Islands have (1985) 660 miles of roads, and 44,901 motor vehicles registered. Aviation. There is a daily cargo and passenger service between St Thomas and St Croix. Alexander Hamilton Airport on St Croix can take all aircraft except Concorde. Cyril E. King Airport on St Thomas takes 727-class aircraft. There are air connexions to mainland USA, other Caribbean islands, Latin America and Europe. Shipping. The whole territory has free port status. There is an hourly boat service between St Thomas and St John. Post and Broadcasting. All three Virgin Islands have a dial telephone system. In Jan. 1985 there were 63,306 telephones. Direct dialling to Puerto Rico and the mainland is now possible. Worldwide radio telegraph service is also available. The islands are served by 8 radio stations, 4 television stations 3 newspapers, 2 of them daily, and several monthlies. RELIGION AND EDUCATION Religion. There are churches of the Protestant, Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths in St Thomas and St Croix and Protestant and Roman Catholic churches in St John. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 5'/2 and 16 years, inclusive. In 1985-86 there were 34 public schools (ranging from kindergarten to high schools); enrolment was 25,568; 36 private schools had 6,495 pupils; the public school budget was $56-4m. In 1986 the College of the Virgin Islands had 2,836 registered students; 2,647 undergraduates and 189 graduate students. The College is part of the United States land-grant network of higher education. Books of Reference Boyer, W W , America's Virgin Islands. Durham, N C , 1983 Dookhan, I., A History of the Virgin Islands of the United States. Caribbean Univ Press, 1974 Lewis, G K , The Virgin Islands. A Caribbean Lilliput. Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1972 McGuire, J W., Geographic Dictionary of the Virgin Islands of the United States US Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Publication No. 103 Washington, 1925

Capital: Montevideo Population: 2-95m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$ 1,800 (1984)

URUGUAY República Oriental del Uruguay

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Uruguay, formerly a part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata and subsequently a province of Brazil, declared its independence 25 Aug. 1825 which was recognized by the treaty between Argentina and Brazil signed at Rio de Janeiro 27 Aug. 1828. The first constitution was adopted 18 July 1830. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Uruguay is bounded on the north-east by Brazil, on the south-east by the Atlantic, on the south by the Rio de la Plata and on the west by Argentina. The area is 186,926 sq. km (72,172 sq. miles). The following table shows the area and the population of the 19 departments at census 1975: Departments Artigas Canelones Cerro-Largo Colonia Durazno Flores Florida Lavalleja Maldonado Montevideo Paysandú Río Negro Rivera Rocha Salto San José Soriano Tacuarembó Treinta y Tres

Sq. km 11,928 4,536 13,648 6,106 11,643 5,144 10,417 10,016 4,793 530 13,922 9,282 9,370 10,551 14,163 4,992 9,008 15,438 9,529

Census¡975 58,404 325,594 74,027 111,832 55,699 24,745 67,129 65,180 76,211 1,237,227 98,508 50,123 82,043 60,258 103,074 88,000 80,614 84,535 45,683

Capital Artigas Canelones Meló Colonia Durazno Trinidad Florida Minas Maldonado Montevideo Paysandú Fray Bentos Rivera Rocha Salto San José Mercedes Tacuarembó Treinta y Tres

Census 1975 29,256 15,938 38,260 16,895 25,811 17,598 25,030 35,433 22,159 1,237,227 62,412 19,569 49,013 21,672 71,881 28,427 34,667 34,152 25,757

Total population, census (1975) 2,788,429 and estimate 1986 was 2,947,000. In 1980 Montevideo (the capital) had an estimated population of 1,362,000. C L I M A T E . A warm temperate climate, with mild winters and warm summers. The wettest months are March to June, but there is really no dry season. Montevideo. Jan. 72°F(22-2'C), July 50"F(10°C). Annual rainfall 38" (950 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Since 1900 Uruguay has been unique in her constitutional innovations, all designed to protect her from the emergence of a dictatorship. The favourite device of the group known as the 'Batllistas' (a Colorado faction) which, until defeated at the 1958 elections, held the majority for over 90 years, has been the collegiate system of government, in which the two largest political parties were represented. One such pattern lasted from 1917 to 1933, when it was abolished by a dictator who re-established the system of an individual President. Until 1951 Presidents were elected every 4 years and they selected their own Cabinet Ministers (see list of Presidents in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1956, p. 1493). Presidential elections were held on 25 Nov. 1984 and Julio Maria Sanguinetta of the Colorado Party was elected. The first-choice candidates of the National (Blanco) Party and the Broad Front Party were vetoed by the military government. 1566

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Gen. Gregorio Alvarez resigned on 12 Feb. 1985 and a return to civilian rule took place on 1 March 1985. President: Julio Maria Sanguinetta (sworn in on 1 March 1985). The Cabinet in Dec. 1986 was as follows: Vice-President: Enrique Tarigo. Defence: Juan Vicente Chiarino. Foreign Affairs: Enrique Iglesias. Interior: Antonio Marshesano. Economy: Ricardo Zerbino. Public Health: Dr Raul Ugarte. Industry and Energy: Jorge Presno. Transport and Public Works: Jorge Sanguinetti. Labour: Hugo Fernandez. Agriculture: Pedro Bonino. Justice, Education and Culture: Dr Adela Reta. Tourism: Alfredo Silvera Nationalflag: Nine horizontal stripes of white and blue, a white canton with the 'Sun of May' in gold. National anthem: Orientales, la patria ó la tumba (words by Francisco Acuña de Figueroa; music by Francisco José Deballi). DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of volunteers who enlist for 1 -2 years service. There are 3 cavalry brigades and a Presidential Escort regiment; 1 infantry, 1 engineering and 1 signals brigade; 4 infantry divisions including mechanized, motorized, airborne, artillery and engineer units. Equipment includes 17 M-24,28 M-3A1 and 22 M-41 light tanks. Strength(1987)22,300, with 120,000 former regulars as reserve. Navy. The Navy consists of 3 small frigates (ex-US old destroyer escorts, 2 1943 vintage, 1 of 1954), 1 corvette (ex-1942 US fleet minesweeper), 1 patrol vessel (excoastal minesweeper), 4 other patrol vessels, 3 coastal patrol craft, 1 transport, 1 training ship, 1 salvage vessel, 7 minor amphibious craft, 2 oilers and 1 tender. Personnel in 1987: totalled 6,630 officers and ratings including 550 naval infantry (marines) and,Coastguard, and the small US-equipped naval air service of390 with 35 aircraft and 5 helicopters. Air Force. Organized with US aid, the Air Force had (1987) about 3,500 personnel and 110 aircraft, including 1 counter-insurgency squadron with 6 IA 58 Pucara, 4 AT-33 armed jet trainers and 8 A-37B light strike aircraft, a reconnaissance and training squadron with 10 T-6Gs, 3 transport squadrons with 2 turboprop F.27 Friendships, 5 Brazilian-built EMB-110 Bandeirantes (1 equipped for photographic duties), 5 CASA C-212 Aviocars and 6 Queen Airs, a search and rescue squadron with Cessna U-17A aircraft and light helicopters, and a number of Cessna 182 light aircraft for liaison duties. Basic training types are the T-41 and T-34. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Uruguay is a member of UN, OAS and LAIA (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY Budget. The receipts and expenditure of the national accounts as approved by the National Council of Government (UR$ 1 m.): Revenue Expenditure

1981 21,260,000 21,368,600

1982 19,551,900 30,761,400

1983 29,486,400 36,897,300

1984 55,513,000 69,373,000

Currency. The unit of currency is the Nuevo Peso (1,000 old pesos) of 100 centésimos. The actual circulating medium consists of paper notes issued by the Central Bank in Nuevo Peso denominations of 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 Nuevo Peso, and 1, 2,5 and 10 coins. In March 1987, US$1 = 189 00pesos; £1 = 307 -90pesos. Banking. The Bank of the Republic (founded 1896), whose president and directors are appointed by the Government has a paid-up capital of N$ 1,852m. The Banco Central was inaugurated on 16 May 1967. Note circulation in Dec. 1983 was N$10,538-7m.

1568

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A state-owned National Insurance Bank (Banco de Seguros del Estado) has a monopoly of new insurance business of all kinds. Weights and Measures. The metric system was adopted in 1862. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Power output in 1985 was 5,200m kwh. Oil. Petroleum production (1981) 185,000 tonnes. Agriculture. Uruguay is primarily a pastoral country. Of the total land area of 46m. acres some 41m. are devoted to farming, of which 90% to livestock and 10% to crops. Some large estancias have been divided up into family farms; rural landlordism is much less than elsewhere. Animals and animal products constituted 34-9% of the exports in 1983. There were (1985) 9,948,000 cattle, 20-6m. sheep, 500,000 horses, 450,000 pigs, 12,000 goats and 6m. poultry. The wool clip in 1984 was 91,000 tonnes. Agricultural products are raised chiefly in the departments of Paysandu, Rio Negro, Colonia, San José, Soriano and Florida. The average farm is about 250 acres. The principal crops and their estimated yield (in tonnes) in 2 crop years were as follows: Wheat Linseed Oats

1984 450,000 8,000 40,000

1985 440,000 8,000 48,000

Barley Maize Rice

1984 90,000 120,000 340,000

1985 140,000 108,000 423,000

Uruguay is self-sufficient in rice, with a surplus for export. Three sugar refineries handle cane and (mainly) beet, their total production being approximately 92,000 tonnes, and approaching self-sufficiency. Wine is produced chiefly in the departments of Montevideo, Canelones and Colonia, about enough for domestic consumption. The country has some 6m. fruit trees, principally peaches, oranges, tangerines and pears. Forestry. In 1983 roundwood removals were 2,975,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1984, the total catch was 134,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Industries include meat packing, oil refining, cement manufacture, foodstuffs, beverages, leather and textile maufacture, chemicals, light engineering and transport equipment. There are about 100 textile mills, but with the exception of half a dozen large plants, these are on the whole small. Trade Unions. Trade unions number about 150,000 members. About l-05m. (35%) population are classed as gainfully occupied. Commerce. The foreign trade (officially stated in US$, with the figure for imports based on the clearance permits granted and that for exports on export licences utilized) was as follows (in US$ 1,000): Imports Exports

1981 1,598-9 1,215-4

1982 1,057-9 975-8

1983 705-0 1,044-5

1984 732-0 925-0

Of the imports in 1984 (in US$lm.) USA, 65-9; Nigeria, 113-3; Brazil, 135; Argentina, 88-4; Federal Republic ofGermany, 48-6; UK, 18-2. Of the exports in 1984 Brazil took 144-8; Argentina, 88-3; Federal Republic ofGermany, 79-3; USSR, 45-7; USA, 123-9; Iran, 49-2; UK, 37-7. Principal imports (1984) (in US$1,000): Mineral products, 262,500; chemical products, 113,252; machinery and appliances, 94,219. Exports:, Textiles and textile products, 281,703; live animals and animal products, 229,079; skins and hides, 146,508; vegetable products, 129,110.

URUGUAY

1569

Total trade between Uruguay and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): , m igg2 /9Si m 4 l 985 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

23,107 13,926

33,361 10,763

33,292 13,980

28,824 15,513

41,366 24,465

Tourism. There were lm. tourists in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) about 52,000 km of roads including 12,000 km of motorways. Registered motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1981, are estimated at 281,275 passenger cars and 47,102 trucks and buses. Railways. The total railway system open for traffic was (1980) 3,004 km of 1,435 mm gauge. In 1984 it earned 5m. passengers and 977,427 tonnes of freight. Aviation. Carrasco, 22 5 km from Montevideo, is the most important airport. US, Argentine, Brazilian, Chilean, Dutch, French, Fed. German, Scandinavian and "Paraguayan airlines fly to and from Uruguay. The state-operated cm) airline P L U N A runs services in the interior of the country and to Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, and Spain. Shipping. In 1983 there were 13 merchant vessels and 3 tankers. In 1982, 1,115 vessels cleared Montevideo. River transport (1,270 km) is extensive, its main importance being to link Montevideo with Paysandu and Salto. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone system in Montevideo is controlled by the State; small companies operate in the interior. Telephone instruments, 1986, numbered 337,000. There are 1,277 post offices. Uruguay has 85 long-wave and 17 short-wave broadcasting stations. There were (1984) about 1 6m. wireless sets and 440,000 television receivers. There are 4 television stations in Montevideo and 11 in the interior. The State itself operates one of the most powerful sound broadcasting stations in South America. Cinemas (1980). Cinemas numbered 85 with seating capacity of47,000. Newspapers (1984). There were 5 daily newspapers in Montevideo with aggregate daily circulation of about 210,000; most of the 25-30 provincial newspapers appear bi-weekly. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Ministry of Justice was created in 1977 to be responsible for relations between the Executive Power and the Judiciary and other jurisdictional entities. The Court of Justice is made up by 5 members appointed by the Council of the Nation at the suggestion of the Executive Power, for a period of 5 years. This court has original jurisdiction in constitutional, international and admiralty cases and hears appeals from the appellate courts, of which there are 4, each with 3 judges. In Montevideo there are also 8 courts for ordinary civil cases, 3 for government (Juzgado de Hacienda), as well as criminal and correctional courts. Each departmental capital has a departmental court; each of the 224 judicial divisions nas a justice of peace court. Religion. State and Church are separated, and there is complete religious liberty. The faith professed by 66% of the inhabitants is Roman Catholic although only 50% "attend church. Education. Primary education is obligatory; both primary and superior education are free. In 1983 there were 350,178 primary school pupils, and 1983 197,890 secondary school pupils. The University of the Republic at Montevideo, inaugurated in 1849, has about 16,200 students; tuition is free to both native-born and foreign students; there are 10 faculties. There are 43 normal schools for males and females, and a college of arts and trades with about 33,000 students. There are also many religious seminar-

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ies throughout the Republic with a considerable number of pupils, a school for the blind, 2 for deaf and dumb and a school of domestic science. Health. Hospital beds, 1981, numbered (estimate) 23,000; physicians numbered 5,600. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Uruguay in Great Britain (48 Lennox Gdns., London, SW1X 0DL) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Uruguay (Calle Marco Bruto 1073, Montevideo) Ambassador: Eric Vines, CMG, OBE. Of Uruguay in the USA ( 1918 F St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20006) Ambassador: Dr Hector Luisi. Of the USA in Uruguay (Calle Lauro Muller 1776, Montevideo) Ambassador: Malcolm R. Wilkey. Of Uruguay to the United Nations A mbassador: Dr Julio Cesár Lupinacci. Books of Reference The official gazette is the Diario Oficial Statistical Reports of the Government. Montevideo. Annual and biennial Anales de Instrucción Primaria. Montevideo. Quarterly Finch, M.H.J., A Political Economy ofUruguay Since 1870. London, 1981 Salgado, José, Historia de la República O. del Uruguay. 8 vols. Montevideo, 1943 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional del Uruguay, Guayabo 1793, Montevideo. It publishes Anuario Bibliográfico Uruguayo.

VANUATU

Capital: Vila Population: 135,000(1984) GNPper capita: US$350 ( 1981 )

Republic of Vanuatu

H I S T O R Y . The group was administered for some purposes jointly, for others unilaterally, as provided for by Anglo-French Convention of 27 Feb. 1906, ratified 20 Oct. 1906, and a protocol signed at London on 6 Aug. 1911 and ratified on 18 March 1922. On 30 July 1980 the Condominium of the New Hebrides achieved independence and became the" Republic of Vanuatu. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Vanuatu group lies roughly 500 miles west of Fiji and 250 miles north-east of New Caledonia. The estimated land area is 5,700 sq. miles (14,760 sq. km). The largerTsIands of the group are: (Espiritu) Santo, Malekula, Epi, Pentecost, Aoba, Maewo, Paama, Ambrym, Efate, Erromanga, Tanna and Aneityum. They also claim Matthew and Hunter islands. Population at the census (1979) 112,596. Estimate (1984) 135,000. Vila (the capital) 15,000. There are 3 active volcanoes, on Tanna, Ambrym and Lopevi, respectively. Earth tremors are of common occurrence. Language: The national language is Bislama; English and French are also official languages. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, but moderated by oceanic influences and by trade winds from May to Oct. High humidity occasionally occurs and cyclones are possible. Rainfall ranges from 9 0 " (2,250 mm) in the south to 155" (3,875 mm) in the north. Vila. Jan. 80°F (26-7X), July 72°F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 8 4 " (2,103 mm). A cyclone hit Vila in Feb. 1987. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . General elections took place in Nov. 1975 to elect a 42-member Representative Assembly, replacing the former advisory council. Further general elections took place in Nov. 1979. A committee system was instituted and the Assembly chose its own President from its own members in 1977. Legislative power resides in a 39-member unicameral Parliament elected for a term of 4 years. President: Ati George Sokomanu, MBE. The cabinet in Jan. 1984 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Walter Hadye Lini, CBE. Home Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister: S. Regenvanu. Foreign Affairs and Trade: S. Molisa. Education: O. Tahi. Finance: K. Kalsakau. Health: W. Korisa. Transport, Communications and Public Works: A. Sande. Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries:]. Hopa. Lands:D. Kalpokas. Flag: Red over green, with a black triangle in the hoist, the three parts being divided by fimbriations of black and yellow, and in the centre of the black triangle a boar's tusk overlaid by two crossed fern leaves. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Vanuatu is a member of the UN and the Commonwealth. ECONOMY Planning. A Development Plan (1982-86) envisaged expenditure of US$ 12m. Budget. The budget for 1985 envisages expenditure of 3,255m. Vatu. The main sources of revenue were import and export duties. 1571

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VANUATU

Currency. The currency is the Vatu. March 1987: £1 = 174 Fa/u; US$1 = 112 Banking (1985). The Finance Centre, established in 1970-71 and based primarily in Vila, consists of 5 international banks (including the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation), 6 trust companies (including Melanesia International Trust Company Ltd, a Hongkong Bank group associate), 4 foreign exchange dealers and several legal and accounting firms. In Aug. 1984 the Asian Development Bank opened a regional office in Vila. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985)20m. kwh. Minerals. The manganese mine, established at Forari on Efate by the Compagnie Française de Phosphates de l'Océanie, closed in 1968 but was reopened in 1970 by Southland Mining of Australia. Manganese exports, all to Japan, 1979,25m. Vatu. Agriculture. The main commercial crops are copra, cocoa and coffee. In 1984 almost 47,000 tonnes of copra were exported, accounting for 62% of total exports by value: Production, 1985: Copra, 47,000 tonnes; cocoa, 1,000 tonnes. In 1985 about 80% of the population were engaged in subsistence agriculture. Yams, taro, manioc, sweet potatoes and bananas are grown for local consumption. A large number of cattle are reared on plantations, and an up-grading programme using pure-bred Charolais, Limousins and Illawarras has begun. A beef industry is developing. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 130,000; goats, 8,000; pigs, 71,000. Forestry. An export logging project was scheduled to commence on Erromango in 1985 and the government plans to raise the annual forestry planting rate to 2,000 hectares by 1990. Production (1983)38,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. The principal catch is tuna (1980, 10,000 tonnes) mainly exported to USA. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries in 1985 included copra processing, meat canning and fish freezing, a saw-mill, soft drinks factories and a print works. Building materials, furniture and aluminium were also produced, and in 1984 a cement plant opened. Commerce. Imports and exports were (in 1 m. Vatu): Imports Exports

1981 5,123 2,832

¡982 5,794 2,199

1983 5,287 2,940

1984 5,801 4,300

In 1984 the main exports were: Copra, 46,682 tonnes, 2,643m. Vatu; fish, 3,945 tonnes, 710m. Vatu; sawn timber, 19,161 tonnes, 148m. Vatu; beef, 682 tonnes, 142m. Vatu; cocoa, 781 tonnes, 134m. Vatu. Australia, Japan, New Zealand and France were the major sources of imports and principal imports were machinery and transport equipment (1,348m. Vatu), food and live animals (1,170m. Vatu), basic manufactures (904m. Vatu), other manufactured goods (868m. Vatu) and fuels and lubricants (595m. Vatu). Total trade between Vanuatu and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 80 479

1985 174 768

1986 62 1,037

Tourism. In 1984 there were 38,000 visitors to Vanuatu. In addition there were over 65,000 tourists from cruise ships. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 1,062 km of roads in Vanuatu, of these about 250 km

VANUATU

1573

are paved, mostly on Efate Island and Espiritu Santo. There were 3,087 registered cars in Vanuatu (1984). Aviation (1985). Air Vanuatu provides services to Australia; Air Nauru, Air Pacific, Polynesian Airlines, Solair and UTA serve Pacific routes; Air Melanesiae provides regular services to 16 domestic airfields, and charter services. There are international airfields at Vila and Santo. Shipping. Several international shipping lines serve Vanuatu, linking the country with Australia, New Zealand, other Pacific territories notably Hong Kong, Japan, North America and Europe. The chief ports are Vila and Santo. In 1977,394 vessels arrived including 48 cruise ships carrying 40,412 visitors. 92,340 tons of cargo were exported and 102,867 tons discharged. Small vessels provide frequent interisland services. Telecommunications. Internal telephone and telegram services are provided by the Posts and Telecommunications and Radio Departments. There are automatic telephone exchanges at Vila and Santo; rural areas are served by a network of teleradio stations. In 1981 there were 3,000 telephones. External telephone, telegram and telex services are provided by VANITEL, through their satellite earth station at Vila. There are direct circuits to Noumea, Sydney, Hong Kong and Paris and high quality communications are available on a 24-hour basis to most countries in the world. Air radio facilities are provided. Marine coast station facilities are available at Vila and Santo. Radio New Hebrides operates a service 7 days a week in 3 languages, French, English and Pidgin. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. A study was being made in 1980 which could lead to unification of the judicial system. Religion. Over 80% of the population are Christians, but animist beliefs are still prevalent. Education. There were (1985) 224 English primary schools with 13,000 pupils, 105 French primary schools with 10,000 pupils, 11 government and denominational secondary schools with 2,000 pupils and Matevulu College. Tertiary education is provided at the Vanuatu Technical Institute and the Teachers College, while other technical and commercial training is through regional institutions in the Solomon Islands, Fiji and Papua New Guinea. Health. In 1985 there were 10 government-run hospitals throughout the islands (2 in Vila) and a number of clinics and dispensaries. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Vanuatu in Great Britain High Commissioner (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Vanuatu (Melitco Hse., Rue Pasteur, Vila) High Commissioner Malcolm Creek, LVO, OBE. Of Vanuatu to the United Nations Ambassador Nikenike Vurobaravu.

VATICAN STATE

CITY

Stato della Città del Vaticano H I S T O R Y . For many centuries the Popes bore temporal sway over a territory stretching across mid-Italy from sea to sea and comprising some 17,000 sq. miles, with a population finally of over 3m. In 1859-60 and 1870 the Papal States were incorporated into the Italian Kingdom. The consequent dispute between Italy and successive Popes was only settled on 11 Feb. 1929 by three treaties between the Italian Government and the Vatican: (1) A Political Treaty, which recognized the full and independent sovereignty of the Holy See in the city of the Vatican; (2) a Concordat, to regulate the condition of religion and of the Church in Italy; and (3) a Financial Convention, in accordance with which the Holy See received 750m. lire in cash and 1,000m. lire in Italian 5% state bonds. This sum was to be a definitive settlement of all the financial claims of the Holy See against Italy in consequence of the loss of its temporal power in 1870. The treaty and concordat were ratified on 7 June 1929. The treaty has been embodied in the Constitution of the Italian Republic of 1947. A revised Concordat between the Italian Republic and the Holy See was subsequently negotiated and came into force on 3 June 1985. The Vatican City State is governed by a Commission appointed by the Pope. The reason for its existence is to provide an extra-territorial, independent base for the Holy See, the government of the Roman Catholic Church. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Vatican City is 44 hectares (108-7 acres). It includes the Piazza di San Pietro (St Peter's Square), which is to remain normally open to the public and subject to the powers of the Italian police. It has its own railway station (for freight only), postal facilities, coins and radio. Twelve buildings in and outside Rome enjoy extra-territorial rights, including the Basilicas of St John Lateran, St Mary Major and St Paul without the Walls, the Pope's summer villa at Castel Gandolfo and a further Vatican radio station on Italian soil. Radio Vaticana broadcasts an extensive service in 34 languages from the transmitters in the Vatican City and in Italy. The Vatican City has about 1,000 inhabitants. C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Pope exercises sovereignty and has absolute legislative, executive and judicial powers. The judicial power is delegated to a tribunal in the first instance, to the Sacred Roman Rota in appeal and to the Supreme Tribunal of the Signature in final appeal. The Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals, meeting in secret conclave. The election is by scrutiny and requires a two-thirds majority. Name andfamily Benedict XIV (Lambertini) Clement XIII (Rezzonico) Clement XIV (Ganganelli) Pius VI (Bruschi) Pius VII (Chiaramonti) Leo XII (della Genga) Pius VIII (Castiglioni) Gregory XVI (Cappellari) Pius IX (Mastai-Ferretti)

Election 1740 1758 1769 1775 1800 1823 1829 1831 1846

Name andfamily Leo XIII (Pecci) Pius X (Sarto) Benedict XV (della Chiesa) Pius XI (Ratti) Pius XII (Pacelli) John XXIII (Roncalli) Paul VI (Montini) John Paul I (Luciani) John Paul II (Wojtyla)

Election 1878 1903 1914 1922 1939 1958 1963 1978 1978

Supreme Pontiff John Paul II (Karol Wojtyla), born at Wadowice near Cracow, 1574

VATICAN CITY STATE

1575

Poland, 18 May 1920. Archbishop of Cracow 1964-78, created Cardinal in 1967, elected Pope 1 6 0 c t . 1978, inaugurated 22 Oct. 1978. Pope John Paul II was the first non-Italian to be elected since Pope Adrian VI (a Dutchman) in 1522. Secretary of State Cardinal Agostmo Casaroli (appointed May 1979). Flag: Vertically yellow and white, with on the white the crossed keys and tiara of the Papacy. R O M A N C A T H O L I C C H U R C H . The Roman Pontiff (in orders a Bishop, but in jurisdiction held to be by divine right the centre of all Catholic unity, and consequently Pastor and Teacher of all Christians) has for advisers and coadjutors the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting in Oct. 1986 of 145 Cardinals appointed by him from senior ecclesiastics who are either the bishops of important Sees or the heads of departments at the Holy See. In addition to the College of Cardinals, the Pope has created a ' Synod of Bishops'. This consists of the Patriarchs and certain Metropolitans of the Catholic Church of Oriental Rite, of elected representatives of the national episcopal conferences and religious orders of the world, of the Cardinals in charge of the Roman Congregations and of other persons nominated by the Pope. The Synod meets as and when decided by the Pope. The next Synod (on the laity) is due to meet in 1987. The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is carried on by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations, each composed of a number of Cardinals and diocesan bishops (both appointed for 5-year periods), with Consultors and Officials. Besides the Secretariat of State and the Council for Public Affairs of the Church (which deals with external relations) there are now 10 Sacred Congregations, viz.: Doctrine, Oriental Churches, Bishops, the Sacraments, Divine Worship, Clergy, Religious, Catholic Education, Evangelization of the Peoples and Causes of the Saints. There are also 3 Secretariats: for Christian Unity, Non-Christians and Non-Believers; a Prefecture of Economic Affairs, a Prefecture of the Pontifical Household and a Statistical Office. Furthermore, the Roman Curia contains 3 tribunals, the Apostolic Penitentiary, the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature and the Sacred Roman Rota; and, lastly, various other councils and commissions dealing with the Laity, Justice and Peace, Women, the Family, the Information and Revision of Canon Law, Social Communications, Migration and Tourism and Culture. The Pontifical Academy of Sciences was revived by Pius XI m 1936 with 70 members. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES In its diplomatic relations with foreign countries the Holy See is represented by the Secretariat of State and the Council for Public Affairs of the Church. It maintains permanent observers to the U N in New York and Geneva and to UNESCO and FAO. The Holy See is a member of IAEA and the Vatican City State is a member of U P U and ITU. It therefore attends as a member those international conferences open to State members of the U N and specialized agencies. Of the Holy See in Great Britain (54 Parkside, London, SW19 5NF) Apostolic Pro-Nuncio in Great Britain. Archbishop Luigi Barbanto (accredited 14 May 1986). Of Great Britain at the Holy See (91 Via Condotti, 00187, Rome). Ambassador D. N. Lane, C M G . First Secretary M. J. Long. Of the Holy See in the USA (3339 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008). Apostolic Pro Nuncio. Most Rev. Pio Laghi. Of the USA at the Holy See (Villino Pacelli, Via Aurelia 294,00165, Rome). Ambassador (Vacant). Books of Reference Acta Apostolica

Sedis Romance

Rome

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VATICAN CITY

STATE

Annuario Pontificio. Rome. Annual L'Attività della Santa Sede. Rome. Annual The Catholic Directory. London. Annual Code of Canon Law. London, 1983 The Catholic Directory for Scotland. Glasgow. Annual The New Catholic Encyclopadia. New York The Catholic Almanac. Huntingdon, Annual Cardinale, Mgr. Igino, Le Saint-Siège et la diplomatie. Paris and Rome, 1962.—The Holy See and the International Order. Gerrards Cross, 1976 Hales, E. E„ The Catholic Church and the Modern World. London, 1958 Hebblethwaite, P., In the Vatican. London, 1986 Mayer, F. et al, The Vatican: Portrait of a State and a Community. Dublin, 1980 Nichols, P., The Pope's Divisions. London, L981 Walsh, M. J., Vatican City State. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983

VENEZUELA República de Venezuela

Ca ital:

P

Caracas

Population: 17 • 32m. (198 5) GNP per capita: US$2,680 (1985)

HISTORY. Venezuela formed part of the Spanish colony of New Granada until 1821 when it became independent in union with Colombia. A separate, independent republic was formed in 1830. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Venezuela is bounded north by the Caribbean, east by Guyana, south by Brazil, south-west and west by Colombia. The official estimate of the area is 912,050 sq. km (352,143 sq. miles); the frontierswitti Colombia, Brazil and Guyana extend for 4,782 km and its Caribbean coastline stretches for some 3,200 km. Population (1981) census, 14,516,735. Estimate (1985) 17,316,740. The 1981 census excluded tribal Indians estimated at 53,350 (chiefly in Amazonas Territory) and illegal immigrants, estimated (1979) at about 3m. The official language is Spanish, spoken by all but 2 • 5% of the population. The areas, populations and capitals of the 20 states and 4 federally-controlled areas are: State Anzoátegui Apure Aragua Ba riñas Bolívar Carabobo Cojedes Falcon Guárico Lara Mérida Miranda Monagas Nueva Esparta Portuguesa Sucre Táchira Trujillo Yaracuy Zulia Ter. Amazonas Ter. Delta Amacuro Federal District Federal Dependencies

Sq. km 43,300 76,500 7,014 35,200 238,000 4,650 14,800 24,800 64,986 19,800 11,300 7,950 28,900 1,150 15,200 11,800 11,100 7,400 7,100 63,100 175,750 40,200 1,930 120

Census 1981 Capital 683,717 Barcelona 188,187 San Fernando Maracay 891,623 326,166 Barinas 668,340 Ciudad Bolivar 1,062,268 Valencia 133,991 San Carlos 503,896 Coro San Juan 393,467 945,064 Barquisimeto 459,361 Mérida 1,421,442 Los Teques 388,536 Maturin 197,198 La Asunción 424,984 Guanare 585,698 Cumanà 660,234 San Cristóbal 433,735 Trujillo San Felipe 300,597 1,674,252 Maracaibo 45,667 Puerto Ayacucho Tucupita 56,720 2,070,742 Caracas 850 — , ' Estimate, 1980.

Census 1981 156,519 54,000' 440,048 109,906 181,864 616,037 30,000' 71,000' 53,000' 496,684 142,752 112,206 154,957 9,000' 47,000' 191,941 198,578 42,000 ' 56,000' 888,824 15,000' 29,000' 1,816,901 —

Other large towns (1980) are Petare (334,800), Ciudad Guyana (314,041, census 1981), Baruta (180,100), Cabimas (138,529, census 1981), Acarigua (126,000), Maiquetia (120,200), Valera (101,981, census 1981), Chacao (101,900), Puerto Cabello (94,000), Canipano (82,000) and Puerto La Cruz (81,800). Venezuela is the most urbanised Latin American nation; in 1985, 86% of the population lived in urban areas. Over half the population live in the valleys of Carabobo and Valencia (once the capital). At the 1981 census, 69% were of mixed ethnic origin (mestizo), 20% white, 9% black and 2% amerindian. Vital statistics (1981 estimates): 510,000 births, 102,000 marriages, 81,000 deaths. Life expectancy (1981) 68 years with 40 • 5% of population under 15 years. 1577

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C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from warm temperate to tropical. Temperatures vary little throughout the year and rainfall is plentiful. The dry season is from Dec. to April. Caracas. Jan. 65°F(18-3°C), July 69'F(20-6°C). Annual rainfall 32" (833 mm). Ciudad Bolivar. Jan. 79°F(26- PC), July 81°F(27-2'C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,016 mm). Maracaibo. Jan. 8 1 ' F (27-2°C), July 85"F (29-4°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (577 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1961 provides for popular election for a term of 5 years of a President, a National Congress, and State and Municipal legislative assemblies, and guarantees the freedom of labour, industry and commerce. Aliens are assured of treatment equal to that extended to nationals. Congress consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. At least 2 Senators are elected for each State and for the Federal District. Senators must be Venezuelans by birth and over 30 years of age. Deputies must be native Venezuelans over 21 years of age; there is 1 for every 50,000 inhabitants. The territories, on reaching the population fixed by law, also elect deputies. Voting (by proportional representation) is compulsory for men and women over 18. Owing to the high rate of illiteracy, voting is by coloured ballot cards. TTie President must be a Venezuelan by birth and over 30 years of age; he has a qualified power of veto. The following is a list of presidents since 1941: Took Office Took Office Gen. Isaias Medina Angarita 6 May 1941 Dr Edgard Sanabria 14 Nov. 1958J RómuloBetancourt 20 0ct. 1945 RómuloBetancourt 13 Feb. 1959 Rómulo Gallegos 15 Feb. 1948 RaulLeoni 11 March 1964 Lieut.-Col. Carlos Delgado Rafael Caldera 11 March 1969 Chalbaud 24 Nov. 1948' Carlos Andrés Pérez D r G . Suárez Flamerich 27 Nov. 1950 1 Rodriguez 12 March 1974 Col. Marcos Pérez Jiménez. 3 Dec. 1952 1 Dr Luis Herrera Campins 12 March 1979 Rear-Adm. Wolfgang Dr Jaime Lusinchi 2 Feb. 1984 2 J Larrazábal Ugueto 23 Jan. 1958 2 'Deposed. Resigned. 'Provisional. 'Assassinated 13 Nov. 1950.

President: Dr Jaime Lusinchi, elected 4 Dec. 1983 with 57% of the votes, assumed office on 2 Feb. 1984. Foreign Minister: Simón Alberto Consalvi. Finance Minister: Manuel Azpurua. At the Congressional elections held 4 Dec. 1983, 112 of the 200 seats in the Chamber of Deputies were won by Acción Democrática, 61 by COPEI (the Social Christians) and 27 by other parties. The city of Caracas is the capital. The 20 states, autonomous and politically equal, have each a legislative assembly and a governor. The states are divided into 156 districts and 613 municipalities. There are also 2 federal territories with 7 departments, and a federal district with 2 departments and 2 parishes. Each district has a municipal council, and each municipio a communal junta. The federal district and the 2 territories are administered by the President of the Republic. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of yellow, blue, red, with an arc of 7 white stars in the centre, and the national arms in the canton. National anthem: Gloria al bravo pueblo (1811; words by Vicente Salias, tune by Juan Landaeta). D E F E N C E . All Venezuelans on reaching 18 years of age are liable for 2 years in the Armed Forces. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured and 1 Ranger brigades; 1 horsed cavalry, 26 infantry and 5 engineer battalions; and 5 artillery groups. Equipment includes 81 AMX-30 main battle and 36 AMX-13 light tanks. Army aviation comprises 16 helicopters and 18 aircraft. Strength (1987) 34,000. Navy. Strength includes 3 diesel-powered patrol submarines (2 modern built in Federal Republic of Germany and 1 very old ex-US submarine), 6 frigates built in

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Italy, 6 fast missile-armed patrol craft built in Britain m 1974-75, 6 tank landing ships, 1 medium landing ship, 2 transports, 1 logistic support ship, 2 utility landing craft, 12 minor landing craft, 1 survey ship, 2 survey launches, 10 river patrol craft, 1 training ship and 3 tugs. The Coastguard, under Naval control (commanded by a Rear-Admiral) comprises 2 old frigates, 6 fast attack craft and 2 large armed tugs. Coastal patrol boats operated by the National Guard (Fuerzas Armadas de Cooperacion) now number 40, and there are 25 service craft. New construction (delayed) planned includes 4 corvettes, 2 more submarines, several mine countermeasures vessels, 2 landing ships and 1 survey ship. There is a naval academy and sail training ship for the training of officer cadets and a school of staff studies and various technical training schools. Personnel in 1987 totalled: 10,500 officers and men including the Marine Corps, the Coastguard, the National Guard and the Naval Air Arm comprising 8 S-2E Trackers, 9 Aviocars and 1 Dash-7,6 Agusta AB-212 shipborne helicopters, 2 Bell 47 and 2 BO 105 helicopters for search and rescue and training and 5 light twin aircraft for various and coastguard duties. Air Force. Formed in 1920, the Air Force of some 4,500 officers and men is a small, but well-equipped service with a total of about 200 aircraft. There are 7 combat squadrons. Two are equipped with 18 F-16A and 6 F-16B Fighting Falcons. Another has 14 Canadair CF-5 A fighter-bombers and 6 two-seat CF-5Ds, and one • has-14 Mirage III/5s respectively. Two bomber squadrons are equipped with 19 modernized Canberra jet-bombers and a single reconnaissance Canberra. Another operational squadron has 15 OV-lOE Bronco twin-turboprop counter-insurgency aircraft. A helicopter force consists of more than 40 Bell JetRangers, 212s, 214STs and 412s, UH-1B/D/H Iroquois and Alouette Ills. Transport units are equipped with 12 C-123 Providers, 5 C-130H Hercules, 5 C-47s and 6 Aeritalia G222s. Communications aircraft are Queen Airs and other types. T-34 Mentors are used for training, together with 20 T-2D Buckeye advanced jet trainers, which have a secondary attack role along with 30 Tucanos now being delivered from Brazil. A battalion of paratroops comes within Air Force responsibility. There is a staff college and a cadet academy. National Guard, a volunteer force of some 22,000 under the Ministry of Defence, is broadly responsible for internal security. It includes customs and forestry duties among its tasks. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Venezuela is a member of UN, OAS, L A I A (formerly LAFTA), OPEC and the Andean Group. ECONOMY Planning. The seventh 5 -year plan (1984-88) aims to achieve economic growth but with a reorientation of priorities towards production of tradeable goods and services, agriculture, industry and tourism. There are 8 major projects: Caracas underground, Guri hydro-electric scheme, INOS water supply, major housing schemes, the Eastern Motorway, the Carbozulia coal mines, the Bauxiven bauxite mines and the upgrading of aluminium plants. Total planned investment, Bs. 170,000m. for the period 1986-88. Budget. The revenue and expenditure for calendar years were, in Bs.lm., as follows: 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 Revenue Expenditure

94,865 94,544

82,101 86,884

80,507 78,890

102,808 103,539

118,039 113,307

Currency. The bolivar (Bs.) is divided into 100 céntimos. Gold coins, 100 (pachanos), 20 and 10 bolivars have been minted but are no longer in circulation; silver coins are 5 {fuertej, 2, 1 bolivars-, nickel, 50 (real), 25 (medio) and 12-5 céntimos (locha), coppernickel, 5 céntimos (puya).

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The bank-notes in circulation are 500,100,50,20 and 10 bolivars. The circulation of foreign bank-notes is forbidden. In March 1987, £1 = Bs.35-68;US$l =22-91. Banking. The major banks include: Banco Provincial SAICA, Banco de Venezuela, Banco Consolidado, Banco Unión, Banco Mercantil, Banco Latino, Banco de Maracaibo, Banco Industrial de Venezuela. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 37,000m. kwh. The Gun dam hydroelectric project was opened in Nov. 1986. It will supply 70% of the country's needs. Oil.The oil-producing region around Maracaibo, covering some 30,000 sq. miles, produces about three-quarters of Venezuelan petroleum. Deposits in the Orinoco region are likely to prove one of the largest heavy oil reserves in the world. Nationalization of the privately owned oil sector in 1976 has proved successful. New distribution channels have been established, with the result that the major transnational companies which took 80% of Venezuela's oil in 1976 handled only 50% in 1980. Crude oil production (1986) 89-7m. tonnes. Proven reserves in mid-1979 stood at 18,500m. bbls, probable reserves at 15,000m. and possible at 102,000m. However, these are considered conservative estimates and new fields off-shore have estimated reserves of6,000-40,000m. bbls. The Orinoco tar sands belt has reserves variously estimated at between700,000m. bbls. and 3,000,000m. bbls. Gas. Production (1985) 33,059m. cu. metres. Minerals. Bauxite is being exploited in the Guayana region by Bauxien, a state agency. There are important goldmines in the region south-east of Bolivar State, and new deposits have been discovered near El Callao (1959) and Sosa Méndez (1961) in the Guayana region. Output, 1982, amounted to 902 kg. Diamond output, from Amazonas territory, was 687,000 carats in 1977. Manganese deposits, estimated at several million tons, were discovered in 1954. Phosphate-rock deposits (yielding from 64 to 82% tricalcium phosphate) are found in the state of Falcon; reserves of 15m. tons of high-quality rock have been established. The state of Sucre has large sulphur deposits. Coal is worked in the states of Táchira, Aragua and Anzoátegui. Coal proven reserves in Zulia (160m. tons) are to be developed to service a new thermal power station in the Maracaibo area. An important nickel deposit (at Loma de Hierro near Tejerías) is estimated to equal 600,000 tons of pure nickel. Saltmines are now worked by the Government on the Araya peninsula. Asbestos and copper pyrite are being exploited. There were proven reserves (1984) of bauxite totalling 200m. tonnes and production of about 3m. per annum are scheduled from 1986. Iron ore is exploited in Bolivar State by the Orinoco Mining Co. and Iron Mines of Venezuela, subsidiaries respectively of the US Steel Corp. and the Bethlehem Steel Co. Proven reserves at the end of 1980 were 1,800m. tonnes. National output ofironore, 1985,14-9m. tonnes of which 9m. was exported. Agriculture. Venezuela is divided into 3 distinct zones—the agricultural, the pastoral and the forest zone. In the first are grown coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, maize, rice, wheat (grown in the Andes), tobacco, cotton, beans, sisal, etc.; the second affords grazing for more than 6m. cattle and numerous horses; and in the third, which covers a very large portion of the country, tropical products, such as caoutchouc, balatá (a gum resembling rubber), tonka beans, dividivi, copaiba, vanilla, growing wild, are worked by the inhabitants. The 1985 livestock estimate showed cattle, 12,486,000; pigs, 3,152,000; goats, 1 34m.; sheep, 410,000; poultry, 43m. Area under cultivation is. 5,530,898 acres. Over 50% of all farmers are engaged in subsistence agriculture ¿nd growth rates in agricultural production have not kept pace with the high population increase. Government has introduced a programme of price support, tax incentives and price increases but cattle farming is at present the only profit opportunity. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes) rice, 472; maize, 868; cassava, 310; sugar-

VENEZUELA

1581

cane, 6,027; bananas, 989; oranges, 370; potatoes, 191; tomatoes, 107; coffee, 64; sesame seed, 56; tobacco, 15; cocoa, 11. The coffee plantations number 62,673, covering 543,400 acres with 135m. bushes. The Venezuelan cocoa, from 13,000 plantations, is considered to be of high quality; it is grown chiefly in the states of Sucre and Miranda. The sugar industry has 6 government and 20 privately owned mills. Forestry. Resources have been barely tapped; 600 species of wood have been identified. Fisheries. Total catch (1985) was 263,840 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Production (1985); Steel, 2-72m. tonnes; aluminium, 407,000; ammonia, 490,000; fertilizers, 650,000; cement, 5 12m.; paper, 550,000; vehicles (units) 116,000. Industrial development is concentrated in capital intensive areas where it can have a competitive advantage within the Andean Group, whereas in more labour intensive industries, the low labour costs of other member countries gives them an advantage. However, Venezuela currently produces 90% of its requirements of processed food, beverages, tobacco, clothing and textiles. Labour. The labour force in 1985 was 6m., 16 3% were in agriculture, 15-3% in manufacturing and 7% in construction. Wages are the highest in Latin America, there is a high turnover of labour and a corresponding rate of absenteeism. 45% of the labour force is unionized. The most powerful confederation is the CTV (Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela, formed 1947), which is dominated by the Acción Democrática party. Estimated membership, 1 lm., claims 2m. Comprises 68 regional and industrial federations with over 6,000 unions, including: FCV (peasants), 700,000; FETRACONS (construction workers), lm.; FETRASALUD (health workers), 45,000; FETRAMETAL (metal workers and miners), 32,000; the very important FEDEPETROL (oil workers), 6,000; Federación Venezolana de Maestros (teachers). Other confederations are CUTV (Confederación Unitaria de Trabajadores Venezolanos, formed 1963). Estimated membership, 40,000, claims 100,000. Comprises 8 regional and 5 industrial federations in 185 local unions; and, CODESA (Confederación de Sindicatos Autónomos de Venezuela, formed 1964). Estimated membership, 10,000, claims 35,000. Dominated by COPEI party. Comprises 120 local unions, including textile, petrol distribution, public health and education workers' federations. Commerce. Venezuela's exports and imports (in US$ 1 m.): Exports Imports

1982 16,516 13,584

1983 14,759 6,409

1984 15,967 7,262

1985 14,178 7,388

Main export markets in 1982 were USA, Netherlands Antilles because of its oil refining and transhipment facilities, Canada, Puerto Rico, Italy and Spain. •Principal imports are machinery and equipment, manufactured goods, chemical products, foodstuffs. The USA supplied 47% of all imports in 1982, followed by Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Italy and the UK. Total trade between UK and Venezuela (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 141,892 148,666

1983 183,731 87,937

1984 253,770 102,400

1985 238,879 165,268

1986 96,339 170,101

Tourism. 1,000,300 tourists visited Venezuela in 1980. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, 1985, 62,601 km of road fit for traffic the year round; of

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these 24,036 km are paved. There are 10,097 km of high-speed 4-lane motorway type. The motorway system runs from Caracas to Puerto Cabello via Valencia and will shortly be linked direct with one from La Guaira to Caracas. Railways. Plans have existed since 1950 for large-scale railway construction but only the Puerto Cabello to Barquisimeto and Acarigua lines (245 km-1,435 mm gauge) has been completed. A metro is under construction in Caracas the first section of which was opened in March 1983. Aviation. In 198 5 there were 7 international airports, 51 national and o ver 200 pri vate airports. The chief Venezuelan airlines are LAV (Líneas Aéreas Venezolanas), a government-owned concern, and AVENSA (Aerovías Venezolanas). Both operate numerous internal services. VIASA operates international routes in conjunction with KLM. There are also 3 specialist air freight companies. In all there are over 100 commercial aircraft in operation. In addition to Venezuelan international services, a number of US and Latin American and European lines operate services to Venezuela. British Airways operates twice-weekly flights between London and Caracas. Shipping. Foreign vessels are not permitted to engage in the coasting trade, except by special concessions or by contract with the Government. La Guaira, Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello, Puerto Ordaz and Guanta are the chief ports. In Dec. 1978 the merchant fleet had an aggregate gross tonnage of824,000; this included tankers of 368,000 gross tons. The principal navigable rivers are the Orinoco and its tributaries Apure and Arauca, from San Fernando to Tucupita through Ciudad Bolivar, Puerto Ordaz and San Félix; San Juan from Canpito to the Gulf of Paria; and Escalante in Lake Maracaibo. Post and Broadcasting. There were 1,165,699 telephones in 1985. An international telex service operates in the Caracas metropolitan zone. There is a submarine telephone link with USA. In 1983 there were 5m. radio receivers and there were 77 radio stations at Caracas, Maracaibo, Maracay and other towns. There were 3 television stations in Caracas (two privately owned), of which 2 cover, with relays, most of the country. In 1984 there were about 2m. homes with TV receivers. Cinemas (1977). There were 563 cinemas and 25 drive-ins. Newspapers (1983). There were 25 leading daily newspapers with a circulation of over 1 • 7m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D HEALTH Justice. The Supreme Court, which operates in Divisions, each with 5 members, is elected by Congress for 5 years. The country is divided into 20 legal districts. They select their own President and Vice-President. The Federal Procurator-General is appointed for 5 years. There are lower federal courts. Each state has a Supreme Court with 3 members, a superior court, or superior tribunal, courts of first instance, district courts and municipal courts. In the territories there are civil and military judges of first instance, and also judges in the municipios. Finally, there is an income-tax claims tribunal. Religion. The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion, but there is toleration of all others. There are 4 archbishops, 1 at Caracas, who is Primate of Venezuela, 2 at Mérida and 1 at Ciudad Bolívar. There are 19 bishops. In the state primary schools instruction is given only to those children whose parents expressly request it. Protestants number about 20,000. Education. In 1982-83 there were 12,816 primary and secondary schools with 130,505 teachers and 2,998,803 pupils. The number of students in higher education was 282,274 with 25,268 teaching staff in the 106 establishments, including 17 universities.

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Health. In 1976 t h e r e were 14,211 d o c t o r s a n d 386 h o s p i t a l s a n d d i s p e n s a r i e s with 3 6 , 1 2 6 beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f V e n e z u e l a in G r e a t Britain ( 18 Belgrave M e w s , L o n d o n S W 1 X 8 H U ) Ambassador D r José L u i s S a l c e d o - B a s t a r d o (accredited 2 5 Oct. 1984). O f G r e a t Britain in V e n e z u e l a ( T o r r e L a s M e r c e d e s , A v e n i d a L a C h u a o , C a r a c a s 1060) Ambassador: M . J. N e w i n g t o n , C M G .

Estancia,

O f V e n e z u e l a in t h e U S A ( 2 4 4 5 M a s s a c h u s e t t s A v e . , N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 20008) Ambassador Valentin Hernandez. O f t h e U S A in V e n e z u e l a ( A v e n i d a F r a n c i s c o d e M i r a n d a a n d A v e n i d a P r i n c i p a l d e la Floresta, C a r a c a s ) Ambassador Otto J. R e i c h . Of Venezuela to the United Nations Ambassador D r A n d r é s Aguilar. B o o k s of Reference Statistical Information. The following are some of the principal publications: Dirección General de Estadística, Ministerio de Fomento, Boletín Mensual de Estadística.—Anuario Estadístico de Venezuela. Caracas, Annual Banco Central, Memoria Annual and Boletín Mensual Ministerio de Sanidad y Asistencia Social, Dirección de Salud Pública, Anuario de Epidemiología y Asistencia Social Bigler, G E., Politics and State Capitalism m Venezuela. Madrid, 1981 Braveboy-Wagner, J A., The Venezuela-Guyana Border Dispute Britain's Colonial Legacy in Latin America. Boulder and Epping, 1984 Buitrón, A., Causas y Efectos deI Exodo Rural en Venezuela.—Efectos Económicos y Sociales de las Inmigraciones en Venezuela.—Las Inmigraciones en Venezuela. Pan American Union, Washington, D C , 1956 Ewell, J., Venezuela. A Century of Change London, 1984 Lombard, J., Venezuelan History A Comprehensive Working Bibliography Boston, 1977 —Venezuela. The Search for Order, the Dream of Progress. OUP, 1982 Martz, J D.,andMyers, D. J., Venezuela. The Democratic Experience New York, 1986

V I E T N A M

Công Hòa Xä Hôi Chu Nghïa Viêt Nam—The Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Capital: Hanoi Population: (>\-95m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$300 (1984)

HISTORY. The history of Vietnam can be traced to the beginning of the Christian era. Conquered by the Chinese in B.C. 111, it broke free of Chinese domination in 939, though at many subsequent periods it was a nominal Chinese vassal. (For subsequent history until the cessation of hostilities with France at the Geneva Conference ofJuly 1 9 5 4 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 ) . The Geneva conference stipulated that elections should take place in 1956. Ngo Dinh Diem became Prime Minister of South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) in 1954 and President in 1955. Elections were never held. In 1963 Diem was overthrown. In 1965 Nguyen Van Thieu took power as chairman of a National Leadership Committee, becoming President in 1967. From 1959 the North promoted insurgency in the South; US involvement began in 1961. In Paris on 27 Jan. 1973 an agreement was signed ending the war in Vietnam. After the US withdrawal, however, hostilities continued between the North and the South until the latter's defeat in 1975.150,000-200,000 South Vietnamese fled the country, including the former President Thieu. For details of the former Republic of Vietnam, see THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1975-76. After the collapse of Thieu's regime the Provisional Revolutionary Government established an administration in Saigon. A general election was held on 25 April 1976 for a National Assembly representing the whole country. Voting was by universal suffrage of all citizens of 18 or over, except former functionaries of South Vietnam undergoing 're-education', of whom there were still approximately 100,000 in 1985. The unification of North and South Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam took place formally on 2 July 1976. In 1978 Vietnam signed a 25-year treaty of friendship and co-operation with the USSR. Relations with China correspondingly deteriorated, an exacerbating factor being the Vietnamese military intervention in Cambodia. Occasional skirmishing along the China-Vietnam border continued into 1987. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The country has a total area of329,566 sq. km and is divided administratively into 36 provinces and 1 special area. Areas and populations (in 1,000) at the census of Oct. 1979 were as follows: Province Lai Chau Son La Hoang Lien Son Ha Tuyen Cao Bang Lang Son Bac Thai Quang Ninh Vinh Phu Ha Bac Ha Son Binh Hanoi (city) 1 Hai Hung

Sq. km 17,408 14,656 14,125 13,519 }

13,731 8,615 7,076 5,187 4,708 6,860 597 2,526

1979 322,077 487,793 778,217 782,453 (479,823 1484,657 815,105 750,055 1,488,348 1,662,671 1,537,190 2,570,905 2,145,662 1

Province Thai Binh Hai Phong (city) 1 Ha Nam Ninh Thanh Hoa Nghe Tinh Binh Tri Thien Quang Nam - Da Nang Nghia Binh G i a L a i - K o n Turn Dac Lac Phu Khanh Lam Dong Thuan Hai

Autonomous city.

1584

Sq. km 1,344 1,515 3,522 11,138 22,380 19,048 11,376 14,700 18,480 18,300 9,620 10,000 11,000

1979 1,506,235 1,279,067 2,781,409 2,532,261 3,111,989 1,901,713 1,529,520 2,095,354 595,906 490,198 1,188,637 396,657 938,255

VIETNAM Province Dong Nai Song Be Tay Ninh Long An Dong Thap Thanh P h o H o C h i Minh ' Tien Giang

Sq. km 12,130 9,500 4,100 5,100 3,120

¡979 1,304,799 659,093 684,006 957,264 1,182,787

1,845 2,350

3,419,978 1,264,498

1

Autonomous city.

1585

Sq. km Province 2,400 Ben Tre 4,200 Cuu Long 4,140 AnGiang 5,100 HauGiang 6,000 KienGiang Minh Hai 8,000 Vung Tau - Con D a o 1

1979 1,041,838 1,504,215 1,532,362 2,232,891 994,673 1,219,595 91,160

329,466

52,741,766

2

Special area.

At the census of Oct. 1979 the population was 52,741,766 (25,580,582 male; 19-7% urban). Population (1986), 61 95m. (Ho Chi Minh 4m.; Hanoi, 2m. (1979); growth rate (1986) 2-8% per annum. Contraception is encouraged, and women urged to confine their families to two children, one not before 22 and one 5 years later. 84% of the population are Vietnamese (Kinh). There are also over 60 minority groups thinly spread in the extensive mountainous regions. The largest minorities are (1976 figures in 1,000): Tay (742); Khmer (651); Thai (631); Muong (618); Nung (472); Meo (349); Dao (294). In 1987 lm. Vietnamese were living abroad, mainly in USA. There is a plan to resettle 12m. inhabitants of the congested Red River Delta in the less populated highland and central districts. From 1979 to July 1984 59,730 persons emigrated legally. Between Apr. 1975 and Aug. 1984 a further 554,000 illegal emigrants ('boat people') succeeded in finding refuge abroad. In 1985 it was estimated that 'boat people' were still leaving Vietnam at the rate of about 1,000 a month, putting some strain on the resources of the UN High Commission for Refugees and countries such as Indonesia, but in 1984 the number of people leaving legally under the UN's orderly departure scheme (30,000) for the first time exceeded the number of illicit refugees. In Jan. 1986 the Vietnamese Government halted the scheme; applicants previously accepted were leaving in 1986 at a rate of 1,400 a month. (For previous details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 ) . In Sept. 1984 the USA announced a plan to offer asylum to Vietnamese political prisoners and to accept all AsianAmerican children in Vietnam as refugees. C L I M A T E . The humid monsoon climate gives tropical conditions in the south and sub-tropical conditions in the north, though real winter conditions can affect the north when polar air blows south over Asia. In general, there is little variation in temperatures over the year. Hanoi. Jan. 62° F (16-7°C), July 84° F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,830 mm). CONSTITUTION

AND GOVERNMENT.

A

new

Constitution

was

adopted in Dec. 1980. It states that Vietnam is a state of proletarian dictatorship and is developing according to Marxism-Leninism. At the elections for the new National Assembly held on 26 April 1981, 613 candidates stood and 496 were elected. 70% of the candidates were standing for the first time. Local government authorities are the people's councils, which appoint executive committees. Local elections were held in Ho Chi Minh City and the 38 provinces of the former South Vietnam on 5 May 1977. 'The standing organ of the National Assembly and presidium of the Republic' is the State Council: Chairman: Truong Chinh. Vice-Chairmen: Nguyen Huu Tho, Le Thanh Nghi, Chu Huy Man, Huynh Tan Phat. Chairman of the National Assembly: Nguyen Huu Tho. 8 ministers were dismissed in June 1986 for economic mismanagement. All political power stems from the Communist Party of Vietnam (until Dec. 1976 known as the Workers' Party of Vietnam), founded in 1930; it had 1 7m. members in 1986. In Dec. 1986 Truong Chinh (First Secretaryj and other senior veteran leaders left its Politburo, which in April 1987 consisted of Nguyen Van

1586

VIETNAM

Linh (First Secretary)-, Pham Hung (Deputy Prime Minister)-, Vo Chi Cong (First Deputy Prime Minister)-, Do Muoi (Deputy Prime Minister)-, Vo Van Kiet (Deputy Prime Minister and Chairman, State Planning Commission)-, Le Due Anh (Minister of Defence)-, Nguyen Due Tarn; Nguyen Co Thach (Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister); Dong Si Nguyen (Deputy Prime Minister); Tran Xuan Bach; Nguyen Thanh Binh; Doan Khue; Mai Chai Tho (Minister of the Interior). Candidate: Dao Duy Tung. Ministers not in the Politburo include: Pham Van Dong (Prime Minister); Vo Nguyen Giap; Tran Quynh; Vu Dinh Lieu; Nguyen Ngoc Triu (Deputy Prime Ministers); Doan Duy Than (Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Trade); Hoang Quy (Finance); Tran Hoan (Information). There are 2 puppet parties, the Democratic (founded 1944) and the Socialist (1946), which are unified with the trade and youth unions in the Fatherland Front. Nationalflag: Red, with a yellow 5-pointed star in the centre. National anthem: 'Tien quan ca' ('The troops are advancing'). D E F E N C E . Vietnam has the world's largest armed forces after USSR, China and USA. Men between 18 and 35 and women between 18 and 25 are liable for conscription. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured division, 65 infantry divisions (of varying strengths), 8 engineer and 16 economic construction divisions, 10 marine brigades, 5 field artillery brigades, 4 engineer brigades, and 10 independent armoured regiments. Equipment includes some 1,600 main battle and 450 light tanks. Strength was (1987) about lm. Paramilitary forces are Border Defence (60,000) and Militia (2-5m.). In 1987 some 40,000 troops were stationed in Laos and 140,000 in Cambodia. Navy. Beforé the North Vietnamese victory in 1975 the Navy comprised 3 old coastal escorts, 2 fast missile boats, 28 fast torpedo boats, 22 fast motor gunboats, 34 small patrol boats, 24 landing craft, 4 minesweeping boats, 10 tenders, 100 auxiliaries and 200 aimed junks. It also had 10 Mi-4 SAR helicopters. At least 1 frigate, several other major warships and a considerable number of auxiliaries were captured after the South Vietnamese surrender. The fleet reportedly includes 5 ex-Soviet escorts, 2 old frigates, 2 old corvettes, 1 fleet minesweeper, 8 old submarine chasers, 8 fast missile boats, 16 fast torpedo boats, 5 fast hydrofoil torpedo craft, 15 fast gunboats, 6 fast patrol craft, 6 coastal patrol cutters, 5 seaward defence boats, 9 landing ships, 12 landing craft, 1 torpedo recovery vessel, 15 riverine craft, 1 inshore minehunter, 1 survey ship, 15 auxiliaries and 100 armed junks; but due to the lack of maintenance, spares and trials it is difficult to accurately assess the operational availability, fitness for sea or steaming capacity of this heterogeneous collection or the availability of trained personnel. It is estimated that 4 missile craft, 6 torpedo boats, 22 gunboats, 3 minesweepers, 24 patrol craft, 25 coastguard cutters and 100 motor launches are nonoperational together with 580 riverine craft, 100 landing craft, 30 monitors, 100 converted amphibious craft, 26 vedettes, 36 auxiliaries and 75 service craft. In 1987 there were an estimated 40,000 naval personnel. Air Force. The Air Force, built up with Soviet and Chinese assistance, has about 12,000 personal and 350 combat aircraft (plus many stored), including modem US types captured in war. There are reported to be 3 squadrons of variable-geometry MiG-23s, 6 squadrons of MiG-17s and Su-20s, over 150 MiG-21 interceptors; An-2, Li-2, An-24, An-26 and 11-14 transports; and a strong helicopter force with UH-1 Iroquois, Mi-6, Mi-8 and Mi-24 helicopters. 'Guideline', 'Goa' and 'Gainful' missiles are operational in large numbers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Vietnam is a member of UN, Comecon and IMF. ECONOMY Planning. Long-term forward planning gives priority to self-sufficiency in agricul-

VIETNAM

1587

ture and stimulating regional industry. The fourth 5-year plan covers 1986-90. (For previous plans see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1985-86.). Curtailment of Western aid, and resistance to Government measures have contributed to a shortage of consumer goods and widespread malnutrition. Small family businesses were legalized in 1986. Currency. The monetary unit is the dong. A currency reform of 14 Sept. 1985 substituted a new dong at a rate of 1 new dong = 10 (old) dong. Notes are issued for 1,2, 5,10,20, 50, 100 and 500 new dong. (For former currency see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1985-86). In March 1987 £1 = 127-38 dong-, US$1 = 80 dong. Inflation was 700% in 1986. Banking. The bank of issue is the National Bank of Vietnam (founded in 1951). There is also a Bank for Foreign Trade (Vietcombank). ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1985, 5,000m. kwh. of electricity were produced. A hydro-electric power station with a capacity of 2m. kw. is being built at Hoa-Binh with Soviet assistance. Minerals. North Vietnam is rich in anthracite, lignite and hard coal: total reserves are estimated at 20,000m. tonnes. Anthracite production in 1975 was 5m. tonnes. Coal production was 5-3m. tonnes in 1980. There are deposits of iron ore, manganese, titanium, chromite, bauxite and a little gold. Reserves of apatite are some of the biggest in the world. A Soviet-Vietnamese enterprise claimed to have struck oil in May 1984. Agriculture. In 1980, 71% of the population was engaged in agriculture. In 1977 there were 15,200 co-operatives in the North averaging 300-500 hectares (less than 100 hectares in mountain regions) and a workforce of 1,000-2,000. The intemperate collectivization of agriculture in the South after 1977 had disastrous effects which the Government is now trying to rectify by a system of incentives to peasants which allows them small private plots and the right to market some of their own produce. There were 105 state farms employing in all 70,000 workers and with 55,000 hectares arable and 50,000 hectares of pasture. Other crops include maize, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes and cotton. The cultivated area in 1980 was 6-97m. hectares (5 • 54m. hectares for rice). In 1984 there were some 23,000 production collectives and 268 agricultural co-operatives in the South accounting for 47% of the cultivated area. There were about 300 state farms. Production in 1,000 tonnes in 1985: Soybeans (120), tea (34), rubber (58), maize (500), tobacco (33), potatoes (235), sweet potatoes (2,000) from 400,000 hectares, sorghum (50) from 32,000 hectares, dry beans (70) from 58,000 hectares, coffee (12). The main crop is rice. Cereals production was 18-2m. tonnes in 1985. Livestock (1985): Cattle 2-15m.; pigs, 11-5m.; goats, 268,000; poultry,92m. Animal products, 1985: Eggs, 142,000 tonnes, meat, 890,000 tonnes. Forestry. 1,626,000 cu. metres of timber were produced in 1980. Fisheries. Fishing is important, especially in Halong Bay. In 1976, 6m. tonnes of sea fish and 180,000 tonnes of freshwater fish were caught. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Next to mining, food processing and textiles are the most important industries; there is also some machine building. Older industries include cement, cotton and silk manufacture. Private businesses were taken over in 1978. Foreign firms, principally French, are continuing to function, but all US property has been nationalized. There is little heavy industry. Most industry is concentrated in the Ho-Chi-Minh area. Production (1980, in 1,000 tonnes) iron, 125; steel, 106; sulphuric acid, 6,700; caustic soda, 4,500; mineral fertilizer, 260; pesticides, 18,400; paper, 54,000;

1588

VIETNAM

sugar, 94,000, cement, 705. 1,500 tractors were built in 1980, and 621 railway coaches. Footwear production, 200,000 pairs. Beer, 942,000 hectolitres. Labour. Average wage (1984) 200 dong per month. Non-agricultural workforce (1980) 3,587,000, of whom 2,238,000 in industry. Commerce. USSR and Japan are Vietnam's main trading partners; others are Singapore and Hong Kong. Main exports are coal, farm produce, sea produce and livestock. Imports: technical equipment, industrial raw materials, foodstuffs and medical supplies. There is an aid agreement with the USSR for 1986-90 amounting to about 9,000 roubles. In 1986 Vietnam's total indebtedness was estimated at US$6,000m. In 1978 the IMF approved a virtually interest-free loan of US$90m. repayable over 50 years, but in April 1985 suspended all further credits to Vietnam. Foreign investments are encouraged and guaranteed for 15 years. All capital may remain in foreign hands if goods are produced for export only; otherwise the Vietnamese Government will retain 51% of shares. Trade between Vietnam and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 603 951

1984 1,154 1,787

1 985 1,758 2,077

1986 1,200 1,288

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1973 there were about 9,500 km of roads in the North. In 1970 there were 20,905 km of roads in the South. Of these, 5,908 km were asphalted. Railways. Route length was 2,600 km in 1976. The Hanoi-Ho Chi Minh City line is being rebuilt in a programme of reconstruction and extension. Aviation. Civil Aviation of Vietnam operates internal services from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City, Cao Bang, Na Son and Dien Bien, Vinh and Hue, and from Ho Chi Minh City to Ban Me Thuot and Da Nang, Can Tho, Con Son Island and Quan Long. Aeroflot (USSR) operate regular services from Ho Chi Min City to Moscow and from Hanoi to Moscow, Rangoon and Vientiane, Interflug (German Dem. Rep.) to Berlin, Moscow and Dacca and Air France to Paris. Shipping. The major ports are Haiphong, which can handle ships of 10,000 tons, Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang, and there are ports at Hong Gai and Haiphong Ben Thuy. There are regular services to Hong Kong, Singapore, Kampuchea and Japan. In 1953 there were 830 km of navigable waterways in the North and, in 1971,4,783 km in the South. Cargo is handled by the Vietnam Ocean Shipping Agency; other matters by the Vietnam Foreign Trade Transport Corporation. Post and Broadcasting. In 1966 there were 1 -4m. radios. There were 46,509 telephones in the South in 1974. There were 2m. TV sets in 1980. Cinemas and theatres. 116 films were produced in 1980 (including 10 full-length). There were 145 theatres. Newspapers and books. The Party daily is Nhan Dan ('The People') circulation, 1984: 300,000. The official daily in the South is Giai Phong. Two unofficial dailies, Cong Giao Va Dan Toe (Catholic) and Tin Sang (independent) are also published. 2,564 books were published in 1980 totalling 90-9m. copies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. A new penal code came into force 1 Jan. 1986 'to complete the work of the 1980 Constitution'. Penalties (including death) are prescribed for opposition to the people's power, and for economic crimes. There are the Supreme People's Court, local people's courts and military courts. The president of the Supreme Court is responsible to the National Assembly, as is the Procurator-General, who heads the Supreme People's Office of Supervision and Control. Religion. Taoism is the traditional religion but Buddhism is widespread. At a Con-

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ference for Buddhist Reunification in Nov. 1981, 9 sects adopted a charter for a new Buddhist church under the Council of Sangha. The Hoa Hao sect, associated with Buddhism, claimed 1 -5m. adherents in 1976. Caodaism, a synthesis of Christianity, Buddhism and Confucianism founded in 1926, has some 2m. followers. There are some 3-6m. Roman Catholics (mainly in the south) headed by Cardinal Trinh Van Can, Archbishop of Hanoi and 13 bishops. In 1983 the Government set up a Solidarity Committee of Catholic Patriots. Education. Primary education consists of a 10-year course divided into 3 levels of 4, 3 and 3 years respectively. Numbers of pupils and students in 1980-81: nurseries, 2-66m.; primary schools, 12-lm.; complementary education, 2-19m.; vocational secondary education, 130,000. In 1980—81 there were 92,913 nurseries. There were 11,400 schools and 280 vocational secondary schools, with 357,000 and 13,000 teachers respectively. In 1980-81 there were 83 institutions of higher education (including 3 universities: (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Central Highlands University at Ban Me Thuot), 13 industrial colleges, 7 agricultural colleges, 5 economics colleges, 9 teachertraining colleges, 7 medical schools and 3 art schools, in all with 16,000. teachers and 159,000 students. In 1981 there were 5,000 Vietnamese' studying in thè USSR. Health. In 1975 there were 1,996 hospitals and dispensaries and 93 sanatoria. There were some 13,300 doctors and dentists in 1980 and 197,000 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Vietnam in Great Britain (12-14 Victoria Rd, London, W8) Ambassador: Tran Van Hung (accredited 29 Oct. 1986). Of Great Britain in Vietnam (16 Pho Ly Thuong Kiet, Hanoi) Ambassador: Emrys Davies. Of Vietnam to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Chen, J. H.-M., Vietnam: A Comprehensive Bibliography. London, 1973 Duiker, W. J., The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam. Boulder, 1981.—Vietnam: Nation in Revolution, Boulder, 1983 Goodman, A. E., The Lost Peace: America's Search for a Negotiated Settlement of the Vietnam War. Stanford Univ. Press, 1978 Harrison, J. P., The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam. New York, 1982 Higgins, H., Vietnam. 2nd ed. London, 1982 HoChi Minh, Selected Writings, 1920-1969. Hanoi, 1977 Hodgkin, T., Vietnam: The Revolutionary Path: London, 1981 Houtart, F., Hai Van: Life ina Vietnamese Commune. London, 1984 Kamow, S., Vietnam: A History. New York, 1983 Lawson, E. K., The Sino- Vietnamese Conflict. New York, 1984 Le Van Hung, Vietnamese-English Dictionary. Paris, 1955 Lewy, G., America in Vietnam. OUP, 1979 Leitenberg, M., and Burns, R. D., War in Vietnam. 2nd ed. Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Nguyen Tien Hung, C., Economic Developments of Socialist Vietnam, 1955-80. New York, 1977 Nguyen Van Canh, Vietnam under Communism, 1975-1982. Stanford Univ. Press, 1983 Popkin, S. L., The Rational Peasant: The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam. Berkeley, 1979 Smith, R. B., An International History of the Vietnam War. London, 1983 TruongChinh, Selected Writings. Hanoi, 1977 Truong Nhu Tang, Journal of a Vietcong. London, 1986

BRITISH V I R G I N ISLANDS

Capital: Road Town Population: 12,034 (1980) GNP per capita: US$4,500 (1982)

H I S T O R Y . The Virgin Islands were discovered by Colombus on his second voyage in 1493. The British Virgin Islands were first settled by the Dutch in 1648 and taken over in 1666 by a group of English planters. In 1774 constitutional government was granted and in 1834 slavery was abolished. AREA A N D POPULATION. The British Virgin Islands form the eastern extremity of the Greater Antilles and, exclusive of small rocks and reefs, number 40, of which 15 are inhabited. The largest are Tortola (1980 population, 9,322), Virgin Gorda (1,443), Anegada (169) and Jost Van Dyke (136). Other islands in the group have a total population of 82; Marine population, 220; Institutional population, 662. Total area about 59 sq. miles (130 sq. km); population (1980), 12,034. Road Town, on the south-east of Tortola, is a port of entry; population, approximately 3,976. CLIMATE. A pleasantly healthy sub-tropical climate with summer temperatures lowered by sea breezes. Nights are cool and rainfall averages 50" (1,250 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . In 1950 representative government was introduced and in 1967 a new Constitution was granted (amended 1977). The Governor is responsible for defence and internal security, external affairs, the public service, and the courts. The Executive Council consists of the Governor, 1 ex-officio member who is the Attorney-General and 4 ministers in the Legislature. The Legislative Council consists of 1 ex-officio member who is the AttorneyGeneral and 9 elected members, one of whom is the Chief Minister and Minister of Finance; the Speaker is elected from outside the Council. Governor: J. Mark Herdman, LVO. ChiefMinister: H. Lavity Stoutt. Flag: The British Blue Ensign with the arms of the Territory in the fly. ECONOMY Planning. In 1984, there was an increase of about 35% in the government's expenditure provision to facilitate the construction of the new extensions of piped water supplies to the West End and the East End areas of Tortola. Budget. In 1986 revenue (estimate) was US$23,195,000; expenditure, US$22,017,100. Currency. The unit of currency is the US dollar. Banking. Bank of Nova Scotia, Barclays Bank PLC, Chase Manhattan Bank NA, Craigmuir Trust Company Ltd and First Pennsylvania Bank NA hold General Banking Licences and had total deposits of $191m. at 31 Dec. 1985. Five institutions hold restricted banking licences and there are also a large number of trust companies. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production, 1985,22m. kwh. Agriculture. Agricultural production is limited, with the chief products being livestock (including poultry), fish, fruit and vegetables. Fruit production, 1985, 1,000 tonnes. 1590

BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS

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Livestock(1985): Cattle, 2,000; pigs, 3,000; sheep, 8,000; goats, 12,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The entire economy is based on tourism, from which is derived directly or indirectly some 75% of GDP. The construction industry is a significant employer. Commerce. There is a very small export trade almost entirely with the Virgin Islands of the USA. In 1983 imports were US$67 -2m. and exports US$3 • 1 m. Total trade between the British Virgin Islands and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from U K

1984 1,427 2,543

1985 698 3,522

1986 267 3,491

Tourism. There were 167,676 visitors in 1985. In 1984 visitors spent (estimate) $85-7m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1985) over 70 miles of roads and 4,000 licensed vehicles. Aviation. Beef Island Airport, about 16 km from Road Town, is capable of receiving 80-seat short-take-off-and-landing jet aircraft. Air BVI operates internal flights and external flights to San Juan (main route), Puerto Rico; the USVI and St Kitts. Also, operating services to the BVI are Crown Air, Eastern Metro Express, LIAT and American Eagle. Shipping. There are services to Europe, the USA and other Caribbean islands, and daily services by motor launches to the US Virgin Islands. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1985) over 2,000 telephones, and an external telephone service links Tortola with Bermuda and the rest of the world, and cable communications also exist to all parts of the world. Radio ZBVI transmits 10,000 watts and has stand-by transmitting facilities of 1,000 watts. British Virgin Islands operates Cable TV of approximately 12 television channels plus a number of FM stereo broadcasting stations. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. There are Anglican, Methodist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Roman Catholic and Baptist Churches in the Territory. The Church of God is also represented. Education. Primary education is provided in 16 government schools, two with secondary divisions, and 9 private schools. Total number of pupils (Dec. 1985) 2,385. Secondary education to the GCE level and Caribbean Examination Council level is provided at the B.V.I. High School. Total number of pupils (Dec. 1985) 1,120. Government expenditure, 1985 (estimate), US$3-6m. In 1985 the total number ofteachers in all the schools was 198. Health. In 1986 there were 7 doctors and 50 hospital beds. Expenditure, 1986 (estimate) was US$2,364,300. Books of Reference Dookhan, I., A History of the British Virgin Islands. Epping, 1975 Elkan, W., and Morley, R., Employment in a Tourist Economy, British Virgin Islands. London, 1971. Harrigan, N., and Varlack, P., British Virgin Islands: A Chronology. London, 1971. Pickering, V. W., Early History of the British Virgin Islands. London, 1983. Library: Public Library, Road Town. Librarian: Mr Peter Moll.

WESTERN SAMOA

Capital: Apia Population: 163,000(1986) GNPper capita: US$770 ( 1984)

Samoa i Sisifo

H I S T O R Y . Western Samoa, a former German protectorate (1900 to the First World War), was administered by New Zealand from 1920 to 1961, at first under a League of Nations Mandate and since 1946 under a United Nations Trusteeship Agreement. In May 1961 a plebiscite held under the supervision of the United Nations on the basis of universal adult suffrage voted overwhelmingly in favour of independence as from 1 Jan. 1962, on the basis of the Constitution, which a Constitutional Convention had adopted in Aug. 1960. In Oct. 1961 the General Assembly of the United Nations passed a resolution to terminate the trusteeship agreement as from 1 Jan. 1962, on which date Western Samoa became an independent sovereign state. Under a treaty of friendship signed on 1 Aug. 1962 New Zealand acts, at the request of Western Samoa, as the official channel of communication between the Samoan Government and other governments and international organizations outside the Pacific islands area. Liaison is maintained by the New Zealand High Commissioner in Apia. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Western Samoa lies between 13° and 15" S. lat. and 171° and 173° W. long. It comprises the two large islands of Savai'i and Upolu, the small islands of Manono and Apolima, and several uninhabited islets lying off the coast. The total land area is 1,093 sq. miles (2,830-8 sq. km), of which 659-4 sq. miles (1,707-8 sq. km) are in Savai'i, and 431-5 sq. miles (1,117-6 sq. km) in Upolu; other islands, 2 • 1 sq. miles (5 -4 sq. km). The islands are of volcanic origin, and the coasts are surrounded by coral reefs. Rugged mountain ranges form the core of both main islands and rise to 3,608 ft in Upolu and 6,094 ft in Savai'i. The large area laid waste by lava-flows in Savai'i is a primary cause of that island supporting less than one-third of the population of the islands despite its greater size than Upolu. The population at the 1981 census was 158,130, of whom 114,980 were in Upolu (including Manono and Apolima) and 43,150 in Savai'i. The capital and chief port is Apia in Upolu (population 33,170 in 1981). Estimate (1986) 163,000. C L I M A T E . A tropical marine climate, with cooler conditions from May to Nov. and a rainy season from Dec. to April. The rainfall is unevenly distributed, with south and east coasts having the greater quantities. Average annual rainfall is about 100" (2,500 mm) in the drier areas. Apia. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 112" (2,800 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution provides for a Head of State known as 'Ao o le Malo', which position from 1 Jan. 1962 was held jointly by the representatives of the two royal lines of Tuiaana/Tuiatua and Malietoa. On the death of HH Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole, CBE, on 5 April 1963, HH Malietoa Tanumafili II, CBE, became, as provided by the constitution, the sole Head of State for life. Future Heads of State will be elected by the Legislative Assembly and hold office for 5-year terms. The executive power is vested in the Head of State, who appoints the Prime Minister and, on the Prime Minister's advice, the 8 Ministers to form the Cabinet which has general direction and control of the executive Government. 1592

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SAMOA

The Legislative Assembly has 45 members elected from territorial constituencies on a franchise confined to matais or chiefs (of whom there are about 11,000) and 2 members elected on universal adult suffrage from the individual voters roll, which has replaced the old European roll (approximately 1,350 in 1971). One Member is elected as Speaker. The Constitution also provides for a Council of Deputies of 3 members. In the elections held Feb. 1985, the Human Rights Protection Party won 31 seats. The official languages are Samoan and English. Head of State and OleAo o leMalo: HH Malietoa Tanumafili II, GCMG, CBE. The cabinet in Feb. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Immigration, Police and Prisons, Attorney General: Va'ai Kolone. Works: Tupuola Efi. Finance: Faasootauloa Semu Saili. Agriculture: Fuimaono Mimio. Economic Affairs: Le Tagaloa Pita. Education: Le Mamea Ropati Mualia. Health: Toeolesulusulu Siueva. Justice: George Michael Lober. Lands: Faumuina Anapapa. National flag: Red with a blue quarter bearing 5 white stars of the Southern Cross. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Western Samoa is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the South Pacific Forum and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. In 1986 budgeted revenue was $WS79 -2m.; expenditure, $WS 1131m. Currency. The Western Samoa currency is the tala (dollar). In March 1987, £1 = 3-38; US$1 =2-19. Banking. A Central Bank was established in 1984. In 1959 the Bank of Western Samoa was established with a capital of $WS500,000, of which $WS275,000 was subscribed by the Bank of New Zealand and $WS225,000 by the Government of Western Samoa. In 1977 the Pacific Commercial Bank was established jointly by Australia's Bank of New South Wales and the Bank of Hawaii. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 79m. kwh. Agriculture. The main products are coconut oil, cocoa, taro, copra and bananas. Livestock (1985): Horses, 3,000; cattle, 27,000; pigs, 62,000; pountry 1 m. Fisheries. The total catch (1983) was 3,150 tonnes, valued at $WS5 • 1 m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Some industrial activity is being developed associated with agricultural products and forestry. Commerce. In 1980, imports were valued at $WS57,438,000 and exports at $WS15,828,000. Principal exports were copra (25,317 tons; $WS8,404,700), cocoa (1,503 tons; $WS3,012,600), taro (86,085 cases, $WS 1,048,300), timber (1,287,900 sq. ft; $WS324,400), and bananas (70,427 cases; $WS439,700). Chief imports in 1980 included food and live animals ($WS12,352,100), manufactured goods (SWSl 3,066,700) and machinery and transport equipment ($WS11,708,500) and mineral fuels, lubricants and other materials ($WS9,561,000). Total trade between Western Samoa and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): j m m } m 4 ] m J m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

107 285

156 468

421 1,183

292 619

622 433

1594

WESTERN

SAMOA

Tourism. There were 32,000 visitors in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1980). Western Samoa has over 396 km of main roads, 403 km of town and secondary roads and 1,243 km of plantation roads fit for light traffic. In 1984 there were 1,498 private cars, 1,909 pick-up trucks, 398 trucks, 187 buses, 297 taxis and 144 motor cycles. Aviation. Western Samoa is linked by daily air service with American Samoa, which is on the route of the weekly New Zealand-Tahiti and New ZealandHonolulu air services, with connexions to Fiji, Australia, USA and Europe. There are also services throughout the week to and from Tonga, Fiji, Nauru, the Cook Islands and New Zealand. Internal services link Upolu and Savai'i. Shipping. Western Samoa is linked to Japan, USA, Europe, Fiji, Australia and New Zealand by regular shipping services. Post and Broadcasting. There is a radio communication station at Apia. Radio telephone service connects Western Samoa with American Samoa, Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, USA and UK. Telephone subscribers numbered 3,641 in 1984. In 1982 there were 70,000 radio receivers and about 2,500 television sets. Cinemas. In 1977 there were lOcinemas with a seating capacity of7,168. Newspapers. In 1985, there were 4 weeklies, circulation 12,000 and 2 monthlies (8,000); all were in Samoan and English. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. 50% of the population are Congregationalists, 22% Roman Catholic and 16% Methodist. Education. In 1983 there were 162 primary schools with 31,447 pupils, 38 secondary schools with 20,404 pupils, and 8 vocational schools and 2 teacher-training colleges with a total of 1,213 students. Health. In 1982 there were 30 hospitals (735 beds) and in 1981 there were 63 doctors, 7 dentists, 4 pharmacists and 344 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Western Samoa in Great Britain High Commissioner: Feesago George Fepulea'i (resides in Brussels). Of Great Britain in Western Samoa High Commissioner: T. D. O'Leary, CMG (resides in Wellington, New Zealand). Of Western Samoa in the USA and to the United Nations Ambassador: Maiava Iulai Toma. Books of Reference Statistical Year-Book. Annual Fox, J. W. (ed.), Western Samoa. Univ. of Auckland, 1963 Milner, G. B., Samoan-English, English-Samoan Dictionary. OUP, 1965

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC

Capital: San'a Population: 7 • 88m. ( 1986) GNPper capita: US$510 ( 1983)

al Jamhuriya al Arabiya al Yamaniya

H I S T O R Y . On the death of the Iman Ahmad on 18 Sept. 1962, army officers seized power on 26-27 Sept., declared his son, Saif Al-Islam Al-Badr (Iman Mansur Billah Muhammad), deposed and proclaimed a republic. The republican régime was supported by Egyptian troops, whereas the royalist tribes received aid from Saudi Arabia. On 24 Aug. 1965 President Nasser and King Faisal signgçL§n agreement according to which the two powers are to support a plebiscite to determine the future of the Yemen; a conference of republican and royalist delegates met at Haradh on 23 Nov. 1965, but no plebiscite was agreed upon. At a meeting of the Arab heads of state in Aug. 1967 the President and the King agreed upon disengaging themselves from the civil war in Yemen. At the time there were still about 50,000 Egyptian troops in the country, holding San'a, Ta'iz, Hodeida and the plains, whereas the mountains were in the hands of the royalist tribes. By the end of 1967 the Egyptians had withdrawn. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . In the north the boundary between the Yemen and Saudi Arabia has been defined by the Treaty of Taif concluded in June 1934. This frontier starts from the sea at a point some 5 or 10 miles north of Maidi and runs due east inland until it reaches the hills some 30 miles from the coast, whence it runs northwards for approximately 50 miles so as to leave the Sa'da Basin within the Yemen. Thence it runs in an easterly and south-easterly direction until it reaches the desert area near Nejran. The area is about 73,300 sq. miles ( 195,000 sq. km) with a population of 7,160,851, census 1981; estimate (1986) 7,879,050. There were 1,395,123 citizens working abroad mainly in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates not included in the census total. The capital is San'a with a population of (1981) 277,817. Other important towns are the port of Hodeida (population, 126,386), and Ta'iz (119,572); other towns aré Ibb, Yerim, Dhamar and the ports of Mokha and Loheiya. C L I M A T E . A desert climate, modified by relief. San'a. Jan. 57°F (13-9°C), July 71°F (21 -70C). Annual rainfall 20" (508 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A provisional Constitution was promulgated on 19 June 1974 by the Command Council, which later established a 99-member People's Constituent Assembly on 6 Feb. 1978 (membership raised to 159 on 8 May 1979) before dissolving itself on 22 April 1978. The Assembly elects the President of the Republic, who appoints a Prime Minister and other members of the Cabinet. A General People's Congress met in 1982 composed of 1,000 members (700 elected). President of the Republic: Col. Ali Abdullah Saleh (elected 17 July 1978; reelected 22 May 1983). The Council of Ministers in Dec. 1986 was composed of: Chairman (Prime Minister), Vice-President: Maj. Abdel Aziz Abdel Ghani. Vice-President: Abd al-Karim al Arishi. Deputy Prime Ministers: Col. Mujahid Abu Shawrib; Dr Abdul Karim al-Iryani (Foreign AffairsJ; Dr Hassan Mohammed Makki. Agriculture and Fisheries: Dr Husayn Abdallah al-Amri. Waafs and Guidance: Qadi Ali ibn Ali Samman. Civil Service: Ismail Ahmad al Wazir. Transport: 1595

1596

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC

Ahmad Muhammad al Ansi. Development: Dr Muhammad Said al Attar. Economy: Muhammad al-Khadim al-Wajih. Education: Abdallah al Jayfi. Finance: Alwi Salah as-Salami. Health: Dr Muhammad Ahmad al Kabab. Justice: Qadi Ahmad Muhammad al Jubi. There are also 3 Ministers of State. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with a green star in the centre. Local government: There are 8 provinces (Liwa'): Sa'dah, al-Bayda, San'a, alHudaydah (Hodeida), Hajjah, Rida, Ibb and Ta'iz. D E F E N C E . Military service for 3 years is compulsory. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured, 1 mechanized, 5 infantry, 1 paracommando, 1 Special Forces and 1 marine brigade, 3 artillery brigades, 1 central guard force and 3 anti-aircraft artillery and 2 air defence battalions. Equipment includes 100 T-34, 450 T-54/-55, 45 T-62 and 64 M-60A1 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 35,000. Navy. The flotilla consists of 3 patrol craft, 2 fast attack craft, 2 inshore minehunters, 4 landing craft (all 11 ex-Soviet) and 12 small coastal patrol boats. Personnel in 1987 numbered 600 officers and men. Air Force. Built up with aid from both the USA and USSR, as well as Saudi Arabia, the Air Force is believed to be receiving many new Soviet aircraft. Current equipment includes 15 Su-22 fighter-bombers, 25 MiG-21 and 14 F-S fighters, a total of 17 11-14, C-47, An-24/26, C-130 Hercules and Skyvan transports, and over 30 Mi-8 and Agusta-Bell JetRanger and 212 helicopters. Personnel (1987) about 1,000.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Yemen Arab Republic is a member of UN and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. The second development plan (1982-86) envisaged expenditure of 29,300m. riyals. Budget. The budget for 1986 provided for expenditure of9,944,396,000 riyal and revenue of7,179,029,000 riyal. Currency. The currency is the paper riyal of 100 fils. In March 1987, 16-25 riyal= £1 and 10-75 riyal=VS$\. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production(1985)446m. kwh. Minerals. The only commercial mineral being exploited is salt and (1981) production was 64,000 tons. Reserves (estimate) 25m. tonnes. Agriculture. Wherever water-supply allows, and in general throughout the southwestern part of the country, millet (dhurra) is grown as a subsistence crop. The traditional cultivation of coffee (no longer exported through Mokha) continues but is giving place to that of qat (cathula edulis), a narcotic shrub. Cotton (production, 1982, 5,000 tonnes) is grown in the Tihama, the coastal belt, round Bait al Faqih and Zabid (seat of a medieval university). Fruit is plentiful, especially fine grapes from the San'a district. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes): Sorghum, 450; potatoes, 165; grapes, 74; dates, 6; wheat, 40; barley, 50; maize, 40. Livestock(1985): Cattle, 950,000; camels, 60,000; sheep, 1 -85m.; goats, 2-23m.; poultry, 15m. Fisheries. Total catch (1983) 12,200 tonnes.

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC

1597

INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. There is very little industry. The largest is a textile factory at San'a. Production of cement (1982) 85,000 tonnes. Commerce. Imports totalled 6,940m. riyals in 1982, the largest items being food and live animals. Exports totalled 182m. in 1982. Total trade between Yemen Arab Republic and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1982 1,340 52,593

1983 1,857 56,315

1984 2,536 58,761

1985 2,312 94,382

1986 2,106 58,149

Tourism. There were about 42,000 tourists in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 19,223 km of roads of which 1,924 are asphalted. Aviation. There are 3 international airports: San'a, Ta'iz and Hodeida. Shipping. Hodeida, Mokha, Salif and Loheiya are the 4 main ports. Post and Broadcasting. There were about 35,000 telephones in 1984. In 1984 there were 37,000 television and 110,000 radio receivers. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. The population is almost entirely Moslem, comprising 39% Sunni (Shafi'i) and 59% Shi'a (Zaidi). Education. There were (1980-81) 418,263 pupils at primary schools, 25,037 at intermediate, and 9,895 at higher secondary schools, and 2,450 at teachertraining establishments. In 1982 the University of San'a (founded in 1974) had 6,719 students. Health. In 1983 there were 60 hospitals and health centres with 4,000 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Yemen Arab Republic in Great Britain (41 South St., London, W1Y 5PD) Ambassador: Ahmed Daifellah Al-Azeib (accredited 16 Oct. 1982).' Of Great Britain in Yemen Arab Republic (23/25 Qasr al Jumhuri St., San'a) Ambassador: D. E. Tatham. Of Yemen Arab Republic in the USA (600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Mohsin A. Alaini. Of the USA in Yemen Arab Republic (P.O. Box 1088, San'a) Ambassador: William A. Rugh. Of Yemen Arab Republic to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohamed Salem Basendwah. Books of Reference Bidwell, R., The Two Yemens. Boulder and London, 1983 Heyworth-Dunne, G. E.,A1- Yemen. Social, Political and Economic Survey. Cairo, 1952 Ingrams, H., The Yemen. London, 1963 Peterson, J. E., Yemen: The Search for a Modern State. London, 1982 Smith, G. R., The Yemens. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Stookey, R. W., Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, 1978

THE PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC R E P U B L I C OF YEMEN

Capital: Aden Population: 2 • 5m. ( 1985) GNPper capita: US$510(1983)

Jumhurijah al-Yemen al Dimuqratiyah al Sha'abijah— Southern Yemen H I S T O R Y . Between Aug. and Oct. 1967 the 17 sultanates of the Federation of South Arabia (see map in the STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1965-66) were overrun by the forces of the National Liberation Front (NLF). The rulers were deposed, resigned or fled. At the same time the rival organization of FLOSY (Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen) fought a civil war against NLF and harassed the British forces and civilians in Aden. In Nov. the UAR withdrew its support from FLOSY, and with the backing of the Army the NLF took over throughout the country. The last British troops left Aden on 29 Nov. 1967, and on 30 Nov. the Southern Yemen People's Republic was proclaimed and the name was subsequently changed to the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in 1970. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen is bounded north by Yemen Arab Republic and Saudi Arabia, east by Oman, south by the Gulf of Aden and west by the Yemen Arab Republic. The Republic covers an area of approximately 111,074 sq. miles (287,682 sq. km). Land area can be divided into 4 areas: (i) the coastal lands in the south, nearly 1,200 km long and 12-25 km wide; (ii) the inner lands and plateaus; (Hi) the northern desert to the north of Hadhramaut; (z'v) the green valleys scattered between the high lands. The population was (estimate, 1985) 2-5m.; urban, 33%; rural, 57% and nomads, 10%. The main towns are (1981) Aden (capital) (population, 265,326), and Mukalla (100,000). The island of Kamaran in the Red Sea (area 181 sq. km) was in British occupation from 1915 to 1967, when the inhabitants opted in favour of remaining with the Republic but Yemen Arab Republic occupied it in 1972. The island of Perim (300 sq. km) was first occupied by the French in 1738. In 1799 the British took formal possession but evacuated the island the same year. It was reoccupied by the British in Jan. 1851 and was later used as a coaling station. In Nov. 1967 the inhabitants opted in favour of remaining with the Republic. The island of Socotra lying to the east of the Horn of Africa in the Arabian sea (area 3,500 sq. km) was formerly part of the Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra and became part of the Republic in 1967. C L I M A T E . A desert climate prevails, modified in parts by altitude, which affects temperatures by up to 12°C, as well as rainfall, which is very low in coastal areas. Aden. Jan. 75°F(24°C), July 90°F(32"C). Annual rainfall 1 -8" (46 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T An amended Constitution was approved by the Supreme People's Council on 31 Oct. 1978. 1598

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC O F YEMEN

1599

Meetings took place during 1984-85 between President Mohammed and the President Saleh of the Yémen Arabic Republic, to discuss further steps towards unification. On 13 Jan. 1986 there was a coup attempt against President Ali Nasser Mohammed which developed into virtual civil war. By 24 Jan. the rebel forces had taken control of the capital, Aden, and at a meeting of the Socialist Party Central Committee the presidium of the Supreme People's Council announced that the Acting President was Heidar al-Attas. He was elected President on 6 Nov. 1986. National flag. Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with a blue triangle based on the hoist bearing a red star. Local Government. There are 6 govemorates (Aden, Lahej, Abyan, Shabwa, Hadhramout and Al-Mahra), sub-divided into 27 provinces. D E F E N C E . Military service for 2 years is compulsory. Army. The Army comprises 1 armoured, 2 mechanized, 9 infantry, 1 artillery, 1 rocket and 1 surface-to-surface missile brigades and 10 artillery battalions. Equipment includes 470 T-34/-54/-55/-62 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) about 24,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 8 fast missile craft, 2 fast torpedo-boats, 2 fast attack craft, 1 tank landing ship, 3 medium landing ships and 5 minor landing craft, all transferred from the Soviet Navy and 6 very small British-built launches. Personnel in 1987 totalled 1,000 officers and men. Air Force. Formed in 1967, the Air Force is now equipped mainly with aircraft of Soviet design. It has received about 50 MiG-21 fighters, 35 MiG-17 and 25 MiG-23 fighter-bombers, 30 Su-20 attack aircraft, 15 Mi-24 gunship helicopters, 4 An-24 and 2 An-26 twin-turboprop transports and about 30 Mi-8 and 6 Mi-4 helicopters. Personnel (1987) about 2,500. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen is a member of UN and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. The development plan (1986-91) envisaged expenditure of 998-2m. dinars. Budget. The budget (in lm. Yemeni dinars) for 1986 envisaged general revenue at 214-4 and general expenditure at 341 • 4. Currency. The currency is the South Yemen dinar and is divided into 1,000 fils. Coins: 50, 25, 5 fils; notes: 10, 5 and 1 dinar, 500 and 250 fils. In March 1987, £ 1 = 0 • 546 dinars; US$ 1 = 0 • 343 dinars. Banking. The only commercial bank is the National Bank of Yemen with the Bank of Yemen caiTying on the functions of the Central Bank. All foreign banks have been nationalized. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 446m. kwh. Agriculture. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people. This is largely of a subsistence nature, sorghum, sesame and millet being the chief crops, and wheat and barley widely grown at the higher elevations. Of increasing importance, however,\are the cash crops which have been developed since the Second World

1600

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC O F YEMEN

War, by far the most important of which is the Abyan long-staple cotton, now the country's major export. Owing to paucity of rainfall, cultivation is largely confined to fertile valleys and flood plains on silt, built up and irrigated in the traditional manner. These traditional methods are being augmented and replaced by the use of modern earth moving machinery and pumps. Irrigation schemes with permanent installations are in progress. Production (1985 in 1,000 tonnes): Millet, 80; wheat, 15; cotton lint, 5; cotton seed, 10; sesame, 3; barley, 2. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 96,000; sheep, 940,000; goats, 1 -38m.; poultry, 2m. Fisheries. There is a thriving fisheries industry, fish being the Republic's major export after cotton. Catch (1985) 80,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Light industry is being established and paint, match and textile factories are in production. Commerce. Trade is mainly transhipment and entrepot, Aden serving as a centre of distribution to and from neighbouring territories. Transit trade is mainly in cotton piece-goods, grains, coffee, hides and skins, and cheap consumer goods. Importation of all commodities specified for local consumption is subject to a prior import licence from the Ministry of Trade, Supply and Commerce. Importation of any commodities is completely forbidden except by virtue of a valid import licence. In 1985 imports totalled 109-lm. dinar; exports and re-exports, 3-3m. dinar. Total trade between Republic of Yemen and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK.

1982 26,631 35,577

1983 10,627 36,673

1984 18,238 45,221

1985 7,938 34,827

1986 4,848 23,928

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 1,150 miles of roads, by 1990, 2,240 km. Registered motor vehicles in 1981 numbered 18,533. Aviation. There are aiiports at Khormaksar (Aden) and Mukalla. Nine airlines operate scheduled services: Alyemda, Air-India, Ethiopian Airlines, Middle East Airlines, Yemen Airlines, Aeroflot, Saudi Airlines, Kuwait Airways, and Air Djibouti. Shipping. Because of its favourable geographical position and its efficient service to ships, Aden used to be one of the busiest oil-bunkering ports in the world, handling some 550 ships a month. In 1983,4-8m. tonnes of cargo were unloaded and 3-6m. tonnes loaded. Post and Broadcasting. The automatic telephone system provided service to about 31,000 subscribers in 1985. In 1985 there were 180,000 radio and 30,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1971). There were 19 cinemas with a seating capacity of about 20,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court and Magistrates' Courts. In some areas Moslem and local Common Law are administered. Religion. The majority of the population is Moslem. There are small numbers of Christians and Hindus. Education. There were (1982, estimate) 229,000 primary school pupils and 28,600 secondary school pupils. A state university was founded in 1975 and the number of students is increasing. In 1985, 400,000 students were studying at schools at various levels. Efforts are being made to eradicate illiteracy among adults. Welfare. There were (1986) 54 hospitals with 4,499 beds and about 652 doctors.

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF YEMEN

1601

D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in Great Britain (57 Cromwell Rd„ London, SW7 2ED) Ambassador: Ahmed AbdoRageh (accredited 18 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (28 Shara Ho Chi Minh, Khormaksar, Aden) Ambassador: Arthur S. M. Marshall, CBE. Of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen to the United Nations Ambassador: Abdalla Saleh Al-Ashtal. The US Embassy in Aden was closed on 26 Oct. 1969 and UK acts as the protective power. Books of Reference Bidwell, R., The Two Yemens. London, 1984 H i c k i n b o t h a m , S i r T . , Aden. London, 1959 Ingrams, H., Arabia and the isles. London Kostiner, J., The Struggle for South Yemen. London and New York, 1984 Smith, G . R., The Yemens. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Stookey, R. W., South Yemen: A Marxist Republic in Arabia. Boulder and London, 1982 Thesiger, W., Arabian Sands. London, 1959

Capital: Belgrade Population: 23 • 12m. ( 1985) GNP per capita:VS$5,600 (1984)

YUGOSLAVIA Socijalisticka Federativna Republika Jugoslavija— Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

H I S T O R Y . In 1917 the Yugoslav Committee in London drew up the Pact of Corfu, which proclaimed that all Yugoslavs would unite after the first world war to form a kingdom under the Serbian royal house. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed on 1 Dec. 1918. In 1929 the name was changed to Yugoslavia. During the Second World War Tito's partisans set up a provisional government (AVNOJ) which was the basis of a Constituent Assembly after the war. On 29 Nov. 1945 Yugoslavia was proclaimed a republic. The peace treaty with Italy, signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947, stipulated the cession to Yugoslavia of the greater part of the Italian province of Venezia Giulia, the commune of Zara and the island of Pelagosa and the adjacent islets. By an agreement of 10 Nov. 1975 the city of Trieste ('Zone A') was recognized as Italian and the Adriatic coastal portion of the former Free Territory of Trieste ('Zone B') as Yugoslav. A free industrial zone was set up in the Femetici-Sezana region on both sides of the frontier. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Yugoslavia is bounded in the north by Austria and Hungary, north-east by Romania, east by Bulgaria, south by Greece and west by Albania, the Adriatic Sea and Italy. The area is 255,804 sq. km. Population at the 1981 census: 22,424,771. Population by sex at the 1981 census: females, 11,340,93 3. Estimate (1985)23,123,000. The federal capital is Belgrade (Beograd). Population (census, 1981) 1,470,073 and of other principal towns (B = Bosnia and Herzegovina; C = Croatia; K = Kosovo; Ma=Macedonia; Mo = Montenegro; Se=Serbia; SI = Slovenia; V = Voj vodina): Banja Luka (B) Bitolj (Ma) Cacak (Se) Cakovec (C) Gostivar (Ma) Kragujevac (Se) Kraljevo (Se) Krusevac (Se) Kumanovo (Ma) Leskovac(Se) Ljubljana (SI) Maribor (SI) Mostar(B) Nis(Se) Novi Sad (V) Osijek(C) Pancevo (V) Pec (K) Prijedor (B)

183,618 137,835 110,676 116,825 101,188 164,823 121,622 132,972 126,368 159,001 305,211 185,699 110,377 230,711 257,685 158,790 123,791 111,071 108,868

Pristina(K) Prizren (K) Rijeka(C) Sabac(Se) Sarajevo (B) Skopje (Ma) Slavonski Brod(C) Smederevo (Se) Split (C) Subotica (V) Tetovo (Ma) Titograd (Mo) Titova Mitrovica (K) Tuzla(B) Urosevac(K) Zadar(C) Zagreb (C) Zenica (B) Zrenjanin (V)

216,040 134,526 193,044 119,669 448,500 506,547 106,400 107,366 235,922 154,611 162,414 132,290 105,323 121,717 113,680 116,174 1,174,512 132,733 139,300

Population (1981 census) by ethnic igroup was (i) the 6 'leading nations': Serbs, 8,140,452; Croats, 4,428,005; Moslems, 1,999,957; Slovenes, 1,753,554; Macedonians, 1,339,729; Montenegrins, 579,023; (ii) of the 18 other 'nationalities': Albanians, 1,730,364; Hungarians, 426,866. 1,219,045 persons declared them1602

YUGOSLAVIA

1603

selves 'Yugoslavs' (i.e. not wanting to be listed with any minority). In 1986 about 460,000 nationals worked abroad. There were 181,000 Gypsies in 1986. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1982 1983

Live births 378,814 379,278

Still-born 2,594 ...

Deaths 203,264 219,274

Infantile deaths 11,477 12,000

Marriages 172,359 171,111

Divorces 22,715 19,940

Vital statistics, 1984 (per 1,000 population: Live births, 16-5; deaths, 9-4; marriages, 7-3; infant mortality, 29-2; natural increase, 7 1 . Divorces per 1,000 marriages: 121-6. Expectation of life in 1981: males, 67-2; females, 73-6. The Yugoslav (i.e., South Slav) languages proper are Slovene, Macedonian and Serbo-Croat, the latter having 2 variants (Serbian and Croatian) which are regarded as constituting one language. There are claims, largely politically-motivated, that Croatian is a separate language and Macedonian a dialect of Bulgarian. Macedonian is and Serbian may be written in the Cyrillic alphabet. There are also substantial Albanian and Hungarian-speaking minorities. Art. 246 of the Constitution lays down that 'The languages of the nations and nationalities and their alphabets shall be equal throughout the territory of Yugoslavia*. In practice Serbo-Croat servesas a lingua franca throughout the country. C L I M A T E . Most parts have a central European type of climate, with cold winters and hot summers, but the whole coast experiences a Mediterranean climate with mild, moist winters and hot, brilliantly sunny summers with less than average rainfall. Belgrade. Jan. 3 2 ' F (0"C), July 72°F (22°C). Annual rainfall 2 4 - 4 " (610 mm). Sarajevo. Jan. 31"F (-0-5°C), July 67°F (19-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 4 " (856 mm). Sibenik. Jan. 45°F (7°C), July 78"F (25-5°C). Annual rainfall 3 2 - 5 " (813 mm). Split. Jan. 47°F (8-5°C), July 78"F (25 -6°C). Annual rainfall 3 5 " (870 mm). Zagreb. Jan. 32°F(0°C), July 72°F(22°C). Annual rainfall 34-6" (865 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution passed on 31 Jan. 1946 declared the Federal Republic to be composed of 6 republics: Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro. On 13 Jan. 1953 a new Constitution confirmed the management of all public affairs by the workers and their representatives. The Constitution promulgated 7 April 1963 set u p the 2 socialist autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina within the framework of Serbia. Under this Constitution, social self-government was exercised by the representative bodies of communes, districts, autonomous provinces, republics and the Federation and the rights to self-government and distribution of income proclaimed in 1953 were extended to those employed in public services. The former Council of Producers was replaced by Councils of Working Communities representing employees in every field of social activity. All the means of production and all natural resources are social property. Exceptions are peasants' holdings (up to 10 hectares of arable land) and handicrafts. Citizens may be owners of dwellings for personal and family needs. A new Constitution was proclaimed on 21 Feb. 1974. This directly transfers economic and political decision making to the working people through the 'assembly system'. An assembly is defined (Art. 132) as 'a body of social selfmanagement and the supreme organ of power within the framework of the rights and duties of its socio-political community'. Assemblies are based upon the workplace or community and take various forms depending upon the nature of employment. Art. 133 states, 'working people in basic self-managing organizations and communities and in socio-political organizations shall form delegations for the purpose of the direct exercise of their rights, duties and responsibilities and of organized participation in the performance of the functions of the assemblies of the socio-political communities', and Art. 135, 'Candidates for members of delegations of basic self-managing organizations and communities shall be proposed and determined by the working people in these organizations and communities in the Socialist Alliance of the Working People... or in trade union organizations'. At the apex of the assembly system is the federal legislature, the Assembly of the Socialist

1604

YUGOSLAVIA

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which has 2 Chambers: the Federal Chamber and the Chamber of Republics and Autonomous Provinces. The Federal Chamber consists of 30 delegates of self-managing organizations, communities and socio-political organizations from each Republic, and 20 delegates from each Autonomous Province. The Chamber of Republics and Autonomous Provinces consists of 12 delegates from each Republican Assembly and of 8 delegates from each Autonomous Province's Assembly. Delegates are elected for 4 years. They retain their normal employment. President ofthe Federal Assembly: Ivo Vrandecic. Every citizen over the age of 18 has the suffrage (16 if employed). The last elections were held from Jan. to April 1986. The State Presidency is elected by the Federal Assembly every 5 years. It has 9 members: 8 representatives of the Republics and Autonomous Provinces, and the President of the Presidium of the League of Communists ex officio. The annual President is head of state. Membership of the state Presidency: Bosnia and Herzegovina: Hamdija Pozderac, Croatia: Josip Vrhovec; Macedonia: Lazar Mojsov (President); Montenegro: Veselin Djuranovic; Serbia: Gen. Nikola Ljubicic; Slovenia: Stane Dolanc; Kosovo: Sinan Hasani; Vojvodina: Radovan Vlajkovic. The Government is the Federal Executive Council of President (i.e. Prime Minister), Vice-Presidents, Ministers without Portfolio and Federal Secretaries, who are elected by the Federal Assembly every 4 years in conformity with equality of representation of the Republics and Autonomous Provinces. The present Government was elected in 1986 and consists of Branko Mikulic (Prime Minister), Milos Milosavljevic and Janez Zemljaric (Deputy Prime Ministers), the following Federal Secretaries: Sava Vujkov (Agriculture), Aleksandar Donev (Economy), Svetozar Rikanovic (Finance), Raif Dizdarevic (Foreign Affairs), Nenad Krekic (Foreign Trade), Andrej Ocvirk (Industry), Svetozar Durutovic (Information), Dobroslav Culafic (Internal Affairs), Petar Vajovic (Justice), Janko Obocki (Labour), Lojze Ude (IMW), Admiral Branko Mamula (Defence), Bozidar Matic (Science), Miodrag Mirovic (Tourism), Mustafa Pljakic (Transport), Ilija Vakic (Veterans), and 12 Ministers without Portfolio. The only political party is the League of Communists, which had 2,167,860 members in 1985 (30-3% workers; 25% under 27 years). The Presidium of its Central Committee in March 1987 consisted of Milenko Renovica (President)', Ivan Brigic, Dusan Skrebic, Radisa Gacic, Stefan Korosec, Bosko Krunic, Marko Orlandic, Milan Pancevski, Ivica Racan, Franc Setinc, Kol Shiroka, Stipe Suvar, Vasile Tupurkovski, Vidoje Zarkovic. There are also 9 ex-officio members. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of blue, white, red, with a large red, yellow-bordered star in the centre. National anthem: Hej, Slaveni, joste zivi rec nasih dedova—O Slavs, our ancestors' words still live. Local Government. Within the federal framework of republics Yugoslavia is administratively divided into 527 communes (opstina). D E F E N C E . Military service for 15 months is compulsory. The General People's Defence Law of 1969 bases Yugoslavia's defence on the principle of a nation in arms ready to wage partisan war against any invader. The partisan Territorial Defence Force number about 3 m. Army. The Army is divided into 7 Military Regions and comprises 12 infantry divisions; 7 independent tank, 9 independent infantry, 3 mountain and 1 airborne brigades; 12 field artillery, 11 anti-aircraft, 6 anti-tank and 4 surface-to-air missile regiments. Equipment includes 760 T-54/-55,200 M-84 and 60 M-47 main battle tanks. Strength (1987) 161,500 (including 110,500 conscripts), with a reserve of 500,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 7 diesel powered patrol submarines, 3 midget (one

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5-man and two 2-man) submarines, 1 new frigate, 2 ex-Soviet frigates, 16 fast missile boats, 15 fast torpedo boats, 4 small corvette-style patrol vessels, 10 fast attack craft, 4 minehunters, 17 patrol boats, 10 inshore minesweepers, 21 river minesweepers, 2 tank landing ships, 12 minelaying landing craft, 1 survey ship, 1 salvage vessel, 2 headquarters ships, 9 transports, 2 training ships, 22 minor landing craft, 4 ammunition carriers, 6 oilers, 6 water carriers and 12 tugs. The Naval Air Arm operates 4 fixed-wing amphibians and 30 Gazelle, Mi-8 and Ka-25 helicopters. Personnel in 1987 totalled: 1,500 officers and 11,600 ratings. Air Force. The Air Force has about 250 combat aircraft and is organized in 2 Air Corps, with HQ at Zagreb and Zemun. There are 2 fighter divisions equipped primarily with about 125 Russian-built MiG-21s, 2 ground-attack divisions of locally-built Jastreb light jet attack aircraft (being replaced with Orao fighter-bombers), and 2 squadrons of Jastreb jet reconnaissance aircraft. Transport units fly II-14 and An-26 twin-engined aircraft, 4-turboprop An-12s, and a few other types in small numbers, notably CL-215 amphibians, C-47s, Turbo-Porters and Yak-40s, Mystère 50s and Leaijets for VIP duties. Training types are the nationally-designed UTVA-75 armed primary trainer, Galeb jet basic trainer and the Super Galeb jet advanced trainer. A large number of Gazelle, Agusta-Bell 205, Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters are in service. 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missiles have been supplied by the USSR. Personnel (1987) 36,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Yugoslavia is a member of UN and has special relationships with Comecon and OECD. ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year plan of economic development for 1981-85 envisaged that industrial production should increase by 4-5-5%, and that of agriculture by 4-5%. A Long-Term Economic Stabilisation Programme was introduced in 1983 to deal with the economic crisis, and laws were passed to ensure the prompt repayment of foreign debts. Bv a law of Aug. 1985 planning at Federal level was introduced into the activities of railways, the post office, energy suppliers and large enterprises. Foreign indebtedness was US$20,000m. in 1986. Control of some prices and increases in others were introduced in Dec. 1983 in an attempt to control inflation, which had nevertheless reached 90% by June. 1986. As a condition of IMF aid, price freezes were ended in Sept. 1984 on 55% of industrial products. Massive consumer price rises were introduced in 1985 and 1986. Balance of payments (in US$lm.)in 1984: receipts, 17,356; expenditure, 16,852. Budget. Revenue and expenditure for 1984, 374,000m. dinars. 231,600m. dinars were allotted to defence. Currency. On 26 July 1965 the value of 1 dinar, divided into 100 para, was fixed at 0-710937 milligrammes of fine gold instead of 2-96224 milligrammes. A new dinar, equivalent of 100 old dinars, was introduced on 1 Jan. 1966. There are coins of 1,2,5,10,20, 50 and 100 dinars, and notes of 5,10,20, 50,100, 500 and 1,000 dinars. Currency in circulation in 1984 was 284,400m. dinars. There have been several devaluations since 1980. In March 1987, £1 = 665 dinars; US$1 = 440 dinars. Banking. The National Bank is the bank of issue. There are also republican National Banks, 115 (in 1980) 'internal banks', 160 'basic banks' and 9 'associated banks'. In 1984 credits amounted to 370,000m. dinars. Savings deposits totalled 745,600m. dinars in 1985, foreign exchange savings 1,209,600m. in 1983. Weights and Measures. The metric weights and measures have been in use since 1883. The wagon of 10 tonnes is used as a unit of measure for coal, roots and corn. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1919. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Output in 1985, 74,802m. kwh, of which 24,270m. was hydro-electric.

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There is a 664-mw nuclear power plant at Krsko (opened 1981). This was closed for investigation in Feb. 1987. Plans for 4 more have been shelved. Minerals. Yugoslavia has considerable mineral resources, including coal (chiefly brown coal), iron, copper ore, gold, lead, chrome, antimony and cement. The most important iron mines are at Yares and Ljubija in Bosnia, and there are also considerable siderite and limonite iron ores between Prijedor, Sanski Most and Topusko. Copper ore is exploited chiefly at Bor (Serbia). The principal lead mines are at Trepca and Mezice. Chrome mines are in southern Serbia (Kosovo) and Macedonia (Skopje, Kumanovo). There are 2 antimony mines in western Serbia (Podrinje). Mining output, in 1,000 tonnes, in 1985 (and 1984): Coal, 400 (388); lignite, 56,635 (53,293); bauxite, 3,250 (3,347); salt, 410 (379); manganese ore, 32 (21); iron ore, 5,478 (5,321); copper ore, 26,166 (25,279); lead and zinc ore, 4,590 (4,634); antimony ore, 71 (51); crude petroleum, 4,150 (4,044); pyrite concentrates, 507 (609); magnesite, 417 (326). In 1983, gold output was 4,238 kg; silver (1984), 128,000 kg. Agriculture. The economically active agricultural population was 2,488,000 in 1981 (47-5% female). The cultivated area was 9-88m. hectares in 1984 of which 8 - 17m. were in private farms and 1 -69m. in agricultural organizations, of which there were 3,461 in 1984. In 1984 only 6-5% of the 2-6m. private farms were more than 10 hectares of land. Area (in hectares) and yield (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1985: Maize, 2-4m. (9,896); wheat, 1 -4m. (4,859); sugar beet, 150,000 (6,268); rye, 45,000 (77); tobacco, 68,272 (79); sunflower, 112,000(233); potatoes, 274,000 (2,431). Livestock, 1986: cattle, 5,034,000; pigs, 7,821,000; sheep, 7,693,000; poultry, 78 281 000 ¡985 yieid of fruit (in 1,000 tonnes): Apples, 368; grapes, 962; plums, 484. 6 • 3m. hectolitres of wine were produced. There were 881,693 tractors in 1985, of which 850,000 were in private hands. Forestry. The forest areas consist largely of beech, oak and fir. Forest area in 1984: 9,446,551 hectares (2,947,522 in private hands). Gross timber cut: 22,599,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1985 the landings offish were (in tonnes): salt-water, 49,373; freshwater, 25,684. The number of fishing craft was 285 motor vessels (11,536 GRT) and 1,363 sailing and rowing vessels. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Employment. In 1984 there were 9,666 large industrial enterprises and 1,492 small businesses in the social sector, and 151,690 small businesses in the private sector. In Dec. 1985 (women in brackets) there were 138,000 (51,000) employed in the private sector and 6-5m. (2-45m.) in the social sector (excluding armed forces) of whom 2-52m. (0-92m.) were in manufacturing and mining, and 1 -08m. (0-66m.) in the social services. There were 1,036,959 unemployed in 1985. Average monthly income per worker in 1986: 60,000 dinars. There were (1982) 5,485,000 trade union members. A wage freeze was imposed in Feb. 1987. Industry. The majority of industries are situated in the north-west part of the country. Industrial output (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1985 (and 1984): Pig-iron, 3,120 (2,845); steel, 4,480 (4,236); cement, 9,027 (9,315); sulphuric acid, 1,489 (1,471); fertilizers, 2,445 (2,486); plastics, 586 (551). Fabrics (in lm. sq. metres): Cotton, 344 (318); woollen, 101 (99). Sugar (1,000 tonnes), 933 (891). Motor cars (in 1,000s), 228(244). Commerce. Foreign trade, in lm. dinars, for calendar years (Before 1984 official figures were given at a parity ofUS$1 = 63-40 dinars, in 1984 at US$ 1 = 124-80 and since 1985 at US$1 = 185-70. Figures for 1983 and 1984 are given at both parities to facilitate comparison):

YUGOSLAVIA Imports Exports

1982 557,353 428,071

1983 789,330(1,475,783) 637,170(1,209,709)

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1984 1,498,285(2,162,300) 1,279,978(1,855,622)

1985 2,262,138 1,977,957

Structure of exports (and imports) in 1985 (%): investment goods, 19-2 (13-8); intermediate goods, 49 -7 (82); consumer goods, 31-1 (4-2). Largest suppliers in 1985 (goods in lm. dinars): USSR, 376,329; Federal Republic of Germany, 290,662; Iraq, 159,662; Italy, 186,875; Czechoslovakia, 108,967; USA, 137,493; Libya, 109,058. Largest export markets: USSR, 623,056; Italy, 175,168; Federal Germany, 167,592; Czechoslovakia, 102,264; USA, 85,745; Iraq, 50,359. Main exports as % share in 1985: machinery and transport equipment, 32-7; other manufactures, 17-5; food and tobacco, 9; chemicals, 11-2; raw materials, 4-1; fuel, 3 1 . Imports: fuel, 28-3; machinery and transport equipment, 23-8; chemicals, 13 -6; raw materials, 12 -2. Joint ventures with Western firms are permitted, and since 1984 the Western partner has been able to own 98% of the capital. There were 186 joint ventures in 1984. In April 1983 a five-year trade and co-operation agreement with the EEC was signed. A trade pact was signed with the USSR in March 1983. Total trade between Yugoslavia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 52,115 158,881

1983 83,951 148,645

1984 108,479 163,871

1985 122,132 177,530

1986 145,127 188,390

Tourism. In 1985,8,436,000 (1984: 7,224,000) tourists visited Yugoslavia. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1985). There were 66,999 km of asphalted roads and 33,227 km of macadamized roads. There were 2,824,267 passenger motor cars and 218,551 trucks and buses in 1985. In 1985, 1,045m. passengers and 221m. tonnes of freight were carried by public road transport. TTie north-south highway is being converted to 6-lane motorway. There were 60,832 road traffic casualties in 1984 (4,501 deaths). Railways. In 1985 Yugoslavia had 9,283 km of railway, of which 3,534 km are electrified, and ran 11,999m. passenger-km and 28,719m. tonne-km of freight. Aviation. The national airline, Jugoslovenski Aero Transport (Inex Adriaaviopromet, Panadria and Aviogenex) in 1985 flew on its home and international services, 60-7m. km and carried 5-3m. passengers and 93m. ton-km of freight; international services (without Panadria), 5 -9m. passengers and 61 -2m. ton-km of freight. The chief airfields are Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Sarajevo, Skopje, Dubrovnik, Split, Titograd, Tivat, Pula and Zadar. Shipping. In 1985 Yugoslavia possessed a total of472 vessels of 2-8m. gross tons. In 1985 vessels of 51 m. net tons entered the ports of Yugoslavia. In 1985 Yugoslavia had 1,179 river craft with 1,991 passenger capacity. The length of the navigable rivers amounted to 1,673 km, that of canals to 664 km. There are 2 navigable lakes: Skadar (391 sq. km, of which 243 in Yugoslavia) and Ohrid (348 sq. km, of which 230 in Yugoslavia). A Tisza-Danube canal system is under construction. Pipeline. An oil pipeline runs from Krk to Pancevo. Post and Broadcasting. There were 3,956 post officesand 3,322,000 telephone subscribers in 1985. Jugoslovenska Radiotelevizija consists of almost 250 main, relay and local stations operating on medium-waves and FM. In 1986 23 broadcasts a week were made in 10 foreign languages. Radio Koper also broadcasts commercial programmes in Italian for northern parts of Italy. National and regional TV programmes are broadcast. Advertisements are broadcast for maximum 170 minutes each week. Number of receivers in 1985: radio, 4 • 7m.; television, 4 1m. Cinemas (1984). 1,307, seating 444,000.24 full-length films were made in 1985.

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Theatres (1984-85). 70, seating 27,885. Newspapers and Books (1985). There were 27 dailies and 4,721 other newspapers and periodicals. There are no party newspapers but Borba and Politika (circulation in 1985: 47,000 and 256,000) enjoy semi-official status. 10,918 book titles (860 by foreign authors) were published in 1984. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are county tribunals, district courts, supreme courts of the constituent republics and a Supreme Court. There are also self-management courts, including courts of associated labour. In county tribunals and district courts the judicial functions are exercised by professional judges and by lay assessors constituted into collegia. There are no assessors at the supreme courts. All judges are elected by the socio-political communities in their jurisdiction. The judges exercise their functions in accordance with the legal provisions enacted since the liberation of the country. The constituent republics enact their own criminal legislation, but offences concerning state security and the administration are dealt with at federal level. In 1984 261,000 crimes were reported, 172,000 charges made and 114,000 convictions obtained (excluding juveniles). Religion. Religious communities are separate from the State and are free to perform religious affairs. All religious communities recognized by law enjoy the same rights. Serbia has been traditionally Orthodox and Croatia Roman Catholic. Moslems are found in the south as a result of the Turkish occupation. The 1953 percentage of the denominations was: Orthodox, 41-2%; Roman Catholic, 31-7%; Moslems, 12-3%; Protestants, 0-9%; without religion, 12-6%. 1984 estimates of believers: Orthodox, 9m.; Roman Catholic, 7m.; Moslems, 4m. The Serbian Orthodox Church with its seat in Belgrade has 20 bishoprics within the country and 4 abroad, 3 in US and Canada and 1 in Hungary. The Serbian Orthodox Church numbers about 2,000 priests. The Macedonian Orthodox Church with the Archbishop of Ohrid and Macedonia as its head in Skopje, has 4 bishoprics in the country and 1 abroad (American-Canadian-Australian). The Macedonian Orthodox Church numbers about 300 priests. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into two provinces: Zagreb with 4 suffragan sees, and Sarajevo with 2 suffragan sees. In addition, the Roman Catholic Church has 4 archbishoprics, 10 independent bishoprics directly connected with the Vatican and 3 Apostolic Administrators. There is a National Conference of Bishops with the Archbishop of Zagreb, Cardinal Franjo Kuharic, at its head. The Roman Catholic Church has about 4,000 priests, 2 theological faculties and 15 seminaries. Relations with the Vatican are regulated by a 'Protocol' of 1966. The Moslem Religious Union has 4 republic Superiorates in Sarajevo, Skopje, Titograd and Pristina. The highest authority is the supreme synod of the Islamic Religious Community, which elects the Reis-ul-Ulema and the Supreme Islamic Superiorate. The Moslem religious community has about 2,000 priests. The Protestant churches covering 4 independent Lutheran Churches, numbering about 150,000 believers, the Reformed Christian Church, numbering about 60,000 believers, include also several much smaller churches of Baptists, Methodists, Adventists, Nazarenes, etc., numbering together about 100,000 believers. The Protestant churches have about 450 priests. Also there are independent Old Catholic Churches with Synodal Council at Zagreb. The Jewish religion has about 35 communities making up a common league of Jewish Communities with its seat in Belgrade. Education. Compulsory general education lasts 8 years, secondary 3-4 years. In 1984-85 there were 12,313 primary schools with 134,862 teachers and 2,823,248 pupils, 31,213 secondary schools with 62,643 teachers and 923,435 pupils, 119

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primary schools for adults with 9,671 pupils, and 108 secondary schools for adults with 37,447 pupils. 89-2% of primary school leavers entered secondary school. Primary (and secondary schools) of ethnic minorities: Albanian, 1,192 (172); Hungarian, 155 (60); Bulgarian, 52 (nil); Czech, 13 (2); Slovak, 21 (9); Italian, 26 (13); Romanian, 31 (7); Turkish, 60 (14); Ukrainian, 4(3). In 1984-85 there were 340 institutes of higher education with 359,175 students and 15,701 teachers. Health. In 1984 there were 46,668 doctors and dentists, and 139,645 hospital beds (10,221 psychiatric). Health insurance benefits totalled 281,773m. dinars and pensions 395,458m. dinars in 1984. 25,042m. dinars were paid in child allowances in 1983. Consumption of food per capita in 1983: meat, 5 3 1 kg.; cereals, 155 3 kg.; milk, 100-6 kg.; vegetables and fruit, 212 -3. Daily consumption: 15,106 kilojoules. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Yugoslavia in Great Britain (5 Lexham Gdns., London, W8 5 JJ) Ambassador Mitko Calovski. Of Great Britain in Yugoslavia (46 Generala Zdanova, Belgrade) Ambassador-Andrew Wood. Of Yugoslavia in the USA (2410 California St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador Mico Rakic. Of the USA in Yugoslavia (50 Kneza Milosa, Belgrade) Ambassador John D. Scanlan. Of Yugoslavia to the United Nations Ambassador Ignac Golob. Books of Reference Statistical Information. The Federal Statistical Office (Savezni Zavod za Statistiku; Kneza Milosa 20, Belgrade) was founded in Dec. 1944. Director Dr D. Grupkovic. It publishes: lndeks (from April 1952, with English and French translations); Slatisticki bilten (1950 ff., with English or French translations); Statistical Yearbook (from 1954, with English, Russian and French translations); Statistics of Foreign Trade of the SFR Yugoslavia (annual, from 1946; half-yearly, from 1951); Statistical Pocket-book (from 1955; in 5 eds. Yugoslav, English, French, Russian, German). The Assembly ofthe SFRof Yugoslavia. Belgrade, 1974 The Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Belgrade, 1974 Alexander, S., Church and State in Yugoslavia since ¡945 CUP, 1979 Artesien,P F R., Joint Ventures in Yugoslav Industry Aldershot, 1985 Banac,!., The National Question in Yugoslavia. Cornell Umv Press, 1985 Burg, S. L., Conflict and Cohesion in Socialist Yugoslavia. Political Decision-Making since 1966. Princeton Umv Press, 1983 Carter, A., Democratic Reform in Yugoslavia. The Changing Role of the Party Princeton Umv Press and London, 1982 Cohen, L. J., Political Cohesion in a Fragile Mosaic The Yugoslav Experience Boulder, 1983 Dedijer, V , et ai, History of Yugoslavia. New York, 1974 Djilas, M., Memoir of a Revolutionary New York, 1973.—Rise and Fall. London, 1985 Doder, D. The Yugoslavs. New York, 1978 Drvodelic, M., Croatian or Serbian-English Dictionary 4th ed. Zagreb, 1978 Filipovic, R., English-Croatian or Serbian Dictionary Zagreb, 1980 Horton, J. J., Yugoslavia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1978 Horvat, B., The Yugoslav Economic System. White Plains, 1976 Kotnik, J., Slovensko-angleski slovar 4th ed. Ljubljana, 1959 Milosevic, D., Investing in Yugoslavia and Other Forms of Long- Term Economic Co-operation with Yugoslav Enterprises. Belgrade, 1985 Mime, M., The Foreign Policy of Yugoslavia, 1973-1980. Belgrade, 1982 Prout,C., Market Socialism in Yugoslavia. OUP, 1985 Ramet, P., Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1963-1983 Indiana Umv Press, 1984. — Yugoslavia in the 1980s. Boulder, 1985 Rusinow.D. I., The Yugoslav Experiment, 1948-1974 London, 1977

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Singleton, F., Twentieth Century Yugoslavia. London, 1976.—(with B. Carter) The Economy of Yugoslavia. London, 1982 —A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples. CUP, 1985 Sire, L., The Yugoslav Economy under Self-Management. London, 1979 Stojanovic, R., (ed.) The Functioning of the Yugoslav Economy. New York, 1982 Tito, J. B., The Essential Tito. New York, 1970

REPUBLICS AND AUTONOMOUS PROVINCES The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia comprises the 6 republics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia, and the 2 autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina within the Republic of Serbia. Each has its own Constitution, Assembly of 3 Chambers (of Associated Labour; of Communes; Socio-Political) and League of Communists within the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, though the latter is not formally a federal institution. League of Communist Presidents and Secretaries in 1985: Bosnia and Herzegovina: Mato Andric, Zivko Grubor; Croatia: Mika Spiljak, Stanko Stojcevic; Kosovo: Svetislav Dolasevic, Bajram Seljani; Macedonia: Milan Pancevski, Jakov Lazarovski; Montenegro: Vidoje Zarkovic, Velisav Vuksanovic; Serbia: Ivan Stambolic, Radisa Gacic; Slovenia: Andrej Marine, Miha Ravnik; Vojvodina: Bosko Krunic, Katalin Hajnal. Indicators (in %) for 1984: Yugoslavia Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Slovenia

Population 100 18-6 20-2 8-7 2-6 41-5 8-4 1

Workers 100 15-3 23-9 7-7 2-4 37-7 13 1983.

Social product' 100 13-6 25-3 5-7 21 38-3 15

Investments 100 16-6 24-8 5-7 3-2 36-8 12-9

BOSNIA A N D HERZEGOVINA H I S T O R Y . The country was settled by Slavs in the 7th century, the original clan system evolving between the 12th and 14th centuries into a principality under a Ban, during which time the Bogomil Christian heresy became entrenched. Bosnia was conquered by the Turks in 1463, and the majority of the Bogomils were converted to Islam. At the Congress of Berlin (1878) the territory was assigned to Austro-Hungarian administration under nominal Turkish suzerainty. AustriaHungary's outright annexation in 1908 generated tensions which contributed to the outbreak of the first world war. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The republic is bounded in the north and west by Croatia, in the east by Serbia and in the south-east by Montenegro. It is virtually land-locked, having a coastline of only 20 km with no harbours. Its area is 51,129 sq. km. The capital is Sarajevo. Population at the 1981 census: 4,124,256 (2,073,343 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Moslems (1,630,033), Serbs (1,320,738) and Croats (758,140). Population density per sq. km: 80-7. Population, 1984,4-27m. Vital statistics: Growth rate 1983 1984

Live births 72,705 72,056

Marriages 36,766 35,190

Deaths 28,629 28,968

per 1,000 10-4 10-6

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1984 the agricultural area was 2-53m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: wheat, 420 (147); barley, 73 (36); maize, 873 (248); soya, 8,829 (5,354); potatoes, 357 (51).

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Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): horses, 130; cattle, 984; sheep, 1,508; pigs, 793. Timber cut in 1984: 7 • 1 m. cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 11,990m. kwh; lignite, 7-39m. tonnes; iron ore, 4-61m. tonnes; pig iron, 1 - 31m. tonnes; bauxite, 1 -38m. tonnes; cement, 674,000 tonnes; cotton fabrics, 20m. sq. metres; cars, 26,000. Employment. Population of working age, 1985, 2-84m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-97m., of whomO-83m. worked in production.

CROATIA H I S T O R Y . The Croats migrated to their present territory in the 6th century and were converted to Roman Catholicism. Croatia was conquered by Hungary in 1091 and remained under Hungarian domination until after the first world war. During the second world war an independent fascist state was set up. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Croatia is bounded in the north tjy Slovenia and Hungary and in the east by Serbia. It has an extensive Adriatic coastline well provided with ports, and includes the historical areas of Dalmatia, Istria and Slavonia, which no longer have administrative status. The capital is Zagreb. Its area is 56,538 sq. km. Population at the 1981 census was 4,601,469 (2,374,579 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Croats (3,454,661) and Serbs(531,502). Population density persq. km: 81 -4. Population, 1984,4-64m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 65,532 63,170

Marriages 32,763 31,717

Deaths 54,822 52,673

Growth rate per 1,000 2-3 2-3

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 3 -24m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: wheat, 1,131 (284); barley, 212 (65); maize, 2,564 (523); sugar beet, 1,295 (29); soya, 37,520 ( 16,270); potatoes, 677 (80). Livestock in 1985 ( 1,000 head): horses, 57; cattle, 914; sheep, 717; pigs, 1,963. Timber cut in 1983: 5-26m. cu. metres. Industry. Production (1984): Electricity, 8,059m. kwh; coal, 254,000 tonnes; bauxite, 375; crude petroleum, 2-85m. tonnes; steel, 423,000 tonnes; plastics, 154,000 tonnes; cement, 3-2m. tonnes; cotton fabrics, 66m. sq. metres; sugar, 211,000 tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1984: 3 04m.; non-agricultural workforce, 1 -5m., of whom 1 -28m. worked in production.

MACEDONIA H I S T O R Y . The Slavs settled in Macedonia since the 6th century, who had been Christianized by Byzantium, were conquered by the non-Slav Bulgars in the 7th century and in the 9th century formed a Macedo-Bulgarian empire, the western part of which survived until Byzantine conquest in 1014. In the 14th century it fell to Serbia, and in 1355 to the Turks. After the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 Turkey was ousted, and Serbia received the greater part of the territory, the rest going to Bulgaria and Greece. In 1918 Yugoslav Macedonia was incorporated into Serbia as 'South Serbia'. Possession of this territory has long been a source of contention between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Macedonia is land-locked, and is bounded in the north by Serbia and Kosovo, in the east by Bulgaria, in the south by Greece and

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in the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. Its area is 25,713 sq. km. Population at the 1981 census was 1,909,136 (940,993 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Macedonians (1,279,323), Albanians (377,208) and Turks (86,591). Population density per sq. km, 74 -2. Population, 1984,1 -99m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Growth rate Live births 39,811 39,133

Marriages 16,492 16,507

Deaths 14,464 14,844

per 1,000 12-7 12 0

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 1 -33m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: wheat, 288 (112); barley, 113 (54); maize, 80 (42); cotton, 888 (1,531); tobacco, 30 (28); Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): horses, 82; cattle, 286; sheep, 2,315; pigs, 202. Timber cut in 1984:1,086,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 3,575m. kwh; lignite, 3,327,000 tonnes; iron ore, 786,000 tonnes; pig-iron, 232,000 tonnes; steel, 397,000 tonnes; copper ore, 2,851,000 tonnes; sulphuric acid, 84,000 tonnes; cement, 684,000 tonnes; cotton fabrics, 53m. sq. metres. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: l-27m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-45m., of whom 0-4m. worked in production.

MONTENEGRO H I S T O R Y . Montenegro emerged as a separate entity on the break-up of the Serbian Empire in 1355. It was never effectively subdued by Turkey. It was ruled by Bishop Princes until 1851, when a royal house was founded. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Montenegro is a mountainous region which opens to the Adriatic in the south-west. It is bounded in the north-west by Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the north-east by Serbia and in the south-east by Albania. The capital is Titograd. Its area is 13,812, sq. km. Population at the 1981 census was 584,310 (294,571 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Montenegrins (400,488), Moslems (78,080) and Albanians (37,735). Population density per sq. km: 42-3. Population, 1984,0-6m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Growth rate Live births 10,473 10,268

Marriages 4,181 4,198

Deaths 3,706 3,751

per 1,000 11-2 10 6

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 517,000 hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: wheat, 11 (4); barley, 12 (6); maize, 10 (8); potatoes, 30 (7). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): horses, 23; cattle, 189; sheep, 481; pigs, 30. Timber cut in 1984: 885,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 2,878m. kwh; lignite, 2-73m. tonnes; bauxite, 735,000 tonnes; cement, 168,000 tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: 0-39m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0- 15m., of whom 0-13m. worked in production.

SERBIA H I S T O R Y . The Serbs received Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantines; They

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threw off the latter's suzerainty to become a large prosperous medieval state, which was destroyed by the Turks at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. After revolutions in 1804 and 1815 Serbia won increasing degrees of autonomy from Turkey; complete independence came with the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. Its prince took the title of king in 1881. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Serbia is land-locked and is bounded in the north-west by Croatia, in the north by Hungary, in the north-east by Romania, in the east by Bulgaria, in the south by Macedonia and in the west by Albania, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It includes the Autonomous Provinces of Kosovo in the south and Vojvodina in the north, which have substantial Albanian and Hungarian populations respectively. Without these its area is 55,968 sq. km. The capital is Belgrade. Population at the 1981 census was 9,313,676 (4,684,349 females), of whom the predominating ethnic group was Serbs (6,182,155). Population density per sq. km: 105 -4. Population, 1984,10- 12m. Vital statistics. 1984 1985

Live births 160,288 156,524

Marriages 67,783 64,313

Deaths 92,187 92,180

Growth rate per 1,000 71 6 7

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 5-74m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 2,900 (765); barley, 262 (91); maize, 6,227 (1,502); sugar-beet, 4,597 (110); soya, 128,798 (79,115); potatoes, 873 (92). Livestock in 1986: (in 1,000 head): horses, 130; cattle, 2,249; sheep, 2,633; pigs, 5,064. Timber cut in 1984: 3 -94m. cu. metres. Industry. (1985): Electncity, 35,805m. kwh; coal, 38-45m. tonnes; lignite, 37,848,000 tonnes; pig-iron, 531,000 tonnes; steel, 669,000 tonnes; copper ore, 23,315,000 tonnes; lorries, 11,672; cars, 158,000; sulphuric acid, 988,000 tonnes; plastics, (1984) 79,000 tonnes; cement, 2,742,000 tonnes; sugar, 650,000 tonnes; cotton fabrics, 73m. sq. metres; woollens, 42m. sq. metres. Employment. Population of working age, 1984: 6-17m.; non-agricultural workforce, 2 29m., of whom 1 -97m. were in production.

KOSOVO AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Area: 10,887 sq. km. The capital is Pristina. Population at the 1981 census, 1,584,441 (766,048 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Albanians (1,226,736), and Serbs (209,498). Population density per sq. km: 145 5. Population, 1984,1 72m. Vital statistics. 1984 1985

Live births 53,324 54,436

Marriages 12,617 12,569

Deaths 9,949 9,947

Growth rate per 1,000 25 2 25 3

ECONOMY Agriculture. The agricultural area in 1985 was 585,000 hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and sown areas (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 275 (97); maize, 115 (96); sugar-beet, 61 (3); potatoes, 53 (8). Livestock in 1985 ( 1,000 head): horses, 35; cattle, 404; sheep, 396; pigs, 64. Timber cut in 1984,420,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 5,393m. kwh; lignite, 9-78m. tonnes; sulphuric acid, 78,000 tonnes; cement, 290,000 tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: 0-95m.; non-agricultural workforce, 201,905, of whom 157,044 worked in production.

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YUGOSLAVIA

VOJVODINA AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Area: 21,506 sq. km. The capital is Novi Sad. Population at the 1981 census, 2,034,772 (1,041,392 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Serbs (1,107,378) and Hungarians (385,356). Population density per sq. km: 94-6. Population, 1984,2-05m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 26,250 25,005

Marriages 14,922 14,248

Deaths 23,931 23,584

Growth rate per 1,000 11 10

ECONOMY Agriculture. The agricultural area in 1984 was l-78m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and sown areas (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 1,737 (325); barley, 219 (50); maize, 4,821 (743); sugar-beet, 4,342 (88); soya, 164,006 (82,722); potatoes, 315 (23). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): horses, 35; cattle, 297; sheep, 345; pigs, 2,239. Timber cut in 1984:754,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 1,395m. kwh; crude petroleum, 1 • 13m. tonnes; sulphuric acid, 55,000 tonnes; plastics, (1984) 53,000 tonnes; cement, 1-28m. tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: l-36m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-53m., of whom0-5m. worked in production.

SLOVENIA HISTORY. The lands originally settled by Slovenes in the 6th century were steadily encroached upon by Germans. Slovenia developed as part of AustriaHungary and only gained independence in 1918. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Slovenia is bounded in the north by Austria, in the north-east by Hungary, in the south-east by Croatia and in the west by Italy. There is a small strip of coast south of Trieste. Its area is 20,251 sq. km. The capital is Ljubljana. Population at the 1981 census: 1,891,864 (973,098 females), of whom the predominating ethnic group were Slovene (1,712,445). Population density per sq. km: 93-4. Population, 1984,1 -92m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 28,276 27,925

Marriages 11,541 10,658

Deaths 20,960 20,297

Growth rate per 1,000 3-8 4 0

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 877,000 hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and sown areas (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 162 (44); maize, 299 (63); sugar-beet, 159 (5); potatoes, 422 (32). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): horses, 16; cattle, 577; sheep, 26; pigs, 620. Timber cut in 1984: 3 • 54m. cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 12,205m. kwh; lignite, 5m. tonnes; steel, 814,000 tonnes; lorries, 4,100; cars, 43,000; sulphuric acid, 232,000 tonnes; sugar, 36,000 tonnes; cement, 1 • 31 m. tonnes; cotton fabrics, 121 m. sq. metres; woollens, 24m. sq. metres. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: l -24m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-80m., of whom 0-7m. worked in production.

Capital: Kinshasa Population: 34-25m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$ 160 ( 1983)

ZAÏRE République du Zaïre

H I S T O R Y . Until the middle of the 19th century the territory drained by the Congo River was practically unknown. When Stanley reached the mouth of the Congo in 1877, Kjng Leopold II of the Belgians recognized the immense possibilities of the Congo Basin and took the lead in exploring and exploiting it. The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 recognized King Leopold II as the sovereign head of the Congo Free State. The annexation of the state to Belgium was provided for by treaty of 28 Nov. 1907, which was approved by the chambers of the Belgian Legislature in Aug. and Sept. and by the King on 18 Oct. 1908. The law of 18 Oct. 1908, called the Colonial Charter (last amended in 1959), provided for the government of the Belgian Congo, until the country became independent on 30 June 1960. The country's name was changed from Congo to Zaire in Oct. 1971. For subsequent history to 1 9 7 7 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 0 - 8 1 , p. 1613.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Zaire is bounded north by the Central African Republic, north-east by Sudan, east by Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Lake Tanganyika, south by Zambia, south-west by Angola, north-west by Congo. There is a 40-km Atlantic coastline separating Angola's province of Cabinda from the rest of that country. The area of the republic is estimated at 2,344,885 sq. km (905,365 sq. miles). The population is composed almost entirely of Bantu groups, with minorities of Sudanese (in the north), Nilotes (northeast), Pygmies and Hamites (in the east). In the census (1976) the population was 25,568,640 (18-2%, urban). Estimate (1985) 34-25. In June 1986 there were about 283,000 refugees in Zaire including 240,500 from Angola. The area (in sq. km) and populations (estimate) 1981 of the regions were as follows, together with their capitals: Region Bandundu Bas-Zaïre Equateur Haut-Zaïre Kasai Occidental Kasai Oriental Kinshasa City Kivu Shaba

Sq. km 295,658 53,920 403,293 503,239 156,967 168,216 9,965 256,662 496,965

Population 1981 4,119,524 1,921,524 3,418,296 4,541,655 2,935,036 2,336,951 2,653,558 1 4,713,761 3,823,172 1

Chief town Bandundu (Banningville) Matadi Mbandaka (Coquilhatville) Kisangani (Stanleyville) Kananga (Luluabourg) Mbuji-Mayi (Bakwanga) Kinshasa (Leopoldville) Bukavu (Costermansville) Lubumbashi (Elizabethville)

Population 1976 96,841 162,396 149,118 282,650 1 704,211 423,363 1 2,443,876 209,051 543,286 1

1984.

Other large towns (1976): Likasi (185,328 in 1975); Kikwit (172,450); Kalemie (172,297); Kamina (160,020); Ilebo (142,036); Boma (93,965) and Kolwezi (383,974 in 1984). French is the only official language, but of more than 200 languages spoken, 4 are recognized as national languages. Of these, Kiswahili is used in the east, Tshiluba in the south, Kikongo in the area between Kinshasa and the coast, while Lingala is spoken widely in and around Kinshasa and along the river, Lingala has become the lingua franca after French. C L I M A T E . Because of the size and the relief of the country, the climate is very varied, the central region having an equatorial climate, with year-long high tem1615

1616

ZAÏRE

peratures and rain at all seasons. Elsewhere, depending on position north or south of the Equator, there are well-marked wet and dry seasons. The mountains of the east and south have a temperate mountain climate, with the highest summits having considerable snowfall. Kinshasa. Jan. 79°F (26-TC), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,125 mm). Kananga. Jan. 76°F(24-4°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 62" (1,584 mm). Kisangani. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 68" (1,704 mm). Lubumbashi. Jan. 72°F(22-2°C), July 61°F(16- 1°C). Annual rainfall 50" (1,237 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 15 Feb. 1978 and amended in Nov. 1980. The supreme institution is the sole political party, the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (MPR), whose leader and President is automatically Head of State, of the National Executive Council and of the National Legislative Council. His nomination by the Political Bureau of the MPR (whose 38 members are all nominated by him) is confirmed for a 7-year term (renewable once) by election by universal adult suffrage (all Zaïreans acquire automatic membership of the MPR at birth). Former President: Joseph Kasavubu, 1 July 1960-25 Nov. 1965 (deposed in coup). President: Marshal Mobutu Sésé Séko Kuku Ngbendu wa Zabanga (took office 25 Nov. 1965,elected 1 Nov. 1970 and re-elected Dec. 1977andJuly 1984). The National Executive Council is composed of State Commissioners appointed by the President. In Jan. 1987 it was composed as follows: First State Commissioner: Mabi Mulumba. Justice: Nsinga Udjuu Ongwakebi Untube. Territorial Administration and Decentralization: Vunduawe Te Pemako. Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation: Ekila Liyonda. Citizens' Rights: Nimy Mayidika Ngimbi. Information and Press: Mandungu Bula Nyati. Planning: Sambwa Pida Nbagui. Finance: Nyembo Shabani. Budget: Duga Kugbe Toro. Economy and Industry: Tshunza Mbiye. State Investments: Tambwe Mwamba. Foreign Trade: Kasereka Kasai. Agriculture: Kayinga Onsi Ndal. Rural Development: D'Zbo Kalogi. Mines and Energy: Ileo Itambala. Public Works and Regional Development: Mokolo Wa Mpombo. Transport and Communications: Sampasa Kaweta Milombe. Land Affairs, Environment and Conservation: Pendje Demodetdo Yako. Higher Education, Universities and Scientific Research: Mokondo Bonza. Primary and Secondary Education: Nzege Aliaziambina. Youth, Sports and Leisure: Tshimbombo Mukuna. Women's and Family Affairs: Mayuma Kala. Public Health and Social Affairs: Dr Ngandu Kabega. Civil Service: Mwando Simba. Labour and Social Security: Kisolokele Wamba. Posts and Telecommunications: Tokwahulu Bolamba. Culture, Arts and Tourism: Beyeye Djema. Parliament consists of a unicameral National Legislative Council comprising People's Commissioners (one per 100,000 inhabitants) elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term. At the latest elections (Sept. 1982) 310 People's Commissioners were elected from a list of 1,409 candidates presented by the MPR. National flag: Green, with a yellow disc bearing an arm holding a flaming torch. Local government: Zaïre is composed of the ville neutre of Kinshasa (administered by a Governor) and 8 regions, each under a Regional Commissioner and 6 Councillors; all are appointed by the President. The regions are divided into 13 urban and 24 rural sub-regions. DEFENCE Army. The Army is divided into 3 Military Regions and comprises 1 infantry division (1. armoured, 2 infantry brigades), and 1 Special Forces division (1 parachute, 1 commando and 1 Presidential Guard brigades). Equipment includes 50 Chinese Type-62 light tanks, and 95 AML-60 and 60 AML-90 armoured cars. Strength (1987) 22,000. There is a paramilitary gendarmerie which is responsible for security and also numbered ( 1987) about 25,000, organized in 40 battalions. Navy. The Navy consists of 3 flotillas, 1 coastal, 1 river and 1 lake, comprising 4

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1617

fast gunboats (ex-Chinese), 3 fast torpedo boats (ex-North Korean), and 33 coastal patrol boats including 4 US-built and 29 French-built. Personnel in 1987 numbered 1,500 officers and men including 600 marines. Air Force. The Air Force has been built up with training assistance from Italy. In 1984 it operated 7 Mirage 5 supersonic fighters, 12 Aermacchi MB.326GB and 3 MB.326K armed jet trainers, 5 C-130 Hercules and 3 DHC-5 Buffalo turboprop transports, 8 C-47, 13 Bell 47, Puma and Super Puma helicopters, 9 SIAIMarchetti SF.260MC basic trainers and a variety of other transport and training aircraft. Personnel(1987)2,500. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Zaïre is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 5-year Development Plan, 1986-90 envisages expenditure of US$5,000m. emphasis is being placed on promoting food production and increasing agricultural exports. Budget. Revenue was envisaged at 67-9m. zaïres in 1986, and expenditure, 70-6m. Currency. The currency unit, is the zaïre, divided into 100 makuta. Each likuta (plural makuta) is divided into 100 sengi. Bank-notes are issued in the following denominations: 10,5 and 1 zaïre, 50,20,10 makuta-, there are coins of 5 makuta, 1 likuta and 10 sengi. In March 1987, £1 sterling = 140 55 zai're; US$1 =88 -58 zaïre. Banking. The central bank is Banque du Zaïre. A development bank with state backing is the Société Financière de Développement (SOFIDE). Commercial banks operating in Zaïre are Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas, Banque de Kinshasa, National & Grindlays Bank, Barclays Bank SZPRL, First National City Bank, Union Zaïroise de Banques, Banque Commerciale Zaïroise, Bank du Peuple, Caisse Nationale d'Epargne et de Crédit Immobilier and Banque Internationale pour L'Afrique au Zaïre. Weights and Measures. The metric system was introduced by law on 17 Aug. 1910. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1985) 5,282m. kwh. A huge new dam at Inga, on the Zaïre River near Matadi, has a potential capacity of39,600 mw. Oil. Offshore oil production began in Nov. 1975; crude production (1986) was 1 -25m. tonnes. Minerals. In 1984 33% of Zaire's foreign exchange was derived from mining of copper (502,600 tonnes), zinc (197,700 tonnes), cobalt (19,600 in 1985), as well as manganese, tin, gold and silver. The most important mining area is in the region of Shaba (formerly Katanga). The principal mining companies are the State-owned Gécamines; the Zaire-Japanese Sodimiza; the international Société Minière du Tenke-Fungurume which started production in 1976; and 2 diamond companies, MIBA and British Zaïre Diamond Distributors. Production (1985) 19-6m. metric carats. Agriculture. There were ( 1984) 5 • 65m. hectares of arable land and 24 • 8m. hectares of pastures and meadows. The main food crops (1985 production in 1,000 tonnes) are: Cassava, 15,500; plantains, 1,490; sugar-cane, 970; maize, 750; groundnuts, 380; bananas, 330; yams, 215; rice, 290. Cash crops (1985) include palm oil, 150; coffee, 90; palm kernels, 75; rubber, 23; seed cotton 77. There are also (1985) pineapples, 165; mangoes, 147; oranges, 146. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 1 -35m.; sheep, 765,000; goats, 2-92m.; pigs, 770,000; poultry, 18m.

1618

ZAIRE

Forestry. Equatorial rain forests cover 55% of Zaire's land surface, and 10 -57m. cu. metres of timber were produced in 1981. Fisheries. The catch for 1982 was 100,700 tonnes, almost entirely from inland waters. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main manufactures are foodstuffs, beverages, tobacco, textiles, leather, wood products, cement and building materials, metallurgy and metal extraction, small river craft, and bicycles. Commerce. Imports in 1982 totalled 2,759-7m. zai'res, exports totalled 9,924-9m. zai'res. In 1982, 40% of the exports (by value) consisted of copper, 19% of coffee, 12% of diamonds and 7% of cobalt. 36% of all exports went to USA, 31% to Belgium and 6% to France, while 22% of imports came from Belgium, 13% from France, 10% from USA and 10% from Federal Republic of Germany. Total trade between Zaire and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 6 ' ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 15,801 20,557

1983 11,192 21,129

1984 7,720 36,254

1985 35,198 34,975

1986 17,192 34,217

Tourism. There were 23,000 visitors in 1980 spending US$22m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 of 160,000 km of roads only 20,600 km are of national importance and all roads are earth-surfaced. In 1982 there were 89,471 passenger cars and 16,807 commercial vehicles. Railways. There are two railway operators, the Zaire National Railways (SNCZ) and the National Office of Transport and Communications (Onatra), which leases two lines from SNCZ. Length in 1985 was 5,116 km on 3 gauges, of which 858 km is electrified. In 1985 SNCZ carried 292m. passenger-km and 1,955m. tonne-km of freight. Aviation. There are 4 international airports at Kinshasa (Ndjili), Lubumbashi (Luano), Kisangani and Bukavu. There are another 40 airports with regular scheduled internal services, and over 150 other landing strips. More than twelve international airlines, including British Caledonian Airways, operate in and out of Kinshasa from Europe, Africa and the USA. The national airline Air Zaire, operates on all the main internal routes as well as on international routes to Europe and other African cities. Shipping. The Zaire River and its tributaries are navigable for about 13,700 km. Regular traffic has been established between Kinshasa and Kisangani as well as Ilebo, on the Lualaba (i.e., the river above Kisangani), on some tributaries and on the lakes. Zaire has only 40 km of sea coast. The merchant marine in 1981 comprised 34 vessels with a total tonnage of92,044 GRT. Kinshasa, Matadi and Boma are the main seaports; in 1978, 629,422 tonnes of freight were unloaded and 498,380 loaded. Post and Broadcasting. In 1978 there were 351 post offices. Length of telegraph lines, 2,459 km. There were 15 broadcasting stations, 161 stations of wireless telegraphy and 206 telegraph offices; telephones numbered 31,200 in 1985. There is a ground satellite communications station outside Kinshasa. In 1983 there were 500,000 radio and 12,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1974): 91 cinemas hadaseating capacity of23,300. Newspapers. There were (1984) 4 dailies: Salongo (mornings) and Elima (evenings) in Kinshasa; Njumbe in Lubumbashi and Boyoma in Kisangani. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. A Justice Department was established in Jan. 1980 to replace the Judicial

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1619

Council. There is a Supreme Court at Kinshasa, 9 Courts of Appeal and 32 courts of first instance. Religion. In 1980 there were about 10m. Roman Catholics, 7m. Protestants and 4m. Kimbanguistes, as well as some 200,000 Moslems and 2,000 Jews. The remaining inhabitants adhere to animist beliefs. Education. In 1978-79 there were 3,919,395 pupils and 132,759 teachers in 7,909 primary schools; 611,349 pupils in 2,511 secondary schools; 70,342 students in technical schools and 138,170 in teacher-training colleges. In 1971 all Institutes of Higher Education combined to form the National University of Zaïre, but in 1981 this was divided to form 3 Universities at Kinshasa, Kisangani and Lubumbashi; in 1978-79 in all there were 28,430 students and 2,782 teaching staff at 36 higher education establishments. Health. In 1979 there were 1,900 doctors, 58 dentists, 414 pharmacists, 3,043 midwives, 14,661 nursing personnel and 942 hospitals and medical centres with 79,244 beds. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Zaïre in Great Britain (26 Chesham Place, London, SW1X 8HH) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Zaïre (Ave. de l'Equateur, Kinshasa) Ambassador: P. H. C. Eyers, CMG, LVO. Of Zaire in the USA (1800 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Kasongo Mutuale. Of the USA in Zaïre (310 Ave. des Aviateurs, Kinshasa) Ambassador: Brandon H. Grove, Jr. Of Zaïre to the United Nations Ambassador: Bagbeni Adeito Nzengeya. Books of Reference Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa). US Government Printing Office, Washington, 1971 Atlas Général du Congo. Académie Royale, Brussels Gran,G.,Zaire: The Political Economy of Underdevelopment. New York, 1979 Slade, R. M., King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo's Independent Slate. OUP, 1962 Young, C., and Turner, T., The Rise and Decline of the Zaïrian Stale. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1985

ZAMBIA

Capital: Lusaka Population: 6-65m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$410 ( 1984)

HISTORY. The independent Republic of Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) came into being on 24 Oct. 1964 after 9 months of internal self-government following the dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on 31 Dec. 1963. By an Order in Council dated 4 May 1911 the two provinces of North-eastern and North-western Rhodesia were amalgamated under the name of Northern Rhodesia, with effect from 17 Aug. 1911. By an Order in Council dated 20 Feb. 1924, the office of Governor was created, an executive council constituted and provision made for the institution of a legislative council which, since 1945, had an unofficial majority. On 1 April 1924 the British South Africa Company was relieved ofthe administration of the territory by the Crown. AREA AND POPULATION. Zambia is bounded by Tanzania in the north, Malawi in the east, Mozambique in the south-east and by Zimbabwe and South West Africa (Namibia) in the south. The area is 290,586 sq. miles (752,614 sq. km). Population (1985 estimate) 6,650,000 of which 43% urban. The republic is divided into 9 provinces. Their names, headquarters, area (in sq. km) and census population in 1980 were as follows: Province Headquarters Area Population Copperbelt Ndola 31,328 1,248,888 Luapula Mansa 50,567 412,798 Northern Kasama 147,826 677,894 Central Kabwe 94,395 513,835 Lusaka Lusaka 21,898 693,878

Province Headquarters Area Population Eastern Chipata 69,106 656,381 Southern Livingstone 85,283 686,469 N.-Western Solwezi 125,827 301,677 Western Mongu 126,386 487,988

The seat of Government is at Lusaka (population, 1980, 538,469); other large towns are Kitwe (314,794), Ndola (282,439), Mufulira (149,778), Chingola (145,869), Luanshya (132,164), Chililabombwe (61,928) and Kalulushi (59,213) on the Copperbelt; Kabwe, the oldest mining township (143,635); Livingstone, the old capital (71,987); and other provincial capitals at Kasama (38,093), Mansa (34,801), Chipata (32,291) and Mongu (24,919). CLIMATE. The climate is tropical, but has three seasons. The cool, dry one is from May to Aug., a hot dry one follows until Nov., when the wet season commences. Frosts may occur in some areas in the cool season. Lusaka. Jan. 70° F (211°C), July 61°F (16-1"C). Annual rainfall 33" (836 mm). Livingstone. Jan. 75°F(23• 9°C), July 61°F(16• 1°C). Annual rainfall 27" (673 mm). Ndola. Jan. 70°F (21 • PC), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 52" (1,293 mm). CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. The Constitution provides for a President, elected in the first instance by the General Conference of the ruling party, the United National Independence Party, and thereafter he is elected by the electorate. On 13 Dec. 1972 President Kaunda signed a new Constitution based on one-party rule. The single political party is the United National Independence Party. Its fulltime executive organ (headed by a Secretary-General) is the Central Committee, whose 24 members are elected by the General Conference of the Party. The Central Committee has precedence over the legislative body, the National Assembly, which is led by the Prime Minister and consists of 125 elected members and up to 10 nominated members, including a cabinet of 18 ministers. Presidential elections were held in Oct. 1983 and on 30 Oct. President Kaunda was sworn in for a fifth 5-year term. The Cabinet, as in Jan. 1986, was composed as follows: 1620

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1621

President and Commander-in-Chief: Dr Kenneth David Kaunda. Secretary General ofthe Party: A. G. Zulu. Prime Minister K. S. K. Musokotwane. National Guidance• A. K. Simuchifnba. De-centralization: Dr H. S. Meebelo. Defence• M. Masheke. Home Affairs. F. Chomba. Agriculture and Water Development. G. K. Chinkuli. Co-operatives: J. J. Mukando. Lands and Natural Resources: F. Chela. Foreign Affairs. L. K. H. Goma. Legal Affairs: G. G. Chigaga. Information and Broadcasting: C. Chibanda. Commerce and Industry: L. S. Subulwa. Finance and National Commission for Development Planning: L. J. Mwananshiku. Mines. J. Kalaluka. Power, Transport and Communications. F. Chuula. Tourism. R. Sakuhuka. Works and Supply H. Y. Mwale. General Education and Culture. B. R. Kabwe. Health. P. S. Chitambala. Higher Education. R. Kunda. Labour and Social Services. F. S. Hapunda. Youth and Sports. B. C. Kakoma. Flag: Green, with in the fly a panel of 3 vertical strips of dark red, black and orange, and above these a soaring eagle in gold. The provinces are administered by Central Committee Members for the provinces who are responsible for the overall government and Party administration of their respective areas. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured regiment and 6 infantry battalions, with supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. Equipment includes some 30 mam battle tanks and 130 armoured cars. Strength (1987) 15,000. There are also paramilitary police units numbering 1,200 men. Air Force. Creation of the Zambian Air Force was assisted initially by an RAF mission. Training and expansion of the Air Force was next taken over by Italy, with the purchase of 23 Aermacchi M.B.326G armed jet basic trainers (of which 18 remain in service), 8 SIAI-Marchetti SF.260M piston-engined trainers and the 15 Agusta-Bell 47G, 10 AB.205 and 2 AB.212 helicopters. Twelve F-6 (MiG-19) jet fighter-bombers and some BT-6 primary trainers have since been acquired from China, a squadron of 14 MiG-21 fighters, 3 Yak-40 light jet transports, 4 An-26 twin-turboprop transports and 6 Mi-8 helicopters from the Soviet Union, 5 DHC-5 Buffalo twin-turboprop transports from Canada, 6 C-47s built in the USA, 10 Do 28D Skyservant light transports from Germany, 15 Supporter armed light trainers from Sweden. The survivors of 6 Jastreb light attack aircraft and 2 Galeb trainers supplied by Yugoslavia are thought to be in storage. Personnel (1987) 1,200. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Zambia is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, SADCC, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for 1986 (in Kim.): envisaged expenditure of 4,556 and revenue of3,472. Currency. Decimal currency was introduced on 16 Jan. 1968. The Kwacha (K) is divided into 100 ngwee (n). Notes of K20, K10, K5, K2 and K1 are in use. In March 1987,£1 = 13-65 Kwacha; US$ 1 = 8 -97 Kwacha. Banking. Barclays Bank has 25 branches, 6 sub-branches and 17 agencies; Standard Bank has 18 branches and 17 agencies; National & Grindlays, 10 branches and 1 sub-branch; Zambia National Commercial Bank, 10 branches and 1 in London; the post office saving bank has branches throughout the republic. The Finance Development Corporation (FINDECO) controls the building societies, all insurance companies, one commercial bank and has shares in a second one. The Agricultural Finance Corporation provides loans to farmers, cooperatives, farmers' associations and agricultural societies.

1622

ZAMBIA

ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. The total installed capacity of hydro and thermal power stations, excluding Zambia's share of Kariba South, amounts to 1,924,700 kw and the energy production during 1985 amounted to some 12,645m. kwh. Zambia exports electricity to Zaire, Zimbabwe and Angola. The hydro stations are located at Mbala, Mansa, Kasama, Mulungushi, Lunsemfwa and Victoria Falls, Lusiwasi and Kafue Gorge. Work has started on the Kariba North Project. The thermal stations are located on the Copperbelt. A number of diesel power stations have been installed, mostly in the North-Western and Northern Provinces. Minerals. The total value of minerals produced in 1982 was: Copper Zinc Lead

Output Value (1,000 tonnes) (K1,000) 584-2 710,636 38-9 27,648 14-5 6,050

Coal Cobalt Other

Output Value (1,000 tonnes) (K1.000) 603-9 22,346 2-4 45,257 43,227

Agriculture. Although 70% of the population is dependent on agriculture only 10% of G D P is provided by the industry. Principal agricultural products (1985) were maize, 880,000 tonnes; sugar-cane, 1 1 2 m . tonnes; seed cotton, 55,000 tonnes; tobacco, 3,000 tonnes; groundnuts, 20,000 tonnes. Livestock (1985): 2-6m. cattle; 285,000 pigs; 32,000 sheep; 360,000 goats, and 20m. poultry. Fisheries. Total catch (1983) 67,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In Dec. 1982 there were 34,020 persons employed in agriculture, forestry and fisheries; 60,270 in mining and quaiTying; 48,070 in manufacturing; 8,060 in electricity and water; 42,150 in construction and 25,350 in transport and communications. Commerce. In 1983 imports totalled US$539m., exports US$866m. Copper exports (1983) totalled US$833m. Japan took 18% of exports in 1983; France, 16%; Italy, 8% and UK, 8%. Total trade between Zambia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exportsand re-exports from UK

1983 50,242 55,501

1984 48,069 66,746

1985 27,879 85,949

1986 27,260 77,840

Tourism. There were 200,000 tourists in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 37,232 km of roads including over 5,583 km of tarred roads. Railways. Zambia Railways are that part of the old Rhodesia Railways north of the Victoria Falls. In 1985 the total route-km was 1,266 km (1,067 m m gauge). In 1985 the Zambian railways (excluding Tan-Zam) carried 1 -8m. passengers and 4-9m. tonnes of freight. The T a n - Z a m railway, giving Zambia access to Dar es Salaam, was opened in 1975, comprising 892 km of route in Zambia. Aviation. There were (1982) 130 airports in Zambia (46 government owned). Lusaka is the principal international airport. Seven foreign airlines use Lusaka. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1982) 13 head post offices and 236 other post offices. In 1984 there were 72,000 telephones, lm. radio and 240,000 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1971 there were 28 cinemas with a seating capacity of 13,400. Newspapers. There were (1984) 2 national daily papers: The Times of Zambia

ZAMBIA

1623

(circulation, 65,000) and Zambia Daily Mail (45,000) and The Sunday Times (74,000). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the High Court and 4 classes of magistrates' courts; all have civil and criminal jurisdiction. The Supreme Court hears and determines appeals from the High Court. Its seat is at Lusaka. The High Court exercises the powers vested in the High Court in England, subject to the High Court ordinance of Zambia. Its sessions are held where occasion requires, mostly at Lusaka and Ndola. All criminal cases tried by subordinate courts are subject to revisiort by the High Court. Religion. Freedom of worship is one of the constitutional rights of Zambian citizens. The Christian faith with 66% of the population has largely replaced traditional African religions. There are 20,000 Moslems. Education. In 1982 there were 1,121,769 pupils in 2,894 primary schools, secon dary schools, 104,859 in 142 schools. In 1984 there were 4,910 students in technical colleges and 4,653 students were enrolled for teacher-training. In 1984 the University ofZambia had 3,621 full-time students. Health. In 1981 there were 821 doctors, 52 dentists, 36 pharmacists, 866 midwives and 871 nursing personnel. There were also 636 hospitals and clinics with 20,638 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES OfZambia in Great Britain (2 Palace Gate, London, W8 5LS) High Commissioner:W. J. Phiri (accredited 9 Oct. 1986). Of Great Britain in Zambia (Independence Ave., Lusaka) K. K. White,CMG. High Commissioner^. OfZambia in the USA (2419 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador Nalumino Mundia. Of the USA in Zambia (PO Box 31617, Lusaka) Ambassador Paul J. Hare. Of Zambia to the United Nations Ambassador Peter Dingi Zuze. Books of Reference General Information.

The Director, Zambia Information Services, P O Box 50020, Lusaka.

Laws ofZambia. 13 vols. Govt. Printer, Lusaka Bevendge, A. A., and Oberschall, A. R., African Businessmen and Development in Zambia. Princeton Univ Press, 1980 Bliss, A. M. and Riggs, J. A., Zambia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Gertzel, C (ed.), The Dynamics of a One-Party State in Zambia. Manchester Univ. Press, 1984 Kaunda, Kenneth D., Zambia Shall be Free London, 1962.—Humanism in Zambia. Lusaka. 2 vols. 1967 and 1974.—Zambia's Economic Revolution. Lusaka, 1968.—Zambia's Guidelines for the Next Decade Lusaka, 1968.—Letter to my Children. Lusaka, 1973 Roberts, A., A History of Zambia. London, 1977

ZIMBABWE

Capital: Harare Population: 8 -42m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$780 (1984)

HISTORY. Prior to Oct. 1923 Southern Rhodesia, like Northern Rhodesia, was under the administration of the British South Africa Co. In Oct. 1922 Southern Rhodesia voted in favour of responsible government. On 12 Sept. 1923 the country was formally annexed to His Majesty's Dominions, and on 1 Oct. 1923 government was established under a governor, assisted by an executive council, and a legislature, with the status of a self-governing colony. For the history of the period 1961-1979 including the period of unilateral declaration of independence see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1980-81, pp. 1623-25. Rhodesia (Southern Rhodesia) became the Republic of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980. AREA A N D POPULATION. Zimbabwe is situated between the northern border of the Transvaal and the Zambezi River and is bordered on the east by Mozambique and on the west by the republic of Botswana. The area is 150,699 sq. miles (390,308 sq. km). The capital is Harare (Salisbury). The total population was (1982 census) 7,539,300; 1986 estimate, 8-42m. There are 8 provinces: Province Manicaland Mashonaland Central Mashonaland East Mashonaland West

Sq. km Census 1982 35,219 1,099,202 29,482 563,407 26,813 1,495,984 55,737 858,962

Province Masvingo Matabeleland North Matebeleland South Midlands

Sq. km Census 1982 55,777 1,031,697 76,813 885,339 54,941 519,606 55,977 1,091,844

Population of main urban areas (1982 census): Bindura, 18,243; Bulawayo, 414,800; Masvingo (Fort Victoria) 31,000; Kadoma (Gatooma) 45,000; Gweru (Gwelo) 79,000; Chegutu (Hartley) 26,617; Marondera (Marandellas) 37,092 Kwekwe (Que Que) 48,000; Redcliffe, 22,000; Harare (Salisbury) 656,100 Zvishavane (Shabani) 27,000; Chinhoyi (Sinoia) 24,322; Mutare (Umtali) 70,000 Hwange (Wankie) 39,000; Chitungwiza, 175,000. In 1982 23% were urban and 51% under 15. Vital statistics (1986): Birth rate was 37-2 per 1,000 population, the death rate 10-8 per 1,000. The official language is English. Shona and N'debele are. the main spoken languages. CLIMATE. Though situated in the tropics, conditions are remarkably temperate throughout the year because of altitude, and an inland position keeps humidity low. The warmest weather occurs in the three months before the main rainy season, which starts in Nov. and lasts till March. The cool season is from mid-May to mid-Aug. and, though days are mild and sunny, nights are chilly. Harare. Jan. 69°F (20-6°C), July 57°F (13-9°C). Annual rainfall 33" (828 mm). Bulawayo. Jan. 71°F (21 -7°C), July 57°F (13-9°C). Annual rainfall 24" (594 mm). Victoria Falls. Jan. 78°F(25-6°C), July 61°F(16-PC). Annual rainfall 28" (710 mm). CONSTITUTION

AND GOVERNMENT.

At the Commonwealth Con-

ference held in Lusaka in Aug. 1979 agreement was reached for a new Constitutional Conference to be held in London and this took place between 10 Sept. and 15 Dec. 1979 at Lancaster House. It was attended by the various factions in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, including Abel Muzorewa, Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo, and was chaired by Lord Carrington. It achieved 3 objectives: (i) the terms of the Constitution for an independent Zimbabwe; (ii) terms for a return to legality: and (iii) a ceasefire. Lord Soames became Governor of Southern Rhodesia in Dec. 1979 and elections took place in March 1980, resulting in victory for the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU, PF). The Constitution provides for: A bicameral Parliament in which the white 1624

ZIMBABWE

1625

minority is separately represented. Parliament consists of a 40-member Senate (14 elected by the common roll and 10 by the white roll members of the House of Assembly; 10 chiefs elected by all the country's tribal chiefs; 6 nominated by the Prime Minister) and a 100-member House of Assembly (80 elected by the common roll voters, 20 elected by the white roll voters); Universal suffrage for citizens over the age of 18, Africans being registered on the common roll and all others on the separate white roll; A President (elected for a 6-year term of office by Parliament) who heads the Executive but acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet in most matters; An independent judiciary enjoying security of tenure; A justiciable Declaration of Rights, derogation from certain of the provisions being permitted, yithin specified limits, during a state of emergency; Independent Service Commissions exercising powers in respect of staffing and conditions of service in the Public Service, the uniformed forces and the judiciary; Special entrenchment of certain provisions of the Constitution until April 1987 (the provisions for the separate representation of the white minority in Parliament) and April 1990 (the protective provisions of the Declaration of Rights). Under the Constitution no Parliament may continue in existence for more than 5 years. Following the election of June 1985 ZANU, PF won 64 of the 80 black seats; the Zimbabwe African People's Party (ZAPU) won 15, and ZANU, 1. President. Canaan Sodindo Banana (sworn in for a second 6-year term in April 1986). The Cabinet in Jan. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Defence: Robert G. Mugabe. Deputy Prime Minister Simon Muzenda. Co-operative Development and Political Affairs. Maurice Nyagumbo. Home Affairs. Enos Nkala. Transport. Herbert Ushewokunze. Education. Dzingai Mutumbuka. Minister of State, Defence• Ernest Kadungure. Minister of State, Security: Emmerson Munangagwa. Minister of State, Community Development and Women's Affairs. Teurai Ropa Nhongo. Health. Sydney Sekeramayi. Information, Posts and Telecommunications. Nathan Shamuyarira. Foreign Affairs. Witness Mangwende. Finance, Economic Planning and Development: Bernard Chidzero. Minister of State, Public Service: Chris Andersen. Trade and Commerce: Oliver Munyaradzi. Industry and Technology Callistus Ndhlovu. Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement: Moven Mahachi. Local Government, Rural and Urban Development: Enos Chikowore. Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs. Eddison Zvobgo. Labour, Manpower Planning and Social Welfare: Frederick Shava. Energy, Water Resources and Development. Kumbirai Kangai. Natural Resources and Tourism. Victoria Chitepo. National Supplies. Simbi Mubako. Public Construction and National Housing: Simbarashe Mumbengegwi. Youth, Sport and Culture• David Kanmanzira. National flag: Seven horizontal stripes of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow and green; on a white black-edged triangle in the hoist a red star surmounted by the Zimbabwe Bird in yellow. The first municipal elections were held in Nov. 1980. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured, 1 air-defence and 1 artillery regiments; 20 infantry, 1 commando and 2 parachute battalions; and 7 engineer and 7 signals squadrons. Equipment includes 8 T-34 and 35 Ch T-59 main battle tanks. Strength was (1987) 42,000, and there are a further 15,000 paramilitary police. Air Force. The Zimbabwe Air Force (regular) has a strength of (1987) about 1,000 personnel and 130 aircraft in 8 squadrons, of which 2 are intended primarily for a training role. Headquarters ZAF and the main ZAF station are in Harare; the second main base is at Gweru, with many secondary airfields throughout the country. Equipment includes 1 squadron of Hunter FGA.9 fighter-bombers, 1 squadron of Hawk training and light attack aircraft, a transport squadron with 6 turboprop CASA Aviocars, 6 twin-engined Islanders and 12 C-47s; a squadron

1626

ZIMBABWE

with 9 Reims/Cessna 337 Lynx attack aircraft; a squadron with 14 SIAI-Marchetti SF.260W Genet and 17 SF.260C Genet trainers; a helicopter liaison/transport squadron with 40 Alouette II/IIIs, a helicopter casualty evacuation/transport squadron with 10 Agusta-Bell 205s and 12 Bell 412s. Nine Canberra bombers are in storage. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Zimbabwe is a member of UN, OAU, SADCC, the Non-Aligned Movement and is an ACP state of the European Communities. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Z$ 1,000): ¡981-82 ¡982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 Revenue 1,359,115 1,764,503 1,943,626 2,131,765 2,516,150 Ordinary expenditure: From revenue and loan funds 1,897,383 2,558,894 2,858,271 3,220,406 3,688,476

Receipts during the year ended 30 June 1985 were (in Z$ 1,000): Income and profits tax, 1,066,584; taxes on goods and services, 1,137,808; miscellaneous taxes and other income, 311,757. The gross amount of the public debt outstanding in June 1986 was Z$5,192,729,612. Currency. On 17 Feb. 1970 decimal currency was adopted. The unit of currency is the Zimbabwe dollar divided into 100 cents. In March 1987,£1 =Z$2-58;US$1 = Z$1 66. Banking. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe is the country's central bank; it became operative when the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ceased operations on 1 June 1965. It acts as banker to the Government and to the commercial banks and as agent of the Government for important financial operations. It is also the central note-issuing authority and co-ordinates the application of the Government's monetary policy. The Zimbabwe Development Bank, established in 1983 as a development finance institution, is 51% Government-owned. The post office savings bank had Z$652,787,470 deposits at 30 June 1985. The 5 commercial banks are Barclays Bank of Zimbabwe Ltd, Grindlays Bank Ltd, Zimbabwe Banking Corporation Ltd, Standard Chartered Bank Zimbabwe Ltd, Bank of Credit and Commerce Zimbabwe (Pvt) Ltd. In 1986 they had 119 branches and 75 agencies. The 4 merchant banks are Standard Chartered Merchant Bank, Merchant Bank of Central Africa, RAL Merchant Bank and Syfrets Merchant Bank. There are 5 registered finance houses, 3 of which are subsidiaries of commercial banks. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use but the US short ton is also used. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (198 5) 4,691 m. kwh. Minerals. The total value of all minerals produced in 1985 was Z$629,644,000. Output (in 1,000 tonnes) and value (in Z$ 1,000): Asbestos Gold (1,000 oz.) Chrome ore Coal Copper Nickel Iron Ore Silver (1,000 oz.)

1983 1530 453 0 . 43.1-4 3,326 0 21 6 101 924 0 935 0

Output 1984 165 3 478 0 476-4 3,109-0 22-6 10-3 925-0 895-0

1985 187 5 472-0 526-5 3,114-0 20-7 9-9 1,098-0 799-0

1983 69,335 193,913 26,063 42,172 32,944 43,099 14,628 10,554

Value 1984 80,778 214,120 29,719 58,264 33,764 59,704 14,532 9,031

1985 84,544 241,312 33,676 66,844 43,309 73,429 18,930 7,869

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ZIMBABWE

Agriculture. The most important single food crop in Zimbabwe is maize, the staple food of a large proportion of the population; deliveries to the Grain Marketing Board in 1985 were 1 -7m. tonnes. The export potential for the livestock industry has increased with the possibility of new markets in EEC countries. Milk production by the Dairy Marketing Board in 1985 was 202,119,075 litres. The country is suitable for the production ofboth citrus and deciduous fruits and fruit production is now well established. In 1985-86 seed cotton production was 297,538 tonnes and irrigated wheat production was 205,528 tonnes. Tea is grown in the Inyanga and Chipinge districts and production in 1985-86 was 14,000 tonnes. Coffee growing is of increasing importance (production, 1985-86, 11,354 tonnes) as is sugar (production, 1985,430,000 tonnes). Other crops grown in substantial quantities include small grains (sorghums and millet), soya beans and groundnuts. A wide variety of vegetable crops are also produced. Tobacco is the most important single product, accounting for over 40% of the value of earnings from agricultural exports. In 1984 tobacco exports were valued at Z$282m. In 1985 tobacco production was 294,905 tonnes and exports accounted for 17% of aH Zimbabwean foreign exchange earnings. Production, 1985 in 1,000 tonnes, of maize, 2,952; wheat, 210; sorghum, 90; barley, 33; millet, 150; soyabeans, 89; cotton, 280; fruit, 125. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 19,474,000; pigs, 2,857,000; sheep, 437,000; goats, 1 6m. Fisheries, Trout is farmed in Nyanga, prawns at Lake Kariba and bream at Mount Hampden near Harare to supplement supplies offish caught in dams and lakes. In 1986 trout were caught at the rate of200,000 a year, and the planned production of bream was 400-500 tonnes a year. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The manufacturing industry has developed from the service and maintenance operations that initially provided the back-up needed by the mining and agricultural sectors, and it now supplies a comprehensive range of consumer goods and a growing number of capital goods to the local market. A high reputation for quality has been won by many manufacturers, including producers of clothing, footwear, furniture, radio equipment, steel sections, agricultural implements and pharmaceutical products. In 1981 agriculture and forestry formed 18% and manufacturing (1983) 25% of the GDP. Labour. The labour force (1985) was 2-8m.; 1 -2m. were peasant cultivators. In 1983, 1,991,000 (40%) were employed in the formal sector, 750,000 (30%) were peasant cultivators and the remaining 750,000 were either self-employed in the informal sector or unemployed. Nearly 108,500 new job-seekers entered the employment market in 1983. Commerce. The Customs Agreement with the Republic of South Africa was extended in March, 1982 pending further discussion. Zimbabwe has also entered into Trade Agreements with Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Angola and Swaziland and with countries outside Africa. Imports and exports (in Z$ 1,000): Imports Exports

1981 1,017,700 959,300

1982 999,000 1,118,000

1983 1,061,600 1,150,200

1984 1,200,700 1,453,000

1985 543,700 644,400

Principal imports in 1984 (m Z$ 1,000): Machinery and transport equipment, 373,550; petroleum products, 256,924; chemicals, 178,111; manufactured goods, 177,851 ; miscellaneous manufactured goods, 78,615. Principal exports in 1984 (in Z$ 1,000): Unmanufactured tobacco, 274,817, ferro-alloys, 154,941, asbestos, 74,036; cotton lint, 115,262.

1628

ZIMBABWE

Imports and exports (in Z$ 1,000), by country, 1984: Country Federal Republic of Germany Italy Japan Republic of South Africa UK USA

Imports 82,311 ... 63,254 231,792 143,495 111,512

Exports 109,159 64,348 232,179 162,604 78,979

Total trade between Zimbabwe and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 2 ] m ] m ]gg5 ] m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

62,584 95,019

68,445 64,734

74,090 66,636

90,398 73,571

80,702 61,937

Tourism. In 1985, 36,646 tourists visited Zimbabwe. The main tourist areas are Victoria Falls, Kariba, Hwange, the Eastern Highlands and Great Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Tourist Development Corporation is in Harare and Victoria Falls. COMMUNICATIONS. The Ministry of Transport is responsible for the National Railways of Zimbabwe, Air Zimbabwe, the Departments of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services. Roads. The Ministry of Transport is responsible for the construction and maintenance of all State roads and bridges, and all road bridges outside municipal areas. The Ministry offers advice and help on roads and bridges, through Provincial Road Engineers, to district councils. State roads are those connecting all the main centres of population, international routes, major links in the system and main roads serving rural communities. The total length of roads is approximately 85,237 km including surfaced, 12,000; gravel, 46,187; earth, 27,000. Number of motor vehicles, 1984: Passenger cars, 237,128; commercial vehicles, 17,058; motorcycles, 24,347; trailers, 33,227; tractors, 5,695. Railways. Zimbabwe is served by the National Railways of Zimbabwe, which connect with the South African Railways to give access to the South African ports; with the Mozambique Railways to give access to the ports of Beira and Maputo; and with the Zambia railway system. In 1985 there were 3,394 km (1,067 mm gauge) of railways including 308 km electrified. In the year ending 30 June 1985 National Railways of Zimbabwe carried 13,088,000 tons of freight and 2,471,000 passengers. Aviation. Air Zimbabwe operates domestic services and also regular flights to Zambia, Kenya, Malawi, Botswana and South Africa, and to London, Frankfurt and Athens in Europe and also to Perth and Sydney in Australia in association with Qantas. The country is also served by British Airways, Kenya Airways, Ethiopian Airlines, Air Tanzania, Air Malawi, Zambian Airways, Balkan Bulgarian Airlines, Mozambique Airlines, South African Airways, Air Botswana, the Royal Swazi Airlines, TAP Air Portugal, Qantas, Lesotho Airways and Air India. Services by KLM, Swissair and UTA were temporarily suspended in 1986. In 1985,660,858,000 passenger-km were flown by Air Zimbabwe. Shipping. Zimbabwe outlets to the sea are Maputo and Beira in Mozambique, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania and the South African ports. Post and Broadcasting. At 31 Aug. 1986 there were 170 full post offices, 47 postal telegraph agencies and 86 postal agencies. At 30 June 1986 there were 251,344 telephones in Zimbabwe served by 96 exchanges; 2,102 telex connexions, served by 2 telex exchanges. Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation is an independent statutory body broadcasting a general service in English, Shona, N'debele, Nyanja, Tonga and Kklanga. There ate 3 national semi-commercial services, Radio 1, 2 and 3, in English, Shona and N'debele. Radio 4 transmits formal and informal educational programmes. Zimbabwe Television broadcasts 2 channels 95 hours a week via 11 transmitters. In June 1986 there were 130,500 television and 450,000 radio licences.

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1629

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. The general common law of Zimbabwe is the Roman Dutch law as it applied in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope on 10 June, 1891, as subsequently modified by statute. Provision is made by statute for the application of African customary law by all courts in appropriate cases. The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and at least two (in 1985 there were three) permanent Supreme Court judges. It is Zimbabwe's final court of appeal. It exercises appellate jurisdiction in appeals from the High Court and other courts and tribunals; its only original jurisdiction is that conferred on it by the Constitution to enforce the protective provisions of the Declaration of Rights. The Court's permanent seat is in Harare but it sits regularly in Bulawayo also. The High Court is also headed by the Chief Justice, supported by the Judge President and an appropriate number of High Court judges. It has full original jurisdiction, in both Civil and Criminal cases, over all persons and all matters in Zimbabwe. The Judge President is in charge of the Court, subject to the directions of the Chief Justice. The Court has permanent seats in both Harare and Bulawayo and sittings are held three times a.year in three other principal towns. . Regional courts, established in Harare and Bulawayo but also holding sittings in other centres, exercise a solely criminal jurisdiction that is intermediate between that of the High Court and the Magistrates courts. Magistrates courts, established in twenty centres throughout the country, and staffed by full-time professional magistrates, exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. The tribal courts and district commissioners' courts of colonial days were abolished in 1981, to be replaced by a system of primary courts, consisting of village courts and community courts. By 1982 1,100 village and 50 community courts had been established. Village courts are presided over by officers selected for the purpose from the local population, sitting with two assessors. They deal with certain classes of civil cases only and have jurisdiction only where African customary law is applicable. Community courts are presided over by presiding officers in full-time public service who may be assisted by assessors. They have jurisdiction in all civil cases determinable by African customary law and also deal with appeals from village courts. They also have limited criminal jurisdiction in respect of petty offences against the general law. Religion. The latest religious groups are the Anglicans and Roman Catholics. Other denominations include Presbyterians, the Methodist Church in Zimbabwe and the United Methodist Church. Islam, Hinduism and traditional indigenous religions are represented. Education. Education is non-racial at all levels and is compulsory. All primary schools offer free tuition; government secondary schools charge from Z$8-Z$25 per term. All instruction is given in English. There are also over 3,800 private primary schools and over 950 private secondary schools, all of which must be registered by the Ministry of Education. In 1985 there were 2,229,396 pupils at primary schools and 497,776 pupils at secondary schools. There are 10 teachers' training colleges, 8 of which are in association with the University of Zimbabwe. In addition, there are 4 special training centres for teacher trainees in the Zimbabwe Integrated National Teacher Education Course. In 1985 there were 9,504 students enroled at teachers' training colleges, 888 students at agricultural colleges and 18,213 students at technical colleges. The University of Zimbabwe provides facilities for higher education. In 1985 the total enrolment of students in the 9 Faculties of Agriculture, Arts, Commerce and Law, Education, Engineering, Medicine, Science, Social Studies and Veterinary Science, was 4,742. Health. In 1985 there were 162 hospitals, 1,062 static rural clinics and health centres and 32 mobile rural clinics operated by the Ministry of Health. All mission health institutions get 100% government grants-in-aid for recurrent expenditure. There is a medical school attached to the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, four government training schools attached to the 4 central hospitals for training state

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ZIMBABWE

registered nurses, 14 training schools for medical assistants out of which 11 are administered by missions, and two for training maternity assistants, health assistants/health inspectors. Social Services. It is a statutory responsibility of the government in many areas to provide: Processing and administration of war pensions and old age pensions; protection of children; administration of remand, probation and correctional institutions; registration and supervision of welfare organisations. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Zimbabwe in Great Britain (Zimbabwe Hse., 429 Strand, London, WC2R OSA) High Commissioner: Dr Herbert M. Murerwa (accredited 1 March 1984). Of Great Britain in Zimbabwe (Stanley Hse., Stanley Ave., Harare) High Commissioner: Michael Ramsay Melhuish, CMG. Of Zimbabwe in the USA (2852 McGill Terr., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Edmund Richard Mashoko Garwe. Of the USA in Zimbabwe (172 Rhodes Ave., Harare) Ambassador: James Wilson Rawlings. Of Zimbabwe to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Stanley Mudenge. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Office, PO Box 8063, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe, originated in 1927 as the Southern Rhodesian Government Statistical Bureau. Ten years later its name was changed to Department of Statistics, and in 1948 it assumed its present title when it took over responsibility for certain Northern Rhodesian and Nyasaland statistics (which it relinquished in Dec. 1963 on the dissolution of the Federation). It publishes Monthly Digest of Statistics. Akers, M., Encyclopaedia Rhodesia. Harare, 1973 Caute, D„ Under the Skin: The Death of White Rhodesia. London, 1983 Davies, D. K., Race Relations in Rhodesia. London, 1975 Keppel-Jones, A., Rhodes and Rhodesia: The White Conquest of Zimbabwe, 1884-1902. Univ. ofNatal Press, 1983 Linden,I., The Catholic Church and the Struggle for Zimbabwe. London, 1980 Martin, D., and Johnson, P., The Struggle for Zimbabwe. London, 1981.—Destructive Engagement. Harare, 1986 Meredith, M„ The Past is Another Century: Rhodesia 1890-1979. London, 1979 Morris-Jones, W. H., (ed.) From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe. London, 1980 Nkomo.J., Nkomo: The Story of My Life. London, 1984 O'Meara, P., Rhodesia: Racial Conflict or Co-Existence. Cornell Univ. Press, 1975 Pollak, K. and Pollak, O. B., Rhodesia/Zimbabwe [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1979 Schatzberg, M. G., The Political Economy of Zimbabwe. New York, 1984 Stoneham, C., Zimbabwe's Inheritance. London, 1982 Thornycroft, P., A Fieldfor Investment. Harare, annual Verrier, A., The Road to Zimbabwe, 1890-1980. London, 1986 Wiseman, H. and Taylor, A. M., From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: The Politics of Transition. Elmsford, N.Y., 1981 Reference Library: National Archives ofZimbabwe, PO Box 8043, Causeway, Harare.

PLACE A N D INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS INDEX Aachen (FRG), 523,550 Aalboij (Denmark), 411,419, Aalsmeer(Neth.), 885 Aalst, see Alost Aargau (Switz.), 1153,1155 Aarhus (Denmark), 411,419,421 Aba (Nigeria), 928 Abaco (Bahamas), 174 Abadan (Iran), 698, 700 Abaiang (Kiribati), 766 Abajo (Cuba), 393 Abakan (USSR), 1250 Abancay (Peru), 982 Abariringa (Kiribati), 766 Abastuman (USSR), 1258 Abbotsford (B.C.), 302 Abdel Magid (Sudan), 1126 Abeche (Chad), 341-43 Abemama (Kiribati). 766 Abengourou (Cote d'lvoire), 386 Abeokuta (Nigeria), 928 Abercom, see Mbala Aberdeen (Hong Kong), 603 Aberdeen (S.D.), 1529 Aberdeen (UK), 1290,1292, 1335,1340-41 Aberkateib (Sudan), 1126 Aberystwyth (U K), 1340-41 Abha (Saudi Arabia), 1041, 1046 Abhazia Rep. (USSR), 1259 Abidjan (Cote d'lvoire), 386-89 Abilene (Tex.), 1533,1535 Abo, see Turku Abo (Finland), 469-70 Aboisso (Cote d'lvoire), 386 Abomey (Benin), 207,209 Abqaiq (Saudi Arabia), 1044-45 Abruzzi (Italy), 732 Abu Dhabi (UAE), 1280-84 Abu Gharadeq (Egypt), 445 Abu Hamad (Sudan), 1127 Abuja (Nigeria), 927 Abu Madi (Egypt), 445 Abu Qir (Egypt), 444-45 Abu Zabad (Sudan), 1127 Abyah (S. Yemen), 1599 Abyssinia, see Ethiopia Agaba (Mauritania), 844 Acajutla (El Salv.), 451-52 Acapulco de Juarez (Mex.), 852 Acarigua (Venez.), 1577,1582 Acarnania (Greece), 564 Accra (Ghana), 556-60 Aceh (Indon.), 690,694 Achtharspelen (Neth.), 885 Acklin's Id. (Bahamas), 174 Aconcagua (Chile), 344 Acre (Brazil), 227,233 Acre (Israel), 725 Ada (Okla), 1517 Adamaoua (Cameroon), 265 Adana (Turkey), 1196-97 Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 457-58, 460-61 Ad-Diwaniyah (Iraq), 703 Adelaide (S. Aust.), 95-96 142-43, 146 Aden (S.Yemen), 1598-1601 Adilabad (India), 645 Adiyaman (Turkey), 1196 Adjara Rep. (USSR), 1259 Ado-Ekiti (Nigeria), 928 Adola (Ethiopia), 460 Adoni (India), 645 Adrar (Algeria), 72 Adrar (Mauritania), 844

Adventure (Guyana), 588 Adygei (USSR), 1241,1249 Adzope (Cote d'lvoire), 386 itgean Is. (Greece), 565 ¿ttolia (Greece), 564 Afam (Nigeria), 930 Afghanistan, 61-65 Afyonkarahisar (Turkey), 1196 Agadez (Niger), 925-26 Agadir (Morocco), 868-69,871 Agalega Is. (Mauritius), 847 Agalteca (Hond.), 597 Agaila (Guam), 1554 Agartala (Tripura), 644,679 Agboville (Cote d'lvoire), 386 Aghios Nikolaos (Greece), 565 Aghion Oros (Greece), 565 Agigea (Romania), 1022 Agin-Buryat (USSR), 1250 Aginskoe (USSR). 1250 Aginsky (USSR), 1241 Agona, see Swedru Agra (India), 623,653,681 Agri (Turkey), 1196 Agualva-Cacem (Port.), 1005 Aguascalientes (Mex.), 851 Ahmadi (Kuwait), 779 Ahmedabad (India), 623,641, 644,650-52 Ahmednagar (India), 663 Ahuachapan (El Salv.), 449 Ahvenanmaa (Finland), 469 Ahvaz(Iran), 697-98 Aidin, see Aydin AVn Chok-Hay Hassani (Morocco), 868 Aioun el Atrouss (Mauritania), 846 Air (Niger), 926-27 Airdrie (Alb.), 296 Aisen (Chile), 344 Aitutaki (Cook Is.), 917 Aix-en-Provence (France), 480, 485 Aizawl (Mizoram), 644,667 Ajaccio (France), 479 Ajdabiya (Libya), 799 Ajman(UAE), 1280,1282-83 Ajmer (India), 623,644,653, 674 Akashat (Iraq), 706 Akerman (USSR), 1215 Akershus (Norway), 934 Akhata (Greece), 564 Akhali-Antoni (USSR), 1259 Akita (Japan), 748 Akjouit (Mauritania), 845 Akmolinsk, see Tselingrad Akola (India), 663,664 Akosambo (Ghana), 558 Akouta (Niger), 925-26 Akranes (Iceland), 615 Akron (Ohio), 1371,1512,1514 Aksu (USSR), 1270 Aktyubinsk (USSR), 1213, 1233,1269-70 Akureyri (Iceland), 615,619 Akyab (Burma), 253,256 Alabama (USA), 1369, 1375, 1379-80, 1401, 1403,1406,1424-26 —agriculture, 1425 —area and pop., 1424-25 —education, 1426 —govt, and representation, 1425 Aladja (Nigeria), 931 Alagoas (Brazil), 227

1631

A l A i n (UAE), 1280,1283 Alajuela (Costa Rica), 381,384 Al-Amarah (Iraq), 703 Alamosa (Colo.), 1439 Al-Anbar (Iraq), 703 Aland (Finland), 469,471 Al-Arish (Egypt), 442 Alaska (USA), 1367-69, 1372,1374,1379-80, 1383,1398,1402, 1416,1427-30 —agriculture, 1428 —area and pop., 1427 —education, 1429 —govt, and representation, 1427 Al Asnam (Algeria), 72 Alava (Spain), 1103-1105 Alaverdi (USSR), 1261 Alba (Romania), 1017 Albacete (Spain), 1104 , Al-fiahr'Al-Ahmar (Egypt)', 442 Alba Iulia (Romania), 1017, 1023 Albania, 66-71 Albany (Ga.), 1449 Albany (N.Y.), 1371,1504-06 Albany (Ore.), 1518 Albany (W. Aust.), 160 Al Basrah (Iraq), 703 al-Bayda (Yemen), 1596 Alberta (Canada), 270-72, 276,278-82,288-89, 295-99 —agriculture, 297 —area and pop., 295-96 —education, 298-99 —govt, and representation, 296-97 Albertirsa (Hungary), 610 Alberton (S. Afr.), 1074 Albina (Suriname), 1131 al-Boulaida (Algeria), 72 Albuquerque (N.M.), 1371, 1502-03 Albury (NSW), 128 Albury (Vic.), 155 Alcala de Henares (Spain), 1104, 1114 Alcorcon (Spain), 1104 Aldabra (Seychelles), 1052 Aldemey (Channel Is.), 1291, 1362-63, 1365 Alegranza (Spain), 1104 Aleppo (Syria), 1164,1166-67 Alessandria (Italy), 732 Alesund (Norway), 935 Alexandria (Egypt), 442-44 Alexandria (Romania), 1018 Alexandria (Va.), 1371, 1384,1540 Alexandroupolis (Greece), 565 Algeciras (Spain), 1104 Alger, see Algiers Algeria, 72-76 Al-ghurdaqah (Egypt), 442 Algiers (Algeria), 72-76 Al-Hillah (Iraq), 703 Al Hoceima (Morocco), 868,871 Alhucemas (Sp. Afr.), 1104 al-Hudaydah (Yemen), 1596 Alicante (Spain), 1104,1110, 1114 Alice Springs (N. Aust.), 109, 120-21,123 Aligarh (India), 623,642,681 Ali-Sabieh (Djibouti), 426 Al-Jadida (Morocco), 869 Al Jawf (Saudi Arabia), 1041

1632 Al-Jazair (Algeria), 72 Al Kharg (Saudi Arabia), 1041 Al-Kharijah (Egypt), 442 Al- Khobar (Saudi Arabia), 1041 Al-Khour (Qatar), 1014 Alkmaar(Neth.), 885 Al-Kut (Iraq), 703 Allahabad (India), 6 2 3 , 6 3 0 , 6 4 1 , 683 Allentown (Pa.), 1371,1521 Allerdale (UK), 1287 Allied C o m m a n d Europe, 37-38 Alma-Ata (USSR), 1213,1231, 1233,1238,1269

Almada(Port.), 1005,1010

Al-Mahra (S.Yemen), 1599 Almelo (Neth.), 885 Almere (Neth.), 885 Almería (Spain), 1103-04 Admetyersk (USSR), 1227 Almirante (Pan.), 967 Almirante Brown (Argen.), 89 Al Mobarraz (Saudi Arabia), 1041 Al-Muthanna (Iraq), 703 Alo (Wallis), 512 Al-Obeid (Sudan), 1124 Alofi (Niue Is.), 918 Alofi Is. (Wallis and Futuna), 512 Alor Setar (Malaysia), 819 Alost (Belgium), 194 Alotau (Papua New Guinea), 970 Alphen a/d Rijn (Neth.), 885 Alphonse Is. (Seychelles), 1052 Al Qadarif(Sudan), 1124 Al-Qadisiya (Iraq), 703 Alsace (France), 479 Altai (USSR), 1241 Alta Verapaz (Guat.), 574,576 Al Taweela (U AE), 1283 Alto Adige (Italy), 731,734 Alto Beni (Bolivia), 220 Altoona (Pa.), 1521 Alto Paraguay (Para.), 976 Alto Paraná (Para.), 976,981 Alvsborg (Sweden), 1137 Al-Wadi al-Jadid (Egypt), 442 Al Wasil (Qatar), 1015 Amadora (Port.), 1005 Amagasaki (Japan), 748 Amambay (Para.), 976 A m a p á (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 - 3 4 Amarillo (Tex.), 1371, 1533 Amarkantak (India), 661 A m a r p u r (India), 679 Amasya (Turkey), 1196 Amatuku (Tuvalu), 1207 Amazonas (Brazil), 227,233 Amazonas (Colom.), 369 Amazonas (Peru), 982 Amazonas Terr. (Venez.), 1577 Ambala (India), 652-53 Ambato (Ecuador), 436 Ambatondrazaka (Madag.), 814 Amber Valley (UK), 1287 Amboina (Indon.), 691,694 Ambouli (Djibouti), 427 A m b r y m (Vanuatu), 1571 Amersfoort (Neth.), 885 Ames (Iowa), 1461-62 Amherst (Mass.), 1477-78 Amherst (N.S.), 313 Amida (Turkey), 1202 Amiens (France), 480 Amindivis (India), 688 Amirantes (Seychelles), 1052

PLACE INDEX A m m a n (Jordan), 756-59 Ampang (Malaysia), 825 Amphissa (Greece), 564 Amravati (India), 6 2 3 , 6 6 3 - 6 4 Amreli (India), 650 Amritsar (India), 6 2 3 , 6 7 2 Amstelveen (Neth.), 885 Amsterdam (Neth.), 8 8 4 - 8 6 , 8 9 3 Amsterdam Is. (Fr. Ant.), 506 Amstetten (Austria), 168 AmTiman