The Statesman's Yearbook: 1985–1986 [122th ed., Reprint 2021] 9783112420720, 9783112420713

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THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1985-1986

Man hat behauptet, die Welt werde durch Zahlen regiert: das aber weiss ich, dass die Zahlen uns belehren, ob sie gut oder schlecht regiert werde. GOETHE Editors Frederick Martin Sir John Scott-Keltie Mortimer Epstein S. H. Steinberg John Paxton

1864-1883 1883-1926 1911/27-1946 1946-1969 1963/69-

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL A N N U A L OF THE STATES OF THE WORLD FOR THE YEAR

1985-1986 EDITED BY

JOHN PAXTON

W DE

WALTER DE GRUYTER

© The Macmillan Press Ltd 1985 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph ofthis publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions ofthe Copyright Act 1956 (as amended). Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Published annually since 1864 122nd edition First published 1985 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L T D London and Basingstoke and WALTER DE GRUYTER & CO. Berlin Typeset in Great Britain by MB GRAPHIC (TYPESETTING) SERVICES Dunstable, Bedfordshire Printed in Great Britain by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press), Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk

ISBN 3 11 010514 4

PREFACE As a result of the excellent co-operation between the editor and his many correspondents every page of this, the 122nd edition of T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , has received major or minor revisions. He is extremely grateful to all for that help and for the patience in answering his endless questions. Details of the voting, state by state, in the US Presidential elections are given, and the change of name of Upper Volta to Burkina Faso has been noted. A table on the production and trade in Computers and Telecommunications equipment in Western Europe is also included in this edition. The third edition of T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K W O R L D GAZETTEER IS being fully revised and will be available in 1986. J.P. T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K O F F I C E , T H E M A C M I L L A N PRESS L T D , LITTLE ESSEX STREET, LONDON, W C 2 R 3 L F

WEIGHTS

AND

MEASURES

On 1 Jan. 1960 following an agreement between the standards laboratories of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the USA, an international yard and an international pound (avoirdupois) came into existence. 1 yard=91-44 centimetres; 1 lb.=453-59237 grammes. The abbreviation *m' signifies 'million(s)' and tonnes implies metric tons.

LENGTH

Centimetre Metre Kilometre

DRY MEASURE

0-394 inch 1 -094 yards 0 • 621 mile

Litre Hectolitre

0-91 quart 2 75 bushels

WEIGHT—AVOIRDUPOIS

Gramme Kilogramme Quintal ( = 100 kg) Tonne (= 1,000 kg)

LIQUID MEASURE

Litre Hectolitre

1 -75 pints 22 gallons

SURFACE MEASURE

Square metre Hectare Square kilometre

Gramme Kilogramme

WEIGHTS

AND

15-43 grains j 32-15 ounces I 2-68 pounds

MEASURES

LENGTH

1 foot 1 yard 1 mile (= 1,760 yds)

220-46 pounds J 0-984 long ton 11-102 short tons

WEIGHT- - T R O Y

10- 76 sq. feet 2-47 acres 0-386 sq. mile

BRITISH

15-42 grains 2-205 pounds

WEIGHT

1 ounce (= 437-2 grains) 28-350 grammes 1 lb. (=7,000 453-6 grammes grains) 1 cwt. (= 112 lb.) 50-802 kilogrammes 1 long ton (= 1 -016 tonnes 2,2401b.) 1 short ton (= 2,0001b.) 0-907 tonne

0-305 metre 0-914 metre 1 •609 kilometres

SURFACE MEASURE

1 sq. foot 1 sq. yard 1 acre 1 sq. mile

9 •290 sq. decimetres 0 • 836 sq. metre 0-405 hectare 2 -590 sq. kilometres vi

LIQUID MEASURE

1 pint I gallon 1 quarter

0-568 litre 4-546 litres 2 909 hectolitres

WEIGHTS

AND

MEASURES

On 1 Jan. 1960 following an agreement between the standards laboratories of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the USA, an international yard and an international pound (avoirdupois) came into existence. 1 yard=91-44 centimetres; 1 lb.=453-59237 grammes. The abbreviation *m' signifies 'million(s)' and tonnes implies metric tons.

LENGTH

Centimetre Metre Kilometre

DRY MEASURE

0-394 inch 1 -094 yards 0 • 621 mile

Litre Hectolitre

0-91 quart 2 75 bushels

WEIGHT—AVOIRDUPOIS

Gramme Kilogramme Quintal ( = 100 kg) Tonne (= 1,000 kg)

LIQUID MEASURE

Litre Hectolitre

1 -75 pints 22 gallons

SURFACE MEASURE

Square metre Hectare Square kilometre

Gramme Kilogramme

WEIGHTS

AND

15-43 grains j 32-15 ounces I 2-68 pounds

MEASURES

LENGTH

1 foot 1 yard 1 mile (= 1,760 yds)

220-46 pounds J 0-984 long ton 11-102 short tons

WEIGHT- - T R O Y

10- 76 sq. feet 2-47 acres 0-386 sq. mile

BRITISH

15-42 grains 2-205 pounds

WEIGHT

1 ounce (= 437-2 grains) 28-350 grammes 1 lb. (=7,000 453-6 grammes grains) 1 cwt. (= 112 lb.) 50-802 kilogrammes 1 long ton (= 1 -016 tonnes 2,2401b.) 1 short ton (= 2,0001b.) 0-907 tonne

0-305 metre 0-914 metre 1 •609 kilometres

SURFACE MEASURE

1 sq. foot 1 sq. yard 1 acre 1 sq. mile

9 •290 sq. decimetres 0 • 836 sq. metre 0-405 hectare 2 -590 sq. kilometres vi

LIQUID MEASURE

1 pint I gallon 1 quarter

0-568 litre 4-546 litres 2 909 hectolitres

CONTENTS Comparative Statistical Tables WHEAT

XLLL

MILLET

RYE

xiv

SORGHUM

BARLEY

xvi xvii xviii

MAIZE RICE

PETROLEUM COMPUTERS T E R R I T O R I A L SEA LIMITS

CHRONOLOGY

Parti:

XX

SUGAR

XV

OATS

XIX

xxi xxii xxiv XXV

XXIX

International

Organizations

The United Nations GENERAL ASSEMBLY

3

SECURITY C O U N C I L

4

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL C O U N C I L

5

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

6

I N T E R N A T I O N A L COURT OF JUSTICE

6

SECRETARIAT

7

BUDGET

7

MEMBER STATES OF THE UN

7

U N I T E D NATIONS SYSTEM

9

Specialized Agencies International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Labour Organisation (i LO) FoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO) Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Health Organization (WHO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (I B R D) International Development Association (i DA) International Finance Corporation(IFC) International Civil Aviation Organization (ic AO) Universal Postal Union (UPU) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) International Maritime Organization (i MO) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (G ATT) World Intellectual Property Organization (w i PO) International Fund for Agricultural Development (i F AD) Other International

12 12 14 IS 16 18 20 21 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 26 27

Organizations

THE COMMONWEALTH W O R L D COUNCIL OF C H U R C H E S

27 31

vii

viii

CONTENTS

INTERNATIONAL TRADE UNIONISM

32

EUROPEAN ORGANIZATIONS

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (N ATO) Western European Union (w E u ) Council of Europe European Communities European Free Trade Association (EFT A) The Warsaw Pact Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COM ECON)

34 35 38 39 41 46 47 48

C O L O M B O PLAN

49

A S S O C I A T I O N OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN N A T I O N S ( A S E A N )

51

O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF A M E R I C A N S T A T E S ( O A S )

51

L A T I N A M E R I C A N ECONOMIC G R O U P I N G S

53

CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM)

55

ARAB LEAGUE

56

O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF THE P E T R O L E U M O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF A F R I C A N

EXPORTING

COUNTRIES (OPEC)

UNITY (OAU)

57 57

DANUBE COMMISSION

58

Partii: Countries of the World A-Z 61 66

BELIZE

ALBANIA ALGERIA

72

BERMUDA

ANDORRA

77

BHUTAN

ANGOLA

79

BOLIVIA

ANGUILLA

83

BOTSWANA

204 207 210 213 216 222

A N T I G U A AND B A R B U D A

85

BRAZIL

226

ARGENTINA

87 94

BRITISH

AFGHANISTAN

AUSTRALIA

Territories Australian Capital Territory Northern Territory Australian External Territories

121 123 126

States New South Wales Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria Western Australia

ANTARCTIC

171

BAHAMAS

176

BAHRAIN

181

BANGLADESH

185

BARBADOS

191 194

236

TERRITORY BRITISH INDIAN

OCEAN

TERRITORY BRUNEI BULGARIA BURKINA

130 139 145 150 155 162

AUSTRIA

BELGIUM

BENIN

FASO

BURMA BURUNDI CAMBODIA CAMEROON CANADA

Provinces Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Nova Scotia Ontario

236 237 240 248 251 256 259 263 267 291 293 296 300 303 306 310 313

ix

CONTENTS

Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Territories Northwest Territories Yukon Territory

317 318 321 324 326

C A P E VERDE

329

CAYMAN I S L A N D S

332

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

334

CHAD

337

CHILE

340

CHINA, PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF C H I N A TAIWAN

346 358

COLOMBIA

363

COMOROS

369

CONGO

372

COSTA RICA

375

CUBA

380

CYPRUS

386

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

393

DENMARK

401

DJIBOUTI

415

DOMINICA

418

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

420

ECUADOR

425

EGYPT

431

EL S A L V A D O R

438

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

443

ETHIOPIA

446

FALKLAND ISLANDS

452

FUI

455

FINLAND

460

FRANCE

470

Overseas Departments Guadeloupe Guiana Martinique Mayotte Réunion St Pierre and Miquelon Overseas territories Antarctic territories New Caledonia French Polynesia Wallis and Futuna

486 488 490 492 493 49 5 496 497 500 502

GABON

504

GAMBIA

507

GERMANY GERMAN

510 DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC (EAST)

511

GERMANY, FEDERAL R E P U B L I C OF ( W E S T )

Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Berlin (West) Bremen Hamburg Hessen Lower Saxony North Rhine-Westphalia Rhineland- Palatinate Saarland Schleswig-Holstein

517

529 531 532 534 535 536 538 539 541 542 544

GHANA

546

GIBRALTAR GREECE GRENADA GUATEMALA GUINEA GUINEA-BISSAU GUYANA HAITI HONDURAS

551 554 561 564 569 573 576 581 586

HONG KONG

591

HUNGARY

598

ICELAND

606

INDIA

States and Territories Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim

613

635 636 638 640 641 643 644 646 648 650 6 51 654 656 657 658 660 662 663 665

CONTENTS

X

667 669 671 672

Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Arunachal Pradesh Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Delhi Goa, Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Mizoram Pondicherry INDONESIA IRAN IRAQ IRELAND ISRAEL ITALY IVORY

COAST

JAMAICA JAPAN JORDAN KENYA KIRIBATI KOREA

North Korea KUWAIT LAOS LEBANON LESOTHO LIBERIA LIBYA LIECHTENSTEIN LUXEMBOURG MADAGASCAR MALAWI MALAYSIA

Peninsular Malaysia Sabah Sarawak MALDIVES, REPUBLIC MALI MALTA MAURITANIA MAURITIUS

OF

674 675 676 676 677 678 679 679 680 681 688 695 700 715 724 736 740 745 753 757 762 765 770 775 779 783 788 791 795 800 803 807 811 816 820 824 827 830 832 835 841 844

MEXICO

848

MONACO

856

MONGOLIA

858

MONTSERRAT

863

MOROCCO

865

MOZAMBIQUE

870

NAURU

874

NEPÄL

876

NETHERLANDS

880

NETHERLANDS ANTILLES

893

NEW ZEALAND

896

NICARAGUA

915

NIGER

920

NIGERIA

923

NORWAY

929

DEPENDENCIES

941

OMAN

944

PAKISTAN

949

PANAMA

958

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

964

PARAGUAY

970

PERU

976

PHILIPPINES

984

PITCAIRN

990

POLAND

991

PORTUGAL

1001

MACAO

1006

QATAR

1010

ROMANIA

1013

RWANDA

1021

ST C H R I S T O P H E R ( K I T T S ) NEVIS ST H E L E N A ST

LUCIA

ST

VINCENT

SAN

MARINO

SÄO T O M É SAUDI

ARABIA

SENEGAL SEYCHELLES SIERRA

LEONE

SINGAPORE SOLOMON SOMALIA

ISLANDS

-

1024 1026 1028 1030 1033 1035 1037 1043 1047 1050 1055 1061 1064

CONTENTS SOUTH AFRICA, REPUBLIC OF

South-West Africa/Namibia Bophuthatswana Transkei Venda Ciskei SPAIN

Western Sahara SRI LANKA SUDAN SURINAME SWAZILAND SWEDEN SWITZERLAND SYRIA TANZANIA THAILAND TOGO TONGA T R I N I D A D AND TOBAGO TUNISIA TURKEY TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS TUVALU UGANDA

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1068 1087 1091 1093 1094 1096 1098 1109 1111 1119 1125 1129 1133 1149 1161 1165 1170 1177 1181 1184 1188 1193 1202 1204 1206

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Russia Ukraine Belorussia Azerbaijan Georgia Armenia Moldavia Estonia Latvia Lithuania Central Asia Kazakhstan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Tadzhikistan Kirghizia UNITED ARAB EMIRATES U N I T E D KINGDOM

Great Britain Northern Ireland Isle of Man Channel Islands

1210 1238 1248 1250 1251 1254 1257 1259 1260 1262 1264 1265 1266 1268 1270 1272 1275 1277 1283 1283 1349 1358 1360

States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District ofColumbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Outlying Territories Guam Puerto Rico Samoa Virgin Islands Trust Territory

1365

1421 1422 1424 1428 1430 1432 1435 1437 1440 1442 1444 1446 1448 1450 1453 1456 1458 1460 1462 1465 1467 1470 1473 1476 1479 1481 1484 1486 1488 1491 1494 1496 1498 1501 1505 1507 1509 1512 1514 1518 1521 1523 1525 1528 1530 1533 1535 1537 1539 1542 1544 1548 1550 1551 1553 1555 1558 1561

XII

CONTENTS

URUGUAY

1563

VANUATU

1569

VATICAN C I T Y S T A T E

1572

VENEZUELA

1575

VIETNAM

1582

YUGOSLAVIA

Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Kosovo Vojvodina Slovenia

VIRGIN ISLANDS, BRITISH

1589

W E S T E R N SAMOA

1591

YEMEN ARAB R E P U B L I C

1594

ZAÏRE

1597

ZIMBABWE

Y E M E N , P E O P L E ' S DEMOC R A T I C R E P U B L I C OF

ZAMBIA

P L A C E AND I N T E R N A T I O N A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N S I N D E X 1 6 2 9 PRODUCT INDEX 1 6 7 7 ADDENDA XXXiv

1601 1609 1609 1610 1611 1611 1612 1612 1613 1614 1619 1623

XUI

^ O O O O Q t Q N O ^ O - oosoOcsOxO^fr-r- — ^ ^ Ö O O O O O O ^ r$ r ^ 0 0 os oo ^ o o ^ r ^ a o o o ^ ^ ó ^ i - ^ o o ^ ' t — © r-^ro oo O ——i—irnsO — «/"T— T t oc r i T f " r i -«O — oo ro —*rÍ

i 5


— oo «r> os so — o o o v o o « n r - » r - m © © « / i o o o o — — os t/5 f-;r*ios/'> — r j i ^ T f c i N i N O s r - O s c n « / * ) © - ^ « o o s o o o op ö r n 00 so — so ^ 0 0 — ^ 00 so © © CS rn " r"s Os O^en ^ s©_ so^ oo oo sO oo so ^ co — so r i — en oo— r f — — r n s© — r ^ — r i — osnN M O ^ VI —" —* m' ^

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m 00 en

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Tt — ' í f i o o ^ o ^ t ' ^ í J v ^ t , vo es r 2 — (NOt^Os^O-vOr^ I 00O-Í^ «n © o o and the University of Mato Grosso (1971). There are also 19 Catholic universities (all private) in Rio de Janeiro (1946), Sao Paulo (1946), Rio Grande do Sul (1948), Pernambuco (1951), Minas Gerais (1958), Bahia, Paraná, Brasilia, Goiás, Mato Grosso and Piauí. Students in 1982 totalled 1,203,468. Health. In 1981 there were 21,762 health establishments of which 6,342 were for inpatients; total number of beds, 522,769 (397,903 in private institutions).

BRAZIL

235

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Brazil in Great Britain (32 Green St., London, W1Y3FD) Ambassador Mario Gibson Alves Barboza, GCMG (accredited 10 Dec. 1982). Of Great Britain in Brazil (Setor de Embaixadas Sul, Quadra 801, Conjunto K, Brasilia, D.F.) Ambassador: J. B. Ure, CMG, MVO. Of Brazil in the USA (3006 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador Sérgio Correa da Costa. Of the USA in Brazil (Ave das Nocòes, Lote 3, Brasilia, D.F.) A mbassador Diego Asencio. Of Brazil to the United Nations Ambassador George Alvares Maciel. Books of Reference Anuàriodo Transporte Aèreo. Ministério da Aeronàutica, DAC. Rio de Janeiro, 1983 Attuàrio Estatistico do Brasil. Vol. 44. Fundafào Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica, Rio de Janeiro, 1983 Anuàrio MineraiBrasileiro. Departamento Nacional da P r o d u c o Mineral. Brasilia, 1983 Boletimdo Banco Central do Brasil. Banco Central do Brasil. Brasilia. Monthly Autoridades Brasileiras. Empresa Brasileira de Noticias, 1984 A Profile of Brazil Banco do Brazil, 1984 Anuario Sunamam, Superintendence Nacional da Mannha Mercante, 1982 Banco do Brasil, Boletim Trimestral. Brasilia, D.F From 1966 Burns, E. B., A History of Brazil. 2nd ed. Columbia Univ. Press, 1980 Campbell, G., Brazil Struggles for Development. London, 1973 Cowell, A., The Tribe that Hides from Man. London, 1973 Dickenson, J. P., Brazil. Harlow, 1982 Hanbury-Tenison, R., A Question of Survivalfor the Indians of Brazil. London, 1973 McDonough, P., Power and Ideology in Brazil. Princeton Univ Press, 1981 Micallef, J., (ed.), Brazil: Country with a Future London, 1982 Monies, R. Borba de., Bibliographia Brasiliana (1504-1900). 2 vols. 1958 Selcher, W E. (ed.), Brazil in the International System The Rise of a Middle Power Boulder, 1981 Trebat, T ¡„Brazil's State-Owned Enterprises. CUP, 1983 Tyler, W G., The Brazilian Industrial Economy. Aldershot, 1981 Young, J M., Brazil: Emerging World Power Malabar, 1982 National Library Biblioteca Nacional Avenida Rio Branco 219-39, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Director Maria Alice Barroso.

BRITISH ANTARCTIC TERRITORY H I S T O R Y . The British Antarctic Territory was established on 8 March 1962, as a consequence of the entry into force of the Antarctic Treaty, to separate those areas of the then Falkland Islands Dependencies which lay within the Treaty area from those which did not. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The territory encompasses the lands and islands within the area south of 60°S latitude lying between 20°W and 80°W longitude (approximately due south of the Falkland Islands and the Dependencies). It covers an area of some 700,000 square miles, and its principal components are the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands, the Antarctic Peninsula (Palmer Land and Graham Land) and Coats Land. British Antarctic Territory has no indigenous or permanently resident population. There is however an itinerant population of scientists and logistics stafT of about 300, manning a number of research stations. The territory is administered by a High Commissioner. Designated personnel of the scientific stations of the British Antarctic Survey are also appointed to exercise certain legal and administrative functions. High Commissioner Sir Rex Hunt, CMG (resides in Port Stanley). Fox, R., Antarctica and the South Atlantic London, 1985

BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY H I S T O R Y . This territory was established by an Order in Council on 8 Nov. 1965, consisting then of the Chagos Archipelago (formerly administered from Mauritius) and the islands of Aldabra, Desroches and Farquhar (all formerly administered from Seychelles). The latter islands being returned to the Seychelles when that country achieved independence on 29 June 1976, the territory now comprises the Chagos Archipelago, lying 1,180 miles (1,899 km) north-west of Mauritius. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The group, with a total land area of 20 sq. miles (52 sq. km) comprises 5 coral atolls (Diego Garcia, Peros Banhos, Salomon, Eagle and Egmont) of which the largest and southem-most, Diego Garcia, covers 14 sq. miles (36 sq. km). The British Indian Ocean Territory was established to meet UK. and US defence requirements in the Indian Ocean. In accordance with the terms of Exchanges of Notes between the UK and US governments in 1966 and 1976, a US Navy support facility has been established on Diego Garcia. There is no permanent population in the British Indian Ocean Territory. Commissioner P. C. F. Gregory-Hood (non-resident). AdmimstratorD. H. Doble.

236

BRUNEI

Capital: Bandar Sen Begawan Population: 214,440 ( 1983) GNP per capita: US$ 17,380 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. The Sultanate of Brunei was a powerful state in the early 16th century, with authority over the whole of the island of Borneo and some parts of the Sulu Islands and the Philippines. At the end of the 16th century its power had begun to decline and various cessions were made to Great Britain, the Rajah of Sarawak and the British North Borneo Company in the 19th century to combat piracy and anarchy. By the middle of the 19th century the State had been reduced to its present limits. In 1847 the Sultan of Brunei entered into a treaty.with Great Britain for the furtherance of commercial relations and the suppression of piracy, and in 1888, by a further treaty, the State was placed under the protection of Great Britain. Brunei was the only former British dependency inhabited by a Malay people that did not join the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Brunei, on the northwest coast of Borneo, is bounded on all sides by Sarawak territory, which splits the State into two separate parts. Area, about 2,226 sq. miles (5,800 sq. km), with a coastline of about 100 miles. Population (1981 census) was 191,770. The 4 districts are Brunei/ Muara (114,310), Belait (49,590), Tutong (21,640), Temburong (6,230). The capital is Bandar Serf Begawan, 9 miles from the mouth of Brunei River. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical marine, hot and moist, but nights are cool. Humidity is high and rainfall heavy, varying from 100" (2,500 mm) on the coast to 200" (5,000 mm) inland. There is no dry season. Bandar Seri Begawan. Jan. 80°F (26-7'C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 131" (3,275 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 29 Sept. 1959 the Sultan promulgated a Constitution. There is a Privy Council, an Executive and a Legislative Council. On 6 Jan. 1965 the constitution was amended to provide for general elections to the Legislative Council; at the same time the Executive Council was renamed Council of Ministers. The Legislative Council consists of 20 members and a Speaker appointed by the Sultan. The Council of Ministers is presided over by the Sultan and consists of 6 ex-officio members and 4 other members, all of whom except one are members of the Legislative Council. The Mentri Besar, who is one of the ex-officio members of the Legislative Council and the Council of Ministers, is responsible to the Sultan for the exercise of executive authority in the State. As a result of negotiations in June 1978, the Sultan and the British Government signed a new treaty on 7 Jan. 1979 under which Brunei became a fully sovereign and independent State on 31 Dec. 1983. The official language is Malay, but English may be used for other purposes. Sultan of Brunei: Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan Negeri Brunei Sir Muda Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah ibni Duli Yang Teramat Mulia Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Sir Muda Omar Ali Saifuddin Sa'adul Khairi Waddin, DK, PGGUB, DPKG, DPKT, PSPNB, PSNB, PSU, SPMB, PANB, GCMG, DMN, DK (Kelantan), DK (Johore), DK (Negeri Sembilan). The Sultan was crowned on 1 Aug. 1968. General Adviser to HH The Sultan: The Most Hon., Pehin Orang Kaya Laila Setia Bakti Di-Raja Dato Laila Utama Awang Haji Isa bin Pehin Datu Perdana Mentri Dato Laila Utama Haji Ibrahim, DK, SPMB, DSNB, CVO, OBE, PHBS, PBLI, PJK. Mentri Besar (Chief Minister, Acting): The Rt Hon. Pehin Orang Kaya Laila 237

238

BRUNEI

Wijaya Dato Sen Setia Haji Abdul Aziz bin Begawan Pehin Udana Khatib Dato Seri Paduka Haji Umar, PSNB, DPMB, SLJ, PJK Flag: Yellow, with 2 diagonal strips of white over black with the national arms in red placed over all in the centre. DEFENCE

Army. The armed forces are known as the Royal Brunei Malay Regiment and contain the naval and air elements. Strength (1985) 3,950. Military units include 2 infantry battalions, 1 armoured reconnaissance squadron, 1 engineer squadron and 1 signals squadron. Equipment includes 16 Scorpion light tanks and 24 Sankey AT-104 armoured personnel carriers. Navy. The Royal Brunei Malay Regiment Flotilla comprises 3 fast missile-armed attack craft of 200 tons (completed by Vosper, Singapore in 1978-79), 3 coastal patrol boats (built by Vosper-Thomycroft (Singapore)), 2 landing craft, 3 utility craft and 3 small patrol boats. Special Combat Division (formerly Special Boat Squadron) operates 24 fast assault boats. Personnel in 1985 numbered 450 (42 officers and 408 ratings) in the First Flotilla (for offshore work) and in the Special Combat Division and River Division. Two coastal patrol craft built by Vosper, Singapore, were supplied in 1979 for the Marine Police. Air Wing. The Air Wing of the Royal Brunei Malay Regiment was formed in 1965. Current equipment includes up to 6 MBB BO 105, 4 Bell 206B JetRanger and 11 Bell 212 helicopters, and 2 SF.260M piston-engined trainers. Police. Establishment provides over 1,750 officers and men (1980). In addition, there is a small auxiliary force mostly employed on static guard duties. ECONOMY

Planning. A fourth Five-Year National Development Plan was announced in 1980 to further improve the economic, social and cultural life of the people. Budget. The budget for 1984 envisaged expenditure of B$2,600m. and revenue of B$6,500m. Currency. The currency is the Brunei dollar with a par value of0-290 299 gramme of gold. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Brunei is a member of ASEAN. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Oil. The Seria oilfield, discovered in 1929, has passed its peak production. The high level of crude oil production is maintained through the increase of offshore oilfields production, which exceeds onshore oilfields production. Production was 65 -3m. bbls in 1983. The crude oil is exported directly, and only a small amount is refined at Seria for domestic uses. Gas. Natural gas is produced (828m. cu. feet per day, 1983) at one of the biggest liquefied natural gas plants in the world and is exported to Japan. Agriculture. The chief agricultural products in 1981 were rice (10,000 tonnes) and bananas (3,000 tonnes). Livestock in 1983: Cattle, 4,000; buffaloes, 15,000; pigs, 15,000; chickens, lm. Forestry. Most of the interior is under forest, containing large potential supplies of serviceable timber. Annual production averages 200,000 cu. metres. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Brunei depends primarily on its oil industry, which employs more than

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239

7% of the entire working population. Crude oil accounts for 62% of the total value of the exports and re-exports. The second main export is liquefied natural gas, which contributes 31% and petroleum products 6%. Other minor products are rubber, pepper, sawn timber, gravel and animal hides. Local industries include boat-building, cloth weaving and the manufacture of brass-and silverware. Commerce. In 1983 imports totalled B$ 1,542m.; exports, B$7,171m. Total trade between Brunei and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m ] m 2 l 983 m 4 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

889 23,118

2,757 24,165

2,434 41,804

27,154 106,477

21,966 122,651

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The State has about 916 miles of road, of which 451 miles are bituminous surfaced. The main road connects Bandar Sen Begawan with Kuala Belait and Seria. The number of motor vehicles (1980) was 60,751. Aviation. Royal Brunei Airlines (RBA) and Singapore Airlines provide daily services linking Brunei and Singapore. RBA also operates services to Bangkok, Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Kota Kinabalu and Hong Kong. Cathay Pacific Airways also operates to Brunei and on to Western Australia from Hong Kong. British Airways provides a weekly service between Brunei and UK. Malaysian Airlines System has air connections from neighbouring regions. Shipping. Regular shipping services operate from Singapore, Hong Kong, and from ports in Sarawak and Sabah to Bandar Seri Begawan. Private companies operate a passenger ferry service between Bandar Seri Begawan and Labuan, Sabah, 7 days a week. Post and Broadcasting. There were 8 post offices (1980) and a telephone network (21,928 telephones in 1982) linking the main centres. Radio Brunei is operated by the Department of Radio and Television and operates on medium- and shortwaves in Malay, Iban, Dusun, English and Chinese. Number of radio receivers, 38,000 and television sets, 32,000. RELIGION AND EDUCATION Religion. The official religion is Islam. Education (1979). Free education in the Malay language is provided in government primary schools (29,934 pupils) and 4 government secondary Malay schools (1,218 pupils). Free education in English was provided in 30 government preparatory schools (8,546 pupils) and 7 government secondary schools (7,344 pupils) and one 6th form centre (819 pupils). The government also provided one Arabic preparatory school (203 pupils) and 2 Arabic secondary schools (251 pupils). Teachertraining was provided in 2 government teachers' colleges, in both Malay and English for 601 students. Eight non-government Mission schools provided education in English at kindergarten, primary and secondary level for a total of 6,745 pupils; 8 non-government Chinese schools provided education in Chinese at the same levels for a total of 5,813 pupils. One private kindergarten and primary school, administered by the Brunei Shell Petroleum Co., provided education in either English or Dutch for a total of986 pupils, and there was also 1 private vocational school administered by the Brunei Shell Petroleum Co. (140 artisantrainees). Two government vocational schools provided full training courses to 274 students in the engineering and building trades. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Brunei in Great Britain (49 Cromwell Rd, London, SW7 2ED) High Commissioner: Pengiran Setia Raja Jaya (accredited 14 March 1984). Of Great Britain in Brunei (Jalan Residency, Bandar Seri Begawan) High Commissioner: R. F. Cornish.

BULGARIA

Capital: Sofia Population: 8-9ìm. (1983) GNPper capita: US$4,150 ( 1980)

Narodna Republika Bulgaria

HISTORY. The Bulgarian state was founded in 681, but fell under Turkish rule in 1396. By the Treaty of Berlin, which followed the Russo-Turkish war of 1878, the Principality of Bulgaria and the Autonomous Province of Eastern Rumelia, both under Turkish suzerainty, were constituted. In 1885 Rumelia was reunited with Bulgaria. On 5 Oct. 1908 Bulgaria declared her independence of Turkey. Rulers: Prince Alexander I of Battenberg, 1879-86; Prince (after 1908, Tsar) Ferdinand, 1887-1918 (abdicated); Tsar Boris III, 1918-43; Tsar Simeon II, lost his throne as a result of a referendum held on 8 Sept. 1946 (3,801,160 votes for a republic, 197,176 for the monarchy, 119,168 invalid). In 1941 Bulgaria signed the Three Power Pact and the Anti-Comintern Pact. In 1944 Bulgaria asked the UK and the USA for an armistice. The USSR declared war on Bulgaria on 5 Sept. 1944. The Fatherland Front government (established 9 Sept.) asked the USSR for an armistice, which was signed on 28 Oct. 1944 by the USSR, the UK and the USA. The peace treaty was signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . On 8 Sept. 1940 by the treaty of Craiova, Romania ceded to Bulgaria the Southern Dobrudja, fixing the new frontier on the 1912 line. In April 1941 Bulgaria occupied the Yugoslav part of Macedonia, and the Greek districts of Western Thrace, Eastern Macedonia, Fiorina and Castoria. The peace treaty of 1947 restored the frontiers as on 1 Jan. 1941. The area of Bulgaria is 110,911-5 sq. km (42,823 sq. miles) and is bounded in the north by Romania, east by the Black Sea, south by Turkey and Greece and west by Yugoslavia. The country is divided into 28 provinces (okrùg, plur. okrùzi). Area and population in 1982:

Area Province (sq. km) Blagoevgrad 6,490 Burgas 7,608 Gabrovo 2,035 Khaskovo 4,008 Kiirdzhali 4,035 Kyustendil 3,041 Lovech 4,136 Mikhailovgrad 3,611 Pazardzhik 4,455 Pemik 2,391

Pop. 1,000 340 438 179 296 289 198 210 232 323 175

Area Province (sq. km) 4,342 Pleven Plovdiv 5,639 2,669 Razgrad Ruse 2,570 Shumen 3,390 Silistra 2,851 Sliven 3,614 Smolyan 3,523 7,166 Sofia

Pop. 1.000 373 758 194 298 253 174 236 176 307

Area Pop. (sq. km) 1.000 Province Sofia (City) 1,194 1,167 Stara Zagora 5,066 413 Tolbukhin 4,704 253 2,732 172 Turgovishte Varna 3,825 467 344 Veliko Turnovo 4,686 Vidin 3,057 168 3,964 Vratsa 290 Yambol 4,111 205

The population at the census of 2 Dec. 1975 was 8,727,771 (males, 4,357,820; urban, 5,061,087). Population on 1 Jan. 1983 was 8,929,332 (4-4m. males; 5-7m. urban). Population density 80- 5 per sq. km. Ethnic minorities are not identified. Some Turks have been repatriated, but 9% of the population may be Turkish. There were attempts forcibly to Bulgarianise these in preparation for the 1985 census. The remainder include Gipsies, Jews, Romanians and Armenians. Population of principal towns (1982): Sofia, 1,082,315; Plovdiv, 367,195; Varna, 295,038; Ruse, 178,920; Burgas, 178,239; Stara Zagora, 141,722; Pleven, 135,899; Sliven, 100,637; Tolbukhin, 98,857; Shumen, 99,642; Pemik, 94,859; Khaskovo, 87,639; Yambol, 86,216; Gabrovo, 80,901; Pazardzhik, 77,830. 240

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Vital statistics, 1982: Live births, 124,166; deaths, 100,293; marriages, 67,154; divorces, 13,282; crude birth rate, 14 per 1,000 population; crude death rate, 11-2; infant mortality, 18 -2 per 1,000; growth rate, 2.7. Expectation of life in 1980 was: men, 68-7 years, women 73-9. C L I M A T E . The southern parts have a Mediterranean climate, with winters mild and moist and summers hot and dry, but further north the conditions become more continental, with a larger range of temperature and greater amounts of rainfall in summer and early autumn. Sofia. Jan. 28°F(-2-2°C), July 69°F (20-6°C). Annual rainfall 25-4" (635 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A People's Republic was proclaimed by the National Assembly on 15 Sept. 1946, and the existing 'Tumovo' Constitution of 1879 was replaced by the 'Dimitrov' Constitution in 1947. This was in turn replaced by a new constitution on 18 May 1971. This provides for a single-chamber National Assembly (Narodno Subranie). The highest permanently operating organ of the state is the Council of State which consists of a chairman, 2 first vice-chairmen, 4 vice-chairmen, a secretary and 17 members; it is elected by the National Assembly from its members. Supreme power is vested in the National Assembly, which consists of400 deputies elected from areas of equal population by direct, secret and universal suffrage (everybody at age of 18 being eligible to vote and hold office) for a term of 5 years; it is to meet at least three times every year. The National Assembly also elects the Council of State and the ministers who are responsible to it. A general election was held on 27 Oct. 1946. The Fatherland Front, composed of the Workers (Communist), Agrarian, Socialist and Zveno Parties, and non-party independents, obtained 364 seats (277 of which went to the Communists) and the opposition 101. On 26 Aug. 1947 the oppositional Agrarian Union was dissolved; its leader, Nikola Petkov, was sentenced to death and hanged on 23 Sept. The Socialist Party was merged with the Workers' Party in Aug. 1948, and the Zveno Party dissolved itself. The Fatherland Front became, in 1948, a unified mass organization with individual memberships. Inside the Fatherland Front, there remain two political parties, the Bulgarian Communist Party and the Bulgarian People's Agrarian Union. Petur Tanchev (1st Vice-Chairman, Council of State) is Secretary ofthe Agrarian Union and Pencho Kubadinski Chairman of the Fatherland Front's National Council. In 1984 the membership of the Communist Party was 892,000; Young Communist League, (1976) 1 -3m.; Agrarian Union, 120,000; Fatherland Front, 3,770,080. At the elections of 7 June 1981,99-96% of the electorate voted, and 99-93% of the votes were cast for the 400 candidates (87 women) of the Fatherland Front; there were no Other candidates. The list comprised 271 Communists, 99 Agrarians and 30 independents. The President of the National Assembly is Stanko Todorov. There is no constitutional single Head of State, but Todor Zhivkov (Chairman of the Council ofState, Secretary-General ofthe Communist Party), performs some of the functions of a Head of State. The highest policy-making and executive body of the Bulgarian Communist Party is its Politburo. The Politburo is elected by and from the Central Committee. The Politburo was in March 1985 composed as follows: F U L L MEMBERS: Todor Zhivkov, Grisha Filipov (Chairman, Council of Ministers, i.e. Prime Minister), Todor Bozhinov (First Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers, Minister of Energy and Raw Materials), Stanko Todorov, Pencho Kubadinski, Milko Balev, Chudomir Aleksandrov (First Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers), Gen. Dobri Dzhurov (Defence Minister), Petur Mladenov (Foreign Minister), Ognian Doinov (Minister of Machine Building); Iordan Iotov. CANDIDATE MEMBERS: Petur Dyulgerov; Andrei Lukanov (Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers), Georgi Yordanov (Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers, Chairman, Committee for Culture). Grigor Stoichkov (Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers, Minister of Construction). Stanish Bonev (Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers, Chairman, State Planning Committee). Georgi Atanasov; Dimitur Stoianov (Minister of Internal Affairs).

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Ministers not in the Politburo include: Kiril Zarev (Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers), Georgi Karamanev, (Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers, Minister of Internal Trade), Khristo Khnstov (Foreign Trade), Belcho Belchev (Finance), Svetla Daskalova (Justice). In May 1967 a second 20-year treaty of friendship, co-operation and mutual assistance with the Soviet Union was signed. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of white, green, red, with the national emblem in the canton. National anthem. An arrangement of Mila Rodino (Dear Fatherland), a popular patriotic song, was declared the national anthem in 1964. Local Government. People's Councils for the 28 provinces, 29 urban areas and 299 other districts are elected for 30 months. In addition to their civic functions they also supervise the management of publicly owned enterprises. The Council's executive organs are Permanent Committees. 4,475 councillors were elected on 4 Dec. 1983. D E F E N C E . There is a compulsory service of 2 years in the Army and Air Force (3 years in the Navy). Army. In 1985 the Army had a strength of 105,000, including 73,000 conscripts, and is organized in 8 motor rifle divisions and 5 tank brigades. Bulgaria is divided into 3 Military Districts, based on Sofia, Plovdiv and Sliven. Equipment includes 400 T-34, 1,400 T-54/-55 and 60 T-72 tanks. Paramilitary forces, including border guards, security police and People's Territorial Militia, number some 175,000. Navy. The Navy consists of 2 ex-Soviet 'R' class submarines, 2 ex-Soviet 'Riga' class frigates, 3 ex-Soviet 'Poti' class corvettes, 5 ex-Soviet 'Osa' class missile boats, 6 ex-Soviet patrol vessels, 6 ex-Soviet torpedo boats, 2 fleet minesweepers, 6 coastal minesweepers, 4 inshore minesweepers, 18 minesweeping boats, 25 landing craft, 4 oilers, 3 survey ships, 2 salvage craft, 9 tugs, 2 training ships, 2 degaussing vessels, 2 diving tenders and 28 auxiliaries and service craft. Personnel in 1985 totalled 9,000 ofFicers and ratings of whom 1,900 were afloat, 2,100 on coastal defence, 1,800 in training, 3,000 for shore support and 200 for naval aviation comprising 8 helicopters. Air Force. The large tactical Air Force had (1984) about 250 Soviet-built combat aircraft and 30,000 personnel. There are 5 Squadrons of MiG-21 interceptors; about 8 squadrons of fighter/ground attack MiG-23s and MiG-17s; 2 reconnaissance squadrons of MiG-17s; some Mi-24 helicopter gunships; a total of about 20 Tu-134, 11-14 and An-24/26 transport aircraft; a total of about 70 Mi-4, Mi-2, Ka-26, Mi-6, and Mi-8 helicopters; and L-29 Delfin, MiG-15UTI and MiG-21UTI trainers. Soviet-built 'Guideline', 'Goa' and 'Ganef surface-to-air missiles have also been supplied to Bulgaria. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Bulgaria is a member of UN, Comecon and the Warsaw Pact. External Debt. Agreements of 1955 and 1963 settled outstanding financial claims by the UK and USA respectively. ECONOMY Planning. State economic planning started in 1947. After 1964 there was a limited decentralization in planning, culminating in the economic reform of 1 Jan. 1969. A new economic mechanism was introduced on 1 Jan. 1982. This provides for direct linking of production to the market, a shift from extensive to intensive development, the establishment of profit as the sole criterion of success, the widening of enterprises' powers to make their own plans and the election of managerial staff (except the chief) by the workforce. For the first seven 5-year plans see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK for 1 9 8 0 - 8 1

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and 1981-82. The eighth 5-year plan (1981-85) envisages a rise in national income of 20%, in industrial production of 28% and in agriculture of 18%. Budget. The revenue and expenditure of Bulgaria for calendar years were as follows (in 1 m. leva): Revenue Expenditure

1972 6,355 6,261

¡ 973 7,055 7,036

1974 8,060 8,044

1975 9,321 9,223

1976 8,778 8,758

1977 1980 1981 9,498 13,187 15,385 9,477 13,167 15,370

1982 15,824 15,809

Of the 1984 revenue 92% came from the national economy. 1980 expenditure was: National economy, 5,777m. leva; social and education, 5,265m.; administration,291m. Estimates(1985): Revenue, 18,097; expenditure, 18,087. Currency. The unit of currency is the lev (pi. leva) divided into 100 stotinki (sing. stotinka). It has been linked to the Soviet rouble since May 1952. A new lev, equalling 10 old leva, was introduced on 1 Jan. 1962. The parity (clearing value) is 1 rouble =1-30 leva. Official rate of exchange (March 1984) was £1 = 1 -434 leva\ US$ 1 =0-999 leva. Rate of exchange for non-commercial transactions: £ 1 =2-40 leva; US$1 = 1 -65 leva. Banking. The National Bank is the central bank and is responsible for issuing currency. It also plays an important part in the management of the economy: its chairman has ministerial rank. There is also a Foreign Trade Bank, a Mineral Bank and a State Savings Bank. In 1982, 9m. depositors had savings totalling 9,860m. leva. The State Savings Bank has advanced personal loans up to 500 leva at 3 • 5% interest to some 500,000 users. Interest on deposits is from 1 % to 3%. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. On 1 April 1916 the Gregorian calendar came into force in Bulgaria. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Energy. Bulgaria has little oil, gas or high-grade coal and energy policy is based on the exploitation of its low-grade coal and limited water resources. Electricity. In 1982 there were 234 power stations with a potential of 9-5m. kw. (thermal, (146) 5-84m. kw.; hydroelectric, (87) l -9m. kw.; nuclear, (1) l -76m. kw.). Output, 1982,40,455m. kwh. Oil and Natural Gas. Oil is extracted in the Balchik district on the Black Sea, in an area 100 km north of Vama and at Dolni Dubnik near Pleven. Crude oil production was 129,000 tonnes in 1977. There are refineries at Burgas (annual capacity 5m. tonnes) and Dolni Dubnik (7m. tonnes). 190m. cu. metres of natural gas were produced in 1980. Minerals. Ore production 1982: Manganese, 13,200 tonnes; iron, 474,000 tonnes. 33 -6m. tonnes of coal including 406,000 tonnes of hard coal and 26-4m. tonnes of lignite were mined in 1982.88 tonnes of salt were extracted in 1982. Agriculture. In 1979 the National Agro-Industrial Union was formed, replacing the Ministry of Agriculture. It comprises state and collective organizations, and is responsible for agriculture, the food industry and agricultural machine building. In 1982 agricultural land covered 6,181,500 hectares, of which 4,654,700 hectares are cultivable. Size of private plots (maximum, 1 hectare) is based on the number of members of a household. Total area of private plots in 1982 was 599,800 hectares. Collective and state farms have been incorporated into 'agricultural-industrial complexes'. There were 296 of these in 1982. There were 68 machine-tractor stations. 152,155 tractors (in 15-h.p. units) were in use and 19,097 combine harvesters. In 1982,26 irrigation svstems and 161 dams irrigated 1,169,900 hectares. Yield in 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat, 4,913; rye, 34; maize, 3,418; barley, 1,436; oats, 50; rice, 75; sunflower seed, 511; unginned cotton, 20; tobacco, 145; tomatoes, 853; potatoes, 469; grapes, 1,246. Bulgaria produces 80% of the world supply of attar of roses; annual production, 1,200 kg. Other products (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1982: Meat, 1,179; wool, 35; sugar, 399; 2,489m. eggs were produced and 2,350m. litres of milk.

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Livestock (1983): 118,559 horses, 1,782,649 cattle, including 694,066 milch cows, 10,761,395 sheep, 3,809,800 pigs, 42,853,108 poultry and 565,522 beehives. Forestry. The forest area, 1982, was 3,859,000 hectares (34% coniferous, 26% oak). Oak forests are in a poor condition due to indiscriminate felling in the past. 39,006 hectares were afforested in 1982.7 -6m. cu. metres of timber were cut in 1982. Fisheries. The catch of sea fish was 89,500 tonnes in 1979. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. All industry was nationalized in 1947. Industrial production Crude steel (1,000 tonnes) Pig-iron (1,000 tonnes) Cement (1,000 tonnes) Sulphuric acid (1,000 tonnes)

1977 2,589 1,664 4,665 860

1978 2,470 1,538 5,149 974

1979 2,482 1,501 5,401 998

1980 2,565 1,583 5,359 852

1981 2,484 1,512 5,433 920

1982 2,584 1,558 5,614 916

In 1982 there were also produced (in 1,000 tonnes): Coke, 1,274; rolled steel, 3,253; artificial fertilizers, 2,976; calcinated soda, 1,459; cotton fabrics, 367m. metres; woollens, 37m. metres. Labour. There is 42'/2-hour 5-day working week. The average wage (excluding peasantry) was 207 leva per month in 1983. Population of working age (males 16-60; females 16-55), 1982, 5-06m. (2-7m. males). The labour force (excluding peasantry) in 1982 was4,100,259 (2,624,829 female), of whom 1,401,997 worked in industry, 349,029 in building and 954,488 in agriculture and forestry. Commerce. Foreign trade is controlled by the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Bulgarian trade has developed as follows (in 1 m. leva): Imports Exports

1977 6,061 6,022

1978 6,801 6,650

1979 7,363 7,667

1980 8,283 8,902

1981 9,860 9,958

1982 10,976 10,880

Structure of imports and exports in 1982: Producers' goods, 86%, 75%; consumer goods, 14%, 25%; industrial products, 99%, 91%; agricultural products, 11%, 24%. Main exports are food products, tobacco, non-ferrous metals, cast iron, leather articles, textiles and (to Communist countries) machinery; main imports are machinery, oil, natural gas, steel, cellulose and timber. 74% of Bulgaria's trade is with the Communist countries (54% with USSR). Agreements with USSR envisage the co-ordination of the Soviet and Bulgarian 5-year plans in the spirit of'socialist internationalism'. In 1979 a 10-year plan of economic specialization and co-operation was signed with the USSR. Libya is Bulgaria's biggest non-Communist export market, Federal Republic of Germany her major non-Communist supplier. Indebtedness to the West was some US$1,800m. in 1983. Total trade between Bulgaria and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 14,425 35,242

1981 13,353 33,838

1982 21,009 46,104

1983 12,355 44,577

1984 17,345 55,917

In 1979 there were 40 joint Western-Bulgarian industrial ventures in operation. Western share participation may exceed 50%. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 32,597 km of roads, including 164 km of motorways and 2,914 km of main roads. 880m. tonnes of freight and 790m. passengers were carried. Railways. In 1983 Bulgaria had 4,341 km of standard gauge railway, including

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1,650 km electrified. 97m. passengers and 83-9m. tons of freight were carried in 1982. Aviation. BALKAN (Bulgarian Airlines) operates internal flights from Sofia (airport: Vrazhdebna) to Burgas, Khaskovo, Pleven, Plovdiv, Ruse, Silistra, Stara Zagora, Turgovishte, Veliko Turnovo, Varna, Vidin and Yambol and international flights to Algiers, Amsterdam, Athens, Baghdad, Bratislava, Belgrade, Benghazi, Berlin, Brussels, Bucharest, Budapest, Cairo, Casablanca, Copenhagen, Damascus, Dresden, Frankfurt, Istanbul, London, Madrid, Moscow, Nicosia, Pans, Prague, Rome, Stockholm, Syktyvkar, Tunis, Vienna, Warsaw and Zurich. There are also flights from Burgas to Leningrad and Kiev, and from Varna to Leningrad, Kuwait, Athens and Stockholm. In 1982 BALKAN carried 2 3m. passengers and 28,218 tonnes of freight. Shipping. Ports, shipping and shipbuilding are controlled by the Bulgarian United Shipping and Shipbuilding Corporation. The mercantile manne in 1982 possessed 194 oceàn-going vessels and tankers with a total loading capacity.of 1 6m. DWT. Burgas is a fishing and oil-port open to tankers of 20,000 tons. Varna is the other important port. In Nov. 1978 a rail ferry, with an initial capacity of4-5m. tonnes of freight a year, was opened between Varna and Ilitchovsk (USSR). In 1982,710,000 passengers and 26m. tonnes of cargo were carried. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 there were 2,916 post offices, 1,513,397 telephones, 57 broadcasting stations and 27 television stations. Radio Sofia, the government broadcasting station, transmits 2 programmes on medium- and shortwaves. There is also a special tourist service, broadcast via the Varna II transmitter on 1,124 kHz. Advertisements are broadcast for half an hour a day. Bulgana participates in the East European TV link 'Intervision'. Colour programmes by SECAM system. Radio receiving sets licensed in 1982, 2,085,376; television, 1,682,697. Cinemas and Theatres (1982). There were 36 theatres, 18 puppet theatres, 8 opera houses, 1 operetta house and 3,302 cinemas. 532 films were made (33 fall-length). Newspapers and Books. In 1982 there were 14 dailies with a circulation of 2- lm. The Party newspaper is Rabotnicheskoto Delo ('The Workers' Cause') with a circulation of820,000 in 1984. 5,070 book titles were published in 1982. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A law of Nov. 1982 provides for the election (and recall) of all judges by the National Assembly. The lower courts include lay assessors as well as professional judges. There are a Supreme Court, 28 provincial courts (including Sofia), 105 regional courts and 'Comrades' Courts' for minor offences. The maximum term of imprisonment is now 20 years except for 'exceptionally dangerous crimes' which carry the death penalty. TÌie Prosecutor General, elected by the National Assembly for 5 years and subordinate to it alone, exercises supreme control over the correct observance of the law by all government bodies, officials and citizens. He appoints and discharges all Prosecutors of every grade. The powers of this office were extended and redefined by a law of 1980 to put a greater emphasis on crime prevention and the rights of citizens. Religion. 'The traditional church of the Bulgarian people' (as it is officially described), is that of the Eastern Orthodox Church. It was disestablished under the 1947 Constitution. In 1953 the Bulgarian Patriarchate was revived. The present Patriarch is Metropolitan Maksim of Lovech (enthroned 1971). The seat of the Patriarch is at Sofia. There are 11 dioceses, each under a Metropolitan, 10 bishops, 2,600 parishes, 1,700 priests, 400 monks and nuns, 3,700 churches and chapels, one seminary and one theological college. The Constitution provides for freedom of conscience and belief but forbids propaganda against the Government. The State provides 17% of Church funds.

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Churches may not maintain schools or colleges, except theological seminaries, or organize youth movements. In 1976 there were some 50,000 Roman Catholics in 3 bishoprics with 40 priests and 30 churches. In 1984 there were 5 Protestant groups: Pentecostals (10,000 members, 120 churches, 40 pastors); Baptists (1,000 members, 20 churches); Methodists; Congretationalists; Adventists. There were estimated to be about 700,000 practising Moslems in 1984. Education. Education is free, and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 16. The gradual introduction of unified secondary polytechnical schools offering compulsory education for all children from the ages of 7 to 17 was begun in 1973-74. Complete literacy is claimed. Schools are classified according to which years of schooling they offer Elementary (1-4), primary (1-8), preparatory (5-8), secondary (9-11), complete secondary (1-11). Educational statistics for 1982-83: 5,733 kindergartens (403,518 children, 29,257 teachers); 777 elementary schools; 2,267 primary schools; 54 preparatory schools; 94 secondary schools; 349 complete secondary schools. Numbers of teachers and pupils: School years 1 to 4,24,975 and 430,433; 5 to 8, 35,261 and 623,432; 9 to II, 8,459 and 116,569. There were also 3 vocational-technical schools (71 teachers, 1,667 students), 232 technical colleges (9,133 teachers, 93,226 students), 23 post-secondary institutions (973 teachers, 9,899 students) and 29 institutes of higher education (13,254 teachers, 83,633 students). There are 3 universities: the Kliment Ohrid University in Sofia (founded 1888) had 1,195 teachers and 12,616 students (in 1977-78); the Kirill i Metodii University in Veliko Turnovo (founded 1971) had 250 teachers and 3,670 students and the Paisi Hilendarski University in Plovdiv (founded 1972) had 274 teachers and 3,500 students in 1980-81. The Academy of Sciences was founded in 1869. Social Welfare. Retirement and disablement pensions and temporary sick pay are calculated as a percentage of previous wages (respectively 55-80%, 35-100%, 6990%) and according to the nature of the employment. Monthly family allowances for children under 16: 15 leva for 1 child, 25 leva for 2 children and 45 leva for 3 children. In 1982,2 12m. persons received pensions totalling 1,974m. leva. All medical services are free. In 1982 there were 186 hospitals (including 16 mental hospitals and addiction treatment centres) with 74,656 beds. There were 23,081 doctors and 5,201 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Bulgaria in Great Britain (186 Queen's Gate, London, SW7 5 HL) Ambassador Kiril Shterev (accredited 26 Nov. 1980). Of Great Britain in Bulgaria (Blvd. Marshal Tolbukhin 65-67, Sofia) Ambassador: J. M. O. Snodgrass, CMG: Of Bulgaria in the USA (1621 22nd St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador Stoyan I. Zhulev. Of the USA in Bulgaria (1 Stamboliiski Blvd., Sofia) Ambassador: Robert L. Barry. Of Bulgaria to the United Nations Ambassador Boris Tsvetkov. Books of Reference Kratka Bulgarska Entsiklopediia (Short Bulgarian Encyclopaedia), 5 vols. Sofia, 1963-69 Statisticheski Godishmk (Statistical Yearbook). Sofia from 1956 Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Sofia, 1971 Information Bulgaria. Oxford, 1985 Modern Bulgaria. History, Politics, Economy, Culture Sofia, 1981 Atanasova, T.,et al., Bulgarian-English Dictionary Sofia, 1975

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Dobrin,B., Bulgarian Economic Development Since World Warll. New York, 1973 Feiwel, G. R., Growth and Reforms in Centrally Planned Economies: the Lessons 0/ the Bulgarian Experience. New York, 1977 Markov, M., System of Social Administration in Bulgaria. Sofia, 1969 Oren, N., Communism Administered: Agrarianism and Communism in Bulgaria. Baltimore, 1973 Pundeff, M. V., Bulgaria: A Bibliographic Guide. Library of Congress, 1965 Spasov, B., La Bulgarie. Paris, 1973 Todorov, N., and others, Bulgaria: Historic and Geographical Outline. Sofia, 1965 Zhivkov, T., Modern Bulgaria: Problems and Tasks in Building an Advanced Socialist Society. New York, 1974

BURKINA

FASO

Capital: Ouagadougou Population: 6 • 70m. ( 1983) GNP per capita: US$240 (1981)

République de Burkina Faso HISTORY. A separate colony of Upper Volta was in 1919 carved out of the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger, which had been established in 1904. In 1932 it was abolished and most of its territory transferred to Ivory Coast, with small parts added to French Sudan and Niger, but it was re-constituted with its former borders on 4 Sept. 1947. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 11 Dec. 1958 and reached full independence on 5 Aug. 1960. On 3 Jan. 1966 the government of Maurice Yameogo was overthrown by a military coup led by Lieut-Col. Sangoulé Lamizana, who assumed the Presidency. Constitutional rule was resumed on 21 June 1970 but suspended from 8 Feb. 1974 until May 1978. In a further coup on 25 Nov. 1980, President Lamizana was overthrown and a military regime assumed power. Further coups took place on 7 Nov. 1982and4Aug. 1983. The name of the country was changed to Burkina Faso on 4 Aug. 1984. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Burkina Faso is bounded north and west by Mali, east by Niger, south by Benin, Togo, Ghana and the Ivory Coast. The republic covers an area of 274,122 sq. km; population (census, 1975) 5,638,203. Estimate (1984) 6,695,000. The largest cities (1982) are: Ouagadougou, the capital (286,453 inhabitants), Bobo-Dioulasso (165,171), Koudougou (44,089), Ouahigouya (38,374), Kaya (18,402), Banfora (12,358). The principal ethnic groups are the Mossi (48%), Fulani (10%), Lobi-Dagari (7%), Mandé (7%), Bobo (7%), Sénoufo (6%), Gourounsi (5%), Bissa (5%), Gourmantché (5%). C L I M A T E . A tropical climate with a wet season from May to Nov. and a dry season from Dec. to April. Rainfall decreases from south to north. Ouagadougou. Jan. 76'F (24-4°C), July 83° F (28 • 3°C). Annual rainfall 36" (894 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Following the coup of 25 Nov. 1980, the 1977 Constitution was suspended and the 57-member National Assembly dissolved. Supreme political power is now vested in a new 12-member People's Salvation Council (CSP), ruling through an appointed Cabinet composed in Sept. 1984 of: President ofCNR, Head ofState and Government: Capt. Thomas Sankara. National Defence and War Veterans' Affairs: Maj. Jean-Baptiste Lingani. Minister of State to the Presidency, Justice: Capt. Blaise Compaoré. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Laitar Basile Guissou. Territorial Administration and Security: Ernest Ouedraogo. Information and Culture: Wattamou Lamien. Economic Promotion: Capt. Henri Zongo. Financial Resources: Justin Damou Barro. Budget: Adele Ouegraogo. Planning and People's Development: Youssouf Ouegraogo. Commerce and People's Supply: Alain Koeffe. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry: Seydou Traoré. Water Resources: Michel Tapsoba. Equipment: Leonard Compaoré. Transport and Communications: Omar Diawara. Labour, Social Security and Civil Service: Fidèle Toe. Environment and Tourism: Raymond Poda. Family Welfare and National Solidarity: Josephine Ouedraogo. Public Health: Maj. Abdul Salam Kaboré. Sport and Leisure: Rita Sawadogo. National Education: Philippe Somé. Higher Education and Scientific Research: Issa Tiendrebéogo. Secretary-General to the Cabinet: Rayatigoungou Kaboré Zongo. National flag: Horizontally red over green with a yellow star over all in the centre. Local government: The country is divided into 25 provinces. 248

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249

DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 3 infantry regiments, 1 reconnaissance squadron and support units. Equipment includes 25 armoured care. Strength (1985), 3,700 with a further 900 men in paramilitary forces. Air Force. Creation of a small air arm to support the land forces began, with French assistance, in 1964. Equipment now comprises 2 HS.748 twin-turboprop freighters, 2 C-47s, 2 twin-turboprop Frégates, an Aero Commander 500,2 Broussard and 4 Reims/Cessna Super Skymasters for transport and liaison duties, and 3 Dauphin and Aloutte III helicopters. Personnel total about 75. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Burkina Faso is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Third Development Plan 1977-81 aimed at an 8-4% average annual real growth in GDP. Budget. Government revenue and expenditure balanced in 1983 at 57,949m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. In Feb. 1985, £1 = 558francs-, US$1 =512 francs. Banking. The Banque Centrale des Etals de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue. The main commercial bank is the Banque Internationale des Voltas. In Dec. 1982 the savings banks had deposits of25,957,000/ra«ci CFA. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production of electricity ( 1982) was 123m. kwh. Minerals. There are deposits of manganese near Tambao in the north, but exploitation is limited by existing transport facilities. Magnetite, bauxite, zinc, lead, nickel and phosphates have been found in the same area. Agriculture. Production (1981-82, in tonnes): Sorghum, 657,986; millet, 442,771; maize, 125,204; groundnuts, 77,667; rice (paddy, 1980), 28,657; cotton, 59,474; sesame, 8,017. Rice and groundnuts are of increasing importance. Livestock (1983): 2-9m. cattle, 2m. sheep, 2-5m. goats, 70,000 horses, 200,000 donkeys. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1981 gross manufacturing (including energy) was 40,189,000 francs CFA, of which textiles (3,461,000 francs CFA) and metal products (2 -28m. francs CFA). In 1972 there were 91 industrial units. Labour. In 1982 the labour force was 3,503,610 of whom (1979) 2,941,000 were engaged in agriculture, forestry and fishing. There were (1981)4 trade unions. Commerce. In 1982 imports totalled 113,708m. francs CFA and exports 18,109m. francs CFA. In 1982 the major exports were cotton (41-9%), almonds (16%) and livestock (14-1%). In 1982 France provided 26-7%, the Ivory Coast 12-4% and USA 6'6% of imports, while the Ivory Coast took 21%, France 14-5%, Federal Republic of Germany 7 -4% and UK 6-6% of exports. Total trade between Burkina Faso and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 2,864 5,311

Tourism. There were 50,049 tourists in 1982.

1982 1,289 2,166

1983 1,514 3,048

1984 3,695 2,065

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The road system comprises 13,134 km, of which 4,396 km are national, 1,744 km departmental, 2,364 km regional and 1,940 km unclassified roads. In 1982 there were 33,769 vehicles, comprising 16,463 private cars, 419 buses, 14,852 commercial vehicles, 411 special vehicles and 1,123 tractors. Railway. Ouagadougou is the terminus of the Abidjan-Niger railway, of which 517 km lie in Burkina Faso. A 355-km extension to the manganese deposits at Tambao is planned with the first 107-km section to Kaya under construction. Aviation. Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso are regularly served by UTA and Air Afrique and in 1982 dealt with 120,684 passengers and 6,778 tonnes of freight. Air Volta operates all internal flights to 47 domestic airports. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1982, some 42 post offices and ( 1978) 3,564 telephones. There are radio stations at Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso and (1981) 90,000 receivers. The state television service, Voltavision, broadcasts 3 days a week in Ouagadougou; there were (1981) 5,500 receivers. Newspapers. 3 daily newspapers were published in Ouagadougou in 1984. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are courts of first instance at Ouagadougou, Bobo-Dioulasso, Ouahigouya and Fada N'Gourma. The Supreme Court, High Court of Justice and Court of Appeal are all in Ouagadougou. Religion. The majority of the population (53%) follow animist religions; 36% are Moslem and 11% Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). Education. There were at 1 Jan. 1983,251,169 pupils in 1,176 primary schools. In 1981-82 there were 25,283 in secondary schools, and 5,122 in technical schools and (1980) 495 students in teacher-training establishments. The Université d'Ouagadougou had 2,887 students in 1982-83. Health (1980). There were 5 hospitals, 178 dispensaries with maternity units and 60 maternity units alone, 50 health centres, 131 dispensaries and 99 special dispensaries with a total of4,587 beds. There were 119 doctors, 14 surgeons, 52 pharmacists, 163 health assistants, 229 midwives and 1,345 nursing personnel. A 10-year health programme started in 1979, providing for 7,000 village health centres, 515 district health centres, regional and sub-regional medical centres, 10 departmental hospitals, 2 national hospitals and a university centre of health sciences in Ouagadougou. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Burkina Faso in Great Britain Ambassador: Amadé Ouedraogo (accredited 11 July 1984). Of Great Britain in Burkina Faso Ambassador:}. M. Willson (resides in Abidjan). Of Burkina Faso in the USA (2340 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20005) Ambassador: Doulaye Corentin Ki. Of the USA in Burkina Faso (PO Box 35, Ouagadougou) Ambassador: Julius W. Walker, Jr. Of Burkina Faso to the United Nations Ambassador: Léandre Bassole.

BURMA Pyidaungsu Socialist Thammada Myanma Naingngandaw

Capital: Rangoon Population: 35 • 31 m. ( 1983) GNP per capita: US$ 190 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. The Union of Burma came formally into existence on 4 Jan. 1948 and became the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma in 1974. In 1948 Sir Hubert Ranee, the last British Governor, handed over authority to Sao Shwe Thaike, the first President of the Burmese Republic, and Parliament ratified the treaty with Great Britain providing for the independence of Burma as a country not within His Britannic Majesty's dominions and not entitled to His Britannic Majesty's protection. This treaty was signed in London on 17 Oct. 1947 and enacted by the British Parliament on lODec. 1947. For the history of Burma's connexion with Great Britain see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOR, 1 9 5 0 , p . 8 3 6 .

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Burma is bounded east by China, Laos and Thailand, west by the Indian ocean, Bangladesh and India. The total area of the Union is 261,789 sq. miles (678,000 sq. km). Some small rectifications of the border with China were agreed upon in 1960 and with Pakistan in 1964. The population in 1983 (census) was 35,313,905. Birth rate (1977 estimate), 29 • 1; death rate, 10-4 per 1,000 population; infant deaths, 56-3 per 1,000 live births. The leading towns are: Rangoon, the capital (1983), 2,458,712; other towns (1973), Mandalay, 417,266; Bassein, 355,588; Henzada, 283,658; Pegu, 254,761, Myingyan, 220,129; Moulmein, 202,967; Prome, 148,123; Akyab, 143,215; Tavoy, 101,536. The population of the States and Divisions at the 1983 census (provisional): Kachin State, 903,982; Kayah State, 168,355; Karen State, 1,057,505; Chin State, 368,985; Sagaing Division, 3,855,991; Tenasserim Division, 917,628; Pegu Division, 3,800,240; Magwe Division, 3,241,103; Mandalay Division, 4,580,923; Mon State, 1,682,041; Rakhine State, 2,045,891; Rangoon Division, 3,973,782; Shan State, 3,718,706; Irrawaddy Division, 4,991,057. The Burmese belong to the Tibeto-Chinese (or Tibeto-Burman) family. C L I M ATE. The climate is equatorial in coastal areas, changing to tropical monsoon over most of the interior, but humid temperate in the extreme north, where there is a more significant range of temperature and a dry season lasting from Nov. to April. In coastal parts, the dry season is shorter. Very heavy rains occur in the monsoon months May to Sept. Rangoon. Jan. 77"F (25°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 104" (2,616 mm). Akyab. Jan. 70°F (21 • 1°C), July 81°F (21 TQ. Annual rainfall206"(5,154 mm). Mandalay. Jan. 68°F(20°C), July 85°F(29-4°C). Annual rainfall 33" (828 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N . A new Constitution was approved by referendum in Dec. 1973. On 2 March 1974 military rule ended and Burma became a one-party socialist republic. Elections to the People's Assembly took place in Jan. and Feb. 1974. UNe Win became President under the new Constitution and in Jan. 1978 his term of office was extended for 4 years. For earlier Constitutions see THE STATEMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 , p . 2 5 2 .

In Nov. 1981, U San Yu was elected Head of State by the People's Assembly. The State Council has 27 members with U San Yu as Chairman and U Aye Ko as secretary. In Jan. 1984 the Council of Ministers consisted of: Prime Minister: U Maung Maung Kha. 251

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Deputy Prime Minister, Planning and Finance: U Tun Tin. Deputy Prime Minister, Defence: Gen. Thura Kyaw Htin. Agriculture and Forests: U Ye Goung. Co-operatives: U Sein Tun. Transport and Communications: Thura U Saw Pru. Foreign Affairs: U Chit Hlaing. Industry: U Tint Swe, U Maung Cho. Construction: U Hla Tun. Mines: U Than Tin. Trade: U Khin Maung Ghi. Education: U Kyaw Nyein. Information and Culture: U Aung Kyaw Myint. Home and Religious Affairs: Maj.-Gen. Min Gaung. Labour and Social Welfare: U Ohn Kyaw. Health: U Tun Wai. Livestock and Fisheries: U Sein Tun. National flag: Red with a blue canton bearing 2 ears of rice within a cog-wheel and a ring of 14 stars, all in white. Language: The official language is Burmese; the use of English is permitted. Local government: Burma is divided into 7 states and 7 administrative divisions; these are sub-divided into townships and thence into villages and wards. DEFENCE Army. The strength of the Army (1985) was 163,000. The Army is organized into 9 regional commands comprising 3 light infantry divisions, 16 brigades, and 2 armoured, 85 independent infantry and 4 artillery battalions and 1 anti-aircraft battery. Equipment includes 24 Comet tanks, 40 Humber armoured cars and 45 Ferret scout cars. In addition, there are 2 paramilitary units: People's Police Force (38,000) and People's Militia (35,000). Navy. The fleet includes 2 old escort patrol vessels (ex-USA PCE and MSF types), 2 small indigenously built corvettes, 3 new patrol craft, 20 gunboats, 20 river gunboats, 40 small river patrol craft, 1 support ship, 2 survey vessels, 12 fishery protection cutters (3 offshore, 3 coastal, 6 inshore), 10 auxiliaries and 12 landing craft. Personnel in 1985:10,000 including 800 marines. Air Force. The Air Force is intended primarily for internal security duties. Its combat force comprises about 5 T-33A jet fighter/trainers supplied under MAP, supplemented by 9 SIAI-Marchetti SF.260W light piston-engined attack/ trainers. Other training aircraft include 10 piston-engined SF.260Ms, 16 turboprop Pilatus PC-7s and 10 jet-powered T-37Cs. Transport and second-line units are equipped with 4 FH-227, Turbo-Porter and 10 Cessna 180 aircraft, 4 Japanesebuilt Bell 47 (H-13) and Vertol KV-107-11, Bell UH-1, and Alouette III helicopters. Personnel about 7,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Burma is a member of the UN and Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Planning. The economy has been controlled since 1972 through a series of 4-year plans. The fourth 4-year plan began in 1983. Budget. The budget estimates (in K.lm.) for fiscal year 1 April 1981-31 March 1982 was revenue K.38,750m. and expenditure K.48,493m. The largest items, in 1980-81, of revenue were commodities and service tax (K.2,360-lm.) and customs (K.590m.); of expenditure, processing and manufacturing (K.8,769m.); trade (K.5,222-3m.); transport and communication (1,736-2m.). Currency. The currency unit is now the kyat divided into 100 pyas. There are notes of kyat 25,20,10,5 and 1, and coins of kyat 1; pyas 100,50,25,10,5 and 1. In Feb. 1985, £1 =K.9-86 andUS$1 =K.8-89. Banking. Banks include the Union of Burma Bank, the Myanma Economic Bank, the Myanma Foreign Trade Bank and the Myanma Agricultural Bank and the corporation is the Myanma Insurance Corporation.

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ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1979 the total installed capacity of power plants was 642,230 kw., of which 168,500 was hydro-electricity and 158,850 gas turbine; there were 264 towns and 709 villages with electricity. Production (1981 -82) 1,405m. kwh. Oil. Production (1981-82) of crude oil was 1 7m. tonnes; natural gas 665,000 cu. metres. Minerals. Production in 1977-78 (provisional): Silver, 410,000 oz.; zinc, 6,000 tons; copper matte, 90 tons; refined lead, 5,198 tons; nickel speiss, 75 tons; antimony, 1,455 tons; tin, 866 tons; tungsten, 568 tons; tin tungsten-scheelite, 500 tons; coal ( 1981 ), 30,000 tons; gypsum, 28,000 tons; limestone, 1 m. tons. Agriculture. Production (1981) in 1,000 tonnes: Paddy, 13,923; sugar-cane, 2,569; groundnuts, 558; jute, 32; cotton, 107. Livestock ( 1983): Cattle, 9 -4m.; bufTaloes, 2 1m.; pigs, 2 9m. In 1979-80 the area irrigated by government-controlled irrigation works was 2,417,769 acres. Forestry. The area of reserved forests in 1977-78 was 23,477,000 acres; other forests, 55,986,000 acres. Teak extracted in 1979-80 (provisional), 400,250 cu. tons; hardwood, 1,049,000 cu. tons. All the teak and about 50% of the hardwood is from the state sector. Other forest produce (1977-78) included 13m. tons of firewood and 680,000 bamboo canes. 2,780 elephants are at work on extraction. Fisheries. In 1979 sea fishing produced 413,000 tonnes and freshwater fisheries 153,000 tonnes. The contribution of state-owned fishing vessels (32 trawlers and 43 other craft) is about 3%. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production (1981) in 1,000 tonnes: Cement, 372; salt, 242; fertilizers, 132; sugar, 42; paper, 23; cotton, 15. Trade Unions. Labour disputes are dealt with by the government labour subcommittees. Commerce. All foreign trade is handled by the government trading organizations. Imports and exports (US$ 1 m.) for the calendar years. Imports Exports

1980 785 6 427 7

1981 860-2 530-9

1982 881 9 421 5

Total trade between Burma and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 5,379 20,494

1981 3,613 28,036

1982 5,342 44,242

1983 4,726 21,927

1984 6,420 16,488

Tourism. There were 28,230 tourists in 1981. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 13,948 miles of road in 1977-78, of which 2,452 miles were union highway. Railways. The Burma Railways were nationalized in 1948 and the present Burma Railways Corporation took over in 1972. In 1980 there were 3,137 km of route on metre gauge. In 1977-78 the railway carried 2-29m. tons of freight and 64-2m. passengers. Aviation. Burma Airways Corporation, formerly Union of Burma Airways, started its internal service in Sept. 1948 and its external service in Nov. 1950. International services were in 1963 maintained between Rangoon and Bangkok and Calcutta. The routes were extended to Hong Kong in 1969 and to Dacca and Kathmandu in 1970. There were, in 1971,43 civil aerodromes and landing grounds.

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Shipping. Burma has 60 miles of navigable canals. The Irrawaddy is navigable up to Myitkyina, 900 miles from the sea, and its tributary, the Chindwin, is navigable for 390 miles. The Irrawaddy delta has nearly 2,000 miles of navigable water. The Salween, the Attaran and the G'yne provide about 250 miles of navigable waters around Moulmem. The Inland Water Transport Board runs services from Bhamo to Myitkyina. Post and Broadcasting. There were 1,101 post offices in 1977. Number of telephones was 32,616 in 1978, of which 22,456 are in Rangoon. There is one television broadcasting station in Rangoon. Cinemas. In 1971 there were about 418 cinemas. Newspapers. In 1983 there were 7 daily newspapers with a readership of over 800,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Since March 1974 the highest judicial authority has been the Council of People's Justices, appointed by the People's Assembly from its own members, which serves as the Supreme Court and Central Criminal Court. At lower levels courts are appointed by the local People's Councils from among their own membership. Religion. The Revolutionary Government, having repealed the amendment of 1961 which made Buddhism the state religion, recognizes 'the right of everyone freely to profess and practise his religion'. Education. The medium of instruction in all schools is Burmese; English is taught as a compulsory second language from kindergarten level. Education is free in the primary, junior secondary and vocational schools; fees are charged in senior secondary schools and universities. In 1977-78 there were 586 state high schools with 189,146 pupils, 1,262 state middle schools with 825,195 pupils and 21,999 state primary schools with 3,841,687 pupils; the total teaching staff was 111,339, of which 80,343 were in primary schools. Beside the Arts and Science University, there are independent degree-giving institutes of engineering, education, medicine, agriculture, economics and commerce, and veterinary sciences. The University of Mandalay has been similarly decentralized. A foreign-languages institute in Rangoon has about 800 students learning English, French, German, Russian, Japanese, Chinese and Italian. There are intermediate colleges at Taunggyi, Magwe, Akyab and Myitkyina, and degree colleges at Moulmein and Bassein, and several technical and agricultural institutes at higher and middle level. 4,656 school teachers were being trained in 15 training colleges in 1977-78. Technical high schools had 2,488 students; agricultural schools, 1,077; other vocational colleges, 1,438, and university colleges, 63,292. A correspondence course for universities and colleges was introduced in 1975-76. Health. In 1977 there were 5,787 doctors and 512 hospitals with 22,755 beds. There were 1,459 health centres. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Burma in Great Britain (1 9A Charles St., London, W1X8ER) A mbassador:U Myo Aung (accredited 16Dec. 1981). Of Great Britain in Burma (80 Strand Rd., Rangoon) Ambassador's. M. Fenn, CMG. Of Burma in the USA (2300 S St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: U Maung Maung Gyi.

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O f the U S A in Burma (581 Merchant St., Rangoon) Ambassador: Daniel A . O ' D o n o h u e . O f Burma to the United Nations Ambassador: Saw Hlaing. B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Burma: Treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom and the Provisional Government of Burma. (Treaty Series No. 16,1948.) HMSO, 1948 Comyn, W. S., and Musgrave, J. K., Burmese Glossary. New York, 1958 Lehman, F. K., The Structure ofChin Society. Univ. of Illinois Press, 1963 Silverstein, J., Burma: Military Rule and the Politics of Stagnation. Cornell Univ. Press, 1978. —Burmese Politics: The Dilemma of National Unity. Rutgers Univ. Press, 1980 Steinberg, D. I., Burma. Boulder, 1982 Stewart, J. A., and Dunn, C. W., Burmese-English Dictionary. London, 1940 ft.

BURUNDI

Capital: Bujumbura Population: 4 -92m. ( 1983) GNP per capita: US$230 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . Tradition recounts the establishment of a Tutsi kingdom under successive Mwamis as early as the 16th century. German military occupation in 1890 incorporated the territoiy into German East Africa. From 1919 Burundi formed part of Ruanda-Urundi administered by the Belgians, first as a League of Nations mandate and then as a United Nations trust territory. Elections supervised by the United Nations in Sept. 1961 resulted in a large majority for the Unité et Progrès National party (UPRONA). Internal self-government was granted on 1 Jan. 1962, followed by independence on 1 July 1962. An agreement, signed with Rwanda under United Nations auspices at Addis Ababa in April 1962, provided for a monetary and customs union. This union and all organizations operated jointly by the two governments were dissolved by 30 Sept. 1964. On 8 July 1966 Prince Charles Ndizeye deposed his father Mwami Mwambutsa IV, suspended the constitution and made Capt. Michel Micombero Prime Minister. On 1 Sept. Prince Charles was enthroned as Mwami Ntare V. On 28 Nov., while the Mwami was attending a Head of States Conference in Kinshasa (Congo), Micombero declared Burundi a republic with himself as president. On 31 March 1972 Prince Charles returned to Burundi from Uganda and was placed under house arrest. On 29 April 1972 President Micombero dissolved the Council of Ministers and took full power; that night heavy fighting broke out between rebels from both Burundi and neighbouring countries, and the ruling Tutsi, apparently with the intention of destroying the Tutsi hegemony. Prince Charles was killed during the fighting and it was estimated that up to 120,000 were killed. On 14 July 1972 President Micombero reinstated a Government with a Prime Minister. On 1 Nov. 1976 President Micombero was deposed by the Army. A Supreme Revolutionary Council of the Armed Forces was established which appointed Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza president. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Burundi is bounded north by Rwanda, east and south by Tanzania and west by Zaïre, and has an area of27,834 sq. km (10,759 sq. miles). It lies astride the main Nile-Congo dividing crest (6,000-7,000 ft) bounded on the west by the narrow plain of the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika (2,534 ft). The interior is a broken plateau at an average height of about 5,000 ft, sloping eastwards down to Tanzania and the valley of the Maragarazi River. The southernmost tributary of the Nile system, the Luvironza, rises in the south of the country. The population at the census in 1979 was 4,111,310. There are three ethnic groups—Hutu (Bantu, forming the great majority): Tutsi (Nilotic, less than 15%); Twa (pygmoids, less than 1 %). There are some 3,500 Europeans and 1,500 Asians. In 1974 some 49,000 Tutsi refugees from Rwanda were living in Burundi. Bujumbura, the capital, had (1979 census) 141,040 inhabitants. Kitega (15,943 inhabitants) was formerly the royal residence. C L I M A T E . An equatorial climate, modified by altitude. The eastern plateau is generally cool, the easternmost savanna several degrees hotter. The wet seasons are from March to May and Sept. to Dec. Bujumbura. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 73'F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 3 3 " (825 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 21 Nov. 1981 and provides for a one-party state. The 65-member National Assembly elected in Oct. 1982 comprised 52 members elected by universal suffrage from a list of 104 candidates nominated by UPRONA (Parti de l'Unité et du Progrès National du Burundi), together with 13 members appointed 256

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by the President. President Bagaza became Party Chairman and Head of the Central Committee for a 5-year term in Jan. 1980 and was re-elected for a second 5-year term in Sept. 1984. He won 99-63% ofthe 1-7m. votes cast. President ofthe Republic: Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza. Foreign Affairs: Laurent Nzeyimana. Finance: Edouard Kadigiri. Flag: White diagonal cross dividing triangles of red and green, in the centre a white disc bearing 3 red green-bordered 6-pointed stars. Local Government: The administrative divisions are: 15 provinces, each under a military governor, and 114 communes. DEFENCE. The national armed forces total (1985), 5,200 (there are also about 1,500 in paramilitary units) and include a small naval flotilla and air force flight of 3 SF 260,2 Cessna 150 and 2 Do 27 liaison aircraft and 4 Alouette III helicopters. The Army comprises 2 infantry battalions, 1 parachute battalion, 1 commando battalion and 1 armoured-car company. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Burundi is a member of UN and OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1982-87 Plan aims at greater diversification of agriculture. Budget. The 1984 budget envisaged receipts of 15,171m. Burundi francs and expenditure at 17,348m. Burundi francs. Currency. The currency is administered by the Bank of the Republic of Burundi. The rate was 138 -85 Burundi francs = £1 and 128 -3 Burundi francs = US$1 in Feb. 1985. Weights and Measures. The metric system operates. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity generation capacity was (1980) 44 • 7m. kwh. Minerals. Mineral ores such as bastnasite and cassenite were formerly mined but output is now insignificant. Deposits of nickel (280m. tonnes) remain to be exploited. Agriculture. The main economic activity and the main source of employment of the country is subsistence agriculture, which accounts for well over half of the gross national product. Beans, kassava, maize, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, peas, sorghum and bananas are grown according to the climate and the region. The main cash crop is coffee, of which about 95% is arabica. It accounts for 90% of exports and taxes and levies on coffee constitute a major source of revenue. A coffee board (OCIBU) manages the grading and export of the crop. Production (1982) 24,000 tonnes. The main food crops (production 1982, in 1,000 tonnes) are cassava (1,200), yams (930), bananas (960), beans (181), maize (140), sorghum (98), groundnuts (42) and peas (37). Among cash crops are cotton (3) and tea (2). Cattle play an important traditional role, and there were about 560,000 head in 1983. The quality is poor, but efforts are being made to improve it. There were (1983) some 760,000 goats, 310,000 sheep and 36,000 pigs. Fisheries. There is a small commercial fishing industry on Lake Tanganyika which produced 7,941 tonnes in 1973 and which dropped to 4,118 tonnes in 1981. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial development is rudimentary. In Bujumbura there are plants for the processing of coffee and by-products of cotton, a brewery, cement works, a textile factory, a soap factory, a shoe factory and small metal workshops.

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Commerce. The total value of exports 1982 was 7,883m. Burundi francs, and of imports, 19,159m. Burundi francs. Main exports in 1981 were coffee, (5,352m. Burundi francs); cotton, (188m.); tea, (181m.). Main imports, petrol products, food, vehicles and textiles. Total trade between Burundi and the UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ]980 m l m 2 lggj ]984 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1,881 583

6,329 1,479

8,737 1,522

3,485 3,155

1,924 1,710

Tourism. Tourism is developing and there were 13,000 visitors Jan.-June 1976. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There is a road network of6,400 km connecting with Rwanda, Congo and Tanzania but in 1982 only 310 km were macadamized. In 1978 there were 5,307 cars and 2,951 commercial vehicles. Aviation. In 1980, 38,441 passengers arrived or departed through Bujumbura International airport, and there are local airports at Gitega, Nyanza-Lac, Kiofi and Nyakagunda. Shipping. There are lake services from Bujumbura to Kigoma (Tanzania) and Kalémie (Zaïre). The main route for exports and imports is via Kigoma, and thence by rail to Dar es Salaam. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1982), 5,601. Radio receivers (1982) 180,000. Newspapers. There was (1984) one daily newspaper (Le Renouveau) with a circulation of 20,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court, an appeal court and a tribunal de première instance at Bujumbura and provincial tribunals in each arrondissement. Religion. About 78% of the population is Roman Catholic; there is a Roman Catholic archbishop and 3 bishops. The Anglican Missions under a bishop fall within the archdiocese of Uganda. Education. In 1981 the number of children in primary school was 206,408 and 18,544 pupils were receiving secondary education. The university of Bujumbura had (1981)1,793 students. The local language is Kirundi, a Bantu language. French is also an official language. Kiswahili is spoken in the commercial centres. Health. In 1979 there were about 130 doctors and 21 hospitals. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Burundi in Great Britain Ambassador: Cyprien Mbonimpa (resides in Brussels). Of Great Britain in Burundi Ambassador: N. P. Bayne, CMG (resides in Kinshasa). Of Burundi in the USA (2233 Wisconsin Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: Simon Sabimbona. Of the USA in Burundi (Chaussée Prince Louis Rwagasore, Bujumbura) Ambassador: James R. Bullington. Of Burundi to the United Nations Ambassador: Melchior Bwakira. Books of Reference Lemarchand, R., Rwanda and Burundi. London, 1970 Melady, T. P., Burundi: The Tragic Years. Maryknoll, New York, 1974 Mpozapara, G., La République du Burundi. Paris, 1971 Weinstein, W., Historical Dictionary of Burundi. Metuchen, 1976

CAMBODIA Democratic Kampuchea

Capital: Phnom Penh Population. (>,7m.(1981) GNPper capita. No accurate estimate available ( 1981 )

Since April 1975 the situation in Cambodia has been such that it has been impossible to obtain reliable statistical and other information. H I S T O R Y . The recorded history of Cambodia starts at the beginning of the Christian era with the Kingdom of Fou-Nan, whose territories at one time included parts of Thailand, Malaya, Cochin-China and Laos. The religious, cultural and administrative inspirations of this state came from India. The Kingdom was absorbed at the end of the 6th century by the Khmers, under whose monarchs was built, between the 9 th and 13 th centuries, the splendid complex of shrines and temples at Angkor. Attacked on either side by the Vietnamese and the Thai from the 15th century on, Cambodia was saved from annihilation by the establishment of a French protectorate in 1863. Thailand eventually recognized the protectorate and renounced all claims to suzerainty in exchange for Cambodia's north-western provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap, which were, however, returned under a Franco-Thai convention of 1907, confirmed in the Franco-Thai treaty o f l 9 3 7 . In 1904 the province of Stung Treng, formerly administered as part of Laos, was attached to Cambodia. For history to 1969 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1973-74, p. 1112. Following a period of increasing economic difficulties and growing indirect involvement in the Vietnamese war Prince Sihanouk was deposed in March 1970 and on 9 Oct. 1970 the Kingdom of Cambodia became the Khmer Republic. From 1970 hostilities extended throughout most of the country involving North and South Vietnamese and US forces as well as Republican and anti-Republican Khmer troops. During 1973 direct American and North Vietnamese participation in the fighting came to an end, leaving a civil war situation which continued during 1974 with large-scale fighting between forces of the Khmer Republic supported by American arms and economic aid and the forces of the United National Cambodian Front including 'Khmer Rouge' communists supported by North Vietnam and China. After unsuccessful attempts to capture Phnom Penh in 1973 and 1974, the Khmer Rouge ended the 5-year war in April 1975, when the remnants of the republican forces surrendered the city. From April 1975 the Khmer Rouge instituted a harsh and highly regimented régime. They cut the country off from normal contact with the world and expelled all foreigners. All cities and towns were forcibly evacuated and the population were set to work in the fields. The régime had difficulties with the Vietnamese from 1975 and this escalated into full-scale fighting in 1977-78. On 7 Jan. 1979, Phnom Penh was captured by the Vietnamese, and the Prime Minister, Pol Pot, fled. In March 1982 Pol Pot still commanded 30,000 guerrillas fighting the Vietnamese in Kampuchea. In June 1982 the Khmer Rouge (who claim to have abandoned their Communist ideology and to have disbanded their Communist Party) entered into a coalition with Son Sann's Kampuchean People's National Liberation Front and Prince Sihanouk's group. This government is recognized by the UN. President of the Coalition Government: Prince Norondom Sihanouk. Deputy President: Khieu Samphan. Prime Minister Son Sann. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Cambodia is bounded north by Laos and Thailand, in the west by Thailand, east by Vietnam and south by the Gulf of 259

260

CAMBODIA

Thailand. It has an area of about 181,000 sq. km (71,000 sq. miles), divided into 17 provinces: Kompong Thorn (population, 322,000), Kompong Cham (820,000), Battambang (551,860), Kampot (337,879), Siem Reap (313,000), Kompong Chhang (273,000), Kompong Speu (307,000), Takeo (467,000), Kratié (136,000), Stung Treng (136;000), Svay Rieng (287,000), Prey Veng (492,000), Pursat (180,000), Kandal (population, excluding Phnom Penh, 706,000), Ratanakiri (49,400), Mondolkiri (14,300), Koh Kong (38,700). The total population of 6,682,000 (1981) included Chinese and Chams. In the uplands and in the north-east live various groups of hillmen, known as KhmerLoeu. The chief towns are Phnom Penh, the capital located at the junction of the Mekong and Tonle Sap rivers, and Battambang. Populations of major towns have fluctuated greatly since 1970 by flows of refugees from rural areas and from one town to another. Phnom Penh formerly had a population of at least 2-5m. but a 1983 estimate puts it at 500,000. Khmer is the official language. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with high temperatures all the year. Phnom Penh. Jan. 78°F(25 -6"C), July 84'F(28-9°C). Annual rainfall 52" (1,308 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Following the ousting of the Khmer Rouge régime, the Vietnamese-backed Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation (KNUFNS) on 8 Jan. 1979 proclaimed a People's Republic and established a People's Revolutionary Council to administer the country. A 117-member National Assembly was elected on 1 May 1981 for a 5-year term; in June 1981 it ratified a new Constitution under which it appointed a 7-member Council of State and a 16-member Council of Ministers, replacing the Revolutionary Council. President ofthe Council ofState: Heng Samrin. Prime Minister: Hun Sen. Nationalflag: Red with a five-towered silhouette of the temple of Angkor Wat in the centre in yellow. D E F E N C E . Since the end of the war in April 1975 there has been no accurate data on defence and the three sections below should be treated with severe reserve. There is conscription into the armed forces. Army. Strength (1985) 30,000 including 4 infantry divisions and some 50 supporting units. Equipment reported includes T-54/-55 and PT-76 tanks. There are also paramilitary police and militia units. Navy. The Marine Royale Khmer was established on 1 March 1954 and became Marine Nationale Khmer on 9 Oct. 1970. It recently included 15 coastal patrol craft, 25 river patrol boats, 3 surveying craft, 1 tug, 2 floating docks and a dozen small craft, converted junks, etc. Less than a third of this force is operational and the residual navy has little fighting value. Two patrol vessels and 2 support (landing) gunboats escaped from Khmer Rouge, and 2 torpedo boats were believed to have sunk. Units since stricken include 7 amphibious vessels, 8 coastal patrol craft and 60 river patrol boats and service craft. Naval active personnel provided for in 1985 did not exceed 4,000. In addition there was a battalion of marines numbering some 4,000. Air Force. In 1974 the Air Force had a strength of about 7,000 officers and men, including 120 pilots, with about 200 aircraft, none of them jets. It was not known (1985) how many aircraft remain serviceable. ECONOMY Currency. In 1978 money was officially abolished and no wages or salaries were paid, but in 1980 the use of money was restored. Banking. In 1964 all bank functions were taken over by government banks. In 1972

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legislation permitted the re-opening of foreign banks but by the end of Dec. 1973 only a few representational offices had opened. In 1979 there was no longer anything that could be called a normal banking system. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. A phosphate factory, jointly controlled by the State and private interests, was set up in 1966 near a deposit of an estimated 350,000 tons. Another deposit of about the same size is earmarked for exploitation. High-grade iron-ore deposits (possibly as much as 2-5m. tons) exist in Northern Khmer, but are not exploited commercially because of transportation difficulties. Some small-scale gold panning (6,687 troy oz. in 1963) and gem (mainly zircon) mining is carried out at Pailin where there is potential for considerable expansion. Agriculture. The overwhelming majority of the population is normally engaged in agriculture, fishing and forestry. Of the country's total area of 44m. acres, about 20m. are cultivable and over 20m. are forest land. In 1980, 1 -5m. hectares were cultivated. Before the spread of war the high productivity provided for a low, but well-fed standard of living for the peasant farmers, the majority of whom owned the land they worked. A relatively small proportion of the food production entered the cash economy. The war and unwise pricing policies have led to a disastrous reduction in production to a stage in which the country had become a net importer of rice. A crop of about 900,000 tonnes of paddy were produced in 1982,200,000 tonnes short of domestic requirements. Rubber production in 1982 amounted to 12,000 tonnes. Other products are maize, and, in usual order of value, livestock, timber, pepper, haricot beans, soybeans and fish. Livestock(1983) FAOestimate: Cattle, Mm.;buffaloes, 468,000; sheep, 1,000; pigs, 717,000; horses, 10,000; poultry, 6m. Forestry. Much of Cambodia's surface is covered by potentially valuable forests, 3 -8m. hectares of which are reserved by the Government to be awarded to concessionaires, and are not at present worked to an appreciable extent. The remainder is available for exploitation by the local residents, and as a result some areas are overexploited and conservation is not practised. There are substantial reserves of pitch pine. Fisheries. Cambodia has the greatest freshwater fish resources in South-East Asia but production in 1970 (30,000 tons) was about a third of that for 1966. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Some development of industry had taken place before the spread of open warfare in 1970. Industry established and in operation in Jan. 1970 included a motor-vehicle assembly plant, 3 cigarette manufacturing concerns, a modern factory, several metal fabricating concerns, a distillery, a saw-mill, textile, fish canning, plywood, paper, cement, sugar sack, tyre, pottery and glassware factories and a cotton-ginnery. In the private sector there are about 3,200 manufacturing enterprises, producing a wide range of goods; most of them are small family concerns. An oil refinery at Kompong Som came into production in 1969 but was put out of action by an attack in early 1971. Since April 1975 a programme for repairing factories has been started and some 70 are back in production. Commerce. Principal imports by order of value (1972) were petroleum products, metals and machinery (including vehicles), general foodstuffs and chemicals. The only recorded export in 1972 was 7,328 tonnes of rubber. Much of the country's trade is with Hong Kong and Singapore. Total trade between Cambodia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m o l m m 2 m } f m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

73 825

91 645

92 479

184 826

72 635

262

CAMBODIA

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1970, 2,574 km of asphalt roads (including the 'KhmerAmerican Friendship Highway' from outside Phnom Penh to close to Kompong Som, built under the US aid programme and opened in July 1959), 359 km of macadamized roads, and about 1,213 km of improved dirt roads. Since 1970 many road bridges have been destroyed and long stretches of highway closed to traffic or open only to escorted convoys. Railways. A line of 385 km (metre gauge) links Phnom Penh to Poipet (Thai frontier). In 1969 traffic amounted to 170m. passenger-km and 76m. ton-km. Work was completed during 1969 on a line Phnom Penh-Kompong Som via Takeo and Kampot. Total length, 649 km but by 1973 only a short stretch between Battambang and the Thai border remained in operation, the remainder having been closed by military action. Passenger and freight trains were-running over about 80% of the network in 1980. Aviation. The Pochentong airport is 10 km from Phnom Penh. Air Kampuchea has 2 small aircraft. Shipping. The port of Phnom Penh can be reached by the Mekong (through Vietnam) by ships of between 3,000 and 4,000 tons. In 1970, 97 ocean-going vessels imported 51,300 tons of cargo at Phnom Penh and exported 86,400 tons. A new ocean port has been built under the French aid programme at Kompong Som (formerly Sihanoukville) on the Gulf of Siam and is being increasingly used by long-distance shipping. Post. There were 58 post offices functioning in 1968 but in 1979 it was doubtful if any offices operate. There are telephone exchanges in all the main towns; number of telephones in 1968, 6,325. There is an International Telex network in Phnom Penh and direct telephone and telegraphic links with Singapore. R E L I G I O N . The majority of the population practised Theravada Buddhism before 1975. The Constitution of 1976 ended Buddhism as the State religion. There are small Roman Catholic and Moslem minorities. E D U C A T I O N (1970-71). There were 1,490 primary schools (337,290 pupils) compared with 5,699 and 989,464 in 1969-70, 95 secondary schools (81,611 pupils) and 12,453 students in higher education. These figures show the disruption caused by the spread of war in 1970 which led to the concentration of all university education in Phnom Penh and closed many schools in rural areas and provincial towns. In 1980 there were 1 • 3m. pupils in all types of school. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES UK and USA Embassies have been closed as have Cambodian Embassies in London and Washington. Of Cambodia to the United Nations Ambassador: Thiounn Prasith. Books of Reference Barron, J., and Paul, A., Murder of a Gentle Land. New York, 1977.—Peace with Horror. London,1977 Debré, F., La Révolution de la Forêt. Paris, 1976 Etcheson,C., The Rise and Demise of Democratic Kampuchea. London, 1984 Kiljunen, Kampuchea: Decade of the Genocide. London, 1984 McDonald, M., Angkor. London, 1958 Ponchaud, F., Cambodia, Year Zero. London, 1978 Vickery, M„ Cambodia: 1975-1982. London, 1984

CAMEROON

Capital: Yaoundé Population:9 06m. (1983) GNP per capita: US$880 ( 1981 )

République du Cameroun

HISTORY. The former German colony of Kamerun was occupied by French and British troops in 1916. The greater portion of the territory (422,673 sq. km) was in 1919 placed under French administration, excluding the territory ceded to Germany in 1911, which reverted to French Equatorial Africa. The portion under French trusteeship was granted full internal autonomy on 1 Jan. 1959 and complete independence was proclaimed on 1 Jan. 1960. The portion assign«! to British trusteeship consisted of 2 parts where separate plebiscites were held in Feb. 1961. The northern part decided in favour of joining Nigeria, while the southern part decided to join the Cameroon Republic. This was implemented on 1 Oct. 1961 with the formation of a Federal Republic of Cameroon. As a result of a national referendum, Cameroon became a unitary republic on 2 June 1972. Amadou Babatoura Ahidjo, President since independence, resigned on 6 Nov. 1982. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Cameroon is bounded west by the Gulf of Guinea, north-west by Nigeria and east by Chad, with Lake Chad at its northern tip, and the Central African Republic, and south by Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. The total area is 465,054 sq. km (179,558 sq. miles). Population (1976 census) 7,663,246 (28 • 5% urban). Estimate (1983) 9 06m. The areas, populations and chief towns of the 7 provinces at the 1976 census (now 10 provinces) were: Province Centre-Sud Est Littoral Nord Nord-Ouest Ouest Sud-Ouest

Sq. km 116,036 109,011 20,239 163,513 17,810 13,872 24,471

Census 1976 1,491,945 366,235 935,166 2,233,257 980,531 1,035,597 620,515

Chief town Yaounde (capital) Bertoua Douala Garoua Bamenda Bafoussam Buea

Census 1976 313,706 18,450 458,426 69,285 67,184 62,239 13,000

Other large towns (1976 census): Nkongsamba (71,298), Maroua (67,187), Foumban (59,701), Kumba (44,175) and Limbe (formerly Victoria) (31,222). The population is composed of Sudanic-speaking people in the north (Sao, Fulani and Kanuri) and Bantu-speaking groups, mainly Fang, Bamileke and Duala, in the rest of the country. The official languages are French and English. C L I M A T E . An equatorial climate, with high temperatures and plentiful rain, especially from March to June and Sept. to Nov. Further inland, rain occurs at all seasons. Yaounde. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 62" (1,555 mm). Douala. Jan. 79°F(26- 1°C), July 75°F(23-9°C). Annual rainfall 160" (4,026 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The 1972 Constitution, amended 1975 and 1984, provides for a President as head of state and commander of the armed forces, who is elected for a 5-year term, and a Council of Ministers whose members must not be members of parliament. The National Assembly, elected by universal adult suffrage for 5 years, consists of 120 representatives. Elections took place in May 1983. Since 1966 the sole legal party is the Union National Camerounaise. The Economic and Social Council consists of 85 members appointed for 5 years 263

264

CAMEROON

by the President of the Republic to represent various social and economic interests; its chairman, appointed by decree, is assisted by a board appointed for 1 year. President. Paul Biya (assumed office 6 Nov. 1982). Foreign Affairs. Felix Tonye Mbog. National flag: Three vertical strips of green, red, yellow, with a gold star in the centre. National anthem. O Cameroun, berceau de nos ancêtres. Local Government: The provinces are each administered by a governor appointed by the President. TTiey are sub-divided into départements (each under a préfet) and then into arrondissements (each under a sous-préfet). In Aug. 1983, 3 additional provinces were created by the division of Centre-Sud and Nord provinces into 2 and 3 new provinces respectively. DEFENCE. Compulsory military service was introduced in 1975. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured car, 1 para-çommando, 1 engineer and 4 infantry battalions and 11 artillery batteries. Equipment includes M-8 armoured and Ferret scout cars. Total strength (1985) 6,600, there are an additional 5,000 paramilitary troops. Navy. The Navy operates 2 fast attack craft, 2 patrol vessels (1 new French-built), 3 small patrol craft, 6 coastal patrol launches, 12 inshore cutters and 32 auxiliaries. Personnel in 1985 numbered 360. Air Force. The Air Force has 3 C-130H Hercules turboprop transports, 4 Buffalo and 1 Caribou STOL transports, 3 C-47s for transport and communications duties, 7 Broussard liaison aircraft, 4 Magister armed jet basic trainers, 6 Alpha Jet close support/trainers, and 2 Alouette II helicopters. Some of 4 Gazelle light helicopters are armed with anti-tank missiles. A small VIP transport fleet, maintained in civil markings, comprises 1 Boeing 727 jet aircraft, 1 Alouette III helicopter, 1 Gulfstream II and a twin-engined Puma helicopter. Radar-equipped Dornier 128-6 twin-turboprop aircraft were delivered in 1982 for offshore oilfield patrol. Personnel total about 350. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Cameroon is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Fourth 5-year Development Plan, 1976-81 envisaged expenditure of725,232m. francs CFA. Budget. The budget for 1982-83 balanced at 410,000m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. Banking. The Banque des Etats de l'Afrique Centrale is the sole bank of issue. The main banks are Banque Internationale pour l'Afrique Occidentale, Société Camerounaise de Banque, Société Générale de Banques au Cameroun, Banque International pour le Commerce et l'Industrie du Cameroun and Cameroon Bank. Most of the banks operate in all the large cities and towns throughout the Republic. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There are 3 hydro-electric power stations at Edéa on the Sanaga river with a capacity of 180,000 kw, and another on the Wouri river near Douala. Total production (1981)1,660m. kwh. Oil. Production (estimate, 1981 ) mainly from Kole oilfield was 6m. tonnes. Minerals. There are considerable deposits of bauxite and kyanite around

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265

Ngaoundere. Further deposits of bauxite and cassiterite remain to be exploited in the Adamawa plateau. Agriculture. At the 1976 Census, 80% of the working population were engaged in agriculture. The main food crops (with 1982 production in 1,000 tonnes): Cassava, 1,020; millet, 408; maize, 526; plantains, 1,030; yams, 140; groundnuts, 120; bananas, 100. Cash crops include palm oil, 81; palm kemals, 47; cocoa, 120; coffee, 105;rubber, 17; cotton, 34; raw sugar (1981), 36. Livestock (1983): 3m. cattle, 2 - 19m. sheep, 2-4m. goats, 1 -2m. pigs. Fisheries. In 1979 the total catch was 69,400 tonnes. Forestry. Over a third of Cameroon consists of forests, ranging from tropical rain forests in the south (producing hardwoods such as mahogany, ebony and sapele) to semi-deciduous forests in the centre and wooded savannah in the north. Production in 1982 amounted to 10-3m. cu. metres. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. There is a major aluminium smelting complex at Edea; aluminium production in 1980 amounted to 43,000 tonnes. Production of cement totalled 227,000 tonnes in 1980. There are also factories producing shoes, soap, oil and food products, cigarettes. Commerce. Imports and exports in 1 m. francs CFA were as follows: Imports Exports

1979 271,160 243,699

1980 337,602 290,614

1981 386,089 299,716

1982 392,600 326,900

In 1981, 19% (by value) of exports went to France, 15% to the Netherlands and 38% to the USA, while France provided 41% of imports; the main exports (1980) were coffee (23%), cocoa (21 %), crude oil (31 %) and timber (11 %). Total trade between Cameroon and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 9,798 17,470

1981 24,022 24,014

1982 9,108 22,462

1983 52,481 26,445

1984 132,539 23,254

Tourism. There were an estimated 126,337 foreign visitors in 1979. There are 13 National Parks and reserves, with a total area of nearly 20,000 sq. km. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1977) 2,155 km of tarred roads, 9,284 km earth roads and 15,482 km of secondary roads. In 1978 there were 134,900 vehicles in use. Railways. Cameroon Railways (1,168 km in 1983) link Douala with Nkongsamba and Ngaoundere, with branches M'Banga-Kumba and Makak-M'Balmayo. Aviation. Douala is the main international airport; other airports are at Yaounde and Garoua. In 1976, 342,000 passengers and 20,000 tonnes of freight passed through the airports. Shipping. The merchant-marine consisted (1980) of 44 vessels (over 100 GRT) of 62,080 GRT. The major port of Douala handled (1978) 2-03m. tonnes of imports and 811,000 tonnes of exports. Timber is exported mainly through the south-west ports of Kribi (145,850 tonnes out of 162,496 tonnes of exports in 1975) and Campo (50,000 tonnes). In 1975 ports of Botaand Tiko (at Nimbe) handled 26,305 tonnes and Garoua on the river Benue 21,041 tonnes (comprising 6,022 tonnes fertilizer imports and 15,019 tonnes cotton exports). Post and Broadcasting. There were (1975) 150 post offices supplemented by a mobile postal service; telephone lines, 2,677 km; main telephones (1978), 14,321; radio stations, 36 with (1983) 774,000 receivers. Cinemas. There were (1977) 45 cinemas with a capacity of25,000 seats.

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Newspapers. There was ( 1984) 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of20,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court sits at Yaoundé, as does the High Court of Justice (consisting of 9 titular judges and 6 surrogates all appointed by the National Assembly). There are magistrates' courts situated in the provinces. Religion. In 1980, 21% of the population is Roman Catholic, 22% Moslem, 18% Protestant, while 39% follow traditional (animist) religions. Education (1979-80). There were 1,302,974 pupils and 25,289 teachers in 4,721 primary schools, 153,618 pupils and 5,602 teachers in 317 secondary schools, 51,561 students and 2,596 teachers in 157 vocational schools and 1,926 students and 176 teachers in teacher-training colleges. The University of Yaoundé (established 1962) had 11,901 students and 439 teaching staff at 10 higher education establishments, including the Université National with its main campus at Yaoundé (established 1962) and new university centres at Douala, Buea, Dschang and Ngaoundére. Health. In 1976 there were 85 hospitals with 16,734 beds, and 347 dispensaries and health centres. In 1977 there were 477 doctors, 19 dentists, 93 pharmacists, 1,805 midwives and 3,533 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Cameroon in Great Britain (84 Holland Pk., London, W11 3SB) Ambassador: Ferdinard LeopoldOyono(accredited 13 Feb. 1985). Of Great Britain in Cameroon (Ave. Winston Churchill, BP 547, Yaoundé) Ambassador: Michael Glaze. Of Cameroon in the USA (2349 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Vincent Paul-Thomas Pondi. Of the USA in Cameroon (Rue Nachtigal, BP 817, Yaoundé) Ambassador: Myles R. Frechette. Of Cameroon to the United Nations Ambassador: Paul Bamela Engo. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Service de la Statistique Générale, at Douala, set up in 1945, publishes a monthly bulletin (from Nov. 1950) Le Vine, V. T., The Cameroon Federal Republic. Cornell Univ. Press, 1971 Ndongko, W. A., Planning for Economic Development m a Federal State: The Case of Cameroon, 1960-71. New York, 1975 Rubin, N., Cameroon. New York, 1972

CANADA

Capital: Ottawa Population: 25 1 m. ( 1984) GNP per capita: LI S$ 11,400(1981)

HISTORY. The territories which now constitute Canada came under British power at various times by settlement, conquest or cession. Nova Scotia was occupied in 1628 by settlement at Port Royal, was ceded back to France in 1632 and was finally ceded by France in 1713, by the Treaty of Utrecht; the Hudson's Bay Company's charter, conferring rights over all the territory draining into Hudson Bay, was granted in 1670; Canada, with all its dependencies, including New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, was formally ceded to Great Britain by France in 1763; Vancouver Island was acknowledged to be British by the Oregon Boundary Treaty of 1846, and British Columbia was established as a separate colony in 1858. As originally constituted, Canada was composed of Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. They Were united under an Act of the Imperial Parliament, 'The British North America Act, 1867', which came into operation on 1 July 1867 by royal proclamation. The Act provided that the constitution of Canada should be 'similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom'; that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the 'Senate' and the 'House of Commons'. On 30 June 1931 the British House of Commons approved the enactment of the Statute of Westminster freeing the Provinces as well as the Dominion from the operation of the Colonial Laws Validity Act, and thus removing what legal limitations existed as regards Canada's legislative autonomy. A joint address of the Senate and the House of Commons was sent to the Governor-General for transmission to London on 10 July 1931. The statute received the royal assent on 12 Dec. 1931. Provision was made in the British North America Act for the admission of British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, Rupert's Land and Northwest Territory into the Union. In 1869 Rupert's Land, or the Northwest Territories, was purchased from the Hudson's Bay Company. On 15 July 1870, Rupert's Land and the Northwest Territory were annexed to Canada and named the Northwest Territories, Canada having agreed to pay the Hudson's Bay Company in cash and land for its relinquishing of claims to the territory. By the same action the Province of Manitoba was created from a small portion of this territory and they were admitted into the Confederation on 15 July 1870. On 20 July 1871 the province of British Columbia was admitted, and Prince Edward Island on 1 July 1873. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed from the provisional districts of Alberta, Athabaska, Assiniboia and Saskatchewan and originally parts of the Northwest Territories and admitted on 1 Sept. 1905. Newfoundland formally joined Canada as its tenth province on 31 Maren 1949. In Feb. 1931 Norway formally recognized the Canadian title to the Sverdrup group of Arctic islands. Canada thus holds sovereignty in the whole Arctic sector north of the Canadian mainland. In Nov. 1981 the Canadian government agreed on the provisions of an amended constitution, to the end that it should replace the British North America Act and that its future amendment should be the prerogative of Canada. These proposals were adopted by the Parliament of Canada and were enacted by the UK Parliament as the Canada Act of 1982. The enactment of the Canada Act was the final act of the UK Parliament in Canadian constitutional development. The Act gave to Canada the power to amend the Constitution according to procedures determined by the Constitutional Act 1982, which was proclaimed in force by the Queen on 17 April 1982. The Constitution Act 1982 added to the Canadian Constitution a charter of Rights .and Freedoms, and provisions which recognize the nation's multi-cultural neritage, affirm the existing rights of native peoples, confirm the principle of equalization of benefits among the provinces, and strengthen provincial ownership of natural resources. 267

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AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Population of the area now included in Canada: 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891

2,436,297 1901 5,371,315 1951 3.229,633 1911 7,206,643 1961 3,689,257 1921 8,787,949 1971 4,324,810 1931 10,376,786' 1981 4,833,239 1941 11,506,655' ' From 1951 figures include Newfoundland.

14,009,429 18,238,247 21,568,311 24,343.181

Population (estimated), 1 June 1984, was25,127,900. Areas of the provinces, etc. (in sq. km) and population at recent censuses: Province Land area Newfoundland 371,690 Prince Edward Island 5,600 Nova Scotia 52,840 New Brunswick 72,090 Quebec 1,356,790 Ontario 891,190 Manitoba 548,360 Saskatchewan 570,700 Alberta 644,390 British Columbia 929,730 Yukon 478,970 Northwest Territories 3,293,020 Total

9,215,430

Fresh water area 34,030 2,650 1,350 183,890 177,390 101,590 81,630 16,800 18,070 4,480 133300

Total land andfresh water area 405,720 5,660 55,490 73,440 1,540,680 1,068,580 649,950 652,330 661,190 947,800 483,450 3,426,320

755,180

9,970,610 21,568,311 22,992,604 24,343,181

—

Population, 1971 522,104 111,641 788,960 634,557 6,027,764 7,703,106 988,247 926,242 1,627,874 2,184,621 18,388 34,807

Population, 1976 557,725 118,229 828,571 677,250 6,234,445 8,264,465 1,021,506 921,323 1,838,037 2,466,608 21,836 42,609

Population, 1981 567,681 122,506 847,442 696,403 6,438,403 8,625,107 1,026,241 968,313 2,237,724 2,744,467 22,135 45,471

Of the total population in 1981, 20,216,340 were Canadian born, 3,867,160 foreign bom, 312,015 of the latter being USA born and 2,586,080 European born. The population (1981) born outside Canada in the provinces was in the following ratio (%): Newfoundland, 1-7; Prince Edward Island, 3-7; Nova Scotia, 4-9; New Brunswick, 3-9; Quebec, 8-2; Ontario, 23-5; Manitoba, 14-2; Saskatchewan, 8-6; Alberta, 16-3; British Columbia, 23; Yukon, 12-5; Northwest Territories, 6-1. In 1981, figures for the population, according to origin, were ': Single origins Austrian Belgian and Luxembourg British Czech and Slovak Chinese Dutch Finnish French German Greek Magyar (Hungarian) Italian Japanese Native Peoples

22,244,885 40,630 43,000 9,674,245 67,695 289,245 408,240 52,315 6,439,100 1,142,365 154,365 116,390 747,970 40,995 413,380

Polish Portuguese Romanian Russian Scandinavian Spanish Swiss Ukrainian Other single origins:

254,485 188,105 22,485 48,435 282,795 53,540 29,805 529,615 1,204,685

Multiple origins: British and French British and Other French and Other Others

1,838,615 430,255 859,800 124,940 423,620

' The 1981 Census was the first to accept more than one ethnic origin for an individual. Therefore, this table includes counts of single and multiple origins.

The native Indian registered population numbered 367,810 in 1981 and the Eskimo population was 25,390 in 1981. Populations of Census Metropolitan Areas (CMA) and Cities (proper), 1981 census: Toronto Montreal Vancouver Ottawa-Hull Edmonton Calgary

CMA 2,998,947 2,828,349 1,268,183 717,978 657,057 592,743

City proper 559,217 980,354 414,281 295,163 532,246 592,743

Winnipeg Quebec Hamilton St CatharinesNiagara St Catharines

CMA 584,842 576,075 542,095

City proper 564,473 166,474 306,434

304,353 —

— 124,018

CANADA Niagara Falls Kitchener London Halifax Windsor Victoria Regina St John's Oshawa

CMA —

287,801 283,668 211,121 246,110 233,481 164,313 154,820 154,217

City proper 70,960 139,734 254,280 114,594 192,083 64,379 162,613 83,770 117,519

269

Saskatoon Sudbury ChicoutimiJonquiere Chicoutimi Jonquiere Thunder Bay Saint John Trois Rivieres

CM A 154,210 149,923

City proper 154,210 91,829

135,172 — —

121,379 114,048 111,453

—

60,064 60,354 112,486 80,521 50,466

The total 'urban' population of Canada in 1981 was 18,435,927, against 17,366,970 in 1976. While the registration of births, marriages and deaths is under provincial control, the statistics are compiled on a uniform system by Statistics Canada. The following table gives the results for the year 1983, estimate: Province Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon Territory N.W. Territories

Living births Number 9,630 1,960 12,090 10,590 90,140 125,490 16,500 16,300 45,400 43,040 530 1,250

Marriages Number 3,250 940 6,270 4,660 38,750 69,590 8,060 7,480 18,910 21,060 240 280

Deaths Number 3,140 1,000 6,930 5,280 44,430 66,440 8,480 7,410 12,130 20,160 120 240

372,920

179,490

175,760

Immigrant arrivals by country of last permanent residence: Country UK France Germany Netherlands Greece Italy Portugal Other Europe Asia Australasia USA West Indies All other Total

1982 16,445 2,393 4,425 1,827 885 1,506 1,388 17,281 41,617 938 9,360 8,674 14,408

1983 5,737 1,651 2,518 672 601 826 820 11,487 36,906 478 7,381 7,216 12,864

121,147

89,157

C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from polar conditions in the north to cool temperate in the south, but with considerable differences between east coast, west coast and the interior, affecting temperatures, rainfall amounts and seasonal distribution. Winters are very severe over much of the country, but summers can be very hot inland. See individual provinces for climatic details. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The members of the Senate are appointed until age 75 by summons of the Governor-General under the Great Seal of Canada. Members appointed before 2 June 1965 may remain in office for life. The Senate consists of 104 senators, namely, 24 from Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 10 from Nova Scotia, 10 from New Brunswick, 4 from Prince Edward Island, 6 from Manitoba, 6 from British Columbia, 6 from Alberta, 6 from Saskatchewan, 6 from Newfoundland, 1 from the Yukon Territory and 1 from the Northwest Territories.

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Each senator must be at least 30 years of age, a born or naturalized subject of the Queen and must reside in the province for which he is appointed and his total net worth must be at least $4,000. The House of Commons is elected by the people, for 5 years, unless sooner dissolved. Women have the vote and are eligible. From 1867 to the election of 1945 representation was based on Quebec having 65 seats and the other provinces the same proportion of 65 which their population had to the population of Quebec. In the General Election of 1949 readjustments were based on the population of all the provinces taken as a whole. Generally speaking, this format for representation has prevailed in all subsequent elections with readjustments made after each decennial census. However, on 31 Dec. 1974, the law was changed so that it has reverted somewhat to the type of system that had prevailed initially. That is to say, Quebec is to be assigned a fixed number of seats in the House of Commons and the representation of the other provinces calculated by a quotient which reflects this fact. The thirty-second Parliament, elected in Sept. 1984, comprises 282 members and the provincial and territorial representation are: Ontario, 95; Quebec, 75; Nova Scotia, 11; New Brunswick, 10; Manitoba, 14; British Columbia, 28; Prince Edward Island, 4; Saskatchewan 14; Alberta, 21; Newfoundland, 7; Yukon Territory, 1; Northwest Territories, 2. State of parties in the Senate (Sept. 1984): Liberals, 73; Progressive Conservative, 23; Independent, 3; Independent Liberal, 1; Vacant, 4; total 104. State of the parties in the House of Commons (Sept. 1984): Progressive Conservatives, 211; Liberals, 40; New Democratic Party, 30; Independent, 1; total, 282. Elections took place on 4 Sept. 1984. The following is a list of Governors-General of Canada: Viscount Monck LordLisgar Earl of Dufferin Marquess of Lome Marquess ofLansdowne Lord Stanley of Preston Earl of Aberdeen Earl of Minto Earl Grey HRH the Duke ofConnaught DukeofDevonshire Viscount Byng of Vimy

1867-1868 1868-1872 1872-1878 1878-1883 1883-1888 1888-1893 1893-1898 1898-1904 1904-1911 1911-1916 1916-1921 1921-1926

Viscount Willingdon Earl ofBessborough Lord Tweedsmuir Earl of Athlone Field-Marshal Viscount Alexander of Tunis Vincent Massey Georges Philias Vanier Roland Michener Jules Léger Edward Schreyer

1926-1931 1931-1935 1935-1940 1940-1946 1946-1952 1952-1959 1959-1967 1967-1974 1974-1979 1979-1984

Governor-General: Jeanne Sauve. Nationalflag: Vertically red, white, red with the white of double width and bearing a stylized red maple leaf. The office and appointment of the Governor-General are regulated by letters patent, signed by the King on 8 Sept. 1947, which came into force on 1 Oct. 1947. In 1977 the Queen approved the transfer to the Governor-General functions discharged by the Sovereign. He is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the Act of 1867, by a Privy Council composed of Cabinet Ministers. The following is the list of the Conservative Cabinet in March 1985, in order of precedence, which in Canada attaches generally rather to the person than to the office: Prime Minister: Brian Mulroney. Veterans Affairs: George Hees. Government Leader in Senate: Senator Duff Roblin. External Affairs: Joe Clark. Employment and Immigration: Flora MacDonald. Deputy Prime Minister and Defence, President of Privy Council: Erik Nielsen. Justice, Attorney-General: John Crosbie. Public Works: Roch LaSalle. Transport: Donald Mazankowski. Solicitor General: Elmer MacKay. Health and Welfare: Jake Epp.

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Fisheries and Oceans: John Fraser. Regional Industrial Expansion: Sinclair Stevens. Agriculture: John Wise. Government Leader in House: Ramon Hnatyshyn. Indian Affairs and Northern Development: David Crombie. Treasury Board: Robert René de Cotret. National Revenue: Perrin Beatty. Finance: Michael Wilson. Multiculturalism: Jack Murta. Supply and Services: Harvie Andre. Fitness and Amateur Sport: Otto Jelinek. Science and Technology: Thomas Siddon. Wheat Board: Charles Mayer. Labor: William McKnight. Secretary of State: Walter McLean. Tourism: Thomas McMillan. Energy, Mines and Resources: Pat Carney. Small Businesses: André Bissonnette. Environment: Suzanne Blais-Grenier. Minister ojState for Transport: Benoit Bouchard. Youth: Andrée Champagne. Consumer and Corporate Affairs: Michel Côté. International Trade: James Kelleher. Mines: Robert Layton. Communications: Marcel Masse. Minister of Statefor Finance: Barbara McDougall. Forestry: Gerald Merrithew. External Relations: Monique Vézina. The salary of a member of the House of Commons is $52,800 with a tax-free allowance of $17,600. The salary of a senator is $52,800 with a tax-free allowance of $8,600. The salary and allowances of the Prime Minister total $132,700. The salary of the Speaker of the House of Commons is $93,200; the salary of the Speaker of the Senate is $78,400; the salary of the Opposition Leader is $93,200 and that of the National Democratic Party Leader, $77,100; all these also have tax-free allowances of from $ 12,600-$21,600. Future increases are to be pegged at 1% less than increases in the consumer price index or industrial composite index, whichever is lower. An Act to provide retiring allowances, on a contributory basis, to members of the House of Commons was given the Royal Assent on 4 July 1952. This Act was amended in July 1963; a member can now opt for a reduced retiring allowance in favour of an additional allowance for the widow; and provision has been made for retiring allowance for former Prime Ministers and their widows. The Canadian Parliamentary Guide. Annual. Ottawa Report of the Royal Commission on Dominion-Provincial Relations, Canada 1867-1939. 3 vols. Ottawa, 1940 Byers, R. B. (ed.), Canada Challenged: The Viability of the Confederation. Toronto, 1979 Information Canada, Organization ofthe Government of Canada. Loose-leaf service. Ottawa, 1970 Kennedy, W. F. M., Statutes, Treaties and Documents of the Canadian Constitution, 1713-1929. Toronto, 1930 Kemaghan, N. (ed.), Bureaucracy in Canadian Government, Selected Readings. Toronto, 1969 Morton, W. L., The Kingdom of Canada: A General History From Earliest Times. Toronto, 1969 Olmsted, R. A., Decisions ofthe Judicial Committee ofthe Privy Council Relating to the British North America Act, 1867, and the Canadian Constitution, 1867-1954. Ottawa, Queens' Printer, 1954 Russell, P. H. (ed.), Leading Constitutional Decisions: Cases on the British North America Act. Toronto, 1968

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D E F E N C E . The Department of National Defence was created by the National Defence Act, 1922, which established one civil Department of Government in place of the previous Departments of Militia and Defence, Naval Service and the Air Board. The Department now operates under authority of RSC 1970, c.Nl-4. The Minister of National- Defence has the control and management of the Canadian Forces and all matters relating to national defence establishments and works for the defence of Canada. He is the Minister responsible for presenting before the Cabinet, matters of major defence policy for which Cabinet direction is required. He is also responsible for the Canada Emergency Measures Organization which was renamed 'Emergency Planning Canada' in 1976. In Dec. 1976, the Minister of National Defence was named as minister responsible for all aspects of air Search and Rescue in the areas of Canadian SAR responsibility, and for the overall co-ordination of marine search and rescue including provision of air resources for marine SAR within Canadian territorial waters and in designated oceanic areas off the Pacific and Atlantic Coasts in accordance with agreements made with the United States Coast Guard. A group from Transport Canada, the Department of National Defence and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans was set up at the same time, as a co-ordinating body. Command Structure. The Canadian forces are organized on a functional basis to reflect the major commitments assigned by the Government. All forces devoted to a primary mission are grouped under a single commander who is assigned sufficient resources to discharge his responsibilities. Specifically, the Canadian forces consist of National Defence Headquarters and the following major commands reporting to the Chief ofthe Defence Staff: 1. Mobile Command provides units trained and equipped to support the United Nations or other peacekeeping operations; provides ground forces for the protection of Canadian territory; maintains combat formations in Canada for support of overseas commitments. It is comprised of 3 airportable combat groups in Canada; the United Nations force in Cyprus; the Canadian Airborne Regiment, and 1 combat training centre. The Militia and Air Reserve components are also controlled by Mobile Command. Strength (1984), 17,900. 2. Maritime Command. All maritime forces are under the Commander, Maritime Command, with headquarters in Halifax, Nova Scotia. In addition, he also exercises operational control of aircraft assigned to him by the commander Maritime Air Group for Maritime operations. The Commander Maritime Forces (Pacific), who is the Deputy Commander, has his headquarters in Esquimalt, British Columbia. Maritime Command is to defend Canada against attack from the sea; provide anti-submarine defence in support of NATO; provide sea transport in support of Mobile Command. Composition of the maritime forces includes 3 submarines, 4 destroyers, 19 smaller destroyer-escorts (of which 3 are in reserve), 3 supply ships, 1 maintenance ship, 6 patrol craft, 7 small support ships, 6 training vessels (ex-coastal minesweepers), 3 research ships and 30 auxiliaries and service craft. There are 16 naval reserve personnel units in major Canadian cities which form an essential component of Maritime Command. Active naval personnel strength in Maritime Command ships and shore establishments in 1984 was 19,017. 3. Air Command. Air Command's main task is to provide operationally-ready regular and reserve air forces to meet Canada's national, continental and international commitments, with regional commitments in the Prairie Region (Saskatchewan, Alberta, Manitoba and north west Ontario). The Command's headquarters are at Winnipeg, and it is organized in 6 operational groups: Fighter group (headquarters at North Bay, Ontario) maintains the sovereignty of Canada's air space, supports Mobile Command and Maritime Command training, and provides combat aircrew to meet Canada's North American Aerospace Defence (NORAD) and NATO commitments. It has command of all fighter aircraft resources in Canada. This includes two CF-5, two CF-101, and one CF-18 operational squadrons, as well as CF-5 and CF-18 training squadrons. As the

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CF-18 aircraft are brought in, the CF-5 and CF-101 operational squadrons will be phased out. Fighter Group also has command of two trans-continental radar lines, a space sensor unit and an electronic warfare squadron. The Air Transport Group (headquarters at Trenton, Ontario) provides airlift resources for Canadian Forces. It also undertakes national and international tasks as directed by the government. The group provides search and rescue service for downed aircraft and marine search and rescue operations. The heavy transport resources consist of 26 C-130 Hercules aircraft and five Boeing 707 aircraft. At Winnipeg, there are four of the Hercules equipped for navigation training. A squadron at Ottawa provides medium-range passenger transport with Cosmopolitan Falcon and Challenger aircraft. Two Dash 7 aircraft in Lahr, Germany, provide passenger transport in Europe. Transport and Rescue squadrons located at Comox, B.C., Edmonton, Trenton and Summerside, P.E.I., are equipped with a combination of Fixed Wing Aircraft and Helicopters. Either Buffalo or Twin Otter aircraft together with Twin Huey, Voyageur or Labrador helicopters are utilized. Squadrons at Edmonton operate Twin Otters and Hercules. Three helicopters are now based at Gander, Nfld., as 103 Rescue Unit, to enable a quicker response to emergency situations in Newfoundland, Labrador and surrounding waters. Search and rescue activities are co-ordinated from four centres located at Victoria, Edmonton, Trenton and Halifax. Rescue co-ordination centres are manned by Canadian Forces personnel with Canadian Coast Guard officers attached as advisors on liaison duties in all centres except Edmonton. In addition to the dedicated aircraft specially equipped and manned for search and rescue duties, other aircraft at various locations across Canada are also tasked and in some instances kept on standby to augment the SAR capability. Air Movements Units are located at Ottawa, Trenton, Edmonton and Lahr, Federal Republic of Germany, with detachments at Comox, B.C., Vancouver, Winnipeg, Greenwood, N.S., and Shearwater, N.S. The units provide passenger and cargo-processing services in support of the group's operations. Maritime Air Group, with headquarters at Halifax, N.S., is responsible for management of all air resources engaged in maritime patrol, maritime surveillance and anti-submarine warfare. The Commander of Maritime Air Group is responsible to the Commander Air Command but provides aircraft and crews to the Commander Maritime Command for the conduct of maritime surveillance patrols and anti-submarine operations. A close working relationship between Maritime Command and Maritime Air Group enables them to utilize a common operations centre. The group conducts surveillance flights over Canada's coastal waters and the Arctic archipelago. It also provides anti-submarine air forces as part of Canada's contribution to NATO. Mobile Command has operational control over Air Command's 10 Tactical Air Group whose headquarters are co-located at St. Hubert, Que. The group operates all rotary wing air resources engaged in the close support of land forces. This involves helicopter fire-support, reconnaissance and tactical transport over the battle area. 14 Training Group, located in Winnipeg, was formed in 1981 and is responsible to the Commander of Air Command for aircrew selection, aircrew training to wings standard, junior leadership and survival training, and meteorological training. This group develops training policy for Air Command and is responsible for monitoring and evaluating all Air Command training. On 1 April 1976, a new formation was added to the Air Command family; the Air Reserve Group. Commanded by a reserve officer of Brigadier General rank, the Air Reserve has its headquarters at Winnipeg. The Group was formed in recognition of the growing importance of the air reserves which, in the recent past, have seen developments in their numbers and in the types of aircraft flown. The Air Reserves comprises two wings from each with two squadrons located in Montreal and Toronto and three other squadrons located in Winnipeg, Edmonton and Summerside, P.E.I, In addition, Air Reserve Augmentation flights at nine

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different bases in Canada have been formed to provide a cadre of trained personnel available for war establishment augmentation and for base expansion. Other Air Reserve Augmentation flights are being planned. 4. Canadian Forces Training System. The Canadian Forces Training System headquarters is located at CFB Trenton, Ont. Its functions include the planning and conduct of all recruit, trades, specialist and other officer classification training common to more than one command. The Commander of Canadian Forces Training System also assumes regional commitments in the Central Region (the province of Ontario). 5. Canadian Forces Communications Command (CFCC) manages, operates and maintains strategic communications for the Canadian Forces and, in the event of emergencies, for the federal and provincial governments. The Command also provides points for interconnecting strategic and tactical networks and CFCC manages, operates and maintains the major DND automatic data processing centres. 6. The Reserves are composed of the Naval Reserve, the Militia and the Air Reserve. Projected National Defence expenditures for 1983-84 were $7,937m. at 31 Oct. 1983. Strength of the Regular Forces in 1984 was about 84,500. 7 . Canadian Forces Europe. The Canadian Forces allocated to support N A T O in Europe are part of Canadian Forces Europe. The land element is No. 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group operationally responsible to the Central Army Group. The air element, No. 1 Canadian Air Group, consisting of 3 CF-104 Starfighter squadrons, is operationally assigned to No. 4 Allied Tactical Air Force. These elements are located in the Baden-Baden area of Federal Republic of Germany and are supported administratively by CFB Europe at Lahr. 8. Functional Regional Organization. Functional Commanders have been assigned a regional as well as a functional responsibility for such actions as representation to provincial governments, aid of the Civil Power, emergency and survival operations, and administration of cadets, as well as regional support services for all units in the region. Canada has been divided into six regions, five of which have been assigned to functional Commanders as follows: Atlantic (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick) - Maritime Command; Eastern (Quebec) Mobile Command; Ontario, except N.W. Ontario - Canadian Forces Training System; Prairie (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and N.W. Ontario) - Air Command; and Pacific (British Columbia) - Maritime Forces Pacific. One region, comprising the Yukon Territory and Northwest Territories, has been assigned to Commainder Northern Region with Headquarters in Yellowknife, NWT. 9. Northern Region. Northern Region headquarters is located in Yellowknife, NWT. They act as a DND agency for contact and assistance to the territorial governments and federal government departments in the north. They also provide support to military activities by serving as liaison between elements of the operational commands and the various settlements in which they exercise. Police Forces. The police forces of Canada are organized in three groups: (1) the federal force, which is the Royal Canadian Mounted Police; (2) provincial police forces—the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec have their own provincial police forces, but all other provinces engage the services of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to perform parallel functions within their borders, and (3) municipal police forces—each urban centre of reasonable size maintains its own police force or engages the services of the provincial police, under contract, to attend to police matters. In addition, the Canadian National Railways, the Canadian Pacific Railway Company and the National Harbours Board have their own police forces. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is a civil force maintained by the federal government. It was established in 1873, as the

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North-West Mounted Police for service in what was then the North-West Territories and, in recognition of its services, was granted the use of the prefix 'Royal' by King Edward VII in 1904. Its sphere of operations was expanded in 1918 to include all of Canada west of Thunder Bay. In 1920 the force absorbed the Dominion Police, and its headquarters was transferred from Regina to Ottawa, and its title was changed to Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The force is responsible to the Solicitor-General of Canada and is controlled and managed by a Commissioner who holds the rank and status of a Deputy Minister. The Commissioner is empowered under the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Act to appoint members to be peace officers in all provinces and territories of Canada. The responsibilities of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police are national in scope. The administration of justice within the provinces, including the enforcement of the Criminal Code of Canada, is part of the power and duty delegated to the provincial governments. All provinces except Ontario and Quebec have entered into contracts with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to enforce criminal and provincial laws under the direction of the respective Attorneys-General. In addition, in these 8 provinces the Force is under agreement to provide police services to 187 municipalities, thereby assuming the enforcement responsibility of municipal as well as criminal and provincial laws within these communities. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is also responsible for all police work in the Yukon and Northwest territories enforcing federal law and territorial ordinances. The 16 Operational Divisions, alphabetically designated, make up the strength of the Force across Canada; they comprise 48 sub-divisions which include 712 detachments. Headquarters Division, as well as the Office of the Commissioner, is located in Ottawa. The Force maintains liaison officers in 31 countries and represents Canada in the International Criminal Police Organization which has its headquarters in Paris. Thorough training is emphasized for members of the Force. Recruits receive 6 months of basic training at the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Academy in Regina. This is followed by a further 6 months of supervised on-the-job training. The RCMP also operates the Canadian Police College at which its members and selected representatives of other Canadian and foreign police forces may study the latest advances in the fields of crime prevention and detection. Many of these advances have been incorporated into the operation of the Force. A teletype system links the widespread divisional headquarters with the administrative centre at Ottawa and a network of fixed and mobile radio units operates within the provinces. The focal point of the criminal investigation work of the Force is the Directorate of Laboratories and Identification; its services, together with those of divisional and sub-divisional units, and of 8 Crime Detection Laboratories, are available to police forces throughout Canada. The Canadian Police Information Centre at RCMP Headquarters, a duplexed computer system, is staffed and operated by the Force. Law Enforcement agencies throughout Canada have access via a series of remote terminals to information on stolen vehicles, licences and wanted persons. In Oct. 1982, the Force had a total strength of21,642 including regular members, special constables, civilian members and Public Service employees. It maintained 6,071 motor vehicles, 76 police service dogs and 144 horses. The Force has 13 divisions actively engaged in law enforcement, 1 Headquarters Division and 2 training divisions. In addition it maintains Marine Services and Air Services with headquarters at Ottawa. The Air Directorate has stations throughout Canada and maintains 36 aircraft. Eayrs, J., In Defence of Canada: Growing up Allied. Univ. of Toronto Press, 1980 Feasby, W. R. (ed.), Official History of the Canadian Medical Services, 1939-45. 2 vols. Dept. of National Defence. Ottawa, 1933-56 Swettenham, J., Canada and the First World War. Toronto, 1970

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Canada is a member of U N , the Commonwealth, Colombo Plan.

OECD, NATO

and

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ECONOMY Budget. Budgetary revenue and expenditure of the Government of Canada for years ended 31 March (in Canadian $ 1 m.): Revenue Expenditure

1980-81 45,200 59,350

1981-82 1982-83 54,068 55,123 67,674 79,776 ' Estimate.

1983-84' 58,626 90,076

1984-85' 67,326 96,926

Budgetary revenue, main items, 1984-85 (estimates in Canadian $lm.): Income tax, personal Income tax, corporation Sales Customs duties

32,810 9,806 7,315 3,600

Non-resident tax Oil export charge Natural gas tax Non-tax revenue

1,050 125 6,050

Details of budget estimates', 1984-85 (in Canadian $ 1 m.): Energy 4,016 External affairs 2,721 Economic development 11,251 Defence 8,782 Social affairs 39,707 Parliament 192 Justice and legal affairs 2,037 Services to government 4,274 Public debt charges 20,350 1 The Department of Finance now manages expenditure under a new system of broad categories (listed above) called 'envelopes'.

On 31 March 1984 the net debt (estimate) was $ 151,876m. Canadian Tax Foundation. The National Finances: An Analysis ofthe Revenues and Expenditures of the Government of Canada. Toronto. Annual

Currency. The denominations of money in the currency of Canada are dollars and cents. Tlie cent is one-hundredth part of a dollar. Subsidiary coins of the denominations of 1,5, 10,25 and 50 cents and $1 are in use. The monetary standard is gold of900 millesimal fineness (23 -22 grains of pure gold equal to 1 gold dollar). The Currency Act provides for gold coins in the denominations of $5, $ 10 and $20, which are legal tender. The British and US gold coins are also legal tender, at the par rate of exchange. The legal equivalent of the British sovereign is $4.86%. The Bank of Canada has the sole right to issue paper money for circulation in Canada. Restrictions introduced by the 1944 revisions of the Bank Act cancelled the right of chartered banks to issue or re-issue notes after 1 Jan. 1945; and in Jan. 1950 the chartered banks' liability for such of their notes as then remained outstanding was transferred to the Bank of Canada in return for payment of a like sum to the Bank of Canada. On 31 May 1970 the Canadian dollar which was stabilized at 92 • 50 US cents was allowed to fluctuate. The value of the US$ in Canadian funds was $.1-39 and £1 sterling=Canadian$l-48inFeb. 1985. The Bank of Canada issues notes, which are legal tender, in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500 and $1,000. Under the terms of the Bank of Canada Act, the bank is required to sell gold in bars of 400 oz. to any person tendering legal tender. This obligation is at the present time suspended by Order-in-Council. The exportation of gold from Canada is prohibited except by licence issued by the Minister of Finance to the Bank of Canada or a chartered bank. The Ottawa Mint was established in 1908 as a branch of the Royal Mint, in pursuance of the Ottawa Mint Act, 1901. In Dec. 1931 control of the Mint was passed over to the Canadian Government, and since that time has operated as the Royal Canadian Mint. The Mint issues silver, nickel, bronze and steel coins for circulation in Canada. In 1967, in celebration of Canada's Centennial of Confederation, a $20 gold piece was minted, the first gold coin struck since 1919. In 1935, on the occasion of His Majesty's Silver Jubilee, the Royal Canadian Mint issued the first Canadian silver dollars. Commemorative dollars were also issued in 1939 on the occasion of the visit of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth to Canada; in 1949, when Newfoundland became the tenth Province of Canada; in 1958, the one-hundredth anniversary of the establishment of the Colony of British Columbia; in 1964, the centennial of the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences

CANADA

277

which paved the way to confederation. The silver dollar bearing the design of the canoe manned by an Indian and a Voyageur has been issued in the years 1935-38, 1945-48, 1950-57, 1959-63, 1965, 1966 and 1972. For centennial year the Canada goose replaced the usual canoe design on the silver dollar. Because of a world-wide shortage of silver, the Government, in Aug. 1967, authorized the Mint to change the metal content ofthe25-cent and 10-cent coins. Commencing in Sept. 1968, the 10-cent, 50-cent and $1 coins were minted in pure nickel. Gold refining is one of the principal activities of the Mint. In 1983 the refinery treated over 3 • 8m. troy oz. of gold-containing materials and returned over 3m. troy oz. of fine gold to its clients. Of this total, 1,924,590 troy oz. of rough bullion were received from Canadian gold mines for treatment, containing 1,559,306 troy oz. of fine gold and 243,509 troy oz. of fine silver. Coin issued: Gold, $59,010,600; silver, $667,784; other metals, $56,309,560. Banking. Commercial banks in Canada are known as chartered banks and are incorporated under the terms of the Bank Act, which imposes strict conditions as to capital, notes in circulation, returns to the Dominion Government, types of lending operations and other matters. In Oct. 1983 there were 71 chartered banks (13 domestic banks and 58 foreign bank subsidiaries) incorporated under the provisions of the Bank Act; the 13 had 7,300 branches serving 2,000 communities in all provinces in Canada and nearly 300 branches in other countries. There was also one bank incorporated under the Quebec Savings Bank Act. The foreign bank subsidiaries operate 200 offices in Canada including 58 head offices. The Bank Act is subject to revision by Parliament every 10 years. Bank charters exp;re every 10 years and are renewed at each decennial revision of the Bank Act. The chartered banks make detailed monthly and yearly returns to the Minister of Finance and are subject to periodic inspection by the Inspector-General of Banks, an official appointed by the Government. There were 14 domestic banks at 31 July 1984 with assets of gold coin and bullion, $527m.; Bank of Canada deposits and notes, $5,683m.; deposits with banks, $249,884m.; cheques and other items in transit, $ 1,223m.; loans, $249,884m. (including mortgage loans, $37,248m.); total assets, $362,998m. The Bank of Canada Act, passed on 3 July 1934, provided for the establishment of a central bank for the Dominion. This bank commenced operations on 11 March 1935 with a paid-up capital of $5m. By reason of certain changes introduced into the composition of stockholders of the bank (for which see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1944 pp. 322-23), the Minister of Finance on behalf of Canada is the sole registered owner of the capital stock of the bank. The revised Bank Act, which came into force on 1 May 1967, requires the chartered banks, beginning Feb. 1968, to maintain a statutory cash ratio of 12% on demand deposits and 4% on other deposits, in the form of reserves with and notes on the Bank of Canada. A secondary reserve of 7% in treasury bills, government bonds, etc., is also required. All gold held in Canada by the chartered banks was transferred to the Bank of Canada along with the gold held by the Government as reserve against Dominion notes outstanding at the time of the commencement of operations of the Bank of Canada. The liability of the Dominion notes outstanding at the commencement of business of the Bank of Canada was assumed by the bank. In the year ending 31 March 1984, the Federal Business Development Bank authorized 2,157 loans for a total of $321 m. Weights and Measures. The legal weights and measures are in transition from the Imperial to the International system of units. The Metric Commission, established in June 1971, co-ordinates Canada's conversion to the metric system. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The net generation of electricity in 1983 was 395,464,438 mwh., of which utilities accounted for 357,422,816 mwh. Of the total, 263,363,135 mwh. was from hydro-electricity, 82,755,312 mwh. from conventional steam plants and 46,220,094 mwh. from nuclear plants. Demand (1983) was 3 59,811,922 mwh.

278

CANADA

Oil and Natural Gas. With the discovery of large oilfields in Alberta and development of the Alberta oil sands, the production of petroleum became a major Canadian industry. The Interprovincial Pipeline, Canada's longest oil pipeline, moves crude oil from Edmonton, Alberta, to Montreal, Quebec. The pipeline serves Canadian refineries from Edmonton to Montreal and since the middle of 1982, Canadian crude has been delivered from Montreal to Atlantic provinces and many in the USA. Another pipeline, Trans-Mountain, extends from Edmonton to Vancouver. Nine refineries, 5 in Canada and 4 in Washington State, are served by the pipeline. At the end of 1983 Canada's oil pipeline system had 36,357 km of line in operation. Net oil deliveries in 1981 were 145,616,106 cu. metres. The TransCanada natural gas pipeline is the longest in the world (10,626 km). It brings natural gas from the Alberta-Saskatchewan border across the prairies, through northern Ontario to Toronto, then eastward to Montreal. Natural gas pipeline mileage totalled 162,000 km in 1983. Total gas received from fields and processing plants in 1983, 65,132-3m. cu. metres; total gas supplied to gas utilities, 49,663- lm. cu. metres. Minerals. Alberta, Ontario, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Quebec are the chief mining provinces. Total value of minerals produced in 1983 (preliminary) was $35,976,477,000. Principal minerals produced in 1983 (preliminary) were as follows: Metallics Copper (kg) Nickel (kg) Zinc (kg) Iron ore (tonnes) Gold (grammes) Lead (kg) Silver (kg) Molybdenum (kg) Others Total metallics Non-metallics Asbestos (tonnes) Potash (KJO) (tonnes) Salt (tonnes) Sulphur, elemental (tonnes) Gypsum (tonnes) Others Total non-metallics Fuels Crude petroleum (cu. metres) Natural gas (1,000 cu. metres) Natural gas by-products (cu. metres) Coal (tonnes) Total fuels Structural materials Cement (tonnes) Sand and gravel (tonnes) Stone (tonnes) Clay products (bricks, tiles, etc.) Lime (tonnes) Total structural materials

Quantity (1,000) 624,998 121,836 970,803 32,382 70,746 258,904 1,106 10,523 ... ...

829 6,203 8,950 6,327 7,481 ...

Value ($1.000) 1,307,307 766,351 1,116,423 1,143,380 1,186,411 152,883 500,441 103,651 961,095

7,237,942 402,280 620,912 174,261 428,119 56,790 220,166

...

1,902,528

76,874 69,266 17,408 44,250

14,470,793 6,623,158 2,568,635 1,300,000

...

24,962,586

7,828 199,293 62,359 ... 2,126

650,833 514,609 269,394 127,357 139,638

279

CANADA

Value (in Canadian $ 1,000) of mineral production by provinces: Provinces Newfoundland Pr. Ed. Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba

1982 646,762 1,774 281,211 497,556 2,065,011 3,148,013 529,706

1983 1 690,366 1,500 248,501 513,673 1,916,634 3,566,696 637,629 1

Provinces 1982 1983' Saskatchewan 2,312,503 2,736,136 Alberta 20,913,347 22,218,213 British Columbia 2,768,954 2,826,730 Yukon Territory 169,120 59,362 N.W. Territories 503,065 561,037 Total

33,837,022

35,976,477

Preliminary.

Agriculture. Though the manufacturing industries now predominate, agriculture is still very important to the Canadian economy. It contributes about 2-9% of the net value of production and in 1982 accounted for about 12 • 1 % of the value of commodities exported. According to the census of 1981 the total land area is 2,278-6m. acres of which 162 -8m. acres are agricultural land. Grain growing, dairy fanning, fruit farming, ranching and fur farming are all carried on successfully. Total farm receipts (1983) $ 18,725m. The following table shows the estimated value of selected agricultural production for 1983, in Canadian $ 1,000: Wheat Oats and barley Rapeseed Potatoes Other vegetables Fruit

4,239,866 974,218 726,364 293,672 436,757 268,003

Tobacco Cattle and calves Hogs Sheep and lambs Dairy products Poultry and eggs

287,033 3,430,321 1,711,865 27,754 2,757,856 1,253,515

Number of occupied farms (census of 1982) was 316,770; average farm size, 540 acres. Field Crops. The estimated acreage and yield of the principal field crops, by provinces, 1984 were: Provinces Prince Edward Island Nova'Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Total, Canada

Provinces Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Total, Canada

Wheal 1,000 1,000 acres bu. 8 392 6 312 492 12 91 4,777 536 29,820 4,450 129,100 20,050 407,000 7,250 171,800 160 5,400 32,563

749,093

Barley 1,000 1,000 acres bu. 53 2,862 12 652 17 816 334 19,979 465 28,100 1,800 85,000 3,200 110,000 5,100 205,000 195 8,000 11,176

460,409

Tame 1,000 acres 125 177 172 2,470 2,570 1,300 1,800 3,900 740

13,254 1,000 acres —

Rye

hay 1,000 bu. 281 425 361 5,699 7,880 2,300 2,300 6,800 1,480

Oats 1,000 acres 30 19 37 408 300 570 850 1,250 60

27,526

3,524

1,000 bu. —

4 —

1,000 bu. 1,830 1,154 1,961 24,316 18,000 28,000 30,000 66,000 3,500

174,761

Corn for Grain 1,000 1,000 acres bu. —

224

—

6

433 53,147 211,000 12,000

—

—

9 86 220 370 210 10

197 3,180 7,710 8,650 5,550 330

544 2,200 180

—

16

1,200

909

25,841

2,946

277,780

—

—

—

—

280

CANADA

Provinces Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia

Canola-Rapeseed-Colza 1.000 1.000 acres bu.

Total, Canada

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

28 1,200 2,950 2,900 285

950 23,000 55,000 54,000 4,900

7,363

137,850

Mixed grains 1.000 1.000 bu. acres 82 5,002 342 5 2 125 8,084 131 670 43,100 125 5,600 80 2,400 5,900 140 15 640 1,251

71,193

Soybeans 1.000 acres — — — —

1,030 — — — —

1,030

34,700

Livestock. In parts of Saskatchewan and Alberta stockraising is still carried on as a primary industiy, but the livestock industry of the country at large is mainly a subsidiary of mixed farming. The following table shows the numbers of livestock (in 1,000) by provinces in July 1984: Provinces Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Total

Milch cows 3-0 23-3 35-2 28-4 675-0 540-0 78-0 85-0 157-0 880 1,712-9

Other caule 4-2 77-7 106-8 80-6 895-0 2,031-0 957-0 2,149-0 3,623-0 672-0

Sheep and lambs 5-6 8-4 44-8 11-0 125-0 242-0 37-0 66-0 190-0 610

Swine 19-5 122-0 158-0 133-0 3,405-0 3,490-0 1,028-0 625-0 1,400-0 275-0

10,596-3

790-8

10,655-5

Net production1 of farm eggs in 1982,493-5m. doz. ($471 -5m.); 1983, 504-8m. doz. ($493-0m.). 1 Includes exports.

Wool production (in tonnes), 1979, 1,066; 1980, 1,173; 1981, 1,407; 1982, 1,417; 1983,1,380. Dairying. The dairy products industry has shown a marked tendency toward? centralization; the number of establishments decreased between 1961 and 1982 from 1,710 to 402 (76 • 5%), whereas the number of employees has decreased only 2 3%. Production, 1983: Creamery butter, 103,579 tonnes; cheddar cheese, 99,446 tonnes; concentrated whole milk products, 168,853 kl; skim milk powder, 123,408 tonnes. Fruit Farming. The value of fruit production (excluding apples) in 1983 was (estimated in $1,000): Ontario, 72,735; British Columbia, 57,062 ; Quebec, 17,549; Nova Scotia, 11,379; New Brunswick, 5,618; Prince Edward Island, 1,756. Total apple production in Canada in 1983 was 484,853 tonnes. Tobacco. Commercial production of tobacco is confined to Ontario and Quebec. Farm cash receipts in 1983 totalled $280m. Forestry. As of 1982, the total area of land covered by forests is estimated at about 4,364,000 sq. km, of which 2,641,000 sq. km are classed as productive forest land. Lumber production (in cu. metres) in 1982 was 37,452,090. Lumber shipments from sawmills and planing mills in 1982 was 37,078,694 cu. metres valued at $3,103-7m. Pulp production was 18-5m. tonnes in 1982 and 20-6m. tonnes in 1981. In 1982 mill shipments of paper amounted to 12-lm. tonnes valued at $6,739,712,000. Fur Trade. In 1982-83 (year ended 30 June), 4,303,704 pelts valued at $91,130,048, were taken. In wild-life pelt production beaver led in total value,

281

CANADA

followed by muskrat, fox, lynx and raccoon. The most important animal raised on fur farms is mink, with 99% of the total production. The value of mink pelts from fur farms in 1983 was $43,357,145. There were, in 1983, 696 fur farms reporting fox and 618 mink. Fisheries. During 1983, landings in Canadian commercial fisheries reached 1,340,824 tonnes. The landed value was $874-2m. and the estimated market value was $2,109-9m. The landed value of principal fish in 1983 was (in $1,000): Salmon, 108,797; cod, 188,529; lobster, 141,883; herring, 67,604; scallops, 70,755; freshwater fish, 50,800; halibut, 21,101. Exports of fisheries' products, 1983, were valued at $ 1,571 • 5m. Canadian Mines Handbook. Annual. Toronto, from 1931 Canadian Fisheries, Highlights 1983. Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans, 1984

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry groups ranked by value of shipments, survey of 1982: Industry Food and beverages Tobacco products Rubber and plastics Leather industries Textile industries Knitting mills Clothing industries Wood industries Furniture and fixtures Paper and allied industries Printing, publishing and allied industries Primary metal industries Metal fabricating industries Machinery industries Transport equipment Electrical products industries Non-metallic mineral products Petroleum and coal products Chemical and chemical prods. Miscellaneous manufacturing All industries

Production workers 153,499 5,562 42,222 19,614 45,869 15,798 79,051 80,800 39,024 91,824

Wages ($1.000) 2,891,993 128,487 760,074 248,662 711,416 195,029 935,061 1,654,550 567,186 2,286,024

Cost of materials ($1,000) 22,220,366 827,505 2,265,008 549,584 2,416,680 491,615 1,902,606 4,097,919 1,183,540 7,371,202

Value of shipments ($1,000) 33,016,551 1,493,756 4,433,639 1,105,960 4,507,573 947,795 3,962,352 7,173,003 2,494,082 14,783,955

62,066 82,186 107,014 59,717 120,289 75,536 33,997 8,275 45,485 44,596

1,252,157 2,157,186 2,189,796 1,281,729 2,804,979 1,430,758 751,915 266,022 1,059,958 688,611

2,530,515 6,724,186 5,940,207 3,831,438 15,299,844 3,905,482 1,725,280 19,352,020 7,571,228 1,913,924

6,779,341 12,402,450 11,765,669 7,662,220 22,656,564 8,714,421 4,385,269 21,709,154 14,095,400 3,930,165

1,212,424

24,261,593

112,120,148

188,019,319

Labour. In Sept. 1984 the industrial distribution of the employed was estimated as follows (in 1,000): Service, 3,502; manufacturing, 1,966; trade, 867; transport, communication and other utilities, 1,959; construction, 580; public administration, 765; finance, insurance and real estate, 650; agriculture, 466; non-agriculture, 10,596; other primary industries, 301; total employed, 11,045; unemployed, 1,472. Union returns filed for 1982 in compliance with the Corporations and Returns Act (1962), show 183 labour organizations reporting on 13,598 local union branches in Canada. Union membership in 1982 was 3 05m. 33-3% of the wage and salary workers in major industry groups were members of reporting labour organizations, with about 61-4% of the organized workers members of unions affiliated with the Canada Labour Congress. Over 1 -42m. of the union members were in international unions, which have branches both in Canada and the USA and in most cases belong to central labour organizations in both countries. It is generally established by legislation, both federal and provincial, that a trade union to which the majority of employees in a unit suitable for collective bargaining belong, is given certain rights and duties. An employer is required to meet and negotiate with such a trade union to determine wage-rates and other working conditions of his employees. The employer, the trade union and the employees

282

CANADA

affected are bound by the resulting agreement. If an impasse is reached in negotiation conciliation services provided by the appropriate government board are available. Generally, work stoppages may not take place until an established conciliation procedure has been carried out and are prohibited while an agreement is in effect. Almost 28% of the workers affected by collective agreements are in the manufacturing industry. Freedom of association is a civil right in Canada, and under common law workers are at liberty to join unions and participate in their activities. This right has also been guaranteed by statutes which make it an offence to interfere with freedom of association. Certain specific minimum standards in regard to working conditions are set by law, for the most part by provincial labour legislation. Minimum wages, maximum hours of work or an overtime rate of pay after a specified number of hours, minimum weekly rest periods and annual vacations with pay are established for the majority of workers. Dept. of Labour, Working Conditions in Canadian Industry. Annual. Ottawa

Commerce. In the past the custom tariff of Canada has been protective, with a preferential tariff in favour of the UK, the Dominions, a number of Crown Colonies, and the Irish and South African Republics. At the Imperial Economic Conference of 1932, held in Ottawa, the UK developed further the policy of preferential tariffs to the Dominions, and on the part of the latter there was a general lowering of the existing tariffs against certain lines of UK manufacturers. Canada is one of the signatories of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and of the Kennedy Round agreements. Imports for home consumption and domestic exports (in Canadian $ 1,000) for calendar years (merchandise only): 1960 1970 1980

imports 5,842,695 13,951,903 69,273,844

Exports 5,255,575 16,820,098 74,445,976

1982 1983

1

Imports 67,855,703 75,586,566

Exports 81,824,824 88,506,249

' Estimate

Exports (domestic) by countries in 1983 (in Canadian $ 1,000): Australia 437,996 Bahamas 28,659 Bahrain 4,697 Bangladesh 114,622 Barbados 38,660 Belize 1,978 Bermuda 29,162 Britain (UK) 2,448,796 British Oceania 230 Cyprus 11,797 Falkland Islands 20 Fiji 2,596 Gambia 84 Ghana 22,627 Gibraltar 128 Guyana 3,919 Hong Kong 221,176 India 261,683 Ireland 89,150 Jamaica 64,366 12,319 Kenya Leeward and Windward Islands 31,793 Malawi 1,054 Malaysia 114,003 Malta 1,913 Mauritius and Dependencies 363 New Zealand 122,362 Nigeria 50,252 65,441 Pakistan Qatar 9,951

Sierra Leone Singapore South Africa, Republic of Sri Lanka Tanzania Trinidad and Tobago Uganda Zambia

891 126,735 165,770 52,911 17,023 150,838 3,090 2,902

Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Austria Belgium and Luxembourg Benin Bolivia Brazil Burma Cameroon Republic Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador

61 26 448,531 3,445 67,184 49,991 700,126 688 3,782 596,246 1,536 18,387 69,963 1,607,242 204,641 21,846 360,592 15,026 66,608 45,070 45,123

CANADA

283

Exports (continued) Egypt (U AR) El Salvador Ethiopia Finland France French Africa French Guiana French Oceania French West Indies Gabon German Democratic Rep. Germany, Fed. Rep. of Greece Greenland Guatemala Guinea Haiti, Republic of Honduras Hungary Iceland Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Italy Ivory Coast Japan Jordan Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait Lebanon Liberia Libya Madagascar Mauritania Mexico Morocco Mozambique Netherlands

136,226 18,574 27,619 86,952 626,034 12,435 22 1,367 2,034 925 202,195 1,155,674 48,677 3,468 15,266 1,262 15,034 11,482 14,838 5,450 209,890 206,177 116,276 124,827 549,357 3,056 4,728,174 12,809 1,244 556,088 64,652 14,236 4,253 78,466 1,748 3,891 375,260 59,385 10,516 958,139

Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Portuguese Africa Puerto Rico Romania Saudi Arabia Senegal Somalia Spain Spanish Africa St Pierre and Miquelon Sudan Suriname Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey USSR United Arab Emirates USA US Oceania US Virgin Islands Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam (South) Yemen (South) Yugoslavia Zaire Zimbabwe

10,052 15,930 230,490 29,544 1,203 82,014 76,828 43,747 60,694 314 121,654 16,398 364,772 19,259 823 137,079 220 23,763 15,476 3,494 146,727 197,805 79,009 342,180 146,486 4,943 47,195 102,094 1,761,789 31,001 64,527,697 1,678 24,640 6,617 231,779 1,203 1,794 48,878 11,589 4,554

Imports (for consumption) by countries in 1983 (in Canadian $ 1,000): Australia 357,487 50,583 Bahamas Bahrain 523 Bangladesh 10,465 Barbados 8,759 Belize 8,133 Bermuda 18,828 Britain (UK) 1,809,806 British Oceania 4 Cyprus 353 3 Falkland Islands Fiji 6,031 Gambia 36 3,174 Ghana — Gibraltar 19,214 Guyana Hong Kong 820,316 India 101,118 Ireland 107,266 Jamaica 109,697 Kenya 11,417 Leeward and Windward Islands 1,455 Malawi 6,361 Malaysia 115,581

Malta Mauritius and Dependencies New Zealand Nigeria Pakistan Qatar Sierra Leone Singapore South Africa, Republrc of Sri Lanka Tanzania Trinidad and Tobago Uganda Zambia

2,263 6,240 156,571 192,692 18,526 67 80 168,444 194,143 21,669 2,117 9,030 333 29

Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Austria Belgium and Luxembourg Benin Bolivia

209 9 150,103 6 52,917 108,103 296,024 14 16,557

284 Imports

CANADA (continued)

Brazil Burma Cameroon Republic Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt (UAR) El Salvador Ethiopia Finland France French Africa French Guiana French Oceania French West Indies Gabon German Democratic Rep. Germany, Fed. Rep. of Greece Greenland Guatemala Guinea Haiti, Republic of Honduras Hungary Iceland Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Italy Ivory Coast Japan Jordan Korea, North Korea, South Kuwait Lebanon Liberia Libya

499,958 292 1,290 134,158 245,767 94,249 62,506 56,287 54,443 136,925 19,432 62,035 98,733 35,026 2,048 75,763 840,977 593 501 79 2,951 10,117 1,576,555 44,119 2,388 20,823 19,297 10,753 35,962 27,984 3,234 40,043 526,750 897 55,872 798,389 10,450 4,409,441 199 79 791,405 18,283 769 92 126

Madagascar Mauritania Mexico Morocco Mozambique Netherlands Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Portuguese Africa Puerto Rico Romania Saudi Arabia Senegal Somalia Spain Spanish Africa St Pierre and Miquelon Sudan Suriname Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey USSR United Arab Emirates USA US Oceania US Virgin Islands Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam, South Yemen Yugoslavia Zaire Zimbabwe

725 2 1,079,233 15,818 301 349,382 11,932 32,120 313,517 46,551 3,689 119,627 88,290 39,512 58,337 15 146,669 50,131 94,044 1,285 366 181,945 —

520 692 7,376 415,843 408,161 50,201 925,451 60,554 2 1,549 12,809 33,252 2,432 54,103,299 243 1,172 32,767 1,004,453 178 65 29,007 17,011 6,470

Categories of imports in 198 3, estimate (in Canadian $ 1,000): Liveanimals Food, feed, beverages and tobacco Crude materials, inedible

132,165 4,870,314 7,201,111

Fabricated materials, inedible 14,005,689 End products, inedible 48,397,209 Special transactions 980,078

Categories of exports (Canadian produce) in 1983, estimate (in Canadian

$1,000):

Live animals Food, feed, beverages and tobacco Crude materials, inedible

339,761 10,073,910 14,392,802

Fabricated materials, inedible 30,011,051 End products, inedible 33,472,277 Special transactions 216,449

Total trade of Canada with U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ] m i m m 2 m 3 i m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK.

1,412,156 1,508,756 1,439,619 1,522,187 1,617,476 758,367 844,978 851,703 968,269 1,183,231

CANADA

285

Tourism. The number of visitors to Canada in 1983 was 34,255,508 (1982, 34,406,501). In 1983,32,479,769 came from USA (1982,32,431,840). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total highway mileage in Canada in March 1981 was 928,258 km. Of this total, federal highways 10,823 km, provincial highways 256,092 km and municipal highways 661,343 km. Expenditure (1981 -82) on roads, bridges, ferries, etc., from federal and provincial/territorial governments $4,139m. Federal expenditure was chiefly devoted towards the upkeep of national-park roadways and nationally owned bridges and ferries, although for the 'Mackenzie Highway' from Grimshaw, Alberta, to Hay River, Northwest Territories, the federal government paid about 68% of the total cost. In general, however, highways are provincially controlled and maintained, and the responsibility of assisting municipalities and townships falls directly on the provinces. The Alaska Highway is part of the Canadian highway system. For the TransCanada Highway see map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 6 2 . Registered motor vehicles totalled 14,560,903 in 1983 (preliminary); they included 10,731,520 passenger cars and taxis, 3,362,972 trucks and buses and 466,411 motor cycles. Urban Transit. In 1982 urban transit systems (urban and suburban passenger transportation, electrical railway, trolly coach, bus or subway) carried 1,331,649,961 fare passengers 710,436,750 km for an operating revenue of $1,465,327,081. In 1982, intercity and rural bus operations carried 29,772,000 fare passengers 195,104,087 km, earning revenues of$323,512,665. Railways. The total length of track operated during 1982 in Canada was 98,927 km. Mainline track, 38,030 km; branch line, 34,647 km; industrial and siding track, 26,250 km. Canada has 2 great trans-continental systems: the Canadian National Railway system (CN), a government-owned body which operates 52,507 km (1982) of track, and the Canadian Pacific Railway, a joint-stock corporation operating 34,771 km (1982). From 1 April 1978, a government funded organization known as Via Rail took over passenger services formerly operated by CP and CN. Selected statistics of Canadian railways for 1982: Passenger revenue $195-8m.; freight revenue, $4,514-5m.; total railway operating revenues, $6,301-3m.; total operating expenses, $6,185 -2m. Aviation. Civil aviation in Canada is under the jurisdiction of the federal government. The technical and administrative aspects are supervised by the Administrator of Air Transportation, while the economic functions are assigned to the Canadian Transportation Commission. In 1982 Canadian airports handled 45,035,953 passengers, 138,184,000 kg of mail and 473,657,000 kg of cargo. Operating revenue (1982) was $4,664-7m.; operating expenditure, $4,679 -2m. Shipping. The registered shipping on 31 Dec. 1983, including vessels for inland navigation, totalled 35,622 with a gross tonnage of 5,360,433. A total of 50,539 vessels (international shipping) visited Canadian ports in 1983, loading and unloading 178m. tonnes of cargo. The major canals in Canada are those of the St Lawrence-Great Lakes waterway with their 7 locks, providing navigation for vessels of 25-75-ft draught from Montreal to Lake Ontario; the Welland Canal by-passing the Niagara River between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie with its 8 locks; and the Sault Ste Marie Canal and lock between Lake Huron and Lake Superior. These 16 locks overcome a drop of 582 ft from the head of the lakes to Montreal. The St Lawrence Seaway was opened to navigation on 1 April 1 9 5 9 (see map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 7 ) . In 1983, traffic on the Montreal-Lake Ontario Section of the Seaway numbered 3,870 vessels carrying 45 • 1 m. cargo tonnes; on the Welland Canal Section, 4,707 vessels with 50-1 m. gross tonnes. Value of fixed assets was $602,095,285 and investments, $42,529,388 at 31 March 1984.

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Coast Guard. The Canadian Coast Guard (formed in 1962) is responsible to the Minister of Transport. In 1984 it comprised 7 heavy icebreakers; a heavy icebreaker/cable repair vessel; 7 medium icebreakers; 3 light icebreakers; 25 aid tenders; 3 special shallow draft vessels; 60 search and rescue vessels (all types and sizes); 4 hovercraft and 34 helicopters. Post. In May 1984 there were 8,376 postal facilities in operation and 6,400m. pieces of mail were processed. Gross revenue (estimate 1982—83) was $2,200m.; gross expenditure, $2,600m. There were 919,143 miles (1,479,216 km) of telegraph wire in Canada in 1979 (including external cable landed in Canada). There were 16 -2m. telephones in July 1984. Broadcasting. There were 991 originating stations operating in Canada at 31 March 1984, of which 109 were Canadian Broadcasting Corporation stations, 116 were CBC affiliates and 489 were privately owned and operated. Included were 410 AM radio stations, 312 FM radio stations and 211 television stations. Radio and television licence fees were abolished in 1953. Wireless 'beam' stations are operated at Montreal for direct communications with Great Britain and Australia, and a station at Louisburg, N.S., provides a longdistance service to ships. Cinemas (1982). There were 983 cinemas with a seating capacity of 619,511 and 270 drive-in theatres with a capacity of 136,241 cars. Newspapers (1983). There were 118 daily newspapers, of which 106 were in English, 10 in French and 2 others. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court in Ottawa, having general appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases throughout Canada. There is an Exchequer Court, which is also a Court of Admiralty. There is a Superior Court in each province and county courts, with limited jurisdiction, in most of the provinces, all the judges in these courts being appointed by the Governor-General. Police, magistrates and justices of the peace are appointed by the provincial governments. For the year ended 31 Dec. 1983, 2,143,256 Criminal Code Offences were reported and 402,851 persons were charged. Canadian Legal and Directory. Toronto. Annual

Religion. Membership of the leading denominations in 1981: Province Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon Northwest Territories Total, Canada

Roman Catholic 204,430 56,415 310,140 371,100 5,609,685 2,986,175 269,070 279,840 573,495 526,355 5,470 18,215

United Church of Canada 104,835 29,645 169,605 87,460 126,275 1,655,550 240,395 263,375 525,480 548,360 3,310 3,725

Anglican Church of Canada 153,530 6,850 131,130 66,260 132,115 1,164,315 108,220 77,725 202,265 374,055 4,665 15,295

Presbyterian 2,700 12,620 38,285 12,070 34,625 517,020 23,910 16,065 63,890 89,810 615 505

Lutheran 460 210 12,315 1,810 17,655 254,175 58,830 88,785 144,675 122,395 915 665

11,210,385

3,758,015

2,436,375

812,110

702,905

Other denominations: Baptist, 696,850; Greek Orthodox, 314,870; Jewish, 296,425; Ukrainian (Greek) Catholic, 190,585; Pentecostal, 338,790; Mennonite, 189,370; other, 3,136,815. Education. Under the Constitution the various provincial legislatures have power over education. These powers are subject to certain qualifications respecting the

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rights of denominational and minority language schools. Newfoundland and Quebec legislations provide for Roman Catholic and Protestant school boards. School Acts in Ontario, Saskatchewan and Alberta provide tax support for both public and separate schools. School board revenues derive from local taxation on real property and government grants from general provincial revenue. Except in Quebec the number of private elementary and secondary schools is small; their enrolments in 1983-84 were less than 5% of the total elementarysecondary enrolment. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada finances schools for Indian and Inuit children; the enrolment in 1983-84 was 38,937. In 1982-83,426,400 full-time regular students (graduates and under-graduates) were enrolled in universities. In 1982 some 28,800 took first degrees in social sciences, commerce, economics, law, political science and geography; 16,200 in education; 8,700 in humanities; 7,200 in engineering and applied sciences; 5,000 in agriculture; 6,100 in health subjects; 4,900 in mathematics and physical sciences and 2,800 in fine and applied arts. Unclassified, 7,700. The following statistics give information, for 1983-84, about all elementary and secondary schools, public, federal, private and blind and deaf: Province Newfoundland Prince Edward Island Nova Scotia New Brunswick Quebec Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta British Columbia Yukon Northwest Territories National Defence (overseas) Total

Schools 629 73 595 471 2,788 5,539 836 1,057 1,656 1,891 26 72 10

Teachers 8,236 1,319 10,6U 7,596 71,560 94,721 12,324 11,252 24,640 27,860 250 660 230

Pupils 148,052 25,575 180,587 147,847 1,165,378 1,864,514 219,401 211,118 464,358 529,920 4,548 12,901 3,003

15,643

271,259

4,977,202

Health. Canada achieves national health insurance through a series of interlocking provincial plans which qualify the provinces for federal financial support if they meet the minimum criteria of the federal legislation with respect to comprehensiveness of coverage with regard to services, universality of coverage with regard to people, accessibility to services uninhibited by user charges, portability of benefits and non-profit administration by a public agency. There are also related, unconditional, federal contributions made by yielding points to provinces. The federal contributions to the provinces cover about 50% of the provincial costs for the insured services of the national health program. (In the health field the federal government also furnishes the provinces with per capita cash contributions towards the cost of extended health care services; e.g., nursing home care, certain home care services; these are unconditional except that the provinces must provide appropriate information. The Canadian approach to the development of national health programmes has been to progressively provide major segments of personal health care on a publicly financed basis to virtually the whole population, and this is achieved with the cooperation of the provinces, which exercise the primary constitutional prerogative in health matters. The insurance programmes are designed to ensure that all residents of Canada have reasonable access to needed medical and hospital care on a prepaid basis. The insured services of the Hospital Insurance Programme, which commenced in 1958, include in-patient care (including necessary drugs, diagnostic tests, etc.); outpatient services, although optional under the national programmes, are insured in all provinces. Complementing the protection of the Hospital Insurance Programme was the Medical Care Programme, inaugurated in 1968, which covered all medically required services rendered by medical practitioners no matter where the services are rendered, and certain surgical-dental procedures undertaken by dental surgeons in hospital. All 10 provinces and the 2 northern territories participated in

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both programmes, which provided a health insurance coverage for over 99% of the population (or over 24m. people). From April 1, 1984 the original federal health insurance legislation was consolidated under the Canada Health Act. The Act retains and further clarifies the five programme conditions that the provinces must satisfy in order to qualify for full federal funding. The approach taken by Canada is one of state-sponsored health insurance. Accordingly, the advent of insurance programmes produced little change in the ownership of hospitals, almost all of which are owned by non-government nonprofit corporations, or in the rights and privileges of private medical practice. Patients are free to choose their own general practitioners and/or specialists without losing their insured benefits (there is a minor exception in Quebec involving the non-emergency services of a few physicians). Except for 0-5% of the population whose care is provided for under other legislation (such as serving members of the Canadian Armed Forces), all residents are eligible, regardless of whether they are in the work force. Benefits are available without upper limit so long as they are medically necessary, provided any registration obligations are met. Benefits are also portable during any temporary absence from Canada anywhere in the world— subject to any limitation a province may impose upon treatment electively sought outside the particular province without prior approval. Provinces may prescribe limits on benefits payable for out-of-province care. In addition to the benefits qualifying for federal contributions, provinces are free to provide additional benefits at their own discretion. Most provinces provide such benefits, which cover a variety of services (e.g., optometric care, children's dental programme, drug benefits) depending upon the province. Most provinces fund their portion of health insurance costs out of general provincial revenues. Three provinces and one territory levy premiums which meet part of the provincial costs, 2 provinces impose a levy on employers, and 1 province utilizes part of its sales tax revenues for this purpose. Four provinces have nominal co-charges for short-term hospital care. Several provinces have charges for long-term hospital care geared, approximately, to the room and board portion of the OAS-GIS payment mentioned under Social Welfare. Social Welfare. The social security network provides financial benefits to individuals and their families through a variety of programmes administered by federal, provincial and municipal governments. Federally, the Department of National Health and Welfare is responsible for research into the areas of health and social issues, provision of grants and contributions for various social services, improvement and construction of health facilities and the administration of several of Canada's income security programmes. These programmes are: The Family Allowances programme, introduced in 1945 and amended in 1973; the Old Age Security programme, introduced in 1952 and to which were added the Guaranteed Income Supplement in 1966 and the Spouse's Allowance in 1975, and the Pension Plan which came into being in 1966. Also implemented in 1966 was the Assistance Plan, which provides for federal-provincial cost-sharing of social assistance payments and social service programs provided by provincial and, in some cases, municipal governments. The 1973 Family Allowances Act provides for the payment of a monthly Family Allowance ($29.95 in 1984) in respect of a dependent child under the age of 18 who is a resident of Canada, who is wholly or substantially maintained by a parent or guardian. At least one parent must be a Canadian citizen, or admitted to Canada as a permanent resident under the Immigration Act, or admitted to Canada for a period of not less than 1 year, if during that time his or her income is subject to Canadian Income Tax. Benefits are also paid under prescribed circumstances to Canadian citizens living abroad. A Special Allowance ($44.68 monthly in 1984) is paid on behalf of a child under the a$e of 18 who is maintained by a welfare agency, a government department or an institution. In some cases, payment is made directly to a foster parent. The Special Allowance was paid on behalf of36,259 children across Canada in March 1984. Family Allowances are considered as income for income-tax purposes for the parent who claims an exemption for the child; Special Allowances are not taxable.

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289

During the month of March 1984, over 3-6m. Canadian families (including 6-6m. eligible children) received Family Allowances; the total bill for FA and Special Allowances in the 1983-84 fiscal year was (estimate) $2,328m. Family Allowance benefits are increased each year in Jan. in accordance with the Consumer Price Index; for 1983 and 1984, however, indexation for regular benefits, (Special Allowances are excluded from this provision), has been limited to 6% and 5% respectively, in accordance with a federal policy on fiscal restraints announced in late 1982. The Family Allowances Act specifies that a provincial government may request the federal government to vary the allowance rates payable within the province subject to the fulfilment of stipulated conditions. Only the provinces of Alberta and Quebec have exercised this option. The Old Age Security (OAS) pension is payable to persons 65 years of age and over who satisfy the residence requirements stipulated in the Old Age Security Act. The amount payable, whether full or partial, is also governed by stipulated conditions, as is the payment of an OAS pension to a recipient who absents himself from Canada. O A S pensioners with little or no income apart from O A S may, upon application, receive a full or partial supplement known as the Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS). Entitlement is normally based on the pensioner's income in the preceding year, calculated in accordance with the Income Tax Act. The spouse of an O A S pensioner, aged 60 to 64, meeting the same residence requirements as those stipulated for OAS, may be eligible for a full or partial Spouse's Allowance (SA). SA is payable, on application, the annual combined income of the couple being subject to an income test which does not include the O A S pension or the Guaranteed Income Supplement. In 1979, the SPA program was expanded to include a spouse, who is eligible for SPA in the month the pensioner spouse dies, until the age of 65 or until remarriage. This provision is called the Extended Spouse's Allowance. The O A S pension is taxable; GIS and SA are not taxable. However, they must be included in computing the net income of a dependant for income-tax purposes. OAS, GIS and SA are subject to an increase every Jan., April, July and Oct. to reflect increases in the Consumer Price Index. In Oct. 1984, the basic O A S pension was $272.17 monthly; the maximum Guaranteed Income Supplement was $298.47 monthly for a single pensioner or a married pensioner whose spouse was not receiving a pension or a Spouse's Allowance, and $210.67 monthly for each spouse of a married couple where both are pensioners. The maximum Spouse's Allowance for the same quarter was $482.84 monthly (equal to the basic pension plus the maximum GIS married rate) and $508.06 for the spouse of a deceased pensioner. The Canada Pension Plan (CPP) is designed to provide workers with a basic level of income protection in the event of retirement, disability or death. Benefits are determined by the contributor's earnings and contributions made to the Plan, and are adjusted annually to reflect cost of living increases. Contribution is compulsory for most employed and self-employed Canadians 18 to 65 years of age. The Canada Pension Plan does not operate in Quebec, which has exercised its constitutional prerogative to establish a similar plan, the Quebec Pension Plan (QPP), to operate in lieu of CPP; there is reciprocity between the two to ensure coverage for all adult Canadians in the labour force. CPP/QPP contributions are deductible for income tax purposes, while benefits are taxable. Benefits are adjusted annually to fully reflect increases in the Consumer Price Index. Both CPP and Q P P are funded by equal contributions of 1-8% of pensionable earnings from the employer and 1 -8% from the employee (self-employed persons contribute the full 3*6%), in addition to the interest on the investment of excess funds. In 1983, the range of yearly pensionable earnings was from $2,000 to $20,500; a person who earned and contributed at less than the maximum level receives monthly benefits at rates lower than the maximum allowable under CPP/QPP. For CPP, an advisory committee representing employers, employees, selfemployed persons and the public regularly reviews the operation of the plan, the

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state of investments and the adequacy of coverage and benefits, and reports to the Minister of National Health and Welfare. CPP authorizes reciprocal agreements with other countries to achieve portability of pensions. Such agreements have been made with Italy, France and Portugal, and agreements with the US, Greece and Jamaica have been signed, but are not yet (1983) in force. In general, parallel provisions apply under QPP. In March 1984, over l-6m. Canadians received Canada Pension Plan benefits; an additional 518,000 persons received Quebec Pension Plan benefits. Total expenditures during 1983—84 were just over $3,657m, for CPP and $ 1,281m. for QPP. Under the Canada Assistance Plan, the federal government pays 50% of the cost, to the provinces, of assistance to persons in need; welfare services provided to persons who are in need or likely to become in need if they do not receive such services (welfare services means services having as their object the lessening, removal or prevention of the causes and effects of poverty, child neglect or dependence on public assistance); and work activity projects which are designed to improve the employability of persons who have unusual difficulty in finding or retaining jobs or in undertaking job training. 'Need' is defined by each province and is determined by the 'budget deficit' method, that is, the difference between an applicant's requirements and his income and resources. The rates of assistance payable are also determined by provincial authorities and are non-taxable. Provinces generally adjust social assistance rates once a year in accordance with certain economic indicators. In addition to persons in need as defined in the Plan, federal contributions may be made towards agency costs of providing welfare services to persons who are likely to become in need, if such services are not provided. The amount of federal subsidy is dependent on the proportion of eligible persons as determined by the use of an income test or a pre-determined income level for different sized families. In March 1983, close to 1 -8m. Canadians (representing 985,000 households) were in receipt of direct financial assistance from provincial programmes shareable under the Canada Assistance Plan. Total payments to the provinces under the Plan (including General Assistance, Homes for Special Care, Child Welfare, Health Care, Welfare Services and Work Activity) for the 1982-83 financial year were over $3,190m.; this amount includes the estimated value of income tax points transferred to the province of Quebec by the Department of Finance under the Interim Arrangements Act. Unemployment Insurance covers about 95% of workers. To be insurable, workers must be employed by the same employer for at least 15 hours a week or make at least $85.00 a week (1984). Neither the self-employed nor workers over 65 may insure their earnings. Benefit rate is 60% of average weekly insurable earnings. Maximum weekly benefit (1984) $255. Workers' compensation coverage is compulsory for employees in specified trades and industries. Maximum compensation is 75% of gross earnings except in Quebec, Alberta and New Brunswick where it is 90% of net earnings. The New Horizons Program, established in 1972 and administered by the Department of National Health and Welfare, is designed to encourage the selfdetermination and community involvement of retired Canadians. From inception late in 1972 until July 1983, close to $119m. had been approved for over 19,000 projects. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Canada in Great Britain (Macdonald House., Grosvenor Sq., London, W1X 0AB) High Commissioner: Roy McMurtry. Of Great Britain in Canada (80 Elgin St., Ottawa, K1P 5 K.7) High Commissioner: Sir Derek Day, KCMG. Of Canada in the USA (1746 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Allan E. Gotlieb.

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Of the USA in Canada ( 100 Wellington St., Ottawa) Ambassador: Paul H. Robinson, Jr. Of Canada to the United Nations Ambassador: Stephen Lewis. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Statistics C a n a d a , Ottawa, has been the official central statistical organization for Canada since 1918. The Bureau, which reports to Parliament through the Minister of Industry, Trade and C o m m e r c e , serves as the statistical agency for federal government departments; co-ordinates the statistics of the provincial governments along national lines; and channels all Canadian statistical data to internal organizations. Statistician Chief oj Canada: Dr Martin B. Wilk. Publications of Statistics Canada are classified as periodical (issued more frequently than once a year), annual, biennial and occasional publications. The occasional publications frequently supplement the annual reports and usually contain historical information. A complete list is contained in the 1978-79 edition of the Statistics Canada catalogue and supplements, available on request. Official publications include: The Canada Year Book. Annual, from 1905 Canada, Official Handbook. Annual, f r o m 1930 Canadian Statistical Review. Monthly, with weekly supplements, f r o m 1948 Eleventh Decennial Census of Canada, 1971. Ottawa, 1972 Atlas and Gazetteer of Canada. Dept. of Energy, Mines and Resources. Ottawa, 1969 Cambridge History of the British Empire. Vol. VI. Canada and Newfoundland. Cambridge, 1930 Canadian Almanac and Directory. Toronto. Annual Canadian Annual Review. Annual, from I960 Canadian Dictionary: French-English. Toronto, 1970 Canadiana: A List of Publications of Canadian Interest. National Library, Ottawa. Monthly, with annual cumulation. 1951 ff. Cook, R., French-Canadian Nationalism: An Anthology. Toronto, 1970.—The Maple Leaf Forever: Essays on Nationalism and Politics in Canada. Toronto, 1971 Creighton, Donald G . , Canada 's First Century. Toronto, 1970.—Towards the Discovery of Canada. Toronto, 1974 Dewitt, D. B., and Kirton, J. J., Canada as a Principal Power: A Study m Foreign Policy. Toronto, 1983 Dictionnaire Bélisle de la languefrançaise au Canada: dictionnaire oxford. 1970 Dictionnaire canadien:français-anglais-français. Toronto, 1962 Encyclopedia Canadiana. 10 vols. Rev. ed. Ottawa, 1967 Granatstein, J. L., Twentieth Century Canada. Toronto, 1983 Hardy, W. G., From Sea to Sea: Canada, 1850-1920: The Road to Nationhood. Toronto, 1960 H o c k i n , T . A., Government in Canada. London, 1976 Kerr, D. G . G . , Historical Atlas ofCanada. Toronto, 1960 Leacy, F. H., (ed.) Historical Statistics of Canada. G o v e r n m e n t Printer, Ottawa, 1983 Lower, A. R. M., Colony to Nation: A History of Canada. 4th ed. Toronto, 1964 M c C a n n , L. D., (ed.) Heartland and Hinterland: A Geography of Canada. Scarborough, Ontario, 1982 Mallory, J. R., The Structure of Canadian Government. Toronto, 1971 Moir, J., and Saunders, R., Northern Destiny: A History of Canada. Toronto, 1970 Nurgitz, N., and Segal, H., No Small Measure: The Progressive Conservatives and the Constitution. Ottawa, 1983 Smith, D. L., (ed.) History of Canada: An Annotated Bibliography Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 National Library Sylvestre.

The National Library of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Librarian:

J. G u y

CANADIAN PROVINCES The 10 provinces have each a separate parliament and administration, with a Lieut.-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General in Council at the head of the executive. They have full powers to regulate their own local affairs and dispose of their revenues, provided only they do not interfere with the action and policy of the central administration. Among the subjects assigned exclusively to the provincial

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legislatures are: the amendment of the provincial constitution, except as regards the office of the Lieut.-Governor; property and civil rights; direct taxation for revenue purposes; borrowing; management and sale of Crown lands; provincial hospitals, reformatories, etc.; shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer and other licences for local or provincial purposes; local works and undertakings, except lines of ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, etc., extending beyond the province or connecting with other provinces, and excepting also such works as the Dominion Parliament declares are for the general good; marriages, administration of justice within the province; education. Local Government. Under the terms of the British North America Act the provinces are given full powers over local government. All local government institutions are, therefore, supervised by the provinces, and are incorporated and function under provincial acts. The acts under which municipalities operate vary from province to province. A municipal corporation is usually administered by an elected council headed by a mayor or reeve, whose powers to administer affairs and to raise funds by taxation and other methods are set forth in provincial laws, as is the scope of its obligations to, and on behalf of, the citizens. Similarly, the types of municipal corporations, their official designations and the requirements for their incorporation vary between provinces. The following table sets out the classifications as at 1 Jan. 1977. Type and size of group Type: Regional municipalities Metropolitan and regional municipalities' Counties and regional districts Unitary municipalities Cities Towns Villages Rural municipalities 4 Quasi-municipalities s Total Population size group (1976 census): Unitary municipalities— Over 100,000 50,000 to 99,999 10,000 to49,999 Under 10,000 Total Type and size of group Type: Regional municipalities Metropolitan and regional municipalities' Counties and regional districts Unitary municipalities Cities Towns Villages Rural municipalities 4 Quasi-municipal ¡ties5

Nfld.

PEI PEÍ

NS

NB

Que.

Ont.

Man.

—

—

—

—

75

39

—

— — 129 2 127 s! . — — — — 171

— — 36 1 8 27 — — — —

— — 65 3 38 — — 24 — —

— — 112 6 21 85 — — — —

3 72 1,500 64 195 242 999 —

12 27 784 45 J 144 120 475 13

— — 185 5 35 40 105 17

300

36

65

112 1 12

1,575

836

202

— 1 5 123

— — — 1 35

1 2 17 45

— 2 5 105

4 14 72 1,410

17 14 76 677

3 181

129

36

65

Sask.

112

Alia. Alta.

BC

YT

—

—

28

—

NWT —

Canada 142

— — 783 11 135 344 293 7

— — 327 10 102 167 48 22

— 28 140 33 10 59 38 —

— — 3 2 1 — — 4

— — 7 1 4 2 — 10

15 127 4,071 183 820 1,086 1,982 244

Total 790 349 168 7 17 4,457 ' Includes urban communities in Quebec; and Metropolitan Toronto, regional municipalities and the district municipality in Ontario. 2 J Includes the 5 boroughs of Metropolitan Toronto. Includes 11 rural districts. 4 Includes municipalities in Nova Scotia; parishes, townships, united townships and municipalities in Quebec; townships in Ontario; rural municipalities in Manitoba and Saskatchewan; municipal districts and counties in Alberta; and districts in British Columbia. s Includes local government communities, local improvement districts and the metropolitan area in Newfoundland; improvement districts in Ontario and Alberta; local government districts in Manitoba; local improvement districts in Saskatchewan and the Yukon Territory; and hamlets in the Northwest Territories.

293

ALBERTA Type and size of group Population size group (1976 census): Unitary municipalities— Over 100,000 50,000 to 99,999 10,000 to 49,999 Under 10,000 Total

Sask.

BC

YT

3 9 26 102

-

6 775

2 — 14 311

1 2

— — — 7

30 42 227 3,772

783

327

140

3

7

4,071

2

Alta.

NWT

Canada

ALBERTA H I S T O R Y . The southern half of the province of Alberta was part of Rupert's land which was granted by royal charter in 1670 to the Hudson's Bay Company. The intervention by the North West Company in the fur trade after 1783 led to the establishment of trading posts. In 1869 Rupert's land was transferred from the Hudson's Bay Company (which had absorbed its rival in 1821) to the new Dominion, and in the following year this land was combined with the former Crown land of the North Western Territories to form the Northwest Territories. In 1882 'Alberta' first appeared as a provisional 'district', consisting of the southern half of the present province. In 1905 the Athabasca district to the north was added when provincial status was granted to Alberta. Four parties have held office: the Liberals 1905-21; the United Farmers 1921-35; Social Credit 1935-71, and Progressive Conservative since Sept. 1971. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 661,188 sq. km; 644,392 sq. km being land area and 16,796 sq. km water area. The population (estimate 1 Oct. 1984) was 2,356,800; the urban population (1982), centres of 1,000 or over, was 1,727,545 and the rural 510,179. Population of the principal cities (30 June 1984): Calgary, 619,814; Edmonton, 560,085; Lethbridge, 58,586; Red Deer, 51,070; Medicine Hat, 41,493; St Albert, 35,529; Fort McMurray, 35,352; Grande Prairie, 24,411; Camrose, 12,571; Leduc, 12,471; Wetaskiwin, 10,022; Lloydminster (Alberta portion), 9,226; Drumheller, 6,671. Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . A cold continental climate, modified at times by the warm Chinook wind. Rainfall amounts are greatest between May and Sept. Edmonton. Jan. 5°F (-15°C), July 61°F(16- PC). Annual rainfall 18" (439 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of Alberta is contained in the British North America Act of 1867, and amending Acts; also in the Alberta Act of 1905, passed by the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada, which created the province out of the then Northwest Territories. All the provisions of the British North America Act, except those with respect to school lands and the public domain, were made to apply to Alberta as they apply to the older provinces of Canada. On 1 Oct. 1930 the natural resources were transferred from the Dominion to provincial government control. The province is represented by 6 members in the Senate and 21 in the House of Commons of Canada. The executive is vested nominally in the Lieut.-Governor, who is appointed by the federal government, but actually in the Executive Council or the Cabinet of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the Assembly in the name of the Queen. Members of the Legislative Assembly are elected by the universal vote of adults over the age of 18 years. There are 79 members in the legislature (elected 2 Nov. 1982): 75 Progressive Conservative, 2 New Democratic Party, 2 Independent. Lieut.-Governor: His Hon. Frank Lynch-Staunton (sworn in 4 Oct. 1979). Flag: Blue with the shield of the province in the centre.

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The members of the Ministry (all Progressive Conservative) are as follows: Premier, President of Executive Council: Hon. Peter Lougheed. Provincial Treasurer: Hon. L. D. Hyndman. Attorney-General and Government House Leader: Hon. N. Crawford. Hospitals and Medical Care: Hon. D. J. Russell. Transportation: Hon. M. E. Moore. Municipal Affairs: Hon. J. G. J. Koziak. Federal and Intergovernmental Affairs, Deputy Government House Leader: Hon. J. D. Horsman. Economic Development: Hon. H. Planche. Advanced Education: Hon. D. Johnston. Education: Hon. D. King. Labour: Hon. L. G. Young. Public Works, Supply and Services: Hon. T. W. Chambers. Tourism and Small Business: Hon. J. A. Adair. Energy: Hon. J. B. Zaozirny. Agriculture: Hon. E. L. Fjordbotten. Utilities and Telecommunications: Hon. R. J. Bogle. Social Services and Community Health: Hon. Dr P. N. Webber. Housing: Hon. L. R. Shaben. International Trade: Hon. H. A. Schmid. Consumer and Corporate Affairs: Hon. C. E. Osterman. Environment: Hon. F. D. Bradley. Solicitor-General: Hon. G. L. Harle. Culture: Hon. M. J. LeMessurier. Recreation and Parks: Hon. P. Trynchy. Minister responsible for Native Affairs: Hon. M. G. Pahl. Manpower: Hon. E. D. Isley. Associate Minister of Public Lands and Wildlife: Hon. D. Sparrow. Minister responsible for Workers' Health, Safety and Compensation: Hon. B. W. Diachuk. Minister responsible for Personnel Administration: Hon. G. P. Stevens. Minister without Portfolio: Hon. W. E. Payne. Local Government. The local government units are City, Town, New Town, Village, Summer Village, County, Municipal District and Improvement District. There are 12 cities in Alberta, namely: Calgary, Camrose, Drumheller, Edmonton, Fort McMurray, Grande Prairie, Lethbridge, Lloydminster, Medicine Hat, Red Deer, St Albert and Wetaskiwin. These cities operate under the Municipal Government Act. The governing body consists of a mayor and a council of from 6 to 20 members. A city can be incorporated by order of the Lieut.-Governor-inCouncil. A population of 10,000 is required. There are no limits of area specified in the statutes for any of the different local government units. The population requirement for" a Town as specified in the Municipal Government Act is 1,000 people, and the area at incorporation is that of the original village. A Village must contain 75 separate and occupied dwellings. The Municipal Government Act requires each dwelling to have been occupied continuously for a period of at least 6 months. A Summer Village must contain 50 separate dwellings. A rural county area is an area incorporated through an order of the Lieut. Governor-in-Council under the provisions of the County Act. One board of councillors deal with both municipal and school affairs. A rural Municipal District is an area which has been incorporated under the Municipal Government Act. In Municipal Districts separate boards control municipal and school affairs. Areas not incorporated as counties or Municipal Districts are termed Improvement Districts or Special Areas. Sparsely populated, such districts are administered and taxed by the Department of Municipal Affairs of the provincial government. There are no requirements as to the minimum number of residents of a County or Municipal District. F I N A N C E . The budgetary revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $) for years ending 31 March were as follows: 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 ' 1984-85 ' Revenue 6,578,000,0002 7,084,710,0001 7,085,000,000! 8,840,000,000 ! 9,386,000,000 Expenditure 5,561,000,000 7,043,707,000 9,133,575,000 9,813,262,000 9,644,000,000 1

Estimates.

2

Excludes funds allocated to Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund.

Personal income per capita (1982), $14,137. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Oil. In 1983, 64,464,000 cu. metres of crude oil and condensate were produced with gross sales value of $12,282,894,000. Alberta produced 84 -9% of Canada's

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crude petroleum output in 1983. Production of natural gas by-product was 17,097,000 cu. metres, valued at $2,523,359,000. The 4 major deposits of oil sands are found in areas totalling 106,600 sq. km in northern and eastern Alberta. There are 4 major deposits of oil sands, the Athabasca, Cold Lake, Peace River and Buffalo Head Hills deposits; total area, 105,320 sq. km. A limited part of the deposits along the Athabasca River can be exploited through open-pit mining. The rest of the Athabasca, and all the deposits in the other areas, are deeper reserves which must be developed through in situ techniques. These reserves reach depths of760 metres. One recovery plant, situated 25 miles north of Fort McMurray, began production in 1967. The deposit being produced is sufficiently close to the surface to permit strip mining. A second plant, to produce 20,000 cu. metres per day of synthetic crude oil, began production in 1978. Gas. Natural gas is found in abundance in numerous localities. In 1983, 61,632,000 cu. metres valued at $6,227,597,000 were produced. Minerals. In 1983 the ultimate remaining recoverable coal resources of Alberta were estimated at 18,400m. tonnes. Value of total mineral production increased from $20,913,347,000 in 1982 to $22,218,213,000 in 1983. Agriculture. Total area of farms (1981) 47,218,170 acres; improved land, 30,951,142; under crops, 20,858,765; improved pasture, 3,907,830; summer fallow, 5,449,831; other improved land, 734,716; unimproved land, 16,267,083; woodland, 1,217,420; other unimproved land, 15,049,663. For particulars of agricultural production and livestock, see under C A N A D A , pp. 279-80. Farm cash receipts in 1983 totalled $3,704,859,000, of which crops contributed $2,018,447,000; livestock and products, $l,659-84m., and other sources, $126,572,000. Forestry. Total woodland (1981) 1 -2m acres. Alberta has an estimated net merchantable volume of 1,700m. cu. metres of timber comprised of 700m. cu. metres of hardwood and 1,000m. cu. metres of softwood. In 1983-84, 6,173,328 cu. metres of lumber and plywood were produced. Fisheries. The lakes of the province contain whitefish, pike and tullibee. Commercial catches are marketed through the Freshwater Fish Marketing Corporation which was inaugurated in May 1969 as the result of an agreement between the federal government and the provinces for the buying and exporting of freshwater fish. Marketed value of commercially caught fish 1983—84 was $2,735,091. This value includes fish not marketed through the corporation. I N D U S T R Y . The leading manufacturing industries are food and beverages, petroleum refining, metal fabricating, wood industries, primary metal, chemical and chemical products and non-metallic mineral products industries. There were in 1981 approximately 2,452 manufacturing establishments, in which were employed about 86,356 persons, who earned in salaries and wages $ 1,853,709,000. Manufacturing shipments had a total value of $12,762-53m. in 1983. Chief among these shipments were: Food and beverages, $3,642,538,000; petroleum and coal products, $3,550,007,000; chemicals and chemical products, $1,497,611,000; metal fabricating, $633,637,000; primary metals, $529,803,000; non-metallic mineral products, $504,617,000; printing and publishing, $456,806,000; wood, $413,396,000; paper, $362,837,000; machinery, $359,525,000; electrical products, $157,748,000; textiles, $110,798,000. Total retail sales (1983) $11,304m. Tourism is of increasing importance and in 1983 contributed $1,990-3m. to the economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 151,470 km of roads and highways, including 102,681 km gravelled and 15,237 km paved.

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At 31 March 1984 there were 2,055,262 motor vehicles registered, including 1,277,502 passenger cars, 438,799 trucks, 247,629 trailers, 8,023 buses and 59,456 motorcycles. Railways. In 1984 the length of main railway lines was 10,178-2 km. In 1984 there was a rail rapid transit network in Edmonton (10-3 km) and Calgary (22 -2 km). Post and Telecommunications. Alberta's modern telephone system is owned and operated by the provincial government, except in the city of Edmonton (owned and operated by Edmonton) and some rural lines. There were 1,057,530 telephones in service in April 1984. JUSTICE AND EDUCATION Justice. The Supreme Judicial authority of the province is the Court of Appeal. Judges of the Court of Appeal and Court of Queen's Bench are appointed by the Dominion Government and hold office until retirement at the age of 75. There are courts of lesser jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters. The Court of Queen's Bench has full jurisdiction over civil proceedings. A Provincial Court which has jurisdiction in civil matters up to $ 1,000 is presided over by provincially appointed judges. Juvenile Courts have power to try boys and girls 16 and under for offences against the Juvenile Delinquents Act. The jurisdiction of all criminal courts in Alberta is enacted in the provisions of the Criminal Code. The system of procedure in civil and criminal cases conforms as nearly as possible to the English system. Education. Schools of all grades are included under the term of public school (including those in the separate school system which are publicly supported). The same board of trustees controls the schools from kindergarten to university entrance. In 1982-83 there were 423,690 pupils enrolled in elementary, junior high schools and high schools. The University of Alberta (in Edmonton), organized in 1907, had, in 1983-84, 22,908 full-time students. The University of Calgary, formerly part of the University of Alberta and autonomous from April 1966, had in 1983-84, 14,557 full-time students. The University of Lethbridge, organized in 1966, had in 1983-84, 2,442 full-time students. The Athabasca University had in 1983-84, 9,496 full-time students. The full-time enrolment at Alberta's 10 public colleges totalled 14,513 students in 1983-84. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Alberta Bureau of Statistics (Dept. of Treasury, Edmonton), which was established in 1939, collects, compiles and distributes information relative to Alberta. Among its publications are: Alberta Statistical Review (Annual).—Alberta Statistical Review (Quarterly).—Alberta Economic Accounts (Annual).—Alberta Pay and Benefits (Annual).—Retail and Service Trade Statistics, Alberta (Annual).—Alberta Facts (Annual).— Principal Manufacturing Statistics, Alberta (Annual).—Population Projections, Alberta (Occasional).—Quarterly Population Growth, Alberta (Quarterly).—Place-to-Place Price Comparisons for Selected Alberta Communities (Annual). Dept. ofEconomic Development, Alberta Profile. Edmonton, (Annual) Barr,J.J., TheDynasty: The Rise and Fall of Social Credit in Alberta. Toronto, 1974 MacGregor, J, G., A History of Alberta. 2nd ed. Edmonton, 1981 Richards,}., Prairie Capitalism: Power and Influence in the New West. Toronto, 1979 Wiebe, Rudy., Alberta, a Celebration. Edmonton, 1979

BRITISH COLUMBIA H I S T O R Y . Vancouver Island was organized as a colony in 1849; the mainland as far as the watershed of the Rocky Mountains was organized as a colony following a gold rush on the Fraser River in 1858. The two were united as the colony of British Columbia in 1866; this became a Canadian Province in 1871.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

297

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . British Columbia has an area of 948,596 sq. km. The capital is Victoria. The province is bordered westerly by the Pacific ocean and Alaska Panhandle, northerly by the Yukon and Northwest Territories, easterly by the Province of Alberta and southerly by the USA along the 49th parallel. A chain of islands, the largest of which are Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands, affords protection to the mainland coast. TheJune 1981 census population was 2,744,467; estimate, 1984,2,870,700. The principal cities and their populations (1983) are as follows: Greater Vancouver, 1,310,600; Greater Victoria, 240,400; Prince George, 68,628; Kamloops, 64,434; Kelowna, 60,827; Nanaimo, 49,347; Penticton, 24,142; Vernon, 20,508; Port Alberni, 19,555; Prince Rupert, 16,786; Cranbrook, 16,513; Fort St. John, 14,174. Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . The climate is cool temperate, but mountain influences affect temperatures and rainfall very considerably. Driest months occur in summer. Vancouver. Jan. 36°F(2-2°C), July 64°F(17-8°C). Annual rainfall 58" (1,458 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . British Columbia (then known as New Caledonia) originally formed part of the Hudson's Bay Company's concession. In 1849 Vancouver Island and in 1858 British Columbia were constituted Crown Colonies; in 1866 the two colonies amalgamated. The British North America Act of 1867 provided for eventual admission into Canadian Confederation, and on 20 July 1871 British Columbia became the sixth province of the Dominion. British Columbia has a unicameral legislature of 57 elected members. Government policy is determined by the Executive Council responsible to the Legislature. The Lieut.-Governor is appointed by the Governor-General of Canada, usually for a term of 5 years, and is the head of the executive government of the province. Lieut.-Governor: The Hon. Robert Gordon Rogers. Flag: A banner of the arms, i.e., blue and white wavy stripes charged with a setting sun in gold, across the top of a Union Flag with a gold coronet in the centre. The Legislative Assembly is elected for a maximum term of 5 years. Every male or female Canadian citizen 18 years and over, having resided a minimum of 6 months in the province, duly registered, is entitled to vote. Representation of the parties at 5 May 1983: Social Credit Party, 35; New Democratic Party, 22; total, 57. The province is represented in the Federal Parliament by 28 members in the House of Commons, and 6 Senators. The Executive Council was composed as follows, Sept. 1984: Premier: William Richards Bennett. Agriculture and Food: Harvey W. Schroeder. Attorney-General: Brian R. D. Smith. Consumer and Corporate Affairs: James J. Hewitt. Education: John H. Heinrich. Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources: Stephen Rogers. Environment, Lands, Parks and Housing: A. J. Brummet. Finance: Hugh A. Curtis. Forests: Thomas M. Waterland. Health: James Nielsen. Industry and Small Business Development: Donald M. Phillips. Intergovernmental Relations: Garde B. Gardom. Labour: Robert H. McClelland. Municipal Affairs: William S. Ritchie. Provincial Secretary: James R. Chabot. Tourism: Claude Richmond. Transportation and Highways: Alexander V. Fraser. Universities, Science and Communications: Patrick L. McGeer. Agent-General in London: Alexander H. Harte, QC (British Columbia House, 1 Regent St., London, SW1Y 4NS). Local Government. Vancouver City was incorporated by statute and operates under the provisions of the Vancouver Charter of 1953 and amendments. This is

298

CANADA

the only incorporated area in British Columbia not operating under the provisions of the Municipal Act. Under this Act municipalities are divided into the following classes: (a) a village with a population between 500 and 2,500, governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 4 aldermen; (b) a town with a population between 2,500 and 5,000, governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 4 aldermen; (c) a city where the population exceeds 5,000 governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 6 or 8 aldermen depending on population; (d) a district where the area exceeds 810 hectares and the average density is less than 5 persons per hectare, governed by a council consisting of a mayor and 6 or 8 aldermen depending on population. There are two other forms of local government: the regional district covering a number of areas both incorporated and unincorporated, governed by a board of directors; and the improvement district governed by a board of 3 trustees. Revenue for municipal services is derived mainly from real-property taxation, although additional revenue is derived from licence fees, business taxes, fines, public utility projects and grants-in-aid from the provincial government. ECONOMY Budget. Current provincial revenue and expenditure, including all capital expenditures, in Canadian $ 1 m. for fiscal years ending 31 March: Revenue Expenditure

1980-81 5,802-7 6,059-5

1981-82 6,903-4 7,087-5

1982-83 6,529-1 7,513-3

1983-84 7,262-6 8,339-9

The main sources of current revenue are the income taxes, contributions from the federal government, and privileges, licences and natural resources taxes and royalties. The main items of expenditure in 1983-84 (preliminary) are as follows: Health and social services, $3,889m.; education, $l,728-7m.; transport and communication, $800m.; natural resources and industry, $446-3m.; protection of persons and property, $369 • 1 m. Banking. Cheques cashed (in $lm.): 1979,286,902; 1980,382,836; 1981,519,386; 1982,488,102; 1983,523,629. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Generation in 1983 totalled 47,279m. kwh. of which a net 4,975m. kwh. were exported. Consumption within the province was 44,749m. kwh. Minerals. Copper, coal, natural gas, crude oil, molybdenum and silver are the most important minerals produced. The 1983 total of mineral production was estimated at $2,859-6m. Total value of mineral fuels produced in 1983 was estimated at: Coal, $560-7m.; oil and gas, $896-8m. Agriculture. Only 2 -4m. hectares or 3% of the total land area is arable or potentially arable. Farm cash receipts, in 1983, were $901 -6m. Forestry. About 55% of British Columbia's land is forest land, with 47-8m. hectares bearing commercial forest. Over 94% of the forest area is owned or administered by the provincial government. The total cut from forests in 1983 was 71 -4m. cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1983 the wholesale market value of fish products was estimated at $44 lm. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The selling value of factory shipments from all manufacturing industries reached an estimated $ 16,812m. in 1983. Commerce. Exports through British Columbia customs ports during 1983 totalled $ 15,691m. in value, while imports amounted to $6,450m. About 40% of exports

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299

through British Columbia customs ports are products from other provinces, primarily grains, potash and fuels from the Prairie Provinces. USA is the largest market for products exported through British Columbia customs ports ($6,248-6m. in 1983)followedbyJapan($3,902-7m.). Exports were valued at $9,925m. in 1983. The leading exports were: Lumber, $2,631-8m.; pulp, $l,427-2m.; coal, $821 -87m.; newsprint, $577-5m.; natural gas, $4461m.; copper ore and ingots, $370-8m.; fisheries products, $3611m.; aluminium ingots, $306-8m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 31 March 1984 there were 43,668 km of provincial roads and rights of way in the province, of which 18,242 km were paved. Railways. The province is served by two transcontinental railways, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railway. British Columbia is also served by the publicly owned British Columbia Railway, the Railway Freight Service of the B.C. Hydro and'Power Authority, the Northern Alberta Railways Company and the Burlington Northern Inc. The combined route-mileage of mainline track operated by the CPR, CNR and BCR totals 7,344 km. The system also includes CPR and CNR railcar barge connections to Vancouver Island, between Prince Rupert and Alaska, and interchanges with American railways at southern border points. Aviation. International airports are located at Vancouver and Victoria. Daily interprovincial and intraprovincial flights serve all main population centres. Small public and private airstrips are located throughout the province. Shipping. The major ports are Vancouver, New Westminster, Victoria, Nanaimo and Prince Rupert. The volume of domestic and international cargo handled during 1983 was 47m. tonnes and 55m. tonnes respectively. The British Columbia Ferries connect Vancouver Island with the mainland and also provide service to other coastal points. Service by other ferry systems is also provided between Vancouver Island and the USA. The Alaska State Ferries connect Prince Rupert with centres in Alaska. Post and Broadcasting. The British Columbia Telephone Company have 1 -3m. telephones in service. In March 1983 there were 63 AM radio, 18 FM radio and 12 television stations originating in British Columbia. In addition there were 539 rebroadcasting stations in the province. EDUCATION AND WELFARE Education. Education, free up to Grade XII levels, is financed jointly from municipal and provincial government revenues. Attendance is compulsory from the age of 6 to 15. There were 497,312 pupils enrolled in public schools from kindergarten to Grade XII in Sept. 1983. The universities had a full-time enrolment of 37,500 for 1983-84 (preliminary). They include University of British Columbia, Vancouver; University of Victoria, Victoria and Simon Fraser University, Burnaby. The regional colleges are Camosun College, Victoria; Capilano College, North Vancouver; Cariboo College, Kamloops; College of New Caledonia, Prince George; Douglas College, New Westminister; East Kootenay Community College, Cranbrook; Fraser Valley College, Chilliwack/Abbotsford; Kwantlen College, Surrey; Malaspina College, Nanaimo; North Island College, Comox; Northern Lights College, Dawson Creek/Fort St John; Northwest Community College, Terrace/Prince Rupert; Okanagan College, Kelowna with branches at Salmon Arm and Vernon; Selkirk College, Castlegar; Vancouver Community College, Vancouver. There are also the British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby; Emily Carr College of Art and Design, Vancouver; Justice Institute of British Columbia, Vancouver; Open Learning Institute, Richmond; Pacific Marine Training Institute, North Vancouver; Pacific Vocational Institute, Burnaby/Maple Ridge/

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Richmond. A televised distance education and special programmes through KNOW, the Knowledge Network of the West is provided. Health. The Government operates a hospital insurance scheme giving universal coverage after a qualifying period of 3 months' residence in the province. The province has come under a national medicare scheme which is partially subsidized by the provincial government and partially by the federal government. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Central Statistics Bureau (Ministry of Industry and Small Business Development, Hon. D o n Phillips—Minister, Parliament Buildings, Victoria, B.C.V8V 1 x 4), collects, compiles and distributes information relative to the Province. Publications include B.C. Economic Bulletin (bi-monthly); B.C. Industry Review (annual); Manufacturers' Directory: External Trade Report (Annual); B.C. Manual of Facts and Statistics Annual). Ministry of Finance, British Columbia Financial and Economic (Annual) Fifteenth British Columbia Natural Resources Conference, Inventory of British Columbia. 1964

Review

Victoria, B.C.

of the Natural

Resources

MANITOBA H I S T O R Y . The Hudson's Bay Company formed a colony on the Red River in 1812. This being part of territory annexed to Canada in 1870. The Metis colonists (part-Indian, mostly French-speaking, Catholic) objected to the arrangements for the purchase of the Company territory by Canada and the province of Manitoba was created to accommodate them. It was extended northwards and westwards in 1881 and to Hudson Bay in 1912. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 250,946 sq. miles (649,046 sq. km), of which 211,721 sq. miles are land and 39,225 sq. miles water. From north to south it is 793 km and the widest point is 493 km. The population (June 1984) was 1,056,500. Population of the principal cities (June 1983): Winnipeg (capital), 600,700; Brandon, 36,242; Thompson, 14,288; Portage la Prairie, 13,086; Selkirk, 10,037; Flin Flon, 7,894. Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . The climate is cold continental, with very severe winters but pleasantly warm summers. Rainfall amounts are greatest in the months May to Sept. Winnipeg. Jan.-3°F(-19-4°C), July 67°F(19-4°C). Annual rainfall 2 1 " (539 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Manitoba was known as the Red River Settlement before its entry into the Dominion in 1870. The provincial government is administered by a Lieut.-Governor and a legislative assembly of 57 members elected for 5 years. Women were enfranchised in 1916. The Electoral Division Act, 1955, created 57 single-member constituencies and abolished the transferable vote. The Electoral Divisions Act, 1979, created 27 rural electoral divisions, and 30 urban electoral divisions. The province is represented by 6 members in the Senate and 14 in the House of Commons of Canada. Lieut.-Govemor: Pearl McGonigal (sworn in 23 Oct. 1981). Flag: The British Red Ensign with the shield of the province in the fly. State of parties in the Legislative Assembly (sworn in 30 Nov. 1981): New Democratic Party, 32; Progressive Conservative, 23; Independent, 2. The members of the New Democratic Party Ministry are as follows (Sept. 1982): Premier, President of the Council, Minister of Federal-Provincial Relations: Howard Russell Pawley. Health, Sport, Minister charged with the administration of The Boxing and

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301

Wrestling Commission Act, The Fitness and Amateur Sport Act, The Manitoba Lotteries Foundation Act: Laurent Louis Desjardins. Business Development and Tourism, Minister responsible for the administration of the Manitoba Telephone Act: Samuel Uskiw. Employment Services and Economic Security: Leonard Salusbury Evans. Agriculture: Billie Uruski. Government Services: A. R. Adam. Cooperative Development: Jay Marine Cowan. Energy and Mines, Minister responsible for the administration of the Manitoba Hydro Act: Wilson D. Parasiuk. Finance, Crown Investments, Minister responsible for The Civil Service Act, The Civil Service Superannuation Act, The Civil Service Special Supplementary Severance Benefit Act, The Public Servants Insurance Act, The Manitoba Development Corporation Act (with respect to A. E. McKenzie Co. Ltd): Victor Schroeder. Education: Maureen Lucille Hemphill. Culture, Heritage and Recreation, Industry, Trade and Technology, Minister responsible for and charged with the administration of The Manitoba Data Services Act, The Manitoba Development Corporation Act (except with respect to A. E. McKenzie Co. Ltd): Eugene Michael Kostyra. Attorney-General, Consumer and Corporate Affairs, Keeper of the Great Seal, Minister responsible for the administration of The Liquor Control Act: Roland Penner. Community Services: Muriel Ann Smith. Natural Resources: Alvin Henry Mackling. Labour, Urban. Affairs, Minister responsible for the Status of Women: Mary Elizabeth Dolin. Northern Affairs, Minister responsible for and charged with the administration of The Communities Economic Development Fund Act, The Manitoba Natural Resources Development Act (with respect to Channel Area Loggers Ltd or to Moose Lake Loggers Ltd) and Manitoba Forestry Resources Ltd: Jerry Thomas Storie. Highways and Transportation: John S. Plohman. Housing, Minister charged with the administration of The Manitoba Public Insurance Corporation Act: John Bucklaschuk. Municipal Affairs: Andrue Anstett. Environment and Workplace Safety and Health: Gerard Lecuyer. Local Government. Rural Manitoba is organized into rural municipalities which vary widely in size. Some have only 4 townships (a township is 36 sq. miles), while the largest has 22 townships. The province has 105 rural municipalities, as well as 35 incorporated towns, 40 incorporated villages and 5 incorporated cities. On 1 Jan. 1972, the cities and towns comprising the metropolitan area of Winnipeg were amalgamated to form the City of Winnipeg. A mayor and council are elected to a central government, but councillors also sit on community committees' which represent the areas or wards they serve. These committees are advised by non-elected residents of the area on provision of municipal services within the community committee jurisdiction. Taxing powers and overall budgeting rest with the central council. The mayor is elected at the same time as the councillors in a city-wide vote. Revisions to the City of Winnipeg Act came into effect with the municipal elections held in Oct. 1977. Since Jan. 1945, 17 Local Government Districts have been formed in the less densely populated areas of the province. They are administered by a provincially appointed person, who acts on the advice of locally elected councils. In the extreme north, many communities have locally elected councils, while others are administered directly by the Department of Northern Affairs. This department provides most of the funding in all these northern settlements. F I N A N C E . Provincial revenue and expenditure (current account) for fiscal years ending 31 March (in Canadian $): 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83' 1983-84' 1984-85' Revenue 1,968,405,039 2,180,821,120 2,408,961,000 2,799,688,000 Expenditure 2,057,913,309 2,431,863,998 2,843,608,000 3,226,403,000 ' Preliminary unaudited.

ENERGY A N D NATURAL

2

2,968,950,900 3,457,626,900

Budgetted.

RESOURCES

Electricity. The total generating capacity of Manitoba's power stations is 4- l m . kw. The Manitoba Hydro system, owned by the province, provides most of this power, while the city-owned Winnipeg Hydro provides about 190,000 kw. The

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CANADA

systems have about 423,542 customers and consumption was 14-4m. kwh. in 1983. Oil. Crude oil production in 1983 was valued at $ 153m. for the 730,000 cu. metres produced. Minerals. Total value of minerals in 1983 was about $659-4m. Principal minerals mined are nickel, zinc, copper, and small quantities of gold and silver. Manitoba has the world's largest deposits of caesium ore. Agriculture. Rich farmland is the main primary resource, although the area of Manitoba in farms is only about 14% of the total land area. In 1983 the total value of agricultural production in Manitoba was $l,899-7m., with $l,305-2m. from crops, $594-5m. from livestock and from the sale of other products including furs, hides and honey. Forestry. About 40% of the land area is wooded, of which 139,000 sq. km is productive forest land. Total sales of wood-using industries (1982, estimate) $441 m. Fur Trade. Value of fur production to the trapper was $3 • 5m. in 1983-84. Fisheries. From 22,000 sq. miles of rivers and lakes fisheries production was about $21m. in 1981-82. Whitefish, sauger, pickerel, pike, trout and perch are the principal varieties offish caught. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufacturing, the largest industry in the province, encompasses almost every major industrial activity in Canada. Estimated shipments in 1983 totalled $4,819-3m. Manufacturing employed about 59,000 persons. Due to the agricultural base of the province, the food and beverage group of industries is by far the largest, valued at $1,563-4m. in 1982, accounting for about 32-4% of the total value. The next largest segments are machinery, $354-3m. (7-4%), transportation equipment, $339 • 7m. (7%) and clothing and textiles, $329 -7m. (6 -8%). Trade. Products grown and manufactured in Manitoba find ready markets in other areas of Canada, in the USA, particularly the upper midwest region, and in other countries. Export shipments to foreign countries from Manitoba in 1983 were valued at about $l,364-9m., with $l,093-4m. (801%) going to the US. Of total exports about 29% are raw materials and about 71% are processed and manufactured products. Tourism. In 1982, Canadian, US and overseas tourists numbered 2 -4m. contributing $592m. to the economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Highways and provincial roads totalled 18,877 km in 1983. Railways. At 31 Dec. 1981 the province had 6,430 km of track, not including industrial track, yards and sidings. Aviation. A total of 102 licensed commercial air carriers operate from bases in Manitoba, as well as 8 regularly scheduled major national and international airlines. Post. All of the province's 765,902 (1983) telephones are dial-operated. E D U C A T I O N . Education is controlled through locally elected school divisions. There are about 200,000 children enrolled in the province's elementary and secondary schools. Manitoba has 3 universities with an enrolment of about 45,000 during the 1983-84 year; the University of Manitoba, founded in 1877, in Winnipeg, the University of Winnipeg, and Brandon University. Expenditure (estimate) on education in the 1984-85 fiscal year was $654m. Three community colleges, in Brandon, The Pas and Winnipeg, offer 2-year diploma courses in a number of fields, as well as specialized training in many

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303

trades. They also give a large number and variety of shorter courses, both at their campuses and in many communities throughout the province. Books of Reference General Information: Inquiries may be addressed to the Information Services Branch, R o o m 29, Legislative Building, Winnipeg, R 3 C O V 8 . The Department of Agriculture publishes: Year Book of Manitoba Agriculture Information Services Branch publishes: Manitoba Facts Manitoba Statistical Review. Manitoba Bureau of Statistics, Quarterly Tenth Census of Canada: Manitoba. Statistics Canada, 1971

NEW BRUNSWICK H I S T O R Y . Touched by Jacques Cartier in 1534, New Brunswick waa first explored by Samuel de Champlain in 1604. It was ceded by the French in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and became a permanent British possession in 1763. It was separated from Nova Scotia and became a province in June 1784, as a result of the great influx of United Empire Loyalists. Responsible government came into being in 1848, and consisted of an executive council, a legislative council (later abolished) and a House of Assembly. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 28,354 sq. miles (73,000 sq. km), of which 27,633 sq. miles (71,569 sq. km) are land area. The population (census 1976) was 677,250. Of the total population (1971) about 58% are of British origin, 37% French and the remainder are principally of Netherlands, German and Scandinavian descent, and in 1980 there were about 5,300 Indians. Census population of urban centres: Saint John, 85,956; Moncton, 55,934; Fredericton (capital), 45,248; Bathurst, 16,301; Edmundston, 12,710; Campbellton, 9,282. Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . A cool temperate climate, with rain at all seasons but temperatures modified by the influence of the Gulf Stream. Saint John. Jan. 19"F (-7-2°C), July 65°F (18 • 3°C). Annual rainfall 51" (1,278 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The government is vested in a Lieut.-Governor and a Legislative Assembly of 58 members each of whom is individually elected to represent the voters in one constituency or riding. A simultaneous translation system is used in the Assembly. Any Canadian subject of full age and 6 months' residence is entitled to vote. As a result of the provincial election held on 23 Oct. 1978 and subsequent by-elections, the Assembly is composed of 30 Progressive Conservatives and 28 Liberals. The province has 10 members in the Canadian Senate and 10 members in the federal House of Commons. Lieut.-Governor:George F. S. Stanley (appointed 23 Dec. 1981). Flag: A banner of the Arms, i.e., yellow charged with a black heraldic ship on wavy lines of blue and white; across the top a red band with a gold lion. The members of the Progressive Conservative Ministry are as follows (Dec. 1982): Premier and President of the Executive Council: Richard Hatfield. Attorney-General and Justice: Femand Dube, QC. Finance and Minister Responsible for New Brunswick Housing Corporation: John B. M. Baxter, QC. Chairman of the Treasury Board: Harold N. Fanjoy. Supply and Services: Edwin G. Allen. Transportation: Wilfred G. Bishop. Natural Resources and Minister Responsible for Energy Policy: Gerald Merrithew. Agriculture and Rural Development: Malcolm N. MacLeod. Health: Charles G. Gallagher. Social &rvices:-Nancy E. Clark Teed. Labour and Manpower: Joseph W. Mombourquette. Education:

304

CANADA

Mabel M. DeWare. Municipal Affairs: Yvon R. Poitras. Commerce and Development: Paul W. Dawson. Fisheries: Jean Gauvin. Environment: C. W. (Bill) Harmer. Tourism: Omer Leger. Youth and Recreation: Leslie I. Hull. Cultural and Historical Resources: Jean-Pierre Ouellet. Local Government. Under the reforms introduced in 1967 the province has assumed complete administrative and financial responsibility for education, health, welfare and administration ofjustice. Local government is now restricted to provision of services of a strictly local nature. Under the new municipal structure, units include existing and new cities, towns and villages. Counties have disappeared as municipal units. Areas with limited populations have become local service districts. The former local improvement districts have become towns, villages or local service districts depending on their size. F I N A N C E . The ordinary budget (in Canadian $) is shown as follows (financial years ended 31 March): Grossrevenue Gross expenditure

1981 1,534,987,829 1,505,252,819

1982 1,772,232,788 1,795,554,444

1983 1,945,154,091 2,147,955,484

1984 2,213,420,941 2,344,948,500

Funded debt and capital loans outstanding (exclusive of Treasury Bills) as of 31 March 1984 was $2,428m. Sinking funds held by the province at 31 March 1984, $630m. The ordinary budget excludes capital spending. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Hydro-electric, thermal and nuclear generating stations of the New Brunswick Electric Power Commission had an installed capacity of 3,136,576 kw. at 31 March 1984, consisting of 14 generating stations. The Mactaquac hydroelectric development near Fredericton, has a nominal capacity of600,000 kw. The largest thermal generating station, Coleson Cove, near Saint John, has over 1 m. kw. of installed capacity. Atlantic Canada's first nuclear generating station, a 630,000 kw. CANDU plant built on a promontory jutting out in the Bay of Fundy, near Saint John, went into commercial operation in Jan. 1983. New Brunswick is electrically inter-connected with utilities in neighbouring provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, as well as the New England States. Electricity export sales accounted for over 40% of revenue in 1983-84; energy purchases, mainly from the large Hydro Quebec system, supplied about 23% of in-province energy requirements. Minerals. A considerable variety of metals, industrial minerals, fuels and structural materials occur in the province. These include zinc, lead, copper, cadmium, bismuth, nickel, gold, silver, cobalt, tungsten, tin, molybdenum, antimony, potash, salt, glauberite, limestone, dolomite, gypsum, oil, gas, coal, uranium, oil shales, sand, gravel, clay, peat, diatomite and marl. Not all have been explored sufficiently. 52% of the value of minerals produced in 1983, which totalled $513m., was attributed to zinc produced from 2 mines in the Bathurst-Newcastle area. In Canada, New Brunswick ranks second in zinc production, second in lead, third in silver and fifth in copper. Exploration continues in this area. The antimony mine at Lake George, near Fredericton, is scheduled to resume production during 1985. The tungsten-molybdenum mine at Mount Pleasant continues operation. The Potash Company of America has commenced production of potash and salt near Sussex, while Denison-Potacan expects to commence production in 1985. A third company is now in the exploration stage and will make a decision shortly concerning production. Limestone and gypsum are quarried at Havelock and Hillsborough and small quantities of oil and natural gas continue to be produced from the Stoney Creek field south of Moncton. Coal is mined at Grand Lake and exploration is underway for other deposits of this important energy resource. Agriculture. The total area under crops is estimated at 130,526 hectares, exclusive of improved pasture land (41,479 hectares). Farms numbered 4,063 and averaged 107-8 hectares each (census 1981). Potatoes account for 30% of total farm cash

NEW

BRUNSWICK

305

income. Mixed farming is common throughout the province. Dairy farming is centred around the larger urban areas, and is located mainly along the Saint John River Valley and in the south-eastern sections of the province. For particulars of agricultural production and livestock, see under C A N A D A , pp. 2 7 9 - 8 0 . Farm cash receipts in 1983 were approximately $ 195 • 1 m. Forestry. New Brunswick contains some 62,000 sq. km of productive forest lands. The gross value of forest production is over $ l m . and it accounts for almost onequarter of all goods produced in the province. The pulp and paper and allied industry group is the largest component of the industry contributing about 70% of the value of output. Timber-using plants employ about 16,000 men for all aspects of the forest industry, including harvesting, processing and transportation. Practically all forest products are exported from the province's numerous ports and harbours near which many of the mills are located or sent by road or rail to the USA. Fisheries. Commercial fishing is one of the most important primary industries of the province. Nearly 50 commercial species of fish and shellfish are landed, of which scallop, shrimp, crab, herring and cod are the most valuable. Landings in 1983 (109,111 tonnes) amounted to $79-7m. In 1983 there were 125 fish processing plants employing more than 11,000 people in peak periods. The total market value of fish products in 1982 was approximately $288-9m. Estimate (1983) $320m. Exports ( 1983) $210-9m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 there were 1,357 manufacturing and processing establishments, employing about 37,950 persons. New Brunswick's location, with deepwater harbours open throughout the year and container facilities at Saint John, makes it ideal for exporting. Industries include food and beverages, paper and allied industries, timber products. About 20% of the industrial labour force work in Saint John. T O U R I S M . Tourism is a major industry. During 1983, more than 4m. tourists spent approximately $375m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are about 2,133 km of arterial highways and 2,321 km of collector roads, over 99% of which are hard-surfaced. 12,910 km of local roads provide access to most areas in the province. The main highway system, including 617 km of the Trans-Canada Highway, links the province with the principal roads in Quebec and Nova Scotia, as well as the Interstate Highway System in the eastern seaboard states of the USA. Passenger vehicles, 31 March 1984, numbered 259,102; commercial vehicles, 113,640; motorcycles, 11,640. Railways. New Brunswick is served by main lines of both Canadian Pacific and Canadian National railways. Post and Broadcasting. In 1980 the New Brunswick Telephone Co. Ltd had 389,466 telephones in service. The province is served by 16 radio stations. Twelve are privately owned and 4 owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Three stations broadcast in the French language, 1 is bilingual and the CBC International Service broadcasts in several languages from its station at Sackville. The province is served by 3 television stations, 1 of which broadcasts in French. Newspapers. New Brunswick had (1983) 5 daily newspapers, and 23 weekly newspapers, 7 in French or bilingual. E D U C A T I O N . Public education is free and non-sectarian. There are 4 universities. The University of New Brunswick at Fredericton (founded 13 Dec. 1785 by the Loyalists, elevated to university status in 1823, reorganized as the University of New Brunswick in 1859) had 6,556 full-time students at the Fredericton campus and 914 full-time students at the Saint John campus (1983-84); Mount Allison University at Sackville had 1,625 full-time students; the Université de Moncton at Moncton, 3,203 full-time students; St Thomas University at Fredericton, 1,197

306

CANADA

full-time students. During the period 1 July 1983 to 30 June 1984, there were 11,505 students enrolled full-time at 10 Community College campuses and at various campus training centres. There were, in Sept. 1983, 145,524 students and 7,598 full-time (equivalent) teachers in the province's 445 schools. There are 41 school boards. Books of Reference Industrial Information: Dept. of Commerce and Development, Fredericton. Economic Injormation: Dept. of Finance, Economics and Statistics Branch. Fredericto'n. General Information: NB Information Service, Fredericton. New Brunswick and Its People. Fredericton, 1962 Department of Commerce and Development, Annual Brunswick in Profile Fredericton

Report. Fredericton, 1973.—New

NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR HISTORY. Archaeological finds at L'Anse-au-Meadow in northern Newfoundland suggest that the Vikings had established a colony there at about A.D. 1000. Newfoundland was discovered by John Cabot 24 June 1497, and was soon frequented in the summer months by the Portuguese, Spanish and French for its fisheries. It was formally occupied in Aug. 1583 by Sir Humphrey Gilbert on behalf of the English Crown, but various attempts to colonize the island remained unsuccessful. Although British sovereignty was recognized in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, disputes over fishing rights with the French were not finally settled till 1904. By the Anglo-French Convention of 1904, France renounced her exclusive fishing rights along part of the coast, granted under the Treaty of Utrecht, but retained sovereignty of the offshore islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Area, 143,489 sq. miles (371,635 sq. km). In March 1927 the Privy Council decided the boundary between Canada and Newfoundland in Labrador. This area, now part of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador, is 102,486 sq. miles. The coastline is extremely irregular. Bays, fiords and inlets are numerous and there are many good harbours with deep water close to shore. The coast is rugged with bold rocky cliffs from 200 to 400 ft high; in the Bay of Islands some of the islands rise 500 ft, with the adjacent shore 1,000 ft above tide level. The interior is a plateau of moderate elevation and the chief relief features trend north-east and south-west. Long Range, the most notable of these, begins at Cape Ray and extends north-east for 200 miles, the highest peak reaching 2,673 ft. Approximately one-third of the area is covered by water. Grand Lake, the largest body of water, has an area of about 200 sq. miles. The principal rivers flow towards the north-east. On the borders of the lakes and water-courses good land is generally found, particularly in the valleys of the Terra Nova River, the Gander River, the Exploits River and the Humber River, which are also heavily timbered. Census population, 1981, was 567,681. The capital of Newfoundland is the City of St John's (154,820, metropolitan area). The only other city is Comer Brook (24,339); important towns are Labrador City (11,538), Gander (10,404), Stephenville (8,876), Grand Falls (8,765), Happy Valley-Goose Bay (7,103), Marystown (6,299), Channel-Port aux Basques (5,988), Windsor (5,747), Carbonear (5,335), Bonavista (4,460), Wabana (4,254), Wabush (3,155). Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . The cool temperate climate is marked by heavy precipitation, distributed evenly over the year, a cool and cheerless summer and frequent fogs in winter. St. John's. Jan. 23°F (-5°C), July 59°F (15"C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,367 mm).

NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR

307

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Until 1832 Newfoundland was ruled by the Governor under instructions of the Colonial Office. In that year a Legislature was brought into existence, but the Governor and his Executive Council were not responsible to it. Under the constitution of 1855, which lasted until its suspension in 1934, the government was administered by the Governor appointed by the Crown with an Executive Council responsible to the House of Assembly of 27 elected members and a Legislative Council of24 members nominated for life by the Governor in Council. Women were enfranchised in 1925. At the Imperial Conference of 1917 Newfoundland was constituted as a Dominion. In 1933 the financial situation had become so critical that the Government of Newfoundland asked the Government of the UK to appoint a Royal Commission to investigate conditions. On the strength of their recommendations, the parliamentary form of government was suspended and Government by Commission was inaugurated on 16 Feb. 1934. A National Convention, elected in 1946, made, in 1948, recommendations to H.M. Government in Great Britain as to the possible forms of future government to be submitted to the people at a national referendum. Two referenda were held. In the first referendum (June 1948) the three forms of government submitted to the people were: commission of government for 5 years, confederation with Canada and responsible government as it existed in 1933. No one form of government received a clear majority of the votes polled, and commission of government, receiving the fewest votes, was eliminated. In the second referendum (July 1948) confederation with Canada received 78,408 and responsible government 71,464 votes. In the Canadian Senate on 18 Feb. 1949 Royal assent was given to the terms of union of Newfoundland and Labrador with Canada, and on 23 March 1949, in the House of Lords, London, Royal assent was given to an amendment to the British North America Act made necessary by the inclusion of Newfoundland and Labrador as the tenth Province of Canada. Under the terms of union of Newfoundland and Labrador with Canada, which was signed at Ottawa on 11 Dec. 1948, the constitution of the Legislature of Newfoundland and Labrador as it existed immediately prior to 16 Feb. 1934 shall, subject to the terms of the British North America Acts, 1867 to 1946, continue as the constitution of the Legislature of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador until altered under the authority of the said Acts. The franchise was in 1965 extended to all male and female residents who have attained the age of 19 years and are otherwise qualified as electors. The House of Assembly (Amendment) Act, 1979, established 52 electoral districts and 52 members of the Legislature. In Sept. 1984 there were 43 Progressive-Conservatives, 8 Liberals and 1 seat vacant. The province is represented by 6 members in the Senate and by 7 members in the House of Commons of Canada. Lieut.-Governor: Hon. DrW. A. Paddon (assumed office 10 July 1981), Flag: White, in the hoist 4 solid blue triangles; in the fly 2 red triangles voided white, and between them a yellow tongue bordered in red. The Progressive-Conservative Executive Council was, at 2 Oct. 1984, composed as follows: Premier: Brian Peckford. President of the Council and Petroleum Directorate: W. Marshall. Finance: J. Collins. Justice: G. Ottenheimer. Development: N. Windsor. Municipal Affairs: N. Doyle. Health: H. Twomey. Fisheries (Acting): J. Goudie. Forest Resources and Lands: L. Simms. Rural Agricultural and Northern Development: J. Goudie. Labour: J. Dinn. Transportation, Mines and Energy: R. Dawe. Consumer Affairs and Communications: H. Newhook. Social Services: T. Hickey. Culture, Recreation and Youth: T. Rideout. Environment: H. Andrews. Public Works and Services: H. Young. Education: L. Verge. Career Development: C. Power. Without Portfolio: W.House. Agent-General in London: H. Watson Jamer (60 Trafalgar Sq., WC2).

308

CANADA

F I N A N C E . Budget 1 in Canadian $ 1,000 for fiscal years ended 31 March: Grossrevenue Gross expenditure 1

1979-80

1,215,697 1,174,091

1980-81

1,359,209 1,310,018

Current amount only.

2

1981-82

1,511,019 1,504,752

1982-83

1,652,046 1,689,339

Revised estimates.

1983-84'

1,785,728 1,850,430

1984-85> 1,922,957 1,955,212

'Estimates.

Public debenture debt as at 31 March 1984 (preliminary) was $2,717-9m.; sinking fund, $577-9m. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. The electrical energy requirements of the province are met mainly by hydro-electric power, with petroleum fuels being utilized to provide the balance. The total amount of energy generated in the province in 1983 (preliminary) was 39,993,569 mwh., of which approximately 98% was derived from hydro-electric facilities. The greater part of the energy produced in 1983 (preliminary) came from Churchill Falls, of which 31,233,755 mwh. was sold to Hydro-Quebec under the terms of a long-term contract. Energy consumed in the province during 1983 (preliminary) totalled 8,759,814 mwh., with approximately 8,155,690 mwh., or 93%, coming from hydro-electric facilities. At 31 Dec. 1982 total electrical generating capacity in the province was 6,962,527 kw., with hydro-electric plants accounting for 6,210,256 kw., or 89%. A 75 mw hydro project started in 1978 at Hind's Lake in central Newfoundland and was completed in 1981. It is estimated that potential additional hydro-electric generating capacity of up to 4-5m. kw. can be developed at various sites in the Labrador part of the province. Oil. In 1981 the province consumed refined petroleum at the rate o f 3 9 , 0 0 0 bbls a day with 30% of this being refined in the province. The refining capacity of the province is 114,000 bbls per day, this refinery was closed in June 1983. Since 1965, 92 wells have been drilled on the Continental Margin of the Province. In 1983 it is estimated that offshore exploration expenditures would be between $450m. and $500m. In Oct. 1974, two natural gas finds off the coast of Labrador were announced. Tests of these two wells resulted in rates of flow of 13-20m. cu. ft per day respectively, with some condensate and no water present. Additional natural gas finds with flows of 9-8m. cu. ft per day and 32m. cu. ft per day, with significant condensates and no water present, were announced in 1976 and 1978 respectively. In 1979, a discovery of oil was made on the Hibernia geological structure located 164 nautical miles east of Cape Spear. The discovery well, Hibemia P-15, tested medium gravity, sweet crude from several intervals with a reported total producing capability in excess of20,000 bbls of oil per day. Minerals. The mineral resources are vast but only partially documented. Large deposits of iron ore, with an ore reserve of over 5,000m. tons at Labrador City, Wabush City and in the Knob Lake area are supplying approximately half of Canada's production. Other large deposits of iron ore are known to exist in the Julienne Lake area. There are a variety of other minerals being produced in the province in more limited amounts. Uranium deposits in the Kaipokak Bay area near Makkovik in Labrador are presently being studied by Brinex. The Central Mineral Belt, which extends from the Smallwood Reservoir to the Atlantic coast near Makkovik, holds uranium, copper, beryllium and molybdenite potential. Production in 1983 (preliminary): Iron ore, 18,123,000 tonnes ($601,078,000); copper, 184 tonnes ($384,000); zinc, 36,649 tonnes ($42,146,000); asbestos, 32,000 tonnes ($16-85m.); lead, 1,521 tonnes ($898,000); silver, 2,000 kg ($846,000); gold, 10,000 grammes ($162,000); gypsum, 500,000 tonnes ($3m.); pyrophyllite, soapstone and talc ( . . . ) ; cement ( . . . ) ; clay products ( . . . ) ; sand and gravel, 2,900,000 tonnes ($9,320,000); stone, 280,000 tonnes ($1 -3m.); quartz ( . . . ) .

NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR

309

Agriculture. The estimated value of agricultural products sold, including livestock, 1983, was$33-7m. Forestry. The forestry economy in the province is mainly dependent on the operation of 3 newsprint mills. In 1982 the value of newsprint exported from these 3 mills totalled $260-7m. Lumber mills, saw-log operations produced 33m. f.b.m. in 1982-83. Fisheries. The principal fish landings are cod, flounder, redfish, Queen crabs (in shell), lobster, salmon and herring. In 1982 a yearly average of some 9,100 persons were employed by the fish-processing industry and there were 27,379 licensed full-, part-time and casual fishermen engaged in harvesting operations. Approximately 218 processing operations were licensed in 1983. The production of fresh and frozen fish products was $504- 5m. in 1982. The total catch in 1983 was455,839 tonnes valued at $165,739,085, which comprised: Cod, 295,046 tonnes ($100,309,758); flounder, 51,662 ($14,006,878); herring, 9,401 tonnes ($1,986,682); redfish, 17,458 ($3,362,557); lobster, 2,403 ($11,934,927); salmon, 1,029 ($3,553,980); capelin, 29,836 ($5,605,703); crab, 11,120 ($10,413,092); shrimp, 4,083 ($4,782,240). The seal fishery in 1983 had 1 large licensed and 85 small licensed vessels with 371 men who landed 19,368 pelts. The number of pelts landed by landsmen totalled 23,244. I N D U S T R Y . The total value of manufacturing shipments in 1983 was $1,142m. This consists largely of first-stage processing of primary resource products with two of the largest components being paper and fish products. T R A D E U N I O N S . There were (1982) 408 unions representing 73,929 members of international and national unions and government employee associations. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 8,729 km, of which 5,510 were paved. Railways. In 1981 there were 1,457-8 km of railway, of which the Canadian National Railways operated 1,130-6 (3 ft 6 in.), the Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railway 324-8 (4 ft 8'/i in.) and there were 2-4 km of private line. Car and passenger ferries operate from Port aux Basques and Argentia to North Sydney, Nova Scotia. On the island of Newfoundland, the Canadian National Railways operates a trans-island bus and rail freight service in addition to a coastal service for both passengers and freight. In the months that the Labrador coast is ice-free, usually from June to Nov., the Canadian National Railways operates a scheduled coastal steamer service every week. Aviation. The province is linked to the rest of Canada by regular air services provided by Air Canada, Eastern Provincial Airways, Quebecair and a number of smaller air carriers. Shipping. In 1983 there were 1,608 ships registered in Newfoundland. Post. There were 481 post offices open in 1984, and 2 telegraph offices in the Newfoundland and Labrador postal district. Telephone connexions in the province numbered 268,237 in 1982. E D U C A T I O N . The number of schools in 1983-84 was 627. The enrolment was 147,603; teachers numbered 8,219. The Memorial University, offering courses in arts, science, engineering, education, nursing and medicine, had approximately 12,442 full- and part-time students. Total expenditure for education by the Government in 1983-84 was $595m. Books of Reference Blackburn, R. H. (ed.), Encyclopaedia ofCanada: Newfoundland Supplement. Toronto, 1949 Bruet.E., Le Labrador et le Nouveau-Québec. Paris, 1949

310

CANADA

Horwood, H., Newfoundland. Toronto, 1969 Loture, R. de, Hisloire de la grandepeche de Terre-Neuve. Paris, 1949 Mercer, G. A., The Province of Newfoundland and Labrador: Geographical Aspects. Ottawa, 1970 Perlin, A.B., The Story of Newfoundland, 1497-1959. St John's, 1959 Tanner, V., Outlines of Geographv. Life and Customs of Newfoundland-Labrador. 2 vols. Helsinki, 1944, and Toronto, 1947 Taylor, T. G., Newfoundland: A Study of Settlement. Toronto, 1946

NOVA SCOTIA H I S T O R Y . The first permanent settlement was made by the French early in the 17th century, and the province was called Acadia until finally ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 21,425 sq. miles (55,000 sq. km), of which 20,401 sq. miles are land area, 1,024 sq. miles water area. The population (census 1981) was 847,442; estimate (1984) 869,900. Population of the principal cities and towns (census 1981): Halifax, 114,594; Dartmouth 62,277; Sydney, 29,444; Glace Bay, 21,466; Truro, 12,552; New Glasgow, 10,464; Amherst, 9,684; Sydney Mines, 8,501; North Sydney, 7,820; Yarmouth, 7,475. Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . A cool temperate climate, with rainfall occurring evenly over the year. The Gulf Stream moderates the temperatures in winter so that ports remain ice-free. Halifax. Jan. 23°F (-5°C), July 64°F (17-8°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,412 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the British North America Act of 1867 the legislature of Nova Scotia may exclusively make laws in relation to local matters, including direct taxation within the province, education and the administration of justice. The legislature of Nova Scotia consists of a Lieut.-Governor, appointed and paid by the federal government, and holding office for 5 years, and a House of Assembly of 52 members, chosen by popular vote not more than every 5 years. The province is represented in the Canadian Senate by 10 members, and in the House ofCommons by 11. The franchise and eligibility to the legislature are granted to every person, male or female, if of age (19 years), a British subject or Canadian citizen, and a resident in the province for 1 year and 2 months before the date of the writ of election in the county or electoral district of which the polling district forms part, and if not by law otherwise disqualified. State of parties in Oct. 1984: 35 Progressive Conservatives, 15 Liberals, 1 New Democrat, 1 independent. Lieut.-Governor: Alan R. Abraham. Flag: A banner of the Arms, i.e., white with a blue diagonal cross, bearing in the centre the royal shield of Scotland. The members of the Progressive Conservative Ministry are as follows: Premier, President of the Executive Council, Chairman of the Policy Board, Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs: John M. Buchanan, QC. Finance: Greg Kerr. Development and Minister in Charge of Administration of the Research Foundation Corporation Act: Roland J. Thornhill. Attorney-General, Provincial Secretary and Ministerin Charge of Administration of the Regulations Act: Ronald Giffen. Education arid Minister in Charge of Administration of the Advisory Council on Status of Women Act: Terence Donahoe. Lands and Forests: Kenneth Streatch. Health, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Drug Dependency Act and Registrar-General: Gerald Sheehy. Mines and Energy and Minister in Charge of the Nova Scotia Energy Council: Joel Matheson. Agriculture

NOVA SCOTIA

311

and Marketing: Roger S. Bacon. Fisheries: John Leefe. Tourism: Fisher Hudson. Municipal Affairs: Thomas Mclnnis. Labour and Manpower: David Nantes. Chairman ofthe Management Board, Minister in Charge ofAdministration of the Civil Service Act and Minister in Charge of Administration of the Liquor Control Act: Ronald Russell. Transportation: John Maclsaac. Social Services: Edmund Morris. Government Services, Minister in Charge ofAdministration of Communication and Information Act: Gerald Lawrence. Environment: George Moody. Minister in Charge of Administration ofthe Nova Scotia Emergency Measures Act and Regulations (EMO) and Chairman of Resource Development Sector Committee Board: Milne Pickings. Culture, Recreation and Fitness, Minister in Charge of the Nova Scotia Heritage Property Act and Minister Responsible for Lotteries: William MacLean. Consumer Affairs, Minister in Charge of Administration of Human Rights Act, Minister in Charge of Administration of the Residential Tenancies Act and Chairman of Social Development Sector Committee Board: Laird Stirling. Minister Without Portfolio: George Henley. Agent- General in London: Donald M. Smith (14 Pall Mall, SW1Y 5 LU). Local Government. The main divisions of the province for governmental purposes are the 3 cities, the 39 towns and the 24 rural municipalities, each governed by a council and a mayor or warden. The cities have independent charters, and the various towns take their powers from and are limited by The Towns Act, and the various municipalities take their powers from and are limited by The Municipal Act as revised in 1967. The majority of municipalities comprise 1 county, but 6 counties are divided into 2 municipalities each. In no case do the boundaries of any municipality overlap county lines. The 18 counties as such have no administrative functions. Any city (of which there are 3) or incorporated town (of which there are 39) that lies within the boundaries of a municipality is excluded from any jurisdiction by the municipal council and has its own government. F I N A N C E . Revenue is derived from provincial sources, payments from the federal government under the Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements and Established Programs Financing Act. Recoveries consist generally of amounts received under various federal cost-shared programmes. Main sources of provincial revenues include income and sales taxes. Revenue, expenditure and debt (in Canadian $lm.) for fiscal years ending 31 March: Budgetary Transactions Current Expenditure Current Revenues and Recoveries

1984'

1981

1982

1983

1,769-6 1,750-1

2,117-7 1,937-4

2,387-8 2,119-1

2,558-8 2,323-9

1980 1,524-3 1,565-2

Operating Deficit (Surplus) Sinking fund Instalments and Serial Retirements Net Capital Expenditures

(40-9)

19-5

180-3

268-7

234-9

30-9 122-7

32-2 160 9

34-3 249-6

45-1 186-4

51 -3 203-7

Net Budgetary Transactions

112-7

212-6

464-2

500-2

489-9

Non-Budgetary Transactions Capital Expenditures Net Increase (Decrease) in Advances and Investments Net Other Transactions

2-5

10-2

3-2

3-0

10 3

86-4 23-8

108-5 21-9

75-6 25-1

29-1 19-7

(9-3) 7-7

Non-Budgetary Transactions

112-7

140-6

103-9

51-8

8-7

225-4

353-2

568-1

552-0

498-6

1

Estimate.

312

CANADA

N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. Principal minerals in 1983 were: Coal, 3m. tonnes, valued at $146-7m.; gypsum, 5 -4m. tonnes, valued at $38 -4m.; salt, 725,000 tonnes, valued at $31 -7m.; sand and gravel, 6-2m. tonnes, valued at $15-3m. Total value of mineral production in 1983 was about $248 -5m. Agriculture. Dairying, poultry and egg production, livestock and fruit growing are the most important branches. Farm cash receipts for 1983 were estimated at $239 • 3m., with an additional $6 -2m. going to persons on farms as income in kind. Cash receipts from sale of dairy products was $67-8m., with total milk production of 170,541,000 litres. The production of poultry meat in 1983 was 16,494 tonnes, of which 13,503 tonnes were chickens, 1,180 tonnes were fowls and 1,811 tonnes were turkeys. Egg production was 19-3m. dozen. The main 1983 fruit crops were apples, 53,342 tonnes; blueberries, 8,846 tonnes; and strawberries, 2,439 tonnes. Forestry. The estimated forest area of Nova Scotia is 15,555 sq. miles (40,298 sq. km), of which about 25% is owned by the province. The principal trees are spruce, balsam fir, hemlock, pine, larch, birch, oak, maple, poplar and ash. 2,192,316 cu. metres of round forest products were produced in 1983. Fisheries. The fisheries of the province in 1983 had a landed value of $276-5m. of sea fish including scallop fishery, $60-3m., and lobster fishery, $68-2m. In 1982 there were about 6,693 employees in the fish processing industry; the value of shipment of goods was $431 • 5m. I N D U S T R Y . The number of manufacturing establishments was 781 in 1982; the number of employees was 34,646; wages and salaries, $671-5m.; value of shipments was $3,728m. The value of shipments in 1983, was $3,962-4m., and the leading industries were petroleum and coal products, food and beverages, paper and allied industries and transportation equipment. T R A D E U N I O N S . Total union membership during 1984 was 103,694 belonging to 103 unions comprised of 618 individual branches. The largest percentage of the total union membership was in the service sector followed by public administration and defence sector. An estimated 48,916 members in 366 branches were affiliated with the Canadian Labour Congress. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In March 1984 there were 25,716 km of highways; 2,623 km of paved arterial highways; 4,683 km of collector highways (of which 4,419 km are paved); 18,441 km of local highways (of which 4,556 km are paved). Railways. The province is covered with a network of railways, 1,470-3 km in extent. Aviation. There is a direct air service to major Canadian and USA cities, London, Amsterdam and Bermuda. Shipping. Ferry services connect Nova Scotia with Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick and Maine. Direct service by container vessels is provided from the Port of Halifax to ports in Europe, Asia and the Caribbean. J U S T I C E A N D EDUCATION Justice. There is a Supreme Court which is a Court of common law and equity possessing original and appellate jurisdiction in civil and in criminal cases. The Supreme Court consists of an appeal division of 7 judges and a trial division of 9 judges. There are also county courts, family courts, probate courts, magistrates' courts, municipal and justices' courts. Bodies, sometimes referred to as courts, are established for the revision of assessment rolls, voters' lists and like purposes.

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Young offenders under 16 years are now tried by Youth Courts. The Courts were established in April 1984. In 1985, the Youth Courts have the jurisdiction to adjudicate charges against 16- and 17- year-old offenders. For the year ending 31 Dec. 1983 there were 4,855 admissions to provincial jails, of these, 3,523 were sentenced. There were 3,123 admissions to probationary supervision. Education. Public education in Nova Scotia is free, compulsory and undenominational through elementary and high school. Attendance is compulsory to the age of 16. In addition to 582 public schools there are the Atlantic Provinces Resource Centres for the Hearing Handicapped and for the Visually Impaired; the Nova Scotia School for Boys and the Nova Scotia School for Girls for delinquent children; and the Nova Scotia Youth Training Centre for mentally handicapped children. The province has 14 universities and colleges of which the largest is Dalhousie University in Halifax. The Nova Scotia Agricultural College and the Nova Scotia Teachers' College are located at Truro. The Technical University of Nova Scotia at Halifax grants degrees in engineering and architecture. The Vocational and Technical Training Section of the Nova Scotia Department of Education administers 2 institutes of technology and a nautical institute. It also provides in-school training for the Department of Labour Apprenticeship programme. The Department of Education offers financial support and organizational assistance to local school boards for provision of weekend and evening courses in academic and avocational subjects, and citizenship for new Canadians. It also provides local authorities with specialist support services to assist them in providing community workshops and it operates a correspondence study service for children and adults. Occupational courses at the high school level are provided by 14 regional vocational schools under the jurisdiction (except in 3 school areas) of the Department of Education. Total estimated expenditure on education for the year 1982-83 was $503-8m., of which 81% was borne by the provincial government. In 1983-84, classrooms operated in 582 school houses, with 11,183 teachers and 177,240 pupils, of whom 91,113 were in elementary school grades and junior auxiliary classes, 83,351 in junior and senior high school grades and vocational education, and 2,776 in special education. Books of Reference Atlantic Provinces Economic Council. The Atlantic Vision, 1990. Halifax, 1979 Public Archives of Nova Scotia. Place Names and Places of Nova Scotia. Halifax, 1967 Beck, Murray, The Government of Nova Scotia. Toronto, 1957.—Joseph Howe. The Voice of Nova Scotia. 1964.—The Evolution of Municipal Government in Nova Scotia, 1749-1973. 1973 Elliott,S. B., Nova Scotia Book ofDays: A Calendar of the Province's History. Halifax, 1979 Fergusson, C. B., Nova Scotia in Encyclopedia Canadiana, Vol. VII. Toronto, 1968 McCreath, P., and Leefe, J., History of Early Nova Scotia. Halifax, 1982 Raddall, T. H., Halifax, Warden of the North. Toronto, 1972 Vaison, R., Nova Scotia Past and Present: A Bibliography and Guide. Halifax, 1976

ONTARIO H I S T O R Y . The French explorer Samuel de Champlain explored the Ottawa River from 1613. The area was governed by the French, first under a joint stock company and then as a royal province, from 1627 and was ceded to Great Britain in 1763. A constitutional act of 1791 created there the province of Upper Canada, largely to accommodate loyalists of English descent who had immigrated after the United States war of independence. Upper Canada entered the Confederation as Ontario in 1867.

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AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area is about 412,600 sq. miles (1,068,630 sq. km), of which some 344,100 sq. miles (891,220 sq. km) are land area and some 68,500 sq. miles (177,420 sq. km) are fresh water. The province extends 1,000 miles from east to west and 1,050 miles from north to south. Ontario is bounded on the north by the waters of Hudson and James Bay, on the east by Quebec, on the west by Manitoba, and on the south by the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The population of the province (census, 1 June 1981) was 8,625,107. Population of the principal cities (1982): Hamilton, 308,102 (city), 542,095 (census metropolitan area); Kitchener, 141,438 (city), 287,801 (census metropolitan area); London, 266,319 (city); Ottawa (federal capital), 303,144 (city), 562,782 (census metropolitan area); Sudbury, 91,388 (city), 159,779 (regional municipality); Toronto (provincial capital), 614,763 (city), 2,998,947 (census metropolitan area); Windsor, 192,546 (city). Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . A temperate continental climate, but conditions are quite severe in winter, though proximity to the Great Lakes has a moderating influence on temperatures. Ottawa. Jan. 12°F (-11 -PC), July 69°F (20-6°C). Annual rainfall 35" (871 mm). Toronto. Jan. 23°F (-5°C), July 69°F(20-6X). Annual rainfall 33" (815 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The provincial government is administered by a Lieut.-Govemor, a cabinet and one chamber elected by a general franchise for a period of 5 years. Women have the vote and can be elected to the chamber. The minimum voting age is 18 years. In Oct. 1981 the provincial legislature was composed as follows: Progressive Conservatives, 70; Liberals, 34; New Democrats, 21; total 125. Lieul.-Governor: Hon. John B. Aird.QC, BA, LLD (appointed 15 Sept. 1980). Flag: The British Red Ensign with the shield of Ontario in the fly. The members of the Executive Council in Feb. 1985 were as follows (all Progressive Conservatives): Premier and President of the Council: F. S. Miller. Deputy Premier and Attorney-General: R. Welch, QC. Treasurer and Minister of Economics: L. Grossman, QC. Municipal Affairs and Housing and Women's Issues: D. R. Timbrell. Northern Affairs: L. Bemier. Tourism and Recreation and Chairman of Cabinet: C. Bennett. Chairman of Management Board of Cabinet: B. M. Stephenson. Education and Colleges and Universities: K. C. Norton, QC. Transportation and Communications: G. McCague. Provincial Secretary for Justice: R. Baetz. Community and Social Services: R. G. Elgie. Consumer and Commercial Relations: G. Walker, QC. Revenue: B. Gregory. Health: A. W. Pope, QC. Correctional Services: N. G. Leluk. Energy: G. L. Ashe. Labour: R. H. Ramsay. Industry and Trade: A. S. Brandt. Citizenship and Culture: S. Fish. Agriculture and Food: P. Andrewes. Provincial Secretary for Social Development: G. H. Dean. Provincial Secretary for Resources Development: E. Eves. Natural Resources: M. Harris. Environment: M. Kells. Government Services: R. Runciman. Solicitor General: J. Williams. Ministers Without Portfolio: J. W. Snow, P. Gillies, A. McLean, R. Mitchell, R. Piché, A. Robinson, D. Rotenburg. Local Government. Local government in Ontario is divided into two branches, one covering municipal institutions and the other education. The present municipal system dates from The Municipal Corporations Act enacted by The Province of Canada in 1849. It has been considerably modified in recent years with the creation of the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto in 1954 and the launching of the Government of Ontario's local government restructuring programme in 1968. Generally, there are two levels of municipal

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government in Ontario. The upper level consists of 27 counties plus 12 restructured regional municipalities. The local level comprises more than 800 cities, towns and townships. Cities in the traditional county system function independently of the county in which they lie, as do 5 towns which have been separated for municipal purposes. There are no separated municipal units in regional governments. Ontario's local municipalities are governed by councils elected by popular vote. A city council usually consists of a mayor, aldermen and, sometimes, an executive committee known as a board of control. Councils of towns, villages and townships usually consist of a mayor, reeve, deputy reeve, councillors and, in the case of the newer regional municipalities, one or more regional councillors who represent the area municipalities on the regional council. County and regional government councils are federated assemblies. A county council consists of the reeves and deputy reeves of the towns, villages and townships. The head of the county council is the warden, who is elected by the council from among its own members. A regional council consists of the heads of council of the local municipalities, as well as a varying number of regional councillors, who are elected on the basis of representation, either directly or indirectly. The head of the regional council is the chairman who is elected by council but who, unlike a county warden, need not have been a council member. N o municipality in Ontario may incur long-term debts without the sanction of the tribunal created by the Provincial Legislature and known as the Ontario Municipal Board. Debenture obligations incurred by municipalities for utility undertakings (water-works and electric light and power systems) are discharged ordinarily out of revenues derived from the sale of utility services and do not fall upon the ratepayers. Municipal councils have no jurisdiction for education beyond the collection of taxes for school purposes. Responsibility for providing, operating and maintaining school facilities, and for the supply of teachers, rests with local education authorities known as boards of education or school boards. These boards are now generally organized on a county or regional basis. Apart from some of the larger cities, local municipal school boards no longer exist. Municipal institutions come under the jurisdiction of the Provincial Ministry of Intergovernmental Affairs. One of the principal functions of the Ministry is to advise and assist municipalities on such matters as accounting, reporting, auditing, budgeting and planning. Educational support and guidance at the provincial level is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, which deals with the training of teachers and the formulation of curriculum. (At the university and community college level, education support services are provided by the Ministry of Colleges and Universities.) There are considerable areas in the northernmost parts of Ontario where as yet there is little or no settlement of population. In such areas no municipal organization exists, and control for all purposes over such areas remains in the hands of the Provincial Government. F I N A N C E . The gross revenue and expenditure and the net cash requirements (in Canadian $ 1,000) for years ending 31 March were as follows: 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 Gross revenue 16,470 18,886 20,395 22,647 24,773 Gross expenditure 17,273 20,389 22,943 24,936 26,801 Net cash requirement 803 1,503 2,548 2,289 2,028 Gross revenue and expenditure figures include all non-budgetary transactions, i.e., the lending and investment activity of the Government to Crown corporations, agencies and municipalities as well as the repayment of these loans or recovery of investments. Transactions on behalf of Ontario Hydro are excluded. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity (1982). Ontario Hydro recorded for the calendar year an installed gene-

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rating capacity of 25 -5m. kw. and a net energy output generated and purchased of 118,550m. kwh. Minerals (1983, preliminary). The total value of shipments (in $lm.) in the mineral products industry were: Nickel, 595; copper, 412; iron ore, 181; gold. 363. The total value of mineral production was $3,533m. in 1983. The mining industry employed about 50,000 people in 1982. Agriculture. In 1982, 3-5m. hectares were under field crops with total farm receipts of $5,000m. Forestry. According to the most recent inventory (1984) the total area of productive forest is 34-7m. hectares, comprising: Softwoods, 22-9m.; hardwoods, 11,837,000. The growing stock equals 4,431 m. cu. metres. The estimated value of shipments by the forest products industry (including logging) was (1983) $7,145-3m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry (1982). Ontario is Canada's most highly industrialized province. About 73% of value added in commodity-producing industries is accounted for by manufacturing. Construction is next with 13%. In 1982, the labour force was 4-57m. Total labour income was $89,236-5m. The Gross Provincial Product (GPP) was $ 147,210m. The leading manufacturing industries are motor vehicles and parts, iron and steel, meat and meat preparations, dairy products, paper and paperboard, chemical products, petroleum and coal products, machinery and equipment, metal stamping and pressing and communications equipment. Trade. In 1982 Ontario exported 43% ($36,603-4m.) of Canada's total foreign trade. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1983, 151,880-2 km of roads. Motor licences numbered (1982) approximately 5 -3m., of which 3 -8m. were passenger cars, 1,031,320 trucks and tractors, 23,827 buses, 65,754 trailers, 119,642 motor cycles and 169,385 snow vehicles. Railways. The provincially-owned Ontario Northland Railway has about 550 miles of track and the Algoma Central Railway 325 miles. The Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Railways operate a total of about 9,500 miles in Ontario. There is a metro and tramway network in Toronto. Post (1983). Telephone service is provided by 31 independent systems (278,619 telephones) and Bell Canada (9 • 3m. telephones). E D U C A T I O N . There is a complete provincial system of elementary and secondary schools as well as private schools. In 1983 publicly financed elementary and secondary schools had a total enrolment of 1,777,829 pupils. In 1965 Ontario established Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology (C AATS). There are now 22 of these publicly owned colleges with full-time enrolment (1983) of97,484 in academic courses. The University of Toronto, founded in 1827 (full-time enrolment, 1983, 35,749), and 14 other major universities (total full-time enrolment, 1983, 183,094), all receive provincial grants. The net general expenditure of the provincial ministries of education and colleges and universities for the fiscal year ending 31 March 1983 was$5,044m. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Annual publications of the Ontario Ministry of Treasury and Economics include: Ontario Statistics: Ontario Budget: Public Accounts: Financial Report.

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PRINCE E D W A R D ISLAND H I S T O R Y . The earliest discovery of the island is not satisfactorily known, but the first recorded visit was by Jacques Cartier in 1534, who named it Isle St-Jean; it was first settled by the French, but was taken from them in 1758. It was annexed to Nova Scotia in 1763, and constituted a separate colony in 1769. Prince Edward Island entered the Confederation on 1 July 1873. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The province, which is the smallest in Canada, lies in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and is separated from the mainland of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by Northumberland Strait. The area of the island is 2,184 sq. miles (5,656 sq. km). Total population (census, 1981), 124,200. Population ofthe principal cities: Charlottetown (capital), 15,282; Summerside, 7,828. Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . The cool temperate climate is affected in winter by the freezing ofthe St. Lawrence, which reduces winter temperatures. Charlottetown. Jan. 19"F (-7-2°C), July 67°F(19-4°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,077 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The provincial government is administered by a Lieut.-Governor-in-Council (Cabinet) and a Legislative Assembly of 32 members who are elected for up to 5 years. In Feb. 1985, parties in the Legislative Assembly were: Progressive Conservatives, 20; Liberals, 12. Lieut.-Governor: ioxph Aubin Doiron (sworn in 14 Jan. 1980). Flag: A banner of the arms, i.e., a white field bearing 3 small trees and a larger tree on a compartment, all green, and at the top a red band with a golden lion; on 3 sides a border of red and white rectangles. Premier and President of Executive Council: James M. Lee. Finance and Tourism: Lloyd G. MacPhail. Justice and Attorney-General and Community and Cultural Affairs: George R. McMahon, QC. Agriculture: Prowse G. Chappell. Energy and Forestry: Frederick L. Driscoll. Health and Social Services: Albert Fogarty. Fisheries and Labour: R. B. (Roddy) Pratt. Education: Leone Bagnall. Industry: Wilbur MacDonald. Transportation and Public Works: Gordon Lank. Local Government. The Village Service Act, 1954, provides for the incorporation of villages. The city of Charlottetown and the town of Summerside have been incorporated under Special Acts. The Town Act, 1951, provides for the incorporation of all towns. The Community Improvement Act, 1968, provides for the establishment of Community Improvement Committees in the unincorporated areas of the province. F I N A N C E . Revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $) for 6 financial years ending 31 March: 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 Revenue 273,375,400 307,566,300 352,556,900 380,883,900 394,641,400 432,222,600 Expenditure 273,074,300 306,789,900 351,486,200 386,878,700 415,444,500 440,300,700

ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power is supplied to 98% ofthe population. The province's net generated and purchased consumption of electricity increased during 1982 from 510m. kwh. to 531 m. kwh. In 1983, peak demand for electricity was 103 mw. In 1977 the province completed the laying ofan undersea power cable which links the island with New Brunswick and the Maritime Power Grid. In 1980, 30 miles of additional 138 kv transmission line was added to the PEI system. In 1983, about 98% of power requirements were supplied through this system. Agriculture. Total area of farms occupied approximately 699,367 acres in 1981 out

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of the total land area of 1,399,040 acres. Farm cash receipts in 1983 were $ 176m. with cash receipts from potatoes accounting for 37% of the total. Cash receipts from dairy products, cattle and hogs followed in importance. The land in natural forest covered 161,697 acres in 1981 and total value of forest products sold in 1980 was $363,221. For particulars of agricultural production and livestock, see under CANADA, p p . 2 7 9 - 8 0 .

Fisheries. The fishery of the province in 1983 had a landed value of $44-2m. Lobsters accounted for 65 • 7% of the total. Value of groundfish landings accounted for 11%; pelagic and estuarial, 8%; shellfish, other than lobster, 12%; Irish moss, 3-2%. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Value of manufacturing shipments for all industries in 1981 was $312-9m. Commerce. Average personal income rose from $8,943 in 1982 to $10,056 in 1983. The average weekly wage rose from $278.53 in 1982 to $295.45 in 1983. The labour force averaged 55,000 in 1983, while employment averaged 48,000. In 1982, provincial G D P for manufacturing was $62-9m.; construction, $47-4m. In 1983, total value of retail trade was $471,714,000. Tourism. The value of the tourist industry was estimated at $50- lm. in 1983 with 220,590 (estimate) tourist parties. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The province has a total of 5,278 km of road, including 3,687 km of paved highway. Railways. Rail service is provided over 274 miles of track within the province and connects with the national railways system via the New Brunswick-Prince Edward Island ferry service. Aviation. Air service for passengers, mail and cargo is scheduled to provide 8 flights daily in each direction between the province and various points in eastern Canada. A daily bus service operates between various centres in the province as well as to Nova Scotia during the summer months. Shipping. A ferry service provides rail and highway communication with New Brunswick by means of 4 large ferries, 2 of which are powerful ice-breakers. Another ferry service employing 2 ferries plus an additional 2 for summertime operates between the province and Nova Scotia throughout the season of open navigation. A third ferry service employing 1 ferry operates between the province and Magdalen Islands, Quebec, during the open navigation season. Post. In 1983 there were approximately 74,594 telephones. E D U C A T I O N (1982-83). Under the regional school boards there are 72 public schools, 1,382 teaching positions, 25,120 students. There is one undergraduate university (1,676 full-time students), and a college of applied arts and technology (928 full-time post-secondary students), both in Charlottetown. Total expenditure in education in the year ending 31 March 1984 is forecast to be $ 101,854,500. Books of Reference Clark, A. H., Three Centuries and the Island. Toronto, 1959 Hocking, A., Prince Edward Island. Toronto, 1978 MacKinnon, F., The Government of Prince Edward Island. Toronto, 1951

QUEBEC—QUÉBEC H I S T O R Y . Quebec was formerly known as New France or Canada from 1534 to 1763; as the province of Quebec from 1763 to 1790; as Lower Canada from 1791 to 1846; as Canada East from 1846 to 1867, and when, by the union of the four

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original provinces, the Confederation of the Dominion of Canada was formed, it again became known as the province of Quebec (Québec). The Quebec Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1774, guaranteed to the people of the newly conquered French territory in North America security in their religion and language, their customs and tenures, under their own civil laws. In the referendum held 20 May 1980, 59-5% voted against and 40-5% for 'separatism'. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Quebec (as amended by the Labrador Boundary Award) is 1,667,926 sq. km (594,860 sq. miles), of which 1,315,134 sq. km is land area and 352,792 sq. km water. Of this extent, 911,106 sq. km represent the Territory of Ungava, annexed in 1912 under the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act. The population (estimated 1 June 1983) was 6,514,900. Principal cities (1983): Quebec (capital), 163,800; Montreal, 1,005,000; Laval, 273,000; Sherbrooke, 73,000; Verdun, 60,100; Hull, 55,100; Trois-Rivières, 50,000. Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . Cool temperate in the south, but conditions are more extreme towards the north. Winters are severe and snowfall considerable, but summer temperatures are quite warm. Rain occurs at all seasons. Quebec. Jan. 10°F(-12-2°C), July 66°F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,008 mm). Montreal. Jan. 11°F (-11-7°C), July 67°F(19-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " ( 1,025 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . There is a Legislative Assembly consisting of 122 members, elected in 122 electoral districts for 4 years. There were, June 1984,71 Parti Québécois, 48 Liberals, 2 Independent, 1 vacant seat. Lieut.-Governor: The Hon. Gilles Lamontagne. Flag: The Fleurdelysé flag, blue with a white cross, and in each quarter a white fleur-de-lis. The members o f t h e Executive Council as on lOMarch 1985, are as follows: Prime Minister: René Lévesque. Justice and Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs: Pierre Marc Johnson. Communications: Jean-François Bertrand. Administrative Reform: Michel Clair. Industry, Commerce ana Tourism: Rodrigue Biron. Recreation and Sport: Guy Chevrette. Transport: Jacques Léonard. Energy and Resources: Yves L. Duhaime. Work: Raynald Frechette. Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: Jean Garon. Planning and Regional Development: François Gendron. Cultural Communities and Immigration: Gérald Godm. Social Affairs: Camille Laurin. External Trade and International Relations: Bernard Landry. Education: Yves Bérubé. Public Relations: Denis Lazure. Municipal Affairs, Public Works and Functions: Alain Marcoux. Revenue: Robert Dean. Women's Affairs: Denise Leblanc-Bantey. Environment: Adrien Ouellette. Science and Technology: Gilbert Paquette. Finance: Jacques Parizeau. Cultural Affairs: Clément Richard. Consumer Protection and Housing: Guy Tardif. General-delegate in London: Patrick Hindman (59 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JH). General-delegate in New York: Rita Dion Marsolais (17 West 50th St., Rockefeller Center, New York 10020). General-delegate in Paris: Louise Beaudoin (66 Pergolèse, Paris 75116). ECONOMY Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $ 1,000) for fiscal years ending 31 March: 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 Revenue Expenditure

11,928,343 13,402,830

13,306,680 15,123,200

14,718,305 17,596,659

17,471,594 20,359,807

The total net debt at 31 March 1983 was$14,225,644,000.

19,210,266 22,259,296

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ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Water power is one of the most important natural resources of the province of Quebec. Its turbine installation represents about 40% of the aggregate of Canada. At the end of 1982 the installed generating capacity was 27,745 mw. Production, 1983, was 110,566 gwh. Minerals (1983). The estimated value of the mineral production (metal mines only) was $1,091,142,000. Chief minerals: Iron ore, $346,197,000; copper, $123,386,000; gold, $441,459,000; zinc, $77,837,000. The second major iron-ore development in northern Quebec is, like the one at Knob Lake which gave birth to SchefTerville, based on the Quebec-Labrador Trough which extends from Lac Jeannine to the northern tip of Ungava peninsula. The port of Sept-Iles and the railway connecting it with SchefTerville allow easy shipment to the furnaces and steel mills of Canada, the USA and Europe. The setting-up of a steel industry is being explored. Non-metallic minerals produced include: Asbestos ($315,696,000; about 87% of Canadian production), titane-dioxide ($108,300,000), industrial lime, dolomite and brucite, quartz and pyrite. Among the building materials produced were: Stone, $111,358,000; cement, $124,108,000; sand and gravel, $77,599,000; lime, $21,673,000. Agriculture. In 1983 the total area (estimate) of the principal field crops was 2,124,800 hectares. The yield of the principal crops was (in 1,000 tonnes): Crops Tame hay Oatsforgrain Potatoes Mixed grains

Yield 4,000 335 295 130

Crops Fodder com Maize forgrain Barley Buckwheat

Yield 2,500 975 335 12

The farm cash receipts from farming operations in 1983 amounted to $2,844,371,000. The principal items being: Livestock and products, $2,200,933,000; crops, $412,872,000; dairy supplements payments, $ 127,502,000, forest and maple products, $48,105,000. Forestry. Forests cover an area of764,279 sq. km. About 556,044 sq. km are classified as productive forests, of which 652,956 sq. km are provincial crown land and 108,992 sq. km are privately owned. Quebec leads the Canadian provinces in pulpwood production, having nearly half of the Canadian estimated total. In 1982 production of lumber was softwood and hardwood, 6,516,857 cu. metres; woodpulp, 6,282,713 tonnes; paper and paperboard, 5,480,898 tonnes. Fisheries. The principal fish are cod, herring, red fish, lobster and salmon. Total catch of sea fish, 1983,68,784 tonnes, valued at $54,705,846. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1982 there were 10,753 industrial establishments in the province; employees, 482,337; salaries and wages, $9,915,886,480; cost of materials, $32,543,904,029; value of shipments, $54,293,104,947. Among the leading industries are petroleum refining, pulp and paper mills, smelting and refining, dairy products, slaughtering and meat processing, motor vehicle manufacturing, women's clothing, saw-mills and planing mills, iron and steel mills, commercial printing. Commerce. In 1983 the value of Canadian exports through Quebec custom ports was $ 18,274,864,000; value of imports, $ 13,840,684,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 59,749 km of roads and (1983) 3,823,820 registered motor vehicles. Railways. There were (1982) 8,322 km of railway. There is a metro system in Montreal.

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Aviation. In 1983 Quebec had 2 international airports, Dorval (Montreal) with landing runway of 8 -4 km and Mirabel (Montreal) with 7 • 3 km. Post and Broadcasting. Telephones numbered 4,077,038 in 1983 and there were 25 television and 119 radio stations in 1982. Newspapers (1983). There were 10 French- and 2 English-language daily newspapers. E D U C A T I O N . The province has 7 universities: 3 English-language universities, McGill (Montreal) founded in 1821, Bishop (Lennoxville) founded in 1845 and the Concordia University (Montreal) granted a charter in 1975; 4 French-language universities: Laval (Quebec) founded in 1852, Montreal University, opened in 1876 as a branch of Laval and became independent in 1920, Sherbrooke University founded in 1954 and University ofQuebec founded in 1968. In 1983-84 there were 96,900 full-time university students and 96,800 parttime students. In 1982-83, in pre-kindergartens, there were 7,501 pupils; in kindergartens, 91,655; primary schools, 550,073; in secondary schools, 515,347; in colleges (postsecondary, non-university), 149,956; and in classes for children with special needs, 93,953. The school boards had a total of66,030 teachers. Expenditure of the Department of Education for 1982-83, $6,108,932,000 net. This included $959,104,000 for universities, $3,712,393,000 for public primary and secondary schools, $173,916,000 for private primary and secondary schools and $803,624,000 for colleges. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Quebec Bureau of Statistics was established in 1912. The Bureau, which reports to the Executive council since Sept. 1981, collects, compiles and distributes statistical information relative to Quebec. Director Nicole Gendreau. A statistical information list is available on request. Among the most important publications are: Annuaire du Québec (Quebec Yearbook), Statistiques (quarterly), Comptes économiques du Québec (annual), Perspectives démographiques (annual), Situation démographique (annual), Exportations internationales du Québec (annual), Statistiques du travail et de la main-d'oeuvre (annual), Investissements privés et publics (annual), Eléments de prévisions économiques (quarterly), Statistiques manufacturières (annual). Atlas du Québec L'Agriculture. Ministère de l'Industrie et du Commerce, Quebec, 1966 Baudoin, L., Le Droit civil de la province de Québec. Montreal, 1953 Blanchard, R., Le Canada-français. Paris, 1959 Hamelin, J., Histoire du Québec St-Hyacinthe, 1978 Jacobs, J., The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle for Sovereignty. London, 1981 McWhinney, E., Quebec and the Constitution. Univ. of Toronto Press, 1979 Ouellet, F., Histoire de la Chambre de Commerce de Québec, 1809-1959. Québec, 1959 Raynauld, A., Croissance et structure économiques de la province de Québec Québec, 1961 TrofimenkofT, S. M., Action Française. Univ. of Toronto Press, 1975 Wade, F. M., The French Canadians, 1760-1967. Toronto, 1968.—Canadian Dualism: Studies of French-English Relations. Quebec-Toronto, 1960

SASKATCHEWAN H I S T O R Y . Saskatchewan derives its name from its major river system, which the Cree Indians called 'Kis-is-ska-tche-wan', meaning 'swift flowing'. It officially became a province when it joined the Confederation on 1 Sept. 1905. In 1670 King Charles II granted to Prince Rupert and his friends a charter covering exclusive trading rights in 'all the land drained by streams finding their outlet in the Hudson Bay'. TTiis included what is now Saskatchewan. The trading company was first known as The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England; later as the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1869 the Northwest Territories was formed, and this included Saskatchewan. In 1882 the District of Saskatchewan was formed. By

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1885 the North-West Mounted Police had been inaugurated, with headquarters in Regina (now the capital), and the Canadian Pacific Railway's transcontinental line had been completed, bringing a stream of immigrants to southern Saskatchewan. The Hudson's Bay Company surrendered its claim to territory in return for cash and land around the existing trading posts. Legislative government was introduced. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Saskatchewan is bounded on the west by Alberta, on the east by Manitoba, to the north by the Northwest Territories; to the south it is bordered by the US states of Montana and North Dakota. The area of the province is 251,700 sq. miles (570,113 sq. km), of which 220,182 sq. miles is land area and 31,518 sq. miles is water. The population, 1981 census, was 968,313 (1984, estimate, 1,007,700). Population of principal cities, 1981 census (1984 estimate): Regina (capital), 162,984 (172,340); Saskatoon, 154,210 (170,748); Moose Jaw, 33,941 (35,118); Prince Albert, 31,380 (32,957); Yorkton, 15,339 (15,895); Swift Current, 14,747 (15,772); North Battleford, 14,030 (14,702); Estevan, 9,174 (10,056); Weybum, 9,523 (10,038); Lloydminster, 6,034 (6,312); Melfort, 6,010 (6,458); Melville, 5,092 (5,320). Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, seep. 286. C L I M A T E . A cold continental climate, with severe winters and warm summers. Rainfall amounts are greatest from May to Aug. Regina. Jan. 0°F (-17-8°C), July 65°F(18-3°C). Annual rainfall 15" (373 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The provincial government is vested in a Lieut.-Governor, an Executive Council and a Legislative Assembly, elected for 5 years. Women were given the franchise in 1916 and are also eligible for election to the legislature. State of parties in July 1984: Progressive Conservative, 55; New Democratic Party, 8; Liberal, 1. Lieut.-Governor: F. W. Johnson. Flag: Green over gold, with the shield of the province in the canton, and a green and red prairie lily in the fly. The Progressive Conservative Ministry in March 1985 was composed as follows: Premier: Grant Devine. Deputy Premier, Economic Development and Trade, Provincial Secretary, Saskatchewan Power Corporation: Eric Bemtson. Finance and Leader of the House: Bob Andrew. Energy and Mines, Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan: Paul Schoenals. Agriculture: Lome Hepworth. Justice and Attorney-General, Saskatchewan Telecommunications: Gary Lane. Urban Affairs: Tim Embury. Parks and Renewable Resources: Colin Maxwell. Culture and Recreation: Rick Folk. Education: Patricia Smith. Social Services: Gordon Dirks. Labour: Lome McLaren. Tourism and Small Business: Jack Klein. Science and Technology, Telephones, Advanced Education and Manpower: Gordon Currie. Health: Graham Taylor. Environment: Neal Hardy. Highways: Jim Gamer. Revenue and Financial Services: Paul Rousseau. Consumer and Commercial Affairs: Joan Duncan. Supply and Services, Deputy Leader of the House: George McLeod. Cooperation and Co-operative Development: Jack Sandberg. Rural Development: Louis Domotor. Ministers without Portfolio: Sid Dutchak (Indian and Native Affairs, Saskatchewan Housing Corporation), Gerald Muirhead (Saskatchewan Crop Insurance). Agent-General in London: R. A. Larter, 21 Pall Mall, SW1Y 5LP. Local Government. The organization of a city requires a minimum population of 5,000 persons; that of a town, 500; that of a village, 100 people. No requirements as to population exist for the rural municipality and the local improvement district. Cities, towns, villages and rural municipalities are governed by elected councils, which consist of a mayor and 6-20 aldermen in a city; a mayor and 6 councillors in a town; a mayor and 2 other members in a village; a reeve and a councillor for each

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division in a rural municipality (usually 6). Local improvement districts are administered by the Department of Municipal Affairs. F I N A N C E . Budget and net assets (years ending 31 March) in Canadian $ 1,0002: 1980-81'2

1982-831

1983-84

1984-85'

Budgetary revenue 2,019,345 2,523,803 2,699,216 2,912,701 2,821,554 3,041,095 3,211,304 Budgetary expenditure 2,018,303 1 Estimate. ' Excludes Consolidated Fund, Community Capital Fund, Saskatchewan Heritage Fund, Energy and Resource Development Fund and The Marketing Development Fund.

E N E R G Y A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S . Agriculture used to dominate the history and economics of Saskatchewan, but the 'prairie province' is now a rapidly developing mining and manufacturing area. It is a major supplier of oil; has the world's largest deposits of potash; and net value of non-agricultural production account for (1983 estimate) 61% of the provincial economy. Electricity. The Saskatchewan Power Corporation generated 10,668m. kwh. in 1983. Minerals. The 1983 mineral production was valued at $2,651,400,000, including (in $1,000): Petroleum 1,612,399; natural gas, 60,415; coal, 91,600; gold, 2,573; silver, 2,222; copper, 13,676; zinc, 6,782; potash, 620,912; salt, 20,821; uranium, 119,600; sodium sulphate, 39,427. Agriculture. Saskatchewan produces normally about two-thirds of Canada's wheat. Wheat production in 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes), was 15,622 f r o m 2 0 - 7 m . acres; oats, 648 from 1 - l m . acres; barley, 2,613 from 3m. acres; rye, 203 (1979) from 360,000 acres; rapeseed, 1,089,000 from l -4m. acres; flax, 259 (1979) from 800,000 acres. Livestock (1 July 1983): Cattle and calves, 2,275,000; swine, 545,000; sheep and lambs, 68,000. Poultry in 1982: Chickens, 4,793,000; turkeys 459,000. Cash income from the sale of farm products in 1983 was $3,960m. At the June 1981 census there were 67,318 commercial farms in the province, each being a holding having agricultural sales of $2,500 or more. The South Saskatchewan River irrigation project, whose main feature is the Gardiner Dam, was completed in 1967. It will ultimately provide for an area of 200,000 acres of irrigated cultivation in Central Saskatchewan. In 1981, 38,023 acres were developed. Total irrigated land, 138,164 acres. Forestry. Half of Saskatchewan's area is forested, but only 115,000 sq. km are of commercial value at present. Forest products valued at $171m. were produced in 1983. The province's first pulp-mill, at Prince Albert, went into production in 1968; its daily capacity is 1,000 tons of high-grade kraft pulp. Fur Production. In 1983-84 wild fur production was estimated at $4,029,591. Ranch-raised fur production amounted to $ 132,236. Fisheries. The lakeside value of the 1983-84 commercial fish catch of 2,817,948 kg was $2,224,136. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982 Saskatchewan had 749 manufacturing establishments, employing 20,115 persons. The net value of gross domestic production was $2,500m. in 1982. Manufacturing accounted for $2,500m., construction for $2 • 5m. in 1980. T O U R I S M . An estimated 1 -5m. out of province tourists spent $ 150m. in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 23,190 km of provincial highways, 180,647 km of municipal roads (including prairie trails). Motor vehicles registered totalled (1983) 694,372. Btis services are provided by 2 major lines. Railways. There were (1983) approximately 11,857 km of main railway track in operation.

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Aviation. Saskatchewan had 2 major airports, 176 airports and landing strips in 1983. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1984) 720 post offices (excluding sub-post offices), 85 TV and re-broadcasting stations and 52 AM and FM radio stations. 695,964 telephones were connected to the Saskatchewan Telecommunications system. E D U C A T I O N . The University of Saskatchewan was established at Saskatoon on 3 April 1907. In 1984-85 it had 13,195 (day-time) degree students, 1,214 (parttime) and 1,000 full-time teaching staff; and 5,149 (full-time) and 3,353 (part-time) students and 350 full-time faculty members at the University of Regina which was established 1 July 1974. The Saskatchewan public education system in 1984-85 consisted of 122 school units and districts serving 143,468 elementary pupils, 58,011 high-school students and 3,292 students enrolled in special classes. In addition, 3 provincial technical and vocational schools provided training for approximately 24,108 technical students. There are also 22 Roman Catholic separate school districts and 2 separate high-school districts. In addition there are 16 community colleges with an enrolment of approximately 100,000 registrations per year. Books of Reference Tourist and industrial publications, descriptive of the Government's programme, are obtainable from the Department of Industry and Commerce; other government publications from Government Information Services (Legislative Building, Regina). Saskatchewan Economic Review. Executive Council, Regina. Annual Morton, A. S., Saskatchewan, theMakingofa University. Toronto, 1959 Richards, J. S.,and Fung, K.. I. (eds.), Atlas ofSaskatchewan. Univ. of Saskatchewan, 1969

THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES H I S T O R Y . The Territory was developed by the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company (of Montreal) from the 17th century. The Canadian Government bought out the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869 and the Territory was annexed to Canada in 1870. The Arctic Islands lying north of the Canadian mainland were annexed to Canada in 1880 by Queen Victoria. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area of the Territories is 1,304,903 sq. miles (3,379,700 sq. km), divided into 5 districts, namely, Inuvik, Fort Smith, Keewatin, Baffin and Kitikmeot. The population in Dec. 1982 was 48,346, about 58% of whom were Indians or Inuit (Eskimo). Main centres (Dec. 1982): Inuvik (3,511), Fort Smith (2,302), Hay River (3,057), Frobisher Bay (2,525), Fort Simpson (984). When the transfer of governmental responsibility from Ottawa to the Territorial capital at Yellowknife took place in 1967, the population of Yellowknife increased by the influx of civil servants from 3,741 in 1966 to 10,394 in 1982. C L I M A T E . Conditions range from cold continental to polar, with long hard winters and short cool summers. Precipitation is low. Yellowknife. Jan. -15°F (-26°C), July 61°F(16- PC). Annual rainfall 10" (256 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Northwest Territories comprises all that portion of Canada lying north of the 60th parallel of N. lat. except those portions within the Yukon Territory and the Provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland: it also includes the islands in Hudson Bay, James Bay and Ungava Bay except those within the Provinces of Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec. The Northwest Territories is governed by a Commissioner and a Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is composed of 24 members elected for a 4-year term of

THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

325

office. The seat of government was transferred from Ottawa to Yellowknife when it was named territorial capital on 18 Jan. 1967. Commissioner:}. H. Parker. Flag: Vertically, blue, white, blue, with the white of double width and bearing the shield of the Territory. Legislative powers are exercised by the Executive Council on such matters as taxation within the Territories in order to raise revenue, maintenance of justice, licences, solemnization of marriages, education, public health, property, civil rights and generally all matters of a local nature. TheTerritorial Government has now assumed responsibility for the administration of the entire Northwest Territories. In a Territories-wide plebiscite in April 1982, a majority of residents favoured dividing the Northwest Territories into two jurisdictions. The Legislative Assembly has asked the Federal Government to agree to division and to establish a Commission to determine a boundary. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Oil and Gas. As of March 1983, 1,531 permits for oil and gas exploration were held for 40-86m. hectares, of which 107 leases were on the mainland, 1,142 were on the arctic islands and 282 on the marine coast. Crude oil, discovered in 1920, is produced and refined at Norman Wells on the Mackenzie River. In 1982, oil production was 173,294 cu. metres. Minerals. Mineral production for the year 1983, from 11 producing mines, was valued at $516,671,000, of which zinc accounted for $282,509,000; gold, $158,559,000; lead, $38,335,000; tungsten, $3,281,000; silver, $33,145,000; arsenic trioxide, $595,000; copper, $236,000 and cadmium, $ 11,000. Yellowknife continues to be the centre of goldmining activity and Canada's Cominco Ltd has completed construction of a lead-zinc mine, the Polaris Project, on Little Cornwallis Island in the central high arctic. Trapping and Game. Fur produced during the 1982-83 season was valued at $2,574,120-54, primarily in muskrat, fox, lynx and marten. A herd of some 6,500 buffalo is protected in Wood Buffalo National Park. Barren ground caribou are increasing, due to more effective management techniques. Forestry. The principal trees are white and black spruce, jack-pine, balsam, poplar and birch. In 1983,27,163 cu. metres of lumber, 5,649 cu. metres of round timber and 16,268 cu. metres of fuelwood were cut. Fisheries. Commercial fishing, principally on Great Slave Lake, in 1981-82 produced fish valued at $ 1 -3m., principally trout, char and whitefish. C O - O P E R A T I V E S . There are 36 active co-operatives in the Northwest Territories. They are active in handicrafts, furs, fisheries, retail stores, print shops, provision of housing, contracting for services, etc. Total sales in 1980-81 were more than $20m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Mackenzie Route connects Grimshaw, Alberta, with Hay River, Pine Point, Fort Smith, Fort Providence, Rae-Edzo and Yellowknife. The Mackenzie Highway extension to Fort Simpson and a road between Pine Point and Fort Resolution have both been opened. Clearing began in 1972 for extending the Mackenzie Highway north of Fort Simpson to the arctic coast. Highway service to Inuvik in the Mackenzie Delta was opened in spring 1980, extending north from Dawson, Yukon as the Dempster Highway. The Liard Highway connecting the communities of the Liard River valley to British Columbia opened in 1984. Railways. The Great Slave Lake Railway runs from Pine Point and Hay River, on the south shore of Great Slave Lake, 435 miles south to Grimshaw, Alberta, where it connects with the CN Rail's main system.

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Aviation (1979). Fourteen licensed and 1 unlicensed airports are operated by the federal Ministry of Transport and there are 17 licensed and 18 unlicensed airports operated by the Government of the Northwest Territories. Two licensed and 10 unlicensed airports are operated by private owners. Regular mail, passenger and express services are maintained throughout the Territories. A seaplane base is operated by the Ministry of Transport and there are 17 private seaplane bases. Scheduled services join major points with centres in southern Canada. Shipping. A direct inland-water transportation route for about 1,700 miles is provided by the Mackenzie River and its tributaries, the Athabasca and Slave rivers. Subsidiary routes on Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake and Great Bear River and Lake total more than 800 miles. Post and Broadcasting (1982). There were 54 post offices. The CBC northern service operated radio stations at Yellowknife, Inuvik, Frobisher Bay and Rankin Inlet. Virtually all communities of 150 or over were receiving television in 1982 via satellite. Telephone service is provided by common carriers to nearly all communities in the Northwest Territories. Those few communities without service have high frequency or very high frequency radios for emergency use. EDUCATION AND WELFARE Education. In 1982-83 the Government of the Northwest Territories operated 71 schools with 731 teachers. In addition, one public school district operated at Yellowknife, one Roman Catholic separate school district at Yellowknife, and one school society operated a school at Rae-Edzo. The total enrolment was 12,760 in 1983, of whom about 65% were Inuit (Eskimos) and Indians. Three large and 4 small residences accommodate 400 students. Free correspondence courses are available to any pupil in a settlement where appropriate instruction is not available. There is a full range of courses available in the school system: academic, industrial arts, home economics, commercial, technical and occupational training. The continuing and special education programme provides courses and financial assistance to residents who have left the school system or are taking post high school training. Health. In 1980 there were 7 hospitals in the Territories, 4 operated by the territorial government (Yellowknife, Hay River, Frobisher Bay and Fort Smith) and 3 operated by the federal government. Thirty-nine nursing stations, 6 health stations and 8 health centres were in operation. Welfare. Welfare services are provided by professional social workers. Facilities included (1978) 5 children's receiving homes, 2 homes for the aged and 1 transient centre. Books of Reference Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Annual Report of the Government of the Northwest Territories, 1980 Boyle, E., and Sprudz, A., Arctic Cooperatives, Canada 1965-68 Dawson, C. A., The New North- West. Toronto, 1947 MacKay, D., The Honorable Company. Toronto, 1949

1974-75

Y U K O N TERRITORY HISTORY. Formerly part of the North-West Territory, Yukon was joined to the Dominion as a separate territory in 1898. AREA A N D POPULATION. The Yukon Territory is situated in the extreme north-western section of Canada and comprises 531,844 sq. km. The census population in 1981 was 23,153; 1983 (estimate), 23,216. Principal centres are Whitehorse (capital), 15,771; Faro, 1,700; Watson Lake, 1,325; Dawson City, 1,244; Mayo-Elsa, 659.

Vital statistics, see p. 269. Religion, see p. 286. C L I M A T E . A cold climate, with considerable annual range of temperature and moderate rainfall. Whitehorse. Jan. 5°F (-15°C), July 56°F (13-3°C). Annual rainfall 10" (250 mm). Dawson City. Jan. -22°F (-30°C), July 57°F(13-9X). Annual rainfall 13" (320 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Yukon Territory was constituted a separate territory in June 1898. It is governed by a 5-member Executive Council (Cabinet) appointed from among the 16-member elected Legislative Assembly. The members are elected for a 4-year term. The seat of government is at Whitehorse. A federally appointed Commissioner has the final signing authority for all legislation passed by the Assembly. Commissioner: Doug Bell. Flag: Vertically green, white, blue, in the proportions 2 : 3 : 2 , charged in the centre with the arms of the Territory. The legislative authority of the Assembly includes direct taxation, education, property and civil rights, territorial civil service, municipalities and generally all matters of local or private nature. All other major administration including Crown lands, income tax, natural resources and particularly that which requires the spending of large sums of money, is federally controlled. ECONOMY Planning. There are very few major development projects at present or in the foreseeable future as the future of the mining industry, the backbone of the economy, is highly uncertain. One mine, Whitehorse Copper, has closed permanently; another, United Keno Hill, is only working at 50% capacity. The largest, Cyprus Anvil, is still not back in production; the mine is expected to re-open in 1985. In 1981 the opening of 5 new mines in eastern Yukon, the extension of railways from southern Canada and Alaska and a proposed aluminium smelter were under consideration but by 1983 many of these plans were shelved, because of the recession. Finance. The territorial revenue and expenditure (in Canadian $ 1,000) for fiscal years ended 31 March was: 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 Revenue Expenditure

88,442 103,839

122,252 125,442

145,021 142,047

173,559 161,682

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Mining remains the main industry. Lead, zinc, silver and gold are the chief minerals. Production figures for year ending 31 Dec. 1983 (provisional) in tonnes were: Lead, 391; zinc (1981), 86,486 kg; silver, 18; gold, 3. The value of mining production sales in 1983 was approximately $58 • 8m. Forestry. The forests are part of the great Boreal forest region of Canada which stretches from the east coast of Canada into Alaska and north well above the Arctic Circle. Vast areas are covered by coniferous stands in the southern portion of Yukon with white spruce and lodgepole pine forming pure stands on wet sites and in northern aspects. Deciduous species form pure stands or occur mixed with conifers throughout forest areas. The forestry industry remained very depressed in 1983. The major operator, Cattermole Timber, operated on only a very small scale. Game and Furs. The country abounds with big game, such as moose, goat, caribou, mountain sheep and bear (grizzly and black). In 1979-80, 52,800 pelts were taken for a market value of $917,048. Lynx was the most valuable fur and made up 45% of the total harvest bringing in $416,458 in revenues. T O U R I S M . In 1983,394,000 tourists visited Yukon and spent $77m.

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Alaska Highway and its side roads connect Yukon's main communities with Alaska and the provinces and with adjacent mining centres. Interior roads connect the mining communities of Elsa (silver-lead), Faro (lead-zinc-silver). Tungsten (tungsten) and mineral exploration properties (lead-zinc and tungsten) north of Ross River. The Dempster Highway north of Dawson City connects with Inuvik, on the Arctic coast; this highway, the first public road to be built to the Arctic ocean, was opened in Aug. 1979. The Carcross-Skagway road was opened in May 1979, providing a new access to the Pacific ocean. There are 4,230 km of roads in the Territory, of which about 380 km are paved. The rest are allweather gravel. Railways. The 176-km White Pass and Yukon Railway connected Whitehorse with year-round ocean shippingat Skagway, Alaska, but was suspended in 1982. Aviation. Commercial airlines provide regular services between Whitehorse, Watson Lake, Edmonton and Vancouver. Regularly scheduled air services extend from Whitehorse to interior communities of Faro, Mayo, Dawson City, Old Crow, Ross River, Watson Lake, MacMillan Pass, Juneau with connecting service to Anchorage, Seattle, Fairbanks and other points in Alaska. There are several commercial bush plane operations for charter service. Shipping. Some goods are shipped iitfo the Territory by air or via the Alaska Highway, but most are containerized in Vancouver and brought u p the coast by ship to Skagway, Alaska. The containers are then taken by train from Skagway to Whitehorse, and then hauled by truck to the outlying communities. Many of these trucks then return to Whitehorse hauling ore to be shipped out. Some goods are transported within the Territory by air. Although navigable, the rivers are no longer used for shipping. Post and Broadcasting. There are 2 radio stations in Whitehorse and 13 low-power relay radio transmitters operated by CBC. There are also 12 cable-TV channels in Whitehorse, T V channels in Whitehorse and private cable operations in Faro (provided by Canadian Satellite), Dawson City and Watson Lake. Live CBC national television is provided by the Anik satellite to virtually every community in the Territory. All telephone and telecommunications in the Territory are provided by NorthwesTel, a subsidiary of Canadian National Telecommunications. Almost all pole lines have been replaced with microwave transmission. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 2 newspapers, each 3 days a week, in Whitehorse. Faro has a two-monthly newspaper. EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Education In Sept. 1982, the Territory had 26 schools with 4,849 pupils. In addition to the courses given in the Yukon Vocational and Technical Centre, the Yukon offers a limited number of post-secondary courses through the University of Alberta, University of Victoria and Red Deer College. A Yukon Teacher Education Programme started in 1977 to train local residents to obtain Bachelor of Education degrees in Education and a Teaching Certificate. The course is conducted by the University of British Columbia. The Government provides financial assistance to students requiring further education elsewhere. Health. The health care system provides all residents with the care demanded by illness or accident. The federal government operates 1 general hospital at Whitehorse, 3 cottage hospitals, 2 nursing stations, with a total of 150 beds, 11 health centres and 4 health stations. The territorial government also operates a medical evacuation programme to send patients to Edmonton or Vancouver for specialized treatment not available in the Territory. Books of Reference Annual Report ofthe Commissioner. Yukon Territorial Government, Statistical Review. Berton, P., Klondike. Toronto, 1963 McCourt, E., The Yukon and Northwest Territories. Toronto, 1969

CAPE

VERDE

Capital: Praia /'0pHta/£>n:296,O93(198O) GA7>/w o/piia: US$340 ( 1981 )

República de Cabo Verde H I S T O R Y . The Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1460 by Diogo Gomes, the first settlers arriving in 1462. In 1587 its administration was unified under a Portuguese governor. The colony became an Overseas Province in 1951. On 30 Dec. 1974 Portugal transferred power to a transitional government headed by the Portuguese High Commissioner. Full independence was granted on 5 July 1975. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Cape Verde is situated in the Atlantic Ocean 620 km WNW of Senegal and consists of 10 islands and 5 islets. Praia is the capital. The islands are divided into 2 groups, named Barlavento (windward) and Sotavento (leeward). The total area is 4,033 sq. km (1,557 sq. miles). The population (census, 1980) was 296,093. The areas and populations (1980, census) of the islands are: Santo Antào Sào Vicente 1 Sào Nicolau Sal Boa Vista Barlovento

Sq

km 779 227 388 216 620

2,230 1

Population 43,198 41,792 13,575 6,006 3,397 107,968

Maio Sào Tiago Fogo Brava Sotavento

Total Includes Santa Luzia which is uninhabited.

Sq. km 269 991 476 67

Population 4,103 145,923 31,115 6,984

1,803

188,125

4,033

296,093

The main towns are Mindelo on Sào Vicente (28,797, 1970 census) and Praia on Sào Tiago, the capital (37,500,1980 census). Crioulo serves as the common language of the islands, although the official language is Portuguese. C L I M A T E . The climate is arid, with a cool dry season from Dec. to June and warm dry conditions for the rest of the year. Rainfall is sparse, rarely exceeding 5 " (127 mm) in the northern islands or 12" (304 mm) in the southern ones. There are periodic severe droughts. Praia. Jan. 72°F (22-2°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 10" (250 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution adopted on 12 Feb. 1981 removed all reference to possible future union with Guinea-Bissau, and the Partido Africano da Independencia de Cabo Verde, founded 20 Jan. 1981, became the sole legal party. The legislature consists of a unicameral People's National Assembly of 56 members elected for 5 years by universal suffrage; it elects the President, who appoints and leads a Council of Ministers. Elections were held on 7 Dec. 1980. President: Aristides Maria Pereira (assumed office 5 July 1975; re-elected 1980). In April 1984 the Council of Ministers comprised: Prime Minister: Maj. Pedro Verona Rodrigues Pires. Foreign Affairs: Col. Silvino Manuel da Luz. Defence: Col. Honorio Chantre. Interior: Col. Julio de Carvalho. Economy and Finance: Cmdt Osvaldo Lopez da Silva. Education and Culture: José Araujo. Transport and Telecommunications: Herculano Vieira. Health and Social Affairs: Dr Ireneu Gomes. Justice: Dr David Hopffer Cordeiro Almada. Rural Development: Cmdt Joào Pereira Silva. Housing and Public Works: Tito Livio Santos de Oliveira Ramos. Secretaries of Stale: Jose Brito (Planning and Co-operation), Virgilio Femandes (Trade, Tourism and 329

330

CAPE

VERDE

Crafts), Dr Amaldo Vasconcellos Franca (Finance), Miguel Lima (Fishing), Adao Rocha (Industry and Energy), Dr Corsino Antonio Fortes (Social Communications). Nationalflag: Horizontally yellow over green, with a vertical red strip in the hoist charged slightly above the centre with a black star surrounded by a wreath of maize, and beneath this a yellow clam shell. Local government: The 2 distritos (Barlovento and Sotavento) are sub-divided into 14 congelhos - Ribeira Grande, Paul, Porto Novo (these 3 covering Santo Antao island), Sao Vicente (including Santa Luzia), Sao Nicolau, Sal, Boa Vista, Maio, Praia, Santa Catarina, Tarrafal, Santa Cruz (these 4 covering Sao Tiago island), Fogo and Brava. DEFENCE Army. The Popular Revolutionary Armed Forces had a strength of 1,100 in 1985. There is also a paramilitary People's Militia. Navy. There are 3 fast gunboats and 2 fast attack craft (ex-torpedo boats), all 5 exSoviet. A small ex-Portuguese hydrographic vessel is also reportedly in service (1985). Personnel(1985)75. Air Force. An embryo air force has been formed with two An-26 twin-turboprop transports and about 25 personnel. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Cape Verde is a member of UN, OAU and an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. In 1981, the budget included revenue of944m. escudos Caboverdianos and expenditure, 1,082m. Currency. Escudo Caboverdianos. In Feb. 1985, 90-80 Escudo = £1 and 89-27 £scu 440,571 148,161 180,285 128,113 329,922 279,622 335,630 247,870 2,116,819 244,421 358,558 451,064 874,803 1,369,059 328,070

426

ECUADOR Provinces Ñapo (Tena) Pastaza (Puyo) Morona-Santiago (Macas) Zamora-Chinchipe (Zamora) Colon (Galápagos)

] l [ J

Total

Area ísq.km) m

,,n 7,844

Population .Census ¡982 * | 113,042 J 32,536 ] 67,094 [ 44,841 6,201

455,454

8,053,280

' Provisional.

There are 115 cantons, 212 urban parishes and 715 rural parishes. The chief cities (population census, 1982) are the capital, Quito (1,110,248), Guayaquil (1,300,868), Cuenca (272,397), Ambato (221,392), Portoviejo (167,070), Riobamba(149,757), Esmeraldas (141,030), Machalaü 17,243). Vital statistics for calendar years: Births, (1964) 219,137,(1965) 226,436, ( 1966) 220,930; deaths, ( 1964) 58,989, (1965) 60,202, (1966) 59,618. C L I M A T E . The climate varies from equatorial, through warm temperate to mountain conditions, according to altitude. This affects temperatures and rainfall. In coastal areas, the dry season is from May to Dec., but only from June to Sept. in mountainous parts, where temperatures may be 20°F colder than on the coast. Quito Jan. 59°F (15°C), July 58°F (14-4'C). Annual rainfall 44" (1,115 mm). Guayaquil. Jan. 79°F (26- 1"C), July 75'F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 39" (986 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 22 June 1970 President

José Maria Velasco Ibarra assumed dictatorial powers, following months of strife between student and security forces. For details of governments 1963-70, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 7 4 - 7 5 , p p . 8 7 5 - 7 6 . O n

15 F e b . 1 9 7 2 P r e s i d e n t

Velasco Ibarra was deposed. A National Military Government under Gen. Guillermo Rodriguez Lara was formed and the 1945 Constitution reintroduced. President Rodriguez Lara resigned in Jan. 1976 and a military Junta assumed power until the 1979 elections. A new Constitution came into force on 10 Aug. 1979. Elections take place in May 1984. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of yellow, blue, red, with the yellow of double width, and in the centre over all the national arms. National anthem: Salve, oh patria! (words by J. L. Mera; tune by A. Neumann, 1866).

The following is a list of the presidents and provisional executives since 1940: Carlos Alberto Arroyo del Rio, elected 12 Jan. 1940; resigned 30 May 1944. Dr José María Velasco Ibarra, elected by Constituent Assembly, Aug. 1944; reelected 11 Aug. 1946, but deposed 24 Aug. 1947. Col. Carlos Mancheno, seized power 24 Aug. 1947; deposed 3 Sept. 1947. Mariano Suárez Veintimilla (Vice-President), 3-15Sept. 1947. Carlos Julio Arosemena Tola (provisional), 15 Sept. 1947-31 Aug. 1948. Galo Plaza Lasso, 1 Sept. 1948-31 Aug. 1952. Dr José Maria Velasco Ibarra, 1 Sept. 195231 Aug. 1956. DrCamilo Ponce Enriquez, 1 Sept. 1956-31 Aug. 1960. Dr José Maria Velasco Ibarra, 1 Sept. 19608 Nov. 1961 (withdrew).

Dr Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, 8 Nov. 1961-11 July 1963 (deposed). Military Junta, 11 July 1963-31 March 1966. Clemente Yerovi Indaburu, 31 March-16 Nov. 1966 (interim). Dr Otto Arosemena Gómez, 17 Nov. 1966-1 Sept. 1968. Dr José Maria Velasco Ibarra, 1 Sept. 196815Feb. 1972 (deposed). Gen. Guillermo Rodriguez Lara, 16 Feb. 1972-11 Jan. 1976 (resigned). Adm. Alfredo Poveda Burbano, 11 Jan. 1976-10 Aug. 1979. Jaime Roídos Aguilera, 10 Aug. 197924 May 1981. Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea, 24 May 1981-10 Aug. 1984.

President: León Febres Cordero (sworn in on 10 Aug. 1984). The Cabinet in Jan. 1984 was as follows:

ECUADOR

427

Vice-President and President of the National Development Council: Léon Roídos Aguilera. Administration: Vladimiro Alvarez. Foreign Affairs: Dr Luis Valencia. Social Welfare: Alfredo Mancero. Public Finance: Pedro Pinto. Education and Culture: Dr Emesto Albán. Health: Dr Luis Sarrazín. Natural Resources and Energy: Gustavo Galindo. Labour: Dr Jamil Mahauat. Industry, Trade and Integration: José Bermeo. Public Works: Edwin Ripalda. Agriculture: Fausto Jordan. National Defence: Jorge Arciniegas. Secretary-General of Administration: Andres Crespo. Secretary ofAdministration: Ramiro Rivera. President of the Central Bank: Abelardo Pachano B. Local Government. The country is divided politically into 20 provinces; 4 of them comprise the 'Región Oriental' and one the Archipelago of Galápagos, officially called 'Colón', situated in the Pacific ocean about 600 miles to the west of Ecuador and comprising 15 islands. The provinces are administered by governors, appointed by the Government; their sub-divisions, or cantons, by political chiefs and elected cantonal councillors; and the parishes by political lieutenants. The Galápagos Archipelago is administered by the Ministry of National Defence. D E F E N C E . Military service is selective, with a 2-year period of conscription. The country is divided into 4 military zones, with headquarters at Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca and Pastaza. Army. The Army consists of 9 infantry, 2 armoured and 1 parachute brigade. • Strength (1985) 27,500, with about 50,000 reservists. Equipment includes 45 American M-3 and 150 French AMX-13 light tanks. Navy. The Navy consists of 2 Federal Republic of Germany-built dieselelectric powered patrol submarines; 1 old ex-US destroyer (completed in 1946), 1 old frigate (ex-US destroyer escort transport, built in 1943), 6 Italian-built new corvettes, 6 fast missile boats, 7 coastal patrol craft, 1 landing ship, 2 medium landing ships, 1 supply ship, 3 survey vessels, 16 coastguard service craft, 1 repair vessel, 2 training ships, 1 floating dock and 6 tugs. Naval personnel in 1985 totalled 3,800 officers and men. There are 16 Coast Guard cutters. Air Force. The Air Force, formed with Italian assistance in 1920, was reorganized and re-equipped with US aircraft after Ecuador signed the Rio Pact of Mutual Defence in 1947 but latest equipment acquired from Europe and Brazil. Current strength of about 4,800 personnel and 52 combat aircraft includes a strike squadron equipped with 10 single-seat and 2 two-seat Jaguars; an interceptor squadron of 15 single-seat and 2 two-seat Mirage F.ls; a bomber squadron with 3 Canberra B.6s; 2 counter-insurgency units equipped with 11 Cessna A-37B and 12 Strikemaster light jet attack and training aircraft, 1 squadron with 1 piston-engined DC-6 and 2 C-130, 2 Buffalo and 4 HS 748 turboprop transports; Alouette III, SA 330 Puma and SA 315B Lama helicopters; and Cessna 150, T-33, T-34C-1 and T-41A/D trainers; 14 EMB-326 Xavante light jet attack/trainers were acquired from Brazil in 1982. Many other transports are operated by the military airline TAME. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Ecuador is a member of UN, OAS and LAI A (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY

Budget. Estimated revenue in 1983 was 71,000m. sucres and expenditure, 81,200m. sucres. Net international reserves, 31 Dec. 1983, were US$600m. Currency. The monetary unit is the sucre, divided into 100 centavos. In circulation are a pure nickel 1-sucre and copper-nickel and copper-zinc 50-, 20-, 10- and 5centavo pieces. The currency consists mainly of the notes of the Central Bank in denominations of5,10,20, 50,100, 500 and 1,000 siicres. In March 1985, US$1 = 95-75;£l = 129-20.

428

ECUADOR

Banking. The Central Bank of Ecuador, at Quito, with a capital of 20m. sucres, is modelled after the Federal Reserve Banks of US: through branches opened in 12 towns it now deals in mortgage bonds. All commercial banks must be affiliated to the Central Bank. The Bank of London and Montreal, Ltd, had branches in Quito and Guayaquil. Weights and Measures. By a law of 6 Dec. 1856 the metric system was made the legal standard but the Spanish measures are in general use. The quintal is equivalent to 101 -4 lb. The meridian of Quito has been adopted as the official time. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1982, total capacity of hydraulic and thermal plants was 990,000 kw. Estimated output was 2,000m. kwh. Oil. Production of crude petroleum in 1982 was 77- lm. bbls; 1983, 86m. New drilling along the coast has had some success, but Ecuador has to import some crude oil. Proven oil reserves (1981, estimate) 1,100m. bbls. Gas. In 1982, natural gas production was 400,257-9m. cu. ft. Minerals. Production (1980): Silver, 24,000 troy oz; gold, 3,344 troy oz; copper, 723,000 kg; zinc, 330,000 kg. The country has some copper, iron and lead. There are coal deposits in the Biblian area, but their exploitation has so far proved uneconomic. Agriculture. Ecuador is divided into two agricultural zones: the coast and lower river valleys, where tropical fanning is carried on in an average temperature of from 18° to 25" C.; and the Andean highlands with a temperate climate, adapted to grazing, dairying and the production of cereals, potatoes, pyrethrum and vegetables suitable to temperate climes. Some wheat has to be imported. 124,000 acres of rich virgin land in the Santo Domingo de los Colorados area has been set aside for settlement of smallholders. Excepting the two agricultural zones and a few arid spots on the Pacific coast, Ecuador is a vast forest. Roughly estimated, 10,000 sq. miles on the Pacific slope extending from the sea to an altitude of 5,000 ft on the Andes, and the Amazon Basin below the same level containing 80,000 sq. miles, nearly all virgin forest, are rich in valuable timber, but much of it is still not commercially accessible. The staple export products are bananas, cacao and coffee. Main crops, in 1,000 tonnes, in 1982: Rice, 384; potatoes, 416; maize, 324; coffee, 84; barley, 35; cocoa, 97; bananas, 2,752. Livestock (1982): Cattle, 3m.; sheep, 2-35m.; pigs, 3-6m.; horses, 303,000; poultry, 42m. Forestry. In 1981, 4-5m. cu. metres of timber were cut. Exports approximately US$10m. per annum. Fisheries. Fisheries and fish product exports were valued at US$91,823,000 in 1980 (31,717 tonnes). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production in 1978: Sugar, 178,000 tonnes; beer, 1,560,000 hectolitres; cement 1 -06m. tonnes. Commerce. Imports and exports for calendar years, in US$ 1 m.: Imports (c.i.f.) Exports (f.o.b.)

1979 1,986 2,173

1980 2,250 2,506

1981 2,246 2,541

1982 1,988 2,140

Of the total exports (1982); petroleum, US$1,184,218m.; US$213,297m.; cocoa, US$63,064m.; coffee, US$ 138,758m. USA furnished 35% of imports in 1970 and took 43% of the exports.

1983 1,300 2,199

bananas,

ECUADOR

429

Total trade between Ecuador and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 8,844 30,930

1981 5,050 34,149

1982 9,288 60,792

1983 11,022 35,008

1984 12,951 34,323

Tourism. There were 239,000 visitors in 1981, mainly from South American countries, spending US$ 131m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981, there were 32,185 km of roads of all types in this mountainous country, but most are narrow and subject to landslides. A trunk highway through the coastal plain is under construction which will link Machala in the extreme south-west with Esmeraldas in the north-west and with Quito and the northern section of the Pan-American Highway. In 1981, there were 232,600 cars and 23,900 commercial vehicles. Railways. A 1,067 mm gauge line runs from Sao Lorenzo through Quito to Guayaquil and Cuenca, total 971 km. Aviation. There are 2 international airports. The following international lines operate: Air France, Avianca, Eastern, British Caledonian, Ecuatoriana de Aviación, KLM, Lufthansa, Iberia, LAN Chile, and Aerovías Peruanas. They connect Quito with Panama, Bogotá (Colombia), Guayaquil, New York and Europe. All the leading towns are connected by an almost daily service, but landing fields are small. Shipping. Ecuador has 7 seaports, of which Guayaquil is the chief. The merchant navy comprises 39,964 tons of seagoing and 21,232 tons of river craft. In 1970 ships totalling 8 • 88m. GRT entered Ecuadorian ports, unloading 1 -52m. tons, and loading 1 -77m. tons. There is river communication, improved by dredging, throughout the principal agricultural districts on the low ground to the west of the Cordillera by the rivers Guayas, Daule and Vinces (navigable for 200 miles by river steamers in the rainy season). Post and Broadcasting. Quito is connected by telegraph with Colombia and Peru, and by cable with the rest of the world. The main towns in the country are connected by radio-telephone. There are over 300 radio stations. In 1982 there were 290,200 telephones in use, 109,600 in Quito and 109,200 in Guayaquil; most were operated by the Government; 99% were automatic. Television was inaugurated in 1960 in Guayaquil, in 1961 in Quito and in 1967 in Cuenca. In 1980 there were 1 • 8m. radio receivers and 1 • 3m. television receivers. Cinemas. (1974). Cinemas numbered about 185 with total seating capacity of 114,600. Newspapers (1984). There were 22 daily newspapers with an aggregate daily circulation of 526,000; 7 papers in Quito and Guayaquil have the bulk of the circulation. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court in Quito is the highest tribunal and consists of 5 justices and the Minister Fiscal. Of the 15 superior courts, 4 are composed of 6 judges and 11 of 3 judges each. There are numerous lower courts. The popular jury was abolished in 1928, and criminal cases are heard before a 'special jury' consisting of 1 judge and 3 members of the Ecuadorean bar, appointed annually by the superior courts. Capital punishment and all forms of torture are prohibited under the constitution, as are imprisonment for debt and contracts involving personal servitude or slavery. Substantial amendments expediting judicial procedure were introduced in 1936, and salaries for all judicial officials replaced remuneration by fees.

430

ECUADOR

Religion. The state recognizes no religion and grants freedom of worship to all. Civil registration of births, deaths and marriages is obligatory. Divorce is permitted. Illegitimate children have the same rights as legitimate ones with respect to education and inheritance. Education. Primary education is free and in principle obligatory. Private schools, both primary and secondary, are under some state supervision. There were (1979-80), primary schools with l -4m. pupils; secondary schools with 535,000 pupils and universities with 230,637 students. Social Welfare. From 1 May 1964 social benefits are extended to professional men, artisans and domestic workers; and to agricultural workers from 1 May 1965. The Ministry of Social Welfare and Labour was in 1967 divided into the Ministries of Social Welfare and of Public Health. In 1970 there were 199 hospitals with 14,024 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Ecuador in Great Britain (3 Hans Crescent, London, SW1X 0LS) Ambassador: Dr Mauricio Gándara. Of Great Britain in Ecuador (Calle Gonzalez Suarez 111, Quito) Ambassador: A. C. Buxton, CMG. Of Ecuador in the USA (2535 15th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Rafael Garcia-Velasco. Of the USA in Ecuador (120 Avenida Patria, Quito) Ambassador: Samuel F. Hart. Of Ecuador to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Miguel A. Albornoz. Books of Reference Anuario de Legislación Ecuatoriana. Quito. Annual Boletín de! Banco Central. Quito Boletín General de Estadística. Tri-monthly Boletín Mensual del Ministerio de Obras Públicas. Monthly Informes Ministeriales. Quito. Annual Bibliografía Nacional, 1756-1941. Quito, 1942 Invest in Ecuador. Banco Central del Ecuador, Quito, 1980 Buitrón, A., and Collier, Jr, J., The Awakening Valley: Study of the Otavalo Indians. New York, 1950 Cueva, A., The Process of Political Domination in Ecuador. London, 1982 Martz, J. D., Ecuador: Conflicting Political Culture and the Quest for Progress. Boston, 1972 Middleton, A., Class, Power and the Distribution of Credit in Ecuador. Glasgow, 1981

EGYPT

Capital: Cairo Population: 46m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$650 (1981)

Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiya

H I S T O R Y . Part of the Ottoman Empire from 1517 until Dec. 1914 when it became a British protectorate, Egypt became an independent monarchy on 28 Feb. 1922. Following a revolution on 23 July 1952, a Republic was proclaimed on 18 June 1953. Egypt merged with Syria on 22 Feb. 1958 to form the United Arab Republic, retaining that name when Syria broke away from the union on 28 Sept. 1961, finally re-adopting the name of Egypt on 2 Sept. 1971. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Egypt is bounded east by Israel, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea, south by Sudan, west by Libya and north by the Mediterranean. The total area is 1,002,000 sq. km (386,900 sq. miles), but the cultivated and settled area, that is, the Nile valley, delta and oases, covers only about 35,580 sq. km. The area, population (1976 Census) and capitals of the governerates are: Governorate Sinai Suez Ismailia Port Said Sharqiya Daqahliya Damietta Kafr el Sheikh Alexandria Behera Gharbiya Menufiya Qalyùbìya Cairo Giza Faiyum Beni Suef Minya Asyut Sohag Qena Aswan al-Bahral-Ahmar al-Wadi al-Jadid Mersa Matruh

Sq. km 60,714 17,840 1,442 72 4,180 3,471 589 3,437 2,679 4,589 1,942 1,612 971 214 1,010 1,827 1,322 2,262 1,530 1,547 1,851 679 203,685 376,505 298,735

Total

1976 census 10,104 194,001 351,889 262,620 2,621,208 2,732,756 557,115 1,403,468 2,318,655 2,517,292 2,294,303 1,710,982 1,674,006 5,084,463 2,419,247 1,140,245 1,108,615 2,055,739 1,695,378 1,924,960 1,705,594 619,932 56,191 84,645 112,772

Capital Al-Arish Suez Ismailia Port Said Zagazig Mansura Damietta Kafr el-Sheikh Alexandria Damanhur Tanta Shibin el-Kom Ben ha Cairo Giza Faiyum Beni-Suef Minya Asyut Sohag Qena Aswan Al-Ghurdaqah Al-Kharijah Matruh

36,656,180

The principal towns, with their census 1976 populations, are: Cairo 5,074,016 Alexandria 2,317,705 GIza 1,246,713 Shubra el-Khema 393,700 Mahalla el-Kubra 292,853 Tanta 284,636 Port Said 262,760

Mansura Asyut Zagazig Suez Damanhur Faiyum Kafr el-Dwar

257,866 213,983 202,637 193,965 188,927 167,081 160,554

Minya Ismailia Aswan Beni-Suef Shibin el-Kom Sohag

146,423 145,978 144,377 118,148 102,840 101,758

Population (1984) 46m. and of Greater Cairo (1979) 8 -54m. The 1976 census total excluded an estimated 1,572,000 nationals living abroad. C L I M A T E . The climate is mainly dry, but there are winter rains along the 431

432

EGYPT

Mediterranean coast. Elsewhere, rainfall is very low and erratic in its distribution. Winter temperatures are everywhere comfortable, but summer temperatures are very high, especially in the south. Cairo. Jan. 56°F (13-3°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 1 -2" (28 mm). Alexandria. Jan. 58°F(14-4°C), July 79"F(26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 7" (178 mm). Aswan. Jan. 62°F (16-7°C), July 92"F (33-3°C). Annual rainfall trace. Giza. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 78°F (25-6"C). Annual rainfall 16" (389 mm). Ismailia. Jan. 56°F(13-3°C), July 84°F (28-9'C). Annual rainfall 1-5" (37 mm). Luxor. Jan. 59°F(15°C), July 86°F(30°C). Annual rainfall trace. Port Said. Jan. 58°F(14-4°C), July 78°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 3" (76 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution was approved by referendum on 11 Sept. 1971. It defines Egypt as 'an Arab Republic with a democratic, socialist system' and the Eyptian people as 'part of the Arab nation' with Islam as the state religion and Arabic as the official language. The President of the Republic is nominated by the People's Assembly and confirmed by plebiscite for a 6-year term. He is the supreme commander of the armed forces and presides over the defence council. Presidents since the establishment of the Republic have been: Gen. Mohamed Neguib, 18 June 1953-14 Nov. 1954 (deposed). Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser, 14 Nov. 1954-28 Sept. 1970 (died).

Col. Mumammad Anwar Sadat, 28 Sept. 1970-6 Oct. 1981 (assassinated). Lieut.-Gen. Muhammad Hosni Mubarak, 70ct. 1981-.

The People's Assembly is a unicameral legislature consisting of 458 members directly elected for a 5-year term; the President of the Republic may appoint up to 10 additional members. At the general elections held in May 1984, the National Democratic Party gained 390 seats and the New Wafd Party 58. The President may appoint one or more Vice-Presidents, and appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers, whom he may remove as he wishes. President of the Republic: Hosni Mubarak. The Council of Ministers in Jan. 1985 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Gen. Kamel Hassan Ali. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education and Scientific Research: Dr Mustapha Kamal Hilmi. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defence and War Production: Mohammed Abdel-Karim Abu Ghazalah. Foreign Affairs: Dr Ahmed Esmat Abdel Meguid. Finance: Dr Mohammed Salaheddin Hamid. Social Insurance and Social Affairs: Dr Amal Abd ar-Rahim Osman. Reconstruction, New Societies and Land Reclamation: Hasaballah Mohammed al-Kafrawi. Manpower and Training: Saad Mohammed Ahmad. Justice: Mamdouh Atteya. Transport, Communications and Maritime Transport: Soleiman Metwali Soleiman. Electricity and Energy: Mohammed Mahir Osman Abazah. Culture: Mohammed Abdel Hamid Radwan. Information: Sawfat Sharif. Health: Dr Mohammed Sabri Zaki. Planning and International Co-operation: Dr Kamal Ahmed Ganzouri. Local Government: Gen. Hassan Soliman Abu Basha. Agriculture and Food Sufficiency: Dr Yusuf Amin Wali. Tourism and Civil Aviation: Dr Waguih Shindy. Economy and Foreign Trade: Dr Mustapha Kamal as-Said. People's Assembly and Shura Affairs: Tewfik Abu Ismail. Supply and Internal Trade: Mohammed Nagi-Shatlah. Interior: Ahmad Rushdi. Irrigation: Isam Radi Abdul Hamid Radi. Industry: Mohammed Mahmud Faraj Abdul Wahab. Petroleum and Mineral Resources: Abdul Hadi Mohammed Qandil. Cabinet Affairs and Administrative Development: Dr Atif Mohammed Mohammed Ubayd. Education: Dr Abdessalam Abdul Kadir Abdul Ghaffer. Housing and Utilities: Abdul Fattah Sidqi. Waqfs (Religious Trusts): Dr Mohammed al-Ahmadi Abu an-Nur. There are 3 Ministers of State. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with the national emblem in the centre in gold. Local Government. There are 26 governorates: 16 provinces, 5 cities and 4 frontier districts.

433

EGYPT

DEFENCE. Conscription is for 3 years, between the ages of 20 and 35. Army. The Army comprises 3 armoured, 5 mechanized infantry, and 4 infantry divisions; 2 Republican Guard, 2 independent armoured, 9 independent infantry, 2 airmobile, 1 parachute, 12 artillery, 2 heavy mortar, and 6 anti-tank guided weapon brigades; 7 commando groups; and 2 surface-to-surface missile regiments. Strength (1985) 315,000 (180,000 conscripts) and about 300,000 reservists. Equipment includes 800 T-54/-55,600 T-62 and 350 AM-60 tanks. There are also paramilitary forces of about 139,000. Navy. There are 14 elderly diesel-driven ex-Soviet and ex-Chinese submarines (most nearing the end of their hull lives and of which little more than half can be operational - 4 having been used for spares and several under refit), 5 old destroyers, 2 new Spanish-built frigates, 3 very old frigates, 24 missile boats, 33 torpedo boats, 2 fast attack craft, 6 new patrol gunboats, 12 submarine chasers, 10 fleet minesweepers, 2 inshore minesweepers, 3 medium landing ships, 14 landing craft, 10 minor landing craft, 2 survey vessels, 10 service craft, 2 tenders, 3 hovercraft, 1 large training ship (ex-Royal Yacht), 7 auxiliaries and 4 tugs. There are 65 Coast Guard cutters. Naval bases are at Alexandria, Port Said, Mersa Matru, Port Tewfik, Hurghada and Safaqa. The Naval Academy is at Abu Qir. Naval personnel in 1985 exceeded 20,000 officers and men, including the Coastguard, but not reserves of about 15,000. Air Force. Until 1979, the Air Force was equipped largely with aircraft of USSR design, but subsequent re-equipment involves aircraft bought in the West, as well as some supplied by China. Strength (1985) is about 30,000 personnel and 500 combat aircraft, of which the interceptors are operated by an independent Air Defence Command, in conjunction with many 'Guideline', 'Goa', 'Gainful', Hawk and Crotale missile batteries. There are about 16 Tu-16 twin-jet strategic bombers, some equipped to carry 'Kelt' air-to-surface missiles. The strike force includes 10 11-28 twin-jet bombers, and about 50 Su-7B and 20 Su-20 supersonic fighterbombers. Other interceptor/ground attack fighter divisions are equipped with 64 F-16 Fighting Falcons, 75 Mirage 5s, 35 F-4E Phantoms, 50 F-6s (Chinese-built MiG-19s), and more than 120 MiG-21s, with 34 F-7s (Chinese-built MiG-21s) being delivered for assembly in Egypt (some for Iraq). Transport units have 21 C-130H Hercules turboprop heavy freighters, 10 twin-turboprop Buffaloes and up to 175 Gazelle, Mi-4, Mi-6, Mi-8, Sea King/Commando and Agusta-built CH-47C helicopters; some Commando helicopters and 2 EC-130H Hercules are equipped for electronic warfare duties. Training units are equipped with Gomhouria pistonengined trainers, Czech-built L-29 Delfin jet trainers, single-seat and two-seat versions of the MiG-15, MiG-17s, two-seat FT-6s, Mirage Ills, MiG-21Us and Su-7Us, and Gazelle helicopters. Delivery has begun of 45 Alpha Jets, of which 15 are equipped for close air support duties, to replace MiG-17s, MiG-15s and L-29s. On order for mid-80s delivery are 2 (of a planned force of 4) E-2C Hawkeye AWACS aircraft. Main aircrew training centre is the EAF Academy at Bilbeis. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Egypt is a member of UN, OAU, the Arab League and OAPEC. ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year development plan runs 1982/83-1986/87 and provides for investments totalling £E35,OOOm. Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 30 June, in £Elm.: Revenue Expenditure

1980-81 5,920 5,700

1981-82 7,890 7,150

Currency. By decree of 18 Oct. 1916 (20 Zi-El-Higga 1934), the monetary unit of Egypt is the gold Egyptian pound of 100 piastres of 1,000 millièmes. Coins in circu-

434

EGYPT

lation are 20,10, 5,2 piastres (silver); 2,1 piastre, 5 millièmes, 1 millième (bronze). Gold coins are no longer in circulation. Silver coin is legal tender only up to £E1, and bronze coins up to 10 piastres. The Treasury issues 5- and 10-piastre currency notes. Bank-notes are issued by the National Bank in denominations of 5, 10, 25 and 50 piastres, £E 1,5,10,20,and 100. In March 1985,£1 sterling=£El-23;US$=£El-83. Banking. On 18 Aug. 1960 a Central Bank of Egypt was established by decree. It manages the note issue, the Government's banking operations and the control of commercial banks. At the same date the National Bank founded in 1898 ceased to be the central bank and became a purely commercial bank. In 1981, 79 foreign and private banks were authorized to deal. Weights and Measures. In 1951 the metric system was made official with the exception of the feddân and its subdivisions. Capacity. Kadah = l/96th ardeb = 3-36 pints. Rob = 4 kadahs = 1-815 gallons. Keila = 8 kadahs = 3-63 gallons. Ardeb = 96 kadahs = 43-555 gallons, or 5-44439 bu., or 198 cu. decimetres. Weights. Rotl = 144 dirhems = 0-9905 lb. Oke = 400 dirhems = 2-75137 lb. Qantâr or 100 rotlsor36 okes = 99-0493 lb. I Qantâr of unginned cotton = 315 lb. 1 Qantâr of ginned cotton = 99-05 lb. The approximate weight of the ardeb is as foillows: Wheat, 150 kg; beans, 155 kg; barley, 120 kg; maize, 140 kg; cotton seed, 121kg. Surface. Feddân, the unit of measure for land = 4,200-8 sq. metres = 7,468 -148 sq. pics= 1-03805 acres. 1 sq. pic=6-0547sq. ft=0-5625sq. metre. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity generated in 1980 was 18,500m. kwh. Oil. The first commercial discovery of oil in the Middle East outside Iran was made in Egypt in 1909, but production long remained low and often insufficient to meet Egypt's domestic requirements. In 1979 production was rising again and with the newly-regained Sinai oilfields was 25-5m. tonnes. Policy is controlled by the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC) a wholly state-owned corporation answerable to the Minister of Petroleum. EGPC is whole or part-owner of the various production and refining companies and controls supplies to the domestic marketing companies. In 1983,36m. tonnes of crude petroleum. Minerals. Production (1973 in tonnes): Phosphate rock (1980), 658,000; iron ore, 656,000; marine salt, 454,000. Agriculture. Rain seldom falls in Upper Egypt, and only at irregular intervals in Cairo, where the average for the year is no more than 1 -2 in. At Alexandria the average is 8 in. The cultivated area of Egypt proper was estimated in 1981 at 6-3m. feddâns (1 feddân = 1-038 acres) and of this (1971), 4,869,000 feddâns were under winter crops, 5,012,000 under summer crops and 613,000 under Nile crops. Irrigation occupies a predominant place in the economic development of the country. The Aswân reservoir can now hold up to 5,500m. cu. metres of water, and the Gebel Aulia reservoir, completed in 1937, holds 2,000m. cu. metres. Barrages have been erected at Nag' Hammâdi, Asyût and Zifta, and at the bifurcation of the Nile below Cairo. Esna, Nag' Hammâdi barrage, completed in 1930, ensures full basin supplies even in low flood to Girga province, and will facilitate perennial irrigation when basin lands are converted. Asyût barrage, having been remodelled, will meet the greater demands of the area it now commands. The Esna barrage now secures basin irrigation to lands in Qena province. New barrages (Mohamed Ali barrages) have been completed at the bifurcation of the Nile below Cairo to replace the existing structures which, built in 1861, are now unable to meet the conditions following the increase in summer supplies, the reclamation of large areas of waste lands and the earlier watering of food crops.

435

EGYPT

On 8 Nov. 1959 the United Arab Republic and Sudan concluded agreements on the sharing of the Nile waters (after construction of the Aswan High Dam), and trade, payments and Customs dues. The agreement provides that from the time the High Dam started to store water (15 May 1964) Sudan will be entitled to 18,500m. cu. metres ofthe total annual flow and Egypt to 55 ,500m. In 1982 the area (1,000 hectares) and production (1,000 tonnes) were: Wheat, 577(2,017); barley, 45(122); beans (dry), 7( 13); lentils, 5(6); onions, 21 (657); maize, 817(2,709); millet, 174(633); sugar-cane, 108(8,700). The rice crop was 2-3m. tonnes in 1977. Livestock (1983): 1,826,000 cattle, 2,393,000 buffaloes, 1,394,000 sheep, 1,498,000 goats, 80,000 camels and 15,000 pigs. Fisheries. The catch of the Egyptian sea, Nile and lake fisheries in 1981 amounted to 138,500 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1979 there were l-5m. Egyptians employed in manufacturing. Production in 1981-82 included 690,000 tonnes of crude steel, 4m. tonnes of nitrogenous fertilizers and 4m. tonnes of cement. Trade Unions. Trade unions were first recognized in 1942. In 1952 the acts concerning trade unions, individual contracts, and conciliation and arbitration were recast. Employment exchanges and unemployment statistics were introduced in 1953. Social insurance was enacted in 1955. Commerce. Imports and exports for 5 years (in £E 1,000): Imports Exports

1978 2,632,180 679,754

1979 2,686,200 1,287,800

1980 3,092,600 2,132,800

1981 5,588,500 2,263,000

1982 5,776,800 2,184,100

In 1979, raw cotton and cotton products represented 34% of total exports, crude oil 31% and petroleum products 11%; 27% of exports went to Italy, 8% to the USSR and 8% to the Netherlands; 18% of imports came from the USA, 11% from Federal Republic of Germany. Total trade between Egypt and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 336,595 346,688

1981 414,599 325,141

1982 412,802 338,645

1983 79,826 370,489

1984 164,946 427,688

Tourism. In 1983 there were 1 • 5m. tourists spending US$600m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1980, the total length of roads was 21,637 km, of which 16,182 km were paved. Motor vehicles, in 1981, 580,000 private cars, 165,000 commercial vehicles (including buses). Railways. In 1982 there were 4,321 km of state railways (1,435 mm gauge) which carried 486m. passengers and 7 -5m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. There is an international airport at Cairo. The national airline Egyptair operates scheduled flights connecting Cairo with Athens, Rome, Frankfurt, Zurich, London, Khartoum, T6kyo, Bombay, Aden, Jeddah, Doha, Dharan, Kuwait, Beirut, Baghdad, Tripoli, Benghazi, Algiers, Entebbe, Nairobi, Dar-esSalaam, Kano, Lagos, Accra, Abidjan, Damascus, Amman, Manilla, Paris, Munich, Copenhagen, Nicosia, Karachi, Aleppo, Bahrain, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Shaijah, Sanaa and Vienna. In addition, Egyptair operates scheduled flights on a widespread domestic network connecting Cairo with Port Said, Mersa Matruh, Asyut, Luxor, Aswan. In 1982,62,000 tonnes ofcargo were carried. Shipping. The Egyptian merchant navy in 1980 consisted of 75 steamers of 387,460 tons.

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In 1977, 3,050 ships of 11,432,000 tons entered the port of Alexandria and 876 ships of4,583,000 tons entered Port Said. Suez Canal. The Suez Canal was opened for navigation on 17 Nov. 1869. By the convention of Constantinople of 29 Oct. 1888 the canal is open to vessels of all nations and is free from blockade, except in time of war, but the U AR Government did not allow Israeli ships to use the canal until May 1979, when the embargo was lifted. It is 173 km long (excluding 11 km of approach channels to the harbours), connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. Its minimum width is 197 ft at a depth of 33 ft, and its depth permits the passage of vessels up to 38 ft draught. In 1976 a 2-stage development project was started. The first stage which was completed in 1980 allowing vessels, of up to 150,000 tons, fully loaded, and up to 370,000 tons in ballast to pass through the canal and give a draught of 53 ft. During the war with Israel in June 1967 the Canal was blocked. The canal was cleared and re-opened to shipping on 5 June 1975. This is part of a programme to develop and rebuild the whole area of Suez to make it one of the largest tax-free industrial zones. Canal toll fees reached £621 • 8m. in 1981, and in 1980 21,603 vessels (281 • 3m. tons) went through the canal. On 1 Jan. 1981 charges were increased by 30%. The first tunnel below the canal, located 10 miles north of Suez City, was completed on 30 April 1980. Marlow, J., The Making of the Suez Canal. London, 1964

Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1980-81, 1,821 postal agencies, 1,812 mobile offices (1978), 1,747 government and 2,956 private post offices. Number of telephones in 1982, 521,625. Number of wireless licences in 1982, 12m. and 6m. TV licences. The internal telecommunications system is owned and operated by the Telecommunications Organization. Government landlines connect with those of the Gaza sector and the Sudan. Cinemas (1971). There were 152 cinemas with a seating capacity of 140,900. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 11 dailies published in Cairo and 6 in Alexandria. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The National Courts in 1981 were as follows: Court of Cassation with a bench of 5 judges which constitutes the highest court of appeal in both criminal and civil cases; Courts of Appeal with 3 judges situated in Cairo and 4 other cities; Assize Courts with 3 judges which deal with all cases of serious crime; Central Tribunals with 3 judges which deal with ordinary civil and commercial cases; Summary Tribunals presided over by a single judge which hear civil disputes in matters up to the value of £E3,250, and criminal offences punishable by a fine or imprisonment of up to 3 years. Religion. In 1947 the population (excluding Nomads) consisted of 17,397,946 Moslems (91-46%); 1,186,353 Orthodox Copts; 86,918 Protestant Copts; 72,764 Roman Catholic Copts; 89,062 other Orthodox; 50,200 other Roman Catholics; 16,338 other Protestants; 1,547 Jews, other and unknown. There are in Egypt large numbers of native Christians connected with the various Oriental Churches; of these, the largest and most influential are the Copts, who adopted Christianity in the 1st century. Their head is the Coptic Patriarch. There are 25 metropolitans and bishops in Egypt; 4 metropolitans for Ethiopia, Jerusalem, Khartoum and Omdurman, and 12 bishops in Ethiopia. Priests must be married before ordination, but celibacy is imposed on monks and high dignitaries. The Copts use the Diocletian (or Martyrs') calendar, which begins in A.D. 284. Education. Education was made compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 12 in 1933; primary education (6 years) was made free in 1944, secondary and technical education in 1950. Compulsory education is provided in primary schools (6 years).

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In 1981-82 there were 4-48m. primary school pupils and (1978-79) 127,021 teachers; l-56m. secondary school pupils and (1978-79) 67,567 teachers; and 568,000 technical school pupils with (1978-79) 29,353 teachers. Teacher-training colleges had 40,595 students and 3,373 teaching staff in 1978-79. There are 18 universities in Egypt. Cairo University, founded in 1908 as a private institution and taken over by the Government in 1925; Alexandria University, founded by the Government in 1942; the Ein Shams University, founded by the Government in Cairo in 1950 and universities at Asyut Al-Azhar, Tanta, Mansura, Zagazig, Helwan, Suez Canal, Minya and Menoufia. Education is free at universities depending entirely on grades achieved. The number of students at universities was 476,537 in 1977-78. Health. In 1983-84 there were about 73,300 doctors and 85,350 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Egypt in Great Britain (26 South St., London, W1Y8EL) Ambassador: Yousef Sharara (accredited 29 Nov. 1984). Of Great Britain in Egypt (Ahmed Ragheb St., Garden City, Cairo) Ambassador: Sir Alan Urwick, KCMG. Of Egypt in the USA (2310 Decatur PI., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Ashraf A. Ghorbal. Of the USA in Egypt (5 Sharia Latin America, Cairo) Ambassador: Nicholas Veliotes. Of Egypt to the United Nations Ambassador: Ahmed Tawfik Khalil. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics and Census (15, Sharia Mansoyr, Cairo) was formed in 1905. Chief: Under-Secretary of State for Statistical Affairs, Dr Hasan M. Husein. Previously, various government departments had their own statistical sections. Estimates of population were made in 1800, 1821 and 1846; the firet census took place in 1873. Among the publications of the Department are the following: Annuaire Siauslique (Arabic and French). Annual Return of Shipping {Arabic and English). Monthly Summary and A nnual Statement of Foreign Trade (Arabic and English). Monthly Bulletin of Agriculture and Economic Statistics (Arabic and English). Vital Statislics (Arabic and English). Statistical Pocket Year-Book (Arabic and English). The Egyptian Almanac. Annual Le Mondain Egyptien (Who's Who). Cairo. Annual Cooper, M. N., The Transformation of Egypt. London, 1982 Dawisha, A. 1., Egypt in the Arab World. London, 1976 E!ias,E. A., Modern Dictionary English-Arabic. 5th ed. Cairo, 1946 Hansen, B., and Radwan, S., Employment Opportunities and Equity in Egypt. Geneva; 1982 Heikal, M., Autumn of Fury: Assassination of Sadat. London, 1983 Hirst, D., and Beeson, 1., Sadaf. London, 1981 Hopwood, D., Egypt: Politics and Society 1945-1981. London, 1982 Springberg, R., Family, Power and Politics in Egypt. Univ. ofPennsylvania Press, 1982 Vatikiotis, P. J., The History of Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Sadat. 2nded. London, 1980 Waterbury, J., The Egypt ofNasser and Sadat. Princeton Univ. Press, 1983

EL

SALVADOR

República de El Salvador

Capital: San Salvador Population: 5 3m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$650 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . In 1839 the Central American Federation, which had comprised the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, was dissolved, and El Salvador declared itself formally an independent republic in 1841. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . El Salvador is the smallest and most densely populated (248 inhabitants per sq. km) of the Central American states. Its area (including 247 sq. km of inland lakes) is estimated at 21,393 sq. km (8,236 sq. miles) with population (census 1981 ) of4,672,900. Estimate ( 1984) 5 • 3m. A Treaty was signed in Peru on 30 Oct. 1980 settling the border dispute between El Salvador and Honduras which caused 4 days of fighting in July 1979. The republic is divided into 14 departments, each under an appointed governor. Their areas (in sq. km) and populations at census 1971 were: Department San Salvador Santa Ana San Miguel Usulutän La Libertad Sonsonate La Union

Area 892 1,829 2,532 1,780 1,650 1,133 1,738

Population 681,656 375,186 337,325 304,369 293,076 239,688 230,103

Department La Paz Chalatenango Ahuachapàn Marazân San Vicente Cuscatlan Cabanas

Area 1,155 2,507 1,281 1,364 1,175 766 1,075

Population 194,196 186,003 183,682 170,706 160,534 158,458 139,312

Important towns (with population 1983) were: San Salvador (the capital), 884,093; Santa Ana, 208,322; San Miguel, 161,156; Mejicanos (1978), 73,626; Delgado (1978), 55,912; Nueva San Salvador (1978), 45,384; Sonsonate (1978), 41,389. There has been considerable emigration into nearby states. There are no tribal Indians. The language of the country is Spanish. C L I M A T E . Despite its proximity to the equator, the climate is warm rather than hot and nights are cool inland. Light rains occur in the dry season from Nov. to April while the rest of the year has heavy rains, especially on the coastal plain. San Salvador. Jan. 71°F (21 • 7°C), July 75°F(23-9°C). Annual rainfall 71" (1,775 mm). San Miguel. Jan. 77°F(25"C), July 83°F(28-3°C). Annual rainfall 6 8 " (1,700 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was enacted in Dec. 1983. The Executive Power is vested in a President elected for a nonrenewable term of 5 years, with Ministers and Under-Secretaries appointed by him. The Legislative power is an Assembly of 52 members elected by universal suffrage and proportional representation for a term of 3 years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, of a President and 9 magistrates elected by the Legislative Assembly for renewable terms of 3 years; and subordinate courts. For governm e n t s , 1 9 6 1 - 7 9 see STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 , p . 4 3 6 .

Elections were held in March 1984. President: José Napoleon Duarte (elected May 1984). In June 1984 the Cabinet was composed as follows:

Presidency: Julio Adolfo Rey Prendes. Foreign Affairs: Dr Joree Eduardo Tenorio. Planning and Co-ordination of Economic and Social Development: Dr Fidel Chavez Mena. Interior and Vice-President: Rodolfo Castillo Claramount. Justice: Dr Manuel Francisco Cardona H. Finance: Ricardo J. Lopez. Foreign 438

EL S A L V A D O R

439

Trade: Manuel Morales Erlich. Economics: Dr Ricardo González Camacho. Education: Professor Alberto Buendía Flores. Defence and Public Safety: Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova. Labour and Social Security: Dr Julio Alfredo Samayoa. Public Health and Social Welfare: Dr Benjamín Valdez H. Agriculture and Livestock: Carlos Aquilino Duarte Funes. Works: Ramón Ernesto Rodríguez. During 1982-84, there was continuing fighting between government forces and guerrillas and it was estimated that 17,153 people were killed in 1983 as a result of the violence. National flag: Blue, white, blue (horizontal): the white stripe charged with the arms of the republic. National anthem: Saludemos la patria orgullosos (words by J. J. Cañas; tune by J. Aberle). D E F E N C E . There is selective national service for 2 years. Army. The Army comprises 4 infantry brigades, 1 mechanized cavalry regiment, 1 artillery brigade, 1 engineer, 1 anti-aircraft, 1 parachute and 1 special forces battalion. Equipment includes 12 AMX-13 light tanks and 18 AML-90 armoured cars. Strength was (1985) 39,000. There are also National Guard, National Police and Treasury Police, paramilitary units, numbering (1985) about 10,000 and a territorial civil defence force of up to 70,000. Navy. The Navy includes 4 patrol boats, 1 new French-built tug, 2 cutters and 25 service launches. Personnel in 1985 totalled 130 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force underwent a major re-equipment programme in 1974-75, with most aircraft coming from Israel and US aid for transport units, but lost 18 aircraft in a guerrilla attack in Jan. 1982. Combat squadron now has 6 A-37 and 4 Ouragan jet fighter-bombers, supported by 6 Israeli-built Magister jets and 15 piston-engined Rallyes for light attack duties, and 4 Cessna 0-2s for reconnaissance. Transports include 5 C-47s and 4 Israeli-built light twin-engined Aravas, plus 3 Lamas, 3 Alouette III and 30 UH-1H helicopters. Training types include about 15 piston-engined T-41Cs, T-6s and T-34s. Strength totalled about 2,500 personnel in 1985. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. El Salvador is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 31 Dec., in 1,000 cólones: Revenue Expenditure

1979 1,541,017 1,303,707

1980 1,376,337 1,606,335

1981 1,740,424 1,757,600

1982 1,730,899 1,864,699

1983 1,723,333 1,847,065

1984 2,298,442 2,298,442

External debt amounted to US$ 1,650m. in 1983. Currency. The monetary unit is the colón (C) of 100 centavos. The colón (C) is issued in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 100 colónes; 25 and 50 centavos (silver); 1, 2, 5 and 10 centavos (copper-nickel and copper-zinc); 1 centavo (nickel). In March 1985, £ 1 = C2 • 68; US$ 1 = C2 • 50. Banking. There are 10 native commercial banks, including the Banco Salvadoreño (paid-up capital, 6m. colónes). The Bank of London and South America, the Citibank Bank of America and the Bank of Santander and Panama S. A. are the only foreign institutions. The Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador, constructed in 1934 out of the Banco Agrícola Comercial, was nationalized on 20 April 1961. Weights and Measures. On 1 Jan. 1886 the metric system was made obligatory. But other units are still commonly in use, of which the principal are as follows: Libra = 1014 lb. av.; quintal = 101-4 lb. av.; arroba = 25-35 lb. a f a n e g a = 1-5745 bushels.

440

EL S A L V A D O R

ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. A 200 ft high dam begun in 1950, and completed in 1954 was the construction across the (unnavigable) Lempa River, 35 miles north-east of San Salvador, with an annual capacity of 344m. kwh. The San Lorenzo dam, completed in 1983, has an annual capacity of 722m. kwh. Production in 1981, 1,512m. kwh.; consumption, 1,322m. kwh. Oil. Production of petroleum derivatives during 1971 totalled C422,476,000. Minerals. The mineral output of the republic is now negligible, but the Ministry of Public Works has recently started to investigate 2 new silver mines in the department of Morazan. Agriculture. El Salvador is predominantly agricultural; 32-5% of its total area is used for crops and 30-2% for pasture. Area devoted to coffee (1982-83) was about 516,615 acres, entirely owned by nationals. In 1981,35 • 5% of the working population was engaged in farming. Production (1982-83, in lm. quintales, 46 kg each): Coffee, 3-5 (1981 value C I , 155 07m.); cotton, 2-8 (1981 value, €190,884,000); grain (including maize, beans, rice, sorghum), 14 (1981 value of maize, CI 86,612,000); sugar, 3-3. A little rubber is exported. Livestock (1983): 954,000 cattle, 450,000 pigs, 4,000 sheep, 14,000 goats. Forestry. In the national forests are found dye woods and such woods as mahogany, cedar and walnut. Balsam trees also abound: El Salvador is the world's principal source of this medicinal gum. Production, 1981, C36,148,000. Fisheries. In 1982, fish products were valued at C56m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Total production was valued at C3,390,991m. in 1982, which included (in 1,000 colones): Food, CI,274,877; textiles, C202,589; chemicals, C205.017; footwear and clothing, C208,274. Commerce. The imports (including parcels post) and exports have been as follows in calendar years in 1,000 colones: Imports Exports

. ¡977 2,356,100 2,431,900

1978 2,559,900 1,577,400

1979 2,529,900 2,579,300

1980 2,404,269 2,683,953

1981 2,461,458 1,991,940

1982 2,250,000 1,845,600

Of total exports (1982), coffee furnished about 32-2% by weight and 57-6% by value. The coffee is of the 'mild' variety; it is sold in bags of 60 kg, but trade statistics use a bag of 69 kg. In 1982 US took 640-65m. colones of exports and furnished 603,737,000 colones of the imports. The chief imports in 1982 were manufactured goods (25-7%), chemical and pharmaceutical products (21%), non-edible crude materials, mainly crude oil (19-8%), electric machinery, tools and appliances and transport equipment (12-9%). The other Central American Republics, the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Canada, France, the Netherlands and the UK are also important trading partners. Total trade between El Salvador and UK for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 2,889 4,603

1981 1,962 3,652

1982 2,017 5,244

1983 425 7,653

1984 2,551 7,589

Tourism. There were 69,111 visitors in 1981. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 9,336 -1 km of national roads in the republic, including 1,662 km of main paved roads; 3,276 km main asphalted roads; other roads, 4,397 -9 km. Motor vehicles registered, 1979,137,000.

EL S A L V A D O R

441

Railways. All railways (602 km) came under the control of National Railways of El Salvador (Fenadesal) in 1975. Lines run from Acajutla to San Salvador; Cutuco to San Salvador; between San Salvador and Santa Ana, San Miguel and Sonsonate; there is also a link to the Guatemalan system. Total railway traffic in 1983 was 364,530 tonnes of freight and 246,814 passengers. Aviation. The airport at Ilopango, 8 km from San Salvador, now a military airport, and the new international airport at Cuscatlán, 40 km from San Salvador, opened in 1979. In 1980,265,000 passengers were carried. Shipping. The principal ports are La Unión, La Libertad and Acajutla, all on the Pacific. Passengers (and some freight) use the Guatemalan port of Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic, reaching El Salvador by rail or road. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone and telegraph systems are governmentowned; the radio-telephone systems are partly private, partly government-owned. Telephone instruments, 1982, 86,316. There were (1983) over 50 radio stations. Radio El Salvador is state-owned. There were (1983) 3 commercial television channels and 2 educational channels sponsored by the Ministry of Education. Cinemas (1976). Cinemas numbered 65. Newspapers (1984). There are 5 daily newspapers in San Salvador and 1 in Santa Ana. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Justice, courts of first and second instance, besides minor tribunals. Magistrates of the Supreme Court and courts of second instance are elected by the Legislative Assembly for a renewable 3-year term. An anti-Communist law, effective 29 Sept. 1962, has made the propagation of totalitarian or Communist doctrines an offence punishable by imprisonment; supplementary offences, contrary to democratic principles, are punished by prison terms of from 3 to 7 years. Religion. The dominant religion is Roman Catholicism. Under the 1962 Constitution churches are exempted from the property tax; the Catholic Church is recognized as a legal person, and other churches are entitled to secure similar recognition. There is an archbishop in San Salvador and bishops at Santa Ana, San Miguel, San Vicente, Santiago de Maria and Usulután. Education. Education is free and obligatory. In 1929 the State took over control of all schools, public and private, but the provision that the teaching in government schools must be wholly secular was removed in 1945. In 1983 there were 57,739 pupils in nursery schools, 885,893 in secondary schools, 59,843 students at universities and polytechnics and 42,700 students receiving adult education. Social Welfare. The Social Security Institute now administers the sickness, old age and death insurance, covering industrial workers and employees earning up to C700 a month. Employees in other private institutions with salaries over this amount are included but are excluded from the medical and hospital benefits. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of El Salvador in Great Britain (62 Welbeck St., London, W1 ) Chargé d'Affaires: Roberto Tomás Rivas Gardiner. Of Great Britain in El Salvador Ambassador and Consul-General: B. O. White (resides in Tegucigalpa). Of El Salvador in the USA (2308 California St., NW, Washington, DC., 20008) Chargé d'Affaires: Roberto Jimenez-Ortiz.

442

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SALVADOR

Of the USA in El Salvador (25 Ave. Norte, Colonia Dueñas, San Salvador) Ambassador: Thomas R. Pickering. Of El Salvador to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Mauricio Rosales-Rivera. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Dirección General de Estadística y Censos (Villa Fermina, Calle Arce, San Salvador) dates from 1937. Director General: Lieut.-Col. José Castro Meléndez. Its publications include Anuario Estadístico. A n n u a l from 1911.—Boletín Estadístico Quarterly.—El Salvador en Gráficas. Annual.—Atlas Censal de El Salvador. 1955 only.— Revista Mensual, Banco C e n t r a l d e Reserva de El Salvador. Angel Gallardo, M., Cuatro Constituciones Federales de Centro América y Las Constituciones Políticas de El Salvador. San Salvador, 1945 Armstrong, R . , a n d S h e n k , i., El Salvador: The Face ojRevolution. London, 1982 Baloyra, E. A., El Salvador in Transition. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1982 Be van, J., El Salvador. Education and Repression. London, 1981 Browning, D., El Salvador: Landscape and Society. O U P , 1971 Devire, F. J., El Salvador: Embassy under Attack. New York, 1981 Didion,J., Salvador. London, 1983 Erdozain, P., Archbishop Romero: Martyr of El Salvador. Guildford, 1981 Montgomery, T.S., Revolution in El Salvador: Origins and Evolution. Boulder, 1982 North, L., Bitter Grounds: Roots of Revolt in El Salvador. London, 1981 Schmidt, S. W., El Salvador: America 'sNext Vietnam. Salisbury (N.C.), 1983

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

Capital: Malabo Population: 398,000 ( 1984) GNP per capita: US$ 180 ( 1981 )

República de Guinea Ecuatorial

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Equatorial Guinea became independent on 12 Oct. 1968 after having been a Spanish colony (Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea) until 1959. From 1959 to 1963 the territory was made into two Spanish provinces with a status comparable to the metropolitan provinces. From 1964 to 1968 this Equatorial Region became an autonomous entity still retaining the status of two Spanish provinces, but with a certain amount of internal self-government. Serious political disturbances in Rio Muni occurred in March-April 1969. This led to the partial withdrawal of the Spanish community. Agreements for co-operation in education and economic development were signed with Spain in 1971,1972 and 1979. From 1968-79 the republic depended heavily on the Soviet bloc including Cuba and the People's Republic of China, Spanish economic, technical and social co-operation has become essential since 1979. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area is 28,051 sq. km (10,831 sq. miles). Total population, 245,989 ( 1960 census); 1984 estimate, 398,000. The 6 provinces consist of 2 on the islands of Bioko and Pagalu, and 4 on the mainland, with these separate areas having the following areas (in sq.km) and populations: Bioko Rio Muni

Sq.km 2,034' 26,017 1

Census 1960 62,612' 183,377

Estimate 1984 105,000 293,000

Chief town Malabo Bata

' Including 1,415 on the island ofPagalu (17 sq. km). Including the adjacent islets of Coriseo, Elobey Grande and Elobey Chico (17 sq. km).

2

The majority of the Rio Munian population is Fang (Pámues in Spanish). Along the coast and in the islets are the Combes, the Bengas, the Bujebas, etc. In Bioko the aborigines are called Bubis. These are now a minority (perhaps 15,000). Other ethnic groups are the Femandinos (descendants of English-speaking Creoles), the Fangs, coast people from Rio Muni and formerly naturalized migrant workers from Nigeria, Cameroon and Sâo Tomé. A fluctuating mass of plantation workers were about twice as numerous as the Equatorial Guineans. Pagalu is peopled by descendants of slaves brought by the Portuguese; they still speak a Portuguese patois. Pidgin English was the lingua franca in Bioko in spite of the official Spanish. Because of political and economic difficulties about 110,000 citizens are reported to live in neighbouring countries and Spain. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with alternate wet and dry seasons. In Rio Muni, the wet season lasts from Dec. to Feb. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A 10-member cabinet was established and the country was placed under military rule and in Aug. 1982, under a new Constitution, the President's mandate was extended for 7 years. A 41 -member National Assembly was elected on 28 Aug. 1983. President: Lieut.-Col. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white, red; a blue triangle based on the hoist; in the centre the national arms. 443

444

EQUATORIAL

GUINEA

D E F E N C E . Under President Marias the Guardia National consisted mainly of Fang soldiers with Cuban and Chinese military advisers. Total strength about 1,500. Since the 1979 coup, Moroccan troops and Spanish military and police personnel have replaced Soviet bloc advisers. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Equatorial Guinea is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The 1982 budget envisaged income at 2,980m. Bikuele and expenditure at 4,038m. Bikuele. Currency. In July 1973 the Guinean peseta was redesignated the Ekuele (plural, Bikuele). In Dec. 1984 the currency joined the franc zone. Banking. The Banco Central de Guinea Ecuatorial in Malabo was established in 1969 with Spanish technical and financial assistance. NATURAL RESOURCES Agriculture. The chief products are cocoa (71,000 hectares in 1979), coffee (17,000 hectares) and wood; in 1982 production was about 8,000 tonnes of cocoa, most of it high-grade exported to Spain and the US. Coffee, of mediocre quality, is chiefly a Fang product. Production (1982) 7,000 tonnes; palm oil, 5,000; palm kernels, 3,000; bananas, 16,000. Food crops include cassava, 55,000; sweet potatoes, 34,000. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 4,000; sheep, 34,000; goats, 7,000. Forestry. Wood was almost entirely exported from Rio Muni to Spain and the Federal Republic of Germany. Production: 1981,465,000 cu. metres. Plantations in the hinterland have been abandoned by their Spanish owners and except for cocoa, commercial agriculture is under serious difficulties. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Bioko has very few industries. Electricity production in 1980: 15 -54m. kwh. Rio Muni has no industry except lumbering. Post-independence political conditions have not been conducive to private investment. Since 1979 the lumber industry has resumed activity but there was (1981) a shortage of labour. Commerce. In 1981 imports amounted to 7,982m. Bikuele (of which 80% came from Spain) and exports to 2,502m. Bikuele (of which Spain took 87%). Cocoa amounted to 71 % of all exports and timber to 24%. Total trade between Equatorial Guinea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 19 142

1982 156 633

1983 13 10

1984 559 553

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Bioko had a good tarmac road network, but Rio Muni had few surfaced roads; the main artery is Mbini-Bata-Micomeseng-Ebebiyin. Road reconstruction is envisaged. Aviation. An international airfield exists in Malabo (28,029 passengers in 1967). Bata has more modest facilities (15,031 passengers in 1967). The line MadridMalabo-Bata is subsidized by Spain. Links with Douala (from Malabo) and Libreville (Gabon) exist. Shipping. Malabo is the main port. The other ports are'Luba, formerly San Carlos

EQUATORIAL G U I N E A

445

(bananas, cocoa) in Bioko and Bata, Kogo and Mbini (wood) in Rio Muni. A new harbour in Bata has been completed. In 1981 47,731 tonnes were unloaded and 50,843 loaded. Post and Broadcasting. Estimated number of telephones (1969), 1,451. In 1977 there were 80,000 radio and 1,000 TV receivers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Constitution guarantees an independent judiciary. The Supreme Tribunal is the highest court of appeal and is located at Malabo. Religion. The population of Equatorial Guinea is nominally Roman Catholic with influential Protestant groups in Malabo and Rio Muni. By order of the President most churches were closed in 1975 and in June 1978 the Roman Catholic Church was banned. Since 1979, religious services have been restored. Education. There were in 1981 about 40,110 pupils and 647 teachers in primary schools and 3,013 pupils and 288 teachers in secondary schools. Health. In 1967 there were 16 hospitals and dispensaries with 1,637 beds. In 1975 there were only 5 doctors, 2 midwives and 248 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Equatorial Guinea in Great Britain Ambassador: Jesús Ele Abeme. Of Great Britain in Equatorial Guinea Ambassador: Michael Glaze (resides at Yaounde). Of the USA in Equatorial Guinea (Calle de 65 Ministros, Malabo) Ambassador: Alan M. Hardy. Of Equatorial Guinea to the USA and the United Nations Ambassador: Florencio Maye Ela. Books of Reference Allas Hislorico y Geográfico de Africa Española. Madrid, 1955 Plan de Desarrollo Económico de la Guinea Ecuatorial. Presidencia del Gobierno. Madrid, 1963 Resumen estadístico del Africa española, 1965-66. Madrid, 1967 Berman, S., Spanish Guinea: An Annotated Bibliography. Microfilm Service, Catholic University. Washington, D.C. 1961 Liniger-Goumaz, M,,La Guinée équatoriale un pays méconnu. Paris, 1980 Pélissier, R., Les Territoires espagnols d'Afrique. Paris, 1963.—Los territorios españoles de Africa. Madrid, 1964.—Etudes Hispano-Guinéennes. Orgeval, 1969

ETHIOPIA

Capital: Addis Ababa Population: 40m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$ 140 ( 1981 )

Hebretesebawit Ityopia

H I S T O R Y . The ancient empire of Ethiopia has its legendary origin in the meeting of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Historically, the empire developed in the centuries before and after the birth of Christ, at Aksum in the north, as a result of Semetic immigration from South Arabia. The immigrants imposed their language and culture on a basic Hamitic stock. Ethiopia's subsequent history is one of sporadic expansion southwards and eastwards, checked from the 16th to early 19th centuries by devastating wars with Moslems and Gallas. Modern Ethiopia dates from the reign of the Emperor Theodore (1855-68). Menelik II (1889-1913) defeated the Italians in 1896 and thereby safeguarded the empire's independence in the scramble for Africa. By successful campaigns in neighbouring kingdoms within Ethiopia (Jimma, Kaffa, Harar, etc.) he united the country under his rule and created the empire as it is today. In 1936 Ethiopia was conquered by the Italians, who were in tum defeated by the Allied forces in 1941 when the Emperor returned. The former Italian colony of Eritrea, from 1941 under British military administration, was in accordance with a resolution of the General Assembly of the UN, dated 2 Dec. 1950, handed over to Ethiopia on 15 Sept. 1952. Eritrea thereby became an autonomous unit within the federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea. This federation became a unitary state on 14 Nov. 1962 when Eritrea was fully integrated with Ethiopia. A provisional military government assumed power on 12 Sept. 1974 and deposed the Emperor. On 24 Nov. 1974 the Provisional Military Government announced that on 23 Nov. it had executed 60 former military and civilian leaders including Gen. Aman Andom who was Chairman of the Provisional Military Administrative Council. On 3 Feb. 1977 it was announced that Brig.-Gen. Teferi Bante, the Chairman of PM AC and 6 other members of the ruling military council were executed. In mid-1977 Somalia invaded Ethiopia and took control of the Ogaden region. After an offensive mounted with strong USSR and Cuban support the area was recaptured and in March Somalia withdrew all troops from the area. Control was re-established by Ethiopia later in 1978 and nationalist guerrillas were pushed back but sporadic fighting continues (1985) in the Ogaden and along the border. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Ethiopia is bounded north-east by the Red Sea, east by Djibouti and Somalia, south by Kenya and west by Sudan. It has a total area of 1,221,900 sq. km (471,800 sq. miles) and total population (1983) 33,008,000. The first census was carried out in 1984 and the population is expected to exceed 40m. The dominant race of Ethiopia, the Amhara, inhabit the central Ethiopian highlands. To the north of them are the Tigreans, akin to the Amhara and belonging to the same Christian church, but speaking a different, though related, language. Both these races are of mixed Hamitic and Semitic origin, and further mixed by intermarriage with Oromo (Galla) and other races. TTie Oromos, some of whom are Christian, some Moslem and some pagan, comprise about 40% of the entire population, and are a pastoral and agricultural people of Hamitic origin. Somalis, another Hamitic race, inhabit the south-east of Ethiopia, in particular the Ogaden desert region. These like the closely related Afar people, are Moslem. The Afar stretch northwards from Wollo region into Eritrea. 446

ETHIOPIA Area Region (sq. km) Addis Ababa 218 Arussi 23,500 Bale 124,600 Eritrea 117,600 Gemu Gofa 39,500 Gojjam 61,600 Gondar (Begemdir) 74,200 Hararge 259,700 lllubabor 47,400 Kefa 54,600 Shoa 85,200 Sidamo 117,300 Tigre 65,900 Wollega 71,200 Wollo 79,400

Population July. 1980 1,277,159 1,149,400 879,200 2,426,200 1,003,400 2,037,900 2,053,400 3,125,200 810,800 1,615,400 5,085,000 2,808,300 2,162,100 2,019,200 2,612,600

Chief town

Population July 1980

Asse la Goba Asmara Arba Mi neh Debre Markos Gondar Harar Mattu Jimma

34,874 6,116' 424,532 8,914' 40,686 76,932 62,921 8,115' 63,837

—

—

Awassa Mekele Lekemti Dessie

—

—

23,038 1 46,846 21,694' 75,616

' J a n . 1978.

Other large towns (population, Jan. 1980): Dire Dawa, in Hararge, 82,024; Nazret, in Shoa, 69,865; Bahr Dar, 52,188; Debre Zeit, 49,570. Local Government. The country is divided into 15 administrative regions, each under a Chief Administrator, and under the administrative control of the Minister of the Interior. The regions are divided into 103 awraja (sub-regions), and thence into 505 woredo (districts). C L I M A T E . The wide range of latitude produces many climatic variations between the high, temperate plateaus and the hot, humid lowlands. The main rainy season lasts from June to Aug., with light rains from Feb. to April, but the country is very vulnerable to drought. Addis Ababa. Jan. 59°F (15°C), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 50" (1,237 mm). Harar. Jan. 65°F (18-3°C), July 64°F (17-8X). Annual rainfall 35" (897 mm). Massawa. Jan. 78°F(25-6°C), July 94°F(34-4°C). Annual rainfall 8 " (193 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Pending the promulgation of a new constitution, Ethiopia is controlled by a Provisional Military Administration Council (the Derg) to whom the Council of Ministers is responsible. A Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working Peoples of Ethiopia (COPWE) was established in early 1980 and charged with the task of preparing the formation of a civilian party which will ultimately take over from the PMAC. The second congress of COPWE was held in Jan. 1983 and elected a 91 -member central committee and a 7-member executive committee, both chaired by Mengistu. The Workers Party of Ethiopia (WPE) was founded in 1984. An 11-member Politbureau was elected which includes all 7 members of the former COPWE executive committee. The central committee was increased to 136 members, including most former COPWE central committee members. The WPE is the leading organ of the state but the transition to civilian government still awaits the promulgation of the new Constitution. Mengistu leads the new party. Chairman of the PMAC, Head of State, Chairman of the Council of Ministers: Lieut.-Col. Mengistu HaileMariam. Vice-Chairman of the Council of Ministers: and Secretary-General of the PMAC: Capt. Fikre Selassie Wogderesse. Foreign Affairs: Lieut.-Col. Goshu Wolde. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow and red. National anthem: Ityopya, Ityopia Kidemi (tune by Daniel Yohannes, 1975). D E F E N C E . Ethiopia's military rulers have moved away from US military assistance since they came to power and now rely on USSR for most of their military aid. Large amounts of USSR military equipment have been sent to help her in her conflict with Somalia over the Ogaden desert region.

448

ETHIOPIA

Selective conscription was introduced in 1983 for a period of 30 months is in force. Some 1,400 Soviet, 3,000 Cuban and 250 East German military advisers and technicians are reported to be serving with the armed forces. Army. The Army, comprises 23 infantry divisions with some 20 tank battalions, 4 para-commando brigades, 30 artillery battalions and 30 air defence battalions. Equipment includes 700 T-54/-55, 150 T-34 and 40 M-47 tanks. Strength (1985) 300,000 including a People's Militia. Navy. The Navy, with headquarters at Addis Ababa, consists of 1 ex-Soviet light frigate, 4 ex-Soviet fast missile boats, 2 ex-Soviet fast torpedo boats, 1 training ship (1,768 tons; ex-US seaplane tender), 1 ex-Netherlands coastal minesweeper, 4 patrol craft (ex-US coastguard motor gunboats), 4 patrol boats, 1 ex-Yugoslav submarine chaser, 3 ex-Soviet coastal cutters, 4 harbour defence craft, 2 medium landing ships, 2 landing craft and 4 minor landing craft. The Naval Base and College is at Massawa. Personnel in 1985, totalled 1,500 officers and men. It is presumed that Soviet advisers remain embarked in the 6 attack craft recently acquired until Ethiopian naval officers and ratings have sufficient experience to operate independently the missiles and torpedoes. Air Force. The Air Force, trained originally by Swedish and American personnel, but now operating aircraft of Soviet origin, has its headquarters at Debre Zeit, near Addis Ababa. It includes a training school and a central workshop. Of 6 groundattack fighter squadrons, 4 have MiG-21s, the others MiG-23s and MiG-17s respectively. There is a squadron of Mi-24 helicopter gunships, and a transport squadron equipped with An-12s, and An-26s. Training aircraft include two-seat MiG-21s and L-39jet basic trainers. More than 40 Mi-8 helicopters are in service. Personnel, 3,500 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Ethiopia is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A 10-year development plan (1984-94) places emphasis on socialist development and a growth rate of 6%. Budget. Revenue and expenditure estimates for financial years (ended 7 July) were as follows (in EB1 m.): Revenue Expenditure

1975-76 1,331 1,331

1976-77 1,466 1,466

1977-78 1,601 1,601

¡978-79 2,119 2,119

1979-80 2,365 2,365

Of the estimated revenue in 1979-80, EB 1,327m. is expected to come from taxes and EB417m. from external assistance. Of the 1979-80 expenditure, EB 1,655m. is on current account and EB710m. for capital expenditure. Currency. The Ethiopian birr, divided into 100 cents, is the unit of currency; it is based on 5-52 grains of fine gold. It consists of notes of EB1, 2, 10, 50 and 100 denominations, and bronze 1-, 5-, 10-, 25- and 50-cent coins. Birr 2-21 =£1 sterling; Birr2 02=US$1 (in March 1985). Banking. The State Bank was renamed the National Bank of Ethiopia in Oct. 1963, when its commercial activities were transferred to the newly established Commercial Bank of Ethiopia. At the same time another new bank, the Investment Bank of Ethiopia, was set up with a capital of EBlOm., of which the Government held the majority of shares. In Sept 1965 it became the Ethiopian Investment Corporation, which is a substantial shareholder in a number of industrial and other ventures. The Investment Corporation has now been merged with the Development Bank of Ethiopia and the two are now known as the Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank, SC.

ETHIOPIA

449

Two Italian banks have subsidiaries in Asmara, and one has a subsidiary in Addis Ababa. The Addis Ababa Bank Share Co. is connected with National & Grindlays Bank Ltd. On 1 Jan. 1975 the Government nationalized all banks, mortgage and insurance companies. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is officially in use. Traditional weights and measures vary considerably in the various provinces: the principal ones are: Frasilla = approximately 3>Vh lb.; gasha, the principal unit of land measure, which is normally about 100 acres but can vary between 80 and 300 acres, depending on the quality of the land. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production in 1979 totalled 544m. kwh. Oil. A Russian built state-owned oil refinery at Assab came on stream in 1967 with a capacity of600,000 tonnes of crude per annum. Gas. A natural gas-strike was made offshore near Massawa in Dec. 1969, but it was not exploited. Traces of gas and oil have been found in south-east Ethiopia. Minerals. Ethiopia has little proved mineral wealth. Salt is produced mainly in Eritrea, while a placer goldmine is worked by the Government of Adola in the south. Gold production, in 1980, was 373 kg. Small quantities of other minerals are produced including platinum. Agriculture. Coffee is by far the most important source of rural income accounting for 70% of foreign earnings in 1982. Harari coffee (long berry Mocha) is cultivated in the east. Teff (Eragrastis abyssinica) is the principal food, grain, followed by barley, wheat, maize and durra. Pulses and oilseeds are imported for local consumption and export. Cane sugar is an important crop. Production (1982 in 1,000 tons): Maize, 1,000; sorghum, 1,300; barley, 1,150; pulses, 1,002. Livestock (1983): 26-3m. cattle, 23-4m. sheep, 17-24m. goats; smaller numbers of donkeys, horses, mules and camels. Hides and skins and butter (ghee) are important for home consumption and export. Sheep, cattle and chickens are the main providers of meat. In 1983 85% of the population were engaged in agriculture, producing 40% of GDP. The continuing drought has had a devastating effect on production. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The most important products of the small but growing industries are cotton yarn (9,600 tons in 1978) and fabrics, cement (100,000 tons), sugar, salt, cigarettes, canned foodstufTs, beer, building materials, footwear, pharmaceuticals, tyres and paint. Most industry is centred around Addis Ababa and Asmara. Industry around Asmara has been severely hit by actions of Eritrean guerrillas. Commerce. Coffee is by far the most important export, followed by pulses, oilseeds, hides and skins. Imports are textiles, foodstufTs, vehicles, machinery, manufactured goods and petroleum products. Imports and exports (in US$ 1 m.) for 4 years. Imports Exports

1978 440 1 308-3

1979 521-3 429-1

1980 649-6 419-3

1981 629-8 374-1

Total trade between Ethiopia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 10,281 20,962

1981 8,079 19,569

Tourism. There were 55,000 tourists in 1982.

1982 10,833 27,584

1983 12,071 34,092

1984 13,733 63,434

450

ETHIOPIA

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) 30,000 km of roads. Addis Ababa is linked with Nairobi by a highway. Motor vehicles (1984): Cars, 41,300; lorries and trucks, 8,800; buses, 3,041. Railways. The former Franco-Ethiopian Railway Co. (782 km, metre-gauge) became the Ethiopian-Djibouti Railway Corp. in 1982, when the remaining France-owned shares were bought out. In 1983 the railway carried 249,000 tonnes of freight and 1 -4m. passengers. Aviation. Ethiopian Air Lines, formed in 1946, carried 242,924 passengers in 1980 and 8,613 tonnes of freight. Shipping. A state shipping line was established in 1964. The ports unloaded 1 -7m. tonnes in 1980 and loaded 518,000. Post and Broadcasting. The postal system serves 301 offices, mainly by air-mail. All the main centres are connected with Addis Ababa by telephone or radio telegraph. International telephone services are available at certain hours to most countries in Europe, North America and India. Number of telephones (1982), 100,783. The Ethiopian Broadcasting Service makes sound broadcasts on the medium and short waves in English, Amharic and in the vernacular languages spoken within the country. There were about 45,000 television sets and 2m. radio receivers in 1982. Cinemas (1974). There were 31 cinemas, with seating capacity of about 25,600. Newspapers. There were (1984) 3 government-controlled daily newspapers with a combined circulation of about 47,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The legal system is said to be based on the Justinian Code. A new penal code came into force in 1958 and Special Penal Law in 1974. Codes of criminal procedure, civil, commercial and maritime codes have since been promulgated. The extra-territorial rights formerly enjoyed by foreigners have been abolished, but any person accused in an Ethiopian court has the right to have his case transferred to the High Court, provided he asks for this before any evidence has been taken in the court of first instance. Provincial and district courts have been established, and High Court judges visit the provincial courts on circuit. The Supreme Court at Addis Ababa is presided over by the Chief Justice. Religion. About 45% of the population are Moslem and 40% Christian, mainly belonging to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Education. In the academic year 1980-81 there were more than 2- 13m. pupils in primary schools. In secondary schools there were 400,000 students. Higher education is co-ordinated under the National University, chartered in 1961; in 1979-80, there were 14,562 students. The University College, the Engineering, Building and Theological Colleges are in Addis Ababa, the Agricultural College in Harar and the Public Health College in Gondar. The government claims to have reduced illiteracy from 95% to 54% since 1974. Health. In 1977 there was one doctor for every 75,000 people and in 1981 it was found that Ethiopia has the shortest life expectancy in the world, at 40 years. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Ethiopia in Great Britain (17 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1PZ) Ambassador: Ato Ayalew Wolde-Giorgis. Of Great Britain in Ethiopia (Fikre Mariam Abatechan St., Addis Ababa) Ambassador: B. L. Barder.

ETHIOPIA O f Ethiopia in the U S A ( 2 1 3 4 Kalorama Rd„ N W , Washington D.C., 2 0 0 0 8 ) Chargé (¡'Affaires: T a m e n e Eshete. O f the U S A in Ethiopia (Entoto St., Addis Ababa) Chargé d'Affaires: David A . K o m . O f Ethiopia to the United Nations Ambassador: Berhanu Dinka. B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Gilkes,P., The Dying Lion-Feudalism and Modernisation in Ethiopia. London, 1975 Halliday, F.and Molyneaux, M., The Ethiopian Revolution. London, 1981 Hancock, G., Ethiopia: The Challenge of Hunger. London, 1985 Hess, R. L., Ethiopia: The Modernization oj Autocracy. Cornell Univ. Press, 1970 Holmberg, J., Grain Marketing and Land Reform m Ethiopia. Uppsala, 1977 Mosley, L.,Haile Selassie. London, 1964 P o o l , D E r i t r e a : AJrica's Longest War. London, 1982 Scholler, H. and Brictzke, P., Ethiopia: Revolution, Law and Politics. New York 1976 Thompson, B., Ethiopia: The Country That Cut Off Its Head. London, 1975 Ullendorflf, E., The Ethiopians. New York, 1973 Wolde-Mariam, M.,An Atlas oJEthiopia. Rev. ed. Addis Ababa, 1970

FALKLAND ISLANDS A N D DEPENDENCIES

Capital: Stanley

^^.'1,8.3(1980)

H I S T O R Y . France established a settlement in 1764 and Britain a second settlement in 176S. In 1770 Spain bought out the French and drove off the British. In 1806 Spanish rule was overthrown in Argentina, and the Argentinians claimed to succeed Spain in the French and British settlements in 1820. The British objected and reclaimed their settlement in 1832 as a Crown Colony. On 2 April 1982 Argentine forces invaded the Falkland Islands and the Governor was expelled. At a meeting of the U N Security Council, held on 3 April, the voting was 10 to 1 in favour of the resolution calling for Argentina to withdraw. Britain regained possession on 14-15 June after the Argentinians surrendered. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Crown Colony is situated in the South Atlantic Ocean about 480 miles north-east of Cape Horn. The numerous islands cover 4,700 sq. miles. The main East Falkland Island, 2,610 sq. miles; the West Falkland, 2,090 sq. miles, including the adjacent small islands. The Dependency of South Georgia lies 800 miles south-east of the Falklands, has an area of 1,450 sq. miles; the South Sandwich group, 470 miles south-east of South Georgia, has an area of 130 sq. miles. The population of the Falkland Islands at census 1980 was 1,813. The only town is Stanley, in East Falkland, with a population ofjust over 1,000. A large garrison of British servicemen was stationed near Stanley in 1985. The population of South Georgia varies with the season, but the resident population in 1980 was 22 (males). The South Sandwich are uninhabited. South Georgia, once a base for whaling and sealing operations, is now occupied by members of the British Antarctic Survey at the base at King Edward Point. The population of the Falkland Islands is nearly all of British descent, with about 80% born in the islands. C L I M A T E . A harsh climate, much affected by strong winds, particularly in spring. Stanley. Jan. 49°F (9-4'C), July 35°F (1-7°C). Annual rainfall 2 7 " (681 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present Constitution came into force on 21 Nov. 1977. On 18 June 1982, a Falkland Islands and Dependencies (Interim Administration) Order was introduced which made provision for the interim administration by the establishment of a Civil Commissioner and a Military Commissioner. Under the Order the Military Commissioner has responsibility for thè defence and internal security (with the exception of the police). The Civil Commissioner is required to consult the Military Commissioner on any matter which falls within the responsibility of the Military Commissioner and accept any advice on such matters tendered by the Military Commissioner. The Order suspended the office of Governor and Commander-in-Chief and vested the functions of that office in the Civil Commissioner who is assisted by an Executive Council consisting of the Chief Executive and Financial Secretary, both ex-ojficio\ 2 members elected by the Legislature and 2 appointed members; and a Legislative Council composed of the Chief Executive and Financial Secretary, both ex-officio\ 3 elected members representing Stanley, 1 elected member from the East Falkland and 1 from the West Falkland and 1 representing the Camp as a whole. Governor: Sir Rex Hunt, CMG. Chief Executive: D. G. P. Taylor. Government Secretary: B. E. Pauncefort, OBE. Flag: British Blue Ensign with arms of Colony on a white disc in the fly. 452

FALKLAND ISLANDS

453

D E F E N C E . Since 1982 the Islands have been defended by a garrison of several thousand servicemen. The garrison is commanded by a Military Commissioner who is responsible for all military matters in the Islands. He liaises with the Civil Commissioner on civilian and political matters, and advises him on matters of internal security. Apart from their strictly defence role, the military are taking an active part in the rehabilitation and reconstruction of the Islands. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling) for fiscal years ending 30 June: Revenue Expenditure

1977-78 1,803,151 1,382,744

1978-79 1,820,561 1,792,780

1979-80 2,427,934 2,057,928

1980-81 2,298,325 2,775,697

1981-82 2,533,425 2,648,432

1982-83 3,653,895 3,118,763

Currency. The Falkland £ is at parity with the £ sterling. Banking. On 1 Dec. 1983 the government savings bank was dissolved, and all savings bank deposits were transferred to the Standard Chartered Bank, which has a branch in Stanley, and provides a full range of banking facilities. S H E E P F A R M I N G . The whole acreage of the Colony is divided into large sheep runs. Wool is the principal product, but hides are exported. In 1983 there were 669,144 sheep, 7,648 cattle and 2,324 horses in the islands. D E V E L O P M E N T . The economy is mainly dependent on the production of wool for export. The Falkland Islands Development Corporation commenced operations during July 1984 with the aim of encouraging the economic development of the Falkland Islands. The first projects assisted by the Development Corporation include inshore and offshore fisheries surveys to establish potential catch size and value, the introduction of agricultural improvement schemes to encourage investment in the land, and the establishment of a wool spinning and knitting factory to process a portion of the islands main product. T R A D E . Total imports, 1981, amounted to £3,193,437 and exports to £2,304,446. Total trade between the Falkland Islands and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in $ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 2,568 4,150

1983 4,022 7,259

1984 5,202 9,516

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 20 km of made-up roads in and around Stanley. Roadworks presently under construction will add another 53 km to this figure. Between Stanley and BluffCove there is a 23 km all-weather road. Other settlements outside of Stanley are linked by tracks, which are passable, with high axle clearing four-wheel drive vehicles in all but the worst weather. Aviation. Air communication is currently via Ascension Island by means of Hercules aircraft manned by the RAF. There are no external civil air links. A new airfield which is expected to be operational by mid-1985 and completed in 1986, is sited at Mount Pleasant. Internal air links are provided by the government operated air service, which carries passengers, mail and medical patients between the settlements and Stanley on non-scheduled flights. Shipping. A charter vessel calls 4 or 5 times a year to/from the UK. Communication with the Colony, the Dependencies and the British Antarctic Territory is kept up by the Royal research ships John Biscoe and Bransfield and by the ice-patrol vessel HMS Endurance. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1984) 500. There is a governmentoperated broadcasting station at Stanley.

454 EDUCATION AND

FALKLAND ISLANDS WELFARE

Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 15 years. In 1984 there were 339 children receiving education in the Colony. Almost 75% attended schools in Stanley, the others were taught in settlement schools or by itinerant teachers. 5 children were being educated abroad. Health. The Government Medical Department is responsible for preventative and curative medical services in the territory. A board of health deals with public health problems as they arise. The Senior Medical Officer, who sits on the board is responsible for advising the Falkland Islands Government on health policy. The Military Environmental Health Officer also sits on the board. Since the destruction by fire in April 1984 of the hospital in Stanley, separate temporary civilian and military hospitals have been established. Medical services for the Islands are run from the civilian hospital, including a general practitioner service to Stanley and a routine and emergency flying doctor service for outlying farm settlements. W I L D L I F E . The Falkland Islands and South Georgia are noted for their outstanding wild life, including penguin and seal. Four Nature Reserves have been declared and 18 Wild Animal and Bird Sanctuaries gazetted. The brown trout introduced between 1947 and 1952 can now be found in nearly all the rivers. Books of Reference Falkland Islands: The Facts. HMSO, London, 1982 Falkland Islands Journal. Stanley, from 1967 Falkland Islands Review [Franks Report] Cmnd. 8787. HMSO, London, 1983 Falklands/Malvinas, Whose Crisis?Latin American Bureau, London, 1982 Calvert, P., The Falklands Crisis: The Rights and the Wrongs. London, 1982 Hanrahan,B.,andFox,R., 'I counted them all out and I counted them all back'. London, 1982 Hastings, M., and Jenkins, S., The Battle for the Falklands. London, 1983 Headland, R. K., The Island of Georgia. CUP, 1985 Hoffmann, F. L.,and Hoffmann, O. M., Sovereignty in Dispute. London, 1984 Phipps, C., What Future for the Falklands? London, 1977 Shackleton, E., Falkland Islands Economic Study 1982. HMSO, London, 1982

FIJI

Capital: Suva Population: 663,485 (1982) GNPper capita: US$2,000 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . The Fiji Islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643 and visited by Capt. Cook in 1774, but first recorded in detail by Capt. Bligh after the mutiny of the Bounty (1789). In the 19th century the search for sandalwood, in which enormous profits were made, brought many ships. Deserters and shipwrecked men stayed on; firearms salvaged from wrecks were used in native wars, new diseases swept the islands, and rum and muskets became regular articles of trade. Tribal wars became bloody and general until Fiji was ceded to Britain on 10 Oct. 1874, after a previous offer of cession had been refused. British administrators produced order out of chaos, and since then there has been steady political, social and economic progress. Fiji gained independent status on 10 Oct. 1970. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Fiji comprises about 332 islands and islets (about 110 inhabited) lying between 15° and 22° S. lat. and 174° E. and 177° W. long. The largest is Viti Levu, area 10,429 sq. km (4,027 sq. miles), next is Vanua Levu, area 5,556 sq. km (2,145 sq. miles). The island of Rotuma (47 sq. km, 18 sq. miles), about 12° 30' S. lat., 178° E. long., was added to the colony in 1881. Total area, 7,078 sq. miles (18,333 sq. km). A population census is taken every 10 years. Total population (census, Dec. 1977), 601,485; 1983 (estimate) 671,712. The mid-1983 total population consisted of the following: 300,945 (44-8%) Fijians; 336,028 (50%) Indians; 11,276 (1-7%) Part Europeans; 3,753 (0-6%) Europeans; 8,311 (1-2%) Rotumans; 4,596 (0-7%) Chinese; 6,624 (0-9%) other Pacific Islanders; 179 others. Suva, the capital, is on the south coast of Viti Levu; population (1982), 71,255. Suva was proclaimed a city on 2 Oct. 1953. Lautoka had 26,000 in 1982. Vital statistics, 1982: Crude birth rate per 1,000 population, Fijian, 28-5, Indian, 33; crude death rate per 1,000 population, Fijian, 5 -4, Indian, 6 -2. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, but oceanic influences prevent undue extremes of heat or humidity. The S.E. Trades blow from May to Nov., during which time nights are cool and rainfall amounts least. Suva. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 117" (2,974 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Fiji became an independent nation within the Commonwealth on 10 Oct. 1970. This had been agreed at a constitutional conference held in London in April 1970. There is a Lower House, the House of Representatives, which consists of 52 elected members and an Upper House, the Senate, of 22 members (8 nominations by the Council of Chiefs, 7 by the Prime Minister, 6 by the Leader of the Opposition and 1 by the Rotuma Council). Elections are held every five years. At elections held in July 1982 for the 52 seats in the House of Representatives the Alliance Party won 28 seats, the National Federation Party won 22 seats and the Western United Front won 2 seats. In Jan. 1982, the National Federation Party entered into a formal agreement with the Western United Front to form a coalition. Local Government. The Fijian Administration, established in 1876, had jurisdiction overall Fijians. Fiji is divided into 13 provinces, each with its own council. Elections to these councils in 90 constituencies were conducted for the first time in 1967 on a full adult franchise amongst Fijians. The councils have wide powers to make by-laws and draw up their own budget subject to confirmation by the Fijian Affairs Board. Each council has its own treasury and levies rates to raise its revenue. These provincial rates vary from $F6 to $F9 per annum for every male adult, but those maintaining 5 or more children pay 455

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FIJI

lower rates until their children become taxpayers. A start has been made, however, to change over to a system of land rating based upon the unimproved value of Fijian-owned land. This is considered to be more equitable and related to ability to pay. These newly elected councils held their inaugural and 1968 budget meetings towards the end of 1967, when the chairman for each of these 13 councils was also elected from among its members. Members were elected for 2 years and new elections were held in 1969. At the apex of the Fijian Administration is the Great Council of Chiefs presided over by the Minister for Fijian Affairs. The Council of Chiefs consists of 22 Fijian members elected to the House of Representatives, 30 representatives, elected by the Provincial Councils and 15 representatives nominated by the Minister for Fijian Affairs. The Council ofChiefs advises the Government generally on Fijian affairs. Governor-General: Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, GCMG, KCVO, KBE, DSO. Prime Minister, Minister for Fijian Affairs and Information: Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, GCMG, KBE. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Economic Planning and Development: Ratu David Toganivalu. Foreign Affairs, Tourism and Civil Aviation: Jonati Mavoa, CMG. Employment and Industrial Relations: Mohammed Ramzan, MBE. Housing and Urban Affairs: Edward J. Beddoes. Communications, Transport and Works: Semesa K. Sikivou, CBE. Home Affairs: Militoni V. Leweniqila. Attorney-General and Justice: Qoriniasi Bale. Finance: Mosese Qionibaravi, CMG. Education: Dr Ahmed Ali. Health and Social Welfare: Dr Apenisa Kurisaqila. Lands, Energy and Mineral Resources: J. B. Naisara. Primary Industries: Charles Walker. There are 3 Ministers of State. Flag: Light blue with the Union Flag in the canton and the shield of Fiji in the fly. D E F E N C E . The Fiji Military Forces Ordinance, 1949, provides for the maintenance of a small regular force, with territorial units and trained reserves. This force, comprising 3 infantry battalions, numbers (1985), 2,500. Navy. A naval squadron was authorized in 1974 to perform fishery protection, surveillance, hydrographic surveying and coastguard duties. Present strength is 3 coastal minesweepers (ex-US MSC), 1 utility vessel and 2 survey craft. Naval personnel (trained in Australia) in 1985 numbered 170 officers and ratings. The naval base is HMFS Viti in Suva. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Fiji is a member of the UN, the Commonwealth, the Colombo Plan and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The financial year corresponds with the calendar year. All figures are in $lm. Fijian. m g m Q jggj [ m m j l Revenue Expenditure

198-7 189-0

232-6 223 1 1

259-4 239-6

258-3 273-2

296-4 304-1

Preliminary.

Currency. The National Bank of Fiji had, in 1983, deposits amounting to $F58 -2m. due to 242,441 accounts. The headquarters are at Suva, and there are 48 agencies, 8 branchesitnd 3 sub-branches throughout Fiji. Fiji changed to decimal currency on 13 Jan. 1969, with the major unit being SF1. In March 1985, £1 = $F1 -28;US$=$F1 -20. Banking. The Westpac Banking Corporation has 8 branches and .18 agencies; the Bank of New Zealand has 8 branches, and 15 agencies; the Australia and

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New Zealand Bank has 3 branches and 3 agencies and the Bank of Baroda has 8 branches and 5 agencies in Fiji. Barclays International has 3 branches in Suva and 1 agency. NATURAL RESOURCES Agriculture. Some 600,000 acres of land are in agricultural use. Sugar-cane is the principal cash crop (production, 1983, 2,202,000 tonnes), accounting for more than two-thirds of Fiji's export earnings; one quarter of the population depend on it directly for their livelihood. Copra, Fiji's second major cash crop (output, 1983, 24,000 tonnes), provides coconut oil and other products for export and employs nearly as many workers as the sugar industry. Ginger is the third major export crop replacing bananas which has declined through disease and hurricane. Other agricultural products include rice, cocoa, maize, tobacco and a variety of fruits and vegetables. There is a small, but fast developing, livestock industry. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 157,000; horses, 40,000;' goats, 55,000; pigs, 28,000; poultry, lm. Forestry. Fiji supplies the bulk of its own timber requirements. A comprehensive pine scheme has been implemented with the aim of planting 186,000 acres by 1988. Fisheries. Catch (1982) 26,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Major industries include 4 large sugar-mills, the goldmines (1,250 kg in 1983) and 3 mills which process copra into coconut oil and coconut meal. There is a great variety of light industries. Trade Unions. In 1982 there were 45 trade unions operating with about 45,000 members. Commerce. Exports in 1983, $F244,902,000 (including re-exports). Imports, $F493,206,000. Chief exports: Sugar, gold, molasses and canned fish. Total trade between Fiji and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): lg?9 m ( j m j m 2 m } [ m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

45,694 14,154

36,759 12,786

51,144 11,401

39,826 9,088

46,943 12,184

70,209 11,281

Tourism. In 1983, there were 192,000 visitors contributing $F136m. to the economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage is 2,019, of which 218 are sealed (paved), 1,663 are gravelled and 138 are unimproved. In 1983, there were 57,018 vehicles including 24,013 private cars, 18,049 goods vehicles, 1,188 buses, 4,028 tractors and (1980) 2,599 motorcycles. Railway. Fiji Sugar Cane Corporation runs 600 mm gauge railways at four of its mills on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, totalling 595 km. Aviation. Fiji provides an essential staging point for long-haul trunk-route aircraft operating between North America, Australia and New Zealand. Under the South Pacific Air Transport Council, which comprises the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji, the international airport at Nadi has been developed and administered. Thirteen other airports are in use for domestic services. Shipping. In 1981, 234 vessels of 19,479 net tons were registered. Suva has 4-slipways of 100,200,500 and 1,500 tons, and there are 3 shipbuilding and repair firms. Post. There are 42 post offices and 158 postal agencies. Overseas telephone and telegram services are available through the Commonwealth cable to most countries except those in the South Pacific, which are served by direct radio circuits. The

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automatic telex network operates through New Zealand into the international telex system. There are ship-to-shore radio facilities. There were 49,542 telephones in 1983. Cinemas. In 1979 there were 48 cinemas with a seating capacity of28,100. JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. An independent Judiciary is guaranteed under the Constitution of Fiji. The Constitution allows for a Supreme Court of Fiji which has unlimited original jurisdiction to hear and determine any civil or criminal proceedings under any law. The Supreme Court also has jurisdiction to hear and determine constitutional and electoral questions including the membership of members of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Chief Justice of Fiji is appointed by the Governor-General acting after consultation with the Prime Minister and the Leader ofthe Opposition. Parliament prescribes the number of puisne judges. They are appointed by the Governor-General acting after consultation with the Judicial and Legal Services Commission. The Constitution provides that a person cannot be qualified to be appointed as a judge ofthe Supreme Court unless he holds, or has held, high judicial office in some part of the Commonwealth or in any country outside the Commonwealth that may be prescribed by Parliament, or unless he has qualified to practise in the Supreme Court for not less than three years. The Fiji Court of Appeal of which the Chief Justice is ex officio President is formed by four specially appointed Justices of Appeal. The Justices of Appeal are appointed by the Governor-General acting after consultation with the Judicial and Legal Services Commission. Generally any person convicted of any offence has a right of appeal from the Supreme Court to the Fiji Court of Appeal. The final appellant court is the Privy Council. Most matters coming before the Superior Courts originate in Magistrates' Courts. Police. The Royal Fiji Police Force had ( 1983) a total strength of 1,410. Religion. The 1976 census showed: Christians, 299,960; Hindus, 234,520; Moslems, 45,247; Confucians, 731. Education (1983). School attendance is not compulsory in Fiji. There were 837 schools scattered over 56 islands, staffed by 7,254 teachers, of whom about 88 -4% (1982) were trained. There were also 140 pre-schools. The primary and secondary schools had 164,659 pupils. The technical and vocational schools had 2,344 students and the teachers' colleges 285. There were 4 teacher-training colleges, 1 medical and 2 agricultural schools. The University of the South Pacific opened in Feb. 1968 at Laucala Bay in Su va. It had about 1,500 full-time and 1,500 part-time students in 1983. The University has 3 schools, social and economic development, natural resources and education. Total government expenditure on education in 1980 was over $F5 5 • 5m. Health. In 1982 there were 27 hospitals with 1,720 beds, 325 doctors, 54 dentists and 1,342 nurses. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Fiji in Great Britain (34 Hyde Park Gate, London, SW7 5DN) High Commissioner: Ratu Josua Brown Toganivalu, CBE (accredited 19 May 1981). Of Great Britain in Fiji (Civic Centre, Stinson Parade, Suva) HighCommissioner: R.A. R. Barltrop, CVO. Of Fiji in the USA (1140 19th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Ratu Jone Filipe Radrodro. Of the USA in Fiji (31 Loftus St., Suva) Ambassador: Carl Dilery.

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Of Fiji to the United Nations Ambassador: Ratu Jone Radrodro. Books of Reference Statistical Information: A Bureau of Statistics was set up in 1950 (Government Buildings, Suva). Trade Report. Annual (from 1887 [covering 1883-86]). Bureau of Statistics, Suva. Journal of the Fiji Legislative Council. Annual (from 1914 [under different title from 1885]). Suva FIJI Today. Suva, Annual Fiji Facts and Figures. Suva, 1983 Report of Commission of Inquiry Into Natural Resources and Population Trends in Fiji. Suva, G o v e r n m e n t Press, 1960 Capell, A., New Fijian Dictionary 2 n d e d . Glasgow, 1957 Hoare, M., The Winds of Change: Norfolk Island 1950-82. Suva, 1983 Nayacakalou, R. R., Leadership m Fiji. O U P , 1976 R o t h , G . K., The Fijian Way of Life. 2 n d e d . O U P , 1973

FINLAND

Capital: Helsinki Population: 4-87 m. (1983) GNPper capita: US$8,727 (1983)

Suomen Tasavalta— Republiken Finland

H I S T O R Y . Since the Middle Ages Finland was a part of the realm of Sweden. In the 18th century parts of south-eastern Finland were conquered by Russia, and the rest of the country was ceded to Russia by the peace treaty of Hamina in 1809. Finland became an autonomous grand-duchy which retained its previous laws and institutions under its Grand Duke, the Emperor of Russia. After the Russian revolution Finland declared itself independent on 6 Dec. 1917. The Civil War began in Jan. 1918 between the 'whites' and 'reds', the latter being supported by Russian bolshevik troops. The defeat of the red guards in May 1918 consequently meant freeing the country from Russian troops. A peace treaty with Soviet Russia was signed in 1920. On 30 Nov. 1939 Soviet troops invaded Finland, after Finland had rejected territorial concessions demanded by the USSR. These, however, had to be made in the peace treaty of 12 March 1940, amounting to 32,806 sq. km and including the Carelian Isthmus, Viipuri and the shores of Lake Ladoga. When the German attack on the USSR was launched in June 1941 Finland again became involved in the war against the USSR. On 19 Sept. 1944 an armistice was signed in Moscow. Finland agreed to cede to Russia the Petsamo area in addition to cessions made in 1940 (total 42,934 sq. km) and to lease to Russia for 50 years the Porkkala headland to be used as a military base. Further, Finland undertook to pay 300m. gold dollars in reparations within 6 years (later extended to 8 years). The peace treaty was signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947. The payment of reparations was completed on 19Sept. 1952. The military base ofPorkkala was returned to Finland on 26 Jan. 1956. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area and the population of Finland on 31 Dec. 1983 (Swedish names in brackets): Province Uusimaa(Nyland) Turku-Pori (Abo-Bjorneborg) Ahvenanmaa (Aland) Hame (Tavastehus) Kymi (Kymmene) Mikkeli (St Michel) Pohjois-Kaijala (Norra Karelen) Kuopio Keski-Suomi (Mellersta Finland) Vaasa (Vasa) Oulu(UleSborg) Lappi (Lappland) 1

Area (sq. km) ' 9,898 22,169 1,527 17,010 10,783 16,343 17,782 16,511 16,230 26,447 56,866 93,057

Population 1 1,162,871 709,897 23,435 672,096 342,432 209,062 177,625 254,799 246,242 442,073 429,450 199,876

Population per sq. km1 117-5 320 15-4 39-5 31 8 13-8 100 15-4 15-2 16-7 7-6 8-2

4,869,858 16-0 Total 304,623 2 Excluding inland water area which totals 33,522 sq. km. Resident population.

The growth of the population, which was 421,500 in 1750, has been: End of year 1800 1900 1950 1960 1970 1980 1983

Urban 46,600 333,300 1,302,400 1,707,000 2,340,308 2,865,063 2,910,467

Rural 786,100 2,322,600 2,727,400 2,739,200 2,258,028 1,922,715 1,959,391

460

Total 832,700 2,655,900 4,029,800 4,446,200 4,598,336 4,787,778 4,869,858

Percentage urban 5-6 12-5 32-3 38-4 50-9 59-8 59-8

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FINLAND

The population on 31 Dec. 1983 by language primarily spoken: Finnish, 4,557,191;Swedish,299,916;other languages, 11,347; Uppish, 1,404. The principal towns with resident census population, 31 Dec. 1983, are (Swedish names in brackets): Helsinki (Helsingfors)—capital (metropolitan area) Tampere (Tammerfors) (metropolitan area) Turku (Abo) (metropolitan area) Espoo (Esbo) Vantaa (Vanda) Oulu(Uleàborg) Lahti Pori (Bjòrneborg) Kuopio Jyvaskylà Kotka Vaasa (Vasa) Lappeenranta (Villmanstrand) Joensuu Hameenlinna (Tavastehus) Hyvinkaa (Hyvinge)

484,471 932,376 167,344 249,606 163,002 256,687 149,057 139,202 96,243 94,466 78,935 76,792 64,600 59,973 54,297 53,967 45,920 42,387 38,264

Kajaani Imatra Kokkola (Gamlakarlebv) Rovaniemi Kouvola Rauma (Raumo) Mikkeli (St Michel) Savonlinna(Nyslott) Kemi Seinajoki Kerava Jàrvenpàa Varkaus Riihimaki Nokia Iisalmi Valkeakoski Kuusankoski

Vital statistics in calendar years: 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Living births 63,428 63,064 63,469 66,106 67,023

Ofwhich illegitimate 7,603 8,247 8,431 9,007

Still-born 269 266 260 263

Marriages 29,277 29,388 30,100 30,454 29,498

35,703 35,606 34,337 31,910 31,365 30,770 29,243 28,563 26,600 25,827 25,380 25,169 24,716 24,196 23,978 23,225 22,594 22,317

Deaths (exclusive of still-born) Emigration 43,737 16,661 14,824 44,398 44,404 10,042 7,403 43,408 45,444 7,120

In 1983 the rate per 1,000 was: Births, 13-8; marriages, 6 1 ; deaths, 9-4, and infantile deaths (1982, per 1,000 live births), 6. Population and Housing Census 1980. 19vols. Helsinki, 1981-83 Population. Annual. Helsinki

C L I M A T E . The climate is severe in winter, which lasts about 6 months, but mean temperatures in south and south-west are less harsh, 2 P F (-6°C). In the north, mean temperatures may fall to 8-5°F (-13*C). Snow covers the ground for three months in the south and for over six months in the far north. Summers are short but quite warm, with occasional very hot days. Precipitation is light throughout the country, with one third falling as snow, the remainder mainly as convectional rain in summer and autumn. Helsinki (Helsingfors). Jan. 21°F (-6°C), July 62°F(16-5°C). Annual rainfall24-7" (618 mm). CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. Finland is a republic according to the Constitution of 17 July 1919. Parliament consists of one chamber of 200 members chosen by direct and proportional election in which all Finnish citizens (men or women) who are 18 years have the vote (since 1972). The country is divided into 15 electoral districts with a representation proportional to their population. Every citizen over the age of 20 is eligible for Parliament, which is elected for 4 years, but can be dissolved sooner by tne President. The President is elected for 6 years by a college of 301 electors, elected by the votes of the citizens in the same way as the members of Parliament. President of Finland: Dr Mauno Koivisto (elected 27 Jan. 1982). State of Parties for Parliament elected on 20-21 March 1983: Conservative 44 Swedish Party, 11 (including 1 for Coalition of Aland); Centre, 38 Rural, 17; Social Democratic Party, 57; Communists, 27; Christian League, 3 Constitutional Party, 1. In addition there were 2 representatives of the Greens. The Council of State (Cabinet), appointed by the President in May 1983 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Kalevi Sorsa.

462

FINLAND

Agriculture and Forestry: Toivo Ylajarvi. Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Affairs: Paavo Vayrynen. Justice: Chnstoffer Taxell. Environment: Matti Ahde. Interior: Kaisa Raatikainen. Defence: Veikko Pihlajamaki. Finance: Ahti Pekkala. Finance (Deputy): Pekka Vennamo. Education: Kaarina Suonio. Education (Deputy): Gustav Bjorkstrand. Communication: Matti Luttinen. Trade and Industry: Seppo Linablom. Social Affairs and Health: Eeva Kuuskoski-Vikatmaa. Social Affairs and Health (Deputy): Matti Puhakka. Labour: Urpo Leppanen. Foreign Trade: Jermu Laine. Nationalflag: White with a blue Scandinavian cross. National anthem: Maamme; Swedish: V&rt land (words by J. L. Runeberg, 1843; tune by F.Pacius, 1848). Finnish and Swedish are the official languages of Finland. Local Government. For administrative purposes Finland is divided into 12 provinces (laani, Sw.: Ian). The administration of each province is entrusted to a governor (maaherra, Sw.: landshovding) appointed by the President. He directs the activities of the provincial office (laaninhallitus, Sw.: lansstyrelse) and of local sheriffs (nimismies, Sw.: lansman). In 1984 the number of sheriff districts was 224. The unit of local government is the commune. Main fields of communal activities are local planning, roads and harbours, sanitary services, education, health services and social aid. The communes raise taxes independent from state taxation. Two different kinds of communes are distinguished: Urban communes (kaupunki, Sw.: stad) and rural communes. In 1984 there were altogether 461 communes of which 84 were urban and 377 rural. In all communes communal councils are elected for terms of 4 years; all inhabitants (men and women) of the commune who have reached their 18th year are entitled to vote and eligible. The executive power is in each commune vested in a board which consists of members elected by the council and one or a few chief officials of the commune. Several communes often form an association for the administration of some common institution, e.g., a hospital or a vocational school. TTie autonomous county (landskap) of Aland has a county council (landsting) of one chamber, elected according to rule corresponding to those for parliamentary elections. In addition to its provincial governor it has a county board with executive power in matters within the field of the autonomy of the county. Constitution Act and Parliament Act of Finland. Helsinki, 1978 The Finnish Parliament. Porvoo, 1969

D E F E N C E . The period of military training is 240 to 330 days and refresher training 40 to 100 days. Total strength of trained and equipped reserves is about 700,000. Army. The country is divided into 7 military regions. The Army consists of 1 armoured brigade, 7 infantry brigades, 7 independent infantry battalions, 3 fieldartillery regiments, 2 independent field-artillery battalions, 2 coastal artillery regiments, 3 independent coastal artillery battalions, 1 anti-aircraft regiment, 1 surface-to-air missile battalion, 4 independent anti-aircraft battalions, 2 engineering battalions, 1 signals regiment and 1 signals battalion, making a total strength in 1985, of about 30,900. Navy. The Fleet comprises 2 corvettes, 2 minelayers (including a modified exSoviet frigate), 1 coastal minelayer, 6 missile craft, 1 missile experimental craft, 10 fast patrol boats, 6 inshore minesweepers, 5 patrol boats capable of minelaying, 6 support ships, 1 headquarters ship, 10 transport craft, 14 landing craft, 3 tugs, 1 supply ship, 1 cable ship and 9 icebreakers. There is a naval academy. Personnel in 1985 totalled 2,500 (200 officers and 2,300 ratings). The Frontier Guard comprises 4 large patrol vessels, 10 coastal defence craft and 36 coastal patrol boats. Air Force. The Air Force has 2 fighter squadrons, 1 transport squadron, 1 training squadron, a military school of aviation, a technical school, a signal school and a depot. The fighter squadrons have MiG-21bis and Saab J35 Draken aircraft (1 additional J35 squadron to be formed). Other equipment includes 30 Valmet

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463

Vinka piston-engined primary trainers of Finnish design, 50 Hawk trainers, MiG-21U and Saab J35C jet advanced trainers, C-47 and Fokker F.27 transport aircraft, Cessna 402 liaison aircraft, Leaijet 35A target tugs, Piper Chieftain utility transports, and Mi-8 and Hughes 500 helicopters. Personnel total 3,000 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Finland is a member of UN, the Nordic Council, OECD and an associate member of E F T A . Treaties. A Treaty of friendship, co-operation and mutual assistance between Finland and the USSR was concluded in Moscow on 6 April 1948 for 10 years, extended on 19Sept. 1955 to cover a period of20 years, extended on 19 July 1970 for a further period of 20 years and extended again on 6 June 1983 for a further period of 20 years. Treaty of Peace with Finland (10 Feb. 1947). Cmd. 7484

ECONOMY Budget. Actual revenue and expenditure for the calendar years 1978-83, the ordinary budget for 1984 and the proposed budget for 1985 in 1 m. marks: Revenue Expenditure

1978 40,393 38,938

1979 43,319 45,036

1980 48,916 50,812

1981 58,795 57,797

1982 63,043 68,008

1983 76,354 77,190

1984 84,548 84,547

1985 92,928 92,927

Of the total revenue, 1983, 23% derived from sales tax, 25% from income and property tax, 14% from excise duties, 11% from other taxes and similar revenue, 14% from loans and 13% from miscellaneous sources. Of the total expenditure, 1983,17% went to education and culture, 16% to social security, 9% to transport, 10% to agriculture and forestry, 9% to general administration, public order and safety, 9% to health, 5% to communities and housing policy, 6% to defence, 3% to promotion of industry and 16% to other expenditures. At the end of Dec. 1983 the foreign loans totalled 21,723m. marks. The internal loans amounted to 16,401m. marks, of which, 16,383m. were consolidated debt. The cash deficit was 1,088m. marks. The total public debt was 38,124m. marks. Currency. The unit of currency, starting 1 Jan. 1963, is the new mark of 100 pennis, equalling 100 old marks. The gold standard was suspended on 12 Oct. 1931. Aluminium bronze coins are 50, 20 and 10 pennis; copper coins, 5 and 1 pennis; aluminium coins, 5 and 1 pennis; silver, 1 mark pieces. Exchange rate in March 1985:7• 48 marks=£ 1; 7 • 10 marks=US$ 1. Banking. The Bank of Finland (founded in 1811) is owned by the State and under the guarantee and supervision of Parliament. It is the only bank of issue, and the limit of its right to issue notes is fixed equal to the value of its assets of gold and foreign holdings plus 500m. marks. Notes of500,100,50,10, 5 and 1 marks are in circulation, and their total value at the end of 1981 was 6,029m. marks. At the end of 1983 the deposits in banking institutions totalled 108,888m. marks and the loans granted by them 116,990m. marks. The most important groups of b a n k i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s were:

Number of Number of Deposits Loans institutions offices (lm. marks) (1m. marks) Commercial banks 7 1,389 37,528 44,012 Savings banks 270 1,407 31,756 29,367 Postipankki 1 40' 13,378 12,680 Co-operative banks 371 1,275 26,226 27,288 ' In addition: 3,283 post offices. Bank of Finland Monthly Bulletin. Helsinki,from 1926 Unitas. Quarterly Review, issued by Union Bank of Finland. Helsinki, from 1929 Economic Review (issued quarterly by Kansallis-Osake-Pankki). Helsinki, from 1948

Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was introduced in 1887 and is officially and universally employed. Economic Survey of Finland. Annual

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity production was (in lm. kwh.) 8,605 in 1960; 22,562 in

464

FINLAND

1970; 38,710 in 1980; 39,354 in 1982 and 40,120 in 1983, of which 33% was hydro-electric. Minerals. The most important mines are Outokumpu (copper, discovered in 1910) and Otanmaki (iron, discovered in 1953). In 1982 the metal content (in tonnes) of the output of copper concentrates was 38,145, of zinc concentrates 54,665, of nickel concentrates 6,335, of iron concentrates and pellets 562,000 and of lead concentrates 1,882. Agriculture. The cultivated area covers only 9% of the land and of the economically active population 9-2% were employed in agriculture and forestry in 1980. The arable area was divided in 1982 into 212,630 farms, and the distribution of this area by the size of the farms was: Less than 5 hectares cultivated, 64,040 farms; 5-20 hectares, 117,935 farms; 20-50 hectares, 27,500 farms; 50-100 hectares, 2,768 farms; over 100 hectares, 387 farms. The principal crops (area in 1,000 hectares, yield in tonnes) were in 1983: Crop Rye Barley Wheat

Area 47 550 159

Yield 116,100 1,764,400 549,500

Crop Oats Potatoes Hay

Area 449 45 490

Yield 1,406,000 804,000 2,057,400

The total area under cultivation in 1983 was 2,466,600 hectares. Production of dairy butter in 1983 was 84,000 tonnes, and ofcheese, 72,000 tonnes. Livestock (1984): Horses, 19,200; cattle, 1,657,500; pigs, 1,957,600; poultry, 7,957,600; reindeer, 347,000. Forestry. The total forest land amounts to 30-31 m. hectares. The productive forest land covers 19 • 73m. hectares. The growing stock was valued at 1,520m. cu. metres in 1971-76and the annual growth at57-4m.cu. metres. In 1982 there were exported: Round timber, 766,685 cu. metres; sawn wood, 4,936,220 cu. metres; plywood and veneers, 691,927 cu. metres. Monthly Review of Agriculture. Board of Agriculture Agriculture 1982: Annual Statistics of Agriculture. Helsinki

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The following data cover establishments with a total personnel of 5 or m o r e in 1983 1 :

Vaiue

Industry Mining and quarrying Metal ore mining Othermining Manufacturing Manufacture offood, beverages and tobacco Textile, wearing apparel and leather industries Manufacture oftextiles Manufacture of wearing apparel, except footwear Manufacture of wood and wood products, incl. furniture Manufacture of paper and paper prod., printing, publishing Manufacture of paper and paper products Printing, publishing, etc. Manufacture of chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products Manufacture ofindustrial chemicals Manufacture of other chemical products Petroleum refineries Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products Basic metal industries Iron and steel basic industries Non-ferrous metal basic industries 1

Preliminary.

!

Establishments 114 13 101 7,557 1,100 955 304 459

0fprodUction

Personnel1 7,728 4,344 3,384 523,570 60,373 63,539 20,824

Gross (Im. marks) 1,855 842 1,013 180,265 33,589 10,145 3,914

Value added (Im. marks) 1,079 474 605 63,924 8,189 4,999 1,839

31,905

4,391

2,319

1,175

53,805

12,161

4,408

967 191 776

84,409 46,991 37,418

38,147 28,832 9,315

13,000 7,708 5,292

472 158 115 2 434 89 59 30

39,883 14,122 10,409 2,696 21,276 19,134 13,987 5,147

27,639 8,094 3,301 13,048 5,700 11,993 8,335 3,658

7,215 2,154 1,724 1,803 2,931 2,443 1,996 447

Working proprietors, salaried employees and wage earners.

FINLAND

465 Value oj production Value Gross added (lm. (Im. marks) marks)

EstablishPersonIndustry ments nel' Manufacture ofrabricated metal products, 40,024 machinery, etc. 2,242 176,124 Manufacture offabricated metal products, excl. machinery 831 33,942 7,743 Manufacture of machinery, except electrical 792 65,745 14,672 Manufacture ofelectrical machinery, apparatus, etc. 6,338 30,095 228 Manufacture oftransport equipment 10,317 41,684 308 Other manufacturing industries 866 5,027 123 Electricity, gas and water 23,351 28,031 523 All industry 205,471 559,329 8,194 1 Working proprietors, salaried employees and wage earners.

20,237 4,002 7,651 3,466 4,469 502 8,388 73,391

G D P (at market prices) per capita (1983) 56,658 marks. Industrial Statistics of Finland. Annual C o m m e r c e . Imports and exports for calendar years, in 1 m. marks: Imports Exports

1979 44,222 43,430

1 980 58,250 52,795

1981 61,269 60,308

1982 64,751 63,026

1 983 71,528 69,692

The trade with some principal import and export countries was (in 1,000 marks): Imports Exports Country 1982 1 983 1982 1 983 Australia 145,343 207,149 527,617 614,602 Austria 806,389 836,780 422,100 518,329 Belgium-Luxembourg 1,148,099 1,254,935 869,615 1,085,190 Brazil 468,401 503,595 178,879 186,868 Canada 573,188 531,826 440,951 412,463 China 147,686 196,038 193,110 255,487 Colombia 327,534 313,454 79,638 99,919 Czechoslovakia 338,757 307,203 268,887 274,248 Denmark 1,501,357 1,728,022 2,282,487 2,580,832 France 2,023,280 2,336,073 2,486,551 2,847,854 German Dem. Rep. 387,220 440,929 337,314 374,047 Germany (Fed. Rep.) 8,585,831 9,464,208 5,699,772 6,668,796 Greece 48,995 118,608 341,983 374,053 Hungary 276,920 255,544 363,290 215,398 Iran 323,597 719,440 476,113 443,087 Iraq 1,150 455 728,401 422,381 Ireland 205,296 240,802 402,787 374,349 Israel 164,932 187,293 203,844 246,820 Italy 1,707,913 2,140,662 1,134,317 1,300,198 Japan 2,723,217 3,903,263 677,793 789,315 Netherlands 1,714,545 1,903,228 1,928,125 2,771,250 Norway 1,456,549 1,884,965 3,084,494 2,376,799 Poland 938,492 904,641 86,328 115,067 Portugal 365,211 433,934 143,250 143,877 Saudi Arabia 1,362,691 772,702 538,842 566,978 Spain 453,791 529,959 530,082 523,789 Sweden 7,869,684 7,995,607 7,547,167 8,635,151 Switzerland 1,059,441 1,208,265 838,689 947,274 USSR 14,909,962 18,388,772 16,805,316 18,243,551 UK 4,641,997 4,765,931 6,827,279 7,199,712 USA 3,947,018 4,042,955 2,007,538 2,860,340 Principal imports 1983 (in 1 m. marks): Machinery, apparatus and appliances, 20,877; mineral, fuels, lubricants, etc., 19,246; chemicals, 6,703; food and live animals, 3,725; road vehicles, 4,547; crude materials, inedible, except fuels, 4,403; textile yam, fabrics, etc., 2,627; iron and steel, 2,035. Principal exports in 1983 (in l m . marks): Paper and paper-board, 15,672;

466

FINLAND

machinery and transport equipment, 17,168; wood shaped or simply worked, 3,919; wood pulp, 3,260; ships, 6,261; clothing, 2,799; veneers, plywood, etc., and other wood manufactures, 1,536; food and live animals, 2,385; road vehicles, 1,215. Total trade between Finland and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡98(j m t m 2 m 3 m 4 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK Foreign Trade. Annual

793,218 525,488

844,379 524,973

849,933 513,558

995,017 539,721

1,248,561 684,477

Tourism. In 1983 tourism contributed 2,845m. marks to the economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Jan. 1983 there were 75,448 km of public roads, of which 37,817 km were paved. At the end of 1983 there were 1,410,438 registered cars, 53,056 lorries, 114,775 vans and 9,102 buses. Railways. On 31 Dec. 1983 the total length of the line operated was 6,090 km (1,257 km electrified), of which all except 21 km was owned by the State. The gauge was 1,524 mm. In 1983 the number ofpassengers carried was 42m. and the amount of goods carried was 29- lm. tonnes. Tne total revenue in 1983 was 2,497m. marks and the total expenditure 3,381 m. marks. Aviation. The scheduled traffic of Finnish airlines covered 37m. km in 1983. The number of passengers was 2,797,318 and the number of passenger-km 2,629-8m. The air transport of freight and mail amounted to 77m. tonne-km. Shipping. The total registered mercantile marine on 31 Dec. 1983 was 484 vessels of 2-36m. gross tons. In 1983 the total number of vessels arriving in Finland from abroad was 15,695 and the goods discharged amounted to 30-9m._ tonnes. The goods loaded for export from Finland ports amounted to 1 -78m. tonnes. The lakes, rivers and canals are navigable for about 6,100 km. Timber floating is important, and there are about 9,200 km of floatable inland waterways. In 1983 bundle floating was about 5-4m. tonnes and free floating 1 -7m. tonnes. On 27 Aug. 1963 the USSR leased to Finland the Russian part of the canal connecting Lake Saimaa with the Gulf of Finland. After extensive rebuilding the canal was opened for traffic in 1968. The Saimaa Canal and deepwater channels on Lake Saimaa (755 km) can be used by vessels with dimensions not larger than as follows: length 82 metres, width 11 -8 metres, draught 4-2 metres and height of mast 24-5 metres. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 3,632 post offices and 581 telegraph offices. The total length of telegraph wires was 577,201 km and that of domestic trunk and net group telephone wires 6 1 m . km. The number of telephones was (1983), 2,777,073. All post and telegraph systems are administered bv the State jointly with a large part of the telephone services. The total revenues from postal services were 2,496m. marks and from (wire and radio) telegraph services 2,518m. marks. On31 Dec. 1983 the number of television licences, 1,737,810, of which licences for colour television, 1,204,411. Oy Yleisradio AB broadcasts 2 programmes in Finnish and 1 in Swedish on long-, medium- and short-waves, and on FM. Two TV programmes (1 commercial) are broadcast. Cinemas. In Dec. 1983 there were 368 cinemas with a seating capacity of 85,000. Newspapers. In 1983 the number of newspapers published more often than once a week was 154, of which 142 in Finnish and 12 in Swedish. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The lowest courts ofjustice are the municipal courts in towns and district courts in the country. Municipal courts are held by the burgomaster and at least 2 members of court, district court by judge and 5 jurors, the judge alone deciding, unless the jurors unanimously differ from him, when their decision prevails. From

467

FINLAND

these courts an appeal lies to the courts of appeal (Hovioikeus) in Turku, Vaasa, Kuopio, Kouvola and Helsinki. The Supreme Court (Korkein oikeusj sits in Helsinki. Appeals from the decisions of administrative authorities are in the final instance decided by the Supreme Administration Court (Korkein hallinto-oikeus), also in Helsinki. Judges can be removed only by judicial sentence. Two functionaries, the Oikeuskansleri or Chancellor of Justice, and the Oikeusasiamies, or Solicitor-General, exercise control over the administration of justice. The former acts also as counsel and public prosecutor for the Government; while the latter, who is appointed by the Parliament, exerts a general control over all courts of law and public administration. At the end of 1983 the prison population numbered 4,495 men and 161 women; the number of convictions in 1983 was 349,657, of which 323,495 were for minor offences with maximum penalty of fines and 26,137 with penalty of imprisonment. 11,516 of the prison sentences were unconditional. Religion. Liberty of conscience is guaranteed to members of all religions. National churches are the Lutheran National Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Finland. The Lutheran Church is divided into 8 bishoprics (Turku being the archiépiscopal see), 78 provostships and 594 parishes. The Greek Orthodox Church is divided into 3 bishoprics (Kuopio being the archiépiscopal see) and 25 parishes, in addition to which there are a monastery and a convent. Percentage of the total population at the end of 1982: Lutherans, 90; Greek Orthodox, 11; others, 0- 8 ; not members of any religion, 8 • 1. Education ( 1982-83). Primary and Secondary Education: First-level Education (Lower sections of the comprehensive schools, grades I—VI) Second-level Education General education (Upper sections of the comprehensive schools, grades VII— IX, and senior secondary schools) Vocational education

Number of instituHons Teachers 4.238 24.752

Students 365,965

1,613 1,078

37,098 22,279

432,761 325,763

535

14,819

106,998

Higher Education. Education at the third level (including universities and third level education at vocational institutes) was provided for 127,657 students. Education at universities was provided at 21 institutions with 6,618 teachers and 87,488 students. University Education. Universities and similar types of institutions and the number of teachers and students are: Students

Founded Teachers Universities Helsinki 1640 1,687 Turku (Swedish) 1919 289 Turku (Finnish) 1922 758 Jyvâskylà 1958 470 Oulu 1958 728 Tampere 1966 499 Joensuu 1969 269 Kuopio 1972 216 Lapland 1979 57 Vaasa 74 1968 97 1969 Polytechnic, Lappeenranta 1849 547 Polytechnic, Helsinki 1972 Polytechnic, Tampere 193 College of Veterinary Medicine, Helsinki 1946 50 Schools for Economics 1911 Helsinki (Finnish) 150 Helsinki (Swedish) 1927 86 Turku (Finnish) 1950 61 Swedish school of social work and local administration 1964' 20 1 Previously Swedish Civic College since 1943.

Total

Women

24,147 3,512 8,738 6,161 7,251 8,902 3,433 1,773 621 1,434 1,252 8,074 2,840 257

13,593 2,184 5,111 3,920 3,341 5,519 2,288 1,092 289 741 181 1,333 285 188

3,514 1,609 1,361

1,498 672 611

340

245

Founded Universities of Art Sibelius Academy University oflndustrial Arts Theatre Academy Teachers' training colleges 2 2

1939 1949 1979

Teachers 177 137 53

Students Total Women 783 875 111

384 511 48

Included in data for the universities above.

General adult education (at civic institutes, folk high schools and study centres) had 866,307 students. General Education. Central Statistical Office, Helsinki (annual), Higher Education. Statistical Office, Helsinki (annual), Vocational Education. Helsinki (annual)

Central

Health. In 1982 there were 10,057 physicians, 4,234 dentists and 75,026 hospital beds. Social Security .The Social Insurance Institution administers general systems of old age pensions (to all persons over 65 years of age and disabled younger persons) and of health insurance. An additional system of compulsory old age pensions paid for by the employers is in force and works through the Central Pension Security Institute. Systems for child welfare, care of vagrants, alcoholics and drug addicts and other public aid are administered by the communes and supervised by the National Social Board and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. The total cost of social security amounted to 58,090 - lm. marks in 1982. Out of this 16,495 -9m. (28 -4%) was spent for health, 1,098 -2m. (1 -9%) for industrial accidents, 3,613-8m. (6-2%) for unemployment, 22,399-9m. (38-6%) old age and disability, 9,637-7m. (16-4%) for family allowances and child welfare, 339-lm. (0-6%) for general welfare purposes, l,579-9m. (2-7%) for war-disabled, etc., 1,005m. (1 -7°/o) as tax reductions for children.Out of the total expenditure 30% was financed by the State, 15% by local authorities, 44% by employers, 7% by the beneficiaries and 4% by users. Labour Protection inFinland. Helsinki, 1980 Social Welfare inFinland. Helsinki, 1980 Social Security in the Nordic Countries 1981. Statistical Reports of the Nordic Countries, vol. 44. Helsinki, 1984 Arajarvi, E., Social Expenditure in 1981 and Preliminary Data for 1982. Official Statistics of Finland, Helsinki, 1983 Ellala, Esa, Suominen Risto, and Kotiranta, Maija-Liisa, The Development of Social Security in Finlandfrom 1950 to 1977. Official statistics of Finland, special social studies X X X I I : 56. Helsinki, 1978

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Finland in Great Britain (38 Chesham Place, London, SW1X 8HW) Ambassador: Ilkka Olavi Pastinen, KCMG (accredited 24 Feb. 1983). Of Great Britain in Finland (16-20 Uudenmaankatu, Helsinki 12) A mbassador: Alan Brooke Turner, CMG. Of Finland in the USA (3216 New Mexico Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20016) A mbassador: Richard Miiller. Of the USA in Finland (Itainen Puistotie 14 A, Helsinki 14) Ambassador: Keith F. Nyborg. Of Finland to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Keijo Korhonen. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Office (Tilastokeskus, Swedish: Statistikcentralen; address: PO Box 504, SF-00101 Helsinki 10) was founded in 1865 to replace earlier official statistical services dating from 1749 (in united Sweden-Finland). Statistics on foreign trade, agriculture, forestry, navigation, health and social welfare are produced by other state

FINLAND

469

authorities. Its publications include: Statistical Yearbook of Finland (from 1879) and Bulletin of Statistics (monthly, from 1924). A bibliography of all official statistics of Finland was published in Finnish, Swedish and English in Statistical publications 1856-1979. Helsinki, 1980. Constitution Act and Parliament Act of Finland. Helsinki, 1978 Suomen valtiokalenteri (State Calendar of Finland; a Swedish version Finlands statskalender is published separately). Helsinki. Annual Facts About Finland. Helsinki. Annual (Union Bank of Finland) Facts about Finland. Helsinki, 1984 Finland in Figures. Helsinki, Annual Finland in Maps. Helsinki, 1979 Finnish Press Laws. Helsinki, 1984 Making and Applying Law in Finland. Ministry of Justice, 1983 Statistical Yearbook of Finland. Helsinki, A n n u a l Yearbook of Finnish Foreign Policy. Helsinki, Annual The Finnish Banking System. Helsinki, 1983 Finnish Industry. Helsinki, 1984 Finnish Local Government. Helsinki, 1982 Health Services in Finland. Helsinki, 1980 Hurme-Malin-Sy väoja, Finnish-English General Dictionary. Helsinki, 1984 Hurme-Pesonen, English-Finnish General Dictionary. Helsinki, 1982 Jutikkala, E., and P i n n e n , K.,A History of Finland. 3rd ed. New York, 1979 K e k k o n e n . U . , P r e s i d e n t ' s View. L o n d o n , 1982 Kirby, D . G . , Finland in the Twentieth Century. 2nd ed. London, 1984 Klinge, M., A Brief History of Finland. Helsinki, 1984 Layton, R., Sibelius: The Master Musician. London, 1978 Nousiainen, J., The Finnish Political System. H a r v a r d U n i v . Press, 1971 Paasivirta, J., Finland and Europe. The Period of Autonomy and the International Crises 1808-1914. London, 1981 Puntila, L. A., The Political History of Finland, 1809-1966. Helsinki, 1974 University o f T u r k u , Political Parties in Finland. T u r k u , 1984

FRANCE

Capital: Paris Population: 54-54m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$ 12,190 ( 1981 )

République Française

HISTORY. The republic proclaimed on the fall of the Bourbon monarchy in 1792 lasted until the First Empire, under Napoleon I, was established in 1804. The Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814 and (with an interval during 1815) lasted until the abdication of Louis Philippe in 1848. The Second Republic was established on 12 March 1848, the Second Empire (under Louis Napoleon) on 2 Dec. 1852. The Third Republic was established on 4 Sept. 1870 following the capture and imprisonment of Louis Napoleon in the Franco-Prussian war, and lasted until the German occupation of 1940. The Fourth Republic was established on 24 Dec. 1946 and lasted until 4 Oct. 1958. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . France is bounded north by the English Channel (La Manche), north-east by Belgium and Luxembourg, east by Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland and Italy, south by the Mediterranean (with Monaco as a coastal enclave), south-west by Spain and Andorra, and west by the Atlantic Ocean The total area is 543,965 sq. km (210,033 sq. miles). The population (present in actual boundaries) at successive censuses has been: 1801

1821 1841 1861 1866 1872

27,349,003 30,461,875 34,230,178 37,386,313 38,067,064 36,102,921

1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931

37,672,048 38,342,948 38,961,945 39,604,992 39,209,518 41,834,923

Mar. 1946 May 1954 Mar. 1962 Mar. 1968 Feb. 1975 Mar. 1982

40,506,639 42,777,174 46,519,997 49,778,540 52,655,802 54,334,871

The 1975 total included 3,442,415 foreigners, of whom 758,925 were Portuguese, 710,690 Algerian, 497,480 Spanish and 462,940 Italian. The latest population estimate (at 30 June 1984) is 54,539,000. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Marriages 374,003 368,000 354,628 340,405 334,377 314,600

Divorces 59,200 72,000 73,200 86,900

Live births 720,395 745,830 737,062 757,354 800,376 805,680

Stillborn 7,522 8,600 7,852 7,570 7,900 7,735

Deaths 557,114 535,900 546,916 541,805 547,107 555,360

Live birth rate in 1980 was 15 per 1,000 inhabitants; death rate, 10-3; marriage rate, 5 -8; divorce rate, 1-6; infant mortality, 9 -6 per 1,000 live births. Life expectation at birth; men, 70-2; women, 78 -5. Population growth rate, 4-5 per 1,000. The areas, populations and chief towns of the 22 Metropolitan regions were as follows: Régions Alsace Aquitaine Auvergne Basse-Normandie Bourgogne (Burgundy) Bretagne (Brittany) Centre Champagne-Ardenne Corse (Corsica) Franche-Comté Haute-Normandie

Area (sq. km) 8,280 41,308 26,013 17,589 31,582 27,208 39,151 25,606 8,680 16,202 12,317

Census April ¡975 1,517,330 2,550,340 1,330,479 1,306,152 1,570,943 2,595,431 2,152,500 1,336,832 289,842 1,060,317 1,595,695

470

Census March 1982 1,566,048 2,656,544 1,332,678 1,350,979 1,596,054 2,707,886 2,264,164 1,345,935 240,178 1,084,049 1,655,362

Chief town Strasbourg Bordeaux Clermont-Ferrand Caen Dijon Rennes Orléans Reims Ajaccio Besançon Rouen

FRANCE Régions Île-de-France Languedoc-Roussi lion Limousin Lorraine Midi-Pyrénées Nord-Pas-de-Calais Pays de la Loire Picardie Poitou-Charentes Provence-Côte d'Azur Rhône-Alpes

Area (sq. km) 12,012 27,376 16,942 23,547 45,348 12,414 32,082 19,399 25,810 31,400 43,698

Census April 1975 9,878,524 1,789,474 738,726 2,330,821 2,268,245 3,913,773 2,767,163 1,678,644 1,528,1 18 3,675,730 4,780,723

471 Census March 1982 10,073,059 1,926,514 737,153 2,319,905 2,325,319 3,932,939 2,930,398 1,740,321 1,568,230 3,965,209 5,015,947

Chief tonn Paris Montpellier Limoges Nancy Toulouse Lille Nantes Amiens Poitiers Marseille Lyon

P o p u l a t i o n s of t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n u r b a t i o n s a n d t o w n s at C e n s u s 1975: Conurbation Paris 8,549,898 1 Lyon 1,170,660 1,070,912 Marseille Lille 935,882 ! Bordeaux 612,456 Toulouse 509,939 Nantes 453,500 Nice 437,566 Grenoble 389,088 388,71 1 Rouen Toulon 378,430 Strasbourg 365,323 Valenciennes 350,599 St-Étienne 334,846 328,741 Lens Nancy 280,569 Le Havre 264,422 Cannes 258,479 Clermont-Ferrand 253,244 245,631 Tours Rennes 229,310 Mulhouse 218,743 Montpellier 211,430 Douai 210,508 209,234 Orléans Dijon 208,432 Reims 197,021 Le Mans 192,057 190,812 Brest 188,695 Angers 186,314 Dunkerque Caen 181,390 Metz 181,191 1

Town 2,317,227 462,841 914,356 177,218 226,281 383,176 263,689 346,620 169,740 118,332 185,050 257,303 43,202 221,775 40,281 111,493 219,583 71,080 161,203 145,441 205,733 119,326 195,603 47,570 109,956 156,787 183,610 155,245 172,176 142,966 83,759 122,794 117,199

Conurbation 167,664 Limoges Avignon 162,562 Mantes-la-Jolie 154,988 Amiens 152,997 Béthune 145,155 Thionville 141,881 Briey 133,853 Montbéliard 132,343 Nîmes 131,638 Pau 126,859 Troyes 126,611 Besançon 126,349 121,474 Bayonne Saint-Nazaire 119,418 Perpignan 117,689 Bruay-en-Artois 116,340 Trappes 112,353 110,659 Aix-en-Provence Lorient 105,797 Valence 104,330 Annecy 103,543 La Rochelle 100,649 Boulogne-sur-Mer 100,581 Angoulême 100,528 Calais 100,327 Poitiers 98,554 Forbach 97,970 97,494 Maubeuge Béziers 88,619 Chambéry 88,081 86,041 Bourges Roanne 83,561 Colmar 83,435

Town 147,406 93,024 42,564 135,992 28,279 44,191 10,048 31,591 133,942 85,860 75,500 126,187 44,706 69,769 107,971 25,951 22,905 114,014 71,923 70,307 54,954 77,494 49,284 50,500 79,369 85,466 25,385 35,474 85,677 56,788 80,379 56,498 67,410

Including towns of Boulogne-Billancourt ( 103,948) and Argenteuil (103,141). 2 Including towns of Roubaix (109,797) and Tourcoing (102,543).

Recensement de la population de 1982. Paris, Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques, 1983 Scargill, I., Urban France. London, 1983 C L I M A T E . T h e n o r t h - w e s t h a s a m o d e r a t e m a r i t i m e c l i m a t e , with small t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e a n d a b u n d a n t rainfall, b u t i n l a n d , rainfall b e c o m e s m o r e s e a s o n a l , w i t h a s u m m e r m a x i m u m , a n d t h e a n n u a l range of t e m p e r a t u r e increases. S o u t h e r n F r a n c e h a s a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l i m a t e , with m i l d m o i s t winters a n d h o t d r y s u m m e r s . E a s t e r n F r a n c e h a s a c o n t i n e n t a l c l i m a t e a n d a rainfall m a x i m u m in s u m m e r , with thunderstorms prevalent. Paris. J a n . 3 7 ° F (3°C), J u l y 6 4 ° F (18°C). A n n u a l rainfall 2 2 - 9 " ( 5 7 3 m m ) . B o r d e a u x . J a n . 4 1 " F (5°C), J u l y 6 8 ° F (20°C). A n n u a l rainfall 3 1 - 4 " (786 m m ) . L y o n . J a n . 37°F(3°C), J u l y 68°F(20°C). A n n u a l rainfall 3 1 8 " (794 m m ) .

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C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the Fifth Republic, superseding that of 1946, came into force on 4 Oct. 1958. It consists of a preamble, dealing with the Rights of Man, and 92 articles. France is a Republic, indivisible, secular, democratic and social; all citizens are equal before the law (Art. 2). National sovereignty resides with the people, who exercise it through their representatives and by referenda (Art. 3). Political parties carry out their activities freely, but must respect the principles of national sovereignty and democracy (Art. 4). The President of the Republic sees that the Constitution is respected; he ensures the regular functioning of the public authorities, as well as the continuity of the state. He is the protector of national independence and territorial integrity (Art. 5). He is elected for 7 years by direct universal suffrage (Art. 6). He appoints a Prime Minister and, on the latter's advice, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Government (Art. 8). He presides over the Council of Ministers (Art. 9). He can dissolve the National Assembly, after consultation with the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the two Houses (Art. 12). He appoints to the civil and military offices of the state (Art. 13). In times of crisis, he may take such emergency powers as the circumstances demand; the National Assembly cannot be dissolved during such a period (Art. 16). Previous Presidents ofthe Fifth Republic: General Charles André Joseph de Gaulle, 8 Jan. 1959-28 April 1969 (resigned); Alain Poher (interim), 28 April 1969-20 June 1969; Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou, 20 June 1969-2 April 1974 (died); Alain Poher (interim), 2 April 1974-27 May 1974; Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, 27 May 1974-21 May 1981. President of the Republic: François Mitterrand (elected 10 May 1981 ; took office 21 May 1981). The government determines and conducts the policy of the nation (Art. 20). The Prime Minister directs the operation of the Government, is responsible for national defence and ensures the execution of laws (Art. 21). Members of the Government must not be members of Parliament (Art. 23). The Council of Ministers was composed as follows in March 1985: Prime Minister: Laurent Fabius (Soc.) Finance and Budget: Pierre Bérégovoy (Soc.) Social Affairs and National Solidarity, Government Spokesman: Georgina Dufoix (Soc.) Interior and Decentralization: Pierre Joxe (Soc.) Planning and Regional Development: Gaston Defferre (Soc.) Justice: Robert Badinter (Soc.) Foreign Affairs: Roland Dumas (Soc.) Defence: Charles Hernu (Soc.) Agriculture: Michel Rocard (Soc.) Research and Technology: Hubert Curien (Soc.) Education: Jean-Pierre Chevènement (Soc.) Industrial Redeployment and Foreign Trade: Edith Cresson (Soc.) Town Planning, Housing and Transport: Paul Quilés (Soc.) Commerce, Craft Trades and Tourism: Michel Crépeau (MRG) Environment: Huguette Bouchardeau (PSU) Labour, Employment and Vocational Training: Michel Delebarre (Soc.) Ministers-Delegate: Jack Lang (Culture), Yvette Roudy (Women's Rights), Alain Calmat (Youth and Sports), André Labarrère (Parliamentary Relations), Christian Nucci (Overseas Co-operation and Development), Louis Mexandeau (Posts and Telecommunications). The Government also includes 20 Secretaries of State. Parliament consists of the National Assembly and the Senate; the National Assembly is elected by direct suffrage and the Senate by indirect suffrage (Art. 24). It convenes as of right in two ordinary sessions per year, the first on 2 Oct. for 80 days and the second on 2 April for not more than 90 days (Art. 28). The National Assembly comprises 491 Deputies, elected for a 5-year term from

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single-member constituencies - 474 in Metropolitan France, 11 in Overseas Departments, 1 for Mayotte (a 'special collectivity'), and 5 in Overseas Territories. The latest General Elections, held in June 1981, resulted in a new composition of 269 Parti Socialiste, 44 Parti Communiste Français, 14 Mouvement des Radicaux de Gauche and 6 others supporting the Government, together with 88 Rassemblement Pour la République (Gaullists), 63 Union de la Démocratie Française (Giscardians and Centrist Union), and 7 others forming the opposition. On 17 Sept. 1984 the PCF withdrew support and joined the opposition. The Senate comprises 318 Senators elected for 9-year terms (one-third every 3 years) by an electoral college in each Department or Overseas Territory, made up of all members of the Departmental Council or Territorial Assembly together with all members of Municipal Councils within that area; 298 Senators represent Metropolitan France, 8 Overseas Departments, 1 Mayotte, 3 Overseas Territories and 8 Frenchmen residing outside France. Following the partial elections in Sept. 1983, the Senate was composed of 70 Groupe Socialiste, 72 Union Centriste, 49 Union des Rèpublicans et des Indépendants (Giscardians), 58 RPR (Gaullists), 27 Gauche Démocratique, 24 Groupe Communiste, 12 M R G , 5 non-inscrits (unaffiliated) and 1 seat vacant. The Constitutional Council is composed of 9 members whose term of office is 9 years (non-renewable), one-third every 3 years; 3 are appointed by the President of the Republic, 3 by the President of the National Assembly, and 3 by the President of the Senate; in addition, former Presidents of the Republic are, by right, life members of the Constitutional Council (Art. 56). It oversees the fairness of the elections of the President (Art. 58) and Parliament (Art. 59) and of referenda (Art. 60), and acts as a guardian of the Constitution (Art. 61 ). The Economic and Social Council advises on Government and Private Members' Bills (Art. 69). It comprises representatives of employers', workers' and farmers' organizations in each Department and Overseas Territory. Nationalflag: National 1792).

The Tricolour of three vertical stripes of blue, white, red.

anthem: La Marseillaise (words and music by C." Rouget de Lisle,

Local Government: France is divided into 22 regions for national development work, for planning and for budgetary policy. Under far-reaching legislation on decentralisation promulgated in March 1982, state-appointed Regional Prefects were abolished and their executive powers transferred to the Presidents of the Regional Councils, which are to be directly elected. There are 96 départements within the 22 regions each governed by a directlyelected Conseil Général. From 1982 their Presidents' powers are greatly extended to take over local administration and expenditure from the former Departmental prefects, now called 'Commissioners of the Republic' with responsibility for public order. The arrondissement (324 in 1975) and the canton (3,509 in 1975), have little administrative significance. The unit of local government is the commune, the size and population of which vary very much. There were, in 1975, in the 96 metropolitan departments, 36,394 communes. Most of them (31,593) had less than 1,500 inhabitants, and 16,5 50 had less than 300, while 229 communes had more than 30,000 inhabitants. The local affairs of the commune are under a Municipal Council, composed of from 9 to 36 members, elected by universal suffrage for 6 years by French citizens of 21 years or over after 6 months' residence. Each Municipal Council elects a mayor, who is both the representative of the commune and the agent of the central government. In Paris the Conseil de Paris is composed of 109 members elected from the 20 arrondissements. It combines the functions of departmental Conseil Généra! and Municipal Council. d'Estaing, V. G., French Democracy. New York, 1977 Suleiman, E. N., Politics, Power, and Bureaucracy in France. Princeton Univ. Press, 1974 Wright, V., The Government and Politics of France. London, 1978

D E F E N C E . The President of the Republic exercises command over the Armed

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Forces. He is assisted by the research organization of the High Council of Defence (a««;US$l = Ai francs. Banking. The Banque de France, founded in 1800, and placed under the authority of a state-appointed Governor in 1806, has the monopoly (since 1848) of issuing bank-notes throughout France. Note circulation at 31 Dec. 1981 was 151,900m. francs. On 2 Dec. 1945 a law was passed to nationalize the Banque de France and the principal deposit banks. It also established a new body, trie National Credit Council, formed to regulate banking activity and consulted in all political decisions on monetary policy. This new body comprises 45 members nominated by the Government; its president is the Minister for the Economy, its vice-president is the Governor of the Banque de France which as a Central Bank puts monetary policy into effect and supervises its application. On 11 Feb. 1982, a law was passed to nationalize the remaining deposit banks, the principal ones being: (/) those nationalized in 1945: Crédit Lyonnais (founded 1863), Banque Nationale de Paris (founded by amalgamation 1966) and the Société Générale (founded 1864), and (if) among those nationalized in 1982: Crédit Industriel et Commercial, Crédit Commercial de France, the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas and the Crédit du Nord. Total deposits and short- and medium-term held bills by the banks at 31 Dec. 1981 was 1,302,800m. francs. The rest of the banking system comprises the popular banks, the Crédit agricole, the Crédit mutuel, the Banque française du commerce exterieur and the various financial establishments. The state savings organization (Caisse nationale d'epargne) is administered by the post office on a giro system. On 31 Dec. 1981 the private savings banks (Caisses d'epargne et de prévoyance), numbering about 500 had 434,000m. francs in deposits; the state savings banks had 206,300m. francs in deposits. Deposited funds are centralized by a non-banking body, the Caisse de Dépôts et Consignations, which finances a large number of local authorities and state aided housing projects, and carries an important portfolio of transferable securities. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production of electrical power (in lm. kwh.): 1980, 243,282; 1981, 260,759; 1982,262,813. In 1978,37% was hydro-electric and 9% nuclear. Oil. In 1982 l-64m. tonnes of crude oil were produced. The greater paît came from the Parentis oilfield in the Landes. France has an important oil-refining industry, utilizing imported crude oil. Total yearly capacity at the end of 1979 was about 166-84m. tonnes. The principal plants are situated in Basse Seine (capacity in tonnes, 1979), 56-lm.; Mediterranean, 45-5m.; Atlantic, 15-9m.; Nord, 14-8m.; Alsace, 13 -9m.; Paris region, 11 '6m.; Lyonnais, 9m.

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There has been considerable development of the production of natural gas and sulphur in the region of Lacq in the foothills of the Pyrenees. Production of natural gas was 7,757m. cu. metres in 1979,7,529 in 1980,7,080 in 1981. Minerals. Principal minerals and metals produced, in 1,000 tonnes: 1978 1977 1976 1,719 1,928 Potash salts 1,738 Pig-iron 19,024 18,257 18,497 Crude Steel 23,221 22,094 22,841 400 391 Aluminium 385

1979 1977 1976 1978 21,879 21,293 19,690 18,612 Coal 2,454 3,080 3,189 Lignite 2,732 Iron ore 45,181 36,630 33,454 31,627 1,969 2,059 2,330 Bauxite 1,978

1979 2,075 19,415 23,360 395

Agriculture. Of the total area of France (54-9m. hectares) 17-3m. were under cultivation, 12-9m. were pasture, 1 -2m. were under vines, 14-3m. were forests and 8 -3m. were uncultivated land in 1980. The following table shows the area under the leading crops and the production for 4 years: Crop Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet Maize

Area (1,000 hectaresj 1977 1978 1979 4,126 4,167 4,063 129 138 116 2,909 2,814 2,816 625 611 539 279 252 269 585 556 547' 1,639 1,802 2,003

1980 4,580 128 2,648 534 227 541 1,754

Produce (1,000 tonnes) 1977 1979 1980 1978 19,411 23,668 17,546 21,057 389 432 353 405 10,319 11,414 11,238 11,758 2,194 1,865 1,927 1,938 6,722 8,190 7,459 6,698 24,500 24,488 26,444 26,206 8,316 9,473 10,293 9,254

Other crops in 1980 (figures for 1979 in brackets) include (in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 27 (29); tobacco, 48 (53); flax, 293 (307). France is the world's second largest producer of wine (after Italy); production in 1978 amounted to 5,882,000 tonnes. The annual production of wine (in 1,000 hectolitres) appears as follows: 1938 1948 1958 1968

Vineyards (1,000 hectares) 1,513 1,433 1,315 1,228

fVtne produced 60,332 47,437 47,735 66,460

1977 1978 1979 1980

Wine produced 53,137 58,599 80,319 71,546

Vineyards (1,000 hectares) 1,180 1,141 1,219 1,174

The production of fruits (other than for cider making) for 4 years was (in 1,000 tonnes) as follows: Apples Pears Plums Peaches Apricots

1,243 1,867 1,716 1,810 273 366 418 422 73 165 158 136 319 406 386 397 72 81 59 71

Cherries Nuts Grapes Strawberries

1977 53 18 211 77

1978 99 37 234 68

1979 112 30 213 82

1980 106 30 192 85

In 1983 the numbers of farm animals (in 1,000) were (figures for 1982 in brackets): Horses, 312 (315); cattle, 23,656 (23,493); sheep, 12,103 (13,090); goats, 1,243 (1,242); pigs, 11,709 (11,421); poultry, 213,000 (215,000). Forestry. The total area of forested land (1982) was 137,651 sq. km. Timber sold (1982), 28,342m. cu. metres valued at 7,581 m. francs. Fisheries. (1982). There were 75,060 fishermen, and 10,780 sailing-boats, steamers and motor-boats. Catch (in 1,000 tonnes): Fish, total, 640; crustaceans, 29; shell fish, 191. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial production (in 1,000 tonnes) for 3 years Was as follows: Sulphuric acid Caustic acid Sulphur Polystyrene

1980 4,952 1,333 1,839 254

1981 4,412 1,314 1,700 262

1982 4,143 1,448 1,839 445

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FRANCE 1980 725 1,074 64 172 2-3 51 68 8 1,067 116 368 3,921 85 116 29,104

Polyvinyl Polyethylene Wool Cotton Linen Silk Man-made fibres, yarns Jute Cheese Chocolate Biscuits Sugar Fish preparations Jams and jellies Cement

1981 710 883 54 158 2 46 55 7 1,098 118 379 5,130 87 120 28,229

1982 789 912 49 161 I48 46 5 1,125 115 380 4,436 92 125 26,141

Engineering production (in 1,000 units) for 3 years: Motor vehicles Television sets Radiosets Tyres

1980 3,378 1,928 2,141 50,601

1981 3,019 1,960 2,266 43,196

1982 3,148 2,155 2,733 41,478

See map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1968-69, Industrial Redeployment. Employment (1975). Out of an economically active population of 21,061,215 persons, there are 2 01m. engaged in agriculture; 1,841,083 in building and public works; 6,327,818 in other manufacturing industries; 829,289 in transport; 3,632,478 in business, banking and insurance; 3,543,881 in services; 2,522,544 in commerce. In 1981, there were 23,044,900 employed (40-9% female), of whom 1,427,000 were foreign workers; in April 1982, there were 1,928,200 unemployed. Trade Unions. The main confederations recognized as nationally representative are: the CGT (Confédération Générale du Travail), founded in 1895; the CGT-FO (Confédération Générale du Travail-Force Ouvrière) which broke away from the CGT in 1948 as a protest against Communist influence therein; the CFTC (Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens), which was founded in 1919 and divided in 1964, with a breakaway group retaining the old name and the main body continuing under the new name of CFDT (Confédération Française Démocratique du Travail); and the CGC (Confédération Générale des Cadres) formed in 1944 which only represents managerial and supervisory staff. Membership is estimated because unions are not required to publish figures; but at elections held on 8 Dec. 1982 for labour tribunals, the CGT was supported by 2-8m. members, the CGT-FO by M m . , the CFDT by l -8m„ the CFTC by 650,000 and the CGC by 740,000. Except for the CGC unions operate within the framework of industries and not of trades. Commerce. Imports (c.i.f.) and exports (f.o.b.) in 1 m. francs for 5 calendar years were (including gold): Imports Exports

1979 457,100 414,700

1980 569,900 470,400

1981 653,100 548,700

1982 757,595 632,198

1983 799,993 695,028

The chief imports for home use and exports of home goods are to and from the following countries, in 1 m. francs (including gold): Imports (c.i.J) 1982 1983 ' 23,447 25,815 58,488 64,268 135,500 127,573 79,394 72,782 41,988 47,688 48,204 26,603 23,106 27,084

Countries Algeria Belgium-Luxembourg Germany (Fed. Rep.) Italy Netherlands Saudi Arabia Spain (excluding Canary Is.) 1

Provisional.

Exports (J.o.b.) 1982 1983' 13,991 18,591 52,329 59,360 89,559 108,076 74,132 68,383 33,005 27,950 13,752 12,886 18,823 22,103

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FRANCE Import*, le.I./) 1982 1983 1 12,029 11,171 15,244 16,068 21,425 18,668 45,975 56,718 59,738 61,687

Countries Sweden Switzerland (and Liechtenstein) USSR UK USA 1

Exports (I o b.I 1982 1983 1 6,950 9,023 24,162 29,045 17,003 10,169 52,692 43,883 34,327 43,835

Provisional.

Total trade between France and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1 983 1984 !980 j98l m 2 ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from U K

3,899,174 3,978,646 4,269,103 5,043,118 3,651,470 3,625,923 4,486,458 5,651,521

5,885,715 7,082,389

Tourism. In 1983 foreign visitors contributed about 55,052m. francs to the French economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At the end of 1978 the French road system consisted of4,248 km of motorway, 29,068 km of national roads, 345,990 km of departmental roads and 424,950 km of local roads. Total, 804,256 km. In 1982, there were 20-3m. passenger cars and 2 • 70m. commercial vehicles in use. Railways. As from 1 Jan. 1938 all the independent railway companies were merged with the existing state railway system in a Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français, which became a public industrial and commercial establishment in 1983. In 1982, the State railway totalled 34,599 km (10,600 km electrified) of 1,435 mm gauge, and carried 184m. tonnes of freight and 713m. passengers. A new railway for high-speed trains was completed in 1983 between Paris and Lyon. The Paris transport network consisted in 1982 of466 km of underground railway (métro) and regional express railways and 2,115 km of bus routes. In 1982 it carried 1,376m. passengers on the métro and 724m. by bus. Aviation. Air France, UTA and Air Inter, the national airlines, had (31 Dec. 1979) a fleet of 166 aircraft, servicing Europe, North America, Central and South America, West and East Africa, Madagascar, the Near, Middle and Far East. There are local networks in the West Indies and Central America. In 1982 Air France, UTA and Air Inter flew 2,298m. tonne-km (excluding mail) and 37,846m. passenger-km. Shipping. French merchant ships of more than 100 tons, on 1 Oct. 1981, numbered 399 vessels of 10 • 58m. GRT. Shipping (excluding fishing vessels) in foreign trade in 1979: Entered, 85,026 vessels and disembarked 259-2m. tonnes of imports and loaded 71 -6m. tonnes of exports. Total cargo traffic 330-8m. tonnes. In 1981 there were 8,623 km of navigable rivers, waterways and canals (of which 1,617 km accessible to vessels over 3,000 tons), with a total traffic of 83-6m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. In 1977 the receipts on account of posts, telegraphs and telephones amounted to 56,275m. francs. On 31 Dec. 1982 the telephone system (government-owned) had 26,940,296 subscribers; the Paris region (including the Paris and Seine-et-Marne, Yvelines, Essonne, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-de-Marne and Val-d'Oise departments) accounted for 4,153,586 in 1978. Radio and television broadcasting was reorganized under the Act of 7 Aug. 1974 which replaced the Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française with 4 broadcasting companies, a production company and an audio-visual institute. Organization, development, operation and the maintenance of networks and installations became the responsibility of the Public Broadcasting Establishment. Radio programmes are broadcast from 298 transmitters (including 260 VHF) by 3 stations:

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France Inter, France Musique and France Culture. Television programmes are broadcast from 325 transmitters and 4,661 relay stations on 3 channels. There were about 19m. sets in use in 1981 (of which 8 -9m. in colour). Cinemas (1981). There were 4,532 cinemas with a seating capacity (1979) of 1,472,400; attendances totalled 187-6m. Newspapers (1980). There were 71 daily papers published in the provinces with a circulation of 7-5m. copies, and 13 published in Paris with a national circulation of 3-8m. Among Paris dailies France-Soir sells 550,000; Le Monde 550,000; Le Parisien Libéré 438,000; Le Figaro 407,000, and L'Aurore 220,000. Among provincial dailies Ouest-France (Rennes) sells 783,000; Le Progrés (Lyon) 447,000; La Voix du Nord (Lille) 372,000; Sud-Ouest (Bordeaux) 430,000; La Dauphine Libérée (Grenoble) 401,000 and Le Provençal (Marseilles) 345,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. Since 1958,474 tribunaux d'instance (11 in overseas departments), under a single judge each and with increased material and territorial jurisdiction, have replaced the former juges de paix (1 in each canton); and 181 tribunaux de grande instance (6 in overseas departments) have taken the place of the 357 tribunaux de première instance ( 1 in each arrondissement). The tribunaux de grande instance usually have a collegiate composition, however a law dated 10 July 1970 has allowed them to administer justice under a single judge in some civil cases. All petty offences (contraventions) are disposed of in the Police Courts (Tribunaux de Police) presided over by a Judge on duty in the tribunal d'instance. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offences (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to 5 years. They have no jury, and consist of 3 judges who administer both criminal and civil justice. An Act of 29 Dec. 1972 established that there is only 1 judge; in some cases, the correctional courts may consist of a single judge each. In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d'instruction), who either dismisses the case or sends it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (Procureur) endeavours to prove the charge. The Conciliation Boards (Conseils des Prud'hommes) composed of an equal number of employers and employees deal with labour disputes. Commercial litigation goes to the Commercial Courts (Tribunaux de Commerce) composed of tradesmen and manufacturers elected for 2 years. The judges hold office for 2 years and they can be re-elected; 3 years for the President. When the decisions of any of these Tribunals are susceptible of appeal, the case goes to one of the 35 Courts of Appeal (Cours d'Appel), (including 3 in overseas departments and 2 in overseas territories), composed each of a president and a variable number of members. The Courts of Assizes (Cours d'Assises), composed each of a president, assisted by 2 other magistrates who are members of the Courts of Appeal, and by a jury of 9 people, sit in every département, when called upon to try very important criminal cases. The decisions of the Courts of Appeal and the Courts of Assizes are final; however, the Court of Cassation (Cour de Cassation) has discretion to verify if the law has been correctly interpreted and if the rules of procedure have been followed exactly. The Court of Cassation may annul any judgment, and the cases have to be tried again by a Court of Appeal or a Court of Assizes. The State Security Court, established in 1963, was abolished by law on 4 Aug. 1981. Capital punishment was abolished in the same month. On 24 Jan. 1973 the first Ombudsman (médiateur) was appointed for a 6-year period. The French penal institutions consist of: (1) maisons d'arrêt and de correction, where persons awaiting trial as well as those condemned to short periods of imprisonment are kept; (2) central prisons (maisons centrales) for those sentenced to long imprisonment; (3) special establishments, namely (a) schools for young adults,

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(b) hostels for old and disabled offenders, (c) hospitals for the sick and psychopaths, (d) institutions for recidivists. Special attention is being paid to classified treatment and the rehabilitation and vocational re-education of prisoners including work in open-air and semi-free establishments. There are 2 penal institutions for women. Juvenile delinquents go before special judges and courts; they are sent to public or private institutions of supervision and re-education. The population at 1 June 1984 of all penal establishments was 40,870 men and Women. Religion. No religion is officially recognized by the State. Under the law promulgated on 9 Dec. 1905, which separated Church and State, the adherents of all creeds are authorized to form associations for public worship (associations culturelles). The law of 2 Jan. 1907 provided that, failing associations culturelles, the buildings for public worship, together with their furniture, would continue at the disposition of the ministers of religion and the worshippers for the exercise of their religion; but in each case there was required an administrative act drawn up by the préfet as regards buildings belonging to the State or the departments and by the maire as regards buildings belonging to the communes. There are 18 archbishops and 92 bishops of the Roman Catholic Church, with (1974) 43,557 clergy of various grades and 45-3m. church members. The Protestants of the Augsburg confession are, in their religious affairs, governed by a General Consistory, while the Reformed Church is under a Council of Administration, the seat of which is in Paris. In 1975 communicant Protestants numbered 750,000. There were (1978) about 2m. Moslems. Education. The primary, secondary and higher state schools constitute the 'Université de France'. The Supreme Council of 84 members has deliberative, administrative and judiciary functions, and as a consultative committee advises respecting the working of the school system, the inspectors-general are in direct communication with the Minister. For local education administration France is divided into 25 academic areas, each of which has an Academic Council whose members include a certain number elected by the professors or teachers. The Academic Council deals with all grades of education. Each is under a Rector, and each is provided with academy inspectors, 1 for each department. By decree of 6 Jan. 1959 the whole system of public instruction was reorganized and the structure of the Ministry of National Education has consequently been modified. A further Education Act was passed on 11 July 1975. Compulsory education is now provided for children of 6-16. The educational stages are as follows: 1. Non-compulsory pre-school instruction for children aged 2-5, to be given in infant schools or infant classes attached to primary schools. 2. Compulsory elementary instruction for children aged 6-11, to be given in primary schools and certain classes of the lycées. It consists of 3 courses: preparatory ( 1 year), elementary (2 years), intermediary (2 years). Physically or mentally handicapped children are cared for in special institutions or special classes of primary schools. 3. Lower secondary education (Enseignement du premier cycle du Second Degré) for pupils aged 11-15, consists of 4 years of study in the lycées (grammar schools), Collèges d'Enseignement Secondaire or Collèges d'Enseignement Général. 4. Upper secondary education (Enseignement du second cycle du Second Degré) forpupilsaged 15-18: Long, général or professionel provided by the lycées and leading to the baccalauréat or to the baccalauréat de technicien after 3 years. Court, professional courses of 3, 2 and 1 year are taught in the lycées d'enseignement professionel, or the specialized sections of the lycées, CES or CEG. The following table shows the various types of schools in 1981 and the numbers of enrolled pupils:

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FRANCE Description Pre-primary Primary Secondary: First and second cycle Specialized Total

Slate 2,070,060 3,940,782

Private 313,386 668,660

Total 2,383,446 4,609,442

3,983,623 233,296

1,030,043 8,728

5,013,666 242,024

10,227,761

2,020,817

12,248,578

The state schools in 1978 had 64,676 nursery, 172,969 primary, 18,908 special school, 143,572 secondary and 44,624 secondary technical school and 65,797 grammar school (lycée) teachers. Higher Instruction is supplied by the State in the universities and in special schools, and by private individuals in the free faculties and schools. The law of 12 July 1875 provided for higher education free of charge. This law was modified by that of 18 March 1880, which granted the state faculties the exclusive right to confer degrees. A decree of 28 Dec. 1885 created a general council of the faculties, and the creation of universities, each consisting of several faculties, was accomplished in 1897, in virtue ofthe law of 10 July 1896. The law of 12 Nov. 1968 laying down future guidelines for higher education redefined the activities and working of universities. Bringing several disciplines together, 780 units for teaching and research (UER-Unités d'Enseignement et de Récherche) were formed which decided their own teaching activities, research programmes and procedures for checking the level of knowledge gained. They and the other parts of each university must respect the rules designed to maintain the national standard of qualifications. The UERs form the basic units of the 69 Universities, and 3 National Polytechnic Institutes, which have university status. They are grouped geographically into 25 académies with student populations in 1978-79 as follows: Academie Aix-Marseille Amiens Besançon Bordeaux Caen Clermont Créteil Dijon Grenoble

1978-79 47,292 10,661 11,149 42,985 12,490 15,191 24,599 13,297 31,896

Academie Lille Limoges Lyon Montpellier Nancy-Metz Nantes Nice Orléans-Tours

1978-79 39,375 7,668 50,720 36,604 28,223 26,219 19,030 18,746

Academie Paris Poitiers Reims Rennes Rouen Strasbourg Toulouse Versailles Total

1978-79 224,655 13,026 12,528 33,262 12,775 27,495 45,211 44,901 849,998

The following table shows the number of students by faculties, for 5 years: Students of Law and economics Medicine and dentistry Science Letters Pharmacy Technology Multi-discipline courses Total

1974-75 178,215 146,912 117,389 233,954 31,599 41,949 4,843

1975-76 183,566 154,660 121,028 251,421 33,510 43,526 18,527

1976-77 182,533 159,874 122,205 252,134 33,474 44,243 21,818

1977-78 184,361 160,900 125,945 253,364 34,821 47,398 25,329

1978-79 183,592 160,917 129,441 260,090 36,014 50,237 29,707

754,861

806,238

816,281

838,118

849,998

There are also Catholic university facilities in Paris, Angers, Lille, Lyon and Toulouse with (1981 - 8 2 ) 34,118 students. Outside the university system, higher education (academic, professional and technical) is provided by over 400 schools and institutes, including the various Grand Ecoles with 96,726 students in 1981. In 1979-79 there were also 99,000 students in preparatory classes leading to the Grande Ecoles, the Sections, de Techniciens Supeneurs and other bodies; there were also 21,000 students in Ecoles normales d'instituteurs (teacher-training). Health. On 1 Jan. 1981 there were 108,054 physicians, 37,820 pharmacists, 31,872 dentists, 249,450 nursing personnel and 8,479 midwives practising. On 1

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Jan. 1982 there were 934 public hospitals (446,901 beds) excluding mental hospitals and 2,420 private hospitals (180,769 beds) including private mental homes. Social Welfare. An order of 4 Oct. 1945 laid down the framework of a comprehensive plan of Social Security and created a single organization which superseded the various laws relating to social insurance, workmen's compensation, health insurance, family allowances, etc. All previous matters relating to Social Security are dealt with in the Social Security Code, 1956; this has been revised several times, and finally by orders laid down on 21 Aug. 1967, which were ratified on 31 July 1968. The Social Security general scheme covers all wage-earning workers in industry and commerce that are not covered by a special scheme of their own. Contributions. All wage-eaming workers or those of equivalent status are insured regardless of the amount or the nature of the salary or earnings. The funds for the general scheme are raised mainly from professional contributions, these being fixed within the limits of a ceiling (assessed at 68,760 francs per a n n u m on 1 Jan. 1981) and calculated as a percentage of the salaries. The calculation of contributions payable for family allowances, old age and industrial injuries relates only to this amount; on the other hand, the amount payable for sickness, maternity expenses, disability and death is calculated partly within the limit of the 'ceiling' and partly on the whole salary. These contributions are the responsibility of both employer and employee, except in the case of family allowances or industrial injuries, where they are the sole responsibility of the employer. Contributions and benefits paid in 1982 (in 1 m. francs) were: Contributions Benefits Health service Old age pensions Family benefits

260,300 123,900 103,000

254,900 125,000 114,900

Self-employed Workers. From 17 Jan. 1948 allowances and old-age pensions were paid to self-employed workers by independent insurance funds set u p within their own profession, trade or business. Schemes of compulsory insurance for sickness were instituted in 1961 for farmers and in 1966, with modifications in 1970, for other non-wage-earning workers. Social Insurance. The orders laid down in Aug. 1967 ensure that the whole population can benefit from the Social Security Scheme; at present all elderly persons who have been engaged in the professions, as well as the surviving spouse, are entitled to claim an old-age benefit; 98% of the population, both working and retired, are covered by a compulsory scheme of insurance for sickness, the remaining 2% who are not covered by a compulsory insurance scheme have been able to participate in a voluntary scheme since 1967; the whole population benefit from the legislation regarding family allowances. Sickness Insurance refunds the costs of treatment required by the insured and the needs of dependants. A decree of 12 Oct. 1976 laid down conditions on which students of 20 or over at public or private educational institutions, who do not benefit from a social security scheme in their own right, are guaranteed insurance benefits for sickness or maternity, holding their parents entitlement until the end of the academic year in which they attain their 21st birthday, provided they have proof that their studies have been interrupted by illness. The general principles relating to medical care consist of: a free choice by the patient of his doctor, his pharmaceutical chemist, his place of treatment, etc.; the medical practitioner is granted freedom of prescription. Reimbursement is not as a rule made in full; the insured person usually pays between 10% and 30% of the legal rate except in cases of exemption. The insured who is recognized as medically unfit for work receives daily allowances equal to half of the wage which has been used to calculate the contributions, or to two-thirds of this if the person has 3 or more children. These allowances may be paid for 3 years, plus 1 additional year if the insured undergoes readaptation treatment or takes up fresh vocational training. Maternity Insurance covers the costs of medical treatment relating to the pregnancy, confinement and lying-in period; the beneficiaries being the insured person

FRANCE

485

or the spouse. The daily allowances are equal to 90% of the salary on which contributions were calculated. Insurance for Invalids is divided into 3 categories: (1) those who are capable of working; (2) those who cannot work; (3) those who, in addition, are in need of the help of another person. According to the category, the pension rate varies from 30 to 50% of the average salary for the last 10 years, with additional allowance for home help for the third category. Old-age Pensions for workers were introduced in 1910 and are now fixed by the Social Security Code of 28 Jan. 1972. Since 1983 people who have paid insurance for at least 37'h years (150 quarters) receive at 60 a pension equal to 60% of basic salary. People who have paid insurance for less than 3Th years but no less than 15 years can expect a pension equal to as many l/150ths of the full pension as their quarterly payments justify. In the event of death of the insured person, the husband or wife of the deceased person receives half the pension received by the latter. Compulsory supplementary schemes ensure benefits equal to 70% of previous earnings. Family Allowances. The system comprises: (a) Family allowances proper, equivalent to 25-5% of the basic monthly salary (1,246 francs) for 2 dependent children, 46% for the third child, 41% for the fourth child, and 39% for the fifth and each subsequent child; a supplement equivalent to 9% of the basic monthly salary for the second and each subsequent dependent child more than 10 years old and 16% for each dependent child over 15 years. (b) Family supplement (519 francs) for persons with at least 3 children or one child aged less than 3 years, (c) Antenatal grants, (d) Maternity grant equal to 260% of basic salary; increase for multiple births or adoptions, 198%; increase for birth or adoption of third or subsequent child, 457%. (e) Allowance for specialized education of handicapped children, i f ) Allowance for orphans, (g) Single parent allowance, (h) Allowance for opening of school term. (/') Allowance for accommodation, under certain circumstances, (/) Minimum family income for those with at least 3 children. Allowances (b\ (g), (h) and (/) only apply to those whose annual income falls below a specified level. Workmen's Compensation. The law passed by the National Assembly on 30 Oct. 1946 forms part of the Social Security Code and is administered by the Social Security Organization. Employers are invited to take preventive measures. The application of these measures is supervised by consulting engineers (assessors) of the local funds dealing with sickness insurance, who may compel employers who do not respect these measures to make additional contributions; they may, in like manner, grant rebates to employers who have in operation suitable preventive measures. The injured person receives free treatment, the insurance fund reimburses the practitioners, hospitals and suppliers chosen freely by the injured. In cases of temporary disablement the daily payments are equal to half the total daily wage received by the injured. In case of permanent disablement the injured person receives a pension, the amount of which varies according to the degree of disablement and the salary received during the past 12 months. A law promulgated on 11 Oct. 1946 has created a medical labour service of doctors who hold a diploma of 'industrial health specialists'. These doctors are entrusted with the control of hygiene and health matters in all industrial undertakings or groups of undertakings. In addition, it is the duty of this medical service to examine wage-earners when they are engaged, to carry out periodical medical examinations and to ensure the application of the existing rules relating to safety in work. Unemployment Benefits vary according to circumstances (full or partial unemployment) which are means-tested. Since 1926 unemployment benefits have been paid from public funds. Full unemployment benefit amounts to 13-50 francs per day for the head of the family and 5 -40 francs for the spouse or a dependent person. After 3 months the payment is reduced to 12 40 francs. A collective agreement signed on 31 Dec. 1958 between the national council of employers and certain trade unions has established a system of special allowances for totally unemployed workers in industry and trade. The costs are shared by

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employers (2-76% of wages) and employees (0-84%) and the benefits vary according to circumstances. The system is now governed by the law of 16 Jan. 1979. A similar agreement of 21 Feb. 1968 extends the system to partial unemployment. Social Security in France. I.N.S.E.E., 1970 Questions de Sécurité Sociale. Paris, 1970

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of France in Great Britain (58 Knightsbridge, London, SW1X 7JT) Ambassador: Jacques Viot (accredited 8 Feb. 1985). Of Great Britain in France (35 rue du Faubourg St Honoré, Paris) Ambassador: Sir John Fretwell, KCMG. Of France in the USA (2535 Belmont Rd., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Bernard Vernier-Palliez. Of the USA in France (2 Ave. Gabriel, Paris) Ambassador: Evan G. Galbraith. Of France to the United Nations Ambassador: Luc de la Barre de Nanteuil. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Institut national de la Statistique et des Études économiques (18, Boulevard Adolphe Pinard, 75014 Paris) is the central office of statistics. It was established by a law of 27 April 1946, which amalgamated the Service National des Statistiques (created in 1941 by merging the Direction de la Statistique générale de la France and the Service de la Démographie) with the Institut de Conjoncture (set up in 1938) and some statistical services of the Ministry of National Economy. The Institut comprises the following departments: Metropolitan statistics, Overseas statistics, Market research and economic studies, Documentation, Research statistics and economics, Informatics, Foreign Economic Studies. The main publications of the Institut include: Annuaire statistique de la France (from 1878) Annuaire statistique des Territoires d'Outre-Mer (from 1959) Bulletin mensuel de statistique (monthly) Documentation économique (bi-monthly) Données statistiques africaines et Malgaches (quarterly) Economie et Statistique (monthly) Tableaux de l'Economie Française (biennially, from 1956) Tendances de la Conjoncture (monthly) Caron, F., An Economic History of Modem France. London, 1979 Chambers, F. J., France. [Bibliography] London and Santa Barbara, 1984 Coffey, P., The Social Economy of France. London, 1973 Crazier, M., A Strategy for Change: The Future ofFrench Society. MIT Press, 1982 Dyer, C., Population and Society in Twentieth Century France. London, 1978 Hoffman, S., Decline or Renewal? France Since the 1930's. New York, 1973 Peyrefitte, A., The Trouble with France. New York, 1981 Tuppen, J. N., France. Folkestone, 1981

OVERSEAS DEPARTMENTS GUADELOUPE HISTORY. Discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493, the two main islands were then known as Karukera (Isle of Beautiful Waters) to the Carib inhabitants, who resisted Spanish attempts to colonize. A French colony was established on 28 June 1635, and apart from snort periods of occupancy by British forces, Guadeloupe has since remained a French possession. On. 19 March 1946 the status of Guadeloupe was changed to that of an Overseas Department; in 1973 it additionally became an administrative region.

GUADELOUPE

487

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Guadeloupe consists of a group of islands in the Lesser Antilles. The two main islands, Basse-Terre to the west and GrandeTerre to the east, are separated by a narrow channel, called Rivière Salée. Adjacent to these are the islands of Marie Galante (Ceyre to the Caribs) to the south-east, La Désirade to the east, and the Iles des Saintes to the south. The islands of St Martin and St Barthélémy lie 250 km to the north-west. 1

St Martin St Barthélémy Basse-Terre Grande-Terre îles des Saintes La Désirade Marie-Galante

Area in sq. km 54 21 848 585 14 22 158

Census 1974 6,191 2,491 135,746 159,424 3,084 1,682 15,912

Census 1982 8,072 3,059 141,313 157,696 2,901 1,602 13,757

Chie/lown Marigot Gustavia Basse-Terre Pointe-à-Pitre Terre-de-Bas Grande Anse Grand-Bourg

1,702 324,530 328,400 ' Northern part only; the southern third belongs to the Netherlands.

Population (estimate, 1984) 329,400. The vast majority are black or mulatto, but the populations of St Barthélémy and Les Saintes are still mainly descended from 17th-century Breton and Norman settlers. French is the official language, but a Creole dialect is also widely used. The seat of government is Basse-Terre ( 13,656 inhabitants in 1974) at the southwest end of that island but the largest towns are Pointe-à-Pitre (25,310 inhabitants), the economic centre with a large commercial harbour, and its suburb Abymes (53,165). Vital statistics (1982): Births, 6,657; deaths, 2,115. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Guadeloupe is administered by an elected Conseil Général of 36 members (assisted by an Economic and Social Committee of 40 members) and an elected Regional Council of 41 members. It is represented in the National Assembly by 3 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators and on the Economic and Social Council by 2 councillors. There are 3 arrondissements, sub-divided into 34 communes, each administered by an elected municipal council. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Robert Miguet. President of the Conseil Général: Lucette Michaux-Chevry. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1982 balanced at 1,196,207,767 francs. Banking. The Banque des Antilles Françaises (founded 1853), with a capital of 32,583,000 francs and reserve funds amounting to 1 -44m. francs, advances loans chiefly for agricultural purposes; it has 6 branches in the department. The Banque Populaire de la Guadeloupe has a capital of 5m. francs and 6 branches in the department. The Banque Nationale de Paris has 12 branches in the department, the Crédit Agricole 25, the Banque Française Commerciale 7, and the Société Generate de Banque aux Antilles and the Chase Manhattan Bank 1 each. The Caisse Centrale de Coopération économique is the official banking institution of the department, enjoying the privilege of issuing bank-notes. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production in 1982 totalled 394,972,000 kwh. Agriculture. Chief products (1982) are bananas (165,000 tonnes), sugar (868,357 tonnes), rum (92,172 hectolitres of pure alcohol), vegetables (46,586 tonnes), fruit (3,115 tonnes), flowers (no.) 8,505,000. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 90,000; goats, 36,000; sheep, 3,000; pigs, 51,000. Forestry. In 1982,421 cu. metres of wood were produced.

488

FRANCE

Fisheries. The catch in 1982 was 8,362 tonnes; crustacea (120 tonnes), shell fish (300 tonnes), turtles (20 tonnes). C O M M E R C E . Trade for 1982 (in 1m. francs) was imports 4,117 and exports 548-4. In 1982,62-5% of imports were from France, while 67-8% of exports went to France and 18% to Martinique; bananas formed 50 • 69% of the exports and sugar 17-47%. St Martin and St Barthélémy are free ports. There are Chambers of Commerce and Industry at Basse-Terre and Pointe-àPitre. There is a British consular agent at Pointe-à-Pitre. Tourism. In 1982 there were 337,500 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 2,059 km of roads of which 330 km were national roads. There were 87,785 passenger cars and 33,350 commercial vehicles in 1981. Aviation. Air France and 7 other airlines call at Guadeloupe. In 1982 there were 48,480 arrivals and departures of aircraft and 1,177,489 passengers at Raizet (Pointe-à-Pitre) airport making it the sixth most frequented French airport. Shipping. Guadeloupe is in direct communication with France by means of 12 steam navigation companies. In 1982, 1,159 vessels arrived to disembark 31,078 passengers and 1,074,660 tonnes of freight and to embark 30,646 passengers and 426,535 tonnes of freight. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 there were 47 post offices and 47,247 telephones. ORTF broadcasts for 17 hours a day in French and television broadcasts for 6 hours a day. There were ( 1977) 13,979 radio and (1981 ) 32,886 TV receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (France-Antilles) with a circulation of 25,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are 4 tribunaux d'instance and 2 tribunaux de grande instance at Basse-Terre and Pointe-à-Pitre; there is also a court of appeal and a court of assizes at Basse-Terre. Religion. The majority of the population are Roman Catholic. Education. In 1982 there were 61,511 pupils at pre-primary schools and primary schools and 45,876 at secondary schools. The University Antilles-Guyane had 4,637 students in 1982-83,of which Guadeloupe itselfhad 1,719. Health. The medical services in 1983 included 12 public hospitals (2,974 beds), 15 private clinics (1,261 beds) and 42 dispensaries. There were 418 physicians, 80 dentists, 127 pharmacists, 76 midwivesand 1,196 nursing personnel. Books of Reference Information. Office du Tourisme du départemente, Point-à-Pitre. Director: Eric W. Rotin. Lasserre, G., La Guadeloupe, étude géographique. 2 vols. Bordeaux, 1961

GUIANA Guyane Française HISTORY. A French settlement on the island of Cayenne was established in 1604 and the territory between the Maroni and Oyapock rivers finally became a French possession in 1817. Convicts settlements were established from 1852, that on off-shore Devil's Island being most notorious; all were closed by 1945. On 19 March 1946 the status of Guiana was changed to that of an Overseas Department.

489

GUIANA

AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . French Guiana is situated on the north-east coast of South America, and has an area of about 83,533 sq. km (32,252 sq. miles) and a population at the 1982 Census of 73,022 (Estimate, 1984, 79,000), of whom 4,500 are tribal Indians. Cayenne, the chief town, has a population of (1982) 38,135. These figures are exclusive of the floating population of miners, officials and troops. Vital statistics ( 1981 ): Live births, 2,081 ; deaths, 417. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . French Guiana is administered by an elected Conseil Général of 16 members and an elected Regional Council of 31 members. It is represented in the National Assembly by 1 deputy and in the Senate by 1 senator. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. There are 2 arrondissements (Cayenne and Saint-Laurent-duMaroni) sub-divided into 20 communes. Commissioner: Claude Silberzahn. President of the Conseil Général: Emmanuel Bellony. President of the Conseil Regional: Georges Othily. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1982 balanced at 578m. francs, excluding duplicated items and national expenditure. Banking. The Bank of Guiana has a capital of 10m. francs and reserve fund of 2-39m. francs. Loans totalled 206m. francs in 1981. Other banks include Bank National of Paris-Guyane and Banc Française Commerciale. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1981 totalled 97m. kwh. Agriculture. The country has immense forests (about 80,000 sq. km) rich in many kinds of timber. Only 10,436 hectares are under cultivation. The crops ( 1981, in tonnes) consist of rice (983, 1983), maize (280), manioc (7,650), bananas (680) and sugar-cane (7,900, 1983) as well as a large variety of other fruits, vegetables and spices (3,000 tonnes, 1983). Livestock (1983): 12,000 cattle, 10,000 swine and (1982) 100,000 poultry. Fisheries. The fishing fleet for shrimps comprises 59 US, 22 Japanese and 11 French boats. The catch in 1982 totalled 4,503 tonnes, of which shrimps comprised 3,000 tonnes, exports 2,750 tonnes. Production of Macrobrachium Rosenbergii (an edible river shrimp) is now established. C O M M E R C E . Trade in 1,000 tonnes and lm. francs: Imports Exports

1980 Quantity Value 859 7 1,087 54 0 108

1981 Quantity Value 222-6 1,355 32-7 192

1982 Quantity Value 261 1 1,643 30-3 212

In 1981,15% of imports came from Trinidad and Tobago, 53% from France and 10% from the USA, while 54% of exports went to the USA, 17% to Japan and 15% to France. In 1981, shrimps formed 73% of exports and timber, 11%. Total trade between Guiana and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m [ m 2 m j m 4 ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

117 1,264

844 7,117

1,956 6,840

853 897

795 3,106

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Three chief and some secondary roads connect the capital with most of the coastal area by motor-car services. There are (1981) 321 km of national and 269 km of departmental roads. Connexions with the interior are made by waterways which, despite rapids, are navigable by local craft.

490

FRANCE

Aviation. A i r France calls at Cayenne (Rochambeau Airport) 4 times a week, A i r Suriname Airways and Cruseiro do Sul once a week; A i r Guyane services interior connexions. In 1981, about 150,000 passengers and 3,600 tonnes o f freight passed through the airport. Shipping. The chief ports are: Cayenne, St-Laurent-du-Maroni and Kourou. Dégrad des Cannes, the port of Cayenne is visited regularly by ships of the Compagnie Général Maritime, the Compagnie Maritime des Chargeurs Réunis and Marseille Fret. In 1981, 594 arrivals and departures o f vessels were registered in French Guiana (113,219 tonnes o f petroleum products arrived and 165,140 tonnes of other freight arrived and departed). Post and Broadcasting. A n automatic telephone system connects Cayenne with 10 other communes as well as with Europe and most parts o f North and South America. Number o f telephones (1983), 13,755. There are wireless stations at Cayenne, Oyapoc, Régina, St-Laurent-du-Maroni and numerous other locations. RFO-Guyane (Guiana Radio) broadcasts for 116 hours each week on mediumand short-waves and F M in French. Television is broadcast for 43 hours each week on 7 transmitters. In 1980 there were 35,000 radio and 9,063 T V receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (Presse de la Guyane•) with a circulation o f 16,000, a bi-weekly paper (France-Guyanej with a circulation o f 3,500 and a weekly (Debout Guyane). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION

AND

WELFARE

Justice. A t Cayenne there is a tribunal d'instance and a tribunal de instance, from which appeal is to the regional cour d'appel in Martinique.

grande

Religion. The majority o f the population is Roman Catholic. Education. Primary education has been free since 1889 in lay schools for the sexes in the communes and many villages. In 1981 public primary schools had teachers and 11,953 pupils, the lycées and collèges d'enseignement secondaire, teachers and 7,277 pupils. Private schools had 119 teachers and 2,528 pupils. Institut Henri Visioz forms part o f the Université des Antilles-Guyane, with students.

two 580 510 The 236

Health. There were ( 1981 ) 80 physicians, 14 dentists, 18 pharmacists, 16 midwives and 309 nursing personnel. In 1980 there were 5 hospitals with 907 beds and 3 private clinics. Books of Reference Abonnée, A., Hurrault, J., Saban, R., Bibliographie de la Guyane Française. 2 vols. Paris, 1957 Henry, Guyane Française, son histoire 1604-1946. Cayenne Hurrault, J., Guide du voyageur en Guyane. Paris, 1949 Masse, D., La Guyane Française: Histoire, Géographie, Possibilités. Abbeville, 1978

MARTINIQUE H I S T O R Y . Discovered by Columbus in 1493, the island was known to its inhabitants as Madinina, from which its present name was corrupted. A French colony was established in 1635 and, apart from brief periods o f British occupation, has since remained under French control. On 19 March 1946 its status was altered to that o f an Overseas Department. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The island, situated in the Lesser Antilles between Dominica and St Lucia, occupies an area of 1,079 sq. km (417 sq. miles). The total population, 1982 Census was 328,566 (estimate, 1984, 329,500), of whom 99,844 lived in Fort-de-France, the capital and chief commercial town, which has a landlocked harbour nearly 40 sq. km in extent.

491

MARTINIQUE

French is the official language, but the majority of the population use a Creole dialect. Vital statistics (1983): Live births 5,641 ; deaths 2,207. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The island is administered by an elected Conseil Général of 36 members and an elected Regional Council of 41 members. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. There are 3 arrondissements, sub-divided into 34 communes, each administered by an elected municipal council. Martinique is represented in the National Assembly by 3 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators and on the Economic and Social Council by 2 councillors. Commissioner: Jean Chevance. President of the Conseil Général: Emile Maurice. ECONOMY Budget. The budget, 1983,balancedat 1,249m. francs. Banking. The Institut d'Émission des Départements d'Outre-mer is the official bank of the department. The Caisse Centrale de Coopération économique is used by the Government in assisting the economic development of the department. The Banque des Antilles Françaises (with a capital of 10-8m. francs), the Crédit Martiniquais (11 -4m. francs), branches of the Banque Nationale de Paris (22 -6m. francs), Crédit Agricole, The Chase Manhattan Bank, Société'Générale de Banque and Banque Française Commerciale are operating at Fort-de-France. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production in 1983 totalled 375m. kwh. Agriculture. Bananas, sugar and rum are the chief products, followed by pineapples, food and vegetables. In 1983 there were 4,546 hectares under sugarcane, 6,960 hectares under bananas and 650 hectares under pineapples. Production (1983): Sugar, 3,949 tonnes; industrial rum, 22,313 hectolitres; agricultural rum, 64,945 hectolitres; cane for sugar, 82,986 tonnes; cane for rum, 116,360 tonnes. Livestock (1983): 40,260 cattle, 32,993 (1982) sheep, 23,560 pigs, 13,666 (1982) goats and 840 horses. C O M M E R C E . Trade in 1 m. francs: Imports Exports

1980 3,523 554

1981 4,142 977

1982 4,943 1,016

1983 5,578 867

In 1981 the main items of import were foodstuffs; main items of export were petroleum products (43%), bananas (22%) and rum (6%); 58% of imports came from France and 32% of exports went to France and 50% to Guadeloupe. Total trade of the French West Indian Islands with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 578 2,588

1981 295 2,268

1982 34 2,400

1983 35 3,029

1984 229 2,980

The Chamber of Commerce and Industry administers the port, airport and industrial zones. Tourism. In 1983 there were 144,580 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 7 km of motorway, 260 km of national roads, 618 km of district roads and 980 km of local roads. In 1982 thére were 8,734 passenger cars and 1,915 commercial vehicles registered.

492

FRANCE

Aviation. In 1983,924,302 passengers arrived and departed by air. Shipping. The island is visited regularly by French and American steamers. In 1982,1,650 vessels called at Martinique. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1983, 46 post offices and, 43,127 telephones. Radio-telephone service to Europe is available. In 1983 there were 41,500 radio and 39,570 TV receivers. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of30,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by 2 tribunaux d'instance, a tribunal de grande instance, a regional court of appeal, a commercial court, a court of assizes and an administrative court. Religion. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 years. In 1982-83, there were 57,132 pupils in primary schools, and 45,603 pupils in secondary and technical schools. The Institut Henri Visioz, which forms part of the Centre Universitaire Antilles-Guyane, had (1980) 1,475 students. Health. There were (1982) 18 hospitals with 3,973 beds and in 1980 there were 364 physicians, 138 pharmacists, 120 midwivesand 101 dentists. Books of Reference Annuaire statistique I.N.S.E.E. 1977-80. Martinique, 1982 La Martinique en quelques chiffres. Martinique, 1982 Guide Economique des D.O.M.-T.O. M., Paris, 1982

MAYOTTE H I S T O R Y . Mayotte was a French colony from 1843 until 1914, when it was attached, with the other Comoro islands, to the government-general of Madagascar. The Comoro group was granted administrative autonomy within the French Republic and became an Overseas Territory. When the other 3 islands voted to become independent (as the Comoro state) in 1974, Mayotte voted against this and remained a French dependency. In 1976, it became (following a further referendum) a collectivité territoriale, being an intermediate status between Overseas Territory and Overseas Department. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mayotte, east of the Comoro Islands, has an area of 374 sq. km (144 sq. miles) and a 1978 Census population of47,246 (1984, estimate, 56,000). The main towns are Mamoundzou (7,800) and the capital, Dzaoudzi (4,147 inhabitants) situated on a tiny offshore islet. The main languages are Mahorian (a Swahili dialect) and French. G O V E R N M E N T . The island is administered by an appointed Commissioner and an elected Conseil Général of 17 members. Mayotte is represented by 1 deputy in the National Assembly and by 1 member in the Senate. Commissioner: Christian Pellerin. President of the Conseil Général: Younoussa Bamana. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1982 balanced at 144-3m. French francs. Currency. Since Feb. 1976 the currency has been the (metropolitan) French franc. NATURAL RESOURCES Agriculture. The main products are vanilla, y lang-ylang, coffee and copra.

RÉUNION

493

Fisheries. A lobster and shrimp industry has recently been created. Annual catch is about 2,000 tonnes. C O M M E R C E . In 1982, exports totalled 5 1 m . francs (81% to France) and imports 121 -7m. francs (57% from France). Ylang-ylang formed 67% of exports and vanilla, 9%. Total trade between Mayotte and UK (1984): Imports to UK, £67,000 and exports and re-exports from UK, £343,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 96 km of main roads (72 km bitumenized) and 120 km of local roads, with about 1,300 motor vehicles. Aviation. In 1981, 7,458 passengers and 739 tonnes of freight arrived by air and 9,100 passengers (314 tonnes) departed. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N AND EDUCATION Justice. There is a tribunal d'instance and a tribunal supérieur d'appel. Religion. The population is 99% Moslem, with a small Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) minority. Education. In 1982 there were 11,338 pupils and 317 teachers in primary schools and 794 pupils and 40 teachers in secondary and technical schools.

RÉUNION H I S T O R Y . Réunion (formerly île Bourbon) became a French possession in 1638 and remained so until 19 March 1946, when its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department; in 1972 it additionally became an administrative region. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The island of Réunion, about 640 km east of Madagascar, has an area of 2,512 sq. km (968-5 sq. miles) and population of 515,814 (March 1982 census), estimate ( 1984) 545,300. The capital is Saint-Denis (1982 census) 109,072. Vital statistics(1983): Live births, 12,461; deaths, 3,280. The small islands of Juan de Nova, Europa, Bassas da India, Iles Glorieuses and Tromelin, with a combined area of about 60 sq. km, are all uninhabited and lie at various points in the Indian Ocean adjacent to Madagascar. They remained integral parts of the French Republic after Madagascar's independence in 1960, and are now administered by Réunion. Both Mauritius and the Seychelles have laid claim to Tromelin (which had been transferred by the UK from the Seychelles to France in 1954), and Madagascar to all 5 islands. C L I M A T E . A sub-tropical maritime climate, free from extremes of weather, though the island lies in the cyclone belt of the Indian Ocean. Conditions are generally humid and there is no well-defined dry season. Saint-Denis. Jan. 80° F (26 • 7°C), July 70° F (21 • 1 °C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,400 mm). G O V E R N M E N T . The island is administered by an elected Conseil Général of 36 members and an elected Regional Council of 45 members. Réunion is represented in the National Assembly by 3 deputies, in the Senate by 3 senators, and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. There are 4 arrondissements, sub-divided into 24 communes each administered by an elected municipal council. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Michel Blangy. President of the Conseil Général: Auguste Legros.

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ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1983 balanced at 7,314m. French francs. Banking. The Institut d'émission des Départements d'Outre-mer has the right to issue bank-notes. Banks operating in Réunion are the Banque de la Réunion (Crédit Lyonnais), the Banque Nationale de Paris Internationale, the Caisse Régionale de Crédit Agricole Mutuel de la Réunion, the Banque Française Commerciale (BFC) and the Banque Populaire Fédérale de Développement. NATURAL RESOURCES Agriculture (1983). The chief produce is sugar (223,700 tonnes), rum (84,100 hectolitres), maize (10,690 tonnes), potatoes (3,602 tonnes), onions (1,379 tonnes), vanilla, essences and tobacco. The forests occupy about 100,500 hectares. Livestock (1983): 19,660 cattle, 71,680 pigs, 2,900 sheep, 42,900 goats and 2,827,000 poultry. Fisheries. In 1983 the catch was 2,777 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry (1983). Total number of workers (in 418 firms employing 10 or more) 18,846. The sugar industry employed 2,846. Commerce. Trade in 1 m. French francs: Imports Exports

1978 2,659 519

1979 3,230 594

¡ 980 3,749 554

1981 4,282 573

1982 5,304 668

1983 6,490 875

The chief export is sugar, forming (1983) 79-7% by value. In 1983 (by value) 61 -9% of imports were from, and 53 -1% of exports to, France. Total trade between Réunion and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 60 3,022

1981 290 3,117

1982 74 2,889

1983 73 3,684

1984 407 3,327

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1983,2,710 km of roads. There were 108,725 passenger cars and 50,000 other vehicles in 1982. Aviation. Air France maintains an air service 6 times a week. In 1983, 202,472 passengers and 5,655 tonnes of freight arrived and 200,628 passengers and 2,460 tonnes of freight departed at Saint-Denis-Gillot airport. Shipping. Four shipping lines serve the island. In 1983, 259 vessels visited the island to discharge 1,104,583 tonnes of freight and 1,814 passengers, and load 340,997 tonnes of freight and 1,814 passengers at Pointe-des-Galets. Post and Broadcasting. There are telephone and telegraph connexions with Mauritius, Madagascar and metropolitan France. There are 38 post offices and a central telephone office; number of telephones ( 1984), 74,000. France Régions 3 broadcast in French on medium- and short-waves for more than 18 hours a day. There are 2 television channels broadcasting for 70 hours a week. In 1984 there were 114,500 radio and 107,500 TV receivers. Cinemas. In 1972 there were 25 cinemas with a seating capacity of 10,200. Newspapers. There were (1983) 3 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 68,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 3 tribunaux d'instance, 2 tribunaux de grande instance, 1 Cour d'Appel, 1 tribunal administratifand 2 conseils de prud'homme.

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MIQUELON

Religion. The vast majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. Secondary education is provided in (1983-84) 6 lycées, 50 collèges, and 9 lycées d'enseignement technique with 66,653 pupils altogether and in 13 private secondary schools with 3,407 pupils. Primary education is given in 336 public schools with 4,018 teachers and 106,437 pupils; and in 28 private schools, with 306 teachers, and 8,827 pupils. The Université Française de l'Océan Indien (founded 1971) had 2,928 students in 1983. Health. In 1983 there were 21 hospitals with 4,183 beds; in 1983 there were 608 physicians, 181 dentists, 174 pharmacists, about 90 midwives and 1,620 nursing personnel. Books of Reference Bulletin de l'Académie de la Réunion. Biennial Bulletin de la Chambre d'Agriculture de la Réunion Panorama de l'Economie de la Reunion. 1983 Statistiques et Indicateurs Economiques. 1983

ST PIERRE A N D MIQUELON HISTORY. The tiny remaining fragment of the once extensive French possessions in North America, the archipelago was settled from France in the 17th century and finally became a French territory from 1816 until July 1976, when its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The department consists of 8 small islands off the south coast of Newfoundland, with a total area of 242 sq. km, comprising the Saint-Pierre group (26 sq. km) and the Miquelon-Langlade group (216 sq. km). The population (census, 1982) was 6,041 of whom 5,415 were on SaintPierre and 626 on Miquelon. The chief town is St Pierre. Vital statistics ( 1982): Births, 127; marriages, 33; deaths, 44. GOVERNMENT. The department is administered by an appointed Commissioner and an elected Conseil Général of 14 members, directly elected for a 6-year term; it is represented in the National Assembly by 1 deputy, in the Senate by 1 senator and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. Commissioner: Gérard Lefebvre. President of the Conseil Général: Marc Plantegenest. BUDGET. The ordinary budget for 1982 balanced at 51 -4m. francs. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The islands, being mostly barren rock, are unsuited for agriculture. The chief industry is fishing. Commerce. Trade in 1,000 tonnes and 1,000 francs: Imports Exports

Quantity 47-7 4-3

1980

Value 177,203 24,213

Quantity 58-6 4-9

1981

Value 220,910 38,658

Quantity 58-6 3-6

1982

Value 275,390 41,045

In 1981,66% of imports came from Canada and 28% from France, while 58% of exports were to USA, 17% to France and 11 % to U K. The main exports are fish (88%), shellfish (6%) and fishmeal (5%). Total trade between St Pierre and Miquelon and UK (British Department of Trade returns in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 3 884

1981 1,352 481

1982 254 363

1983 578 250

1984 743 523

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Tourism. There were ( 1982) 11,293 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 108 km of roads, of which 43 km were paved. In 1981 there were about 1,637 passenger cars and 531 commercial vehicles. Aviation. Air Saint-Pierre connects the department with Halifax and Sydney (Nova Scotia), and there are occasional flights to and from St John's (Newfoundland), Gander and New York. Shipping. St Pierre is in regular motor-vessel communication with North Sydney, Fortune (Newfoundland) and Halifax. In 1980, about 47,600 tonnes of freight were unloaded and 4,250 tonnes loaded. 1,033 ships (615,176 gross tonnage) entered the harbour in 1981. Post and Broadcasting. There were 2,907 telephones in 1982. France Régions 3 broadcasts in French on medium-waves. St Pierre is connected by radio-telecommunication with most countries of the world. Radio licences totalled 4,300 and TV 1,950 in 1980. Cinemas. There were (1983) 2 cinemas with a seating capacity of760. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a tribunal de premier instance and a tribunal supérieur d'appel at St Pierre. Religion. The population is chiefly Roman Catholic. Education. Primary instruction is free. There were, in 1982-83, 7 nursery and primary schools with 1,023 pupils and 3 secondary schools (including 1 technical school) with 693 pupils. Health. There was (1983) 1 hospital on St Pierre with 100 beds; 11 doctors and 2 dentists. Books of Reference De Curton, E., Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Paris, 1944 De La Riie, E. A., Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Paris, 1963 Ribault, J. Y., Histoire de Saint-Pierre et Miquelon: Des Origines à 1814. St Pierre, 1962

OVERSEAS TERRITORIES SOUTHERN A N D ANTARCTIC TERRITORIES Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises The Territory of the TAAF was created on 6 Aug. 1955. It comprises the Kerguelen and Crozet archipelagoes, the islands of Saint Paul and Amsterdam (formerly Nouvelle Amsterdam), all in the southern Indian ocean, and Terre Adélie. The Administrator is assisted by a 7-member consultative council which meets twice yearly in Paris; its members are nominated by the Government for 5 years. The 12 members of the Scientific Council are appointed by the Senior Administrator after, approval by the Minister in charge of scientific research. A 15-member Consultative Committee on the Environment, created in Nov. 1982, meets at least once a year to discuss all problems relating to the preservation of the environment. The administration has its seat in Paris. Administrateur supérieur: Vice-Adm. Claude Piéri.

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There are 4 postal agencies; the TAAF has its own postage stamps. The scientific stations of the TAAF which took an important part in the International Geophysical Year, 1956-58, have been made permanent; the staff of the French bases ( 168 in 1983) is renewed annually and forms the only population. Kerguelen islands, situated 48-50° S. lat., 68-70° E. long., consists of 1 large and 85 smaller islands and over 200 islets and rocks with a total area of 7,215 sq. km (2,786 sq. miles), of which Grande Terre occupies 6,675 sq. km (2,577 sq. miles). It was discovered in 1772 by Yves de Kerguelen, but was effectively occupied by France only in 1949. Port-aux-Français has several scientific research stations (76 members). Reindeer, trout and sheep have been acclimatized. Crozet islands, situated 46° S. lat., 50-52° E. long., consists of 5 larger and 15 tiny islands, with a total area of 505 sq. km (195 sq. miles); the western group includes Apostles, Pigs and Penguins islands; the eastern group, Possession and Eastern islands. The archipelago was discovered in 1772 by Marion Dufresne, whose mate, Crozet, annexed it for Louis XV. A meteorological and scientific station (33 members) at Base Alfred-Faure on Possession Island was built in 1964. Amsterdam Island and Saint-Paul Island, situated 38-39° S. lat., 77° E. long. Amsterdam, with an area of 54 sq. km (21 sq. miles) was discovered in 1522 by Magellan's companions; Saint-Paul, lying about 100 km to the south, with an area of 7 sq. km (2 • 7 sq. miles), was probably discovered in 1559 by Portuguese sailors. Both were first visited in 1633 by the Dutch explorer, Van Diemen, and were annexed by France in 1843. They are both extinct volcanoes. The only inhabitants are at Base Martin de Vivies, established in 1949 on Amsterdam Island, with several scientific research stations, hospital, communication and other facilities (33 members). Crayfish are caught commercially on Amsterdam. Terre Adélie comprises that section of the Antarctic continent between 136° and 142° E. long., south of 60° S. lat. The ice-covered plateau has an area of about 432,000 sq. km (166,800 sq. miles), and was discovered in 1840 by Dumont d'Urville. A research station (26 members) is situated at Base Dumont d'Urville, which is maintained by the French Polar Expeditions. Books of Reference T.A.A.F. Revue trimestrielle. Paris, 1957 fT. Expéditions Polaires Françaises. Etudes et Rapports. Paris, 1948-59

NEW CALEDONIA Nouvelle Calédonie H I S T O R Y . New Caledonia was annexed by France in 1853 and, together with most of its former dependencies, became an Overseas Territory in 1958. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The territory comprises the island of New Caledonia and various outlying islands, all situated in the south-west Pacific with a total land area of 19,103 sq. km (7,375 sq. miles). In 1983 the population (census) was 145,368, including 53,974 Europeans (majority; French), 61,870 Melanesians, 7,700 Vietnamese and Indonesians, 5,570 Polynesians, 12,174 Wallisians, 4,080 others; 1984 (estimate) 147,200. The capital, Noumea had (1983) 60,112 inhabitants. Vital statistics (1983): Live births, 3,516; deaths, 787. The main islands are: 1. The island of New Caledonia with an area of 16,627 sq. km, has a total length of about 400 km, and an average breadth of 50 km, and a population (census, 1983) of 127,885. 2. The Loyalty Islands, 100 km (60 miles) east of New Caledonia, consisting of 3

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large islands, Maré, Lifou and Uvéa, and many small islands with a total area of about 2,353 sq. km and a population (census, 1983) of 15,510, nearly all Melanesians except on Uvéa, which is partly Polynesian. The chief culture in the islands is that of coconuts: the chief export, copra. 3. The Isle of Pines, 50 km (30 miles) to the south-east of Nouméa, with an area of 153 sq. km and a population of 1,287 (census 1983), is a tourist and fishing centre. 4. The Bélep Archipelago, about 50 km north-west of New Caledonia, with an area of 70 sq. km and a population of686 (census 1983). The remaining islands are all very small and none have permanent inhabitants, although manv were formerly exploited for their guano deposits. The largest are the Chesterfield Islands, a group of 11 well-wooded coral islets with a combined area of 10 sq. km, about 550 km west of the Bélep Archipelago. The Huon Islands, a group of4 barren coral islets with a combined area ofjust 65 hectares, are 225 km north of the Bélep Archipelago. Walpole, a limestone coral island of 1 sq. km, lies 150 km east of the Isle of Pines; Matthew Island (20 hectares) and Hunter Island (2 sq. km), respectively 250 km and 330 km east of Walpole, are spasmodically active volcanic islands also claimed by Vanuatu. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . From Jan. 1976 State affairs are administrated by the High Commissioner and Territorial affairs by a Council of Government of 7 elected members (until 1976 the Council was advisory). A Territorial Assembly of 42 elected members decides the more important territorial affairs including local revenue. New Caledonia is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies, in the Senate by 1 senator and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. At territorial elections held 18 Nov. 1984, the Rassemblement Pour la Calédonie dans la République (Gaullists) gained 34 seats, the Kanak Socialist Independence Party 6 seats and others 2 seats. The Territory is divided into 6 counties (of which the Loyalty Islands form one), and sub-divided into 32 communes which are administered by locally elected councils and mayors. President of the Territorial Assembly: Dick Ukeiwé. High Commissioner: Edgard Pisani. President of the Territorial Assembly: Jean Leques. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1983 balanced at 28,939m. francs CFP. Revenues included special grants by France totalling 7,440m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFP francs 18 18 to the French franc. Banking. There are branches of the Banque de Indosuez, the Banque Nationale de Paris, tne Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas, and the Société Générale, and the Banque de la Nouvelle-Calédonie (Crédit Lyonnais). ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1983, production totalled737m. kwh. Minerals. The mineral resources are very great; nickel, chrome and iron abound; silver, gold, cobalt, lead, manganese, iron and copper have been mined at different times. The nickel deposits are of special value, being without arsenic. Production of nickel ore in 1982, 2-2m. tonnes. About 467,000 hectares of mining land are owned, and 97,000 hectares have been granted for exploitation. In 1983 the furnaces produced 4,578 tonnes of matte nickel and 21,717 tonnes of ferro-nickel. Agriculture. Of the total area only about 6% is cultivable; about 416,000 hectares are pasture land; about 6,000 hectares are commercially cultivated and about 250,000 hectares contain forest; forest produce, 1976,19,849 cu. metres. There are 4 forms of landownership: native reserves belonging to the local tribes, private estates, public land belonging to the New Caledonian territory and public land

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499

belonging to the metropolitan government. The chief agricultural products are beef, pork, poultry, coffee, maize, fruit and vegetables. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 100,000; pigs, 20,000; goats, 8,000; poultry. Fisheries. The catch in 1982 totalled 2,299 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Local industries include chlorine and oxygen plants, cement, soft drinks, barbed wire, nails, pleasure and fishing boats, clothing, pasta, household cleaners and confectionery. Commerce. Imports and exports in 1 m. francs CFP for 5 years: Imports Exports

1979 27,791 28,549

1980 35,041 29,652

1981 40,434 33,435

1982 43,735 27,707

1983 42,201 22,035

In 1981, 32 -5% of the imports came from, and 67% of the exports went to France. Chief imports in 1983 were (in 1 m. francs CFP): Food, 10,452; fuels and minerals, 5,160; machines and electrical equipment, 3,986. Chief exports: Nickel metal, 13,871 ; nickel ore, 3,082. Iron alloys (mainly ferro-nickel) formed 50% of exports, nickel 26% and nickel ore 19%. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1980, 5,496 km of roads, excluding 470 km on minor islands. Aviation. New Caledonia is connected by air routes with France (by UTA), Australia (UTA and Qantas), New Zealand (UTA and Air New Zealand), Fiji (by UTA Cal International and Air Pacific), Vanuatu, Wallis archipelago and Tahiti (by UTA), and Nauru (by Air Nauru). In 1983, 125,317 passengers arrived and 127,157 departed via La Tontouta airport, near Nouméa. Shipping. In 1983,350 vessels entered Nouméa unloading 694,600 tonnes ofgoods and loading 1,273,800 tonnes. A new harbour for deep-water alongside discharge was completed in 1974. Post and Broadcasting. There were 52 post offices and telex, telephone, radio and television services. There were (1982) 30,058 telephones. Radio Nouméa belongs to Société Nationale des Programmes and broadcasts in French on medium- and short-waves. Télé Nouméa broadcasts 1 television programme 48 hours a week. Number of receivers ( 1978): radio, 65,000; TV, 28,000. Cinemas. In 1983 there were 9 cinemas. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of 16,000 and 16 other periodicals. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a Tribunal de Grande Instance and a Cour d'Appel in Nouméa. Religion. Over 60% of the population are Roman Catholic and 30% Protestant. Education. In 1983, there were 34,055 pupils and 1,672 teachers in primary schools, 11,943 pupils and 981 teachers in secondary schools, 4,934 students and 308 teachers in technical and vocational schools and 580 students and 52 teaching staff in higher education. Health. In 1982 there were 200 physicians, 53 dentists, 47 pharmacists, 15 midwives and 561 nursing personnel. In 1983,6 hospitals and 27 dispenseries had a total of 1,224 beds. Books of Reference Journal Officiel de la Nouvelle Calédonie el Dépendances Annuaire Statistique de la Nouvelle Calédonie et Dépendances Tableaux de l'Economie Calidonierre, 1983-1985

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FRENCH POLYNESIA Polynésie Française HISTORY. French protectorates since 1843, these islands were annexed to France 1880-82 to form 'French Settlements in Oceania', which opted in Nov. 1958 for the status of an Overseas Territory within the French Community. AREA AND POPULATION. The total land area of these 5 archipelagoes, scattered over a wide area in the Eastern Pacific is 3,941 sq. km (1,522 sq. miles). The population, Census, 1983, was 166,753; estimate (1984) 172,000. The islands are administratively divided into 5 circonscriptions: 1. The Windward Islands (îles du Vent) (123,069 inhabitants in 1983) comprise Tahiti with an area of 1,042 sq. km and (1977) 95,604 inhabitants; Moorea with an area of 132 sq. km and 5,788 inhabitants; and the smaller Mehetia, Tetiaoro and Tubuai Manu. The capital is Papeete (62,735 inhabitants including suburbs). 2. The Leeward Islands (îles sous le Vent) (19,060 (1983) inhabitants), comprise the volcanic islands of Huahine (3,140), Raiatéa (6,376), Tahaa (3,513), Bora-Bora (2,572), and Maupiti (710) together with 4 small atolls, the group having a total area of507 sq. km. The chief town is Uturoa (2,517 inhabitants) on Raiatéa. The Windward and Leeward Islands together are called the Society Archipelago (Archipel de la Société). Tahitian, a Polynesian language, is spoken throughout the archipelago and used as a linguafranca in the rest of the territory. 3. The Tuamotu Archipelago, consisting of two parallel ranges of 78 atolls lying between 135° and 143° W. long, and 14° and 23° S. lat., east of the Society Archipelago, have a total area of 774 sq. km; its major islands are Rangiroa, Hao and Turéia. The circonscription (total 11,793 inhabitants) also includes the Gambier Islands further east (of which Mangareva is the principal), with an area of 36 sq. km and a population of 556 ( 1977); the chief centre is Rikitea. 4. The Austral or Tubuai Islands, lying south of the Society Archipelago, comprise a 1,300 km chain of volcanic islands and reefs. They include Rimatara, Rurutu, Tubuai, Raivaevae and, 500 km to the south, Rapa-Iti, with a combined area of 174 sq. km and 6,283 inhabitants; the chief centre is Mataura on Tubuai. 5. The Marquesas Islands, lying north of the Tuamotu Archipelago, with a total area of 1,274 sq. km and 6,548 inhabitants, comprise Nuku-Hiva, Ua Pu, Ua Huka, Hiva-Oa, Tahuata, Fatu-Hiva and 4 smaller (uninhabited) islands; the chief centre is Taiohae on Nukuhiva. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Under the 1984 Constitution, the Territory is administered by a Council of Ministers, whose President is elected by the Territorial Assembly from among its own members; he appoints a VicePresident and 9 other ministers. There is an advisory Economic and Social Committee. French Polynesia is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies, in the Senate by 1 senator, and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. The French government is represented by a High Commissioner. The Territorial Assembly comprises 30 members elected every 5 years by universal suffrage. At the elections held in May 1982, the Tahoeraa Huiratira (Gaullists) won 13 seats, the Pupu Here Ai 'a (moderate autonomists) 6 seats and others 11 seats. High Commissioner: Alain Ohrel. President of the Government: Gaston Flosse. ECONOMY Budget. The ordinary budget for 1982 balanced at 28,100m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFP francs 18 18 to the French franc.

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501

Banking. There are 4 commercial banks, the Bank Indosuez, the Bank of Tahiti, the Banque de Polynésie and Paribas. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production in 1981 (Tahiti only) amounted to 151 • 7m. kwh. Agriculture. An important product is copra (coconut trees covering the coastal plains of the mountainous islands and the greater part of the low-lying islands), production (1982) 19,181 tonnes. Tropical fruits, such as bananas, pineapples, oranges, etc., are grown only for local consumption. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 9,000; horses, 2,000; pigs, 30,000; sheep, 2,000; goats, 3,000; poultry ( 1982), 600,000. Fisheries. The catch in 1979 amounted to 4,217 tonnes offish. C O M M E R C E . Trade in lm. francsCFP: Imports Exports

1980 42,030 2,340

1981 54,843 2,861

1982 62,307 3,349

Total trade between the French possessions in the Pacific and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,00Q sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 32 2,154

1981 8 1,421

1982 2 1,962

1983 93 2,601

1984 2 3,276

Chief imports (by value) include metalwork, textiles, petrol, sugar and flour. Chief exports are coconut oil, cultured pearls, vanilla and citrus fruits. In 1982, France provided 45% of imports and USA, 21% while 68% of exports went to France. Tourism is very important, earning almost half as much as the visible exports. There were 114,000 tourists in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 741 km of roads. Aviation. Seven international airlines connect Tahiti with Paris, Los Angeles and many Pacific locations. There is also a regular air service between Faaa airport (on Tahiti), Moorea and the Leeward Isles with occasional connexions to the other groups. In 1981,351,489 passengers arrived and 338,006 departed via Faaa airport and ( 1976) 210,300 via Moorea airport. Shipping. Several shipping companies connect France, San Francisco, New Zealand, Japan, Australia, South East Asia and most Pacific locations with Papeete. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1982), 24,818. Radio Tahiti belongs to Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française and broadcasts in French, Tahitian and English on medium- and short-waves and also broadcasts 1 television programme via 5 transmitters. Number of receivers (1980): radio, 80,000; TV, 25,000. Cinemas. In 1975 there were 6 cinemas with a seating capacity of3,200. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 2 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 12,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a tribunal de grande instance and a cour d'appel at Papeete. Religion. In 1975 it was estimated that 50% of the inhabitants were Protestants, 34% Roman Catholic and 6% Mormon. Education. Education at primary level was reorganized in 1974 and secondary

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FRANCE

education in 1975. There were, in 1979-80, 38,964 pupils and 1,687 teachers in primary schools, 9,613 pupils and 610 teachers in secondary schools, 2,757 pupils and 214 teachers in technical schools, and 225 students and 20 lecturers at teachertraining colleges. Health. There were (1979) 125 physicians, 46 dentists, 19 pharmacists, 15 midwives and 408 nursing personnel. There was a main hospital at Mamao (on Tahiti), 6 secondary hospitals, 41 dispensaries and medical centres and 45 first aid posts with ( 1978) 890 hospital beds. D E P E N D E N C Y . The uninhabited Clipperton Island, 1,000 km off the west coast of Mexico, is administered by the High Commissioner for French Polynesia but does not form part of the Territory; it is an atoll with an area of 5 sq. km. Books of Reference Journal Officiel des Etablissements Françaises de l'Océanie, and Supplement Containing Statistics of Commerce and Navigation. Papeete Andrews, E., Comparative Dictionary of the Tahitian Language. Chicago, 1944 Bounds, J. H., Tahiti. Bend, Oregon, 1978 Luke, Sir Harry, The islands of the South Pacific. London, 1961 O'Reilly, P., and Reitman, E., Bibliographie de Tahiti et de la Polynésie française. Paris, 1967 O'Reilly, P., and Teissier, R., Tahitiens. Répertoire bio-bibliographique de la Polynésie française. Paris, 1963

WALLIS A N D FUTUNA H I S T O R Y . French dependencies since 1842, the inhabitants of these islands voted on 22 Dec. 1959 by an overwhelming majority in favour of exchanging their status to that of an Overseas Territory, which took effect from 29 July 1961. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Territory comprises two groups of islands (total area 274 sq. km) in the central Pacific, The îles de Hoorn lie 240 km northeast of Fiji and consist of 2 main islands-Futuna (64 sq. km) and uninhabited Alofi (51 sq. km). The Wallis Archipelago lies another 160 km further north-east, and comprises one main island - Uvea ( 159 sq. km), with a surrounding coral reef. The capital is Mata-Utu on Uvea. The resident population (census March 1982) was 11,943 (estimate, 1984, 13,000), comprising 7,843 on Uvea and 4,100 on Futuna. About 11,000 Wallisians and Futunians live abroad, mainly in New Caledonia and Vanuatu. Wallisian and Futunian are distinct Polynesian languages. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Senior Administrator carries out the duties of Head of the Territory, assisted by an elected 20-member Territorial Assembly. The territory is represented by 1 deputy in the National Assembly, by 1 senator in the Senate, and by 1 member on the Economic and Social Council. There are 3 districts: Singave and Alo (both on Futuna) and Wallis. Administrateur supérieur: Robert Thil. President of the Territorial Assembly: Falakito Gata. ECONOMY Budget. The 1982 budget provided for expenditure of303 • 8m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFP francs 18 18 to the French franc. A G R I C U L T U R E . The chief products are copra, yams, taro roots and bananas. Livestock: Cattle, 100 (1976); pigs, 22,000 (1983); horses, 400 (1978); goats, 7,000(1983).

WALLIS A N D F U T U N A

503

C O M M E R C E . Imports (1981) amounted to 667m. francs CFP. There are few exports. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1977 there were 100 km of roads on Uvea. Aviation. In 1980 there were 581 aircraft arrivals and departures at Hihifo airport, on Uvea. There is a weekly flight via Vila (Vanuatu) to Noumea (New Caledonia) and three flights each week to Futuna (Point Vele air strip). Shipping. A regular service links wharves at Mata-Utu and at Singave (Futuna) with Nouméa (New Caledonia). Post and Broadcasting. Io 1979 a radio station was established on Uvea. In 1982 there were 151 telephones. R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Religion. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. In 1983, there were 3,962 pupils in 13 primary and lower secondary schools. Health. In 1974 there were 3 physicians and 26 nursing personnel (including 10 midwives). There were (1972) 5 small hospitals and dispensaries with 108 beds.

GABON République Gabonaise

Capital: Libreville Population: 1 -37m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$3,810(1981)

H I S T O R Y . First colonized by France in the mid-19th century, Gabon was annexed to French Congo in 1888 and became a separate colony in 1910 as one of the 4 territories of French Equatorial Africa. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community in 1958 and achieved independence on 17 Aug. 1960. The first President, Leon M'ba, died on 30 Nov. 1967 and was succeeded on 2 Dec. by his Vice-President, Albert-Bernard (now Omar) Bongo. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Gabon is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean, north by Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon and east and south by Congo. The area covers 267,667 sq. km; its population at the 1970 census was 950,007; estimate (1984) is 1,367,000. The capital is Libreville (350,000 inhabitants, 1983), other large towns (1975) being Port-Gentil (77,611) and Lambarene (22,682). Vital statistics (1975): Birth rate, 3 -22%; death rate, 2-22%. Provincial areas, populations (estimate 1976, in 1,000) and capitals are as follows: Province Estuaire Woleu-Ntem Ogooué-Ivindo Moyen-Ogooué Ogooué-Maritime

sq. km 1976 Capital 20,740 311 Libreville 38,465 162 Oyem 57 Makokou 46,075 51 Lambaréné 18,535 22,890 172 Port-Gentil

Province Nyanga Ngounié Ogooué-Lolo Haut-Ogooué

sq. km 1976 Capital 21,285 89 Tchibanga 37,750 123 Mouila 51 Koulamoutou 25,380 36,547 188 Franceville

The largest ethnic groups are the Fang (30%) in the north, Eshira (25%) in the south-west, and the Adouma (17%) in the south-east. French is the official language. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with high temperatures and considerable rainfall. Mid-May to mid-Sept, is the long dry season, followed by a short rainy season, then a dry season again from mid-Dec. to mid-Feb., and finally a long rainy season once more. Libreville. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 75°F (23 -9°C). Annual rainfall 9 9 " (2,510 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1967 Constitution (as subsequently revised) provides for an Executive President directly elected for a 7-year term, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him. The unicameral National Assembly consists of 84 members, directly elected for a 5-year term (latest elections, Feb. 1980) and a further 9 members nominated by the President. The sole legal political party is the Parti démocratique gabonais founded in 1968. President: Omar Bongo (re-elected on 25 Feb. 1973 and 30 Dec. 1979). Prime Minister: Léon Mébiame. Foreign Minister: Martin Bongo. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow, blue. Local government: The 9 provinces, each administered by a governor appointed by the President, are divided into 3 7 départements, each under a prefect. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 all-arms Presidential Guard battalion group with support units, totalling (1985), 3,900 men. 504

GABON

505

Navy. The small naval flotilla in 1985 comprised 4 fast attack craft, 1 patrol craft and 3 landing craft with a base at Port-Gentil. Personnel, 170 officers and men. The Coastguard has 9 small patrol craft and 1 service tender. Air Force. The Air Force has 5 single-seat and 2 two-seat Mirage 5 ground-attack aircraft, and 1 EMB-111 maritime patrol aircraft. Transport duties are performed primarily by 3 Hercules and 4 EMB-110 Bandeirante turboprop aircraft, supported by 3 C-47s and 3 Nord 262s. Single Gulfstream III, Mystère 20, YS-11 and DC-8 aircraft are used for VIP duties; a Cessna Skymaster for liaison. Four T-34C-1 armed turboprop aircraft are operated for La Présidentielle Garde. Also in service are 5 Puma and 5 Alouette III helicopters. Personnel (1985) 500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Gabon is a member of UN, OAU and OPEC; it is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY. Planning. The 1982-84 Interin Development Plan proposed public expenditure of 362,512m. francs CFA, of which 188,202m. were to develop the transport infrastructure. Budget. The provisional budget for 1983 balanced at 562,000m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, divided into 100 centimes, with a parity value of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. Banking. The Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale is the bank of issue. There are 6 commercial banks situated in Gabon. The Banque Gabonaise de Développement and the Union Gabonaise de Banque are Gabonese controlled. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The semi-public Société d'energie et d'eau du Gabon produced 734m. kwh. in 1983, mainly from thermal plants but increasingly from hydro-electric schemes at Kinguélé (near Libreville), Tchimbélé and Poubara (near Franceville). Oil. Extraction from offshore fields totalled 7-9m. tonnes in 1983. Gabon operates 2 refineries, at Port-Gentil and at nearby Pointe Clairette. Gas. Natural gas production (1983) was 82m. cu. metres. Minerals. Production (1983) of manganese ore (from deposits around Moanda in the south-east) amounted to l-92m. tonnes. Uranium is mined nearby (1,358 tonnes in 1983). An estimated 850m. tonnes of iron ore deposits, discovered 1971 at Mékambo (near Bélinga in the north-east) await completion of the branch railway line to be exploited. Gold (50 kg in 1978), zinc and phosphates also occur. Agriculture. Agriculture, forestry and fisheries occupy 85% of the working population. The major crops (production, 1981, in 1,000 tonnes) are: Sugar-cane, 14; cassava, 100; plantains, 63; maize, 10; bananas, 8; palm products, 547; cocoa ( 1983,167,000); coffee (1983,616)and rice. Livestock(1983): 7,000 cattle, 80,000 sheep, 60,000 goats, 145,000 pigs. Forestry. Gabon's equatorial forests covering 78% of the land area produced 1-lm. cu. metres of okoumé and hardwoods in 1983. Hardwoods (mahogany, ebony and walnut) are also exported. Fisheries. The total catch (1980) amounted to 26,400 tonnes in the Atlantic and 400 tonnes in inland waters. TRADE. In 1981 imports totalled 226,800m. francs CFA and exports (1980) 477,760m. francs CFA. France and USA are Gabon's principal trading partners. In 1978 petroleum made up 72% of exports; metals, 18% and timber, 6%. Total trade between Gabon and the UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling):

506 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

GABON 1980 10,657 9,155

1981 36,726 12,099

1982 27,634 14,179

1983 66,135 18,798

1984 70,775 20,548

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 7,393 km of roads and there were 36,240 (10,200 goods) vehicles. Railways. A 1,435-mm gauge (Transgabonais) railway runs from Owendo via N'Djole to Booué and Lastourville, and is being extended to Moanda and Franceville with a projected branch from Booué to Bélinga. Aviation. There are 3 international airports at Port-Gentil, Franceville, and Libreville; internal services link these to 65 domestic airfields. Shipping. Owendo (near Libreville), Mayumba and Port-Gentil are the main ports. In 1980, 10- lm. tonnes were loaded and 617,000 tonnes unloaded at the ports. In 1978 there were 15 merchant vessels of98,645 gross tons. Post and Broadcasting. Telephones (1982), 11,133. In 1982 there were 10,000 television and 98,000 radio licences. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 6 cinemas with a seating capacity of 4,100. Newspapers. There were (1984) 2 newspapers published in Libreville; GabonMatin (daily) has a circulation of 18,000 and L 'Union (weekly) 15,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are tribunaux de grande instance at Libreville, Port-Gentil, Lambaréné, Mouila, Oyem, Franceville and Koulamoutou, from which cases move progressively to a central Criminal Court, Court of Appeal and Supreme Court, all 3 located in Libreville. Civil police number about 900. Religion. It is estimated that 50% of the population is Christian (mainly Roman Catholic), the majority of the balance following animist beliefs. There are about 2,000 Moslems. Education. Education is compulsory between 6-16 years. In 1981 there were 155,081 pupils with 3,281 teachers in primary schools; 22,005 pupils with 1,088 teachers in secondary schools; 3,465 students with 266 teachers in 9 technical schools; and 2,119 students with 120 teaching staff at 13 teacher-training schools. The Université Omar Bongo, founded in 1970 in Libreville, had (1978) 1,284 students; about 750 Gabonese students study abroad. Health (1977). There were 207 doctors, 20 dentists, 28 pharmacists ( 1971 ), 99 midwives and 823 nursing personnel. In 1981 there were 16 hospitals and 87 medical centres, with a total of4,815 beds, as well as 258 local dispensaries. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Gabon in Great Britain (48 Kensington Ct., London, W8) Ambassador: Léon N'Dong. Of Great Britain in Gabon (Bâtiment Sogame, Blvd de l'Indépendance, Libreville) Ambassador: R. H. T. Bates. Of Gabon in the USA (2034 20th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Mocktar Abdoulaye-Mbingt. Of the USA in Gabon (Blvd de la Mer, Libreville) Ambassador: Francis McNamara. Of Gabon to the United Nations Ambassador: Jean-Félix Oyoue. Books of Reference Bory, P., The New Gabon. Monaco, 1978 Remy, M., Gabon Today. Paris, 1977

THE

GAMBIA

Capital: Banjul Population: 695,886 (1983) GNPper capita: US$344 (1983)

H I S T O R Y . The Gambia was discovered by the early Portuguese navigators, but they made no settlement. During the 17th century various companies of merchants obtained trading charters and established a settlement on the river, which, from 1807, was controlled from Sierra Leone; in 1843 it was made an independent Crown Colony; in 1866 it formed part of the West African Settlements, but in Dec. 1888 it again became a separate Crown Colony. The boundaries were delimited only after 1890. The Gambia achieved full internal self-government on 4 Oct. 1963 and became an independent member of the Commonwealth on 18Feb. 1965.The Gambia became a republic within the Commonwealth on 24 April 1970., The Gambia, with Senegal formed the Confederation of Senegambia on 1 Feb. 1982. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Gambia is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean and on all other sides by Senegal. Area of Banjul (formerly Bathurst) and environs, 87-8 sq. km. In the provinces (area, 10,601 -5 sq. km) the settled population (1971) was 275,469, not including temporary immigrants. Total population (census, April 1983), 695,886. The largest tribe is the Mandingo (1973) (186,241), followed by the Fulas (79,994), WolofTs (69,291), Jolas (41,988) and Sarahulis (38,478). The capital is Banjul, 1983 census (44,536), and the surrounding urban area, Kombo St Mary (102,858). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Parliament consists of the House of Representatives which consists of a Speaker, Deputy Speaker and 35 elected members; in addition, 4 Chiefs are elected by the Chiefs in Assembly; 5 nominated members are without votes and the Attorney-General is appointed and has a vote. See Senegal for details about Senegambia. A general election was held on 4-5 May 1982. State of parties (Jan. 1984): The People's Progressive Party 29, the National Convention Party 3, and Independents 3 seats. The Government was in Sept. 1984 composed as follows: President: Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara. Vice-President (Information and Tourism•): Bakary B. Darbo. External Affairs: Alhaji Lamine Kiti Jabang. Finance and Trade: SherifSisay. Agriculture (Finance and Trade): Saikou Sabally. Education, Youth, Sport and Culture: Alhaji Abdoulie K. N'Jie. Health, Labour and Social Welfare: Momodou Chemo Jallow. Works and Communications: Lamine Bora M'Boge. Economic Planning and Industrial Development: Dr Momodou S. K. Manneh. Justice and Attorney-General: Hassan Jallow. Water Resources and Environment: Omar A. Jallow. Information and Tourism: Landing Jallow Sonko. Interior: A. E. W. F. Badji. Local Government and Lands: Amulai Janneh. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of red, blue, green, with the blue edged in white. Local Administration. The Gambia is divided into 35 districts, each traditionally under a Chief, assisted by Village Heads and advisers. These districts are grouped into 6 Area Councils containing a majority of elected members, with the Chiefs of the district as ex-officio members. The city of Banjul is administered by a City Council. C L I M A T E . The climate is characterized by two very different seasons. The dry season lasts from Nov. to May, when precipitation is very light and humidity moderate. Days are warm but nights quite cool. The SW monsoon is likely to set in 507

508

GAMBIA

with spectacular storms and produces considerable rainfall from July to Oct., with increased humidity. Banjul. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 5 2 " (1,295 mm). INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. The Gambia is a member of UN, O A U , the Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Conference and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for years ending 30 June are (in dalasi): 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 Revenue 88,045,000 85,001,700 134,286,323 104,947,970 Expenditure 81,190,000 96,792,176 137,268,189 144,220,280 Currency. The currency is the dalasi and is divided into 100 butut. 5 dalasi = £1 sterling; 4 • 74 dalasi=US$ 1 (March 1985). Banking. There are 4 banks in the Gambia, the Standard Bank of Gambia Ltd, Central Bank of the Gambia, Commercial and Development Bank and la Banque Internationale pour le Commerce et l'lndustrie (BICI). On 30 Nov. 1978 the government savings bank had about 36,000 depositors holding approximately 992,496 dalasi. NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Heavy minerals, including ilmenite, zircon and rutile, have been discovered ( l m . tons up to 31 Dec. 1980)inSanyang, Batakunku and Kartongareas. Agriculture. Almost all commercial activity centres upon the marketing of groundnuts, which is the only export crop of financial significance; in 1982-83, 128,000 tonnes were produced. Cotton is also exported on a limited scale. Rice is of increasing importance for local consumption. Livestock (1983): 300,000 cattle, 194,000 goats, 185,000 sheep, 12,000 pigs and (1982) 300,000 poultry. Fisheries. Total catch (1975) 10,800 tonnes, of which 800 tonnes were from inland waters. L A B O U R . There are 4 large and 10 small trade unions. T R A D E . Chief items of imports are textiles and clothing, vehicles and machinery, metal goods and petroleum products. Imports and exports, in 1,000 dalasi: 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 Imports 221,014 500,000 275,800 220,600 218,900 Exports 94,913 417,000 ... 82,900 86,000 Chief items of exports are groundnuts, palm kernels, dried and smoked fish, hides and skins and groundnut oil. Total trade between the Gambia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ^ ^ m ( j m 4 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

2,417 17,792

2,335 11,889

2,031 10,087

3,781 13,251

3,407 10,233

T O U R I S M . In 1982-83,24,800 tourists visited the Gambia. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 2,990 km of motorable roads, of which 1,718 km rank as allweather roads including 306 km of bituminous surface and 531 km of laterite gravel. Number of licensed motor vehicles (1981): 7,400 private cars, 800 buses and coaches, 750 goods vehicles, and 800 motorcycles.

GAMBIA

509

Aviation. The Gambia is served by Air Guinea, Air Mali, British Caledonian Airways, Ghana Airways and Nigeria Airways. Air movements at Yundum Airport in 1975 numbered 2,756, including scheduled services. Shipping. The chief port, Banjul, handled 303 ships of 686,300 DWT in 1975-76. A new 400 ft berth will take one large vessel of up to 36 ft draught. Internal communication is maintained by steamers and launches. The Gambia River Development Organization was founded in 1978 as a joint project with Senegal to develop the river and its basin. Guinea and Guinea-Bissau were also members in 1984. Post and Broadcasting. There are several post ofTices and agencies; postal facilities are also afforded to all river towns by means of a travelling post office on the government river mail-steamers. Banjul is connected with St Vincent (Cape Verde islands) and with Sierra Leone by cable. Banjul is in wireless communication with London and the main centres up river. A trans-Gambia telephone system provides direct communications with Dakar and Ziguinchor. Telephones numbered 3,476 in Jan. 1980. A telex service was introduced in 1968. Radio Gambia, a government station, broadcasts for about 12 hours a day; Radio Syd, a commercial station, broadcasts for 15 hours. Number of radio receivers (1983, estimate), 66,000. Cinemas. In 1979 there were 10 cinemas. Newspapers. There is an official newspaper and several news-sheets. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court consisting of a chiefjustice and puisne judges. It has unlimited jurisdiction but there is a Court of Appeal. Two magistrates' courts and divisional courts are supplemented by a system of travelling magistrates. There are also Moslem courts, group tribunals dealing with cases concerned with customs and traditions, and one juvenile court. Religion. About 70% of the population is Moslem. Banjul is the seat of an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishop. There are some Methodist missions. Some sections of the population retain their original animist beliefs. Education (1979-80). There were 133 primary schools (1,371 teachers, 37,644 pupils), 17 secondary technical schools (260 teachers, 5,274 pupils), 7 senior secondary schools (179 teachers, 3.Q40 pupils) and 1 post-secondary school; total number of teachers, 1,810. Gambia College, which is to replace Yundum College as a teacher-training and vocational centre, opened for agricultural and health students in 1979. Health. In 1980 there were 43 government doctors, 23 private doctors and about 635 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Gambia in Great Britain (57 Kensington Ct., London, W8 5DG) High Commissioner: Samuel J. O. Sarr, MBE. Of Great Britain in the Gambia (48 Atlantic Rd., Fajara, Banjul) High Commissioner: John D. Gamer, MVO. Of the Gambia in the USA (1785 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Dr Lamin A. Mbye. Of the USA in the Gambia (Pipeline Road, Kombo St. Mary, Banjul) Ambassador: Robert T. Hennemeyer. Books of Reference \ The Gambia since Independence 1965-1980. Banjul, 1980 Tomkinson, M„ The Gambia: A Holiday Guide. London, 1983

GERMANY POST-WAR H I S T O R Y . Since the unconditional surrender of the German armed forces on 8 May 1945 there has been no central authority whose writ runs in the whole of Germany. Consequently no peace treaty has been signed with a government representing the whole of Germany, and the country is virtually partitioned between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. By the Berlin Declaration of 5 June 1945 the governments of the USA, the UK, the USSR and France assumed supreme authority over Germany. Each of the 4 signatories was given a zone of occupation, in which the supreme power was to be exercised by the C.-in-C. in that zone (see map in T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1947). Jointly these 4 Cs.-in-C. constituted the Allied Control Council in Berlin, which was to be competent in all 'matters affecting Germany as a whole'. The territory of Greater Berlin, divided into 4 sectors, was to be governed as an entity by the 4 occupying powers. At the Potsdam Conference (17 July-2 Aug. 1945) the northern part of the Province of East Prussia, including its capital Königsberg (renamed Kaliningrad), was transferred to the Soviet Union, pending final ratification by a peace treaty; and it was agreed that, pending the final peace settlement, Poland should administer those parts of Germany lying east of a line running from the Baltic Sea immediately west of Swinemünde along the river Oder to its confluence with the Western Neisse and thence along the Western Neisse to the Czechoslovak frontier. The agreements between the war-time allies concerning the occupation zones (12 Sept. 1944) and control of Germany (1 May 1945) were repudiated by the USSR on 27 Nov. 1958. A Treaty was signed in East Berlin between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany on 21 Dec. 1972 agreeing the basis of relations between the two countries.

510

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

Capital: Berlin (East) Population: 16-7m. (1983) GNPper capila: U S $ 7 , 1 8 0 ( 1980)

Deutsche Demokratische Republik H I S T O R Y . For t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - w a r history see p. 5 1 0 . AREA AND

P O P U L A T I O N . A r e a a n d p o p u l a t i o n , 3 0 J u n e 1983 (in 1,000):

Districts Berlin (East) Cottbus Dresden Erfurt Frankfurt Gera Halle Karl-Marx-Stadt Leipzig Magdeburg Neubrandenburg Potsdam Rostock Schwerin Suhl German Democratic Republic

Area in sq. km 403 8,262 6,738 7,349 7,186 4,004 8,771 6,009 4,966 11,526 10,948 12,568 7,074 8,672 3,856

Male 552-5 423 0 836-5 586-3 341-3 350-5 854-2 882-4 646-0 594-7 300 5 533-8 431-2 282-8 261-1

108,333

7,876-9

-

Population Female 633-1 460-8 959-9 652-3 367-7 392-6 955-8 1,020-5 746-6 664 3 320-5 588-1 464-7 309-1 288-6

Total 1,185-5 883-9 1,796-3 1,238-6 709-0 743-1 1,810-0 1,903-0 1,392-6 1,259-0 621-0 1,121-9 895-9 592-0 549-7

Per sq. km 2,924 107 267 169 99 186 206 317 280 109 57 89 127 68 143

8,824-5

16,701-5

154

A n a g r e e m e n t p r o c l a i m i n g t h e O d e r - N e i s s e line t h e p e r m a n e n t f r o n t i e r b e t w e e n G e r m a n y a n d P o l a n d was c o n c l u d e d b e t w e e n t h e G e r m a n D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c a n d P o l a n d o n 6 J u l y 1950. A p r o t o c o l o n t h e d e l i m i t a t i o n of t h e f r o n t i e r was signed o n 2 7 J a n . 1951. R e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l t o w n s as at 3 0 J u n e 1982: Berlin (East), capital 1,185,533 558,994 Leipzig Dresden 522,532 318,917 Karl-Marx-Stadt 289,075 Magdeburg Vital statistics: 1980 1981 1982 1983

Rostock Halle Erfurt Potsdam Gera

Live births 245,132 237,543 240,102 233,756

Marriages 134,195 128,174 124,890 125,429

241,146 236,139 214,231 135,922 129,891 Divorces 44,794 48,567 49,874 49,624

Schwerin Zwickau Cottbus Jena Dessau

124,975 120,486 120,723 106,555 103,738

Deaths 238,254 232,244 227,975 222,702

C r u d e b i r t h rate p e r 1,000 p o p u l a t i o n was 13-9 in 1978; 14 in 1979; 14-6 in 1980; 14-2 in 1981; 14-4 in 1982; 13-3 in 1983; m a r r i a g e rate, 8 - 4 in 1978; 8 - 2 in 1979; 8 in 1980; 7 - 7 in 1981; 7 - 5 in 1982; 7 - 5 in 1983; d e a t h rate, 13-9 in 1978; 13-9 in 1979; 14-2 in 1980; 13-9 in 1981; 13-7 in 1982; 13-3 in 1983; i n f a n t i l e m o r t a l i t y p e r 1,000 live births, 7 in 1978 a n d 1979; 6 - 7 in 1980; 6 - 9 in 1981; 5 -9 in 1982; 5 - 6 in 1983. C L I M A T E . T h e c o n t i n e n t a l - t y p e c l i m a t e m a k e s winters crisp a n d clear, b u t w i t h cold easterly w i n d s bringing very low t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d a p p r e c i a b l e snowfall. S u m 511

512

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

mers are hot, but with much convectional rainfall. Berlin. Jan. 31°F (-0-5°C), July 66°F(19°C). Annual rainfall 22-5" (563 mm). Dresden. Jan. 30°F(-1°C), July 65° F (18-5°C). Annual rainfall 27-2" (680 mm). Leipzig. Jan. 3 l°F(-0-6°C), July 65°F (18 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 24" (605 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Upon the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany, the People's Council of the Soviet-occupied zone, appointed in 1948, was converted into a provisional People's Chamber. On 7 Oct. 1949 the provisional People's Chamber enacted a constitution of the 'German Democratic Republic'. In July 1952 the 5 Lander of Mecklenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Brandenburg, Saxony and Thuringia were replaced by 14 districts (Bezirke). A new 'socialist constitution' was approved by a referendum on 6 April 1968 (revised in 1974), when 94-54% of the electorate voted for the constitution; it came into force on 8 April 1968. The People's Chamber, of500 deputies, is 'the supreme organ of state power'; it elects the Council of State, the Council of Ministers, the National Defence Council and the judges of the Supreme Court. Latest elections to the People's Chamber were in June 1981: the National Front candidates won 99 • 86% of the vote. The State Presidency was abolished after the death of Wilhelm Pieck in 1960. Council of State. This consists of a chairman, 6 deputy chairmen, 18 members and a secretary. The Council is authorized to issue decisions and to interpret existing laws. The Chairman of the Council of State represents the GDR in international law. Chairman: Erich Honecker. In March 1985 the Council of Ministers was composed as follows: Chairman (i.e. Premier): Willi Stoph. First Deputy Chairmen: Alfred Neumann, Werner Krolikowski. Deputy Chairmen: Günther Kleiber, Wolfgang Rauchfuss, Gerhard Schürer (Chairman, State Planning Commission), Dr Gerhard Weiss, Dr Herbert Weiz, Manfred Flegel, Hans-Joachin Heusinger (Minister of Justice), Dr Hans Reichelt (Ministerfor the Environment), Rudolph Schulze. The Presidium of the Council of Ministers consists of the above-mentioned, and Ernst Höfner (Minister of Finance), Walter Halbritter (Director, Office of Prices), and Horst Solle (Foreign Trade Minister). There are 39 other members, including Heinz Hoffman (Defence), Oskar Fischer (Foreign Affairs), and Friedrich Dickel (Interior). De facto political power is exercised by the Politburo of the Socialist Unity (i.e. Communist) Party (SED), which in March 1985 consisted of: Erich Honecker (Secretary-General)', Hermann Axen; Horst Dohlus; Werner Felfe; Kurt Hager; Joachim Herrmann; Heinz Hoffmann; Egon Krenz; Werner Krolikowski; Erich Mielke; Günter Mittag; Erich Mueckenberger, Konrad Naumann; Alfred Neumann; Horst Sindermann; Willi Stoph; Harry Tisch; Paul Verner. There were also 7 candidate members. National flag: Black, red, golden (horizontal); in the centre, on both sides, the coat of arms showing a hammer and compass with a wreath of grain entwined with a black, red and golden ribbon. National hymn: Auferstanden aus Ruinen (tune by Hanns Eisler). East Berlin ('Democratic Berlin') is the capital of the German Democratic Republic. Mayor: Erhard Krack. D E F E N C E . On 18 Jan. 1956 the People's Chamber established a 'national people's army' and a defence ministry. A 12-member defence council, under the chairmanship of E. Honecker, General Secretary of the Central Committee, was set upon 10 Feb. 1960. The 'law for the defence of the GDR', of 20 Sept. 1960, makes military service (in case of emergency) and civil defence compulsory for all citizens. Conscription for men between 18 and 25 years was introduced on 24 Jan. 1962 (18 months' service in the army, 2 years in the navy and air force).

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Twenty Soviet divisions of about 258,000 men with about 1,000 heavy tanks and 6,000 armoured vehicles are stationed in the German Democratic Republic, chiefly along the Polish border. Army. The Army, set up on 1 March 1956, is organized in 2 army corps, including 2 armoured divisions and 4 motorized infantry divisions. Operationally these divisions are subordinate to the Soviet formations of the Warsaw Pact forces. They are armed with about 3,100 tanks (mostly Soviet T-54, T-55 and T-72), 216 self-propelled guns and ground-to-air 'Guideline' missiles. The Border Police was incorporated in the Army in Sept. 1961. Total army strength was (1985) 120,000 (71,500 conscripts) with a reserve of 580,000 men. Police. The Police force (Volkspolizei) numbered 25,000 security and 46,500 border troops. There are also 450,000 militiamen organized in combat groups. The militia receive military instruction from the People's Police. Navy. The 'People's Navy' (Volksmarine) includes 2 frigates, 13 corvettes, 15 missile boats, 50 torpedo boats, 6 patrol vessels, 46 coastal minesweepers, 3 intelligence ships, 16 coastguard boats, 12 tank landing ships, 10 oilers, 2 training ships, 4 supply ships, 5 survey vessels, 9 small survey craft, 13 buoy tenders, 3 diving vessels, 1 cable layer, 2 torpedo recovery craft, 2 icebreakers, 30 auxiliary ships and service craft and 13 tugs. Personnel in 1985 totalled 14,600 officers and men, including the GBK Coastal Frontier Guards (Grenz Brigade Kiiste). Air Force. The ex-'air-police', set up in Nov. 1950, had in 1985 a strength of about 37,000 officers and men and 375 combat aircraft. Two air defence divisions consist respectively of 2 and 4 regiments (each with 3 squadrons of 12 aircraft), plus a fighter training division, equipped with MiG-21 and a small number of MiG-23 supersonic day and all-weather interceptors. There is 1 squadron of MiG-21 reconnaissance fighters. Four ground attack squadrons have begun replacing MiG-17s with MiG-27s, and Mi-24 gunship helicopters have been delivered to the German Democratic Republic. Other units include a regiment of Mi-2, Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters, a regiment of An-2, Let L.410, 11-14, An-26 and Tu-134 transports and a Flight Training Division with Yak-18, Trener, L-29 Delfin, L-39 Albatros, MiG-15UTI and MiG-21U training aircraft. 'Guideline* and 'Goa' surface-to-air missile units are operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The German Democratic Republic is a member of UN and Comecon. ECONOMY Budget. The budget of the German Democratic Republic was as follows (in M lm.) for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1978 132,612 132,103

1979 140,633 140,223

1980 160,652 160,283

1981 167,466 167,159

1982 182,836 182,071

1983 192,410 191,689

Of the 1982 expenditures, 54,875m. was earmarked for health and social services, education and Kultur. Currency. The circulating Reichsmark notes were in June 1948 exchanged for 'Deutsche Mark' (East), renamed 'Mark of the German Bank of Issue' (MDN) from 1 Aug. 1964 and further renamed'the Mark oftheGDR'(M) from 1967. The circulation of notes and coins at 31 Dec. 1980 was M 12,250m. In March 1985, £1 = 3-60 M;US$1 =3-43 M. Banking. The most important banking institutions of the GDR are the Staatsbank der DDR Berlin, which is the bank of issue, and the Industrie- und Handelsbank der DDR. Savings, as at 31 Dec. 1983, totalledM 113,193m. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force.

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ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Generation of electric power (in lm. kwh.): 1950, 19,466; 1960, 40,305; 1970, 67,650; 1977, 91,996; 1978, 95,963; 1979, 96,845; 1980, 98,808; 1981,100,720; 1982,102,906; 1983,104,928. Minerals. In the production of lignite, the German Democratic Republic takes first place in world output. Rare metals, such as uranium, cobalt, bismuth, arsenic and antimony, are being exploited in the western Erzgebirge and eastern Thuringia. The principal minerals are as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Coal Lignite

1981 1982 1983. 1980 258 267 258,097 266,734 276,038 277,968

Potash

1980 3,422

1981 3,460

1982 3,434

1983 3,431

Agriculture. In 1983 the arable land was 4-74m. hectares; meadows and pastures, 1,250,271 hectares. In 1983 there were 3,938 collective farms with 5 -36m. hectares of land cultivated independently and 70,726 hectares cooperatively, and 477 state farms of436,421 hectares. The yield of the main crops in 1983 was as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Potatoes, 7,063; sugar-beet, 5,711; barley, 3,882; wheat, 3,550; rye, 2,092; oats, 498. Livestock (in 1,000) in 1983: Cattle, 5,768 (including 2,096 milch cows); pigs, 13,058; sheep, 2,359; goats, 24; horses, 88; poultry, 53,018. Forestry. In 1983 there were 2,963,138 hectares of forest. Timber production was 10,432,800 cu. metres. The industry employed 45,877 people in 1982. Fisheries. Total catch (1983) 266,015 tonnes. Inland catch was 22,310 tonnes, of which 12,041 tonnes was carp. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Industry produced about 69% of the national income in 1982; the nationally owned and co-operative undertakings were responsible for 96-5% of the net product. The percentage of privately owned enterprises was 32 -8 in 1950 and 2 -9 in 1982. There were, at 31 Dec. 1982,4,029 industrial establishments with 3,190,361 employees. Production of iron and steel (in 1,000 tonnes): Crude steel Rolledsteel

1977 6,850 4,802

1978 6,976 5,002

1979 7,023 5,100

1980 7,308 5,128

1981 7,467 5,061

1982 7,168 4,959

1983 7,219 5,084

Leading chemical products in 1983 were (in 1,000 tonnes): Sulphuric acid, 926; nitrogen fertilizers, 968; calcined soda, 887; caustic soda, 687; other industrial products: cement, 11,782; passenger cars (no.), 188,300; television receivers (no.), 667,100; shoes, 82m. pairs; plastics and synthetic resins, 1,045. Commerce. Total trade was as follows (in 1 m. Valuta-Mark): 1970 1980 1981

Imports 20,357 62,970 67,000

Total

Exports 19,240 57,131 65,927

1982 1983

Imports 69,878 76,197

Total

Exports 75,231 84,227

In 1983 machinery made up 48% of exports and fuels and metal ores 40% of imports. Largest trading partners: USSR, Czechoslovakia, Federal Germany. Total trade between the German Democratic Republic and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports t o U K Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 88,127 94,124

1981 93,507 82,975

1982 133,921 63,665

1983 157,625 60,997

1984 190,130 92,270

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1983,47,380 km of classified roads. 3,463m. passengers and

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141-7m. tonnes of goods were carried by public transport in 1983. There were 3,019,875 cars, 223,186 lorries, 1,306,788 motorcycles and 53,178 buses. Railways. There were, in 1983, 13,933 km of standard gauge line, of which 2,096 km were electrified. 620m. passengers and 325-6m. tonnes of freight were carried in 1983. Aviation. Interflug operates services between Berlin and Prague, Warsaw, Budapest, Bucharest, Moscow, Sofia, Belgrade, Tirana, Cairo, Baghdad, Beirut and other capitals. Passengers carried (1983), 1,358,700; freight, 29,000 tonnes. Shipping. In 1983 the merchant fleet had 174 vessels of 1,223,865 GRT. 11 -9m. tonnes of freight were carried. Navigable inland waterways had a total length of 2,319 km. 7m. passengers and 17-47m. tonnes offreight were carried. Pipeline. 1,301 km in 1983. Materials transported in 1983: 37-2m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 11,971 post offices and agencies and 3,441,484 telephone subscribers. Staatliches Kommittee fur Rundfunk, the governmental broadcasting station, broadcasts 4 programmes on long-, mediumand short-waves, and on FM. The foreign service is broadcast in 11 languages on medium-and short-waves, using the name Radio Berlin International. The transmitters are located at Konigswusterhausen, Leipzig and Nauen. Radio Volga transmits on long-waves from Burg and broadcasts in Russian for the Soviet Armed Forces in Germany. More than 80% of the programmes are relays from Radio Moscow. Radio Moscow is using relay transmitters on medium-waves at Leipzig for programmes in German. Deutsche Freiheitssender 904 and Deutsche Soldatensenderaie clandestine stations claiming to be operating from the Federal Republic although they are located not far from Burg. Fernsehen der DDR broadcasts 2 TV programmes in colour, using SECAM-system. Number of wireless licences (1983), 6-49m.; TV licences, 5-93m. Cinemas and Theatres (1983). There were 824 cinemas with a seating capacity of 255,132, and 195 theatres with a capacity of56,853. Newspapers. There were 519 newspapers and periodicals in 1983. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. According to the census of 1950, 80 -5% of the population were Protestants and 11% were Roman Catholics. Education. There are 2 types of schools: (a) the General polytechnical secondary schools, with 10 grades (the former elementary and middle schools), numbering (1983) 5,183 with 1,973,902 pupils; (b) the Extended polytechnical secondary schools, with the 11th and 12th grades, numbering (1983) 214 with 44,985 pupils. There were 171,914 teachers in 1983. In addition there were (1983), 969 vocational schools (Berufsschulen) with 16,777 teachers and 411,166 pupils and 240 technical schools with 167,864 pupils. There were also 54 universities and other higher education institutes with 108,120 full-time students, including 57,281 women. Health. In 1983, 541 hospitals had 170,996 beds. There were 581 polyclinics. There were 36,181 doctors and 10,903 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the German Democratic Republic in Great Britain (34 Belgrave Sq., London, SW1X8QB) Ambassador: Dr Gerhard Lindner (accredited 27 July 1984). Of Great Britain in the German Democratic Republic (108 Berlin, Unter den Linden 32/34) Ambassador: T. J. Everard, CMG.

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O f t h e G e r m a n D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c in t h e U S A (1717 M a s s a c h u s e t t s Ave., N W , Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: D r Gerhard Herder. O f t h e U S A in t h e G e r m a n D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c (108 Berlin, N e u s t ä d t i s c h e Kirchstrasse 4 - 5 ) Ambassador: R o z a n n e L. Ridgway. Of the German Democratic Republic to the United Nations Ambassador: Harry Ott. B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Statistical Information: The central statistical agency is the Staatliche Zentralverwaltung für Statistik (Hans-Beimler-Str. 70-72,102, Berlin). Statistisches Jahrbuch der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, annual (from 1956).— Statistisches Taschenbuch der DDR (annual, from 1959; also Arabic, English, French, Russian, Spanish editions).—Statistische Praxis (from 1946). The Constitution of the German Democratic Republic. 3rd ed. Berlin, 1974 Deutsche Demokratische Republik, Handbuch. Leipzig, 1979 Handbook of the Economy of the German Democratic Republic. Farnborough, 1979 Biermann, W., Demokratiserung in der DDR?Cologne, 1978 Childs, D., East Germany. London, 1969.—The GDR: Moscow's German Ally. London, 1983 Heitzer, H., GDR:An Historical Outline. Dresden, 1981 Honecker, E., Reden und Aufsätze. Berlin, 1975-; The German Democratic Republic, Pillar of Peace and Socialism. New York, 1979 Krisch, H., German Politics under Soviet Occupation. New York and London, 1974 Legters, L. H., The jGerman Democratic Republic: A Developed Socialist Society. Boulder, 1978 McCauley, M., The German Democratic Republic since 1945. London, 1984 National Library: Deutsche Bücherei, Leipzig C . l . Director: Helmut Rötzsch.—Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. Director: Professor H. Kunze.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC GERMANY

Capital: Bonn Population: 6\ -4m.(1983) GNPper capita: US$ 13,450 ( 1981 )

OF

Bundesrepublik Deutschland

H I S T O R Y . The Federal Republic of Germany became a sovereign independent country on 5 May 1955 and is a member of EEC, the Council of Europe, Western European Union, NATO, the European Coal and Steel Community, Euratom, the European Monetary Agreement and the Agencies of the UN. In June 1948 USA, U K and France agreed on a central government for the 3 western zones. An Occupation Statute, which came into force on 30 Sept. 1949, reduced the responsibilities of the occupation authorities. Formally, the Federal Republic of Germany came into existence on 21 Sept. 1949. The Petersberg Agreement of 22 Nov. 1949 freed the Federal Republic of numerous restrictions of the Occupation Statute. In 1951 USA, U K and France as well as other states terminated the state of war with Germany; the Soviet Union followed on 25 Jan. 1955. On 5 May 1955 the High Commissioners of USA, U K and France signed a proclamation revoking the Occupation Statute. On the same day, the Paris and London treaties, signal in Oct. 1954, came into force and established the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . In April 1949 some minor frontier rectifications were carried out in favour of the Netherlands (68 sq. km), Belgium (18 sq. km), Luxembourg (6 sq. km) and France (7 sq. km), subject to a final peace settlement. Belgium (1956) and the Netherlands (1963) returned most of this territory to Germany. Area and estimated population as at 30 June 1983: Länder Schleswig-Holstein Hamburg Lower Saxony Bremen North Rhine-Westphalia Hessen Rhineland-Palatinate Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Saarland

Area in sq. km 15,720 755 47,426 404 34,067 21,114 19,846 35,752 70,551 2,571

Berlin (West)

Population Male Female 1,262,900 1,354,200 756,500 861,300 3,770,700 3,480,200 321,100 361,300 8,070,900 8,830,600 2,683,300 2,900,800 1,736,200 1,896,400 4,455,400 4,800,800 5,248,300 5,715,900 499,900 553,800

480

Federal Republic

248,687

1

Total 2,617,100 1,617,800 7,250,900 682,400 16,901,500 5,584,100 3,632,600 9,256,100 10,964,200 1,053,700

Per sq. km 166 2,144 153 1,688 496 264 183 259 155 410

848,800

1,011,600

1,860,500

3,875

29,363,400

32,057,300

61,420,700

247

196,018 sq. miles. Vital statistics for c a l e n d a r years: 1981 1982 1983

Marriages 359,658 361,966 369,628

Live births 624,557 621,173 594,177

517

Of these illegitimate 49,363 52,750 52,442

Deaths 722,192 715,857 718,337

518

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

C r u d e b i r t h rate in 1983 was 9 - 7 p e r 1,000 p o p u l a t i o n ; m a r r i a g e rate, 6; d e a t h rate, 11-7; infantile m o r t a l i t y 10-2. In 1983 t h e r e w e r e 4 8 9 , 2 0 0 e m i g r a n t s a n d 3 7 2 , 0 0 0 i m m i g r a n t s . M i g r a n t s f r o m Eastern G e r m a n y t o t h e Federal R e p u b l i c , i n c l u d i n g West Berlin, t o t a l l e d a b o u t 2 , 0 2 2 , 0 0 0 b e t w e e n 195 5 a n d 1961. Tlie East G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t tried t o s t o p t h e o u t f l o w by erecting a c o n c r e t e wall w h i c h later b e c a m e a heavily fortified b a r r i e r a l o n g t h e b o r d e r in Berlin o n 13 A u g . 1961; despite t h e Berlin wall, t h e figures registered for p e r s o n s m o v i n g f r o m E a s t e r n G e r m a n y a n d East Berlin i n t o t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c w e r e 2 0 , 7 0 0 in 1 9 7 0 , 1 5 , 4 0 0 in 1979 a n d 15,544 in 1982; m o s t of t h e m a r e o l d e r p e o p l e with p e r m i s s i o n t o e m i g r a t e . M i g r a n t s f r o m t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c t o E a s t e r n G e r m a n y totalled a b o u t 2 7 9 , 0 0 0 b e t w e e n 1955 a n d 1961, 2 , 5 0 0 in 1 9 6 9 , 1 , 3 0 0 in 1979 a n d 1,528 in 1982. T h e resident p o p u l a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l t o w n s was e s t i m a t e d a s follows o n 30 J u n e 1983: PopulaPopulation Land tion Town Land Town Frei bürg im 1,860,500 Berlin (West) Berlin (West) Hamburg 1,617,800 178,400 Hamburg Breisgau Baden-Württ. München Bavaria 1,284,300 Herne N. Rhine-Westph. 177,700 Köln N. Rhine-Westph. 953,300 Mülheim a.d. Essen N. Rhine-Westph. 635,200 Ruhr N. Rhine-Westph. 177,200 Hamm N. Rhine-Westph. 170,000 Frankfiirt am Hessen Solingen N. Rhine-Westph. 161,100 Main 614,700 595,200 Leverkusen Dortmund N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. 157,400 Düsseldorf N. Rhine-Westph. 579,800 Ludwigshafen Stuttgart Baden-Württ. am Rhein Rhinel.-Pal. 157,400 571,100 Bremen Osnabrück Bremen 545,100 Lower Saxony 156,100 Duisburg N. Rhine-Westph. 541,800 Neuss N. Rhine-Westph. 146,800 Hanover Lower Saxony Lower Saxony 524,300 138,800 Oldenburg Nürnberg Bavaria 476,400 Darmstadt Hessen 137,800 Bochum Bremerhaven Bremen 137,300 N. Rhine-Westph. 391,300 Wuppertal Heidelberg N. Rhine-Westph. 386,000 Baden-Württ. 133,600 Bielefeld Lower Saxony N. Rhine-Westph. 307,900 Göttingen 132,700 Mannheim 299,700 Regensburg Bavaria 132,000 Baden-Württ. Gelsen kirchen N. Rhine-Westph. 295,400 Würzburg 129,500 Bavaria Bonn N. Rhine-Westph. 292,900 Remscheid N. Rhine-Westph. 125,500 Münster Wolfsburg Lower Saxony 124,000 N. Rhine-Westph. 273,500 Recklinghausen N. Rhine-Westph. 119,100 (Westf.) Hessen 272,600 N. Rhine-Westph. 113,400 Bottrop Wiesbaden 270,300 Koblenz 112,200 Baden-Württ. Rhinel.-Pal. Karlsruhe Salzgitter Lower Saxony 111,100 MönchengladN. Rhine-Westph. 258,200 Heilbronn Baden-Württ. 111,000 bach 257,100 Paderborn N. Rhine-Westph. 110,300 Braunschweig Lower Saxony Siegen N. Rhine-Westph. 109,800 Kiel Schleswig-Holstein 248,400 246,700 Offenbach am Augsburg Bavaria Main Hessen Aachen N. Rhine-Westph. 243,700 108,600 Oberhausen N. Rhine-Westph. 226,200 Pforzheim Baden-Württ. 105,200 Krefeld N. Rhine-Westph. 222,100 Witten N. Rhine-Westph. 104,200 Lübeck Schleswig-Holstein 216,100 Erlangen 102,400 Bavaria Hagen Hildesheim Lower Saxony 101,900 N. Rhine-Westph. 212,500 Kassel Hessen 190,400 Bergisch Saarbrücken Gladbach Saarland 190,100 N. Rhine-Westph. 100,900 Mainz Rhinel.-Pal. 186,400 C L I M A T E . O c e a n i c i n f l u e n c e s a r e o n l y f o u n d in t h e n o r t h - w e s t w h e r e w i n t e r s a r e q u i t e m i l d b u t s t o r m y . E l s e w h e r e a c o n t i n e n t a l c l i m a t e is general. T o t h e east a n d s o u t h , w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e lower, with bright frosty w e a t h e r a n d c o n siderable snowfall. S u m m e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e fairly u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t . R a i n f a l l is well d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e year, v a r y i n g f r o m 2 0 " (500 m m ) o n l o w g r o u n d t o 8 0 " ( 2 , 0 0 0 m m ) in A l p i n e parts. C O N S T I T U T I O N . T h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b l y ( k n o w n as t h e ' P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o u n c i l ' ) m e t in B o n n o n 1 Sept. 1948, a n d w o r k e d o u t a Basic L a w w h i c h was

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approved by a two-thirds majority of the parliaments of the participating Länder and came into force on 23 May 1949. The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) consists of a preamble and 146 articles. The first section deals with the basic rights which are legally binding for legislation, administration and jurisdiction. The Federal Republic of Germany is a democratic and social federal state. For the time being the Basic Law applies to the Länder Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Bremen, Greater Berlin (temporarily suspended), Hamburg, Hessen, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland and SchleswigHolstein. The Basic Law decrees that the general rules of international law form part of the federal law. The constitutions of the Länder must conform to the principles of a republican, democratic and social state based on the rule of law. Executive power is vested in the Länder, unless the Basic Law prescribes or permits otherwise. Federal law supersedes Land law. The organs of the Federal Republic are: The Federal Diet (Bundestag), elected in universal, direct, free, equal and secret elections, for a term of 4 years. The Federal Council (Bundesrat), consisting of members of the governments of the Länder. Each Land has at least 3 votes. Länder with more than 2m. inhabitants have 4, Länder with more than 6m. inhabitants have 5 votes. The Federal President (Bundespräsident) is elected by the Federal Assembly for a term of 5 years and represents the Federal Republic in international relations. Re-election is admissible only once. The Federal Assembly (which meets only for the election of the Federal President) consists of the members of the Federal Diet and an equal number of members elected by the popular representative bodies of the Länder according to a particular system of semi-proportional representation. The Federal Government consists of the Federal Chancellor, elected by the Federal Diet on the proposal of the Federal President, and the Federal Ministers, who are appointed and dismissed by the Federal President upon the proposal of the Federal Chancellor. The Federal Republic has exclusive legislation on: (1) foreign affairs (2) federal citizenship; (3) freedom of movement, passports, immigration and emigration, and extradition; (4) currency, money and coinage, weights and measures, and regulation of time and calendar; (5) customs, commercial and navigation agreements, traffic in goods and payments with foreign countries, including customs and frontier protection; (6) federal railways and air traffic; (7) post and telecommunications; (8) the legal status of persons in the employment of the Federation and of public law corporations under direct supervision of the Federal Government; (9) trade marks, copyright and publishing rights; (10) co-operation of the Federal Republic and the Länder in the criminal police and in matters concerning the protection of the constitution, the establishment of a Federal Office of Criminal Police, as well as the combating of international crime; (11) federal statistics. For concurrent legislation in which the Länder have legislative rights if and as far as the Federal Republic does not exercise its legislative powers, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 6 , p . 1038.

Federal laws are passed by the Federal Diet and after their adoption submitted to the Federal Council, which has a limited veto. The Basic Law may be amended only upon the approval of two-thirds of the members of the Federal Diet and twothirds of the votes of the Federal Council. The foreign service, federal finance, railways, postal services, waterways and shipping are under direct federal administration. In the field of finance the Federal Republic has exclusive legislation on customs and financial monopolies and concurrent legislation on: (1) excise taxes and taxes on transactions, in particular, taxes on real-estate acquisition, incremented value and on fire protection; (2) taxes on income, property, inheritance and donations; (3) real estate, industrial and trade taxes, witn the exception of the determining of the tax rates. The Federal Republic can, by federal law, claim part of the income and corpora-

520

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tion taxes to cover its expenditures not covered by other revenues. Financial jurisdiction is uniformly regulated by federal legislation. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of black, red, gold. National anthem: Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit (words by H. Hoffmann, 1841; tune by J. Haydn, 1797). G O V E R N M E N T . The Federal Diet, elected in March 1983 was composed of 498 members. In addition, there are 22 members for Berlin who, however, have no vote. State of the parties: Social Democrats (SPD), 193 (1980: 218); Christian Democrats (CDU), 191(174); Free Democrats (FDP), 34 (53); Christian Socialists (CSU), 53 (52); The Greens 27 (-). Bonn on the Rhine is the capital of the Federal Republic. Federal President: Dr Richard von Weizsäcker (sworn in 1 July 1984). The Cabinet, a coalition of Christian Democrats, Christian Socialists and Free Democrats, in March 1984, was as follows: Chancellor: Dr Helmut Kohl (CDU). Deputy Chancellor, Minister of Foreign Affairs: Hans-Dietrich Genscher (FDP). Interior: Dr Friedrich Zimmermann (CSU). Justice: Hans A. Engelhard (FDP): Finance: Dr Gerhard Stoltenberg (CDU). Economics: Dr Otto Count Lambsdorff (FDP). Food, Agriculture and Forestry: Ignaz Kiechle (CSU). Intra-German Relations: Heinrich Windelen (CDU). Labour and Social Affairs: Dr Norbert Blüm (CDU). Defence: Dr Manfred Wömer (CDU). Youth, Family Affairs and Health: Dr Heiner Geissler (CDU). Transport: Dr Werner Dollinger (CSU). Posts and Telecommunications: Dr Christian Schwarz-Schilling (CDU). Regional Planning, Building and Urban Development: Dr Oscar Schneider (CSU). Research and Technology: Dr Heinz Riesenhuber (CDU). Education and Science: Dr Dorothee Wilms (CDU). Economic Co-operation: Dr Jürgen Warnke (CSU). D E F E N C E . The Paris Treaties, which entered into force in May 1955, stipulated a contribution of the Federal Republic to western defence within the framework of NATO and the Western European Union. The Federal Armed Forces (Bundeswehr) had a total strength (1985) of495,000 all ranks (236,000 conscripts) and a further 750,000 reserves. Army. The Army is divided into the Field Army, containing the units assigned to NATO in event of war, and the Territorial Army. The Field Army is organized in 3 corps, comprising 17 armoured, 15 armoured infantry, 1 mountain ana 3 airborne brigades. Equipment includes 1,232 M-48, 2,437 LeopaFd I and 800 Leopard II tanks. The Territorial Army is organized into 5 Military Districts, under 3 Territorial Commands. Its main task is to defend rear areas and remains under national control even in wartime. Total strength was (1985) 335,500 (conscripts 181,000; Territorial Army 44,000). Navy. The Federal Navy comprises 24 diesel-powered coastal submarines, 7 destroyers, 8 frigates, 6 corvettes, 40 fast missile boats (Exocet armed), a light cruiser type training ship, 10 frigate-type support ships, 18 coastal minesweepers and minehunters, 21 fast minesweepers, 20 inshore minesweepers, 22 utility landing craft, 28 smaller landing craft, 12 supply and support ships, 2 fleet replenishment ships, 8 oilers, 8 coast patrol boats, 12 torpedo recovery vessels, 9 coastguard cutters, 2 repair ships, 24 tugs and 45 auxiliaries and service craft. The projected construction programme includes 12 submarines, 2 more guided missile frigates and 10 minehunters.

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The Naval Air Arm operates 160 fixed-wing aircraft, comprising 50 Tornados, 70 Starfighters, 20 Atlantics and 20 Dorniers; and 34 helicopters (22 Sea Kings and 12 Lynx). Navy personnel in 1985 totalled 5,600 officers and 32,900 men, including 6,700 in the Naval Air Arm. Air Force. Since Oct. 1970, the Luftwaffe has comprised the following commands: German Air Force Tactical Command, German Air Force Support Command (including two German Air Force Regional Support Commands—North and South) and General Air Force Office. Its strength in 1984 was approximately 105,900 officers and other ranks and about 500 first-line combat aircraft. Combat units, including 12 heavy fighter-bomber squadrons, 7 light ground attack/ reconnaissance squadrons, 4 reconnaissance squadrons, 8 surface-to-surface missile squadrons, and an air defence force of 4 interceptor squadrons, 24 batteries of Nike-Hercules and 36 batteries of Improved Hawk surface-to-air missiles, are assigned to NATO. There are 4 F-4F Phantom interceptor squadrons, 3 Tomado attack squadrons, 5 F-104G fighter-bomber squadrons (re-equipping with Tornados), 4 attack squadrons of-F-4Fs, 4 RF-4E Phantom reconnaissance squadrons, and 7 light attack/reconnaissance squadrons of Alpha Jets. Four transport squadrons (each 15 aircraft) with turboprop Transall C-160 aircraft and 1 wing of 5 helicopter squadrons with UH-1D Iroquois add to the air mobility of the Bundeswehr. There are also VIP, support and light transport aircraft, and Piaggio P. 149D initial training aircraft. Guided weapons in service include 8 squadrons of Pershing surface-to-surface missiles and 6 battalions of Nike-Hercules and 9 battalions of Improved Hawk surface-to-air missiles. Pilots undergo basic and advanced training in USA. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. The Federal Republic of Germany is a member of UN, OECD, EEC, NATO and the Council of Europe. ECONOMY

Budget. Since 1 Jan. 1979 tax revenues have been distributed as follows: Federal Government. Income tax, 42 • 5%; capital yield and corporation tax, 50%; turnover tax, 67 -5%; trade tax, 15%; capital gains, insurance and accounts taxes, 100%; excise duties (other than on beer), 100%. Länder. Income tax, 42 • 5%; capital yield and corporation tax, 50%; turnover tax, 32 • 5%; trade tax, 15%; other taxes, 100%. Local authorities. Income tax, 15%; trade tax, 70%; local taxes, 100%. Budgets for 1982 and 1983 (in DMlm.): Revenue Taxes Economic activities Interest Current allocations and subsidies Other receipts minus equalising payments

Sale ofassets Allocations for investment Repayment ofloans Public sector borrowing minus equalising payments

All public authorities 1982 1983

Federal portion 1982 1983

366,643 34,941 2,821 182,1 18 46,756 83,268

Current 383,378 184,574 36,545 15,294 2,813 1,259 182,438 2,052 49,074 4,045 82,809

191,865 16,010 1,131 3,252 3,764

458,951

480,220

214,396

6,294 51,854 7,762 2,229 23,825 477,339

206,198

Capital 6,563 51,658 7,758 2,158 23,731 498,797

413 32 1,805

226 .32 1,757

208,431

216,394

522

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY All public authorities Federal portion 1982 1982 1983 1983 Current 176,142 181,117 35,139 34,398 85,697 88,553 34,807 36,672 45,042 51,423 22,107 26,618 562,552 548,294 300,374 315,535 83,268 82,805

Expenditure Staff Materials Interest Allocations and subsidies minus equalising payments

451,391 Construction Acquisition of property Allocations and subsidies Loans Acquisition of shares Repayments in the public sector minus equalising payments

461,370

40,297 10,780 95,292 15,728 3,818 1,327 23,825 547,162

210,975

Capital 37,263 5,515 10,606 1,440 101,856 40,645 17,377 6,507 3,484 1,351 1,316 23,731 553,613

246,110

213,016 5,682 1,436 39,099 6,921 1,729

248,334

Major areas of expenditure in 1984 (and 1983) in DMlm.: Social, 75-9 (76-1); defence, 47 • 8 (46 • 7); transport, 24 • 6 (24 • 8); agriculture, 6-1 (5-9). Currency. \Q0 pfennig {pf.)=\ deutsche Mark (DM). There are 1,2,5,10, 50 pf., 1, 2, 5 and 10 DM coins and 5, 10,20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 DM notes. Money in circulation in 1983, DM 99,294m. In March 1985, £1=3-60 DM; US$l=3-43. Banking. On 14 Feb. 1948 the Bank deutscher Länder was established in Frankfurt as the central bank. The Länder and Berlin central banks were merged from 1 Aug. 1957 when it became Deutsche Bundesbank. Its assets were DM 197,148m. in 1983. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1982,366,876m. kwh. were produced. Oil. In 1983, 33- 17m. tonnes of petroleum and 11 -67m. tonnes of diesel oil were produced. Minerals. The great bulk of the minerals in Germany is produced in North RhineWestphalia (for coal, iron and metal smelting-works), Central Germany (for brown coal), Lower Saxony (Salzgitter for iron ore; the Harz for metal ore). The chief oilfields are in Lower Saxony (Emsland). The quantities of the principal minerals raised in the Federal Republic were as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Minerals Coal Lignite Iron ore Potash Crudeoil

1978 83,936 123,559 1,608 25,260 5,059

1979 86,319 130,579 1,655 27,674 4,774

1980 87,146 129,833 1,945 29,317 4,631

1981 88,460 130,619 1,572 28,192 4,459

1982 89,014 127,307 1,304 22,536 4,256

1983 82,202 124,281 976 27,200 4,116

Production of iron and steel (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron Steel ingots and castings Rolled products finished

1978 30,148 41,253 31,102

1979 35,167 46,040 33,616

1980 33,873 43,838 ...

1981 31,876 41,610 ...

1982 27,621 35,880 ...

1983 26,598 35,729 26,063

Agriculture. In 1983 agricultural holdings with a farm area of 1 hectare or more cultivated 11 -98m. hectares, including arable, 7-22m.; pasture, 4-58m. In 1983 the number of agricultural holdings classified by area farmed was:

BL1C O F G E R M A N Y

Schleswig-Holstein Hamburg LowerSaxony Bremen North Rhine-Westphalia Hessen Rhineland-Palatinate Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Saarland Berlin (West) Federal Republic

1-5 hectares 6,236 836 31,646 153 29,092 22,521 23,528 52,536 64,496 1,789 84 232,917

Total 31,525 1,365 116,728 466 94,696 58,665 57,514 128,917 249,582 4,212 143 743,813

5-20 hectares 5,993 307 33,962 114 34,254 23,021 21,960 52,847 129,299 1,281 35 303,073

523 20-100 hectares 18,119 209 49,353 196 30,773 12,906 11,899 23,198 55,173 1,113 24 202,963

Over 100 hectares 1,177 13 1,767 3 577 217 127 336 614 29 —

4,860

Area (in 1,000 hectares) and yield (in 1,000 tonnes) of the main crops in the Federal Republic, were as follows: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1979 1,627 564 1,989 728 276 393

1980 1,668 546 2,001 691 258 395

Area

1981 1,631 484 2,044 682 246 444

1982 1,578 407 2,021 723 238 418

1979 8,061 2,114 8,184 2,994 8,716 18,340

1980 8,156 2,098 8,826 2,658 6,694 19,122

Yield 1981 8,313 1,729 8,687 2,678 7,585 24,380

1982 8,632 1,639 9,460 3,113 7,049 22,732

Wine must production (in lm. hectolitres): 7-4 in 1960; 9-9 in 1970; 9 -2 in 1975; 8-7 in 1976; 10 4 in 1977; 7-3 in 1978; 8-2 in 1979;4-6 in 1980; 7-2 in 1981; 15 4 in 1982; 13 in 1983. Livestock on 3 Dec. 1983 was as follows: Cattle, 15,002,600 (including 5,516,500 milch cows); horses, 257,300; sheep, 981,200; pigs, 22,178,400; goats, 36,000 (1981 ); poultry (1982), 79,697,800. Forestry. Forestry is of great importance, conducted under the guidance of the State on scientific lines. In recent years enormous depredation has occurred through pollution with acid rain. Forest area in 1983 was 5-27m. hectares, of which 2-22m . were owned by the State. In 1982 29m. cu. metres of timber were cut. Fisheries. In 1983 the yield of sea and coastal fishing in the Federal Republic was 273,617 tonnes live weight, valued at DM 323,708,000. At the end of 1982 the number of vessels of the fishing fleet was 29 trawlers (62,575 gross tons), 2 luggers and 625 cutters. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1982, 55,564 establishments (with 20 and more employees; production industries including handicrafts) in the Federal Republic employed 8,539,000 persons; of these 991,000 were employed in machine construction; 262,000 in the textile industry; 954,000 in electrical engineering; 238,000 in mining; 579,000 in chemical industry (average of 12 months). The production of important industrial products in the Federal Republic was as follows: Products Aluminium (1,000 tonnes) Potassium fertilizers, K. 2 0( 1,000 tonnes) Sulphuric acid, SOj( 1,000 tonnes) 1 Soda, NajCOî (1,000 tonnes) 1 Cement (1,000 tonnes) 1 Rayon: Staple fibre ( 1,000 tonnes) Continuous rayon filament ( 1,000 tonnes) ' Cotton yam (1,000 tonnes) 1 Woollen yarn (1,000 tonnes) 1 Passenger cars ( 1,000) 2 Bicycles (1,000)

- 1979 742 2,616 4,136 1,401 35,659 76 62 161 56 3,943 3,099

' Including the quantities procéssed in the same factories.

1980 731 2,737 3,900 1,411 34,551

1981 729 2,592 3,945 1,189 31,498

1982 723 2,057 3,601 1,105 30,079

73 1 70 J 170 148 60 52 3,530 3,590 3,643 3,441

168 47 3,771 3,089

2

^

1983 743 2,419 3,543 1,218 30,466 ^ 181 46 3,875 3,334

Including dual-purpose vehicles.

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Labour. 25- 19m. persons were employed in 1983, including 9-56m. women and l-71m. foreign workers (Turks, 0-54m.; Yugoslavs, 0-31m.; Italians, 0-24m.; Greeks, 0 1 lm.). Unemployment was 2-26m. Major categories: manufacturing industries, 10-57m.; services, 8-64m.; commerce and transport, 4-61m.; selfemployed, 2-36m.; agriculture, 1 -38m. Trade Unions. The majority of trade unions belong to the Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (DGB, German Trade Union Federation), which had (women in brackets) 7-75m. (1 -64m.) members in 1983, including 5-2 lm. (0-82m.) workers, 1 -71m. (0-69m.) white-collar workers and0-82m. (0- 13m.) civil servants in 1984. Of these 2-54m. (0-36m.) worked in the metal industries, 117m. (0-34m.) in public services, 0-52m. in building and 0 -37m. in mining. DGB unions are organized in industrial branches such that only one union operates within each enterprise. Outside the DGB lie several smaller unions: The Deutscher Beamtenbund (DBB) or civil servants union with 0-8m. (0-2m.) members, the Deutsche Angestellten-Gewerkschaft (DAG) or union of salaried staff with 0-5m. (0-23m.) members and the Deutscher Handels-und Industrieangestellten- Verband (DHIV) or commercial and industrial salaried staffs association with 0 06m. (0 02m.) members. Commerce. Distribution of imports and exports by country (in DM 1 m.): Country Argentina Australia Austria Belgium-Luxembourg Brazil Canada Denmark Finland France Greece India Iran Italy Japan Libya Netherlands Norway Rep. ofSouth Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland USSR UK USA

1981 1,125-8 1,405-6 10,279-3 24,674-8 3,449-4 3,278-3 5,926-9 3,363-8 40,123-8 2,946-5 1,278-6 1,527-0 27,562-0 12,910-0 7,417-1 44,322-9 9,418-1 3,184-0 4,662-4 7,681-5 12,615-2 9,224-8 27,502-2 28,387-5

Imports 1982 1,399-5 1,487-9 11,115-1 25,480-2 4,191-7 3,360-9 6,547-1 3,201-2 42,878-0 2,747-7 1,267-9 1,738-5 28,710-0 12,646-6 7,232-0 45,946-3 9,901-4 3,075-5 5,036-6 7,496-2 12,927-6 11,357-7 27,001-9 28,212 6

1 983 1,386-8 1,377-1 12,603-7 28,092-6 4,310-1 3,316-8 6,983-2 3,626-1 44,566-8 2,751-0 1,254-9 1,571-1 31,570-2 14,819-1 6,316-5 48,143-0 10,808-5 2,741-8 5,793-7 8,427-6 13,971-4 11,788-4 27,137-7 27,711-7

1981 2,360-6 2,703-9 20,009-7 28,907-0 2,277-1 2,740-6 7,525-8 3,697-1 51,909-9 4,653-0 2,249-4 3,639-5 31,306-5 4,758-7 3,379-9 33,884-0 4,950-3 6,160-5 6,283-9 10,426-7 20,727-8 7,621-4 26,162-9 25,975-9

Exports 1982 1,495-7 3,193-5 20,620-4 31,081-6 2,162-6 2,528-1 8,451-6 4,220-1 60,128-7 4,686-2 2,102-1 3,402-9 32,374-8 5,165-8 2,835-0 36,144-1 5,536-6 6,128-9 7,462-8 11,350-0 21,691-2 9,395-0 31,316-7 28,120-1

1983 3,056-2 2,762-7 22,123-3 31,849-4 1,555-3 3,103-8 8,582-8 4,185-7 55,563-8 4.612-7 2,117-2 7,720-5 32,088-0 5,602-8 2,141-7 37,857-3 5,027-4 4,982-0 7,587-1 11,271-1 22,376-0 11,244-8 35,400-9 32,847-0

Principal imports in 1983 (in DMlm.) were finished manufactures (208,433) and semi-finished manufactures (73,144); exports, finished manufactures (364,198) and semi-finished manufactures (34,328). Total trade between the Federal Republic of Germany and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 1981 1982 1983 5,700,861 5,941,130 7,414,073 9,667,444 5,113,032 5,515,965 5,414,733 6,063,989

1984 11,090,227 7,458,042

Tourism. In 1982-83,9-69m. arrivals and 1 -3m. overnight stays by foreign visitors were registered. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1983 the total length of classified roads in the Federal Republic was 172,973 km, including 7,919 km autobahn, 32,239 km federal highways,

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

525

65,780 km first-class and 67,035 km second-class country roads. Motor vehicles licensed in the Federal Republic on 1 July 1983 numbered 29,122,300 (including 24,580,500 passenger cars, 1,277,500 trucks, 71,300 buses and 1,680,400 tractors. Road casualties in 1983 totalled 489,148 injured and 11,715 killed. Railways. Length of Federal Railway in 1983 was 28,016 km (1,435 mm gauge) of which 11,202 km was electrified. In 1983 it carried 60,732m. tonne-km and 51,139m. passenger-km. There are also some 3,000 km of privately-owned and other minor railways. Aviation. The Deutsche Lufthansa AG (set up on 6 Jan. 1953, as AG fur Luftverkehrsbedarf and renamed on 6 Aug. 1954), with headquarters at Cologne, has capital of DM 900m. The Federal Republic owns 74-3%, Land North RhineWestphalia 2-2%, the Federal Railways, 0-9%, Federal Post 1-8%, Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau 3% and private industry 17 -8%. Lufthansa operate internal, European, African, North and South Atlantic, Near and Far East routes. In 1983 the Lufthansa carried 36-2m. passengers, and 629,000 tonnes of cargo. Shipping. On 31 Dec. 1982 the mercantile marine comprised 1,971 ocean-going vessels of7,060,000 BRT. The inland-waterways fleet on 31 Dec. 1982 included 2,467 motor freight vessels of 2-1 m. tonnes and 461 tankers of 560,000 tonnes. The length of the navigable rivers and canals in use was 4,429 km. Sea-going ships (foreign trade only) in 1982 loaded 42 -7m. tonnes clearing and unloaded 88-4m. tonnes entering in the ports of the Federal Republic. Inland waterways carried 222m. tonnes in 1982. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 there were 18,280 post offices. Number of telephones (1982) 30,122,023. The post office savings banks had, in 1982, 19,695,000 depositors with DM 30,205m. to their credit. In 1982 postal revenues amounted to DM 45,080m. and the expenditure to DM 43,408m. Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD) is an organization for co-operation between the German broadcasting stations. ARD also broadcast a common TV programme under the name Deutsches Fernsehen throughout the Federal Republic. In addition regional programmes are broadcast. Number of wireless licences, (1983) 24 -3m.; of television licences, 22 • 1 m. Cinemas and Theatres. In 1981 there were 3,144 cinemas and 15 drive-in cinemas. In 1983 there were 258 theatres with a seating capacity of 144,779. Newspapers. In 1981,6,486 newspapers and periodicals were published. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the federal courts and by the courts of the Lander. In criminal procedures, civil cases and procedures of non-contentious jurisdiction the courts on the Land level are the local courts (Amtsgerichte), the regional courts (Landgerichte) and the courts of appeal (Oberlandesgerichte). On the federal level decisions regarding these matters are taken by the Federal Court (Bundesgerichtshof) at Karlsruhe. In labour law disputes the courts of the first and second instance are the labour courts and the Land labour courts and in the third instance, the Federal Labour Court (Bundesarbeitsgericht) at Kassel. Disputes about public law in matters of social security, unemployment insurance, maintenance of war victims and similar cases are dealt with in the first and second instances by the social courts and the Land social courts and in the third instance by the Federal Social Court (Bundessozialgericht) at Kassel. In most tax matters the finance courts of the Länder are competent and in the second instance, the Federal Finance Court (Bundesfinanzhof) at Munich. Other controversies of public law in non-constitutional matters are decided in the first and second

526

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

instance by the administrative and the higher administrative courts (Observerwaltungsgerichte) of the Länder, and in the third instance by the Federal Administrative Court (Bundesverwaltungsgericht) at Berlin. For the inquiry into maritime accidents the admiralty courts (Seeämter) are competent on the Land level and in the second instance the Federal Admiralty Court (Bundesoberseeamt) at Hamburg. The constitutional courts of the Länder decide on constitutional questions. The Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) as the supreme German court decides such questions as loss of basic rights, unconstitutional character of political parties, validity of laws, charges against judges and complaints regarding violations of basic rights by the public force. The death sentence is abolished. Religion. Census (1970) 49% of the population were Protestants, 44-6% Roman Catholics and 0-1% Jews. The Evangelical (Protestant) Church consists of 18 member-churches in the Federal Republic and West Berlin (7 Lutheran Churches, 8 United-LutheranReformed, 2 Reformed Churches and 1 Confederation of United member Churches: 'Church of the Union'). Its organs are the Synod, the Church Conference and the Council under the chairmanship of Bishop Dr Eduard Lohse (Hanover). The Protestants numbered about 26 • 5m. in 1978. TTiere are also some 12 Evangelical Free Churches. There are 5 Catholic archbishops and 17 bishoprics. Chairman of the German Bishops' Conference is Cardinal Höffner, Archbishop of Cologne. A concordat between Germany and the Holy See was signed on 20 July and ratified on 10 Sept. 1933. The 'Old Catholics', who are in full communion with the Anglican Churches, numbered about 30,000 in 1977; they have a bishop at Bonn. Evangelisc he Kirche in Deutschland Hanover, 1979 Taschenbuch der evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland. Frankfurt, 1980 Kirchliches Handbuch. Amtliches statistisches Jahrbuch der Katholischen Kirche Deutschlands Pastoral der Kirche fremden—Erojjnungsrejerat der Deutschen Bischojskonjerenz 1979 in Fulda—von Kardinal Joseph Höffner. Bonn, 1979 Alt-Katholisches Jahrbuch. Bonn, 1978 Katholiken und ihre Kirche, Protestanten und ihre Kirche. Munich, 1977

Education. Schools providing general education are primary and post-primary schools (Grund- und Hauptschulen), special schools (Sonderschulen), secondary modern schools (Realschulen), grammar schools (Gymnasien) and comprehensive schools. Primary schools: Attendance is compulsory for all children having completed their 6th year of age: Compulsory education extends 9 years. After the first 4 (or 6) years at primary school children may attend post-primary schools, secondary modem schools, grammar schools and other schools of general secondary education. The secondary modern school comprises 6, the grammar school 9 years. The final Grammar School Certificate (Abitur-Higher School Certificate) entitles the holder to enter any institution of higher education. There are also special schools for retarded, physically or mentally handicapped and socially maladjusted children. In 1982 there were in the Federal Republic 18,468 primary and post-primary schools with 4,500,991 pupils; 2,820 special schools with 319,254 pupils, 2,639 secondary modem schools with 1,278,092 pupils; 2,489 grammar schools with 2,050,466 pupils; 285 comprehensive schools (primary and secondary stage) with 226,303 pupils. Vocational education is provided in part-time, full-time and advanced vocational schools (Berufs-, Beruf saufbau-, Berufsfach- and Fachschulen, including Fachschulen für Technik and Schulen des Gesundheitswesens). Running parallel to the occupation, part-time vocational schools offer 6 to 12 hours per week of additional compulsory schooling. All young people who are apprentices, in some other employment or even unemployed have to attend them in general up-to the age of 18 years or until the completion of the practical vocational training. Full-

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

527

time vocational schools comprise courses of at least one year. They prepare for commercial and domestic occupations as well as specialized occupations in the field of handicrafts. Advanced full-time vocational schools are attended by pupils having completed their 18th year of age; courses vary from 6 months to 3 or more years. In 1982 there were 7,281 full- and part-time vocational schools with 75,683 teachers and 2,493,477 pupils (1,093,463 female); 2,970 advanced vocational schools with 9,065 teachers and 207,148 pupils (133,255 female). Higher Education. Universities and equivalent institutions; teacher-training colleges and equivalent institutions which train teachers for primary schools, special schools, intermediate schools and schools providing vocational education; colleges of music, fine arts and the college for physical education in Cologne. Higher technical colleges offer highly qualified full-time vocational instruction. There were, in the winter term 1979-80, 111 higher technical colleges with 180,651 students (50,609 female). During the winter term 1979-80 there were 228 academic institutions of higher education with 981,808 students (353,432 female; 56,601 foreigners); they comprise 64 universities with 728,334 students (258,422 female); 6 Roman Catholic theological colleges and 4 Protestant theological colleges with together 2,182 students (591 female). In the winter term 1979-80 there were 17 teacher-training colleges and equivalent institutions with 53,665 students (36,133 female); 15 colleges of music, 10 colleges of fine arts and the college of film and television with together 16,976 students (7,677 female). Health. In 1982 there were 146,221 doctors (including 64,305 in private practice and 68,757 in hospitals) and 33,679 dentists. There were 3,130 hospitals (including 917 private) with 683,624 beds. Social Welfare. Social Health Insurance (introduced in 1883). Wage-earners and apprentices, salaried employees with an income below a certain limit and socialinsurance pensioners are compulsorily insured. Voluntary insurance is also possible. Benefits: Medical treatment, medicines, hospital and nursing care, maternity benefits, death benefits for the insured and their families, sickness payments and out-patients' allowances. 35-8m. persons were insured in 1982(20-8m. compulsorily) and 10-4m. persons (including 6-4m. women) were drawing pensions. Number of cases of incapacity for work totalled 21-8m., and 368-lm. working days were lost. Total disbursements DM 97,224m. Accident Insurance (introduced in 1884). Insured are all persons in employment or service, apprentices and the greater part of the self-employed and the unpaid family workers. Benefits in the case of industrial injuries and occupational diseases: Medical treatment and nursing care, sickness payments, pensions and other payments in cash and in kind, surviving dependants' pensions. Number of insured in 1982, 28-5m.; number of current pensions, lm.; total expenditure, DM 12,524m. Workers' and Employees' Old-Age Insurance Scheme (introduced in 1889). All wage-earners and salaried employees, the members of certain liberal professions and—subject to certain conditions—self-employed craftsmen are compulsorily insured. The insured may voluntarily continue to insure when no longer liable to do so or increase the insurance. Benefits: Measures designed to maintain, improve and restore the earning capacity; pensions paid to persons incapable for work, old age and surviving dependants' pensions. Number of insured in 1983, 30-3m. (14-2m. women); number of current pensions, 1 lm.; pensions to widows and widowers, 3-8m.; pensions to orphans, 0-5m. Total disbursements in 1982, DM 170,469m.

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There are also special retirement and unemployment pension schemes for miners and farmers. Assistance for War Victims (war-disabled and dependants). Benefits: Medical treatment and nursing care, aid to war victims, disablement pensions, basic and equalization pensions paid to widows and orphans, parents' pensions, allowances for nursing care, compensation for occupational detriment, funeral allowances, lump-sum indemnification and indemnification paid upon marriage. Persons (including those with permanent residence abroad) qualifying for pensions in 1983, l-8m., of which disabled persons, 0-8m.; widows and widowers, 0-9m.; orphans, 0 02m.; parents, 0-05m. Total disbursements, DM 1,767m. Public relief and compensation payments are payable to members of German minorities in East European countries expelled after the Second World War and persons who suffered damage because of the war or in connexion with the currency reform. Benefits: Basic-compensation, war-damage pensions, compensation for household equipment, accommodation assistance, currency-conversion compensation, compensation for holders of'old savings', training grants, loans and other promotive measures. DM 110-6m. were paid in 1983 to 201,351 recipients. Family Allowances. The monthly allowance is for the first child DM 50, for the second, DM 100 and for the third and any further child, DM 200. Accommodation Allowances averaging DM 109 a month were paid in 1982 to 1 -6m. persons whose monthly income averaged DM 1,323. Public Welfare. Benefits were instituted in 1962. In 1982 DM 16-3m. were distributed to 1 -6m. recipients. Public Youth Welfare. For supervision of foster children, official guardianship, assistance with adoptions and affiliations, social assistance in juvenile courts, educational assistance and correctional education under a court order. Total expenditure in 1982, DM 5,753m. Übersicht über die soziale Sicherung. Bundesministerium fur Arbeit und Sozialordnung. 9th ed. Bonn,1977 Tietz, G., Zahlenwerk zur Sozialversicherung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (and supplements). Berlin, 1963 Arbeits- und Sozialstatistik. Bundesminister für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, Bonn (from 1950) Fachserie 13 Sozialleistungen. Statistisches Bundesamt (from 1951) Fachserie 12 Gesundheitswesen. Statistisches Bundesamt (from 1946)

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Federal Republic of Germany in Great Britain (21-23 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X8PZ) Ambassador: Baron Rüdiger von Wechmar (accredited 7 Feb. 1984). Of Great Britain in the Federal Republic of Germany (Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 77, 5300, Bonn) Ambassador: Sir Julian Bullard, KCMG. Of the Federal Republic of Germany in the USA (4645 Reservoir Rd, NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: Guenther van Well. Of the USA in the Federal Republic ofGermany (Delchmannsaue, 5300, Bonn) Ambassador: Robert Burt. Of the Fédéral Republic ofGermany to the United Nations A mbassador: Dr Hans Werner Lautenschlager. Books of Reference Statistical Information:

The central statistical agency is the Statistisches Bundesamt, 62

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Wiesbaden, Gustav Stresemann Ring 11. President: Franz Kroppenstedt. Its publications include: Statistisches Jahrbuch Jür die Bundesrepublik Deutschland; Wirtschaft und Statistik (monthly, from 1949); Das Arbeitsgebiet der Bundesstatistik (latest issue 1981; also in English: Survey of German Federal Statistics). Berghahn, V.R., Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century. CUP, 1982 Childs, D., Germany since 1918.2nd ed. New York, 1980 Craig, G. A., Germany, 1866-1945. OUP, 1981 Gatzke, H. W., Germany and the United States: a 'Special Relationship '.'Harvard Univ. Press, 1980 Grosser, A., Germany in our Time: A Political History of the Postwar Years. New York, 1971 Hardach, K., The Political Economy of Germany in the Twentieth Century. California Univ. Press, 1980 Kohl, W.L., and Basevi,G., West Germany: A European and Global Power. London, 1982 Mann, A C o m e b a c k : Germany 1945-1952. London, 1980 Pachter, H., Modern Germany: A Social, Cultural and Political History. Boulder, 1978 Pasley, M., (ed.). Germany:a Companion to German Studies Pounds, N. J. G., The Economic Pattern of Modern Germany. 2nd ed. London, 1966 Roberts, G. K., West German Politics. London, 1972 Ryder, A. J., Twentieth-Century Germany: From Bismarck to Brandt. London, 1973 Trene.W., Germany Since 1884. Bad Godesberg, 1969 Who's Who in Germany. Munich, 1980 Wild,T.,(ed). Urban and Rural Change in West Germany. London, 1983 National Library: Deutsche Bibliothek, Zeppelinallee 4-8; Frankfurt (Main). Director: Professor Dr Kurt Köster.

THE LANDER BADEN-WURTTEMBERG AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Baden-Wiirttemberg comprises 35,751 sq. km, with a population (at 31 March 1984) of 9,241,932 (4,446,758 males, 4,795,174 females). The Land is administratively divided into 4 areas, 9 urban and 35 rural districts, and numbers 1,111 communes. The capital is Stuttgart. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 100,673 100,268 95,447

Marriages 52,521 53,768 54,785

Divorces 14,006 14,736 15,434

Deaths 93,979 93,197 95,750

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Land Baden-Württemberg is a merger of the 3 Länder, Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern, which were formed in 1945. The merger was approved by a plebiscite held on 9 Dec. 1951, when 70% of the population voted in its favour. The Diet, elected on 25 March 1984, consists of 68 Christian Democrats, 41 Social Democrats, 8 Free Democrats, 9 Ecologists. The Government is formed by Christian Democrats, with Lothar Späth (CDU) as Prime Minister. A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Rye Wheat Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1981 1982 1983 17-9 140 141 224-3 215-9 223-1 193-8 202-2 198-8 93-7 93-2 87-0 23-0 20-4 19-0 24-4 22-6 22-3

1981 65-4 1,114 0 802-7 385-2 693-4 1,298-8

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1982 1983 54-8 53-5 1,071 1 1,046-0 901-3 821-4 370-1 337-1 584-7 422-6 1,233-8 940-1

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Livestock (3 Dec. 1982): Cattle, 1,832,799 (including 683,422 milch cows); horses, 48,985; pigs, 2,210,520; sheep, 199,374; poultry, 6,054,972. I N D U S T R Y . In May 1984 9,498 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 1,350,677 persons; of these, 238,306 were employed in machine construction (excluding office machines, data processing equipment and facilities); 77,544 in textile industry; 221,685 in electrical engineering; 205,605 in car building. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 4,280,100 at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of April 1982. Of the total 361,400 were self-employed, 125,100 unpaid family workers, 3,773,600 employees; 270,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry; 2,143,700 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 614,400 in commerce and transport, 1,312,000 in other industries and services. R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 27,835 km of'classified' roads, including 926 km of autobahn, 4,872 km of federal roads, 12,729 km of first-class and 9,308 km of second-class highways. Motor vehicles, at 1 Jan. 1984, numbered 4,587,085, including, 3,886,437 passenger cars, 8,569 buses, 191,003 lorries, 301,543 tractors and 156,469 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (StaatsgerichtshoJ), 2 courts of appeal, 17 regional courts, 108 local courts, a Land labour court, 9 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshoß, 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 1 Jan. 1983,44%ofthe population were Protestantsand471% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983-84 there were 2,558 primary schools with 32,966 teachers and 605,069 pupils; 538 special schools with 7,834 teachers and 50,232 pupils; 436 intermediate schools with 12,459 teachers and 230,909 pupils; 412 high schools with 19,830 teachers and 307,103 pupils; 25 Freie Waldorf schools with 934 teachers and 13,108 pupils; 15 Integrierte Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) including stage of orientation, with 863 teachers and 11,873 pupils; 170 Berufliche Gymnasien (technical secondary schools) with 33,241 pupils; 398 part-time vocational schools with 277,916 pupils; 1,104 fulltime vocational schools with 92,926 pupils; 207 advanced vocational schools with 10,659 pupils; 227 schools for public health occupations with 14,719 students; there were also 64 (full- and part-time) institutions for the training of technicians with 5,024 participants and 36 Fachhochschulen (colleges of engineering and others) with 41,794 students; in all vocational schools there were 15,199 teachers. In the winter term 1983-84 there were 9 universities (Freiburg, 21,541 students; Heidelberg, 25,453; Konstanz, 5,354; Tübingen, 21,862; Karlsruhe, 15,466; Stuttgart, 16,308; Hohenheim, 4,731; Mannheim, 8,886; Ulm, 4,042); 10 teachertraining colleges with 11,629 students; 5 colleges of music and 2 colleges of fine arts, comprising together 3,691 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Baden-Württemberg (P.O.B. 898, D 7 0 0 0 Stuttgart \) (President: Prof. Max Wingen), publishes: Monatsschrift 'Baden-Württemberg in Wort und Zahl': Jahrbücher Jür Statistik und Landeskunde von Baden- Württemberg: Statistik von Baden- Württemberg (series); Statistischer und prognostischer Jahres-bencht (latest issue 1983-84); Statistisches Taschenbuch (latest issue 1982-83). State Library: Württembergische Landesbibliothek, Konrad-Adenauer-Str. 8, 7000 Stuttgart I. Director: Dr Hans-Peter G e h .

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BAVARIA Bayern A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Bavaria has an area of 70,553 sq. km. The capital is Munich. There are 7 areas, 96 urban and rural districts and 2,052 communes. The population (31 March 1984) numbered 10,969,106 (5,252,190 males, 5,716,916 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 1 17,063 1 16,576 112,644

Marriages 65,409 65,764 65,941

Divorces 15,456 16,538 18,420

Deaths 123,736 123,033 125,362

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Constituent Assembly, elected on 30 June 1946, passed a constitution on the lines of the democratic constitution o f l 9 1 9 , but with greater emphasis on state rights; this was agreed upon by the Christian Social Union and the Social Democrats. The elections for the Diet, held on 10 Oct. 1982, had the following results: 133 Christian Social Union, 71 Social Democrats. The cabinet of the Christian Social U nion is headed by Minister President Dr Franz Josef Strauss (CSU). A G R I C U L T U R E . A r e a and yield of the most important products: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1981 489-6 69-2 510-6 148-5 99-0 92-5

Area (1,000 hectares) 1982 1983 443-5 494-9 56-2 62-0 540-6 558-3 150-6 131-6 94-4 87-0 84-7 79-3

1981 2,047-5 239-3 2,073-2 540-8 2,951-1 5,580-2

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1982 1983 2,142-1 2,627-9 189-9 227-3 2,395-6 2,262-6 589-3 497-8 2,747-8 2,244-3 4,911-4 3,794-7

Livestock (3 Dec. 1983): 5,107,300 cattle (including 2,047,900 milch cows); 56,100 horses; 303,600 sheep; 4,172,300 pigs; 14,140,400 poultry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984, 9,561 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 1,266,292 persons; of these, 217,346 were employed in electrical engineering; 172,798 in mechanical engineering; 126,224 in clothing industry. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 5,117,400 at the 0-4% sample survey of the microcensus of June 1983. Of the total, 552,400 were selfemployed, 339,200 unpaid family workers, 4,225,800 employees; 2,225,600 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building; 795,600 in commerce and transport; 1,571,000 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were, on 1 Jan. 1983,40,157-5 km of'classified' roads, including 1,736-3 km of autobahn, 7,158 km of federal roads, 13,752-3 km of first-class and 17,510-8 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, at 1 July 1984, was 5,690,924, including 4,549,955 passenger cars, 225,849 lorries, 12,628 buses, 557,645 tractors, 289,877 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshoj), a supreme Land court (Oberstes Landesgericht), 3 courts of appeal, 21 regional courts, 72 local courts, 2 Land labour courts, 11 labour courts, a Land social court, 7 social courts, 2 finance courts, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtsho)), 6 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . At the census of 27 May 1970 there were 69-9% Roman Catholics and 25 • 7% Protestants. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983-84 there were 2,821 primary schools with 43,971

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teachers and 798,785 pupils; 396 special schools with 4,944 teachers and 41,291 pupils; 336 intermediate schools with 8,835 teachers and 167,799 pupils; 397 high schools with 19,313 teachers and 311,785 pupils; 242 part-time vocational schools with 7,200 teachers and 374,477 pupils, including 58 special part-time vocational schools with 395 teachers and 6,598 pupils; 553 full-time vocational schools with 3,558 teachers and 64,447 pupils including 220 schools for public health occupations with 694 teachers and 15,375 pupils; 278 advanced full-time vocational schools with 1,917 teachers and 25,371 pupils; 82 vocational high schools (Berufsoberschulen, Fachoberschulen) with 1,759 teachers and 31,503 pupils. In the winter term 1983—84 there were 10 universities with 142,774 students (Augsburg, 6,289; Bamberg, 4,006; Bayreuth, 3,937; Eichstätt, 2,018; ErlangenNürnberg, 22,722; München, 51,106; Passau, 3,173; Regensburg, 12,014; Würzburg, 16,803; the Technical University of München, 20,706); 2 Gesamthochschulen with 3,109 students, the college of philosophy, München, 336 and a philosophical-theological college in Benediktbeuern with 99 students. There were also 2 colleges of music, 2 colleges of fine arts and 1 college of television and film, with together 2,254 students; 13 vocational colleges (Fachhochschulen) with 47,625 students including one for the civil service (Bayerische Beamtenfachhochschule) with 5,016 students. Statistical Information: Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung, 51 Neuhauser Str. 8000 Munich, was founded in 1833. President: Dr Hans Helmut Schiedermaier. It publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir Bayern. 1894 ff.—Bayern in Zahlen. Monthly (from Jan. 1947).—Zeitschrift des Bayerischen Statistischen Landesamts. July 1869-1943; 1948 ff.—Beiträge zur Statistik Bayerns. 1850 ff.—Statistische Berichte. 1951 ff— Schaubilderhefte. 1951 ff—Kreisdaten. 1972 ff.—Gemeindedaten. 1973 ff. Nawiasky, H., and Luesser, C., Die Verfassung des Freistaates Bayern vom 2. Dez. 1946. Munich, 1948; supplement, by H. Nawiasky and H. Lechner, Munich, 1953 State Library: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich 22. Director: Dr Franz G. Kaltwasser.

BERLIN G O V E R N M E N T . Greater Berlin was under quadripartite Allied government (Kommandatura) until 1 July 1948, when the Soviet element withdrew. On 30 Nov. 1948, a separate Municipal Government was set up in the Soviet Sector (see p. 510). A R E A . The total area of Berlin is 883 sq. km, of which Western Berlin covers 480 sq. km and the Soviet Sector 403 sq. km. The British Sector includes the administrative districts of Tiergarten, Charlottenburg, Wilmersdorf and Spandau; the American Sector those of Kreuzberg, Neukölln, Tempelhof, Schöneberg, Zehlendorf and Steglitz; the French Sector covers the administrative districts of Wedding and Reinickendorf, and the Soviet Sector, those of Mitte, Friedrichshain, Prenzlauer Berg, Pankow, Weissensee, Lichtenberg, Treptow and Köpenick. The British, American and French sectors form an administrative unit, called Berlin (West). On 13 Aug. 1961 the East German Government completely severed all communications between West and East Berlin.

BERLIN (WEST) P O P U L A T I O N . Population, 31 Dec. 1983, 1,854,502 (847,480 males, 1,007,022 females). According to the census of 27 May 1970, 70-2% were Protestants and 12-5% Roman Catholics. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 18,955 18,662 17,819

Marriages 12,658 11,503 12,762

Divorces 6,500 6,709 5,950

Deaths 34,485 34,528 33,145

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C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . According to the constitution of 1 Sept. 1950, Berlin is simultaneously a Land of the Federal Republic (though not yet formally incorporated) and a city. It is governed by a House of Representatives (at least 200 members); the executive power is vested in a Senate, consisting of the Governing Mayor, the Mayor and not more than 16 senators. In the municipal elections, held on 10 May 1981, the Christian Democrats obtained 65 seats; the Social Democrats, 51; the Alternative List, 9; the Free Democrats, 7. Governing Mayor: Eberhard Diepgen (Christian Democrat). ECONOMY Currency. The legal tender of Berlin (West) is the German Mark (DM). Banking. On 20 March 1949 when the DM (West) became the only legal tender of the Western Sectors, the Zentralbank of Berlin was established. Its functions were similar to those of the Zentralbanks of the Länder of the Federal Republic. The Berlin Central Bank was merged with the Bank deutscher Länder as from 1. Aug. 1957, when the latter became the Deutsche Bundesbank. The legal tender for the Western Sectors of Berlin is being issued by the Deutsche Bundesbank (formerly Bank deutscher Länder). A G R I C U L T U R E . Agricultural area (May 1983), 1,415 hectares, including 957 hectares arable land and 170 hectares gardens, orchards, nurseries. Livestock (3 Dec. 1982): Cattle, 661; pigs, 3,679; horses, 3,090; sheep, 1,025. I N D U S T R Y . In 1983 (monthly averages), 1,079 establishments (with 20 or more employees) employed 159,616 persons; of these, 54,675 were employed in electrical engineering, 16,443 in machine construction, 11,039 in the manufacture of chemicals (in 1982), 3,800 in steel construction and 3,246 in textiles. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 802,700 at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of April 1982. Of the total, 66,700 were self-employed including unpaid family workers, 736,000 employees; 9,300 were engaged in agriculture and forestry; 286,400 in power supply, manufacturing and building; 124,400 in commerce and transport; 382,900 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were, on 1 Jan. 1983, 137 km of'classified' roads, including 42 km of autobahn and 94 km of federal roads. On 1 July 1983, 685,510 motor vehicles were registered, including 545,658 passenger cars, 38,037 lorries, 83,036 motor cycles, and 2,373 buses. J U S T I C E . There are a court of appeal (Oberlandesgericht), a regional court, 7 local courts, a Land Labour court, a labour court, a Land social court, a social court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court and a finance court. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983 (preliminary figures) there were 452 schools providing general education (excluding special schools) with 15,051 teachers and 205,545 pupils; 63 special schools with 1,253 teachers and 8,120 pupils. There were a further 198 vocational schools with 2,675 teachers and 63,408 pupils. In the winter term 1983-84 there was 1 university (50,358 students); 1 technical university (26,215); 1 theological (evangelical) college (501); 1 college of fine arts with 3,850 students; 1 vocational college (for economics) (1,186); 2 colleges for social work (1,437); 1 technical college (3,844), 1 college of the Federal postal administration (524) and 1 college for public administration (2,162). Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt Berlin was founded in 1862 (Fehrbelliner Platz I, 1000 Berlin 31). Director: G ü n t h e r Appel. It publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch (from 1867): Berliner Statistik (monthly, from 1947).—100Jahre Berliner Statistik (1962). Childs, D. and Johnson, J., West Berlin: Politics and Society. London, 1981

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M o n c l a i r , 1981

Library Amenka-Gedenkbibliothek-Berliner Stale D 1 0 0 0 Berlin 61. Director D r Peter K. L i e b e n o w .

Zentralbibliothek-.

Bliicherplatz

1,

BREMEN Freie Hansestadt Bremen A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Land, consisting of the towns and ports of Bremen and Bremerhaven, is 404 sq. km. Population, 31 Dec. 1983, 676,933 (318,213 males, 358,720 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 5,966 5,892 5,700

Marriages 3,854 3,726 3,933

Divorces 1,835 1,951 2,059

Deaths 9,246 8,824 8,692

C O N S T I T U T I O N . Political power is vested in the House of Burgesses (Bürgerschaft) which appoints the executive, called the Senate. The elections of 25 Sept. 1983 had the following result: 58 Social Democratic Party, 37 Christian Democrats, 5 Die Grünen. The Senate is only formed by Social Democrats; its president is Hans Koschnick (Social Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R E . Agricultural area comprised (1983), 10,510 hectares: yield of grain crops (1983), 6,658 tonnes; potatoes, 211 tonnes. Livestock (3 Dec. 1982): 16,807 cattle (including 4,802 milch cows); 4,939 pigs; 357 sheep; 1,153 horses; 17,820 poultry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1983, 372 establishments (20 and more employees) employed 78,940 persons; of these, 12,871 were employed in shipbuilding (except naval engineering); 6,812 in machine construction; 9,535 in electrical engineering; 2,894 in coffee and tea processing. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 282,400 at the 1%sample survey of the microcensus of April 1982. Of the total, 19,300 were selfemployed, 261,000 employees; 93,100 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 79,800 in commerce and transport, 106,800 in other industries and services. R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1976 there were 139 km of'classified' roads, including 45 km of autobahn, 82 km of federal roads, 7 km of first-class and 5 km of second-class highways. Registered motor vehicles on 1 July 1983 numbered 270,217, including 241,038 passenger cars, 14,488 trucks, 2,234 tractors, 656 buses and 8,913 motor cycles. S H I P P I N G . Vessels entered in 1983, 9,576 of 44,110,376 net tons; cleared, 9,494 of 44,097,241 net tons. Sea traffic, 1983, incoming 15,184,250 tonnes; outgoing, 11,427,441 tonnes. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshoj), a court of appeal, a regional court, 3 local courts, a Land labour court, 2 labour courts, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 82-4% Protestants and 10-2% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983 there were 331 new system schools with 5,911 teachers

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and 84,556 pupils; 28 special schools with 611 teachers and 3,715 pupils; 23 parttime vocational schools with 28,312 pupils; 36 full-time vocational schools with 6,896 pupils; 8 advanced vocational schools (including institutions for the training of technicians) with 1,059 pupils; 11 schools for public health occupations with 1,047 pupils. In the winter term 1983-84 about 8,179 students were enrolled at the university. In addition to the university there were 4 other colleges in 1983-84 with about 5,478 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Bremen (An der Weide 14-16 (P.B. 101309). D2800 Bremen 1), founded in 1850. Director: Ltd Reg. Dir. Volker H a n n e m a n n . Its current publications include: Statistische Mitteilungen Freie Hansestadt Bremen (from 1948).—Monatliche Zwischenberichte (1949-53); Statistische Monatsberichte (from 1954).—Statistische Berichte (from 1956).—Statistisches Handbuch für Jas Land Freie Hansestadt Bremen (1950-60, 1961; 1960-64. 1967; ¡965-69, 1971; 1970-74. 19 75; 1975-80. 1982).—Bremen im statistischen Zeilvergleich 1950-1976. 1977.—Bremen in Zahlen 1983. Beutin, L., Bremen und Amerika. Bremen, 1953 University Library: Universitats Str., D2800 Bremen 33. Director: Dr Koch.

HAMBURG Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N , In 1938 the territory of the town was reorganized by the amalgamation of the city and its 18 rural districts with 3 urban and 27 rural districts ceded by Prussia. Total area, 754-7 sq. km (1982), including the islands Neuwerk and Scharhörn (7 sq. km). Population (31 Dec. 1983), 1,609,531 (753,749 males, 855,782 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 13,494 13,262 12,819

Marriages 9,042 8,991 9,198

Divorces 5,037 4,762 4,970

Deaths 23,746 23,761 22,537

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution of 6 June 1952 vests the supreme power in the House of Burgesses (Bürgerschaft) of 120 members. The executive is in the hands of the Senate, whose members are elected by the Bürgerschaft. The elections of 19 Dec. 1982 had the following results: Social Democrats, 64; Christian Democrats, 48; Green Alternatives, 8. The First Burgomaster is Dr Klaus von Dohnanyi (Social Democrat). The territory has been divided into 7 administrative districts. A G R I C U L T U R E . The agricultural area comprised 15,600 hectares in 1983. Yield, in tonnes, of cereals, 21,000; potatoes, 1,100. Livestock (3 Dec. 1982): Cattle, 13,288 (including 3,404 milch cows); pigs, 9,651; horses, 2,877; sheep, 2,323; poultry, 66,543. F I S H E R I E S . In 1983 the yield of sea and coastal fishing was 14,180 tonnes valued at DM 20m. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1983, 895 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 150,961 persons; of these, 19,575 were employed in electrical engineering; 17,343 in machine construction; 12,978 in shipbuilding (except naval engineering); 14,309 in chemical industry. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 721,600 at the 0-4%-sample survey of the microcensus of June 1983. Of the total, 5.7,200 were self-employed, 4,000 unpaid family workers, 660,400 employees; 4,800 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 202,600 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 196,600 in commerce and transport, 318,200 in other industries and services.

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R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1981 there were 3,628 km of roads, including 60 km of autobahn, 157 km of federal roads. Number of motor vehicles (1 July 1983), 644,157, including 572,859 passenger cars, 35,098 lorries, 1,734 buses, 4,686 tractors, 22,042 motor cycles and 7,738 other motor vehicles. S H I P P I N G . Hamburg is the largest port in the Federal Republic. Vesseli Entered: Number Tonnage Cleared: Number Tonnage

1938 18,149 20,567,311 19,316 20,547,148

1958 19,033 27,454,640 20,363 27,579,914

1978 16,636 61,785,643 17,414 62,028,141

1982 15,619 65,345,047 16,116 65,281,211

1983 14,159 57,263,715 14,482 57,392,802

J U S T I C E . There is a constitutional court (Verfassungsgericht), a court of appeal (Oberlandesgericht), a regional court (Landgericht), 6 local courts (Amtsgerichte), a Land labour court, a labour court, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) Evangelical Church and Free Churches 73 • 6%, Roman Catholic Church 8 1%. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983 there were 393 schools of general education (not including Internationale Schule) with 8,190 teachers and 179,649 pupils; 60 special schools with 914 teachers and 7,986 pupils; 45 part-time vocational schools with 52,284 pupils; 23 schools with 2,664 pupils in their vocational preparatory year; 23 schools with 1,824 pupils in manual instruction classes; 52 full-time vocational schools with 11,361 pupils; 9 economic secondary schools with 2,752 pupils; 28 advanced vocational schools with 3,855 pupils; 38 schools for public health occupations with 2,728 pupils; 11 vocational introducing schools with 344 pupils and 21 technical superior schools with 2,726 pupils; all these vocational and technical schools have a total number of2,932 teachers. In the winter term 1983-84 there was 1 university with 39,367 students; 1 technical university with 119 students; 1 college of music and 1 college of fine arts with together 2,024 students; 1 high school of the Bundeswehr with 1,857 students; 1 professional high school (Fachhochschule) with 11,120 students; 1 high school for economics and politics with 1,622 students; 1 high school of public administration with 999 students, as well as 1 private professional high school with 156 students. Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg (Steckelhöm 12, D2000 Hamburg 11) publishes: Hamburg in Zahlen, Statistische Berichte, Statistisches Taschenbuch, Statistik des Hamburgischen Staates. Kiessmann, E., Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg. Hamburg, 1981 Meyer-Marwitz, B., Das Hamburg Buch. Hamburg, 1981 Ohlig, J., Porträt einer Weltstadt. Hamburg, 1974 Studt, B., and Olsen, H., Hamburg—eine kurzgefaßte Geschichte der Stadt. Hamburg, 1964 State Library: Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Carl von Ossietzky, Von-Melle-Park 3, D2000 Hamburg 13. Director: Prof. Dr Horst Gronemeyer.

HESSEN AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The state of Hessen comprehends the areas of the former Prussian provinces Kurhessen and Nassau (excluding the exclaves belonging to Hessen and the rural counties of Westerwaldkreis and Rhine-Lahn) and of the former Volksstaat Hessen, the provinces Starkenburg (including the parts of Rheinhessen east of the river Rhine) and Oberhessen. Hessen has an area of 21,114 sq. km. Its capital is Wiesbaden. Since 1 Jan. 1981 there have been 3 areas with 5 urban and 21 rural districts and 421 communes. Population, 31 Dec. 1983, was 5,564,964 (2,673,045 males, 2,891,919 females). Vital statistics for calendar years:

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY 1981 1982 1983

Live births 54,132 54,015 50,860

Marriages 30,306 30,596 32,286

Divorces 9,388 10,546 10,252

537

Deatln 64,570 63,603 63,945

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution was put into force by popular referendum on 1 Dec. 1946. The Diet, elected on 25 Sept. 1983, consists of 51 Social Democrats, 44 Christian Democrats, 8 Free Democrats, 7 Die Grünen. The Social Democrat cabinet is headed by Minister President Holger Börner (SPD). A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (in 1.000 hectares) 1981 1982 1983 135-2 1420 142-0 35-2 31-4 32-4 1390 143-0 140-8 73-6 75-2 67-7 12-1 11-1 12-6 24-2 22-4 21-3

1981 664-0 131-4 565-6 280-7 308-1 1,216-0

Yield (in 1.000 tonnes) 1982 1983 773-2 749-3 124-0 118-9 728-4 651-2 308-3 217-8 325-4 225-7 1,118-5 876-3

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1983: Cattle, 871,200 (including 295,900 milch cows); horses (1982), 32,200; pigs, 1 -32m.; sheep (1982), 115,200; poultry (1982), 4,223,800. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1984, 3,657 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 597,864 persons; of these, 93,087 were employed in chemical industry; 76,898 in electrical engineering; 85,804 in car building; 71,879 in machine construction; 29,575 in food industry. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 2-44m. at the 0-4%-labour force sample survey of June 1983. Of the total, 208,800 were self-employed, 74,800 unpaid family workers, 2,158,400 employees; 101,200 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 967,600 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 465,600 in commerce and transport, 907,600 in other services. R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 16,634 km of'classified' roads, including916 km of autobahn, 3,586 km of federal highways, 7,130 km of first-class highways and 5,001 km of second-class highways. Motor vehicles licensed on 1 July 1984 totalled 2,795,389, including 2,419,180 passenger cars, 5,655 buses, 114,894 trucks, 138,121 tractors and 92,415 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (StaatsgerichtshoJ), a court of appeal, 9 regional courts, 58 local courts, a Land labour court, 12 labour courts, a Land social court, 7 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshoj), 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 60-5% Protestants and 32-8% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983 there were 1,258 primary schools with 14,181 teachers and 280,762 pupils; 240 special schools with 2,766 teachers and 22,513 pupils; 157 intermediate schools with 2,843 teachers and 58,622 pupils; 154 high schools with 8,931 teachers and 143,282 pupils; 185 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 11,100 teachers and 188,166 pupils; 114 part-time vocational schools with 4,183 teachers and 170,632 pupils; 253 full-time vocational schools with 2,416 teachers and 39,048 pupils; 56 advanced vocational schools with 349 teachers and, .5,087 pupils; 174 schools for public health occupations with 9,693 pupils; there were a further 37 full- and part-time institutions for the training of technicians with 3,121 participants. In the winter term 1983-84 there were 3 universities (Frankfurt/Main, 28,208 students; Giessen, 16,487; Marburg, 15,196); 1 technical university in Darmstadt (13,917); 1 Gesamthochschuk (8,735); 15 Fachhochschulen (29,250); 2 Roman

538

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

GERMANY

Catholic theological colleges and 1 Protestant theological college with together 479 students; 1 college of music and 2 colleges of fine arts with together 1,144 students. Statistical Information The Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt (Rheinstr. 35-37, D6200 Wiesbaden). President: Götz Steppuhn. Main publications: Statistisches Handbuch für das Land Hessen (191S-79).—Statistisches Taschenbuch für das Land Hessen (1982-83).—Staat und Wirtschaft in Hessen (monthly).—Beiträge zur Statistik Hessens.—Statistische Berichte —Hessische Gememdestatistik 1960-61 (5 vols., 1963 (f.).—Hessische Gemeindestatistik 1970 (5 vols., 1972 ff.).—Heuische Gemeindestatistik (annual 1980 fT.). Slate Library. Hessische Landesbibliothek, Rheinstr. 55-57, D6200 Wiesbaden. Director Helmut Schwitzgebel.

Dr

LOWER SAXONY Niedersachsen AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Lower Saxony (excluding the town of Bremerhaven, and the districts on the right bank of the Elbe in the Soviet Zone) comprises 47,447 sq. km, and is divided into 4 administrative districts, 38 rural districts, 9 towns and 1,019 communes; capital, Hanover. Estimated population, on 31 Dec. 1983, was 7,248,536 (3,479,399 males, 3,769,137 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 72,022 71,407 68,490

Marriages 40,282 40,938 41,284

Divorces 1 1,383 12,779 13,231

Deaths 86,364 85,867 85,375

G O V E R N M E N T . The Land Niedersachsen was formed on 1 Nov. 1946 by merging the former Prussian province of Hanover and the Länder Brunswick, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe. The Diet, elected on 21 March 1982, consists of 87 Christian Democrats, 63 Social Democrats; Free Democrats, 10 and Die Grünen, 11. The cabinet of the Christian Democratic Union is headed by Minister President Dr Ernst Albrecht (CDU). A G R I C U L T U R E . A r e a and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (m 1,000hectares) 1982 1980 1981 301 293 279 164 217 198 464 498 513 185 175 163 72 72 72 148 169 160

Yield (in l.OOOtonnes) 1980 1981 1982 1,475 1,449 1,694 841 668 675 2,226 2,203 i,on 634 691 871 2,210 2,436 2,239 6,334 7,509 7,712

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1983: Cattle, 3,314,978 (including 1,192,676 milch cows); horses, 75,549; pigs, 7,242,251; sheep, 163,121; poultry, 33,871,020. F I S H E R I E S . In 1983 the yield of sea and coastal fishing was 101,360 tonnes valued at DM 120m. I N D U S T R Y . In Sept. 1983,4,535 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 649,149 persons; of these 60,470 were employed in machine construction; 139,216 in car building; 59,624 in electrical engineering. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 3,022,600 at the 0-4%-sample survey of the microcensus of April 1983. Of the total 262,400 were self-employed, 149,000 unpaid family workers, 2,611,200 employees; 226,800

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

539

were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 1,180,200 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 559,400 in commerce and transport, 1,056,200 in other industries and services. R O A D S . At 1 Jan. 1983 there were 27,918 km of'classified' roads, including 1,045 km of autobahn, 5,134 km of federal roads, 8,710 km of first-class and 13,029 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 Jan. 1984, was 3,367,484 including 2,848,896 passenger cars, 145,672 lorries, 8,829buses,242,960 tractors, 129,867 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (StaatsgerichlshoJ), 3 courts of appeal, 11 regional courts, 79 local courts, a Land labour court, 15 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (together with Schleswig-Holstein), 3 administrative courts! R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 74-6% Protestants and 19-6% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1980 there were 2,307 primary schools with 28,092 teachers and 502,497 pupils; 293 special schools with 4,743 teachers and 43,450 pupils; 320 stages of orientation with 179,811 pupils; 270 intermediate schools with 7,157 teachers and 165,699 pupils; 241 grammar schools with 12,623 teachers and 207,542 pupils; 9 evening high schools with 138 teachers and 1,514 pupils; 20 integrated comprehensive schools with 1,684 teachers and 24,492 pupils; 17 cooperative comprehensive schools with 1,490 teachers and 26,186 pupils; 142 parttime vocational schools with 211,447 pupils; 114 year of basic vocational training with 21,071 pupils; 538 full-time vocational schools with 38,008 pupils; 89 Fachgymnasien with 8,696 pupils; 126 Fachoberschulen with 7,557 pupils (fulltime vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges); 56 vocational extension schools with 1,544 pupils; 151 advanced full-time vocational schools (including schools for technicians) with 9,662 pupils; 219 public health schools with 11,527 pupils. In the winter term 1982-83 there were 4 universities (Göttingen, 27,706 students; Hanover, 22,698; Oldenburg, 7,305; Osnabrück, 5,899); 2 technical universities (Braunschweig, 12,733; Clausthal, 3,241); the medical college of Hanover (3,460), the veterinary college in Hanover (1,726) and the colleges of Hildesheim (1,679) and Lüneburg (1,282). Statistical Information: The Niedersächsisches Landesverwaltungsamt—Statistik' (Geibelstr. 65, D3000 Hanover 1) fulfils the function of the 'Statistisches Landesamt fur Niedersachsen'. Head of Division: Abteilungsdirektor Dr G ü n t e r (Coop. Main publications are: Statistisches Jahrbuch Niedersachsen (from 1950).—Statistische Monatshefte Niedersachsen (from 1947).—Statistik Niedersachsen. State Library: Niedersächsische Staats- u n d Universitätsbibliothek, Prinzenstr. 1, 3400, Göttingen. Director: Helmut Vogt; Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek, Waterloostr. 8, D 3 0 0 0 Hannover 1. Director: D r Wilhelm Totok.

NORTH RHINE-WESTPHALIA Nordrhein-Westfalen A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Land comprises 34,062 sq. km. It is divided into 5 areas, 23 urban and 31 rural districts. Capital Diisseldorf. Population, 31 Dec. 1983,16,836,519 (8,035,185 males, 8,801,334 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 169,704 169,191 161,589

Marriages 101,603 102,049 105,022

Divorces 32,709 35,381 36,198

Deaths 196,773 195,044 194,905

540

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

G O V E R N M E N T . The Land Nordrhein-Westfalen is governed by Social Democrats; Minister President, Johannes Rau (SPD). The Diet, elected on 11 May 1980, consists of 106 Social Democrats and 95 Christian Democrats. A G R I C U L T U R E . A r e a and yield of the most important crops: Arealm 1.000hectarei) Yieldhn I,000tonnes) 1981 1982 1983 1981 1982 1983 Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

214-1 72-1 382-5 104-4 20-4 890

215-9 56-4 343-8 121-2 19-8 85-5

234-6 59-5 362-1 89-8 18-4 80-3

1,164-4 272-7 1,682-8 422-4 681-0 4,927-6

1,293-0 241-5 1,731-7 555-2 644-7 4,649-4

1,353-7 224-0 1,746-4 318-7 535-9 3.338-7

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1983: Cattle, 2,051,151 (including 665,558 milch cows); pigs, 5,977,610; sheep, 165,711; horses, 79,680; poultry, 12,397,408. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1983, 10,999 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 1,971,337 persons; of these, 175,158 were employed in mining; 274,739 in machine construction; 167,951 in iron and steel production; 193,004 in chemical industry; 171,039 in electrical engineering; 61,683 in textile industry. Output and/or production in 1,000 tonnes, 1983: Hard coal, 71,654; lignite, 117,391; pig-iron, 16,992; raw steel ingots, 21,372; rolled steel, 14,350; castings (iron, steel and malleable castings), 1,308; cement, 11,326; fireproof products, 1,191; sulphuric acid (including production of cokeries), 1,921; staple fibres and rayon, 298; metalworking machines, 101; equipment for smelting works and rolling mills, 129; machines for mining industry, 228; cranes and hoisting machinery, 58; installation implements, 978,000 (pieces); cables and electric lines, 205; springs of all kinds, 185; chains of all kinds, 80; locks and fittings, 321; spun yarns, 179; electric power, 170,567m. kwh. Of the total population, 11 • 7% were engaged in industry. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 6,772,600 at the labour force sample survey of European Communities of June 1983. Of the total, 513,600 were self-employed, 133,800 unpaid family workers, 6,075,200 employees; 200,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 3,040,400 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, l-21m. in commerce and transport, 2,269,400 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1984) 29,635 km of'classified' roads, including 1,908 km of autobahn, 5,520 km of federal roads, 12,283 km of first-class and 9,924 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 July 1984, 7,727,854, including 6,253,579 passenger cars, 544,840 lorries, 321,942 motor lorries/trucks, 16,898 buses, 206,083 tractors and 320,069 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (VerfassungsgerichlshoJ), 3 courts of appeal, 19 regional courts, 130 local courts, 3 Land labour courts, 30 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, 3 finance courts, a higher administrative court, 7 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 41 -9% Protestants and 52-5% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983 there were 4,714 primary schools with 69,256 teachers and 1,203,520 pupils; 742 special schools with 12,377 teachers and 96,137 pupils; 555 intermediate schools with 16,583 teachers and 325,640 pupils; 75 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 5,001 teachers and 63,731 pupils; 641 high schools with 39,399 teachers and 604,875 pupils; in 1983 there were 293 part-time vocational schools with 449,463 pupils; vocational preparatory year 248 with 31,498 pupils; 326 full-time vocational schools with 114,213 pupils; 91 Berujsauf bauschulen with 2,596 pupils; 234 full-time vocational schools leading up to voca-

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

541

tional colleges with 27,594 pupils; 146 advanced full-time vocational schools with 14,624 pupils; 555 schools for public health occupations with 9,343 teachers and 30,892 pupils; 21 schools within the scope of a pilot system of courses with 47,574 pupils and 1,743 teachers. In the winter term 1983-84 there were 8 universities (Bielefeld, 13,136 students; Bochum, 28,693; Bonn, 38,594; Dortmund, 17,474; Düsseldorf, 13,998; Cologne, 42,574; Münster, 43,502; Witten, 27); the Technical University of Aachen (34,800); 4 Roman Catholic and 2 Protestant theological colleges with together 1,110 students. There were also 3 colleges of music, 1 college of fine arts and the college for physical education in Cologne with together 10,132 students; 19 Fachhochschulen (vocational colleges) with 80,555 students, and 6 Gesamthochschulen with together 70,961 students. Statislnal Information: T h e Landesamt für Datenverarbeitung und Westfalen (Mauerstr. 51, D 4 0 0 0 Düsseldorf 1) was founded in 1946, provincial statistical offices of Rhineland and Westphalia. President: desamt publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch Nordrhein-Westfalen. From other publications yearly.

Statistik Nordrheinby amalgamating the A. Benker. The Lan1949. More than 550

Müller-Wille, W „ Westfalen. Münster, 1981. Land Library: Universitätsbibliothek, Universitätsstr. I, D4000 Düsseldorf. Director Gattermann.

Dr G.

RHINELAND-PALATINATE Rheinland-Pfalz AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Rhineland-Pfalz comprises 19,845 sq. km. Capital Mainz. Population (at 31 Dec. 1983), 3,633,488 (1,737,107 males, 1,896,381 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 37,402 37,132 35,422

Marriages 22,710 23,002 23,317

Divorces 6,172 6,965 6,747

Deaths 44,269 43,567 44,459

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution of the Land Rheinland-Pfalz was approved by the Consultative Assembly on 25 April 1947 and by referendum on 18 May 1947, when 579,002 voted for and 514,338 against its acceptance. The elections of 6 March 1983 returned 57 Christian Democrats, 43 Social Democrats. The cabinet is headed by Bernhard Vogel (Christian Democrat). AG RIC U LT U R E . Area and yield of the most important products: Areali .000 hectares) Yield (1.000 tonnes) Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet W i n e ( l ,000 hectolitres) Tobacco

1981 1191 31 -5 1371 50-8 13-2 24 1

1982 112-7 27-2 140-5 51-4 13-4 22-5

1983 113-4 28-0 137-0 450 12-9 22-0

1981 554-8 119-5 531-7 203-3 345-6 1,374-9

1982 574-9 103-8 622-1 193-0 349-3 1,209-6

1983 527-4 98-8 489-8 129-2 264-9 970-2

57-9 M

58-0 1-0

58-9 1-0

5,305-3

10,560-7

8,932-0

Livestock (2 Dec. 1983): Cattle, 638,200 (including 230,300 milch cows); horses, 19,500; sheep, 92,300; pigs, 677,000; poultry, 3,325,100. I N D U S T R Y . In Sept. 1983,2,728 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 364,939 persons; of these 69,870 were employed in chemical industry; 21,120 in production of leather goods and footwear; 46,779 in machine construction; 15,746 in processing stones and earthenware.

542

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

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L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 1,585,700 at the census of June 1983. Of the total, 140,800 were self-employed, 68,000 unpaid family workers, 1,350,400 employees; 96,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 646,000 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 266,600 in commerce and transport, 550,600 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1984) 18,535 km of'classified'roads, including 727 km of autobahn, 3,216 km of federal roads, 6,949 km of first-class and 7,643 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 July 1984, was 1,917,987, including 1,581,556 passenger cars, 78,643 lorries, 4,903 buses, 145,792 tractors and 91,644 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verjas.su ngsgerichtshoj), 2 courts of appeal, 8 regional courts, 47 local courts, a Land labour court, 5 labour courts, a Land social court, 4 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court, 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 40-7% Protestants and 55-7% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983 there were 1,193 primary schools with 15,333 teachers and 253,414 pupils; 156 special schools with 2,703 teachers and 15,023 pupils; 106 intermediate schools with 3,191 teachers and 62,215 pupils; 137 high schools with 6,896 teachers and 115,964 pupils; 99 vocational schools with 122,863 pupils; 127 advanced vocational schools and institutions for the training of technicians (full-and part-time) with 7,082 pupils; 117 schools for public health occupations with 355 teachers and 7,344 pupils. In the winter term 1983-84 there were the University of Mainz (25,613 students), the University of Kaiserslautem (5,777 students), the University of Trier (6,362 students), the Hochschule fur Verwaltungswissenschaften in Speyer (403 students), the Roman Catholic Theological College in Trier (398 students) and the Roman Catholic College in Vallendar (56 students). There were also the TeacherTraining College of the Land Rheinland-Pfalz (Erziehungswissenschajiliche Hochschule) with 2,697 students, the Fachhochschule des Landes Rheinland-PJalz (college of engineering) with 12,354 students and 4 Verwaltungsfachhochschulen with 2,736 students; also 2 private colleges for social-pedagogy (850 students). Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz (Mainzer Str., 15-16, D5427 Bad Ems) was established in 1948. President: D r Weis. Its publications include: Statistisches Jahrbuch Jür Rheinland-PJalz (from 1948); Statistische Monatshefte RheinlandPfalz (from 1958); Statistik von Rheinland-P/alz (from 1949) 309 vols, to date; RheinlandPfalz im Spiegel der Statistik (1968); Die kreisfreien Städte und Landkreise in RheinlandPfalz (1977); Rheinland-Pfalz heute (from 1973); Benutzerhandbuch des Landesmjormaüonssystems (1976); Rheinland-Pfalz heule und morgen (Mainz, 1981); Raumordnungsbericht 1981 der Landesregierung Rheinland-Pfalz (Mainz, 1981). Landesentwicklungsprogramm 1980 (Mainz, 1980). Klöpper, R., and Korber, J „ Rheinland-Pfalz Bereichen. Remagen, 1957 Süsterhenn, A., and Schäfer, H., Verfassung 1950

in seiner Gliederung von Rheinland-Pfalz:

nach

zentralörtlichen

Kommentar.

Koblenz,

SAARLAND H I S T O R Y . In 1919 the Saar territory was placed under the control of the League of Nations. Following a plebiscite, the territory reverted to Germany in 1935. In 1945 the territory became part of the French Zone of occupation, and was in 1947 accorded an international status inside an economic union with France. In pursuance of the German-French agreement signed in Luxembourg on 27 Oct. 1956 the territory returned to Germany on 1 Jan. 1957. Its re-integration with Germany was completed by 5 July 1959.

FEDERAL

REPUBLIC OF

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543

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Saarland has an area of2,570 sq. km. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1983, 1,052,794 (499,557 males, 553,237 females). The capital is Saarbrücken. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1980 1981 1982

Live births 10,511 10,496 10,287

Marriages 7,587 7,400 7,213

Divorces 1.628 2,012 2,459

Deaths 13,061 13,097 12,832

C O N S T I T U T I O N . Saarland now ranks as a Land of the Federal German Republic and is represented in the Federal Diet by 8 members. The constitution passed on 15 Dec. 1947 is being revised. The Saar Diet, elected on 27 April 1980, is composed as follows: 24 Social Democrats, 23 Christian Democrats,4 Free Democrats. Saarland is governed by Christian Democrats and Free Democrats in spite of deadlock in Parliament. Minister President: Werner Zeyer (Christian Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R E A N D F O R E S T R Y . The cultivated area occupies 123,500 hectares or slightly more than half the total area; the forest area comprises nearly 32% of the total. Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1981 7-3 6-4 11-7 71 0-7

Areali,000 hectares) 1982 198 J 6-9 6-7 5-4 51 1 11 12-7 7-4 60 0-6 0-6

1981 28-6 216 44-3 28-1 150

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1982 29 -1 17-7 52-9 26-7 13-9 10

¡983 27-3 19-3 35-0 16-9 7-7 0-2

Livestock, Dec. 1983: Cattle, 71,609 (including 25,411 milch cows); pigs, 44,183; sheep, 10,471; horses, 3,817; poultry, 349,210. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1983, 587 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 143,247 persons; of these 25,605 were engaged in coalmining, 24,304 in iron and steel production, 11,774 in machine construction, 8,968 in steel construction. In 1983 the coalmines produced 10m. tonnes of coal. Four iron foundries had 9 blast furnaces working and produced 3-4m. tonnes of pig-iron and 3-8m. tonnes of crude steel. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 407,100 at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of April 1982. Of the total, 26,300 were self-employed, 5,600 unpaid family workers, 375,200 employees; 6,500 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 199,500 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 72,500 in commerce and transport, 128,600 in other industries and services. R O A D S . At 1 Jan. 1981 there were 2,139 km of'classified' roads, including 163 km of autobahn, 443 km of federal roads, 765 km of first-class and 767 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1983, 501,002, including 440,772 passenger cars, 19,721 lorries, 1,499 buses, 12,391 tractors and 21,098 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshoj), a court of appeal, a regional court, 11 local courts, a Land labour court, 3 labour courts, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) 73 -8% of the population were Roman Catholics and 24-1% were Protestants. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983-84 there were 333 primary schools with 3,990 teachers

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF G E R M A N Y

and 67,655 pupils; 53 special schools with 663 teachers and 4,229 pupils; 38 intermediate schools with 1,133 teachers and 16,816 pupils; 37 high schools with 2,008 teachers and 2 8 , 9 0 3 pupils; 2 Gesamtschule (comprehensive high schools) with 137 teachers and 2 , 0 7 6 pupils; 2 Freie Waldorfschulen with 4 3 teachers and 5 7 4 pupils; 41 part-time vocational schools with 33,174 pupils; year of commercial basic training: 87 institutions with 237 classes and 5,042 pupils; 22 advanced fulltime vocational schools and schools for technicians with 2,375 pupils; 57 full-time vocational schools with 6,783 students; 19 vocational extension schools with 1,277 pupils; 25 Fachoberschulen (full-time vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges) with 3,291 students; 39 schools for public health occupations with 2,239 pupils; 2 evening high schools and 1 Saarland-Kolleg with together 401 pupils. The number of pupils visiting the vocational schools amounts to 55,757. They are instructed by 1,751 teachers. In the summer term 1983 there was the University of the Saarland with 14,623 students; 1 conservatory with 257 students; 1 vocational college (economics, engineering and design) with 1,906 students; 1 vocational college for social affairs with 152 students; 1 vocational college for public administration with 196 students. Statistical Information: The Statistisches Amt des Saarlandes (Hardenbergstrasse 3, D6600 Saarbrücken 1) was established on 1 April 1938. As from 1 June 1935, it was an independent agency; its predecessor, 1920-35, was the Statistical Office of the Government Commission of the Saar. Chief: Direktor Alois Spross. The most important publications are: Statistisches Handbuch Jür das Saarland, from 1950.—Statistisches Taschenbuch für das Saarland, from 1959.—Saarländische Bevölkerungsund Wirtschajiszahlen. Quarterly, from 1949. —Saarland in Zahlen (special issues).—Einzelschritten zur Statistik des Saarlandes, from 1950—Statistische Nachrichten, from 1981. Fischer, P., Die Saar zwischen Deutschland und Frankreich Frankfurt, 1959 Osang, R.M., Saarland ABC. Saarbrücken, 1975 Schmidt, R. H., Saarpolitik 1945-57. 3 vols. Berlin, 1959-62

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Schleswig-Holstein is 15,721 sq. km; it is divided into 4 urban and 11 rural districts and 1,131 communes. The capital is Kiel. The population (estimate, 31 Dec. 1983) numbered 2,616,598 (1,262,847 males, 1,353,751 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births 24,650 24,481 23,470

Marriages 13,873 14,416 14,840

Divorces 5,030 5,676 5,568

Deaths 31,927 31,601 31,017

G O V E R N M E N T . The elections of 13 March 1983 gave the Christian Democrats 39, the Social Democratic Party 34 and the South Schleswig Association 1 seat. Minister President, Dr Uwe Barschel (Christian Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R E . A r e a and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1981 154-4 52-7 153-7 39-4 4-8 21-0

Areal1,000 hectares) 1982 1983 144-8 148-5 51-5 52-6 154-5 149-2 38-4 26-7 4-4 5-0 19-4 17-5

1981 918-6 198-3 773-3 179-4 152-8 888-7

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1982 ¡983 1,040-4 982-6 207-9 233 0 939-8 803-3 193-9 88-4 142-5 93-5 686-2 589-0

Livestock, 2 Dec. 1983: 32,241 horses, 1,615,957 cattle (including 573,649 milch cows), 1,732,550 pigs, 142,578 sheep, 3,810,443 poultry. F I S H E R I E S . In 1982 the yield of small-scale deep-sea and inshore fisheries was 47,000 tonnes valued at DM57-9m.

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I N D U S T R Y . In 1983 (average), 1,610 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 165,909 persons; of these, 14,160 were employed in shipbuilding (except naval engineering); 30,379 in machine construction; 23,023 in food and kindred industry; 15,790 in electrical engineering. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 1 1 2 m . at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of April 1982. Of the total, 105,000 were self-employed, 31,000 unpaid family workers, 987,000 employees; 69,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 368,000 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 227,000 in commerce and transport, 459,000 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1984) 9,742-5 km of'classified' roads, including 381 - 5 km of autobahn, 1,940 km of federal roads, 3,525 km of first-class and 3,896 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 Jan. 1984, was 1,200,149, including 1,024,552 passenger cars, 53,780 lorries, 2,809 buses, 73,054 tractors, 33,472 motorcycles. S H I P P I N G . The Kiel Canal, 98-7 km (51 miles) long, is on Schleswig-Holstein territory. In 1938, 53,530 vessels of 22-6m. net tons passed through it; in 1981, 52,641 vessels of 53-3m. net tons; in 1982, 49,100 vessels of 52-7m. net tons; in 1983,49,320 vessels of 50-9m. net tons. J U S T I C E . There are a court of appeal, 4 regional courts, 30 local courts, a Land labour court, 6 labour courts, a Land social court, 4 social courts, a finance court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 86-5% Protestants and 6% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1983-84 there were 695 primary schools with 6,239 teachers and 166,956 pupils; 168 special schools with 1,596 teachers and 16,473 pupils; 178 intermediate schools with 3,212 teachers and 75,613 pupils; 96 high schools with 4,480 teachers and 81,059 pupils; 6 Integrierte Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 228 teachers and 4,049 pupils; 41 part-time vocational schools with 1,558 teachers and 92,011 pupils; 139 full-time vocational schools with 447 teachers and 12,145 pupils; 57 advanced vocational schools with 293 teachers and 5,406 pupils; 55 schools for public health occupations with 3,717 pupils; 48 vocational grammar schools with 385 teachers and 6,611 pupils; 5 Fachhochschulen (vocational colleges) with 8,211 pupils in the summer term 1984. In the summer term 1984 the University of Kiel had 16,325 students, 2 teachertraining colleges had 2,753 students, 1 music college had 339 students and 1 Medizinische Hochschule in Lübeck had 814 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Schleswig-Holstein (Fröbel Str. 15-17, D2300 Kiel I). Director: Dr Mohr. Publications: Statistisches Taschenbuch SchleswigHolstem, since 1954.—Statistisches Jahrbuch Schleswig-Holstein, since 1951.—Statistische Monatshefte Schleswig-Holstein, since 1949.—Statistische Berichte, since 1947.—Beitrage zur historischen Statistik Schleswig-Holstein, since 1967.—Lange Reihen, since 1977. Baxter, R. R., The Law oj International Waterways. HarvardUniv. Press, 1964 Brandt, 0.,Grundriss der Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins. 5thed. Kiel, 1957 Handbuch Jür Schleswig-Holstein. 22nded. Kiel, 1984 State Library: Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesbibliothek, Kiel, Schloss. Director: Prof. Dr Klaus Friedland.

GHANA

Capital: Accra Population: 12-21m.(1984) GNPper capita: US$400 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. The State of Ghana came into existence on 6 March 1957 when the former Colony of the Gold Coast and the Trusteeship Territory of Togoland attained Dominion status. The name of the country recalls a powerful monarchy which from the 4th to the 13th century A.D. ruled the region of the middle Niger. The Ghana Independence Act received the royal assent on 7 Feb. 1957. The General Assembly of the United Nations in Dec. 1956 approved the termination of British administration in Togoland and the union of Togoland with the Gold Coast on the latter's attainment of independence. The country was declared a Republic within the Commonwealth on 1 July 1960 with Dr Kwame Nkrumah as the first President. On 24 Feb. 1966 the Nkrumah regime was overthrown in a military coup and ruled by the National Liberation Council until 1 Oct. 1969 when the military regime handed over power to a civilian regime under a new constitution. Dr K. A. Busia was the Prime Minister of the Second Republic. On 13 Jan. 1972 the armed forces and police took over power again from the civilian regime in a coup. In Oct. 1975 the National Redemption Council was subordinated to a Supreme Military Council (SMC). In 1979 the SMC was toppled in a coup led by FlightLieut. J. Rawlings. The new government permitted elections already scheduled and these resulted in a victory for Dr Hilla Limann and his People's National Party. However on 31 Dec. 1982 by another coup led by Flight-Lieut. Rawlings dismissed the government and Parliament, suspended the Constitution and established a Provisional National Defence Council to exercise all government powers. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Ghana is bounded west by Ivory Coast, north by Burkina Faso, east by Togo and south by the Gulf of Guinea. The area of Ghana is 92,010sq. miles (238,305 sq. km); census population 1984,12,205,574. The capital is Accra (population, 1970,636,067). Ghana is divided into 9 regions: Regions Eastern Western Central Ashanti Brong-Ahafo Northern Volta Upper Greater Accra

Area (sq. km) 19,833 24,214 9,469 25,123 39,709 70,338 20,651 16,877 2,023

Population census¡970 1,262,882 770,089 890,135 1,505,049 766,509 728,572 947,012 862,723 903,445

Capital Koforidua Sekondi-Takoradi Cape Coast Kumasi Sunyani Tamale Ho Bolgatanga Accra

Population census 1970 69,804 254,543 71,594 351,629 61,772 120,000 46,348 18,896 636,067

Other chief towns (population, census, 1970); Asamankese, 101,144; Tema, 60,767; Nsawam, 57,350; Tarkwa, 50,570; Oda, 40,740; Obuasi, 40,001; Winneba, 36,104; Keta, 27,461; Swedru (Agona), 23,843. Estimated birth rate, between 47 and 52 per 1,000; death rate, about 23 per 1,000. In the south and centre of Ghana, the people are of the Kwa ethno-linguistic group, mainly Akan (Ashante, Fante, etc.), Ewe (in the Volta region) and Ga, while the 20% living in the north belong to Gur peoples (Dagbane, Gurma and Grusi). C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from the equatorial type on the coast to savannah in the interior and is typified by the existence of well-marked dry and wet seasons. 546

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Temperatures are relatively high throughout the year. The amount, duration and seasonal distribution of rain is very marked, from the south, with over 8 0 " (2,000 mm) to the north, with under 5 0 " (1,250 mm). In the extreme north, the wet season is from March to Aug., but further south it lasts until Oct. Near Kumasi, two wet seasons occur, in May and June and again in Oct. and this is repeated, with greater amounts, along the coast of Ghana. Accra. Jan. 80°F (26 -7°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (724 mm). Kumasi. Jan. 77°F (25°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 5 8 " (1,402 mm). Sekondi-Takoradi. Jan. 79°F (25°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 7 " (1,181 mm). Tamale. Jan. 82°F(27-8°C), July 78°F (2 5 • 6°C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,026 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Since the coup of 31 Dec. 1982, supreme power is held by the Provisional National Defence Council, which in Sept. 1984 consisted of: Flight-Lieut. Jerry John Rawlings (Chairman), Warrant Officer Joseph Adjei Buadi, Aanaa Enin, Edo Tawiah, J. S. Annan and Suzanna Alhassan. Ministerial responsibilities are exercised by Secretaries appointed by the PNDC, comprising in Sept. 1984: Co-ordinating Secretariat (i.a. Prime Minister): P. V. Obeng. Foreign Affairs: Dr Obed Asamoah. Finance and Economic Planning: Dr Kwesi Botwe. Interior: Koffi Gwyn. Agriculture: John A. Ndebugre. Culture and Tourism: Dr Ben Abdallah. Education: Dr V. C. Dadson. Fuel and Power: Appiah Korang. Health: E. J. Tandoh. Industry, Science and Technology: Dr Charles Boadu. Information: Joyce Aryee. Justice: G. E. K. Aikins. Lands and Natural Resources: G. A. Renner. Local Government: Kwame Dwemo Kessie. Roads and Highways: Yaw Donkor. Rural Development and Co-operatives: Kwaku Ankomah. Trade: Ato Ahwoi. Transport and Communications: Mahamad Idrisu. Labour and Social Welfare: Ato Austin. Works and Housing: Hassan Abubakr. Youth and Sports: Maj. Amarke Amarteifo. Nationalflag: Red, gold, green (horizontal); a black star in the centre. National anthem: Hail the name of Ghana. Local government: The 9 Regions, each under a Regional Secretary appointed by the PNDC, are divided into 62 districts and thence into local council areas, each level being administered by Provisional Defence Committees. D E F E N C E . The Ministry of Defence is responsible for the armed services, the military academy and the border guards. The Military Academy provides a 2-year course for army officers, a 1 -year course for later entrants in the flying-training school and a preliminary 6-month course for navy cadets. Army. The Ghana Army consists of 6 infantry battalions, 1 reconnaissance battalion, 1 field engineer battalion, 1 mortar battalion, 5 with armoured cars,: and ancillary units. Total strength, (1985) 10,000. There are also 3 battalions of people's militia and a border guard of5,000. Navy. The Ghana Navy was formed in 1959. It comprises 2 British-built 500-ton corvettes, 4 fast attack craft, 2 patrol craft, 2 old seaward defence boats, 4 coastal patrol boats and 2 service craft. Naval personnel in 1985 numbered 840 officers and ratings. Air Force. The Ghana Air Force was formed in 1959, when an Air Force Training School was established at Accra. Its first combat unit has 6 Italian-built Aermacchi M.B.326K light ground attack jets ordered in 1976. It has, for training, transport, search and rescue, and air survey operations, 5 Fokker Friendship twin-turboprop transports, and a twin-turbofan Fokker Fellowship for Presidential use, all built in the Netherlands; 6 Shorts Skyvan twin-turboprop STOL transports, some Islanders, and 11 Bulldog primary trainers, all built in the UK; 2 Bell 212 helicopters built in the US; 2 French-built Alouette III helicopters, 8 Italian-built SF.260TP turboprop trainers, and 6 Aermacchi M.B.326F armed jet trainers. There are air bases at Takoradi and Tamale. Personnel strength (1983) about 1,400.

548

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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Ghana is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU, ECOWAS and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. In Jan. 1983 a 4-year economic reconstruction and development programme was announced and aims at increasing state involvement in economic activity. Budget. In 1984-85 budget provided for revenue of C 22,600m. and expenditure of C 28,500m. Currency. The monetary unit is the cedi (C), divided into 100 pesewas (P). Notes are issued of 1,2,5,10 and 50 C; copper coins of lh and 1 P, and cupro-nickel coins of2'A, 5,10 and 20 P. In March 1985, £ 1 = C 64 • 18; US$ 1 = C 50. Banking. The Bank of Ghana was established in Feb. 1957 as the central bank of the country. The Ghana Commercial Bank, also established in Feb. 1957, is the former Bank of the Gold Coast. It is a purely commercial institution and has 120 branches in the country, 1 in London and 1 in Lomé (Togo). Barclays Bank (Ghana) Ltd has 54 branches and agencies and the Standard Bank (Ghana) Ltd has 27 branches. The Ghana National Investment Bank, opened in June 1963, is a finance-cumdevelopment agency. The former post office savings bank has been transformed into the Ghana Savings Bank. The Bank for Housing and Construction opened in 1973. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1981) 5,053m. kwh, mainly from the Volta Dam at Akosombo, opened in 1966, which has a capacity of 912 mw. Oil. The Government announced in Jan. 1978 that oil had been found in commercial quantities with known reserves (1980) 7m. bbls and in Oct. 1983 formed the Ghanaian National Petroleum Corporation with exploration rights in all areas not covered by existing agreements. Minerals. In 1982 gold production was 10,300 kg; diamonds, 684,000 carats; manganese, 160,000 tons; bauxite, 64,000 tons. Agriculture. Cocoa is by far the most important crop and covers about 2m. acres. Production (1982) 190,000 tons. There has been considerable increase in cocoa yields as a result of the Capsid control and the introduction of improved varieties. A Cocoa Affairs Ministry has been established to formulate policy and provide technical supervision for developing cocoa, coffee, shea-nuts, copra and bananas. Coffee, improved types of oil-palm and coconut are being planted on an increased scale and production from these crops is increasing. Progress has been made in the planting of Clonal rubber in south-west Ghana. In the south-east coastal belt irrigation works have been constructed and black-clay farming is being successfully undertaken in the Accra plains. Of the main foodstuffs in south and central Ghana, maize, rice, cassava, plantain, groundnuts, yam and cocoyam predominate. Tobacco is proving an attractive and very important cash crop in food-crop producing areas. In northern Ghana the chief food crops are groundnuts, rice, maize, guinea com, millet and yams, with tobacco and cotton as important cash crops. Agricultural cash crops, e.g., pepper, ginger, pineapple, avocado and citrus, etc., are being extensively cultivated for export. Active steps have also been taken to provide within the next few years industrial raw materials, e.g., kenaf, cotton, tobacco, palm-oil, mango, pineapple, sugar-cane, etc., to feed the local factories. The trend is towards diversification of agriculture. Production of main food crops (1982) was: Cassava, l-9m. tons; plantain, 950,000 tons; coconut, 160,000; maize, 420,000; plantains, 950,000; millet, 90,000; sugar-cane, 220,000; sorghum, 150,000; rice, 90,000; tomatoes, 160,000.

GHANA

549

Livestock, 1983: Cattle, 800,000; sheep, 2m.; goats, 2m.; horses, 4,000; pigs, 375,000; poultry, 13m. Forestry. Area of closed forest is 82,576 sq. km, (16,852 -2 sq. km are reserved). Fisheries. Catch (1982) 224,100 tonnes (40,000 from inland waters). INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. The aluminium smelter at Tema is the centre of industrial development, mainly concentrated on Accra/Tema, Kumasi and Takoradi/Sekondi. Production (1981) 173,300 tonnes. Commerce. In 1982 exports were C 2,402m.; imports, C 1,939m. Principal exports: cocoa, timber and gold; imports were raw materials, capital equipment, petroleum and food. Total trade between Ghana and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 104,545 88,511

1981 61,167 87,849

1982 74,438 66,709

1983 58,192 82,234

1984 61,561 82,897

Tourism. In 1981 there were 42,400 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total mileage of roads maintained by the Public Works Department in 1980 was 33,000. The number of vehicles in use (1977) was 121,700, of which private cars, 49,300. Railways. Total length of railways open in 1983 was 953 km of 1,067 mm gauge. In 1983 railways carried 357,040 tonnes and 3 -6m. passengers. Aviation. There is an international airport at Kotoka (Accra) and domestic airports at Takoradi, Kumasi, Tamale and Sunyani. Total aircraft freight in 1980 was 32m. ton-km. Shipping. The chief ports are Takoradi and Tema. In 1978,2m. tons of cargo were imported and 1 -6m. tons were exported by 1,082 ships. Post and Broadcasting. There were 431 telephone exchanges and 742 call offices with (1982) 70,653 telephones in use. There are internal wireless stations at Accra, Kumasi, Bawku, Lawra, Kete-Krachi, Tamale, Yendi, Kpandu, Tumu and Sekondi-Takoradi. In 1982 there were l-88m. radio and 60,000 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1977 there were 8 cinemas with a seating capacity of 13,200. Newspapers. There were (1984) 4 daily and 15 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. In June 1983 the legal system was being re-organized. The Courts were constituted as follows: Supreme Court. The Supreme Court'consists of the Chief Justice who is also the President and not less than 6 other Justices of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the final court of appeal in Ghana. The final interpretation of the provisions of the constitution has been entrusted to the Supreme Court. Court ofAppeal. The Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice together with not less than 5 other Justices of the Appeal court and such other Justices of Superior Courts as the Chief Justice may nominate. The Court of Appeal is duly constituted by 3 Justices. The Court of Appeal is bound by its own previous decisions and all courts inferior to the Court of Appeal are bound to follow the decisions of the Court of Appeal on questions of law. Divisions of the Appeal Court may be created, subject to the discretion of the Chief Justice.

550

GHANA

High Court of Justice. The Court has jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters as well as those relating to industrial and labour disputes including administrative complaints. The High Court of Justice has supervisory jurisdiction overall inferior Courts and any adjudicating authority and in exercise of its supervisory jurisdiction has power to issue such directions, orders or writs including writs or orders in the nature of habeas corpus, certiorari, mandamus, prohibition and quo warrantto. The High Court of Justice has no jurisdiction in cases of treason. The High Court consists of the Chief Justice and not less than twelve other judges and such other Justices of the Superior Court as the ChiefJustice may appoint. Religion. Christians represent 52% of the population (Protestant, 37%; Roman Catholic, 15%), Moslem, 13%,animist, 30%. Education. In 1985 there were kindergartens for the age-groups 4-6 years. Primary schools are free and attendance is compulsory. In 1978—79 there were 11,422 primary schools with 1,784,834 pupils. In 1979 there were 300 secondary schools with 626,168 pupils. At the beginning of the 1979 academic year there were 41 training colleges with 12,350 students. In 1979-80 there were 8,286 students at the 3 universities (University of Ghana, the University of Science and Technology and the University of the Cape Coast). University education is free. Health. Medical facilities include 50 government hospitals, 116 health centres and posts, 4 university hospitals, 3 mental hospitals, 4 leprosaria, 7 military hospitals, 1 prison hospital, 40 mission hospitals and 16 private hospitals. In addition, there are 30 nurses and midwives training schools. There were 1,224 doctors, 7,608 nurses and 4,168 midwives at work in 1976. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Ghana in Great Britain (13 Belgrave Sq., London, SW1X8PR) High Commissioner: Kenneth Kweku Sinaman Dadzie (accredited 13 Oct. 1982). Of Great Britain in Ghana (Barclays Bank Bldg., High St., Accra) High Commissioner: K. F. X. Bums, CMG. Of Ghana in the USA (2460 16th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Eric K. Otoo. Of the USA in Ghana (Ring Rd., East, Accra) Ambassador: Robert E. Fritts. Of Ghana to the United Nations Ambassador: James Victor Gbeho. Books of Reference Digest of Statistics. Accra. Quarterly (from May 1953) Ghana. Official Handbook. Annual The Volta River Project. 3 vols. HMSO, 1956 Davidson, B., Black Star. London, 1973 James, C. L. R., Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution. London, 1977 Jones, T., Ghana 's First Republic 1960-1966. London, 1975 Killick, T., Development Economics in Action: A Study of Economic Policies in Ghana. London,1978

GIBRALTAR

Population: 29,073 (1983) GNP per capita: US$4,690 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . The Rock of Gibraltar was settled by Moors in 711; they named it after their chief Jebel Tariq, 'the Mountain of Tank-'. In 1462 it was taken by the Spaniards, from Granada. It was captured by Admiral Sir George Rooke on 24 July 1704, and ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. The cession was confirmed by the treaties of Paris (1763) and Versailles (1783). On 10 Sept. 1967, in pursuance of a United Nations resolution on the decolonization of Gibraltar, a referendum was held in Gibraltar in order to ascertain whether the people of Gibraltar believed that their interests lay in retaining their link with Britain or in passing under Spanish sovereignty. Out of a total electorate of 12,762,12,138 voted to retain the British connexion, while 44 voted for Spain. On 15 Dec. 1982 the border between Gibraltar and Spain was re-opened for Spaniards and Gibraltarian pedestrians who are residents of Gibraltar. Tlie border was closed by Spain in June 1969. Following an agreement signed in Brussels in Nov. 1984 the border was fully opened on 5 Feb. 1985. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area, 2'A sq. miles (6-5 sq. km). Total population, including port and harbour (census, 1981), 28,719. Estimate (31 Dec. 1983) 29,073 (of which 20,021 were British Gibraltarian). The population is mostly of Genoese, Portuguese and Maltese as well as Spanish descent. Vital statistics (1983): Births, 510; marriages, 432; deaths, 252. C L I M A T E . The climate is warm temperate, with westerly winds in winter bringing rain. Summers are pleasantly warm and rainfall is low. Frost or snow is very rare. Jan. 55°F(12-8°C), July 75°F(23-9°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (772 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Following a Constitutional Conference held in July 1968, a new Constitution was introduced in 1969. The Legislative and City Councils were merged to produce an enlarged legislature known as the Gibraltar House of Assembly. Executive authority is exercised by the Governor, who is also Commander-in-Chief. The Governor, while retaining certain reserved powers, is normally required to act in accordance with the advice of the Gibraltar Council, which consists of 4 ex-officio members (the Deputy Governor, the Deputy Fortress Commander, the Attorney-General and the Financial and Development Secretary) together with 5 elected members of the House of Assembly appointed by the Governor after consultation with the Chief Minister. Matters of primarily domestic concern are devolved to elected Ministers, with Britain responsible for other matters, including external affairs, defence and internal security. There is a Council of Ministers presided over by the Chief Minister. The House of Assembly consists of a Speaker appointed by the Governor, 15 elected and 2 ex-officio members (the Attorney-General and the Financial and Development Secretary). A Mayor of Gibraltar is elected from among the members of the Assembly by the elected members of the Assembly. Governor and C.-in-C.: Admiral Sir David Williams, GCB. Chief Minister: Sir Joshua Hassan, CBE, M VO, QC. Flag: White with a red strip along the bottom, a red triple-towered castle with a gold key depending from the gateway. D E F E N C E . The Gibraltar Regiment is a part-time infantry battalion with a small regular cadre. There is also a resident battalion from the British Army. 551

552

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ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in £ sterling): 1981-82 1982-83 Revenue Expenditure

44,265,500 42,594,000

47,789,100 51,980,283

1983-84

59,770,420 60,354,175

1984-85

60,184,807 62,854,244

Currency. The legal currency consists of Gibraltar government notes in denominations of £20, £10, £5 and £1 and U K silver and copper-cupro-nickel coins. The amount of local currency notes in circulation at 31 March 1984 was £8,309,910. Banking. There are 5 banks, including a branch of Barclays Bank International. In addition there are 3 offshore banks. Government savings banks had 643 depositors and £708,690 savings at 31 March 1984. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. There are a number of relatively small industrial concerns engaged in the bottling of beer and mineral waters, etc., mainly for consumption. TTiere is a small but important commercial ship-repair yard. Employment. The total insured labour force at 31 Dec. 1983, was 12,163. The labour supply from the local population is insufficient to meet the demand and since the withdrawal of the Spanish frontier workers in June 1969, a substantial part of the labour has had to come from other places. A quota system is in existence which takes into account the demand from the various industries and seasonal variations and the issue of employment permits is based on this. Approximately 60% of the local labour force is employed by the U K departments or the Gibraltar government. Trade Unions. A considerable proportion of the workers are organized in one or other of the 12 registered employees' trade unions, of which the Transport and General Workers Union has the largest membership; 7 of these are local branches of parent associations in the UK. Commerce. Imports and exports (in £ sterling): 1980 1981 Imports Exports

1982

63,141,753 65,826,282 68,393,000 4,182,217' 5,701,416' 23,800,000 ' Exclusive of petroleum and petroleum products.

1983

61,600,000 24,500,000

Britain and the Commonwealth provide the bulk of the imports, but fresh vegetables, fruit and fish come mainly from Morocco, Portugal and the Netherlands. Exports of local produce are negligible. Gibraltar depends largely on tourism, the entrepot trade and the provision of supplies to visiting ships. Total trade between Gibraltar and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1982 1983 1984 ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

4,229 29,712

4,266 26,495

5,333 31,978

Tourism. The number of tourists in 1983 was 782,630. On 15 Dec. 1982 the land frontier with Spain was re-opened for pedestrians only on a restricted basis. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 31 miles of roads including 4-25 miles of pedestrian way. Aviation. There are 5 weekly flights between London and Gibraltar (3 operated by Gibraltar Airways and 2 by British Airways) during the winter, these are increased to daily flights during the summer. Shipping. Gibraltar is a naval and air base of strategic importance. There is a deep Admiralty harbour of 440 acres. A total of 2,226 merchant ships, 21,545,985 G R T , entered the port during 1983, including 1,254 deep-sea ships of 20,963,577 G R T . An additional 5,573 calls were made by yachts, 106,523 G R T .

GIBRALTAR

553

Post and Broadcasting. An automatic telephone system exists in the town; number of telephones (1982), 9,870. There is also world-wide communication via the cable and/or wireless circuits of Cable & Wireless Ltd and international direct dialling facilities. Air-mails arrive by British Airways daily. A direct air-mail service between Gibraltar and Tangier is run by Gibraltar Airways, Ltd. Surface mails arrive direct and through France, Spain and Tangier. Radio Gibraltar broadcasts for 17 hours daily, in English and Spanish, and there are about 40 hours of television per week. Number of receivers (31 Dec. 1983), TV (including radio), 6,816. Cinemas. In 1983 there were 3 cinemas with a seating capacity of2,400. Newspapers. There were (1985) 1 daily and 5 weeklies. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicial system is based on the English system. There is a Court of Appeal, a Supreme Court, presided over by the Chief Justice, a court of first instance and a magistrates' court. Religion. Religion of civil population mostly Roman Catholic; 1 Anglican and 1 Roman Catholic cathedral and 2 Anglican and 6 Roman Catholic churches; 1 Presbyterian and 1 Methodist church and 4 synagogues; annual subsidy to each communion, £500. Education. Free compulsory education is provided for children between ages 5 and 15 years. Scholarships are made available for universities, teacher-training and other higher education in Britain. The comprehensive system was introduced in Sept. 1972.There were(1983)7first,4middle, 1 primary school and 2 comprehensive schools. All first and middle schools are mixed but the comprehensives are single-sex. In addition, there are 2 Services primary schools and 1 private primary school. A new purpose-built Special School for Handicapped Children was opened in 1977. Technical education is available at the Gibraltar and Dockyard Technical College managed by the UK Ministry of Defence for which Government pays 50% of all recurrent costs and scholarships are made available in Britain for university, teacher-training and other forms of higher education. In Sept. 1983, there were 1,354 pupils at government first schools, 1,318 at government middle schools, 200 at private and 777 at services schools; 17 at the special school; 841 at the boys' comprehensive school and 908 at the girls' comprehensive. In addition there were 68 full-time and 204 part-time students in the Technical College. Total full-time pupils in all educational institutions, 5,483. In 1982-83, government expenditure on education was £4,082,670. Health. In 1983 there were 3 hospitals with 262 beds and 22 doctors. Total expenditure on medical and health services during year ended 31 March 1983 was £4,939,395. Books of Reference Annual Report on Gibraltar, 1972. London, 1974 Gibraltar Year Book. Gibraltar, (Annual) Dennis, P., Gibraltar. Newton Abbot, 1977 Ellicott, D., Our Gibraltar. Gibraltar, 1975 Garcia, S., Gibraltar: An Analysis of How the Economy was Affected by the Spanish Restrictions 1963-72 (unpublished). Garrison Library, 1974 Green, M. M.,/4 Gibraltar Bibliography. London, 1980.—Supplement. London, 1982 Hills, G., Rock of Contention: A History of Gibraltar. London, 1974 Howes, H. W., The Story of Gibraltar. London, 1946

GREECE

Capital: Athens Population: 9 • 74m. (1981) GNP per capita: US$3,540 ( 1983)

Elliniki Dimokratia

Greece gained her independence from Turkey in 1821-29, and by the Protocol of London, of 3 Feb. 1830, was declared a kingdom, under the guarantee of Great Britain, France and Russia. For details of the subsequent history to 1947 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1957, pp. 1069-70 and for details of the monarchy see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1973-74, p. 1000. HISTORY.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Greece is bounded north by Albania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, east by Turkey and the Aegean Sea, south by the Mediterranean and west by the Ionian Sea. The total area is 131,957 sq. km (50,949 sq. miles), of which the islands account for 25,042 sq. km (9,669 sq. miles). The population was 9,740,417 according to the census of 5 April 1981. Athens is the capital; population of Greater Athens, in 1981,3,027,331. The following table shows the prefectures (Nomoi) and their population: Greater

Nomoi Athens'

Central Greece andEuboea2 Aetolia and Acamania Attica 2 Boeotia Euboea Evrytania Phthiotis Phokis Peloponnessos Argolis Arcadia AkhaVa Elia Korinthia Lakonia Messenia Ionian Islands Zakynthos Kerkyra Kefallenia Lefkas Epirus Arta Thesprotia Yannina Preveza Thessaly Karditsa Larissa Magnessia Trikkala

Area in sq. km 433

Population 1981 3,027,331

24.475 5,447 2,496 3,211 3,908 2,045 4,368 2,121 21,439 2,214 4,419 3,209 2,681 2,289 3,636 2,991 2,307 406 641 935 325 9,203 1,612 1,515 4,990 1,086 13,904 2,576 5,354 2,636 3,338

1,099,841 219,764 342,093 117,175 188,410 26,182 161,995 44,222 1,012,528 93,020 107,932 275,193 160,305 123,042 93,218 159,818 182,651 30,014 99,477 31,297 21,863 324,541 80,044 41,278 147,304 55,915 695,654 124,930 254,295 182,222 134,207

Capital Athens (Piraeus)

Population 1981 885,737 196,389

Missolonghi Athens Levadeia Chalcis Karpenissi Lamia Amphissa

10,164 885,737 16,864 44,867 5,100 41,667 7,156

Nauplion Tripolis Patras Pyrgos Korinthos Sparte Calamata

10,609 21,311 141,529 21,958 22,658 11,911 41,911

Zante Kerkyra Argostolion Levkas

9,764 33,561 6,788 6,415

Arta Hegoumenitsa Yannina Preveza

18,283 5,879 44,829 12,662

Karditsa Larisa Volos Trikkala

27,291 102,048 71,378 40,857

' Comprising parts of Attica and Piraeus prefectures. Excluding figures for the parts of Attica and Piraeus prefectures within Greater Athens.

2

554

555

GREECE Nomoi Macedonia Grevena Drama Imathia Thessaloniki Kavalla Kastoria Kilkis Kozani Pella Pieria Serres Fiorina Khalkidiki Aghion Oros Mount Athos Thrace Evros Xanthi Rodopi Aegean Islands Cyclades Lesvos Samos Khios Dodecanese Crete Iraklion Lassithi Rethymnon Canea

Area in sq. km 34.203 2,338 3,468 1,699 3,560 2,109 1,685 2,597 3,562 2,506 1,548 3,987 1,863 2,945 336 8.578 4,242 1,793 2,543 9.071 2,572 2,154 778 904 2,663 8,331 2,641 1,818 1,496 2,376

Population 1981 2.121.953 36,421 94,772 133,750 871,580 135,218 53,169 81,562 147,051 132,386 106,859 196,247 52,430 79,036 1,472 345.220 148,486 88,777 107,957 428.533 88,458 104,620 40,519 49,865 145,071 502.165 243,622 70,053 62,634 125,856

Capital

Populalion 1981

Grevena Drama Verria Thessaloniki Kavala Kastoria Kilkis Kozani Edessa Katerini Serres Fiorina Polyghyros Karyai (locality)

7,433 36,109 37,087 406,413 56,375 17,133 11,148 30,994 16,054 38,016 45,213 12,562 4,075 235

Alexandroupolis Xanthi Komotini

34,535 31,541 34,051

Hermoupolis Mitylini Samos Khios Rhodes

13,876 24,115 5,575 24,070 40,392

Heraklion Aghios Nikolaos Rethymnon Canea

101,634 8,130 17,736 47,338

In 1981 cities (i.e., communes of more than 10,000 inhabitants, including Greater Athens) had 5,659,528 inhabitants (58-1%), towns (i.e., communes with between 2,000 and 9,999 inhabitants), 1,125,547 (11 -6%), villages and rural communities (under 2,000 inhabitants), 2,955,342 (30-3%). Mount Athos, the easternmost of the three prongs of the peninsula of Chalcidice, is a self-governing community composed of 20 monasteries. (See THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1945, p. 983.) For centuries the peninsula has been administered by a Council of 4 members and an Assembly of 20 members, 1 deputy from each monastery. The Greek Government on 10 Sept. 1926 recognized this autonomous form of government; Articles 109-112 of the Constitution of 1927 gave legal sanction to the Charter of Mount Athos, drawn up by representatives of the 20 monasteries on 20 May 1924. Article 103 of the 1952 Constitution and Article 105 of the 1975 Constitution confirmed the special status of Mount Athos. Vital statistics (1983): 132,608 live births; 1,174 still births; 2,050 illegitimate live births; 71,143 marriages; 90,580 deaths; 16,510 emigrants (Jan.-Sept. 1977); 12,572 immigrants (Jan.-Sept. 1977). C L I M A T E ; Coastal regions and the islands have typical Mediterranean conditions, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry, sunny summers. Rainfall comes almost entirely in the winter months, though amounts vary widely according to position and relief. Continental conditions affect the northern mountainous areas, with severe winters, deep snow cover and heavy precipitation, but summers are hot. Athens. Jan. 48°F (8-6°C), July 82-5°F (28-2°C). Annual rainfall 16-6" (414-3 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A coup d'état took place on 21 April 1967, 'to avert the danger of a communist threat against the nation'. A Military Government was formed, which suspended the 1952 Constitution. Following the unsuccessful counter-cow/? in 1967, King Constantine went abroad. Voting took place on 29 July 1973 in the referendum to change Greece from a

556

GREECE

Monarchy to a Republic and to elect a President. 77-2% of the valid votes were cast fora republican régime. On 25 Nov. 1973, in a bloodless coup, President Papadopoulos was overthrown and Lieut.-Gen. Phaedon Ghizikis was sworn in. The military dictatorship collapsed on 23 July 1974 and the 1952 Constitution was reintroduced in a modified form. A new Constitution was introduced in June 1975. Parliamentary elections took place on 12 Nov. 1974. A further referendum on the Monarchy took place on 8 Dec. 1974 and 69-2% of the valid votes were cast for an 'uncrowned democracy'. Elections were again held on 18 Oct. 1981. The results were New Democracy, 115; Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement, 172; Communists, 12. President: Konstantinos Karamanlis (elected President in May 1980). The Cabinet in Sept. 1984: Prime Minister and Minister of Defence: Andreas Papandreou. Agriculture: Constantine Simitis. Commerce: Nikolaos Akritidis. Communications: Giannis Papadonikolakis. Culture and Sciences: Melina Mercouri. Education and Religion: Apostolos Kaklamanis. Energy and National Resources: Eleftherios Verivakis. Finance and National Economy: Gerassimos Arsenis. Foreign Affairs: Ioannis Haralambopoulos. Health and Welfare and Social Security: Geoige Gennimatas. Interior: Agamemnon Koutsogiorgas. Justice: George Alex Mangakis. Labour: Evangelos Yannopoulos. Merchant Marine: George Katsifaras. Northern Greece: Vassilis Intzes. Physical Planning, Housing and Environment: Evangelos Kouloumbis. Minister to the Presidency: Apostolos Lazaris. Minister to the Prime Minister: Apostolos Tsohatzopoulos. Public Order: Ioannis Skoularikis. Research and Technology: George Lianis. Public Works: George Perrakis. National flag: Nine horizontal stripes of blue and white, with a canton of blue with a white cross. National anthem: Hymn to Freedom, Imnos eis tin Eleftherian (words by Dionysios Solomos, 1824; tune by N. Mantzaros, 1828). D E F E N C E . In Aug. 1950 the Ministries of War, Marine and Military Aviation were fused into a single Ministry of National Defence. The General Staff of National Defence is directly responsible to the Minister on general defence questions, besides the special staffs for Army, Navy and Air Force. Military service in the Armed Forces is compulsory and universal. Liability begins in the 21 st year and lasts up to the 50th. The normal terms of service are Army 22 months, Navy 26 months, Air Force 24 months, followed by 19 years in the First Reserve and 10 years in the Second Reserve. Army. The Army is organized into 3 Military Regions, comprising 1 armoured, 1 mechanized, 1 para-commando and 11 infantry divisions; 3 armoured brigades; 13 field artillery, 7 anti-aircraft, 2 surface-to-surface missile, 2 surface-to-air missile, and 2 army aviation battalions; and 4 independent aviation companies. Equipment includes 350 M-47, 1,125 M-48, 200 AMX-30 and 106 Leopard I main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 135,000 (99,500 conscripts), with a further 350,000 reserves. There is also a paramiltary gendarmerie of25,000 men. Navy. The Hellenic Navy includes 2 modem Netherlands-built leader-size guided missile frigates, 10 submarines (8 modern German (Fed. Rep.)-built small and 2 old ex-US large), 14 old ex-US destroyers, 1 ex-German support frigate, 1 new armed training ship carrying a helicopter, 4 old ex-US frigates (small DE type), 2 coastal minelayers, 14 fast missile boats, 10 fast torpedo boats, 15 coastal minesweepers, 11 coastal patrol boats, 1 dock landing ship, 8 tank landing ships, 5 medium landing ships, 10 landing-craft, 68 minor landing craft, 1 ammunition ship, 6 oilers, 2 transports, 1 depot ship, 2 surveying craft, 2 light-house tenders, 6 water carriers, 1 netlayerand 14 fleet tugs. Personnel in 1985 totalled 2,500 officers and 17,000 ratings (200 women). Air Force. The Hellenic Air Force had a strength (1985) of about 24,500 officers

GREECE

557

and men and 275 combat aircraft, consisting of 4 squadrons of F-4E Phantom airsuperiority fighters, 2 squadrons of F-104G Starfighters, 2 squadrons of Mirage F. 1 fighters, 3 squadrons of A-7H Corsair II attack aircraft, 2 squadrons of F-5 fighters, 1 squadron of RF-4E and RF-5A reconnaissance fighters and 1 squadron of HU-16B Albatross ASW amphibians. There are also transport squadrons equipped with C-130H Hercules (12), Noratlas, NAMC YS-11 and C-47 aircraft, 7 Canadair CL-215 twin-engined amphibians, 36 T-2E Buckeye training/attack aircraft, other training and helicopter units, and anti-aircraft units equipped with Nike-Hercules and Hawk surface-to-air missiles. The HAF is organized into Tactical, Training and Air Materiel Commands. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Greece is a member of UN, EEC, the Council of Europe and the military and political wings of NATO. ECONOMY Budget. The estimated revenue and expenditure for calendar years were as follows (in lm.drachmai): Revenue Expenditure

1980 423,117 423,115

1981 733,079 733,077

1982 728,734 794,295

1983 1,001,387 1,055,218

Currency. On 11 Nov. 1944 the Greek currency was stabilized at 1 new drachma equalling 50,000m. old drachmai. Further readjustments took place in 1946,1949 and 1953. A 'new issue' of notes and coins was put into circulation on 1 May 1954, 1 new drachma equalling 1,000 old drachmai (72 drachmai = £1; 30 drachmai = US$1). The 'new issue' comprises notes of 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 drachmai and metal coins of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 drachmai and 10, 20 and 50 lepta. Rate of exchange, March 1985,£1 = 151-54 drachmai; US$ 1 = 143 • 73. Banking. The Bank of Greece (Trapeza Tis Ellados) is the bank of issue. The National Investment Bank for industrial development was set up in Dec. 1963; of its capital of 180m. drachmai, the National Bank provided 60%. Other important banks are the Ionian and Popular Bank of Greece, the Commercial Bank of Greece, the National Mortgage Bank, the Hellenic Industrial Development Bank, the Investment Bank, the Commercial Credit Bank and the General Bank of Greece. Weights and Measures. The metric system was made obligatory in 1959; the use of other systems is prohibited. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in Feb. 1923. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Total installed capacity of the Public Power Corporation was 5,410m. mw as at 31 Dec. 1980. Total net production in 1981 was 21,657m. kwh. Minerals. Greece produces a variety of ores and minerals, including iron-pyrites (115,976 tonnes in 1982), bauxite (2-84m. tonnes, 1982), nickel (523,405 tonnes, 1982), magnesite (967,106 tonnes, 1982), dead burnt magnesite (285,572 tonnes, 1982), mixed sulphur ores (752,000 tonnes, 1976), barytes, chromite, marble (white and coloured) and various other earths, chiefly from the Laurium district, Thessaly, Euboea and the Aegean islands. There is little coal, and lignite of indifferent quality (27 19m. tonnes, 1982). Oil was struck in 1963 by British Petroleum at Kleisoura in west central Greece. Salt production (1970) 68,471 tonnes. Agriculture. Of the total area only 33% is cultivable, but if supports about 45% of the whole population. The total area under cultivation in 1971 was 3,586,232 hectares, forest area (1965) was 2,512,418 hectares (445,715 of which were privately owned). The average holding was 3 -42 hectares in 1975. Yield (1,000 tonnes) of the chief crops (1982):

558

GREECE Wheat Tobacco Cotton Sugar-beet Currants and raisins Olive oil

2,983 130 290 2,426 132 321

Table grapes Wine Citrus fruit Other fruit Milk Meat and poultry

267 470 863 911 1,700 524

About 496,260 hectares of olives are under cultivation. Rice is cultivated in Macedonia, the Peloponnese, Epirus and Central Greece. Successful experiments have been made in growing rice on alkaline land previously regarded as unfit for cultivation. The main kinds of cheese produced are sliced cheese in brine (commercially known as Fetta) and hard cheese, such as Kefalotyri. Livestock (1983): 850,000 cattle, 1,000 buffaloes, l-4m. pigs, 8-4m. sheep, 4-63m. goats, 97,000 horses, 105,000 mules, 220,000 asses, 36m. poultry. Fisheries. In 1981,10,762 fishermen were active and landed 90,869 tonnes offish. 37,182 kg of sponges were produced in 1981. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. The main products are canned vegetables and fruit, fruit juice, beer, wine, alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, textiles, yarn, leather, shoes, synthetic timber, paper, plastics, rubber products, chemical acids, pigments, pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, soap, disinfectants, fertilizers, glassware, porcelain sanitary items, wire and power coils and household instruments. Production, 1976 (1,000 tonnes): Textile yarns, 137; cement, 8,714; fertilizers, 1,554; ammonia, 287; iron (concrete-reinforcing bars), 589; iron-nickel, 16; alumina, 450; aluminium, 133; electrical domestic goods ( 1,000 pieces), 325. Labour. Of the economically active population in 1971, 1 -92m. were engaged in agriculture. 677,451 in industry and 1,000,684 in other employment. Pepelasis, A. A., and Yotopoulos, P. A., Surplus Labor in Greek Agriculture, 1953-60. Athens, 1962

Trade Unions. The status of trade unions in Greece is regulated by the Associations Act 1914. Trade-union liberties are guaranteed under the Constitution, and a law of June 1982 altered the unions' right to strike. The national body of trade unions in Greece is the Greek General Confederation of Labour. Commerce. Foreign trade (in US$ 1 m.) for 4 calendar years was: Imports Exports

1979 10,110 3,932

1980 10,903 4,094

1981 11,468 4,772

1982 10,079 4,139

Total trade between Greece and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exportsand re-exports from UK

1980 142,456 224,619

1981 167,655 254,154

1982 151,688 255,281

1983 164,917 280,204

1984 279,367 354,332

Tourism. Tourists visiting Greece in 1984 numbered 5,523,192. They spent the equivalent of US$ 1,310m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1982,37,365 km of roads, of which 8,689 were national and 28,676 provincial roads. Number of motor vehicles in Dec. 1983: 1,658,193, of which 1,073,411 were passenger cars, 519,194 goods vehicles, 19,121 buses. Railways. In 1983 the State network, Hellenic Railways (CH), totalled 2,479 km comprising 1,565 km of 1,435 mm gauge, 872 km of 1,000 mm gauge, and 22 km of 750 mm gauge, and carried 670m. tonne-km and 1,629m. passenger-km.

GREECE

559

Aviation. Olympic Airways connects Athens with all important cities of the country, Europe, the Middle East and USA. Thirty-four foreign companies connect Athens with the principal cities of the world. The principal airport is at Athens. In 1983, 95,923 aircraft arrived, carrying 8-4m. passengers. Shipping. In Dec. 1983 the merchant navy comprised 3,863 vessels of 36,806,000 GRT. Greek-owned ships under foreign flags totalled more than 7,283,000 GRT. There is a canal (opened 9 Nov. 1893) across the Isthmus of Corinth (about 4 miles). Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 2,691 telephone exchanges, handling 4,700m. calls. There were(1983)3,331,143 telephones. Elliniki Radiophonia Tileorasis (ERT), the Hellenic National Radio and Television Institute, is the government broadcasting station. ERT broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Number of receivers: radio, 5m.; television, 1 -4m. Cinemas (1981). There were 1,150 cinemas. Newspapers (1984). There were35 daily newspapers published in Athens. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Under the 1975 Constitution judges are appointed for life by the President of the Republic, after consultation with the judicial council. Judges enjoy personal and functional independence. There are three divisions of the courts: administrative, civil and criminal and they must not give decisions which are contrary to the Constitution. Final jurisdiction lies with a Special Supreme Tribunal. Some laws, passed before the 1975 Constitution came into force, and which are not contrary to it, remain in force. Religion. The Christian Eastern Orthodox faith is the established religion to which 98% ofthe population belong. The Greek Orthodox Church is under an archbishop and 67 metropolitans, 1 archbishop and 7 metropolitans in Crete, and 4 metropolitans in the Dodecanese. The Roman Catholics have 3 archbishops (in Naxos and Corfu and, not recognized by the State, in Athens) and 1 bishop (for Syra and Santorin). The Exarchs of the Greek Catholics and the Armenians are not recognized by the State. Complete religious freedom is recognized by the Constitution of 1968, but proselytizing from, and interference with, the Greek Orthodox Church is forbidden. Education. Public education is provided in nursery, primary and secondary schools, starting at 6 years of age and since 1963 free at all levels. In 1981-82 there were 4,743 nursery schools with 6,901 staff and 151,626 pupils; 9,400 public day primary schools with 37,947 staff and 891,488 pupils. There were 2,291 secondary schools with 33,613 staff and 669,812 pupils. In 1981-82 there were 13 universities with 87,476 students and 7,489 lecturers. Illiteracy in the age groups of 10 years and over was 18% in 1961 (8% among men). 1972 estimate 12%. The Greek language consists of 2 branches, katharevousa, a conscious revival of classical Greek and demotiki. Demotiki is the official language both spoken and written. Health (1983). There were 626 hospitals and sanatoria with a total of 57,496 beds. There were 27,607 doctors and 8,286 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Greece in Great Britain (1A Holland Park, London, W11 3TP) Ambassador: Nikolaos Kyriazides. Of Great Britain in Greece (1 Ploutarchou St., Athens 139) Ambassador: Sir Peregrine Rhodes, KCMG.

560

GREECE

O f Greece in the U S A (2221 Massachusetts A v e . , N W , Washington, D.C., 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: George D . Papoulias. O f the U S A in Greece (91 Vasilissis Sophias Blvd., Athens) Ambassador: Monteagle Stearns. O f Greece to the United Nations Ambassador: Mihalis Dountas. B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Clogg, R. and M. J., Greece. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1980 Holden, D., Greece Without Columns: The Making of the Modern Greeks. London, 1972 Katris, J. A., Eyewitness in Greece: The Colonels Come to Power. St Louis, 1971 Kayser, B., Géographie humaine de la Grèce. Paris, Presses Universitaires, 1964 Kolodny, E. Y., La Population des fies de la Grèce. Aix-en-Provence, 1973 Kousoulas, D. G., Revolution and Defeat: The Story of the Greek Communist Party. OUP, 1965 Kykkotis, I., English-Modern Greek and Modern Greek-English Dictionary. 3rd ed. London, 1957 Mouzelis, N. P., Modern Greece. London, 1978 Munkman, C. A., American Aid to Greece. New York, 1958 Phillipson, A., Die griechischen Landschaften: eine Landeskunde. 4 vols. Frankfurt, 1951-59 Pring, J. T., The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Greek, Greek-English, English-Greek. OUP, 1965-82 Tsoukalis, L., Greece and the European Community. Farnborough, 1979 Woodhouse, C. M., The Struggle for Greece, 1941-1949. London, 1976.—Karamanlis: The Restorer of Greek Democracy: OUP, 1982 Xydis, S. G., Greece and the Great Powers, 1944-47. Thessaloniki, 1963 Young, K., The Greek Passion. London, 1967

GRENADA

Capital: St George's Population: 115,000 (1981) GNPper capita: US$850 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. Grenada became an independent nation within the Commonwealth on 7 Feb. 1974. Grenada was formerly an Associated State under the West Indies Act, 1967. The 1973 Constitution was suspended in 1979 following a revolution. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Grenada is the most southerly island of the Windward Islands with an area of 133 sq. miles (344 sq. km); population, census 1970, 92,775; estimated population 1981, 115,000. The borough of St George's, the capital, had population (1978) 30,813. The largest of the Grenadines attached to Grenada is Carnacou, area 32 sq. km; population 1970, 5,950 (including Petit Martinique). Vital statistics (1978): Births, 2,521; deaths, 765; infant deaths, 73; marriages, 360. C L I M A T E . The tropical climate is veiy agreeable in the dry season, from Jan. to May, when days are warm and nights quite cool, but in the wet season there is very little difference between day and night temperatures. On the coast, annual rainfall is about 60" (1,500 mm) but it is as high as 150-200" (3,750-5,000 mm) in the mountains. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 19 Oct. 1983 the army took control after a power struggle led to the killing of Maurice Bishop the Prime Minister. At the request of a group of Caribbean countries, Grenada was invaded by US-led forces on 24-28 Oct. On 1 Nov. a State of Emergency was imposed which ended on 15 Nov. when an interim government was installed. Elections were held for the 15-seatHouseofRepresentativeson3Dec. 1984. The New National Party won 14 seats and the Grenada United Labour Party, 1. Governor-General: Sir Paul Scoon, GCMG. Prime Minister, Finance, Security and Home Affairs: Herbert Blaize. National flag: Divided into 4 triangles of yellow, top and bottom, and green, hoist and fly; in the centre a red disc bearing a gold star, along the top and bottom edged red stripes each bearing 3 gold stars; on the green triangle near the hoist a pod of nutmeg. DEFENCE Army. A People's Revolutionary Army was created in 1979. Personnel about 6,500 organized into 3 infantry battalions and an artillery battery. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Grenada is a member of the UN, OAS, Caricom, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The 1981 estimates balanced at EC$169m. Public debt at 31 Dec. 1970 was EC$ 15,168,705. Currency. The currency is the Eastern Caribbean dollar. In March 1985, £1 = EC$2-88;US$ = ECS2-70. Banking. In 1981 there were 5 commercial banks in Grenada: The National Commercial Bank, Barclays Bank International, Royal Bank of Canada, Bank of Nova Scotia and the Grenada Co-operative Bank. The Grenada Agricultural Bank was established in 1965 to encourage agricultural development. In 1981, bank deposits were EC$ 164 • 7m. 561

562

GRENADA

AGRICULTURE (1981). The principal crops (production in lb.) are: Cocoa (6,409,227), nutmegs (6,767,199), bananas (25,609,408), and mace (506,950); coconuts, corn and pigeon peas, citrus, sugar-cane, root-crops and vegetables are also grown, in addition to small scattered cultivations of cotton, cloves, cinnamon, pimento, coffee and fruit trees The fish catch was about 3m. lb. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 6,000; sheep, 16,000; goats, 13,000; pigs, 11,000; poultry (1982), 260,000. COMMERCE (1981). Total value of imports, ECS 146,709,830; exports, EC$50,275,362. Tlie main exports are cocoa, nutmegs and bananas. Of exports in 1981, UK took 35-6%; Netherlands, 15-8%; Trinidad, 15-6%; Federal Republic of Germany, 9%; Canada, 2 • 8%; USA, 2 • 5%. Of J 981 imports, Trinidad furnished 19-2%; USA, 18-6%; UK, 16-6%; Canada, 5-5%; Netherlands, 1 -6%; Federal Republic of Germany, 1 -3%. Total trade between Grenada and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports to UK

1980 5,225 3,371

1981 4,890 3,839

1982 4,704 3,687

1983 5,387 7,293

1984 5,703 8,319

T O U R I S M . In 1981, there were 102,668 visitors; 131 cruise ships and 1,376 yachts visited the island. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The scheduled road mileage is 577, of which 377 have an oiled surface and 210 are graded as third- and fourth-class roads. Vehicles registered (1979) 6,676. Aviation. A new international airport was inaugurated in Oct. 1984 at Point Salines. Pearls Airport has daily connexions to London, New York and South America via nearby islands. There is a small airstrip on Carriacou. Shipping. Total shipping for 1978 was 927 motor and steamships and 166 sailing and auxiliary vessels, with a total net tonnage of2,210,532 and 7,479 respectively. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone system is owned and operated by the Grenada Telephone Co. Ltd. The Government of Grenada is a shareholder. The system is completely automatic, and in 1981 served 5,648 subscribers. Cable & Wireless (W.I.) Ltd operates a VHF radio system (telephone and telegraph) to Trinidad and Barbados, from where connexion is made to all other parts of the world. There were (1978) 63,500 radios. J U S T I C E , RELIGION A N D E D U C A T I O N Justice. The Grenada Supreme Court, situated in St George's, comprises a High Court of Justice, a Court of Magisterial Appeal (which hears appeals from the lower Magistrates' Courts exercising summary jurisdiction) and an Itinerant Court of Appeal (to hear appeals from the High Court). Religion. The majority of the population are Roman Catholic; the Anglican and Methodist churches are also well represented. Education. There are 20 primary schools, 4 junior schools and 16 secondary schools, as well as 46 schools taking the full age range. There is a Technical Centre in each district and a Technical Institute in St George's, where there is also a Teacher Training College and a branch of the University of the West Indies. There were 28,745 primary and 4,773 secondary school pupils in 1973. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Grenada in Great Britain (1 Collingham Gdns., London, SW5) High Commissioner: O. M. Gibbs, CMG (accredited 15'March 1984). Of Great Britain in Grenada High Commissioner: G. L. Bullard, CMG (resides at Bridgetown).

GRENADA

563

O f Grenada in the U S A (1701 N e w Hampshire Ave., N W , Washington, DC., 20009) A mbassador: (Vacant). Of the U S A in Grenada A mbassador: (Vacant). Of Grenada to the U n i t e d Nations A mbassador: (Vacant). B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e Hodge, M. and Searle, C. (eds), Is Freedom We Making. Govt. Information Service, 1981 O'Shaughnessy, H., Grenada: Revolution, Invasion and Aftermath. London, 1984 Page, A., Sutton, P.,andThomdike, T., Grenada and Invasion. London, 1984 Searle, C., Grenada: The Struggle against Destabilization. London, 1983 Searle, C. and Rojas, D. (eds), To Construct from Morning. Grenada, 1982 Wheaton, P. and Sunshine, C. (eds), Grenada: The Peaceful Revolution. Washington, 1982

GUATEMALA República de Guatemala

Capitai. Guatemala City Population: t> -5%m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$1,140 (1981)

HISTORY. From 1524 to 1821 Guatemala was a Spanish captaincy-general, comprising the whole of Central America. It became independent in 1821 and formed part of the Confederation of Central America from 1823 to 1839, when Rafael Carrera dissolved the Confederation. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Guatemala is bounded on the north and west by Mexico, south by the Pacific ocean and east by El Salvador, Honduras and Belize, and the area is 108,889 sq. km (42,042 sq. miles). In March 1936 Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras agreed to accept the peak of Mount Montecristo as the common boundary point. The census population was 6,043,559 in 1981. Estimate (1984) 6,577,000. About 45% are pure Indians, of 21 different groups descended from the Maya; most of the remainder are mixed Indian and Spanish and these supply the ruling classes. Density of population, 1984,60 per sq. km. Vital statistics, 1980: Births, 303,643; deaths, 51,769. Guatemala is administratively divided into 22 departments, each with a governor appointed by the President. Population, 1982: Departments Alta Verapaz Baja Verapaz Chimaltenango Chiquimula El Progreso Escuintla Guatemala Huehuetenango Izabal Jalapa Jutiapa

Area (sq. km) 8,686 3,124 1,979 2,376 1,922 4,384 2,126 7,403 9,038 2,063 3,219

Population 383,178 152,374 267,182 215,409 101,203 496,522 1,785,665 524,829 290,203 162,907 329,185

Departments Petén Quezaltenango Quiché Retalhuleu Sacatepéquez San Marcos Santa Rosa Sololá Suchitepéquez Totonicapan Zacapa

Area (sq. km) 35,854 1,951 8,378 1,858 465 3,791 2,955 1,061 2,510 1,061 2,690

Population 102,803 447,428 430,003 206,543 137,815 552,094 249,930 173,401 304,826 236,033 149,267

The capital is Guatemala City with about l-3m. inhabitants (1983). Other towns are Quezaltenango (65,733), Puerto Barrios (38,956), Mazatenango (38,319), Antigua (26,631), Zacapa (35,769) and Cobán (43,538). An earthquake in central Guatemala in Feb. 1976 killed 24,103 people and destroyed 200,000 dwellings. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with little variation in temperature and a well marked wet season from May to Oct. Guatemala City. Jan. 63°F (17-2°C), July 69°F (20• 6°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,316 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 23 March 1982 a junta, consisting of Brig.-Gen. Efrain Ríos Montt, Gen. Horacio Maldonado and Col. Francisco Gordillo, took power in a bloodless coup. Gen. Ríos Montt later became President. The Constitution and political activity were suspended, Congress abolished and government was to be by decree. A further coup on 8 Aug. 1983 removed Brig.-Gen. Montt from the presidency. Brig.-Gen. Oscar Humberto Mejía Víctores became Chief of State. Elections to a National Constituent Assembly were held on 1 July 1984 and a return to civilian rule was promised in 1985. 564

GUATEMALA

565

National flag: Three vertical strips of blue, white, blue, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: ¡Guatemala! feliz (words by J. J. Palma; tune by R. Alvarez). DEFENCE. There is conscription into the armed forces for 24-30 months. Army. The Army numbers 38,000, organized in 17 infantry, 1 armoured, 2 parachute and 1 engineer battalions, 4 field artillery groups, 1 anti-aircraft artillery group and 4 reconnaissance squadrons. Equipment includes light tanks and armoured cars. Navy. A Naval force was formed in 1959. It comprises 12 small patrol craft, 1 landing craft, 2 small troop carriers, 6 motor launches, 2 utility cutters, 30 river patrol craft and ltug. Since 1973 the base at Santo Tomas has had a 230-ton marine elevator (synchrolift), greatly improving naval repair facilities. Personnel in 1985 numbered 1,000 comprising 125of!icersand875men (including marines). Air Force. There is a small Air Force with 10 A-37B light attack aircraft, 1DC-6,10 C-47, 2T-33s and 8 Israeli-built Arava transports, 12 Pilatus PC-7 turboprop trainers, and a number of light aircraft and helicopters, including a few armed UH-1 Iroquois. Total strength is about 550 personnel and 70 aircraft. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Guatemala is a member of UN, OAS and Cacom. External Debt. In 1983 the external debt was Q. 503 • 9m. ECONOMY Planning. The 1979-82 National Economic Development Plan involved government investment of Q. 1,937 • 5m. Budget. The estimates of ordinary revenue and expenditure balanced as follows, in quetzales(l quetzal =US$1): 1982,1,481m.; 1983,1,314m. Currency. The gold quetzal was established 7 May 1925 equal to 60 old Guatemala paper pesos, with a gold content equal to that of the US$. Coins of 25, 10, 5 and 1 centavos were issued by the Banco de Guatemala on 16 Sept. 1965; they are of a lower content value than the previous ones. There are also paper notes of 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 1 and >/i quetzales (50 centavos). In March 1985, £1 = Q . 1 0 7 ; US$1 = Q.l. Banking. By an Act effective 4 Feb. 1946 the Central Bank of Guatemala (founded in 1926 as a mixed central and commercial bank) was superseded by a new institution, the Banco de Guatemala, to operate solely as a central bank. Savings and term deposits at commercial banks were Q. 1,428 • 5m. at the end of 1983. Total currency circulation (backed by a gold reserve fixed by law at a minimum of 40%) on 31 Dec. 1983 was Q. 1,159 • 5m.; total net international reserves amounted to Q.-25 • 5m. on 31 Dec. 1983. In July 1965 the country's quota with the IMF was increased from US$15m. to 25m. There are 17 banks, including the Banco de Guatemala, Banco Nacional de Desarollo, set up in 1971 to promote agricultural development, its counterpart for small industries (Banco de los Trabajadores) set up in Jan. 1966 with initial capital of US$ 1 -3m., a branch of Lloyds Bank International Ltd and a branch of the Bank of America. Weights and Measures. The metric system has been officially adopted, but is little used in local commerce. Libraofl6oz. Arrobaof25 libras Quintal of4arrobas Tonelada of20 quintals Fanega

= I -014lb. =25-35 lb. = 101401b. =1810cwt = 1 '/1 Imp. bushels

League = 3 miles Vara = 3 2 in. Manzana =100varassq. Caballería of 64 manzanas = 110 acres

566

GUATEMALA

ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. 1,045m. kwh. of electricity were generated in 1976. A large-scale hydro-electric development is now underway and others are planned. Oil. Guatemala began exporting crude oil in 1980; exports, 1983, were valued at Q.60m. Production is from wells in Alta Verapaz department from where the oil is piped to Santo Tomas de Castilla. Further exploration is proceeding in the Peten. Minerals. Mineral production includes zinc and lead concentrates, some antimony and tungsten, a small amount of cadmium and silver; some copper is also being mined. Exports (1983) Q.2m. In 1965 a subsidiary of International Nickel Company of Canada was granted a 40-year concession to extract and process nickel ore in northern Guatemala. Production and exports started in 1977 but production had ceased temporarily in 1982. Agriculture. The Cordilleras divide Guatemala into two unequal drainage areas, of which the Atlantic is much the greater. The Pacific slope, though comparatively narrow, is exceptionally well watered and fertile between the altitudes of 1,000 and 5,000 ft, and is the most densely settled part of the republic. The Atlantic slope is sparsely populated, and has little of commercial importance beyond the chicle and timber-cutting of the Peten, coffee cultivation of Coban region and banana-raising of the Motagua Valley and Lake Izabal district. Soil erosion is serious and a single week of heavy rains suffices to cause flooding offields and much crop destruction. The principal crop is coffee; there are about 12,000 coffee plantations with 138m. coffee trees on about 338,000 acres, but 80% of the crop comes from 1,500 large coffee farms employing 426,000 workers. Coffee exports in 1983 were valued at Q.350-6m. mainly to USA and Federal Republic of Germany. Bananas are still an important export crop, but exports have at times been seriously reduced, partly by labour troubles and by hurricanes. Exports 1980 were worth Q.40m. Cotton exports in 1983 were valued at Q.46m. Other important exports (1983) were sugar, Q. 126 • 7m.; beef, Q. 14-9m. Guatemala is, after Mexico, the largest producer of chicle gum (used for chewing-gum manufacture in USA). Rubber development schemes are under way, assisted by US funds. Guatemala is one of the largest sources of essential oils (citronella and lemon grass); exports in 1983 were valued at Q. 1 -9m. Cardamom, exported mainly to the Arab countries, was valued at Q.31-4m. in 1983. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 2 - 3 m ; pigs, 870,000; sheep, 550,000; horses, 100,000; poultry, 15m. Forestry. The forest area has an extent of 17,784,000 acres. The department of Peten is rich in mahogany and other woods. Production (1980) 11 • 23 m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Exports were about Q.8-9m. in 1983. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The principal industries are food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, hides and skins, textiles, garments and non-metallic minerals. New industries include electrical goods, plastic sheet and metal furniture. Trade Unions. Trade unions are small. In 1954 the trade unions were ordered to reorganize and there are now two main federations. Commerce. Values in Q. 1,000 (1 quetzal = US$ 1) were: Imports (c.i.f.) Exports (f.o.b.)

1979 1,503,900 1,241,400

1980 1,615,000 1,522,000

1981 1,773,600 1,281,200

1982 1,387,000 1,120,000

1983 1,135,000 1,150,000

Total trade between Guatemala and U K for 6 years (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 23,657 13,835

1981 8,197 11,280

1982 13,476 8,127

1983 9,764 7,440

1984 9,565 10,660

GUATEMALA

567

Tourism. There were 235,166 foreign visitors in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 18,000 km of roads, of which 2,850 are paved. There is a trunk highway from coast to coast via Guatemala City. There are 2 trunk highways from the Mexican to the Salvadorean frontier the Pacific Highway serving the fertile coastal plain and the Pan-American Highway running through the highlands and Guatemala City. Motor vehicles number about 200,000. Railways. The principal railway system is the government-owned (since 1968) Ferrocarriles de Guatemala. All railways are of 914 mm gauge. Total length of all lines is 820 km. Passengers carried, 1976, numbered 386,000, and freight carried (1983), 617,700 short tons. The bridge across the Suchiate River between Mexico and Guatemala in 1942 linked the railways of North and Central America, though differences in gauge make it necessary to change trains at Ayutla. Aviation. The government-owned airline, Aviateca, furnishes both domestic and international services; 6 other airlines handle international traffic. Shipping. The chief ports on the Atlantic coast are Puerto Barrios and Santo Tomás de Castilla: on the Pacific coast, San José and Champerico. Total tonnage handled was, 1983,6 17m. tons. Post and Broadcasting. The Government own and operate the telegraph and telephone services; there were (1982) 97,670 telephone instruments. There are some 70 broadcasting stations. Radio receiving sets in use, 1976, numbered about lm. There are 4 commercial TV stations, 1 government station and about 192,000 TV receivers. Cinemas ( 1983). Cinemas numbered approximately 100. Newspapers (1984). There are 8 daily newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered in a Supreme Court, 6 appeal courts and 28 courts of first instance. Supreme Court and appeal court judges are elected by Congress. Judges of first instance are appointed by the Supreme Court. All holders of public office have to show on entering office, and again on leaving, a full account of their private property and income. Religion. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing faith; but all other creeds have complete liberty of worship. Guatemala has an archbishopric. Education. In 1980 there were 7,708 primary schools with 24,242 teachers and an attendance of 826,613 pupils; these figures include private schools. There are 753 secondary and other schools having 9,613 teachers and an attendance of 171,903 pupils; the autonomous University of San Carlos de Borromeo, founded in 1678, was reopened in 1910 with 7 faculties and schools and there are 4 new universities. Students at state university (1977) approximately 25,925. All education is in theory free, but owing to a grave shortage of state schools private schools flourish. The 1964 census showed that 63% of those 10 years of age and older were illiterate. Social Welfare. A comprehensive system of social security was outlined in a law of 30 Oct. 1946. Medical personnel include about 1,250 doctors and 275 dentists for the whole republic. There are about 60 public hospitals and about 100 dispensaries. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Guatemala in the USA (2220 R St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Federico Fahsen.

568

GUATEMALA

O f t h e U S A in G u a t e m a l a ( 7 - 0 1 A v e n i d a de la R e f o r m a , Z o n e 10, G u a t e m a l a City) Ambassador: A l b e r t o M . Piedra. Of G u a t e m a l a to the United Nations Ambassador: Arturo Fajardo Maldonado. G u a t e m a l a b r o k e off d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h U K o n 31 J u l y 1963 a n d c o n s u l a r r e l a t i o n s w e r e b r o k e n o n 7 Sept. 1981 b u t t h e r e is a British Interests Section of t h e E m b a s s y of Switzerland. First Secretary: D a v i d T. H a n d l e y . B o o k s of R e f e r e n c e The official gazette is called Diario de Centro A merica. Banco de Guatemala, Memoria annual, Estudio económico and Boletín Estadístico Bloomfield, L. M., The British Honduras-Guatemala Dispute. Toronto, 1953 Franklin, W. B., Guatemala. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Glassman, P., Guatemala Guide. Dallas, 1977 Humphreys, R. A., The Diplomatic History of British Honduras I638-I90I. London, 1961 Immerman, R. H., The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention. Univ. of Texas Press, 1982 Mendoza, J. L., Britain and Her Treaties on Belize. Guatemala, 1946 Morton, F., Xelàhuh. London, 1959 Plant, R., Guatemala: Unnatural Disaster. London, 1978 Schlesinger, S., and ICinzer, S., Bitter Front: The Untold Story oj the American Coup in Guatemala. London and New York, 1982 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, 5a Avenida y 8a Calle, Zona 1, Guatemala City.

GUINEA République populaire et révolutionnaire de Guinée

Capital: Conakry Population: 5 -41 m. ( 1983) GNPper capita: US$300 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . Guinea was proclaimed a French protectorate in 1888 and a colony in 1893. It became a constituent territory of French West Africa in 1904. The independent republic of Guinea was proclaimed on 2 Oct. 1958, after the territory of French Guinea had decided at the referendum of 28 Sept. to leave the French Community. Following the death of the first President, Ahmed Sekou Touré, on 27 March 1984 the armed forces staged a coup and dissolved the National Assembly. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Guinea, a coastal state of West Africa, is bounded north-west by Guinea-Bissau and Senegal, north-east by Mali, south-east by the Ivory Coast, south by Liberia and Sierra Leone, and west by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is 245,857 sq. km (94,926 sq. miles), and the population, census, 1972, was 5,143,284, including an estimated l-5m. living abroad (estimate, 1983, 5,412,000.). The capital, Conakry, had 763,000 inhabitants in 1980; other large towns (1972) were Kankan (85,310), Kindia, (79,861), Labé (79,670), and N'Zérékoré (about 23,000). The ethnic composition is Fulani (40-3%, predominant in Moyenne-Guinée), Malinké (or Mandingo, 25-8%, prominent in Haute-Guinée), Susu (11%, prominent in Guinée-Maritime), Kissi (6-5%) and Kpelle (4-8%) in Guinée-Forestière, and Dialonka, Loma and others (11- 6%). C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with high rainfall near the coast and constant heat, but conditions are a little cooler on the plateau. The wet season on the coast lasts from May to Nov., but only to Oct. inland. Conakry. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 77°F(25°C). Annual rainfall 172" (4,293 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Following the coup of 3 April 1984, supreme power rests with a 25-member Comité Militaire de Redressement National, ruling through a Council of Ministers composed as follows in Dec. 1984: President: Col. Lansana Conté (assumed office 5 April 1984). Prime Minister: Col. Diarra Traoré. Foreign Affairs: Capt. Fanciné Touré. International Co-operation: Capt. Fode Mono Camara. Defence: Capt. Lanciné Keita. Interior and Security: Herve Vincent. Economic Affairs: Richard Haba. Finance: Kémoko Keita. State Control: Maj. Sory Doumbiya. Planning and Statistics: Capt. Bahourou Condé. Internal Trade: Capt. Abou Camara. Foreign Trade: Capt. Mohamed Oumar Kebeh. Public Works: Capt. Youssouf Diallo. Transport: Maj. Abdoulrahmane Kaba. Town Planning, Housing and Estates: Capt. Kerfala Camara. Mining and Geology: Capt. Jean Traoré. Industry: Capt. Mohamed Laminé Sakho. Energy: Maj. Abraham Kabassan Keita. Small and Medium-Scale Enterprises: Capt. Mamadou Pathé Barry. Agriculture: Maj. Alhoussény Fofana. Fisheries and Livestock: Capt. Alfa Oumar Diallo. Higher Education: Maj. Sidi Mohamed Keita. Secondary Education: Abou Camara. Technical Education and Vocational Training: Zainoul Sanoussi Abidiné. Justice: Maj. Lama Kolipé. Posts and Telecommunication: Capt. Ahmadou Kouyaté. Labour and Public Services: Capt. Mamadou Baldet. Public Health: Dr Mamadou Bah Kaba. Social Affairs: Dr Mariama Dielo Barry. Islamic Affairs: al-Hadj Thiemo Ibrahima Ban al-Labé. Information: Capt. Mohamed Traoré. Youth: Capt. Mamady Bayo. Secretaries of State: Lieut. Mama569

570

GUINEA

dou Thiana Diallo (Water Resources and Forestry), Sgt.-Maj. Joseph Gbago Zoumanigui (Energy). Governor of Banks and Insurance: Capt. Kabiné Kaba. Secretary-General of the Government: Capt. Sekou Traoré. Secretary-General to the Presidency: Capt. Ahmadou Mangata. Local Government: The administrative division comprises 33 regions, grouped into 4 'supra-regions' which correspond to the 4 major geographical and ethnic areas: Guinée-Maritime (Lower Guinea, headquarters at Kindia); MoyenneGuinée (Fouta Djallon, head-quarters at Labé); Haute-Guinée (Upper Guinea, headquarters at Kankan) and Guinée-Forestière (Forest-Guinea, headquarters at N'Zérékoré). Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of red, gold, green. Besides French, there are 8 official languages taught in schools: Fulani, Malinké, Susu, Kissi, Kpelle, Loma, Basari and Koniagi. DEFENCE Army. The Army of8,500 men (1985), which comprises 1 armoured, 5 infantry, 1 commando and 1 engineer, 1 artillery and 1 special force battalions. Equipment includes 45 T-34 and 20 PT-76 tanks. There are also 3 paramilitary forces: People's Militia (7,000), Gendarmerie ( 1,000) and Republican Guard ( 1,000). Navy. The Navy comprises an ocean minesweeper, 6 fast gunboats, 12 fast attack craft, 16 coastaL patrol craft, and 4 small landing craft. There are bases at Conakry and Kakanda. Personnel in 1985 exceeded 600 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force, formed with Soviet assistance, is reported to be equipped with 6 MiG-17 jet-fighters and 2 MiG-15UTI trainers, 2 11-18 turboprop transports, 4 An-14 and 4 11-14 piston-engined transports and a Yak-40 jet aircraft for VIP duties, all Russian built, plus a few helicopters, piston-engined Yak-18 and L-29 jet trainers. Personnel about 800. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Guinea is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Fourth Development Plan, 1981-85 envisaged expenditure of 38,000m. sylis. Budget. The budget for 1979 balanced at 11,250m. sylis. Currency. The monetary unit is the syli, divided into 100 cauris, introduced in 1972. The issue consists of notes of 100, 50,25 and lO-sy/w, and coins of 50 cauris, 5,2 and 1 sylis. In March 1985, £1 =27-56 sylis; US$1 =26 sylis. Banking. In 1980 the Central Bank was replaced by a National Currency Institute, through which a governor with ministerial rank controls all banking and insurance, state monopolies since Jan. 1962. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production of electrical energy was 498m. kwh. in 1981. The development of 2 new dams (1981) on the Konkouré river will expand capacity, primarily for the aluminium industry. Minerals. Bauxite is mined at Fria, Boké and elsewhere in Guinée-Maritime; output 12,833,000 tonnes in 1981. Reserves (estimate, 1982) 8,000m. tonnes. Production of iron ore from the Nimba and Simandou mountains commenced in 1981, following exhaustion of the Kaloum peninsula deposits. Diamond mining was suspended in 1978 but resumed in 1981 ; output 37,000 carats. Agriculture. There are experimental fruit gardens at Camayenne near Conakry, Kindia and Dalaba, 2 stations for rice selection (Kankan, Koba) and an experi-

GUINEA

571

mental quinine station at Seredou. Coffee is grown in forest districts. Fouta Djallon contains cattle in abundance. The chief crops (production, 1982, in 1,000 tonnes) are: Cassava, 620; rice, 400; plantains, 230; sugar-cane, 220; bananas, 110; groundnuts, 85; sweet potatoes, 75; maize, 87; palm-oil, 45; palm kernels, 35; pineapples, 18; coffee, 15; coconuts, 15. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 1 -9m.; sheep, 450,000; goats, 440,000; pigs, 44,000. Forestry: There were 5,756 sq. km of classified forests in 1977. Round-wood production amounted to 3 • 62m. cu. metres in 1981. Fisheries: Catch ( 1980) 18,500 tonnes, 90% in coastal waters. C O M M E R C E . In 1979 imports totalled 5,637m. sylis; exports, 6,925m. sylis. Alumina forms about 30% and bauxite 58% of the exports. Total trade between Guinea and the UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 198Q l9gJ m 2 m 3 m 4 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

10,777 26,596

844 7,117

1,956 6,840

668 7,190

1,171 6,469

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 28,400 km of roads and tracks, of which 520 km are bitumenized. In 1978 there were 9,948 cars and 9,992 commercial vehicles. Railways. A railway connects Conakry with Kankan (662 km) and may be extended to Bamako in Mali. A line 134 km long linking bauxite deposits at Sangaredi with Port Kamsar was opened in 1973 and a third line links Conakry and Fria(144km). Aviation. There are airports at Conakry and Kankan; in 1978, 71,000 passengers disembarked and embarked. Shipping. There are ports at Conakry (facilities expanded 1976-80) and for bauxite exports at Kamsar (opened 1973). There were (1983) 18 vessels of 6,944 GRT registered in Guinea. Post and Broadcasting. The territory is connected by cable with France and Pernambuco; also with Freetown, Monrovia and other places. There is a wireless station at Conakry affording communication with all territories of West Africa. Telephones, 1972, numbered about 7,488. There were 123,000 radio receivers and 7,000 television receivers in 1983. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are tribunaux du premier degré at Conakry and Kankan, and a juge de paix at N'Zérékoré. The High Court, Court of Appeal and Superior Tribunal of Cassation are at Conakry. Religion. In 1980, about 69% of the population was Moslem, 1% Christian and 30% followed tribal religions. Education. In 1980-81, 257,547 pupils and 7,165 teachers in primary schools, 89,900 pupils and 3,520 teachers in secondary schools, 2,776 in technical schools and 8,437 in teacher-training colleges and ( 1979) 20,739 in higher education. Health. In 1976 there were 314 hospitals and dispensaries with 7,650 beds; there were also 277 doctors, 21 dentists, 159 pharmacists, 394 midwives and 1,533 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Guinea in Great Britain A mbassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Guinea Ambassador: P. L. O'Keeffe, CMG, CVO (resides in Dakar).

572

GUINEA

O f G u i n e a in t h e U S A ( 2 1 1 2 L e r o y PI., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: T h i e m o Habib Diallo. O f t h e U S A in G u i n e a ( 2 n d B l v d . a n d 9 t h A v e . , C o n a k r y ) Ambassador: James D. Rosenthal. Of Guinea to the United Nations Ambassador: A l p h a Ibrahima Diallo. B o o k s of Reference Bulletin Staiistique et Economique de la Guinee. Monthly. Conakry Adamolekun, L , , S é k o u Touré'sGuinea. London, 1976 Camara.S. S., La Guinee sans ¡a France. Paris, 1976 Rivière, C., Guinea: The Mobilization of a People. Cornell Univ. Press, 1977 Taylor, F. W., A Futam-English Dictionary. Oxford, 1932

GUINEA-BISSAU

Capital: Bissau Population: 844,000 ( 1984) GNP per capita: U S$ 190 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y. Guinea-Bissau, formerly Portuguese Guinea, on the coast of Guinea, was discovered in 1446 by NunoTristáo. It became a separate colony in 1879. It is bounded by the limits fixed by the convention of 12 May 1886 with France. In 1951 Guinea-Bissau became an overseas province of Portugal. The struggle against colonial rule began in 1963. Independence was declared on 24 Sept. 1973. In 1974 Portugal formally recognized the independence of Guinea-Bissau. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Guinea-Bissau is bounded by Senegal in the north, the Atlantic ocean in the west and by Guinea in the east and south. It includes the adjacent archipelago of Bijagoz, with the island of Bolama. The capital and chief port is Bissau, population (census 1979), 109,486. Other ports are Bolama and Cacheu. Area is 36,125 sq. km (13,948 sq. miles); population (census, 1979), 767,739 (estimate, 1984) 844,000. The regional populations at the 1979 Census were as follows: Bissau City Bafatá Biombo

109,214 116,032 56,463

Bolama-Bijagós Buba Cacheu

25,473 35,532 130,227

Gabú Oio Tombali

104,227 135,114 55,099

The main ethnic groups were (1979) the Balante (27%), Fulani (23%), Malinké ( 12%), Mandjako ( 11 %) and Pepel ( 10%). Portuguese remains the official language, but Crioulo is spoken throughout the country. C L I M A T E . The tropical climate has a wet season from June to Nov., when rains are abundant, but the hot, dry Harmattan wind blows from Dec. to May. Bissau. Jan. 76°F(24-4°C), July 80°F(26-7°Q. Annual rainfall 78" (1,950 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 16 May 1984. The Revolutionary Council, established following the 1980 coup, remains in being as the supreme political institution, but in April 1984 a new National People's Assembly was elected comprising 150 Representatives elected by and from the directly-elected regional councils. The sole political movement is the Partido Africano da Independencia da Guiñé e Cabo Verde (PAIGC). The President is Head of State and Government, leading a Council of Ministers which in Dec. 1984 was composed as follows: President, Minister of Defence and the Interior: Maj. Joào Bernardo Vieira. First Vice-President, Minister of State for Justice and Local Authorities: Col. Paulo Alexandre Nunes Correia. Second Vice-President, Minister of State for the Armed Forces: Col. Iafai Camara. Foreign Affairs: Julio Semedo. Presidency, Economic Affairs: Dr Vasco Cabrai. Rural Development and Fisheries: Carlos Correia. Education, Culture and Sports: Dr Fidelis Cabrai d'Almada. Social Affairs: Maj. Manuel dos Santos. National Security and Public Order: Maj. José Pereira. Natural Resources and Industry: Filinto de Barros. Finance: Dr Vítor Freire Monteiro. Health: Adelino Nunes Correia. Trade and Tourism: Mario Cabrai. Economic Planning and International Co-operation: Bartolomeu Simoes Pereira: Information and Telecommunications: Musa Djassi. Governor of Central Bank: Pedro Godinho Gomes. National flag: Horizontally yellow over green with red vertical strip in the hoist bearing a black star. Local government: The administrative division is in 8 regions (each under an elected regional council), in tum subdivided into 37 sectors; and the city of Bissau, treated as a separate region. 573

574

GUINEA-BISSAU

DEFENCE Army. The Army consisted in 1985 of 4 infantry battalions, 1 engineer unit and 1 tank squadron. Equipment includes 10 T-34 tanks. Personnel, 6,000 men. Navy. The naval flotilla includes 6 fast attack craft, 11 coastal patrol craft, 4 utility landing craft, 2 river craft, 4 minor landing craft and 1 survey ship. Based at Bissau. Personnel in 1985 exceeded 250 officers and men. Air Force. Formation of a small Air Force began in 1978 with the delivery of a French-built Cessna FTB-337 twin-engined counter-insurgency and generalpurpose light transport. It has been followed by about 12 Czechoslovak-built L-39 jet trainers, an Mi-8 and 2 Alouette III helicopters, an An-26 twin-turboprop transport and 2 Dornier Do 27 utility aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Guinea-Bissau is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The revenue in 1981 was 1,137m. pesos; the expenditure, 1,944m. pesos. Currency. The monetary unit is the peso divided into 100 centavos. In March 1985, £1=93-84 pesos; US$ 1 = 88 • 53 pesos. Banking. The Banco Nacional da Guine-Bissau, founded 1976, is the bank of issue and also the commercial bank. There are also state-owned savings institutions. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1977) 24m. kwh. Minerals. Mining is very little developed although bauxite (200m. tonnes) has been located in the Boe area. Exploration for oil is taking place but no finds have been reported. Agriculture. Chief crops (production, 1981, in 1,000 tonnes) are: Groundnuts, 30; sugar-cane, 25; plantains, 25; coconuts, 25; rice, 23; rubber, 23; palm kernels, 10; millet, 6; palm-oil, 5; sorghum, 5; maize, 4; timber, hides, seeds and wax. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 225,000; sheep, 65,000; goats, 145,000; pigs, 130,000; poultry (1982), 420,000. Fishing. Total catch (1978) 2,000 tonnes. Fishing is the most important export industry. Forestry. Production (1981) 526,000 cu. metres. C O M M E R C E . Imports in 1980, 1,860m. pesos; exports, 382m. of which 27% went to Portugal and 25% to Spain. In 1980, fish formed 33% of exports, groundnuts, 24% and coconuts, 17%. Total trade between Guinea-Bissau and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ,98/ m 2 m 3 l984 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

595

431

94 477

499

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1979) 3,570 km of roads. Aviation. There is an international airport at Bissalanca (for Bissau). Shipping. In 1974,169 vessels entered the ports unloading 134,000 tonnes. Post. In 1973 there were 2,723 telephones and (1983) 11,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. There were 7 cinemas (1972) with a seating capacity of3,000. Newspapers (1984). There was one daily newspaper, with a circulation of3,000.

GUINEA-BISSAU

575

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Following the 1980 coup, the judicial system has been subject to the authority of the Council of the Revolution. Religion. In 1980 about 38% of the population were Moslem and about 10% Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). Education. There were, in 1981, 75,143 pupils in primary schools with 3,351 teachers; 4,068 pupils in secondary schools with 387 teachers, 569 students in technical schools with 54 teachers and 557 students in teacher-training establishments with 62 teachers. Health. In 1978 there were 10 hospitals with 910 beds and 88 doctors, 2 dentists, 2 pharmacists, 70 midwives and 292 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Guinea-Bissau Ambassador: P. L. O'Keeffe, CMG, CVO (resides in Dakar). Of Guinea-Bissau in the USA Ambassador: Inacio Semedo, Jr. Of the USA in Guinea-Bissau (Ave. Domingos Ramos, Bissau) Ambassador: Wesley W. Egan, Jr. Of Guinea-Bissau to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Inacio Semedo, Jr. Books of Reference Relaíório e Mapas do Movimento Comercial e Marítimo da Guiñé. Bolama, Annual Cabral, A., Revolution in Guinea. London, 1969.—Return to the Source. New York, 1973 Davidson, B., Growingfrom the Grass Roots. London, 1974 Gjerstad, O., and Sarrazin, C., Sowing the First Harvest: National Reconstruction in GuineaBissau. Oakland, 1978 Rudebeck, L., Guinea-Bissau: A Study of Political Mobilization. Uppsala, 1974

GUYANA

Capital: Georgetown Population: 965,000 ( 1984) GNP per capita: US$720 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. The territory, including the counties of Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, named from the 3 rivers, was first partially settled by the Dutch West Indian Company about 1620. The Dutch retained their hold until 1796, when it was captured by the English. It-was finally ceded to Great Britain in 1814 and named British Guiana. On 26 May 1966 British Guiana became an independent member of the Commonwealth under the name of Guyana and the world's first Cooperative Republic on 23 Feb. 1970. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Guyana is situated on the north-east coast of South America on the Atlantic ocean, with Suriname on the east, Venezuela on the west and Brazil on the south and west. Area, 83,000 sq. miles (214,969 sq. km). Estimated population (1983), 900,000. Births (1972), 25,065; deaths (1974), 3,418. In 1976, the population comprised 362,700 Indians, 218,400 Africans, 2,100 Europeans, 3,400 Chinese, 800 others. The Greater Georgetown area had in 1983 an estimated population of 188,000. Venezuela demanded the return of the Essequibo region in 1963. It was finally agreed in March 1983 that the UN Secretary-General should mediate. There was also an unresolved claim (1984) by Suriname for the return of an area between the New river and the Courantyne river. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with rainy seasons from April to July and Nov. to Jan. Humidity is high all the year but temperatures are moderated by sea-breezes. Rainfall increases from 90" (2,280 mm) on the coast to 140" (3,560 mm) in the forest zone. Georgetown. Jan. 79"F (26- IX), July 81"F (27-2'C). Annual rainfall 87" (2,175 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated in Oct. 1980. The National Assembly consists of 65 elected members. Elections are held under the single-list system of proportional representation, with the whole of the country forming one electoral area and each voter casting his vote for a party list of candidates. The legislature is elected for 5 years unless earlier dissolved. The elections held on 15 Dec. 1980 gave the People's National Congress 41 seats, the People's Progressive Party 10 seats, the Liberator Party 2 seats. TTie PNC with an overall majority formed a 25-member cabinet. The Cabinet was in Nov. 1984 composed as follows: President: L. F. S. Bumham. Prime Minister and First Vice-President: H. Desmond Hoy le. Vice-President and Social Infrastructure: H. Green. Vice-President, Party and State Matters: B. Ramsaroop. Vice-President and Attorney-General: Dr M. Shahabuddeen. Education, Social Development and Culture: R. Chandisingh. National Mobilisation: R. H. O. Corbin. Foreign Affairs: R. E. Jackson. Home Affairs: J. R. Thomas. Energy and Mines: H. Rashid. Finance and Economic Planning: C. B. Greenidge. Information and Public Service: Y. V. Harewood-Benn. Manpower and Co-operatives: K. W. E. Denny. Office of the Prime Minister: U. E. Johnson. Agriculture: Sallahuddin. Youth and Sport: R. C. Fredericks. Transport: S. Prashad. Health and Public Welfare: Dr R. A. Van West Charles. There are 2 Ministers of State. 576

GUYANA

577

National flag: Green with a yellow triangle based on the hoist, edged in white, charged with a red triangle edged in black. DEFENCE Army. The Guyana Army has a strength of 7,000 (which includes all armed services), including a women's army corps. It comprises 3 infantry battalions and 1 artillery battery. Air Force. The Air Command is equipped with light aircraft and helicopters, including 2 Skyvan and 1 Super King Air 200 twin-turboprop transports, 6 Islander twin-engined STOL transports, a Cessna U206F utility lightplane, and 4 Bell 206/212 light helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Guyana is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, Caricom and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for calendar years (in G$ 1,000): Revenue Expenditure

1976' 500,942 746,329

1977 1978 1979 442,475 539,591 693,921 567,322 632,749 868,664 1 Revised estimates.

1980 803,460 1,049,836

1981 1,009,936 1,176,678

Currency. The Bank of Guyana, established in 1965, issued Guyana dollar notes of $1, 5, 10 and 20 and coins of 1-, 5-, 10-, 25- and 50-cent pieces. In March 1985: £1 =4-55 G$; US$1 =4- 12G$. Banking. Barclays Bank International and the Royal Bank of Canada maintain branches in Berbice, Demerara and Essequibo while the Bank of Baroda (India) has branches in Demerara and Berbice. The Chase Manhattan Bank (USA) and the Bank of Nova Scotia each have a branch in Georgetown. The Guyana National Co-operative Bank opened in Feb. 1970 with headquarters in Georgetown and 12 branches throughout the country. In 1973 the Guyana Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank (Gaibank) and the Guyana Co-operative Mortgage Finance Bank were established. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Placer gold mining commenced in 1884, and was followed by diamond mining in 1887. From 1884 to 1973 the output of gold was 431,413 bullion oz. (11,000 oz. in 1980). From 1901 to 1973 the production of diamonds was 4,008,211 metric carats (10,200 in 1980). There are large deposits of bauxite; 2,717,000 tons, 2,111,000 tons of alumina and 318,000 tonnes of alumina hydrate were produced in 1980. Full-scale production of manganese began in 1960 and other minerals include uranium, oil, copper and molybdenum. Agriculture. Production, 1982: Sugar-cane, 292,000 tonnes; rice, 182,000 tonnes. Other important products are coconuts, ground provisions and citrus fruit. Other tropical fruits and vegetables are grown mostly in scattered plantings; they include mangoes, papaws, avocado pears, melons, bananas and gooseberries. Other important crops are tomatoes, cabbages, black-eye peas, peanuts, carrots, onions, turmeric, ginger, pineapples, red kidney beans, soybeans, eschallot and tobacco. Large areas of unimproved land in the coastal region, which vary in width up to about 30 miles from the sea, are still available for agricultural and cattle-grazing projects. Livestock estimate (1983): Cattle, 310,000; pigs, 142,000; sheep, 117,000; goats, 75,000; poultry, 14m. Forestry. Guyana can be divided roughly into 3 regions: (1) A low coastal region varying in width up to about 30 miles and constituting the agricultural area; (2) an intermediate area about 100 miles wide, of slightly higher undulating land contain-

578

GUYANA

ing the chief mineral and forest resources of the country; and (3) a hinterland of several mountain ranges and extensive savannahs. 19,844,170 hectares of the land area is forested out of21,497,000 hectares. C O M M E R C E . Imports and exports (in G$) for calendar years: Imports Exports

1978 711,056,000 739,589,440

1979 811,000,000 732,900,000

1980 1,009,664,425 992,608,557

1981 1,236,488,611 974,327,562

1982 840,442,362 775,544,161

Chief imports (1981): Wheat flour, 555,000 kg, $999,000; unmilled wheat, 42,569,000 kg, $30,311,000; milk, 4,748,000 gallons, $31,617,000; textile fabrics, 18,195,000 sq. metres, $25,221,000. Chief domestic exports (1981): Sugar, 267,000 tonnes, $327-81m.; rice, 78,000 tonnes, $110m.; bauxite, dried, 1,011,000 tonnes, $78,123,000; bauxite, calcined, 496,000 tonnes, $259,464,000; alumina and alumina hydrate, 152,000 tonnes, $91,915,000; rum, 3,204,000 proof gallons, $24,046,000; timber, 36,000 cu. metres, $15,582,000; molasses, 85,344,000 kg, $12,902,000; shrimps, 477 kg, $7,849,000. Imports (exclusive of transhipments), 1981, from CARICOM Territories, 35%; from USA, 25%; from UK, 16%; from Canada, 4%; exports (exclusive of transhipments) to UK, 26%; to CARICOM Territories, 17%; to Canada, 5%. Total trade between Guyana and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 47,143 30,191

1981 50,841 28,969

1982 50,495 13,145

1983 42,810 13,585

1984 57,884 14,845

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Roads and vehicular trails in the national, provincial and urban systems amount to 8,870 km. Motor vehicles, as of 31 Dec. 1976, totalled 64,272, including 26,599 passenger cars (1980, 28,400), 6,979 lorries and vans, 9,072 tractors and trailers, and 19,109 motor cycles. The main road on the Atlantic Coast, some 290 km (180 miles) long extends from Charity on the Pomeroon River to Crabwood Creek on the Corentyne, there are two unbridged gaps made by the Berbice and Essequibo Rivers, and the banks of the Demerara River are linked by a 1,853 metre (6,074 ft) floating bridge. Railways. There is a government-owned railway in the North West District, while the Guyana Mining Enterprise operates a standard gauge railway of 133 km from Linden on the Demerara River to Ituni and Coomacka. Aviation. Guyana Airways Corporation operates scheduled services within the state and also to Trinidad, Barbados, Paramaribo, New York, Miami and Brazil. In 1982, Guyana Airways Corporation carried 108,402 passengers and 1 -6m. kg of freight on its international service and 46,373 passengers and 1 -5m. kg freight locally. Other services in operation: British Airways 4 times weekly to the Caribbean, Europe and North America: PANAM 3 times weekly to North, Central and South America: Air France, to and from Guadeloupe, Paramaribo and Cayenne 4 times a week; British West Indian Airways, Ltd, to and from Trinidad 3 times a week, providing direct connexion with New York and London; Cubana Airlines once weekly; Suriname Airways. The International Airport at Timehri serves Arrow Air Airlines, BWI A, Cubana Airways, and Suriname Airways. Shipping. In 1975,1,273 vessels of2,823,912 NRT entered and 1,225 of2,266,220 NRT cleared the jiort of Georgetown. There are 217 nautical miles of river navigation. There are ferry services across the mouths of the Demerara, Berbice and Essequibo rivers, the last providing a link between the islands of Leguan and Wakenaam and trre mainland at Adventure, and a number of coastal and nver-boat services carrying both passengers and cargo. A number of launch services are operated in the more remote areas by private concerns. Georgetown harbour, about V2 mile wide and 2'/i miles long, has a minimum depth of 24 ft. New Amsterdam harbour is situated at the mouth of the Berbice

GUYANA

579

River; there are wharves for coastal vessels only. Bauxite is loaded on ocean-going freighters at Mackenzie, 67 miles up the Demerara River, and at Everton on the Berbice River, about 10 miles from the mouth of the waterway. The Essequibo River has several timber-loading berths ranging from 20 to 40 ft. Springlands on the Corentyne River is the point of entry and departure of passengers travelling by launch services to and from Suriname. In 1984 the merchant marine comprised 84 vessels of20,248 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. The inland public telegraph and radio communication services are operated and maintained by the Telecommunication Corporation, established on 1 March 1967. On 31 Dec. 1976 there were 57 post offices and 94 agencies (including travelling post offices and agencies). The telephone exchanges had at the end of 1979 a total of 17,464 direct exchange lines with (1982), 28,468 telephone instruments. The number of route miles in the coastal and inland areas was 2,982 km. 39 land-line stations were maintained at post offices in the coastal area, and 8 telegraph stations in the interior provide communication with the coastal area through a central telegraph office in Georgetown. The Guyana Broadcasting Corporation, which came into operation on 1 July 1980, has 2 channels. Cinemas (1981). There are 52 cinemas. Newspapers (1984). There is 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of60,000 and 4 weekly papers with a combined circulation of about 100,000. J U S T I C E , EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The law, both civil and criminal, is based on the common and statute law of England, save that the principles of the Roman-Dutch law have been retained in respect of the registration, conveyance and mortgaging of land. The Supreme Court of Judicature consists of a Court of Appeal and a High Court. Education. In Sept. 1976 the Government assumed total responsibility for education from nursery school to university. Private education was abolished. In Sept. 1983, the total number of schools was 879: Nursery, 368; primary, 423; secondary and community high, 30; general secondary, 58. There are now 5 technical and vocational schools and 2 schools for the teaching of home economics and domestic crafts. Training in co-operatives is provided by the Kuru-Kuru Co-operative College and agriculture by the Guyana School of Agriculture and the Bumham Agricultural Institute. Art training is provided by the Burrowes School of Art. The training of primary and secondary school teachers is undertaken by 3 institutions. Higher education is also provided by the University of Guyana which was established in 1963 with faculties of natural science, social science, art, technology and education as well as first year students in law. There were 2,004 students in July 1983. The total number of pupils in all schools was 233,723 in 1983. Health. In 1981 there were 29 hospitals, 149 health centres and stations, 4 dispensaries and 11 medical outposts. There were (1982) 270 doctors and 24 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Guyana in Great Britain (3 Palace Court, London, W2 4LP) High Commissioner: Cedric L. Joseph (accredited 17 Feb. 1982). Of Great Britain in Guyana (44 Main St., Georgetown) High Commissioner: John Massingham. Of Guyana in the USA (2490 Tracy Place, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Cedric Hilbum Grant. Of the USA in Guyana (31 Main St., Georgetown) A mbassador: (Vacant).

580

GUYANA

Of Guyana to the United Nations Ambassador: Noel G. Sinclair. Books of Reference Braveboy-Wagner, J. A., The Venezuela-Guyana Border Dispute: Britain's Colonial Legacy in Latin America. London, 1984 Daly, P. H., From Revolution to Republic. Georgetown, 1970 Daly, Vere T.,/) Short History of the Guyanese People. Rev.ed. London, 1975 Hope, K. R., Development Policy in Guyana: Planning, Finance and Administration. London, 1979 Spinner, T. J., A Political and Social History of Guyana, 1945-83. Epping, 1985

HAITI

Capital: Port-au-Prince Population: 5-2m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$300 (1981)

République d'Haiti

HISTORY. Haiti occupies the western third of the large island of Hispaniola which was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492. The Spanish colony was ceded to France in 1697 and became her most prosperous colony. After the extirpation of the Indians by the Spaniards (by 1533) large numbers of African slaves were imported whose descendants now populate the country. The slaves obtained their liberation following the French Revolution, but subsequently Napoleon sent his brother-in-law, Gen. Leclerc, to restore French authority and re-impose slavery. Toussaint Louverture, the leader of the slaves who had been appointed a French general and governor, was kidnapped and sent to France, where he died in gaol. However, the reckless courage of the Negro troops and the ravages of yellow fever forced the French to evacuate the island and surrender to the blockading British squadron. The country declared its independence on 1 Jan. 1804, and its successful leader, Gen. Jean-Jacques Dessalines, proclaimed himself Emperor of the newly-named Haiti. After the assassination of Dessalines (1806) a separate régime was set up in the north under Henri Christophe, a Negro general who in 1811 had himself proclaimed King Henry. In the south and west a republic was constituted, with the mulatto Alexander Pétion as its first President. Pétion died in 1818 and was succeeded by Jean-Pierre Boyer, under whom the country became re-united after Henry had committed suicide in 1820. From 1822 to 1844 Haiti and the eastern part of the island (later the Dominican Republic) were united. After one more monarchical interlude, under the Emperor Faustin (1847-59), Haiti has been a republic. From 1915to 1934 Haiti was under United States occupation. Following a military coup in 1950, and subsequent uprisings, Dr François Duvalier was elected President on 22 Oct. 1957 and subsequently became President for Life in 1964. Hediedon21 April 1971 and was succeeded as president for life by his son, Jean-Claude Duvalier. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area is 27,750 sq. km (10,700 sq. miles), of which about three-quarters is mountainous. The population at the census in 1982 was 5,032,000. Estimate (1984) 5,198,000. The areas and populations of the 5 départements are as follows: Département Nord-Ouest Nord Artibonite Ouest Sud

Sq. km 2,750 4,100 6,800 7,900 6,200

1977 247,326 747,360 748,357 1,983,826 1,041,232

Totals

27,750

4,768,101

Chief town Port-de-Paix Cap Haïtien Gonaïves Port-au-Prince Les Cayes

1975 21,733 54,691 36,736 458,675 27,222

The Ile de la Gonave, some 40 miles long, lies in the gulf of the same name. Among other islands is La Tortue, off the north peninsula. The majority of the population are Negroes, with an important minority of mulattoes and only about 5,000 white residents, almost all foreign. Haiti is the only French-speaking republic in the Americas. The standard French of government, parliament and the press is spoken by the small literate minority, but the great majority of the people habitually speak the dialect known as Créole. 581

582

HAITI

C L I M A T E . A tropical maritime climate with a small range of temperature. The wet season extends from May to Sept. Port-au-Prince. Jan. 77° F (25°C), July 84° F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,321 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The 1983 Constitution, provides for an Executive President who is elected for life and may nominate his successor. He nominates a Cabinet to assist him and, in cases of national emergency, may dismiss both the Cabinet and the National Assembly and govern by decree. The unicameral National Assembly comprises 59 deputies elected for 6-year terms (renewable) by universal suffrage at age 18. Of the deputies elected on 12 Feb. 1984, all but one belonged to the Parti de l'Urtité Nationale of President Duvalier. From 11 May 1984, all other political activity was banned. The Cabinet in Oct. 1984 was composed as follows: President: Jean-Claude Duvalier. Ministers of State: Dr Roger Lafontant (Interior and Defence), Théodore Achille (Labour and Social Affairs), Jean-Marie Chanoine (Presidency, Information and Public Relations), Franz Merceron (National Economy, Finance and Industry), Fritz Benjamin (Public Works, Transport and Communications). Foreign Affairs and Worship: Jean-Robert Estimé. Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development: Luckner Saint-Die. Public Health and Population: Ary Bordes. Commerce: Odonel Fenestor. Justice: Casimir Rodriguez. Planning: Yves Blanchard. Mines and Energy Resources: Claude Mompoint. Education: Franck Saint-Victor. Youth and Sports: Arnold Blain. Trade: Stanley Théard. National flag: Vertically black and red, with a small white panel in the centre bearing the national arms. National anthem: 'La Dessalinienne : Pour le pays, pour les ancêtres (words by J. Lhérisson; tune by N. GefTrard, 1903). D E F E N C E . The Haitian Defence Force (Forces Armées d'Haiti) totalling about 7,500 men, is divided into Army, Navy, and Air Force. The President is Commander-in-Chief and appoints the officers. Army. Total strength, about 7,000, organized into 9 Military Departments and the 'Leopards'. Three of the Departments are in Port-au-Prince and consist of the Presidential Guard (4 Companies); the Dessalines Barracks (7 Companies including the Dessalines Battalion and Headquarters troops); and the Port-au-Prince Police (6 Companies in blue uniforms). The other 6 Military Departments are located outside Port-au-Prince; their troops (21 Companies) operate as District Police. The Fire Brigade and the Prison Guard Company are also part of the Armed Forces. Only the Presidential Guard, the Dessalines Battalion and the Leopards (2 companies of'Commandos' or Special Forces) with a third company of about 200 recruits, now in training, have any potential for tactical military operations. They are armed mainly with light infantry weapons but have a few elderly pieces of light artillery, 9 light tanks and 6 V-150 commando vehicles. Navy. The Navy/coastguard of 40 officers and 260 men has 1 ex-US armed tug, and 14 coastal patrol boats. The base is at Port-au-Prince. Air Force. Personnel strength is about 200, with about 28 aircraft of some 12 varieties. They include 8 Summit/Cessna 02-337 Sentry twin piston-engined counter-insurgency aircraft, 3 DC-3s, 5 light transports, 5 training/liaison aircraft, and 7 Hughes and Sikorsky helicopters. Militia. There is in addition a volunteer civilian force, the Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale, total strength is now estimated at about 14,900, about half of whom have access to antiquated rifles. This force, formerly of some importance as Dr François Duvalier's 'private army' of tough, devoted followers (sometimes called Tontons Macoute or Bogeymen) is much less prominent since his death, having been reduced in strength and reorganized under Defence Force Headquarters on lines roughly parallel to the regional Military Departments.

HAITI

INTERNATIONAL

583

RELATIONS

Membership. Haiti is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue (fiscal year ending 30 Sept.) in US$1 m. (5 gourdes = US$1), 1979-80,775m.; expenditure, 1,270m. Currency. The unit of currency is the gourde and its value fixed at 5 gourdes = US$1. In March 1985, £1 = 5-34 gourdes. There are copper-nickel coins for 50, 20,10 and 5 centimes and copper-zinc-nickel coins of 10 and 5 centimes. Banking. The Banque Nationale de la République d'Haiti, owned by the State, was established 21 Oct. 1910 with a capital of US$5m., and has a monopoly of the note issue. US dollars may be included in the minimum required reserves. The Royal Bank of Canada, the Citibank, the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Boston, the Banque de l'Union Haitienne (mainly local capital with participation from American, Canadian and Dominican Republic Banks), Banque Nationale de Paris and First National Bank of Chicago all have branches in Port-au-Prince. Weights and Measures. The metric system is officially accepted. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production ( 1980) 315m. kwh. Minerals. A US company is engaged in mining bauxite (466,000 tonnes in 1980). Copper exists but is at present uneconomic to exploit. Haiti may possess undeveloped mineral resources of oil, gold, silver, antimony, sulphur, coal and lignite, nickel, gypsum and porphyry. Agriculture. Only one-third of the country is arable and most people own the tiny plots they farm; the resulting pressure of population is the main cause of rural poverty. Number of farms is estimated at over 500,000. The occupations of Haiti are nine-tenths agricultural, carried on in 7 large plains, from 200,000 to 25,000 acres, and in 15 smaller plains down to 2,000 acres. Irrigation is used in some areas. Haiti's most important product is coffee of good quality, classified as 'mild', and grown by peasants. Production in 1981 totalled about 33,000 tonnes. Second most important crop is sugar. Sisal is grown extensively. Much of the fibre is exported as or for cordage. New types of cotton are being tried with success. New varieties of rice should significantly boost future production, especially in the Artibonite Valley. Output of main crops in 1981 (in 1,000 tonnes) was: Sugar, 3,000; mangoes, 330; plantains; 300; sweet potatoes, 270; cassava, 255; bananas, 210; maize, 180; sorghum, 110; rice, 90; sisal, 10; cotton, 5; cocoa, 3. Rum and other spirits are distilled. Essential oils from vetiver, neroli and amyris are important. Cattle and horse breeding are encouraged. Livestock (1983); Cattle, l-3m.; sheep, 92,000; pigs, 800,000; goats, M m . ; horses, 425,000; poultry, 5m. Fisheries. Production (1980) 4,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Light manufacturing industries assembling or finishing goods for reexport constitute the fastest growing sector. There are 2 textile mills producing cheap denim with a total of 550 looms and 14,000 spindles. Soap factories produce laundry soap, toilet soap and detergent. A cement factory located near the capital produced 243,000 tonnes in 1980. A steel plant making rods, beams and angles was opened in 1974. There are also a pharmaceutical plant, a tannery, a plastics plant, 2 paint works, 2 shoe factories, a large factory producing enamel cookingware, 2 pasta-making factories, a tomato cannery and a flour-mill, all located in or near Port-au-Prince.

584

HAITI

Labour. Trade unions were recognized in Feb. 1946. Strong government influence is exercised over the insignificant portion of the labour force that is unionized and organized labour has virtually no strength in Haiti. Commerce. In 1982 exports were US$ 150m. and imports, US$330m. The leading imports are foodstuffs, textiles, machinery, mineral oils, raw materials for transformation industries and vehicles. Total trade between Haiti and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 915. 2,818

1981 1,439 2,541

1982 2,615 3,704

1983 1,646 4,171

1984 1,402 3,736

Tourism. In 1978,112,000 tourists visited Haiti. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of roads is some 4,000 km, little of which is practicable in ordinary motors in the rainy season. There were (1980) about 35,000 vehicles in Haiti. Railways. The only railway is owned by the Haitian American Sugar Company. Aviation. An airport capable of handling jets was opened at Port-au-Prince in 1965. US and French carriers provide daily direct services to New York, Miami, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and the French Antilles. There are also services to the Dominican Republic and the Netherlands Antilles. A Haitian company provides a cargo service to the US and Puerto Rico. Air services connecting Port-au-Prince with other Haitian towns are operated by Haiti Air Inter. Shipping. US, French, Federal Republic of Germany, Dutch, British, Canadian and Japanese lines connect Haiti with the US, Latin America (except Cuba), Canada, Jamaica, Europe and the Far East. Post and Broadcasting. Most principal towns are connected by the government telegraph system, telephones and wireless. The telephone company, of which the Haitian Government is now the majority stockholder, is in process of being modernized. Telephone subscribers totalled 22,000 in 1980. In 1982 there were 105,000 radio and 65,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1980). There were 15 cinemas in Port-au-Prince. Newspapers (1984). There were 6 daily newspapers in Port-au-Prince, also a monthly in English and 1 weekly newspaper in Cap Haitien. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Judges, both of the lower courts and the court of appeal, are appointed by the President. The legal system is basically French. The divorce law has recently been amended to permit parties to obtain 'quick and painless' divorces at a moderate cost, in the hope of attracting the US trade, now that the Mexican 'divorce mills' have closed down. This has developed a useful flow of dollar revenue. Police. The Police number about 750 in Port-au-Prince and are part of the armed forces. Religion. Since the Concordat of 1860, the official religion is Roman Catholicism, under an archbishop with 5 suffragan bishops. There are still quite a number of foreigners, French and French Canadians mainly, among the clergy but the first Haitian archbishop took office in 1966. The Episcopal Church now has its first Haitian bishop who was consecrated in 1971. Other Christian churches number perhaps 10% of the population. The folk religion is Voodoo. Education. Education is divided into primary (first 6 years), secondary (the next 7

HAITI

585

years) and finally superior or university. The school system is modelled on that of France. The law calls for free and compulsory elementary education in the French language. For the 1973-74 academic year, urban primary schools numbered 360 (221 lay and 139 religious) attended by 127,330 pupils with 3,532 teachers. There were, for the same period, at the secondary level, 21 public secondary lycées with 15,760 students (4,163 of them girls), 563 teachers (39 of them women). In the private secondary sector, 129 schools were reported with 35,414 students (16,398 girls), 1,172 teachers (107 women). Professional education is divided into 3 categories: (a) 41 pre-vocational schools; (b) 18 vocational schools which prepare trained workers, and (c) 5 vocational schools preparing technicians. There are also 10 licensed private commercial schools. "Hie total number of students was 13,000, 2,000 of whom were in the private sector. Higher education is offered at the University of Haiti. Health. There were, in 1972,332 doctors and 104 dentists in practice, 44 hospitals, and 196 health centres and rural clinics. The hospitals had 3,329 beds, of which 776 were in private and charitable establishments. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Haiti in Great Britain (33 Abbots Hse., St Mary Abbots Terr., London, W14) Ambassador: Théo Duval (accredited 6 Dec. 1984). Of Great Britain in Haiti Ambassador: H. M. S. Reid, CMG (resides in Kingston). Of Haiti in the USA (2311 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Fritz N. Cineas. Of the USA in Haiti (Harry Truman Blvd., Port-au-Prince) Ambassador: Clayton E. McManaway, Jr. Of Haiti to the United Nations Ambassador: Serge Elie Charles. Books of Reference The official gazette is Le Moniteur. Revue Agricole d'Haïti. From 1946. Quarterly Bellegarde, D., Histoire du Peuple Haïtien. Port-au-Prince, 1953 Chambers, F. J., Haiti. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 Laguerre, M.S., The Complete Haitiana. [Bibliography] London and New York, 1982 Lundahl, M., The Haitian Economy: Man, Land and Markets. London, 1983 Nicholls, D., From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour and National Independence m Haiti. CUP, 1979 National Library: Bibliothèque Nationale, Rue du Centre, Port-au-Prince.

HONDURAS República de Honduras

Capital: Tegucigalpa Population: 4-24m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$661 (1982)

H I S T O R Y . On 5 Nov. 1838 Honduras declared itself an independent sovereign state, free from the Federation of Central America, of which it had formed a part. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Honduras is bounded north by the Caribbean, east and south-east by Nicaragua, west by Guatemala, south-west by El Salvador and south by the Pacific ocean. Area is 112,088 sq. km (43,277 sq. miles), with a population, census (1974) of2,656,948. Estimate (1983) 4,092,175. The chief cities (populations, 1982) were Tegucigalpa, the capital (533,626), San Pedro Sula (397,937), El Progreso (105,372), Choluteca (88,988), Danli (77,005) and the Atlantic coast ports of La Ceiba (68,911), Puerto Cortés (62,250) and Tela (61,188); other towns include Olanchito (53,568), Juticalpa (49,817) and Comayagua(28,121 in 1971). The areas and populations of the 18 departments and federal district were as follows: Department Atlántida Choluteca Colón Comayagua Copán Cortés El Paraíso Federal District Francisco Morazán Gracias a Dios

Sq. km 4,251 4,211 8,875 5,196 3,203 3,954 7,218 1,648 6,298 16,630

1983 242,235 289,637 128,370 211,465 217,258 624,090 206,601 532,519 203,753 35,471

Department Intibucä Isias de la Bahia La Paz Lempira Ocotepeque Olancho Santa Barbara Valle Yoro

Sq. km 3,072 261 2,331 4,290 1,680 24,350 5,115 1,565 7,939

1983 111,412 18,744 86,627 174,916 64,151 228,122 286,854 125,640 304,310

Aboriginal tribes number over 35,000, principally Miskito, Payas and Xicaques Indians and Sambos (the latter a mixture of Miskito and Negro), each speaking a different dialect. The Spanish-speaking inhabitants are chiefly mestizos, Indians with an admixture of Spanish blood. Gracias a Dios is still largely unexplored and is inhabited by pure native races who speak little or no Spanish. In 1980 the birth rate was 49-3 per 1,000; death rate, 12-4 per 1,000 and infant mortality rate, 11-8 per 1,000 live births. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with a small annual range of temperature but with high rainfall. Upland areas have two wet seasons, from May to July and in Sept. and Oct. The Caribbean Coast has most rain in Dec. and Jan. and temperatures are generally higher than inland. Tegucigalpa. Jan. 66°F (19°C), July 74°F (23 • 3°C). Annual rainfall 64" (1,621 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Following Presidential and Congressional elections held on 29 Nov. 1981, a new Constitution was promulgated on 20 Jan. 1982. The President is directly elected for a 4-year term. President: Dr Roberto Suazo Cordova (sworn in 27 Jan. 1982). Cabinet of ministers to assist him, which was composed as follows in Aug. 1984: Foreign Affairs: Edgardo Paz Bamiga. Interior and Justice: Abogado Oscar Mejia Arellano. Defence: Col. Amilcar Castillo Suazo. Education: (Vacant). Finance: Manuel Fontecha. Economy: Miguel Orellana Maldonado. Economic Planning: Edgardo Sevilla Idiaquez. Presidency: Ubudore Arriaga. Labour and Social Security: Amado Nunez. Health: Dr Ruben Garcia Martinez. Culture and 586

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Tourism: Victor Cáceres Lara. Communications, Public Works and Transport: Carlos Handal. Natural Resources: Miguel Angel Bonilla. Director of National Agrarian Institute: Ubudoro Arriaga Iraheto. The legislature is a 82-member Congress of Deputies, composed following the elections of 29 Nov. 1981 of 44 deputies of the Partido Liberal, 34 of the Partido Nacional, 3 of the Partido de Innovación y Unidad, ànd 1 of the Partido Demócrata Cristiano. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of blue, white, blue, with 5 blue stars in the centre. National anthem: Tu bandera es un lampo de cielo (words by A. C. Coello; tune by C. Hartling). Local government: Honduras comprises a Federal District (containing the cities of Tegucigalpa and Comayaguela) and 18 departments (each administered by an appointed Governor), sub-divided into 282 municipalities (each under an elected Council). D E F E N C E . Conscription into the Armed Forces is for approximately 12 months. Although there is no actual reserves programme, those men who have served on active duty for 1 year or more, are eligible for recall. Army. The Army consists of 1 infantry brigade, 1 Presidential Guard and 3 infantry, 3 artillery, 1 engineer and 1 special forces battalions and 1 armoured car regiment. Equipment includes 16 Scorpion light tanks. Strength (1985) 15,500 (12,000 conscripts). There is also a paramilitary Public Security Force of 4,500 men. Air Force. Equipment includes 12 (probably unserviceable) J52-engined Super Mystère fighters acquired from Israel, 5 A-37B jet light attack aircraft, 4 Spanishbuilt CASA C-101BB armed jet trainers, 3 RT-33A reconnaissance aircraft, some Summit/Cessna 02-337 Sentry twin piston-engined COIN aircraft, 3 Israeli-built Arava and 1 Westwind transports, some helicopters, and T-28 and T-41A trainers. Total strength is about 1,200 personnel, of whom many are civilian maintenance stafT. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Honduras is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. In 1983 revenue (in lm. lempiras) was 2,580 (1982, 2,304); expenditure, 2,580,(1982,2,304). Sources of income (1983) included (in lm. lempiras): Income tax, 190; production (and domestic transactions) taxes, 251 ; import taxes, 202; export taxes, 78. Total external debt (1983) was (in lm. lempiras), 2,525 and net reserves of foreign currency, 35. Currency. The unit of the monetary system is the lempira also known as a peso, comprising 100 centavos. Notes are issued by the Banco Central de Honduras which has the sole right to issue, in denominations of 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 lempiras. Coins in circulation are 50 and 20 centavos in silver, 10 and 5 centavos in cupro-nickel and 2 and 1 centavos in copper. Rate of exchange, March 1985: £1 = 2 15 lempiras: US$ 1 =2 lempiras. Banking. The central bank of issue is the Banco Central de Honduras. The Banco Atlántida has branches in Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, Comayaguela, Puerto Cortés, La Ceiba, Tela, El Progreso, Choluteca and other towns. The Banco de Honduras which operates in many parts of the country is controlled by the Citibank. The Bank of America has branches in Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula. The Bank of London and Montreal has branches in Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, Comayaguela and La Ceiba. The Central American Bank for Economic Integration has its head office in Tegucigalpa.

588

HONDURAS

Weights and Measures. The metric system has been legal since 1 April 1897, but English pounds and yards and the old Spanish system are still in use: 1 vara = 32 in.; 1 manzana (10,000 sq. varas) = 700 sq. metres; 1 arroba = 25 lb.; 1 quintal = 100 lb.; 1 tonelada=2,000 lb. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Mineral resources include gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc and iron ore, which are exported. There are probably reserves of other minerals which have not yet been exploited. The Rosario Resources Company, which owned and operated the famous Rosario mines near Tegucigalpa from 1882 to 1954, developed and now operates a mine at EI Mochito (Department of Santa Barbara) while the Compañía Minera Los Angeles SA has a mine currently extracting lead, zinc and silver at Valle de Angeles (Department of Francisco Morazán). Agriculture. Although Honduras is essentially an agricultural country, less than a quarter of the total land area is cultivated and by far the larger portion of this is on the Caribbean and Pacific coastal plains. Agriculture employs 58-9% of the working population and provides 80% of the exports. The main agricultural crops are: Bananas, coffee, sugar and tobacco. Exports of meat amounted to 62-6m. lempiras in 1983. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 2,418,000; sheep, 5,000; pigs, 409,000; goats, 22,000; horses, 152,000; poultry, 5m. Forestry. Forests cover nearly 45% of the total land area. Honduras has an abundance of hard- and soft-woods. Large stands of mahogany and other hardwoods— granadino, guayacán, walnut and rosewood—grow in the north-eastern part of the country, in the interior valleys, and near the southern coast. Stands of pine occur almost everywhere in the interior, but are severely damaged by bark beetle and fires. In 1983, total wood exports amounted to 79-3m. lempiras. The Olancho Forest Development Programme involving the construction of saw- and pulp-mills is in progress. Fisheries. Commercial fishing in territorial waters is restricted to Honduran nationals and Honduran companies in which the controlling share of the capital is owned by a Honduran national. Shrimps and lobsters are important catches; exports(1983)68-3m. lempiras. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Small-scale local industries include beer and mineral waters, cement, flour, vegetable lard, coconut oil, sweets, cigarettes, cigars, textiles and clothing, panama hats, plastics, nails, matches, plywood, furniture, paper bags, soap, candles, fruit juices and household chemicals. An important hydro-electric scheme has been built at Rio Lindo to serve the Central and North Coast regions. The El Cajon hydro-electric project is now under construction and will come on stream in 1985 (290 mw). A small integrated steel-mill may be erected in Agalteca (Department of Francisco Morazán). The manufacturing industry employed 7-5% of the working population in 1983. Labour. The organization of trade unions was begun in 1954 with the assistance of ORIT (Inter-American Regional Organization) sponsored by the USA trade unions. In 1972 there were 166 trade unions, of which only 119 were active, with about 67,956 members. A 'Charter of Labour' was granted in Feb. 1955 and an advanced Labour Code and Social Security Bill passed into law in May 1959. A Ministry of'Labour, Social Assistance and the Middle Class' was created in 1955; the last four words of its title were expunged in 1957. Commerce. Imports in 1983 were valued at 1,511-7m. lempiras and exports at l,360-6m. lempiras. Imports (1983) in lm. lempiras: Fuel and lubricants, 341 -6; chemical products, 314-8; transport machinery and equipment, 257-4; food products, 139-2. Exports (1983) in lm. lempiras: Bananas, 415-3; coffee, 302-4; timber, 79-3; refrigerated meats, 62-6; sugar, 55-7; cotton, 9-4.

HONDURAS

589

Trade with main countries in lm. lempiras(1982) was: USA, 1,224-5; Trinidad and Tobago, 244-3; Japan, 163 -8; Federal Republic of Germany, 163 -3; Guatemala, 144-3; Belgium, 90-6; Netherlands, 60-6; Spain, 53-5. Total trade between Honduras and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from UK.

1980 3,687 11,835

1981 4,065 8,617

1982 4,695 4,659

1983 7,082 9,539

1984 12,360 7,382

Tourism. There were 157,715 tourists in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Honduras is connected with Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua by the Pan-American Highway. Out of a total of 18,280 km of road (1983), 1,828 were paved and 9,379 are useable throughout the year. There are good asphalted highways between Puerto Cortés in the north and Choluteca in the south passing through San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa with branches to Guatemala and El Salvador. In 1981 there were 95,997 motor vehicles. Railways. Only 4 railways exist; they are confined to the north coastal region and are used mainly for transportation of bananas. Tegucigalpa, the capital, is not served by any railway, and there are no international railway connexions. The total railways operating in 1983 were 1,004 km of 1,067 mm and 914 mm gauge. Aviation. Over a large part of the country the aeroplane is the normal means of transport for both passengers and freight. There are international airports at Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, La Ceiba and over 30 smaller airstrips in various parts of the country. Shipping. Sailings to the Atlantic coast port of Puerto Cortés from Europe are frequent, mainly operated by the Harrison Line, Cia Generate Transatlantique, the Royal Netherlands Steamships Co., Hapag Lloyd and vessels owned or chartered by the Tela Railroad Co., a subsidiary of United Brands, and the Standard Fruit Co. Post and Broadcasting. The Government in April 1972 operated 18,845 km of telephone lines and 12,526 km of telegraph lines. Number of telephones in use, 1983, 35,365; telephone exchanges, 56; number of telegraph offices, 262; combined telephone and telegraph offices, 184; radio stations, 187; commercial television channels, 4. There were (1979) about 27,000 receivers in use. Transmission in colour commenced mid-1973. Cinemas (1982). Cinemas numbered about 60 with seating capacity of some 60,000. Newspapers (1984). The 4 most important daily papers are El Heraldo and La Tribuna in Tegucigalpa, La Prensa and El Tiempo in San Pedro Sula. Several others exist but their circulation is low and their influence is very limited. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court, with 7 judges elected by the National Constituent Assembly in 1980 for 6 years; it appoints the judges of the courts of appeal, labour tribunals and the district attorneys who, in turn, name the justices of the peace. Religion. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion, but the constitution guarantees freedom to all creeds, and the State does not contribute to the support of any. Education. Instruction is free, compulsory (from 7 to 15 years of age) and secular. In 1983 the 6,422 primary schools had 704,612 children (19,300 teachers); the 354 secondary, normal and technical schools had 129,606 pupils (5,916 teachers); the teachers' college had 2,604 students in 1981 (168 teachers). In 1982, the three universities had a total of 29,261 students and 1,825 teachers; one teachers' training college with 5,841 students.

590

HONDURAS

The illiteracy rate was 40% of those 10 years of age and older in 1983. Health. In 1981 there were about 1,370 doctors. In 1983 there were 44 hospitals (25 private) with 5,506 beds, and 571 health centres. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Honduras in Great Britain (47 Manchester St., London, WIM 5PB) Ambassador: Max Velasquez Diaz (accredited 7 June 1984). Of Great Britain in Honduras (Edificio Palmira, Ave. República de Chile, Tegucigalpa) Ambassador: B. O. White. Of Honduras in the USA (4301 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Juan Agurcia Ewing. Of the USA in Honduras (Ave. La Paz, Tegucigalpa) Ambassador: J. D. Negroponte. Of Honduras to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Roberto Herrera Cácares. Books of Reference The Anuario Estadístico (latest issue, Comercio Exterior de Honduras, 1980) is published by the Dirección de Estadísticas y Censos, Tegucigalpa. Director: Elizabeth Zavala de Turcios. Monthly Bulletin.—Honduras en Cifras. Banco Central de Honduras, 1980 Checchi, V. (and others), Honduras, a Problem in Economic Development. New York, 1959 Morris, J. A., Honduras: Caudillo Politics and Military Rulers. Boulder, 1984 Rubio Melhado, A., Geografia General de la República de Honduras. Tegucigalpa, 1953 Stokes, W. S., Honduras: An Area Study in Government. Madison, Wise., 1950

HONG KONG

Population: 5 • 36m. ( 1984) GDP per capita: US$5,738 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . Hong Kong Island and the southern tip of the Kowloon peninsula were ceded by China to Britain after the first and second Anglo-Chinese Wars respectively by the Treaty of Nanking 1842 and the Convention of Peking 1860. Northern Kowloon was leased to Britain for 99 years by China in 1898. Since then, Hong Kong has been under British administration, except from Dec. 1941 to Aug. 1945 during the Japanese occupation. Talks began in Sept. 1982 between Britain and China over the future of Hong Kong after the lease expiry in 1997. On 19 Dec. 1984, the two countries signed an agreement whereby China would recover sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and the New Territories) from 1 July 1997 and establish it as a Special Administrative Region where the existing social and economic systems, and the present life-style, would remain unchanged for another 50 years. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Hong Kong island is 32 km east of the mouth of the Pearl River and 130 km south-east of Canton. The area of the island is 78-12 sq. km. It is separated from the mainland by a fine natural harbour. On the opposite side is the peninsula of Kowloon (10-48 sq. km), which, with Stonecutters Island (0- 75 sq. km), was added to the Territory by the Convention of Peking, 1860. By a further convention, signed at Peking on 9 June 1898, about 950 sq. km, consisting of all the immediately adjacent mainland and numerous islands in the vicinity, were leased to Great Britain by China for 99 years. This area is known as the New Territories. Total area of the territory is 1,066-53 sq. km (including recent reclamations), a large part of it being steep and unproductive hillside. Some 40% of the territory is conserved as country parks. Shortage of land suitable for development for housing and industry, is a serious problem. Since 1945, the Government has reclaimed about 1,897 hectares from the sea, principally from the seafronts of Hong Kong and Kowloon, facing the harbour. In the New Territories, the new town of Tsuen Wan, incorporating Tsuen Wan, Kwai Chung and Tsing Yi, already houses 688,000 of its planned ultimate population of918,000. The construction of 5 further new towns at Sha Tin, Tuen Mun, Tai Po, Fanling and Yuen Long is now well underway, with designed population capacities of833,000,547,000,220,000, 195,000 and 140,000 respectively. Planning has started for a new town at Junk Bay to house 380,000 people. The population was 5,109,812 at 1981 census. Estimate (mid-1984) 5,364,000. During the war years the population of Hong Kong fluctuated sharply. In Sept. 1945, at the end of the Japanese occupation, it was about 600,000. In mid-1950 it was estimated at 2-24m. Since 1971 the average annual growth rate has been 2-2%. Of the present population about 32 • 5% are under 20 years of age. About 57% of the population was born in Hong Kong. C L I M A T E . The climate is warm sub-tropical being much affected by monsoons, the winter being cool and dry and the summer hot and humid, May to Sept. being the wettest months. Jan. 6 0 T (15-6°C), July 83"F (28-3"C). Annual rainfall 85" (2,162 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The administration is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council, composed of the Chief Secretary, the Commander, British Forces, the Financial Secretary, the AttorneyGeneral (who are members ex officio) and such other members, both official and unofficial, as may be appointed by the Queen upon the Governor's nomination. In Sept. 1984 there were, in addition to the 4 ex-offtcio members, 2 nominated officials and 10 appointed unofficial members. There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by tne Governor. In 1984 it consisted of 3 ex-officio members, namely 591

592

HONG

KONG

the Chief Secretary, the Financial Secretary, the Attorney-General, and 30 appointed unofficial members and 13 nominated official members. Chinese and English are the official languages. District boards with elected members were set up in 1982 in the 18 administrative districts of Hong Kong. They have mainly an advisory role to perform and have a substantial influence over district affairs. Governor and C.-in-C.: Sir Edward Youde, GCMG, MBE. Commander British Forces: Maj.-Gen. Derek Boorman, CB. Chief Secretary: David Akers-Jones, CMG. Flag: British Blue Ensign with the arms of the Territory on a white disc in the fly. D E F E N C E . The Hong Kong garrison, under the Commander British Forces, comprises units of all three services. Its principal rôle is to assist the Hong Kong Government in maintaining security and stability. Army. The Army constitutes the bulk of the garrison. It comprises a UK battalion, based at Stanley Fort, and 4 Gurkha infantry battalions, one based at Lyemun, the other 3 in the New Territories; supporting units include the Queen's Gurkha Engineers, the Queen's Gurkha Signals, the Gurkha Transport Regiment, and 660 Squadron Army Air Corps. Navy. The Naval Base is at HMS Tamar. The Hong Kong Squadron comprising five patrol craft, converted Ton-class old wooden minesweepers were replaced in 1984 and 1985 by five new larger, faster and better-armed patrol vessels of the 'Peacock' class specially designed for the purpose (HMS Peacock and HMS Plover were the first, joined by Starling, Swallow and Swift) all built by Hall Russell, Aberdeen, Scotland. Air Force. The Royal Air Force is based at Shek Kong. No. 28 (Army Cooperation) Squadron operates 8 Wessex helicopters. In addition to its operational rôle in support of the army and navy, the RAF carries out search and rescue and medical evacuation tasks. It is also responsible for air traffic control services at Shek Kong, and provides a territory-wide air traffic advisory service. Auxiliary Forces. The local auxiliary defence units, consisting of the Royal Hong Kong Regiment and the Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force, are administered by the Hong Kong Government, but, if called out, would come under the command of the Commander British Forces. The Royal Hong Kong Regiment (The Volunteers) has a strength of about 9 50. It is fully mobile and its rôle is to operate in support of regular army battalions stationed in Hong Kong. The Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force is intended mainly for internal security and air-sea rescue duties. It has a strength of about 131, operating a fleet of seven aircraft - a twinengined Britten-Norman Islander, a twin-engined Cessna 404 Titan Courier, two Scottish Aviation Bulldog Trainers and three Aérospatiale Dauphin 365C1 helicopters. ECONOMY Budget. The public revenue and expenditure for financial years ending 31 March were as follows (in HK$): 1980S1 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84' Revenue Expenditure

30,290,300,000 23,593,500,000

34,312,900,000 27,778,200,000 ' Estimate.

31,097,600,000 34,597,800,000

32,269,700,000 35,474,900,000

The revenue is derived chiefly from rates, licences, duties on liquor, tobacco, hydrocarbon oils and methyl alcohol, a tax on earnings and profits, land sales and various duties. Currency. The unit of currency is the Hong Kong dollar. Banknotes (of denominations of $ 10 upwards) are issued by the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corpora-

HONG KONG

593

tion, and the Chartered Bank. Their combined note and coin issue was, at 31 July 1984, HK$ 13,376m. Subsidiary currency consisting of HK$5, HK.S2, HK$1, 50-cent, 20-cent, 10-cent, 5-cent copper-nickel-alloy coins anji 1-cent notes is issued by the Hong Kong Government and at 31 July 1984 totalled HK$ 1,3 54m. Since Oct. 1983 the HK$ has been linked to the US$1 at a fixed exchange rate of US$1 =HK$7-80. Since 1975, the Hong Kong Government has issued annually a limited quantity of H K $ 1,000 gold coins. The first in the series was issued to commemorate the Queen's visit to Hong Kong in 1975. Gold coins have since been minted to mark the Chinese Lunar Years of the Dragon, the Snake, the Horse, the Goat, the Monkey, the Cockerel, the Dog, the Pig and the Rat. Banking. There are 140 licensed banks and 105 of them are foreign-incorporated. Deposits at 30 June 1984 totalled HK$266,484m. Weights and Measures. Metric, British Imperial, Chinese and U S units are all in current use in Hong Kong. However Government Departments have now effectively adopted metric units; all new legislation uses metric terminology and existing legislation is being progressively metricated. Metrication is also proceeding in the private sector. The statutory equivalent for the chek is 14 5/8 inches. The variation of the size of the chek with usage still persists in Hong Kong but the chek and derived units are now used much less than in the past. A G R I C U L T U R E . In 1983, 153,000 tonnes of vegetables were produced. Livestock(1983): Cattle, 860; pigs, 392,290; poultry, 32m. W A T E R . The provision of sufficient reservoir capacity to store the summer rainfall in order to meet supply requirements has always been a serious problem. Over the years no less than 17 impounding reservoirs have been constructed with a total capacity of 586m. cu. metres. The major among these are the Plover Cove Reservoir (230m. cu. metres) finally completed in 1973 and the High Island Reservoir (280m. cu. metres) completed in 1978, both involving the conversion of sea water inlets into fresh water lakes. There are no sites remaining in Hong Kong suitable for development as storage reservoirs. Consequently the purchase of water from China has been of increasing importance and the future needs of Hong Kong will be met to a large extent from this source. During the financial year 1984-85 water purchased from China will be in the order of 290m. cu. metres which represents about 45% of Hong Kong's demand. The agreement with China allows for annual increases u p to a total figure of 620m. cu. metres per annum by 1994-95 which will represent around 60% of Hong Kong's demand at that time. These resources can be further supplemented when necessary by up to 181,000 cu. metres of fresh water a day from a desalting plant completed in 1976 and now considered as a reserve resource. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. An economic policy based on free enterprise and free trade; an industrious work force; an efficient and aggressive commercial infrastructure; modem and efficient sea-port (including container shipping terminals) and airport facilities: its geographical position relative to markets in North America and its traditional trading links with Britain have all contributed to Hong Kong's success as a modern industrial complex. In March 1984, there were 46,862 factories employing 869,296 people out of a total population of approximately 5-3m. The type of factory involved ranges from the small cottage type to large highly complex modern establishments. Given the scarcity of land it is most common for light industry to operate in multi-storey buildings specially designed for this purpose. The main industry is textiles and clothing, which employed 41% of the total industrial workforce and accounted for 40% of total domestic exports in 1983. Other major light manufacturing industries

594

HONG

KONG

include electronic products, clocks and watches, toys, plastic products, metalware, footwear, cameras and travel goods. Heavy industry includes ship-building, shiprepairing, aircraft engineering and the manufacture of machinery. Agriculture, fishing and some mining are the main primary industries. Commerce. Hong Kong's industries are mainly export oriented. The total value of domestic exports in 1983 was HK$104,405m. The major markets were USA (42%), UK (8-2%), Federal Republic of Germany (7-7%), China (6%), Japan (3 -7%) and Canada (3 -6%). There is also a sizeable and flourishing entrepot trade which accounted for another HKS56,294m. in 1983. The total value of imports in 1983 was HK$ 175,442m., mainly from China (24-4%), Japan (23%), USA (10-9%), Taiwan (71%), Singapore (6%) and UK (4-2%). The chief import items were manufactured goods (28 -2%), machinery and transport equipment (22-5%), foodstuffs (10-8%), chemicals (7-4%), mineral fuel, lubricants and related materials (6 • 6%). Imports from the Commonwealth countries (HK$25,358m. in 1983) amounted to 14-4% of total imports, and exports to the Commonwealth countries (HKS20,173m.) accounted for 19 • 3% of Hong Kong's domestic exports. Duties are levied only on tobacco, hydrocarbon oils, methyl alcohol and alcoholic liquors, whether imported into or manufactured in Hong Kong for local consumption. All imports (apart from foodstuffs, which are subject to a flat charge of HK50 cents for every $ 1,000 worth of goods shipped) and exports are subject to a varying ad valorem charge. The adverse balance on visible trade is offset by a favourable balance from exchange, shipping and insurance transactions, an inflow of capital, ship-repairing, a flourishing tourist industry, etc. Hong Kong has a free exchange market. Foreign merchants may remit profits or repatriate capital. Import and export controls are kept to the minimum, consistent with strategic requirements. Total trade between Hong Kong and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling) is given as follows: Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 850,340 898,634 872,545 1,178,343 1,266,965 559,420 618,525 732,489 726,71 1 897,419

Tourism. 2,775,014tourists spent HK$1 l,375-68m. in Hong Kong during 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 1,238 km of roads, distributed as follows: Hong Kong Island, 360; Kowloon and New Kowloon, 345, and New Territories, 533. A crossharbour tunnel, 1 -8 km in length, opened to traffic in Aug. 1972, now links Hong Kong Island with the Kowloon peninsula. The 1 -4 km twin-tube Lion Rock Tunnel, which links Kowloon with Sha Tin New Town and other areas of the north-eastern New Territories, became fully operational in Oct. 1978. The 1 -8 km twin-tube Aberdeen Tunnel, which connects Aberdeen and Wanchai, became operational in March 1983. Railways. There is an electric tramway with a total track length of 30-4 km, and a cable tramway connecting the Peak district with the lower levels in Victoria. The Kowloon-Canton Railway runs for 34 km from the terminus at Hung Horn in Kowloon to the border point at Lo Wu. On 4 April 1979 a direct 'through' passenger train to Guangzhou (Canton) was re-introduced after a lapse of nearly 30 years. A second express train came into operation on 11 Feb. 1980 and a third train was introduced in July 1984. The trains are invariably full and cater mainly for the business and tourist communities as well as Hong Kong residents visiting friends and relatives in China. There are also other passenger services to Lo Wu to allow for connexions to be made for onward trains at the Shenzhen border point (Chinese section). Mail and freight are conveyed across the border without transhipment.

HONG KONG

595

The railway completed its five-year, HK$3,500m. modernization and electrification project in July 1983. All existing stations were rebuilt and three new stations were constructed for Tai Wai, Fo Tan (due to be opened in Jan. 1985) and Kowloon Tong. The Kowloon Tong Station is designed as an interchange with the underground Mass Transit Railway. The status of the Kowloon-Canton Railway changed from a government department to a public corporation on 1 Jan. 1983. The decision was taken in view of the major development of the KCR into a much expanded and more sophisticated railway. An underground Mass Transit Railway system, comprising 25 stations, is now in operation. The system consists of two lines, one linking the Central District of Hong Kong Island with Tsuen Wan in the west of Kowloon, and the other linking Kwun Tong in East Kowloon with Waterloo in Nathan Road. Cross platform interchange facilities are provided at Prince Edward and Argyle stations for passengers travelling between the two lines. The system is about 26 km in length. Work began at the end of 1981 on the Island Line, which will serve the northern foreshore of Hong Kong Island. Scheduled to be fully operational in mid-1986, the new line will run for 12 • 5 km and add 12 new stations to the system. Aviation. Hong Kong International Airport is situated on the north shore of Kowloon Bay. It is regularly used by 30 airlines and many charter airlines which provide frequent services throughout the Far East to Europe, North America, Africa, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand. British Airways operates 10 passenger and cargo services per week, to UK, Africa and many Asian countries. Cathay Pacific Airways, the Hong Kong-based airline, operates 413 passenger and cargo services to the UK, Europe, the Far and Middle East, Australasia and Canada weekly. During 1980, British Caledonian Airways also commenced scheduled services on the Hong Kong to London route. About 1,000 scheduled services are operated weekly to and from Hong Kong by various airlines. In 1983, 54,281 aircraft arrived and departed on international flights, carrying 8-8m. passengers and 368,000 tonnes of freight. Shipping. The port of Hong Kong, which ranks among the top three container ports in the world, handled 1 • 83m. twenty-foot equivalent units in 1983. The Kwai Chung Container Port has six berths with more than 2,300 metres of quay backed by about 88 hectares of cargo handling area. In 1983, some 11,400 ocean-going vessels called at Hong Kong and loaded and discharged more than 37m. tonnes of cargo. This included 32m. tonnes of general goods, 34% of which was containerized cargo. Telecommunications, Post and Broadcasting. There were 94 post offices in 1983; postal revenue totalled HK$656-8m.; expenditure, HK$457-3m.; 490m. letters and parcels were handled. Telephone services are provided by the Hong Kong Telephone Co. Ltd. It operates through a network of 65 fully automatic main exchanges and served (1984) over 2m. subscribers. Cable and Wireless (Hong Kong) Ltd, which is owned jointly by Cable and Wireless PLC and the Hong Kong Government, provides the international telecommunication services as well as local telegram and telex services. These include public telegram, telex, telephone, television programmes transmission and reception, leased circuits, facsimile, switched data, ship-shore and air-ground communications. International facilities are provided through submarine cables, microwave, tropospheric scatter and satellite radio systems. There is a government broadcasting station, Radio Television Hong Kong, with daily transmissions in English and Chinese. A commercial station, the Commercial Broadcasting Co. Ltd, transmits daily in English and Cantonese. Two radio stations operate 8 channels, with 4 providing 24-hour service. Television Broadcasts Ltd and Asia Television Ltd transmit commercial television in English and Chinese on 4 channels, in colour. Cinemas. In Sept. 1984 there were 96 cinemas with a seating capacity of over 108,649. Attendance 61 m. during 1983.

596

HONG

KONG

Newspapers. In Sept. 1984 there were 68 daily or weekly newspapers, registered and in circulation, including 13 English-language papers; the remainder are almost all in Chinese. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court which comprises the Court of Appeal and the High Court. While the Court of Appeal hears appeals on all matters, civil and criminal from the lower courts, the High Court has unlimited jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters including bankruptcy, company winding-up, adoptions, probate and lunacy matters. The District Court has civil jurisdiction to hear monetary claims up to HK$60,000 or, where the claims are for recovery of land, the annual rent or rateable value does not exceed HK$45,000. In its criminal jurisdiction, it may try more serious offences except murder, manslaughter and rape; the maximum term of imprisonment it can impose is seven years. The Magistrates' Court exercises criminal jurisdiction over a wide range of indictable and summary offences. Its powers of punishment are generally restricted to a maximum of two years' imprisonment, or a fine of HK$ 10,000, though cumulative sentences of imprisonment up to three years may be imposed. The Coroner's Court inquires into the identity of a deceased person and the cause of death. The Juvenile Court has jurisdiction to hear charges against young people aged under 16 for any offence other than homicide. Children under the age of seven are not deemed to have reached the age of criminal responsibility. The Lands Tribunal determines on statutory claims for compensation over land and certain landlord and tenant matters. The Labour Tribunal provides inexpensive and speedy settlements to individual monetary claims arising from disputes between employers and employees. The Small Claims Tribunal deals with monetary claims involving amounts not exceeding HK$5,000. Police. At the end of 1983, the establishment of the Royal Hong Kong Police Force was 24,211. In addition, there were 5,432 auxiliary officers. During the year, 86,000 crimes were reported. The overall detection rate was 42-9% and a total of 34,773 people were arrested and prosecuted. The Marine Police is responsible for patrolling some 1,836 sq. km of territorial waters and involved in the control of some 7,250 small local craft with a maritime population of about 50,000. At the end of 1983, it consisted of a disciplined staff of 2,676 and a fleet of 104 vessels. Education. The majority of schools have to be registered with the Education Department under the Education Ordinance. They are required to comply with regulations as to staff, building, fire and health requirements. From Sept. 1971, free and compulsory primary education was introduced in government and the majority of government-aided schools. Free junior secondary education of 3 years' duration was introduced in 1978 and it was made compulsory in Sept. 1979. In March 1984 there were 217,507 pupils in kindergartens (all private), another 546,388 in primary schools and 448,591 in secondary schools. There are 5 technical institutes with a total full-time and part-time enrolment of 39,142, 1 technical teachers' college and 3 colleges of education with a total enrolment of4,632. The University of Hong Kong had 5,423 undergraduates in 1984 and the Chinese University of Hong Kong, inaugurated in Oct. 1963, had 5,001 undergraduates. The Hong Kong Polytechnic, 1983, had a total of 25,600 students. In Oct. 1984, the City Polytechnic was opened with a full- and part-time enrolment of 1,228. Health. In June 1984 there were 3,875 doctors and about 22,453 hospital beds. Social Security. The Government co-ordinates and implements expanding programmes in social welfare, which include social security, family services, child care, services for the elderly, youth and community work, probation and corrections and rehabilitation. More than 138 voluntary welfare agencies are subsidised by public funds.

HONG

KONG

597

T h e G o v e r n m e n t gives n o n - c o n t r i b u t o r y cash assistance t o n e e d y families, une m p l o y e d a b l e - b o d i e d adults, the severely disabled a n d the elderly. C a s e l o a d in July 1984 totalled 3 0 3 , 5 9 5 . V i c t i m s o f natural disasters, c r i m e s o f v i o l e n c e and traffic a c c i d e n t s are financially assisted.

Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Census and Statistics Department is responsible for the preparation and collation of Government statistics. These statistics are published mainly in the Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics which is also available in a collected annual edition. The Department also publishes monthly trade statistics, economic indicators, annual review of overseas trade, etc. Statistical information is also published in the annual reports of Government departments. Hong Kong 1984, and other government publications are available from the Hong Kong Government Publications Centre, G P O Building, Connaught Place, Hong Kong, and the Hong Kong Government Office in London, 6 Grafton Street, London, W 1 X 3 L B . The Hong Kong Trade Development Council, Connaught Centre, Connaught Place, Hong Kong, issues a monthly Hong Kong Enterprise and other publications. Hong Kong 1984. Hong Kong Government Press, 1984 Beazer, W. F., The Commercial Future of Hong Kong. New York, 1978 Bonavia, D., Hong Kong 1997. London, 1984 Endacott, G . B., A History o) Hong Kong. 2nd ed. OUP, 1 - G o v e r n m e n t and People in Hong Kong. 1841-1962. A Constitutional History. OUP, 1965 Hopkins, K., Hong Kong: The Industrial Colony.OVP, 1971 Rabushka, A., The Changing Face of Hong Kong: New Departures in Public Policy Washington, 1973 Tregear, E. R., Land Use in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1958.—Hong Kong Gazetteer. Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1958.—The Development of Hong Kong as Told in Maps. Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1959 Youngson, A. J., Hong Kong: Economic Growth and Policy. OU P, 1982

HUNGARY

Capital: Budapest Population: 10-68m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$2,100 ( 1981 )

Magyar Népkôztârsasâg

HISTORY. Hungary first became an independent kingdom in 1001. For events in Hungary since 1918 see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1945, pp. 1006-7, and 1957, p. 1096. On 23 Oct. 1956 an anti-Stalinist revolution broke out, and the newly formed coalition government of Imre Nagy on 1 Nov. withdrew from the Warsaw Pact and asked the UN for protection. Janos Kadar, formed a counter-government on 3 Nov. and asked the USSR for support. Russian troops suppressed the revolution and abducted Nagy and his Ministers, who were later secretly executed. On 7 Sept. 1967 the Soviet-Hungarian treaty of friendship was renewed for 20 years. In 1978 the crown of St Stephen, the symbol of Hungarian nationhood, which had been in US hands since 1945, was returned to Hungary. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Hungary is bounded north by Czechoslovakia, north-east by the USSR, east by Romania, south by Yugoslavia and west by Austria. The peace treaty of 10 Feb. 1947 restored the frontiers as of 1 Jan. 1938. The area of Hungary is 93,032 sq. km (35,911 sq. miles). The official language is Hungarian (Magyar), which is a member of the FinnoUgrian group. At the census of 1 Jan. 1980 the population was 10,709,550 (5,195,300 males). Population in 1984: 10,679,000 (males, 5,164,000). Ethnic composition, 1984: Hungarians, 96-6%; Germans, 1-6%; Slovaks, 11%; Romanians, 0-2%; others, 0-5%. There were 0-38m. Gypsies in 1985. 54% of the population is urban (19% in Budapest). Population density, 114 • 8 per sq. km. Birth rate, 1983, 11 -9 per 1,000. The population is decreasing, by 5 -3 per 1,000 in 1983; expectation of life (1982): males, 66; females, 74. There is a worldwide Hungarian diaspora, and Hungarian minorities in Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia Vital statistics, 1983: Births, 128,425; marriages, 75,978; divorces, 29,000; deaths, 148,776; abortions, 77,000 (approx.); infant mortality, 19 per 1,000 live births. Area (in sq. km) and population (in 1,000) of counties, county boroughs and county towns: Counties (1984) Baranya Bacs-Kiskun Bekes Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen Csongrad Fejer Gyor-Sopron Hajdu-Bihar Heves Komarom Nograd Pest Somogy SzaboTcs-Szatmar Szolnok Tolna Vas Veszprem Zala

Area 4,487 8,363 5,632 7,248 4,263 4,374 4,012 6,212 3,637 2,250 2,544 6,394 6,035 5,938 5,608 3,702 3,337 4,689 3,786

Population 434 564 429 801 453 423 430 552 346 323 237 983 357 586 441 268 283 389 316

598

Chief town (1984) Pecs Kecskemet Bekescsaba Miskolc Hodmezovasarhely Szekesfehervar Gyo'r Debrecen Eger Tatabanya Salgotarjan Budapest Kaposvar Nyiregyhaza Szolnok Szekszard Szombathely Veszprem Zalaegerszeg

Population 175 102 69 212 54 109 128 205 64 77 50 2,064 74 114 78 38 86 60 60

599

HUNGARY County boroughs (1984) Budapest (capital) Miskolc Debrecen

Area 525 224 446

Population 2,064 212 205

County boroughs (¡984) Szeged Pécs Györ

Area 145 113 175

Population 176 175 128

C L I M A T E . A humid continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Precipitation is generally greater in summer, with thunderstorms. Dry, clear weather is likely in autumn, but spring is damp and both seasons are of short durar tion. Budapest. Jan. 32°F(0°C), July 71°F(21-5°C). Annual rainfall 25" (625 mm). Pécs. Jan. 30°F(-0-7°C), July 71°F(21-5°C). Annual rainfall 26-4" (661 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 1 Feb. 1946 the National Assembly proclaimed a republic. The present People's Republic was established by a constitution adopted on 18 Aug. 1949. Supreme power is vested in Parliament. Parliament elects a Presidential Council, which exercises the functions of Parliament between sessions. It can dissolve government bodies and annul legislation. The 1949 Constitution was amended in 1972. The distinction between 'working people' and 'citizens' disappears. Citizens are stated to have both indirect (through elected representatives) and direct (through local and enterprise, councils) democratic rights. State and co-operative property are recognized as co-existing with equal status. Personal property is 'recognized and protected' up to the limit set by law (this includes for private artisans and, since 1 Jan. 1982, for various classes of small companies and 'economic working groups', places of business and machinery). Ethnic minorities have equal rights and education in their own tongue. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, green. National anthem: God bless the Hungarians-Isten âldd meg a magyart (words by Ferenc Kòlcsey, tune by Ferenc Erkel). Chairman of the Presidential Council (Head of State): Pal Losonczi, appointed on 14 April 1967. Deputy Chairmen: Sândor Gâspâr and Rezso Trautmann. In 1949 the Hungarian Working People's Party (Communists), the Smallholders' Party, the NationalPeasant Party, the Trade Union Federation, the Association of Working Peasants, the Democratic Women's Association and the Federation of Working Youth were merged in the Hungarian People's Independence Front. In 1954 a new comprehensive organization was formed, the People's Patriotic Front. The Communist Youth Association (Kisz) had 875,000 members in 1985. The Communist Party was reorganized after the 1956 revolution and changed its name to 'Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party'. It had 852,000 members in 1983 (32% women; 46% manual workers and peasants in 1980). Supreme defacto power is in the hands of the Party's Politburo, composed in March 1985 of: Jânos Kâdâr, First Secretary of the Central Committee, Gyôrgy Aczél (Secretary of the Central Committee)-, Valéria Benke; Sândor Gâspâr, Ferenc Havasi; Mihâly Korom; Gyôrgy Lâzar, Pal Losonczi; Làszló Maróthy; Lajos Méhes; Kâroly Németh; Miklos Ovàri; Istvân Sàrlos. Prominent members of the Government in March 1985 were: Prime Minister: Gyôrgy Lâzâr. Deputy Prime Ministers: Judith Csehak, Gen. Lajos Czinege, Lajos Faluvégi (Chairman, State Planning Committee), József Maijai, Làszló Maróthy, Istvân Sârlos. Finance: Dr Istvân Hetényi. Foreign Affairs: Péter Vârkonyi. Speaker, National Assembly: Antal Apro. Interior: Dr Istvân Horvâth. Culture: Dr Béla Kôpeczi. Defence: Gen. Istvân Olah. Foreign Trade: Péter Veress. Justice: Imre Markója. Parliament consists of3 52 deputies ( 106 women), elected for a 5-year term by all citizens over 18 years. The right to select candidates is vested solely in pre-election nomination meetings open to all voters. More than one candidate is permitted to stand in each constituency. Such 'alternative' candidates must receive 30% of the votes at nomination meetings. All candidates must support the Patriotic People's Front (PPF).

600

HUNGARY

To be elected candidates must gain at least 50% of the votes cast. A law of 1983 made multiple candidatures compulsory in the elections of 1985. Candidates coming second with more than 25% of the votes become deputy members. 10% of deputies are elected on a national list voted upon by all citizens. Elections were held on 8 June 1980. Electorate, 7,661,361; votes cast, 7,577,401; votes for PPF candidates, 7,462,953; against, 54,070. Alternative candidates stood in 15 constituencies. Local Government. Hungary is divided into the capital, Budapest, 19 counties (megyek) and 5 county boroughs (large towns with county status), which are subdivided into towns and boroughs. Alfof these are administered by a hierarchy of local councils which in turn elect Executive Committees to carry on day-to-day administration. Members of county councils are elected by the lower councils. Elections are held every 5 years. Local elections were held in 1985. At the June 1980 elections 59,270 councillors were elected (18,240 women). County districts were abolished in 1983. D E F E N C E . The 1947 Treaty authorized Hungary to have an army up to a strength of65,000 personnel, and an air force of 90 aircraft, of which not more than 70 may be combat types with a personnel strength of5,000. By a law of 1976 the Presidential Council may establish a National Defence Council which in times of war would exercise supreme control over defence. Men between the ages of 18 and 23 are liable for 18 months' conscription in the Army, 24 months in the Air Force. Compulsory military service age-limits are 18 to 55 (18 to 45 women). The security police (BKH) is controlled by the Ministry of the Interior. The Workers' Militia is a para-military organization armed with automatic weapons. Strength (1985), 60,000. Four Soviet divisions are stationed in Hungary. Army. Hungary is divided into 4 army districts: Budapest, Debrecen, Kiskunfelegyhaza, Pecs. The strength of the Army was (1985) 84,000 (including 50,000 conscripts). It is organized in 1 tank division, 5 motor rifle divisions, 1 artillery and 1 surface-to-surface missile brigade, 1 anti-aircraft regiment, 3 surface-to-air missile regiments and 1 airborne battalion. Equipment includes 1,200 T-54/-55, 30 T-72 and 100 PT-76 tanks. Navy. The maritime wing of the Army in 1985 deployed 500 officers and men operating 45 vessels, comprising 10 patrol craft of 100 tons, 5 utility landing craft and 30 other craft including river mine-warfare vessels, troop transports of up to 1,000 tons, river monitors, icebreakers and tugs, constituting the River Guard, and Army amphibious logistic and bridging vessels are active along the Danube. Air Force. The Air Force is an integral part of the Army, with a strength (1985) of about 21,000 officers and men and 200 combat aircraft. The interceptor division has 2 regiments of MiG-23 and MiG-21 fighters. Other combat aircraft include about 20 Mi-24 helicopter gunships. Transport units are equipped with An-2, An-24, An-26 and 11-14 aircraft. Other types in service include Ka-26, Mi-2 and Mi-8 helicopters and L-29 Delfin and MiG-15UTI trainers. 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missiles are also operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Hungary is a member of UN, the Warsaw Pact and Comecon and, since 1982, IMF and IBRD. External Debt. Hungary settled its debt to the UK in 1967. By an agreement of 6 March 1973 Hungary is to meet US claims of US$189m. arising from war damage and nationalization in 20 yearly instalments. Hungarian indebtedness to the West was US$8,300m. in 1983. A US$400m. loan was made by IBRD in 1983. ECONOMY Planning. For details of past plans see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1 9 7 5 - 7 6 . A 'New Economic Mechanism' (NEM) came into effect on 1 Jan. 1968. It restricted

HUNGARY

601

central direction to overall policies, replaced direct by financial control and gave local managers more initiative. Reforms aimed ultimately at adapting the economy to world prices by reducing costs, bringing salaries into line with productivity, redeploying labour, cutting import subsidies and encouraging exports were set in train in 1980. Since 1976, enterprises have been required to repay state investment credits in full, usually over 10 years, and to cover unscheduled increases in costs. Regulations introduced in 1982 allow the creation of various types of small private enterprises. Targets for the sixth 5-year plan (1976-80) were not met. The seventh 5-year plan (1981-85) was one of consolidation and envisaged rises of only 6% in real incomes and 15% in the national income. There were large price increases in 1983and 1985.Inflation was over 7% in 1984. Budget. The budget for calendar years was as follows (in 1,000 forints): Revenue Expenditure

1976 320,384 322,874

1977 361,272 364,808

1978 382,900 386,400

1979 411,600 415,200

1980 423,500 428,000

1981 472,600 482,400

1982 485,800 498,000

1982 revenue included (in 1,000m. forints): 256-2 from enterprises, 15-2 from collective farms, 11 -4 from personal taxation and 71-8 turnover tax. Expenditure included: subsidies to enterprises, 82-4; investment, 53-3; welfare, 25-4; social security 98-5; culture, 47-6. Currency. A decree of 26 July 1946 instituted a new monetary unit, the forint subdivided into 100 filler. The rate of exchange (March 1985) 56-39 forints to the £1 sterling, 52-73 forints = US$1. A uniform exchange rate was established in Oct. 1981 as a final step before the introduction of external, central-bank convertibility for foreign trade. Since 1983 the forint has been devalued several times by a total of 20%.

Banking. Banking activities are controlled by the National Bank, including the National Savings Bank, which handles local government, as well as personal, accounts. (Deposits in 1983: 197,100m. forints.) The National Bank finances investment to individual enterprises and is the main authority over foreignexchange transactions. Since 1983 a number of small specialized financial institutions have been set up to function alongside the National Bank. There is also a Foreign Trade Bank for Hungarian enterprises trading abroad. The State Development Bank (formerly Investment Bank) finances large-scale investment projects and oversees national investment trends. The National Credit Institute of Co-operatives handles all credit transactions for farmers, artisans and co-operatives. The Hungarian International Trade Bank opened in London in 1973. In 1980 the Central European International Bank was set up in Budapest with 7 Western banks holding 66% of the shares. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is in use. For land measure a cadastral yoke (1 acre=0 • 7033 cadastral yoke) is used. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Capacity of all power stations in 1983 was 6,050 mw. There is an 880-mw nuclear power station at Paks. A 750 kv power line links Albertirsa with the Soviet grid at Vinnitsa. 25,808m. kwh were produced in 1983, and 10,815m. kwh imported. Oil. Oil and natural gas have been found in the Szeged basin and in Zala county. Production in 1983: oil, 2m. tonnes; gas, 6,497m. cu. m. There are pipelines for crude oil ('Friendship' I and II from USSR, section of the Adria oil pipeline from Rijeka to Czechoslovakia) and natural gas totalling 4,752 km in 1982. Imports in 1983 (in 1,000 tonnes): Oil, 8,864; gas, 4,071. Minerals. Production in 1983 (in 1,000 tonnes): coal, 2,827; lignite, 7,980; brown coal, 14,406; bauxite, 2,917; iron ore, 441. Agriculture. Agricultural land was collectivised in 1950. A law of 1968 permits collectives to own land, and guarantees individuals' rights to private plots. Collectives meet in a National Council of Agricultural Co-operatives.

602

HUNGARY

In 1983 the agricultural area was (in 1,000 hectares) 6,571, of which 4,681 were arable, 1,279 meadows and pastures, and 272 orchards and vineyards. In 1984 there were 1,285 collective farms with 5-7m. hectares of land (including 319,700 hectares of household plots) and 129 state farms with 925,900 hectares of land. The irrigated area was 175,000 hectares; 55,000 tractors were in use. Production statistics (in 1,000 tonnes): Crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats

1981 4,602 115 899 159

1982 5,747 116 865 123

1983 5,961 136 1,007 118

Crops Maize Potatoes Sugar-beet Sunflower seed

1981 6,813 1,112 4,719 624

1982 7,730 975 5,363 577

1983 6,215 791 3,765 581

Livestock in 1984 was (in 1,000 head) as follows: Cattle, 1,907; pigs, 9,843; poultry, 41,245; sheep, 2,975; horses, 111,000. Livestock products (1983): Eggs, 4,481m.; milk, 2,689m. litres; wool, 13,030 tonnes; animals for slaughter, 2,335,000 tonnes. The north shore of Lake Balaton and the Tokaj area are important wineproducing districts. Wine production in 1983 was 609m. litres. Forestry. The area under forest in 1983 was 1 -63m. hectares. 21,000 hectares were afforested and 8m. cu. metres of timber were cut. Fisheries. There are fisheries in the rivers Danube and Tisza and Lake Balaton, and in 1984 there were 26,000 hectares of commercial fishponds. Catch in 1983: 43,857 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. Production (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron C r u d e steel Rolled steel Aluminium Alumina Cement Artificial fertilizers Synthetic materials (PVC, etc.) Sulphuric acid Sugar Cotton cloth (1 m. sq. metres) Woollen (1 m. sq. metres) Silk and rayon (1 m. sq. metres) Leather footwear(l m. pairs)

1979 2,369 3,907 3,240 72 793 4,857 1,043 294 588 497 349 41 57 45

1980 2,214 3,763 3,046 73 811 4,660 1,045 328 590 468 335 43 56 43

1981 2,193 3,643 2,816 74 792 4,635 647 314 573 490 320 45 59 44

1982 2,183 3,703 2,856 74 745 4,369 726 326 569 459 310 41 57 44

1983 2,047 3,617 2,820 74 836 4,243 761 344 606 476 307 37 55 43,501

Labour. In 1983 there were 4,970,100 wage-earners (2,243,500 female) in the following categories: working-class, 56-1%; white-collar, 26-1%; co-operative peasantry, 14-1%; self-employed tradesmen, 3-7%. 4,779,000 worked in the socialist sector. Percentage distributions of the workforce: industry, 31-7; agriculture, 21-8; social and cultural services, 10-7; trade, 10; transport and communications, 7 -9; building, 7 -5. In 1981 to simplify administration the Ministry of Labour was abolished and replaced by a National Office for Wages and Labour. A 40-hour 5-day week was introduced in 1984. Average monthly wages of employed persons in 1984: 5,240 forints. Minimum wage in 1984: 2,000 Forints. Retirement age: Men, 60; women, 55. Leave entitlement, 15-24daysin 1985. Trade Unions. Trade union membership was 4-9m. in 1984. Commerce. Hungary is heavily dependent on foreign trade, which even under the 'New Economic Mechanism' remains basically under state control. Trade for calendar years (in 1 m. forints): Imports Exports

1977 267,300 238,600

1978 300,900 240,700

1979 308,900 282,100

1980 299,900 281,000

1981 314,300 299,400

1982 324,800 324,500

1983 365,000 374,100

In 1983 Hungary's trade with communist countries (in 1,000m. forints): imports,

HUNGARY

603

191-9; exports, 203-2. In 1983 USSR was Hungary's major trading partner (28 -6% of imports, 31-6% of exports), ahead of West Germany (10-2%, 7-4%) and East Germany (6 -7%, 5-9%). Major exports to communist countries: Machinery, industrial consumer goods, raw materials; elsewhere, raw materials and industrial consumer goods. All exports and imports require licensing by the Ministry of Foreign Trade, and may be handled by 29 specialized foreign-trade agencies. Enterprises may handle their own foreign trade relations, set up companies abroad and participate in foreign companies. Hard currency is available through the National Bank. Tax-free zones for foreign companies exporting their own products were established in 1983. The Marl:etexpo branch of the Hungarian National Market Research Institute will conduct research for foreign firms. The agency Interag acts for Western firms in Hungary. Main imports from the West are machinery, fuel and consumer goods. Joint ventures with Western firms holding up to 49% of the capital are permitted, and foreign companies may set up offices in Hungary. In Nov. 1978 the US'and Hungary signed a most-favoured-nation trade agreement. In May 1982 Hungary was granted membership of the IMF. Total trade between Hungary and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000'sterling): m l m 2 l m m 4 Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

43,327 68,977

40,684 84,181

44,051 77,446

53,834 91,845

75,905 100,502

Tourism. In 1983, 10-46m. foreigners visited Hungary (2-94m. from the West), of whom 6-76m. were tourists (l-54m. from the West); and 4-75m. Hungarians travelled abroad (0-55m. to the West)of whom 3 -93m. (0-48m.) were tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 29,684 km of roads, including motorways, 78 km; highways, 152 km and other first class main roads, 1,934 km. In 1983 passenger cars numbered 1,258,498 (1,223,481 private). 235m. tonnes of freight and 673m. passengers were transported by road in 1983 (excluding intra-urban passengers). Railways. Route length of public lines in 1983, 7,759 km, of which 1,604 km are electrified. 124m. tonnes offreight and 237m. passengers were carried. Aviation. Hungarian Air Lines (Malev) operate from Ferihegy airport, 16 km from Budapest. 1983 arrivals, 797,800; departures, 801,700. Malev has 22 aircraft and flies 40 routes (including one to UK), and in 1983 carried lm. passengers. British Airways, PANAM, Air France, SABENA, Swissair, O S , Lufthansa and KLM have services to Budapest. Shipping. Permanently navigable waterways have a length of 1,688 km; 4-lm. tonnes of cargo were carried in 1983 and3-9m. passengers. Post and Broadcasting. Number of post offices (1983), 2,537; number of teleihones, 1,383,200 (1983). Radio licences were abolished in 1980; television icences, (1983) 2,864,000. Magyar Rddio es Televizio broadcasts 3 programmes on medium-waves and FM and also regional programmes, including transmissions in German, Romanian and Serbo-Croat. Two TV programmes are broadcast, averaging 91 hours a week in 1983. Colour broadcasts are only transmitted in Budapest, using the SECAM system. Cinemas and Theatres (1983). There were 3,700 cinemas; attendance 69m. 31 full-length feature films were made. There were 40 theatres; attendance 6 • 1 m. Newspapers and Books. In 1982 there were 29 dailies and 980 other periodicals. The Party daily is Nepszabadsdg ('People's Freedom') (average daily circulation, 727,000). 7,600 book titles were published in 1983 in 99 -4m. copies.

f

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The administration of justice is the responsibility of the ProcuratorGeneral, who is elected by Parliament for a term of 6 years. Civil and criminal cases fall under the jurisdiction of the district courts, county courts and the Supreme

604

HUNGARY

Court in Budapest. Criminal proceedings are dealt with by district courts through 3-member councils and by county court and the Supreme Court in 5-member councils. A new Civil Code was adopted in 1978 and a new Criminal Code in 1979. District Courts act only as courts of first instance; county courts as either courts of first instance or of appeal. The Supreme Court acts normally as an appeal court, but may act as a court of first instance in cases submitted to it by the Public Prosecutor. All courts, when acting as courts of first instance, consist of 1 professional judge and 2 lay assessors, and, as courts of appeal, of 3 professional judges. Local government Executive Committees may try petty offences. District or county judges and assessors are elected by the district or county councils, all members of the Supreme Court by Parliament. There are also military courts of the first instance. Military cases of the second instance go before the Supreme Court. Judges are elected by the Presidential Council. 60,282 sentences were imposed on adults in 1983, including 27,295 of imprisonment (of which 12,329 were suspended). Juvenile convictions: 5,865. Religion. There are 20 authorized religious denominations which share proportionally an annual state subsidy of 70m. forints. 8-5m. of the population professed a religious faith in 1976; the number of active church members was put between lm. and l-5m. Senior church appointments require the consent of the Presidential Council. Lower ones are ratified by the State Office for Church Affairs. Certain appointments become valid if the Office makes no comment within 15 days, and for the most minor church appointments neither state consent nor prior notification is required. Ecclesiastics are required to take an oath of allegiance to the state. In 1976 there were 5-25m. Roman Catholics with 11 dioceses, 4,000 priests and 4,400 churches, and 500,000 uniates. In 1979 there were 3 seminaries and 1 uniate seminery, a theological academy, and 8 secondary schools. The Primate of Hungary is the Archbishop of Esztergom, Laszlo Lekai, appointed Feb. 1976. There are also 2 archbishops, 8 bishops and an apostolic administrator. There is one Uniate bishopric. In 1976 there were 2m. Calvinists with 4 dioceses, 1,300 ministers and 1,567 churches. There were 2 theological colleges (20% of students female) with 16 teachers, and 1 secondary school. There were 500,000 Lutherans with 16 dioceses, 374 ministers and 673 churches. There is a theological college with 6 teachers. The 10 denominations in the Association of Free Churches had 37,000 members, 230 ministers and 675 churches. There are 4 Orthodox denominations with 40,000 members in 1979. The Unitarian Church has 10,000 members, 11 ministers and 6 churches. In 1979 there were 80,000-100,000 Jews (825,000 in 1939) with 130 synagogues, 26 rabbis, a rabbinical college with 6 teachers and a secondary school. Education. Education is free and compulsory from 6 to 14. Primary schooling ends at 14; thereafter education may be continued at secondary, secondary technical or secondary vocational schools, which offer diplomas entitling students to apply for higher education, or at vocational training schools which offer tradesmen's diplomas. Students at the latter may also take the secondary school diploma examinations after 2 years of evening or correspondence study. In 1983-84 there were 4,842 kindergartens with 32,715 teachers and 455,205 pupils; 3,546 primary schools with 83,469 teachers and 1,269,900 pupils; 545 secondary schools with 16,889 teachers and 225,300 pupils; and 269 vocational training schools with 174,800 students and 11,090 teachers. There are 4 universities proper (Budapest, Pecs, Szeged, Debrecen), and 14 specialized universities (6 technical, 4 medical, 3 arts, 1 economics). At these and at 40 other institutions of higher education there were, in 1983-84,62,900 students and 14,452 teachers. Libraries and Museums. In 1983 there were 4,842 public and 5,430 trade union libraries. Major national libraries (1983): National Szechenyi, 6m. volumes; Budapest University, 3-3m.; Academy of Sciences, l-7m.; National Technical Library and Documentation Centre, 1 -3m. In 1983 there were 557 museums with 18-59m. visitors.

HUNGARY

605

Health. In 1983 t h e r e were 3 3 , 0 3 5 d o c t o r s a n d dentists a n d 9 9 , 0 9 8 h o s p i t a l beds. Social Security. M e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t is free. P a t i e n t s b e a r 15% of t h e cost of m e d i c i n e s . Sickness benefit is 75% of wages, old age p e n s i o n s (at 6 0 for m e n , 55 for w o m e n ) 6 0 - 7 0 % . In 1 9 8 3 , 1 1 1 m . forints w e r e p a i d o u t in social i n s u r a n c e benefits. In 1983 f a m i l y a l l o w a n c e s were p a i d t o 1,334,000 families. R a t e s (in forints): 1 child, 6 7 0 ; 2 , 1 , 3 4 0 ; 3 , 2 , 1 9 0 ; 4 , 2 , 9 2 0 . DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f H u n g a r y in G r e a t Britain (35 E a t o n Place, L o n d o n , S W 1 X 8 B Y ) A mbassador: D r M ä t y ä s D o m o k o s (accredited 2 2 N o v . 1984). O f G r e a t Britain in H u n g a r y ( H a r m i n c a d U t c a 6, Budapest V) Ambassador: P. W . U n w i n , C M G . O f H u n g a r y in t h e U S A ( 3 9 1 0 S h o e m a k e r St., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: D r Vencel H a z i . O f t h e U S A in H u n g a r y (Szabadsag T e r 12, B u d a p e s t V) A mbassador: N i c o l a s Salgö. Of Hungary to the United Nations Ambassador: Päl R ä c z . B o o k s of Reference Report of the Hungarian Statistical Office on the Economic Development and Plan Fulfilment. Budapest, annual from 1973 Statisztikai Evkönyv. Budapest, annual; since 1871, abridged English version, Statistical YearBook Statistical Year-Book, (in English and Russian). Budapest, annual from 1982 Statistical Pocket Book of Hungary (in English). Budapest, annual from 1959 Hungarian Digest. Budapest, 6 a year from 1980 The Hungarian Economy: a Quarterly Economic and Business Review. Budapest, since 1972 Hungary 66 (67etc.). Budapest,annual from 1966 Marketing in Hungary. Budapest, quarterly Quarterly Review of the National Bank of Hungary. From 1983 Information Hungary. Budapest, 1980 The Constitution of the Hungarian People's Republic. Budapest, 1972 Bako, E., Guide to Hungarian Studies. 2 vols. Stanford Univ. Press, 1973 Berend, I. T., and Ranki, G., Hungary: A Century of Economic Development. New York and Newton Abbot, 1974; Underdevelopment and Economic Growth: Studies in Hungarian Social and Economic History. Budapest, 1979 Cave, M., Alternative Approaches to Economic Planning. London, 1981 Donath, F., Reform and Revolution: Transformation of Hungary's Agriculture, 1945-1970. Budapest, 1980 Enyedi, G., Hungary: An Economic Geography. Boulder, 1976 Fekete, J., Back to the Realities: Reflections of a Hungarian Banker. Budapest, 1982 Gado, O., The Economic Mechanism of Hungary. Leiden and Budapest, 1976 Halasz, Z., Hungary: A Guide with a Difference. 2nd ed. Budapest, 1979 Hare, P. G., and others (eds.), Hungary: a Decade of Economic Reform. London, 1981 Hegedüs, A., The Structure of Socialist Society. London, 1977 Ignotus, P., Hungary. London, 1972 Kabdebo.T., Hungary. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1980 Kädär. J., For a Socialist Hungary. Budapest, 1974 Kornai, J., Economics of Shortage. Oxford, 1980 Kourig, B., Communism in Hungary. Stanford, 1979 Kozma, F., Economic Integration and Economic Strategy. The Hague, 1982 Macartney, C. A., Hungary: A Short History. London, 1962 Nemeth,G. (ed.), Hungary: A Comprehensive Guide. Budapest, 1980 Orszägh, L., Hungarian-English Dictionary. Budapest, 1977.—English-Hungarian Dictionary. Budapest, 1970 Pamlenyi, E. (ed.), A History of Hungary. Budapest, 1975 Pecsi, M.andSärfalvi, B., Physical and Economic Geography ofHungary. 2nded. Budapest, 1979 Torna, P. A., and Volgyes, I., Politics in Hungary. San Francisco, 1977 Vardy, S. B., and Vardy, A. H„ (eds.) Society in Change. Boulder, 1983

ICELAND

Capital: Reykjavik Population: 238,175 (1983) GNP per capita: US$ 12,860 ( 1981 )

Lyòveldiò island

H I S T O R Y . The first settlers came to Iceland in 874. Between 930 and 1264 Iceland was an independent republic, but by the 'Old Treaty' of 1263 the country recognized the rule of the King of Norway. In 1381 Iceland, together with Norway, came under the rule of the Danish kings, but when Norway was separated from Denmark in 1814, Iceland remained under the rule of Denmark. Since 1 Dec. 1918 it has been acknowledged as a sovereign state. It was united with Denmark only through the common sovereign until it was proclaimed an independent republic on 17 June 1944. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Iceland is a large island in the North Atlantic, close to the Arctic Circle, and comprises an area of about 103,000 sq. km (39,758 sq. miles), with its extreme northern point (the Rifstangi) lying in 66° 32' N. lat., and its most southerly point (Dyrholaey, Portland) in 63° 24' N. lat., not including the islands north and south of the land; if these are included, the country extends from 67° 10' N. (the Kolbeinsey) to 63° 19' N. (Geirfuglasker, one of the Westman Islands). It stretches from 13° 30' (the Gerpir) to 24° 32' W. long. (Latrabjarg). The skerry Hvalbakur (The Whaleback) lies 13° 16' W. long. The 25 constituencies of the country are now grouped in 7 districts. District Reykjanes area West Western Peninsula Northland West Northland East r, l East I South J Iceland

Mountain pasture (sq. km) 716 3,415 3,698 5,278 6,727

Wasteland (sq. km)

16,921

17,929

12,555

42,085

37,553

23,181

Inhabited land (sq. km) 1,266 5,011 4,130 4,867 9,890

—

275 1,652 2,948 5,751

Total area (sq. km) 1,982 8,711 9,470 13,093 22,368 1 21,991 1 25,214

Populalion (I Dec. 1983) 142,564 15,115 10,426 10,710 26,190 13,093 20,077

In 1983, 26,855 were domiciled in rural districts and 211,320 in towns and villages (of over 200 inhabitants.) The population is almost entirely Icelandic. In 1983 foreigners numbered 3,561; of these 1,010 were Danish, 691 US, 339 British, 291 Norwegian and 236 German (Fed. Rep.) nationals. The capital, Reykjavik, had on 1 Dec. 1983, a population of87,309; other towns were Akranes, 5,349; Akureyri, 13,745; Bolungarvik, 1,275; Dalvik, 1,374; Eskifjòròur, 1,084; Garòabaer, 5,764; Grindavik, 2,021; Hafnarfjòròur, 12,683; Hùsavik, 2,514; Ìsafjòr5ur, 3,400; Keflavik, 6,886; Kópavogur, 14,433; Neskaupsta&ur, 1,684; NjarSvik, 2,208; Ólafsfjòr&ur, 1,207; Sauòàrkrókur, 2,324; Selfoss, 3,602; Seltjamames, 3,598; Sey&isfjòr&ur, 993; Siglufjòr&ur, 1,915; Vestmannaeyjar, 4,743. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Living births 4,345 4,337 4,371

Still-born 21 17 14

Marriages 1,357 1,303 1,396

Divorces 463 421 495

Deaths 1,655 1,583 1,653

Injanl deaths 26 31 27

C L I M A T E . The climate is cool temperate oceanic and rather changeable, but mild for its latitude because of the Gulf Stream and prevailing S.W. winds. Precipitation is high in upland areas, mainly in the form of snow. Reykjavik. Jan. 34° F ( 1 °C), July 52°F( 11 °C). Annual rainfall 34" (860 mm). 606

ICELAND

607

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 24 May 1944 the people of Iceland decided in a referendum to sever all ties with the Danish Crown. The voters were asked whether they were in favour of the abrogation of the Union Act, and whether they approved of the bill for a republican constitution: 70,725 voters were for severance of all political ties with Denmark and only 370 against it; 69,048 were in favour of the republican constitution, 1,042 against it and 2,505 votes were invalid. On 17 June 1944 the republic was formally proclaimed, and as the republic's first president the AlJjingi elected Sveinn Bjornsson for a 1 -year term (re-elected 1945 and 1949; died 25 Jan. 1952). The President is now elected for a 4year term. President of the Republic of Iceland: Vigdis Finnbogadottir (elected 29 June 1980, with 43,611 out of 129,049 valid votes, inaugurated 1 Aug. 1980); re-elected unopposed in 1984. Nationalflag: Blue with a red white-bordered Scandinavian cross. National anthem: O Gu6 vors lands (words by M. Jochumsson, 1874; tune by S. Sveinbjarnsson). The official language is Icelandic (islenzka). The Alfringi (Parliament) is divided into two Houses, the Upper House and the Lower House. The former is composed of one-third of the members elected by the whole AlJjingi in common sitting. The remaining two-thirds of the members form the Lower House. The members of the AlJjingi receive payment for their services. The budget bills must be laid before the two Houses in joint session, but all other bills can be introduced in either of the Houses. If the Houses do not agree, they assemble in a common sitting and the final decision is given by a majority of twothirds of the voters, with the exception of budget bills, where a simple majority is sufficient. The ministers have free access to both Houses, but can vote only in the House of which they are members. The electoral law enacted in 1959 provides for an AlJjingi of 60 members. Of these, 49 are elected in 8 constituencies by proportional representation; the remaining 11 are apportioned to the parties according to their total vote. At the elections held on 23 April 1983 the following parties were returned: Independence Party, 23; Progressives, 14; People's Alliance, 10; Social Democrats, 6; Social Democratic Alliance, 4; Women's Alliance, 3. The executive power is exercised under the President by the Cabinet. The coalition Cabinet, as constituted in May 1983, was as follows: Prime Minister: Steingrimur Hermannsson (Progress). Foreign Affairs: Geir Hallgrimsson (Ind.). Finance: Albert GuOmundsson (Ind.). Social Affairs: Alexander Stefansson (Progress). Fisheries: Halldor Asgrimsson (Progress). Agriculture, Justice and Church: Jon Helgason (Progress). Health and Social Security, Communications: Matthias Bjamason (Ind.). Commerce: Matthias A. Mathiesen (Ind.). Education: Ragnhildur Helgadottir (Ind.). Energy and Industry: Sverrir Hermannsson (Ind.). The ministers take responsibility for their acts. They can be impeached by the AlJjingi, and in that case their cause will be decided by the Landsdomur, a special tribunal for parliamentary impeachments. Local Administration. Iceland is divided into 224 communes, of which 23 have the status of towns, while the 201 remaining communes make up 23 counties (syslur). The commune and county councils are elected by universal suffrage (men and women 20 years of age and over), in town and other urban communes by proportional representation, but in rural communes by simple majority. The county councils consist of one representative for each of the constituent communes, their purpose being the superintendence of local government within the county. Town councils and county councils come under the supervision of the Ministry of Social Affairs. For national government there are 27 divisions, consisting of towns and counties, single or combined, with the exception of Keflavik Airport. In the capital the different branches of national government are independent (courts, police,

608

ICELAND

customs), while in other national government divisions they are the charge of one official, who, in the case of counties, presides over the county council as well. DEFENCE. Iceland possesses neither an army nor a navy. Under the North Atlantic Treaty, US forces are stationed in Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force. Three armed fishery protection vessels are maintained by the Coastguard, with 1 patrol aircraft and 2 helicopters. Coastguard Service personnel in 1983 totalled about 130 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Iceland is a member of UN, EFTA, OECD, the Council of Europe, NATO and the Nordic Council. ECONOMY

Budget. Current revenue and expenditure for calendar years (in 1,000 new kr.): Revenue Expenditure

1979 2,089,508 2,022,864

1980 3,461,773 3,432,401

1981 5,514,780 5,457,475

1982 7,967,266 7,909,270

1983 13,007,315 12,972,958

Main items of the Treasury accounts for 1983 (in 1,000 new kr.): Revenue Expenditure

Direct taxes Indirect taxes Profit from government enterprises

2,614,289 12,867,661

82,097

Presidency AlJ>ingi Cabinet Justice and ecclesiastical affairs Culture and education Social affairs Commerce Foreign affairs Fisheries and agriculture Finance Communications

1984 17,894,777 18,283,464

8,899 99,817 24,730 972,718 2,659,074 623,123 1,159,698 242,965 889,527 640,138 1,627,671

The public debt of Iceland was on 31 Dec. 1983, 10,797m. new kr., of which the foreign debt amounted to 3,903m. new kr. and the internal debt to 6,894m. new kr. Currency. The Icelandic monetary units are the krona, pi. kronur and the eyrir, pi. aurar. There are 100 aurar to the krona. On 1 Jan. 1981 a currency reform took place and 100 old kronur equal 1 new krona. In March 1985, US$1 = kr. 42-92; £1 =kr. 45-82. Note and coin circulation, 31 Dec. 1982, was 825m. new kr. Banking. By Act of 29 March 1961 the Central Bank of Iceland was established, which took Qver the central bank function up to that date exercised by the Landsbanki Islands (The National Bank of Iceland, owned entirely by the State). Other banks are: Bunadarbpnki Islands (the Agricultural Bank of Iceland), a state bank, founded in 1930; Ulvegsbanki Islands (the Fisheries Bank of Iceland), fpunded in 193p as a joint-stock bank, which in 1957 became a state bank; Isdnadarbanki Islands (Industrial Bank of Iceland Ltd), a joint-stock bank, established 1953, part of the shares being owned by the Government; Verzlunarbanki Islands (Iceland Bank of Commerce Ltd), established in 1961; Samvinnubanki islands (The Icelandic Co-operative Bank), established in 1963; Alfrydubankinn (The People's Bank Ltd) established 1971. On 31 Dec. 1983 the accounts of the Central Bank balanced at 15,514m. new kr. At the end of 1983 there were 40 savings banks with deposits amounting to 2,974m. new kr. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is obligatory. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The installed capacity of public power plants at the end of 1983 totalled 907,900 kw., of which 752,000 kw. comprised hydro-electric plants. Total energy production in public-owned plants in 1983 amounted to 3,766m. kwh.; in privately-owned plants, 15m. kwh.

609

ICELAND

Agriculture. O f t h e total area of Iceland, a b o u t six-sevenths is u n p r o d u c t i v e , b u t o n l y a b o u t 0 - 5 % is u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , w h i c h is c o n f i n e d t o h a y , p o t a t o e s a n d t u r n i p s . In 1983 t h e total h a y c r o p was 3 , 2 4 9 , 0 0 0 cu. metres; t h e c r o p of p o t a t o e s , 3 , 6 0 0 t o n n e s , a n d of t u m i p s 3 6 6 t o n n e s . A t t h e end of 1983 the livestock was as follows: Horses, 52,060; cattle, 6 8 , 5 4 0 (including 3 3 , 1 8 9 milch cows); s h e e p , 7 1 1 , 9 3 6 ; pigs, 2 , 2 0 3 ; p o u l t r y , 2 9 4 , 4 2 5 . F i s h e r i e s . Fishing vessels in D e c . 1983 n u m b e r e d 8 3 6 with a gross t o n n a g e of 111,772. T o t a l c a t c h in 1 9 8 2 , 7 6 6 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s ; 1 9 8 3 , 8 3 5 , 0 0 0 tonnes. T h e Icelandic G o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e fishery limits off I c e l a n d were e x t e n d e d f r o m 12 t o 50 n a u t i c a l miles f r o m Sept. 1972. A n i n t e r i m a g r e e m e n t for 2 years signed b y t h e U K a n d Iceland in N o v . 1973 expired in N o v . 1975. O n 15 J u l y 1975 t h e Icelandic G o v e r n m e n t issued a decree t h a t f r o m 15 O c t . 1975 t h e fishery limits of Iceland w e r e e x t e n d e d f r o m 50 t o 2 0 0 n a u t i c a l miles. T h e Icelandic G o v e r n m e n t m a i n t a i n t h a t this extension is necessary t o p r o t e c t t h e fish stocks in Icelandic waters b e c a u s e t h e fishing i n d u s t r y is of vital i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e national economy. C O M M E R C E . T o t a l v a l u e of i m p o r t s a n d e x p o r t s in l , 0 0 0 n e w k r . : 1980 1981 1982 1983 1979 Imports 2,913,072 4,801,616 7,484,684 11,647,000 20,605,978 Exports 2,784,515 4,459,529 6,536,214 8,479,000 18,632,993 L e a d i n g e x p o r t s (in 1,000 kg a n d 1,000 n e w kr.): 1982 Quantity Value Fish and whale products 365,219,200 6,354,366 Agricultural products 6,051,000 107,088 L e a d i n g i m p o r t s (in 1,000 t o n n e s a n d 1,000 n e w kr.): 1982 Quantity Value Ships (number) 15 302,026 Fuel oil 399,824-5 1,208,479 Cereals 15,365,-5 79,291 Animal feed 65,113-7 175,550 Gasoline 94,222-7 346,257 Motor vehicles (number) 10,565 616,149 Fishing nets and other gear 1,843 -1 128,483

Quantity 332,480,400 6,290,900

1983

Value 12,667,465 206,892

1983 Quantity Value 8 540,868 378,164-0 2,246,755 13,242-1 140,580 72,722-6 375,277 93,732-3 664,803 5,982 707,689 1,368 -6 191,629

V a l u e of t r a d e with p r i n c i p a l c o u n t r i e s for 3 years (in 1,000 n e w kr.): 1982 1983 1981 Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports (f.o.b.) (f.o.b.) (f.o.b.) (c.i.f.) (c-i-f.) (c.i.f) 45,612 4,486 81,093 6,099 124,547 26,450 Austria Belgium 200,980 82,664 305,040 117,630 508,860 403,097 6,905 70,100 12,821 90,548 47,169 Brazil 66,218 83,724 66,677 44,581 82,117 70,010 Canada 44,028 49,379 21,854 69,302 46,214 Czechoslovakia 39,698 44,249 Denmark 777,025 111,851 1,133,722 148,238 2,002,029 288,975 114,137 Faroe Islands 33,103 55,919 1,280 65,988 1,337 289,005 130,242 508,157 193,369 Finland 168,599 92,481 304,956 470,430 169,693 124,716 243,790 682,076 France 67,775 5,126 German Dem. Rep. 20,660 1,118 41,471 2,570 Germany, Fed. Rep. 600,492 1,812,324 858,270 420,803 1,422,183 2,426,220 of 73,317 1,265 115,127 4,417 188,803 Greece 989 5,617 6,596 8,020 4,961 11,632 13,606 Hungary — — 20,145 1 26,665 India 12,430 12,865 12,338 25,447 10,788 42,743 6,057 Ireland 16,274 832 8,890 4,868 15,709 Israel 8,285 209,161 289,555 321,938 499,429 587,596 Italy 174,253 108,870 545,186 273,719 807,752 521,783 Japan 336,811 555,424 282,373 Netherlands 75,638 852,213 80,103 1,510,917 302 888,441 188 858,368 226 325,335 Nigeria 734,028 78,697 871,681 62,935 1,642,559 131,801 Norway

610

ICELAND 1981

Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland USSR UK. USA

Imports (c.i.f.) 27,510 135,171 76,038 623,416 85,002 600,045 573,204 581,709

Exports (f.o.b.) 56,463 702,137 243,620 110,218 165,371 403,040 933,349 1,361,079

1982 Imports Exports (elf.) (f.o.b.J 39,192 41,390 268,449 999,498 120,130 345,865 963,472 118,377 106,463 300,017 1,063,158 639,827 1,015,647 1,118,684 982,751 2,188,650

1983 Imports Exports (c.tf.) (f.o.bJ 49,365 36,543 490,611 1,142,564 193,250 610,292 1,717,205 218,809 220,340 1,056,507 2,133,474 1,384,598 1,810,767 2,207,225 1,622,300 5,266,130

Total trade between Iceland and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 82,042 47,223

1981 75,729 50,558

1982 72,721 102,714

1983 66,505 65,176

1984 86,104 64,242

T O U R I S M . There were 77,592 visitors to Iceland in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are no railways in Iceland. Iceland possesses between 11,000-12,000 km of high roads and country roads. Motor vehicles registered at the end of 1983 numbered 108,254, of which 97,307 were passenger cars and 10,947 trucks; there were also 804 motor cycles. On 26 May 1968 Iceland changed from left-hand to right-hand traffic. Aviation. One large and some small companies maintain regular services between Reykjavik and various places in Iceland (the large one 1983: 202,501 passengers; 881 tonnes of mail; 2,250 tonnes of freight). The large company maintains regular services between Iceland and the UK, the Scandinavian countries, some other European countries and USA. In 1983 the company carried in scheduled foreign flights 360,147 passengers, 1,478 tonnes of mail and 5,763 tonnes of freight. Shipping. The mercantile marine of Iceland consisted in Dec. 1983 of 4 steam vessels (1,953 gross tons) and 936 motor vessels (190,359 gross tons). Post and Broadcasting. At the end of 1983 the number of post offices was 150 and telephone and telegraph offices 115; number of telephones, 124,951. The government station, Rikisutvarpid, broadcasts 1 programme on long and medium-waves and on FM. Rikisutvarpid-Sjonvarp uses 130 transmitters and broadcasts 1 TV programme. Number of licenced receivers: radio, about 70,000; television, about 66,000. Cinemas (1980). There were 29 cinemas with a seating capacity of about 12,000. Newspapers (1984). There are 5 daily newspapers, all in Reykjavik, with a combined circulation of about 125,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The lower courts of justice are those of the provincial magistrates (syslumenri) and town judges (bajarfogetar). From these there is an appeal to the Supreme Court (hastirettur) in Reykjavik, which has 8 judges. Religion. The national church, and the only one endowed by the State, is Evangelical Lutheran. But there is complete religious liberty, and no civil disabilities are attached to those not of the national religion. The affairs of the national church are under the superintendence of a bishop. In 1982,4,444 persons (1 -9%) were Dissenters and 2,946 persons (1-2%) did not belong to any religious community. Education. Compulsory education for children began in 1907, and a university was founded in Reykjavik in 1911. There is in Reykjavik a teachers' training college and a technical high school; various specialized institutions of learning and a number of second-level schools are scattered throughout the country. There are many part-time schools of cultural activities, including music.

ICELAND

611

Compulsory education comprises 8 classes, 7-14 years of age. After completion of a facultative 9th class, attended by 93%-95% of the relevant age group, there is access to further schooling free of charge. Some 65% of the age groups 15-19 years old attend schools. Around 15%-20% of each age group go into handicraft apprenticeship. About 30% pass matriculation examination, generally at the age of 20. Approximately one third-level student out of every four goes abroad for studies, two-thirds of them to Scandinavia, the rest mainly to English- and Germanspeaking countries. Immatriculation in Iceland in autumn 1983: Preceding the first level, 3,989. First-level (lst-6th class) 25,280. Second-level first stage (7th-9th class) 11,732. Second-level second stage general programmes (4-year courses) 7,048. Secondlevel second stage vocational programmes (3 or 4 year courses) 8,023. Third-level first stage non-university 562. Third-level first and second stage university and equivalent 4,650. Social Welfare. The main body of the Icelandic social welfare legislation is consolidated in six main acts: (i) The social security legislation (a) health insurance, including sickness benefits; (b) social security pensions, mainly consisting of old age pension, disablement pension and widows' pension, and also children's pension; (c) employment injuries insurance. (ii) The unemployment insurance legislation, where daily allowances are paid to those who have met certain conditions. (Hi) The subsistence legislation. This is controlled by municipal government, and social assistance is granted under special circumstances, when payments from other sources are not sufficient. (iv) The tax legislation. In 1975 family allowances were abolished and children's support included in the tax legislation, according to which a certain amount is subtracted from levied taxes for each child in a family. (v) The rehabilitation legislation. (vi) Child and juvenile guidance. Health insurance covers the entire population. Citizenship is not demanded and there is no waiting period. Most hospitals are both municipally and state run, a few solely state run and all offer free medical help. Medical treatment out of hospitals is partly paid by the patient, the same applies to medicines, except medicines of lifelong necessary use, which are paid in full by the health insurance. Dental care is free for the age groups 6-15, but is paid 75% for those five years or younger and the age group 16 but 50% for old age and disabled pensioners. Sickness benefits are paid to those who lose income because of periodical illness. The daily amount is fixed and paid from the 11th day of illness. On 1 Nov. 1984 it was 173 new kr. a day. Entitlement to old age and disablement pensions at the full rates is subject to the condition that the beneficiary" has been resident in Iceland for 40 years at the age period of 16-67. For shorter period of residence, the benefits are reduced proportionally. Entitled to old age pension are all those who are 67 years old, and have been residents in Iceland for 3 years of the age period of 16-67. Entitled to disablement pension are those who have lost 75% of their working capacity and have been residents in Iceland for 3 years before application or have had full working capacity at the time when they became residents. Old age and disablement pension are of equally high amount, in the year 1984 the total sum was 41,969 new kr. for an individual. Married pensioners are paid 90% of two individuals' pensions. In addition to the basic amount, supplementary allowances are paid according to social circumstances and income possibilities. Widows' pensions are the same amount as old age and disablement pension, provided the applicant is over 60 when she becomes widowed. Women at the age 50-60 get reduced pension. Women under 50 are not entitled to widows' pensions. The employment injuries insurance covers medical care, daily allowances, disablement pension and survivors' pension and is applicable to practically all employees.

612

ICELAND

All benefits within the above-mentioned laws shall go up in step with general wages within 6 months from their increase. Social assistance is primarily municipal and granted in cases outside the social security legislation. Domestic assistance to old people and disabled is granted within this legislation, besides other services. Child and juvenile guidance is performed by chosen committees according to special laws, such as home guidance and family assistance. In cases of parents' disablement the committees take over the guidance of the children involved. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Iceland in Great Britain (1 Eaton Terrace, London, SW1W8EY) Ambassador: Einar Benediktsson (accredited 11 Nov. 1982). Of Great Britain in Iceland (Laufasvegur 49,101 Reykjavik) Ambassador and Consul-General: Richard Thomas. Of Iceland in the USA (2022 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: HansG. Andersen. Of the USA in Iceland (Laufasvegur 21,101 Reykjavik) Ambassador: Marshall Brement. Of Iceland to the United Nations Ambassador: Hor&ur Helgason. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Icelandic Statistical Office, Hagstofa islands (Reykjavik) was founded in 1914. Director: KlemensTryggvason. Its main publications are: Hagskyrslur islands. Statistics of Iceland (from 1912) Haglidindi (Statistical Journal) (from 1916) Statistical Bulletin. Issued quarterly by the Statistical Bureau of Iceland and the Central Bank of Iceland (from 1931 to 1962, monthly). Ceased publication May 1980 Economic Statistics. Central Bank of Iceland (quarterly from 1980) Icelandic Currency Reform January 1st 1981. Central Bank of Iceland, 1980 Heilbrigdisskyrslur. Public Health in Iceland (latest issue for 1977; published 1980) Cleasby, R., An Icelandic-English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1957 Foss, H. (ed.), Directory of Iceland. Annual. Reykjavik, 1 9 0 7 - 4 0 , 1 9 4 8 ff. Hermannsson, Halldor, Islandica. An annual relating to Iceland and the Fiske Icelandic Collection in Cornell University Library. Ithaca (from 1908) Hood, J. C. F., Icelandic Church Saga. London, 1946 Horton, J. J., Iceland. [Bibliography] Oxford a n d Santa Barbara, 1983 Leaf, H., Iceland Yesterday and Today. L o n d o n , 1949 Magnusson, S. A., Northern Sphinx: Iceland and the Icelanders from the Settlement to the Present. London, 1977 Nordal, J., and Kristinsson, V. (eds), Iceland 874-1974. Central Board of Iceland, Reykjavik, 1975 t>or8arson, Matthias, The Althing, Iceland's Thousand- Year-Old Parliament. 930-1930. Reykjavik, 1930 t>orsteinsson, t>orsteinn, Iceland, 1946: A Handbook Published on the 60th Anniversary of the National Bank of Iceland. 4th ed. Reykjavik, 1946 Zoega, G . T , , / s l e n s k - e n s k (and Ensk-islensk) orbabok. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Reykjavik, 1932-51 National Library: Landsbokasafni5, Reykjavik, Librarian: Dr Finnbogi Gu&omundsson.

INDIA

Capital: New Delhi Population: 6Mm. (1981) GDPper capita: US$260 (1981)

Bharat

HISTORY. The Indus civilization was fully developed by c. 2500 B.C., and collapsed c. 1750 B.C. An Aryan civilization spread from the west as far as the Ganges valley by 500 B.C.; separate kingdoms were established and many of these were united under the Mauryan dynasty established by Chandragupta in c. 320 B.C. The Mauryan Empire was succeeded by numerous small kingdoms. The Gupta dynasty (A.D. 320-600) was followed by the first Arabic invasions of the north-west. Moslem, Hindu and Buddhist states developed together with frequent conflict until the establishment of the Mogul dynasty in 1526. The first settlements by the East India Company were made after 1600 and the company established a formal system of government for Bengal in 1700. During the decline of the Moguls frequent wars between the Company, the French and the native princes led to the Company's being brought under British Government control in 1784; the first Governor-General of India was appointed in 1786. The powers of the Company were abolished by the India Act, 1858, and its functions and forces transferred to the British Crown. Representative government was introduced in 1909, and the first parliament in 1919. The separate dominions of India and Pakistan became independent within the Commonwealth in 1947 and India became a republic in 1950. E V E N T S . More than 2,000 people were killed by a leakage of methyl isocyanate gas from a pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, in Dec. 1984. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . India is bounded north-west by Pakistan, north by China, Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan, east by Burma, south-east, south and south west by the Indian ocean. The far eastern states and territories are almost separated from the rest by Bangladesh as it extends northwards from the Bay of Bengal. The area of the Indian Union (excluding the Pakistan and China-occupied parts of Jammu and Kashmir) is 3,166,829 sq. km. Its population according to the 1981 census (preliminary figures) was 683,810,051 (excluding the occupied area of Jammu and Kashmir); this represents an increase of 24-8% since 1971. Sex ratio was 940 females per 1,000 males (929 in 1971); density of population, 221 per sq. km. About 23-7% of the population was urban in 1981 (in Maharashtra, 35%; in Himachal Pradesh, 7-7%). Many births and deatns go unregistered. Data from certain areas of better registration and field studies suggest that the average annual birth rate for the decade 1971 -80 was about 36 per 1,000 population, the death rate 14 • 8 per 1,000. In 1980 (estimate) the age-group 0-14 years represented 39-7% of the population and only 5-5% were over 60. In 1981 expectation of life for men was 52 years, for women 50. Marriages and divorces are not registered. The minimum age for a civil marriage is 18 for women and 21 for men; for a sacramental marriage, 14 for girls and 18 for youths. The main details of the census of 1 March 1971 and of 1 March 1981 are: Land area in , sq. km (1981)

Name of Slate States Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir' 1

Population 1971 1981

276,814 43,502,708 78,523 14,625,152 173,876 56,353,369 195,984 26,697,475 44,222 10,036,808 55,673 3,460,434 101,283 4,617,000 Excludes the Pakistan-occupied area. 613

53,403,619 19,902,826 69,823,154 33,960,905 12,850,902 4,237,569 5,981,600

614

INDIA Land area in sq. km (1981) 191,773 38,864 442,841 307,762 22,356 22,489 16,527 155,782 50,362 342,214 7,299 130,069 10,477 294,413 87,853

Name of State Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Arunachal Pradesh Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Delhi Goa, Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Mizoram Pondicherry Grand total

Population 1971 1981 29,299,014 37,043,451 21,347,375 25,403,217 41,654,119 52,131,717 50,412,235 62,693,898 1,433,691 1,072,753 1,011,699 1,327,824 516,449 773,281 26,272,054 21,944,615 13,551,060 16,669,755 25,765,806 34,102,912 315,682 41,199,168 48,297,456 1,556,342 2,060,189 88,341,144 110,858,019 44,312,011 54,485,560

8,293 83,578 114 491 1,485 3,813 32 21,087 480

115,133 467,511 257,251 74,170 4,065,698 857,771 31,810 332,390 471,707

188,254 628,050 450,061 103,677 6,196,414 1,082,117 40,237 487,774 604,136

3,166,829

547,949,809

683,810,051

Greatest density occurs in Delhi (4,178 per sq. km), Chandigarh (3,948), Lakshadweep (1,257) and Pondicherry (1,228). The lowest occurs in Arunachal Pradesh (7). There were (1981) 353,347,249 males and 330,462,802 females. In 1981,502m. were rural (c. 76%) and 156m. were urban. Cities and Urban Agglomerations (with states in brackets) having more than 250,000 population at the 1981 census were (1,000): Agra (U.P.) 770 2,515 Ahmedabad (Guj.) 374 Ajmer(Raj.) Aligarh(U.P.) 320 Allahabad (U.P.) 642 261 Amravati (Mah.) Amritsar (Pun.) 589 365 Asansol (W.B.) Aurangabad (Mah.) 316 Bangalore (Kar.) 2,914 Bareilly(U.P.) 438 Belgaum (Kar.) 300 Bhavnagar(Guj.) 308 672 Bhopal (M.P.) Bikaner (Raj.) 280 Bokaro Steel City (Bih.) 261 Bombay (Mah.) 8,227 Calcutta (W.B.) 9,166 Calicut (Ker.) 546 Chandigarh (Ch.) 421 Cochin (Ker.) 686 Coimbatore(T.N.) 917 Cuttack (Ori.) 326 294 DehraDun(U.P.) 5,714 Delhi Dhanbad (Bih.) 677 Durgapur(W.B.) 306 Durg-Bhilainagar(M.R) 490

Erode (T.N.) Faridabad agglomeration Ghaziabad(U.P.) Gorakhpur(U.R) Guntur(A.P.) Gwalior (M.P.) Hubli-Dharwar (Kar.) Hyderabad (A.P.) Indore (M.P.) Jabalpur(M.R) Jaipur (Raj.) Jalandhar(Pun.) Jamnagar(Guj.) Jamshedpur(Bih.) Jhansi (U.P.) Jodhpur(Raj.) Kanpur(U.P.) Kolhapur(Mah.) Kotah (Raj.) Lucknow(U.P.) LudhiSna (Pun.) Madras (T.N.) Madurai (T.N.) Mangalore (Kar.) Meerut (U.P.) Moradabad(U.P.) Mysore (Kar.) Nagpur (Mah.) Nasik (Mah.) 1 Estimate.

275 327 292 306 367 560 526 2,528 827 758 1,005 406 317 670 281 494 1,688 351 347 1,007 606 4,277 904 306 538 348 476 1,298 429

Patna(Bih.) Pondicherry Pune (Mah.) Raipur(M.R) Rajahmundry (A.P.) Rajkot (Guj.) Ranchi (Bih.) Rourkela (Ori.) Saharanpur (U.P.) Salem (T.N.) Sangli (Mah.) Sholapur(Mah.) Srinagar(J. & K.) Surat(Guj.) Thana (Mah.) Tiruchirapalli (T.N.) Tirunelveli (T.N.) Trivandrum(Ker.) Tuticorin (T.N.) Ujjain(M.R) Ulhasnagar (Mah.) Vadodara (Guj.) Varanasi (U.P.) Vijayawada (A.P.) Visakhapatnam (A.P.) Warangal (A.P.)

916 251 1,685 339 268 444 501 321 294 515 269 514 520' 913 389 608 324 520 251 282 648 744 794 545 594 336

INDIA

615

Report of the Officials of the Government of India and the People's Republic of China on the Boundary Question. New Delhi, Ministry of External Affairs, 1961 Census of India: Reports and Papers, Decennial Series. (Government of India.) Annual Report on the Working of Indian Migration. Government of India, from 1956 Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Government of India. Annual Public Health. Report of the Public Health Commission with the Government oj India Annual Agarwala, S. N., India's Population Problems. New York, 1973

C L I M A T E . India has a variety of climatic sub-divisions. In general, there are four seasons. The cool one lasts from Dec. to March, the hot season is in April and May, the rainy season is June to Sept., followed by a further dry season till Nov. Rainfall, however, varies considerably, from 4 " (100 mm) in the N.W. desert to over 400" (10,000 mm) in parts of Assam. Range of temperature and rainfall: New Delhi. Jan. 57°F (13-9°C), July 88°F (31 1°C). Annual rainfall 2 6 " (640 mm). Bombay. Jan. 75°F (23-9°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,809 mm). Calcutta. Jan. 67°F (19-4°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 64" (1,600 mm). Cherrapunji. Jan. 53°F (11-7°C), July 68°F (20°C). Annual rainfall 432" (10,798 mm). Cochin. Jan. 80°F(26-7'C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 117" (2,929 mm). Daijeeling. Jan. 41°F(5°C), July 62°F(16-7°C). Annual rainfall 121" (3,035 mm). Hyderabad. Jan. 72°F(22-2°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 30" (752 mm). Madras. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 87°F (30-6°C). Annual rainfall 51" (1,270 mm). Patna. Jan. 63°F (17-2°C), July 90° F (32 • 2°C). Annual rainfall 4 6 " (1,150 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 26 Jan. 1950 India became a sovereign democratic republic. India's relations with the British Commonwealth of Nations were defined at the London conference of Prime Ministers on 27 April 1949. Unanimous agreement was reached to the effect that the Republic of India remains a full member of the Commonwealth and accepts the Queen as 'the symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and, as such, the head of the Commonwealth'. This agreement was ratified by the Constituent Assembly of India on 17 May 1949. The constitution was passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 Nov. 1949 and came into force on 26 Jan. 19 50. It has since been amended 44 times. India is a Union of States and comprises 22 States and 9 Union territories. Each State is administered by a Governor appointed by the President for a term of 5 years while each Union territory is administered by the President through an administrator appointed by him. The capital is New Delhi. Presidency. The head of the Union is the President in whom all executive power is vested, to be exercised on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament. He is elected by an electoral college consisting of all the elected members of Parliament and of the various state legislative assemblies. He holds office for 5 years and is eligible for re-election. He must be an Indian citizen at least 35 years old and eligible for election to the Lower House. He can be removed from office by impeachment for violation of the constitution. There is also a Vice-President who is ex-officio chairman of the Upper House of Parliament. Central Legislature. The Parliament for the Union consists of the President, the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha). The Council of States, or the Upper House, consists of not more than 250 members; in 1980 there were 232 elected members and 12 members nominated by the President. The election to this house is indirect; the representatives of each State are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of that State. The Council of States is a permanent body not liable to dissolution, but one-third of the members retire every second year. The House of the People, or the Lower House, consists of 544 members, 525 directly elected on the basis of adult suffrage from territorial constituencies in the States, and 17 members to represent the Union

616

INDIA

territories, chosen in such manner as the Parliament may by law provide; in March 1982 there were 542 elected members and 2 members nominated by the President. The House of the People unless sooner dissolved continues for a period of 5 years from the date appointed for its first meeting; in emergency, Parliament can extend the term by 1 year. State Legislatures. For every State there is a legislature which consists of the Governor, and (a) 2 Houses, a Legislative Assembly and a Legislative Council, in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh-, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, and (b) 1 House, a Legislative Assembly, in the other States. Every Legislative Assembly, unless sooner dissolved, continues for 5 years from the date appointed for its first meeting. In emergency the term can be extended by 1 year. Every State Legislative Council is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution, but one-third of the members retire every year. Parliament can, however, abolish an existing Legislative Council or create a new one, if the proposal is supported by a resolution of the Legislative Assembly concerned. Legislative Councils have one-third of the total membership of the Assemblies but not less than 40 members, of whom one-third are elected by local authorities, one-third by members of the Assembly, one-twelfth by state university graduates and one-twelfth by teachers of secondary school upwards; the rest are named by the Governor. Legislative Assemblies have between 60 and 500 directly elected members. Legislation. The various subjects of legislation are enumerated in three lists in the seventh schedule to the constitution. List I, the Union List, consists of 97 subjects (including defence, foreign affairs, communications, currency and coinage, banking and customs) with respect to which the Union Parliament has exclusive power to make laws. The State legislature has exclusive power to make laws with respect to the 66 subjects in list II, the State List; these include police and public order, agriculture and irrigation, education, public health and local government. The powers to make laws with respect to the 47 subjects (including economic and social planning, legal questions and labour and price control) in list III, the Concurrent List, are held by both Union and State governments, though the former prevails. But Parliament may legislate with respect to any subject in the State List in circumstances when the subject assumes national importance or during emergencies. Other provisions deal with the administrative relations between the Union and the States, interstate trade and commerce, distribution of revenues between the States and the Union, official language, etc. Fundamental Rights. Two chapters of the constitution deal with fundamental rights and 'Directive Principles of State Policy'. 'Untouchability' is abolished, and its practice in any form is punishable. The fundamental rights can be enforced through the ordinary courts of law and through the Supreme Court of the Union. The directive principles cannot be enforced through the courts of law; they are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of the country. Citizenship. Under the Constitution, eveiy person who was on the 26 Jan. 1950, domiciled in India and (a) was born in India or (b) either of whose parents was born in India or (c) who has been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less than 5 years immediately preceding that date became a citizen of India. Special provision is made for migrants from Pakistan and for Indians resident abroad. Under the Citizenship Act, 1955, which supplemented the provisions of the Constitution, Indian citizenship is acquired by birth, by descent, by registration and by naturalization. The Act also provides for loss of citizenship by renunciation, termination and deprivation. The right to vote is granted to every person who is a citizen of India and who is not less than 21 years of age on a fixed date and is not otherwise disqualified. Parliament. Parliament and the state legislatures are organized according to the following schedule (figures show distribution of seats in March 1982):

617

INDIA

States: Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Jammu and Kashmir Union Territories: Andaman and Nicobar Islands Arunachal Pradesh Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Delhi Goa, Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Mizoram Pondicherry Nominated by the President under Article 80(1) (a) of the Constitution

Parliament House of the Council of People States (Lok Sabha) (Rajya Sabha) 42 14 54 26 10 4 28 20 40 48 2 2 1 21 13 25 1 39 2 85 42 6

18 7 22 11 5 3 12 9 16 19 1 1 1 10 7 10 1 18 1 34 16 4

State Legislatures Assemblies (Vidhan Sabhas)

Councils (Vidhan Parishads)

294 126 324 182 90 68 224 140 320 288 60 60 60 147 117 200 32 234 60 425 294 76J

90

_

-

63 -

90 78 -

_ -

63 -

108

_

36»

1

2

1J

30

-

1 1

7 2 I 1 1

I -

3 -

1 1

12

61 30 30 30 -

-

_ -

-

Total 544' 244 4,034 528 Includes 2 nominated members to represent Anglo-Indians. Excludes 25 seats for Pakistan-occupied areas of the State which are in abeyance. 1 4 Nominated by the President. Excludes seats for the Pakistan-occupied areas. 1

2

The number of seats allotted to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House of the People is 77 and 42 respectively. Out of the 3,864 seats allotted to the Legislative Assemblies, 521 are reserved for scheduled castes and 329 for scheduled tribes. Following the general election of Dec. 1984 (the 14 Assam and 13 Punjab seats were not contested) the composition of the House of the People was: Indira Congress 402; Telugu Desam, 30; Communist Party (Marxist) 22; All India Anna DMK, 12; Janata, 10; Communist Party, 6; Congress (S), 4; National Conference (F), 3; Dalit Mazdoor Kisan Party, 3; Independents and others, 20; nominated, 2; vacant, 30. The Council of States was composed as follows: Indira Congress 154; CPI (Marxist) 13; All-India Anna DMK 11; Janata, 9; Bharatiya Janata, 8; Lok Dal, 5; CPI, 5; Telugu Desam, 5; DMK, 3; National Conference (F), 3; Congress (S), 2; Akali Dal, 2; Forward Bloc, 2; Others, 7; Independent 4; Nominated 6; Vacant 5. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of saffron (orange), white and green, with the wheel of Asoka in the centre in blue. National anthem: Jana-gana-mana (words by Rabindranath Tagore).

618

INDIA

Indian Independence Act, 1947. (Ch. 30.)London, 1947 The Constitution of India (Modified up to 15 April 1967). Delhi, 1967 Appadorai, A., Indian Political Thinking in the Twentieth Century: From Naoroji to Nehru. OU P, 1971 —Documents on Political Thought in Modern India. OU P, 1974 Austin, G., The Indian Constitution. OUP, 1972 Gandhi,!., The Speeches and Reminiscences of Indira Gandhi. London, 1975 Mansergh, N., ed. The Transfer of Power 1942-47. 5 vols. HMSO, 1970-75 Menon, V. P., Transfer of Power in India. Bombay, 1957 Pylee, M. V., Constitutional Government in India. 2nded. Bombay, 1965 Rao, K. V., Parliamentary Democracy of India. 2nded. Calcutta, 1965 Seervali, H. M., Constitutional Law of India. Bombay, 1967

Language. The Constitution provides that the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in the Devanagari script. It was originally provided that English should continue to be used for all official purposes until 1965. But the Official Languages Act 1963 provides that, after the expiry of this period of 15 years from the coining into force of the Constitution, English might continue to be used, in addition to Hindi, for all official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before that day, and for the transaction of business in Parliament. According to the Official Languages (Use for official purposes of the Union) Rules 1976, an employee may record in Hindi or in English without being required to furnish a translation thereof in the other language and no employee possessing a working knowledge of Hindi may ask for an English translation of any document in Hindi except in the case of legal or technical documents. The following 15 languages are included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu. There are numerous mother tongues grouped under each language. Hindi, Bengali, Telugu and Marathi languages (including mother tongues grouped under each) are spoken by 162-6m., 44.8m., 44-8m. and 42-3m. of the population respectively. Ferozsons Englisk-Urdu, Urdu-English Dictionary. 2 vols. 4th ed. Lahore, 1961 Fallon, S. W., A New English-Hindustani Dictionary. Lahore, 1941 Grierson,SirG. A., Linguistic Survey ofIndia. 11 vols, (in 19 parts). Delhi, 1903-28 Mitra, S. C., Student's Bengali-English Dictionary. 2nded. Calcutta, 1923 Scholberg, H. C., Concise Grammar of the Hindi Language. 3rded. London, 1955 University of Madras, Tamil Lexicon. 7 vols. Madras, 1924-39 Vyas, V. G., and Patel, S. G., StandardEnglish-Gujarati Dictionary. 2 vols. Bombay, 1923

Government. President ofthe Republic: Zail Singh (sworn in July 1982). Vice-President: R. Venkataraman (took office 31 Aug. 1984). There is a Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President of the Republic in the exercise of his functions; this comprises Ministers who are members of the Cabinet and Ministers of State who are not. A Minister who for any period of 6 consecutive months is not a member of either House of Parliament ceases to be a Minister at the expiration of that period. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President; other Ministers are appointed by the President on the Prime Minister's advice. The salary of each Minister is Rs 27,000 per annum, and that of each Deputy Minister is Rs 21,000 per annum. Each Minister is entitled to the free use of a furnished residence and a chauffeur-driven car throughout his term of office. A Cabinet Minister has a sumptuary allowance of Rs 500 per month, other Ministers (but not Deputy Ministers) of up to Rs 500. At the administrative head of each Ministry is a Secretary of the Government. Following was the composition of the Cabinet in Jan. 1985: Prime Minister: Raiiv Gandhi. Portfolios held by the Prime Minister Planning, Environment and Forest, Science and Technology, Atomic Energy, Culture, Electronics, Ocean Development, Personnel and Administrative Reforms, Space, Tourism and Civil Aviation, Youth Affairs, Sports and other subjects not allocated to the Cabinet.

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Ministers or Ministers of State: Foreign Affairs: R. Bhandari. Works and Housing: Abdul Ghafoor. Law and Justice: Ashoke Sen. Irrigation and Power: B. Shankaranand. Railways: Bansi Lai. Agriculture and Rural Development: Buta Singh. Parliamentary Affairs: H. K. L. Bhagat. Education: K. C. Pant. Health and Family Welfare: Mohsina Kidwai. Defence: P. V. Narasimha Rao. Food and Civil Supplies: Rao Birendra Singh. Home: S. B. Chavan. Steel, Mines and Coal: Vasant Sathe. Chemicals and Fertilizers, Industry and Company Affairs: Veerendra Patil. Finance, Commerce and Supply: Vishwanath Pratap Singh. Women and Social Welfare: M. Chandrasekhar. There were also 6 Ministers of State with independent charges and 19 Ministers ofState. Local Government. There were in 1980,40 municipal corporations, 1,274 municipalities, 815 town area and notified area committees and 62 cantonment boards. The municipal bodies have the care of the roads, water supply, drainage, sanitation, medical relief, vaccination and education. Their main sources of revenue are taxes on the annual rental value of land and buildings, octroi and terminal, vehicle and other taxes. The municipal councils enact their own bye-laws and frame their budgets, which in the case of municipal bodies other than corporations generally require the sanction of the State government. All municipal councils are elected on the principle of adult franchise. For rural areas there is a 3-tier system of panchayati raj at village, block and district level, although the 3-tier structure may undergo some changes in State legislation to suit local conditions. All panchayati raj bodies are organically linked, and representation is given to special interests. Elected directly by and from among villagers, the panchayats are responsible for agricultural production, rural industries, medical relief, maternity and child welfare, common grazing grounds, village roads, tanks and wells, and maintenance of sanitation. In some places they also look after primary education, maintenance of village records and collection of land revenue. They have their own powers of taxation. There are some judicial panchayats or village courts. Panchayati raj now cover all the States with the exception of Nagaland and Meghalaya, although Nagaland has area, range and tribal councils. They exist in all the Union Territories except Mizoram and Lakshadweep. In Pondicherry they have been created by declaring existing Municipal Communes to be Commune Panchayat Councils; this is a transition arrangement. In Arunachal Pradesh and Chandigarh the 3-tier system of panchayati raj has been introduced. With most of the country covered by panchayati raj, the emphasis now is on consolidation and clarifying their role in rural development. The powers and responsibilities of panchayati raj institutions are derived from State Legislatures, and from the executive orders ofState governments. NAGARLOK (Municipal Affairs Quarterly). Quarterly. Institute of Public Administration. Delhi Proceedings of the 13th Meeting of the Central Council of Local Self Government. Delhi, 1970 Report of the Committee on Budgetary Reforms in Municipal Administration. Delhi, 1974 State Machinery for Municipal Supervision. Institute of Public Administration. Delhi, 1970 Statistical Abstract of India. Annual. Delhi.

D E F E N C E . The Supreme Command of the Armed Forces vests in the President of the Indian Republic. Policy is decided at different levels by a number of committees, including the Political Affairs Committee presided over by the Prime

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Minister and the Defence Minister's Committee. Administrative and operational control rests in the respective Service Headquarters, under the control of the Ministry of Defence. The Ministry of Defence is the central agency for formulating defence policy and for co-ordinating the work of the three services. Among the organizations directly administered by the Ministry are the Research and Development Organization, the Production Organization, the National Defence College, the National Cadet Corps and the Directorate-General of Armed Forces Medical Services. The Research and Development Organization (headed by the Scientific Adviser to the Minister) has under it about 30 research establishments. The Production Organization controls 8 public-sector undertakings and 28 ordnance and 2 departmental factories. The National Defence College, New Delhi, was established in 1960 on the pattern of the Imperial Defence College (UK): the 1 -year course is for officers of the rank of brigadier or equivalent and for senior civil servants. The Defence Services Staff College, Wellington, trains officers of the three Services for higher command for staffappointments. There is an Armed Forces Medical College at Pune. The National Defence Academy, Khadakvasla, gives a 3-year basic training course to officer cadets of the three Services prior to advanced training at the respective Service establishments. Army. The Army Headquarters functioning directly under the Chief of the Army Staff is divided into the following main branches: General Staff Branch; Adjutant General's Branch; Quartermaster-General's Branch; Master-General of Ordnance Branch; Engineer-in-Chief s Branch; Military Secretary's Branch. The Army is organized into 4 commands-eastern, central, western and southern-each divided into areas, which in turn are subdivided into sub-areas. Recruitment of permanent commissioned officers is through the Indian Military Academy, Dehra Dun. It conducts courses for ex-National Defence Academy, National Cadet Corps and direct-entry cadets, and for serving personnel and technical graduates. The Territorial Army came into being in Sept. 1949, its role being to: (1) relieve the regular Army of static duties and, if required, support civil power; (2) provide anti-aircraft units, and (3) if and when called upon, provide units for the regular Army. The Territorial Army is composed of practically all arms of the Services. The authorized strength of the Army is 944,000, that of the Territorial Army, 40,000. There are 2 armoured, 17 infantry and 10 mountain divisions, 5 independent armoured brigades, 1 independent infantry, 14 independent artillery brigades, 1 commando and 2 parachute brigades. Navy. Since 26 Jan. 1950 the former Royal Indian Navy, which traced its history in an unbroken line from the foundation in 1613 of the East India Company's Marine, has been known as 'Indian Navy', and the ships referred to as 'INS' instead of'HMIS'. There are 2 commands: Eastern and Southern; and 2 fleets: Eastern and Western. Principal ships of the Indian Navy: Compleled

Name

Standard displacement Tons

Aircraft 1961

Vikrant(^-Hercules)

16,000

Armour Belts Turrets in. in.

Mysore ( ^ - N i g e r i a )

8,700

Speed Knots

40,000

24-5

9 6-in.; 8 4-in. 72,500

31-5

Carrier -

Cruisers 1940

Shaft horsepower

Principal armament

3-4%

1

2

740mm.AA (22 aircraft)

'The cruiser Delhi (en-Achilles) completed in 1933, was scrapped in 1979.

The fleet also includes 8 ex-Soviet submarines, 3 new Soviet-built guided missile armed destroyers, 2 new 'stretched', or improved 'Leander' type missile frigates

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and 6 broad-beamed 'Leander' class general purpose frigates (all eight built in India), 2 anti-submarine frigates and 3 anti-aircraft frigates (all five built in Great Britain), 1 old ex-British frigate, 12 Soviet-built escorts, 3 ex-Soviet corvettes, 16 fast attack craft (most of them missile armed), 6 ex-Soviet ocean minesweepers, 4 ex-British coastal minesweepers, 10 inshore minesweepers, 4 patrol craft, 7 landing ships, 4 landing craft, 7 survey ships, 1 repair ship, 1 submarine parent ship, 1 submarine rescue ship, 7 oilers, 20 service craft and 7 tugs. New construction includes 2 Federal German-built patrol submarines, 2 indigenously built similar submarines, 4 Soviet built larger submarines, 3 more Soviet destroyers, 4 more frigates and 4 corvettes. India plans to acquire an aircraft carrier to replace Vikrant, see above. The major training establishments of the Navy include INS Venduruthy at Cochin (Basic and Divisional, Gunnery, Torpedo and Anti-Submarine, Navigation and Direction, Communication), INS Vaisura at Jamnagar (Electrical), INS Shivaji at Lonavla (Engineering), INS Hansa at Goa (Aviation), INS Hamla at Bombay (Supply and Secretariat) and INS Satyavahana (Submarine) and INS Circars (Boys') at Vishakhapatnam. The Fleet Requirement Unit of the Naval Aviation Station, INAS Garuda, is at Cochin. Over 110 aircraft include Sea Harriers for HMS Vikrant, Sea Hawk fighters, Alize anti-submarine aircraft and Sea King anti-submarine helicopters acquired for the aircraft carrier. Naval personnel in 1985 comprised 47,000 officers and ratings, including the Naval Air Arm. The Coast Guard was constituted as an independent para-military service by 1978 Act of Parliament. It comprised the frigates Kirpan and Kuthar and five patrol craft all transferred from the Indian Navy and 2 larger patrol vessels custombuilt. It has recently been augmented by new specifically built ships and aircraft, including three 1,040-ton offshore patrol vessels with aircraft and hangar, three inshore protection craft, 5 ex-Soviet cutters, 8 South Korean-built launches and 4 Japanese-built vedettes. There are 5 aircraft. The Coast Guard is administered by a Director-General (Vice-Admiral) and a Deputy Director-General (Commodore). It functions under the Defence Ministry but is funded by the Revenue Department. Air Force. The Indian Air Force Act was passed in 1932, and the first flight was formed in 1933. The Air Headquarters, under the Chief of Air Staff, consists of 4 main branches, viz., Air Staff, Administration, Policy and Plans, and Maintenance. Units of the IAF are organized into 4 operational commands-Western at Delhi, Central at Allahabad, Eastern at Shillong and South-Western at Jodhpur. Training Command HQ is at Bangalore, Maintenance Command at Nagpur. Nominal strength in 1983 was more than 100,000 personnel and 1,400 aircraft of all types, in 45 squadrons of fixed-wing aircraft, 14 helicopter squadrons and about 30 squadrons of 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missiles, and close-range missiles such as 'Gainful' and Tigercat. Air defence units include 2 squadrons of MiG-23 variable-geometry interceptors, and 19 squadrons of MiG-21s. Initial delivery of MiG-21s from the Soviet Union was followed by large-scale licence production in India. There are 2 squadrons of Sukhoi Su-7s, 1 of Indian-designed Maruts, 3 of Ajeet (Gust Mk 2) fighters, 3 of Canberras, 2 of Jaguars, 2 of Hunter F56s, 3 of MiG-23 supersonic fighter-bombers and one of MiG-25 reconnaissance aircraft'plus a MiG-25U two seat trainer. Canberra and Hunter squadrons are being re-equipped with at least 76 Jaguars, assembled in India, to create a force of 5 Jaguar squadrons. Some of those flying MiG-21s and SU-7s will re-equip with MiG-27s licence-built in India; also on order are 40 Mirage 2000s from France. The large transport force includes An-12s, jet-boosted C-119Gs, C-47s, HS 748s, Caribou, 2 Boeing 737s, and smaller aircraft and helicopters for VIP and other duties. Replacement of the C-l 19Gs and Caribou with An-32s is under way. C-47s, Otters and Devons will be replaced with Domier 228s. Helicopter units have Mi-8s (6 squadrons), Chetaks (Aero spatiale Alouette Ills) and licence-built Cheetahs (Aerospatiale Lamas); main training types are the Hindus-

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tan HT-2 and Kiran, Polish built TS-11 Iskra, Hunter T.66 (to be replaced with 2-seat Ajeets), MiG-21UTl, MiG-23U and Su-7U. Replacement of the HT-2s with HPT-32s is expected to begin in 1985-86. Primary flying training is provided at the Elementary Flying School, Bidar, and advanced flying training at the Air Force Academy, Dundigal, Hyderabad. There is a Navigation and Signals School at Begumpet. The IAF Technical College, Jalahalli, imparts technical training, while the IAF Administrative College, Coimbatore, trains officers of the ground duty branch. There are also land-air warfare, flying instructors' and medical schools. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. India is a member of the UN, the Commonwealth and the Colombo Plan. External Debt. At the end of Dec. 1982 India's external public debt was Rs 205,330m. Treaties. India pursues a general policy of non-alignment; the exception is a Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR, 1971; the parties agreed to mutual support short of force in the event of either being attacked by a third party. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth plan (1980-85) envisages total investment of Rs 1,587,100m., of which Rs 975,000m. is for the public sector. The amount of this financed from abroad would be Rs 90,630m. The aim is an annual 5-2% growth rate and the prime objective is to alleviate rural poverty. Intended investment in energy, Rs 265,350m.; in social services, Rs 140,350m.; transport and industry both get Rs 124,110m. Ministry of Agriculture. Serving the Small Farmer: Policy Choices in Indian Agricultural Development. 1975 Dutt, A. K. (ed.), India: Resources, Potentialities and Planning. Rev. ed. Dubuque, India, 1973 Singh, T., India's Development Experience. London, 1975

Budget. Revenue and expenditure (on revenue account) of the central government" for years ending 31 March, in crores of rupees: Revenue Expenditure

1982-83 1983-842 18,091 20,965 19,345 23,339 1 Excluding states' share of excise duties and other taxes. 2 Revised. ' Budget estimates.

1984-85' 23,744 26,342

Important items of revenue and expenditure on the revenue account of the central government for 1984-85 (estimates), in Rs lm.: Revenue Net tax revenue Non-tax revenue

175,267 64,897

Expenditure General Services Defence Grants in aid to States, etc.

143,825 60,756 51,886

Total capital account receipts (1984-85), Rs 167,570m.; capital account disbursements, Rs 161,940m. Total (revenue and capital) receipts, Rs 405,010m.; disbursements, Rs 425,360m. Under the Constitution (Part XII and 7th Schedule), the power to raise funds has been divided between the central government and the states. Generally, the sources of revenue are mutually exclusive. Certain taxes are levied by the Union for the sake of uniformity and distributed to the states. The Finance Commission (Art. 280 of the Constitution) advises the President on the distribution of the taxes which are distributable between the centre and the states, and on the principles on which grants should be made out of Union revenues to the states. The main sources of central revenue are: customs duties; those excise duties levied by the central government; corporation, income and wealth taxes; estate and succession duties on non-agricultural assets and property, and revenues from the railways and posts and tele-

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graphs. The main heads of revenue in the states are: taxes and duties levied by the state governments (including land revenues and agricultural income tax); civil administration and civil works; state undertakings; taxes shared with the centre; and grants received from the centre.

Currency. A decimal system of coinage was introduced in 1957. The Indian rupee is divided into 100 paise (until 1964 officially described as nayepaise), the decimal coins being 1,2,3,5,10,20,25 and 50 paise. The rupee is valued in relation to a package of main currencies. The £ is the currency of intervention. In March 1985Rsl4.05=£l;Rsl3.15 = US$l. The paper currency consists of: (1) Reserve Bank notes in denominations of Rs 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100; and (2) Government of India currency notes of denominations of Re 1 deemed to be included in the expression 'rupee coin' for the purposes of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. According to the Reserve Bank of India, the total money supply with the public on the last Friday ofJune 1982 was Rs 26,423 crores. 100,000 rupees are called 1 lakh; 100 lakhs are called 1 crore. Banking. The Reserve Bank, the central bank for India, was established in 1934 and started functioning on 1 April 1935 as a shareholder's bank; it became a nationalized institution on 1 Jan. 1949. It has the sole right of issuing currencynotes. The Bank acts as adviser to the Government on financial problems and is the banker for central and state governments, commercial banks and some other financial institutions. The Bank manages the rupee public debt of central and state governments. It is the custodian of the country's exchange reserve and supervises repatriation of export proceeds and payments for imports. The Bank gives shortterm loans to state governments and scheduled banks and short and medium-term loans to state co-operative banks and industrial finance institutions. The Bank has extensive powers of regulation of the banking system, directly under the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, and indirectly by the use of variations in Bank rate, variation in reserve ratios, selective credit controls and open market operations. Bank rate was raised to 10% in July 1981. Except refinance for food credit and export credit, the Reserve Bank's refinance facility to commercial banks has been placed on a discretionary basis. The net profit of the Reserve Bank of India for the year ended June 1982, after making the usual or necessary provisions, amounted to Rs 210 crores. The commercial banking system consisted of 201 scheduled banks (i.e., banks which are included in the 2nd schedule to the Reserve Bank Act) and 4 nonscheduled banks on 30 June 1982; scheduled banks included 121 Regional Rural Banks. Total deposits in commercial banks, June 1982, stood at Rs 45,831 crores. The business of non-scheduled banks forms less than 0 1% of commercial bank business. Of the 201 scheduled banks, 18 are foreign banks which specialize in financing foreign trade but also compete for domestic business. The laigest scheduled bank is the State Bank of India, constituted by nationalizing the Imperial Bank of India in 1955. The State Bank acts as the agent of the Reserve Bank and the subsidiaries of the State Bank act as the agents of the State Bank for transacting government business as well as undertaking commercial functions. Fourteen banks with aggregate deposits of not less than Rs 50 crores were nationalized on 19 July 1969. Six banks were nationalized in April 1980. The 28 public sector banks (which comprise the State Bank of India and its seven associate banks and 20 nationalised banks) account for over 90% of deposits and bank credit of all scheduled commercial banks. Reserve Bank of India: Report on Currency and Finance.—Report on the Trend and Progress ofBanking in India.—Report ofthe Central Board of Directors. Annual. Bombay

Weights and Measures. Uniform standards of weights and measures, based on the metric system, were established for the first time by the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1956, which provided for a transition period of 10 years. So far the system has been fully adopted in trade transactions but there are a fewfieldssuch as engineering, survey and land records and the building and construction industry where it has not; efforts are being made to complete the change as early as possible.

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In order to align this legislation with the latest international trends an expert committee (Weights and Measures (Law Revision) Committee) was set up by the central government to suggest a revised Bill which was passed by Parliament in April 1976. The new Standards of Weights and Measures Act, 1976, has recognized the International System of Units, and other units recommended by the General Conference on Weights and Measures and is in line with the recommendations of the International Organisation of Legal Metrology (OlML). The new Act also covers the system of numeration, the approval of models of weights and measures, regulation and control of inter-state trade in relation to weights and measures. The Act also protects consumers through proper indication of weight, quantity, identity, source, date and price on packaged goods. A draft Standards of Weights and Measures (Enforcement) Bill has also. been, prepared by the committee for adoption either by Parliament or State legislatures, as enforcement is now in the 'concurrent' list of legislation. The provisions of the 1976 Act came into force in Sept. 1977, as did the accompanying Standards of Weights and Measures (Packaged Commodities) Rules, 1977. While the Standards of Weights and Measures are laid down in the Central Act, enforcement of weights and measures laws is entrusted to the state governments; the central Directorate of Weights and Measures is responsible for co-ordinating activities so as to ensure national uniformity. An Indian Institute of Legal Metrology trains officials of the Weights and Measures departments of India and different developing countries. The Institute is being modernized with technical assistance from the Federal Republic of Germany. There are 2 Regional Reference Standards laboratories at Ahmedabad and Bhubaneswar which (besides calibrating secondary standards of physical measurements) also provide testing facilities in metrological and industrial measurements. These laboratories are equipped with Standards next in line to the National Standards of physical measurements which are maintained at the National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi. For weights previously in legal use under the Standards of Weight Act, 1956, see T h e S t a t e s m a n ' s Y e a r - B o o k , 1961, p. 171.

Calendar. The dates of the Saka era (named after the north Indian dynasty of the first century a.d.) are being used alongside Gregorian dates in issues of the Gazette of India, news broadcasts by All-India Radio and government-issued calendars, from 22 March 1957, a date which corresponds with the first day of the year 1879 in the Saka era. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In March 1983 about 55% of all villages had electricity. Total installed capacity (1981, provisional) was 33m. kw. Production of electricity in 1981-82 was 122,000m. kwh., of which 72,400m. kwh. came from thermal and nuclear stations and 49,600m. kwh from hydro-electric stations. Oil and Gas. The Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Oil India Ltd and the Assam Oil Co. are the only producers of crude oil. Total production, 1983, about 26m. tonnes; consumption, about 35m. tonnes. The main fields are in Assam and offshore in the Gulf of Cambay (the Bombay High field). Natural gas production, 1981-82,1,655m. cu. metres. Water. The net area of 57m. hectares (1982) under irrigation exceeds that of any other country except China, and equals about 38% of the total area under cultivation. Irrigation projects have formed an important part of all three Five-Year Plans. The possibilities of diverting rivers into canals being nearly exhausted, the emphasis is now on damming the monsoon surplus flow and diverting that. Usable surface and groundwater resources were assessed (1972) at 870,000m. cu. metres. Utilization (1974) 337,000m. cu. metres. Irrigation plant in operation in 1976 could make use of 67m. hectare-metres of su,rface water and 26-5m. hectare-metres of ground water. Ultimate potential of irrigation is assessed at 107m. hectares, total cultivated land being 142m. hectares. In 1977 India and Bangladesh reached an

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agreement to share the water of the Ganges at the Farakka barrage: India needs this supply to supplement the Hooghly River in flushing silt from Calcutta port. A further agreement (1982) also includes the waters of the Brahmaputra. Minerals. Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh produce 42%, 25% and 19% of all coal, respectively. The coal industry was nationalized in 1973; planned state investment during sixth five-year plan (1980-85), Rs 2,573 crores. Production, 1981-82, 125m. tonnes; reserves (including lignite) are estimated at 114,000m. tonnes. (Coal in seams at least 1 -2 metres thick and down to a depth of600 metres, 86,428m. tonnes; lignite, 2,100m. tonnes). Sixth-plan investment in the Neyveli Lignite Corporation, Rs 647 crores. Production of other minerals, 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes): Iron ore, 40,824; bauxite, 1,860; chromite 336; copper ore, 2,016; manganese ore, 1,452; gold, 2,204 kg. Other important minerals are lead, zinc, limestone, apatite and phosphorite, dolomite, magnesite and silver. Value of mineral production, 1982 (provisional), Rs 53,912m. of which mineral fuels produced Rs 48,140m., metallic minerals Rs 2,671 m. and non-metallic Rs 3,102m. Agriculture. The chief industry of India has always been agriculture. About 70% of the people are dependent on the land for their living. In T981 -82 it provided 35 -4% ofGDP, growth rate, 1981-82,5-5%. Agricultural commodities account for about 26% by value of Indian exports, while agricultural commodities, machinery and fertilizers account for about 20% of imports. Tea accounted for about 19% of agricultural exports in 1982-83; exports have since been limited. An increase in food production of at least 2% per annum is necessary to keep pace with the rising population. Foodgrain production, 78-4m. tons in 1962-63, was 151 • 54m. tonnes in 1983-84. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research works through 37 institutes and research centres, and 70 national research projects. It supports the establishment of at least 1 agricultural university in each of the states. The farming year runs from July to June through three crop seasons: kharif (monsoon); rabi (winter) and summer. Agricultural production, 1981-82 (in 1,000 tonnes): rice, 53,593; wheat, 37,833; total foodgrains, 133,061; coffee, of which the main cash varieties are Arabica and Robusta (main growing areas Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu), 150; sugarcane 183,647; cotton, 7-8m. bales (of 170 kg); jute is grown in West Bengal (half total yield), Bihar and Assam, total yield, 6-8m. bales; oilseeds, 12,073; maize, 6,761; pulses, 11,351; milk, 33,000. The tea industry is important, with production concentrated in Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Total crop in 1983-84, about 585,000 tonnes from 370,000 hectares. Livestock (1983). Cattle, 182m.; sheep, 41-7m.; pigs, 8-6m.; horses, 900,000; asses, 1 m.; goats, 78m.; buffaloes, 63m. Fertilizer consumption in 1983-84 was 7-2m. tonnes. Land Tenure. There are three main traditional systems of land tenure: ryotwari tenure, where the individual holders, usually peasant proprietors, are responsible for the payment of land revenues; zamindari tenure, where one or more persons own large estates and are responsible for payment (in this system there may be a number of intermediary holders); and mahalwari tenure, where village communities jointly hold an estate and are jointly and severally responsible for payment. Agrarian reform, initiated in the first Five-Year Plan, being undertaken by the state governments includes: (1) The abolition of intermediaries under zamindari tenure. (2) Tenancy legislation designed to scale down rents to 'A—'/s of the value of the produce, to give permanent rights to tenants (subject to the landlord's right to resume a minimum holding for his personal cultivation), and to enable tenants to acquire ownership of their holdings (subject to the landlord's right of resumption for personal cultivation) on payment of compensation over a number of years. (3) Fixing of ceilings on existing holdings and on future acquisition; the holding of a family is between 4 05 and 7-28 hectares if it has assured irrigation to produce two crops a year; 10-93 hectares for land with irrigation facili-

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ties for only one crop a year; and 21-85 hectares for all other categories of land. Tea, coffee, cocoa and cardamom plantations have been exempted. (4) The consolidation of holdings in community project areas and the prevention of fragmentation of holdings by reform of inheritance laws. (5) Promotion of farming by co-operative village management (see p. 627). The average size of holding for the whole of India is 2-63 hectares. Andhra Pradesh, 2-87; Assam, 1-46; Bihar, I -53; Gujarat, 4-49; Jammu and Kashmir, 1 -43; Karnataka, 4 1 1 ; Kerala, 0-75; Madhya Pradesh, 3-99; Maharashtra, 4-65; Orissa, 1 -98; Punjab, 3-85; Rajasthan, 5-5; Tamil Nadu, 1 -49; Uttar Pradesh, 1-78; West Bengal, 1-56. Of the total 71 m. rural households possessing operational holdings, 34% hold on the average less than 0-20 hectare of land each. Opium. By international agreement the poppy is cultivated under licence, and all raw opium is sold to the central government. Opium, other than for wholly medical use, is available only to registered addicts. Fisheries. Total catch (1981-82) was 2-4m. tonnes, of which Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra produced about half. Of the total catch, 1,441,000 tonnes were marine fish. There were 102 commercial deep-sea fishing boats, including trawlers, operating in 1982-83 and about 20,000 small craft. Fishermen's cooperatives had 552,000 members in 1981; their total sales were worth Rs 177m. Forestry. The lands under the control of the state forest departments are classified as 'reserved forests' (forests intended to be permanently maintained for the supply of timber, etc., or for the protection of water supply, etc.), 'protected forests' and 'unclassed' forest land. In 1982-83 the total forest area was 75m. hectares. Main types are teak and sal. Production, 1983, 39m. tonnes. About 16% of the area is inaccessible, of which about 45% is potentially productive. Forest revenue, 1981-82 (provisional), Rs 5,239-3m. There are about 3,000 sawmills. In 1981-82 l-3m. saplings were planted; this is considered insufficient to meet future demands for fuel and industrial wood. Fuel wood consumption, 1983,133m. tonnes. Some states have encouraged planting small areas around villages. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industries. Railways, air transport, armaments and atomic energy are government monopolies. In a number of industries (including the manufacture of iron and steel and mineral oils, shipbuilding and the mining of coal, iron and manganese ores, gypsum, gold and diamonds) new units are set up only by the state. In a further group of industries (road transport, manufacture of chemicals such as drugs, dyestuffs, plastics and fertilizers) the state established new undertakings, but private enterprise may develop either on its own or with state backing, which may take the form of loans or purchase of equity capital. Nationalized industries employed 4m. in 1981. Under the Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951, as amended, industrial undertakings are required to be licensed; 162 industries are within the scope of the Act. The Government are authorized to examine the working of any undertaking, to issue directions to it and to take over its control if this be deemed necessary. A Central Advisory Council has been set up consisting of representatives of industry, labour, consumers and primary producers. There are Development Councils for individual industries and (1981) 4 national development banks. Foreign investment is encouraged by a tax holiday on income up to 6% of capital employed for 5 years. There are special depreciation allowances, and customs and excise concessions for export industries. Oil refinery installed capacity, 1983, was 37 -8m. tonnes; production of refined oils (1982-83), 33 -2m. tonnes. The Indian Oil Corporation was established in 1964 and had (1984) most of the market. Industry, particularly steel, has suffered from a shortage of power and coal. There is expansion in petrochemicals, based on the oil and associated gas of the Bombay High field, and gas from Bassein field. Small industries (initial outlay on

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capital equipment of less than Rs 2m.) are important; they employ about 7m. and produced (1980) goods worth Rs 209,000m. The industrial growth rate, 1982-83 was 4%. Industrial production, 1981-82 (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron and ferro-alloys, 9,832 (1982); steel ingots, 10,940; finished steel, 7,270; aluminium, 207; motor cycles (nos.), 315,900; commercial vehicles (nos.), 91,000; petroleum products, 28,200; sulphuric acid, 2,137; cement, 20,900; board and paper, 1,237; nitrogen fertilizer, 3,144; phosphate fertilizer, 949; jute goods, 1,337; cotton yam, 989; cotton cloth, 7,983m. metres; man-made fibre and yarn, 242-7; diesel engines, 172,000 engines; electric motors, 4-4m. h.p.; refractories, 875 (estimate); sugar, 8,434. Labour. At the 1981 census there were 222-5m. workers, of whom 92-5m. were cultivators, 55 -5m. agricultural labourers; in 1983 there were 6-3m. in manufacturing, 9-lm. in social, community and personal services, l-2m. in construction and 2-9m. in transport, communications and storage. There were in 1983 over 30,000 unions. The bond labour system was abolished in 1975. Man-days lost by industrial disputes, 1983,21 -55m., of which 2 -54m. were in the central sector. An ordnance of July 1981 gave the government power to ban strikes in essential services; the ordnance was to remain in force for six months and would then be renewable. Dasgupta, A. K.,.4 Theory of Wage Policy. OUP, 1976

Companies. The total number of companies limited by shares at work in India, 31 March 1983, was 82,903; aggregate paid-up capital was Rs 19,909 crores. There were 11,780 public limited companies with an aggregate paid-up capital of Rs 5,339-1 crores, and 71,123 private limited companies (Rs 14,569-8 crores). There were also 252 companies with unlimited liability. During 1982-83, 10,764 new limited companies were registered in the Indian Union under the Companies Act 1956 with a total authorized capital of Rs 1,386 -2 crores; 1,278 were public limited companies (Rs 527-5 crores) and 9,486 were private limited companies (Rs 855-7 crores). There were 33 private companies with unlimited liability also registered in 1982-83, authorized capital Rs0-49 crores. Of the new non-government limited companies, 126 had an authorized capital of Rs 1 crore and above, and 182 of between Rs 50 lakhs and Rs 1 crore. During 1982-83, 97 companies with an aggregate paid-up capital of Rs 11 -47 crores went into liquidation and 162 companies (Rs 36 lakhs) were struck off the register. On 31 March 1983 there were 943 government companies at work with a total paid-up capital of Rs 14,722 • 5 crores; 409 were public limited companies and 534 were private limited companies. On 31 March 1983, 320 companies incorporated elsewhere were reported to have a place ofbusiness in India; 128 were of UK and 67 of USA origin. Department of Company Affairs, Govt, of India. Annual Report on the Working and Administration of the Companies Act, ¡956. New Delhi, 1983

Co-operative Movement. In 1983 there were 290,000 co-operative societies with a total membership of about 115m. There were 3,632 Primary Co-operative Marketing Societies, 29 State Co-operative Marketing Federations and the National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India. There were also 8 State Cooperative Commodity Marketing Federations, and 8 State Tribal Co-operative Development Corporations/Federations. There were, on 31 March 1983, 27 State Co-operative Banks, 337 Central Cooperative Banks, 94,019 Primary Agricultural Societies, 19 State Land Development Banks, and 1,731 Primary Land Development Banks/branches which provide long-term investment credit. Total agricultural credit disbursed by Co-operatives in 1982-83 was Rs 2,588 crores including Rs 1,957 crores in short-term credit, Rs 223 crores in mediumterm credit and Rs 408 crores in long-term credit. Total credit disbursed in 1983-84 (estimate), Rs 3,000 crores. Value of agricultural produce marketed by Co-operatives in 1982-83 was about

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R s 2 , 3 0 0 crores. T h e y p r o c u r e d 2 1m. t o n s of w h e a t , 0- 2 8 m . t o n s of p a d d y , 4 3 • 5 m . t o n s of s u g a r c a n e , 2 - 4 m . bales of c o t t o n a n d 0 - 2 5 m . bales o f j u t e . In J u n e 1983 t h e r e w e r e 2 , 0 0 4 processing units; in 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 , 157 sugar factories p r o d u c e d 4 - 5 m . tons; 6 6 s p i n n i n g mills (capacity 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 spindles) p r o d u c e d 110m. kg. of y a r n ; t h e r e w e r e 307 oil mills a n d s i m i l a r units; total storage c a p a c i t y was 6 - 4 m . tons, a n d a n e x t r a 139 cold stores h a d b e e n installed (capacity 2 9 0 , 0 0 0 tons) b y Feb. 1984. In 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 t h e r e were 6 4 , 6 4 5 retail d e p o t s distributing R s 1,270 c r o r e s ' w o r t h of fertilizers. Indian Labour Guide. Monthly. Delhi Co-operative Movement in India, Statistical Statements Relating to. Annual. Reserve Bank of India, Bombay Commerce. T h e e x t e r n a l t r a d e of I n d i a (excluding l a n d - b o r n e t r a d e with T i b e t a n d B h u t a n ) was as follows (in 1,000 rupees): 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

Imports 6.020.42.65 6,811,29,75 9.142.87.66 12,549,15,00 13,607,56,00 14,359,99,00

Exports and Re-exports 5,407,93,26 5,726,14,82 6,418,49,30 6,710,70,00 7,805,90,00 8,834,21,00

T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of c o m m e r c e b y c o u n t r i e s a n d a r e a s was as follows in t h e y e a r e n d e d 31 M a r c h 1983 (in 100,000 rupees): Countries Exports to Imports from Afghanistan 1,307 1,187 Argentina 215 772 Australia 10,235 27,872 Bangladesh 3,720 964 Bahrain 3,213 14,137 Belgium 21,102 61,762 Brazil 232 17,683 Burma 362 1,747 Canada 5,571 25,100 Czechoslovakia 5,319 5,270 Denmark 3,442 1,874 8,405 380 Egypt Federal Rep. of Germany 34,315 80,129 France 14,831 41,378 German Dem. Republic 7,449 5,932 Hong Kong 19,168 4,773 Hungary 985 3,893 Iran 7,404 78,265 Iraq 5,735 88,407 Italy 14,185 24,123 Japan 79,463 106,998 Kenya 1,872 627

Countries Korea, Republic of Kuwait Malaysia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Poland Rumania Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Sudan Sweden Spain Switzerland Thailand United Arab Emirates USSR UK USA Yugoslavia

Exports to

Imports from

5,593 12,901 5,513 8,389 11,575 1,977 5,966 7,153 8,683 22,729 19,419 9,733 3,133 3,245 3,587 9,563 3,059

22,490 28,243 20,840 5,200 25,487 2,497 40 5,481 6,080 149,624 36,193 1,225 179 8,015 9,699 11,118 1,970

21,921 155,830 45,716 95,025 1,670

36,512 151,340 88,558 137,066 2,678

T h e v a l u e (in 100,000 rupees) of t h e leading articles of m e r c h a n d i s e was as follows in t h e year e n d e d 31 M a r c h 1983: Exports Meat and meat preparations Fish, crustaceans, molluscs and preparations thereof Rice Vegetables and fruits . Coffee and coffee substitutes Tea and mate Spices Oilcake Tobacco unmanufactured and tobacco refuse

Value 8,057 34,945 19,950 29,277 18,420 36,753 8,893 14,935 20,854

INDIA Exports

Raw cotton Iron ore Crude vegetable materials Cotton fabrics Cotton madeup articles Readymade garments Jute manufactures including twist and yarn Leather and leather manufactures (except footwear) Pearls, precious and semi-precious stones Works of art ' Handmade carpets Metal manufactures except iron and steel Machinery including transport equipments Mineral fuel, lubricants and related products Chemicals and allied products Iron and steel Jewellery Sugar and sugar preparations Imports Wheat Milk and cream Crude rubber including synthetic and reclaimed Synthetic and regenerated fibre Fertilisers, crude Sulphur and unroasted iron pyrites Metalliferous ores and metal scrap Petroleum, Petroleum products and related materials Edible oil Organic chemicals Inorganic chemicals Medical and pharmaceutical products Fertilisers, manufactured Artificial resins, plastic materials etc Chemical materials and products Paper, paper board and manufactures thereof Textile yarn, fabrics and madeup articles Pearls, precious and semi-precious stones Non-metallic mineral manufactures exclg. pearls Iron and steel Non-ferrous metal Manufactures of metal Machinery other than electric Electrical machinery Transport equipment Professional, scientific, controlling instruments, photographic, optical goods, watches and clocks

629 I alue 10,116 37,379 8,102 26,552 9,701 52,750 20,276 34,588 82,491 10,961 16,857 20,156 58,460 13,403 30,820 5,575 6,912 6,235 29,227 5,987 5,408 12,473 5,551 6,933 15,222 560,496 22,627 23,814 14,889 8,058 14,564 12,571 7,323 14,747 11,259 67,743 14,139 114,596 27,906 13,647 138,311 24,819 60,049 18,984

Total trade between India and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1980 ¡981 1982 1983 1984 ImportstoUK. 315,858 294,323 379,169 366,928 571,470 Exports and re-exports from UK 529,007 638,867 805,321 804,779 780,997 Annual Statement of the Foreign Trade of India. 2 vols. Calcutta Monthly Statistics of the Foreign Trade of India. Calcutta Review of the Trade of India. Annual. Delhi India-Handbook of Commercial Information. 3 vols. Calcutta Guide to Official Statistics of Trade, Shipping, Customs and Excise Revenue of India. Rev.ed. Calcutta

Tourism. There were l-3m. visitors in 1983 bringing Rs 8,250m. in foreign exchange. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983-84 there were 1,675,000 km of roads, of which 794,000 km were

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surfaced. Roads are divided into 5 main administrative classes, namely, national highways, state highways, major district roads, other district roads and village roads. The national highways (31,398 km in 1984) connect capitals of states, major ports and foreign highways. The national highway system is linked with the ESCAP (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) international highway system. The state highways are the main trunk roads of the states, while the major district roads connect subsidiary areas of production and markets with distribution centres, and form the main link between headquarters and neighbouring districts. There were (31 March 1983) 6,297,131 motor vehicles in India, comprising 1,197,159 private cars and jeeps, 3-4m. motor cycles and scooters, 127,072 taxis, 173,814 buses and 633,643 goods vehicles. Railways. The Indian railway system is government-owned and (under the control of the Railway Board) is divided into 9 zones; route-km at 31 March 1983: Zone Central Eastern Northern North Eastern North East Frontier Southern South Central South Eastern Western

Headquarters Bombay Calcutta Delhi Gorakhpur Gauhati Madras Secunderabad Calcutta Bombay

6,371 4,238 10,688 5,163 3,844 6,700 7,023 7,041 10,292

Route-km km (657 km electrified) km (1,218 km) k m ( 5 7 2 km) km km km (391 km) km (388 km) k m ¡1,421 km) km (496 km)

Principal gauges are 1,676 mm. and metre, with networks also of 762 and 610 mm. gauge. Passengers carried in 1981 were approximately 3,612m.; freight, 196m. tonnes. Revenue-earning-goods traffic, 1983-84,230m. tonnes. Indian Railways pay to the central government a fixed dividend of 4-5% on capital-at-charge. Gross traffic receipts (Rs crores) 2,337-84 2,707-22 3,276-75

Financial years 1979-80 1980-81' 1981-82 2 1

Revised estimate.

Working expenses(Rs crores) 2,142-38 2,468-61 2,913-14

Net revenues (RscroresJ 227-29 272-09 399-80 1

Net surplus or deficit (Rscrores) -66-24 -52-34 +49-89

Budget.

Aviation. The air transport industry in India was nationalized in 1953 with the formation of two Air Corporations: Air India for operating long-distance international air services, and Indian Airlines for operating air services within India and to adjacent countries. A third airline, Vayudoot, was formed in 1981 as an internal feeder airline. Air India has 10 Boeing 747s and 5 707s, and 3 Airbus A-300B4s; it operates from Bombay, Delhi, Madras, Trivandrum and Amritsar to Africa (Addis Ababa, Nairobi, Accra, Lagos, Seychelles, Mauritius, Dar es Salaam, Lusaka and Harare); to Europe (London, Birmingham, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Geneva, Zurich, Brussels, Moscow and Rome); to western Asia (Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dharan, Cairo, Dubai, Bahrain, Kuwait, Aden, Muscat, Jeddah, Ras al Khaymah, Shaijah, Baghdad and Sanna); to east Asia (Dakha, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Osaka, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Perth and Sydney); to North America (New York and Montreal). Indian Airlines has a fleet of 54 aircraft consisting of Airbus A-300B2, Boeing 737, F-27 and HS-748 aircraft (Sept. 1984). During 1983-84 they carried 7-7m. passengers; net profit Rs 45-85 crores. Flights cover over 74,000 unduplicated route km. Vayudoot serves remote areas of India; it has a network of 19 stations. The Civil Aviation Department maintains and operates 86 civil aerodromes and 24 terminals at -military aerodromes. The management of the 4 international airports at Bombay (Santa Cruz), Calcutta (Dum Dum), Delhi (Palam) and Madras is vested in the International Airports Authority of India. Shipping. In Dec. 1983, 405 ships totalling 6,045,000 G R T were on the Indian

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631

Register; of these, 72 ships of 337,264 GRT were engaged in coastal trade, and 333 ships of 5,754,649 GRT in overseas trade. Traffic of major ports, 1983-84, was as Port

Calcutta Bombay Madras Cochin Mormugao Vishakhapatnam Kandla Paradip New Mangalore Tuticorin Haldia

Ships entered 1,264 3,881 1,064 768 448 495 555 92 255 342 410

Imports (Im. tonnes) 2-87 10-74 7-83 4-21 0-94 4-29 13-27 0-32 -

2-97 3-99

Exports (lm. tonnes) 102 13-99 5-01 0-92 11-90 5-59 0-89 105 -

0-58 2-39

The shipyard at Vishakhapatnam is capable of building vessels of a maximum of 21,500 DWT. Present capacity is about 64,500 DWT per year. The Cochin Shipyard can build Panamax type bulk carriers of 85,000 DWT each. On full development the capacity of the shipyard will be 2 such ships a year. Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers are building bulk carriers of 26,000 DWT, ferry ships (6,000 DWT), hydrographic research ships, tugs and fast patrol craft. There are about 5,200 km of major rivers navigable by motorised craft, of which 1,700 km are used. Canals, 4,300 km, of which 485 km are navigable by motorised craft (331 km are used). Post and Broadcasting. On 31 March 1980 there were 137,000 post offices and 28,300 telegraph offices (including (1979) 2,570 licensed offices, 23,867 combined offices and 346 DTOs). Of the post offices, 117,260 were rural and 13,728 urban in 1979. The telephone system is in the hands of the Indian Posts and Telegraphs Department. In 1982 there were 2,981,609 telephones. There were (1979) 117 telex exchanges and 16,449 subscribers. There were (1978) 82 radio stations and 2 auxiliary centres; on 31 Dec. 1976, 17,359,710 receiver licences were in force and programmes were sent out from 155 transmitters. A communications satellite ('APPLE') went into operation in July 1981. 'Home Service' broadcasts reach 87 -75% of the population. The television service was started at Delhi, 15 Sept. 1959. There were (1974) 275,424 television receiver licences. There were 7 television centres and a relay station at Pune. Entertainment films occupy 29-3% of broadcasting time, news and current affairs, 21-3%. Cinemas. In 1976 there were 9,017 cinemas, including about 2,660 touring cinemas: about 500 feature films were produced. Newspapers. In Jan. 1981 the total number of newspapers and periodicals was 18,140; about 30% were published in Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. There were 1,173 daily and 5,280 weekly papers. Circulation of dailies, 13 -2m., of weeklies, 12-9m. Hindi papers have the highest number and circulation, followed by English. Circulation of dailies per 1,000 of the literate population in other languages was highest in Gujarati, followed by Malayalam, Marathi and Urdu. A nnual Report ofthe Register ofNewspapers for India. New Delhi

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. All courts form a single hierarchy, with the Supreme Court at the head, which constitutes the highest court of appeal. Immediately below it are the high courts and subordinate courts in each state. Every court in this chain, subject to the usual pecuniary and local limits, administers the whole law of the country, whether made by Parliament or by the state legislatures. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam (in common with Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura and the Union territories of Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram), Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kamataka,

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Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab (in common with the state of Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Sikkim have each a High Court. The jurisdiction of Bombay High Court extends to the Territory of Goa. There is a separate High Court for Delhi. For the Andaman and Nicobar Islands the Calcutta High Court, for Pondicherry the High Court of Madras, and for Lakshadweep the High Court of Kerala are the highest judicial authorities; in Dadra and Nagar Haveli the High Court of Bombay is the relevant high court. The Allahabad High Court has a Bench at Lucknow, the Bombay High Court has a Bench at Nagpur, the Madhya Pradesh High Court has Benches at Gwalior and Indore, the Patna High Court has a Bench at Ranchi and the Rajasthan High Court has a Bench at Jaipur. Judges and Division Courts of the Gauhati High Court also sit in Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura. Below the High Court each state is divided into a number of districts under the jurisdiction of district judges who preside over civil courts and courts of sessions. There are a number of judicial authorities subordinate to the district civil courts. On the criminal side magistrates of various classes act under the overall supervision of the High Court. The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, has been replaced by the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), which came into force with effect from 1 April 1974. The new Code provides for complete separation of the Judiciary from the Executive throughout India. Police. The states control their own police force through the state Home Ministers. The Home Minister of the central government co-ordinates the work of the states and controls the Central Detective Training School, the Central Forensic Laboratory, the Central Fingerprint Laboratory as well as the National Police Academy at Mount Abu (Rajasthan) where the Indian Police Service is trained. This service is recruited by competitive examination of university graduates and provides all senior officers for the state police forces. The Central Bureau of Investigation functions under the control ofthe Cabinet Secretariat. The cities of Pune, Ahmedabad, Nagpur, Bangalore, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay and Hyderabad have separate police commissionerates. Sarkar, P. C., Civil Laws of India and Pakistan. 2 vols. Calcutta, 1953.—Criminal Laws of India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Calcutta, 1956 Setalvad, M. C., The Common Law of India. London, 1960 Sharma, S. R., Supreme Court in the Indian Constitution. Delhi, 1959

Religion. The principal religions in 1971 (census) were: Hindus, 453-2m. (82-7%); Moslems, 61-4m. (11-21%); Christians, 14-2m. (2-6%); Sikhs, 10-3m. (1-89%); Buddhists, 3 -8m. (0-7%); Jains, 2 -6m. (0-47%). In 1971 the Christian population consisted of 8-2m. Roman Catholics, 2-69m. Anglicans of the Church of South India, l-37m. Anglicans of the Church of North India and about 2m. nonconformists. Sundkler, B., Church of South India. London, 1954

Education. Literacy. According to the 1981 census the literacy percentage in the country (excluding age-group, 0-4) was 36 (34 • 45 in 1971): 46 • 74% among males, 24-88% among females. Of the states and territories, Chandigarh and Kerala have the highest rates. Educational Organization. With some exceptions, education is the concurrent responsibility of state and Union governments. In the union territories it is the responsibility of the central government. The Union Government is directly responsible for the central universities and all institutions declared by parliament to be of national importance; the promotion of Hindi as the federal language; coordinating and maintaining standards in higher education, research, science and technology. Professional education rests with the Ministry or Department concerned, e.g., medical education, the Ministry or Department of Health. The Union Minister of Education is in overall charge of the separate Departments of Education and Culture, assisted by a Minister of State. There are several autonomous organizations attached to the Department of Education. The Central Advisory

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Board of Education meets to recommend directions for educational policy. The University Grants Commission is a statutory body and is responsible for the funding of the central universities and some institutions deemed to be universities, besides providing developmental assistance to the state universities as well. The Commission also influences the policies and the course curricula of the universities. The National Council of Educational Research and Training provides advisory and consultancy services in respect of school education, and also produces standard school textbooks which can be used all over the country. The Union Ministry of Education is also concerned with non-formal education, youth activities, promotion of regional languages, sports, the institution of scholarships, the award of foreign scholarships, liaison with Unesco and its organizations and promoting book production. School Education. The school system in India can be divided into four stages: primary, middle, secondary and senior secondary. Primary education is imparted either at independent primary (or junior basic) schools or primary classes attached to middle or secondary schools. The period of instruction in this stage varies from 4 to 5 years and the medium of instruction is in most cases the mother tongue of the child or the regional language. Free primary education is available for all children. Legislation for compulsory education has been passed by 16 state governments and 3 Union Territories but it is not practicable to enforce compulsion when the reasons for non-attendance are socioeconomic. The period for the middle stage varies from 2 to 3 years. Under the new system, general education has been recommended up to Class X, with compulsory study of languages, sciences, mathematics and social sciences, health, physical education, fine arts and socially useful productive work. After that there are diversified courses both academic and vocational. Most states and territories have adopted this system. There are, in addition, schools for professional subjects such as agriculture, commerce, fine arts, forestry, medicine, veterinary science, physical education, social service, teachers' training, technical, industrial and crafts subjects. There are also special schools for the physically and mentally handicapped and reformatory pupils. There are schools of oriental studies and adult education centres. Higher Education. Higher education is given in arts, science or professional colleges, universities and all-India educational or research institutions. In Aug. 1982 there were 118 universities, 10 institutions of national importance and 13 institutions deemed as universities. Of the 118 universities, 7 are central: Aligarh Muslim University; Banaras Hindu University; University of Delhi; University of Hyderabad; Jawaharlal Nehru University; North Eastern Hill University; Visva Bharati. The rest are state universities. Total enrolment at universities, 1981-82, 2 • 95m., of which 2 • 59m. were undergraduates. Women students, 817,000. Grants are paid through the University Grants Commission to the central universities and institutions deemed to be universities for their maintenance and development and to state universities for their development projects only; their maintenance is the concern of state governments. During 1981-82 the University Grants Commission sanctioned grants of Rs 93 14 crores. Technical Education. The number of institutions awarding degrees in engineering and technology in 1979-80 was 149 (in 1947: 38), and those awarding diplomas in engineering and technology numbered 306 (in 1947: 53); the former admitted about 28,000, the latter about 47,500 students; enrolment in some has been less than capacity, following a period of unemployment in engineering. There were also 7 rural institutes and 30 Girls' Polytechnics with about 455 and 4,090 students respectively. For training high-level engineers and technologists 5 Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and 89 other institutions conduct postgraduate and research courses. Adult Education. In spite of the improvement in the literacy rate, the number of adult illiterates over 14 was over 423m. in 1981. Adult education is, therefore, being accorded a high priority; it forms part of the Minimum Needs Programme

634

INDIA

under the sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-85), in which it is proposed to cover all illiterate persons in the age-group 15-35 by 1990. A National Board of Adult Education has been established for this purpose; effort is concentrated on backward areas, women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and migrant labourers. The Rural Functional Literacy Project and the programme for urban workers still operate. The Directorate of Adult Education, established in 1971, is the national resource centre responsible for producing teaching/learning materials, training and orientation, monitoring and evaluating the programme. There were about 108,000 adult education centres in March 1982. Educational statistics for the year 1980-81: Type of recognized institution D r • u • U , Pnmary/junior basic schools Middle/senior basic schools High/higher secondary schools Training schools and colleges Arts, Science and Commerce colleges

. No. of institutions 485,538 ,,6,447 51,594 1,397 2^425

No, 0f students on rolls 51 330 138 27;493!826 24 633 848 'l73'838' 2 177 7692

No

of

teachers , VXc ™ 830 649 oni'^o

' Enrolment by stages of teachers' training courses at school and college level. Enrolment by stages ofall post-graduate and graduate courses.

2

Primary pupils represent 83-1% of the age-group 6-11; middle school pupils, 40% of lis- 14s. Expenditure (on recognized institutions) during the Sixth Plan (1980-85) is estimated at Rs 1,986 crores. Health. Health programmes are primarily the responsibility of the state governments. The Union Government has sponsored and supported major schemes for disease prevention and control which are implemented nationally. These include the prevention and control of malaria, filaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, venereal diseases, smallpox, trachoma and cancer. There are also Union Government schemes in connexion with water supply and sanitation, and with nutrition. The Nutrition Advisory Committee of the Indian Council of Medical Research sponsors schemes for research and advises the Government. The National Nutrition Advisory Committee is to formulate a national nutrition policy and recommend measures for improving national standards. Medical relief and service is primarily the responsibility of the states. Medical education is also a state responsibility, but there is a co-ordinating Central Health Educational Bureau. Family planning is centrally sponsored and locally implemented. The goal is to reduce the birth-rate by means of education in family planning methods. The central government budget for 1984-85 provided Rs 469 • 7 crores for family welfare (including family planning) and Rs 343 crores for health; Rs 124-4 crores was for prevention and control of disease. Social Security. Annual plan expenditure (estimate) 1977-78, Rs 1,286-65 lakhs: services for children in need of care, Rs 210 lakhs; assistance to voluntary organizations, Rs 375 lakhs; integrated child development services, Rs 107 lakhs; hostels for working women, Rs 161-5 lakhs; education for employment and vocational training for adult women, Rs 80 lakhs; national institute for the handicapped, Rs 65 lakhs; functional literacy, Rs 57 • 5 lakhs. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of India in Great Britain (India House, Aldwych, London, WC2 4NA) Acting High Commissioner:

R . C. A r o r a .

Of Great Britain in India (Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 21,1100-21) High Commissioner: Sir Robert Wade-Gery, KCMG, K.CVO. Of India in the US A (2107 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: K. Shankar Bajpai.

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Of the USA in India (Shanti Path, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 21 ) Ambassador: Harry G. Barnes, Jr. Of India to the United Nations A mbassador: Natarajan Krishnan. Books of Reference Special works relating to States are shown under their separate headings. India: A Reference Annual. Delhi Govt. Printer. Annual Cambridge History of India. 6 vols. CUP, 1922-47. Supp., 1953 The Times of India Directory and Yearbook. Bombay and London. Annual Cassen, R. H., India: Population. Economy and Society. London, 1978 Chatterjee, S. P., Indian Climatology. Calcutta, 1956.(ed.), National Atlas of India (Preliminary (Hindi) edition). Calcutta, 1957 Fishlock, T., India File: Inside the Subcontinent. London, 1983 von Fiirer-Haimendorf, C., Tribes of India: the Struggle for Survival. Univ. of California Press, 1983 Kesavan, B. S., and Kulkarni, V. Y. (eds), The National Bibliography of Indian Literature, 1901-53, New Delhi, 1963 ff. Gupta, G. K. and Kharbas, D. S., India. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Hall,A., The Emergence of Modern India. Columbia Univ. Press, 1981 Hart, D., Nuclear Power in India: a Comparative Analysis. London, 1983 Majumdar, R. C., Raychandhuri, H. C., and Datta, K., An Advanced History of India. 2nd ed. London, 1950 Mitra,H. N., The Indian Annual Register. Calcutta, from 1953 Nanda, B. R. (ed.), Socialism in India. Delhi, Bombay, Bangalore, Kanpur, London, 1972 Pachauri, R. K., Energy and Economic Development in India. New York, 1977 Philips, C. H. (ed.), The Evolution of India and Pakistan: Select Documents. OUP, 1962 ff.— Politics and Society in India. London, 1963 Poplai, S. L. (ed.), India, 1947-50 (select documents). 2 vols. Bombay and London, 1959 Ray, R. K., Industrialisation of India. OUP, 1983 Smith, V. E., Oxford History of India. 3rd ed. OUP, 1958 Spear, P., India: A Modern History. 2nd ed. Univ. of Michigan Press, 1972 Sutton, S. C., Guide to the India Office Library (founded in 1801). HMSO, 1952 Thomas, R., India's Emergence as an Industrial Power. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1982 Yasdani, C. (ed.), Early History of the Deccan. 2 vols. London, 1960

STATES AND TERRITORIES The Republic of India is composed of the following 22 States and 9 centrally administered Union Territories: States Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Kamataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

Capital Hyderabad Dispur Patna Ahmedabad Chandigarh Simla Srinagar Bangalore Trivandrum Bhopal Bombay

States Manipur Meghalaya Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

Capital Imphal Shillong Kohima Bhubaneswar Chandigarh Jaipur Gangtok Madras Agartala Lucknow Calcutta

Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Arunachal Pradesh; Chandigarh; Dadra and Nagar Haveli; Delhi; Goa, Daman and Diu; Lakshadweep; Mizoram; Pondicherry. States Reorganization. The Constitution, which came into force on 26 Jan. 1950, provided for 9 Part A States (Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) which corresponded to the previous governors' provinces; 8 Part B States (Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patalia-East Punjab (PEPSU), Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Travancore-Cochin) which corresponded to Indian states or unions of states; 10

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Part C States (Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, Tripura and Vindhya Pradesh) which corresponded to the chief commissioners' provinces; and Part D Territories and other areas (e.g., Andaman and Nicobar Islands). Part A States (under governors) and Part B States (under rajpramukhs) had provincial autonomy with a ministry and elected assembly. Part C States (under chief commissioners) were the direct responsibility of the Union Government, although Kutch, Manipur and Tripura had legislatures with limited powers. Andhra was formed as a Part A State on its separation from Madras in 1953. Bilaspur was merged with Himachal Pradesh in 1954. The States Reorganization Act, 1956, abolished the distinction between Parts A, B and C States and established two categories for the units of the Indian Union to be called States and Territories. The following were the main territorial changes: the Telugu districts of Hyderabad were merged with Andhra; Mysore absorbed the whole Kannada-speaking area (including Coorg, the greater part of 4 districts of Bombay, 3 districts of Hyderabad and 1 district of Madras); Bhopal, Vindhya Pradesh and Madhya Bharat were merged with Madhya Pradesh, which ceded 8 Marathi-speaking districts to Bombay; the new state of Kerala, comprising the majority of Malayalam-speaking peoples, was formed from Travancore-Cochin with a small area from Madras; Patalia-East Punjab was included in Punjab; Kutch and Saurashtra in Bombay; and Ajmer in Rajasthan; Hyderabad ceased to exist. On 1 May 1960 Bombay State was divided into two parts: 17 districts (including Saurashtra and Kutch) in the north and west became the new state of Gujarat; the remainder was renamed the state of Maharashtra. In Aug. 1961 the former Portuguese territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli became a Union territory. The Portuguese territory of Goa and the smaller territories of Daman and Diu, occupied by India in Dec. 1961, were constituted a Union territory in March 1962. In Aug. 1962 the former French territories of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanaon were formally transferred to India and became a Union territory. In Sept. 1962 the Naga Hills Tuensang Area was constituted a separate state under the name of Nagaland. On 1 Nov. 1966, under the Punjab Reorganization Act 1966, a new state of Haryana and a new Union Territory of Chandigarh were created from parts of Punjab (India); for details, see pp. 643 and 676. On 26 Jan. 1971 Himachal Pradesh became a state. In 1972 the North East Frontier Agency and Mizo hill district were made Union territories (as Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram) and Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura full states. Sikkim became a state in 1975. Report ofthe States Reorganization

Commission.

G o v e r n m e n t of India. Delhi, 1956

ANDHRA PRADESH HISTORY. Andhra was constituted a separate state on 1 Oct. 1953, on its partition from Madras, and consisted of the undisputed Telugu-speaking area of that state. To this region was added, on 1 Nov. 1956, the Telangana area of the former Hyderabad State, comprising the districts of Hyderabad, Medak, Nizamabad, Karimnaga, Warangal, Khammam, Nalgonda and Mahbubnaga, parts of the Adilabad district and some taluks of the Raichur, Gulbarga and Bidar districts, and some revenue circles of the Nanded district. On 1 April 1960,221 -4 sq. miles in the Chingleput and Salem districts of Madras were transferred to Andhra Pradesh in exchange for 410 sq. miles from Chittoor district. The district of Prakasam was formed on 2 Feb. 1970. Hyderabad was split into 2 districts on 15 Aug. 1978. A new district, Vizianagaram, was formed in 1979. AREA AND POPULATION. Andhra Pradesh is in south India and is bounded south by Tamil Nadu, west by Karnataka, north and northwest by Maharashtra, northeast by Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, east by the Bay of Bengal. The state has an area of 275,068 sq. km and a population (1981 census) of 53-5m. Density, 195 persq. km. Growth rate 1971-81,23-19%. Tlie principal language is

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Telugu. Cities with over 250,000 population (1981 census), see p. 614. Other large cities (1981): Nellore (236,879); Kakinada (226,600); Kumool (206,700); Nizamabad (183,135); Eluru (168,074); Machilipatnam (138,525); Anantapur (1 19,536); Tenali (119,200); Tirupati (115,200); Vizianagaram (115,200); Adoni (108,900); Proddatur (107,100); Cuddapah (103,006); Bheemavaram (101,940). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Andhra Pradesh has a bicameral legislature. There are 295 seats in the Legislative Assembly and 90 in the Legislative Council. At the election of March 1985, the Telegu Dasam party continued in office. For administrative purposes there are 23 districts in the state. The capital is Hyderabad. Governor: Ram Lai. Chief Minister: N. T. Rama Rao. BUDGET. The budget (estimate) for 1983-84 showed total receipts on revenue account of Rs 2,145 -04 crores, and expenditure of Rs 2,105 -29 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Gas. Natural gas was found at Reyzole in 1983. Electricity. There are hydro-electric plants at Machkund, Upper Sileru, Nizam Sagar, Nellore and Kothagudam. Installed capacity, 1982,2,298 mw., power generated 8,874m. kwh. In 1983 there were 20,159 electrified towns and villages and 532,000 electric pump sets. Water. The irrigation potential of the state in 1982 was 10,300,000 hectares; actual area under irrigation, 3,693,000 hectares. A joint project with Tamil Nadu, agreed in 1983, will irrigateabout 230,000 hectares. Minerals (1981). Production of principal minerals (in 1,000 tonnes): Coal, 9,800; limestone, 3,142; barytes, 340-7; iron ore (1980), 390. The state also has bauxite, asbestos, steatite, mica and chromite. Agriculture. There were (1981-82) about 13 04m. hectares of cropped land, of which 35-9% is irrigated. Yield per hectare, in kg: Sugar-cane, 9,142; rice, 2,102; ground-nuts, 990; tobacco, 1,053; jowar, 602; cotton, 239; castor, 208. Livestock (1979 census): Cattle, 12 03m.; buffaloes, 7-16m.; goats, 4-4m.; sheep, 7-07m. Forests. In 1982 it was estimated that forests occupy 23 • 3% of the total area of the state or 64,154 sq. km; main forest products are teak, eucalyuptus, cashew, casuarina, softwoods and bamboo. Fisheries. Production 1981-82,118,300 tonnes of marine fish and 124,170 tonnes of inland water fish. The state has a coastline of974 km. INDUSTRY. The main industries are textile manufacture, sugar-milling machine tools, pharmaceuticals, cement, chemicals, glass, fertilizers, electronic equipment, heavy electrical machinery, aircraft parts and paper-making. There is an oil refinery at Vishakhapatnam, where India's only major shipbuilding yards are situated. In 1983 a steel plant was under construction at Vishakhapatnam and a railway repair shop at Tirupathi. Cottage industry includes the manufacture of carpets, wooden and lacquer toys, brocades, bidriware, filigree and lace-work. The wooden toys of Nirmal and Kondapalli are particularly well known. Sericulture is developing rapidly. District Industries Centres have been set up to promote small-scale industry. Tourism is growing; the main centres are Hyderabad, Nagaijunasagar, Warangal, Araku Valley, Horsley Hills and Tirupathi. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981-82 there were 2,437 km of national highways, 8,387 km of state

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highways, 18,072 km of major district roads, 74,930 km of other roads. Number of vehicles, 1981-82: 170,040 motor cycles and scooters, 41,224 cars and jeeps, 36,605 goods vehicles and 10,156 buses. Railways. In 1981-82 there were approximately 4,813 route-km of railway, of which 3,079 km were broad gauge. Aviation. There are airports at Hyderabad, Tirupathi, Vijayawada and Vishakapatnam, with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta, Bangalore and Madras. Shipping. The chief port is Vishakhapatnam. There are minor ports at Kakinada, Machilipatnam, Bheemunipatnam, Narsapur, Krishnapatnam, Vadarevu and Calingapatnam. JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. The high court of Judicature at Hyderabad has a Chief Justice and 19 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 38,119,279; Moslems, 3,520,166; Christians, 1,823,436; Jains 16,103; Sikhs, 12,591; Buddhists, 10,035. Education. In 1981, 29-94% of the population were literate (39 -13% of men and 20-52% of women). There were, in 1980-81 40,408 primary schools (5,368,000 students); 4,577 upper primary (882,000); 3,706 secondary (811,000). Education is free for children up to 14. There were in 1981-82 387 degree colleges, 468 junior colleges, 53 oriental colleges and 10 universities: Osmania University, Hyderabad; Andhra University, Waltair, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupathi; Kakatiya University, Warangal; Nagaijuna University, Guntur; Sri Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad; Central University, Hyderabad; A.P. Agricultural University, Hyderabad; Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur; Smt. Padmarathi Mahila Vishwaridyalayam (University for Women), Tirupathi. An Open University was inaugurated at Nagaijunasagar in 1982.

ASSAM H I S T O R Y . Assam first became a British Protectorate at the close of the first Burmese War in 1826. In 1832 Cachar was annexed; in 1835 the Jaintia Hills were included in the East India Company's dominions, and in 1839 Assam was annexed to Bengal. In 1874 Assam was detached from Bengal and made a separate chief commissionership. On the partition of Bengal in 1905, it was united to the Eastern Districts of Bengal under a Lieut.-Govemor. From 1912 the chief commissionership of Assam was revived, and in 1921 a governorship was created. On the partition of India almost the whole of the predominantly Moslem district of Sylhet was merged with East Bengal (Pakistan). Dewangiri in North Kamrup was ceded to Bhutan in 1951. The Naga Hill district, administered by the Union Government since 1957, became part of Nagaland in 1962. The autonomous state of Meghalaya within Assam, comprising the districts of Garo Hills and Khasi and Jaintia Hills, came into existence on 2 April 1970, and achieved full independent statehood in Jan. 1972, when it was also decided to form a Union Territory, Mizoram, from the Mizo Hills district. E V E N T S . The issue of immigration from Bangladesh has continued to inspire violent incidents and unrest. The central government proposes to build a frontier fence to prevent unauthorized entry from Bangladesh. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Assam is in eastern India, almost separated from central India by Bangladesh. It is bounded west by West Bengal, north by Bhutan and the Territory of Arunachal Pradesh, east by Nagaland, Manipur and

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Burma, south by Meghalaya, Bangladesh and Tripura. The area of the state is now approximately 78,523 sq km. Its population (1981 census) 19-9m. Density, 254 per sq. km. Growth rate since 1971, 36 09%. Principal towns with population (1971) are; Gauhati, 122,981; Dibrugarh, 80,344; Tinsukia, 55,392; Nowgong, 52,892; Silchar, 52,612. The principal language is Assamese. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Assam has a unicameral legislature of 126 members. In Feb. 1983 elections were held despite unrest and an outbreak of communal violence against Bangladeshi immigrants. A congress (I) government was returned. The capital is Gauhati. Governor: B. N. Singh. Chief Minister: H. Saikia. B U D G E T . The budget estimates for 1984-85 showed revenue account receipts of Rs 656•51 crores and expenditure of Rs 752 -22 crores. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1978 there was an installed capacity of 141-5 mw and 2,260 villages (out of 21,995) with electricity. A further 583 mw capacity is to be installed by 1984. New power stations are under construction at Bongaigaon and Lakwa. Oil. Assam contains important oilfields and produces about 50% of India's crude oil. There is also natural gas. Water. In 1978, 88,300 hectares were irrigated and 228 projects were in hand. Intended Sixth Plan outlay, Rs 300 crores. Minerals. Coal production (1973), 436,000 tonnes. The state also has limestone, refractory clay, dolomite, and corundum. Agriculture. There are 756 tea plantations, and growing tea is the principal industry. Production in 1976, 276m. kg, over 50% of Indian tea. Over 72% of the cultivated area is under food crops, of which the most important is rice. Total foodgrains, 1976-77, 21-47m. tonnes. Main cash crops: jute, tea, cotton, oilseeds, sugar-cane, fruit and potatoes. Wheat has been introduced recently and yielded 71,045 tonnes in 1976-77. Cattle are important; milk production, 1976-77,343m. litres. Forestry. There are 1 -62m. hectares of reserved forests under the administration of the Forest Department and 1,229,000 hectares of unclassed forests, altogether about 30% of the total area of the state. Revenue from forests, 1978-79, Rs 821 lakhs. I N D U S T R Y . Sericulture and hand-loom weaving, both silk and cotton, are important home industries together with the manufacture of brass, cane and bamboo articles. Hand-loom weaving of silk is stimulated by state and central development schemes; outlay, Rs 18,34-5 lakhs. There is a silk-spinning mill and 2 cotton-mills. The main heavy industry is petro-chemicals; there are 3 oil refineries. Other industries include manufacturing paper, fertilizers, sugar, jute and plywood products, rice and oil milling. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1972 there were 17,839 km of road maintained by the Public Works Department in Assam, including national highway. There were 63,616 motor vehicles in the state in 1976. Railways. The open length of railways in 1974 was 2,193-65 km, of which 105-22 km are broad gauge. Aviation. Daily scheduled flights connect the principal towns with the rest of India. There are airports at Gauhati, Tezpur, Jorhat, Dimapur, Silchar and Dibrugarh.

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Shipping. Water transport is important in Lower Assam; the main waterway is the Brahmaputra River. JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. The seat of the High Court is Gauhati. It has a Chief Justice and 6 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1 9 7 1 census Hindus numbered 1 0 , 6 0 4 , 6 1 8 ; Moslems, 3 , 5 9 2 , 1 2 4 ; Christians, 3 8 1 , 0 1 0 ; Buddhists, 2 2 , 5 6 5 ; Jains, 1 2 , 9 1 4 ; Sikhs, 1 1 , 9 2 0 . Education. The 1971 census showed 2 8 • 74% of the population to be literate. In 1 9 7 6 there were 2 6 , 0 0 0 primary schools; 2 , 5 0 4 middle schools; 1 , 6 5 7 high schools; 7 0 higher secondary schools; in 1 9 7 7 there were 2 5 , 7 6 8 schools altogether, 126 general colleges and institutions for professional education, 507 vocational and technical schools, 31 teacher-training colleges and 3 universities. Goswami, P. C., Economic Development of Assam. London, 1963 Reid, Sir Robert, History of the Frontier Areas Bordering on Assam. Shillong, 1942

BIHAR The state contains the ethnic areas of North Bihar, Santhalpargana and Chota Nagpur. In 1956 certain areas of Purnea and Manbhum districts were transferred to West Bengal. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Bihar is in north India and is bounded north by Nepal, east by West Bengal, south by Orissa, south-west by Madhya Pradesh and west by Uttar Pradesh. The area of Bihar is 173,876 sq. km and its population (1981 census, revised), 69,914,734, a density of402 per sq. km. Growth rate since 1971,23-9%. Population of principal towns, see p. 614. Other large towns (1981): Muzaffarpur, 189,765; Darbhanga, 175,879; Biharsharif, 151,305; Munghyr, 129,187; Arrah, 124,614; Katihar, 121,693; Dhanbad, 119,807; Chapra, 111,407; Pumea, 109,649; Bermo, 101,502. The official language is Hindi and the second language Urdu. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Bihar has a unicameral legislature. The Legislative Assembly consists of325 elected members. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. For the purposes of administration the state is divided into 10 divisions covering 38 districts. The capital is Patna. Governor: P. Venkatasubbiah. Chief Minister:^. Dbuey. B U D G E T . The budget estimates for 1981-82 show total receipts of Rs 15,221 • 3m and expenditure of Rs 14,443 • 5m. Per capita income ( 1983) Rs 8 70. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity (1983) 939-68 mw. Power generated (1983-84), 2,219m. kw. In Feb. 1984 there were 29,702 villages with electricity. Hydroelectric projects in hand in 1984 will add about 50mw. capacity. Minerals. Bihar is very rich in minerals, with about 40% of national production. There are huge deposits of copper, capatite and kyanite and sizeable deposits of coal, mica and china clay.'Bihar is a principal producer of iron ore. Other important minerals: manganese, limestone, graphite, chromite, asbestos, barytes, dolomite, feldspar, columbite, pyrites, saltpetre, glass sands, slate, lead, silver, building stones and radio-active minerals. Agriculture. About 26% of the cultivable area is irrigated. Cultivable land, 11 -5m.

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hectares, of a total area of 17-4m. hectares. Total cropped area, 1984, 8-5m. hectares. Main food crops are rice, wheat, maize, rabi and pulses. Main cash crops are jute, sugar-cane, oilseeds, tobacco and potato. Forests in 1984 covered 30,896 hectares. There are 12 protected forests. I N D U S T R Y . Main plants are the Tata Iron and Steel Co., the Tata Engineering and Locomotive Co., the steel plant at Bokaro, oil refinery at Barauni, Heavy Engineering Corporation and Foundry Forge project at Ranchi, and aluminium plant at Muri. Other important industries are machine tools, fertilizers, electrical engineering, sugar-milling, paper-milling, silk-spinning, manufacturing explosives and cement. There is a copper smelter at Ghatsila and a zinc plant at Tundo. Industrial disputes lost 1 • 18m. man-days in 1979. T O U R I S M . The main tourist centres are Bodh Gaya, Patna, Nalanda, Jamshedpur, Sasaram, Betla, Hazaribagh and Vaishali. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1972 the state had 116,575 km of highway (including 88,040 km o f u n metalled roads). Passenger transport has been nationalized in 7 districts. There were 181,694 motor vehicles in 1980-81. Railways. The North Eastern and Eastern railways traverse the state. Aviation. There are airports at Patna and Ranchi with regular scheduled services to Calcutta and Delhi. Shipping. The length of waterways open for navigation is 900 miles. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a High Court (constituted in 1916) at Patna, and a bench at Ranchi, with a Chief Justice, 32 puisne judges and 4 additional judges. Police. The police force is under a Director General of Police; in 1983 there were 957 police stations (and 56 for railway police). Religion. At the 1961 census Hindus numbered 39,347,050; Moslems, 5,785,631; Christians, 502,195; Sikhs, 44,413; Jains, 17,598; Buddhists, 2,885. Education. At the census of 1981 the number of literates was 18 16m. (26%: males 37-78%; females, 13-58%). There were, 1971, 2,581 high and higher secondary schools with 601,000 pupils, 8,025 middle schools with 965,000 pupils, 46,582 primary schools with 5,009,000 pupils. Primary schools had 144,559 teachers, higher secondary and high schools 25,740. Education is free for children aged 6-11. There were 7 universities in academic year 1972-73; Patna University (founded 1917) with 12,577 fiill-time students (1970); Bihar University, MuzafFarpur(1952) with 4 constituent colleges, 35 affiliated colleges and 41,640 students (1970); Bhagalpur University (1960) with 40,746 students (1970); Ranchi University (1960) with 36,892 students (1968-69); Darbhanga Sanskrit University (1961); Magadha University, Gaya (1962) and Mithila University (1972), Darbhanga. Health. In 1983 there were 259 hospitals with 19,583 beds, and 861 dispensaries with 4,166 beds. Das, A. N., Agrarian Movements in India: Studies in 20th Century Bihar. London, 1982

GUJARAT H I S T O R Y . On 1 May 1960, as a result of the Bombay Reorganization Act, 1960, the state of Gujarat was formed from the north and west (predominantly Gujaratispeaking) portion of Bombay State, the remainder being renamed the state of Maharashtra. Gujarat consists of the following districts of the former state of

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Bombay: Banas Kantha, Mehsana, Sabar Kantha, Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panch Mahals, Vadodara, Bharuch, Surat, Dangs, Amreli, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Jamnagar, Junagadh, Bhavnagar, Kutch, Gandhinagarand Bulsar. E V E N T S . Floods in Saurashtra region in June 1983 caused over 600 deaths and extensive damage; monsoon rains caused Fodana dam to burst. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Gujarat is in western India and is bounded north by Pakistan and Rajasthan, east by Madhya Pradesh, south-east by Maharashtra, south and west by the Indian ocean and Arabian sea. The area of the state is 195,984 sq. km and the population at the 1981 census was 33,960,905; a density of 173 per sq. km. Growth rate 1971-81, 27-2%. The chief cities, see p. 614. Gujarati and Hindi in the Devanagari script are the official languages. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Gujarat has a unicameral legislature, the Legislative Assembly, which has 182 elected members. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. The capital is Gandhinagar. There are 19 districts. Governor: B. K. Nehru. Chief Minister: M. Solanki. B U D G E T . The budget estimates for 1983-84 showed a surplus on revenue account of Rs 176 • 64 crores and an overall deficit of Rs 29 • 07 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1983 the total generating capacity was 2,770 mw of electricity, serving 14,150 towns and villages and 264,392 wells and tube-wells. A thermal power station of 1,260 mw eventual capacity was commissioned at Vanakbori in 1981. Oil and Gas. There were crude oil and gas reserves in 23 fields in 1982-83. Production: Crude oil, 3 -2m. tonnes; gas, 658 -5m. cu. metres. Minerals. Chief minerals produced in 1982 (in tonnes) included chalk (90,897), lime stone (2-8m.), agate stone (1,317), calcite (323), quartz (51,775), bauxite (492,241), china clay (49,320), other clays (11,131), dolomite (260,042), crude fluorite (115,586), silica-glass sand (156,333) and lignite (510,230). Enormous reserves of coal were found under the Kalol and Mehsana oil and gas fields in May 1980. The deposit, mixed with crude petroleum, is estimated at 100,000m. tonnes, extending over 500 km. Agriculture. Cropped area, 1979-80, was 10-6m. hectares. Area and production of principal crops, 1979-80 (in 1,000 hectares and 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 550,516; groundnuts, 2,108, 1,856; cotton, 1,717, 1,797,000 bales of 170 kg. Estimates, 1982-83:Rice,476,489; groundnuts,2,057,133; cotton, 1,496,1,558,000 bales. Livestock (1982): Buffaloes, 4-43m.; other cattle, 6-93m.; sheep, 2-33m.; goats, 3 -26m.; horses and ponies, 24,000. Fisheries. There were (1982) about 81,000 active fishermen and 187 fishing cooperatives. There were (1983) 11,014 fishing vessels (4,016 motor vessels). The catch for 1982-83 (estimate) was 212,419 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y . Gujarat is one of the 4 most industrialized states. In 1981 there were over 10,000 registered factories including over 2,000 textile factories. There were about 77 industrial estates. There were also about 35,000 small units. Principal industries are textiles, general and electrical engineering, petrochemicals, machine tools, heavy chemicals, pharmaceuticals, dyes, sugar, soda ash and cement. Large fertilizer plants have been set up and there is an oil refinery at Koyali near Vadodara, with a developing petro-chemical complex.

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State production of soda-ash is about 85% of national output, and of salt, about 60%. The capacity of state cement plants (1983) was 3 • 5m. tonnes a year. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 52,621 km of roads. Gujarat State Transport Corporation operated 11,932 routes. Railways. In 1982 the state had 3,057 km metre gauge railway, 1,099 km narrow gauge and 1,422 km broad gauge. Aviation. Ahmedabad is the main airport. There are 5 services daily between Ahmedabad and Bombay, Jaipur and Delhi. There are 8 other airports: Baroda, Bhavnagar, Bhuj, Jamnagar, Kandla, Keshod, Porbandarand Rajkot. Shipping. The largest port is Kandla. There are 45 other ports, including Okha, Bedi, Bhavnagar, Verawal, Sikka and Porbandar. Post. There were (March 1983) 8,522 post offices, 1,647 telegraph offices. Ahmedabad has direct dialling telephone connexion (or night S.T.D.) with 26 cities and telex connexions with 19 cities. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Ahmedabad has a Chief Justice and 10 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 23,835,471; Moslems, 2,249,055; Jains, 451,578; Christians, 109,341; Sikhs, 18,233; Buddhists, 5,469. Education. In 1981 the number of literates was 14-85m. (43-7%). Primary and secondary education are free. In 1982-83 there were 26,908 primary schools; nearly all villages with more than 200 people have one within 1-5 km. In 1980-81 there were 2,186 secondary schools and 967 higher secondary schools with 1,027,000 pupils. There are 6 universities in the state. Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, founded in 1949, is teaching and affiliating; it has 149 affiliated colleges. The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Vadodara (1949) is residential and teaching. The Sardar Patel University, Vallabh-Vidyanagar, (1955) has 16 constituent and affiliated colleges. The 2 newer universities (1967) are Saurashtra University at Rajkot with 54 affiliated colleges, and South Gujarat at Surat with 37. Bhavnagar University (1978) is residential and teaching with 7 affiliated colleges. In 1980-81 the total number of students was 180,303. Gujarat Vidyapith at Ahmedabad is deemed a university under the University Grants Commission Act. There were also 1 agricultural and 1 Ayurvedic university. There are 9 technical institutions for degree courses (student capacity 2,226) and 27 for full-time diploma courses (4,491 ). Health. In 1983 there were 251 primary health centres and 13,000 hospital beds. The annual intake at 5 medical colleges was 675. Rushbrook Williams, L. F., The Black Hills: Kutch in History and Legend. London, 1958 Desai,!. F., Untouchabihty in Rural Gujarat. Bombay, 1977

HARYANA H I S T O R Y . The state of Haryana, created on 1 Nov. 1966 under the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966, was formed from the Hindi-speaking parts of the state of Punjab (India). It comprises the districts of Hissar, Mohindergarh, Gurgaon, Rohtak and Karnal; parts of Sangrur and Ambala districts; and part of Kharar tehsil. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Haryana is in north India and is bounded north by Himachal Pradesh, east by Uttar Pradesh, south and west by Rajasthan and

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north-west by Punjab. Delhi forms an enclave on its eastern boundary. The state has an area of 44,222 sq. km and a population (1981) of 12,850,902; density, 291 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,28-04%. The principal language is Hindi. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The state has a unicameral legislature with 90 members. After the elections of May 1982 when 89 seats were contested, Congress (I) held 36 seats; Lok Dal, 31; independents, 12 and others, 10. The state shares with Punjab (India) a High Court, a university and certain public services. The capital (shared with Punjab) is Chandigarh (see p. 676). There are 12 districts. Governor: G. D. Tapase. Chief Minister: Bhajan Lai. BU D G E T . Budget estimates for 1981-82 show income of Rs 872 crores and expenditure of Rs 921 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Approximately 1,000 mw are supplied to Haryana, mainly from the Bhakra Nangar system. In 1976 installed capacity was 612 mw and all the 3,302 villages had electric power. Minerals. Minerals include iron ore, limestone, china clay and marble. Value of production, 1976, Rs 8-6m. Agriculture. Haryana has sandy soil and erratic rainfall, but the state shares the benefit of the Sutlej-Beas scheme. Agriculture employs over 82% of the working population; in 1981 there were about 900,000 holdings (average 3 • 7 hectares), and the gross irrigated area was 1 -97m. hectares. Area under high-yielding varieties of foodgrains, 2-2m. hectares. During 1980-81 foodgrain production was 6-2m. tonnes; sugar (gur), oilseeds, and cotton, are important. Forests cover 3 • 3% of the state. INDUSTRY. Haryana has a large market for consumer goods in neighbouring Delhi. In 1981 there were 233 large and medium scale industries employing 100,000 and producing goods worth Rs 8,000m. There were 25,000 small units. The main industries are cotton textiles (11 mills in 1976), agricultural machinery, woollen textiles, scientific instruments, glass, cement, paper and sugar milling. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) about 19,415 km of metalled roads, linking all villages. Road transport was nationalized by 1971. Railways. The state is crossed by lines from Delhi to Agra, Ajmer, Ferozepur and Chandigarh. The main stations are at Ambala and Kurukshetra. Aviation. There is no airport within the state but Delhi is on its eastern boundary. JUSTICE AND EDUCATION Justice. Haryana shares the High Court of Punjab and Haryana at Chandigarh which had (1968) a Chief Justice and 16 puisne judges. Education. In 1981 the number of literates was 4-6m. In 1969-70 there were 5,967 schools and colleges with 1,250,590 attending. This includes 4,362 primary schools, 776 high and higher secondary schools, 777 middle schools and 47 colleges.

HIMACHAL PRADESH HISTORY. The territory came into being on 15 April 1948 and comprised 30 former Hill States. The state of Bilaspur was merged with Himachal Pradesh in

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1954. The 6 original districts were: Mahasu, Sirmur, Mandi, Chamba, Bilaspur and Kinnaur. On 1 Nov. 1966, under the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966, certain parts of the state of Punjab (India) were transferred to Himachal Pradesh. These comprise the districts of Simla, Kulu, Kangra, and Lahaul and Spiti; and parts of Hoshiarpur and Ambala districts, with an estimated population (1967) of 1 -5m. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Himachal Pradesh is in north India and is bounded north by Kashmir, east by Tibet, south-east by Uttar Pradesh, south by Haryana, south-west and west by Punjab. The area of the state is 55,673 sq. km and it had a population at the 1981 census of 4,280,818. Density, 77 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,23-71%. Principal language is Pahari. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Full statehood was attained, as the 18th state of the Union, on 25 Jan. 1971. On 1 Sept. 1972 districts were reorganized and 2 new districts created, Hamirpur and Una, making a total of 12. The capital is Simla. There is a unicameral legislature. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. Governor: H. Sema. Chief Minister: V. Bhadra Singh. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1980-81 showed revenue receipts of Rs 193 crores and expenditure on revenue account of Rs 161 crores. The capital account showed a deficit of Rs 73-57 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1983-84,13,360 villages had electricity. Power generation is the first priority of the seventh 5-year plan. In 1984 the state signed an agreement with neighbouring states to generate 3,000 mw of hydro-electricity. Water. An artificial confluence of the Sutlej and Beas rivers has been made, directing their united flow into Govind Sagar Lake. Minerals. The state has rock salt, slate, gypsum, limestone, barytes, dolomite and pyrites. Agriculture. Farming employs 76% of the people. Irrigated area is 24% of the area sown. Main crops are seed potatoes, wheat, maize, rice and fruits such as apples, peaches, apricots, nuts, pomegranates. Production of foodgrains (1983) 1 -06m. tonnes. Livestock (1977 census): Buffaloes, 384,497; other cattle, 2,106,220; goats, 1,035,337. Forestry. Himachal Pradesh forests cover 38-3% of the state and supply the largest quantities of coniferous timber in northern India. They are the main source of revenue of Pradesh. The forests also ensure the safety of the catchment areas of the Jumna, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi and Chenab rivers. I N D U S T R Y . The main sources of employment are the forests and their related industries; there are factories making turpentine and rosin, fertilizers, cement and TV sets. TTiere is a foundry and a brewery. Other industries include salt production and handicrafts, including weaving. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The national highway from Chandigarh runs through Simla; other main highways from Simla serve Kulu, Manali, Kangra, Chemba and Pathankot. The rest are minor roads. Pathankot is also on national highways from Punjab to Kashmir.

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Railways. There is a line from Chandigarh to Simla, and the Jammu-Delhi line runs through Pathankot. Aviation. The state has no airport, but Chandigarh is on its southern boundary. In 1984 an airport was under construction at Jubbarhath, near Simla. J U S T I C E . The state has its own High Court at Simla. E D U C A T I O N . The number of literates in 1984 was 1-8m.

JAMMU AND KASHMIR H I S T O R Y . The state of Jammu and Kashmir, which had earlier been under Hindu rulers and Moslem sultans, became part of the Mogul Empire under Akbar from 1586. After a period of Afghan rule from 1756, it was annexed to the Sikh kingdom of the Punjab in 1819. In 1820 Ranjit Singh made over the territory of Jammu to Gulab Singh. After the decisive battle of Sobraon in 1846 Kashmir also was made over to Gulab Singh under the Treaty of Amritsar. British supremacy was recognized until the Indian Independence Act, 1947, when all states decided on accession to India or Pakistan. Kashmir asked for standstill agreements with both. Pakistan agreed, but India desired further discussion with the Government of Jammu and Kashmir State. In the meantime the state became subject to armed attack from the territory of Pakistan and the Maharajah acceded to India on 26 Oct. 1947, by signing the Instrument of Accession. India approached the UN in Jan. 1948; India-Pakistan conflict ended by ceasefire in Jan. 1949. Further conflict in 1965 was followed by the Tashkent Declaration on Jan. 1966. Following further hostilities between India and Pakistan a ceasefire came into effect on 17 Dec. 1971, followed by the Simla Agreement in July 1972, whereby a new line of control was delineated bilaterally through negotiations between India and Pakistan and came into force on 17 Dec. 1972. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in the extreme north and is bounded north by China, east by Tibet, south by Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and west by Pakistan. The area is 222,236 sq. km, of which about 78,932 sq. km is occupied by Pakistan and 42,735 sq. km by China; the population of the territory on the Indian side of the line, 1981 census, was 5,981,600. Growth rate, 1971-81, 29-57%. For the population of Srinagar, see p. 614. TTie official language is Urdu; other commonly spoken languages are Kashmiri, Dogri, Balti, Ladakhi and Punjabi. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Maharajah's son, Yuvraj Karan Singh, took over as Regent in 1950 and, on the ending of hereditary rule (17 Oct. 1952), was sworn in as Sadar-i-Riyasat. On his father's death (26 April 1961) Yuvraj Karan Singh was recognized as Maharajah by the Indian Government; he decided not to use the title while he was elected head of state. The permanent Constitution of the state came into force in part on 17 Nov. 1956 and fully on 26 Jan. 1957. There is a bicameral legislature; the Legislative Council has 36 members and the Legislative Assembly has 76. The state of the parties in the Legislative Assembly in autumn 1983 was: Congress (I) 26; National Conference, 47; Panthers Party, 1; Peoples' Conference, 1; Independent, 1. Since the 1967 elections the 6 representatives of Jammu and Kashmir in the central House of the People are directly elected; there are 4 representatives in the Council of States. The Council of Ministers consists of 7 Ministers and 4 Junior Ministers. Kashmir Province has 8 districts and Jammu Province has 6 districts. Srinagar is the summer and Jammu the winter capital. Governor: Jag Mohan. Chief 'Minister: G. Muhammed Shah.

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B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1980-81 show revenue of Rs 576-62 crores, and expenditure ofRs 578-37 crores. Total planning expenditure for 1980-81 wasRs 147-48 crores., of which agriculture and allied sectors received Rs 26-38 crores; power Rs 21 -25 crores; water supply Rs16•50 crores and irrigation and flood control Rs 16 00 crores. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity (1980) 208 -78 mw.; 4,631 villages had electricity. Minerals. Value of production, 1976, Rs 5-46m. Minerals include coal, bauxite and gypsum. Agriculture. About 80% of the population are supported by agriculture. Rice, wheat and maize are the major cereals. The total area under food crops (1978-79) was estimated at 1,847,000 acres. Total foodgrains produced, 1980, 1 -4m. quintals. Fruit is important; exports (1980-81 estimate), 360,000 tonnes. The Agrarian Reforms Act came into force in July 1978; the Debtors Relief Act and the Restriction of Mortgage Properties Act also alleviate rural distress. The redistribution of land to cultivators is continuing. Livestock (1977 census): Cattle, 2,138,000; buffaloes, 501,000; goats, 1,216,000; horses, 629,000, and poultry, 2,039,000. Forestry. Forests cover about 21,080 sq. km., forming an important source of revenue, besides providing employment to a large section of the population. About 7,480 sq. km of forests yield valuable timber; state income in 1978-79 was Rs 231-lm. I N D U S T R Y . The largest industrial complex is the Ban Brahmara estate in Jammu which covers 320 acres and accommodates diverse manufacturing, as does the Khanmuh estate. The Sopore industrial area in Kashmir Division is intended for industries based on horticulture. There are 6,386 small units (1980) with production valued at Rs 661 -3m., employing 34,000. The main traditional handicraft industries are silk spinning and carpet-weaving. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Kashmir is linked with the rest of India by the motorable JammuPathankot road. The Jawahar Tunnel, through the Banihal mountain, connects Srinagar and Jammu, and maintains road communication with the Kashmir Valley during the winter months. In 1981 there were 7,866 km of roads; work on the Batote-Kishtwar road was in progress, up-grading to National Highway standard. There were 33,361 motor vehicles in 1979-80. Railways. Kashmir was linked with the Indian railway system on 3 Dec. 1972 when the line between Jammu and Pathankot was opened. Aviation. Major airports, with daily service from Delhi, are at Srinagar and Jammu. Srinagar airport is being developed as an international airport. Post. There were 1,290 post offices in 1980, 82 telephone exchanges and approximately 12,120 private telephones. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The High Court, at Srinagar and Jammu, has a Chief Justice and 4 puisne judges. Religion. The majority of the population, except in Jammu, are Moslems. At the 1971 census Moslems numbered 3,040,129; Hindus, 1,404,292; Sikhs, 105,873; Buddhists, 57,956; Christians, 7,182; Jains, 1,150. Education. The proportion of literates was 18-59% in 1980. Education is free. There are (1981) 9,715 schools and about 953,000 children attend. Jammu and Srinagar Universities (founded 1948) have 37 teaching departments and 42 affili-

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ated colleges. There are 2 medical colleges, an engineering college, 1 agricultural college, 2 polytechnics, 12 professional colleges, 8 oriental colleges and an Ayurvedic college. Health. In 1979-80 there were 43 hospitals, 279 primary health units, 279 subcentres, about 530 clinics and dispensaries, and 50 other units. There were 800 doctors. Expenditure on health was Rs 27 • 15 in 1980-81. There is a National Institute of Medical Sciences under construction. Bamzai, P. N. K„ A History of Kashmir. Delhi, 1962 G u p t a , S., Kashmir: A Study in IndiaPakislan Relations.

London, 1967

KARNATAKA H I S T O R Y . The state of Karnataka, constituted as Mysore under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, brought together the Kannada-speaking people distributed in 5 states, and consisted of the territories of the old states of Mysore and Coorg, the Bijapur, Kanara and Dharwar districts and the Belgaum district (except one taluk) in former Bombay, the major portions of the Gulbarga, Raichur and Bidar districts in former Hyderabad, and South Kanara district (apart from the Kasaragod taluk) and the Kollegal taluk of the Coimbatore district in Madras. The state was renamed Karnataka in 1973. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in south India and is bounded north by Maharashtra, east by Andhra Pradesh, south by Tamil Nadu and Kerala, west by the Indian ocean and north-east by Goa. The area of the state is 191,791 sq. km, and its population (1981 census), 37,135,714, an increase of 26-43% since 1971. Density, 193 per sq. km. Kannada is the language of administration and is spoken by about 66% of the people. Other languages include Telugu (8-2%), Urdu (9%), Marathi (4-5%), Tamil (3-6%), Tulu and Konkani. Principal cities, see p. 614. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Karnataka has a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Council has 63 members. The Legislative Assembly consists of 223 elected members and 1 nominated member. After elections in March 1985 the Janata party formed a government. The state has 19 districts (of which Coorg is one) in 4 divisions: Bangalore, Mysore, Belgaum and Gulbarga. The capital is Bangalore. Governor: A. N. Baneijee. ChiefMinister: Ramakrishna Hegde. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1981-82 showed a deficit of Rs 461 • 1 m. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1980 the state's installed capacity was 1,334-8 mw., to be revised (by the Kalinadi project) to 2,000 mw. Water. About 1 • 3 m. hectares were irrigated in 1984. Minerals. Karnataka has India's only sources of gold and silver. The estimated reserves of high grade iron ore are 5,000m. tonnes. These reserves are found mainly in the Chitradurga belt. The National Mineral Development Corporation of India has indicated total reserves of nearly 1,000m. tonnes of magnesite and iron ore (with an iron content ranging from 25 to 40) which have been found in Kudremukh Ganga-Mula region in Chickmagalur District. The estimated reserves of manganese are over 100m. tonnes. Limestone is found in many regions; deposits (1984) are about 2,104m. tonnes. Karnataka is the largest producer of chromite. It is one of the only two states of India producing magnesite. The other minerals of industrial importance are corundum and garnet.

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Agriculture. Agriculture forms the main occupation of more than three-quarters of the population. Physically, Kamataka divides itself into four regions-the coastal region, the southern and northern 'maidan' or plain country, comprising roughly the districts of Bangalore, Tumkur, Chitaldrug, Kolar, Bellary, Mandya and Mysore, and the 'malnad' or hill country, comprising the districts of Chickmagalur, Hassan and Shimoga. Rainfall is heavy in the 'malnad' tracts, and in this area there is dense forest. The greater part of the 'maidan' country is cultivated. Coorg district is essentially agricultural. The main food crops are rice and jowar, and ragi which is also about 30% of the national crop. Sugar, groundnut, castor-seed, safflower, mulberry silk and cotton are important cash crops. The state grows about 70% of the national coffee crop. Production, 1980 (1,000 tonnes): Cotton, 219-3; sugar-cane, 109-2; tobacco, 158-2; chillies, 131 -3; ground nuts, 119-9; caster seed, 134-7;sesamum,252-9. Livestock (1977): BufTaloes, 3,215,873; other cattle, 10,018,714; sheep, 662,420; goats, 726,016. Forestry. Total forest in the state (1979) is 18% of the land area, producing sandal wood, bamboo and other timbers, and ivory. I N D U S T R Y . The Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works is situated at Bhadravati, while at Bangalore are national undertakings for the manufacture of aircraft, machine tools, light engineering and electronics goods. Other industries include textiles, vehicle manufacture, cement, chemicals, sugar, paper, porcelain and soap. In addition, much of the world's sandalwood is processed, the oil being one of the most valuable productions of the state. Sericulture is a more important cottage industry giving employment, directly or indirectly, to about 2-4m. persons; production is about 3,000 tonnes, over two-thirds of national production. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982-83 the state had 102,151 km of roads. Railways. In 1982-83 there were 2,936 km of railway (including 154 km of narrow gauge) in the state. Aviation. There are airports at Bangalore, Mangalore and Belgaum, with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras. Shipping. Mangalore is a deep-water port for the export of mineral ores. Karwar is being developed as an intermediate port. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The seat of the High Court is at Bangalore. It has a Chief Justice and 11 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 25,332,388; Moslems, 3,113,298; Christians, 613,026; Jains, 218,862; Buddhists, 114,139; Sikhs, 6,830. Education. The number of literates, according to the 1981 census, was 14 -2m. In 1977 the state had 33,137 primary schools, 2,326 high schools, 314 schools for professional and technical education and 30 polytechnic and engineering schools. Education is free up to pre-university level. The University of Mysore (founded in 1916) at Mysore has 7 university colleges at Mysore and 134 affiliated colleges. Karnatak University (1950) at Dharwar has 4 constituent colleges and 95 affiliated colleges. Bangalore University (1964) has 46 constituent colleges, the University of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal, Bangalore, (1964) has 3 constituent colleges. There are two other universities: Gulbarga and Mangalore. The Indian Institute of Science. Bangalore, is unaffiliated; it conducts diploma courses in engineering, metallurgy and technology. There are 415 other colleges, including medical, law and commercial. Learmouth, A. T. A., and Bhat, L. JMysore

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KERALA H I S T O R Y . The state of Kerala, created under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, consists of the previous state of Travancore-Cochin, except for 4 taluks of the Trivandrum district and a part of the Shencottah taluk of Quilon district. It took over the Malabar district (apart from the Laccadive and Minicoy Islands) and the Kasaragod taluk of South Kanara (apart from the Amindivi Islands) from Madras State. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Kerala is in south India and is bounded north by Karnataka, east and south-east by Tamil Nadu, south-west and west by the Indian ocean. The state has an area of 38,863 sq. km. The 1981 census showed a population of25,453,680; density of population was 655 per sq. km (highest of any state). Growth rate, 1971—Bl, 19%. Population of principal cities, see p. 614. Languages spoken in the state are Malayalam, Tamil and Kannada. The physical features of the land fall into three well-marked divisions: (1) the hilly tracts undulating from the Western Ghats in the east and marked by long spurs, extensive ravines and dense forests; (2) the cultivated plains intersected by numerous rivers and streams; and (3) the coastal belt with dense coconut plantations and rice fields. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The state has a unicameral legislature of 140 members including the Speaker. After the elections of May 1982 the Indian National (I) Congress Party and allies held 77 seats, the Left Front (CPI, CPI(M) and allies), 63. The state has 14 districts. The capital is Trivandrum. Governor: P. Ramachandran. Chief Minister: K. Karunakaran. B U D G E T . Revised budget estimates for 1983-84 showed total revenue receipts of Rs 958 • 54 crores, expenditure Rs 1,030-57 crores. Annual Plan expenditure, Rs 355 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity (1983), 1,011 -5 mw.; energy generated in 1982-83 was 4,487-7m. kw. Stage I of the Idukki hydro-electric plant has a capacity of 390 mw, the Sabarigiri scheme 300mw. Minerals. Next to Bihar, Kerala possesses the widest variety of economic mineral resources among the Indian States. The beach sands of Kerala contain monazite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon, sillimanite, etc. There are extensive whiteclay deposits; other minerals of commercial importance include mica, graphite, limestone, quartz sand and lignite. Iron ore has been found at Kozhikode (Calicut). Value of mineral production, 1982-83, Rs 3 -22m. Agriculture. The state suffered three successive monsoon failures up to 1983, with severe effects on crops. The chief agricultural products are rice, tapioca, coconut, arecanut, cashewnut, oilseeds, pepper, sugar-cane, rubber, tea, coffee and cardamom. About 98% of Indian black pepper and about 95% of Indian rubber is produced in Kerala. Area and production of principal crops, 1982-83 (in 1,000 hectares and 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 778-5, 1,306; black pepper, 107-9, 26-8; arecanut, 58, 8,463 (million nuts); bananas and other plantains, 49-3, 293-8; cashewnuts, 139-5, 81-2; coconuts, 658-5, 2,444 (million nuts); tea, 36-1, 48-7; coffee, 57-9, 21-7;rubber,256-2,152-6; tapioca, 245-6,3,-486-6; cardamom, 54-5,1-9. Livestock (1972, provisional); Buffaloes, 469,515; other cattle, 2,855,856; sheep, 10,390; goats, 1,450,587. In 1981-82 production was: milk, 982,000 tonnes; meat, 17,500; feeds, 3,093. Egg production, 1982-83,3,366,000. Forestry. About 24% of the area is comprised of forests, including teak, sandal

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wood, ebony and blackwood and varieties of softwood. Net forest revenue, 1981-82, Rs 51 -9 crores, from timber, bamboos, reeds and ivory. Fisheries. Fishing is a flourishing industry; the catch in 1982 was about 351,000 tonnes. Fish exports, 1982-83,32,525 tonnes valued at Rs 141-5crores. I N D U S T R I E S . Most of the major industrial concerns are either owned or sponsored by the Government. Among the privately owned factories are the numerous cashew and coir factories. Other important factory industries are rubber, tea, tiles, oil, textiles, ceramics, fertilizers and chemicals, zinc-smelting, sugar, cement, rayon, glass, matches, pencils, monazite, ilmenite, titanium oxide, rare earths, aluminium, electrical goods, paper, shark-liver oil, etc. The number of factories registered under the Factories Act 1948 on 31 Dec. 1982 was 9,099, with daily average employment of303,588. Among the cottage industries, coir-spinning and handloom-weaving are the most important, forming the means of livelihood of a large section of the people. Other industries are the village oil industry, ivory carving, furniture-making, bell metal, brass and copper wate, leather goods, screw-pines, mat-making, rattan work, bee-keeping, pottery, etc. These have been organized on a co-operative basis. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 99,185 km of roads in the state; national highways, 839 km. There were 246,923 motor vehicles in 1982-83. Railways. There is a coastal line from Mangalore (Karnataka) which serves Cannanore, Mahe, Kozhikode (Calicut), Ernakulam (for Cochin), Quilon and Trivandrum, and connects them with main towns in Tamil Nadu. In 1982-83 there were 806 km broad gauge and 113 km metre gauge lines. Aviation. There are airports at Cochin and Trivandrum with regular scheduled services to Bombay and Madras; international flights leave Trivandrum for Sri Lanka. Shipping. Port Cochin, administered by the central government, is one of India's major ports; in 1983 it became the out-port for the Inland Container Depot at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu). There are 13 other ports and harbours. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The High Court at Ernakulam has a Chief Justice and 11 puisne judges and 4 additional judges. Religion. The majority are Hindus; other important faiths are Christianity and Islam. There are also some Jains. Education. Kerala is the most literate Indian State with 17m. literates at the 1981 census (70%). Education is free up to the age of 14. In 1982-83 there was a total school enrolment of 5-64m. students. There were 6,817 lower primary schools 2,763 upper primary schools and 2,154 high schools. Kerala University (established 1937) at Trivandrum, is affiliating and teaching; in 1982-83 it had 99 affiliated arts and science colleges. The University of Cochin is federal, and for post-graduate studies only. The University of Calicut (established 1968) is teaching and affiliating and has 69 affiliated colleges. Kerala Agricultural University (established 1971) has 3 constituent colleges. Gandhiji University at Kottayam was established in 1983.

MADHYA PRADESH H I S T O R Y . Under the provisions of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the State of Madhya Pradesh was formed on 1 Nov. 1956. It consists of the 17 Hindi districts of the previous state of that name, the former state of Madhya Bharat

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(except the Sunel enclave of Mandsaur district), the former state of Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh and the Sironj subdivision of Kotah district, which was an enclave of Rajasthan in Madhya Pradesh. For information on the former states, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK., 1958, pp. 180-84. EVENTS. More than 2,000 were killed by a leakage of toxic gas from a pesticide plant near Bhopal in Dec. 1984. the plant (Union Carbide) was closed. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in central India and is bounded north by Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, east by Bihar and Orissa, south by Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, west by Gujarat. Madhya Pradesh is the largest Indian state in size, with an area of 442,841 sq. km. In respect of population it ranks sixth. Population (1981 census), 52,138,467, an increase of25-15% since 1971. Density, 118 persq. km. Cities with over 250,000 population, see p. 614. Other large cities (1981): Sagar, 207,401; Bilaspur, 186,885; Ratlam, 156,490; Burhanpur, 141,142; MudwariKatni, 125,096; Khandwa, 114,463; Rewa, 100,519. The number of persons speaking each of the more prevalent languages (1971 census) were: Hindi, 32,873,079; Urdu, 988,275; Marathi, 1,385,952; Gujarati, 155,723. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Madhya Pradesh is one of the 9 states for which the Constitution provides a bicameral legislature, but the Vidhan Parishad or Upper House (to consist of 90 members) has yet to be formed. The Vidhan Sabha or Lower House has 320 elected members. Following the election of March 1985, a Congress government was returned, with 250 out of350 seats. For administrative purposes the state has been split into 11 divisions with a Commissioner at the head of each; the headquarters of these are located at Bhopal, Bilaspur, Gwalior (2), Hoshangabad, Indore, Jabalpur, Raipur, Rewa, Sagar and Ujjain. There are 45 districts. The seat of government is at Bhopal. Governor: Prof. K. M. Chandy. ChiefMinister: (Vacant). B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1982-83 showed total revenue of Rs 14,26,51 -83 lakhs, and expenditure of Rs 12,68,30 lakhs. Receipts included: Contributions and adjustments between central and state governments, Rs 4,84,55-97 lakhs; taxes on income, Rs 81,92 lakhs; state excise, Rs 68,63 • 70 lakhs; stamps and registration, Rs 26,45 lakhs; forests, Rs 1,95,00 lakhs; sales tax, Rs 2,40,96 lakhs; vehicles taxes, Rs 26,11 lakhs; debt services, Rs 77,49-27 lakhs; civil administration, Rs 22,39-68 lakhs; land revenue, Rs 12,98-00 lakhs. Expenditure included: Education, Rs 2,11,24-16 lakhs; public works and improvements, Rs 55,26-89 lakhs; irrigation, embankment, etc., Rs 40,24 -01 lakhs; medical, and public health, Rs 1,34,46-65 lakhs; police, Rs 83,32-72 lakhs; agriculture, Rs 40,94-18 lakhs; general administration, Rs 20,13-25 lakhs; debt services, Rs 1,19,05-35 lakhs; community projects and local development, Rs 65,80-76 lakhs; industries, Rs 16,41-25 lakhs; forests, Rs 1,05,66-69 lakhs; social security and welfare, Rs 71,88-49 lakhs. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Madhya Pradesh is rich in low-grade coal suitable for power generation, and also has immense potential hydro-electric energy. The present installed capacity is 1,630-5 mw; of this 193 mw from hydro-electric power stations. The thermal power stations are at Korba in Bilaspur district, Amarkantak in Shahdol district and Satpura in Betul district; new stations are being built. The only hydroelectric power station is at Gandhi Sagar lake in Mandsaur district; this, with a maximum water surface of 165 sq. miles, is the biggest man-made lake in Asia.

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Water. Major irrigation projects include the Chambal Valley scheme (started in 1952 with Rajasthan), the Tawa project in Hoshangabad district, the Barna and Hasdeo schemes, the Mahanadi canal system and schemes in the Narmada valley at Bargi and Narmadasagar. Total irrigation potential in 1983, 10m. hectares, of which 3m. had been achieved. Minerals. The state has extensive mineral deposits including coal (35% of national deposits), iron ore (30%) and manganese (50%), bauxite (44%), ochre, sillimanite, limestone, dolomite, rock phosphate, copper, lead, tin, fluorite, barytes, china clay and fireclay, corundum, gold, diamonds, pyrophyllite and diaspore, lepidolite, asbestos, vermiculite, mica, glass sand, quartz, felspars, bentonite and building stone. In 1980 the output of major minerals was (in tonnes): Coal, 25- lm.; limestone, 6-53m.; dolomite, 770,000; diamonds, 14,432 carats; bauxite, 470,000; iron ore, 9 • 7m.; manganese ore, 270,000. Value of production, 1980, Rs 3,626m. Agriculture. Agriculture is the mainstay of the state's economy and 80% of the people are rural. Over 42% of the land area is cultivable, of which 13% is irrigated. The Malwa region abounds in rich black cotton soil, the low-lying areas of Gwalior, Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand and the Chhatisgarh plains have a lighter sandy soil, while the Narmada valley is formed of deep rich alluvial deposits. Production of principal crops, 1980-81 (in tonnes): Foodgrains, 12-4m.; sugar-cane (gur), 107,000; oilseeds, 608,000, and cotton, 268,000 bales (of 170 kg). Livestock (1977 census): Buffaloes, 5,852,549; other cattle, 34,256,725; sheep, 968,595; goats, 6,573,467; horses and ponies, 121,908. Forestry. In 1982 155,411 sq. km, or about 35% of the state's area was covered by forests. The forests are chiefly of sal, saja, bija, bamboo and teak. They are the chief source in India of best-quality teak; they also provide firewood for about 60% of domestic fuel needs, and form valuable watershed protection. I N D U S T R Y . The major industries are the steel plant at Bhilai, Bharat Heavy Electricals at Bhopal, the aluminium plant at Korba, the security paper mills at Hoshangabad, the Bank Note Press at Dewas, the newsprint mill at Nepanagar and alkaloid factory at Neemuch, cement factories, vehicle factory, ordnance factory, and gun carriage factory. There are also 23 textile mills, 7 of them nationalized. The Bhilai steel plant near Durg is one of the 6 major steel mills. A power station at Korba (Bilaspur) with a capacity of420 mw serves Bhilai, the aluminium plant and the Korba coalfield. The heavy electricals factory was set up by the Government of India at Bhopal during the second-plan period. This is India's first heavy electrical equipment factory and also one of the largest of its type in Asia. It makes a variety of highly complicated equipment required for generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electric power. Other industries include cement, sugar, straw board, paper, vegetable oil, refractories, potteries, textile machinery, steel casting and rerolling, industrial gases, synthetic fibres, drugs, biscuit manufacturing, engineering, tools, rayon and art silk. The number of heavy and medium industries in the state is 193, with 181 ancillary industries; the number of small-scale industries in production is 77,360. Thirtynine out of 45 districts in the state are categorized as industrially backward districts. The main industrial development agencies are Madhya Pradesh Financial Corporation, Madhya Pradesh Audyogik Vikas Nigam Ltd, Madhya Pradesh State Industries Corporation, Madhya Pradesh Laghu Udyog Nigam, Madhya Pradesh State Textile Corporation, Madhya Pradesh Handicrafts Board, Khadi and Village Industries Board and Madhya Pradesh State Mining Corporation. The state is known for its traditional village and home crafts such as handloom weaving, best developed at Chanderi and Maheshwar, toys, pottery, lacework, woodwork, zari work, leather work and metal utensils. The ancillary industries of dyeing, calico printing and bleaching are centred in areas of textile production.

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of roads in 1982 was 65,889 km, of which 50,934 km were surfaced. In 1977-78 there were 225,278 motor vehicles. Railways. Bhopal, Bilaspur, Katni, Khandwarand Ratlam are important junctions for the central and northern networks. Aviation. There are airports at Bhopal, Indore, Jabalpur, Khajuraho and Raipur with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Jabalpur has a Chief Justice and 21 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 39,024,162; Moslems, 1,815,685; Christians, 286,072; Buddhists, 81,823; Sikhs, 98,973. Education. The 1981 census showed 14-5m. people to be literate. Education is free for children aged up to 14. In 1975-76 there were 355 higher educational institutions. Primary schools ( 1974-75) had 3 • 5m. pupils and higher secondary schools, 620,897 pupils. There are 10 universities in Madhya Pradesh: the University of Sagar (established 1946), at Sagar, had 53 affiliated colleges and 26,516 students in 1975; Jabalpur University (1957) had 30 affiliated colleges and 12,962 students; Vikram University (1957), at Ujjain, had 46 affiliated colleges and 38,011 students; Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya (1956), at Khairagarh, had 9 affiliated colleges and 1,164 students on roll (this university teaches music and fine arts); Indore University (1964) had 21 affiliated colleges and 22,915 students; Jivagi University ( 1963), at Gwalior, had 43 affiliated colleges and 31,462 students; Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi University (1964), at Jabalpur, had 9 affiliated colleges and 2,274 students in 1964; Ravishankar University (1964), at Raipur, had 63 affiliated colleges and 41,607 students. In 1975-76 there were 256 degree-granting colleges, 19 teachertraining colleges, and 71 professional colleges including polytechnics.

MAHARASHTRA HISTORY. Under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, Bombay State was formed by merging the states of Kutch and Saurashtra and the Marathi-speaking areas of Hyderabad (commonly known as Marathwada) and Madhya Pradesh (also called Vidarbha) in the old state of Bombay, after the transfer from that state of the Kannada-speaking areas of the Belgaum, Bijapur, Kanara and Dharwar districts which were added to the state of Mysore, and the Abu Road taluka of Banaskantha district, which went to the state of Rajasthan. By the Bombay Reorganization Act, 1960, which came into force 1 May 1960, 17 districts (predominantly Gujarati-speaking) in the north and west of Bombay State became the new state of Gujarat, and the remainder was renamed Maharashtra. The state of Maharashtra consists of the following districts of the former Bombay State: Ahmednagar, Akola, Amravati, Aurangabad, Bhandara, Bhir, Buldana, Chanda, Dhulia (West Khandesh), Greater Bombay, Jalgaon (East Khandesh), Kolaba, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Nanded, Nasik, Osmanabad, Parbhani, Pune, Ratnagiri, Sangli, Satara, Sholapur, Thana, Wardha, Yeotmal; certain portions of Thana and Dhulia districts have become part of Gujarat. AREA A N D POPULATION. Maharashtra is in central India and is bounded north and east by Madhya Pradesh, south by Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Goa, west by the Indian ocean and north-west by Daman and Gujarat. The state has an area of 307,762 sq. km. The population at the 1981 census was 62,693,898 (an increase of 24 -36% since 1971), of whom about 30m. were Marathi-speaking.

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Density, 204 per sq. km. The area of Greater Bombay was 603 sq. km. and its population 8,227,000. For other principal cities, see p. 614. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Maharashtra has a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Council has 78 members. The Legislative Assembly has 287 elected members and 1 member nominated by the Governor to represent the Anglo-Indian community. Following the election of March 1985 Congress (I) held 161 seats; Congress (U), 56; JMM, 20; CPI, 16; others, 35. The Council of Ministers consists of the Chief Minister, 13 other Ministers, 12 Ministers of State and 5 Deputy Ministers. The capital is Bombay. Governor: H. Latif. Chief Minister: Vasant Patil. B U D G E T . Budget estimates, 1980-81, show revenue receipts of Rs 1,921-97 crores, revenue account expenditure Rs 1,857 -39 crores. Capital account receipts, Rs 799-03 crores; expenditure, Rs 873-33 crores. The estimates for 1981-82 showed a deficit of Rs 291 m. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity, 1984, 4,358 mw. (2,351 mw. thermal, 1,897 mw. hydro-electricity and 210 mw. nuclear). Minerals. Value of production, 1976, Rs 26-7m. The state has coal, chromite, limestone, iron ore, manganese, bauxite. Agriculture. About 10% of the cropped area is irrigated. In 1984-85 there was severe drought in 21 of the state's 30 districts. The 1984 monsoon-season harvest failed, and the winter-season harvest was poor. In normal seasons the main food crops are rice, wheat, jowar, bajri and pulses. Main cash crops: cotton, sugar-cane, groundnuts. Livestock (1972 census): Buffaloes, 3,300,746; other cattle, 14,705,147; sheep, 2,128,036;goats, 5,910,554; horses and ponies, 58,287; poultry, 12,216,567. Forestry. Forests occupy 17 -4% of the state. I N D U S T R Y . Industry is concentrated mainly in Bombay, Pune and Thana. The main groups are chemicals and products, textiles, electrical and non-electrical machinery, petroleum and products, and food products. The state industrial development corporation had invested Rs 840m. in 57 industrial estates by 1980. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 March 1975 there were 89,007 km of roads, of which 41,484 km were surfaced. There were 432,901 motor vehicles in 1976. Passenger and freight transport has been nationalized. Railways. The total length of railway is about 5,162 km. The main junctions and termini are Bombay, Manmad, Akola, Nagpur, Pune and Sholapur. Aviation. The main airport is Bombay, which has national and international flights. Nagpur airport is on the route from Bombay to Calcutta and there are also airports at Pune and Aurangabad. Shipping. Maharashtra has a coastline of 720 km. Bombay is the major port, and there are 42 minor ports. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N AND EDUCATION Justice. The High Court has a Chief Justice and 27 judges. There are 8 additional judges. The seat of the High Court is Bombay, but it has a bench at Nagpur.

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Religion. At the 1961 census Hindus numbered 32,530,901; Moslems, 3,034,332; Buddhists, 2,789,501 ; Christians, 560,594; Jains, 485,672; Sikhs, 57,617. Education. The number of literates, according to the 1981 census, was 29 -6m. The total number of recognized institutions in 1975 was 56,656, with 10,528,258 students. Higher and secondary schools numbered 6,579 with 2,986,636 pupils; primary schools, 48,018, with 7,367,045 pupils; pre-primary schools, 827 with 62,781. Bombay University, founded in 1857, is mainly ai. affiliating university. It has 99 constituent colleges and 21 post-graduate departments in Bombay with a total ( 1975-76) of 137,922 students. Colleges in Goa can affiliate to Bombay University. Nagpur University (1923) is both teaching and affiliating. In addition to the 26 post-graduate departments there were (1975—76) 140 affiliated colleges and constituent colleges with 87,153 students. Pune University, founded in 1948, is teaching and affiliating; in 1975-76 it had 103 affiliated colleges and constituent colleges, 26 post-graduate departments and a total of 88,232 students. The SNDT Women's University had, in 1975-76, 16 constituent colleges and affiliated colleges with a total of9,911 students. Marathwada University, Aurangabad, was founded in 1958 as a teaching and affiliating body to control colleges in the Marathwada or Marathi-speaking area, previously under Osmania University; in 1975-76 there were 82 affiliated and constituent colleges and 6 post-graduate departments and 71,419 students. Shiwaji University, Kolhapur, was established in 1963 to control affiliated colleges previously under Pune University. In 1975-76 it had 84 affiliated and constituent colleges and 14 post-graduate departments and 65,526 students. There are 4 agricultural universities with 16 affiliated colleges and 6,114 students in 1975-76. There were altogether 682 institutions for higher education in 1975-76, with 474,067 students. Statistical Information: The Director of Publicity, Sachivalaya, Bombay. Annual Statistical Abstract (from 1951) Tindall, G., City of Gold, London, 1982

MANIPUR HISTORY. Formerly a state under the political control of the Government of India, Manipur, on 15 Aug. 1947, entered into interim arrangements with the Indian Union and the political agency was abolished. The administration was taken over by the Government of India on 15 Oct. 1949 under a merger agreement, and it is centrally administered by the Government of India through a Chief Commissioner. In 1950-51 an Advisory form of Government was introduced. In 1957 this was replaced by a Territorial Council of 30 elected and 2 nominated members. Later in 1963 a Legislative Assembly of 30 elected and 3 nominated members was established under the Government of Union Territories Act 1963. Because of the unstable party position in the Assembly, it had to be dissolved on 16 Oct. 1969 and President's Rule introduced. The status of the administrator was raised from Chief Commissioner to Lieut.-Governor with effect from 19 Dec. 1969. On the 21 Jan. 1972 Manipur became a state and the status of the administrator was changed from Lieut.-Governor to Governor. AREA AND POPULATION. The state is in north-east India and is bounded north by Nagaland, east by Burma, south by Burma and Mizoram, and west by Assam. Manipur has an area of 22,356 sq. km and a population (1981) of 1,433,691. Density, 64 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 33-65%. The valley, which is about 1,813 sq. km, is 2,600 ft above sea-level. The hills rise in places to nearly 10,000 ft, but are mostly about 5,000-6,000 ft. The average annual rainfall is 65 in. The hill areas are inhabited by various hill tribes who constitute about onethird of the total population of the state. There are about 40 tribes and sub-tribes falling into two main groups of Nagas and Kukis. Manipuri and English are the official languages. A large number of dialects are spoken, while Hindi is gradually becoming prevalent.

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C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . With the attainment of statehood, Manipur has a Legislative Assembly of 60 members, of which 19 are from reserved tribal constituencies. There are 6 districts. Capital, Imphal (population, 1981,155,639). Presidential rule was imposed in Feb. 1981. Governor: Gen. K. V. Krishna Rao. B U D G E T . Revised estimates for 1977-78 show revenue ofRs 4,247-82 lakhs and expenditure on revenue account of Rs 4,774-24 lakhs. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity (1983) is 22 mw. from diesel generators. This has been augmented since 1981 by the North Eastern Regional Grid. In 1983 there were 488 villages with electricity. Water. The main power, irrigation and flood-control schemes are the Loktak Lift Irrigation scheme (irrigation potential, 40,000 hectares of which (1983) 19,000 have been achieved); the Singda scheme (potential 4,000 hectares, and improved water supply for Imphal); the Thoubal scheme (potential 34,000 hectares, 7-5 mw. of electricity and 10 MGD of water supply), and four other large projects. Agriculture. Rice is the principal crop; with wheat, maize and pulses. Total foodgrains, 1982-83,358,000 tonnes. Agricultural work force, about 348,000. Only 210,000 hectares are cultivable, of which 186,000 are under paddy. Fruit and vegetables are important in the valley, including pineapplq, oranges, bananas, mangoes, pears, peaches and plums. Soil erosion, produced by shifting cultivation, is being halted by terracing. Forests. Forests occupy about 15,154 sq km. The main products are teak, juijan, pine; there are also large areas of bamboo and cane, especially in the Jiri and Barak river drainage areas, yielding about 300,000 tonnes annually. Total revenue from forests, 1981-82, Rs3-9m. Fisheries. Landings in 1981-82,3,450 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y . Handloom weaving is a popular industry. Larger-scale industries include sugar, cement, starch and glucose. Sericulture produces about 45 tonnes of raw silk annually. Estimated non-agricultural work force, 240,000. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . A national highway from Kazirangar (Assam) runs through Imphal to the Burmese frontier. There are no railways, but the highway runs through Dimapur which has a rail-head, 215 km. from Imphal. There is an airport at Imphal with regular scheduled services to Gauhati and Calcutta. EDUCATION AND HEALTH Education. The 1981 census gave the number of literates as 600,000. In 1982-83 there were 2,821 primary schools, 459 middle schools, 301 high and higher schools and 23 colleges, as well as Manipur University. Health. In 1977-78 there were 33 hospitals (including primary health centres) and 125 dispensaries (including primary health centres).

MEGHALAYA H I S T O R Y . The state was created under the Assam Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act 1969 and inaugurated on 2 April 1970. Its status was that of a state within the State of Assam until 21 Jan. 1972 when it became a fully independent state of the Union. It consists of the former Garo Hills district and United Khasi and Jaintia Hills district of Assam.

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A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Meghalaya is bounded north and east by Assam, south and west by Bangladesh. In 1981 (census figure) the area was 22,489 sq. km and the population 1,327,824. Density 59 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,31 -25%. The people are mainly ofthe Khasi, Jaintia and Garo tribes. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Meghalaya has a unicameral legislature. The Legislative Assembly has 60 seats. Party position in summer 1984: Meghalaya Democratic Front, 37 (including 31 Congress I); opposition, 13. There are 2 districts. The capital is Shillong. Governor: B. N. Singh. Chief Minister: W. A. Sangma. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1981-82 showed a deficit of Rs 6-6m. Annual Plan expenditure, 1984-85, Rs 65 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Total installed capacity (1977) was 65-2 mw. 388 villages had electricity. Minerals. The United Khasi and Jaintia Hills district produces coal, sillimanite (95% of India's total output), limestone, white clay and corundum. The state also has deposits of coal (estimated reserves 1,200m. tonnes), limestone (2,100m.), fire clay (100,000) and sandstone which are virtually untapped because of transport difficulties. Value of production, 1976, Rs 3 -26m. Agriculture. About 80% of the people depend on agriculture, and 27% of the cultivable area is irrigated. Principal crops are potatoes, fresh fruit and cotton. Production 1978 (in 1,000 tonnes): Foodgrains, 130; potatoes, 71; tapioca, 5; jute, 50,000 bales (of 180 kg). Annual production (in 1,000 tonnes, estimated) of pineapples, 70; oranges, 80; bananas, 35. Forest products are the state's chief resources. I N D U S T R Y . Apart from agriculture the main source of employment is the extraction and processing of minerals; there are also important timber processing mills. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . A national highway from Gauhati (Assam) runs through Dispur and Shillong. The state has no railways. There is no airport but Gauhati airport is on the northern boundary. J U S T I C E . There is a High Court at Shillong which is common to Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and the Union Territories of Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.

NAGALAND H I S T O R Y . The territory was constituted by the Union Government in Sept. 1962. It comprises the former Naga Hills district of Assam and the former Tuensang Frontier division of the North-East Frontier Agency; these had been made a Centrally Administered Area in 1957, administered by the President through the Governor of Assam. In Jan. 1961 the area was renamed and given the status of a state of the Indian Union, which was officially inaugurated on 1 Dec. 1963. For some years a section of the Naga leaders sought independence. Military operations from 1960 and the prospect of self-government within the Indian Union led to a general reconciliation, but rebel activity continued. A 2-month amnesty in mid 1963 had little effect. A 'ceasefire' in Sept. 1964 was followed by talks between a Government of India delegation and rebel leaders. The peace period was extend-

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ed and the 'Revolutionary Government of Nagaland' (a breakaway group from the Naga Federal Government) was dissolved in 1973. Further talks with the Naga underground movement resulted in the Shillong Peace Agreement of Nov. 1975. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The state is in the extreme north-east and is bounded west and north by Assam, east by Burma and south by Manipur. Nagaland has an area of 16,527 sq. km and a population (1981) census of 773,281. Density 47 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 49-73%. Towns include Kohima, Mokokchung, Tuensang and Dimapur. The chief tribes in numerical order are: Angami, Ao, Sema, Konyak, Chakhesang, Lotha, Phom, Khiamngan, Chang, Yimchunger, Zeliang-Kuki, Rengmaand Sangtam. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . An Interim Body (Legislative Assembly) of 42 members elected by the Naga people and an Executive Council (Council of Ministers) of 5 members were formed in 1961, and continued until the State Assembly was elected in Jan. 1964. The initial strength of this Assembly was 46, with 8 cabinet ministers. Since 1974 there have been 60 members. The Governor has extraordinary powers, which include special responsibility for law and order. On 17 Nov. 1982 a Congress (I) government took office. There are 10 cabinet ministers and 10 ministers of state. The state has 7 districts (Kohima, Mon, Zunheboto, Wokha, Phek, Mokokchung and Tuensang). The capital is Kohima. Governor: Gen. K. V. Krishna Rao. Chief Minister: S. C. Jamir. B U D G E T . The budget (estimate) for 1984-85 is Rs 187-18 crores. Plan outlay, Rs 56 crores; non-plan, Rs 131-18 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity (1984) 5-12 mw; 580 towns and villages (out of 814) had electricity in 1984. Agriculture. More than 80% of the people derive their livelihood from agriculture. The Angamis, in Kohima district, practise a fixed agriculture in the shape of terraced slopes, and wet paddy cultivation in the lowlands. In the other two districts a traditional form of shifting cultivation (jhumming) still predominates, but some farmers have begun tea and coffee plantations and horticulture. About 66,120 hectares were under terrace cultivation and 44,810 under jhumming in 1982. Production of rice (1981) was 13 5,000 tonnes. Forests covered 288,252 hectares in 1981. I N D U S T R Y . There is a forest products factory at Tijit; a paper-mill (100 tonnes daily capacity) at Tuli, a distillery unit and a sugar-mill (1,200 tonnes daily capacity) at Dimapur. There are also over 1,000 smallunits. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S . There is a national highway from Kaziranga (Assam) to Kohima and on to Manipur. There are state highways connecting Kohima with the district headquarters. There were 16,972 motor vehicles in 1983. Dimapur has a rail-head and a daily air service to Calcutta. R E L I G I O N AND EDUCATION Religion. Christianity is the main religion; there are also Hindus, Moslems, and followers of indigenous faiths. Education. The 1981 census records 300,000 literates, or 41-9%: 49 -16% of men and 33-72% of women. In 1984 there were 3 government and 10 private colleges, 59 government and 50 private high schools, 173 government and 147 private middle schools and 1,224 primary schools, 1 polytechnic, 1 agricultural college, 2 law colleges. The North Eastern Hill University opened in 1978. Aram, M., Peace in Nagaland, New Delhi, 1974

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ORISSA H I S T O R Y . Orissa, ceded to the Mahrattas by Alivardi Khan in 1751, was conquered by the British in 1803. In 1803 a board of 2 commissioners was appointed to administer the province, but in 1805 it was designated the district of Cuttack and was placed in charge of a collector, judge and magistrate. In 1829 it was split up into 3 regulation districts of Cuttack, Balasore and Puri, and the nonregulation tributary states which were administered by their own chiefs under the aegis of the British Government. Angul, one of these tributary states, was annexed in 1847, and with the Khondmals, ceded in 1835 by the tributary chief of the Boudh state, constituted a separate non-regulation district. Sambalpur was transferred from the Central Provinces to Orissa in 1905. These districts formed an outlying tract of the Bengal Presidency till 1912, when they were transferred to Bihar, constituting one of its divisions under a commissioner. Orissa was constituted a separate province on 1 April 1936, some portions of the Central Provinces and Madras being transferred to the old Orissa division. The rulers of 25 Orissa states surrendered all jurisdiction and authority to the Government of India on 1 Jan. 1948, on which date the Provincial Government took over the administration. The administration of 2 states, viz., Saraikella and Khars wan, was transferred to the Government of Bihar in May 1948. By an agreement with the Dominion Government, Mayurbhanj State was finally merged with the province on 1 Jan. 1949. By the States Merger (Governors' Provinces) Order, 1949, the states were completely merged with the state of Orissa on 19 Aug. 1949. E V E N T S . Serious flooding in Aug. 1982 caused the deaths of about 1,000 people. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Orissa is in eastern India and is bounded north by Bihar, north-east by West Bengal, east by the Bay of Bengal, south by Andhra Pradesh and west by Madhya Pradesh. The area of the state is 155,707 sq. km, and its population (1981 census), 26,370,271, density 169 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 20 17%. The second-largest city next to Cuttack (327,412) is Rourkela (322,610). The principal language is Oriya, which will be the official language from 1 April 1985. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Legislative Assembly has 147 members. After the election in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. The state consists of 13 districts. The capital is Bhubaneswar (18 miles south of Cuttack). Governor: B. N. Pandey. ChiefMinister:S. B. Patnaik. B U D G E T . Budget estimates, 1980-81 showed total revenue of Rs 1,257-3 crores and expenditure of Rs 1,235-6 crores (capital and revenue accounts). ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. The Hirakud Dam Project on the river Mahanadi (started 1949) irrigates 628,000 acres and has a scheduled capacity of 270,000 kw. The dam (the largest earth dam in the world) was completed in 1957. Hydro-electric power totalling 85,000 kw. is now serving a large part of the state. The installed capacity of the Machkund hydro-electric project (financed jointly with Andhra Pradesh) is 114,750 kw. Total installed capacity, 1979, 923 mw.; there were 20,953 electrified villages in 1981. Minerals. Orissa is India's leading producer of chromite (95% of national output), dolomite (50%), manganese ore (25%), graphite (80%), iron ore (16%), fire-clay (34%), limestone (20%), and quartz-quartzite (18%). Production in 1980 (1,000

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tonnes): iron ore, 7,019; manganese ore, 568; chromite, 261; coal, 3,042; limestone, 2,591; dolomite, 761; fire-clay, 100; china clay, 31; graphite, 32; quartz and quartzite, 53; lead ore, 40. About 56,000 workers are employed in the mines. Value of mineral production annually is about Rs 900m. Agriculture. The cultivation of rice is the principal occupation of nearly 80% of the population. Production amounted to4-44m. tonnes in 1978-79; only a very small amount of other cereals is grown. Production of foodgrains (1978-79) totalled 5-7m. tonnes from 6-7m. hectares. Jute (439,000 tonnes), wheat (110,000 tonnes), oilseeds (426,950 tonnes) and sugar-cane (281,000 tonnes) are also grown. Turmeric is cultivated in the uplands of the districts of Ganjam, Phulbani and Koraput, and is exported. Livestock (1977 census): Buffaloes, 1,358,451; other cattle, 121m.; sheep, 1 • 5m.; goats, 3 -4m.; horses and ponies, 3,675. Forests. Forests occupy about 43% of the area of the state, the most important species being sal, teak, kendu, sandal, sisu, bija, kuruma, kongada and bamboo. Fisheries. There were, in 1981,484 fishery co-operative societies. I N D U S T R Y. Fifty-five large industries have been set up (1978-79), mostly based on minerals, including the steel plant of Hindustan Steel Ltd at Rourkela, a pigiron plant at Barbil, a ferrochrome plant, 2 ferromanganese plants at Joda and Rayagada, 1 ferrosilicon plant at Theruvelli and an aluminium smelter plant at Hirakud, 4 refractory plants and 2 cement plants. There are 3 large paper mills at Rayagada, Chowdwar and Brajrajnagar, two fertilizer plants, a caustic soda plant, a salt manufacturing unit and an industrial explosives plant. An aluminiumalumina plant at Damanjodi was begun in 1981. Other industries of importance are sugar, glass, aluminium, heavy machine tools, a re-rolling mill and textile mills. There are cottage and small-scale industries in the state, e.g., handloom weaving and the manufacture of baskets, wooden articles, hats and nets; silver filigree work and hand-woven fabrics are specially well known. T O U R I S M . Tourist traffic is concentrated mainly on the 'Golden Triangle', Konark, Puri and Bhubaneswar, and its temples. Tourists also visit Gopalpur, the Similipal Forest and Chilka Lake. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 March 1980 length of roads was: State highway, 2,821 km; national highway, 1,631 km; major district roads, 4,974 km; other district roads, 2,748 km; village roads, about 5,796 km. There were 94,156 motor vehicles in 1979. A 144-km expressway, part national highway, connects the Daitari mining area with Paradip Port. Railways. The total length of railway in 1979 was 1,948 km, of which 1,310 km was single line. Aviation. There is an airport at Bhubaneswar with regular scheduled services to New Delhi, Calcutta, Vizag and Hyderabad. Shipping. Paradip was declared a 'major' port in 1966 and has been developed to handle 4m. tons of traffic. Other minor ports at Chandbali and Gopalpur. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Cuttack has a Chief Justice and 6 puisne judges. Religion. There were in 1971: Hindus (including scheduled castes and scheduled tribes), 21,121,056; Christians, 378,888; Moslems, 326,507; Sikhs, 10,204; Buddhists, 8,462; Jains, 6,521. Education. The percentage of literates in the population is 34-12% (males, 46 -9%, females, 21 11%).

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In 1981-82 there were 32,797 primary, 7,413 middle English and 2,466 high schools. Utkal University was established in 1943 at Cuttack and moved to Bhubaneswar in 1962; it is both teaching and affiliating. It has 2 university colleges (law) and 113 affiliated colleges. Berhampur University has 20 affiliated colleges and Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology 4 constituent colleges. Sambalpur University has 42 affiliated colleges. Sri Jagannath Sanskrit Viswavidyalaya University was established in 1981 for oriental studies.

PUNJAB (INDIA) H I S T O R Y . The Punjab was constituted an autonomous province of India in 1937. In 1947, the province was partitioned between India and Pakistan into East and West Punjab respectively, under the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the boundaries being determined under the Radcliffe Award. The name of East Punjab was changed to Punjab (India) under the Constitution of India. On 1 Nov. 1956 the erstwhile states of Punjab and Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) were integrated to form the state of Punjab. On 1 Nov. 1966, under the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966, the state was reconstituted as a Punjabi-speaking state comprising the districts of Gurdaspur (excluding Dalhousie), Amritsar, Kapurthala, Jullundur, Ferozepore, Bhatinda, Patiala and Ludhiana; parts of Sangrur, Hoshiarpur and Ambala districts; and part of Kharar tehsil. The remaining area comprising an area of 18,000 sq. miles and an estimated (1967) population of 8-5m. was shared between the new state of Haryana and the Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh. The existing capital of Chandigarh was made the joint capital of Punjab and Haryana. EVENTS. The Akali Dal party has continued its campaign for Sikh autonomy; violent incidents precipitated the imposition of President's rule. Armed separatists were driven out of their headquarters in the Golden Temple at Amritsar by government troops, on 6 June 1984. In retaliation for this, two Sikhs murdered the Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, on 31 Oct. 1984. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Punjab is in north India and is bounded at its northernmost point by Kashmir, north-east by Himachal Pradesh, south-east by Haryana, south by Rajasthan, west and north-west by Pakistan. The area of the state is 50,376 sq. km, with census (1981) population of 16,669,755. Density 331 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971—81,23-01%. The largest cities, see p. 614. The official language is Punjabi. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Punjab (India) has a unicameral legislature of 117 members. The Legislative Council was abolished in Jan. 1970. The Legislative Assembly was composed as follows after the election of May 1980: Congress (I), 64; Akali Dal, 36; others, 17. President's rule was imposed in Oct. 1983, and later extended. There are 12 districts. The capital is Chandigarh (see p. 676). There are 104 municipalities, 118 community development blocks and 9,331 elected village panchayats. Governor: A. Singh. B U D G E T . Budget estimates, 1984-85, showed a surplus of Rs 135 -52 croreson revenue account and a deficit of Rs 240-61 crores on capital account. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity, 1979, was 1,541 mw; all villages had electricity. Agriculture. About 75% of the population depends on agriculture. Agricultural prosperity is mainly due to irrigation. The irrigated area rose from 2 -21 m. hectares

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in 1950-51 to 5-5m. hectares in 1978-79: total production of foodgrains rose from 1 -99m. tonnes to 11 -9m. tonnes in 1980-81. Production in 1,000 tonnes (area in 1,000 hectares) in 1980-81: Wheat, 7,677 (2,812); maize, 605 (378); rice, 3,223 (1,178); oil-seeds, 167 (220); sugar-cane (gur), 397 (72); cotton, 605,000 bales (of 180 kg) from 1,178 hectares. Livestock (1972 census): Buffaloes, 3,839,200; other cattle, 3-41m.; sheep and goats, 1,205,400; horses and ponies, 54,700; poultry, 3m. Forestry. In 1981 there were 260,235 hectares offorest land, of which 130,008 hectares belonged to the Forest Department. INDUSTRY. In Jan. 1981 the number of registered factories in the Punjab (India) was 7,397; 7,053 operational factories employed about 210,735 people. The chief manufactures are textiles (especially woollen hosiery), sewing machines, sports goods, sugar, starch, fertilizers, bicycles, scientific instruments, electrical goods, machine tools and pine oil. In 1981 there were 61,667 important small manufacturing units. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total length of metalled roads on 31 March 1980 was 33,288 km. State transport services cover 671,000 route km daily with a fleet of2,776 buses carrying a daily average of lm passengers. Coverage by private operators is estimated as 40%. In 1978 there were 276,748 motor vehicles. Railways. The Punjab possesses an extensive system of railway communications, served by the Northern Railway. Total length, (1980) 3,511 - 4 km. Aviation. There is an airport at Amritsar, and Chandigarh airport is on the north-eastern boundary; both have regular scheduled services to Delhi. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Punjab and Haryana High Court exercises jurisdiction over the states of Punjab and Haryana and the territory of Chandigarh. It is located in Chandigarh. It consists (1981) of a Chief Justice and 19 puisne judges. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 5,037,235; Sikhs, 8,159,172; Moslems, 114,447; Christians, 162,202; Jains, 21,383; Buddhists, 1,374. Education. Compulsory education was introduced in April 1961; at the same time free education was introduced up to 8th class for boys and 9th class for girls as well as fee concessions. The aim is education for all children of 6-11. In 1980 there were 17,784 primary schools, 1,432 middle schools and 2,313 higher secondary schools. Punjab University was established in 1947 at Chandigarh as an examining, teaching and affiliating body. It is shared with Haryana and Himachal Pradesh. In 1962 Punjabi University was established at Patiala and an agricultural university at Ludhiana. Guru Nanak University has been established at Amritsar to mark the 500th anniversary celebrations for Guru Nanak Dev, first Guru of the Sikhs. Altogether there are 202 affiliated colleges, 160 for arts and science, 18 for teacher training, 8 medical, 2 dental, 2 engineering and 12 for other studies. Health. Punjab claims the longest life expectancy (57-9 years for women, 58 -5 for men) and lowest death rate (8-9 per 1,000). There were (1980) 254 hospitals, 467 Ayurvedic and Unani hospitals and dispensaries, 129 primary health centres and 1,485 dispensaries. Singh, Khushwant, A History of the Sikhs. 2 vols. Princeton and OUP, 1964-67

RAJASTHAN HISTORY. As a result of the implementation of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the erstwhile state of Ajmer, Abu Taluka of Bombay State and the Sunel

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Tappa enclave of the former state of Madhya Bharat were transferred to the state of Rajasthan on 1 Nov. 1956, whereas the Sironj subdivision of Rajasthan was transferred to the state of Madhya Pradesh. AREA AND POPULATION. Rajasthan is in north-west India and is bounded north by Punjab, north-east by Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, east by Madhya Pradesh, south by Gujarat and west by Pakistan. The area of the state is 342,239 sq. km and its population (census 1981, revised), 34,261,862, density 100 persq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,32 • 36%. The chief cities, see p. 614. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . There is a unicameral legislature, the Legislative Assembly, having 200 members. After the election in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. The capital is Jaipur. There are 27 districts. Governor; Air Chief-Marshal O. P. Mehra. Chief Minister: H. D. Joshi.

BUDGET. Revised estimates for 1983-84 show total revenue receipts of Rs 1,148-82 crores, and expenditure of Rs 1,111 - 61 crores. Receipts included: share in Central taxes, Rs 242-01 crores; state excise, Rs 59-42 crores, sales tax, Rs 248 crores; vehicles taxes, Rs 53 crores; non-tax revenue, Rs 476-77 crores. Expenditure included: Education, Rs 262-46 crores; water and power, Rs 121-25 crores; medical and public health, Rs 88-85 crores; agriculture, Rs 150-93 crores. Gross Plan expenditure, Rs 450-68 crores (of which Rs 200-98 crores were for irrigation and power). ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity in March. 1984, 1,713 mw.; 18,900 villages and 255,000 wells had electric power. Water. In 1984 the Bhakra Canal irrigated 300,000 hectares, the Chambal Canal, 200,000 and the Rajasthan Canal, 450,000. The Rajasthan is the main canal system, of which (1984) 189 km. of main canal and 2,950 km of distributors had been built. Cost, at 1 March 1984, Rs 419 crores. Minerals. The state is rich in minerals. In 1983,959,000m. tonnes of gypsum and 585,300 tonnes of rock phosphate were produced. Other minerals include silver, asbestos, felspar, copper, limestone and salt. Total value of mineral production in 1983 was about Rs 180 crores. Lead-zinc reserves have been found near RampuraAgucha, estimated at 61 m. tonnes. Agriculture. The state has suffered drought for 5 years. The cultivable area is (1984) about 26-6m. hectares, of which 3-9m. is irrigated. Production of principal crops (in 1,000 tonnes), 1983—84: pulses, 2,272; sugar-cane (gur), 1,715; total oilseeds, 954; cotton, 596,000 bales (of 180 kg). Total foodgrains, 8,540. Livestock (1983): Buffaloes, 6,034,743; other cattle, 13,466,474; sheep, 15,389,100; goats, 15,397,993; horses and ponies, 45,381; camels, 7,528,287. INDUSTRY. In 1984 there were 7,377 registered factories and 10,000 small industrial units. There were 148 industrial estates. Total capital investment (1983), Rs 13,000m., of which small units, Rs 3,250m. Chief manufactures are textiles, cement, glass, sugar, sodium, oxygen and acetylene units, pesticides, insecticides, dyes, caustic soda, calcium, carbide, nylon tyre cords and refined copper. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 48,422 km of roads including 12,091 km of unsurfaced roads in Rajasthan; there were 2,521 km of national highway. Motor vehicles numbered429,012 in 1983.

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Railways. Jodhpur, Marwar, Udaipur, Ajmer, Jaipur, Khota, Bikaner and Sawai Madhopur are important junctions of the north-western network. Aviation. There are airports at Jaipur, Jodhpur, Khota and Udaipur with regular scheduled services by Indian Airlines. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The seat of the High Court is at Jodhpur. There is a Chief Justice and 11 puisne judges. There is also a bench of 5 judges at Jaipur. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 23,093,895; Moslems, 1,778,275; Jains, 513,548; Sikhs, 341,182; Christians, 30,202. Education. The proportion of literates to the total population was 24 -39% at the 1981 census. In 1984 there were 24,360 primary schools, 6,511 middle schools, 1,796 secondary and 723 higher secondary schools. Elementary education is free but not compulsory. In 1983-84 there were 159 colleges. Enrolment at these was 168,345. Rajasthan University, established at Jaipur in 1947, is teaching and affiliating; Jodhpur University and Udaipur University were founded in 1962. There are also 4 agricultural colleges, 1 veterinary and animal science college, 6 engineering colleges, 3 Ayurvedic colleges and 10 polytechnics. Health. In 1983-84 there were 1,285 hospitals and dispensaries, 248 primary health centres, 59 Unani, 63 homoepathic and 2 naturopathy hospitals. There were 111 maternity centres, and 2,795 Ayurvedic hospitals and dispensaries. There were 5 medical colleges and a nursing college.

SIKKIM HISTORY. Sikkim became the twenty-second state of the Indian Union in May 1975. It is inhabited chiefly by the Lepchas, who are a tribe indigenous to Sikkim with their own dress and language, the Bhutias, who originally came from Tibet, and the Nepalis, who entered from Nepal in large numbers in the late 19th and early 20th century. The main languages spoken are Bhutia, Lepcha and Nepali. Being a small country Sikkim had frequently been involved in struggles over her territory, and as a result her boundaries have been very much reduced over the centuries. In particular the Daijeeling district was acquired from Sikkim by the British East India Company in 1839. The Namgyal dynasty had been ruling Sikkim since the 14th century; the first consecrated ruler was Phuntsog Namgya I who was consecrated in 1642 and given the title of'Chogyal', meaning 'King ruling in accordance with religious laws', derived from Cho-religion and Gyalpo-king. The last Chogyal was deposed in 197 5 and died in Américain 1982. Sikkim is a land of wide variation in altitude, climate and vegetation, and is known for the great number and variety of birds, butterflies, wild flowers and orchids to be found in the different regions. It is a fertile land and to the Sikkimese is known as Denjong, The Valley of Rice. AREA A N D POPULATION. Sikkim is in the Eastern Himalayas and is bounded north by Tibet, east by Tibet and Bhutan, south by West Bengal and west by Nepal. Area, 7,298 sq. km. Census population (1981), 314,999, of whom 36,768 lived in the capital, Gangtok. Density 43 per sq km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 50 01%. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Sikkim was joined to the British Empire by a treaty in 1886 until 1947, but that relationship ceased when Britain withdrew from India in 1947. Thereafter there was a standstill agreement between India and Sikkim until a treaty was signed on 5 Dec. 1950 between India and Sikkim by which Sikkim became a protectorate of India and India undertook

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to be responsible for Sikkim's defence, external relations and strategic communications. The Chogyal had governed Sikkim with the help of the Sikkim Council, consisting of 18 elected members and 6 members nominated by the Chogyal. Sikkim parties represented were: National Party, Sikkim National Congress and, later, Sikkim Janta Congress. Political reforms were demanded by the National Congress and the Janta Congress in March-April 1973 and Indian police took over control of law and order at the request of the Chogyal. On 13 April it was announced that the Chogyal had agreed to meet most of the political demands. Elections were held in April 1974 to a popularly-elected assembly. By the Government of Sikkim Act, June 1974, the Chogyal became a constitutional monarch with power of assent to the Assembly's legislation. By the Constitution (Thirty-Sixth Amendment) Act 1974 Sikkim became a state associated with the Indian Union. The office of Chogyal was abolished in April 1975. By the Constitution (Thirty-Eighth Amendment) Act 1975 Sikkim became the twenty-second state of the Indian Union. The Assembly has 32 members with a cabinet of 10 ministers including the Chief Minister. After the election of March 1985 a Sangram Parishad government was returned. Governor: K. P. Rao. Chief Minister: N. Bahadur Bhandari. The official language of the Government is English. Lepcha, Bhutia, Nepali and Limboo have also been declared official languages. Sikkim is divided into 4 districts for administration purposes, Gangtok, Mangan, Namchi and Gyalshing being the headquarters for the Eastern, Northern, Southern and Western districts respectively. Each district is administered by a District Collector. Within this framework are the Panchayats or Village Councils. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth Five-Year Plan covered 1980-85. Budget. The annual budget for 1984-85 is Rs 35 08 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There are 4 operational hydro-electric power stations; the Lagyap project is also being implemented by the Government of India as aid to meet the growing demand for electrical power for new industries. The first of its two 6 mv generators was commissioned I Sept. 1979. Agriculture. The economy is mainly agricultural; main food crops are rice, maize, millet, wheat and barley; cash crops are cardamom (a spice), mandarin oranges, apples, potatoes, and buckwheat. Foodgrain production, 1983, 84,000 tonnes. A tea plantation has recently been started. Forests occupy about 1,000 sq. km. of the land area (excluding hill pastures) and the potential for a timber and wood-pulp industry is being explored. Some medicinal herbs are exported. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There is a state Industrial Development Investment Corporation and an Industrial Training Institute offering 7 trades. There are two cigarette factories (at Gangtok and Rangpo), two distilleries and a tannery at Rangpo and a fruit preserving factory at Singtam. Copper, zinc and lead are mined by the Sikkim Mining Corporation. A recent survey by the Geological Survey of India and the Indian Bureau of Mines has confirmed further deposits of copper, zinc, silver and gold in Dikchu, North Sikkim. There is a jewel-bearing factory for the production of industrial jewels. A watch factory has been set up in collaboration with Hindustan Machine Tools (India). A number of small manufacturing units for leather, wire nails, storage cells batteries, candles, safety matches and carpets, are already producing in the private sector. Local crafts include carpet weaving, making handmade paper, wood carving and silverwork. To encourage trading in indigenous products, particularly agricultural produce, the State Trading Corporation of Sikkim has been established.

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Tourism. There is great potential for the tourist industry; a 78-bed lodge at Gangtok and a 50-bed tourist lodge in West Sikkim have been opened. Tourism has been stimulated by the opening of new roads from Pemayangtse to Yuksam in West Sikkim and from Yuksam to the Dzongri Glacier. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 1,201 km. of metalled roads, all on mountainous terrain, and 18 major bridges under the Public Works Department. Public transport and road haulage is nationalized. Railways. The nearest railhead is at Siliguri (115 km from Gangtok). Aviation. The nearest airport is at Bagdogra (128 km from Gangtok). Post and Broadcasting. There are 1,118 telephones (1983) and 32 wireless stations. A radio broadcasting station, Akashvani Gangtok, was built in 1982, and a permanent station was under construction in 1983. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. The state religion is Mahayana Buddhism, but a large proportion of the population is Hindu. There are some Christians, Moslems and members of other religions. Education. At the 1981 census there were 100,000 literates. Sikkim has (1983) 100 pre-primary schools, 438 primary schools, 99 junior high schools and high schools, and 11 higher secondary schools. Education is free up to class XII; text books are free up to class V. There are 500 adult education centres. There is also a training institute for primary teachers, a law college and a degree college. Estimated spending on education, 1980-81, Rs29-78m. Health. There are (1983) 4 district hospitals at Singtam, Gyalshing, Namchi and Mangan, and one central referral hospital at Gangtok, besides 16 primary health centres, 62 sub-centres and 8 dispensaries, a maternity ward, chest clinic and 2 blocks for tuberculosis patients. There is a blood bank at Gangtok. There are 81 doctors. Medical and hospital treatment is free; there is a health centre for every 20,000 of the population. Small-pox and Kala-azar have been completely eliminated and many schemes for the provision of safe drinking water to villages and bazaars have been implemented. Coelho, V. H., Sikkim and Bhutan. New Delhi, 1970 Mele, F., Sikkim. Paris, 1974

TAMIL NADU HISTORY. The first trading establishment made by the British in the Madras State was at Peddapali (now Nizampatnam) in 1611 and then at Masulipatnam. In 1639 the English were permitted to make a settlement at the place which is now Madras, and Fort St George was founded. By 1801 the whole of the country from the Northern Circars to Cape Comorin (with the exception of certain French and Danish settlements) had been brought under British rule. Under the provisions of the States Reorganization Act, 1956, the Malabar district (excluding the islands of Laccadive and Minicoy) and the Kasaragod district taluk of South Kanara were transferred to the new state of Kerala; the South Kanara district (excluding Kasaragod taluk and the Amindivi Islands) and the Kollegal taluk of the Coimbatore district were transferred to the new state of Mysore; and the Laccadive, Amindivi and Minicoy Islands were constituted a separate Territory. Four taluks of the Trivandrum district and the Shencottah taluk oi Quilon district were transferred from Travancore-Cochin to the new Madras State. On 1 April 1960,405 sq. miles from the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh were transferred to Madras in exchange for 326 sq. miles from the Chingleput and Salem districts. In Aug. 1968 the state was renamed Tamil Nadu.

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AREA AND POPULATION. Tamil Nadu is in south India and is bounded north by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, east and south by the Indian ocean and west by Kerala. Area, 130,357 sq. km. Population (1981 census), 48,297,456, density of371 persq.km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 17-23%. Tamil is the principal language and has been adopted as the state language with effect from 14 Jan. 1958. The principal towns, see p. 614. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Governor is aided by a Council of 16 ministers. There is a bicameral legislature; the Legislative Council has 63 members and the Legislative Assembly has 234 members. The Legislative Assembly was composed as follows after the election of May 1980: All-India Anna DMK, 129; DMK, 38; Congress (I), 30; CPM, 11;CPI, 10; others, 16. There are 18 districts. The capital is Madras. Governor: S. L. Khurana. Chief Minister: M. G. Ramachandran. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1981-82, revenue receipts, Rs 1,128-3 crores, revenue account expenditure, Rs 1,137-8 crores. Capital outlay, Rs 434-4 crores; capital account receipts, Rs 289-9. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity 1983 amounted to 3,344 mw of which 1,344 mw was hydro-electricity and 1,170 mw thermal. 99 • 8% of villages were supplied with electricity. The Kalpakkam nuclear power plant became operational in 1983; initial capacity, 230 mw. Water. A joint project with Andhra Pradesh was agreed in 1983, to supply Madras with water from the Krishna river, also providing irrigation, en route, for Andhra Pradesh. Minerals. Value of mineral exports, 1983, Rs 1 - 5 crores. The state has magnesite, salt, coal, chromite, bauxite, limestone, manganese, mica, quartz, gypsum and feldspar. Agriculture. Agriculture engages 29% of the population. The land is a fertile plain watered by rivers flowing east from the Western Ghats, particularly the Cauvery and the Tambaraparani. Temperature ranges between 18°C. and 43°C., rainfall between 25 in. and 75 in. Of the total land area (13-01m. hectares), 7,698,000 hectares were cultivable and 3m. hectares were irrigated in 1977. The staple food crops grown are paddy, maize, jawar, bajra, pulses and millets. Important commercial crops are sugar-cane, oilseeds, cashewnuts, cotton, tobacco, coffee, tea, rubber and pepper. Production 1983-84, in 1,000 tons, (and area, 1,000 hectares): rice 5,000 (2,282); millet 1,900 (1,652); sugar cane 2,500 (132); pulses 115 (333); cotton 3m. bales (169); oilseeds 752 (825). Livestock (1966 census): Buffaloes, 2,753,049; other cattle, 11,009,368; sheep, 6,641,843; goats, 3,796,736; swine, 874,880; horses, ponies, mules, camels, etc., 185,336; poultry, 10,898,862. Forestry. Forest area, 1983,2,201,000 hectares, of which 1,812,000 were reserved forest. Forests cover about 17% of land area. Main products are teak, soft wood, wattle, sandalwood, pulp wood, cashew and cinchona bark. Fisheries. Landings, 1976,510,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The contribution of the industrial sector to the state income was Rs 373 crores in 1972-73. The number of registered factories was 6,713 in 1973. The consumption of power in the industrial sector was 49 • 5% of total state consumption in 1974. The biggest central sector project is Salem steel plant. Man-days lost in industrial disputes, 1979,8-38m. Cotton textiles is one of the major industries. There are nearly 180 cotton textile

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mills and most of the spinning mills supplying yarn to the decentralized handloom industry. Other important industries are tanning, manufacture of textile machinery, power-driven pumps, bicycles, electrical machinery, tractors, rubber tyres and tubes, bricks and tiles and silk. Tamil Nadu is the second largest producer of cement, while its sugar industry has been expanding rapidly. Public sector undertakings include the Neyveli lignite complex, integral coach factory, high-pressure boiler plant, photographic film factor/, surgical instruments factory, teleprinter factory, oil refinery, continuous casting plant and defence vehicles manufacture. Main exports: tanned hides and skins, leather and cotton goods, tea, coffee, spices, engineering goods! motor-car ancillaries. Tourism. In 1982,229,000 foreign tourists visited the state. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 April 1982 the state had approximately 35,746 km of national and state highways, major and other district roads. In 1983 there were 100,037 registered motor vehicles and 326,977 others not covered by permits. Railways. In 1970 there were 6,038 km of railway. Madras and Madurai are the main centres. Aviation. There are airports at Madras, Tiruchirapalli and Madurai, with regular scheduled services to Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi. Madras is the main centre of airline routes in South India. Shipping. Madras and Tuticorin are the chief ports. Important minor ports are Cuddalore and Nagapattinam. There are 9 intermediate ports. The Inland Container Depot at Coimbatore has a capacity of 50,000 tonnes of export traffic; it is linked to Cochin (Kerala). J U S T I C E , RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. There is a High Court at Madras with a Chief Justice and 18 judges. Police. Strength of armed police battalions, 1973, 4,420; strength of the armed reserve (1972) in the state and in Madras, 356,461. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 36,674,150 (89-2%), Christians, 5-75%; Moslems, 5-11%. Education. At the 1981 census 22 • 1 m. people were literate. Education is free up to pre-university level. In 1973-74 there were 2,823 high schools with a total enrolment of 1,627,030 students. The number of primary schools was 26,726, and their enrolment, 3,759,140; 5,773 upper primary schools had 2,113,981 pupils. Allotment of expenditure for education for 1974-75, Rs 1,08-52 crores. There are 3 universities. Madras University (founded in 1857) is affiliating and teaching. It had (1968) 119 colleges for arts and sciences with 106,571 students. Annamalai University, Annamalainagar (founded 1928) is residential; Madurai University (founded 1966) is an affiliating and teaching university. Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics (Fort St George, Madras) was established in 1948 and reorganized in 1953. Director: D. S. Rajabushanam, MA. Main publications: Annual Statistical Abstract: Decennial Statistical Atlas: Season and Crop Report: Quinquenn ml Wages Census: Q uarterly A bstract of Statistics.

TRIPURA HISTORY. A Hindu state of great antiquity having been ruled by the Maharajahs for 1,300 years before its accession to the Indian Union on 15 Oct. 1949. With the reorganization of states on 1 Sept. 1956 Tripura became a Union Territory. The Territory was made a State on 21 Jan. 1972.

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E V E N T S . Tribal insurgents have caused violent disturbances, largely because of large-scale immigration from Bangladesh. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Tripura is bounded on the north, west and south by Bangladesh, and on the east by Mizoram. The major portion of the state is hilly and mainly jungle. It has an area of 10,477 sq. km and a population of 2,060,189 (1981 census); Density, 196 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81,32 -37%. The predominant language is Bengali. G O V E R N M E N T . There is a Legislative Assembly of 60 members. The election of Jan. 1983 was won by the Communist Party of India (Marxist). The territory has 1 district, divided into 10 administrative sub-divisions, namely, Sadar, Khowai, Kailasahar, Dharmanagar, Sonamura, Udaipur, Belonia, Kamalpur, Sabroom and Amarpur. The capital is Agartala. Governor: Gen. K. V. Krishna Rao. Chief Minister: N. Chakravarty. B U D G E T . Budget estimates 1980-81 show revenue receipts of Rs 107-1 crores, and expenditure on revenue account of Rs 108-8 crores. Annual plan expenditure, Rs 35 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity (1980), 14-72 mw; there were (1976) 245 electrified villages. Agriculture. About 23% of the land area is cultivable. The tribes practise shifting cultivation, but this is being slowly replaced by modern methods. The main crops are rice, wheat, jute, mesta, potatoes, oilseeds and sugar-cane. Foodgrain production (1979-80), 310,000 tonnes. There are 56 registered tea gardens producing 4,500,000 kg. per year, and employing about 10,000. In 1983, 5,000 hectares were under new rubber plantations. Forestry. Forests cover about 65% of the land area. They have been much depleted by clearance for shifting cultivation and, recently, for refugee settlements of Bangladeshis. About 8% of the forest area still consists of dense natural forest; losses elsewhere are being replaced by plantation. Commercial rubber plantation has also been encouraged and covers over 65,000 hectares. I N D U S T R Y . There is a jute mill, a steel re-rolling mill and a flour mill at Agartala; a second flour mill at Dharmanagar. Small scale industries produce diverse manufacture. The main village industries are hand-loom weaving, sericulture and cane-work. The Tripura Handloom and Handicrafts Development Corporation marketed goods worth Rs 6m. in 1979-80. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of motorable roads (1974) 3,692 km, of which 1,123 km were surfaced. Vehicles registered, 31 March 1980,7,889. Railways. There is a railway between Dharmanagar and Kalkalighat (Assam). Aviation. There is 1 airport and 3 airstrips. The airport (Agartala) has regular scheduled services to Calcutta. EDUCATION AND WELFARE Education. In autumn 1978 there were 1,885 primary schools (209,836 pupils); 436 middle schools (51,418); 144 high schools (21,238), and 52 higher grade schools (6,202). There were 6 colleges of general education (7,772). 9 colleges of professional and technical education (1,346) and 859 social education centres.

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Health. There were (1980) 12 hospitals, with 1,357 beds, 128 dispensaries, 297 doctors and 459 nurses. There were 26 primary health centres and about 35 other medical units.

UTTAR PRADESH H I S T O R Y . In 1833 the then Bengal Presidency was divided into two parts, one of which became the Presidency of Agra. In 1836 the Agra area was styled the Northwest Province and placed under a Lieut.-Govemor. The two provinces of Agra and Oudh were placed, in 1877, under one administrator, styled Lieut.-Governor of the North-West Province and Chief Commissioner of Oudh. In 1902 the name was changed to 'United Provinces of Agra and Oudh', under a Lieut.-Governor, and the Lieut.-Governorship was altered to a Governorship in 1921. In 1935 the name was shortened to 'United Provinces'. On Independence, the states of Rampur, Banaras and Tehri-Garwhal were merged with United Provinces. In 1950 the name of the United Provinces was changed to Uttar Pradesh. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Uttar Pradesh is in north India and is bounded north by Himachal Pradesh, Tibet and Nepal, east by Bihar, south by Madhya Pradesh and west by Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. The area of the state is 294,413 sq. km. Population (1981 census), 110,862,013, a density of 377 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 25-52%. Cities with more than 250,000 population, see p. 614. The official language is Hindi. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Uttar Pradesh has had an autonomous system of government since 1937. There is a bicameral legislature. The Legislative Council has 108 members; the Legislative Assembly has 426, of which 423 are elected. After the elections in March 1985 a Congress government was returned. There are 12 administrative divisions, each under a Commissioner, and 57 districts. The capital is Lucknow. Governor: M. Usman Arif.Chief Minister:'N. D. Tiwari. B U D G E T . Budget estimates 1984-85 show revenue and capital receipts of Rs 4,356-28 crores; revenue and capital account expenditure, Rs 4,629 crores. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The State Electricity Board had, 31 March 1983, an installed capacity of3,852 mw. There were (March 1984) 57,733 villages with electricity. Minerals. The state has magnesite, fire-clay, coal, copper, dolomite, limestone, soapstone, gypsum, bauxite, diaspore, ochre, phosphorite, pyrophyllite, silica sand and steatite among others. Agriculture. Agriculture occupies 78% of the work force. About 9m. hectares are irrigated. The state is India's largest producer of foodgrains; production (1982-83), 26-5m. tonnes; sugar-cane 81-4m.; oilseeds, l -22m. The state is one of India's main producers of sugar. There were (1981) 1,199 veterinary centres for cattle. Forests cover (1982) about 5 • 3m. sq. km. I N D U S T R Y . Sugar production is important; other industries include edible oils, textiles, distilleries, brewing, leather working, agricultural engineering, paper and chemicals. There is an aluminium smelter at Renukoot. An oil refinery at Mathura has capacity of 6m. tonnes per annum. Large public-sector enterprises have been set up in electrical engineering, pharmaceuticals, locomotive building, general engineering, electronics and aeronautics. Village and small-scale industries are

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important; there were 90,237 small units in 1983. About one-third of cloth output is from hand-looms. Total working population (1981) 30-8m., of whom 6-8m. were non-agricultural. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, 31 March 1983, 273,011 km of motorable roads, of which 66,034 km were metalled. (This excludes forest roads.) In 1983 there were 674,049 motor vehicles of which 391,307 were motorcycles. Railways. Lucknow is the main junction of the northern network; other important junctions are Agra, Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. Aviation. There are airports at Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi, LalitpurandGorakhpur. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Allahabad (with a bench at Lucknow) has a Chief Justice and 52 puisne judges including additional judges. There are 56 sessions divisions in the state. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 73,997,597; Moslems, 13,676,533; Sikhs, 369,672; Christians, 131,810; Jains, 124,728; Buddhists, 39,639. Education. At the 1981 census 30- lm. people were literate. In 1983-84 there were 72,519 junior basic schools, 13,984 senior basic schools and 5,650 higher secondary schools. Uttar Pradesh has 19 universities: Allahabad University (founded 1887); Agra University (1927); the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (1916); Lucknow University (1921); Aligarh Muslim University (1920); Roorkee University (1948), formerly Thomason College of Civil Engineering (established in 1847); Gorakhpur University (1957); Varanasaya Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, Varanasi (1958); Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi (1963). Kanpur University and Meerut University were founded in 1966. Govind Ballabh Pant University, Pantnagar (1969); Garhwal University, Srinagar, (1973). Two universities of agriculture were founded in 1974-75 and Avadh, Kumaon, Rohilkhand and Jhansi Universities in 1975. There are also two institutions with university status: Gurukul Kangri and Dayal Bagh Educational Institute. There are 9 medical colleges. H E A L T H . On 31 Dec. 1982 there were 3,363 allopathic and 3,344 ayurvedic and unani hospitals. There were 6,083 allopathic doctors and 3,332 allopathic nurses in state service. There were TB hospitals and clinics with 3,437 beds.

WEST BENGAL H I S T O R Y . For the history of Bengal under T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 2 , p . 1 8 3 .

British rule, from 1633 to 1947, see

Under the terms of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the Province of Bengal ceased to exist. The Moslem majority districts of East Bengal, consisting of the Chittagong and Dacca Divisions and portions of the Presidency and Rajshahi Divisions, became what was then East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . West Bengal is in north-east India and is bounded north by Sikkim and Bhutan, east by Assam and Bangladesh, south by the Bay of Bengal and Orissa, west by Bihar and north-west by Nepal. The total area of West Bengal is 87,853 sq. km. At the 1981 census its population was 54,580,647, an increase of 23 -17% since 1971, the density of population 621 per sq. km. Population of chief cities, see p. 614. The principal language is Bengali. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The state of West Bengal came

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into existence as a result of the Indian Independence Act, 1947. The territory of Cooch-Behar State was merged with West Bengal on 1 Jan. 1950, and the former French possession of Chandernagore became part of the state on 2 Oct. 1954. Under the States Reorganization Act, 1956, certain portions of Bihar State (an area of 3,157 sq. miles with a population of 1,446,385) were transferred to West Bengal. The Legislative Assembly has 295 seats. Distribution March 1984: Communist Party oflndia (Marxist), 170; Forward Bloc, 27; Revolutionary Socialist Party, 19; Communist Party oflndia, 7; Revolutionary Communist Party oflndia, 2; Forward Bloc (Marxist), 2; Democratic Socialist Party, 2; Socialist Party, 3. Total "Left Front", 236. Opposition: Indian National Congress, 55; others, 2; vacant, 2. The capital is Calcutta. For administrative purposes there are 3 divisions (Jalpaiguri, Burdwan and Presidency), under which there are 16 districts, including Calcutta. The Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority has been set up to co-ordinate development in the metropolitan area (1,250 sq. km). For the purposes of local self-government there are 15 zilla parishads (district boards), 339 panchayat samities (regional boards), and 3,305 gram (village) panchayats. There are 99 municipalities, 2 Corporations, 3 Town Committees and 10 Notified Areas. The Calcutta Corporation was reconstituted in 1969 with a mayor and deputy mayor, a commissioner, aldermen and standing committees. Governor: U. S. Dikshit. Chief Minister: J. Basu. B U D G E T . Budget estimates for 1984-85 showed a deficit of Rs 544m. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Installed capacity, 1983-84,2,553 mw; 19,964 villages had electricity. Water. The major irrigation and power scheme at present under construction is (1984) the Teesta barrage. Major irrigation schemes are the Mayurakshi, Kansabati and Damodar Valley. During 1981-82 government canals irrigated 1 m. hectares. At March 1983 there were 5,701 tubewells and 3,108 riverlift irrigation schemes. Minerals. Value of production, 1981, Rs 3,131 -9m. The state has coal (the Raniganj field is one of the 3 biggest in India) including coking coal. Coal production (1982) 198m. tonnes. Agriculture. About 4-8m. hectares are rice-paddy, one-third of it irrigated. Total foodgrain production, 1982-83, 5-8m. tonnes; oilseeds (provisional), 170,700 tonnes; jute and other fibres, 3-8m. bales (180 kg.); wheat, 605,500 tonnes. The state produces 55% of the national output ofjute. Livestock (1976 census): 11,968,000 cattle, 758,000 buffaloes; 1981 census, 758,000 sheep and goats, and 15,052,000 poultry. Forests cover 13 • 4% of the state. Fisheries. Landings, 1983-84, about 385,000 tonnes. During 1980-86 Rs 280m. was to be invested in fishery schemes. I N D U S T R Y . The total number of registered factories, 1982, was 6,954; average daily employment in public sector industries, 1 -6m. The coalmining industry had 116 units with average daily employment of 129,000. There is a large automobile factory at Uttarpara, and there are aluminium rolling-mills at Belur and Asansol. At Durgapur a major steel plant was completed in 1962. Durgapur has other industries under the state sector—a thermal power plant, coke oven plant, fertilizer factory, alloy steel plant and ophthalmic glass plant. There are a locomotive factory and cable factory at ' Chittaranjan and Rupnarayanpur. A refinery and fertilizer factory are operating at Haldia. Small industries are important; 12,265 units were registered in 1981-82, (91,605 jobs); 12,265 units (provisional) in 1982-83 (97,952).

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1980 the length of national highway was 1,471 km, of state highway 3,147 km and of other motorable roads 138,666 km. In 1982 the state had 321,291 motor vehicles. Railways. The length of railways within the state (1981-82) is 6,085 km. The main centres are Howrah, Sealdah, Kharagpur, Asansol and New Jalpaiguri. The first section of the Calcutta Metro opened in Nov. 1984. Aviation. The main airport is Calcutta which has national and international flights. The second airport is at Bagdogra in the extreme north, which has regular scheduled services to Calcutta. Shipping. Calcutta is the chief port: a barrage is being built at Farakka to control theflowof the Ganges and to provide a rail and road link between North and South Bengal. A second port is being developed at Haldia, halfway between the present port and the sea, which is intended mainly for bulk cargoes. West Bengal possesses 779 km of navigable canals. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The High Court of Judicature at Calcutta has a Chief Justice and 38 puisne judges. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (see below) come under its jurisdiction. Police. In 1983 the police force numbered 52,772, under a director-general and an inspector-general. Calcutta has a separate force under a commissioner directly responsible to the Government; its strength was 20,777 in 1982. Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 34,611,864; Moslems, 9,064,338; Christians, 251,752; Buddhists, 121,504; Sikhs, 35,084; Jains, 32,203. Education. At the 1981 census 22-2m. people were literate. In 1983-84 there were 50,090 primary schools, with about 7-6m. pupils and 3,247 junior and 10,190 secondary schools with about 3 • 5m. pupils. Primary education is free. The University of Calcutta (founded 1857) is affiliating and teaching; in 1976-77 it had 234,661 students. Visva Bharati, Santiniketan, was originally established in 1951 and isresidentialand teaching; it had 2,911 students in 1977-78. The University of Jadavpur, Calcutta (1955), had 4,222 students in 1977-78. Burdwan University was established 15 June 1960 with 31 affiliated colleges previously under the supervision of the University of Calcutta; in 1977-78 there were 48,550 students. Kalyani University was established in 1960 (1,839 students in 1977). The University of North Bengal (1962) had 17,728 students in 1977-78. Rabindra Bharati University had 2,783 students in 1977-78. Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (1974) had 1,047 students in 1977-78.

U N I O N TERRITORIES ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are administered by the President of the Republic of India acting through a Lieut.-Governor. There is a Pradesh Council, 5 members of which are selected by the Chief Commissioner as advisory counsellors. The seat of administration is at Port Blair, which is connected with Calcutta (1,255 km away) and Madras (1,190 km) by steamer service which calls about every 10 days; there is a bi-weekly air service from Calcutta and a weekly service from Madras. Roads in the islands, 691 km black-topped and 26 km others. There are 2 districts. The population (1981 census) was 188,254; density 23 per sq. km.; growth rate 1971-81,63 • 5%. Port Blair (1981), 49,634. The climate is tropical, with little variation in temperature. Heavy rain (125" annually) is mainly brought by the south-west monsoon. Humidity is high. Revised estimates for 1983-84 show total revenue receipts.of Rs 8,00-95 lakhs,

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and total expenditure on revenue account of Rs 48,73 -39 lakhs, and total capital expenditure of Rs 29,28-22 lakhs. Estimates for 1984-85 show revenue, Rs 8,12-45 lakhs, expenditure Rs 53,81-85 lakhs, and capital expenditure Rs 31,44-56 lakhs. Lieut.-Governor. M. L. Kampani. The Andaman Islands lie in-the Bay of Bengal, 193 km from Cape Negrais in Burma, 1,255 from Calcutta and 1,190 from Madras. Five large islands grouped together are called the Great Andamans, and to the south is the island of Little Andaman. There are some 204 islets, the two principal groups being the Ritchie Archipelago and the Labyrinth Islands. The total area is about 6,340 sq. km. The Great Andaman group is about 467 km long and, at the widest, 51 km broad. The original inhabitants live in the forests by hunting and fishing; they are of a small Negrito type and their civilization is about that of the Stone Age. Their exact numbers are not known, as they avoid all contact with civilization. The total population of the Andaman Islands (including about 430 aboriginals) was 157,821 in 1981. Main aboriginal tribes, Andamanese, Onges, Jarawas and Sentinelese. Under a central government scheme started in 1953, some 4,000 displaced families, mostly from East Pakistan, had been settled in the islandsby May 1967. Japanese forces occupied the Andaman Islands on 23 March 1942. Civil administration of the islands was resumed on 8 Oct. 1945. From 1857 to March 1942 the islands were used by the Government of India as a penal settlement for life and long-term convicts, but the penal settlement was abolished on re-occupation in Oct. 1945. The Great Andaman group, densely wooded, contains many valuable trees, both hardwood and softwood. TTie best known of the hardwoods is the padauk or Andaman redwood; gurjan is in great demand for the manufacture of plywood. Large quantities of softwood are supplied to match factories. Annually the Forest Department export about 25,000 tons of timber to the mainland. Coconut, coffee and rubber are cultivated. The islands are slowly being made self-sufficient in paddy and rice, and now grow approximately half their annual requirements. Livestock (1982): 27,400 cattle, 9,720 buffaloes, 17,600 goats and 21,220 pigs. Fishing is important. There is a sawmill at Blair and a coconut-oil mill at Dunbar Point. The islands possess a number of harbours and safe anchorages, notably Port Blair in the south, Port Cornwallis in the north and Elphinstone and Mayabandar in the middle. The Nicobar Islands are situated to the south of the Andamans, 121 km from Little Andaman. The British were in possession 1869-1947. There are 19 islands, 7 uninhabited; total area, 1,953 sq. km. The islands are usually divided into 3 subgroups (southern, central and northern), the chief islands in each being respectively, Great Nicobar, Camotra with Nancowrie and Car Nicobar. There is a fine land-locked harbour between the islands of Camotra and Nancowrie, known as Nancowrie Harbour. The population numbered, in 1981, 30,433, including about 22,200 of Nicobarese and Shompen tribes. The coconut and arecanut are the main items of trade, and coconuts are a major item in the people's diet. The Nicobar Islands were occupied by the Japanese in July 1942; and Car Nicobar was developed as a big supply base. The Allies reoccupied the islands on 9 Oct. 1945. ARUNACHAL PRADESH. On 21 Jan. 1972 the former North East Frontier Agency of Assam was created a Union Territory. The territory includes the Kameng, Tirap, Subansiri, Siang and Lohit frontier divisions and has an area of 81,426 sq. km and a population (1981 census) of 628,050; density, 7 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971-81,34- 34%. There is a Legislative Assembly of 30 members and a Council of Ministers. The election of 1978 was won by the Janata party. There are 5 districts. The centre of administration is at Itanagar.

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Chief Commissioner: S. M. Krishnatry. Chief Minister: Prem Khandu Thungon. About 60% of the land area is forest. Agriculture employs 18 • 5% of the people. In 1970 there were 200,000 acres under cultivation, 32,600 acres of it irrigated. Crops include rice (13,000 tonnes, 1976), rubber, coffee, coconut, arecanut, fruits and spices. There were about 100 co-operatives. The budget estimates for 1980-81 provided Rs 81 •7 crores, of which Rs 1 •16 crores was'allotted to agriculture. C H A N D I G A R H . On 1 Nov. 1966 the city ofChandigarh and the area surrounding it was constituted a Union Territory. Population (1981), 450,061; density, 3,948 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971-81, 74-9%. Area, 114 sq. km. It serves as the joint capital of both Punjab (India) and the state of Haryana, and is the seat of a High Court and of a university serving both states. The city will ultimately be the capital of just the Punjab; joint status is to last while a new capital is built for Haryana. There is some cultivated land (foodgrain production, 1977, 8,000 tonnes) and some forest (27 • 5% of the territory). Evenson, N., Chandigarh. Berkeley, Cal., 1966

DADRA A N D NAGAR HAVELI. Formely Portuguese, the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli were occupied in July 1954 by nationalists, and a proIndia administration was formed; this body made a request for incorporation into theUnion, 1 June 1961. By the 10th amendment to the constitution the territories became a centrally administered Union Territory with effect from 11 Aug. 1961, forming an enclave at the southernmost point of the border between Gujarat and Maharashtra. Area 491 sq. km.; population (1981), 103,676 (males 52,515, females 51,161); density 211 per sq. km; growth rate, 1971—81,39-78%. There is an Administrator appointed by the Government of India. The day-to-day business is done by various departments, co-ordinated by the Administrator's secretary and headed by a Collector. Headquarters are at Silvassa. The territory is tribal and organised in 72 villages. Languages used are Bhilli, Gujarat, Bhilodi (83%), Marathi and Hindi. Administrator: K. T. Satarawala Collector: H. Haukhum Electricity. Electricity is supplied by Gujarat, and 62 villages had been electrified by 1983. Water. A joint project with the governments of Gujarat, Goa, Daman and Diu has been set up; a reservoir at Damanganga is being built with irrigation potential of 8,280 hectares. Agriculture. Farming is the chief occupation, and about 21,400 hectares were under crops in 1982-83. Much of the land is terraced and there is a 75% subsidy for soil conservation. The major food crops are rice and ragi; wheat, small millets and pulses are also grown. There is little irrigation (915 hectares). There are veterinary centres, an agricultural research centre and breeding centres to improve strains of cattle and poultry. During 1982-83 the Administration distributed 256 tonnes of high yielding paddy seed, and high yielding wheat seed, and 302 tonnes of fertilizer. Forests. About 20,200 hectares or 41 -2% of the total area is forest, mainly of teak, sadad and khair. Timber production provides the largest simple contribution to the territory's revenue. Industry. Industrial estates have been set up at Piparia, Masat and Khadoli. There are 133 small units, and 3 medium scale, employing about 3,000. Concessions are available for small industries, and the whole Territory is aided as a backward area. Communications. There are (1978) 167 km of motorable road. The railway line from Bombay to Ahmedabad runs through Silvassa. The nearest airport is Bombay.

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Justice. The territory is under the jurisdiction of the Bombay (Maharashtra) High Court. There is a District and Sessions Court and one junior Division Civil Court at Silvassa.. Education. Literacy was 14-86% of the population at the 1971 census. In 1982-83 there were 70 adult education centres (2,225 students); there were 141 government primary schools, 12 government-aided mission schools and one unaided; there were 2 higher secondary schools and 5 high schools. Total primary enrolment was 16,962; high-school and higher secondary, 1,893. Health. The territory has 1 cottage hospital, 3 primary health centres and 7 dispensaries; there is also a mobile dispensary. DELHI. Delhi became a Union Territory on 1 Nov. 1956. Area and Population. The territory forms an enclave inside the eastern frontier of Haryana in north India. Delhi has an area of 1,485 sq. km. At the 1981 census its population was 6,220,406 (density per sq. km, 4,189). Growth rate, 1971-81, 5 3%. In the rural area of Delhi there are 214 inhabited and 17 deserted villages and 27 census towns. They are distributed in 5 community development blocks. Government. The Lieut-Govemor is the Administrator, assisted by 4 Executive Councillors (1 Chief Executive Councillor and 3 Executive Councillors) appointed by the President of India on the recommendation of the Union Home Ministry. There is a Metropolitan Council of 61 members including 5 nominated by the President of India. The Territory is covered by 3 local bodies: Delhi Municipal Corporation, New Delhi Municipal Committee and Delhi Cantonment Board. Lieut.-GovernorM. M. K. Wali. Budget. Revised estimates 1984-85 show total revenue of Rs 5,113m. and expenditure of Rs 18,018m. Plan expenditure: Rs 2,890m.; power, Rs 435m.; transport and communication, Rs 403-6m.; water and sewerage, Rs 410-4m.; general education, Rs 390m.; urban development, Rs 324m.; medical services, Rs 252 • 5m. Agriculture. The contribution to the economy is not significant. About 98,930 hectares are cultivated. Animal husbandry is increasing and mixed farms are common. Chief crops in 1982-83, (production in 1,000 tonnes) were: Wheat, 130;jowarand bajra, 15; gram, 0-6; sugar-cane (gur), 0 1 3 ; fruit, vegetables and flowers. Industry. The modern city of Delhi and New Delhi is not only the largest commercial centre in northern India but is also an important industrial centre. Since 1947 a large number of industrial concerns have been established; these include factories for the manufacture of razor blades, sports goods, radios and television and parts, bicycles and parts, plastic and PVC goods including footwear, textiles, chemicals, fertilizers, medicines, hosiery, leather goods, soft drinks, hand and machine tools. There is also metal forging, casting, galvanising and electro-plating, printing and warehousing. The number of industrial units functioning was about 54,000 in 1982-83; average number of workers employed was 507,000. Production was worth Rs 2,352 crores and investment was about Rs 1,035 crores. Some traditional handicrafts, for which Delhi was formerly famous, still flourish; among them are ivory carving, miniature painting, gold and silver jewellery and papier mâché work. The handwoven textiles of Delhi were particularly fine; this craft is being successfully revived. Delhi publishes 13 major daily newspapers, including the Times of India, Hindustan Times, Indian Express, Statesman, NavBharat Times and Hindustan. Roads. Five national highways pass through the city. There were (1983) 724,495 registered motor vehicles in Delhi including 8,258 taxis. The Transport Corporation had 5,115 buses in 1983-84. Railways. Delhi is an important rail junction with three main stations: Delhi, New Delhi, Hazart Nizamuddin. There is an electric ring railway for commuters. Aviation. Palam airport operates internal and international flights.

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Religion. At the 1971 census Hindus numbered 3,407,835; Sikhs, 291,123; Moslems, 263,019; Jains, 50,513; Christians, 43,720; Buddhists, 8,720. Education. The proportion of literates to the total population was 61 -54% at the 1981 census (68-4% of males and 53 07% of females). The total number of educational institutions in 1982-83 was 4,658, with an enrolment of 1,532,502 students. The University of Delhi was founded in 1922; it had 65 constituent colleges and institutions in 1983-84, with a total of 105,522 students.There are also Jawaharlal Nehru university and Jamia Millia Islamia; the Indian Institute of Technology at Haus Khaz; the Indian Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa; the All India Institute of Medical Science at Ansari Nagar and the Indian Institute of Public Administration. GO A, DAMAN A N D DIU. The coast was captured for Portugal by Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1510 and the inland area was added in the 18th century. Daman (Damao) on the Gujarat coast, 100 miles (160 km) north of Bombay, was seized by the Portuguese in 1531 and ceded to them (1539) by the Shar of Gujarat. The island of Diu, captured in 1534, lies off the south-east coast of Kathiawar (Gujarat); there is a small coastal area. In Dec. 1961 the territories were occupied by India and incorporated into the Indian Union. Area and Population. Goa, bounded on the north by Maharashtra and on the east and south by Kamataka, has a coastline of 105 km. The area of the territory is 3,813 sq. km, that of Goa itself being about 3,701 sq. km. Daman, 72 sq. km; Diu, 40 sq. km. Population (1981) 1,082,117. Density, 285 per sq. km. Growth rate, 1971-81, 26 15%. Estimated population, 1983, 1,146,000. Panaji is the largest town, population (urban agglomeration, 1981) 76,839. The languages spoken are Gujarati, Marathi, Konkani, Portuguese and English. Government. The Indian Parliament passed legislation in March 1962 by which Goa, Daman and Diu became a Union Territory with retrospective effect from 20 Dec. 1961. Goa is represented by 2 elected members in the Indian House of the People. For judicial purposes there is a Panaji bench of the High Court of Bombay. The capital is Panaji. There are 195 villagepanchayats. There is a Legislative Assembly of 30 members. Lieut.-Governor: Gopal Singh. Chief Minister: P. R. Rane. Budget. Annual Plan expenditure, 1984-85, Rs 655m. Electricity. Units sold, 251-9m. kwh. in 1982-83. Seventeen towns and 393 villages were supplied with electric power by March 1984. Power is generated in neighbouring states. Minerals. Resources include manganese ore and iron ore, both of which are exported. There are also reserves of bauxite, limestone and clay. Agriculture. Agriculture is the main occupation; important crops are rice, ragi, pulses, groundnuts, fruit and coconuts. The net area sown is 133,575 hectares. Area irrigated, 13,000 hectares. Area under paddy (1983-84), 37,145 hectares of high-yielding strain (producing 186,120 tonnes). Area under pulses, 11,668; ragi, 7,840. Government poultry and dairy farming schemes yielded 180m. eggs and 30,000 litres of milk in 1983-84. Fisheries. The fishing industry is important; fish is the territory's staple food. In 1983 the catch of seafish was 29,915 tonnes (value Rs 1,303 02 lakhs). The whole territory has a coastline of about 140 krti. There are about 3,996 active fishing vessels. Industry. In 1983 there were 36 large and medium industrial projects and 2,943 small units registered. There were 9 government industrial estates. Small units were mainly occupied in making nylon fishing-nets, ready made clothing, pesticides, pharmaceuticals and footwear.

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Employment. In 1980 there were 86 unions with 42,300 members. Roads. In 1983 there were 5,721 km of motorable road (national highway, 223 km). In 1983 there were 49,714 registered vehicles. Railways. There is a metre gauge line from the Pune-Bangalore line into Goa. There are no railways on Diu or in Daman. Aviation. There are regular services to Bombay and Bangalore from Dabolim (Goa). Shipping. The main port is Marmagoa, which handled 11 -38m. tonnes of cargo, mainly iron ore, in 1983—84. There is a daily steamer service between Panaji and Bombay. Post and Telegraphs. There are (1983) 253 post offices and 40 telephone exchanges providing links to 60 countries. There are 3 telex exchanges. Justice. The territory comes under the High Court of Bombay. Religion. About 62% of the. population is Hindu, 36% Christian, 2% Muslim and other communities. Education. The 1981 census recorded 57% literacy. Education is free up to grade VIII. In 1983-84 primary schools numbered 1,265 with 141,195 pupils, middle schools 430 with 79,313 pupils and secondary schools 281 with 54,088 pupils. There were 22 higher secondary schools, with 9,802 pupils, and 18 arts, commercial and science colleges with 7,570 students. Health. There were (1983) 102 hospitals (3,580 beds) including 3 tuberculosis hospitals; also mobile and specialist clinics. There were also 188 health centres and about 1,287 doctors. There is 1 medical college and 1 dental college. Richards, J. M„ Goa. London, 1982 Soeiro de Brito, R., Goa e as Prafas do Norte. Lisbon, 1966

LAKSHADWEEP. The territory consists of agroup of 27 islands (10 inhabited), about 300 km off the west coat of Kerala. It was constituted a Union Territory in 1956 as the Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands, and renamed in Nov. 1973. The total area of the islands is 32 sq. km. The northern portion is called the Amindivis. The remaining islands are called the Laccadives (including Minicoy Island). Androth is the largest island, 4-8 sq. km, and is nearest to Kerala. An Advisory Committee associated with the Union Home Minister and an Advisory Council to the Administrator assist in the administration of the islands; these are constituted annually. Population (1981 census), 40,237, nearly all Moslems. Density, 1,257 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971-81,26 -49%. The language is Malayalam, but the language in Minicoy is Mahl. There were, in 1984, 9 high schools and 9 nursery schools, 17 junior basic schools, 4 senior basic schools and 2 junior colleges. There are 2 hospitals and 7 primary health centres. The staple products are coconut-husk fibre (coir), coconuts and fish. There is a tourist resort at Bangarem, an uninhabited island with an extensive lagoon. Headquarters of administration, Kavaratti Island. Administrator: O. Saigal. M I Z O R A M . On 21 Jan. 1972 the former Mizo Hills District of Assam was created a Union Territory. The area is approximately 21,090 sq. km and the population (1981 census), 487,774, of whom about 55% are literate and 90% are Christian. Density, 23 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971-81,46 -75%. There is a Council of Ministers responsible to a Legislative Assembly with 30 seats. The present ministry (Congress I) took office in May 1984. The nationalist Mizo National Front was banned in 1982. The main town is Aizawl, which is connected by a main road (not a national highway) to Silchar, Assam; Silchar is also the nearest airport. There are no railways. The budget for 1980-81 estimated receipts of Rs 52-28 crores on revenue account and Rs 24-50 crores on capital account. Outlay for the sixth Five-Year Plan is Rs 24-50 crores.

680

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Agriculture employs 46% of the people and 17% of cultivated land is irrigated; there are some terraced holdings, elsewhere shifting cultivation is practised in forest clearings. Industry is based on the forests. Total installed power capacity, 1975,3-4 mw supplying 61 villages. Lieut.-Governor: K. A. A. Raja. Chief Minister: M. Lalthanwala. PONDICHERRY. Formerly the chief French settlement in India, Pondicherry was founded by the French in 1674, taken by the Dutch in 1693 and restored to the French in 1699. The English took it in 1761, restored it in 1765,re-took it inl778, restored it a second time in 1785, retook it a third time in 1793 and finally restored it to the French in 1814. Administration was transferred to India on 1 Nov. 1954. A Treaty of Cession (together with Karikal, Mahé and Yanam) was signed on 28 May 1956; instruments of ratification were signed on 16 Aug. 1962 from which date (by the 14th amendment to the Indian Constitution) Pondicherry, comprising the 4 territories, became a Union Territory. Area and Population. The territory forms an enclave on the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu, with Karikal forming a separate enclave further south. The total area of Pondicherry is 492 sq. km, divided into 4 Districts: Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanam. Population ( 1981 census), 604,471 ; density, 1,229 per sq. km.; growth rate, 1971-81,28 -15%. Pondicherry Municipality had (1981) 162,639 inhabitants. The principal languages spoken are French, English, Tamil, Telegu and Malayalam. Government. By the Government of Union Territories Act 1963 Pondicherry is governed by a Lieut.-Governor, appointed by the President, and a Council of Ministers responsible to a Legislative Assembly. The election in March 1985 returned a Congress and Anna-DMK coalition. Lieut.-Governor: K. Prabhakara Rao. Planning. Outlay for 1983-84 was Rs 205m. Of this, Rs 32-3m. was for agriculture, Rs 93 • 6m. for social and community services, Rs 28 • 4m. for irrigation, flood control and power development, Rs 20 -4m. for transport and communications and Rs 14 • 9m. for industry. Budget. Budget estimates for 1982-83 show revenue receipts of Rs 399 • 3m. Electricity. Power is bought from neighbouring states. All main villages have electricity and there is a programme under the Sixth Plan to bring power to hutdwellers. Consumption, 1982-83,183-96m. units: 51 -5% in industry, 28% in agriculture. Peak demand, 46 -69 mw. Agriculture. Nearly 45% of the population is engaged in agriculture and allied pursuits; 89% of the cultivated area is irrigated. The main food crop is rice. Estimated foòdgrain production, 120,000 tonnes from 39,915 hectares in 1981-82, of which 99,000 tonnes was paddy; cash crops include groundnuts (11,700 tonnes), cotton (9,350 bales of 180 kg) and sugar-cane (200,000 tonnes). Industry. There are 12 large and medium-scale industries manufacturing consumer goods such as textiles, sugar, cotton yarn, paper, spirits and beer, and employing 14,143 people in 1983. There were 11,766 people employed in 1,738 small industrial units engaged in varied manufacturing. Railways. Pondicherry is on a branch from the main Madurai-Madras line. Aviation. The nearest airport is Madras. Education. There were, in July 1983,97 pre-primary schools (4,399 pupils and 124 teachers), 324 primary schools (42,195 and 1,357), 103 middle schools (44,137 and 1,388), 61 high schools (33,658 and 1,253) and 18 higher secondary schools (16,783 and 582). There were 9 general education colleges, a medical college, a law college, a technical higher secondary school and a polytechnic; these had a total of 6,077 students; there were also professional and vocational colleges. Health. In 1983 there were 10 hospitals and 40 health centres, one doctor to each 1,100 population, and one hospital bed to each 250.

INDONESIA

Capital: Jakarta Population: 158m. (1983) GNP per capita: US$520 ( 1982)

Republik Indonesia

H I S T O R Y . In the 16th century Portuguese traders in quest of spices settled in some of the islands, but were ejected by the British, who in turn were ousted by the Dutch (1595). From 1602 the Netherlands East India Company conquered the Netherlands East Indies, and ruled them until the dissolution of the company in 1798. Thereafter the Netherlands Government ruled the colony from 1816 to 1941, when it was occupied by the Japanese until 1945. An independent republic was proclaimed by Dr Sukarno and Dr Hatta on 17 Aug. 1945. Complete and unconditional sovereignty was transferred to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia on 27 Dec. 1949, except for the western part of New Guinea, the status of which was to be determined through negotiations between Indonesia and the Netherlands within one year after the transfer of sovereignty. A union was created to regulate the relationship between the two countries. A settlement of the New Guinea (Irian Jaya) question was, however, delayed until 15 Aug. 1962, when, through the good offices of the United Nations, an agreement was concluded for the transfer of the territory to Indonesia on 1 May 1963. In Feb. 1956 Indonesia abrogated the union and in Aug. 1956 repudiated Indonesia's debt to the Netherlands. During 1950 the federal system which had sprung up in 1946-48 (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1950, p. 1233) w a s a b o l i s h e d , a n d I n d o n e s i a w a s a g a i n

made a unitary state. The provisional constitution was passed by the Provisional House of Representatives on 14 and came into force on 17 Aug. 1950. On 5 July 1959 by Presidential decree, the Constitution of 1945 was reinstated and the Constituent Assembly dissolved. For history 1960-66 see THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 , p . 6 7 8 .

On 11-12 March 1966 the military commanders under the leadership of Lieut.Gen. Suharto took over the executive power while leaving President Sukarno as the head of State. The Communist Party was at once outlawed and the National Front was dissolved in Oct. 1966. On 22 Feb. 1967 Sukarno handed over all his powers to Gen. Suharto. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Indonesia, covering a total land area of 741,101 sq. miles (1,919,400 sq. km), consists of some 13,700 islands extending about 3,200 miles east to west through three time-zones (East, Central and West Standard time) of 1 hour's difference. Among the largest islands are Sumatra, Java and Madura, Bali, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Sulawesi (Celebes) and Irian Jaya (the western part of New Guinea). In addition there are two large groups of islands: Maluku (the Moluccas) and Nusa Tenggara (the Lesser Sundas). The total population in 1980 (census) was 147,490,298, distributed as follows: Province Aceh(D.I.) Sumatera Utara Sumatera Barat Riau Jambi Sumatera Selatan Bengkulu Lampung Sumatra

Sq. km 59,904 71,104 49,333 124,084 62,150 104,363 20,760 33,866

Census 1980 2,611,271 8,360,894 3,406,816 2,168,535 1,445,994 4,629,801 768,064 4,624,785

524,097

28,016,160 681

Chief town Banda Aceh Medan Padang Pakanbaru Telanaipura Palembang Bengkulu Tanjungkarang

Census 1980 1,378,955 480,922 186,262 230,373 787,187 284,275

682

INDONESIA

Province Jakarta Raya (D.C.I.) Jawa Barat Jawa Tengah Yogyakarta(D.I.) Jawa Timur

Sq. km 592 49,144 34,353 3,090 46,865

Census 1980 6,503,449 27,453,525 25,372,889 2,750,813 29,188,852

Jawa and Madura

134,044

91,269,528

157,066 156,552 33,966 202,619

2,486,068 954,353 2,064,649 1,218,016

550,203

6,723,086

24,200 88,655 83,799 32,454

2,115,384 1,289,635 6,062,212 942,302

229,108

10,409,533

5,623 21,740 48,889 14,925 83,675 421,981

2,469,930 2,724,664 2,737,166 555,350 1,411,006 1,173,875

596,833

11,071,991

Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan Kalimantan

Barat Tengah Selatan Timur

Kalimantan Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi Sulawesi

Utara Tengah Selatan Tenggara

Sulawesi Bali Nusu Tenggara Barat Nusu Tenggara Timur Loro Sae 1 Maluku IrianJaya Palau-Palau Lain Totals

Chief Iown Jakarta Bandung Semarang Yogyakarta Surabaya

Pontianak Palangkaraya Banjarmasin Samarinda

Menado Palu Ujung Padang Kendari

Denpasar Mata ram Kupang Dili Amboina Jajapura

Census 1980 6,503,449 1,462,637 1.026,671 398,727 2,027,913

304,778 381,286 264,718

217,159 709,038

208,898

2,034,255 147,490,298 ' Formerly Portuguese East Timor.

Other major cities (census 1980): Malang, 511,780; Surakarta, 469,888; Bogor, 247,409; Cirebon, 223,776; Kediri, 221,830 and Madiun, 150,502 (all on Java); Balik papan on Kalimantan,280,875. Estimate(1983) 158m. The principal ethnic groups are the Aceh, Bataks and Minangkabaus in Sumatra, the Javanese and Sundanese in Java, the Madurese in Madura, the Balinese in Bali, the Sasaks in Lombok, the Menadonese, Minahas, Torajas and Buginese in Sulawesi, the Dayaks in Kalimantan, Irianese in Irian Jaya, the Ambonese in the Moluccas and Timorese in Timor Timur. Bahasa Indonesia is the official language of the Republic. C L I M A T E . Conditions vary greatly over this spread of islands, but generally the climate is tropical monsoon, with a dry season from June to Sept. and a wet one from Oct. to April. Temperatures are high all the year and rainfall varies according to situation on lee or windward shores. Jakarta. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 71" (1,775 mm). Padang. Jan. 79°F(26-7°C), July 79"F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 177" (4,427 mm). Surabaya. Jan. 79°F (27-2'C), July 78° F (2 5 • 6°C). Annual rainfall 51"(1,285 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Indonesia is a sovereign, independent republic. The People's Consultative Assembly is the supreme power. It has 920 members and it sits at least once every 5 years. The House of People's Representatives has 460 members, 360 of them elected and 100 nominated by the President upon recommendation and sits for a 5-year term. General elections to the 360 elected seats in the House of Representatives were held on 4 May 1982 and 244 seats were won by the Golkar Party President, Prime Minister and Minister ofDefence: Gen. Suharto, elected by the People's Consultative Assembly in 1968 and re-elected in 1973,1978 and 1983.

INDONESIA

683

Vice-President: Gen. Umar Wirahadikusumah. Minister Coordinator for Political Affairs and Security: Surono. Minister Coordinator for the Economy, Finance, Industry and Development Supervision: Dr Ali Wardhana. Minister Coordinator for Public Welfare: H. Alamsjah Ratu Perwiranegara. Stale Minister and Secretary of Stale: Sudharmono. State Minister for National Development Planning and Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency: Dr J. B. Sumarlin. State Minister for Research and Technology and Chairman of the Agency for Research and Applied Technology: Prof. B. J. Habibie. Stale Minister for Population Affairs and the Environment: Dr Emil Salim. State Minister for Housing: Dr Cosmas Batubara. State Minister for Youth Affairs and Sports: Dr Abdul Gafur. State Minister for Administrative Reform and Vice Chairman of the National Development Planning Agency: Dr Saleh Afiff. State Minister for Women's Affairs: L. Soetanto. Minister of Home Affairs: Soepardjo Roestam. Foreign Affairs: Dr Mochtar Kusumaatmadja. Defence and Security: Gen. S. Poniman. Justice: Ismail Saleh. Information: H. Harmoko. Finance: Dr Radius Prawiro. Trade: Dr Rachmat Saleh. Cooperatives: Bustanil Arifin. Agriculture: Achmad AfFandi. Forestry: Soedjarwo. Industries: Hartarto. Mines and Energy: Dr Subroto. Public Works: Suyono Sosrodarsono. Communications: Roesmin Nuijadin. Tourism, Post and Telecommunications: Achmad Tahir. Manpower: Sudomo. Transmigration: Martono. Education and Culture: Dr Nugroho Notosusanto. Health: Dr Suwardjono Suijaningrat. Religious Affairs: H. Munawir Sjadzali. Social Affairs: Nani Soedarsono. Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: Gen. L. B. Murdani. There are 5 junior ministers. Nationalflag: Horizontally red over white. National anthem: Indonesia Raya (tune by Wage Rudolf Supratman, 1928). D E F E N C E . The Indonesian Armed Forces were formally set up on 5 Oct. 1945. On 11 Oct. 1967 the Army, Navy, Air Force and Police were integrated under the Department of Defence and Security. Their commanders no longer hold cabinet rank. There is selective military service. Army. There are 4 infantry divisions, 1 armoured cavalry brigade, 2 independent infantry brigades, 2 airborne infantry brigades, 1 artillery regiment, 1 engineer and 2 air defence regiments, 15 artillery battalions. Equipment includes 93 AMX-13 and 41 PT-76 light tanks. Total strength in 1985 was210,000. Navy. The fleet comprises 2 diesel powered patrol submarines, 10 small frigates, 4 fast missile boats, 2 fast torpedo boats, 14 patrol vessels, 2 fleet minesweepers, 8 small patrol craft, 15 landing ships, 2 landing craft, 3 training ships, 4 surveying vessels, 2 command and submarine support ships, 1 destroyer depot ship, 1 repair ship, 1 cable ship, 4 oilers, 10 auxiliaries, 60 minor landing craft, 20 service craft and 10 tugs. Of the 104 ships acquired from the USSR very few now remain. The naval air arm has 73 aircraft, including 23 helicopters. There are 71 customs patrol cutters, 6 maritime security agency boats, 35 Army vessels, 6 Air Force boats and 30 armed marine police craft. Naval personnel in 1985 numbered 35,000 officers and men, including 5,000 of the Marine Commando Corps and 1,000 in the Naval Air Arm. Air Force. Operational combat units comprise two squadrons of A-4E Skyhawk attack aircraft, and single squadrons of F-5E Tiger II fighters and OV-IOF Bronco twin-turboprop counter-insurgency aircraft. There are 3 transport squadrons, equipped with turboprop C-130 Hercules, Nurtanio/CASA NC-212 Aviocar and F27 Friendship aircraft, and piston-engined C-47s, plus 3 specially-equipped Boeing 737 dual-purpose maritime surveillance/transports; and an assortment of other aircraft in transport, helicopter and training units including 16 Hawk attack/trainers, 25 T-34C-1 armed turboprop trainers, and 20 Swiss-built AS 202 Bravo piston-engined primary trainers. On order are 32 CN-235 twin-turboprop transports and a large number of MBB NBO 105, Super Puma and Bell 412 helicopters, all from Nurtanio of Indonesia. Personnel (1984) approximately 25,000.

684

INDONESIA

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Indonesia is a member of UN and ASEAN. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth Five-Year Development Plan (1984—89) gives priority to increasing production and services in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, communications and transportation, and tourist industries. Budget. The ordinary budget, excluding the development budget, was as follows in 1983-84 (in Rp. lm.): Gross revenue, 16,565,000m.; gross expenditure, 16,565,000m. Currency. The monetary unit is the rupiah (abbreviated Rp.), divided into 100 sen. There are banknotes of 1, 2xh, 5,10, 25, 50 and 100 rupiahs and aluminium coins of 1,5,10,25 and cupro-nickel coins of 50 sen. In March 1985 there were 1,168 rupiahs=£l sterling; 1,097 rupiahs=US$l. Banking. The Bank Indonesia, formerly the Java Bank, established in 1828, was made the central bank of Indonesia on 1 July 1953. It had an original capital ofRp. 25m.; a reserve fund of Rp. 18m. and a special reserve of Rp. 84m. There are 86 commercial banks, 29 development banks and several other financial institutions. Commercial banking is dominated by 5 state-owned banks: Bank Rakyat Indonesia provides services to smallholder agriculture and rural development; Bank Bumi Daya, estate agriculture and forestry; Bank Negara Indonesia 1946, industry; Bank Dagang Negara, mining; and Bank Ekspor-Imurpor Indonesia, production of exports. There are 70 private national commercial banks owned and operated by Indonesians and 10 of these are licensed to deal in foreign exchange. The 11 foreign banks (of which one is a joint-venture) include the Chartered Blank, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Bank of America, the Citibank, the Bank of TSkyo, Chase Manhattan and the American Express International Banking Corporation. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was officially introduced in Feb. 1923, and came into full operation on 1 Jan. 1938. The following are the old weights and measures: Pikol= 136 -16 lb. avoirdupois; Katli = 1 - 3 6 lb. avoirdupois; Ban = 1-7536 acres; Square Pal = 227 hectares = 561-16 acres; Jengkal = 4 yd; Pal (Java) = 1,506 metres; Pal (Sumatra) = 1,852 metres. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. All gas and electricity undertakings were nationalized by presidential decree of 3 Oct. 1953, retroactive from 23 Dec. 1952. Three large-scale hydroelectric plants are operating on the Jatiluhur and Brantas rivers in Java and on the Asahan River in Sumatra. Electricity capacity, 1984,4,631 m. mw. Oil. Indonesia is the principal producer of petroleum in the Far East, production coming from Sumatra, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and Java, where AngloDutch and US interests operate. Indonesia is the tenth largest OPEC producer. The 1983 (preliminary) output of crude oil was 387m. bbls. Gas. Pertamina, the state oil company, started to pump natural gas to Jakarta in 1979. Minerals. The high cost of extraction means that little of the large mineral resources outside Java is exploited; however, there is copper mining in Irian Jaya, nickel mining and processing on Sulawesi, aluminium smelting in northern Sumatra. Coal production (1982) 480,985 tons. Output (in 1,000 tons, 1982) of bauxite was 700-25; iron sand, 136-52; copper, 223-70; silver, 3,051-74 kg; gold, 222 -37 kg; nickel 1,640-92. In 1982 tin production was 26,218 tons. Agriculture. Rice production (1983), 23-5m. tonnes. In 1982 production was (in

INDONESIA

685

1,000 tons): Copra, 1,736; sugar, 1,862; rubber, 861; palm oil, 873; tea, 92; cloves, 32. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 6,734,000; buffaloes, 2,513,000; horses, 658,000; sheep, 4,231,000; goats, 7,891,000; pigs, 3,587,000. Forestry. The forest area is 113m. hectares. Production (1981): All timber, 27-38m. cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1983 the catch of sea fisheries was 2m. tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There are shipyards at Jakarta Raya, Surabaya, Semarang and Amboina. There are many textile factories (total production in 1982-83,1,708-9m. metres), large paper factories (296,900 tons, 1982-83), match factories, automobile and bicycle assembly works, large construction works, tyre factories, glass factories, a caustic soda and other chemical factories. Production (1982—83): Cement, 7,650,000 tons; fertilizers, 2,153,000 tons; glass, 43,571,720 tons; 7-4m. cycle tyres; 6,806,000 cu. metres of oxygen; 305,000 cu. metres of acetylene. For details of nationalization see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 , p. 677. Trade Unions. The largest group of trade unions in indonesia' is the Serekat Organasasi Karyawan Seluruh Indonesia (SOKSI), the Central Council of All Indonesia Trade Unions, with a membership of 2 -6m., to which 28 national unions and 832 local unions are affiliated. The second largest is the Kongres Buruh Seluruh Indonesia (KBSI), the All Indonesia Trades Union Congress, with a membership of nearly 400,000. To the KBSI 25 national unions and 54 local unions are affiliated. There are also the HISSBI (Federation of Indonesian Trade Unions) with a membership of 180,203, and the KBKI (Indonesian Democratic Labour Organization), with a membership of 94,477. In addition, there are also trade-union centres which are closely connected with the Islamic Parties. Commerce. Imports and exports (including oil) in US$ 1 m. for year April-March: Imports Exports

1979 7,202-3 15,590-1

1980 10,834-4 21,908-9

1981 13,272-0 22,260-3

1982 16,858-9 22,293-3

The main export items (in US$1 m.) in 1982 were: Oil and gas, 18,365 -7; coffee, 341 -7; rubber, 602• 1 ; palm-oil and kernels, 97-2; tin ore, 378 • 8; tea, 89• 5; tobacco, 38-0; copper, 117-6; forestry products, 965 -8; fishery products, 229-5. The main import items are non-crude oil, rice, consumer goods, fertilizer, chemicals, weaving yarn, iron and steel, industrial and business machinery. Total trade between Indonesia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m } ] m m j j m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

56,971 112,170

73,756 139,236

91,704 212,066

169,454 193,642

181,490 186,736

Tourism. In 1983 about 644,000 tourists visited Indonesia mainly from USA, Australia, Japan, Netherlands, Germany, France, UK and Singapore. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Most cities on Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Bali are connected by highways or secondary roads. The Trans-Sumatra trunk road connecting Aceh (north) and Lampung (south) and the Trans-Sulawesi highway were nearing completion in 1984. The feeder-road between West Sumatra and Riau provinces was completed with the building of the bridge over the Kampar River at Pekanbaru in 1974. Motor vehicles, at 31 Dec. 1979, totalled 577,345 passenger cars, 383,648 vans and trucks, 69,545 buses and about 2,266,183 motor cycles. Railways. In 1982 the State Railways totalled 6,877 km, comprising 4,922 km of 1,067 mm gauge on Java, and 1,458 km of 1,067 mm gauge and 497 km of750 mm gauge on Sumatra. In 1982—83, railways carried 6,105m. passenger-km and 917m. tonne-km.

686

INDONESIA

Aviation. Indonesia has 14 major airports: 4 on Java, 3 on Sumatra, 2 on Sulawesi and one each on Bali, Kalimantan, Timor, Maluku and Irian Jaya. Construction of a new international airport, 18 miles west of Jakarta at Cengkareng, began in 1981. This will replace Jakarta's present international airport. The Government and KLM in 1949 set up 'Garuda Indonesian Airways' as a mixed enterprise on a 50-50 capital basis under KLM management. The agreement was to last until 1960. In 1954, however, the Government bought up the shares held by KLM for 15m. guilders and nationalized GIA; and in Jan. 1958, the Government unilaterally terminated the contracts with the technical assistants provided by KLM. GIA maintains a direct service between Jakarta and Manila, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tókyo and Amsterdam. Shipping. There are 16 ports for oceangoing ships, the largest of which is Tanjung Priok, which serves the Jakarta area and has a container terminal. The national shipping company Pelajaran Nasional Indonesia (PELNI) maintains interinsular communications. The Jakarta Lloyd maintains regular services between Jakarta, Amsterdam, Hamburg and London. Post and Broadcasting. In 1979 the postal and telegraph services of Indonesia included 2,796 post offices. There were 660 telegraph offices which handled 3-9m. domestic and 488,000 international cables. Post offices handled 176m. letters and Rp. 250,000m. in money orders, Giro and postal cheques. Deposits with post office savings accounts, Rp. 31,210m. Number oftelephones( 1982), 600,643. Radio Republik Indonesia, under the Department of Information, operates 26 stations. In 1982 there were 1 • 8m. television and 20m. radio receivers. Newspapers (1980). There were about 120 daily newspaper publishers with estimated daily circulation of 1 -7m. There were 270 publishers of weekly papers and magazines with a circulation of 3-5m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are courts of first instance, high courts of appeal in every provincial capital and a Supreme Court of Justice for the whole of Indonesia in Jakarta. Administrative matters on judicial organization are under the direction of the Department of Justice. In civil law the population is divided into three main groups: Indonesians, Europeans and foreign Orientals, to whom different law systems are applicable. When, however, people from different groups are involved, a system of so-called 'inter-gentile' law is applied. The present criminal law, which has been in force since 1918, is codified and is based on European penal law. This law is equally applicable to all groups of the population. For private and commercial law, however, there are various systems applicable for the various groups of the population. For the Indonesians, a system of private and agrarian law is applicable; this is called Adat Law, and is mainly uncodified. For the other groups the prevailing private and commercial law system is codified in the Private Law Act (1847) and the Commercial Law Act (1847). These Acts have their origins in the French Code Civile and Code du Commerce through the similar Dutch codifications. These Acts are entirely applicable to Indonesian citizens and to Europeans, whereas to foreign Orientals they are applicable with some exceptions, mainly in the fields of family law and inheritance. Penal law was in the process of being codified in 1981. Religion. Religious liberty is granted to all denominations. The majority of the Indonesians are Moslems. There are nearly 6m. Christians; their main strength is in Central and East Java, North Sulawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, the Moluccas and Irian Jaya. There are also about lm. Buddhists, probably for the greater part Chinese. Hinduism has 6m. members, of whom 2 • 5m. are on Bali. In 1978-79 there were 423,570 Islamic houses of worship, 24,215 Christian (7,052 of them Catholic), 4,365 Hindu and 1,762 Buddhist.

687

INDONESIA

Education. Pupils and teachers in 1982 (1,000): Primary Secondary Technological

Pupils 23,900 5,532 300

Teachers 713 328 27

English is the first foreign language taught in schools. Literacy rate was 72% in 1984. There are 51 universities (23 are private). Health. In 1981-82 there were 1,224 hospitals, 17,000 health centres and 15,400 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Indonesia in Great Britain (38 Grosvenor Sq., London W1X 9 AD) Ambassador: Sjahabuddin Arifin (accredited on 12 Nov. 1981). Of Great Britain in Indonesia (Jalan, M.H. Thamrin, 75, Jakarta) Ambassador: Alan E. Donald, CMG. Of Indonesia in the USA (2020 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: A. Hasnan Habib. Of the USA in Indonesia (Medan Merdeka Selatan 5, Jakarta) Ambassador: John H. Holdridge. Of Indonesia to the United Nations Ambassador: Ali Alatas. Books of Reference Economic Update 1984. National Development Information Office, Jakarta, 1984 Indonesia 1984. Department of Information, Jakarta, 1984 Bee.O. J., The Petroleum Resources of Indonesia. OUP, 1982 Bemmelen, R. W. van, Geology of Indonesia 2 vols. The Hague, 1949 Echols, J. M., and Shadily, H., An Indonesian-English Dictionary. 3rd ed. Cornell Univ. Press, 1975 Leifer, M., Indonesia's Foreign Policy. London, 1983 McDonald, H., Suharto's Indonesia. Univ. Press of Hawaii, 1981 Neill, W. T., Twentieth-Century Indonesia. Columbia Univ. Press, 1973 Papenek,G., The Indonesian Economy. Eastbourne, 1980 Polomka, P., Indonesia Since Sukarno. London, 1971 Taylor, A. M., Indonesian Independence and the United Nations. Cornell Univ. Press, 1960

IRAN

Capital: Tehran Population: 43-83m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$2,160 ( 197 7)

Jomhori-e-Islami-e-Irân

H I S T O R Y . Persia was ruled by the Shahs as an absolute monarchy until 30 Dec. 1906 when the first Constitution was granted. Reza Khan took control after a coup d'état on 31 Oct. 1925 deposed the last Shah of the Qajar Dynasty, and became Reza Shah Pahlavi on 12 Dec. 1925. The country's name was changed to Iran on 21 March 1935. Reza Shah abdicated on 16 Sept. 1941 (and died 25 July 1944) in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (bom 26 Oct. 1919). Following widespread civil unrest, the Shah left Iran with his family on 17 Jan. 1979 (and died in Egypt 27 July 1980). The Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, spiritual leader of the Shi'a Moslem community, returned from 15 years exile on 1 Feb. 1979 and appointed a provisional government on 5 Feb. The Shah's government resigned and Parliament dissolved itself on 11 Feb. Following a referendum in March, an Islamic Republic was proclaimed on 1 Apr. 1979. In 1980 Iraq invaded Iran and the war was continuing in early 1984. In Sept. 1980 war began with Iraq with destruction of some Iranian towns and damage to the oil installations at Abadân. The war was still in progress in early 1985. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Iran is bounded north by the USSR and the Caspian Sea, east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, south by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, and west by Iraq and Turkey. It has an area of about 1,648,000 sq. km (636,000 sq. miles), but a vast portion is desert, and the average density is only (1982)25 inhabitants to the sq. km. The population at recent censuses was as follows: (1956) 18,944,821; (1966) 25,781,090; (1976) 33,708,744. Estimate (1984) 43 • 83m. The populations (census 1976) and capitals of the provinces (ostdn) were: Azarbäijän Bäkhtari Azarbäijän Khavari Bakhtiari va ChahärMahäl Balüchestän va Sistän Boyer ahmadi va Kohkiluyeh Bushehr Esfähän Färs Gilän

1,407,970

Rezäyeh

3,204,761

Tabriz

398,807

ShahrKord

662,677

Zähedän

242,207 Yasoof 347,703 Bushehr 1,971,745 Esfähän 2,020,942 Shiräz 1,579,317 Rasht

Hamadän 11am Kermän Kermänshähän Khoràsan Khuzestàn Kordestän Lorestan Markazi Mäzändärän Semnän Yazd Zanjan

1,093,079 242,812 1,085,097 1,025,257 3,250,085 2,187,198 783,740 932,297 6,954,729 2,386,956 487,531 358,082 577,286

Hamadän Abdanan Kermän Kermänshäh Mashhad Ahväz Sänändäj Khorramäbäd Tehrän Sari Semnân Yazd Zanjan

The principal cities at census 1976 were: Tehran Esfähän Mashhad Tabriz Shirâz Ahväz Abadän

4,496,159 671,825 670,180 598,576 416,408 329,006 296,081

Qom Rasht Rezäyeh Hamadän Ardabil Khorramshahr Kermän

246,831 187,203 163,991 155,846 147,404 146,709 140,309

Karaj Qazvin Yazd Arak Desful Khorramäbäd Bonijerd

138,774 138,527 135,978 114,507 110,287 104,928 100,103

The national language is Farsi or Persian, spoken by 45% of the population. 23% spoke related languages, including Kurdish and Luri in the west and Baluchi in the south-east, while 26% spoke Turkic languages, primarily the Azarbaijani-speaking peoples of the north-west and the Turkomen of Khorasan in the north-east. 688

IRAN

689

C L I M A T E . Mainly a desert climate, but with more temperate conditions on the shores of the Caspian Sea. Seasonal range of temperature is considerable. Abadan. Jan. 54°F(12-2°C), July 97°F(36- PC). Annual rainfall 8"(204 mm). Tehran. Jan. 36°F (2 -2°C), July 85°F (29-4°C). Annual rainfall 10" (246 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the Islamic Republic was approved by a national referendum in Dec. 1979. It gives supreme authority to a religious leader (walifaqih), which position will be held by Ayatollah Khomeini for the rest of his natural life, and thereafter be elected by the Moslem clergy. The President of the Republic is popularly-elected for a 4-year term and is head of the executive; he appoints a Prime Minister and other Ministers, subject to approval by the Majlis. Presidents since the establishment of the Islamic Republic: Abolhassan Bani-Sadr, J u n e 1981 (deposed)

4

Feb.

1980-22

M o h a m m a d Ali Raja'i, 24 July 30 Aug. 1981 (assassinated).

1981-

The Cabinet was composed as follows in Aug. 1984. President: Hojatolislam Sayed Ali Khamenei (from 12 Oct. 1981). Prime Minister: Mir Hussein Moussavi. Foreign Affairs: Dr Ali Akbar Vellayati. Interior: Hojatolislam Ali Akbar Nateq Nouri. Defence: (Vacant). Labour qjnd Social Affairs: Abdul Ghasem Sar Hadizadeh. Education and Training: Ali Akbar Parvaresh. Islamic Guidance: (Vacant). Commerce: Hassen Abedi Jafari. Health: Dr Ali Reza Marandi. Posts and Telecommunications: Morteza Nabavi. Justice: Dr Hassan Ebrahim Habibi. Roads and Transport: Hadinezhad Hoseyniyan. Industry: Sayyed Mostafa Hashemi. Higher Education and Culture: Dr Iraj Fazel. Mines and Metals: Hussain Nili Ahmad Abadi. Agriculture: Abbas Ali Zali. Housing and Urban Development: Sarajuddin Karerumi. Energy: Dr Hassan Ghafuri-Fard. Oil: Sayyed Mohammed Gharazi. Heavy Industry: Behzad Nabavi. Economic Affairs and Finance: Dr Hussein Namazi. Ministers of State: Dr Mohammad Taqi Banki (Planning and Budget), Gholamreza Agazadeh (Executive Affairs). Legislative power is held by a 270-member Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis), directly elected for a 4-year term on 17 May 1984; but all legislation is subject to approval by a 12-member Council of Guardians who ensure it is in accordance with the Islamic code and with the Constitution. Six members of this constitutional Council are appointed by the walifaqih and six by the judiciary. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white and red; on the borders of the green and red stripes the legend Allah Akbar in white Kufi script repeated 22 times in all; in the centre of the white stripe the national emblem in red. Local Government. The country is divided into 21 provinces (ostan) and 2 governor-generalships; these are sub-divided into 172 shahrestan (counties), each under a farmandar (governor) and thence into 499 bakhsh (districts), each under a bakhshdar. The districts are sub-divided into dehistan (groups of villages) each under a dehdar, each village having its elected kadkhoda (headman). D E F E N C E . Two years' military service is compulsory. Army. The Army consisted (1985) of250,000 men (100,000 conscripts), with some 400,000 reservists. It is organized in 3 armoured, 7 infantry and 1 airborne divisions, and auxiliary units. Equipment includes 190 T-54/-55/-62, 100 T-72, 300 Chieftain, 300 M-47/-48 and 150 M-60A1 main battle tanks. There is also a 250,000-strong Revolutionary Guard Corps. Navy. The fleet, declining since the revolution, before the war comprised 3 very old destroyers, 4 frigates, 4 old corvettes, 3 old coastal minesweepers, 2 inshore minesweepers, 7 patrol boats, 14 hovercraft, 2 landing ships, 1 landing craft, 2 supply ships, 1 repair ship, 2 oilers, 4 survey vessels, 1 water carrier and 3 tugs. There were also 30 coastguard cutters and 2 customs craft.

690

IRAN

The construction of 12 fast missile craft in France was to have been completed by mid-1979, but later boats did not receive their missiles and the last 3 boats were embargoed in France. They eventually sailed on 2 Aug. 1981 but one was seized by a Royalist group off Cadiz and after she surrended to the French all three were sent to Iran in a merchant ship to obviate further trouble. The naval air arm comprised 14 assorted aircraft and 20 helicopters. Naval personnel nominally totalled 20,000 officers and ratings including cadets, apprentices and marines, but considerably fewer than 10,000 were active in 1985. With war following revolution and withdrawal of UK and US maintenance teams the fleet lacks spares and the navy has run down, several ships being laid up. The situation was worsened by cessation of foreign help in training semi-illiterate conscripts and with poor morale following general instability and casualties the above ships do not represent an efficient maritime force. Claims of sinkings during the Iran-Iraq war have not been officially confirmed. Figures for ship and personnel strengths should be interpreted with caution. Air Force. In Aug. 1955 the Air Force became a separate and independent arm, and had a strength of about 23 first-line squadrons (each 15 aircraft, plus reserves), with 100,000 personnel before the 1979 revolution. Strength (1985) was estimated at 20,000 personnel and 50 serviceable combat aircraft. The latter include some MiG-19/Chinese-built F-6 fighter-bombers, supplied via North Korea, and surviving US fighters that might total 40 F-5E Tiger II and 4 F-4D/E Phantom II fighterbombers, plus a few RF-4E reconnaissance-fighters. Transport aircraft include F27s and Boeing 707s and 747s, some equipped as flight refuelling tankers. The status of the large fleet ofCH-47C Chinook, Bell Model 214 and other helicopters is not known; but two P-3F Orion maritime patrol aircraft remain operational. Training aircraft include Bonanza basic trainers and 6 turboprop PC-7 TurboTrainers. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Iran is a member of UN, OPEC and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY

Planning. The sixth 5-year development plan, 1978-83 was abandoned following the revolution. Budget. Budget estimate for year commencing 21 March 1981: Revenue 2,025,000m. rials; expenditure 3,300,000m. rials. Currency. The Iranian unit of currency is the rial sub-divided into 100 dinars. Notes in circulation are of denominations of 5-10,000 rials. Coins in circulation are bronze-aluminium and copper, 50 dinar, silver alloy, 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 rials. In March 1985, US$1 = 97 -21 rials'£1 = 102 rials. Banking. The Bank Markazi Iran was established in 1960 as the note-issuing authority and government bank of Iran. All other banks were nationalized in June 1979, and re-organized into 8 new state banking corporations. All insurance companies were nationalized in June 1979. Weights and Measures. By a law passed on 8 Jan. 1933, the official weights and measures are those of the metric system. The Iranian year is a solar year running from 21 March to 20 March; the Hejira year 1362 corresponds to the Christian year 21 March 1984-20 March 1985. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric energy installed capacity, 1980, was 5-3m. kw., and 17,150m.. kwh. was generated. Oil. For a history of Iran's oil industry 1951-79, see STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1982-83.

The petroleum industry was seriously disrupted by the 1979 revolution, and

IRAN

691

many facilities, including the vast refinery at Abadan, the new refinery at Bandar Khomeini and the tanker terminal at Kharg Island, have been destroyed or put out of action during the Gulf war with Iraq. All operating companies were nationalised in 1979 and operations are now run by the National Petrochemical Company. Total production of petroleum, 73 • 7m. tonnes, 1980 (113 -2m. tonnes, 1979). Gas. Natural gas production (1979) was 44,300m. cu. metres. Minerals. Iran has substantial mineral deposits relatively underdeveloped. Production figures for 1977 (in 1,000 tonnes): Iron ore, 670; coal, 900; zinc, 62; lead, 40; manganese, 15; chromite, 80; salt (1973), 500. Agriculture. Reliable statistics of production are not available. It is estimated, however, that out of 164-8m. hectares of land area only 16,857,000 are crop land (including 10,300 hectares fallow), 27-8m. hectares are forests and ranges and 32 • 7m. hectares are potentially cultivable waste. Crop returns for 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat, 6,500; barley, 1,200; rice, 1,400; sugar-beet, 2,100; sugar-cane, 1,300; tobacco, 24. Wool comes principally from Khorasan, Kermanshah, Mazandaran and Azerbaijan. Production, 1972,20,000 tonnes. Rice is grown largely on the Caspian shores. Tobacco is grown along the shores of the Caspian. It is purchased by the Tobacco Monopoly and manufactured in the government factory at Tehran. Opium, until 1955, was an important export commodity in Iran. On 7 Oct. 1955 an Act was approved by Parliament to prohibit the cultivation and usage of opium. Livestock (1983): 34-5m. sheep, 13-8m. goats, 8-6m. cattle, 350,000 horses, 27,000 camels, 30,000 pigs, 220,000 bufTaloes, and 1 -8m. donkeys. Fisheries. The Caspian Fisheries Co. (Shilat) is a government monopoly. Exports of caviar (1975) were valued at US$72m. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Iran's chief natural products are oil, wool, cotton, silk, fruit, nuts, cereals, vegetables, gum, timber, oil seeds, copper and other metalliferous ores, coal, cattle, sheep and goats. Its principal manufactured or processed products are textiles, carpets, skins, casings, vegetable oil, soap, metal products, plastic products, furniture, beet sugar, tea, tobacco and cigarettes, wine, vodka, sort drinks, caviar, footwear, petroleum products, glass products, tiles, bricks, cement, leather and leather goods, dairy products and manufactured foodstuffs, and printed matter. Apart from the oil industry, the industries employing most workers are textiles, sugar refining, flour-milling, fruit processing, tea, furniture, printing, leather, matches, glass, building materials and light metal goods. The most popular carpets are manufactured in the environs of Tabriz, Kerman, Arak, Kashan, Esfanan, Shiraz and Hamadan. Esfahan is the traditional textile manufacturing centre, but in recent years important textile mills, particularly cotton, have been built in other towns, including Tehran. A number of automobile assembly plants have been set up in recent years employing several thousand workers. A steel-mill, a machinetool factory, a tractor plant and a huge petrochemical complex are also going into production. Commerce. Imports totalled 863,300m. rials and exports 963,500m. rials in 1980. Crude oil amounted to 73% of exports and refined products to 21%; 27% of exports went to Japan and 12% to Federal Republic of Germany while these two countries each provided 14% of imports. Total trade between Iran and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 107,176 393,335

1981 154,385 402,753

1982 225,971 333,715

1983 100,545 629,980

1984 368,572 703,097

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1980 there were 24,806 km of first-class roads and 26,484 km of secondclass (graded, all weather) roads, and 11,825 km of third class(earth) roads.

692

IRAN

In 1974 passenger cars and taxis numbered 119,851; commercial vehicles, 13,193;buses,2,61 l,and motorcycles, 19,785. Railways. The State Railways total 4,567 km, comprising 4,473 km of 1,435 mm gauge of which 145 km electrified and 94 km of 1,676 mm gauge. In 1981-82 the railways ran 4,734m. passenger-km and 5,566m. tonne-km. Construction started in 1983 of a link from Kerman to Zahedan to connect with the network in Pakistan. Aviation. The principal airlines which link Tehran with Europe and the Middle East are Air France, British Airways, Ariana, Alitalia, Swissair, LIA, KLM, PIA, SAS, Qantas, S A B E N A , Lufthansa, Aeroflot and Middle East Air Lines. British Airways, Qantas, Lufthansa, PANAM and Air France also connect Tehran with the Far East. Aryana (Afghanistan) Airline connects Tehran with Lebanon, Syria and Afghanistan. British Airways, KLM and SAS operate services to Tehran and Iran National Airlines Corporation, registered on 29 March 1962, has monopoly rights on all internal flights and also operates in the Persian Gulf; in 1965 it inaugurated European services. The Iranian Government owns 51 % of its shares. Shipping. In 1979, 80-22m. tonnes of goods were loaded at Iranian ports and 15m. tonnes were unloaded. Navigation on the Lake of Rezayeh, from Sharaf-Khaneh to Kolmankhaneh, is served by some 5 tugs and 9 barges for the transport of goods and passengers. The service runs twice a week. On the river Karun likewise, from Khorramshahr to Ahwaz, an irregular service for cargo only both ways is run by the Iran Transport Co. and the Karun Navigation Co., and some local firms run daily trips by motor boat, for passengers and merchandise. By changing into lighter-draught boats at Ahwaz both can be taken up to Shallili near Shushtar. Post and Broadcasting. Postal, telegraph and telephone services are administered by the Iranian Ministry of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones. There is wireless-telegraph communication between Tehran and Tabriz, Meshed, Kermanshah, Kerman, Khorramshahr, Bushehr, Yezd, Shiraz and Lingeh and a wireless-telephone link between Tehran and Tabriz. Tehran is also in wireless communication with Europe and is linked by wireless telephone with Baghdad, London, Berne and New York. In 1982 the number of telephones was 1,041;939, of which some423,861 were in Tehran. Wireless sets numbered 10m. in 1980, and television sets 2 1m. Cinemas (1975). There were 430 cinemas with 299,191 seats. Newspapers. There were in 1982,17 daily papers in Tehran and other cities. Their circulation is relatively small, Ettela'at and Kayhan leading with about 220,000 and 350,000 respectively. Two English-language and a French-language daily ceased publication in March 1979. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. A new legal system based on Islamic law was introduced by the new constitution in 1979. The President of the Supreme Court and the public ProsecutorGeneral are appointed by the wali faqih (Ayatollah Khomeini). The Supreme Court has 16 branches ancf 109 offences carry the death penalty. Religion. The official religion is the Shia branch of Islam, known as the IthnaAshariyya, which recognizes 12 Imams or spiritual successors of the Prophet Mohammad. Of the total population, 96% are Shia, 3% are Sunni and 1% nonMoslem (mainly Armenian Christians). The Gregorian National Armenians form 3 dioceses. There are also a few thousand Roman Catholic Armenians, who have a bishop of their own rite at Esfahan, the bishop of the Latin rite residing at Rezayeh (Urmia). There is an Anglican bishop residing at Esfahan. Education. The great majority of primary and secondary schools are state schools. Grants are made to private schools. Elementary education in state schools and

IRAN

693

university education are free; small fees are charged for state-run secondary schools. Text-books are issued free of charge to pupils in the first 4 grades of elementary schools. In 1978-79 there were 4,403,106 pupils in primary schools and 2,370,341 in secondary schools; there were 256,303 students in technical schools and 57,832 in teacher-training establishments. TTiere were 17 universities and almost 200 other institutes of higher education, with 175,675 students in 1978-79. The Free Islamic University was established after the revolution and in 1983 the International University of Islamic Studies was being organized. A literary movement was established in 1981 and by 1985, 3m. citizens have participated. Health. The Ministry of Health controls the health of the country through the Department of Public Health, which has achieved some remarkable results in the fight against malaria; large areas along the Caspian and the Persian Gulf and in Azerbaijan are now free from malaria. Opium addiction has been greatly reduced, and the cultivation of the poppy has been practically eradicated. Programmes to combat tuberculosis, smallpox, trachoma, venereal diseases, etc., have been introduced. In 1981 about 62,056 hospital beds (33% of them in Tehran) were available in 579 hospitals. Medical personnel included 10,054 physicians and surgeons and 1,462 dentists. Social Security. A system of social security benefits covering accident, sickness, retirement, death, marriage, maternity and childbirth and free medical attention and hospitalization for insured contributors and their families is embodied in the Workers' Social Insurance Law, 1960. This law provides for the insurance under the scheme of all workers in receipt of wages or salaries, but is at present being applied to some 683,496 workers employed mainly in industrial and mining establishments employing 10 or more workers. It also provides for the compulsory payment by employers of family allowances to workers with 2 or more children. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Iran in Great Britain (27 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1PX) Chargé d'Affaires: Seyed Jalal Sadatian. Of Great Britain in Iran (Ave. Ferdowsi, Tehran) Head of Interests Section: M. K. O. Simpson-Orlebar, CMG (at Swedish Embassy). Of Iran in the USA (3005 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of the USA in Iran (260 Takhte Jamshid Ave., Tehran) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Iran to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Said Rajaie-Khorassani. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The principal statistical agencies of the Government are: (1) Department of Census, Civil Registration, and Statistics (Ministry of the Interior). Director-General Sayyed Mehdi Hesabi; Publications on demographical statistics, in Persian. (2) Publicity and Information Department of the Seven-year Plan Organization. Director: Dr Mohammed Ali Rashti; Publications on industry, labour, agriculture, in English and Persian. (3) Statistical and Economic Research Department of the Bank Melli Iran; Publishes Monthly Bulletin, in English and Persian. (4) Customs Department (Ministry of Finance), publishes monthly and annual reports, in French and Persian. (5) and (6) Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Industry and Mines, publish statistical year-books. Adli, Abolfazi, Aussenhandel und Aussenwirtschaftspolitik des Iran. Berlin, 1960 Arberry.A. J. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran. 8 vols. CU P, 1968ff. Benard, C., and Zalmay, K., 'The Government of God' Iran's Islamic Republic. Columbia Univ. Press, 1984 Forbis, W. H., Fall of the Peacock Throne. New York, 1979

694

IRAN

Haim, S., Shorter Persian-English Dictionary. Tehran, 1958 Heikal, M„ Iran: The Untold Story. New York, 1982 Hiro, D., Iran under the Ayatollahs. London, 1985 Katouzian, H., The Political Economy of Iran. London, 1981 Keddie, N., Roots of Revolution. Yale Univ. Press, 1981 Lambton, A. K. S., Landlord and Peasant in Persia. OUP, 1953— Persian Vocabulary. CUP, 1954 Looney, R. E., The Economic Development of Iran. A Recent Survey with Projections to 1981. New York, 1973 Nashat,G., Women and Revolution in I ran. Boulder, 1983 Rubin, B., Paved with Good Intentions: The American Experience in Iran. OUP, 1981 Steinglass, F.J ,,A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary. 2nd ed. London, 1930 Stempel, J. D., Inside the Iranian Revolution. Indiana Univ. Press, 1981 Sullivan, W. H., Mission to Iran. New York, 1981 Zabih, S., Iran's Revolutionary Upheaval: An Interpretive Essay. San Francisco, 1979.—The Mosadegh Era: Roots of the Iranian Revolution. Chicago, 1982.—Iran since the Revolution. London,1982 Zakhoder, B. N. (ed.), Sovremennyi Iran. Moscow, 1957

IRAQ al Jumhouriya al 'Iraqia

Capital: Baghdad Population: 14m. (1982) GNPper capila: U S$3,020 ( 1980)

Part of the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century, Iraq was captured by British forces in 1916 and became in 1921 a Kingdom under a League of Nations mandate, administered by Britain. It became independent on 3 Oct. 1932 under the Hashemite Dynasty, which was overthrown on 14 July 1958 by a military coup which established a Republic, controlled by a military-led Council of Sovereignty under Gen. Qassim. The republican régime terminated the adherence of Iraq to the Arab Federation (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1958, p. 806). In 1963 Qassim was overthrown and Gen. Abdul Salam Aref became President, to be succeeded in 1966 by his brother Abdul Rahman Aref. In 1968 a successful coup was mounted by the Ba'th Party, which brought Gen. Ahmed Al Bakr to the Presidency. His Vice-President, from 1969, Saddam Hussein, became President in a peaceful transfer of power in 1979. An attempt at succession by the Kurdish minority in the north-east of Iraq flared up in 1962, and fighting continued until the acceptance of a peace plan in June 1966. The Revolutionary Command Council formed after the 17 July 1968 coup announced in March 1970 a complete and constitutional settlement of the Kurdish issue. This was not, however, fully accepted by the Kurdish opposition leader. In Sept. 1980 Iraq invaded Iran in a dispute over territorial rights in the Shatt-alArab waterway. Fighting was continuing in early 1985. HISTORY.

A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Iraq is bounded north by Turkey, east by Iran, south-east by the Gulf, south by Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and west by Jordan and Syria. The country has an area of434,924 sq. km (167,925 sq. miles) and its population census (1977) was 12,029,700 and(estimate) 1982,14m. AREA

T h e a r e a s , p o p u l a t i o n s ( 1 9 7 6 e s t i m a t e ) a n d c a p i t a l s of t h e g o v e r n o r a t e s w e r e : Governorate sq. km 1976 Al-Anbar 89,540 405,000 Al-Basrah 19,702 897,000 184,000 Al-Muthanna 49,206 Al-Qadisayah 8,569 395,000 26,834 An-Najaf 354,000 As-Sulaymaniyah 1 16,482 656,000 Babil (Babylon) 5,503 565,000 Baghdad 5,023 3,036,000 Dahuk ' 6,374 217,000 Dhi Qar 13,668 617,000 Diyala 19,047 663,000 492,000 Irbil ' 14,428 Karbala 52,856 243,000 Maysan 16,774 419,000 Ninawa (Nineveh) 41,320 1,158,000 Salah ad-Din 21,326 356,000 Ta'min 9,426 439,000 Wasit 17,922 386,000 1 Forming Kurdish Autonomous Region

Capital Ar-Ramadi Al-Basrah As-Samawah Ad-Diwaniyah An-Najaf As-Sulaymaniyah Al-Hillah Baghdad Dahuk As-Nasiriyah Ba'qubah Irbil Karbala Al-Amarah Mosul Samarra Kirkuk Al-Kut ! Census 1965

1970 79,488 333,684 33,473 2 60,553 ; 179,160 98,063 128,811 2,183,760 19,736 62,368 39,186 107,355 107,496 80,078 293,079 62,008 207,852 58,647

The national language is Arabic, spoken by 81% of the population. There is a major minority group of Kurdish-speakers in the north-east (15 -5%) and smaller groups speaking Turkic, Aramaic and Iranian languages. The climate is mainly arid, with small and unreliable rainfall and a large annual range of temperature. Summers are very hot and winters cold. Al-Basrah. Jan. 55°F (12-8'Q, July 92°F (33-3°C). Annual rainfall 7" (175 mm). 695 CLIMATE.

696

IRAQ

Baghdad. Jan. 50°F(10°C), July 95°F(35°C). Annual rainfall 6" (140 mm). Mosul. Jan. 44°F(6• 7°C), July 90° F(32-2°C). Annual rainfall 15" (384 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Provisional Constitution was published on 22 Sept. 1968 and promulgated on 16 July 1970. Thehighest state authority remains the 9-member Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) but some legislative power has now been given to the 250-member National Assembly, elected 20 June 1980 for a 4-year term. The only legal political grouping is the National Progressive Front (founded July 1973) comprising the Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'th) Party and various Kurdish parties; the Iraqi Communist Party left the Front in March 1979. The President and Vice-President are elected by the RCC; the President appoints and leads a Council of Ministers responsible for administration. President: Saddam Hussein at-Takriti (assumed office 17 July 1979). Vice-President: Taha Moheddin Marouf. The RCC was composed as follows in Jan. 1985: Saddam Hussein at-Takriti (Chairman), Taha Moheddin Marouf, Izzat Ibrahim (Vice-chairman), Na'im Hamid Haddad (Secretary-General of the National Progressive Front), Taha Yasin Ramadan (First Deputy Prime Minister), Gen. Adnan Khairallah (Deputy Prime Minister, Defence), Tariq Aziz Isa (Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs), Sa'doun Shakir Mahmud (Interior), Hasan Ali Nasar alAmiri (Trade). Besides those named above, the Council of Ministers comprises 7 Ministers of State, 19 other Ministers and 7 Presidential advisors with ministerial status. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with 3 green stars on the white stripe. Local Government. Iraq is divided into 18 govemorates (liwa), each administered by an appointed Governor; three of the govemorates form a (Kurdish) Autonomous Region, with an elected 57-member Kurdish Legislative Council. Each govemorate is divided into qadhas (under Qaimaqams) and nahiyahs (under Mudirs). D E F E N C E . Military training is compulsory for all men when they reach the age of 18. This consists of 2 years' service with the colours and 18 years on the reserve. However, a man may volunteer for service in the army or change his conscript service into voluntary service. In such circumstances voluntary service is for 2 years, and he may extend it by periods of 2 years until he reaches the age of 45. The 2-year compulsory service can be extended in a national emergency as in the present war with Iran. Many technicians and technically qualified officers serve up to 4 or 5 years. Army. The Army is organized into 6 armoured, 5 mechanized, and 5 infantry divisions; 2 Republican Guard armoured, 3 special forces, 9 Reserve and 15 People's Army brigades. Equipment includes Soviet T-54/-55/-62/-72 and Chinese Type-69 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 600,000, with an additional 75,000 reserves and the paramilitary People's Army of650,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 1 new frigate/training ship, 4 new Italian-built missile corvettes, 12 ex-Soviet missile boats, 12 ex-Soviet torpedo boats, 4 ex-Soviet but Polish-built medium landing ships, 3 Danish-built landing craft, 3 ex-Soviet submarine chasers, 2 fleet minesweepers, 3 inshore minesweepers, 1 training ship, 16 gunboats, 8 coastal patrol craft, 10 harbour patrol boats, 3 mine warfare boats, 1 presidential yacht, 1 harbour authority craft (former presidential yacht), 5 diving craft and 10 service tenders. In 1985 naval personnel totalled over 3,000 officers and ratings, to be increased on the acquisition of 4 frigates and 2 more missile corvettes being built in Italy with a replenishment tanker, if this 1981 contract is fulfilled. Air Force. Except for a few Hunter jet fighter-bombers bought from Britain and 89 Mirage F.1E/B fighters, 5 Exocet missile-armed Super Etendard attack aircraft,

IRAQ

697

about 40 Alouette III, 10 Super Frelon, 40 Puma and 59 Gazelle helicopters acquired from France, the combat and transport squadrons are equipped primarily with aircraft of Soviet design, including 10 Tu-22 supersonic medium bombers, 30 Su-7 and 50 Su-20 fighter-bombers, 40 MiG-23 interceptors and fighterbombers, and 50 Chinese-built F-7 and MiG-21 interceptors, 40 Chinese-built F-6 (MiG-19) fighters, 40 Mi-24 gunship helicopters, 50 Mi-8 helicopters, and four-turbofan 11-76, turboprop An-12 and An-24/26 transports. A few 11-14s and smaller types are used in a transport/communications role. Hunter, L-29 Delfín and L-39 Albatros aircraft are employed for training, with Swiss-built Bravo piston-engined primary trainers and Pilatus PC-7 turboprop basic trainers, Soviet MÍG-15UTI trainers and other types in the Air Force College and operational conversion unit. Total strength is about 45,000 personnel and 400 combat aircraft. Soviet 'Guideline', *Goa\ 'Gainful', 'Gaskin' and Roland surface-to-air missiles are operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Iraq is a member of UN, Arab League and the Non-Aligned Movement. ECONOMY Planning. A new plan for 1981-85 was introduced but has been affected, to some extent, by the hostilities with Iran. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in 1,000 Iraqi dinars) for 1981 balanced at I.D. 19,250m. Oil revenues account for nearly 50%, customs and excise for about 26% of the total revenue. Currency. The monetaryunit is the Iraqi dinar (I.D.) = 1,000fils = 10 riyals = 20 dirhams. Silver alloy coins for 100 and 50 fils (dirham) and 25 fils are in circulation, and other coins for 10, 5 and 1 fils. Notes are for 'A, V2 and 1 dinar, and for 5 and 10 dinars. In March 1985, £1 = 0-34 dinar, US$1 = 0 - 3 1 1 dinar. Banking. All banks were nationalized on 14 July 1964. The Central Bank of Iraq is the sole bank of issue. In 1941 the Rafidain Bank, financed by the Iraqi Government, was instituted to carry out normal banking transactions with head office in Baghdad and branches in the chief towns and abroad, including London. In addition, there are 4 government banks which are authorized to issue loans to companies and individuals: the Industrial Bank, the Agricultural Bank, the Estate Bank, and the Mortgage Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production in 1978 amounted to 6,950m. Kwh. Oil. Following the nationalization of the Iraqi oil industry in June 1972, the Iraqi National Oil Company (INOC) is responsible for the exploration, production, transport and marketing of Iraqi crude oil and oil products. The total crude petroleum production was (1980) 130-2m. tonnes and of natural gas (1980) 1,760m. cu. ft. Oil exports are essential for the economy but oil terminals in the Gulf were destroyed in 1980 and the trans-Syria pipeline closed in 1982. Iraq is now wholly reliant on the 625 mile pipeline from Kirkuk to the Mediterranean via Turkey. Water. The soil of the country is rich, but there are vast areas which can be cultivated only if irrigated by canals or pumps. The Irrigation Ministry operates several canal systems, new dams have been completed and other irrigation works are under construction. Agriculture. The chief winter crops (1980) are wheat, l -3m. tonnes and barley, 575,000 tonnes. The chief summer crop is rice, 220,000 tonnes. The date crop is

698

IRAQ

important (395,000 tonnes), the country furnishing about 80% of the world's trade in dates (exports, 1975,1.D. 11,493,000); the chief producing area is the totally irrigated riverain belt of the Shatt-el-Arab. Wool is also an important export (1975: I.D.I,013,000). In 1975,1.D.20,000 of cotton were exported. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 3m.; bufTaloes, 240,000; sheep, 12m.; goats, 3-8m.; horses, 65,000; camels, 250,000; chickens, 20m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Constructional establishments employed the largest number of workers. Other large employers were the brick industry, water and electricity services, date packing, the textile industry, cigarette factories, oil refining and the cement industry. Iraq is still relatively under-developed industrially but work has begun on 13 new industrial plants which are being established with Soviet equipment and technical assistance. Commerce. Imports and exports for 4 calendar years were (in 1 m. Iraqi dinars): Iirtports Exports

1977 1,151 2,854

1978 1,244 3,251

1979 2,225 6,350

1980 4,440 7,782

In 1980, crude oil formed 99% of all exports, of which 18% went to France, 15% to Brazil and 14% to Japan. 18% of imports came from Japan, 15% from Federal Republic of Germany and 9% from France. Total trade between Iraq and U K for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 532,483 321,883

1981 72,644 623,889

1982 79,764 875,179

1983 30,334 400,259

1984 69,047 343,120

Tourism. About 700,000 tourists visited Iraq in 1978. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. About 9,291 km of roads and tracks had been developed for vehicular traffic. The main surfaced roads are: (1) the road north from Baghdad via Kirkuk, Arbil and Nineveh to a point near the Turkish frontier at Zakho, with branches from Kirkuk to the northern province of Sulaimaniya, from Arbil to the Iranian frontier, and from Nineveh to Sinjar; (2) about 350 miles of the main road west from Baghdad to the Jordan frontier; (3) the road east of Baghdad, which connects the road system of Iran near Khanaqin; and (4) the road south from Baghdad to Hilla and the holy city of Kerbela. Vehicles registered in 1982 totalled 230,000 passenger cars and 145,000 commercial vehicles. Railways. The Iraqi Republic Railways were originally largely metre gauge but now comprise a 1,435 mm gauge main line from Um Qasr through Basra to Baghdad, Mosul and Tel-Kotchek on the Syrian frontier, and the remaining metre gauge route from Baghdad to Khanaqin, Kirkuk and Erbil. A 1,435 mm gauge line was opened in 1983 from Baghdad to Husaiba (404 km) on the Syrian frontier, which will form part of a through route to the Mediterranean port of Latakia, together with a branch to Akashat. A branch of 155 km has opened to serve phosphates deposits at Akashat. In 1981 the railways carried 5m. tonnes of freight and 3-8m. passengers. Aviation. Baghdad airport is served by British Airways, Lufthansa, Alitalia, SAS, Swissair, KLM, Middle East Air Lines, PIA, Iraqi Airways, Air Liban, United Arab Airlines and Aeroflot. In 1977 there were 728,266 passengers using Iraqi airports and 10,000 tons of cargo handled. Shipping. The merchant fleet in 1980 comprised 142 vessels (over 100 gross tons) with a total tonnage of 1,465,949. The ports of Basra and Um Qasr have been closed since Sept. 1980. Post and Broadcasting. Wireless telegraph services exist with UK, USA, UAR,

IRAQ

699

Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, and wireless telephone services with UK, USA, Italy, UAR and USSR. Telephones, 1978, 319,591. In 1983 there were 2 - lm. radio and 530,000 television receivers. Cinemas(1979). There were 87 cinemas. Newspapers (1983). In Baghdad there are 4 main daily newspapers (one of which is in English with a circulation of200,000). J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. The courts are established throughout the country as follows: For civil matters: the court of cassation in Baghdad; 6 courts of appeal at Baghdad (2), Basra, Babylon, Mosul and Kirkuk; 18 courts of first instance with unlimited powers and 150 courts of first instance with limited powers, all being courts of single judges. In addition, 6 peace courts have peace court jurisdiction only. Tribal law was abolished in Aug. 1958. For Shara ' (religious) matters: the Shara' courts at all places where there are civil courts, constituted in some places of specially appointed Qadhis (religious judges) and in other places of the judges of the civil courts. For criminal matters: the court of cassation; 6 sessions courts (2 being presided over by the judge of the local court of first instance and 4 being identical with the courts of appeal). Magistrates' courts at all places where there are civil courts, constituted of civil judges exercising magisterial powers of the first and second class. There are also a number of thirdclass magistrates courts, powers for this puipose being granted to municipal councils and a number of administrative officials. Some administrative officials are granted the powers of a peace judge to deal with cases of debts due from cultivators. Religion. In 1965 there were 7,711,712 Moslems, 232,406 Christians ( 1979), 2,500 Jews, 69,653 Yazidis and 14,262 Sabians. Education. Primary and secondary education is free and primary education became compulsory in Sept. 1976. Primary school age is 6-12. Secondary education is for 6 years, of which the first 3 are termed intermediate. The medium of instruction is Arabic; Kurdish is used in primary schools in northern districts. There were, in 1976-77, 8,156 primary schools with 1,947,182 pupils, and 1,320 secondary schools with 555,184 pupils. Eighty-two vocational schools had 28,365 students and 43 teacher-training colleges had 21,186 students. There are 6 universities with (1977) 71,536 students and 15 other higher educational establishments with 9,962 students. Health. In 1974 there were 4,734 doctors (including dentists); 162 hospitals with 21,582 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Iraq in Great Britain (21-22 Queen's Gate, London, SW7 5JG) Ambassador.Dr Wahbi Abdul-Razzaq Al Qaraghuli (accredited 19 Nov. 1982). Of Great Britain in Iraq (Sharia Salah Ud-Din, Karkh, Baghdad) Ambassador: S. John Moberly, KBE, CMG. Of Iraq to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Riyadh Mahmoud Al Qaisi. Iraq broke off diplomatic relations with USA on 7 June 1967. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Planning, Baghdad (President: Dr Salah Al-Shaikhly) publishes an annual Statistical Abstract (latest issue 1973). Foreign Trade statistics are published annually by the Ministry of Planning. Abdulrahman, A. J., Iraq. Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Arfa, H„ The Kurds. OUP, 1966 Ghareeb,E., The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse Univ. Press, 1981 Khadduri, M „ Independent Iraq. OUP, I960.—Republican Iraq. OUP, 1970—Socialist Iraq: A Study of Iraqi Politics since 1968. OUP, 1978 Postgate, E., Iraq: International Relations and National Development. London, 1983

IRELAND

Capital: Dublin Population: 3 -44m. (1981) GNP per capita: US$4,855(1981)

Eire

H I S T O R Y . In April 1916 an insurrection against British rule took place,and a republic was proclaimed. The armed struggle was renewed in 1919 and continued until 1921. The independence of Ireland was reaffirmed in Jan. 1919 by the National Parliament (Dail Eireann), elected in Dec. 1918. In 1920 an Act was passed by the British Parliament, under which separate Parliaments were set up for 'Southern Ireland' (26 counties) and 'Northern Ireland' (6 counties). The Unionists of the 6 counties accepted this scheme, and a Northern Parliament was duly elected on 24 May 1921. The rest of Ireland, however, ignored the Act. On 6 Dec. 1921 a treaty was signed between Great Britain and Ireland by which Ireland accepted dominion status subject to the right of Northern Ireland to opt out. This right was exercised, and the border between Saorstat Eireann (26 counties) and Northern Ireland (6 counties) was fixed in Dec. 1925 as the outcome of an agreement between Great Britain, the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. The agreement was ratified by the three parliaments. Subsequently the constitutional links between Saorstat Eireann and the UK were gradually removed by the Dail. The remaining formal association with the British Commonwealth by virtue of the External Relations Act, 1936, was severed when the Republic of Ireland Act, 1948, came into operation on 18 April 1949. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Republic of Ireland lies in the Atlantic ocean, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea to the east, and bounded north-east by Northern Ireland. Counties and county boroughs Province of Leinster Carlow Dublin County Borough Dublin 2 Dun Laoghaire Borough Kildare Kilkenny Laoighis Longford Louth Meath Offaly Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Total ofLeinster

Area in hectares

1

Maies

Population, 1981 Females

Total

89,635 11,499 78,937 1,720 169,425 206,167 171,954 104,387 82,334 233,587 199,774 176,290 235,143 202,483

20,195 248,016 209,533 24,793 53,967 36,395 26,774 16,234 44,125 48,957 30,290 31,388 50,336 43,663

19,625 277,866 213,253 29,703 50,155 34,411 24,397 14,906 44,389 46,462 28,022 30,135 48,745 43,786

39,820 525,882 422,786 54,496 104,122 70,806 51,171 31,140 88,514 95,419 58,312 61,523 99,081 87,449

1,963,335

884,666

905,855

1,790,521

Province ofMunster 318,784 Clare 45,366 42,201 Cork County Borough 3,731 66,177 70,167 Cork 742,257 136,211 129,910 Kerry 470,142 63,492 59,278 Limerick County Borough 1,904 29,723 31,013 Limerick 266,676 51,872 49,053 Tipperary, N. R. 199,622 30,247 28,737 Tipperary, S. R. 225,836 39,256 37,021 1 Exclusive of certain rivers, lakes and tideways. 1 Excludes Dun Laoghaire borough.

700

87,567 136,344 266,121 122,770 60,736 100,925 58,984 76,277

IRELAND Counties and county boroughs Province oJMunster—contd. Waterford County Borough Waterford

1

Males

701 Population. Females

1981 Total

3,809 179,977

18,751 25,762

19,722 24,356

38,473 50,118

2,412,738

506,857

491,458

998,315

593,966 152,476 539,846 246,276 179,608

88,330 14,699 58,987 28,653 28,183

83,688 12,910 55,779 25,890 27,291

172,018 27,609 114,766 54,543 55,474

1,712,172

218,852

205,558

424,410

189,060 483,058 129,093

28,338 63,962 26,679

25,517 61,150 24,513

53,855 125,112 51,192

801,211

118,979

111,180

230,159

6,889,456 1,729,354 1,714,051 ' Exclusive of certain rivers, lakes and tideways.

3,443,405

Total of Munster Province of Connacht Galway Leitrim Mayo Roscommon Sligo Total of Connacht Province of Ulster (part of) Cavan Donegal Monaghan Total of Ulster (part of) Total

Area in hectares

Principal towns (1981 census): Greater Dublin including Dun Laoghaire, 915,115; Cork, 149,792; Limerick, 75,520; Galway, 41,861; Waterford, 39,636. Vital statistics for 6 calendar years: 1977 1978 1979

Births 68,892 70,299 72,539

Marriages 20,016 21,184 20,806

Deaths 33,632 33,794 33,771

1980 1981 1982

Births 74,064 72,158 70,933

Marriages 21,792 20,612 20,441

Deaths 33,472 32,929 32,876

CLIMATE. Influenced by the Gulf Stream, there is an equable climate with mild south-west winds, making temperatures almost uniform over the whole country. The coldest months are Jan. and Feb. (39-45°F, 4-7°C) and the warmest July and Aug. (57-61°F, 14-16°C). May and June are the sunniest months, averaging 5-5 to 6 • 5 hours each day, but over 7 hours in the extreme S.E. Rainfall is lowest along the eastern coastal strip. The central parts vary between 30-44" (750-1,125 mm), and up to 60" (1,500 mm) may be experienced in low-lying areas in the west. Dublin. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 30" (750 mm). Cork. Jan. 43°F (6 • 1 °C), July 60"F (15 • 6°C). Annual rainfall 41"(1,025 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Ireland is a Sovereign independent, democratic republic. Its parliament exercises jurisdiction in 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland. The first Constitution of the Irish Free State came into operation on 6 Dec. 1922. Certain provisions which were regarded as contrary to the national sentiments were gradually removed by successive amendments, with the result that at the end of 1936 the text differed considerably from the original document. On 14 June 1937 a new Constitution was approved by Parliament (Dail Eireann) and enacted by a plebiscite on 1 July 1937. This Constitution came into operation on 29 Dec. 1937. Under it the name Ireland (Eire) was restored. The Constitution provides that, pending the reintegration of the national territory, the laws enacted by the Parliament established by the constitution shall have the same area and extent of application as those of the Irish Free State. The Oireachtas or National Parliament consists, of the President and two Houses, viz., a House of Representatives, called Dail Eireann, and a Senate, called Seanad Eireann, consisting of 60 members. The Ddil, consisting of 166 members, is elected by adult suffrage. Of the 60 members of the Senate, 11 are nominated by the Taoiseach (Prime Minister), 6 are elected by the universities and the remaining

702

IRELAND

43 are elected from 5 panels of candidates established on a vocational basis, representing the following public services and interests: (1) national language and culture, literature, art, education and such professional interests as may be defined by law for the purpose of this panel; (2) agricultural and allied interests, and fisheries; (3) labour, whether organized or unorganized; (4) industry and commerce, including banking, finance, accountancy, engineering and architecture; (5) public administration and social services, including voluntary social activities. The electing body is a college of about 1,032 members, comprising members of the Dail, Senate, county boroughs and county councils. A maximum period of 90 days is afforded to the Senate for the consideration or amendment of Bills sent to that House by the Dail, but the Senate has no power to veto legislative proposals. No amendment of the Constitution can be effected except with the approval of the people given at a referendum. Agreement on the establishment of a Council of Ireland was reached at a meeting held at Sunningdale on 6-9 Dec. 1973. Members of the Irish and UK. governments attended together with the Northern Ireland Executive-designate. Irish is the first official language; English is recognized as a second official language. F o r f u r t h e r details of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK,

1952, pp. 1123-34. President: Padraig Ohlrighile (Patrick Hillery), installed on 3 Dec. 1976 and reelected for a second 7-year term in 1983. Former Presidents: Dr Douglas Hyde (1938-45); Sean T. O. Ceallaigh (1945-59; 2 terms); Eamon de Valera (1959-73; 2 terms); Erskine Childers (1973-74; died in office); Cearbhall O Dalaigh (1974-76; resigned). A general election was held on 24 Nov. 1982: Fianna Fail, 75 (Feb. 1982 election, 81); Fine Gael, 70 (66); Labour Party, 16 (15); Workers' Party, 2 (3); Independents, 3 (4). There are no formal party divisions in the Senate. The National Coalition Government consisted of the following members in Feb. 1983 (Fine Gael and Labour Parties): Taoiseach (Prime Minister): Dr Garret Fitzgerald. Tanaiste (Deputy Prime Minister) and Minister for Energy: Dick Spring. Finance: Alan Dukes. Agriculture: Austin Deasy. Industry, Trade, Commerce and Tourism: John Bruton. Foreign Affairs: Peter Barry. Education: Gemma Hussey. Justice: Michael Noonan. Communications: Jim Mitchell. Gaeltacht, Fisheries and Forestry: Paddy O'Toole. Health and Social We.lfare: Barry Desmond. Labour: Ruaici Quinn. Environment: Liam Kavanagh. Defence: Paddy Cooney. Public Service: io\m Boland. There were 15 Ministers of State. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, orange. National anthem: The Soldier's Song (words by P. Kearney; music by P. Heaney). Local Government. The elected local authorities comprise 27 county councils, 4 county borough corporations, 7 borough corporations, 49 urban district councils and 25 Boards of Town Commissions. All the members of these authorities are elected under a system of proportional representation, normally every 5 years. All residents of an area who have reached the age of 18 are entitled to vote in the local election for their area. Women are eligible for election as members of local authorities in the same manner and on the same conditions as men. Elected members are not paid, but provision is made for the payment of travelling expenses and subsistence allowances. The range of services for which local authorities are responsible is broken down into 8 main programme groups as follows: Housing and Building; Road Transportation and Safety; Water Supply and Sewerage; Development Incentives and Controls; Environmental Protection; Recreation and Amenity; Agriculture, Education, Health and Welfare and Miscellaneous Services. Because of the small

IRELAND

703

size of their administrative areas the functions carried out by town commissioners and some of the smaller urban district councils have tended to become increasingly limited, and the more important tasks of local government have tended to become the responsibility of the county councils. The local authorities have a system of government which combines an elected council and a whole-time manager. The elected members have specific functions reserved to them which include the striking of rates (local tax), the borrowing of money, the adoption of development plans, the making, amending or revoking of bye-laws and the nomination of persons to other bodies. The managers, who are paid officers of their authorities, are responsible for the performance of all functions which are not reserved to the elected members, including the employment of staff", making of contracts, management of local authority property, collection of rates and rents and the day-to-day administration of local authority affairs. The manager for a county council is manager also for every borough corporation, urban district council and board of town commissioners whose functional area is wholly within the county. A central body called the Local Appointments Commission is charged with the duty of selecting suitable persons to be appointed by local authorities to chief executive offices, professional offices and other prescribed offices. Where a prescribed office becomes vacant, the local authority must request the Commissioners to recommend to them a suitable person. The Commissioners normally select persons for appointment by the machinery of selection boards. The revenue expenditure of local authorities is financed by a local tax, called rates, on the occupation of immovable property, grants and subsidies from the central government and payments for certain services which they provide. Since 1978 full rates relief has applied to houses, the domestic element of mixed property, i.e. property embodying a domestic as well as a non-domestic use, secondary schools, community halls and farm buildings not previously de-rated. A grant not exceeding the aggregate of these allowances is made to the local authorities by central government. Since 1983 such relief also applies in relation to all land. D E F E N C E . Under the direction of the President, and subject to the provisions of the Defence Act, 1954, the military command of the Defence Forces is exercisable by the Government through the Minister for Defence. To aid and counsel the Minister for Defence on all matters in relation to the business of the Department of Defence on which he may consult it, there is a Council of Defence consisting of the Minister for State at the Department of Defence, the Secretary of the Department of Defence, the Chief of Staff, the Adjutant-General and the QuartermasterGeneral. Establishments provide at present for a Permanent Defence Force of approximately 18,000 all ranks including the Air Corps and the Naval Service. The Reserve Defence Force caters for 23,000 all ranks. Recruitment is on a voluntary basis. Minimum term of enlistment is 3 years in the Permanent Defence Force and 6 years in the Reserve. The Defence Estimates for the year ending 31 Dec. 1984 provide for an expenditure of £229,715,000. Since May 1978 an Irish contingent has formed part of the United Nations force in Lebanon. The contingent now comprises 740 men (all ranks). 21 Irish officers are at present serving with the UN Truce Supervision Organization and the UN Disengagement Observer Force in the Middle East. There is a small detachment with the UN force in Cyprus. Army. The Army has 4 brigades three of which have two infantry battalions and the fourth one, a field artillery regiment and a squadron/coy size unit from each Corps. There is in addition a special Infantry force consisting of two battalions. The establishment strength of the Army is 15,517 all ranks. Navy. The Naval Service comprises 1 new frigate-size patrol vessel (with helicopter), 4 offshore patrol vessels built in Cork between 1972 and 1980, two coastal minesweepers purchased from Great Britain in 1971 for fishery protection purposes, one supply and training ship and 8 other craft. The Naval Base is at Haulbowline Island in Cork Harbour. The establishment strength of the Naval Service is 1,277 officers and men but in 1985 personnel were fewer.

704

IRELAND

Air Force. The Air Corps has an establishment of 800 all ranks, and 37 aircraft. There are 6 Fouga - Magister armed jet trainers, SF 260W armed piston-engined trainers, 8 Alouette III and 2 Gazelle helicopters, 3 twin-turbo prop Super Beech King 200 for coastal fishery patrol and a BAe 125/700 twin turbofan aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Ireland is a member of UN, OECD, the Council of Europe and EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Current revenue and expenditure (in IR£ 1 m.): Current revenue Customs duties Excise duties Estate, etc, duties Residential Property Tax Capital taxes Stampduties Income tax Income levy Corporation tax Value-added tax Agricultural levies (EEC) Motor vehicle duties Youth employment levy Post Office

1983 78-1 1,182 0 1-6 10 24-0 103-9 1,664 -2 40-1 215 0 1,192-6 11-4 93 -7 73 -8 416-5

1984 92 -6 1,241-6 10 I•1 28 0 112 2 1,966 -5 78 -1 209 -7 1,361-6 17 -4 110-8 83 -3

Total (including other items)

5,711 0

5,952 -2

Current expenditure Debt service Industry and Labour Agriculture Fisheries, Forestry, Tourism Health Education Social Welfare Less: Receipts, e.g. social security

1,456 184 360 63 973 804 1,909 (-)1,095

1,710 195 408 65 1,000 894 2,167 (-) 1,226

Total (including other items)

6,309

7,060

Capital expenditure amounted to £ 1,862m. in 1983,and£l,936m. in 1984. On 31 Dec. 1980 the liabilities totalled £7,896m. The assets were: Electricity scheme, £42-6m.: local loans fund, £l,313-2m.; national transport organization, £33-3m.; industrial credit, £59-8m.; turf development, £29-6m.; reconstruction finance, £33m.; shares in companies established under state auspices, £240-7m.; exchequer balance, £613,000; other assets, £ 150 -2m.; total, £ 1,903m. Currency. The unit of currency is the Irish pound or an punt Eirennach. From 10 Sept. 1928 when the first Irish legal-tender notes were issued, the Irish currency was linked to Sterling on a one-for-one basis. This relationship was discontinued on 30 March 1979 when, following Ireland's adherence to the European Monetary System, market forces pushed sterling exchange rates beyond the upper intervention limit established for the Irish pound against the Belgian franc. The Central Bank has the sole right of issuing legal tender notes; token coinage is issued by the Minister for Finance through the Bank. In March 1985, £1 = IR£1 16; US$=IR£0-98. The volume of legal-tender notes outstanding in Sept. 1984 was £901-91m. Total notes and coins outstanding amounted to £949-22m. Banking. The Central Bank, which was established as from 1 Feb. 1943, in accordance with the Central Bank Act, 1942, replaced the Currency Commission, which was set up under the Currency Act, 1927, and had been responsible inter alia for the regulation of the note issue. In addition to the powers and functions of the

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705

Currency Commission the Central Bank has the power of receiving deposits from banks and public authorities, of rediscounting Exchequer bills and bills of exchange, of making advances to banks against such bills or against Government securities, of fixing and publishing rates of interest for rediscounting bills, or buying and selling certain Government securities and securities of any international bank or financial institution formed wholly or mainly by governments. The Bank also collects and publishes information relating to monetary and credit matters. The Central Bank Act, 1971, gives further powers to the Central Bank in the regulation of banking including licensing of banks, the supervision of their operations and control of liquidity and reserve ratios. The capital of the Bank is £40,000, of which £24,000 has been paid up and is held by the Minister for Finance. The Board of Directors of the Central Bank consists of a Governor, appointed by the President on the advice of the Government, and 8 directors, all appointed by the Minister for Finance, 6 direct and 2 from among directors of the Associated Banks (the term applied to the 4 shareholding banks associated with the former Currency Commission). There are 4 commercial banks associated with the Central Bank: The Bank of Ireland, Allied Irish Banks Ltd, the Ulster Bank and the Northern Bank. At 16 Feb. 1983 the Associated Banks had liabilities, within the State, of £6,089-5m. including current and deposit accounts amounting to £4,967-5m.; assets, within the State, amounted to £6,338m., of which the main components were liquid assets of £735-2m. and lending of £5,147-6m. At the same date liabilities, outside the State, stood at £5,569-9m. and assets at £5,320-9m., giving a net external liability of £249m. Total liabilities and assets balanced at £11,659-4m. The commercial banking system also includes 40 licensed banks not 'associated' with the Central Bank. At 16 Feb. 1983 these non-associated banks had total liabilities and assets, within the State and elsewhere, balancing at £6,410 • 6m. The post office savings bank has approximately 2-7m. (including l-2m. dormant) accounts and the amount due at 31 Aug. 1983 was IR£322m. The trustee savings banks had deposits ofIR£285m. at31 Aug. 1983. Weights and Measures. The Imperial system is in use but conversion to metric is in progress. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. The generating and supplying of electricity and the construction and maintenance of the nationwide electricity distribution system is the function of the Electricity Supply Board, a State-sponsored body established in 1927. The total generating capacity is 3,260 mw. In the year ending 31 March 1984 the total sales of electricity amounted to 8,904m. units supplied to 1,145,818 consumers. Electricity generated by fuel source (1983-84): Oil, 20%; natural gas, 54%; peat, 18%; hydro, 7%. Oil. About 551,000 sq. km of the continental shelf has been made an exploration area; at its furthest point the limit of jurisdiction is 520 nautical miles from the coast. An exploration well drilled by Gulf Oil on block 49/9 in 1983 flowed oil on test from three different levels at an aggregate 9,901 bbls per day. A fourth level flowed gas at 2 - lm. cu. ft per day. Further appraisal work must be carried out on the block to determine the commerciality or otherwise of this discovery. Since 1970,83 exploratory offshore oil wells have been drilled. Gas. There has been one commercial discovery of natural gas, off the south-west coast at Kinsale Head. The total reserves of the field are 1 -35m. cu. ft. Gas Transmission is controlled by the Irish Gas Board (BGE), who sell the gas into electricity generation, fertilizer production, and distribution systems for domestic and industrial use. Peat. The country has very little indigenous coal, but possesses large reserves of peat, the development of which is handled by Bord na Mona (Peat Board). To date, the Board has acquired over 200,000 hectares of bog and has established 23 locations around the country. In the year ending 31 March, 1984, production totalled

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5-3m. tonnes, of which 3m. tonnes went to generate electricity and 0-8m. tonnes for the domestic market. In addition moss peat production for the year was 1 -3m. cu. metres. Minerals. Lead and zinc concentrates are important. Metal content of production, 1983: zinc, 185.900 tonnes; lead, 33,600 tonnes. Barytes and gypsum are also important, and there is some dolomite, limestone, aggregates, coal, green and black marble. About 30 companies are prospecting. Agriculture. General distribution of surface (in hectares) in 1980: Crops and pasture, 4,695,751; other land, including grazed mountain, 2,193,646; total, 6,889,195. Estimated area (hectares) under certain crops calculated from sample returns: Crops Wheat Oats Barley Potatoes Sugar-beet

1981 48,100 22,500 354,200 35,000 34,900

1

Area 1

¡982 57,000 22,600 334,200 36,900 34,300 Provisional.

1983 59,300 22,000 304,300 32,300 36,100

1984 78,100 24,500 293,600 34,600

Gross agricultural output (excluding value changes in livestock) for the year 1983 was valued at £2,447• 91 m. Livestock (1984): Cattle, 6-76m.; sheep, 3-75m.; pigs, 103m.; horses (1980), 68,500; poultry (1983), 8-39m. Forestry. The total area of state forests at 31 Dec. 1982 was 386,622 • 3 hectares. Fisheries. The number of vessels engaged in fishing in 1983 were 1,449 boats propelled by outboard engines, sails andoars and 1,57 lother fishing boats; men 8,572. The quantities and values of fish landed during 1982 were: Demersal fish, 35.000 tonnes, value £13,908,000; pelagic fish, 144,000 tonnes, value £17,992,000; shellfish, 16,000 tonnes, value £11,909,000. Total quantity: 195,000 tonnes; total value, £43,809,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The census of industrial production for 1980 gives the following details of the values {in £1,000) of gross and net output for the principal manufacturing industries. The figures for net output are those of gross output minus cost of materials, including fuel, light and ppwer, repairs to plant and machinery and amounts paid to others in connexion with products made. Slaughtering, preparing and preserving meat Dairy products Bread, biscuit and flour confectionery Sugar, cocoa, chocolate and sugar confectionery Grain milling, animal and poultry foods Brewing and malting Tobacco products Paper and paper products Printing and publishing Production and preliminary processing of metals Manufacture of metal articles Manufacture of non-metal lie mineral products Chemicals, including fertilizers and manmade fibres Mechanical engineering Manufacture ofofTice machinery and data-processing machinery Electrical engineering Manufacture of motor vehicles, parts and accessories Manufacture ofother means of transport Textiles (including knitting industry) Footwear and clothing Timber and wooden furniture Processing rubber and plastics Gas, water and electricity All other industries'

Gross output 908-3 876-3 160-3 237 -4 388-5 162 -7 75 -4 138-0 197 1 70-4 352-3 469-2 720-0 190-7 329 -8 324-2 181-5 87 0 352-9 214-2 171-4 202-7 548 -1 1,163-3

Net output 125-6 133-8 68 0 70 -2 69-9 101-4 40-2 50-7 128-7 22-6 162-9 222-2 375 -4 87-0 143-6 151 1 37-9 49-1 123 -8 100-1 73-1 80-5 263 -7 528-9

Total (all industries) 8,521-7 3,210-4 ' Including mining, fuel production, instrument engineering, various food and drink industries, etc.

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L a b o u r . T h e total labour force at m i d - A p r i l 1983 w a s a b o u t 1 , 3 0 9 , 0 0 0 , o f w h i c h a b o u t 1 5 5 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s were o u t o f work. T h e n u m b e r o f trade u n i o n s h o l d i n g n e g o t i a t i o n l i c e n c e s in Sept. 1983 w a s 7 9 , o f w h i c h 6 3 w e r e workers' trade u n i o n s a n d t h e r e m a i n d e r e m p l o y e r s ' trade u n i o n s . T h e total m e m b e r s h i p o f these u n i o n s is estimated at 5 0 0 , 7 9 6 , o f w h o m 1 0 , 4 8 0 w e r e in the e m p l o y e r s ' trade u n i o n s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 1 4 , 7 6 7 were organized in 6 general u n i o n s catering for b o t h w h i t e - c o l l a r a n d m a n u a l workers. C o m m e r c e . Value o f i m p o r t s a n d exports o f m e r c h a n d i s e for calendar years (in £): Imports Exports

1979 1980 1981 1982 4,827,922,798 5,420,704,523 6,578,406,480 6,816,154,975 3,477,738,139 4,082,496,312 4,777,570,799 5,691,441,609

1983 7,355,394,884 6,935,861,156

T h e values o f the c h i e f i m p o r t s a n d total exports are s h o w n in the f o l l o w i n g table (in £): Imports Exports 1982 1983 1982 1983 Live animals and food 753,379,640 845,170,876 1,535,173,452 1,743,398,194 Raw materials 186,541,592 221,175,720 229,614,384 284,412,079 Mineral fuels and lubricants 1,009,561,613 993,018,886 36,016,177 79,498,517 Chemicals 737,216,396 838,557,214 805,419,687 963,616,035 Manufactured goods 1,153,504,966 1,172,459,092 640,347,955 725,544,593 Machinery and transport equipment 1,872,485,385 2,119,812,778 1,394,387,526 1,814,131,254 Manufactured articles' 832,825,516 892,517,759 645,992,983 831,738,151 1

Not elsewhere specified.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f trade, by principal c o u n t r i e s o f origin in the case o f i m p o r t s a n d destination in t h e case o f exports (in £): . , Imports Totalexports Country 1982• 1983 1982 1983 Belgium and Luxembourg 148,103,626 155,656,579 254,440,348 274,678,619 Canada 83,169,537 91,703,372 69,270,047 80,578,188 Denmark 55,573,710 73,997,262 38,614,495 55,379,543 Finland 57,575,067 60,530,583 29,960,406 31,066,120 France 316,055,734 343,071,698 494,997,715 572,137,020 Germany, Fed. Rep. of 523,627,428 585,485,028 531,594,324 685,909,006 HongKong 30,334,489 43,398,587 8,466,986 11,206,146 India 16,120,398 14,933,931 6,922,027 6,828,558 Iran 162,824 70,626 4,342,971 42,647,419 Iraq 186,189 325,667 58,960,538 16,673,287 Israel 18,254,429 16,507,905 6,498,439 11,976,836 Italy 179,621,326 176,312,834 166,266,356 208,312,962 Japan 200,568,021 244,121,611 72,408,144 155,747,758 Kuwait 124,301 16,934 11,663,977 8,908,577 Malaysia 17,133,919 19,200,343 5,930,000 8,046,545 Netherlands 258,368,837 271,875,258 295,991,014 405,373,873 New Zealand 9,404,985 8,472,402 7,458,413 7,422,223 Norway 22,391,249 24,448,939 32,313,219 43,470,853 Poland 33,347,263 48,063,551 1,936,137 3,880,871 Portugal 22,157,736 26,447,035 17,213,484 21,513,683 Saudi Arabia 54,495,655 6,834,683 48,533,865 55,627,216 South Afnca, Rep. of, and Namibia 13,419,227 12,925,579 23,774,488 31,940,590 Spain 68,393,756 85,304,012 69,769,021 79,157,566 Sweden 105,341,034 112,171,827 79,962,608 106,701,284 Switzerland 72,335,487 72,100,104 55,207,676 75,974,032 USSR 37,811,091 39,817,622 29,993,248 48,205,054 UK 3,273,070,994 3,336,051,240 2,207,979,609 2,559,703,109 USA 877,615,460 1,080,660,814 406,238,422 560,605,059 A n Anglo-Irish free-trade agreement t o r e m o v e progressively all duties b e t w e e n July 1 9 6 6 a n d J u l y 1975 w a s signed in L o n d o n o n 1 4 D e c . 1 9 6 5 . Total trade b e t w e e n Ireland a n d U K (British D e p a r t m e n t o f Trade returns, in £ 1 , 0 0 0 sterling): m Q m ] } m m } ] m Imports to UK 1,784,329 1,787,065 2,000,033 2,290,067 2,635,039 Exportsand re-exports from U K 2,660,024 2,812,957 2,890,497 3,055,275 3,393,499 T o u r i s m . Estimated n u m b e r o f visits by foreigners (including m o v e m e n t ) in 1983 w a s 9 , 7 9 7 , 0 0 0 ; they s p e n t £ 5 2 4 - 3 m .

cross-border

708

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At 31 Dec. 1983 there were 92,294 km of public roads, consisting of 5,365 km of national roads, 10,616 km of main (trunk and link) roads other than national roads, 73,975 km of county roads and 2,338 km of county borough and urban roads; of the total length 87,679 km (95%) was paved. Five miles of motorway were opened in 1983. Number of licensed motor vehicles at 30 Sept. 1983: Private cars, 718,555; public-service vehicles, 6,909; goods vehicles, 69,978; agricultural tractors, 64,854;motor cycles,25,208; other vehicles, 11,777. The total number of km run by road motor passenger vehicles of the omnibus type during 1983 was 95,802,000. Passengers carried numbered 221,731,000 and the gross receipts from passengers were £88,240,000. Railways. The total length of railway open for traffic at 31 Dec. 1984 was 1,994 km (30 km electrified), all 1,600 mm gauge. Coras Iompair Eireann, the national transport undertaking, operates all rail services in the State. Railway stalisticsfor years ending 31 Dec. 1981 Passengers (no.) 15,374,000 Miles run by coaching trains 5,300,000 Merchandise and mineral traffic conveyed (tons) 3,664,000 Miles run by freight trains 3,281,000 Receipts (£) 45,445,595 Expenditure (£) 105,663,970

1982 12,813,000 5,025,000 3,680,000 2,843,000 49,943,000 121,607,000

Aviation. During the year ended 31 March 1984 Aer Lingus-Irish International Airlines carried 1,933,569 passengers, 37,183 short tons of cargo and 1,217 short tons of mail on its European services and 279,394 passengers, 18,498 short tons of cargo and 1,389 short tons of mail on its trans-Atlantic services. Shipping. The Irish merchant fleet, of vessels of 100 gross tonnes or over, consisted of 65 vessels totalling 197,462 GRT at 31 Dec. 1983. Total cargo traffic passing through the country's ports amounted to 17-2m. tonnes in 1983. Inland Waterways. The principal inland waterways open to navigation are the Shannon Navigation (130 miles) and the Grand Canal and Barrow Navigation (156 miles). Merchandise traffic is not now transported on them and navigation is confined to pleasure craft operated either privately or commercially. Post and Broadcasting (31 Dec. 1982). Number of post offices, 2,096; telegraph offices, 1,340; telephones, 580,000; public telephones, 3,939; telephone exchanges, 1,097. Radio and television broadcasting is operated by Radio Telefis Eireann, a statutory public body appointed by the Minister for Posts and Telegraphs under the Broadcasting Authority Acts. On 31 Dec. 1982 there were 695,500 holders of current television licences. Cinemas. There are 160 cinemas and 169 (estimate) screens. Newspapers (1983). There are 7 daily newspapers (all in English) with a combined circulation of 711,319; 5 of them are published in Dublin (circulation, 609,858). J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Constitution provides that justice shall be administered in public in Courts established by law by Judges appointed by the President on the advice of the Government. The jurisdiction and organization of the Courts are dealt with in the Courts (Establishment and Constitution) Act, 1961, the Courts (Supplemental Provisions) Acts, 1961-81. These Courts consist of Courts of First Instance and a Court of Final Appeal, called the Supreme Court. The Courts of First Instance are the High Court with full original jurisdiction and the Circuit and the District Courts with local and limited jurisdiction. A judge may not be removed from office except for stated misbehaviour or incapacity and then only on resolutions passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas. Judges of the Supreme, High and Circuit Courts

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are appointed from among practising barristers. Judges of the District Court (called District Justices) may be appointed from among practising barristers or practising solicitors. The Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice (who is ex officio an additional judge of the High Court) and S ordinary judges, has appellate jurisdiction from all decisions of the High Court. The President may, after consultation with the Council of State, refer a Bill, which has been passed by both Houses of the Oireachtas (other than a money bill and certain other bills), to the Supreme Court for a decision on the question as to whether such Bill or any provision thereof is repugnant to the Constitution. The High Court, which consists of a President (who is ex officio an additional Judge of the Supreme Court) and 14 ordinary judges, has full original jurisdiction in and power to determine all matters and questions, whether of law or fact, civil or criminal. In all cases in which questions arise concerning the validity of any law having regard to the provisions of the Constitution, the High Court alone exercises original jurisdiction. The High Court on Circuit acts as an appeal court from the Circuit Court. The Court of Criminal Appeal consists of the Chief Justice or an ordinary Judge of the Supreme Court, together with either 2 ordinary judges of the High Court or the President and one ordinary judge of the High Court. It deals with appeals by persons convicted on indictment where the appellant obtains a certificate from the trial judge that the case is a fit one for appeal, or, in case such certificate is refused, where the court itself, on appeal from such refusal, grants leave to appeal. The decision of the Court of Criminal Appeal is final, unless that court or the Director of Public Prosecutions certifies that the decision involves a point of law of exceptional public importance, in which case an appeal is taken to the Supreme Court. The High Court exercising criminal jurisdiction is known as the Central Criminal Court. It consists of a judge or judges of the High Court, nominated by the President of the High Court. The Court sits in Dublin and tries criminal cases which are outside the jurisdiction of the Circuit Court or which may be sent forward to it for trial from the Circuit Court on the application of the Director of Public Prosecution. The country is divided into a number of circuits for the purposes of the Circuit Court. The President of the Circuit Court is ex officio an additional judge of the High Court. The jurisdiction of the court in civil proceedings is limited to £15,000 in contract and tort, £15,000 in actions founded on hire-purchase and credit-sale agreements, £5,000 in equity and £5,000 in probate and administration, save by consent of the parties, in which event the jurisdiction is unlimited. In criminal matters it has jurisdiction in all cases except murder, treason, piracy and allied offences. The Circuit Court acts as an appeal court from the District Court. The District Court has summary jurisdiction in a large number of criminal cases where the offence is not of a serious nature. In civil matters the Court has jurisdiction in contract and tort (except slander, libel, seduction, slander of title and false imprisonment) where the claim does not exceed £2,500; in proceedings founded on hire-purchase and credit-sale agreements, the jurisdiction is £2,500. All criminal cases, except those of a minor nature, are tried by a judge and a jury of 12. Juries are also used in many civil cases in the High Court. In a criminal case the jury must be unanimous in reaching a verdict, but in a civil case the agreement of 9 members is sufficient. Religion. According to the census of population taken in 1981 the principal religious professions were as follows: Leinster Roman Catholics 1,645,038 Church of Ireland 58,339 Presbyterians 4,342 Methodists 3,343 Other religious denominations 9,087 70,372 Not stated or no religion

Munster 949,708 18,065 540 1,293

Connacht 406,656 5,976 342 330

2,567 26,142

746 10,360

Ulster (part of) 202,172 12,959 9,028 847 480 4,673

Total 3,203,574 95,339 14,252 5,813 12,880 111,547

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Education. Elementary. Elementary education is free and was given in about 3,398 national schools (including 112 special schools) in 1981. The average daily enrolment of pupils in 1984 was 571,003; the number of teachers of all classes about 20,720, including remedial teachers and teachers of special classes. Average daily pupil attendance is about 91%. There are 6 Colleges of Education for the training of primary school teachers, all co-educational. The estimated state expenditure on elementary education for 1984 is £350,847,000, excluding the cost of administration. Special provision is made for handicapped and deprived children in special schools which are recognized on the same basis as primary schools, in special classes attached to ordinary schools and in certain voluntary centres where educational services appropriate to the needs of the children are provided. Categories of handicapped children catered for include visually handicapped, hearing impaired, physically handicapped, mentally handicapped, emotionally disturbed, travelling children and other socially disadvantaged children. Provision is also being made on an increasing scale for children with dual or multiple handicaps. In each case a programme suited to the needs of the particular kind of handicap is provided. The number of children in each class in such schools is very much smaller than in ordinary classes in a primary school and because of the size of the catchment areas involved an extensive system of school transport has been developed. Many handicapped children who have spent some years in a special school or class are integrated into normal schools for part of their school career, if necessary with special additional facilities such as nursing services, special equipment, etc. For others who cannot progress within the ordinary school system the special schools or classes provide both the primary and secondary level of education. In addition to the services being provided on a full-time basis many children are being catered for by the provision of part-time teaching facilities in hospitals, child guidance clinics, rehabilitation workshops, special 'Saturday-morning' centres and home teaching schemes. Special schools (1982-83) were numbered 112 with 8,383 pupils. There were 189 special classes attached to ordinary schools with 2,377 pupils. 737 remedial teachers were employed for backward pupils in ordinary schools. 35 peripatetic teachers were employed for children with hearing or visual impairments. Secondary. Voluntary secondary schools are under private control and are conducted in most cases by religious orders; all schools receive grants from the State and are open to inspection by the Department of Education. The number of recognized secondary schools during the school year 1983-84 was 511, and the number of pupils in attendance was 209,197. Total estimated state expenditure for 1984 is £214,354,500. Grants for the provision of a wide range of audio visual teaching aids are available to secondary schools. The schools television service, Telefis Scoile, provides programmes in Irish, English, history, geography, mathematics and science subjects for senior and junior pupils. The vast majority of secondary schools now have at least one television receiving set which was purchased with the aid of a state grant. Vocational Education Committee schools provide courses of general and technical education. The number of vocational schools during the school year 1983-84 was 248, full-time students, 71,968. These schools are controlled by the local Vocational Education Committees, and are maintained partly from the rates and partly by state grants. The estimated state expenditure for 1984 was £113m., and the estimated expenditure from the local rates, £2,437,000. Comprehensive Schools which are financed by the State combine academic and technical subjects in one broad curriculum so that each pupil may be offered a range of educational options structured to his needs, abilities and interests. Pupils are prepared for the State.examinations and for entrance to universities and institutes of further education. The number of comprehensive schools during the school year 1983-84 was 15 with 8,705 students. Community Schools continue to be established through the amalgamation of exist-

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ing voluntary secondary and Vocational Education Committee schools where this is found feasible and desirable and in new areas where a single larger school is considered preferable to 2 smaller schools under separate managements. These schools cater for all aspects of second-level education and provide adult education facilities in the areas in which they are situated. They also make facilities available to voluntary organizations and to the adult community generally. The number of community schools during the school year 1983-84 was 42 with 26,029 students. The estimated State expenditure on running costs for 1984 is £35,751,000 for community and comprehensive schools. Regional Technical Colleges and Colleges of Technology. Apprentice, technician and professional courses are provided in the colleges of technology of the City of Dublin Vocational Education Committee, the Limerick College of Technology and 9 regional technical colleges at Athlone, Carlow, Cork, Dundalk, Galway, Letterkenny, Sligo, Tralee and Waterford. Students (full-time) 1983-84,16,284. University Education is provided by the National University of Ireland, founded in Dublin in 1908, and by the University of Dublin (Trinity College), founded in 1592. The National University comprises 3 constituent colleges-University College, Dublin, University College, Cork, and University College, Galway. St Patrick's College, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, is a national seminary for Catholic priests and a pontifical university with the power to confer degrees up to doctoral level in philosophy, theology and canon law. It also admits lay students (men and women) to the courses in arts, celtic studies, science and education which it provides as a recognized college of the National University. Besides the University medical schools, the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, provides medical qualifications which are internationally recognized. There are six Colleges of Education for the training of primary school teachers. For degree awarding purposes, three of these colleges are associated with Trinity College, two with University College, Dublin and one with University College, Cork. Third-level courses with a technological bias, leading to degree, diploma and certificate qualifications are also provided by the National Institutes for Higher Education, Limerick and Dublin. The Thomond College of Education, Limerick, is a specialist teachertraining institution concerned with the training of post-primary teachers in the areas of physical education, rural and general science, metalwork and engineering science, woodwork and building science and commercial and secretarial subjects. The National Council for Educational Awards, established on a statutory basis in 1979, is the validating and awarding authority for degree, diploma and certificate courses in the third-level non-university sector. Agricultural. An Chomhairle Oiliuna Talmhaiochta (ACOT) is the agency responsible for providing agricultural advisory and training services. Full-time instruction in agriculture is provided for all sections of the farming community. There are 4 agricultural colleges for young people, administered by ACOT, and 7 private ACOT- aided agricultural colleges, at each of which a 1 -year course in agriculture is given. Second-year courses in farm machinery and dairying are provided at a number of the colleges. Advanced courses in pig and poultry husbandry and management are also provided. Scholarships tenable at these colleges, all of which are residential, are awarded by ACOT which also provides a comprehensive agricultural advisory service and conducts winter classes in agriculture and horticulture at local centres. A more comprehensive course is provided in winter farm schools, which are intended, in general, for persons of not less than 17 years of age who are engaged in farming. A comprehensive 3-year training programme leading to a 'Certificate in Farming' involving both formal instruction and a period of supervised on-farm work experience, was introduced by ACOT in 1982. Horticultural. A 2-year course in commercial horticulture is provided at 3 residential colleges. There is also a 2-year course in amenity horticulture at the National Botanic Gardens in Dublin. A scheme of farm apprenticeship and a trainee farmer scheme are operated by the Farm Apprenticeship Board, which represents various agricultural interests. The scheme provides for practical training on well-managed commercial farms.

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Higher Education in Agriculture, Horticulture, Dairy Science and Veterinary Science. Higher education in general agriculture and horticulture is provided by University College, Dublin, and in dairy science by University College, Cork. Training in veterinary medicine and surgery is provided at the Veterinary College, Ballsbridge, Dublin. ' Health Services. Persons in the lower income group (those who are unable to afford general practitioner services for themselves and their dependants) are entitled to a free comprehensive health service (family doctor, hospital and specialist services, maternity and infant-welfare services, dental, ophthalmic and aural services). Persons and dependants in the middle-income groups (less than £12,500 per annum income) are entitled to in-patient and out-patient hospital services including specialist services, free maternity care and help towards the cost of drugs and medicines. Such persons must pay a contribution of 1% of income, subject to a maximum of £120 per year, towards the cost of these services. All persons, irrespective of income, qualify for the benefit of assistance towards the cost of prescriptions, which limits the total outlay of a family to £28 per month. Hospital treatment for tuberculosis and certain other infectious diseases as well as for children suffering from certain long-term diseases and disabilities is provided free of charge to all classes of the community. Persons suffering from diabetes and other specified longterm conditions are eligible for a free supply of drugs and other necessary medicines, etc. Pupils of national (elementary) schools are provided with a free school healthexamination service and are also eligible for free dental, ophthalmic and aural services for defects discovered at school health examinations. A free child-welfare clinic service for children under 6 years of age is available in many urban areas. A disabled persons maintenance allowance is payable in cases of need to chronically disabled persons over 16 who are not living in institutions. The disabled are also entitled to free travel and in certain circumstances to a free electricity allowance, a free television licence, free telephone rental and fuel vouchers. There is a mobility allowance of £300 per year for those unable to walk. The mother of a severely handicapped child maintained at home may qualify; for a constant care allowance. There are also schemes which provide for the education of the blind, and for the training and placement in suitable employment of the blind and the disabled. Welfare services include day care services for children, families in stress and the old. Home helps, meals-on-wheels, home nursing etc, are provided where neccessary. All these services are provided by regional health boards under the direction and control of the Minister for Health. Social Security. Social-welfare services concerned primarily with income maintenance are under the general control of the Minister for Social Welfare. The services administered by the Department of Social Welfare are divided into Insurance and Assistance schemes. Insurance Services. All employees irrespective of their level of earnings are compulsorily insured from age 16 to 66 years and are liable for pay-related social insurance contributions. The majority of employees pay a contribution of 8-5% of their earnings prescribed up to a ceiling of £ 12,000 while a contribution of 7- 5% of their earnings continues to be deducted up to a ceiling of £ 13,000. Their employers pay a further 121% up to a prescribed ceiling of £13,000. (The insured population is approximately l-2m.) Subject to appropriate statutory conditions (but without regard to the recipients' means) the following flat-rate insurance benefits are available: Disability benefit, invalidity pension, unemployment benefit, maternity benefit, widow's pension, deserted wife's benefit, orphan's allowance, treatment benefit, retirement pension payable at 65, old-age pension payable at 66 and a death grant. Pay-related benefit is payable with disability benefit, unemployment benefit, maternity allowance and injury benefit to persons whose employment is insurable at certain class rates of pay-related social insurance contribution. The cost of the flat-rate and pay-related benefits is met by pay-related social insurance contributions from employers and employees and by a state grant. The insurance services also provide for payment of benefits in respect of injury, disablement or death, as well as medical care resulting from an occupational acci-

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dent or disease. These benefits are available to employees, irrespective of age, and are paid from an Occupational Injuries Fund which is financed by employers' contributions and income from investments. Assistance Services. Children's allowances are payable without a means test in respect of each child under 16 years of age and children between 16 and 18 who are at school or incapacitated for a prolonged period. The following Assistance services are subject to a means test: Non-contributory widows' and orphans' pensions to the survivors of persons whose lack of insurance (or inadequate insurance record) precludes payment of contributory pensions; deserted wife's allowance to women who have been deserted by their husbands and for whom the deserted wife's benefit is similarly precluded; allowances for unmarried mothers, prisoners' wives and single women between the ages of 58 and 66 years; old age pensions payable at age 66 to persons not entitled to insurance pensions; blind pensions (under the same general conditions as apply to old age pensions) payable at age 18; unemployment assistance payable during unemployment to persons not entitled to receive unemployment benefit; supplementary welfare allowance, payable when a person has no other resources or when such resources are insufficient to meet his needs, D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Ireland in Great Britain (17 Grosvenor Place, London, SW1X 7HR) Ambassador: Noel Dorr (accredited 19 Oct. 1983). Of Great Britain in Ireland (33 Merrion Rd., Dublin, 4) Ambassador: A. C. Goodison, CMG, CVO. Of Ireland in the USA (2234 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Tadhg F. O' Sullivan. Of the USA in Ireland (42 Elgin Rd., Ballsbridge, Dublin) Ambassador Robert F. Kane. Of Ireland to the United Nations Ambassador: Robert McDonagh. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistics Office (Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin, 2) was established in June 1949, and is attached to the Department of the Taoiseach. Director: T. P. Linehan, B.E., B.Sc. The Central Statistics Office took over the work carried out since 1922 by the Statistics Branch, Department of Industry and Commerce, which in turn had continued the statistical work carried out by the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction (since 1900) and by the Irish Department of the Ministry of Labour, London (since 1919). Vital statistics from 1864, annual agricultural statistics prior to 1900 and decennial census of population were compiled by the Registrar-General for Ireland. The population censuses were carried out in 1926, 1936 and 1946 by the Statistics Branch of the Department of Industry and Commerce and are now the responsibility of the Central Statistics Office, which has also, as from July 1950, taken over from the Registrar-General the compilation of Vital Statistics. The Statistics Act 1926 confers wide powers for the collection, compilation and publication of statistics. Other Acts under which statistics are collected are Workmen's Compensation Act, Merchant Shipping Act, Customs Consolidation Act and Road Transport Act. Principal publications of the Central Statistics Office are National Income and Expenditure (annually), Statistical Abstract (annually), Census of Population Reports, Census of Industrial Production Reports, Trade and Shipping Statistics (annually and monthly), Trend of Employment and Unemployment (annually), Reports on Vital Statistics (annually), Irish Statistical Bulletin (quarterly). Aspects of Ireland. (Series). Dublin Department of Foreign Affairs. Atlas of Ireland. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 1979 Facts About Ireland. Dublin Department of Foreign Affairs, 5th ed. 1981 The Gill History of Ireland. 11 vols. Dublin Bartholomew, P. C., The Irish Judiciary. Dublin, Institute of Public Administration, 1974 Brown, T., Ireland: A Social and Cultural History, 1922-1979. London, 1981 Chubb, B., The Constitution and Constitutional Change in Ireland. Dublin, 1978 Delaney, V. T. H., The Administration of Justice in Ireland. 4th ed. Dublin, Institute of Public Administration, 1975

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Eager, A. R.,/i Guide to Irish Bibliographical Material. 2nded. London, 1980 Encyclopaedia of Ireland. Dublin, 1968 Freeman, T. W., Ireland: A General and Regional Geography. 4th ed. London, 1972 Harbison, P., Guide to the National Monuments of Ireland. Dublin, 1975 Hickey, D. J. and Doherty, J. E.,A Dictionary of Irish History since 1800. Dublin, 1980 Johnston, T. J., and others, A History ofthe Church of Ireland. Dublin, 1953 Keatinge, P., Formulation of Irish Foreign Policy. Dublin, 1973.—A Place Among the Nations: Issues of Irish Foreign Policy. Dublin, 1978 Kee, R., The Green Flag. London, 1972 Kelly, J. M., Fundamental Rights in the Irish Law and Constitution. 2nded. Dublin, 1967 Lehane, B., The Companion Guide to Ireland. London, 1973 Lyons,F.S. L., Ireland Since the Famine. London, 1971 McDunphy, Michael, The President of Ireland: His Powers, Functions and Duties. Dublin, 1945 Nevill, W. E., Geology and Ireland. Dublin, 1963 Thorn's Directory of Ireland. 2 vols. (Dublin, Street Directory, Commercial). Dublin, 1979-80 Tobin, F., Ireland in the 1960s. Dublin, 1984

ISRAEL Medinat Israel—State ofIsrael

Capital: Jerusalem Population: 4- 15m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$5,160 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . In 1967, following some years of uneasy peace, local clashes on the Israeli-Syrian border were followed by Egyptian mass concentration of forces on the borders oflsrael. The UN emergency force was expelled and a blockade of shipping to and from Israel was imposed by Egypt in the Red Sea. Israel struck out at Egypt on land and in the air on 5-9 June 1967. Jordan joined in the conflict which spread to the Syrian borders. By 11 June the Israelis had occupied the Gaza Strip and the Sinai peninsula as far as the Suez Canal in Egypt, West Jordan as far as the Jordan valley and the heights east of the Sea of Galilee, including Quneitra in Syria. A further war broke out on 6 Oct. 1973 when an Egyptian offensive was launched across the Suez Canal and Syrian forces struck on the Golan Heights. Following UN Security Council resolutions a ceasefire finally came into being on 24 Oct. In Dec. agreement was reached by Egypt and Israel on disengagement and a disengagement agreement was signed with Syria on 31 May 1974. A further disengagement agreement was signed between Israel and Egypt in Sept. 1975. Developments in 1977 included President Sadat of Egypt's visit to Israel and peace inititative and in March 1978 Israeli troops entered southern Lebanon but later withdrew after the arrival of a UN peace-keeping force. In Sept. 1978 President Carter convened the Camp David conference at which Egypt and Israel agreed on frameworks for peace in the Middle East with treaties to be negotiated between Israel and her neighbours. Negotiations began in USA between Egypt and Israel in Oct. 1978 and a peace treaty was signed in Washington 26 March 1979. Under the Israel-Egypt peace treaty signed in Washington on 26 March 1979, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Desert in two phases, part was achieved on 26 Jan. 1980 and the final withdrawal by 26 April 1982. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area oflsrael, within the boundaries defined by the 1949 armistice agreements with Egypt, Jordan, the Lebanon and Syria, is 20,770 sq. km (8,017 sq. miles), with a population (May 1972 census) of 3-2m. (estimated, Jan. 1984,4 • 15m.). Population of areas under Israeli administration as a result of the 6-day war was: Judaea and Samaria (West Bank), 767,300, Gaza Strip, 493,700, and the Golan Heights, 19,700. Crude birth rate per 1,000 population of Jewish population (1983), 22 -4; nonJewish, 34-7; crude death rate, Jewish, 7-4; non-Jewish, 4 1 ; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, Jewish, 11-7; non-Jewish, 22. Israel is administratively divided into 6 districts: District Northern Haifa Central Tel Aviv Jerusalem2 Southern 1

1983.

2

Area (sq. km) 4,946 854 1,242 170 627 14,107

Population 1 656,000 575,300 830,000 1,000,200 472,900 478,800

Chieftown Nazareth Haifa Ramla Tel Aviv Jerusalem Beersheba

Includes East Jerusalem, annexed from Jordan after 1967 War.

On 23 Jan. 1950 the Knesset proclaimed Jerusalem the capital of the State and on 14 Dec. 1981 extended Israeli law into the Golan Heights. Population of the 715

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ISRAEL

main towns (4 June 1983): Tel-Aviv/Jaffa, 327,300; Jerusalem, 428,700; Haifa, 225,800; R a m a t G a n , 117,100; Bat-Yam, 128,700; Holon, 133,500; Petach Tikva, 123,900; Beersheba, 110,800. The official languages are Hebrew and Arabic. Immigration. The following table shows the numbers of Jewish immigrants entering Palestine (Israel), including persons entering as travellers who subsequently registered as immigrants. For a year-by-year breakdown, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 1 , p. 1 1 6 7 .

1919-32 1933-39

129,349 235,170

1940-47 101,173 1948-68 1,290,610

1969-79 1980-83

384,066 63,656

During the period 1948-68, 45 -5% of the immigrants came from Europe and America and 54 -5% from Asia and Africa; during the period 1969-79,79 -5% came from Europe and America and 20 • 5% from Asia and Africa. The Jewish Agency, which, in accordance with Article IV of the Palestine Mandate, played a leading role in laying the political, economic and social foundations on which the State of Israel was established, continues to be instrumental in organizing immigration. C L I M A T E . From April to Oct., the summers are long and hot, and almost rainless. From Nov. to March, the weather is generally mild, though colder in hilly areas, and this is the wet season. Jerusalem. Jan. 48°F (9°C), July 73°F (23°C). Annual rainfall 2 1 " (528 mm). Tel Aviv. Jan. 57°F (14°C), July 81°F (27°C). Annual rainfall 2 2 " (550 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Israel is an independent sovereign republic, established by proclamation on 14 May 1948. For the history of the British Mandate, see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1 9 2 0 - 4 9 , under PALESTINE.

In 1950 the Knesset (Parliament), which in 1949 had passed the Transition Law dealing in general terms with the powers of the Knesset, President and Cabinet, resolved to enact from time to time fundamental laws, which eventually, taken together, would form the Constitution. The first of these fundamental laws, dealing with the Knesset, Israel Lands and the President, were passed in 1958, 1960 and 1964 respectively and with the Government in 1968. National flag: White with 2 horizontal blue stripes, the blue Shield of David in the centre. National anthem: Hatikvah (The Hope). Words by N. N. Imber (1878); adopted as the Jewish National Anthem by the first Zionist Congress (1897). The Knesset, a one-chamber Parliament, consists of 120 members. It is elected for a 4-year term by secret ballot and universal direct suffrage. The system of election is by proportional representation. After the July 1984 elections the Knesset was composed as follows: Alignment, 44; Likud, 41; National Religious Party, 5; Tehiya, 5; Hadash, 4; Shas, 4; Shinui, 3; Civil Rights, 3; Yahad, 3; PLP, 2; Agudat Israel, 2; Morasha, 2; Tami, 1; Kach, 1; Ometz, 1. It was agreed that for the first 25 months of the parliamentary term Shimon Peres should be Prime Minister and Itzhak Shamir, Deputy Prime Minister and after that the roles would be reversed. The President is elected by the Knesset by secret ballot by a simple majority; his term of office is 5 years. He may be re-elected once. Former Presidents of the State: Chaim Weizmann (1949-52); Izhak Ben-Zvi (1952-63); Zalman Shazar (1963-68); Ephraim Katzir (1968-78); Yitzhak Navon (1978-83). President: Chaim Herzog, elected 22 March 1983 by 61 votes to 56 against with 3 abstentions. The Cabinet in Sept. 1984 was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Interior and Religious Affairs: Shimon Peres (Labour). Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs: Itzhak Shamir (Herut).

ISRAEL

717

Vice-Premier and Minister of Education: Itzhak Navon (Labour). Vice-Premier and Minister of Housing and Construction: David Levi (Herat). Trade and Industry: Ariel Sharon (Herat). Police: Haim Bar-Lev (Labour). Health: Mordechai Gur (Labour). Minister in the Prime Minister's Office: Ezer Weizmann (Yahad). Economics and Planning: Gad Yaakobi (Labour). Finance: Itzhak Moda'i (Liberal). Agriculture: Arye Nehamkin (Labour). Justice: Moshe Nissim (Liberal). Science and Development: Gideon Patt (Liberal). Integration of Immigrants: Yaacov Tsur (Labour). Transport: Haim Corfu (Herat). Labour and Social Affairs: Moshe Katzav (Herat). Defence: Itzhak Rabin (Labour). Communications: Amnon Rubinstein (Shinui). Energy and Infrastructure: Moshe Shahal (Labour). Tourism: Avraham Sharir (Liberal). Without Portfolio: Moshe Arens (Herat), Dr Josef Burg (NRP), Yigael Hurwitz (Ometz), Itzhak Peretz (Shas), Josef Shapira (Morasha). Local Government. Local authorities are of three kinds, namely, municipal corporations, local councils and regional councils. Their status, powers and duties are prescribed by statute. Regional councils are local authorities set up in agricultural areas and include all the agricultural settlements in the area under their jurisdiction. All local authorities exercise their authority mainly by means of bye-laws approved by the Minister of the Interior. Their revenue is derived from rates and a surcharge on income tax. Local authorities are elected for a 4-year term of office concurrently with general elections. There are 36 municipalities (2 Arab), 115 local councils (46 Arab and 6 Draze) and 49 regional councils (1 Arab) comprising 700 villages. D E F E N C E . The Defence Service Law, provides a compulsory 39-month conscription for men between the ages of 18 and 26 and a 30-month conscription for men in the age-group of 27-29 years. Unmarried women aged 18-26 serve 24 months. After their term of military service, men are on the reserves until the age of 55 years. Until they are 40, men usually report for 31 days training annually and from then until they are 55, for 14 days. Commissioned and n.c.o.s usually serve 7 extra days a year. The Israel Defence Force is a unified force, in which army, navy and air force are subordinate to a single chief-of-staff. The Minister of Defence is de facto commander-in-chief but from Oct. 1973 the cabinet formed a defence committee with authority to make decisions on military operations. Army. The Army is organized in 11 armoured divisions, 33 armoured brigades, 10 mechanized infantry brigades, 12 territorial/border infantry brigades and 15 artillery brigades. Equipment includes some 3,600 main battle tanks and 4,000 other armoured fighting vehicles. Strength (1985) 104,000 (conscripts 88,000), rising to 600,000 on mobilization. Navy. The Navy includes 3 diesel-electric patrol submarines (built in Britain), 27 missile vessels (6 of 500 tons with helicopter and hangar, 8 of415 tons, 12 of 220 tons and 1 of 47 tons, the smallest missile craft yet built), 2 missile-armed hydrofoils of 105 tons, 45 coastal patrol craft, 2 transports, 3 medium landing ships, 6 landing craft, 1 'firefish', 1 support ship, I training ship, 4 coastguard cutters, and 3 minor landing craft. New construction includes 2 missile armed corvettes of 850 tons, and 10 improved guided-missile hydrofoils of 105 tons, all being built in Israel. The former Nautical School in Haifa has been reorganized as a Naval Officers' School in Acre. The repair base at Eilat has a syncrolift. Naval personnel in 1985 totalled 800 officers and 5,800 men, of whom 3,500 are conscripts, including a Naval Commando. There are also 1,000 naval reservists available on mobilization. Air Force. The Air Force has a personnel strength of about 30,000, with about 580 first-line aircraft, all jets, of Israeli, US and French manufacture. There are 2 squadrons with about 50 F-15s, 4 squadrons with about 100 Israeli-built Kfirs, and 3 squadrons with the first 95 of a planned 145 F-16s in an interceptor role; 5 squadrons with 130 F-4E Phantoms, 2 squadrons with 65 Kfire, and 4 squadrons with A-4E/H/N Skyhawks in the fighter-bomber/attack role; and 12 RF-4E reconnaissance fighters; supported by 4 E-2C Hawkeye airborne early warning and control

718

ISRAEL

aircraft and a few OV-1 Mohawk and RU-21 elint aircraft. There are transport squadrons of turboprop C-130/KC-130 Hercules, C-47, Arava, Islander, and Boeing 707 (some equipped for tanker or ECM duties) aircraft, helicopter squadrons of CH-53, Super Frelon, AH-1G/S HueyCobra, Hughes 500MD/TOW Defender, JetRanger, Agusta-Bell 205 and 212 aircraft, and training units with locally-built Magister jet trainers, which can be used also in a light ground attack role. Missiles in service include surface-to-air Hawks and surface-to-surface Lances. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Israel is a member of UN. ECONOMY Budget. The budget year runs from 1 April to 31 March (in shekel 1 m.): Revenue Revenue for development budget Business enterprises Expenditure

1980-81 101,423 20,156 11,323 101,423

1981-82 228,506 44,804 22,506 228,506

In 1981-82 the main items of expenditure (in shekel lm.) were: Defence, 63,816; education and culture, 15,202; health, 3,722; labour and social welfare, 8,070. Currency. The unit of currency is the shekel and was introduced in Feb. 1980. Currency in circulation on 31 Dec. 1978 was I£6,860m. (bank-notes and coins). In March 1985, £ 1 = 824 shekel; US$=783 shekel. Banking. The Bank of Israel was established by law in 1954 as Israel's central bank. Its Governor is appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Cabinet for a 5-year term. He acts as economic adviser to the Government and has ministerial status. There are 21 commercial banks headed by Bank Leumi Le Israel, Bank Hapoalim and Israel Discount Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. The (metrical) dunam= 1,000 sq. metres (about 0-25 acre). Jewish Year. The Jewish year 5745 corresponds to 27 Sept. 1984-15 Sept. 1985; 5746 to 16 Sept. 1985-3 Oct. 1986; 5747 to 4 Oct. 1986-23 Sept. 1987. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric-power consumption amounted during 1983 to 12,555m. kwh. Oil and Gas. Oil was first discovered in Sept. 1955 at Heletz in the Negev. Crude oil production in 1983 was 13m. litres and natural gas 66m. cu. metres. Minerals. The most valuable natural resources of the country are the potash, bromine and other salt deposits of the Dead Sea, which are exploited by the Dead Sea Works, Ltd. Geological research and exploration of the natural resources in the Negev are undertaken by the Israel Mining Corporation. Potash production in 1983 was 1,518,000 tons. Agriculture. Irt the coastal plain (Sharon, Emek Hefer and the Shephelah) mixed farming, poultry raising, citriculture and vineyards are the main agricultural activities. The Emek (the Valley of Jezreel) is the main agricultural centre of Israel. Mixed fanning is to be found throughout the valleys; the sub-tropical Beisan and Jordan plainlands are also centres of banana plantations and fish breeding. In Galilee mixed farming, olive and tobacco plantations prevail. The Hills of Ephraim are a vineyard centre; many parts of the hill country are under afforestation. In the northern Negev farming has been aided by the Yarkon-Negev water pipeline. This has become part of the overall project of the 'National Water Carrier', which is to take water from the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinnereth) to the

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719

south. The plan includes a number of regional projects such as the Lake Kinnereth -Negev pipeline which came into operation in 1964; it has an annual capacity of 320m. cu. metres. The area under cultivation (in 1,000 dunams) in 1982-83 was 4,370, of which 2,200 were under irrigation. Of the total cultivated area 2,500 dunams were under field crops, 340 under vegetables, potatoes, pumpkins and melons, 930 under citrus and orchards, 37 under fish ponds and 190 under miscellaneous crops, including auxiliary farms, nurseries, flowers, etc. Industrial crops, such as cotton and sugar-beet, have successfully been introduced. In 1982-83 the area under cotton totalled 570,800 dunams. Livestock (1983) included 330,000 cattle, 240,000 sheep,115,000 goats, 95,000 pigs, 4,000 horses, 26m. chickens. Characteristic types of rural settlement are, among others, the following: (1) The Kibbutz and Kvutza (communal collective settlement), where all property and earnings are collectively owned and work is collectively organized. (2) The Moshav Ovdim (workers' co-operative smallholders' settlement) which is founded on the principles of mutual aid and equality of opportunity between the members, all farms being equal in size; hired labour is prohibited. (3) The Moshav Shitufi (cooperative settlement), which is based on collective ownership and economy as in the Kibbutz, but with each family having its own house and being responsible for its own domestic services. (4) The Moshav (smallholders' settlement), which resembles the moshav ovdim but lacks the latter's rigid ideological basis; hired labour, for instance, is permitted. (5) The Moshava (village), in which land and property are privately owned and every resident is responsible for his own well-being. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. A wide range of products is manufactured, processed or finished in the country, including chemicals, metal products, textiles, tyres, diamonds, paper, plastics, leather goods, glass and ceramics, building materials, precision instruments, tobacco, foodstuffs, electrical and electronic equipment. Labour. The General Federation of Labour (Histadrut) founded in 1920, had, in 1973,1,259,200 members (including 89,000 Arab and Druze members); including workers' families, this membership represents 56-1% of the population covering 85% of all wage-earners. Several trades unions of lesser importance also exist. Commerce. External trade, in US$ 1,000, for calendar years: Imports Exports

1977 4,844 3,082

1978 5,843 3,921

1979 7,511 4,546

1980 8,024 5,540

1982 7,960 5,017

1983 8,370 4,894

The main exportable commodities are citrus fruit and by-products, fruit-juices, wines and liquor, sweets, polished diamonds, chemicals, tyres, textiles, metal products, machinery, electronic and transportation equipment, flowers. The main exports were, in 1983 (USSlm.): Diamonds, 1,207-7; chemical and oil products, 582; food, beverages and tobacco, 312-9; citrus fruit, 166-5. Total trade between Israel and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m o m i 1982 m 3 m 4 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

236,599 231,658

256,000 212,000

275,139 224,362

314,148 354,860

392,757 393,025

Tourism. In 1983 there were about 1 • 16m. tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 12,482 km of paved roads in 1983. Registered motor vehicles in 1983 totalled 729,567, including 7,870 buses, 110,786 trucks and 571,515 private cars. Railways. Internal communications (1982) are provided by 536 km of standard gauge line. Construction is in progress (1982) of 215 km of new line linking Eilat

720

ISRAEL

on the Gulf of Aqaba with Sedom and the existing rail network by means of the 34 km line opened between Oron and Nahal Zin in Nov. 1977. In 1983, 2 -8m. passengers and 5 -8m. tonnes of freight were carried. Aviation. Air communications are centred in the airport of Ben Gurion, near TelAviv. In 1983, 9,757 planes landed at Israeli airports on international flights; 1,558,000 passengers arrived, 1,549,000 departed. In 1983, 64,455 tons of freight were loaded and 61,253 tons unloaded. The Israeli airline El A1 maintains regular flights to London, Paris, Rome, Amsterdam, Brussels, Athens, Vienna, New York, Zurich, Munich, Nicosia, Istanbul, Johannesburg, Nairobi, Frankfurt and Copenhagen. In 1980-81 El A1 carried 1 -25m. passengers. Shipping. Israel has 3 commercial ports, Haifa, Ashdod and Eilat. In 1983, 3,274 ships anchored in Israeli ports; 15 • 3m. tons, of freight were handled. The merchant fleet consisted in 1983 of 94 vessels, totalling 1,849,000 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. The Ministry of Posts controls the postal, telegraph and telephone service. In 1983 there were 601 post offices and postal agencies, 49 mobile post offices and 1 • 4m. telephones. The broadcasting station in Jerusalem, Kol Israel, is controlled by the Broadcasting Authority, established in 1965. Wireless licences in 1974 numbered approximately 460,000 and television licences 385,000. Cinemas (1979). There were 214 cinemas with a seating capacity of approximately 152,300. Newspapers (1984). There were 36 daily newspapers, including 17 in Hebrew. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Law. Under the Law and Administration Ordinance, 5708/1948, the first law passed by the Provisional Council of State, the law of Israel is the law which was obtaining in Palestine on 14 May 1948 in so far as it is not in conflict with that Ordinance or any other law passed by the Israel legislature and with such modifications as result from the establishment of the State and its authorities. Capital punishment was abolished in 1954, except for support given to the Nazis and for high treason. The law of Palestine was derived from three main sources, namely, Ottoman law, English law (Common Law and Equity) and the law enacted by the Palestine legislature, which to a great extent was modelled on English law. The Ottoman law in its turn was derived from three main sources, namely, Moslem law which had survived in the Ottoman Empire, French law adapted by the Ottomans and the personal law of the non-Moslem communities. Civil Courts. Municipal courts, established in certain municipal areas, have criminal jurisdiction over offences against municipal regulations and bye-laws and certain specified offences committed within a municipal area. Magistrates courts, established in each district and sub-district, have limited jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters. District courts, sitting at Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv and Haifa, have jurisdiction, as courts of first instance, in all civil matters not within the jurisdiction of magistrates courts, and in all criminal matters, and as appellate courts from magistrates courts and municipal courts. The Supreme Court has jurisdiction as a court of first instance (sitting as a High Court of Justice dealing mainly with administrative matters) and as an appellate court from the district courts (sitting as a Court of Civil or of Criminal Appeal). In addition, there are various tribunals for special classes of cases, such as the Rents Tribunals and the Tribunals for the Prevention of Profiteering and Speculation. Settlement Officers deal with disputes with regard to the ownership or possession of land in settlement areas constituted under the Land (Settlement of Title) Ordinance. Religious Courts. The rabbinical courts of the Jewish community have exclusive

ISRAEL

721

jurisdiction in matters of marriage and divorce, alimony and confirmation of wills of members of their community other than foreigners, concurrent jurisdiction with the civil courts in such matters of members of their community who are foreigners if they consent to the jurisdiction, and concurrent jurisdiction with the civil courts in all other matters of personal status of all members of their community, whether foreigners or not, with the consent of all parties to the action, save that such courts may not grant a decree of dissolution of marriage to a foreign subject. The courts of the several recognized Christian communities have a similar jurisdiction over members of their respective communities. The Moslem religious courts have exclusive jurisdiction in all matters of personal status over Moslems who are not foreigners, and over Moslems who are foreigners, if under the law of their nationality they are subject in such matters to the jurisdiction of Moslem religious courts. Where any action of personal status involves persons of different religious communities, the President of the Supreme Court will decide which court shall have jurisdiction, and whenever a question arises as to whether or not a case is one of personal status within the exclusive jurisdiction of a religious court, the matter must be referred to a special tribunal composed of 2 judges of the Supreme Court and the president of the highest court of the religious community concerned in Israel. Religion. Religious affairs are under the supervision of a special Ministry, with departments for the Christian and Moslem communities. The religious affairs of each community remain under the full control of the ecclesiastical authorities concerned: in the case of the Jews, the Sephardi and Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis, in the case of the Christians, the heads of the various communities, and in the case of the Moslems, the Qadis. The Druze were officially recognized in 1957 as an autonomous religious community. In 1984 there were: Moslems, 548,600; Christians, 96,200; Druze and others, 67,700. The Jewish Sabbath and Holy Days are observed as days of rest in the public services. Full provision is, however, made for the free exercise of other faiths, and for the observance by their adherents of their respective days of rest and Holy Days. Education. Laws passed by the Knesset in 1949 and 1978 provide for free and compulsory education from 5 to 16 years of age. There is free education until 18 years of age. The State Education Law of 12 Aug. 1953 established a unified state-controlled elementary school system with a provision for special religious schools. The standard curriculum for all elementary schools is issued by the Ministry with a possibility of adding supplementary subjects comprising not more than 25% of the total syllabus. Many schools in towns are private, a number are maintained by municipalities and some are administered by teachers' co-operatives or trustees. Statistics relating to schools under government supervision, 1983-84: Type of School Hebrew Education Primary schools Schools for handicapped children Schools of intermediate division Secondary schools Vocational schools Agricultural schools Arab Education Primary schools Schools for handicapped children Schools ofintermediate division Secondary schools Vocational schools Agricultural schools

Schools 1,292 209 263 499 1 305 f 26 J 315 15 51 75 1 36 f 2 J

Teachers

Pupils

36,113 2,959 11,792

468,609 11,632 95,476 166,097 79,713 4,698

20,643

6,423 112 1,299 1,774

135,649 962 19,207 29,462 4,651 584

There are also a number of private schools maintained by religious foundations—Jewish, Christian and Moslem—and also by private societies.

722

ISRAEL

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, founded in 1925, comprises faculties of the humanities, social sciences, law, science, medicine and agriculture. In 1978-79 it had a teaching staff of 2,184 and 14,000 students. The Technion in Haifa had, in 1978-79,21 faculties and departments with 1,500 teachers and 7,800 students. The Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovoth is engaged in research in chemistry, mathematics, physics and biology; founded in 1949, it had a staffof400 and 486 students in 1978-79. In 1978-79 the Tel Aviv University had 16 faculties, some 2,388 teachers and 19,000 students. The religious Bar-Ilan University at Ramat Gan, opened in 1965 had, in 1978-79, 5 faculties (Jewish studies, humanities, natural sciences, social sciences, philology), 900 teachers and 7,600 students. The Haifa University had, in 1978-79,29 faculties with 568 teachers and 7,522 students. The Ben Gurion University had, in 1978-79,28 departments with 628 teachers and 4,300 students. Social Welfare. In 1983 Israel had 150 hospitals with 26,402 beds. The 'Malben' organization cares for the aged. The Women's International Zionist Organization has a number of children's homes, crèches and kindergartens as well as vocational schools and training institutions for nurses. In addition, there are several other voluntary bodies providing specific services to the community. The National Insurance Law, which took effect in April 1954, provides for oldage pensions, survivors' insurance, work-injury insurance, maternity insurance, family allowances and unemployment benefits. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Israel in Great Britain (2 Palace Green, London, W8 4QB) Ambassador: Yehuda Avner (accredited 3 Aug. 1983). Of Great Britain in Israel ( 192 Rehov Hayarkon, Tel Aviv 63405) Ambassador: C. W. Squire, CMG, MVO. Of Israel in the USA (3514 International Drive, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Meir Rosenne. Of the USA in Israel (71 Hayarkon St., Tel Aviv) Ambassador: Samuel W. Lewis. Of Israel to the United Nations Ambassador: Benjamin Netanyahu. Books of Reference Statistical Information: There is a Central Bureau of Statistics and Economic Research at the Prime Minister's Office, Jerusalem. It publishes monthly bulletins of economic statistics, social statistics, foreign trade statistics and an English summary. Government Yearbook. Government Printer, Jerusalem. 1951 AT. (latest issue, 1971/72) Facts about Israel. Government Printer, Jerusalem, 1979 Statistical Abstract of Israel. Government Printer, Jerusalem (from 1949/50) Israel Yearbook Tel-Aviv, 1948-49 ff. Statistical Bulletin of Israel. 1949 ff. Reshumoth (Official Gazette) Middle East Record, ed. Y. Oron. London, 1960 ff. Laws of the State of Israel. Authorized translation. Government Printer, Jerusalem, 1958 ff. Alkalay, R., The Complete English-Hebrew Dictionary. 4 vols. Tel-Aviv, 1959-61 Atlas of Israel. Amsterdam, Jerusalem and London, 1970 Ben-Gurion, D., Ben-Gurion Looks Back. London, 1965.—The Jews in Their Land. London, 1966.—Israel: A Personal History. New York, 1971 Churchill, R. S. and W. S„ The Six-Day War. London, 1967 Dayan, M., Breakthrough. New York, 1981 Efrat, E. and O m i , E., Geography of Israel. Jerusalem, 1976 Frankel, W., Israel Observed. London, 1980 Gilbert, M., The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Its History in Maps. 3rded. London, 1981 Goldman, N., The Jewish Paradox. New York, 1978 Harris, W., Taking Root: Israeli Settlement in the West Bank, The Golan and Gaza Sinai 1967-1980. Chichester, 1981 Hyamson, A. M., Palestine under Mandate, 1920-48. London, 1951

ISRAEL

723

Jiryis, S., The Arabs in Israel. New York, 1976 Kieval, G. R., Parly Politics in Israel and the Occupied Territories. Westport, 1983 Laquer, W. (ed.). The Israel-Arab Reader. London, 1970.—A History of Zionism. New York, 1972 Likhovski, E. S., Israel's Parliament: Th( Law of the Knesset. Oxford, 1971 Lucas, N., A Modern History of Israel. London and New York, 1975 Luttwak, E., and Horowitz, D., The Israeli Army. London, 1975 Peretz, D., The Government and Politics of Israel Folkestone, 1979 Peri, Y., Between Battles and Ballots: Israeli Military in Politics. CUP, 1983 Pryce-Jones, D., The Face of Defeat: Palestinian Refugees and Guerrillas. New York, 1973 Sachar, H., A History of Israel London and New York, 1976 Schick, A . P., (ed.) Research Contributions to the Physical Geography of Israel Jerusalem, 1982 Segal,R., Whose Jerusalem? The Conflicts of Israel. London, 1973 Shimshoni, D., Israeli Democracy: The Middle of the Journey. New York, 1982 Who's Who in Israel. Tel-Aviv, 1978 Wolffsohn, M., Politik in Israel. Opladen, 1983 National Library: The Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem.

ITALY

Capila/: Rome Population: 56-9m. (1983) GNP per capita: US$6,960 (1981)

Repubblica Italiana

H I S T O R Y . On 10 June 1946 Italy became a republic on the announcement by the Court of Cassation that a majority of the voters at the referendum held on 2 June had voted for a republic. Tne final figures, announced on 18 June, showed: For a republic, 12,718,641 (54-3% of the valid votes cast, which numbered 23,437,143); for the retention of the monarchy, 10,718,502 (45 -7%); invalid and contested, 1,509,735. Total 24,946,878, or 89 -1% of the registered electors, who numbered 28,005,449. For the results of the polling in the 13 leading cities, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1951, p. 1175. Voting was compulsory, open to both men and women 21 years of age or older, including members of tne Civil Service and the Armed Forces; former active Fascists and a few other categories were excluded. On 18 June the then Provisional Government without specifically proclaiming the republic, issued an 'Order of the Day' decreeing that all court verdicts should in future be handed down 'in the name of the Italian people', that the Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia should be re-named Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana, that all references to the monarchy should be deleted from legal and government statements and that the shield of tne House of Savoy should be removed from the Italian flag. Thus ended the reign of the House of Savoy, whose kings had ruled over Piedmont for 9 centuries and as Kings of Italy since 18 Feb. 1861. (For fuller account of the House of Savoy, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1946, p. 1021.) The Crown Prince Umberto, son of King Victor Emmanuel III, became Lieut.Gen. (i.e., Regent) of the kingdom on 5 June 1944. Following the abdication and retirement to Egypt of his father on 9 May 1946, Umberto was declared King Umberto II; his reign lasted to 13 June, when he left the country. King Victor Emmanuel III died in Alexandria on 28 Dec. 1947. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The population (present in actual boundaries) at successive censuses were as follows: 31 Dec. 1881 10 Feb. 1901 10June 1911 ir>rl9?l 21 Aprii ¡93!

29,277,927 33,370,138 35,694,582 37 403 956 40^582^043

21 April 1936 4 Nov. 95 15 O c t 96 24 Oct. 1971 250ct.l981

42,302,680 47,158,738 49,903,878 53,744,737 56,243,935

The following table gives area and population of the Regions (census 1981 and estimate, 1983): Regions Piemonte Valle d'Aosta Lombardia Trentino-Alto Adige Bolzano-Bozen Trento Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia Liguria Emilia Romagna Toscana Umbria Marche Lazio

Area in sq. km (1981) 25,399 3,262 23,856 13,613 7,400 6,213 18,364 7,846 5,416 22,123 22,992 8,456 9,694 17,203

Resident pop. census, 1981 4,479,031 112,353 8,891,652 873,413 430,568 442,845 4,345,047 1,233,984 1,807,893 3,957,513 3,581,051 807,552 1,412,404 5,001,684

724

Resident pop. estimate, 1983 4,431,064 1 13,418 8,891,318 875,780 432,231 443,549 4,361,527 1,228,280 1,789,225 3,952,304 3,581,291 813,507 1,420,829 5,056,119

Density per sq. km (1981) 175 35 373 64 58 71 235 157 332 178 155 95 145 289

ITALY Regioni Abruzzi Molise Campania Puglia Basilicata Calabria Sicilia Sardegna

725

Area in sq km (1981) 10,794 4,438 13,595 19,347 9,992 15,080 25,708 24,090

Resident pop census, 1981 1,217,791 328,371 5,463,134 3,871,617 610,186 2,061,182 4,906,878 1,594,175

301,268

56,556,911

Total

V i t a l s t a t i s t i c s f o r c a l e n d a r years: Lmngbirlhs IllegitiMarriages mate Legitímale 715,414 1977 347,928 25,689 1978 331,416 681,350 27,693 1979 323,930 643,835 26,386 1980 322,968 612,945 27,456 313,736 1981 1 595,195 26,610 589,342 1982 1 310,938 28,165 1983 1 300,855 571,628 28,590 i Provisional.

Resident pop Density per estimate, 1983 sq km (1981) 1,236,060 113 331,670 73 5,563,230 398 3,946,871 199 614,522 60 2,098,137 135 5,006,684 189 1,617,265 66 56,929,101

Total 741,103 709,043 670,221 640,401 621,805 617,507 600,218

Still-born 7,219 6,564 5,748 5,139 4,950 4,739 4,361

187 Deaths excl of still-born 545,694 540,671 534,563 554,510 542,204 531,632 561,214

Emigrants t o n o n - E u r o p e a n countries, b y sea a n d air: 1 9 7 8 , 2 3 , 5 8 9 ; 1 9 7 9 , 2 1 , 3 0 2 ; 1 9 8 0 , 2 0 , 3 6 0 ; 1 9 8 1 , 2 0 , 6 2 8 ; 1 9 8 2 , 2 2 , 3 2 4 . Since 1 9 6 0 nearly n i n e - t e n t h s o f t h e s e emigrants h a v e g o n e t o C a n a d a , U S A a n d Australia. C o m m u n e s o f m o r e than 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 inhabitants, with p o p u l a t i o n resident at the c e n s u s o f 2 5 Oct. 1981 a n d (estimate) o n 31 D e c . 1983: Roma (Rome) Milano (Milan) Napoli (Naples) Torino (Turin) Genova (Genoa) Palermo Bologna Firenze (Florence) Catania Bari Venezia (Venice) Verona Messina Trieste Taranto Padova(Padua) Cagliari Brescia Modena Parma Livorno (Leghorn) Reggio di C. Prato Salerno Foggia

1981 2,840,259 1,604,773 1,212,387 1,117,154 762,895 701,782 459,080 448,331 380,328 371,022 346,146 265,932 260,233 252,369 244,101 234,678 233,848 206,661 180,312 179,019 175,741 173,486 160,220 157,385 156,467

1983 2,830,650 1,561,438 1,208,545 1,069,013 746,785 712,342 447,971 440,910 380.370 369,576 340,873 261,947 263,924 246,305 243,120 230,744 225,009 204,278 178,985 177,062 176,298 175,646 161,705 156,921 157.371

Ferrara Perugia Ravenna Pescara Reggio nell'E. Rimini Monza Bergamo Sassari Siracusa (Syracuse) La Spezia Vicenza Terni Forli Piacenza Cosenza Ancona Bolzano Pisa Torre del Greco Novara Udine Catanzaro Alessandria

1981 149,453 142,348 138,034 131,330 130,376 127,813 123,145 122,142 119,596 117,615 115,392 114,598 111,564 110,806 109,039 106,801 106,498 105,180 104,509 103,605 102,086 102,021 100,832 100,523

1983 147,328 144,064 136,786 131,974 131,075 129,506 122,476 121,033 119,781 118,690 112,606 112,771 111,347 110,943 107,617 106,373 105,657 103,009 103,894 104,654 102,279 101,179 101,622

C L I M A T E . T h e c l i m a t e varies c o n s i d e r a b l y with latitude. In the s o u t h , it is w a r m temperate, with little rain in the s u m m e r m o n t h s , b u t the north is c o o l t e m perate w i t h rainfall m o r e e v e n l y distributed o v e r the year. Florence, Jan. 4 2 ° F (5-6°C), July 7 6 ° F (25°C). A n n u a l rainfall 3 6 " (901 m m ) . M i l a n , Jan. 3 5 ° F (2°C), July 7 5 ° F (24°C). A n n u a l rainfall 3 2 " ( 8 0 2 m m ) . N a p l e s , Jan. 4 8 ° F (8-9°C), July 7 7 ° F (25-6°C). A n n u a l rainfall 3 4 " ( 8 5 0 m m ) . P a l e r m o , Jan. 52"F (11 • P C ) , July 7 9 ° F (26- P C ) . A n n u a l rainfall 2 8 " ( 7 0 2 m m ) . R o m e , Jan. 4 4 - 5 ° F (7°C), July 7 7 ° F (25°C). A n n u a l rainfall 2 6 " ( 6 5 7 m m ) . V e n i c e , Jan. 3 8 ° F (3-3°C), July 7 5 ° F ( 2 3 - 9 ° C ) . A n n u a l rainfall 2 9 " (725 m m ) . CONSTITUTION

AND

GOVERNMENT.

The

new

Constitution

was

726

ITALY

passed by the constituent assembly by 453 votes to 62 on 22 Dec. 1947; it came into force on 1 Jan. 1948. The Constitution consists of 139 articles and 18 transitional clauses. Its main dispositions are as follows: Italy is described as 'a democratic republic founded on work'. Parliament consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Chamber is elected for 5 years by universal and direct suffrage and it consists of 630 deputies. The Senate is elected for 5 years on a regional basis; each Region having at least 7 senators, consisting of 315 elected senators; the Valle d'Aosta is represented by 1 senator only. The President of the Republic can nominate 5 senators for life from eminent men in the social, scientific, artistic and literary spheres. On the expiry of his term of office, the President of the Republic becomes a senator by right and for life, unless he declines. The President of the Republic is elected in a joint session of Chamber and Senate, to which are added 3 delegates from each Regional Council (1 from the Valle d'Aosta). A two-thirds majority is required for the election, but after a third indecisive scrutiny the absolute majority of votes is sufficient. The President must be 50 years or over; his term lasts for 7 years. The President of the Senate acts as his deputy. The President can dissolve the chambers of parliament, except during the last 6 months of his term of office. The Cabinet can be forced to resign only on a motivated motion of censure; the defeat of a government bill does not involve the resignation of the Government. A Constitutional Court, consisting of 15 judges who are appointed, 5 each, by the President of the Republic, Parliament (in joint session) and the highest law and administrative courts, has rights similar to those of the Supreme Court of the USA. It can decide on the constitutionality of laws and decrees, define the powers of the State and Regions, judge conflicts between the State and Regions and between the Regions, and try the President of the Republic and the Ministers. The court was set up in Dec. 1955. The reorganization of the Fascist Party is forbidden. Direct male descendants of King Victor Emmanuel are excluded from all public offices, have no right to vote or to be elected, and are banned from Italian territory; their estates are forfeit to the State. Titles of nobility are no longer recognized, but those existing before 28 Oct. 1922 are retained as part of the name. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, red. National anthem: Fratelli d'Italia (words by G. Mameli; tune by M. Novara, 1847). The peace treaty was signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947, and ratified on 15 Sept. 1947. Italy ceded to France 4 frontier districts on the Little St Bernard Pass, the Mont-Cenis Plateau, the Mont-Thabor and Chaberton areas, and the upper valleys o f t h e T i n é e , V é s u b i e a n d R o y a ( s e e m a p i n T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOIC, 1 9 4 8 ) ;

to Yugoslavia, nearly the whole of the provinces of Venezia Giulia, the commune of Zara and the island of Pelagosa; to Greece, the Dodecanese; to Albania, the island of Saseno; to China the Italian concession at Tientsin. Italy also gave up her former colonies. Under the peace treaty Italy was to pay reparations to the following states: Greece, US$105m.; Yugoslavia, US$125m.; USSR, USSlOOm.; Ethiopia, US$25m.; Albania, US$5m. By 30 Nov. 1967 the whole debt had been paid. Head of State: On 8 July 1978 Chamber and Senate in joint session elected by an absolute majority (832 votes out of 1,008 votes cast) Alessandro Pertini (Socialist; born 1896), President of the Republic. Former Presidents of the Republic: Luigi Einaudi ( 1948-55); Giovanni Gronchi (1955-62); Antonio Segni (1962-64); Giuseppe Saragat (1964-71); Giovanni Leone(1971-78). General elections for the Senate and Chamber of Deputies took place on 26 June 1983. Senate. Christian Democrats, 120; Communists, i07; Socialists, 38; Italian Social Movement, 18; Social Democrats, 8; Republicans, 10; Liberals, 6; other groups, 8. Total: 315. Chamber. Christian Democrats, 225; Communists, 198; Socialists, 73; Italian

ITALY

727

Social Movement, 42; Republicans, 29; Social Democrats, 23; Liberals, 16; Radical Party, 11 ; other groups, 13. Total: 630. The coalition government was composed as follows in Aug. 1984. Prime Minister: Benedetto Craxi (PSI). Vice Prime Minister: Arnaldo Forlani (DC). Foreign Affairs:G\vX\o Andreotti (DC). Interior: Oscar Scalfaro (DC). Justice: Fermo Martinazzoli (DC). Budget: Pier Luigi Romita (PSDI). Finance: Bruno Visentini (PRI). Treasury: Giovanni Goria (DC). Defence: Giovanni Spadolini (PRI). Education: Franca Falcucci (DC). Public Works: Franco Nicolazzi (PSDI). Agriculture: Filippo Pandolfi (DC). Transport: Claudio Signorile (PSI). Post: Antonio Gava (DC). Industry: Renato Altissimo (PLI). Labour: Gianni De Michelis (PSI). Foreign Trade: Nicola Capria (PSI). Merchant Navy: Gianuario Carta (DC). State Industry: Clelio Darida (DC). Health: Costante Degan (DC). Tourism: Lelio Lagorio (PSI). Culture: Antonino Gullotti (DC). EEC Affairs: Francesco Forte (PSI). Public Administration: Remo Gaspari (DC). Scientific Research: Luigi Granelli (DC). Southern Affairs: Salvenno De Vito (DC). Regional Affairs: Carlo Vizzini (PSDI). Relations with Parliament: Oscar Mammi (PRI). Civil Protection: Giuseppe Zamberletti (DC). Ecology: Alfredo Biondi (PLI). Allum, P. A., Italy: Republic Without Government. New York, 1974 Cross, E. (ed.), La Constitution Itaiienne de 1948. Paris, 1950 Ruini, M., and others, La Nuova Costituzione Italiana. Rome, 1947

Regional Administration. Italy is administratively divided into regions (regioni), provinces (province) and municipalities (comuni). Art. 116 of the 1948 constitution provided for the establishment of 5 autonomous regions with special statute (regioni autonome con statuto speciale) and 15 autonomous regions with ordinary statute (regioni autonome con statuto normale). The regions have their own parliaments (consiglio regionale) and governments (giunta regionale e presidente) with certain legislative and administrative functions adapted to the circumstances of each region. A government commissioner co-ordinates regional and national activities. The results of the last regional elections were as follows:

Regions Piemonte Valle d'Aosta ' Lombardia Trentino-Alto Adige 1 Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia 1 Liguria Emilia-Romagna Toscana Umbria Marche

Christian ComSocial Social Election Demo mun- Social- Move- Demo-Repub- Libdate crats ists ists ment crats licans erais Others Total 8 June 1980 20 20 9 2 3 2 3 1 60 26 June 1983 7 6 3 1 1 1 1 15! 35 11 2 2 8 June 1980 34 23 3 3 2 80 20 Nov. 1983 8 June 1980

19 32

6 13

4 7

3 2

1 2

3 1

1 1

26 June 8 June 8 June 8 June 8 June 8 June

23 13 13 15 9 16

14 15 26 25 14 15

7 5 4 5 4 4

3 2

3 2 2 1 1 1

3 1 2 1 1 1

1

1983 1980 1980 1980 1980 1980

!

1 1 1

33J 2

70 60

8'

62 40 50 50 30 40

-

1 1

1 1

-

-

1

1

728

ITALY

Christian ComSocial Social Election Demo mun- Social- Move- Demo-Repub- LibRegions date crats ists ists ment erals licans erals Others Total Lazio 8 June 1980 22 19 6 63 2 1 1 60 Abruzzi 8 June 1980 20 12 4 2 1 1 40 1 2 5 3 1 1 30 Molise 8 June 1980 17 7 Campania 8 June 1980 25 15 7 3 1 1 1 60 4 2 Puglia 8 June 1980 22 13 6 1 1 1 50 _ Basilicata 8 June 1980 14 8 4 2 2 30 Calabria 8 June 1980 18 10 7 2 2 1 40 2 7 90 Sicilia ' 21 June 1981 38 16 13 6 5 3 1 s 24 June 1984 24 4 Sardegna 27 8 3 3 12' 81 1 Autonomous regions with special statute. 2 Including 4 Démocrates Populaires - Union Valdôtaine Progressiste, 9 Union Valdôtaine. ' Including 25 Siidtiroler Volkspartie. 4 Including 1 Slovenian Union, 2 Movimento Friuli, 4 Lista per Trieste. 5 Republican-Liberal. 4 Sardinian Action Party.

D E F E N C E . Most of the restrictions imposed upon Italy in Part IV of the peace treaty signed on 10 Feb. 1947 were repudiated by the signatories on 21 Dec. 1951, only the USSR objecting. Head of the armed forces is the Defence Chief of Staff. In 1947 the ministries of war, navy and air were merged into the ministry of defence. The technical and scientific council for defence directs all research activities. National service lasts 12 months in the Army and Air Force, and 18 months in the Navy. Army. The Army is divided into the expeditionary force and the national defence force. It is composed of 1 armoured division, 3 mechanized divisions, 2 independent mechanized and 4 independent motorized brigades, S Alpine brigades, 1 airborne brigade, 2 amphibious battalions and 1 missile brigade. Equipment includes 550 M-47, 300 M-60A1 and 920 Leopard I main battle tanks. The Army air corps operates light aircraft and helicopters. Strength (1985) 260,000 (189,000 conscripts), with 545,000 reserves. There is also the paramilitary Carabinieri of90,000 men. Navy. Particulars of the principal surface ships in the Italian Navy: Completed

Standard displacement Tons

Name

Aircraft

Principal armament

Torpedo tubes

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

6A/S

80,000

30

73,000

32

60,000

31

Light Aircraft Carrier

1985

Giuseppe Garibaldi

10,100

i c c ir • 16 Sea King helicopters

4 Teseo launchers for Otomat; 2 Albatross s y s t e m s with Aspide missiles

Cruisers 1969 1964 1964

Vittorio Veneto Andrea Doria Caio Duilio '

1

8 3-in.; twin 'Terrier'; 8 3-in.; twin 4 helicopters 6,000 'Temer'; 1 Rated as guided-missile escort cruisers. 7,500

9 helicopters

There are also 10 diesel-powered submarines, 4 guided-missile destroyers, 15 frigates, 8 corvettes, 4 ocean minesweepers, 12 minehunters, 12 coastal minesweepers, 5 inshore minesweepers, 7 hydrofoil missile boats, 2 fast torpedo-boats, 2 fast gunboats, 2 landing ships, 3 surveying vessels, 2 salvage ships, 1 transport, 1 support ship, 5 training ships, 2 replenishment oilers, 14 water carriers, 1 netlayer,

ITALY

729

7 repair craft, 18 auxiliaries, 5 coastal transports (landing craft), 7 motor transports (minor landing craft), and 42 tugs. One frigate, 4 corvettes and 2 minehunters are under construction. Two submarines, 8 corvettes, 4 minehunters and 2 landing ships are projected. The coastline of the peninsula is divided into zones, with headquarters at Spezia, Naples, Taranto and Ancona; all are under the jurisdiction of flag officers with the status of C.-in-C. The admirals commanding on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily do not rank as C.-in-C. Other localities of strategic importance under naval administration are Brindisi, where there is an admiral commanding, and Genoa, Leghorn, Augusta and Venice, each of which is under a senior naval officer. The personnel of the Navy in 1985 numbered 42,200 officers and ratings, including the naval air arm and the marine battalion. Air Force. Control is exercised through 2 regional HQ near Taranto and Milan. Units assigned to NATO comprise the 1st air brigade of Nike-Hercules surface-toair missiles, 6 fighter-bomber, 3 light attack, 6 interceptor and 2 tactical reconnaissance squadrons, with supporting transport, search and rescue, and training units. Three of the fighter-bomber squadrons have Tornados, others have F-104S Starfighters and Aeritalia G91 Ys. The light attack squadrons operate G91Rs. F-104S Starfighters have been standardized throughout the interceptor squadrons. The reconnaissance force operates RF-104G Starfighters. A total of 187 AM-X jet aircraft, built jointly by Aeritalia, Aermacchi and Embraer of Brazil, will replace G91R, G91Y and F-104G/S aircraft in eight squadrons in 1986-90. One transport squadron has turboprop C-130H Hercules aircraft; 2 others have turboprop Aeritalia G222s. There is a VIP and personnel transport squadron, equipped with DC-9, PD-808 and P.166M aircraft. Electronic warfare duties are performed by specially equipped G222s, PD-808s and MB 339s. Two land-based anti-submarine squadrons operate Breguet Atlantics. ASW helicopters, including Italian-built SH-3D Sea Kings, operate from ships of the Italian Navy. Search and rescue are performed by 12 Agusta-Sikorsky HH-3F helicopters and smaller types. There are also strong support and training elements; some MB 339 jet trainers have armament provisions for secondary close air support and anti-helicopter roles. Air Force strength in mid-1983 was about 70,600 officers and men, about 300 combat aircraft, 500 fixed-wing second-line aircraft and over 100 helicopters. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Italy is a member of UN, NATO and EEC. ECONOMY

Budget. Total revenue and expenditure for fiscal years, in 1 m. lire: 1976 1977 1978 1979

Revenue 37,882,716 43,666,361 51,696,512 62,431,447

Expenditure 50,036,796 59,548,331 78,844,114 92,127,557

1980 1981 1982 1983

Revenue 88,303,000 105,343,000 150,842,000 177,148,000

Expenditure 128,994,000 149,246,000 206,444,000 250,230,000

In the revenue for 1983 turnover and other business taxes accounted for 46,132,000m. lire, customs duties and indirect taxes for 14,290,000m. lire. The public debt at 31 Dec. 1983 totalled 367,699,500m. lire, including consolidated debt of 42,100m. lire and the floating debt 204,492,200m. lire. Currency. The standard coin is the lira. From 30 March 1960 the gold standard was formally established as equal to 0 00142187 gramme of gold per lira. State metal coins are of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 lire. There are also in circulation State notes of 500 and bank-notes of 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 lire; they are neither convertible into gold as foreign moneys nor exportable abroad, nor importable from abroad into Italy (except for certain specified small amounts). Circulation of money at 31 March 1984: State coins and notes, 949,200m. lire; bank-notes, 35,428,400m. lire.

730

ITALY

In Sept. 1985 the rate of exchange was 2,235 lire per US$1 and 2,136 lire per £1 sterling. Banking. According to the law of 6 May 1926 there is only one bank of issue, the Banca d'Italia. Its gold reserve amounted to 43,399,000m. lire in Dec. 1983; the foreign credit reserves of the Exchange Bureau ( Ufficio Italiano Cambi) amounted to 22,903,000m. lire at the same date. Since 1936, all credit institutions have been under the control of a State organ, named 'Inspectorate of Credit'; the Bank of Italy has been converted into a 'public institution', whose capital is held exclusively by corporate bodies of a public nature. Other credit institutions, totalling 1,092, are classified as: (1) 6 chartered banks (Banco di Napoli, Banco di Sicilia, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, Monte dei Paschi di Siena, Istituto di S. Paolo di Torino, Banca di Sardegna); (2) 3 banks of national interest (Banca Commerciale Italiana in Milan, Credito Italiano in Genoa and Banco di Roma); (3) banks and credit concerns in general, including 157 jointstock banks and 148 co-operative banks; (4) 87 savings banks and Monti di pegno (institutions granting loans against personal chattels as security); (5) 686 Casse rurali e agrarie (agricultural banks, established as co-operative institutions with unlimited liability of associates); (6) 5 Istituti di Categoria. At 31 Dec. 1983 there were 295 credit institutes handling 95% of all deposits and current accounts, with capital and reserves of29,626,913m. lire. On 31 Dec. 1983 the post office savings banks had deposits and current accounts of54,951,000m. lire; credit institutions, 373,295,000m. lire. Insurance. By a decree of 29 April 1923 life-assurance business is carried on only by the National Insurance Institute and by other institutions, national and foreign, authorized by the Government. At 31 Dec. 1982 the insurances vested in the Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni amounted to 7,823,842m. lire, including the decuple of life annuities. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Italy has greatly developed her water-power resources. In 1983 the total power generated was 182,880m. kwh., of which 44,216m. kwh. were generated by hydro-electric plants. Oil. Production in 1983 amounted to 2,197,582 tonnes, of which 732,206 came from Sicily. Minerals. The Italian mining industry is most developed in Sicily (Caltanissetta), in Tuscany (Arezzo, Florence and Grosseto), in Sardinia (Cagliari, Sassari and Iglesias), in Lombardy (particularly near Bergamo and Brescia) and in Piedmont. Italy's fuel and mineral resources are wholly inadequate. Only sulphur and mercury outputs yield a substantial surplus for exports. In 1983 outputs, in tonnes, of raw steel were 21,810,787; rolled iron, 18,862,738; cast-iron ingots, 10,312,716; solid fuels (1981), 1,957,958. Production of metals and minerals (in tonnes) was as follows: Iron pyrites Iron ore Manganese Zinc Crude sulphur Bauxite Mercury Lead Aluminium

1978 786,666 352,611 9,741 120,492 523,355 24,410 5 31,110 270,770

1979 804,469 218,762 9,782 100,825 108,309 26,095

1980 858,992 434,374 9,165 116,191 100,852 23,260

-

-

27,237 266,814

40,477 265,803

1981 680,988 345,604 8,756 83,476 96,172 19,000 20,017 37,191 243,959

1982 666,964 195,034 8,727 76,878 88,848 23,810 17,163 49,197 232,893

1983 646,209 67,700 7,205 81,050 40,858 13,118 -

45,580 144,167

731

ITALY

Agriculture. The area ofltaly in 1983 comprised 301,277 sq. km, of which 264,212 sq. km was agricultural and forest land and 37,065 sq. km was unproductive; the former was mainly distributed as follows (in 1,000 hectares): Forage and pasture, 8,696; woods, 6,393; cereals, 5,127; vines, 1,134; olive trees, 1,254; garden produce, 556; leguminous plants, 308. This does not include vines and olives grown among other crops. At the second general census of agriculture (25 Oct. 1970) agricultural holdings numbered 3,620,799 and covered 25,091,267 hectares. 3,142,608 owners (86-8%) farmed directly 14,706,204 hectares (58-6%); 278,157 owners (7 -7%) worked with hired labour on 8,523,107 hectares (34%); 130,648 share-croppers (3-6%) tilled 1,271,485 hectares (51%); the remaining 69,408 holdings (1-9%) of 590,471 hectares (2 -3%) were operated in other ways. According to the labour force survey in July 1978 persons engaged in agriculture numbered 3 • 17m. (2 -02m. males and 1 • 15m. females). In 1982,1,139,050 farm tractors were being used. The production of the principal crops (in 1,000 metric quintals) in 1983: Sugar beet, 102,441; wheat, 85,350; maize, 67,226; tomatoes, 59,729; potatoes, 26,130; oranges, 23,786; rice, 10,306; barley, 11,830; lemons, 8,890; oats, 3,109; olive oil, 6,200; tangerines, 4,795; other citrus fruit, 600; rye, 285. Production of wine, 1983,82,200,000 hectolitres; oftobacco, 141,000 tonnes. In 1983 consumption of chemical fertilizers in Italy was as follows (in 1,000 tons): Perphosphate, 652-9; nitrate of ammonia, 737-3; sulphate of ammonium, 340-5; potash salts, 147-5; nitrate ofcalcium' s /i6,56 -9; deposed slags, 48. Livestock estimated in 1983: Cattle, 9,221,000; pigs, 9,187,000; sheep and goats, 10,316,000; horses, 253,000; donkeys, 101,000; mules, 59,000. Fisheries. The Italian fishing fleet comprised in 1982, 23,385 motor boats (323,512 gross tons) and 11,694 sailing vessels (14,612 gross tons). The catch in 1983 was 414,704 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. The main branches of industry are: (% of industrial value added at factor cost in 1982) Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear (17- 7%), food, beverages and tobacco (10-4%), energy products (7-9%), agricultural and industrial machines (7-7%), metal products except machines and means of transport (7%), mineral and non-metallic mineral products (7%), timber and wooden furniture (6-6%), electric plants and equipment (6-3%), chemicals and pharmaceuticals (6-2%), means of transport (6 -1%). Production, 1983: Steel, 21,664,381; motor vehicles, 1,575,224; cement, 39,216,609 tonnes; artificial and synthetic fibres (including staple fibre and waste), 568,284 tonnes; ethylene, 1,014,839 tonnes; polyethylene resins, 690,849 tonnes. Labour. As at April 1982, 20-lm. persons were employed, l -9m. unemployed (figures from a new series of statistics on the labour force, 1977, which is not comparable with previous series). Trade Unions. Membership of the 4 main groups: Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro (Communist-dominated), 4,485,930 (1977); Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori (Catholic), 3,059,800 (1980); Unione Italiana del Lavoro, 1,151,370 (1977); Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Nazionali Lavoratori, 1,015,988(1961). Commerce. The territory covered by foreign trade statistics includes Italy, the Republic of San Marino, but excludes the municipalities of Livigno and Campione. The following table shows the value of Italy's foreign trade (in 1 m. lire): Imports Exports

1978 47,867,899 47,505,301

1979 64,597,204 59,926,272

1980 1981 85,564,303 103,674,405 66,719,410 86,039,719

1982 116,215,679 99,230,877

1983 122,001,933 110,537,204

732

ITALY

The following table shows trade by countries in 1 m. lire: Countries Argentina Australia Austria Belgium-Luxembourg France Germany, Fed. Rep. of Japan Netherlands Switzerland USSR UK USA Yugoslavia

Imports into Italyfrom 1981 1982 1983 476,796 515,888 597,447 580,140 616,191 648,654 1,878,070 1,953,207 2,147,344 3,205,365 3,747,101 4,127,557 12,938,148 14,531,270 15,362,342 16,190,684 18,657,976 19,371,821 1,435,861 1,477,210 1,688,409 4,287,907 5,023,524 5,941,564 3,300,745 3,984,053 4,734,343 3,536,935 4,791,094 5,456,788 4,011,549 4,601,251 4,749,509 7,032,025 7,863,746 7,245,994 840,963 1,138,215 1,538,595

Exports from Italy to 1981 1982 ' 1983 491,201 298,284 396,143 575,103 689,448 983,147 1,914,230 2,141,152 2,601,268 2,370,425 2,872,654 3,176,743 11,686,202 15,103,288 16,253,746 13,351,362 15,490,512 18,331,355 762,691 1,068,557 1,201,810 2,615,611 3,048,588 3,308,070 3,454,960 3,960,965 4,578,457 1,467,690 2,042,829 2,850,334 4,998,901 6,219,338 7,019,308 5,841,374 6,999,295 8,526,145 1,235,970 1,333,240 1,517,341

In 1982 the main imports were maize, wood, greasy wool, metal scrap, pit-coal, petroleum, raw oils, meat, paper, rolled iron and steel, copper and alloys, mechanical and electric equipment, motor vehicles. The main exports were fruit and vegetables, fabrics, footwear and other clothing articles, rolled iron and steel, machinery, motor vehicles, plastic materials and petroleum by-products. Italy's balance of trade (in 1,000m. lire) has been estimated as follows:

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Export 49,412 58,866 74,377 83,710 105,630 123,439 138,943

Goods and services Import Balance 47,277 +2,135 53,465 +5,401 71,123 +3,254 93,967 -10,257 113,721 -8,091 128,787 -5,348 136,303 +2,640

Income from investments and Net work, balance balance -142 +1,993 +184 +5,585 +922 +4,176 -9,330 +927 -1,995 -10,086 -3,228 -8,576 -3,622 -982

Remittances from Italians abroad (in US$ 1 m. until 1969 and then 1,000m. lire): 1950,72; 1960,214; 1970,289; 1975,338; 1976,385; 1977,626; 1978,785; 1979, 956; 1980,1,059; 1981,1,325; 1982,1,607; 1983,1,727. Total trade between Italy and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): /9S0 m l m 2 m 3 m 4 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

2,311,071 2,330,349 2,745,094 3,188,219 3,814,163 1,899,181 1,742,514 2,022,711 2,292,788 2,902,666

Tourism. In 1983, 46-6m. foreigners visited Italy; they included 10-4m. German, 10-2m. Swiss, 7-9m. French, 4-6m. Austrian, 1 1 m . Yugoslav, l-9m. British, 1 • 7m. Dutch and 1 • 7m. US citizens. They spent about 13,721,000m. lire. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Italy's roads totalled (31 Dec. 1983)297,698 km, of which 45,461 km were state roads, 104,670 km provincial roads, 141,666 km communal roads. Motor vehicles, Dec. 1982: Cars, 19-6m.;buses, 66,688; lorries, 1,575,018; motorcycles, light vans, etc., 4,793,979. The Mont Blanc tunnel road (11-6 km) from Entreves to Les Pelerins (France) was opened on 16 July 1965. Railways. Railway history in Italy begins in 1839, with a line between Naples and Portici (8 km). Length of railways (31 Dec. 1983), 19,782 km, including 16,148 km of state railways, of which 7,386 had not yet been electrified. The first section of a new high-speed direct railway linking Rome and Florence opened in Feb. 1977. In 1983 the state railways carried 380m. passengers and 49m. tonnes of goods. The Rome Underground opened in Feb. 1980. Aviation. The Italian airline Alitalia (with a capital of 280,800m. lire, of which 99-1% is owned by the State) operates flights to every part of the world. Aiiports include 25 international, 36 national and 75 club airports. Domestic and international traffic in 1983 registered 14,866,398 passengers arrived and 14,861,167

ITALY

733

departed, while freight and mail (excluding luggage) amounted to 155,380 tonnes unloaded and 224,288 tonnes loaded. Shipping. The mercantile marine at 31 Dec. 1983 consisted of 2,115 vessels of 9,619,814 gross tons, not including pleasure boats (yachts, etc.), sailing and motor vessels. There were 1,391 motor vessels of 100 gross tons and over. In 1983, 238,792,391 tonnes of cargo were unloaded, and 85,296,567 tonnes of cargo were loaded in Italian ports. In 1972 navigable waterways had a length of 2,237 km (849 km of which were canals). Post and Broadcasting. On 31 Dec. 1982 there were 14,107 post offices and 13,503 telegraph offices. The maritime radio-telegraph service had 20 coast stations. On 1 Jan. 1982 the telephone service had 20,452,749 apparatus. Radiotelevisione Italiana broadcasts 3 programmes and additional regional programmes, including transmissions in English, French, German and Slovenian on medium- and shortwaves and on FM. It also broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Radio licences numbered 532,800; television and radio licences, 13,400,609. Cinemas. There were 7,475 cinemas in 1980. Newspapers. There were (1984) 74 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 6- 71 m. copies; of the papers 15 are published in Rome and 8 in Milan. One daily each is published in German and Slovene, and 2 in English. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Italy has 1 court of cassation, in Rome, and is divided for the administration of justice into 23 appeal court districts (and 3 detached sections), subdivided into 159 tribunal circondari (districts), and these again into mandamenti each with its own magistracy (Pretura), 899 in all. There are also 90 first degree assize courts and 26 assize courts of appeal. For civil business, besides the magistracy above mentioned, Conciliatori have jurisdiction in petty plaints (those to a maximum amount of 1 m. lire). On 31 Dec. 1983 there were 25,016 male and 1,448 female prisoners in establishments for preventive custody, 10,819 males and 409 females in penal establishments and 1,255 males and 98 females in establishments for the execution of safety measures. Religion. J h e treaty between the Holy See and Italy, of 11 Feb. 1929, confirmed by article 7 of the Constitution of the republic, lays down that the Catholic Apostolic Roman Religion is the only religion of the State. Other creeds are permitted, provided they do not profess principles, or follow rites, contrary to public order or moral behaviour. The appointment of archbishops and of bishops is made by the Holy See; but the Holy See submits to the Italian Government the name of the person to be appointed in order to obtain an assurance that the latter will not raise objections of a political nature. Catholic religious teaching is given in elementary and intermediate schools. Marriages celebrated before a Catholic priest are automatically transferred to the civil register. Marriages celebrated by clergy of other denominations must be made valid before a registrar. In 1972 there were 279 dioceses with 28,154 parishes and 43,7f4 priests. There were 187,153 members (154,796 women) of about 20,000 religious houses. In 1962 there were about 100,000 Protestants and about 50,000 Jews. Annuario Cattolicod'Italia, a cura delCNEC. 14th ed. 1969-70, Rome, 1970 AnnuariodiPastorale. Rome, 1970 Burgalassi, S., La Sociologia delta Religione m Italia dalle origimal ¡967. Rome, 1967

Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age. An optional preschool education is given to the children between 3 and 5 years in the preparatory schools (kindergarten schools). Illiteracy of males over 6 years was 4% in 1971, of females 6-3%.

734

ITALY

Compulsory education can be classified as primary education (5-year course) and junior secondary education (3-year course). Senior secondary education is subdivided in classical (ginnasio and classical liceo), scientific (scientific liceo), language lyceum, professional institutes and technical education: agricultural, industrial, commercial, technical, nautical institutes, institutes for surveyors, institutes for girls (5-year course) and teacher-training institutes (4-year course). University education is given in Universities and in University Higher Institutes ( 4 , 5 , 6 years, according to degree course). Statistics for the academic year 1983-84: No. Pupils Elementary schools 29,183 1,680,236 Kindergarten 26,370 3,753,055 Public elementary schools Private elementary schools 2,416 315,269 Private elementary recognized schools (parificate) Government secondary schools Junior secondary schools Classical lyceum Lyceum for science Language lyceum Teachers' schools Teachers' institutes Professional institutes Technical institutes, of which: Industrial institutes Commercial institutes Surveyors' institutes Agricultural institutes Nautical institutes Technical institutes for tourism Managerial institutes Girls technical schools Artistic studies Universities Date of StuTeachand higher foundadents ers tion ¡983-84 1982-83 institutes 1965 6,792 Ancona 311 94 Arezzo 1971 1,129 1924 Bari 50,489 1,754 Bergamo 1970 2,818 110 Bologna 1200 58,720 2,900 1970 Brescia 5,670 103 Cagliari 1626 17,081 1,095 Camerino (Macerata) 1727 2,754 233 Cassino (Frosinone) 42 1968 2,338 1434 Catania 32,936 1,496 Catanzaro 1983 3,608 4,904 Chieti 1965 109 Cosenza 1972 5,571 495 424 24 Feltre (Belluno) 1969 5,454 Ferrara 1391 463 1924 43,412 2,210 Firenze Genova 1243 31,040 1,896 L'Aquila 1956 6,037 553 314 Lecce 1959 6,892 4,477 190 Macerata 1290 Messina 1549 24,263 1,180 1924 116,586 4,015 Milano 8,204 Modena 1678 649

10,057 754 972 306 209 689 1,666

Universities and higher institutes Napoli Padova Palermo Parma Pavia Perugia Pescara Piacenza Pisa Potenza Reggio di C. Roma Salerno Sassari Siena Teramo Torino Trento Trieste Udine Urbino Venezia Verona Viterbo

Total students 2,821,580 206,180 344,131 48,478 30,686 193,261 493,711

625 1,149 503

284,953 551,724 153,233

387

137,038

64,644 248 Date of StuTeachfoundadents ers tion 1983-84 1982-83 1224 112,953 3,993 1222 41,212 2,139 1805 42,912 2,232 1502 14,781 973 1390 17,765 1,433 1276 18,563 1,097 1965 8,450 150 1924 621 68 1338 28,336 1,786 _ 1983 900 1968 9,070 132 1303 155,365 6,358 1944 21,279 557 1677 8,424 504 1300 10,140 765 1965 4,307 80 1404 57,260 2,357 1965 2,615 "204 1924 13,276 949 1969 3,089 255 1564 12,182 428 1868 21,619 758 1969 7,554 365 1980 961 25

Health. In 1981 there were 190,196 doctors and 529,221 hospital beds. Social Security. Social expenditure is made up of transfers which the central public departments, local departments and social security departments, make to families.

ITALY

735

P a y m e n t is p r i n c i p a l l y for p e n s i o n s , f a m i l y a l l o w a n c e s a n d h e a l t h services. Expenditure o n subsidies, public assistance t o various classes o f people and people injured b y p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s or n a t i o n a l disasters are a l s o i n c l u d e d .

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES O f Italy in G r e a t Britain ( 1 4 T h r e e K i n g s Y a r d , L o n d o n , W 1 Y 2 E H ) Ambassador: A n d r e a Cagiati, G C V O ( a c c r e d i t e d 2 0 Feb. 1980). O f G r e a t Britain in Italy ( V i a X X S e t t e m b r e 8 0 A , 0 0 1 8 7 , R o m e ) Ambassador: T h e L o r d Bridges, K C M G . O f Italy in t h e U S A ( 1601 F u l l e r St., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 0 9 ) Ambassador: R i n a l d o Petrignani. O f t h e U S A in Italy ( V i a V e n e t o 1 1 9 / A , R o m e ) Ambassador: Maxwell M. Rabb. O f Italy t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Ambassador: Maurizio Bucci.

Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Istituto Centrale di Statistica (16 Via Cesare Balbo 00100 Rome) was set u p by law of 9 July 1926 as the central institute in charge of census and all statistical information. President: Prof. G u i d o Mario Rey. Director-General: Dr Luigi Pinto. Its publications include: Annuario statistico italiano. 1984 Compendio statistico italiano. 1984 Bollettino mensile di statistica. Monthly, from 1950 A nnuano di statistiche industriali. 1982 A nnuano di statistiche demografiche 1982 A nnuario di statistica agraria. 1982 Annuario statistico della navigazione marittima. 1983 A nnuario statistico del commercio interno e del turismo. 1982 Statistica annuale del commercio con l'estero. 1982 Statistica mensile del commercio con l'estero. Monthly Annuario di statistiche del lavoro. 1983 Censimento generale dell'agricoltura. 1982 Censimento generale della popolazione, 1981. Vol. I, H a n d III Censimento generale dell'industria e del commercio. 1981 Sintesi Statistica di un Ventenniodi Vita Economica Italiana, 1951-71 Cinquanta anni di attività, 1926-1976. 1978 Italy. D o c u m e n t s and Notes. Servizi delle Informazioni, Rome. 1952 fi". Italian Books and Periodicals. Bimonthly from 1958 Banco di R o m a , Review of the Economic Condition in Italy (in English). Bimonthly, 1947 ff. Credito Italiano, Vie Italian Economic Situation. Bimonthly. Milan, from J u n e 1961 (in Italian), from J u n e 1962 (in English) Compendio Economico Italiano. Rome, Unione Italiana delle C a m e r e di Commercio. Annually from 1954 Allum, P. A., Italy; Republic Without Government. London, 1973 Carone, G., Il Turismo nell'economia internazionale. M i l a n , 1959 Clough, S. B., The Economic History of Modern Italy. Columbia Univ. Press, 1964 Di Vittorio, G.^ed.), Isindacati in Italia. Bari, 1955 Grindrod, M „ The Rebuilding of Italy, 1945-55. R. I n s t . o f l n t . Affairs, 1955 Large, P. and Tarrow, S. (eds.), Italy in Transition - Conflict and Consensus. London, 1980 Nichols, P., Italia, Italia. London, 1974' Wiskemann, E., Italy Since 1945. London, 1971 Woolfe, S. J. (ed.), The Rebirth of Italy, 1943-50. New York, 1972 National Library: Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II Viale Castro Pretorio, Rome. Director: D r L. M. Crisari.

IVORY COAST République de la Côte d'Ivoire

Capital: Abidjan Population: 8 • 5m. ( 1984) GNP per capita: U S$ 1,200 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . France obtained rights on the coast in 1842, but did not actively and continuously occupy the territory till 1882. On 10 Jan. 1889 Ivory Coast was declared a French protectorate, and it became a colony on 10 March 1893; in 1904 it became a territory of French West Africa. On 1 Jan. 1933 most of the territory of Upper Volta was added to the Ivory Coast, but on 1 Jan. 1948 this area was returned to the re-constituted Upper Volta, now Burkina Faso. The Ivory Coast became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 4 Dec. 1958 and achieved full independence on 7 Aug. 1960. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Ivory Coast is bounded west by Liberia and Guinea, north by Mali and Burkina Faso, east by Ghana, and south by the Gulf of Guinea. It has an area of 322,463 sq. km and a population at the 1975 census of 6,702,866 (of whom 31 -8% were urban). Estimate (1984) 8 -5m. The areas and populations of the 26 departments at the 1975 census were: Department Abengourou Abidjan Aboisso Adzopé Agboville Biankouma Bondoukou Bouaflé Bouaké Bouna Boundiali Dabakala Daloa

Sq. km 6,713 14,819 6,135 5,151 3,900 2,897 16,465 8,362 23,405 21,470 10,273 8,694 13,918

Population 175,891 1,388,321 146,876 159,502 140,250 74,408 293,838 265,875 805,359 77,232 132,160 55,356 367,414

Department Danané Dimbokro Divo Ferkéssédougou Gagnoa Guiglo Katiola Korhogo Man-Danané Odienné Sassandra Séguéla Touba

Sq. km 4,650 13,822 9,869 19,292 6,873 14,232 8,469 12,164 7,004 21,336 26,263 22,861 8,767

Population 169,589 478,054 275,171 90,901 256,006 135,252 75,909 276,846 277,648 124,196 195,620 157,644 77,696

The principal cities (populations, census 1975) are the capital, Abidjan (685,828; estimate 1982, l-85m.), Bouaké (173,248, 640,000), Daloa (59,500), Man-Danané (48,521,450,000), Korhogo (45,146,280,000) and Gagnoa (42,000). The new capital will be at Yamoussoukro (70,000 in 1983). The population includes 60 ethnic groups, the main ones being, the Akan, the Krou and the Senoufo. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, affected by distance from the sea. In coastal areas, there are wet seasons from May to July and in Oct. and Nov., but in central areas the periods are March to May and July to Nov. In the north, there is one wet season from June to Oct. Abidjan. Jan. 8I"F(27-2°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 8 4 " (2,100 mm). Bouaké. Jan. 81'F (27-2°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 4 8 " (1,200 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1960 Constitution was amended in 1971, 1975 and 1980. Under it, the sole legal Party is the Parti Démocratique de la Côte d'Ivoire. There is a 147-member National Assembly elected by universal suffrage (latest elections, Nov. 1980) for a 5-year term. The President is also directly elected for a 5-year term (renewable). The Government was in Sept. 1984 composed as follows: President: Félix Houphouët-Boigny. (Re-elected for a fifth 5-year term in 1980). 736

IVORY COAST

737

Ministers of State: Auguste Denise, Mathieu Ekra, Camille Alliali, Maurice Seri Gnoleba, Emile Kei Boguinard. Health and Population: Alphonse Djedje Mady. Cultural Affairs: Bernard B. Dadie. Information: Amadou Thiam. Commerce: Nicolas Kouandi Angba. Labour and 'Ivorization ' of Personnel: Albert Vanie Bi Tra. Navy: Lamine Fadiga. Public Works: Jean-Jacques Bechio. Tourism: Duon Sadia. Social Affairs: Yaya Ouattara. Youth, Popular Education and Sport: Laurent Dona Fologo. Mines: Paul Gui Dibo. Internal Security: Oumar N'daw. Justice: Lazeni N. P. Coulibaly. Defence and Civic Service: Koran Banny. Interior: Konan Koffi Léon. Foreign Affairs: Simeon Ake. Economy and Finance: Abdoulaye Kone. Agriculture, Water and Forests: Denis Bra Kançtn. Education and Scientific Research: Balla Keita. Posts and Telecommunications, Construction and Town Planning: Ange Barry Battesti. Industry: Bernard K. Ehui. Rural Development: Gilles Laubouet. Relations with the National Assembly: Emile Brou. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of orange, white, green. Local government: Since the 1975 census, 8 further départements have been created (Bongouanou, Issia, Lakota, Mankono, Oumé, Soubré, Tengréla and Zuénoula) bringing the total to 34 départements, sub-divided into 163 sub-prefectures. DEFENCE Army. The Army consisted of 3 infantry battalions and support units in 1985. Equipment includes 5 AMX-13 light tanks and 7 ERC-90 armoured cars. Total strength, 4,500. Navy. Offshore, riverine and coastal patrol squadrons include 2 fast missile craft, 2 patrol vessels, 3 river defence craft, 1 training vessel, 1 light transport, 10 fast assault boats, 6 small protection launches and 2 minor landing craft. Personnel in 1985 totalled 70 officers and 630 ratings. Air Force. The Air Force, formed in 1962, has 6 Alpha Jet advanced trainers, with combat potential, 2 turbofan F-28 Fellowship and 1 turbofan Gulfstream II and 1 Gulfstream III transports, 2 Reims-Cessna 150s, 6 Beech F-33Cs and 2 ReimsCessna 337s for liaison and training, and 3 SA330 Puma, 4 Dauphin 2 and 3 Alouette II/III helicopters. Other transport aircraft are leased to the national airline. Personnel total 570. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Ivory Coast is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1975-80 Five Year Plan provided 1 -4m. francs CFA for investment, aiming to raise GDP by 25%, and was followed by a new Plan for 1980-8 5. Budget. The budget for 1982 balanced at 712,200m. francs CFA. Currency. The currency is the franc CFA with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. In March 1985, £ sterling = 551-25 francs CFA; US$1 = 523 -75 francs CFA. Banking. The Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue. Numerous foreign and domestic banks have offices in Abidjan, and Société Ivoirienne de Banque, Banque Internationale pour le Commerce et l'Industrie de la Côte d'Ivoire and Banque Internationale pour l'Afrique Occidentale maintain wide branch networks throughout the country. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1981 amounted to 1,903m. kwh mostly from new hydroelectric projects at Kassou and Taabo on the Bandama river, Buyo on the Sassandra river, and from 2 older dams on the Bia river.

738

IVORY

COAST

Oil. Petroleum has been produced (offshore) since Oct. 1977. Production (1979) 1 -57m. tonnes. Minerals. Annual diamond extraction had dwindled to 25,000 carats by 1979, and manganese mining ceased. Exploitation of iron ore deposits at Bangolo in the west await completion of hydro-electric projects. Agriculture. The main export crops (production 1981 in 1,000 tonnes) are coffee (250), cocoa (390), bananas (150), pineapples (350), palm oil (177), palm kernels (38), cotton (60) and rubber (25); food crops include yams (2,000), cassava (800), plantains (830), rice (500), maize (300), millet (49) and groundnuts (60). Sugarcane (800,000 tonnes in 1979) is grown on new plantations in the north at Ferkessedougou and elsewhere. Several factories produce palm-oil, fruit preserves and fruit juice. Livestock, 1983: 780,000 cattle, l-38m. sheep, l-38m. goats, 400,000 pigs, 1,000 horses and 1,000 donkeys. Fisheries. The catch in 1981 amounted to 80,000 tonnes. Forestry. Production in 1981 was 12 -03m. cu. metres. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Industrialization has developed rapidly since independance, particularly food processing, textiles and sawmills. Commerce. Trade for calendar years in 1 m. francs CFA: Imports Exports

1978 522,515 524,380

1979 528,850 534,847

¡980 631,900 663,900

1981 653,320 689,300

1982 718,590 747,450

In 1981 exports of coffee furnished 18% of exports, cocoa 34%, timber 14% and petroleum products, 8%. 19% went to France, 13% to the Netherlands, 11 % to the USA, 8% to Italy and 7% to Federal Republic of Germany. Of the imports, France supplied 31%, Venezuela 8%, the USA 5% and Japan 5%. Total trade between the Ivory Coast and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 53,563 27,916

1981 63,055 30,128

1982 56,097 28,238

1983 79,255 25,591

1984 93,875 25,347

Tourism. In 1980 there were 137,750 foreign tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 roads totalled 45,200 km and there were 236,400 vehicles. Railways. From Abidjan a metre-gauge railway runs to Leraba and thence through Burkina-Faso to Ouagadougou (1,140 km). An extension to Tambao is proposed and a new network for the export of iron ore from the port of San Pedro is under study. In 1982 the railways carried 910m. passenger-km and 622m. tonne-km of freight. Aviation. The main airport is at Abidjan-Port-Buet. In 1981 it handled 870,000 passengers and 33,000 tonnes of freight and mail. Air Ivoire provides domestic services to 25 regional airports and landing strips. Shipping. The main ports are Abidjan and San Pedro. In 1981 Abidjan port handled 5 • 8m. tonnes and San Pedro 1 - 5m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. There were 78,370 telephones in 1980 and (1978), 939 telex machines. In 1980 there were 300,000 television and 900,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. There were 60 cinemas in 1977 with a seating capacity of41,000. Newspapers. In 1982 there were 3 daily newspapers (Fraternite-Matin circulation, 80,000).

IVORY COAST JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

739 WELFARE

Justice. There are 28 courts of first instance, 3 assize courts and a court of appeal. Religion. Of the total population, 23-5% are Moslems, 12-5% Christians and 65% animists. Education. There were, in 1979, 954,656 pupils and 21,640 teachers in 2,697 primary schools, 172,280 pupils and 4,026 teachers in secondary schools and (1979) 22,437 in technical schools. The Université Nationale de Côte d'Ivoire, at Abidjan (founded 1964), had 12,765 students in 1980. Health. In 1978 there were 9,962 hospital beds, 429 doctors, 36 dentists, 615 midwives, 3,052 nurses and 76 pharmacists. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of the Ivory Coast in Great Britain (2 Upper Belgrave St., London, SW1X 8BJ) Ambassador: Seydou Diarra (accredited 9 Dec. 1983). Of Great Britain in the Ivory Coast (Immeuble "Les Harmonies', Blvd. Corde, Abidjan) Ambassador: John M. Willson. Of the Ivory Coast in the USA (2424 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Rene Amany. Of the USA in the Ivory Coast (5 Rue Jesse Owens, Abidjan) Ambassador: Robert H. Miller. Of the Ivory Coast to the United Nations Ambassador: Amara Essy. Books of Reference Statistical Information. Service de la Statistique, Abidjan. It publishes Bulletin Statistique Mensuel and Invenloire Economique de la Côte d'Ivoire. La Côte d'Ivoire en Chiffre. Abidjan, 1979 Panorama de la Côte d'Ivoire, 1978, ed. Direction de l'Information, Abidjan Holas, B., Industries et cultures en Côte d'Ivoire Abidjan, 1979 Zartman, I. W., and Delgado, C., The Political Economy of Ivory Coast. New York, 1984 Zolberg, A. R., One-Party Government m the Ivory Coast. Rev. ed. Princeton Univ. Press, 1974

JAMAICA

Capital: Kingston Population: 2-3 lm. (1983) GNPper capita: US$ 1,180 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and was occupied by the Spaniards between 1509 and 1655, when the island was captured by the English; their possession was confirmed by the Treaty of Madrid, 1670. Selfgovernment was introduced in 1944 and gradually extended until Jamaica achieved complete independence within the Commonwealth on 6 Aug. 1962. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Jamaica is 4,411 sq. miles (11,425 sq. km). The population at the census of 7 April 1970 was 1,861,300, distributed on the basis of the 14 parishes of the island as follows: Kingston and St Andrew, 550,100 (estimate 1977, 643,800); St Thomas, 71,400 (78,800); Portland, 68,500 (74,300); St Mary, 100,000 (108,900); St Ann, 121,300 (134,300); Trelawny, 61,300 (67,600); St James, 103,700 (122,800); Hanover, 59,000 (64,200); Westmoreland, 113,200 (121,600); St Elizabeth, 126,000 (139,000); Manchester, 123,500 (142,600); St Catherine, 186,000 (217,900); Clarendon, 176,600 (193,900). Estimated population, in 1983, was 2 • 31 m. Vital statistics (1983): Births, 61,400 (26-8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 12,600 (5-5); migration loss, 4,300. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate but with considerable variation. High temperatures on the coast are usually mitigated by sea breezes, while upland areas enjoy cooler and less humid conditions. Rainfall is plentiful over most of Jamaica, being heaviest in May and from Aug. to Nov. The island lies in the hurricane zone. Kingston. Jan. 76°F(24-4"C), July 81°F(27-2'C). Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was enacted with independence in Aug. 1962. The Crown is represented by a Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General is assisted by a Privy Council. The Legislature comprises two chambers, an elected House and a nominated Senate. The executive is chosen from both chambers. The Executive comprises the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party, and Ministers appointed by the Prime Minister. Together they form the Cabinet, which is the highest executive power. An Attorney-General is a member of the House and is legal adviser to the Cabinet. The Senate consists of 20 senators appointed by the Governor-General, 12 on the advice of the Prime Minister, 8 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Representatives (60 members, Dec. 1976) is elected by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year period. Electors and elected must be Jamaican or Commonwealth citizens resident in Jamaica for at least 12 months before registration. The powers and procedure of Parliament correspond to those of the British Parliament. The Privy Council consists of 6 members appointed by the Governor-General in consultation with the Prime Minister. Governor-General: Florizel Augustus Glasspole. National flag: A yellow diagonal cross dividing triangles of green, top and bottom, and black, hoist and fly. The elections to House of Representatives, held on 30 Oct. 1980, returned 51 members of the Jamaica Labour Party and 9 members of the People's National Party. The Cabinet in March 1985 was comprised as follows: 740

JAMAICA

741

Prime Minister and Minister of Finance, Planning and Information: Edward Seaga. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade: Hugh Shearer. Construction with responsibility for Electoral Matters: Bruce Golding. Agriculture: Dr Percival Broderick. Public Service: Errol Anderson. Social Security: Neville Gallimore. Labour and Leader of Government Business in the House of Representatives: J. A. G. Smith. Education: Dr Mavis Gilmour. Industry and Commerce: Douglas Vaz. Health: Dr Kenneth Baugh. Local Government: Neville Lewis. Youth and Community Development: Edmund Bartlett. Mining, Energy and Tourism: Hugh Hart. National Security and Justice: Winston Spaulding. Public Utilities and Transport: Pearnel Charles. Without Portfolio: Oswald Harding. DEFENCE Army. The Jamaica Defence Force consists of a Regular and a Reserve Force. The Regular Force is comprised of the 1 st battalion, Jamaica Regiment and Support Services which include the Air Wing and Coast Guard. The Reserve Force consists of the 3rd battalion, Jamaica Regiment. Total strength (all services, 1985), 3,500. Air Force. The Air Wing of the Jamaica Defence Force was formed in July 1963 and has since been expanded and trained successively by the British Army Air Corps and Canadian air force personnel. Equipment for army liaison, search and rescue, police co-operation, survey and transport duties includes 2 Defender armed STOL transports; 1 Beech King Air, 1 Cessna210and 1 Cessna337 light transports; 4 JetRanger and 3 Bell 212 light helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Jamaica is a member of U N , the Commonwealth, OAS, CARICOM and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 31 March (in J$ 1 m.): 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 Revenue Expenditure

1,233 1,547

1,555 1,655

1,750 2,707

1,718 3,396

The chief heads of recurrent revenue are customs and excise duties, income tax, motor vehicle licences and post office receipts. Capital revenue is derived mainly from royalties. The chief items of recurrent expenditure are public debt, education, health and grants to local government. Official foreign debt at 31 Dec. 1983, J$5,410-3m. Currency. The currency, is the dollar, divided into 100 cents. Currency circulation in Dec. 1980 was J$302 1m., comprising notes of J$283-6m. and J$18-5m. coin. In March 1985, £1 = JS5 -65; US$1 =J$5-17. Banking. On 1 May 1961 the Bank of Jamaica opened as Jamaica's Central Bank. It has the sole right to issue notes and coins in Jamaica, acts as Banker to the Government and to the commercial banks, and administers the island's external reserves and exchange control. Foreign exchange reserves (31 Dec. 1983), US$75m. There are 8 commercial banks with about 170 branches and agencies in operation, with main offices in Kingston. Six of these banks are subsidiaries of major British and North American banks, of which 4 are incorporated locally. The Workers' Savings and Loan Bank is owned by the Government, Trade Unions and the private sector. The National Commercial Bank (Jamaica) Ltd, formally Barclays Bank Jamaica Ltd, is 100% government-owned. The other 6 banks which operate are: The Bank of Nova Scotia (Jamaica) Ltd, City Bank of North America, Royal Bank (Jamaica) Ltd, Bank of Commerce, Jamaica Citizens Bank Ltd and First National Bank of Chicago (Jamaica) Ltd. Total deposits in commercial banks, 31 Dec. 1983, J$3,254-8m., of which J$ 1,410 • 7m. were time deposits and J$ 1,223 • 8m. were savings.

742

JAMAICA

ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. The Jamaica Public Service Co. is the public supplier of electricity. The bauxite companies, sugar estates and the Caribbean Cement Co. generate their own electricity. Total public installed capacity, 31 Dec. 1983,448-2 mw., of which 336 mw. is in steam units. Total generation, 1983, 1,458 mwh., of which 1,295-7 mwh. was from steam. Minerals. Bauxite, ceramic clays, marble, silica and gypsum are commercially valuable. Jamaica has become the world's third largest producer of bauxite and alumina. The bauxite deposits are worked by a Canadian and 4 American companies. In 1983, 7,683,000 tonnes of bauxite ore was mined, gypsum, 108,000; marie, 3 -3m.; sand and gravel, 3 -65m.; industrial lime, 121,300: Agriculture (1983). Production: Sugar-cane, 2,286,000 tons; sugar (commercial), 193,000 tons; rum, 3,974,000 proof gallons; molasses, 92,500 tons; bananas, 23,500 tons; citrus fruit, 685,000 boxes; cocoa, 2,738,000 tons; spices, 2,666,000 tons; copra, 2,373 short tons; domestic food crops, 428,000 short tons. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 315,000; goats, 410,000; pigs, 270,000; poultry, 5m. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. Three bauxite-mining companies also process bauxite into alumina; production, 1983, 1 -9m. tonnes. From processing only a few agricultural products— sugar, rum, condensed milk, oils and fats, cigars and cigarettes—the island is now producing clothing, footwear, textiles, paints, building materials (including cement), agricultural machinery and toilet articles. There is an oil refinery in Kingston. In 1983 manufacturing contributed J$l,273-8m. to the total GDP at current prices. Labour. Average total labour force (1983), 999,800, of whom 735,700 were employed. Government and services employed 358,500; agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining, 255,200; manufacture 94,400; construction and installation, 35,000. Commerce. Value of imports and domestic exports for calendar years (in J$ 1 m.): Imports Domestic exports

1979 1,002-0 814-7

1980 1,173-0 959-3

1981 2,623-4 1,735-1

1982 2,460 3 1,367-0

1983 2,841 0 1,392-0

Principal imports in 1983: Minerals, fuels and lubricants, 31 -4%; machinery and transport equipment, 16 -9%; food, 15-4%; manufactured goods, 15%. Principal exports, 1983: Alumina and bauxite, 62-6%; food, including sugar, 16-9%. Total trade between Jamaica and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m o m l m 2 l m m 4 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

95,578 33,122

114,219 42,650

92,760 56,025

95,036 116,188

77,895 48,088

Tourism. In 1983, 782,940 tourists arrived in Jamaica, spending about US$399-2m.; direct employment, 11,437. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1978). The island has 2,944 miles of main roads, and over 7,264 miles of parochial and subsidiary roads. Main roads in the corporate area of Kingston and St Andrew are constructed and maintained by that corporation, those elsewhere by the Public Works Department of the Ministry of Public Utilities. Parochial or subsidiary roads are constructed and maintained by parish councils. In 1983 there were 65,534 licensed vehicles. Railways. There are 294 km of railway open of 1,435 mm gauge, operated by the Jamaica Railway Corporation, which also operates 31 km (Alcoa Mineral Railway) on behalf of one of the bauxite companies. In 1983 the railway carried 94 tonne-km and 573,251 passengers.

JAMAICA

743

Aviation. Scheduled commercial international airlines operate through the Norman Manley and Sangster international airports at Palisadoes and Montego Bay. In 1983 Norman Manley airport had 36,970 aircraft movements, handled 954,183 passengers and 16,443 tonnes of freight. Sangster had 33,508 movements, with l -3m. passengers and 2,165 tonnes of freight. Trans-Jamaica Airlines Ltd operates internal flights; in 1983 it carried 42,100 passengers. Air Jamaica, originally set up in conjunction with BOAC and BWIA in 1966, became a new company, Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd, and is affiliated to Air Canada. In 1969 it began operations as Jamaica's national airline. In 1983 Air Jamaica carried 725,000 passengers and operated at a net loss of J$33m. Shipping. In 1983 there were 2,053 visits to all ports; 9-4m. tons of cargo were handled. Kingston had 1,315 visits and handled 1 -9m. tons. The outports had 738 visits and handled 7 • 5m. tons, of which 5 • 7m. was loaded and 1 • 7m. landed. Post and Broadcasting. In the financial year 1980 there were 318 post offices and 471 postal agencies. The Jamaica Telephone Co. operates the telephone system. In Jan. 1982 there were 124,258 telephones in use. All telephone exchanges are automatic. Jamaica is linked to USA by a submarine telephone cable. Jamaica International Telecommunications Ltd (Jamintel) established in 1971, provides a wide range of international telecommunications services for Jamaica. There are 1 commercial and 1 publicly owned broadcasting stations; the latter also operates a television service. Cinemas. In 1981 there were 25 cinemas and 3 drive-in cinemas. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Judicature comprises a Supreme Court, a court of appeal, a revenue court, resident magistrates' courts, petty sessional courts, coroners' courts, a traffic court and a family court which was instituted in 1975. The Chief Justice is head of the judiciary. All prosecutions are initiated by the Director of Public Prosecutions. Police. The Constabulary Force in 1980 stood at approximately 6,000 officers, subofficers and constables (men and women). There are, in addition, district constables and special constables. Religion. Freedom of worship is guaranteed under the Constitution. The main Christian denominations are Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Methodist, Church of God, United Church of Jamaica, and Grand Cayman (PresbyterianCongregational) Moravian, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostal, Salvation Army, Quaker, and Disciples of Christ. Pocomania is a mixture of Christianity and African survivals. Non-Christians include Hindus, Jews, Moslems and Bahai followers. There is also a growing number of Rastafarians who believe in the deity of the late Emperor, Haile Selassie of Ethiopia. Education. In Sept. 1973 education became free for all government grant-aided schools (the majority of all schools) and for all Jamaicans entering the University of the West Indies, the College of Arts, Science and Technology and the Jamaica School of Agriculture. In 1983-84 there were 1,635 pre-primary schools and departments (124,010 pupils); 289 primary schools (181,022 pupils); 495 all-age schools (234,825 pupils). There were 140 secondary and vocational schools (164,599). Teacher-training colleges had 4,052 students; community colleges had 1,932; the College of Arts, Science and Technology had 3,568; the College of Agriculture, 119 and the University of the West Indies, 4,055. Health. In 1983 the public health service had 5,433 staff in medicine, nursing and pharmacology; 331 in dentistry; 417 public health inspectors; 79 in nutrition. There were 371 primary health centres, 6,062 public hospital beds and 284 private beds.

744

JAMAICA

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Jamaica in Great Britain (50 St James's St., London, SW1A 1JS) High Commissioner: H. S. Walker. Of Great Britain in Jamaica (Trafalgar Rd., Kingston 10) High Commissioner: H. M. S. Reid, CMG. Of Jamaica in the USA (1850 K. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20006) Ambassador: Keith Johnson. Of the USA in Jamaica (2 Oxford Rd., Kingston) Ambassador: William Hewitt. Of Jamaica to the United Nations Ambassador: Lloyd M. H. Barnett. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics (93 Hanover St., Kingston) was set up in 1945—the nucleus being the Census Office, which undertook the operations of the 1943 Census of Jamaica and its Dependencies. Director: Mrs C. P. McFarlane. Publications of the Bureau include the Bulletin of Statistics on External Trade and the Annual Abstract of Statistics. Economic and Social Survey, Jamaica. Planning Institute of Jamaica, Kingston (Annual) Social and Economic Studies. Institute of Social and Economic Research, Univ. of the West Indies. Quarterly Beckford, G. and Witter, M., Small Garden... Bitter Weed. The Political Struggle and Change in Jamaica. 2nd ed. London, 1982 Black, C. V., History of Jamaica. London, 1965 Cassidy, F. G., and LePage, R. B., Dictionary of Jamaican English. CUP, 1966 Delattre, R., A Guide to Jamaica Reference Material. Kingston, 1965 Floyd, B., Jamaica: An Island Microcosm. London, 1979 Ingram, K. E., Jamaica. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Jefferson,O., The Post-War Economic Development of Jamaica. Kingston, 1972 Kuper, A., Changing Jamaica. London and Boston, 1976 Lacey, T., Violence and Politics in Jamaica, ¡960-70. Manchester Univ. Press, 1977 Manley, M., A Voice at the Work Place. London, 1975.—Jamaica: Struggle in the Periphery. London,1983 Post, K., Strike the Iron, A Colony at War: Jamaica 1939-1945. 2 vols. Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1981 Sherlock, P., Keeping Company withJamaica. London, 1985 Stone, C., Class, Race and Political Behaviour in Urban Jamaica. Kingston, 1973. —Democracy and Clientalism in Jamaica. London and New Brunswick, N.J., 1981 Bibliography of Jamaica, 1900-1963. Jamaica Library Service, 1963 Libraries: Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. Jamaica Library Service, Kingston.

JAPAN

Capital: Tokyo Population: 120 02m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$9,706 ( 1983)

Nippon (or Nihon)

HISTORY. The house of Yamato, from about 500 B.c. the rulers of one of several kingdoms, in about A.D. 200 united the nation; the present imperial family are their direct descendants. From 1186 until 1867 successive families of Shoguns exercised the temporal power. In 1867 the Emperor Meiji recovered the imperial power after the abdication on 14 Oct. 1867 of the fifteenth and last Tokugawa Shogun Keiki (in different pronunciation: Yoshinobu). In 1871 the feudal system (Höken Seido) was abolished; this was the beginning of the rapid westernization. At San Francisco on 8 Sept. 1951 a Treaty of Peace was signed by Japan and representatives of 48 countries. For details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1953, p. 1169. On 26 Oct. 1951 the Japanese Diet ratified the Treaty by 307 votes to 47 votes with 112 abstentions. On the same day the Diet ratified a Security Treaty with the US by 289 votes to 71 votes with 106 abstentions. The treaty provided for the stationing of American troops in Japan until she was able to undertake her own defence. The peace treaty came into force on 28 April 1952, when Japan regained her sovereignty. In 1960 Japan signed the Japan-US Mutual Security Treaty, valid for 10 years, which was renewed in 1970. In June 1971 the Okinawa Reversion Agreement providing for the return from the US to Japan of Okinawa on 15 May 1972 was signed. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Japan consists of 4 major islands, Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku and many small islands with an area of 377,765

sq. km. Census (1980) 117,060,396. Estimate, 1 Oct. 1983, 119,483,000 (males

58,790,000, females 60,693,000). Foreigners registered 31 Dec. 1983 were

817,129, of whom 6.74,581 were Koreans, 63,164 Chinese, 26,434 Americans, 7,516 Philippines, 6,087 British, 3,472 Vietnamese, 3,037 West Germans, 2,368

Indians, 2,233 Thais, 2,148 French, 1,963 Canadians, 1,962 stateless persons. Japanese overseas, Oct. 1983,471,873; of these 132,306 lived in USA, 130,433

in Brazil, 16,567 in U K , 16,041 in A r g e n t i n a , 14,953 in C a n a d a , 14,708 in t h e

Federal Republic of Germany, 10,287 in Singapore, 9,391 in France, 8,436 in Hong Kong, 7,735 in Peru. The leading cities, with population, 31 March 1983 (in 1,000), are:

Akita Amagasaki Aomori Asahikawa Chiba Fujisawa Fukuoka Fukushima Fukuyama Funabashi Gifu Hachioji Hakodate Hamamatsu Higashiosaka Himeji Hirakata Hiroshima Ichinomiya Ichikawa Iwaki Kagoshima Kanazawa Kawaguchi Kawasaki

286 507 290 359 757 314 1,082 265 355 489 408 399 320 501 499 447 369 898 253 376 352 512 412 392 1,039

Kitakyushu Kobe Köchi Koriyama Kumamoto Kurashiki Kure Kyoto Machida Maebashi Matsudo Matsuyama Miyazaki Nagano Nagasaki Nagoya Nana Nara Neyagawa Niigata Nishinomiya Oita Okayama Omiya Osaka

745

1,055 1,370 304 290 520 410 233 1,461 301 271 412 412 266 327 446 2,058 302 311 254 457 401 368 550 362 2,535

Otaru Sagamihara Sakai Sapporo Sasebo Sendai Shimonoseki Shizuoka Suita Takamatsu Takatsuki Tokushima Tokyo Toyama Toyohashi Toyonaka Toyota Urawa Utsunomiya Wakayama Yao Yokkaichi Yokohama Yokosuka

180 458 807 1,451 252 657 262 461 332 320 341 250 8,151 307 312 396 289 365 390 403 267 258 2,868 427

746

JAPAN

Vital statistics (in 1,000) for calendar years: Births Deaths

1974 2,030 710

1975 1,901 702

1976 1,833 703

1977 1,755 690

1978 1,709 696

1979 1,643 690

1980 1,616 722

1981 1,546 725

1982 1,515 712

Crude birth rate of Japanese nationals in present area, 1982, was 12 • 8 per 1,000 population (1947: 34-3); crude death rate, 6; crude marriage rate, 6-6; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, 6 -6. CLIMATE. The islands of Japan lie in the temperate zone, north-east of the main monsoon region of S.E. Asia. The climate is temperate with warm, humid summers and relatively mild winters except in the island of Hokkaido and northern parts of Honshu facing the Japan Sea. There is a month's rainy season in June-July, but the best seasons are spring and autumn, though Sept. may bring typhoons. There is a summer rainfall maximum. Tokyo. Jan. 40-5°F (4-7°C), July 77-4°F (25-2°C). Annual rainfall 63" (1,460 mm). Hiroshima. Jan. 39-7°F (4-3°C), July 78"F (25-6'C). Annual rainfall 61" (1,603 mm). Nagasaki. Jan. 43-5°F (6-4°C), July 79• 7°F(26• 5°Q. Annual rainfall 77" (2,002 mm). Osaka. Jan. 42 - 1°F(5 -6°C), July 80-6'F (27"C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,400 mm). Sapporo. Jan. 23-2"F (-4• 9°C), July 68•4°F(20-2°C). Annual rainfall 47" (1,158 mm). E M P E R O R . The Emperor bears the title of Nihon-koku Tenno ('Emperor of Japan'). Hirohito, born in TOkyO, 29 April 1901; succeeded his father, Yoshihito, 25 Dec. 1926; married 26 Jan. 1924, to Princess Nagako, bom 6 March 1903. Living sons: (1) Prince Akihito (Tsugunomiya), born 23 Dec. 1933; formally installed as Crown Prince on 10 Nov. 1952; married to Michiko Shoda (born 20 Oct. 1934), 10 April 1959. Offspring: Prince Naruhito (Hironomiya), born 23 Feb. 1960; Prince Fumihito (Ayanomiya), bom 30 Nov. 1965; Princess Sayako (Norinomiya), born 18 April 1969. (2) Prince Masahito (Hitachinomiya), bom 28 Nov. 1935; married to Hanako Tsugaru, 30 Sept. 1964. By the Imperial House Law of 11 Feb. 1889, revised on 16Jan. 1947, the succession to the throne was fixed upon the male descendants. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. Japan's Government is based upon the Constitution of 1947 which superseded the Meiji Constitution of 1889. In it the Japanese people pledge themselves to uphold the ideas of democracy and peace. TTie Emperor is the symbol of the States and of the unity of the people. Sovereign power rests with the people. The Emperor has no powers related to government. Japan renounces war as a sovereign right and the threat or the use of force as a means of settling disputes with other nations. Fundamental human rights are guaranteed. Nationalflag: White, with a red disc. National anthem: Kimi ga yo wa (words 9th century, tune by Hiromori Hayashi, 1881).

Legislative power rests with the Diet, which consists of the House of Representatives (of 5 11 members), elected by men and women over 20 years of age for a 4-year term, and the House of Councillors of 252 members (100 elected by party list system with proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method and 152 from prefectural districts), one-half of its members being elected every 3 years. The Lower House controls the budget and approves treaties with foreign powers. The former House of Peers is replaced by the House of Councillors, whose members, like those ofthe House of Representatives, are elected as representatives of all the people. The House of Representatives has pre-eminence over the House of Councillors. On 21 Nov. 1984 the House of Representatives consisted of 264 LiberalDemocrats-New Liberal Club National Union, 111 Socialists, 59 Komeito, 38 Democratic Socialists, 27 Japan Communist Party, 3 Social Democratic Federation and 6 Independents. The Cabinet, as constituted in Nov. 1984, was as follows:

JAPAN

747

Prime Minister: Yasuhiro Nakasone. Justice: Hitoshi Shimasaki. Foreign Affairs: Shintaro Abe. Finance: Noboru Takeshita. Education: Hikaru Matsunaga. Health and Welfare: Hiroyuki Masuoka. Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery: Moriyoshi Sato. Trade and Industry: Keijiro Murata. Transport: Tokuo Yamashita. Postal Service: Megumu Sato. Labour: Toshio Yamaguchi. Construction: Yoshiaki Kibe. Home Affairs: Toru Furuya. Local Government. The country is divided into 47 prefectures ( T o d d f u k e n ) , including Tokyd-to (the capital), Osaka-fu and Kyoto-fu, Hokkai-do, and 43 Ken. Each Toddfuken has its governor (Chiji) elected by the voters in the area. The prefectural government of Tokyo-to is also responsible for the urban part (formerly Tokyo-shi) of the prefecture. Each prefecture, city, town and village has a representative assembly elected by the same franchise as in parliamentary elections. New legislation, which came into effect on 1 July 1954, has given the central government complete control of the police throughout the country. DEFENCE Army. The 'Ground Self-Defence Force' had in 1984 an authorized strength of 180,000 uniformed personnel, plus a reserve of43,000 men. The Army is organized in 12 infantry divisions, 1 armoured division, 1 airborne brigade, 2 air defence brigades, 1 artillery, 5 engineer, 1 signal, 2 composite and 1 helicopter brigades in addition to 4 anti-aircraft artillery groups. Equipment includes 1,040 tanks. The Northern Army, stationed in Hokkaido, consists of 4 divisions (1 of which is armoured), an artillery brigade, an anti-aircraft artillery brigade, a tank group and an engineering brigade. The Western Army, stationed in Kyushu, consists of 2 divisions and 1 composite brigade. The North-Eastem Army (2 divisions), the Eastern Army (2 divisions) and 1 airborne brigade, the Middle Army (3 divisions and 1 composite brigade). The infantry division establishment is approximately 9,000 with 4 infantry regiments or 9,000 (lower establishment) with 4 infantry regiments. Each infantry division has an artillery unit, an anti-tank unit, a tank battalion and an engineering battalion in addition to administrative units. Navy. The 'Maritime Self-Defence Force' comprises 48 destroyers including 2 large destroyers of 5,200 tons each and 2 destroyers of 4,700 tons each, 14 submarines, 40 mine warfare vessels, 19 patrol vessels, 8 landing ships, 37 auxiliary ships including 1 ice breaker and 3 training vessels, and 320 support ships. The Fleet Air Arm, numbering 6 air wings, includes 90 patrol aircraft and 16 flying boats for anti-submarine patrol, 76 trainers and 103 helicopters plus transports, rescue planes and others. Personnel in 198 5 numbered 46,000 officers and ratings including the Naval Air Arm. There are also 4,300 in civil maritime defence. Air Force. An 'Air Self-Defence Force' was inaugurated on 1 July 1954. In 1984 its equipment included 2 interceptor squadrons of F-15J/DJ Eagles (total of 100 aircraft to be acquired by 1987); 3 squadrons of F-104J Starfighters, and 6 of F-4EJ Phantoms; 3 squadrons of Mitsubishi F-l close-support fighters; 1 squadron of RF-4E reconnaissance fighters; the first 6 of 8 E-2C Hawkeye AWACS aircraft; ECM flight with 2 YS-11 Es; 3 squadrons of turbofan Kawasaki C-1 and turboprop C-130H Hercules and NAMC YS-11 transports. About 35 helicopters, mostly KV-107s (to be replaced with CH-47 Chinooks), and MU-2 twin-turboprop aircraft perform search, rescue and general duties. Training units use piston-engined Fuji T-3 basic trainers, Fuji T-l jet intermediate trainers, T-33 jet trainers and supersonic Mitsubishi T-2 jet advanced trainers. The T - l s and T-33s will be replaced with Kawasaki T-4s in the late '80s. Six surface-to-air missile groups (19

748

JAPAN

squadrons) are in service. Total strength (1985) about 350 combat aircraft and 46,000 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Japan is a member of UN, the Colombo Plan and OECD. ECONOMY Planning. The 1981-85 Plan envisages an onward growth rate of 5 -5%. The real growth rate for 198 5 is envisaged at 4 • 6% and the nominal 6 1%. Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for fiscal year ending 31 March 1985 balanced at 50,627,000m. yen. Of the proposed revenue in 1984, 34,596,000m. was to come from taxes and stamps, 12,680,000m. from public bonds. Main items of expenditure: Social security, 9,321,000m.; public works, 6,520,000m.; local government, 9,069,000m.; education, 4,867,000m.; defence, 2,935,000m. The outstanding national debt incurred by public bonds was estimated in March 1983 to be 97,862,580m. yen, including 11,290m. yen of Japan's foreign currency bonds. The estimated 1984 budgets of the prefectures and other local authorities forecast a total revenue of48,289,000m. yen, to be made up partly by local taxes and partly by government grants and local loans. Currency. Coins of 1, 5, 10, 50,100 and 500 yen are in circulation as well as notes of the Bank of Japan, of 100,500,1,000,5,000 and 10,000 yen. Bank-notes for 100 yen are still in circulation in country districts but are gradually being replaced by coins. In March 1985, £ 1 = 277 yen; US$ 1 = 261 • 77 yen. In Dec. 1983 the currency in circulation consisted of22,466,000m. yen Bank of Japan notes and 1,307,000m. yen subsidiary coins. Banking. The modern banking system dates from 1872. The Nippon Ginko (Bank of Japan) was founded in 1882. The Bank of Japan has undertaken to finance the Government and the banks; its function is similar to that of a Central Bank in other countries. The Bank undertakes the actual management of Treasury funds and foreign exchange control. Gold bullion and cash holdings of the Bank of Japan at 31 Dec. 1983 stood at 263,000m. yen. The Yokohama Specie Bank (specializing in foreign exchange) became the Bank of Tokyo in Aug. 1954. Total assets of all banks at 31 Dec. 1983 was 299,508,000m. yen. The post office savings bank is modelled upon the British; deposits amounted to 82,505,650m. yen in Nov. 1983. Many foreign banks operate branches in Japan including: Bank of Indo-China, Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation, Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, Bank of India, Mercantile Bank of India, Bank of Korea, Bank of China, Algemene Bank Nederland NV, National Handelsbank NV, Bank of America, National City Bank of New York, Chase Manhattan Bank, Bangkok Bank and American Express Co. Weights and Measures. The metric system was made obligatory by a law passed in March 1921, and the period of grace for its compulsory use ended on 1 April 1966. ENERGY A N D NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1982 generating facilities were capable of an output of 154,645,000 kw.-; electricity produced was 581,133m. kwh. Oil and Gas. Output of crude petroleum, 1982, was 467,000 kl, almost entirely from oilfields on the island of Honshu, but 214,685,000 kl crude oil had to be imported. Output of natural gas, 1982,2,047m. cu. metres. Minerals. Ore production in tonnes, 1982, of chromite, 11,129; coal, 17,606,000;

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iron, 361,813; zinc, 251,356,000; molybdenum (1980), 100; manganese, 78,045; copper, 50,658; lead, 45,873; tungsten, 1,825; silver, 306,167 kg.; gold, 3,239 kg. Agriculture. Agricultural workers in 1983 were 6,462,000, including 794,000 subsidiary and seasonal workers; 9% of the labour force as opposed to 24 -7% in 1962. The arable land area in 1983 was 5,411,000 hectares (5,796,000 in 1970). Division of ordinary fields to non-agricultural use accounted largely for this decrease. Rice cultivation accounted for 2,257,000 hectares in 1982. The area planted with industrial crops such as rapeseed, tobacco, tea, rush, etc., was 258,000 hectares in 1982. In 1983 there were 4,405,000 power cultivators and tractors in use together with 3 -67m. power sprayers and power dusters and 2,025,000 rice power planters. Output of rice was 12m. tonnes in 1979,9-6m. in 1980,10,259,000 in 1981 and 10-27m. in 1982. Production in 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes) of barley was 390; wheat, 742; soybeans, 226. Sweet potatoes, which in the past mitigated the effects of rice famines, have, in view of rice over-production, decreased from 4,955,000 tons in 1965 to 1,384,000 tons in 1982. Domestic sugar-beet and sugar-cane production accounted for only 28 -8% of requirement in 1982. In 1982, 2,169,000 tonnes were imported, 26% of this being imported from Australia, 22-8% from South Africa, 17-1% from Thailand, 14% from Cuba, 12 • 5% from Philippines, 6% from Formosa. Fruit production, 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes): Mandarins, 2,864; apples, 923-5; pears, 492; grapes, 338-3; peaches, 227-5; and persimmons, 333-7. Livestock (1983): 4,590,000 cattle (including about 2-lm. milch cows), 24,000 horses, 10-27m. pigs, 21,000 sheep, 57,000 goats, 307m. chickens. Milk (1981), 6-75m. tonnes. Forestry. Forests and grasslands cover about 25m. hectares (nearly 70% of the whole land area), with an estimated timber stand of 2,484m. cu. metres in 1981. In 1981,39,498,000 cu. metres were felled. Fisheries. Before the War, Japanese catch represented one-half to two-thirds of the world's total fishing, in 1981 it was 14-3%. The catch in 1982 was 11 -38m. tonnes, excluding whaling. Japan now ranks first in whaling. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Japan's industrial equipment, 1981, numbered 743,300 plants of all sizes, employing 11,218,000 production workers. Since 1920 there has been a shift from light to heavy industries. The production of electrical appliances and electronic machinery has made great strides: television sets (1982:13,898,000), radio sets(1982:15,000,000),cameras(1982:13,850,000), computing machines and automation equipment are produced in increasing quantities. The chemical industry ranks third in production value after machinery and metals (1981). Production, 1982, included (in tonnes): Sulphuric acid, 6,531,000; caustic soda, 2,709,000; ammonium sulphate, 1 -69m.; calcium superphosphate, 532,000. Output (1982), in 1,000 tonnes, of pig iron was 77,658; crude steel, 99,548; ordinary rolled steel, 76,295. In 1982 paper production was 10 • 3 5m. tonnes; paperboard, 7 • 09m. tonnes. Japan's textile industry before the War had 13m. cotton-yarn spindles. After the War she resumed with 2-78m. spindles; in 1964, 8-42m. spindles were operating. Output of cotton yarn, 1982, 470,000 tonnes, and of cotton cloth, 2,030m. sq. metres. In wool, Japan aims at wool exports sufficient to pay for theimports of raw wool. Output, 1982, 120,000 tonnes of woollen yarns and 295m. sq. metres of woollen fabrics. Output, 1982, of rayon woven fabrics, 740m. sq. metres; synthetic woven fabrics, 3,024m. sq. metres; silk fabrics, 129m. sq. metres. Shipbuilding has been decreasing and in 1982,7-97m. gross tons were launched, of which 3,024,000 GRT were tankers.

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JAPAN

Labour. Total labour force, Oct. 1982, was 56-38m., of which 5 02m. were in agriculture and forestry, 460,000 in fishing, 100,000 in mining, 5-4m. in construction, 13-8m. in manufacturing, 15 02m. in commerce and finance, 3-83m. in transport and other public utilities, 10-65m. in services (including the professions) and 1 -95m. in government work. In 1982 there were 12,526,000 workers organized in 74,091 unions. The largest federation is the 'General Council of Japanese Trade Unions' (Söhyö) with 4-55m. members. The 'Japanese Confederation of Labour' (Dömei Kaigi) had 2,187,000 members. The 'Federation of Independent Unions' (Chüritsu Rören) founded in 1956 had 1,429,000 members. In Nov. 1982, 1-36m. (2 -3%) were unemployed. In 1983, 507,000 working days were lost in industrial stoppages. Commerce. Trade (in US$ 1 m.) Imports Exports

1977 70,808 80,494

1978 79,343 97,543

1979 110,672 103,031

1980 140,528 129,807

1981 152,030 143,289

1982 138,831 131,931

1983 126,393 146,927

Distribution of trade by countries (customs clearance basis) (US$ 1 m.): Africa Australia Canada China Fed. Rep. of Germany Hong Kong Latin America Philippines South-east Asia Thailand USSR UK USA

1982 4,167 4,581 2,861 3,511 5,018 4,718 9,086 1,803 31,873 1,907 3,899 4,813 36,330

Exports 1983 2,904 4,280 3,625 4,912 5,877 5,289 6,379 1,744 34,498 2,506 2,821 4,983 42,829

1982 1,610 6,961 4,441 5,352 2,355 622 6,268 1,576 29,985 1,041 1,682 1,874 24,179

Imports 1983 1,348 6,642 4,430 5,087 2,414 670 6,451 1,306 27,925 1,019 1,456 1,940 24,647

ipal items in 1983, with value in 1 m. yen were: Imports, c.i.f. Mineral fuels 13,986,000 Foodstuffs 3,539,000 Metal ores and scrap 1,547,000 Machinery and transport equipment 1,644,000

Exports, f.o.b. Machinery and transport equipment 23,653,000 Metals and metal products 4,365,000 Textile products 1,572,000 Chemicals 1,659,000

Total trade between Japan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m i m 2 m j Jgg4 Imports to UK 1,712,108 2,236,170 2,657,977 3,355,450 3,768,019 Exports and re-exports from UK 597,147 620,273 681,483 797,848 925,311

Tourism. In 1982,1,708,306 foreigners visited Japan, 352,208 of whom came from USA, 151,545 from UK. Japanese travelling abroad totalled 4,086,138 in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total length of roads (including urban and other local roads) was 1,123,030 km at 1 April 1982; the 'national' roads extended 46,275 km, of which 44,063 km were paved. Motor vehicles, at 31 Dec. 1983, numbered 42,053,000, including 26,385,000 passenger cars and 15,437,000 commercial vehicles. Railways. The first railway was completed in 1872, between Tokyo and Yokohama (29 km). Total length of railways, in March 1982, was 27,029 km, of which the national railways had 21,419 km (8,435 km electrified) and private railways, 5,610 km (4,923 km electrified). In 1982 the national railways carried 6,742m. passengers (private, 11,527m.) and 98m. tons of freight (private, 38m.). Aviation. The principal airlines are Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways. Japan Airlines, founded in 1953, operate international services from Tokyo to the USA,

JAPAN

751

Europe, the Middle East and Southeast Asia, including flights to London over the North Pole and to Moscow by way of Siberia. In 1982 Japanese companies carried 40,461,300 passengers in domestic services and 5,624,000 passengers in international services. Shipping. On 30 June 1983 the merchant fleet consisted of 8,666 vessels of 100 gross tons and over; total tonnage 39m. gross tons; there were 707 ships for passenger transport (1,131,000 gross tons), 2,679 cargo ships (2,460,000 gross tons) and 1,564 oil tankers (15,430,000 gross tons). Coastguard. The 'Maritime Safety Agency' (Coastguard) consists of 11 regional MS headquarters, 65 MS offices, 52 MS bases, 14 air bases, 7 District Communications Centres, 1 Traffic Advisory Service Centre, 4 hydrographic observatories and 136 navigation aids offices (with 4,927 navigation aids facilities) and controls 43 large patrol vessels, 47 medium patrol vessels, 19 small patrol vessels, 231 patrol craft, 22 hydrographic service vessels, 5 firefighting vessels, 10 firefighting boats, 63 guard and rescue boats and 80 navigation aids service supply vessels. Personnel in 1984 numbered 12,061 officers and men. The Coastguard aviation service includes 23 fixed-wing aircraft and 35 helicopters. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone services, operated by a public corporation, at 31 March 1983 had 61,208,000 instruments. On 31 March 1983,98 • 8% of all households owned colour television sets. Cinemas (1982). Cinemas numbered 2,267 with an annual attendance of 155m. (1960:1,014m.). Newspapers (1982). Daily newspapers numbered 12 5 with aggregate circulation of 68,142,000, including 4 major English-language newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court is composed of the Chief Justice and 14 other judges. The Chief Justice is appointed by the Emperor, the other judges by the Cabinet. Every 10 years a justice must submit himself to the electorate. All justices and judges of the lower courts serve until they are 70 years of age. Below the Supreme Court are 8 regional higher courts, district courts (Chihosaibansho) in each prefecture (4 in Hokkaido) and the local courts. The Supreme Court is authorized to declare unconstitutional any act of the Legislature or the Executive which violates the Constitution. Religion. There has normally been religious freedom, but Shinto (literally, The Way of the Gods) was given the status of ^«asi-state-religion in the 1930s; in 1945 the Allied Supreme Command ordered the Government to discontinue state support of Shinto. State subsidies have ceased for all religions, and all religious teachings are forbidden in public schools. In Dec. 1982 Shintoism claimed 103,046,565 adherents, Buddhism 86,642,598; these figures obviously overlap. Christians numbered 1,511,845, of whom 1,124,538 are Protestants and 387,307 Catholics. Education. Education is compulsory and free between the ages of 6 and 15. Almost all national and municipal institutions are co-educational. On 1 May 1983 there were 15,093 kindergartens with 99,810 teachers and 2,192,853 pupils; 23,988 elementary schools with 474,018 teachers and 11,739,456 pupils; 10,840 junior high schools with 273,739 teachers and 5,706,811 pupils; 5,142 senior high schools with 252,649 teachers and 4,715,162 pupils; 532 junior colleges with 17,202 teachers and 379,427 pupils. There were also 782 special schools for handicapped children (37,330 teachers, 94,372 pupils). Japan has 7 main state universities, formerly known as the Imperial Universities: Toky6 University (1877); Kyoto University (1897); Tohoku University, Sendai (1907); Kyushu University, Fukuoka (1910); Hokkaido University, Sapporo

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(1918); Osaka University (1931), and Nagoya University (1939). In addition, there are various other state and municipal as well as private universities of high standing, such as Keio (founded in 1859), Waseda, Rikkyö, Hösei, Maiji universities, and several women's universities, among which Tokyo and Ochanomizu are most notable. There are 458 colleges and universities with (1 May 1983) 1,834,495 students and 109,135 teachers. Social Welfare. Hospitals at the end of 1982 numbered 9,403 with 1,401,999 beds. Physicians at the end of 1982 numbered 167,952; dentists, 58,362. There are in force various types of social security schemes, such as health insurance, unemployment insurance and old-age pensions. The total population come under one or more of these schemes. In 1982 17,488,592 persons and 9,244,655 households received some form of regular public assistance, the total of which came to 1,329,923 - I l m . yen. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Japan in Great Britain (43-46 Grosvenor St., London, W1X OBA) Ambassador: Toshio Yamazaki (accredited 20 Feb. 1985). Of Great Britain in Japan (1 Ichiban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102) Ambassador: Sir Sydney Giffard, KCMG. Of Japan in the USA (2520 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Yoshio Okawara. Of the USA in Japan (10-1, Akasaka 1 -chome, Minato-Ku, Tokyo) Ambassador: Michael J. Mansfield. Of Japan to the United Nations Ambassadors: Mizuo Kuroda and Tomohiko Kobayashi. Books of Reference Statistics Bureau of the Prime Minister's Office: Statistical Year-Book (from 1949).— Statistical Abstract (from 1950)).—Statistical Handbook of Japan 1977.—Monthly Bulletin (from April 1950) Economic Planning Agency: Economic Survey (annual), Economic Statistics (monthly), Economic Indicators (monthly) Ministry of International Trade: Foreign Trade of Japan (annual) Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. 9 vols. Tokyo, 1983 Japan Times Year Book. (I. YearBookofJapan.il. Who's Who in Japan. III. Business Directory of Japan.) Tokyo, first issue 1933 Treaty of Peace with Japan. (Cmd. 8392). HMSO, 1951; (Cmd. 8601). HMSO, 1952 Allen, G. C., Short Economic History of Modern Japan. London, 1946.—The Japanese Economy. London, 1981 Baerwald, H. H., Japan's Parliament. CUP, 1974 Burks, A. W., Japan: Profile of an Industrial Power. Boulder, 1981 Kahn, H., and Pepper, T., The Japanese Challenge. New York, 1979 Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English [and English-Japanese•] Dictionary. 2 vols. New ed. Cambridge, Mass., and Berkeley, Cal., 1960 Langdon, F. C., Japan's Foreign Policy. Univ. of British Columbia Press, 1973 McNelly, T., Politics and Government in Japan. 2nd ed. London, 1972 Miyazaki, S., The Japanese Dictionary Explained in English. Tokyo, 1950 Morishima, U. Why has Japan 'Succeeded'?C UP, 1984 Murata, K., An Industrial Geography of Japan. London, 1980 Nippon: A Chartered Survey of Japan. Tsuneta Yano Memorial Society. Tokyo, annual Prindl, A., Japanese Finance: Guide to Banking in Japan. Chichester, 1981 Sansom, G. B„ The Western World and Japan. New York, 1950.—A History of Japan. 3 vols. London,1958-64 Simonis, H. and U. E. (ed.), Japan: Economic and Social Studies in Development. Wiesbaden, 1974 Tanaka, K., Building a New Japan: A Plan for Remodelling the Japanese Archipelago. Tokyo, 1973 Tsoukalis, L., (ed.), Japan and Western Europe. London, 1982 Vogel, E. F., Japan as Number One. Harvard Univ. Press, 1979 Yabuki, K. (ed.), Japan Bibliographic Annual. 2 vols. Tokyo, annual

THE HASHEMITE K I N G D O M OF JORDAN

Capital: Amman Population: 2-25m.(l982)E. Bank 1 -25m. ( 1982) W. Bank GNPper capita: US$ 1,620 (1981)

Al Mamlaka al Urduniya al Hashemiyah

HISTORY. By a Treaty, signed in London on 22 March 1946, Britain recognized Transjordan as a sovereign independent state. A new Anglo-Transjordan treaty was signed in Amman on 15 March 1948. The treaty was to remain in force for 20 years, but by mutual consent was terminated on 13March 1957. The Arab Federation between the Kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan, which was concluded on 14 Feb. 1958, lapsed after the revolution in Iraq of 14 July 1958, and was officially terminated by royal decree on 1 Aug. 1958. On 25 May 1946 the Amir Abdullah assumed the title of King, and when the treaty was ratified on 17 June 1946 the name of the territory was changed to that of 'The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan'. The legislature consists of a lower house of 60 members elected by universal suffrage (30 from East Jordan and 30 from West Jordan), and a senate of 30 members nominated by the King. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The part of Palestine remaining to the Arabs under the armistice with Israel 3 April 1949, with the exception of the Gaza strip, was in Dec. 1949 placed under Jordan rule and formally incorporated in Jordan on 24 April 1950. For the frontier lines see map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1951. On 10 Aug. 1965 a treaty with Saudi Arabia provided for an exchange of about 6,000-7,000 sq. km in order to facilitate the development of the port of Aqaba. Total East Bank area, 91,000 sq. km. West Bank enclaves 5,000 sq. km: census population (18 Nov. 1961), 1,706,226; estimate, 1982, 3-5m. (2-25m. in East Bank, 1 -25m. in West Bank). The country is divided into 8 districts (muhafaza), viz., Amman, Irbid, Balqa, Karak, Ma'an, Jerusalem, Hebron and Nablus. The last 3 named districts are known collectively as the West Bank, which, since the hostilities of June 1967, has been occupied by Israel. The largest towns, with estimated population, 1980: Amman, the capital, 1,232,600; Zarka, 269,780 (1977); Irbid, 140,000. In 1979 registered births numbered 91,622; deaths, 6,547; marriages, 15,491; divorces, 3,295. C L I M A T E . Predominantly a Mediterranean climate, with hot dry summers and cool wet winters, but in hilly parts summers are cooler and winters colder. Those areas below sea-level are very hot in summer and warm in winter. Eastern parts have a desert climate. Amman. Jan. 46°F (7 • 5°C), July 77°F (24 -9°C). Annual rainfall 12" (290 mm). Aqaba. Jan. 6 P F (16°C), July 89°F (31-5"C). Annual rainfall 1-5" (35 mm). KING. The Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy headed by HM King Hussein, GCVO, eldest son of King Talal, who, being incapacitated by mental illness, was deposed by Parliament on 11 Aug. 1952 and died 8 July 1972. The King was bom 14 Nov. 1935, and married Princess Dina Abdul Hamid on 19 April 1955 (divorced 1957), Toni Avn! Gardiner (Muna al Hussein) on 25 May 1961 (divorced 1972), Alia Toukari on 26 Dec. 1972 (died in air crash 1977) and Eliza753

754

JORDAN

beth Halaby on 15 June 1978. Offspring: Princess Alia, bom 13 Feb. 1956; Prince Abdulla, born 30 Jan. 1962; Prince Faisal, born 11 Oct. 1963; Princesses Zein and Aisha, born 23 April 1968; Princess Haya, bom 3 May 1974; Prince Ali, bom 23 Dec. 1975; Prince Hamzah, bom 1 April 1980; Prince Hashem, bom 10 June 1981; Princess Iman, bom 4 April 1983. Crown Prince (appointed 1 April 1965): Prince Hassan, younger brother of the King. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution passed on 7 Nov. 1951 provides that the Cabinet is responsible to Parliament. On 5 Feb. 1976 both Houses of Parliament approved amendments to the Constitution by which the King was empowered to postpone calling elections until further notice. The lower house was dissolved. This step was taken because no elections could be held in the West Bank which has been under Israeli occupation since June 1967. Parliament was reconvened on 9 Jan. 1984. By-elections were held in March 1984 and 6 members were nominated for the West Bank bringing Parliament to 60 members. Women voted for the first time in 1984. The Cabinet, in Jan. 1984, was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Defence: Ahmed Obaidat. Deputy Prime Minister and Interior: Sulaiman Arar. Minister of State for the Prime Ministry and Minister of Justice: Ahmed Abdelkareem A1 Tarawneh. Foreign Affairs: Taher A1 Masri. Communication: Dr Mahammad Adoub A1 Zaben. Supplies: Ibrahim Ayoub. Education: Hekmat A1 Saket. Industry and Trade and Tourism: Dr Jawad Alanani. Transport: Taher Hekmat. Finance: Dr Hanna Owdeh. Information: Lyla Sharaf. Municipal and Rural Affairs: Hamadallah A1 Nabulsi. Awqaf and Religious Affairs: Ebed Khala Dawoudeyeh. Agriculture: Mohammed Basheer. Labour: Dr Tayseer Abdel Jaber. Occupied Territories Affairs: Shawkat Mahmoud. Health: Dr Kamal Alajlouni. Public Works: Raef Najm. Culture, Youth and Antiquities: Dr Abdellah Awaydat. Social Development: Abdelsalam Kenaan. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of black, white, green, with a red triangle based on the hoist, bearing a white 7-pointed star. The official language of the country is Arabic. DEFENCE Army. The Army is organized in 6 armoured, 1 special forces and 4 mechanized brigades, 1 independent Royal Guards brigade and 16 artillery battalions. Total strength (1985) 68,000 men. Navy. The Coastal Guard or Jordan Sea Force has 14 patrol launches and 1 support craft based at Aqaba. Personnel (1985) totalled 300 officers and ratings. Air Force. The Air Force has 2 interceptor and 3 ground attack squadrons equipped respectively with Mirage F1 and F-5E Tiger II fighters, and 2-seat F-5Fs, plus an OCU equipped with F-5 A fighters and 2-seat F-5Bs. There are 5 C-130B/H Hercules and 2 CASA Aviocar turboprop transports, S-76, Alouette III and Hughes 500D helicopters, piston-engined Bulldog and AS 202 Bravo basic trainers and T-37B jet trainers. Aircraft on order include 24 AH-IS HueyCobra anti-tank helicopters for 1985 delivery. Hawk surface-to-air missiles equip 14 batteries. Strength (1985) about 7,000 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Jordan is a member of the UN and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year plan (1981-85) aims at achieving a growth rate of 10-4% per annum.

JORDAN

755

Budget. The budget estimates for the year 1981 provide Tor revenue of JD.656,900,000 and expenditure ofJD.654,100,000. Currency. The Jordan dinar, divided into 1,000 fiIs. The following bank-notes and coins are in circulation: 10, 5 dinars, 1 dinar, 500 fils (notes), 250, 100, 50, 25, 20 fils (cupronickel), 10, 5, 1 fils (bronze). In March 1985, £1 = JD.0-408; US$ = JD.0-453. Banking. The Central Bank of Jordan started operations on 1 Oct. 1964, taking over the sterling assets and the commitments of the Jordan Currency Board. NATURAL RESOURCES Oil. Oil was discovered in 1982 at Azraq, 70 km east of Amman but was (1985) totally dependent on imports costing US$577m. in 1983. Minerals. Phosphates production in 1981 was 4,243,000 tons. Potash is found in the Dead Sea. Reserves, over 800m. tonnes. A potash plant is being built on the southeast shore to extract compounds by solar evaporation. Cement production (1982), 964,000 tons. Agriculture. The country east of the Hejaz Railway line is largely desert; northwestern Jordan is potentially of agricultural value and an integrated Jordan Valley project began in 1973; 21,000 hectares had been irrigated by 1980. The main crops are tomatoes and other vegetables, fruit, wheat. Production in 1981 included (in tonnes): Tomatoes, 204,500; citrus fruit, 53,800; wheat, 90,000. Livestock(1983): lm.sheep;500,000goats;40,000cattle; 15,000camels. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. The most important activity is processing potash and other minerals. There is a large chemical fertilizer plant at Aqaba, an oil refinery at Zarka and a cement plant at Fuhers. Production (1981): Iron, 134,000 tons; textiles, l -3m. yards; cigarettes, 4,711 m. Commerce. Imports in 1983 were valued at US$3,088m. and exports and reexports at US$448m. Total remittances from Jordanians working abroad reached US$1,150m. in 1983. Total trade between Jordan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): e;

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 8,152 100,318

1981 10,300 203,651

1982 17,487 295,274

1983 28,680 262,503

1984 18,114 192,508

Tourism. In 1981,2-22m. foreigners visited Jordan. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Asphalt roads connect Amman with all the chief towns in the country. Unmetalled roads have been constructed, making motor traffic possible from Amman to most other areas. The road from Amman to Ma'an and Aqaba (394 km) has branches to Karak, Tafileh, Shobak and Wadi Musa (Petra). The town ofJerash is joined by a good road to Amman. The normal asphalted route from Amman to Deraa (in Syria) and thence to Damascus is through Jerash. The oasis of Azraq may be reached by motor car from Mafraq, Zarka or Amman. Total length of public highways, 4,095 km. Motor vehicles in 1980 included 73,078 private passenger cars, 11,207 taxis, 1,415 buses, 29,517 goods vehicles, 4,888 motor cycles. Railways. The 1,050 mm gauge Hejaz Jordan and Aqaba Railway runs from the Syrian border at Nassib to Ma'an and Naqb Ishtar and Aqaba Port (total, 618 km). In 1981 the railways carried 57,753 passengers and 10,000 tons of freight. Aviation. The Queen Alia International airport, at Zizya, 30 km south of Amman was inaugurated in 1983. There are other international airports at Amman and Aqaba.

756

JORDAN

Shipping (1980). The port of Aqaba handled 6,598,591 tons of cargo. Post. In 1982 there were 791 post offices and 60,533 telephones in 1980. Cinemas (1975). Cinemas numbered 40 with a total attendance of4,341,900. Newspapers (1984). There were 4 daily (including 1 in English) and 5 weekly papers. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. About 80% of the population are Sunni Moslems. Education (1980, East Bank only). There were 189 pre-primary schools with 639 teachers and 17,160 pupils; 1,095 primary schools with 13,898 teachers and 448,411 pupils; 341 secondary schools had 3,648 teachers and 80,173 pupils and 16 teacher-training institutes had 362 teachers and 8,621 students. The University of Jordan, inaugurated on T5 Dec. 1962 had in 1980-81,10,767 students and 431 teachers. The Yarmouk University (Irbid) was inaugurated in 1976 with (1980-81) 5,677 students and 225 teachers. Health (1980). There were 1,715 physicians, 351 dentists and 35 hospitals with 2,743 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Jordan in Great Britain (6 Upper Phillimore Gdns., London, W8 7HB) Ambassador: Hani Tabbara, GCVO (accredited 23 March 1984). Of Great Britain in Jordan (Third Circle, Jebel Amman) Ambassador: A. J. Coles, CMG. Of Jordan in the USA (3504 International Dr., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ibrahim Izziddin. Of the USA in Jordan (Jebel Amman, Amman) Ambassador: Richard N. Viets. Of Jordan to the United Nations Ambassador: Abdullah Salah. Books of Reference The Department of Statistics, Ministry ofNational Economy, publishes a Statistical Yearbook (in Arabic and English), latfcst issue 1968, and a Statistical Guide, latest issue 1965.—External Trade Statistics, 1968.—National Accounts and Input-Output Analysis, 1959-65, 1967 The Constitution of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Amman, 1952 Glubb, J. B., The Story of the Arab Legion. London, 1948.—A Soldier with the Arabs. London, 1957 Gubser, f., Jordan. Boulder, 1982 Haas,J., Husseins Königreich: Jordaniens Stellung in Nahen Osten. Munich, 1975 Morris, J., The Hashemite Kings. London, 1959 Seton, C. R. W., Legislation of Transjordan, 1918-30. London, 1931. [Continued by the Government of Jordan as an annual publication: Jordan Legislation. Amman, 1932 ff.] Toni, Y. T., and Mousa, S., Jordan: Land and People. Amman, 1973

KENYA

Capital: Nairobi Population: 19-5m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$420 (1981)

Jamhuri ya Kenya

HISTORY. Until Kenya became independent on 12 Dec. 1963, it consisted of the colony and the protectorate. The protectorate comprised the mainland dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar, viz., a coastal strip of territory 10 miles wide, to the northern branch of the Tana River; also Mau, Kipini and the Island of Lamu, and all adjacent islands between the rivers Umba and Tana. The Sultan on 8 Oct. 1963 ceded the coastal strip to Kenya with effect from 12 Dec. 1963. The colony and protectorate, formerly known as the East African Protectorate were, on 1 April 1905, transferred from the Foreign Office to the Colonial Office and in Nov. 1906 the protectorate was placed under the control of a governor and C.-in-C. and (except the Sultan of Zanzibar's dominions) was annexed to the Crown as from 23 July 1920 under the name of the Colony of Kenya, thus becoming a Crown Colony. The territories on the coast became the Kenya Protectorate. A Treaty was signed (15 July 1924) with Italy under which Great Britain ceded to Italy the Juba River and a strip from 50 to 100 miles wide on the British side of the river. Cession took place on 29 June 1925. The northern boundary is defined by an agreement with Ethiopia in 1947. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Kenya is bounded by Ethiopia in the north, Uganda in the west, Tanzania in the south and the Somali Republic and the Indian ocean in the east. The total area is 224,960 sq. miles (582,600 sq. km), of which 219,790 sq. miles is land area. In the 1979 census, the population was 15,327,000, of which 15,100,000 were Africans, 78,600 Asians, 39,900 Europeans, 39,140 Arabs. Estimate(1985) 19-5m. On the coast the Arabs and Swahili predominate, farther inland the races speaking Bantu languages, and non-Bantu tribes, such as the Luo, the Nandi and Kipsigis, the Masai, the Somali and the Gallas. There are more than forty tribes. Population of the provinces (1979): Rift Valley, 3-24m.; Eastern, 2,719,000; Nyanza, 2,643,000; Central, 2,345,000; Coast, 1,342,000; Western, 1,832,000; Nairobi district, 835,000; North-Eastern, 373,000. Nairobi, the capital, was given a Royal charter on 30 March 1950; the 1979 census showed a population of827,775. Estimate (1985) 1 -2m. Population of the largest towns: Mombasa, 341,000; Kisumu, 153,000; Nakuru, 93,000; Machakos, 84,000; Meru, 70,000; Eldoret, 51,000; Thika, 41,000. A new town is being developed (in 1981) at Bura, which will be the centre of a production area using irrigated water from the Tana river. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with wet and dry seasons, but considerable differences in altitude make for varied conditions between the hot, coastal lowlands and the plateau, where temperatures are very much cooler. Heaviest rains occur in April and May, but in some parts there is a second wet season in Nov. and Dec. Nairobi. Jan. 65°F (18-3°C), July 60°F (15-6°C). Annual rainfall 39" (958 mm). Mombasa. Jan. 81°F (27-2"Q, July 76"F (24-4'C). Annual rainfall 47" (1,201 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A Constitution conferring internal self-government was brought into force on 1 June 1963, and full independence was achieved on 12 Dec. 1963. On 12 Dec. 1964 Kenya became a republic. President of the Republic: Daniel Arap Moi (elected 1979, re-elected 1983). Vice-President and Home Affairs: Mwai Kibaki. 757

758

KENYA

Foreign Affairs: Elijah Mwagale. The House of Representatives and the Senate were in Dec. 1966 amalgamated into one National Assembly consisting of 158 elected Members, 12 nominated members, together with the Speaker and the Attorney-General. On 10 Nov. 1964 Kenya became a one-party state of the Kenya African National Union (Kanu) when the voluntary dissolution of the Kenya African Democratic Union (Kadu) was declared. Later a second party, the Kenya People's Union (Kpu) was formed but on 30 Oct. 1969 was proscribed. At general elections held in Sept. 1983 there were over 740 candidates for 153 seats. The turnout was low, ranging from 27% to 40%. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of black, red, green, with the red edged in white; bearing in the centre an African shield in black and white with 2 crossed spears behind. Administration. The country is divided into the Nairobi Area and 7 provinces. There are 40 districts. The provinces are: Coast, Central, Eastern, Rift Valley, Western, Nyanza and North Eastern. Kiswahih became the official language in 1974 but English is in general use. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured, 1 armoured reconnaissance, 6 infantry, 2 artillery, 1 parachute, 1 independent air cavalry and 2 engineer battalions. Equipment includes 76 Vickers Mk 3 main battle tanks. 32 Hughes Defender helicopters, of which 15 are armed with TOW missiles. Total strength (1985) 13,000, and there is also a paramilitary police force of 1,800. Navy. The Navy in 1985 consists of 7 British built patrol craft and 1 tug. Personnel totalled 350 officers and ratings. The base is at Mombasa which has a dry dock with a capacity of 18,000 tons. There are also 2 British-built marine police cutters. Air Force. An air force, formed 1 June 1964, was built up with RAF assistance and is under Army command. Equipment includes 13 F-5E/F-5F supersonic combat aircraft/trainers, 12 Hawk and 5 BAC 167 Strikemaster light jet attack/trainers, 6 twin-turboprop Buffaloes and 5 twin-engined Caribou for transport, air ambulance, anti-locust spraying and security duties, 6 Skyservant and 1 VIP Navajo Chieftain light twin, 14 Bulldog piston-engined primary trainers and Puma, Gazelle and Bell 47 helicopters. Personnel about 2,300 in 1983. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Kenya is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1984-88 development plan aims at an average annual growth rate of 6-3%. Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for 1982-83: Revenue, KSh. 16,017m.; expenditure, KSh.22,605m. Currency. The monetary unit is the Kenya Shilling divided into 100 cents', 20 shillings=K£1. In March 1985,£1 = 1766 Shilling-, US$1 = 15-57 Shilling. Banking. Banks operating in Kenya: the National & Grindlays Bank International, Ltd; the Standard Bank, Ltd; Barclays Bank International; Algemene Bank Nederland NV; Bank of India, Ltd; Bank of Baroda, Ltd; Habib Bank (Overseas), Ltd; Commercial Bank of Africa, Ltd; Citibank; The Co-operative Bank of Kenya, Ltd; National Bank of Kenya, Ltd; The Kenya Commercial Bank; The Central Bank of Kenya. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Hydropower supplies 20% of energy needs from 4 power stations on the Tana river.

759

KENYA

Minerals. Mineral production in 1981 was: Soda ash, 159,385 tonnes; gold, 114 grammes; salt, 27,766 tonnes. Other minerals comprised barytes, magnesite, felspar, sapphires, fluorspar ore, garnets, sand and raw soda. Agriculture. As agriculture is possible from sea-level to altitudes of over 9,000 ft, tropical, sub-tropical and temperate crops can be grown and mixed farming can be advocated. Four-fifths of the country is range-land which produces mainly livestock products and wild game which constitutes the major attraction of the country's tourist industry. The main areas of crop production are the Central, Rift Valley, Western and Nyanza Provinces and parts of Eastern and Coastal Provinces. Coffee, tea, sisal, pyrethrum, maize and wheat are crops of major importance in the Highlands, while coconuts, cashew nuts, cotton, sugar, sisal and maize are the principal crops grown at the lower altitudes. Principal crops with production for sale (in 1,000 tonnes, 1982): Wheat, 220; maize, 495; rice paddy 44; pyrethrum extract, 0-2; sugar-cane, 4,042; clean coffee, 94-6; sisal, 52; tea, 93. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 11 -5m.; sheep, 6-5m.; goats, 8m.; pigs, 100,000; poultry, 19m. Forestry. The total area of gazetted forest reserves in Kenya amounts to 16,800 sq. km, of which the greater part is situated between 6,000 and 11,000 ft above sealevel, mostly on Mount Kenya, the Aberdares, Mount Elgon, Tinderet, Londiani, Mau watershed, Elgeyo and Charangani ranges. These forests may be divided into coniferous, broad-leaved or hardwood and bamboo forests. The upper parts of these forests are mainly bamboo, which occurs mostly between altitudes of 8,000 and 10,000 ft and occupies some 10% of the high-altitude forests. Production (1981): Softwood, 350,000 cu. metres; hardwood, 475,000. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Processing of agricultural products is one of the major industries, followed by beer brewing, cement, chemicals, footwear and textiles. Heavy industries include manufacture of tyres and assembly of trucks and pick-ups. Production, 1981 (in tonnes): Maize meal, 329,000; wheat flour, 282,000; cement, l -32m.; cigarettes (no.), 5m. Commerce. Total domestic exports (1983) K£613 • 6m.; imports K£945 -2m. Chief imports (1980): Mineral fuels, K£325m.; machinery and transport equipment, K£274m. Chief exports (1980): Petroleum products, K£163m.; unroasted coffee, K£ 108m.; tea, K£58m. Total trade between Kenya and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 105,443 259,103

1981 95,238 173,663

1982 104,312 153,858

1983 128,464 111,249

1 984 203,243 176,061

Tourism. In 1983, about 360,300 overseas visitors travelled to Kenya spending KSh. 1,800m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 6,540 km ofbitumen surfaced roads and 47,037 km of gravel-surfaced roads. Railways. On 11 Feb. 1977 the independent Kenya Railways Corporation was formed following break-up of the East African Railways administration. The network totals 2,654 km of metre-gauge and extensive upgrading and re-equipment was in progress in 1984. In 1983, the railways carried 2-2m. passengers and 3-9m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. Total number of passengers handled at the 3 main aiiports (1981) was 1,975,000. Jomo Kenyatta Airport, Nairobi, handles nearly 30 international airlines as well as Kenya Airways.

760

KENYA

Shipping. A national shipping service is planned (1984) to be based in Mombasa, the Kenyan main port at Kilindini on the Indian Ocean. The port handles cargo freight both for Kenya as well as for the neighbouring East African states. The Port Authority also runs a modern harbour college. Post and Broadcasting. The Voice of Kenya operates 2 national services (SwahiliEnglish) from Nairobi and regional services in Kisumu, Nairobi and Mombasa. The television service provides programmes mainly in English and Swahili. A new television station opened in Mombasa in 1970. Telephones (1982) 216,674. Cinemas (1971). Cinemas numbered 32, with seating capacity of 18,800. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The courts of justice comprise the High Court, established in 1921, with full jurisdiction both civil and criminal over all persons and all matters in Kenya, including Admiralty jurisdiction arising on the high seas and elsewhere, and Subordinate Courts. The High Court has its headquarters at Nairobi and consists of the Chief Justice and 24 puisne judges; it sits continuously at Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru and Kisumu; civil and criminal sessions are held regularly at Eldoret, Nyeri, Meru, Kitale, Kisii and Kericho. The Subordinate Courts are presided over by Senior Resident, Resident or District Magistrates and are established in the main centres of all districts. They sit throughout the year. There are also Moslem Subordinate Courts established in areas where the local population is predominantly Moslem; they are presided over by Kadhis and exercise limited jurisdiction in matters governed by Moslem law. Religion. The indigenous African background is largely influenced by belief in God in Judaic forms, but Christianity is making an important contribution to the life of the whole territory, not only through the educational and medical services of Christian missions, but by the growth of churches under African leadership, and by its impact on the thought and policy of the country. The Roman Catholic Church (about 4m. adherents) has been developed mainly by Irish, British, Dutch and Italian missionary bodies and is now organized in 12 dioceses under the archbishop ofNairobi. The Protestant Churches (about 2-5m. adherents) were started mainly by British and American mission societies; most of them are now linked together by the National Christian Council of Kenya. The Church of the Province of Kenya, formerly the Anglican Church Province of East Africa, was inaugurated on 3 Aug. 1970; at the same time the first Archbishop of Kenya was enthroned. The East African Yearly Meeting of Friends (Religious Society of Friends) has 90,000 adherents. The Arabs on the coast are Moslems, and Islam has spread among some of the African coastal tribes and the cities. The Asians are Hindus and Moslems, with the exception of the Goans, who are Roman Catholics. Education. Primary (1982). 11,500 primary schools with 4-2m. pupils and 71,000 teachers. Secondary (1982). There were 2,131 secondary schools with a total enrolment of 465,000 and 8,611 teachers. Technical(1982). 17 technical colleges with 9,200 pupils and 343 teachers. Teacher training (1982). 14,000 students were training as teachers in 20 colleges with 900 lecturers. Higher Education. The University ofNairobi was inaugurated on 10 Dec. 1970 and provides courses in arts, science, education, agriculture, medicine, art, architecture, engineering, veterinary, law and domestic science. In 1982 there were 8,772 students and 900 lecturers. Moi University opened in 1985 with 90 students. Health. In 1981 beds in hospitals (including mission hospitals) totalled 28,108. 1,328 health centres, including sub-centres and dispensaries, were in operation. Free medical service for all children and adult out-patients was launched in 1965.

KENYA DIPLOMATIC

761

REPRESENTATIVES

O f K e n y a in G r e a t Britain (45 P o r t l a n d Pl., L o n d o n , W 1 N 4 A S ) High Commissioner: B e n j a m i n K. K i p k u l e i (accredited 2 2 M a r c h 1984). O f G r e a t Britain in K e n y a (Bruce Hse., S t a n d a r d St., N a i r o b i ) High Commissioner: Sir L e o n a r d A l l i n s o n , K C V O , C M G . O f K e n y a in t h e U S A ( 2 2 4 9 R . St., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: Wafula Wabuge. O f t h e U S A in K e n y a ( M o i / H a i l e Selassie Ave., N a i r o b i ) Ambassador: G e r a l d E. T h o m a s . Of Kenya to the United Nations Ambassador: R a p h a e l M u l i Kiilu. B o o k s of Reference Kenya Development Plan, 1984-88. Nairobi, 1984 Kenya Economic Survey, 1983. Nairobi, 1984 Statistical Abstract. Government Printer, Nairobi, 1982 Standard English-Swahili Dictionary. Ed. Inter-territorial Language Committee of East Africa. 2 vols. London, 1939 Who's Who in Kenya 1982-1983. London, 1983 Arnold, G., Kenyatta and the Politics of Kenya. London, 1974.—Modern Kenya. London, 1982 Bienen, H., Kenya: The Politics of Participation and Control. Princeton Univ. Press, 1974 Bolton, K., Haramble Country: A Guide to Kenya. London, 1970 Collison, R. L., Kenya. [Bibliography] London and Santa Barbara, 1982 Harbeson, J. W., Nation-Building in Kenya: The Role of Land Reform. Northwestern Univ. Press, 1973 Hazlewood, A., The Economy of Kenya: The Kenyatta Era. OUP, 1980 Huxley, E.,and Perham, M., Race and Politics in Kenya. Rev. ed. London, 1956 Langdon, S. W., Multinational Corporations in the Political Economy of Kenya. London, 1981 Mutalik-Desai, P., Economic and Political Development in Kenya. Bombay, 1979 Tomkinson, M., Kenya: A Holiday Guide. 5th ed. London and Hammamet, 1981

KIRIBATI

Capital: Tarawa Population: 60,302 (1982) GNP per capita: US$420 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were proclaimed a protectorate in 1892 and annexed (at the request of the native governments) as the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony on lONov. 1915 (effective on 12 Jan. 1916). On 1 Oct. 1975 the former Ellice Islands severed its constitutional links with the Gilbert Islands and took a new name Tuvalu. Internal self-government was obtained on 1 Nov. 1976 and independence achieved on 12 July 1979 as the Republic of Kiribati. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Kiribati consists of 3 groups of coral atolls and one isolated volcanic island, spread over a large expanse of the Central Pacific with a total land area of 717 -1 sq. km (276-9 sq. miles). It comprises Banaba or Ocean Island (5 sq. km), the 16 Gilbert Islands (295 sq. km), the 8 Phoenix Islands (55 sq. km), and 8 of the 11 Line Islands (329 sq.km), the other 3 Line Islands (Jarvis, Palmyra and Kingman Reef) being uninhabited dependencies of the US. Population, 1978 census, 56,213; 1982 estimate, 60,302 (Tarawa, 20,050). Banaba, all 16 Gilbert Islands, and 3 atolls in the Line Islands (Teraina, Tabuaeran and Kiritimati—formerly Washington, Fanning and Christmas Islands respectively) are inhabited; their populations in 1980 were as follows: Banaba (Ocean Is.) 300 Makin 1,419 Butaritari 3,149 Marakei 2,335 Abaiang 3,447 Tarawa 22,148 Maiana 1,688 Abemama 411

Kuria Aranuki Nonouti Tabiteuea Beru Nikunau Onotoa Tamana

803 850 2,284 4,157 2,212 1,829 2,034 1,349

1,527 416 434 1,265 255

Arorae Teraina Tabuaeran Kiritimati Aboard ships In Nauru and Overseas

2,299

Total

58,518

The remaining 13 atolls have no permanent population; the 8 Phoenix Islands comprise Birnie, Rawaki (formerly Phoenix), Enderbury, Kanton (or Abariringa), Manra (formerly Sydney), Orona (formerly Hull), McKean and Nikumaroro (formerly Gardner), while the others are Maiden and Starbuck in the Central Line Islands and Caroline, Flint and Vostok in the Southern Line Islands. The population is almost entirely Micronesian. C L I M A T E . The Line Islands, Phoenix Islands and Banaba have a maritime equatorial climate, but the islands further north and south are tropical. Annual and daily ranges of temperature are small and mean annual rainfall ranges from 50" (1,250 mm) near the equator to 120" (3,000 mm) in the north. Tarawa. Jan. 83°F (28 • 3°C), July 82°F (27 • 8°C). Annual rainfall 7 9 " (1,977 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the independence Constitution the republic has a unicameral legislature, comprising 36 members elected from 20 constituencies for a 4-year term. The Beretitenti (President) is both Head of State and of Government. In May 1983 the government was composed as follows: President and Foreign Affairs: Ieremia Tabai, GCMG. Vice-President, Home Affairs and Decentralization: Teatao Teannaki. Trade, Industry and Labour: Teewe Arobati. Finance: Boanareke Boanareke. Health and Family Planning: Baitika Toum. Natural Resource Development: Babera Kirata, OBE. Education: Baitika Toum. Communications: Taomati Iuta, OBE. Minister for the Line and Phoenix Group of Islands: Uera Rabaua. Works and Energy: Tiwau Awira. Attorney-General: Michael Takabwebwe. 762

KIRIBATI

763

Flag: Red, with blue and white wavy lines in base, and in the centre a gold rising sun and a flying frigate bird. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Kiribati is a member of the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue for the calendar year 1982 amounted to $ A15,8 71,000; principal items: customs duties, $A3,587,000; direct taxation, $Alm. Expenditure in 1982 amounted to $A 16,956,000. Currency. The currency in use is the Australian dollar. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Phosphate production was discontinued in 1979. Agriculture. The land is basically coral reefs upon which coral sand has built up, and then been enriched by humus from rotting vegetation and flotsam which has drifted ashore. The principal tree is the coconut, which grows prolifically on all the islands except some of the Phoenix Islands. Other food-bearing trees are the pandanus palm and the breadfruit. As the amount of soil is negligible, the only vegetable which grows in any quantity is a coarse calladium (alocasia) with the local name 'babai', which is cultivated most laboriously in deep pits. Pigs and fowls are kept throughout the Colony, and there is an abundance of fish. Copra production is mainly in the hands of the individual landowner, who collects the coconut products from the trees on his own land. Production (1982) 8,081 tonnes. Livestock (1983): Pigs, 10,000; poultry (1982), 163,000. TRADE. The principal imports are rice, flour, cotton piece-goods, tobacco and manufactured articles such as bicycles. The value of imports for 1981 amounted to $ A20m.; exports, $ A3 -6m. Exports are almost exclusively copra. Total trade between Kiribati and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ^ j m m j Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

79 321

42 371

20 401

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 640 km of roads. Shipping. The main ports are at Banaba and at Betio (Tarawa). In 1980, 71 vessels were handled at Betio. Aviation. Air Tungaru is the national carrier. It operates services from Tarawa to the other 15 outer Islands in the Gilbertese Group, services varying between one and four flights each week. It also operates a weekly service to Christmas Island, in the Line Islands, which continues to Honolulu. A weekly service operates externally to Apia, Funafuti, Majuro, Nandi and Pago Pago. There are five flights per week to Nauru, while Air Nauru also has five flights from Nauru to Tarawa. There are air fields at Maiana and Christmas Island from which local services link to Tarawa. Post and Broadcasting. There were 821 telephones in 1982. Radio Tarawa transmits daily in English and I-Kiribati. A telephone line to Australia was installed in 1981. There were (1983 estimate) 10,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 5 cinemas with a seating capacity of2,000. Newspapers. There was (1980) 1 weekly newspaper and 1 monthly.

764

KIRIBATI

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1978 Kiribati had a police force of 188 under the command of a Commissioner of Police. The Commissioner of Police is also responsible for prisons, immigration, fire service (both domestic and airport) and firearms licensing. Religion. The majority of the population belong to the Roman Catholic or Protestant (Congregational) church; there are small numbers of Seventh-day Adventist and Baha'i. Education (1979). The Government maintains a co-educational boarding school, the King George V and Elaine Bernacchi School at Tarawa, with (1977) 211 boys and 178 girls, 87 primary schools, with a total of 13,092 pupils, 1 government secondary school with 385 pupils, and 4 community high schools with 562 pupils attending the first year of a new rurally oriented 3-year post-primary course. The Government also maintains a teachers' training college with 100 students and a marine training school with 180 full-time students. The Tarawa Technical Institute at Betio offers a variety of part-time and evening technical and commercial courses to about 500 students each year in addition to providing full-time courses for 34 students. The Marine Training School, also at Betio, offers training for 150 merchant seamen every year. There are in addition 4 Mission secondary schools with a total enrolment of 213 boys and 230 girls. In 1978, 120 islanders were in overseas countries for secondary and further education or training. Welfare. Government maintains free medical and other services. There are few towns, and the people are almost without exception landed proprietors, thus eliminating child vagrancy and housing problems to a large extent, except in the Tarawa urban area. Destitution is almost unknown. There were 19 doctors in 1979. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Kiribati to Great Britain and to the USA High Commissioner: Atenroi Ba'teke, OBE (resides in Tarawa). Of Great Britain in Kiribati (Tarawa) High Commissioner: Charles Thompson. Books of Reference Kiribati, Aspects of History. Univ. ofSouth Pacific, 1979 Bailey, E., The Christmas Island Story. London, 1977 Cowell, R., Structure of Gilbertese. Suva, 1950 Grimble, Sir Arthur, A Pattern of Islands. London, 1953.—Return to the Islands. London, 1957 Maude, H. E., Of Islands and Men. London, 1968.—Evolution of the Gilbertese Boti. Suva, 1977 Sabatier, E., Astride the Equator. Melbourne, 1978 Whincup, T., Nareau's Nation. London, 1979

KOREA

Capital: Seoul Population: 39 -95m. ( 1983) GNP per capita: US$ 1,700 (1981)

Han Kook

HISTORY. Korea was united in a single kingdom under the Silla dynasty from 668. China, which claimed a vague suzerainty over Korea, recognized Korea's independence in 1895. Korea concluded trade agreements with the USA (1882), Great Britain, Germany (1883). After the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 Korea was virtually a Japanese protectorate until it was formally annexed by Japan on 29 Aug. 1910 thus ending the rule oftheYi dynasty which had begun in 1392. Following the collapse of Japan in 1945, American and Russian forces entered Korea to enforce the surrender of the Japanese troops there, dividing the country for mutual military convenience into two portions separated by the 38th parallel of latitude. Negotiations between the Americans and Russians regarding the future of Korea broke down in May 1946. On 25 June 1950 the North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. The same day, the Security Council of the United Nations asked all member states to render assistance to the Republic of Korea. When the UN forces had reached the Manchurian border Chinese troops entered the war on the side of the North Koreans on 26 Nov. 1950 and penetrated deep into the south. By the beginning of April 1951, however, the UN forces had regained the 38th parallel. On 23 June 1951 Y. A. Malik, President of the Security Coyncil, suggested a cease-fire, and on 10 July representatives of Gen. Ridgway met representatives of the North Koreans and of the Chinese Volunteer Army. An agreement was signed on 27 July 1953. For the contributions of member-nations of the United Nations to the war, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 4 , p. 1195, a n d 1 9 5 6 , p . 1180.

On 16 Aug. 1953 the USA and Korea signed a mutual defence pact and on 28 Nov. 1956 a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation. On 4 July 1972 it was announced in Seoul and Pyongyang (North Korea) that talks had taken place aimed at 'the peaceful unification of the fatherland as early as possible'. In Nov. 1984 agreement was reached to form a joint economic committee. A North Korean-UN agreement of 6 Sept. 1976 established a joint security area 850 metres in diameter, divided into 2 equal parts to ensure the separation of the two sides. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . South Korea is bounded north by the demilitarized zone (separating it from North Korea), east by the Sea of Japan, south by the Korea Strait (separating it from Japan) and west by the Yellow Sea. After a transfer of some frontier districts by the United Nations command on 12 Aug. 1954, the area of South Korea is now 98,992 sq. km (38,221 sq. miles). The population (census, 1 Oct. 1983) was 39,950,743 (male, 20,161,398). The areas (in sq. km) and 1983 census populations of the provinces are as follows: Province Seoul Pusan Taegu Inchon Kyonggi Kangwon North Chungchong

sq. km 627 433 455 201 10,875 16,894 7,430

1983 9,204,344 3-395,171 1,958,812 1,220,311 4,358,199 1,824,324 1,424,915

Province South Chungchong North Cholla South Cholla North Kyongsang South Kyongsang Cheju 765

sq. km 8,807 8,052 12,189 19,427 11,850 1,825

1983 3,038,329 2,302,589 3,817,763 3,128,876 3,518,401 477,861

766

KOREA

The chief cities (populations in 1980) are: Seoul Pusan Taegu Inchon

8,366,756 3,160,276 1,607,458 1,084,730

Kwangchu Taejon Ulsan Masan

727,627 651,642 418,415 386,773

Seongnam Chonchu Suweon

376,447 366,997 310,757

C L I M A T E . The extreme south has a humid warm temperate climate while the rest of the country experiences continental temperate conditions. Rainfall is concentrated in the period April to Sept. and ranges from 4 0 " (1,020 mm) to 6 0 " (1,520 mm). Pusan. Jan. 36°F (2-2°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,407 mm). Seoul. Jan. 23°F(-5°C), July 77"F(25 0 C). Annual rainfall 50" (1,250 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was approved by national referendum on 22 Oct. 1980 and came into force on 27 Oct. It provides for a President with reduced executive powers, to be indirectly elected for a single 7-year term (by an electoral college of 5,271 directly-elected members), a State Council of ministers whom he appoints and leads, and a National Assembly (276 members) directly elected for 4 years (184 from 2-member constituencies and 92 by proportional representation). The National Assembly elected on 25 March 1981 comprised 151 members of the Democratic Justice Party, 81 Democratic Korea Party, 25 Korean National Party, 8 from other parties and 11 independents. President of the Republic: Gen. Chun Doo-Hwan (took office 2 Sept. 1980, reelected 25 Feb. 1981). The Cabinet at March 1985 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Lho Shin Yong. Deputy Premier and Economic Planning: Shin Byong Hyun. Foreign Affairs: Lee Won Kyung. Interior: Chung Suk Mo. Finance: Kim Mahn Je. Justice: Kim Suk Hwi. Defence: Yoon Sung Min. Education: Sohn Jae Souk. Agriculture and Fisheries: Hwang In Sung. Trade and Industry: Kum Jin Ho. Energy and Resources: Choi Dong Kyu. Construction: Kim Sung Bae. Health and Welfare: Rhee Hai Won. Transport: Sohn Ik. Communications: Lee Ja Hon. Culture and Information: Lee Won Hong. Government Administration: Park Sae Jik. Science and Technology: Kim Sung Jin. National Unification: Lee Se Ki. Labour: Cho Chul Kwon. State Affairs (Responsibility for Political Affairs): Chung Jae Chull. Sport: Lee Young Ho. Nationalflag: White charged in the centre with the yang-um in red and blue and with 4 black pal-kwar trigrams. Local government: South Korea is divided into 9 provinces (Do) and 4 cities with provincial status (Seoul, Pusan, Taegu and Inchon); the provinces are sub-divided into 138 districts (Gun) and 46 cities (Si). D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 30 months in the Army and Marines and 3 years in the Navy and Air Force. Army. The Army is organized in 20 infantry divisions, 2 mechanized infantry divisions, 11 independent special forces brigades, 2 anti-aircraft artillery brigades, 2 surface-to-air missile brigades, 1 army aviation brigade and 2 surface-to-surface battalions. Equipment includes 1,200 M-47/-48 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 540,000, with a Regular Army Reserve of 1 -4m. and a Homeland Reserve Defence Force of 3- 3m. Navy. The Fleet comprises 1 indigenously built modern frigate, 11 aged (1943-46) ex-US destroyers, 7 equally old ex-US frigates (1 of destroyer-escort type and 6 former fast transports, ex-destroyer escorts), 9 fast missile patrol craft, 7 new corvettes, 33 fast attack craft, 3 ex-US submarine chasers, 12 fast gunboats, 30 coastal patrol boats, 8 coastal minesweepers, 1 minesweeping boat, 8 landing ships, 9 medium landing craft, 20 utility landing craft, 1 repair ship, 6 surveying vessels, 2

KOREA

767

salvage ships, 4 supply ships, 6 oilers, 13 auxiliary ships, 35 service craft, and 2 tugs. Nearly all South Korea's naval vessels are ex-US ships. It was reported that the first submarine built in South Korea entered service in 1983. Probably the first of a class of four or five, she displaces only 175 tons. The South Korean Coastguard operates 30 vessels including rescue craft and tugs. Personnel in 1985 totalled 29,000 in the Navy; plus 20,000 in the Marine Corps. Air Force. With a 1984 strength of about 32,600 men, the Air Force is undergoing rapid expansion with US assistance. Its combat aircraft include about 55 F-4D/E Phantoms, 78 F-5A/B tactical fighters, more than 200 F-5E/F tactical fighters (being delivered from local production), 8 RF-5A reconnaissance fighters, 10 0 - 2 A forward air control aircraft and 10 Hughes 500-D Defender ASW helicopters. There are also 6 C-130H turboprop transports, 10 C-123 piston-engined transports, 2 VIP HS 748s; UH-1D and Bell 212 helicopters, and T-41, T-28, T-33 and T-37C trainers. Aircraft on order include 36 F-16 Fighting Falcons for delivery from 1986. ECONOMY Planning. The fifth 5-year social and economic plan (1982-86) aims at an annual growth rate of 7-8%. Budget. The 1984 budget balanced at 10,386,300m. won. Currency. Notes are issued by the Bank of Korea in denominations of 10,000, 5,000 and 500 won and coin in denominations of 500, 100, 50, 10, 5 and 1 won. The exchange rate is determined daily by the Bank of Korea. In March 1985, 843 • 80 won=US$ 1; 910• 28 won = £ 1 sterling. Banking. State-run banks include the Bank of Korea, the Korean Development Bank, the Medium & Small Industiy Bank, the Citizen's National Bank, the Korea Exchange Bank, the National Agricultural Co-operatives Federation, the Federation of Fisheries Co-operatives serving as banking and credit institutions for farmers and fishermen, the Korea Housing Bank, the Export and Import Bank of Korea. There are 5 commercial banks: the Bank of Seoul & Trust Co. Ltd, the Cho Heung Bank Ltd, the Commercial Bank of Korea, the Korea First Bank, the Hanil Bank, Ltd, the Taegu Bank Ltd. The Bank of Korea is the central bank and the only note-issuing bank, the authorized purchaser of domestically produced gold. In addition, there are non-bank financial institutions consisting of 19 insurance companies, the Land Bank of Korea, the Credit Guarantee Fund, 10 short-term financial companies, 211 mutual credit companies, and the Merchant Banking Corporation. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electricity generated (1983) was 48,850m. kwh. Minerals. In 1979, 1,779 mining companies employed 79,229 people. Mineral deposits are mostly small, with the exception of tungsten; the Sangdong mine is one of the world's largest deposits of tungsten. Korea's output, 1984, i lcluded (in 1,000 tonnes): Anthracite coal (1983), 18,945; iron ore, 591; tungsten concentrate (1983), 4,132 short tons; kaolin, 223 (1983); copper ore, 8-4 (1983); lead ore, 21; gold refined (1982), 1,505 kg; silver refined (1983), 48,992 kg. Agriculture. The arable land in South Korea comprises 24-4m. acres, of which over 5 • 5m. acres are cultivated. The chief crops are rice (1983: 5-4m. tonnes), barley, wheat, beans, grain of all kinds and tobacco. Output of tobacco manufactures, a government monopoly, was 94,524 tonnes in 1983. Raising of livestock has recently become a flourishing industry. In 1983 cattle numbered 1 -94m.; pigs, 3-6m.; poultry, 49m. Fisheries. Fishery exports (1982) US$947m. In 1982,895 Korean deep-sea fishing

768

KOREA

vessels were engaged based on 46 overseas fishing bases, 345 in the Atlantic, 143 in the Indian and 361 in the Pacific oceans. In 1982, there was a total of86,515 boats (808,570 gross tons) and the fish catch (inland and marine) was 2,644,000 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Manufacturing industry, which (1983) employed 3-3m. persons, was concentrated primarily in the production of light consumer goods for domestic consumption and export. This is now shifting towards heavy and petro-chemical industries rapidly. Output of principal products in 1983 (in tonnes): Cotton yarn, 271,338; Portland cement, 21 -2m.; urea fertilizers, 737,000. Trade Unions. Membership of trade unions at 31 Dec. 1977 was 954,682. Commerce. In 1983 the total exports were equal to US$24,445m., while imports (including 'aid goods') were US$26,192m. USA provided 5-3% and Japan 17-6% ofimports; USA received 32-8% of exports, Japan 1-3%. Total trade between Korea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 325,650 158,811

1982 321,691 167,752

1983 440,354 168,942

1984 443,819 219,406

Tourism. In 1982 there were 1,145,044 tourists. They spent the equivalent of US$502,318,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 53,936 km of roads. Motor vehicles totalled 785,316 including 304,158 trucks, 87,282 buses, 380,993 passenger cars. Railways. In Dec. 1983,3,121 km of railways existed, including411 km electrified. Shipping. In Dec. 1983, there were 24 first-grade ports and 22 second-grade ports, and 7 -4m. gross tons in various vessels. Of the total tonnage, national-flag oceangoing vessels accounted for 6 01m. tons, charted vessels for l-01m. tons and coastal passenger-cargo vessels for some 356,000 tons. Passenger ships accounted for 44,000 tons. Aviation. In Dec. 1983, 32 countries maintained aviation agreement with Korea. The Ministry of Transportation also opened Seoul-Singapore and Seoul-Baghdad routes in 1983. In 1982, Korean Air Lines carried 1,844,000 passengers in domestic and 3,501,000 in international services, and transported 263,400 tons of cargo, mostly on international routes. Post. Post offices total 2,182 (1983); telephones (all government-owned) were 5,357,499 in 1983. Cinemas. In 1983 there were 452 with a seating capacity of400,000. Newspapers (1982). There were 25 daily papers, including 6 national dailies and 2 in English appearing in Seoul. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. Basically the religions of Korea have been Animism, Buddhism (introduced a.d. 372) and Confucianism, which was the official faith from 1392 to 1910. Catholic converts from China introduced Christianity in the 18th century, but the ban on Roman Catholics was not lifted until 1882. Christian population in 1983 was 9,348,322. Education. In 1983 Korea had 5,257,164 pupils enrolled in 6,500 elementary schools, 2,672,307 pupils in 2,254 middle schools and 2,013,046 pupils in 1,494 high schools (including 639 vocational schools).

KOREA

769

For higher education, 1,063,406 students who attended 424 universities, colleges and junior colleges. There are 190 graduate schools granting master's degrees in 2 years and doctor's degrees in 4 years, where 60,282 students attended in 1983. An Open University was inaugurated in March 1982. The Korean language belongs to the Ural-Altaic group, is polysyllabic, agglutinative and highly developed syntactically. The modern Korean alphabet of 10 vowels and 14 consonants forms a script known as Hangul. Health. In Dec. 1982 there were 28,365 physicians (including herb doctors), 4,266 dentists, 4,222 midwives(1980), 101,445 nurses (including assistant nurses, 1980), 4,712technicians(1980)and27,000 pharmacists. There were 11,181 hospitals and clinics in 1980. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Korea in Great Britain (4 Palace Gate, London, W8 5NF) Ambassador: Young Choo Kim (accredited 14Feb. 1985). Of Great Britain in Korea (4 Chung-Dong, Chung-Ku, Seoul) Ambassador and Consul-General: J. N. T. Spreckley, CMG. Of Korea in the USA (2370 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Yu Pyong-huon. Of the USA in Korea (Sejong-Ro, Seoul) Ambassador: Richard L. Walker. Books of Reference A Handbook of Korea. 4th ed. Seoul, 1982 Economic Planning Board. Guide to Investment in Korea. Seoul, 1980 Korea Annual 1983.20th ed. Seoul, 1983 Korea Statistical Year Book. Seoul, 1981 Guide to Geographical Names in Korea (Chosen). United States Board of Geographical Names. Washington, 1945 Major Economic Indicators, 1979-80. Seoul, 1980 Monthly Statistics of Korea. Seoul, 1980 Lew, H. J., New Life Korean-English, English-Korean Dictionary. 2 vols. Seoul, 1947-50 Martin, S. F. (ed.), A Korean-English Dictionary. Yale Univ. Press, 1968 Srivastava, M.P., The Korean Conflict: Search for Unification. New Delhi, 1982 Wright, E. R., Korean Politics m Transition. Univ. ofWashington Press, 1976

NORTH

KOREA

Capital.-Pyongyang Population: 18 -49m. (1983) GNP per capita: \)S$12b (1982)

Chosun Minchu-chui Inmin Konghwa-guk

HISTORY. In northern Korea the Russians, arriving on 8 Aug. 1945, one month ahead of the Americans, established a Communist-led 'Provisional Government'. The newly created Korean Communist Party merged in 1946 with the New National Party into the Korean Workers' Party. In July 1946 the KWP, with the remaining pro-Communist groups and non-party people, formed the United Democratic Patriotic Front. On 25 Aug. 1948 the Communists organized elections for a Supreme People's Assembly, both in Soviet-occupied North Korea (212 deputies) and in US-occupied South Korea (360 deputies, of whom a certain number went to the North and took their seats). A People's Democratic Republic was proclaimed on 9 Sept. 1948. In 1973 North Korea was admitted to WHO, and granted observer status at the UN. Talks between North and South Korea on reunification began in 1980, but were broken off by the North. In 1981 North Korea announced a new reunification plan, but plans put forward by South Korea were rejected. In Sept. 1984 North Korea sent supplies estimated at a value of US$ 12m. to aid flood victims in the South, and agreed to proposals of a meeting on 15 Nov. which was subsequently cancelled. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . North Korea is bounded north by China, east by the sea of Japan, west by the Yellow Sea and south by South Korea, from which it is separated by a demilitarized zone of 1,262 sq km. Its area is 122,098 sq. km. Population estimate in 1983, 18-49m. Rate of population increase, 2-2% per annum. Death rate, 1979: 4-4 per mille. Marriage is discouraged before the age of 32 for men and 29 for women. Expectation of life in 1984 was 74 years. The capital is Pyongyang, with l-28m. inhabitants in 1981. Other large towns (with 1972 population): Hamhung (420,000); Chongjin (265,000); Kimchaek (formerly Songjfn) (265,000). The country is divided into 13 administrative units: 4 cities (Pyongyang, Chongjin, Hamhung and Kaesong) and 9 provinces (capitals in brackets): South Pyongan (Nampo), North Pyongan (Sinuiji), Jagang (Kanggye), South Hwanghai (Haeju), North Hwanghai (Sariwon), North Kangwon (Wonsan), South Hamgyong (Hamheung), North Hamgyong (Chongjin), Yanggang (Hyesan). CLIMATE. There is a warm temperate climate, though winters can be very cold in the north. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months. Pyongyang. Jan. 18°F (-7-8"C), July 75°F(23'9°C). Annual rainfall 37" (916 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The political structure is based upon the Constitution of 27 Dec. 1972. The Constitution provides for a Supreme People's Assembly elected every 4 years by universal suffrage. Citizens of 17 years and over can vote and be elected. Elections were held in 1948, 1957, 1962, 1972, 1977 and 1 March 1982. At the latter it was claimed that 100% of the electorate voted for the candidates presented. There are 615 deputies. The government consists of the Administration Council directed by the Central People's Committee (Secretary, Kim I Hun). In practice the country is ruled by the Korean Workers' (i.e., Communist) Party which elects a Central Committee which in turn appoints a Politburo, the first 3 members of which constitute its Standing Committee. In March 1985 this was composed of: Marshal Kim II Sung, (General Secretary of the Party, President of the Republic, Chairman of the Central People's Committee, Supreme Commander of the Armed Forcesj; Kim Jong II (Kim II Sung's son and designated successor) 770

NORTH KOREA

771

(Vice-President of the Republic); O Jin U (Defence Minister); Li Jong Ok (VicePresident of the Republic); Pak Sung Chul (Vice-President of the Republic); Rim Chun Chu (Vice-President of the Republic); So Choi; Kim Yong N a m (Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Minister); Chon Mun Sop; Kim Hwan (Deputy Prime Minister); Yon Hyong Muk; O Guk Ryol; Kang Song San (Prime Minister); Paek Hak Rim; Choe Yong Rim; So Yun Sok, Ho Dam (Deputy Prime Minister). Ministers not full members of the Politburo include Kye Ung Tae (Deputy Prime Minister); Yun Gi Jong (Finance); Choe Jong G u n (Trade); Chong Song- Nam (Foreign Economic Affairs); Hong Song Ryong (Deputy Prime Minister, Chairman, State Planning Commission); Lee Jin Su (Public Security); Kong Jin Tae, Choe Gwang, Chong Jun Gi, Kim Chang Ju, Kim Bok Sin, Cho Se Ung (Deputy Prime Ministers). In 1981 the Party had some 2m. members. There are also the puppet religious Chongu and Korean Social Democratic Parties and various organizations combined in a Fatherland Front. National flag: Blue, red and blue horizontal stripes separated by narrow white bands. The red stripe bears a white circle within which is a red 5-pointed star. National anthem: 'A chi m u n bin na ra i gang san' (Shine brignt, o dawn, on this land so fair'). Words by Pak Se Yong; music by Kim Won Gyun. Local government is administered by People's Assemblies at city (or province), county (or district) and ri (town, workers' or rural commune) level. The latest elections were on 6 March 1983. There are 24,562 local deputies. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory at the age of 17 for periods of 5 years in the Army and Navy and 3 - 4 years in the Air Force. In 1982 defence spending was 23 • 8% of GNP. Army. The Army is organized in 2 armoured, 3 motorized infantry and 34 infantry divisions; 5 armoured, 4 infantry and 26 special forces brigades; 2 independent tank, 5 independent infantry and 5 river-crossing regiments; 250 artillery, 82 multiple-rocket-launcher and 5 surface-to-surface missile battalions. Equipment includes 2,500 T-34/-55/-62 and 175 Type-59 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 760,500, with 260,000 reserves. There is also a paramilitary militia of some 1 -8m. men and a ranger commando force of 100,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 20 diesel-powered patrol submarines (16 ex-Chinese and indigenously-built and 4 ex-Soviet), 2 small frigates, 38 fast missile boats, 140 fast torpedo boats, 160 fast gunboats, 50 patrol vessels, 30 coastal"patrol craft, 20 light gunboats, 4 medium landing ships, 10,utility landing craft, 20 mechanised landing craft, 100 small assault landing craft, 30 trawlers and auxiliaries, 2 exSoviet ocean tugs and 100 service craft. U p to 5 small submarines are reported as built locally with a dozen X-craft in commission. Personnel in 1985 totalled 31,000 officers and men, plus 40,000 reservists. Air Force. The Air Force has a total of about 930 aircraft and 51,000 personnel. Equipment is believed to include about 180 supersonic MiG-21 interceptors, more than 100 F-6s (Chinese-built MiG-19s), 250 MiG-17s for ground attack and reconnaissance, 50 Su-7 fighter-bombers, 60 11-28 twin-jet light bombers, and a variety of transport and training aircraft and helicopters. ECONOMY Planning. For previous plans see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 . A

1-year plan for 1978-84 gave priority to the fuel and mining industries, foreign trade development and transport, and achieved an annual industrial growth rate of 12-8%.

Budget (in 1 m. won) for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1979 17,478 16,972

1980 19,139 18,837

1981 20,479 20,479

1982 22,680 22,204

1983 24,384 24,018

1984 26,237 26,237

772

NORTH

KOREA

In 1984, 3,831m. won were spent on defence (3,602m. in 1983). 1984 expenditure (in lm. won): economy, 16,640; social welfare, 5,262; administration, 547. Personal taxation was abolished in 1974. Currency. The monetary unit is the won, divided into 100 jun. In March 1985, US$1 =0-94 won;£1 = 1-57 won. Weights and Measures. While the metric system is in force traditional measures are in frequent use. Thejungbo= 1 hectare; the ri= 3,927 metres. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Oil. An oil pipeline from China came on stream in 1976. Crude oil refining capacity was 80,000 barrels a year in 1981. Electricity. There are thermal power stations at Pyongyang, Unggi and Chongchongang. There are hydro-electric plants at Kanggye, Unbong and Sodusu, and another is under construction at Taedonggang. Output in 1981, was 22,150m. kwh. Installed capacity was 5 • 1 m. kw in 1981. Hydroelectric potential exceeds 8m. kw. Minerals. North Korea is rich in minerals. Estimated reserves in tonnes: Iron ore, 3,300m.; copper, 2 1 5 m . ; lead, 6m.; zinc, 12m.; coal, 11,990m.; uranium, 26m.; manganese, 6,500m. Oilwells went into production in 1957. Refining capacity in 1984: 4m. tonnes a year. 33-45m. tonnes of coal were mined in 1982. 16m. tonnes of iron ore were extracted in 1984. Agriculture. In 1982 there were 2- lm. hectares of arable land, including 635,000 hectares of paddy fields. In 1982,38% of the population made a living from agriculture. Collectivization took place between 1954 and 1958, when there were 13,309'cooperatives' averaging 130 jungbo. In 1958 these were merged into 3,843 larger units (ri), averaging 500 jungbo. 90% of the cultivated land is farmed by cooperatives, of which there were 3,700 in 1970. There is no private property in land; land belongs either to the State or to co-operatives, and it is intended gradually to transform the latter into the former. Livestock farming is mainly carried on by large state farms. There were 200 state farms in 1970. There were 37,600 km of irrigation canals in 1976. The 6-year plan (1971-76) extended irrigation so as to make possible 2 rice harvests a year. In 1982 there were 133,000 tractors (15 h.p. units). The technical revolution in agriculture (nearly 95% of ploughing, etc., is mechanized) considerably increased the yield of grain (sown on 2-3m" jungbo of land); this was 9-5m. tonnes in 1982 (mainly rice). 268,000 tonnes of potatoes were produced in 1981. Livestock, 1983: lm.cattle,2-5m. pigs, 18m. poultry. Forestry. Between 1961 and 1970, 800,000 hectares were afforested, 500,000 hectares of oil-bearing trees are scheduled for planting. Fishery. Catch in 1982: l -5m. tonnes. There is a fishing fleet of 28,000 vessels including 19,000 motor vessels. Labour. The economically-active population was 9m. in 1982. Industrial workers make up some 40% of the work force. Average monthly wage, 1984:90 won. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries were intensively developed by the Japanese, notably cotton spinning, hydro-electric power, cotton, silk and rayon weaving, and chemical fertilizers. Production (in tonnes) in 1982: Pig-iron, 4m.; crude steel, 4m.; rolled steel, 3-2m.; lead, 30,000; zinc, 140,000; copper, 48,000; ship-building, 400,000; chemical fertilizers, 620,000; chemicals, 20,000; synthetic resins, 90,000; cement, 8,700; textiles, 120m. metres; woven goods, 600m. metres; shoes, 40m. pairs; motor-cars, 15,000; TV sets, 150,000; refrigerators, 10,000. There is a steel complex at Kangson with an annual productive capacity of 4m. tonnes. Commerce. North Korea trades with some 60 countries. Largest trade partners are

NORTH KOREA

773

USSR, China and Japan; in Jan. 1985 the latter lifted sanctions imposed after the assassination of members of the South Korean Government in Rangoon in Oct. 1983. Exports in 1981: US$1,260m.; imports, US$1,610m. 51-5% of trade was with Communist countries (85% in 1971). In 1981 manufactured goods formed 59% of exports. In 1982 North Korea's indebtedness was estimated at US$3,500m. (US$2,300m. to the West). An agreement regulating the repayment of North Korea's debt to Japan over 10 years was signed in 1979. The chief exports are metal ores and products, the chief imports machinery and petroleum products. Joint ventures with foreign firms have been permitted since 1984. Exports to the USSR in 1980 (and 1981) were worth 284-2m.(250-3m.) roubles; imports from the USSR, 287-9m. (278-9m.) roubles. Total trade between North Korea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 391 981

1981 701 727

1982 235 3,857

1983 362 2,527

1984 456 2,935

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 20,800 km of road in 1981, including 240 km of motorways. There were 180,000 motor cars in 1982. Railways. The two trunk-lines Pyongyang-Sinuiji and Pyongyang-Myongchon are both electrified, and the Pyongyang-Sariwon trunk is in course of electrification. The 'Wonra' line runs from Wonsan to Rajin and is electrified from Myongchon to Rajin and beyond to Tumangang. The Namdokchon-Toknam line was opened in 1983. Lines are under construction from Pukchong to Toksong, from Palwon to Kujang and Kanggye via Hyesan to Musan. The Hyesan-Samsok section of the latter opened to traffic in 1971. In 1981 there were 4,380 km of track, of which 2,706 km were electrified. In 1980, 87% of trains were hauled by electricity and 30-6m. tonnes were transported in 1969. A weekly service from Pyongyang to Beijing opened in 1983. Aviation. Flights are made once or twice a week from Pyongyang to Moscow, Khabarovsk and Beijing by 17 propeller-driven aircraft operated by the Air Force. There are domestic flights from Pyongyang to Hamhung and Chongjin. Shipping. The leading ports are Chongjin and Hungnam (near Hamhung). Nampo, the port of Pyongyang, has been dredged and expanded. Pyongyang is connected to Nampo by railway and river. In 1983 the ocean-going merchant fleet numbered 56 vessels totalling 651,180 tonnes. The biggest navigable river is the Yalu, 698 km up to the Hyesan district. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 there were some 200,000 television receivers. The Pyongyang central broadcasting station was rebuilt about 1955. There were some 10,000 telephones in 1983. Newspapers. The party newspaper is Nodong (or Rodong) Sinmun (Workers' Daily News). Circulation about 600,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, whose judges are elected by the Assembly for 3 years; provincial courts; and city or county people's courts. The procurator-general, appointed by the Assembly, has supervisory powers over the judiciary and the administration; the Supreme Court controls the judicial administration. Religion. According to the 1972 Constitution 'The people shall enjoy the freedom of religion as well as the freedom of anti-religious propaganda'. There are 3 religious organizations: The Buddhist League, the Chondoist Society and the Christians' League. Education. In 1975-76 the 10-year system of free compulsory universal technical education was extended to 11 years (1 pre-school year, 4 years primary education starting at the age of 6, followed by 6 years secondary).

774

NORTH

KOREA

In 1970-71,9,260 schools of all grades were attended by 3 -2 m. pupils, including 214,000 students in institutes of higher education, two-thirds of whom were studying technical and engineering subjects. There were some 100,000 teachers. In 1975-76 there were 5-6m. children in the 11 -year system and nearly 1 m. students in higher education. In 1980 there were 170 institutes of higher education, including 3 universities—Kim II Sung University (founded 1946), Kim Chaek Technical University, Pyongyang Medical School—and an Academy of Sciences (founded 1952). In 1977-78 Kim II Sung University had some 17,000 students. Health. Medical treatment is free. In 1982 there were 1,531 general hospitals, 979 specialised hospitals and 5,414 clinics. There were 24 doctors and 130 hospital beds per 10,000 population. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE Of North Korea to the United Nations Ambassador: Li In-Ho (accredited 10 Jan. 1984). Books of Reference An, T. S., North Korea in Transition. Westport, 1983;-North Korea: a Political Handbook. Washington, 1983 Baik Bong, Kim II Sung: Biography. 3 vols. New York, 1969-70 Brun, E., and Hersh, J., Socialist Korea: A Case Study in the Strategy of Economic Development. New York, 1976 Chung, C.-S., (ed.), North Korean Communism: A Comparative Analysis. Seoul, 1980 Kim Han Gil, Modern History of Korea. Pyongyang, 1979 Kim II Sung, Works. Pyongyang, 1980-83 Kim, Y. S., (ed.), The Economy of the Korean Democratic People's Republic, 1945-1977. Kiel, 1979 Lee,C.-S., The Korean Workers'Party: A Short History. Stanford, 1978 McCormack, G., and Seiden, M. (eds.), Korea North and South: The Deepening Crisis. New York, 1978 Park,J. K.,and Kim,J.-G., The Politics of North Korea. Boulder, 1979 Scalapino, R. A., and Lee, C.-S., Communism in Korea. Part I: The Movement. Part II: The Society. Univ. of Calif. Press, 1972 Suh, D.-S., Korean Communism, 1945-1980: A Reference Guide to the Political System. Honolulu, 1981 Yang, S. C., Korea and Two Regimes: Kim II Sung and Park Chung Hee. Cambridge, Mass., 1981

KUWAIT Dowlat al Kuwait

Capital: Kuwait Population: l-91m.(1985) GNPper capita: US$20,900 (1981)

HISTORY. The ruling dynasty was founded by Shaikh Sabah al-Owel, who ruled from 1756 to 1772. In 1899 the then ruler Shaikh Mubarak concluded a treaty with Great Britain wherein, in return for the assurance of British protection, he undertook not to alienate any of his territory without the agreement of Her Majesty's Government. In 1914 the British Government recognized Kuwait as an independent government under British protection. On 19 June 1961 an agreement reaffirmed the independence and sovereignty of Kuwait and recognized the Government of Kuwait's responsibility for the conduct of internal and external affairs; the agreement of 1899 was terminated and Her Majesty's Government expressed their readiness to assist the Government of Kuwait should they request such assistance. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Kuwait is bounded east by the Gulf, north and west by Iraq and south by Saudi Arabia, with an area of about 7,000 sq. miles (17,818 sq. km); the total population at the census of 1981 was 1,466,431, of which about 59% were non-Kuwaitis; 1985 (estimate), 1,910,856. The country is divided into 3 governorates, Kuwait (the capital, 60,525 population (census, 1980) and its suburbs Hawalli (152,402) and as-Salmiyah (145,991). The Neutral Zone (3,560 sq. miles, 5,700 sq. km), jointly owned and administered by Kuwait and Saudi Arabia from 1922 to 1966, was partitioned between the two countries in May 1966, but the exploitation of the oil and other natural resources will continue to be shared. C L I M A T E . Kuwait has a dry, desert climate which is cool in winter but very hot and humid in summer. Rainfall is extremely light. Kuwait. Jan. 56°F (13 • 5°C), July 99°F(36-6°C). Annual rainfall 5" (125 mm). R U L E R . HH Shaikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah the 13th Amir of Kuwait, succeeded on 31 Dec. 1977. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Elections for a National Assembly of 50 members were held on 27 Jan. 1975 but in Aug. 1976 the Amir dissolved the Assembly and at the same time parts of the Constitution were suspended. Elections were held in Feb. 1985 for the National Assembly. The official language is Arabic; English is used as the second language. The Cabinet in Nov. 1983 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Shaikh Saad al-Abdullah al-Salem al-Sabah. Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs and Information: Shaikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah. Interior: Shaikh Nawwaf al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah. Defence: Shaikh Salem al-Sabah al-Salem al-Sabah. Oil, Finance and Planning: Shaikh Ali al-Khalifah al-Sabah. Public Health: Abdel-Rahman Abdullah al-Awadi. Social Affairs, Labour and Housing: Hamad Isa al-Rajib. Public Works: Abdullah al-Rushid. Electricity and Water: Khalaf Ahmad al-Khalaf. Justice, Legal Affairs and Administrative Affairs: Shaikh Salman al-Duaij al-Sabah. Education: Yacoub Yousef al-Ghunaim. Commerce and Industry: Jassem al-Marzouk. Communications: Isa ai-Mazidi. Awqafand Islamic Affairs: Ahmad Saad al-Jasser. Minister of State (Cabinet Affairs): Abdel-Aziz Hussain. Amiti Diwan Affairs: Shaikh Khaled A. al-Sabah. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white, red, with a black trapezium based on the hoist. IIS

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D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 18 months. Army. Kuwait maintains a small, well-equipped and mobile army of 1 armoured and 2 mechanized infantry brigades and 1 surface-to-surface missile battalion. Equipment includes 70 Vickers Mk I, 10 Centurion and 160 Chieftain main battle tanks. Strength (1985) about 10,000 men. Navy. The several new flotillas comprise 6 fast missile craft, 2 larger fast gunboats (all eight West German-built); 40 coastal patrol craft built by Vosper/Thornycrofl; 7 US-built very fast cutters; 10 general purpose launches; 6 Vosper Singapore-built landing craft and 4 tugs. Six hovercraft are reportedly to be ordered, and probably fast attack craft, patrol vessels and minecountermeasures vessels. A Japanese firm was awarded the contract for the construction of a base to accommodate the planned expansion of the coastguard force. In 1985 personnel exceeded 1,100 officers and men. Air Force. From a small initial combat force the Air Force has grown rapidly. It has 1 squadron with 16 Mirage Fl-C fighters and 2 Mirage Fl-B 2-seat trainers; and 2 squadrons with 28 A-4KU/TA-4KU Skyhawk attack aircraft; 24 more Mirage F1 s have been ordered. Other equipment includes 2 DC-9 jet transports, 1 L-100-20 and4 L-100-30 Hercules turboprop transports, 9 BAC 167 Strikemaster armed jet trainers (to be replaced with 12 Hawks), 10 Puma, 6 Exocet missile-armed Super Puma and 23 missile-armed Gazelle helicopters. Hawk surface-to-air missiles are in service. Personnel strength(1985)about 1,900. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Kuwait is a member of UN, the Arab League, OPEC and OAPEC. ECONOMY Budget. The financial year runs 1 April-31 March. In 1983-84 revenue, KD 3,037m.; expenditure, KJD 3,605m. Currency. The Kuwait dinar of 1,000 fils replaced the Indian external rupee on 1 April 1961. In March 1985, £1 sterling = KD 0-329; US$1 = KD 0-307. Coins in circulation are, 1,5,10,20,50 and 100filsand notes of KD, 10,5,1, 'A and'/«. Banking. In addition to the Central Bank, ten banks operate in Kuwait: the Bank of Kuwait and Middle East, the Kuwait National Bank, the Commercial Bank of Kuwait Ltd, the Gulf Bank of Kuwait, the Alahli Bank, The Burgan Bank, Savings and Credit Bank, the Industrial Bank of Kuwait, Real Estate Bank of Kuwait, the Bank of Kuwait and Bahrain. Weights and Measures. The metric system was adopted in 1962. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. 11,699m. kw. were produced in 1982. Oil. Kuwait oil comes mainly from the Burgan oilfields, the residential and administrative centre for oil operations being at Ahmadi. Oil reserves in Kuwait and its share of the Neutral Zone was estimated at 77,000m. bbls in 1975. The Kuwait Petroleum Gas and Energy Co. (KPGEC) formed in 1974 as a result of the Government's take-over of 60% of oil production, is controlling all oil exploration and the processing and marketing of oil and gas. Production of crude oil (in 1,000 bbls); 1982,300,211; 1983,331,200. Gas. Production (1983) 170,200m. cu. ft. Agriculture. Major crops (production, 1981, in tonnes) are melons (5,000), tomatoes (12,000), onions (3,000), dates (1,000), radishes, clover. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 18,000; sheep, 550,000;.goats, 300,000; poultry, 8m. Fisheries. Shrimp fishing is becoming one of the important non-oil industries.

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I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Industries, apart from oil, include boat building, fishing, food production, petrochemicals, gases and construction. The manufacture or import of alcoholic drinks is prohibited. Labour. Of the working population 75% are foreigners. Commerce. The port of Kuwait formerly served mainly as an entrepot for goods for the interior, for the export of skins and wool, and for pearl fishing. Entrepot trade continues but, with the development of the oil industry, is declining in importance. Pearl fishing is now on a small scale. Dhows and launches of traditional construction are still built. In 1982 total imports were KDl,945m.; exports, KD4,531m. Oil accounted for more than 80% of exports. Total trade between Kuwait and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK' Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 1981 655,024 477,262 258,696 281,203 ' Including oil.

1982 104,793 333,247

1983 67,281 333,273

1984 141,606 301,520

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 3,100 km and the number of private cars 435,000; lorries and vans, 146,000. Aviation. Kuwait Airways flew over 9,000 flights in 1980, caiTying 1 • 76m. passengers and 25,000 tonnes of freight. British Airways, Kuwait Airways, Iraqi Airways, Iranian Airways, United Arab Airlines, Middle East Airlines, Saudi Arabian Airways, Lebanese International Airways, Air Liban, Air India, Lufthansa, Japanese Airlines, TWA, PIA, Aden Air Lines, Air France, Alitalia, SAS, Swiss Air, SABENA, KLM and Gulf Aviation operate scheduled air services. Shipping. The Kuwaiti merchant fleet in 1982 comprised 217 vessels (of over 100 tonnes) with a total gross tonnage of 2,014,379. The oil terminal is at Mina al-Ahmadi, while the main ports for other traffic are at Shuwaikh and at Shuaiba. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1982), 231,643 telephones and there is a broadcasting and a television station. Cinemas. In 1976 there were 10 cinemas with a seating capacity of 13,000. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 5 daily newspapers in Arabic and 2 in English, with a combined circulation of about 418,000. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. In 1980 about 78% of the population were Sunni Moslems, 14% Shia Moslems, 6% Christians and 2% others. Education. In 1982 there were 334,942 pupils at 481 government schools. In 198081 there were 4,143 students at teacher-training institutes (608 teachers) and teacher-training colleges had 1,584 students (289 teachers). A technical college was opened in 1954 and in 1970 had 931 students (212 teachers). The University of Kuwait had 14,000 students in 1984. Health. Medical services are free to all residents. There were (1982) 15 hospitals with over 5,563 beds in the State and 232 clinics and health centres. The Ministry of Health employs 2,348 physicians and 708 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Kuwait in Great Britain (4-5 Queen's Gate, London, SW7) /Imtassarfor.GhaziMohammedAmin Al-Rayes (accredited 12 Feb. 1981). Of Great Britain in Kuwait (Arabian Gulf St., Kuwait) Ambassador: M. R. Melhuish, CMG.

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Of Kuwait in the USA (2940 Tilden St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Shaikh Saud Nasir Al-Sabah. Of the USA in Kuwait (PO Box 77, Safat, Kuwait) Ambassador: Anthony Quainton. Of Kuwait to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohammad A. Abulhasan. Books of Reference Arabian Year Book. Kuwait, 1978 Annual Statistical Abstract of Kuwait. Kuwait The Oil of Kuwait: Facts and Figures. 3rd ed. Kuwait Government Press, 1970 Khouja, M.W., and Sadler, P. G., The Economy of Kuwait. London, 1979 Sabah, Y. S. F., The Oil Economy of Kuwait. London, 1980

LAOS

Capital: Vientiane Population:T>-52m. (\919) GNPper capita: US$80 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . The Lao People's Democratic Republic was founded on 2 Dec. 1975. Until that date Laos was a Kingdom, once called Lanxang (the land of a million elephants). In 1893 Laos became a French protectorate and in 1907 acquired its present frontiers. In 1941 French authority was suppressed by the Japanese. When the Japanese withdrew in 1945 an independence movement known as Lao Issara (Free Laos) set up a government under Prince Phetsarath, the Viceroy of Luang Prabang. This government collapsed with the return of the French in 1946 and the leaders of the movement fled to Thailand. Under a new Constitution of 1947 Laos became a constitutional monairchy under the Luang Prabang dynasty, and in 1949 became an independent sovereign state within the French Union. Most of the Lao Issara leaders returned to Laos but a few remained in dissidence under Prince Souphanouvong, who allied himself with the Vietminh and subsequently formed the 'Pathet Lao' (Lao State) rebel movement. The war in Laos from 1953 to 1973 between the Royal Lao Government (supported by American bombing and Thai mercenaries) and the Patriotic Front Pathet Lao (supported by large numbers of North Vietnamese troops) ended in 1973 when an agreement and a protocol were signed. A provisional coalition government was formed by the two sides in 1974. However, after the communist victories in neighbouring Vietnam and Cambodia in April 1975, the Pathet Lao took over the running of the whole country, although maintaining the façade of a coalition. On 29 Nov. 1975 HM King Savang Vatthana signed a letter of abdication and the People's Congress proclaimed a People's Democratic Republic of Laos. For the history of Pathet Lao and the military intervention of the Vietminh, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 7 1 - 7 2 , p p . 1115-16.

1126-28 and

1975-76

ed.,

pp.

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Laos is a landlocked country of about 91,400 sq. miles (236,800 sq. km) bordered on the north by China, the east by Vietnam, the south by the People's Republic of Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) and the west by Thailand and Burma. Apart from the Mekong River plains along the border of Thailand, the country is mountainous, particularly in the north, and in places densely forested. The climate is of a tropical monsoon type with a wet season from May to Oct. and a dry one from Nov. to April. Most of northern Laos receives about 40-80 in. of rainfall annually, while parts of the Bolovens Plateau in southern Laos have over 150 in. Estimates place the population at about 3 • 5m. but the first complete census will be undertaken, with UN assistance, in March 1985. The most heavily populated areas are the Mekong River plains by the Thailand border. Otherwise, the population is sparse and scattered, particularly in the northern provinces, and the eastern part of the country has been depopulated by war. The majority of the population is officially divided into 4 groups: about 56% Lao-Lum (Valley-Lao), 34% LaoTheung (Lao of the mountain sides); and 9% Lao-Soung (Lao of the mountain tops), who comprise the Meo and Yaoe. Other minorities include Vietnamese, Chinese, Europeans, Indians and Pakistanis. Hie Lao-Lum and Lao-Tai belong to the Lao branch of the Tai peoples, who migrated into South-East Asia at the time of the Mongol invasion of South China. The valley Lao are Buddhists, following the Hinayana (Theravada) form. The majority of the Lao-Theungma diverse group consisting of many tribes but mostly belonging to the Mon-Khmer group—are animists. The Meo and Yaoe live in northern Laos. Far greater numbers live in both North 779

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Vietnam and China, having migrated over the last century. Their religions have strong Confucian and animistic features but some are Christians. There are 16 provinces. Compared with other parts of Asia, Laos has few towns. The administrative capital and largest town is Vientiane, with a population of estimate (1984) 120,000. Other important towns are Luang Prabang, 44,244; Pakse, 44,860, in the extreme south, and Savannakhet, 50,690. Language: Lao is the official language of the country. The liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism is Pali. C L I M A T E . A tropical monsoon climate, with high temperatures throughout the year and very heavy rains from May to Oct. Vientiane. Jan. 70°F (21 • 1°C), July 81 °F (27 -2°C). Annual rainfall 6 9 " ( 1,715 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 1-2 Dec. 1975 a national congress of 264 people's representatives met and declared Laos a People's Democratic Republic. A People's Supreme Council was appointed to draw up a new Constitution. President: Prince Souphanouvong. Prime Minister, Secretary General ofthe Central Committee Revolutionary Party: Kaysone Phomvihane.

of the Lao People's

There are 4 deputy prime ministers. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, blue, red, with blue of double width with in the centre a large white disc. National anthem: Peng Sat Lao (Hymn of the Lao People). Provincial Administration: All provincial administration is in the hands of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Orders come from the Central Committee through a series of 'People's Revolutionary Committees' at the province, town and village level. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 18 months. Army. The Army is organized in 4 infantry and 1 artillery divisions; 7 independent infantry regiments and 65 independent infantry companies; and 5 artillery and 9 anti-aircraft battalions. Equipment includes 30 T-34, T-54, T-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1985)about 50,000. Navy. In 1985 there were nominally 4 squadrons comprising 42 small river patrol craft of 6 different types, of which 14 were in commission and 28 in reserve. Some 70 river patrol boats were reportedly transferred from Vietnam. Naval personnel totalled 550 officers and ratings. Air Force. Since 1975, the Air Force has received aircraft from the USSR, including 30 MiG-21 fighters, 6 An-24 and 3 An-26 turboprop transports and 10 Mi-8 helicopters. They may be supplemented by a few of the C-47 and C-123 transports, supplied by the USA to the former régime. Personnel strength, about 2,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Laos is a member of U N . Aid. Foreign aid in 1983 (estimate), was US$50m. ECONOMY Planning. Following the completion of the original 3-year Development Plan 1978-80, a 5-year plan (1981-85), which is basically a list of investment projects, was drawn up by the government with Soviet assistance. Budget. Total revenue 1983, K.3,496m.; total expenditure, K.6,695m. Currency. The currency is the kip. 1 kip = 100 att. Coinage, 1, 2 and 5 alt, banknotes, 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 kip. The official rate of exchange was

LAOS

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(March 1985) K.35 = US$1; £1 = K37-38, but in June 1983 a new 'noncommercial' rate of K. 108 = US$ 1 was established. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Only a few towns in Laos have an electricity service. A power plant with a capacity of 8,000 kw. is installed at Vientiane, but there are only small thermo-electric plants in other towns. The Nam Ngum Dam situated about 45 miles north of Vientiane was inaugurated in Dec. 1971 with an initial installed capacity of 30,000 kw. and a planned ultimate capacity of 150,000 kw. The generators of Phase II of the scheme were brought into operation in 1978, giving an installed capacity of 110,000 kw. The installation of a fifth generator (Phase III) was due for completion in 1984. Transmission lines to Vientiane and to Thailand have been constructed. Other sources of electric power are the dams on the Sedone River about 20 miles north of Pakse and on the Nam Dong about 5 miles south of Luang Prabang, with installed capacities of 2,400 and 1,200 kw. respectively. Production (1979) 840m. kwh. Minerals. Various minerals are found, but only tin is mined to any significant extent at present, and only at 2 mines (Tin exports (1980) US$500,000). There are extremely rich deposits of high-quality iron in Xieng Khouang province and potash near Vientiane. Agriculture. The chief products are rice (production in 1980, lm. tonnes; 1978, estimate, 420,000 tonnes), maize (production 27,200 tonnes), tobacco (4,200 tonnes), cotton (2,100 tonnes), citrus fruits, sticklack, benjohn tea and in the Boloven plateau coffee (2,070 tonnes), potatoes, cardamom and cinchara. Opium is produced but its manufacture is controlled by the state. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 490,000; bufTaloes, 910,000; horses, 37,000; pigs, 1 -3m.; goats, 58,000; poultry, 6m. Forestry. The forests, which cover over 50% of the country, produce valuable woods such as teak. Their potential is being exploited with Swedish and Soviet aid. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry is limited to beer, cigarettes, matches, soft drinks, plastic bags, saw-mills, rice-mills, weaving, pottery, distilleries, ice, plywood, bricks, etc. but most factories have been working at limited capacity in recent years. Plans for increased production are limited by lack of funds and skilled machine operators. Commerce. In 1981 imports (estimate) amounted to US$121m. and exports to US$48m. The main imports were food and beverages, petroleum products and agricultural and other machinery. The chief supplying countries were Thailand and Japan. The main exports were timber, coffee and electricity. Total trade between Laos and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 32 720

1981 65 542

1982 355 880

1983 56 626

1984 238 721

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 the national road network, consisted of 1,300 km paved, 5,300 km gravel and 3,600 km earth roads. Railways. There is no railway in Laos, but the Thai railway system extends to Nongkhai, on the Thai bank of the Mekong, which is connected by ferry with Thadeua about 12 miles east of Vientiane. Aviation. Lao Aviation provides scheduled domestic air services linking major towns in Laos and international services to Bangkok, Phnom Penh and Hanoi. Thai Airways, Aeroflot and Air Vietnam provide flights from Bangkok, Hanoi, Rangoon, Ho Chi Min City and Moscow.

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Shipping. The river Mekong and its tributaries are an important means of transport, but rapids, waterfalls and narrow channels often impede navigation and make trans-shipments neccessary. Télécommunications. There is a radio network in Laos as well as a limited TV service with the main station at Vientiane. A ground station constructed near Vientiane under the Soviet aid programme enables USSR television programmes to be received in the capital. It also provides a telephone service to Hanoi and Eastern Europe. In 1974 there were 5,506 telephones in Laos. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. The majority of the population is Buddhist (Hinayana). Education. In 1978-79 school year there were 5,900 elementary schools (451,000 pupils); 260 secondary schools (60,400 pupils); 86 senior high schools (7,800 pupils); 72 nursery schools (3,400 pupils); 24 teacher training schools (8,300 students) and 7 technical schools (2,000 students). Literacy has improved from 40% in 1975,65% in 1978to85%in 1981 according to official reports. There is 1 teachers' training college, 1 college of education, 1 school of medicine, 1 agricultural college and an advanced school of Pali. Health. In 1982 there were about 40 qualified doctors and 8,729 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Laos in Great Britain (5 Palace Green, London, W8 4QA) Chargé d'Affaires: Ouan Phommachack. Of Great Britain in Laos (Rue Pandit J. Nehru, Vientiane) Ambassador: W. B. J. Dobbs. Of Laos in USA (2222 S St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Chargé d'Affaires: Bounkeut Sangsomsak. Of USA in Laos (Rue Bartholome, Vientiane) Chargé d'Affaires: Theresa Tuli. Of Laos to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Kithong Vongsay. Books of Reference La Constitution du Laos. Notes et Etudes. 1957 International Conference on the Settlement of the Laotian Question. Geneva, I2th May 196123rd July 1962 (C mnd. 1828). HMSO, 1962 Declaration and Protocol on the Neutrality of Laos. Geneva, 23rd July 1962 (Cmnd. 2025). HMSO, 1963 White Book on the Violations of the Geneva Accords of 1962 by the Government of North Vietnam. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Vientiane, 1968 Halpern, Joel M., Economy and Society of Laos: Brief Survey. Yale Univ. Press, 1964.— Government, Politics and Social Structure in Laos. Yale Univ. Press, 1964 Stuart-Cox, M., Contemporary Laos. Univ. ofQueensland Press, 1983 Zasloff, J. J., The Palhet Lao: Leadership and Organization. Lexington, Toronto and London, 1973

LEBANON al-Jumhouriya al-Lubnaniya

Capital: Beirut Population: 3-5m. (1984) GNPper capita: No reliable figures available.

HISTORY. After 20 years' French mandatory regime, Lebanon was proclaimed independent at Beirut on 26 Nov. 1941. On 27 Dec. 1943 an agreement was signed between representatives of the French National Committee of Liberation and of Lebanon, by which most of the powers and capacities exercised hitherto by France were transferred as from 1 Jan. 1944 to the Lebanese Government. The evacuation of foreign troops was completed in Dec. 1946. In early May 1958 the opposition to President Chamoun, consisting principally Xthough not entirely) of Moslem pro-Nasserist elements, rose in insurrection; and for 5 months the Moslem quarters of Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon and the northern Bekaa were in insurgent hands. On 15 July the US Government acceded to President Chamoun's request and landed a considerable force of army and marines who reestablished the authority of the Government. Israeli attacks on Lebanon resulted from the presence and activities of armed Palestinian resistance units. Internal problems, which had long been latent in Lebanese society, were exacerbated by the politically active Palestinian population and by the deeply divisive question of the Palestine problem itself. An attempt to regulate the activities of Palestinian fighters through the secret Cairo agreement of 1969 was frustrated both by the inability of the Government to enforce its provisions and by an influx of battle-hardened fighters expelled from Jordan in Sept. 1970. A further attempt to control the guerrillas in 1973 also failed. From March 1975, Lebanon was beset by civil disorder causing considerable loss of life and economic life was brought to a virtual standstill. By Nov. 1976 it was estimated that 40,000 people had been killed and up to 100,000 injured. By the end of the year, however, large scale fighting had been brought to an end by the intervention of the Syrian-dominated Arab Deterrent Force which ensured sufficient security to permit Lebanon to establish quasinormal conditions under President Sarkis. Large areas of the country, however, remained outside Governmental control, including West Beirut which was the scene of frequent conflict between opposing militia groups. The South, where the Arab Deterrent Force could not deploy, remained unsettled and subject to frequent Israeli attacks. In March 1978 there was an Israeli invasion following a Palestinian attack inside Israel. Israeli troops eventually withdrew in June, but instead of handing over all their positions to UN Peacekeeping Forces they installed Israelicontrolled Lebanese militia forces in border areas. Severe disruption continued in the South. In June 1982, following on the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador in London, Israeli forces once again invaded, this time in massive strength, and swept through the country, eventually laying siege to and devastatingly bombing Beirut. In Sept. Palestinian forces, together with the PLO leadership, evacuated Beirut. On 23 Aug. 1982 Bachir Gemayel was elected President of Lebanon. On 14 Sept. he was assassinated. His brother, Amin Gemayel, was elected in his place on 21 Sept. Since then there has been a state of'no peace, no war' with intermittent clashes between the various de facto forces on the ground. Israeli forces started a complete withdrawal on 16Feb. 1985. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Lebanon is a mountainous country about 135 miles long and varying between 20 and 35 miles wide, bounded on the north and east by Syria, on the west by the Mediterranean and on the south by Israel. Between the two parellel mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon lies the fertile Bekaa Valley. About one-half ofthe country lies at an altitude of over 3,000 ft. The area of Lebanon is estimated at 10,452 sq. km (4,036 sq. miles) and the 783

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LEBANON

population at 3-5m. (1984, estimate). The principal towns, with estimated population (1980), are: Beirut (the capital), 702,000; Tripoli 175,000; Zahle, 46,800; Saida(Sidon), 24,740; Tyre, 14,000. The official language is Arabic. French and, increasingly, English are widely spoken in official and commercial circles. C L I M ATE. A Mediterranean climate with short, warm winters and long, hot and rainless summers, with high humidity in coastal areas. Rainfall is largely confined to the winter months and can be torrential, with snow on high ground. Beirut. Jan. 55°F(13°C), July 8IT(27°C). Annual rainfall 35-7" (893 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Lebanon is an independent republic. The first Constitution was established under the French Mandate on 23 May 1926. It has since been amended in 1927,1929, 1943 (twice) and 1947. It is a written constitution based on the classical separation of powers, with a President, a single chamber elected by universal adult suffrage, and an independent judiciary. The Executive consists of the President and a Prime Minister and Cabinet appointed by him. The system is, however, adapted to the peculiar communal balance on which Lebanese political life depends. This is done by the electoral law which allocates deputies according to the confessional distribution of the population, and by a series of constitutional conventions whereby, e.g., the President is always a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Moslem and the Speaker of the Chamber a Shia Moslem. There is no highly developed party system other than on religious confessional lines. The Constitution was amended on 11 April 1976 to allow a new President to be elected up to 6 months before the end of the incumbent's term. Former Presidents of the Republic: Bishara al-Khuri, 1 Jan. 1944-23 Sept. 1952 Camille Chamoun, 23 Sept. 1952-23 Sept. 1958 Gen. Fouad Chehab, 23 Sept. 1958-23 Sept. 1964 Charles Helou, 23 Sept. 1964-17 June 1970

Suleiman Frangie, 17 June 1970-13 Sept. 1976 EliasSarkis, 13 Sept. 1976-23 Sept. 1982 Bachir Gemayel, 23 Aug. 1982-14 Sept. 1982 (assassinated)

President of the Republic: Amin Gemayel (elected on 21 Sept. 1982 and took office on 23 Sept.). On 5 Feb. 1984 the government resigned and the following day Moslem militiamen took over West Beirut from the Lebanese army. Fighting between the various factions became intense. On 5 March, President Gemayel issued a statement that the unratified military withdrawal agreement of 17 May 1982 with Israel was null and void. Later in March the re-convened Conference of National Reconciliation met in Lausanne. On 1 May 1984, a new government was formed and aims to achieve constitutional and power-sharing reforms on the basis of a wide measure of consensus. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Dec. 1984: Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs: Rashid Karanie. Labour and Education: Dr Selim Hoss. Public Works, Transport and Tourism: Walid Jumblatt. Posts and Communications, Health and Social Affairs: Pierre Gemayel. Finance, Housing and Co-operatives: Camille Chamoun. Justice, Hydroelectricity, Minister of State for Reconstruction and for Southern Lebanon: Nabi Berri. Defence, Agriculture: Adel Osseirane. Information: Joseph Skaff. Interior: Abdullah al-Rassi. Economy, Trade and Industry: Victor Kassir. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, red, with the white of double width and bearing in the centre a green cedar of Lebanon. National anthem: Kulluna lil watan lil 'ula HI* alam (words by Rashid Nachleh, tune by Mitri El-Murr).

LEBANON

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D E F E N C E . Compulsory military service was made law in 1975, but enjoys limited application. Army. The strength of the Army was about 19,000 in 1985 but it is in a state of flux and most of its units are well below strength. Its equipment includes M-48 and AMX-13 tanks and Saladin armoured cars. In addition, there are numerous private militias under arms in Lebanon, divided between the Maronite-Christian factions, notably the Phalange of some 10,000 men, and the Muslim-Leftist groups, such as the Druze Free Lebanese Militia led by Walid Jumblat. Navy. The small flotilla consisted in 1985 of 4 French-built patrol boats (2 similar craft to be acquired) and 8 coastal patrol craft (2 British-built). Personnel totalled 400 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force had (1985) about 800 men and 50 aircraft. In addition to 6 Hunter jet fighter-bombers, it has (in storage) 9 Mirage III supersonic fighters and 1 Mirage 2-seat trainer. Other aircraft include 1 Dove light transport, 11 Alouette II and III and 2 Agusta-Bell 212 helicopters, and 10 Fouga Magister jet and pistonengtned Bulldog trainers. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Lebanon is a member of UN and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. Since the civil war a Development and Reconstruction Council has been responsible for co-ordinating all efforts. Budget. The budget for 1985 provides for a total expenditure of£Leb. 10,000m. Currency. The Lebanese pound, divided into 100 piastres, is issued by the Banque du Liban, which commenced operations on 1 April 1964. There is a fluctuating official rate of exchange, fixed monthly (March 1985: £Leb.l7-89 = £1 sterling; £Leb.l8-75 =US$1), this in practice is used only for the calculation of ad-valorem customs duties on Lebanese imports and for import statistics. For other purposes the free market is used. Banking. Beirut was an important international financial centre, and there were about 80 banks registered with the central bank in 1979, including 2 British banks, the British Bank of the Middle East and the Chartered Bank. As a result of the civil war in 1975-76, Beirut lost much of its status as an international and regional banking centre; in general only local offices for banks remain. Weights and Measures. The use of the metric system is legal and obligatory throughout the whole of the country. In outlying districts the former weights and measures may still be in use. They are: 1 okiya = 0-47 lb.; 6 okiyas = 1 oke = 2-82 lb.; 2 okes= 1 rottol= 5-64 lb.;200 okes= 1 kantar. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Oil. There are 2 oil refineries in Lebanon, one at Tripoli, which refines oil brought by ship from Iraq, and the other at Sidon, which refines oil brought from Saudi Arabia by a pipeline owned by the Trans-Arabian Pipeline Co. These refineries were not fully active in 1984 and the country depends on imports. Minerals. Iron ore exists but is difficult to work. Other minerals known to exist are iron pyrites, copper, bituminous shales, asphalt, phosphates, ceramic clays and glass sand; but the available information is of doubtful value. Agriculture. Lebanon is essentially an agricultural country, although owing to its physical character only about 38% of the total area of the country is at present cultivated. The estimated yield (in 1,000 tonnes) of the main crops in 1982 was as follows: Citrus fruits, 315; apples, 130; grapes, 161; potatoes, 126; sugar-beet, 61; wheat, 23; bananas, 15; olives, 75. No reliable estimates available for 1984..

786

LEBANON

Livestock (estimated, 1983): Goats, 440,000; sheep, 140,000; cattle, 50,000; pigs, 19,000; horses, 2,000; donkeys, 10,000; mules, 4,000. Forestry. The forests of the past have been denuded by exploitation. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry suffered badly during the civil war. The manufacturing industry was small but had doubled in size in the 10 years before the war. As a result of the war some industrial concerns have closed but others are working at reduced capacity. Commerce. Foreign as well as local wholesale and retail trade is the principal source of income in Lebanon and provides about 31% of the total. Because of the protectionist policies followed in some neighbouring countries, this sector has been declining, the sectors to gain being those of banking, real estate, government and services. In 1978 imports were estimated at £Leb.5,220m.; exports were valued at £Leb. 1,639m. Imports came mainly from USA, Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy and UK. Exports went mainly to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, Libya and Iraq. Reliable trade figures have not been published in recent years. Total trade between Lebanon and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m ] m 2 m j j m ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

9,076 70,692

7,470 61,945

24,237 67,640

11,521 81,435

6,859 76,223

Customs duties are usually imposed on an ad-valorem basis: the receipts are the Lebanese Government's main source of income; actual yield in 1978, £Leb.509m. The considerable adverse balance of trade is offset by invisible receipts, including foreign capital investment in Lebanese real estate, remittances from émigrés and receipts from tourism and international arbitrage operations. Tourism. Receipts from tourism were £Leb.573m. in 1973; since 1975 they have been negligible, this sector having suffered badly as a result of the war. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The main roads in Lebanon are not good by international standards. The surface is normally of asphalt and they are well maintained in normal times. Roads between Beirut and the provinces were (1984) controlled by various militia. In 1985 there were about 300,000 cars and taxis. Railways. There are 3 railway lines in Lebanon, all operated by the Office des Chemins de Fer de l'Etat Libanais (CFL): (1) Nakoura-Beirut-Tripoli (standard gauge); the Nakoura-Sidon section has been idle since the establishment of Israel: (2) a narrow-gauge line running from Beirut to Riyak in the Bekaa Valley (now closed) and thence to Damascus, Syria; (3) a standard-gauge line from Tripoli to Homs and Aleppo in Syria, providing access to Ankara and Istanbul. From Homs a branch of the CFL line extends south and re-enters Lebanon, terminating at Riyak. Total length 417 km. These lines were idle in 1984-85 because of insecurity and large sections needed repairs. Aviation. Beirut International Airport is used by some international airlines. There are 2 national airlines, Middle East Airlines/Air Liban and Trans-Mediterranean Airways. Over the past few years, Beirut airport was closed several times. Shipping. Beirut is the largest port, followed by Tripoli, Jounieh and Sidon. Illegal ports have mushroomed on the coast, very much reducing the legal ports' activity. No reliable figures about tonnage were available in 1984. Post and Broadcasting. There is an automatic telephone system in Beirut which is being extended to other parts of the country. There are no telegraph, postal or telephone communications with Israel. Number of telephones ( 1978), 231,000. The state radio transmits in Arabic, French, English and Armenian. Teté-Liban,

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787

which is 50% government-owned was the only television station in operation in 1984. There were 325,000 sets in 1975. Cinemas (1973). There were 161 cinemas with a seating capacity of about 7 7,400. Newspapers (1985). There were about 30 daily newspapers in Arabic, 2 in French, 1 in English and 4 in Armenian. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. Probably less than half the population are Christians, some of whom have been indigenous since the earliest time of Christianity. The Christians include the Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenians, Greek and Roman Catholics, Armenian Catholics and the Protestants. Moslems include the Sunnis, the Shiites and the Druzes. No reliable figures on the numbers of these communities are available. Most Jews left the country after the 1975 disturbances. Education. Government schools in 1984 comprise primary and secondary schools. There were also private primary and secondary schools. There are also 5 teachers' training colleges and 5 universities, namely the Lebanese (State) University, the American University of Beirut, the French University of St Joseph (founded in 1875), the Arab University, a branch of Alexandria University and Beirut University College. The French Government runs the École Supérieure de Lettres and the Centre d'Études Mathématiques. The Maronite monks run the University of the Holy Spirit at Kaslik. The Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts includes schools of architecture, art, music, political and social science. Health. There are several government-run hospitals, and many private ones. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Lebanon in Great Britain (21 Kensington Palace Gdns., London, W8 4QM) Ambassador: Gen. Ahmad al-Hajj (accredited 25 May 1983). Of Great Britain in Lebanon (Shamma Bldg., Ras Beirut) Ambassador: H. D. A. C. Miers, CMG. Of Lebanon in the USA (2560 28th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Abdallah Bouhabib. Of the USA in Lebanon Ambassador: Reginald Bartholomew. Of Lebanon to the United Nations Ambassador: Rashid Fakhouri. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Import and export figures are produced by the Conseil Supérieur des Douanes. The Service de Statistique Générale (M. A. G. Ayad, Chef du Service) publishes a quarterly bulletin (in French and Arabic) covering a wide range of subjects, including foreign trade, production statistics and estimates of the national income. Cowan, J. M., Dictionary of Modern Arabic. Wiesbaden, 1961 Deeb, M„ The Lebanese Civil War. New York, 1980 Gilmour, D., Lebanon: The Fractured Country. Oxford and New York, 1983 Gordon, D. C., The Republic of Lebanon: Nation in Jeopardy. London, 1983 Khairallah, S., Lebanon. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1979 Rabanovich, I., The Warfor Lebanon, 1970-1983. Cornell Univ. Press, 1984 Randal, J., The Tragedy of Lebanon. London, 1982 Salem, E. A., Modernization Without Revolution: Lebanon's Experience. Indiana Univ. Press, 1973 Salibi, K. S., Modem History of Lebanon. London, 1965.—Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon 1958-76. New York, 1976 National Library: Dar el Kutub, Parliament Sq., Beirut.

LESOTHO

Capital: Maseru Population: 1 -47m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$540 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . Basutoland first received the protection of Britain in 1868 at the request of Moshoeshoe I, the first paramount chief. In 1871 the territory was annexed to the Cape Colony, but in 1884 it was restored to the direct control of the British Government through the High Commissioner for South Africa. On 4 Oct. 1966 Basutoland became an independent and sovereign member of the Commonwealth under the name of the Kingdom of Lesotho. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Lesotho, an enclave within the Republic of South Africa is bounded on the west by the Orange Free State, on the north by the Orange Free State and Natal, on the east by Natal, and on the south by Transkei. The altitude varies from 1,500 to 3,482 metres. The area is 11,720 sq. miles (30,355 sq. km). Lesotho is a purely African territory, and the few European residents are government officials, traders, missionaries and artisans. The census taken on 12 April 1976 showed a total population of 1,216,815 persons. Estimate (1984) 1 -47m. The capital is Maseru (population, 1976,45,000). The official languages are Sesotho and English. C L I M A T E . A healthy and pleasant climate, with variable rainfall, but averaging 2 9 " (725 mm) a year over most of the country. The rain falls mainly in the summer months of Oct. to April, while the winters are dry and may produce heavy frosts in lowland areas and frequent snow in the highlands. Temperatures in the lowlands range from a maximum of 90°F (32-2°C) in summer to a minimum of 20°F (-6-7°C) in winter. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Lesotho is a constitutional monarchy with HM the King as ceremonial Head of State. Parliament consists of the National Assembly (60 members elected by adult suffrage) and a Senate (22 principal chiefs and 11 members nominated by the King). The elections of 27 Jan. 1970 were declared invalid on 31 Jan. Parliamentary rule, with a National Assembly of nominated members, was reintroduced in April 1973. Elections are planned for 1985. A new Constitution will add up to 20 nominated members to the 60 elected members of the National Assembly, and will limit the Senate to 22 principal chiefs. Ruler: Constantine Bereng Seeiso Motlotlehi Moshoeshoe II, Paramount Chief of the Sotho people since 1940, became King at independence on 4 Oct. 1966. Prime Minister: Chief Leabua Jonathan. Minister of the Interior: Chief Sekhonyana 'Maseribane. The College of Chiefs settles the recognition and succession of Chiefs and adjudicates cases of inefficiency, criminality and absenteeism among them. Nationalflag: Blue with a white Basuto hat; in the hoist 2 vertical strips of green and red. Local Government. The country is divided into 10 districts as follows: Maseru, Qacha's Nek, Mokhotlong, Leribe, Butha-Buthe, Teyateyaneng, Mafeteng, Mohale's Hoek, Quthing, Thaba-Tseka. Each district is subdivided into wards, most of which are presided over by hereditary chiefs allied to the Moshoeshoe family. DEFENCE Police Mobile Unit. Formed in 1978, to facilitate deployment of men and equipment to less accessible regions, this small air wing has 2 Skyvan twin-turboprop 788

LESOTHO

789

transports, 1 Do 27 and 1 Do 28 liaison aircraft, and a total of 5 Bell 412, BO 105 and Bell 47 helicopters. The Skyvans are available also as ambulance aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Lesotho is a member of UN, OAU, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A third 5-year plan (1981-84), to exploit natural resources and promote investment was published in 1983. Budget. Expenditure (1982-83) M269m.; revenue, M216m. The major items of expenditure in 1983-84 were education (M25-8m.), agriculture (M10 • 1 m.) and health (M8 • 4m.). The revenue situation was greatly improved by the re-negotiation of the Republic of South Africa's customs agreement in 1970. Currency. The currency is the Loti (plural Maloti) divided into 100 Lisente which is at par with the South African Rand. In March 1985, £1 =2 -22 Maloti; US$1 = 2 06 Maloti. Banking. The Standard Bank of South Africa and Barclays Bank International have branches at Maseru, Mohale's Hoek and Leribe. The Lesotho Bank has branches throughout the country. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. A feasibility study was announced (1982) to be undertaken by the Republic of South Africa and Lesotho to divert river waters from Lesotho to South Africa and to provide hydro-electricity for Lesotho. Agriculture. The chief crops were (1983 production in 1,000 tonnes): wheat, 15; maize, 79; sorghum, (31); barley, oats, beans, peas and other vegetables are also grown. The land is held in trust for the nation by the King and may not be alienated. Soil conservation and the improvement of crops and pasture are matters of vital importance. A total area of 1,006,817 acres has been protected against soil erosion by means of terracing, training banks, tree planting and grass strips. Efforts are being made to secure the general introduction of rotational grazing in the mountain area. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 600,000; horses, 105,000; donkeys, 100,000; pigs, 65,000; sheep, 1-4m.; goats, lm.; mules, 1,000; poultry, lm. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial development is progressing under the National Development Corporation. Diamond production (1981) 52,000 carats. Commerce. Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland are members of the South African customs union, by agreement dated 29 June 1910. Total values of imports and exports into and from Lesotho (in Mm.): Imports Exports

1979 312 38

1980 372 45

1981 453 43

1982 541 38

Principal imports were food, livestock, drink and tobacco, machinery and transport equipment, mineral fuels and lubricants; principal exports were wool and mohair and diamonds. The majority of international trade is with the Republic of South Africa. Total trade between Lesotho and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m f m 2 m j Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

340 394

Tourism. In 1980 there were 150,000 visitors.

489 1,483

682 1,260

216 2,080

78 633

790

LESOTHO

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 311 km of tarred roads and 1,500 km of gravel-surfaced roads. In addition to the main roads there were (1983) 931 km of food aid tracks leading to trading stations and missions. Communications into the mountainous interior are by means ofbridlepaths suitable only for riding and pack animals, but a mountain road of 80 miles has been constructed, and some parts are accessible by air transport, which is being used increasingly. In 1977 there were 11,509 motor vehicles. Railways. A railway built by the South African Railways, 1 mile long, connects Maseru with the Bloemfontein-Natal line at Marseilles. Aviation. There is a scheduled passenger service between Maseru and Jan Smuts Airport, Johannesburg, operated jointly by Lesotho National Airways and SAA. There are also 30 airstrips for light aircraft. Post and Broadcasting. There were 5,409 telephones in 1983. Radio Lesotho transmits daily in English and Sesotho. Radio receivers (1983), 37,786. Cinemas. In 1971 there were 2 cinemas with a seating capacity of800. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. An appeal court for Lesotho was established at Maseru on 4 Oct. 1966. The police force on 31 Dec. 1982 had an establishment of 348 officers and subordinate officers and 1,530 other ranks. Religion. About 70% of the population are Christians, 40% being Roman Catholics. Education. Education is largely in the hands of the 3 main missions (Paris Evangelical, Roman Catholic and English Church), under the direction of the Ministry of Education. In 1982 the total enrolment in 1,103 primary schools was 277,945; in 108 secondary schools, 27,799; in the National Teacher-Training College enrolment was 1,13o. University education is provided at the NationalUniversity of Lesotho established in 1975 at Roma; enrolment in 1982-83,1,139. Health. The government medical staff of the territory consists of 1 Permanent Secretary for Health, 1 Director of Health Services, 1 medical superintendent, 8 district medical officers and a total of 102 doctors including 20 specialists. There are 11 government hospitals staffed by 308 matrons, sisters and nurses. There is accommodation for 2,1/5 patients in government hospitals. The 360-bed Queen Elizabeth II hospital in Maseru was completed in 1957. There are 9 mission hospitals subsidized by the Government with 153 staff and 729 beds. 116 health centres (319 beds) and mountain dispensaries provide outpatient medical facilities and maternity services to people living in remote areas. The leper settlement 5 miles out of Maseru had 67 patients in 1983. Typhus and plague occur. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Lesotho in Great Britain (10 Collingham Rd., London, SW5) High Commissioner: Odilon Tlali Sefako (accredited 25 Oct. 1983). Of Great Britain in Lesotho High Commissioner: P. E. Rosling, MVO. Of Lesotho in the USA (1601 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: 'M'alineo N. Tau. Of the USA in Lesotho (P.O. Box MS 333, Maseru, 100) Ambassador:S. L. Abbott. Of Lesotho to the United Nations Ambassador: Thabo Makeka. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Bureau of Statistics, PO Box 455, Maseru, Lesotho. Ashton, H„ TheBasuto. 2nded. OUP, 1967 Hailey, Lord, The Republic of South Africa and the High Commission Territories. OUP, 1963 Murray, C., Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho. OU P, 1981 Spence, J. E., Lesotho. OUP, 1968 Stevens,C., Food, Aid and the Developing World. London, 1979

LIBERIA

Capital: Monrovia Population: 1 -9m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$520 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Liberia had its origin in the efforts of several American philanthropic societies to establish freed American slaves in a colony on the West African coast. In 1822 a settlement was formed near the spot where Monrovia now stands. On 26 July 1847 the State was constituted as the Free and Independent Republic of Liberia. The new State was first recognized by Great Britain and France, and ultimately by other powers. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Liberia has about 350 miles of coastline, extending from Sierra Leone, on the west, to the Ivory Coast, on the east, and it stretches inland to a distance, in some places, of about 250 miles. The total area is about 43,000 sq. miles (112,600 sq. km). A census taken in 1978 gave the total population as 1,715,973 (872,105 males). Estimate (1984) 1 -9m. The indigenous natives belong in the main to 4 principal stocks: Mendetan, West Atlantic, Mande-fu, and Kru. These are in turn subdivided into 16 major tribes, namely: Bassa, Belle, Gbandi, Mende, Gio, Dey, Mano, Gola, Kpelle, Kissi, Krahn, Kru, Loma, Mandingo, Vai and Grebo. Monrovia, the capital, had (1984) a population of425,000. It is one of the 4 ports of entry along the 350 miles of coast, the others being Buchanan (Grand Bassa), River Cess, Greenville (Sinoe), Harper (Maryland). Other towns are Kolba City, Voinjama, Tubmanburg, Bensonville, Zorzor, Kakata, Suakoko, Gbamga, Ganta, Sanniquellie, Saclape, Tappita, Robertsport, Bendja, Yekepa and Zwedru. The country is divided into 11 counties and 4 territories and the district of Monrovia. C L I M A T E . An equatorial climate, with constant high temperatures and plentiful rainfall, though Jan. to May is drier than the rest of the year. Monrovia. Jan. 79°F(26- 1°C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 206" (5,138 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the Republic is modelled on that of the US. The executive power is vested in a President and the legislative power in a legislature of 2 Houses, the Senate (27 members) and the House of Representatives (71 members). The President is elected for 6 years in the first instance, the House of Representatives for 4 and the Senate for 6 years. A Legislative Act was approved on 22 July 1974, setting up a National Commission to give consideration to possible changes in the Constitution in preparation for a return to civilian rule in 1985. On 12 April 1980, President Tolbert was assassinated; his government was overthrown and the Constitution suspended. President Tolbert's party, the True Whig Party, was formed in 1860 and had been in power since 1870. Recent economic decline and pressure for change had undermined the Government. In March 1980, the newly formed People's Progressive Party was banned and its leaders arrested. The coup was led by Master-Sergeant Doe who was later installed as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the army. Executive power is vested in the Head of State and a Cabinet of 17 which is supervised by a People's Redemption Council. A draft Constitution was published in 1983 and approved in a referendum held in July 1984, and a return to civilian rule is envisaged for 1985. Head of State and Commander-in-Chief: Samuel Kanyon Doe. Foreign Minister: T. Emest Eastman. The official language is English. National flag: Six red and 5 white horizontal stripes alternating. In the upper 791

792

LIBERIA

corner, nearest the staff, is a square of blue covering a depth of 5 stripes. In the centre of this blue field is a 5-pointed white star. National anthem: All hail, Liberia, hail! (words by President Warner; tune by O. Lucas, 1860). DEFENCE Army. The establishment organized on a militia basis numbers 4,900 (1985), divided into 5 infantry battalions with support units. There is in addition an enlisted frontier force, the Liberian National Guard, of 93 officers and 2,200 men. Equipment includes 12 M-3A1 scout cars. Navy. The small naval service or coastguard comprises 3 small patrol boats, 3 coastguard cutters and 1 aircraft. Personnel in 1985 totalled 445 officers and men. Air Force. The nucleus of an Air Force has been formed, as the Air Reconnaissance Unit, to support the Liberian Army. Equipment includes 2 C-47 transports, an Israeli-built Arava twin-turboprop light transport and a small number of Cessna 172, 185, 207 and 337G light aircraft. HAL Chetak (licence-built Alouette III) helicopters are expected to follow from India. Personnel about 250. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Liberia is a member of UN, OAU, ECOWAS and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1981-85 Development Plan has planned expenditure ofUS$615m. of which US$203m. is devoted to the development of agriculture. Budget. Revenue and expenditure was as follows (in US$ 1,000): Revenue Expenditure

1981-82 279,300 385,800

1982-83 390,100 420,100

1983-84 357,000 387,000

Currency. The legal currency of Liberia is the dollar which is equivalent to US$1 which itself has been in circulation since 3 Nov. 1942, but there is a Liberian coinage in silver and copper. Official accounts are kept in dollars and cents. The Liberian coins are as follows: Silver,$5, $1, 50-, 25-, 10- and 5-cent pieces; alloy, 2-and 1-cent pieces. The Government has not yet issued paper money. In March 1985,£1 = 107 Liberian $;US$1 = 1 Liberian $. Banking. The First National City Bank (Liberia) was founded in 1935. An Italian bank, Tradevco, started business in 1955. The International Trust Co. of Liberia opened a commercial banking department at the end of 1960. A branch of the Chase Manhattan Bank opened in 1961. The Liberian Bank for Development and Investment (LBDI) was founded in 1964 and began operations in 1965. The National Bank of Liberia opened on 22 July 1974, to act as a central bank. The National Housing and Savings Bank opened on 20 Jan. 1972. The Liberian Finance & Trust Corporation was incorporated Oct. 1976 and began operations in May 1977. The Liberian Agricultural and Co-operative Development Bank started operations in 1978. The Bank of Credit & Commerce International opened in Sept. 1978. Weights and Measures. Weights and measures are the same as in UK and USA. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The National Iron Ore Co. near the Mano River, the Liberian Swedish Mineral Co. in the Nimba Mountains and the Bong Mining Co. (DELIMCO) at Bong Mountain Range are exploiting their iron-ore concession areas. Iron ore production was valued at US$241 -lm. tonnes in 1982. Total employment in iron ore mining was 8,815 in 1981. Gold is found on a small scale and diamond production (1982) 337,732 carats valued at US$20-8m.

LIBERIA

793

Agriculture. The soil is productive, but due to excessive rainfall (from 160 to 180 in. per year), there are large swamp areas. Rice, cassava, coffee, citrus and sugarcane are cultivated. The Government is negotiating the financing of large-scale investment in rice production aimed at making the country self-sufficient in rice production. Coffee, cocoa and palm-kernels are produced mainly by the traditional agricultural sector. In 1981, the total volume of coffee and cocoa exports alone were 18 • 3m. lb. (US$ 19 • 4m.), and 14 • 8m. lb. (US$ 13 • 8m.), respectively. The Liberia Produce Marketing Corporation (LPMC) operates an oil-mill in Monrovia, processing most of the palm-kernels. There were 2 large commercial oil-palm plantations in the country. The Liberia Industrial Co-operative (LBINC) has 6,000 acres of oil-palm (of which 5,000 acres are in production) in Grand Bassa County,and West Africa Agricultural Co. (WAAQ has 4,020 acres in production in Grand Cape Mount County. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 42,000; pigs, 115,000; sheep, 232,000; poultry, 3m. Forestry. The Firestone Plantation Co. have large rubber plantations, employing over 40,000 men. Their concession comprises about lm. acres and expires in the year 2025. About 100,000 acres have been planted. Independent producers have a further 65,000 acres planted. In 1976 the total area under rubber cultivation was 294,400 acres, of which 195,800 acres were under actual production. Other rubber producing companies include Goodrich Rubber Plantation, Allen L. Grant, L. A. C. and Salala Rubber Co. Together, the foreign concessions produced 131- 6m. lb. in 1981 while independent Liberian farmers produced 148 • 7m. lb. in 1981. The production of logs in 1981 was 451 m. cu. metres; 1980,745m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There are a number of small factories (brick and tile, soap, nails, mattresses, shoes, plastics, paint, oxygen, acetylene, tyre retreading, a brewery, soft drinks, cement, matches, candy and biscuits). Commerce. Foreign trade for 6 calendar years was as follows (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1977 463-5 447-4

1978 486 481

1979 537 505

1980 533-8 600-4

1981 477-4 529-2

1982 353-9

The principal exports in 1981 were: Iron ore, and concentrates, US$325-4m.; rubber, US$86-7m.; logs and lumber, US$36 -8m. The principal imports in 1981 were machinery and transport equipment (US$118-9m.) and manufactured goods (US$61-3m.). Main suppliers in 1981 were: Asia and European countries (US$200m.), USA (US$ 142 • 1 m.), other countries (US$ 136 • 3m.). Total trade between Liberia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 ImportstoUK 8,671 6,014 8,213 7,181 6,975 Exports and re-exports from UK. 46,412 24,262 14,069 13,877 30,980 The figures for exports from the U K include the value of shipping transferred to the Liberian flag; the genuine exports are considerably lower.

Tourism. The National Bureau of Culture and Tourism was created in July 1981. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981, there were 4,794 miles of public roads (1,165 primary, 366 paved, 799 all-weather, 3,629 secondary and feeder) and 1,474 miles of private roads (93 paved, 1,381 laterite and earth). The principal highway connects Monrovia with the road system of Guinea,, with branches leading into the Eastern and Western areas of Liberia. The latter branch reaches the Sierra Leone border and joins the Sierra Leone road system. A bridge over the St Paul River carries road and rail traffic to the iron-ore mines at Bomi Hills. Railway. A railway (for freight only) was built in 1951, connecting Monrovia with the Bomi Hills iron-ore mines about 69 km distant; this has been extended to the

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National Iron Ore Co. area by 79 km. A line from Nimba to Lower Buchanan (267 km) was completed in 1963 and another line from Bong to Monrovia (78 km) was completed in 1965. Aviation. The airport for Liberia is Roberts Airport (30 miles from Monrovia). The James Spriggs Payne Airfield, 5 miles from Monrovia, can be used by light aircraft and mini jumbo jets. Air services are maintained by PANAM, Ghana Airways, Nigeria Airways, UTA, Middle East Airlines, Air Mali, Air Afrique, SAS, KLM, Swissair, British Caledonian, Air Guinée, S A B E N A , Iberia Airlines, Romanian Airlines and Air Liberia. Shipping. In 1981,2,277 vessels entered Monrovia. The Liberian merchant navy, in 1976, consisted of 2,666 ships of 76,412,842 GRT. The Liberian Government requires only a modest registration fee and an almost nominal annual charge and maintains no control over the operation of ships flying the Liberian flag. Post and Broadcasting. There is cable communication (French) with Europe and America via Dakar, and a wireless station is maintained by the Government at Monrovia. There is a telephone service (7,079 telephones, 1980), in Monrovia, which is gradually being extended over the whole country. An earth station constructed by Itacable in 1976 is equipped for 24 telephone type channels and its traffic can be increased to 60 telephone type channels. With the aid of the satellite, automatic telephone and telegraph services to and from many countries are transmitted on a 24-hour basis. There are wireless stations at Monrovia, Bassa, Harper, Kolahun, Cape Mount and Sinoe. There were (1982) 320,000 radio and 21,000 television receivers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court of 5 judges, circuit courts and lower courts. A new Liberian code of laws has been published (5 vols, to 1956). Religion. The main denominations represented in Liberia are Methodist, Baptist, Episcopalian, African Methodist, Pentecostal, Seventh-day Adventist, Lutheran and Roman Catholic, working through missionaries and mission schools. There are about 670,000 Moslems. Education. Schools are classified as: (1) Public schools, maintained and run by the Government; (2) Mission schools, supported by foreign Missions and subsidized by the Government, and operated by qualified Missionaries and Liberian teachers; (3) Private schools, maintained by endowments and sometimes subsidized by the Government. In 1984 there were estimated to be 1,830 schools with 8,344 teachers and 443,688 pupils. Health. There were 236 doctors in 1981 and about 3,000 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Liberia in Great Britain (21 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1QB) Chargé d'Affaires: James H. Stevens. Of Great Britain in Liberia (Mamba Point, Monrovia) Ambassador and Consul-General: D. G. Reid, CMG. Of Liberia in the USA (5201 16th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20011) A mbassador: Dr G. Toe Washington. Of the USA in Liberia (United Nations Drive, Monrovia) Ambassador: William L. Swing. Of Liberia to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Abeodu B. Jones. Books of Reference Economic Survey of Liberia, ¡981. Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs Dunn, D. E., The Foreign Policy of Liberia during the Tubman Era, ¡944-71. London, 1979 Fraenkel, M., Tribe and Class in Monrovia. OUP, 1964 Wilson,C. M., Liberia: Black Africa in Microcosm. New York, 1971

LIBYA Al-Jamahiriyah Al-Arabiya Al-Libya Al-Shabiya Al-Ishtirakiya

Capital: Tripoli Population: 3 • 5m. (1982) GNP per capita: US$8,450 (1981)

HISTORY. Tripoli fell under Turkish domination in the 16th century, and though in 1711 the Arab population secured some measure of independence, the country was in 1835 proclaimed a Turkish vilayet. In Sept. 1911 Italy occupied Tripoli and on 19 Oct. 1912, by the Treaty of Ouchy, Turkey recognized the sovereignty of Italy in Tripoli. After the expulsion of the Germans and Italians in 1942 and 1943, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were placed under British, and the Fezzan under French, military administration. Britain recognized the Amir Mohammed Idris Al-Senussi as Amir of Cyrenaica in June 1949. Libya became an independent, sovereign, federal kingdom under the Amir of Cyrenaica, Mohammed Idris Al-Senussi, as King of the United Kingdom of Libya, on 24 Dec. 1951, when the British Residents in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica and the French Resident in the Fezzan transferred their remaining powers to the federal government of Libya, in pursuance of decisions passed by the United Nations in 1949 and 1950. On 1 Sept. 1969 King Idris was deposed by a group of army officers. Twelve of the group of officers formed the Revolutionary Command Council chaired by Col. Muammar Qadhafi and proclaimed a republic. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area is estimated at 1,759,540 sq. km (679,358 sq. miles). The population, according to the census of 1973, was 2,249,237. Estimate(1982)3-5m. The country is divided administratively in 25 municipalities with the following main population centres: Tripoli, 980,000; Benghazi, 650,000; Misurata, 285,000; Zavia, 247,000; Sebha (the main town in the southern province) 113,000. C L I M A T E . The coastal region has a warm temperate climate, with mild wet winters and hot dry summers, though most of the country suffers from aridity. Tripoli. Jan. 52°F (11 • PC), July 8 T F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 16" (400 mm). Benghazi. Jan. 56°F(13-3°C), July 77°F(25°C). Annual rainfall 11" (267 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the new 1977 Constitution, Libya is now divided into 25 municipalities and 126 'Basic People's Congresses', which form the primary level of government. The General People's Congress, created in Jan. 1976 as the national legislature, comprises 3 delegates from each of the 186 Basic People's Congresses. The General People's Committee, which replaced the Council of Ministers, is assisted by the 5-member General People's Secretariat, which replaced the Revolutionary Command Council. It was ruled by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) under the leadership of Col. Muammar Qadhafi. In March 1977 a new form of direct democracy, the 'Jamahiriya' (state of the masses) was promulgated and the official name of the country was changed to Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. At local level authority is now vested in 186 Basic and 25 Municipal People's Congresses which appoint Popular Committees to execute policy. Officials of these Congresses and Committees form at national level the General People's Congress, a body of some 1,000 delegates which normally meets for about a week twice a year. This is the highest policy-making 795

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body in the country. The General People's Congress appoints its own General Secretariat and the General People's Committee, whose members head the 20 government departments which execute policy at national level. The Secretary of the General People's Committee has functions similar to those of a Prime Minister. Following the re-organization of March 1979 Col. Qadhafi retained his position as leader of the Revolution. But neither he nor his former RCC colleagues have any formal posts in the new administration. Arabic is the official language. Tripoli is the capital. Secretary-General of the General Secretariat of the General People's Congress: Muhamed Az-Zaruq Rajab. Nationalflag: Plain green. DEFENCE. Libyans are liable for 18 months' service at the age of 18. Enrolment in the reserves, numbering about 40,000, continues until aged 49. Army. The Army is organized into 20 tank battalions, 30 mechanized infantry, 1 National Guard, 10 artillery, 2 anti-aircraft and 2 surface-to-surface missile battalions. Equipment includes 2,600 T-54/-55/-62 and 300 T-72 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 58,000. The paramilitary Pan-African Legion numbers about 10,000. Navy, The fleet comprises 6 ex-Soviet diesel-driven submarines, 1 missile-armed frigate, 7 missile-armed corvettes, 1 gun corvette, 6 ocean minesweepers, 25 fast missile craft, 14 fast gunboats, 8 patrol boats, 1 medium (dock type) logistic support ship, 2 landing ships, 3 medium landing ships, 20 landing craft, 1 maintenance repair craft, 1 diving ship, 1 salvage ship, 1 transport and 7 tugs. Under construction or projection are 1 missile-armed corvette and 30 landing craft. Libya has procured naval equipment and weapons from both the East (particularly the USSR) and the West; and the increasing and up-to-date fleet constitutes a force of crucial importance in the Mediterranean. Personnel in 1985 exceeded 4,000 officers and ratings, including coastguard. A large proportion of naval personnel have been trained in the Soviet Union since 1975. Air Force. The creation of an Air Force began in 1959. In 1974, delivery was completed of a total of 110 Mirage 5 combat aircraft and trainers, of which about 50 remain. They have been followed by 20 Tu-22 supersonic reconnaissance bombers, 50 MiG-25 interceptors and reconnaissance aircraft, 100 Su-22 ground attack fighters, 94 MiG-21s, and about 140 MiG-23 variable-geometry fighters and fighter-bombers from the USSR. Other equipment includes 40 Mirage F1 fighters from France, 6 Mirage Fl-B two-seat trainers, 20 Mi-24 gunship helicopters, Mi-14 anti-submarine helicopters, 9 C-130H Hercules and 20 Aeritalia G222T transports, 8 Super Frelon and 20 Agusta-built CH-47C Chinook heavy-lift helicopters, and a total of 16 Bell 212, Bell 47, Alouette III and Mi-8 helicopters. Training is performed on piston-engined SF.260Ms (some of which are armed for light attack duties) from Italy; L-39 Albatros, Galeb and Magister jet aircraft; and twin-engined Xingus built in Brazil. Personnel total about 8,500, with many of the combat aircraft operated by foreign aircrew. Aircraft on order include more Mirage F1 fighters from France and MiG-23s from the USSR. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Libya is a member of UN, OAU and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. Declining oil revenues (50% down on 1980 levels) has meant postponing of most projects envisaged in the 5-year development plan (1981-85). Budget. A development budget of LD2,370m. was announced for 1983 but is likely to be under-spent by 50%. Currency. The currency is the Libyan dinar which is divided into 1,000 millemes. Rate of exchange, March 1985: LD0 • 32=£ 1; LD0 • 30=US$ 1.

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Banking. A National Bank of Libya was established in 1955; it was renamed the Central Bank of Libya in 1972. All foreign banks were nationalized by Dec. 1970. In 1972 the Libyan Government set up the Libyan Arab Foreign Bank whose function is overseas investment and to participate in multinational banking corporations. The National Agricultural Bank, which has been set up to give loans and subsidies to farmers to develop their land and to assist them in marketing their crops, has offices in Tripoli, Benghazi, Sebha and other agricultural centres. The National Industrial and Real Estate Bank has been divided to form a Real Estate Bank to provide loans for house-buyers and the Development Bank to finance industrial projects. Weights and Measures. Although the metric system has been officially adopted and is obligatory for all contracts, the following weights and measures are still used: oke= 1 -282 kg; kantar=51-28 kg; draa=46 cm; handaza=68 cm. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electricity output capacity in 1980 was 1,950 mw and under the development plan was scheduled to rise to 3,878 mwby 1985. Oii. Production (1981) 420m. bbls. Reserves (1981) 21,000m. bbls. The Libyan National Oil Corporation (NOC) was established in March 1970 to be the state's organization for the exploitation of Libya's oil resources. NOC does not participate in the production of oil but has a majority share in all the operating companies with the exception of two small producers Aquitaine-Libya and Wintershall Libya. The largest producers are Oasis (59-2% NOC, Marathon and Conoco, 16-3% and Amerada Hess 8 -2%) and AGOCO (100% NOC) who together produce more than 50% of total production. The other significant producers are Occidental Libya (51% NOC, 49% Occidental US) AGIP N.A.M.E. (50% NOC, 50% AGIP Italy) SIRTE Oil Co. (formerly ESSO Libya until EXXON withdrew in Oct. 1981) and Mobil Oil Libya Ltd. (82-8% NOC, 17-2% Veba-Gelsenberg) who continue to use the Mobil name despite the fact that Mobil Inc. followed EXXON's example and withdrew in July 1982. Gas. Reserves (1982) 670,000m. cu. metres. Production (1982) 29,000m. cu. metres. In 1983 a gas pipeline was under construction which will take gas from Brega, along the coast to Misurata. Minerals. There were (1984) 5 cement factories with a capacity of 4-75m. tonnes per annum. Two new plants were under construction in 1984 with a capacity of 2-5m. tonnes. Gypsum output (1975) 15,000 tonnes. Iron ore deposits have been found in the south. Agriculture. Tripolitania has 3 zones from the coast inland—the Mediterranean, the sub-desert and the desert. The first, which covers an area of about 17,231 sq. miles, is the only one properly suited for agriculture, and may be further subdivided into: (1) the oases along the coast, the richest in North Africa, in which thrive the date palm, the olive, the orange, the peanut and the potato; (2) the steppe district, suitable for cereals (barley and wheat) and pasture; it has olive, almond, vine, orange and mulberry trees and ricinus plants; (3) the dunes, which are being gradually afforested with acacia, robinia, poplar and pine; (4) the Jebel (the mountain district, Tarhuna, Garian, Nalut-Yefren), in which thrive the olive, the fig, the vine and other fruit trees, and which on the east slopes down to the sea with the fertile hills of Msellata. Of some 25m. acres of productive land in Tripolitania, nearly 20m. are used for grazing and about 1 m. for static farming. The sub-desert zone produces the alfa plant. The desert zone and the Fezzan contain some fertile oases, such as those of Ghadames, Ghat, Socna, Sebha, Brak. Cyrenaica has about 10m. acres of potentially productive land, most of which, however, is suitable only for grazing. Certain areas, chief of which is the plateau known as the Barce Plain (about 1,000 ft above sea-level), are suitable for dry farming; in addition, grapes, olives and dates are grown. With improved irrigation, production, particularly of vegetables, could be increased, but stock raising and dry farming will remain of primary importance. About 143,000 acres are used for

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settled farming; about 272,000 acres are covered by natural forests. The Agricultural Development Authority plans to reclaim 6,000 hectares each year for agriculture. In the Fezzan there are about 6,700 acres of irrigated gardens and about 297,000 acres are planted with date palms. Production (1980, in tonnes): Wheat, 141,000; barley, 71,000; milk, 85,000; meat, 119,000. Olive trees number about 3-4m. and productive date-palm trees about 3m. Livestock (1983): 4-8m. sheep, 1 -5m. goats, 200,000 cattle, 7m. poultry. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Among the traditional industries of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica are sponge fishing, tunny fishing, tobacco growing and processing, dyeing and weaving of local wool and imported cotton yarn, and olive oil. Tripolitania also produces bricks, salt, leather and esparto grass for paper-making. Home industries of both territories include the making of matting, carpets, leather articles and fabrics embroidered with gold and silver. The Government has embarked on ao ambitious programme of industrial development aimed at the local manufacture of building materials (steel and aluminium pipes and fittings, electric cables, cement, bricks, glass, etc.), foodstuffs (dairy products, flour, tinned fruits and vegetables, dates, fish processing and canning, etc.), textiles and footwear (ready-made clothing, woollen and cotton cloth, blankets, leather footwear, etc.) and development of mineral deposits (iron ore, phosphates, mineral salts). Small scale private sector industrialization is encouraged by government loans and subsidies. On 21 Sept. 1969 a decree laid down that all business concerns should be 100% Libyan-owned, but oil companies and banks were excluded. Commerce. Total imports in 1982 were valued at US$ 13,000 (f.o.b.) and exports of US$ 13,948 (f.o.b.), mostly crude oil. Total trade between Libya and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1981 1982 1983 1984 1980 46,528 74,810 342,476 224,050 155,276 288,358 520,416 260,937 274,169 246,467

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Good motor roads connect Tripoli through Zuara with Tunis, and through Homs and Misurata with Benghazi and thence with Tobruk and Alexandria, although the border with Egypt has been closed for some years. Other roads go south and south-west from Tripoli to Tiagura, Garian, Yefren, Nalut and Ghadames. A road connects Sebha in the south with the main coastal road. An ambitious road building programme is being implemented and a road will eventually link Libya with Chad and Niger through Sebha. A further main road is being built to link Kufra, a major agricultural centre in the south-eastern part of Libya with the coastal road. Surface communication between Benghazi and Tripoli is by frequent bus service, and there are also bus services between Benghazi and Alexandria, and between Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers. Railways. There were in 1982 no railways, but a major railway project has been planned to run along the coast from the Tunisian to the Egyptian border. Aviation. Benghazi and Tripoli are both served by international airlines, linking them with each other and Athens, Rome, Malta, Tunis, Frankfurt, Paris, Amsterdam, Algiers, Lagos and London. British Caledonian has 5 flights weekly between Tripoli and London. A national airline, the Libyan Arab Airlines (LAA), was inaugurated on 30 Sept. 1965. Apart from internal flights LAA operate to Athens, London, Rome, Beirut, Paris, Malta, Algiers, Moscow, Cotonou and Tunis. Post and Broadcasting. Tripoli is connected by telegraph cable with Malta and by

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microwave link with Bengardane (Tunis). There are overseas wireless-telegraph stations at Benghazi and Tripoli, and radio-telephone services connect Libya with most countries of western Europe. In 1971 some 41,495 telephones were in use and in 1982 there were 150,000 radio sets and 160,000 television receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) one daily in Tripoli with a circulation of about 40,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Civil, Commercial and Criminal codes are based mainly on the Egyptian model. Matters of personal status of family or succession matters affecting Moslems are dealt with in special courts according to the Moslem law. All other matters, civil, commercial and criminal, are tried in the ordinary courts, which have jurisdiction over everyone. There are civil and penal courts in Tripoli and Benghazi, with subsidiary courts at Misurata and Dema; courts of assize in Tripoli and Benghazi, and courts of appeal in Tripoli and Benghazi. Religion. Islam is declared the State religion, but the right of others to practise their religions is provided for. Education. There were (1980-81) 675,000 pupils in primary schools, 223,000 in preparatory schools and 40,000 in secondary schools. There are 2 universities of A1 Fatah (in Tripoli) and Garyounes (in Benghazi). Social Welfare. In 1980 there were 14,472 hospital beds and 4,300 physicians and dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES UK broke off diplomatic relations with Libya on 22 April 1984. Saudi Arabia looks after Libyan interests in UK and Italy looks after UK's interests in Libya. USA suspended all embassy activities in Tripoli on 2 May 1980. Of Libya to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Ali A. Treiki. Books of Reference Allen, J. A., Libya: The Experience of Oil. London and Boulder, 1981.—Libya since Independence. London, 1982 Ansell, M. 0.,andal-Arif, I. M., The Libyan Revolution. London, 1972 Bianco, M., Gadafi: Voice from the Desert. London, 1975 Cooley, J. K., Libyan Sandstorm: The Complete Account of Qaddctfi's Revolution. London and New York, 1983 Fergiani,M. B., The Libyan Jamahiriya. London, 1984 Waddhams, F. C., The Libyan Oil Industry. London, 1980 Wright, J., Libya: A Modern History. London, 1982

LIECHTENSTEIN

Capto/. Vaduz Population: 26,512 (1983) GA'Pper capto: US$16,440 (1980)

HISTORY. The Principality of Liechtenstein, situated between the Austrian province ofVorarlberg and the Swiss cantons of St Gallen and Graubiinden, is a sovereign state whose history dates back to 3 May 1342, when Count Hartmann III became ruler of the county of Vaduz. Additions were later made to the count's domains, and by 1434 the territory reached its present boundaries. It consists of the two former counties of Schellenbeig and Vaduz (until 1806 immediate fiefs of the Roman Empire). The former in 1699 and the latter in 1712 came into the possession of the house of Liechtenstein and, by diploma of 23 Jan. 1719, granted by the Emperor Charles VI, the two counties were constituted as the Principality of Liechtenstein. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Liechtenstein is bounded on the east by Austria and the west by Switzerland. Area, 160 sq. km (61 • 8 sq. miles); population, of Alemannic race (census 1980), 25,215; estimate, 1983, 26,512. In 1983 there were 350 births and 156 deaths. Population of Vaduz (census 1980), 4,606; estimate, 1983,4,896. R E I G N I N G P R I N C E . Francis Joseph II, born 16 Aug. 1906; succeeded his great uncle, 26 July 1938; married on 7 March 1943 to Countess Gina von Wilczek; there are 4 sons, Princes Hans Adam (heir apparent, bom 14 Feb. 1945; married on 30 July 1967 to Countess Marie Aglae Kinsky), Philipp Erasmus (married on 11 Sept. 1971 to Isabelle de 1'Arbre de Malander), Nikolaus Ferdinand (married on 20 March 1982 to Princess Margaretha of Luxembourg) and Franz Josef Wenzel, and one daughter, Princess Nora Elisabeth. The monarchy is hereditary in the male line. Nationalflag: Horizontally blue over red, with a gold coronet in the first quarter. National anthem: Oben am jungen Rhein (words by H. H. Jauch, 1850; tune, 'God save the Queen'). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the hereditary princes of the House of Liechtenstein. The present constitution of 5 Oct. 1921 provides for a unicameral parliament (Diet) of 15 members elected for4 years. Election is by universal adult suffrage and is on the basis of proportional representation. The prince can call and dismiss the parliament. On parliamentary recommendation, he appoints the prime minister and the 4 councillors for a 4-year term. Any group of900 persons or any 3 communes may propose legislation (initiative). Bills passed by the parliament may be submitted to popular referendum. A law is valid when it receives a majority approval by the parliament and the prince's signed concurrence. The capital and seat of government is Vaduz and there are 10 more communes all connected by modern roads. The 11 communes are fully independent administrative bodies within the laws of the principality. They levy additional taxes to the state taxes. Since Feb. 1921 Liechtenstein has had the Swiss currency, and since 29 March 1923 has been united with Switzerland in a customs union. Switzerland has also since 1919 represented the Principality diplomatically. At the elections for the Diet, on 7 Feb. 1982, the Fatherland Union obtained 8 seats, the opposition Progressive Citizens' Party, 7 seats. Head of Government: Hans Brunhart. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Liechtenstein is a member of EFTA, the Council of Europe and the International Court of Justice. 800

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ECONOMY Budget. Budget estimates for 1984: Revenue, 272,692,000 Swiss francs; expenditure, 269,254,000 Swiss francs. There is no public debt. Currency. The Swiss franc. Banking. There were (1984) 3 banks: Liechtensteinische Landesbank, Bank in Liechtenstein Ltd, Verwaltungs-und Privatbank Ltd. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity produced in 1983 was 52 -28m. kwh. Agriculture. The rearing of cattle, for which the fine alpine pastures are well suited, is highly developed. In March 1984 there were 6,260 cattle (including 2,758 milch cows), 165 horses, 2,265 sheep, 123 goats, 3,575 pigs. Total production of dairy produce, 1983,10,558,022 kg. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The country has a great variety of light industries (textiles, ceramics, steel screws, precision instruments, canned food, pharmaceutical products, heating appliances, etc.). Since 1945 Liechtenstein has changed from a predominantly agricultural country to a highly industrialized country. The farming population has gone down from 70% in 1930 to only 3% in 1983. The rapid change-over has led to the immigration of foreign workers (Austrians, Germans, Italians, Spaniards). Industrial undertakings in 1983 employed 5,978 workers earning 259m. Swiss francs. Commerce. Exports of home produce in 1983 amounted to 919m. Swiss francs. 30-7% went to EFTA countries, of which Switzerland took 210-8m. (22-9%) and 37 -9% went to EEC countries. Total trade with UK is included with Switzerland from 1968. Tourism. In 1983,79,426 foreign visitors stayed in Liechtenstein. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 250 km of roads. Postal buses are the chief means of public transportation within the country and to Austria and Switzerland. Railways. The 18-5 km of main railway passing through the country is operated by Austrian Federal Railways. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 11,480 telephones, 426 telex, 8,234 wireless sets and 7,743 television sets. The post and telegraphs are administered by Switzerland. Cinemas. There were 3 cinemas in 1983. Newspapers. In 1983 there were 2 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 14,700. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The principality has its own civil and penal codes. The lowest court is the county court, Landgericht, presided over by one judge, which decides minor civil cases and summary criminal offences. The criminal court, Kriminalgericht, with a bench of 5 judges is for major crimes. Another court of mixed jurisdiction is the court of assizes (with 3 judges) for misdemeanours. The superior court, Obergericht, and Supreme Court, Oberster Gerichtshof, are courts of appeal for civil and criminal cases (both with benches of 5 judges). An administrative court of appeal from government actions and the State Court determines the constitutionality of laws.

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Police. The principality has no army. Police force, 42; auxiliary police, 20 ( 1984). Religion. In 1983, 85-5% of the population was Roman Catholic and 8-6% was Protestant. Education ( 1984). In 14 primary, 3 upper, 4 secondary, I grammar and 3 (for backward children) schools there were 3,700 pupils and 330 teachers. There is also an evening technical school, a music school and a children's pedagogic-welfare day school. Health. In 1984 there was 1 hospital, but Liechtenstein has an agreement with the Swiss cantons of St Gallen and Graubünden that her citizens may use certain hospitals. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES British Consul-General:G. N. Smith (resident in Zürich). USA Consul-General: Dr Alfred P. Brainard (resident in Zürich). Books of Reference Statistical Information: Amt für Volkswirtschaft, Vaduz. Rechenschaftsbericht der Fürstlichen Regierung. Vaduz. Annual, from 1922 Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins. Vaduz. Annual since 1901 Kranz, W., The Principality of Liechtenstein. Press and Information Office. 5th ed. Vaduz, 1981 The Economy ofthe Principality of Liechtenstein. Press and Information Office, Vaduz, 1984 Batliner, E. H., Das Geld- und Kreditwesen des Fürstentums Liechtenstein in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. 1959 Green, B., Valley of Peace. Vaduz, 1967 Larke, T. A. T., Index and Thesaurus of Liechtenstein. 2nd ed. Berkeley, 1984 Malin, G., Kunstführer Fürstentum Liechtenstein. Berne, 1977 Raton, P., Liechtenstein: History and Institutions of the Principality. Vaduz, 1970 Seger, O., A Survey of Liechtenstein History. 2nd English ed. Vaduz, 1970 Steger, G., Fürst und Landtag nach Liechtensteinischem Recht. Vaduz, 1950

LUXEMBOURG Grand-Duché de Luxembourg

Capital: Luxembourg Population: 365,800 ( 1984) GNP per capita: US$ 15,910 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. The country formed part of the Holy Roman Empire until it was conquered by the French in 1795. In 1815 the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was formed under the house of Orange-Nassau, also sovereigns of the Netherlands. In 1839 the Walloon-speaking area was joined to Belgium. In 1890 the personal union with the Netherlands ended with the accession of a member of another branch of the house of Nassau, Grand Duke Adolphe of Nassau-Weilburg. AREA A N D POPULATION. Luxembourç has an area of 2,586 sq. km (998 sq. miles) and is bounded on the west by Belgium, south by France, east by the Federal Republic of Germany. The population (1984) was 365,800. The capital, Luxembourg, had 79,000 inhabitants; Esch-Alzette, the centre of the mining district, 25,142; Differdange, 8,588; Dudelange, 14,074, and Petange, 6,416. In 1983 the foreign population was about 96,700. Vital statistics (1983): 4,185 births, 4,129 deaths, 1,982 marriages. CLIMATE. Cold, raw winters with snow covering the ground for up to a month are features of the upland areas. The remainder resembles Belgium in its climate, with rain evenly distributed throughout the year. Jan. 31°F (0-5°C), July 63°F (17- 5°C). Annual rainfall 29-6" (740 mm). REIGNING GRAND DUKE. Jean, bom 5 Jan. 1921, son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and the late Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma; succeeded 12 Nov. 1964 on the abdication of his mother; married to Princess Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium, 9 April 1953. Offspring: Princess Marie Astrid, bom 17 Feb. 1954, married Christian of Habsbourg-Lorraine 6 Feb. 1982; Prince Henri, heir apparent, bom 16 April 1955, married Maria Teresa Mestre 14 Feb. 1981; (Offspring: Prince Guillaume Jean Joseph Marie, bom 11 Nov. 1981, Prince Felix Marie Guillaume, bom 3 June 1984). Prince Jean and Princess Margaretha (married Prince Nikolaus of Liechtenstein 20 March 1982),bom 15May 1957; Prince Guillaume, bom 1 May 1963. The civil list is fixed at 300,000 gold francs per annum, to be reconsidered at the beginning of each reign. On 28 Sept. 1919a referendum was taken in Luxembourg to decide on the political and economic future of the country. The voting resulted as follows: For the reigning Grand Duchess, 66,811; for the continuance of the Nassau-Braganza dynasty under another Grand Duchess, 1,286; for another dynasty, 889; for a republic, 16,885; for an economic union with France, 60,133; for an economic union with BÎelgium, 22,242. But France refused in favour of Belgium, and on 22 Dec. 1921 the Chamber of the Grand Duchy passed a Bill for the economic union between Belgium and Luxembourg. The agreement, which is for 60 years, provides for the disappearance of the customs barrier between the two countries and the use of Belgian, in addition to Luxembourg, currency as legal tender in the Grand Duchy. It came into force on 1 May 1922. The Grand Duchy was under German occupation from 10 May 1940 to 10 Sept. 1944. The Grand Duchess Charlotte and the Government carried on an independent administration in London. Civil government was restored in Oct. 1944. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white and light blue. National anthem: Ons Hemecht (words , by M. Lentz, 1859; tune by J. A. Zinnen). 803

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C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a constitutional monarchy, the hereditary sovereignty being in the Nassau family. The constitution of 17 Oct. 1868 was revised in 1919,1948,1956 and 1972. The revision of 1948 has abolished the 'perpetually neutral' status of the country and introduced the concepts of right to work, social security, health services, freedom of trade and industry, and recognition of trade unions. The revision of 1956 provides for the devolution of executive, legislative and judicial powers to international institutions. The national language is Luxemburgish; French, German and English are widely used. The country forms 4 electoral districts. An elector must be a citizen (male or female) of Luxembourg-and have completed 18 years of age; to be eligible for election the citizen must have completed 21 years of age. The Chamber of Deputies consists of 25 Christian Social, 21 Socialists, 14 Democrats, and 2 Communists, and 2 Green alternatives (Ecologists) deputies (elections of 17 June 1984). Members are elected for 5 years; they receive a salary and a travelling allowance. The head of the state takes part in the legislative power, exercises the executive power and has a certain part in the judicial power. The constitution leaves to the sovereign the right to organize the Government, which consists of a Minister of State, who is President ofthe Government, and of at least 3 Ministers. The Cabinet was, in Aug. 1984, composed as follows: President of the Government, Minister of State, Minister for Finance: Jacques Santer. Vice-President of the Government, Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Cooperation, Economy and Middle Classes, Exchequer: Jacques F. Poos. Health and Social Security: Benny Berg. Justice, Cultural Affairs, Environment: Robert Krieps. National Education and Youth, Tourism: Femand Boden. Interior, Family Affairs, Social Solidarity: Jean Spautz. Labour, Finance and Budget: Jean-Claude Juncker. Transport, Public Works, Energy: Marcel Schlechter. Agriculture and Viticulture, Armed Forces, Civil Service, Physical Education and Sports: Marc Fischbach. Secretary of State for Economy: Johny Lahure. Secretary of State for Agriculture and Viticulture: René Steichen. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Co-operation, Middle Classes: Robert Goebbels. Besides the Cabinet there is a Council of State. It deliberates on proposed laws and Bills, and on amendments; it also gives administrative decisions and expresses its opinion regarding any other question referred to it by the Grand Duke or the Government. The Council of State is composed of 21 members chosen for life by the sovereign, who also chooses a president from among them each year. D E F E N C E . A law passed by Parliament on 29 June 1967 abolished compulsory service and instituted a battalion-size army of volunteers enlisted for 3 years. Strength ( 1985) 720. The defence estimates for 1985 amounted to 1,715m. francs. Luxembourg is an original member of NATO and the battalion is committed to NATO ACE mobile force. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Luxembourg is a member of the UN, Benelux, the EEC, OECD, the Council of Europe, NATO and WEU. ECONOMY

Budget. Revenue and expenditure (including extraordinary) for years ending 30 April (in 1 m. francs): Revenue Expenditure

1980 48,244 0 48,918-4

1981 1982' 53,411-2 59,897 5 54,968-9 -59,927-2 ' Provisional.

2

1983' 71,921-4 74,030-1 Budget.

19841 68,464-3 67,656-4

19852 73,764-9 70,440-6

LUXEMBOURG

805

Consolidated debt at 31 Dec. 1983 amounted to 37,076-6m. francs (long-term) and 3,554-5m. francs (short-term). Currency. On 14 Oct. 1944 the Luxembourg franc was fixed at par value with the Belgian franc. Notes of the Belgian National Bank are legal tender in Luxembourg. Banking. On 31 Dec. 1983 there were 303,285 depositors in the State Savings Bank with a total of 35,21 lm. francs to their credit. There are 114 banks established in Luxembourg which has become an international financial centre. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Power production was 801 m. kwh. in 1983. Minerals. The mining and metallurgical industries are the most important. In 1983 production (in tonnes) of pig-iron, 2,316,300; of steel, 3,293,760. Agriculture. Agriculture is carried on by about 7,500 of the population; 127,422 hectares were under cultivation in 1983. The principal crops are potatoes, barley, beet, oats and wheat. Livestock ( 1983): 1,363 horses, 224,645 cattle, 71,957 pigs, 3,540 sheep. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Commerce. By treaty of 5 Sept. 1944, signed in London, and the treaty of 14 March 1947, signed in The Hague, the Grand Duchy, together with Belgium and the Netherlands, became a party to the Benelux Customs Union, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1948. For further particulars see p. 199. Total trade between Luxembourg and UK included with Belgium from 1974. Tourism. In 1983 there were 406,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 the network had a total of 5,157 km. Motor vehicles registered in Luxembourg on 1 Jan. 1984 included 145,850 passenger cars, 9,110 trucks, 700 buses, 17,610 tractors and special vehicles. Railways. In 1983 there were 270 km of railway (standard gauge) of which 162 km electrified. Aviation. Findel is the airport for Luxembourg. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 the telephone system had more than 5,200 km of telegraph and telephone line, 142,100 telephones (1983), 104 post offices and 393 telegraph offices. Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion broadcasts 1 programme in Luxembourgian on FM. Powerful transmitters on long-, mediumand short-waves are used for commercial and religious programmes in French, Dutch, German, English and Italian. Ten TV programmes are broadcast. Colour transmission by SECAM system. Cinemas (1983). There were 11 cinemas. Newspapers (1984). There were 5 daily newspapers with an aggregate circulation of 140,000. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. The population is Catholic, save (31 Dec. 1970) 3,900 Protestants, 700 Jews, 2,100 belonging to other denominations and 3,700 without religion (or having given no indication on this subject). The Protestant Church is organized on an interdenominational basis. Education (1983-84). Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 15. The nursery schools had 7,827 pupils; primary schools had 25,806' pupils; technical secondary schools, 16,212' pupils; secondary schools, 9,009'

806

LUXEMBOURG

pupils; the Superior Institute of Technology, 298 pupils; pedagogic education, 150 pupils; university studies, 350 pupils. ' Provisional.

Health. In 1982 there were 580 doctors and 4,816 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Luxembourg in Great Britain (27 Wilton Crescent, London, SWIX 8SD) Ambassador: Roger Hastert, CMG. Of Great Britain in Luxembourg (28 Boulevard Royal, Luxembourg) Ambassador and Consul-General: Richard Oliver Miles, CMG. Of Luxembourg in the USA (2200 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Paul Peters. Of the USA in Luxembourg (22 Blvd. Emmanuel Servais, Luxembourg) Ambassador: John E. Dolibois. Of Luxembourg to the United Nations Ambassador: André Philippe. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Service Central de la Statistique et des Études Économiques was founded in 1900 and reorganized in 1962 (19-21 boulevard Royal, C.P. 304 LuxembourgCity). Director: Georges Als. Main publications: Bulletin du Statec.—Annuaire statistique.— Cahiers économiques. Bulletin de Documentation. Government Information Service. From 1945 (monthly) The Institutions of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Press and Information Service, Luxembourg, 1982 Als, G., Le Luxembourg, situation politique, économique et sociale. Luxembourg, 1982 Calmes, C , Au Fil de l'Histoire. Luxembourg, 1977 Heiderscheid, A., Aspects de Sociologie Religieuse du Diocèse de Luxembourg. 2 vols. Luxembourg, 1961 Hury, C. and Christophory, J., Luxembourg. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Majerus, P., Le Luxembourg indépendant. Luxembourg, 1948.—L'État Luxembourgeois. Luxembourg, 1983 Newcomer, J., The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: The Evolution of Nationhood, 963 A.D. to 1983. Washington, 1983 Trausch, G., Le Luxembourg à l'Époque Contemporaine. Luxembourg, 1975 Archives of the State: Luxembourg-City. Director: Paul Spang. National Library: Luxembourg-City, 14a Boulevard Royal. Director: Jules Christophory.

MADAGASCAR Repoblika Demokratika n'i Madagaskar

Capital: Antananarivo Population: 9 • 74m. ( 1984) GNP per capita: US$330 ( 1981 )

HISTORY. Madagascar was discovered by the Portuguese, Diego Diaz, in 1500. The island was unified under the Imerina monarchy between 1797 and 1861, but French claims to a protectorate led to hostilities culminating in the establishment of a protectorate on 30 Sept. 1895. The monarchy was abolished and Madagascar became a French Colony on 6 Aug. 1896. Madagascar became an Overseas Territory in 1946,and on 140ct. 1958,following a referendum, was proclaimed the autonomous Malagasy Republic within'the French Community, achieving full independence on 26 June 1960. The government of Philibert Tsiranana, President from independence, resigned on 18 May 1972 and executive powers were given to Maj.-Gen. Gabriel Ramanantsoa, who replaced Tsiranana as President on 11 Oct. 1972. On 5 Feb. 1975, Col. Richard Ratsimandrava became Head of State, but was assassinated 6 days later. A. National Military Directorate under Brig.-Gen. Gilles Andriamahazo was established on 12 Feb. On 15 June it handed over power to a Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) under Didier Ratsiraka. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Madagascar is situated off the south-east coast of Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique channel, the least distance between island and continent being 250 miles; its length is 980 miles; greatest breadth, 360 miles. The area is 587,041 sq. km (226,658 sq. miles). In 1975 (census) the population was 7,603,790. Estimate(1984)9,735,000. Province Antseranana Mahajanga Toamasina Antananarivo Fianarantsoa Toliary

Area in sq. km 42,725 152,165 72,212 57,775 100,326 162,283

Population 1978 620,228 857,610 1,254,639 2,322,019 1,908,465 1,084,083

Chief town Antseranana Mahajanga Toamasina Antananarivo Fianarantsoa Toliary

Population ¡978 48,000 57,500 59,100 400,000 55,500 34,000

Vital statistics, 1975: Births, 338,850; deaths, 100,450. The indigenous population are of Malayo-Polynesian stock, divided into 18 linguistic groups of which the principal are Merina (30%) of the central plateau, the Betsimisaraka (15%) of the east coast, and the Betsileo (14%) of the southern plateau. Foreign communities include Europeans, mainly French (40,000), Indians (16,000), Chinese (9,000), Comorians and Arabs. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, but the mountains cause big variations in rainfall, which is very heavy in the east and very light in the west. Antananarivo. Jan. 70° F (21 • 1°C), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,350 mm). Toamasina. Jan. 80'F (26 r C ) , July 70° F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 128" (3,256 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The new Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar was apprôved by referendum on 21 Dec. 1975 and came into force on 30 Dec. It provides for a bicameral Parliament, comprising a Senate of 50 members and a National People's Assembly of 137 members elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term from the single list of the Front National pour la Défense de la Révolution Malgache; following the general elections held on 28 Aug. 1983, this comprised 117 members of the A vant-garde de 807

808

MADAGASCAR

la Révolution Malgache, 9 of the Parti du Congrès de l'indépendence and 11 others. Executive power is vested in the President, elected for 7 years, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him, with the guidance of the 20-member Supreme Revolutionary Council. President: Didier Ratsiraka (re-elected 7 Nov. 1982). The Council of Ministers in Oct. 1983 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Lieut.-Col. Désiré Rakotoarijaona. Foreign Affairs: Jean Bemanjara. Defence: Capt de Vaisseau Guy Sibon. Interior: Ampy Portos. Civil Service and Labour: Georges Ruphin. Finance: Pascal Rakotomavo. Health: Jean-Jacques Séraphin. Commerce: Georges Solofoson. Industry, Energy and Mines: René Andrianarivo Tantely. Animal Production, Water Resources and Forestry: Joseph Randrianasolo. Agricultural Production and Agrarian Reform: Yves Leone Ramélison. Posts and Telecommunications: Rakotovao Andriantiana. Secondary and Basic Education: Charles Zany. Higher Education: Ignace Rakoto. Scientific Research: Antoine Zafera. Information and Ideological Guidance: Bruno Rakotomavo. Revolutionary Art and Culture: Gisèle Rabesahala. Transport, Supply and Tourism: Joseph Bedo. Public Works: Lieut.Col. Victor Ramahatra. Population, Social Welfare, Youth and Sport: Dr Rémi Tiandraza. Justice: Gilbert Sambson. Special Economic Advisor: Mirina Andriamanerasoa. National flag: Horizontally red over green, in the hoist a vertical white strip. National anthem: Ry tanindrazanay maiala ô! Malagasy, which is a language of Malayo-Polynesian origin, is the official language. French and English are understood and taught in Malagasy schools. Local Government: The six provinces are sub-divided into 18 prefectures, which in tum are divided in 92 sub-prefectures and finally into 11 fiOOfokontany (the traditional communal divisions). Each level is governed by an elected council. DEFENCE Army. The Army is organized in 2 battalion groups, and 1 engineer, 1 signals, 1 service and 7 construction regiments. Equipment includes PT-76 light tanks and M-8 armoured cars. Strength (1985) 20,000. Navy. The small maritime guard in 1985 had a strength of 600 (including a company of marines), equipped with 1 large patrol craft, 5 patrol boats, 1 landing ship, 7 small landing craft and a large trawler training ship. Air Force. Created in 1961, the Malagasy Air Force received its first combat equipment in 1978, with the arrival of 8 MiG-21 and 4 MiG-17 fighters, plus flying and ground staff instructors, from North Korea. Other equipment includes An-12 and 4 An-26 turboprop transports, 6 L-39 jet trainers, 1 Britten-Norman Defender armed transport, 5 C^t7s, 1 HS. 748 and 2 Yak-40s for VIP use, 1 Aztec, 3 Cessna Skymasters, 4 Cessna 172Ms and 6 helicopters, comprising 2 Mi-8s, 1 Bell 47, 1 Alouette II and 2 Alouette Ills. Personnel about 500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Madagascar is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The general budget 1982, envisaged expenditure of274,530m. FMG. Currency. The Malagasy franc is divided into 100 centimes. In March 1985; £1 = 744-60 FMG; US$1 =719-84 FMG. Banking. A Central Bank was formed in July 1973, replacing the former Institut dEmission Malgache as the central bank of issue. All commercial banking and insurance was nationalised in June 1975. Industrial development is financed through the Bankin 'ny Indostria, and other commercial banking undertaken by

809

MADAGASCAR

the Bankin'ny Tantsaha Mpamokatra Varotra.

and the Banky Fampandrosoana

ny

Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production ( 1983) 360,186,000 kwh. Oil. The oil refinery at Toamasina has a capacity of 12,000 bbls a day. Minerals. Mining production (in tonnes) in 1983 included: Graphite, 13,496; chromite, 42,920; zircon, 2,000; beryl, (industrial), 120,514; gold, 2-6 kg; garnet, (industrial), 2,065. Agriculture. In 1978,83% of the working population was employed in agriculture. The principal agricultural products in 1982 were (in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 2,000; cassava, 1,807; mangoes, 175; bananas, 280; potatoes, 271; sugar-cane, 1,525; maize, 127; sweet potatoes, 422; coffee, 80; oranges, 88; pineapples, 58; groundnuts, 38; sisal, 20; cotton, 31 ; tobacco, 5. Cattle breeding and agriculture are the chief occupations. There were, in 1983, 10,322,000 cattle, 1 -3m. pigs, 630,000 sheep, 1 -75m. goats and 18m. poultry. Forestry. The forests contain many valuable woods, while gum, resins and plants for tanning, dyeing and medicinal purposes abound. Fisheries. The fish catch in 1980 was 54,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry, hitherto confined mainly to the processing of agricultural products, is now extending to cover other fields. Commerce. Trade in 1 m. FMG: Imports (c.i.f) Exports (f.o.b)

1979 135,319 83,826

¡980 126,775 84,781

198¡ 147,977 85,742

1982 148,601 108,347

The chief exports in 1980 were coffee (53%) and cloves (8%); France took 20% of exports, the USA 20% and Japan 10%, while France provided 41% of imports, Federal Republic of Germany 10% and Japan 5%. Total trade between Madagascar and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 2,937 5,322

1982 3,355 3,548

1983 3,731 4,907

1984 4,529 6,936

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1979 there were 27,556 km of roads of which 4,526 km bitumenized, with 57,000 passenger cars and 50,000 commercial vehicles (including buses). Railways. In 1983 there were 883 km of railways, all metre gauge. In 1983, 2 • 5 m. passengers and 622,220m. tonnes of cargo were transported. Aviation. Air France and Air Madagascar connect Antananarivo with Paris, Alitalia connects with Rome. Several weekly services operated by Air Madagascar connect the capital with the ports and the chief inland towns. The main airfields are at Ivato, Toamasina, Toliary and Mahajanga. In 1979, 326,275 passengers arrived and 8,684 tonnes of cargo arrived and departed on international flights. Shipping. In 1981 there were 232,000 tons loaded and 705,000 tons unloaded at Toamasina, the main port, and 86,000 tons loaded and 282,000 tons unloaded at Mahajanga and other minor ports. In 1980, registered merchant marine was 56 vessels (of more than 100 GRT) with a total of 91,211 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. There were in 1971, 547 post offices and agencies and 55 wireless telegraph stations. The telegraph line has a length of 17,400 km. There

810

MADAGASCAR

were 66,000 km of telephone line and, in 1978, 28,686 telephone subscribers. In Dec. 1979, there were 1 • 15m. radio receivers and (1980) 9,000 television receivers. Cinemas. There were, in 1974,31 cinemas with a seating capacity of 12,500. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeal are in Antananarivo. In each provincial capital there is a Court of First Instance (for civil and commercial cases) and ajuge de paix (for criminal cases). Religion. 50% of the population follow animist religions; 25% are Roman Catholic, 20% Protestant (mainly belonging to the Fiangonan'i Jesosy Kristy eto Madagaskar) and 5% Moslem. Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age in the primai^ schools. In 1978 there were 1,311,000 pupils and 23,937 teachers in public primary schools, while in 1976 there were 114,468 pupils in secondary schools and about 7,000 in technical schools. The University of Madagascar has a main campus at Antananarivo and 5 university centres in the other provincial capitals, with 33,449 students in 1982. There are also 4 agricultural schools at Nanisana, Ambatondrazaka, Marovoay and Ivoloina. Health. In 1978 there were 749 hospitals and dispensaries with 16,401 beds; there were also 811 doctors, 88 dentists, 86 pharmacists, 1,227 midwives and 2,309 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Madagascar in Great Britain Ambassador: Jean Emest Bezaza (resides in Paris). Of Great Britain in Madagascar (Immeuble Ny Havana, Cite de 67 Ha, Antananarivo) Ambassador: D. Malcolm McBain, MVO. Of Madagascar in the USA (2374 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Leon M. Rajaobelina. Of USA in Madagascar ( 14 rue Rainitovo, Antsahavola, Antananarivo) Ambassador: Robert B. Keating. Of Madagascar to the United Nations Ambassador: Blaise Rabetafika. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Servicede Statistique Générale in Antananarivo published the Bulletin mensuel de Madagascar (frdm 1971); continuation of the trimestrial Bulletin de statistique générale (1949-71), the Revue de Madagascar, the Madagascar à travers ses provinces (latest issue, 1953), the Annuaire Statistique de Madagascar (vol. 1, 1938-51, published 1953, the Situation Economique au Janvier 1968, Population de Madagascar au 1er Jan. 1971, and the Statistiques du Commerce Extérieur de Madagascar). Bulletin de l'Académie Malgache (from 1902) Brown, M., Madagascar Rediscovered. London, 1978 Deschamps, H., Histoire de Madagascar. Paris, 4th ed. 1972 Heseltine. N.j Madagascar. London and New York, 1971

MALAWI

Capital: Lilongwe Population: 6 • 1 m. (1981) GNP per capita: US$200 (1981)

HISTORY. Malawi was formerly the Nyasaland (until 1907 British Central Africa) Protectorate, constituted on 15 May 1891. Nyasaland became a self-governing country on 1 Feb. 1963, and on 6 July 1964 an independent member of the Commonwealth under the name of Malawi. It became a republic on 6 July 1966. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Malawi lies along the southern and western shores of Lake Malawi (the third largest lake in Africa), and is otherwise bounded north by Tanzania, south by Mozambique and west by Zambia. Land area (excluding inland water of Lakes Palombe, Chilwa and Chiuta) 36,325 sq. miles, divided into 3 regions and 24 districts, each administered by a District Commissioner. Lake Malawi waters belonging to Malawi are 9,250 sq. miles and the whole Lake Malawi (including the waters under Mozambique by an agreement made between the two countries in 1950) is 11,650 sq. miles. Census 1977,5,547,460(males,2,673,589). Estimate (1981),6- lm. Over90% of .the population live in rural areas. Population of main towns (census 1977) was as follows: Blantyre, 219,011; Lilongwe, 98,718; Zomba, 24,234; Mzuzu, 16,108. Population of the regions, 1966 (and census 1977): Northern, 497,491 (648,853); Central, 1,474,952 (2,143,716); Southern, 2,067,140 (2,754,891). C L I M A T E . The tropical climate is marked by a dry season from May to Oct. and a wet season for the remaining months. Rainfall amounts are variable, within the range of29-100" (725-2,500 mm), and maximum temperatures average 75-89°F (24-32°C), and minimum temperatures 58-67°F (14-4-19-4°C). Lilongwe. Jan. 73°F (22-8'C), July 60°F (15-6°C). Annual rainfall 36" (900 mm). Blantyre. Jan. 75°F (23-9'C), July 63°F (17-2°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,125 mm). Zomba. Jan. 73"F (22 • 8°C), July 63°F (17 • 2°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,344 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The President of the republic is also head of Government and of the Malawi Congress Party. Malawi is a one-party state. Parliament is composed of 101 elected members elected for up to 5 years, and any number of nominated members. Elections were held in June 1983. Life President, External Affairs, Agriculture, Justice, Works and Supplies: Ngwazi Dr H. Kamuzu Banda. (Took office 6 July 1966 and became Life President on 6 July 1971). The Cabinet in Jan. 1985 was composed as follows: Finance: Edward Chitsulo Isaac Bwanali. Trade, Industry and Tourism: Stephen Chimwemwe Hara. Education and Culture: Louis J. Chimango. Local Government: B. L. Kapichila Banda. Labour: E. C. Katola Phiri. Health: Dalton S. Katopola. Youth: Stanford Demba. Transport and Communications: Wadson B. Deleza. Community Services: George Afwawaka Kandawire. Forestry and Natural Resources: Poulton Mtenje. At Large: Sydney B. Somanje. Without Portfolio, Administrative Secretary of Malawi Congress Party: Robson Watayachanga Chirwa. National flag: Three equal horizontal stripes of black, red, green, with a red rising sun on the centre of the black stripe. D E F E N C E . All services form part of the Army and have a strength (1985)4,650. Army. The army is organized into 3 infantry battalions and 1 support battalion. Equipment includes scout cars. 811

812

MALAWI

Navy. There are 3 small lake patrol boats and 1 gunboat. Uniformed personnel in 1985 totalled 30. Air wing. To support the infantry battalion, the Air Wing has 4 C-47 Transport aircraft, 1 Defender armed light transport, 12 Do 28D Skyservant light transports, 6 Do 27 training aircraft, and 6 Puma and 1 Alouette III helicopters. An HS 125 jet is used for VIP transport. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Malawi is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU, and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Government of Malawi operates a 3-year 'rolling' public-sector investment programme, revised annually to take into account changing needs and the expected level of resources available. The greatest part of the development programme is annually financed from external aid, and priority in the use of resources has always been given to providing the counterpart contributions to funds received from external sources. TTie balance of these local resources is used for financing projects commanding high national priority for which no external funds can be secured. Budget. Revenue Account receipts and expenditure (in K. 1,000) for years ending 31 March: Revenue Expenditure

1980-81 282,962 199,793

1981-82 344,484 257,282

1982-83 340,723 259,507

1983-84 458,140 449,747

Currency. The currency is the kwacha (dawn), which is subdivided into 100 tambala (cockerels). From 9 June 1975 the kwacha has been pegged to Special Drawing Rights. In March 1985: £1 sterling=K. 1-75, US$1 =K.l-64. Banking. In July 1964 the Reserve Bank of Malawi was set up with a capital of K.lm. to be responsible for the issue of currency and the holding of external reserves and to issue treasury bills and local registered stock on behalf of the Government. Since then, the Reserve Bank has fully assumed the responsibilities of a Central Bank. The National Bank of Malawi has a total of 14 branches in major urban areas and 25 static and 41 mobile agencies in rural areas. The Commercial Bank of Malawi Ltd opened in 1970 and has branches at Limbe, Lilongwe, Mzuzu and Zomba and an agency in Dedza and headquarters at Blantyre. It has 4 permanent and 65 mobile agencies. In 1972 The Investment Development Bank of Malawi was established in Blantyre. Its resources are derived from domestic and foreign official sources and its objective is to provide medium and long-term credits to private entities considered of importance to the economy. The post office savings bank had (1985) 257 offices conducting savings business throughout the country, and the New Building Society has agencies in Limbe, Mzuzu, Zomba and Blantyre with its head office in Lilongwe. In 1972 the Investment and Development Bank (Inde Bank) was established in Blantyre. Its resources are derived from domestic and foreign official sources and provides medium and long-term credits to private entities considered important to the economy. Weights and Measures. The metric system became fully operational in 1982. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi is the sole supplier of electrical power and energy and the demand and supply of electricity and power on the inter-connected system was met from the hydro-electric generator sets installed at Tedzani Falls and Nkula Falls stations which together have a total capacity of

MALAWI

813

124 mw as at 1984. The inter-connected system extends from the Shire River hydro stations and covers most areas of the Southern and Central Regions, and part of the Northern Region. Transmission is at 132 and 66 kw. The present installed capacity will meet the forecast demand up to 1986 when a further 20 mw set will be commissioned at Nkula Falls Station. Thermal plant of 23-8 mw capacity is available on the inter-connected system and there are stations at Blantyre, Lilongwe, Mtunthama, Kasungu, and Mzuzu. The capacity of the isolated station at Karonga was increased to 480 kw with the installation of 120 kw diesel generator set. Minerals. The main product in 1976 was marble (149,254 tonnes) for the manufacture of cement. Agriculture. Malawi is predominantly an agricultural country. Up to 1982 816,000 of the rural population had been reached by self-help piped water projects. In 1983 agriculture contributed about 43% to the GDP, and agricultural produce accounted for 90% of total exports. Of the total area of 23-3m. acres, 13 -lm. could be cultivated and, in 1969,3 • 36m. were being cultivated, of which 2 • 64m. were under maize. Maize is the main subsistence crop and is grown by over 95% of all smallholders. Tea cultivation is of growing importance; in 1982,38m. kg were produced. Almost all the surplus crops produced by smallholders are sold to the Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation. In 1982 the corporation purchased crops valued at K.41 -2m., including maize (K.27-3m.), cotton, tobacco, groundnuts and rice. Livestock in 1983: Cattle, 900,000; sheep, 87,000; goats, 750,000; pigs, 210,000. Forestry. In 1981 10,419 cu. metres of sawn timber were removed. Fisheries. Landings in 1981 were 51,400 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Index of manufacturing output (1970 = 100): manufacturing for domestic consumption 177-7 (229 -5 in 1980); of this consumer goods were at 191 -9 (252-5) and intermediate goods mainly for building and construction were at 128-6(150-4). Manufacturing for export, 172-3 (201 -6). Labour: 1978 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Electricity and water Building and construction Trade, hotels, restaurants Transport storage, communications Financial services Community, social, personal services Total

Private 147,962 564 34,862 2,459 27,418 26,829 13,809 6,194 10,794

Government 21,371 1,093 463 4,052 382 3,808 623 36,601

Total 169,333 564 35,955 2,922 31,470 27,211 17,617 6,817 47,395

270,891

68,393

339,284

-

Commerce. The main items of export in 1982 were (in K.lm.): Tobacco, 145-78; tea, 45-25; sugar, 23-15; groundnuts, 8-7. Imports (in K.lm.) included capital equipment, 38-3; means of transport, 29-3; consumer goods, 41 -7; building materials, 19-3. Trade statistics for calendar years are (in K. lm.): Imports Exports

1979 324-8 181-7

1980 356-2 238-2

1981 321-9 257-5

1982 322 1 269-8

Total trade between Malawi and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m l m 2 m 3 J m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

34,744 21,503

42,478 20,893

42,060 18,183

65,327 22,995

814

MALAWI

Tourism. There were 37,252 visitors to Malawi in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 2,745 km of main road, of which 1,685 were bitumensurfaced and 138 gravel; 2,740 km of secondary roads, of which 227 were surfaced, 111 km of gravel and 2,402 km of earth roads. In 1983 there were 14,000 cars, 13,500 commercial vehicles and 268 buses and coaches. Railways. Malawi Railways (789 km-1,067 mm gauge) operates a main line from Salima to the Mozambique border near Nsanje, from which running powers over the Trans-Zambesia Railway allow access to the port of Beira; a branch opened in 1970 runs eastwards from a point 16 km south of Balaka to the Mozambique border to give a direct route to the deep-water port of Nacala. The 26-km section from Nsanje to the border is operated by the Central Africa Railway Co. Ltd. An extension of 111 km from Salima to the new state capital of Lilongwe was opened in Feb. 1979, and a further extension to Mchinji on the Zambian border (120 km) was completed in 1981. In 1981,1-2m. tonnes hauled, 77 -9m. passenger-km run. Aviation. In 1983 the Kamuzu International Airport at Lilongwe was inaugurated. It handled (1984) 56,580 passengers and 893 tonnes. In 1982 Chileka Airport handled 184,700 passengers and 5,598 tonnes of freight. Shipping. In 1982 lake ships carried 1 -48m. passengers. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1982) 16,445. The Malawi Broadcasting Corporation broadcasts in English and Chichewa. There were 1 m. radio sets in 1983. Newspapers (1984). The Daily Times (English, Monday to Friday); 14,000 copies daily. Malawi News (English and Chichewa, Saturdays); 21,000 copies weekly. The Odini (English and Chichewa, 7,000 fortnightly). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered in the High Court, the magistrates' courts and traditional courts. There are 23 magistrates' courts, 176 traditional courts and 23 local appeal courts. Appeals from traditional courts are dealt with in the traditional appeal courts and in the national traditional appeal court. Appeals from magistrates' courts lie to the High Court, and appeals from the High Court to Malawi's Supreme Court of Appeal. Religion. In 1983 the Roman Catholic Church claimed 1 -2m. members; Church of Central Africa Presbyterian, 366,377; Diocese of Southern Malawi and Lake Malawi (part of the Province of Central Africa (the Anglican Communion), 70,606; Seventh Day Adventist Church (1984), 59,319. Zambezi Evangelical Church (formerly Nyasa mission), 26,000; Assembly of God, 10,000; Seventh Day Baptist (Central Africa Conference), 5,198; Church of Christ, 50,000+; African Evangelical Church, 6,000. Moslems are estimated to number about 500,000. Education (1981-82). The Ministry of Education and Culture controls all aspects of education. The number of pupils in the 2,250 primary schools was 882,903; in the 62 secondary schools, 19,329. There were 11,425 teachers in primary schools and 739 in secondary schools. The primary school course is of 8 years duration, followed by a 4-year secondary course. English is taught from the 1st year and becomes the general medium of instruction from the 4th year. Teacher-training is undertaken in 5 residential colleges, 2 of which are directly controlled by the Ministry; the others receive grants in aid as assisted institutions. Courses last 3 years. Enrolment 8,303. Technical and trade courses are offered in commerce, building, woodwork and mechanical engineering, as well as home craft for girls; 1,904 trainees undertook courses at government and voluntary schools in 1966.

MALAWI

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The University of Malawi was inaugurated on 6 Oct. 1965. In 1981-82 there were 1,718 students taking degree and diploma courses. Health. In 1984 there were two central hospitals, one general hospital, one mental hospital, 43 hospitals of which 21 are government district hospitals. There are 6,596 hospital beids of which 1,448 are for maternity. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Malawi in Great Britain (33 Grosvenor St., London, W1X ODE) High Commissioner: C. M. Mkona. Of Great Britain in Malawi (Lingadzi Hse., Lilongwe, 3) High Commissioner: A. H. Brind, CMG. Of Malawi in the USA (1400 20th St., NW, Washington, D.C. ,20036) Ambassador: Nelson T. Mizere. Of the USA in Malawi (PO Box 30016, Lilongwe) Ambassador: W. Adams. Of Malawi to the United Nations Ambassador:^. T. Mizere. Books of Reference General Information: The Chief Information Officer, PO Box 494, Blantyre. Boeder, R. B. Malawi. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 McMaster, C., Malawi: Foreign Policy and Development. London, 1974 Williams, T. D., Malawi: The Politics of Despair. Cornell Univ. Press, 1979

MALAYSIA

Capital: Kuala Lumpur Population: 15 07m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$ 1,840 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . On 16 Sept. 1963 Malaysia came into being, consisting of the Federation of Malaya, the State of Singapore and the colonies of North Borneo (renamed Sabah) and Sarawak. The agreement between the UK and the 4 territories was signed on 9 July (Cmnd. 2094); by it, the UK relinquished sovereignty over Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak from independence day and extended the 1957 defence agreement with Malaya to apply to Malaysia. Malaysia became automatically a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. See map in T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1964-65. On 9 Aug. 1965, by a mutual agreement dated 7 Aug. 1965 between Malaysia and Singapore, Singapore seceded from Malaysia to become an independent Sovereign nation. P O P U L A T I O N . 1980 census gave 11,800,000 in Peninsular Malaysia, 1,034,000 in Sabah, and 1,323,000 in Sarawak. Estimate (1984) 15 07m. C L I M A T E . Malaysia is affected by the monsoon climate. The N.E. monsoon prevails from Oct. to Feb., bringing rain to the east coast of the peninsula. The S.W. monsoon lasts from mid-May to Sept. and affects the opposite coastline the most. Temperatures are uniform throughout the year. Kuala Lumpur. Jan. 8 P F (27 -2°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 97-6" (2,441 mm). Penang. Jan. 82°F (27-8°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 109-4" (2,736 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of Malaysia is based on the Constitution of the former Federation of Malaya, but includes safeguards for the special interests of Sabah and Sarawak. It was amended in 1983. The federal capital is Kuala Lumpur, established on 1 Feb. 1974 with an area of approximately 94 sq. miles. The official language is Bahasa Malaysia. The Constitution provides for one of the 9 Rulers of the Malay States to be elected from among themselves to be the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Head of the Federation). He holds office for a period of 5 years. The Rulers also elect from among themselves a Deputy Supreme Head of State, also for a period of 5 years. Supreme Head of State (Yang di-Pertuan Agong): HM Sultan Mahmood Iskandar ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Ismail DK, SPMJ, SPDK, DK (Brunei) SSIJ, PIS, BSI, elected as 8th Yang di-Pertuan Agong from 26 April 1984. Raja of Perlis: HRH Tuanku Syed Putra ibni Al-Marhum Syed Hassan Jamalullail, DK, DKM, DMN, SMN, SPMP, SPDK, acceded 12 March 1949. Sultan of Kedah: HRH Tuanku Haji Abdul Halim Mu'adzam Shah ibni AlMarhum Sultan Badlishah, DK, DKH, DKM, DMN, DUK, SPMK, SSDK, acceded 20 Feb. 1959. Regent of Johore: HRH Tengku Ibrahim Ismail ibni Sultan Mahmood Iskandar Al-Haj, DK, SPMJ, appointed from 15 Nov. 1984. Sultan of Selangor: HRH Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Hisamuddin 'Alam Shah Al-Haj, DK, DMN, SPMS, SPDK, acceded 3 Sept. 1960. Raja ofPerak: HRH Raja Tun Azlan Shah, DK, DMN, PMN, SPCM, SPMP, acceded 3 Feb. 1984. Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan: HRH Tuanku Ja'afar ibni AlMarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman, DMN, DK, acceded 8 April 1968. 816

MALAYSIA

817

Sultan of Kelantan: HRH Sultan Ismail Petra ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Yahya Petra, DK, SPMK, SJMK, SPSM, appointed 29 March 1979. Sultan of Trengganu: HRH Sultan Mahmud A1 Marhum ibni Al-Marhum Tuanku Al-Sultan Ismail Nasiruddin Shah, DK, SPMT, SPCM, appointed 2 Sept. 1979. Sultan of Pahang: Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Al-Musta'in Billah Ibni AlMarhum Sultan Abu Bakar Ri'Ayatuddin Al-Mu'Adzam Shah, DKJvI, DKP, DK, SSAP, SPCM, SPMJ. Yang di-Pertua Negeri Pulau Pinang: HE Tun Dr Awang bin Hassan, DUPN, SPMJ, appointed 1 May 1981. Governor of Malacca: HE Tun Haji Syed Zahiruddin bin Syed Hassan, SMN, PSM, DUNM, SPMP, JMN, PJK, appointed 23 May 1975; re-appointed 23 May 1979. Yang di-Pertua Negeri Sarawak: HE Tan Sri Dr Haji Abdul Rahman bin Ya'kub, DP, PMN, SPMJ, SIMP, SPMK, SSDK, SPMP, SPMS, SPDK, appointed 2 April 1981. Yang di-Pertua Sabah: HE Datuk Mohamad Adnan Roberts, SMN, SPDK, SPMP, DUPN, DP, appointed 26 June 1978. Parliament consists of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and two Majlis (Houses of Parliament) known as the Dewan Negara (Senate) of 68 members and Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives) of 154 members. There are 149 members from the states in Malaysia and 5 from the Federal Territory. Appointment to the Senate is for 3 years. The maximum life of the House of Representatives is 5 years, subject to its dissolution at any time by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of his Ministers. National flag: Fourteen horizontal stripes of red and white, with a blue quarter bearing a crescent and a star of 14 points, all in gold. The elections to the House of Representatives held on 22 April 1982, returned the following members: National Front, 139; Democratic Action Party, 9; PAS, 5; Independent, 8. The Cabinet was in July 1984 composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Defence: Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad, SSDK, SSAP, SPMS, SPMJ, DP(Sk), DUPN, SPNS, SPDK, SPCM, SSMT, DUMN. Deputy Prime Minister and Home Affairs: Datuk Musa Hitam. Housing and Local Government: Datuk Dr Neo Yee Pan. Foreign Affairs: Tengku Datuk Ahmad Rithaudeen bin Tengku Ismail. Trade and Industry: Tengku Tan Sri Razaleigh Hamzah. Finance: Encik Daim Zainuddin. Transport: Tan Sri Datuk Seri Chong Hon Nyan. Justice: Datuk Dr James Ongkili. Primary Industries: Datuk Seri Paul Leong Kee Seong. Energy, Telecommunications and Posts: Datuk Leo Moggie Anak Irok. Works: Datuk S. Samy Vellu. Public Enterprises: Datin Paduka Rafidah Aziz. Culture, Youth and Sports: Datuk Dr Sulaiman bin Haji Daud. National and Rural Development: Datuk Sanusi bin Junid. Education: Datuk Abdullah bin Haji Ahmad Badawi. Information: Datuk Rais Yatim. Labour: Datuk Mak Hon Kam. Land and Regional Development: Datuk Seri Mohd Adib bin Haji Mohd Adam. Science, Technology and Environment: Datuk Amar Stephen Yong. Health: Datuk Chin Hon Ngian. Federal Territory: Datuk Shahrir bin Abdul Semad. Agriculture: Encik Anwar Ibrahim. Welfare Services: Datuk Abu Hassan Omar. DEFENCE. The Malaysian Armed Forces are made up of the Malaysian Army, the Royal Malaysian Navy and the Royal Malaysian Air Force. Each Service has its own component of reserves. The Malaysian Constitution provides for the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Head of State) to be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces who exercises his powers and authority in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet. Under the

818

MALAYSIA

general authority of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the Cabinet, there is the Armed Forces Council which is responsible for the command, discipline and administration of all other matters relating to the Armed Forces, other than those relating to its operational use. The Armed Forces Council is chaired by the Minister of Defence and its membership consists of the chief of the Defence Forces, the 3 Service Chiefs and 2 other senior military officers, the Secretary-General of the Ministry of Defence, a representative of State Rulers and an appointed member. The chief of the Armed Forces Staff is the professional head of the Armed Forces and the senior military member in the Armed Forces Council. He is the principal adviser to the Minister of Defence on the military aspects of all defence matters. The chief of the Armed Forces Staffs committee, established under the authority of the Armed Forces Council, is the highest level at which joint planning and coordination with the Armed Forces are carried out. The Committee is chaired by the chief of the Armed Forces Staff and its membership consists of the chief of the Army, Navy and Air Force, the chief of Personnel StafT, the chief of logistic StafT and the chief of StafTof the Ministry of Defence. Army. The Army is organized into 4 divisions, comprising 12 infantry brigades made up of 36 infantry battalions; 3 cavalry, 4 field artillery, 1 armoured personnel carrier, 1 special service, S engineer and 5 signals regiments and 2 anti-aircraft batteries. Equipment includes 25 Scorpion light tanks. Strength (1985) about 100,500, with as reserves the Malaysian Territorial Army (45,000), the Local Defence Corps (15,000) and the regular reservists who have completed their fulltime service. Navy. The Royal Malaysian Navy is commanded by the Chief of the Navy from the integrated Ministry of Defence in Kuala Lumpur. The main naval bases are KD Malaya situated on Singapore Island, KD Sri Labuan on Labuan Island and KD Pelandok in Lumut, Perak. These establishments are responsible for the operation and administration of the ships, and KD Pelandok for the training of personnel. The ships include 2 British (Yarrow)-built frigates (including the former HMS Mermaid), 2 logistic support ships, 8 fast missile craft, 6 fast gunboats, 22 patrol craft, 2 landing ships, 1 diving tender, 1 survey vessel and 6 tugs. The peace-time tasks include fishery protection and anti-piracy patrols. There are also 48 armed patrol launches, 46 operated by the Royal Malaysian Police and 2 by the Government of Sabah (North Borneo) which also operates 3 patrol boats, 1 landing craft and a yacht. New construction includes 2 corvettes or light frigates, 4 minehunters, 2 offshore patrol vessels and 12 marine police patrol boats. Naval personnel in 1984 totalled 11,000 officers and ratings, including 1,000 reservists and 800 volunteer reserve. Air Force. Formed on 1 June 1958, the Royal Malaysian Air Force is equipped primarily to provide air defence and air support for the Army, Navy and Police. Its secondary role is to render assistance to Government departments and civilian organizations, especially during periods of national disasters. There were in early 1984 11 squadrons, of which 6 operated transport aircraft and helicopters. Up to 45 ex-US Navy A-4L/C Skyhawks are being refurbished progressively as the primary attack force. Other equipment includes 14 F-5E Tiger II jet fighterbombers, 2 RF-5E reconnaissance-fighters, and 4 F-5F trainers, 2 F.28 Fellowship VIP transports, 16 Caribou twin-engined STOL transports, 35 Sikorsky S-61A-4 Nuri heavy troop and cargo transport helicopters, 20 Alouette III, 3 Agusta-Bell 212, 9 Bell 47 and 5 Bell 206B JetRanger helicopters, 12 Cessna 402Bs for twinengine training and liaison, 44 PC-7 Turbo-Trainers and 2 H.S, 125 Merpati twinjet executive transports. Personnel (1984) totalled about 12,000. Volunteer Forces. The Army Volunteer Force (Territorial Army) consists of firstline infantry, signals, engineer and logistics units able to take the field with the active army, and a second-line organization to provide local defence. There is also a small Naval Volunteer Reserve with Headquarters in Penang and Kuala

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Lumpur. The Royal Malaysian Air Force Volunteer Reserve has both air and ground elements. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Malaysia is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, Non-Aligned countries, the Colombo Plan, Organization of Islamic Conference and ASEAN. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth 5-year plan, 1981-85 envisages an expenditure of M$42,830m. and aims at national unity through the two-pronged objectives of eradicating poverty irrespective of race and of restructuring society to eliminate the identification of race with economic functions. Budget. Revenue and expenditure for calendar years, in M$ 1 m.: 1980 1981 19821 1979 Revenue 10,505 13,926 15,806 16,434 Operating expenditure' 10,040 13,617 15,686 16,185 Development expenditure 4,282 7,463 11,358 10,434' 1 2 Latest Estimate. Budget Estimate. ] Including contribution to sinking fund from 1975.

19831 17,266 17,079 11,270

Currency. Bank Negara Malaysia (Central Bank of Malaysia) assumed sole currency issuing authority in Malaysia on 12 June 1967. The unit of currency issued by Bank Negara Malaysia is the Malaysian ringgit ($) which is divided into 100 sen. Currency notes are of denominations of $1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and $1,000. Coins are of denominations of 1 sen, 5, 10, 20, 50 sen and $1, $5 and $100. The circulation of currency on 31 Dec. 1981 was M$5,493m. Rate of exchange, March 1985:2 • 60 ringgit=US$ 1; 2-79 ringgit=£ 1. Banking. Thirty-eight banks were operating in Dec. 1983; of these 22 were domestic banks with a total of664 banking offices. Five were banks incorporated in Singapore with 63 banking offices and the remaining 12 banks were foreign incorporated with 85 banking offices. Total deposits amounted to M$40,429-8m. on 31 Dec. 1983 and loans and advancesamountedto(1981)M$25,521-4m. The National Savings Bank (formerly known as the post office savings bank) held M$973 -8m. due to 3,600,948 depositors at 31 Dec. 1978. T R A D E . Total trade of Malaysia with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from U K

1981 188,327 196,213

1982 1983 185,239 • 222,673 210,805 248,239

1984 320,325 283,269

COMMUNICATIONS Post. The Postal Services in Malaysia are under the Ministry of Energy, Telecommunications and Post and are headed by the Director-General of Post, Malaysia. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 500 cinemas with a seating capacity of345,400. J U S T I C E . By virtue of Art. 121(1) of the Federal Constitution judicial power in the Federation is vested on 2 High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction and status namely the High Court of Malaya and the High Court of Borneo, and the inferior courts. The Federal Court with its principal registry in Kuala Lumpur is the Supreme Court in the country. The Lord President as the supreme head of the Judiciary, the 2 Chief Justices of the High Courts and 6 other Judges form the constitution of the Federal Court. Apart from having exclusive jurisdiction to determine appeals from the High Court the Federal Court is also conferred with such original and consultative jurisdiction as is laid out in Articles 128 and 130 of the Constitution.

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A panel of 3 Judges or such greater uneven number as may be determined by the Lord President preside in every proceeding in the Federal Court. The right of appeal to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (who in tum refers the appeal to the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council) from a decision of the Federal Court in respect of criminal and constitutional matters was abolished on 1 July 1978. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Malaysia in Great Britain (45 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X 8QT) High Commissioner: M. H. Kassim (accredited 16 March 1983). Of Great Britain in Malaysia (Wisma Damansara, Jalan Semantan, Kuala Lumpur) High Commissioner: D. H. Gillmore, CMG. Of Malaysia in the USA (2401 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dato' Lew Sip Hon. Of the USA in Malaysia (A.I. A. Bldg., Jalan Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur) Ambassador: Thomas P. Shoesmith. Of Malaysia to the United Nations Ambassador: Zain Azraai. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, was set up in 1963, taking over from the Department of Statistics, States of Malaya. Chief Statistician: Khoo Teik Huat. Main publications: Peninsular Malaysia Monthly and Annual Statistics of External Trade: Malaysia External Trade (quarterly); Peninsular Malaysia Statistical Bulletin (monthly); Rubber Statistics (monthly); Rubber Statistics Handbook (annual); Oil Palm Statistics (monthly); Oil Palm, Coconut and Tea Statistics (annual); Survey of Manufacturing Industries, 1974: National Accounts Statistics, 1973-1977: Malaysia Industrial Classification, 1972; Monthly Industrial Statistics, Malaysia: Census of Selected Service Trades, ¡973. Anand, S., Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia. OUP, 1983 Gullick, J., Malaysia: Economic Expansion and National Unity Boulder and London, 1982 Huk Tee, L„ and Sook Jean, W., Malaysia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 Meerman, J., Public Expenditure in Malaysia. OUP, 1980 Snodgrass, D. R., Inequality and Economic Development in Malaysia. OUP, 1982

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA AREA AND POPULATION. The total area of Peninsular Malaysia is about 50,806 sq. miles (131,587 sq. km), The federal capital is Kuala Lumpur (244 sq. km). Area Population Population State Johore Kedah Kelantan Malacca Negeri Sembilan Pahang Penang Perak Perlis Selangor Trengganu Federal Territory

Peninsular Malaysia

(sq. miles) 7,330 3,639 5,765 637 2,565 13,886 399 8,110 307 3,074 5,002 94

(1980 Census) 1,601,504 1,102,200 877,575 453,153 563,955 770,644 911,586 1,762,288 147,726 1,467,441 542,280 937,875

50,806

11,138,227

Capital Johore Bharu AlorStar Kota Bharu Malacca Seremban Kuantan Georgetown Ipoh Kangar Shah Alam Kuala Trengganu Kuala Lumpur

(1980 Census) 249,880 71,682 170,559 88,073 136,252 136,625 250,578 300,727 12,956 24,138 186,608 937,875

Population by races (1981 estimate): 11,428,000. Malays, 6,168,000; Chinese, 3,995,000; Indians, 1,183,000; others, 82,000. In 1974 Kuala Lumpur became a

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

821

Federal District. Shah Alam became capital of Selangor. Vital statistics (1979): Births, 336,848; deaths, 64,345. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The States of the Federation of Malaya, now known as Peninsular Malaysia, comprises the 11 States of Johore, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, Trengganu, Penang and Malacca. On 31 Aug. 1957 the Federation became the 11th sovereign member-state of the Commonwealth of Nations. For earlier history of the States and Settlements see THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1957, p. 2 4 1 .

The Constitution is based on the agreements reached at the London conference of Jan.-Feb. 1956, between HM Government in the UK, the Rulers of the Malay states and the Alliance Party (which at the first federal elections on 27 July 1955 obtained 51 of the 52 elected members), and subsequently worked out by the Constitutional Commission appointed after that conference. ECONOMY Budget. Seep. 819. Weights and Measures. The standard measures are the imperial yard, pound and gallon. The Weights and Measures Act of 1972 provides for a 10-year transition to the metric system, and was completed by 31 Dec. 1981. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1983, 10,616m. kwh. were generated; commerce and industry are the main consumers. Oil. Production (1983) 18,286,900 tonnes of crude oil. Minerals. Production (in tonnes): Tin-in-concentrates: 1983, 41,400; 1982, 52,300. Iron ore: 1983, 113,700; 1982, 340,300. Bauxite: 1983, 501,800; 1982, 589,000. Copper 1983,123,400; 1982,128,800. Gold: 1980,4,621 troyoz.; 1979, 5,273. Agriculture. Total area under agricultural crops, 1978, 8m. acres. This included 254,830 acres of second season rice crops. Rice: Production in 1983, 1,818,100 tonnes from 654,900 hectares. Rubber Production in 1983, l-53m. tonnes; Oilpalms: Production in 1983 (estimate), 3m. tonnes of palm oil; 67,300 tonnes of cocoa; 72,000 tonnes of coconut oil. Tea: Production in 1980,3,202,000 kg. Livestock: (1983) Cattle, 600,000; buffaloes, 300,000; sheep, 66,000; pigs, 2-lm.; goats, 350,000. Forestry (1982). Reserved forests, 4-9m. hectares. Production of logs (1983, estimate), 11 -2m.cu. metres; sawn timber, 1983,8m. cu. metres; plywood, 88,168,000 sq. metres (5mm thickness). Exports of veneer, 31 -9m. sq. metres (5mm thickness). Fisheries. Landings in 1983 (estimate), 730,300 tons; 1982,676,500 tons. Number of vessels in 1979,21,439 powered, 5,955 non-powered. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Trade Unions. There were, on 31 Dec. 1981, 292 registered trade unions with 549,000 members in Peninsular Malaysia. Commerce. In 1983 exports totalled M$32,922m. and imports M$30,724m. Chief imports (1983, provisional); Machinery and transport equipment, MS 13,453m.; manufactured goods, M$4,948m.; food, M$2,969m. Chief exports (1982): Rubber, 704,000 tonnes (M$l,373m.); crude petroleum (M$3,702m.); sawn timber, 8,649,000 cu. metres (M$l,554m.); other exports (1981) palm oil, 2-35m. tonnes (M$2,710m.); palm oil, crude, 2,822,000 tonnes (M$ 1,177m.); saw logs, 15,816,000 cu. metres (M$2,473m.); bauxite (1980), 718,300 tonnes (M$20-8m.).

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In 1982 imports came chiefly from Japan (M$3,023m.), USA (M$2,299m.), Australia (M$699m.), Thailand (M$686m.), UK (M$464m.), Saudi Arabia (M$454m.), China (M$238m.), Singapore (M$211m.). Exports went mainly to Singapore (M$2,663m.), Japan (M$2,332m.), Netherlands (M$439m.), USA (M$406m.), Thailand (M$318m.), Korea (M$293m.), Taiwan (M$213m.), UK (MS 134m.), India (M$ 131 m.). Tourism. In 1978,3,017,864 foreigners visited Peninsular Malaysia. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 the Public Works Department maintained 29,934 km of public roads, of which 15,983-44 km was of bituminous metalled surface, 81-44 km waterbound metalled surface, 1,799 km hard surface bitumen sealed, 2,931 -99 km hard surface waterbound and 1,038-67 km earth surface. In 1980,374,939 motor vehicles were registered, including 124,428 private cars, 854 buses, 23,436 lorries and vans, 210,682 motorcycles. Railways. The Malayan Railway main line runs from Singapore to Butterworth opposite Penang Island. From Bukit Mertajam 8 miles south of Butterworth a branch line connects Peninsular Malaysia with the State Railways of Thailand at the frontier station of Padang Besar. Other branch lines connect the main line with Port of Klang, Teluk Anson, Port Dickson and Ampang. The east-coast line, branching off the main line at Gemas, runs for over 300 miles to Tumpat, Kelantan's northernmost coastal town; a 13-mile branch line linking Pasir Mas with Sungei Golok makes a second connexion with Thailand. In 1982 there were 1,639 km (metre gauge) which carried 7-4m. passengers and 3 -4m. tonnes offreight. Aviation (1980). There are 9 airports used by scheduled air services and international air services are operated into Kuala Lumpur and Penang airports. The national carrier, Malaysian Airlines System (MAS), began operation on 1 Oct. 1972 to provide both domestic and international services. The Malaysian Airlines System (MAS) operate international services to Amsterdam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Bangkok, Dubai, Frankfurt, Haadyai, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Jeddah, Kuwait, London, Madras, Manila, Medan, Melbourne, Paris, Perth, Seoul, Singapore, Sydney, Taipei and TSkyo. The number of domestic points served by the airline is 37. Charter services are provided within Peninsular Malaysia by Malaysia Air Charter Co., Pan Malaysia Air Charter, Wira Kris, Genting Helicopter Service and Kris Udara Malaysia. The following airlines operate scheduled services through Kuala Lumpur besides MAS: Air Lanka, Cargoluse Airways, Bangladesh Beiman, Iraqi Airways, Philippine Airlines, PIA, Aeroflot Soviet Airlines, Air India, British Airways, Cathay Pacific Airways, Czechoslovakia Airlines, Garuda Indonesian Airways, Japan Airlines, KLM, PANAM, SAS, SABENA, Singapore Airlines, Thai International Airways and Trans Mediterranean Airways.The airlines operating scheduled services through Penang besides MAS are Garuda Indonesian Airways, Cathay Pacific Airways, Thai Airways Co. and Thai Airways International. Civil aviation statistics for airports in Peninsular Malaysia (1980): Aircraft movements, 90,530; terminal passengers, 3,940,078; freight, 37,511 tonnes; mail, 3,473 tonnes. Shipping. The major ports of Peninsular Malaysia are Penang, Malacca, Port Klang, Pasir Gudang, Port Dickson and Kuantan. The volume of shipping (vessels of over 75 NRT only) handled at these ports, exclusive of coasting trade, was as follows (in 1,000 NRT): Ports Penang Port Klang Total (all ports)

1979 1980 1979 1980 1979 1980

Arrivals Number Tonnage 1,711 7,236 7,627 1,805 2,794 16,463 2,785 15,891 5,399 34,103 5,611 34,132

Departures Number Tonnage 7,244 1,720 1,796 7,610 16,434 2,799 2,796 15,996 5,408 34,090 34,072 5,558

PENINSULAR

823

MALAYSIA

The total cargo handled in all ports during 1979 was 25-37m. tonnes; 1980, 27-25m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. As at 31 Dec. 1979,445 post offices, 1,381 postal agencies, 177 mobile post offices and 1 riverine postal office were operating in Malaysia, and the cash turnover for the year amounted to M$4,688,113,241. There were 825,289 telephones on 1 Jan. 1982. In 1979, 208,731 wireless licences and 911,749 television licences were issued. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Unlike the Federal Court and the High Court which were established under the Constitution, the subordinate courts in Peninsular Malaysia comprising the sessions court, the Magistrate's court and the Penghulu's court were established under a Federal Law (the subordinate Courts Act, 1948 (Revised 1972)). All offences other than those punishable with death are tried before a Sessions Court President who is empowered to pass any sentence allowed by law other than the sentence of death. In civil matters, the sessions court has jurisdiction to hear all actions and suits where the amount in dispute does not exceed M$25,000. A First Class Magistrate's criminal jurisdiction is limited to offences for which the maximum term provided by law does not exceed 10 years' imprisonment and to certain specified offences where the term of imprisonment provided for may be extended to 14 years' imprisonment or which are punishable with fine only. Juvenile courts established under the Juvenile Courts Act, 1947 for juvenile offenders below the age of 18 are presided over by a First Class Magistrate assisted by 2 advisers. There are 30 penal institutions, including Borstal establishments and an open prison camp. The average prison population (1979) was 9,254. Religion. More than half the population are Muslims, and Islam is the official religion. In 1970 there were 4,673,670 Muslims, 765,250 Hindus, 220,897 Christians and 2,495,739 Buddhists. Education. In 1981 there were 4,357 state assisted primary schools with 2,003,803 pupils and 4,357 teachers and in 1980, 208 private primary schools with 5,130 pupils and 224 teachers. In 1981 there were 2,855 secondary schools with 1,160,967 pupils and 46,960 teachers. There were (1980): 10 special schools with 1,312 pupils and 104 teachers; 401 classes for further education with 10,281 students and 997 teachers; 25 teacher training colleges with over 12,000 students. In the academic year 1980-81 there were 10 institutions of higher learning: 1981-82 Ungku Omar Polytechnic, lpoh Kuantan Polytechnic, Kuantan M A R A Institute of Technology, Shah Alam Tunku Ab. Rahman College, Kuala Lumpur University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur University of Kebangsaan, Bangi University of Science, Penang University of Agriculture, Serdang University of Technology, Kuala Lumpur

Staff 112

49 665 156 1,085 864 417 502 431

Students 2,449 575 11,108 6,285 9,310 7,514 4,387 4,136 4,862

The International Islamic University opened in 1983. Health. In 1981 Government maintained 65 general, district hospitals with 29,712 beds, 2 institutions with 2,688 beds for the treatment of Hensens' disease, 2 mental institutions with 6,577 beds and 1 institution (293 beds) for tuberculosis treatment. For the care of the rural population there were 3,131 medical and health facilities comprising 65 main health centres, 254 health sub-centres, 1,375 midwives' clinics, 414 static, 284 travelling dispensaries, 739 dental clinics, 41 maternal and child health clinics. The Government also maintains an Institute for Medical Research with 2 branch laboratories at Ipoh and Penang.

824

MALAYSIA

Books of Reference Morris, M. W., Local Government in Peninsular Malaysia. London, 1980 Wilkinson, R. J., Malay-English Dictionary. 2 vols. New ed. London, 1956 Winstedt, Sir R., Malaya and Its History. 3rd ed. London, 1953.—An English-Malay Dictionary. 3rd ed. Singapore, 1949.—The Malays: A Cultural History. London, 1959

SABAH H I S T O R Y . The territory now named Sabah, but until Sept. 1963 known as North Borneo, was in 1877-78 ceded by the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu and various other rulers to a British syndicate, which in 1881 was chartered as the British North Borneo (Chartered) Company. The Company's sovereign rights and assets were transferred to the Crown with effect from 15 July 1946. On that date, the island of Labuan (ceded to Britain in 1846 by the Sultan of Brunei) became part of the new Colony of North Borneo. On 16 Sept. 1963 North Borneo joined the new Federation of Malaysia and became the State of Sabah. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Area, about 28,460 sq. miles (73,711 sq. km), with a coastline of 973 miles (1,577 km). The interior is mountainous, Mount Kinabalu being 13,455 ft (4,175 metres) high. Population, 1980 census 1,012,608, (1983 estimate, 1,116,000), of whom, 838,141 were Pribumis, 163,996 Chinese, 5,613 Indians, 3,296 others. The native population comprises Kadazans (largest and mainly agricultural), Bajaus and Bruneis (agriculture and fishing), Muruts (hill tribes), Suluks (mainly seafaring) and several smaller tribes. The island of Labuan became Federal territory on 16April 1984,35sq. miles (75 sq. km) in area, lying 6 miles (9 -66 km) off the north-west coast of Borneo is a free port. It has a fine port, Victoria Harbour. The principal towns are situated on or near the coast. They include Kota Kinabalu, the capital (formerly Jesselton), 1980 census population (preliminary), 108,725, Tawau (113,708), Sandakan (113,496), Keningau in the hinterland (41,204), and Kudat (3 8,397). C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical monsoon, but on the whole is equable, with temperatures around 80°F (26-5°C) throughout the year. Annual rainfall varies, according to locality, from 10" (250 mm) to 148" (3,700 mm). The north-east monsoon lasts from Dec. to April and chiefly affects the east coast, while the southwest monsoon from May to Aug. gives the west coast its wet season. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the State of Sabah provides for a Head of State, called the Yang Dipertua Negeri Sabah. Executive authority is vested in the State Cabinet headed by the Chief Minister. Head of State: Tun Datuk Mohamed Adam Robert, SMN, SPDK, SPMP, SPMK, DUPN, DP. Flag: Horizontally blue over white with a red triangle based on the hoist. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Nov. 1984: Chief Minister: Datuk Harris Mohd. Salleh. Deputy Chief Minister and Minister of Infrastructure Development: Tan Sri Haji Mohd. Suffian Koroh. Financial Planning and Development: Datuk Haji Mohd. Noor Mansoor. Social Services: Toh Puan Datuk Hajjah Rahimah Stephens. Agriculture and Fisheries Development: Datuk Lim Guan Sing. Town and Country Development: Datuk Ayub Aman. Culture, Youth and Sports: Datuk Conrad Mojuntin. Resources Development: Stephen Wong Soon Yu. Industrial Development: Datuk Clarence Mansul. The Legislative Assembly consists of the Speaker, 48 elected members and not more than 6 nominated members. The official language was English for a period of 10 years from Sept. 1963 but in

SABAH

825

Aug. 1973 Bahasa Malaysia was introduced and in 1974 was declared the official language. English is widely used especially for business. ECONOMY Budget. Budgets for calendar years, in M$: Ordinary Budget Revenue Expenditure

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 716,291,841 777,282,219 1,439,748,354 1,538,251,203 1,206,110,099 556,660,409 637,510,015 926,035,864 1,383,481,653 1,738,218,335

Development Budget Revenue 184,895,412 198,347,347 Expenditure 165,749,561 186,816,759

201,937,626 264,620,018

331,753,502 396,634,910

898,051,408 798,727,173

Banking. There are branches of The Chartered Bank at Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Tawau, Labuan, Kudat, Tenom and Lahad Datu. The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Labuan, Beaufort, Papar and Tawau. The Hock Hua Bank (S) has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan and Tawau. The Chung Khiaw Bank has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Tuaran and Sandakan. Malayan Banking Ltd has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Tawau, Semporna and Sandakan. United Overseas Bank and the Overseas Chinese Banking Corporation have each a branch at Kota Kinabalu. Bank Bumiputra Malaysia has branches at Kota Kinabalu. Lahad Datu, Sandakan and Keningau. Overseas Union Bank and the Development and Commercial Bank have each a branch at Sandakan. The Sabah Bank Berhad and Sabah Development Bank were established in Kota Kinabalu in 1979. The National Savings Bank has taken over the functions of the post office savings bank as from 1 Dec. 1974andhad(1983)M$29-4m.dueto 139,212 depositors. It also provides additional services to depositors including the granting of loans for housing. C O M M E R C E . The main imports are machinery, tobacco, provisions, petroleum products, metals, rice, textiles and apparel, vehicles, sugar, building material. Statistics for calendar years, in M$: Imports Exports

1979 1980 1981 1982 2,035,061,720 3,060,819,153 3,644,281,463 3,217,971,724 4,132,247,959 4,455,982,812 4,357,069,182 5,726,240,301

1983 3,802,333,624 5,432,972,223

The main imports and exports were (in M$ 1 m.): Imports Rice Provisions Textiles and apparel Tobacco, cigars and cigarettes Sugar Vehicles Machinery Petroleum products Metals Building materials Exports Rubber Timber Hemp Fish, fresh, dried and salted Copra (including re-exports) Cocoa beans Veneer sheets Palm oil Copper concentrates Crude petroleum

1970 15-4 45-7 20-5 32-9 6-7 47-6 1090 28-6 36-8 130

49-5 90-7 5-2 0-9 40-2 15-8 0-.5

36-5 82-3 56-2 36-5 45-1 396-8 1,855-1 1,777-6 2,319 1 2,037-2 0-3 80 34-3 40-7 44-7 68-6 6-8 33-3 22-5 17-0 15-5 4-4 83-1 104-6 119-1 67-6 10-4 18-1 19-0 52-8 2-5 181 159-6 159-6 192-9 182-7 — 177-3 167-3 152 3 162-6 1,779-7 1,567-0 2,238-0 2,141-1 —

-

-

1980 47-9 218-8 87-9 92-2 34-0 389-1 138-3 332-9 296-8 89-7

Tourism. In 1983 some 68,329 tourists visited Sabah.

1981 86-7 261-7 109-0 96-0 38-6 394-9 168-4 437-9 407-5 128-7

1982 75-0 261-8 99-8 79-2 32-3 279-2 160-2 332-3 416-4 120-4

1960 8-4 22-3 9-2 12-8 3-5 81 300 161 121 2-8

1983 88-2 309-4 124-2 112-9 44-9 384-6 218-2 244-8 469-4 145-0

826

MALAYSIA

COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1983). There were 6,471 km of roads, of which 1,997 km were bitumen surfaced, 4,300 km gravel surfaced and 190 km of earth road. Work is in progress on a network of roads, notably the Kota Kinabalu-Sandakan and Sandakan-Lahad Datu road links. Railways. A metre-gauge railway, 140 km, runs from Kota Kinabalu on Gaya Bay to Tenom in the interior. It carried 315,000 passengers in 1983. Aviation. External communications are provided from the international airport at Kota Kinabalu by Cathay Pacific Airways Ltd to Hong Kong; Malaysian Airways to Hong Kong, Manila, Brunei, Kuching, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur; Brunei Airways to Brunei and Kuching and Philippine Airlines to Manila. The total air traffic handled at Sabah airports during 1983 was2,181,833 passengers, 16,983,717 kg freight and 3,211,263 kg mail. Shipping (1983). Merchant shipping totalling 16,065,853 NRT used the ports, handling 16,236,743 tonnes of cargo. Post. As at 31 Dec. 1976 there were 32 post offices, 13 mobile post offices and 84 postal agencies. There were 65,101 telephones on 31 Dec. 1983. As at 31 Dec. 1983, there were 62,540 wireless and 78,363 television licences issued. J U S T I C E , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. Pursuant to the Subordinate Courts Ordinance (Cap. 20) (1951) Courts of a Magistrate of the First Class, Second Class and Third Class were established to adjudicate upon the administration of civil and criminal law. The civil jurisdiction of a First Class Magistrate is limited to cases where the amount in dispute does not exceed M$1,000. but provision is made for the Chief Justice to enlarge that jurisdiction to MS3,000. This has been established so as to confer this jurisdiction on all stipendiary magistrates. A Second Class Magistrate can only try suits where the amount involved does not exceed MS500 and a Third Class Magistrate where it does not exceed M$ 100. The criminal jurisdiction of these Magistrates' Courts is limited to offences of a less serious nature although stipendiary magistrates have enhanced jurisdiction. There are no Juvenile Courts. There are also Native Courts with jurisdiction to try cases arising from breach of native law and custom (including Moslem Law and custom) where all parties are natives or one of the party is a native (if the matter is a religious, matrimonial or sexual one). Appeals from Native Courts lie to a District Judge or a Native Court of Appeal presided over by a Judge. In 1982,3,996 convictions were obtained in 999 cases taken to court. Education. In 1983, there were 169,481 primary and 75,619 secondary pupils. There are 837 primary schools (657 government, 169 grant-aided and 11 private), and 106 general secondary schools (55 government, 37 grant-aided and 14 private) throughout the State. There are 3 teacher-training colleges, with (1983) 958 students. The Government also runs 5 vocational schools in Kota Kinabalu and Sandakan offering carpentry, motor mechanics, electrical installation, fitting/turning, radio and television and heavy plant fitting. The Department of Education also runs further education classes in most towns and districts. The main medium of instruction in primary schools is Bahasa Malaysia although there are some Chinese medium primary schools. Secondary education is principally English but this is progressively being replaced by Bahasa Malaysia. Health. The principal diseases are malaria, pulmonary tuberculosis and intestinal infestations. Specific control programmes for malaria and tuberculosis have drastically reduced the incidence of these two diseases. As at 31 Dec. 1983 there were 16 hospitals (2,950 beds). Seventy-six fixed dispensaries in outlying districts providing in-patient and out-patient care are

SARAWAK

827

staffed by hospital assistants under the supervision of district medical officers. There are mental hospitals at Sandakan and Kota Kinabalu. There are 17 district health centres and 45 travelling clinics throughout the State providing maternal and child health care. Book of Reference Statistical Information: Director, Federal Department of Information, Kota Kinabalu. Tregonning, K. G., North Borneo. HMSO, 1960

SARAWAK H I S T O R Y . The Government of part of the present territory was obtained on 24 Sept. 1841 by Sir James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei. Variousaccessions were made between 1861 and 1905. In 1888 Sarawak was placed under British protection. On 16 Dec. 1941 Sarawak was occupied by the Japanese. After the liberation the Rajah took over his administration from the British military authorities on 15 April 1946. The Council Negri, on 17 May 1946, authorized the Act of Cession to the British Crown by 19 to 16 votes, and the Rajah ceded Sarawak to the British Crown on 1 July 1946. On 16 Sept. 1963 Sarawak joined the Federation of Malaysia. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area is about 48,250sq. miles(124,449 sq. km), with a coastline of450 miles and many navigable rivers. The population at 1980 census was 1,294,753 ( 1978 estimate, 1,173,906, including 386,260 Dayaks; 182,700 Malays; 103,194 other natives; 294,020 Chinese; 9,735 others). The annual rate of increase is 2-4% (estimate). Working population (1980), 710,000. The chief towns are the capital, Kuching, about 21 miles inland, on the Sarawak River (1980 population: 120,000), Sibu, 80 miles up the Rejang River, which is navigable by large steamers (1980 population: 86,000), and Miri, the headquarters of the Sarawak Shell Ltd (1980 population: 66,000). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 24 Sept. 1941 the Rajah began to rule through a constitution. Since 1855 two bodies, known as Majlis Mesyuarat Kerajaan Negeri (Supreme Council) and the Dewan Undangan Negeri (State Legislature), had been in existence. By the constitution of 1941 they were given, by the Rajah, powers roughly corresponding to those of a colonial executive council and legislative council respectively. Sarawak has retained a considerable measure of local autonomy in state affairs. The State or Legislature consists of 48 elected members and sits for 5 years unless sooner dissolved. A ministerial system of government was introduced in 1963. The Chief Minister presides over the Supreme Council, which contains no more than 8 other Council Negri members, all of whom are Ministers. Elections to the State Legislature on 29 Dec. 1983 returned 3 Independents and 45 members of the Sarawak Barisan Nasional comprising the Party Pesaka Bumiputra Bersatu, the Sarawak United Peoples' Party, Sarawak National' Party and Party Bansa Dayak Sarawak. Sarawak has 24 seats in the Malaysia House of Representatives (154 members) and 5 seats in the Senate (58 members). Sarawak has 7 divisions each under a Resident. Head of State: Tun Datuk Patinggi Tan Sri Haji Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, DPSS, SMN, SSMT, DP, SPMJ, SPMK, SIMP, SPMS, SSDK, SPMP, SPDK, PNBS. Chief Minister: Datuk Patinggi Haji Abdul Taib Mahmud, DP, SPMJ, PGDK. Deputy Chief Ministers: Tan Sri Datuk Amar Sim Kheng Hong, PSM, DA, PGDK (Finance and Development), Datuk Daniel Tajem anak Miri, PNBS (Agriculture and Community Development), Datuk Alfred Jabu anak Numpang, PNBS, KMN (Housing). Communications and Works: Datuk Dr Wong Soon Kai, PNBS.

828

MALAYSIA

Local Government: Datuk Edward Jeli Bhayong, PNBS. Forestry: Datuk Haji Noor Tahir, PNBS, AMN. Special Functions: Hafsah Harun, JMN. State Secretary: Datuk Amar Abang Haji Yusuf Puteh, DA, PNBS, PGDK, JSM. State Attorney-General: Datuk Jemuri Seijan, PNBS, JBS. Stale Financial Secretary: Datuk Haji Bujang mohd Nor, PNBS, JBS, JSM. The official languages are Malay and English. The continuing use of English as official language in Sarawak will be reviewed in 1985. Flag: Horizontally red over white with a blue triangle on the hoist. ECONOMY Budget. In 1982 State revenue was M$536-3m.; expenditure, M$543-8m. The revenue is mainly derived from royalties on oil and timber. The fourth Malaysian 5-year development plan (1981 -85) provides for Sarawak an expenditure of M$3,567m.; of this sum over 90% is to be spent on roads and bridges, land development, port development, education, electricity and water supply and agriculture. Currency. The Malaysian dollar is on a par of £0-334 or US$0-426. Banking. The National savings bank had 86,157 depositors at the beginning of 1981; the amount to their credit was M$38-8m. There is a branch of Bank Negara Malaysia in Kuching, and branches of the Chartered Bank, the Hongkong & Shanghai Bank, Bank Bumiputra Malaysia, the Overseas Chinese Banking Corporation, the Malayan Bank and 9 other banks. P R O D U C T I O N . The State produces rubber (exports, 1982, 15,919 net tons, M$24-2m.; 1981, 28,158 net tons, M$57-6mr), timber logs (exports, 1982, 9-2m. tons, M$l,261m.; 1981, 6-9m. tons, M$8I2m.), sawn timber (exports, 1982, 183,759m. tons, M$100m.; 1981, 162,963m. tons, M$84-8m.), palm oil (exports, 1982, 31,919 tons, M$23-8m.; 1981, 18,660 tons, M$21-9m.), pepper (exports, 1982, 25,010 tons, M$65 -7m.; 1981, 28,606 tons, M$81-3m.), and other jungle produce. There are also gold (1981, 2,108 grammes), antimony ore (1981, 318 tons) and silica sand (1981,141,048 tons). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Commerce. Export of crude oil in 1982 was 4-41m. tons (M$2,725m.), about 60% of total exports. The bulk of crude production was exported to Japan, USA, Philippines and Thailand. Total import value, 1982, M$3,313m.; 1981, M$3,001m. Export, 1982, M$4,967m.; 1981,M$4,514m. Tourism. Tourism is expanding and new hotels were under construction in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are no railways. In 1982 there were 3,296 miles of roads, consisting of 830 miles of bitumen surfaced, 2,389 miles of gravel or stone surfaced and 75 miles of earth roads. Aviation. There are daily Malaysian Airline System (MAS) B737 and Airbus flights between Kuching and Kuala Lumpur via Singapore, and also scheduled flights between Kuching, Brunei and Hong Kong. Major towns in Sarawak are linked up by internal air routes. Shipping. In 1981 Sarawak ports loaded 12,164,000 tons (1980: 10-58m.tons)and discharged l -38m. tons (1980: 900,000 tons). New Kuching wharf, operational since Dec. 1974, can accommodate vessels up to 15,000 tons. Post and Broadcasting. There are 52 post offices, 18 mobile offices and 200 postal agencies. A telephone system with 57 exchanges (64,310 telephones) covers the country. There is communication by wireless with Singapore and other Common-

SARAWAK

829

wealth countries. The government radio and television service had, at the end of 1981,33,202 registered receivers. Newspapers (1982). There are 1 Malay, 2 English and 7 Chinese daily; 1 English weekly; 1 Malay and 1 Iban (Sea Dayak) monthly newspapers as well as a weekly news review in Malay and Iban published by Government. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice (1980). In Sarawak subordinate courts were established pursuant to the Subordinate Courts Ordinance (Cap. 42) (1952). The limits of civil and criminal jurisdiction of a First Class, Second Class and Third Class Magistrate are the same as in Sabah. As in Sabah, here too there is provision for the ChiefJustice to enhance the jurisdiction of a First Class Magistrate in civil and criminal matters, the reason being that there are no Sessions Courts in both Sabah and Sarawak. Native Courts were set up under the Native Courts Ordinance (Cap. 43) (1955) with the same limited jurisdiction as Native Courts in Sabah. In addition these courts have jurisdiction to try civil cases where, the amount in dispute does not exceed M$50. Appeals from Native Courts lie to a Resident's Native Court and, subject to some limitations, to the Native Court of Appeal which is presided over by a High Court Judge. There are no Juvenile Courts. There are 5 prisons. There were 1,866 admissions, of whom 1,028 were sentenced to penal imprisonment and 723 committed on remand or awaiting trial, and 75 paid fines. Daily average prison population was 409. Police. There is a Royal Malaysia Police, Sarawak Component, with a total establishment of about 8,000 regular officers and men. Religion. There are Church of England, Roman Catholic, American Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist and Borneo Evangelical missions. There is a large Moslem population and many Buddhists. Islam is the national religion. Education (1982). All schools (government, missions, private) numbered about 1,500 with 313,900 pupils, of whom about 100,276 were in secondary classes. Tliere are 3 teacher-training centres and an agricultural university campus conducting pre-university courses. Health. At the end of 1982 there were 16 government hospitals (2,908 beds), 140 static and 94 travelling dispensaries, 121 public dental and school dental clinics and 158 maternal and child health centres. There were 181 registered doctors. Books of Reference Population and Housing Census of Malaysia, 1980. Dept. ofStatistics, Kuala Lumpur Sarawak Annual of Statistics. Dept. of Statistics, Kuching, 1981 Sarawak Annual External Trade Statistics. Dept. ofStatistics, Kuching, 1982 1983 Sarawak Budget. Information Dept., Sarawak Milne, R. S.,and Ratnam, K.}., Malaysia, New States in a New Nation: Political Development of Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. London, 1974 Runciman.S., The White Rajahs. CUP, 1960 Scott, N. C., Sea Dyak Dictionary. Govt. Printing Office, Kuching, 1956 National Library: The Sarawak Central Library, Kuching.

MALDIVES

Capital: Male Population: 168,000 (1983) GNP per ca/>/7a: US$308 (1980)

Divehi Jumhuriya

H I S T O R Y . The islands were under British protection from 1887 to mid-1965. They now enjoy complete independence under the agreement signed in Colombo on 26 July 1965. Maldives became a republic on 11 Nov. 1968. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Republic of Maldives, 400 miles to the south-west of Sri Lanka, consists of some 2,000 low-lying coral islands (only 220 inhabited), grouped into 12 clearly defined clusters of atolls but divided into 19 districts for administrative purposes. Area 115 sq. miles (298 sq. km). Population (census 1978), 143,046. Estimate (1983) 168,000. Capital Male (40,000 inhabitants). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The President is elected every 5 years by universal adult suffrage. He is assisted by the Ministers' Majlis, a cabinet of ministers of his own choice whom he may dismiss at will. There is also a Citizens' Majlis (House of Representatives) which consists of 54 members, 8 nominated by the President, 8 elected from Male and 2 elected from each of the 19 atolls. The life of the Citizens' Majlis is 5 years. There are no political parties. President and Prime Minister: Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. External Affairs: Fathulla Jameel. Justice: Ibrahim Fareed Didi. Home Affairs: Umar Zahir. Provincial Affairs: Abdulla Hameed. Education: Mohamed Zahir Hussain. Health: Adulla Jameel Hussain. Fisheries: Abdul Sattar. Agriculture: Vacant. Transport: Ahmed Mujuthaba. The official language is Divehi, which is akin to Elu or old Sinhalese. Nationalflag: Red with a green panel bearing a white crescent. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. Membership. The Republic of the Maldives is a member of UN and a special member of the Commonwealth. ECONOMY Budget. There is no direct taxation. Currency. The rufiyaa (Maldivian rupee) is divided into 100 laaris\ there are notes of 1,2,5,10,50 and 100 rufiyaa. NATURAL RESOURCES Agriculture. The islands are covered with coconut palms and yield millet and fruit as well as coconut produce. Production in 1981 included (in 1,000 tonnes): Coconuts, 9; copra, 2. Fisheries. The Maldivian economy is based on the fishing industry. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Commerce. Bonito ('Maldive fish') is the main export commodity and Japan the main buyer. Exports(198 l)US$27-9m.: imports, US$38-8m. Totaf trade between the Republic of Maldives and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 294 1,121

830

1981 254 2,403

1982 57 615

1983 44 840

1984 529 747

MALDIVES

831

Tourism. Tourism, introduced in 1972, is expanding and there were 74,000 visitors in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. The Maldives' national airline, Maldives International Airline, was established in 1977, and is a joint venture between the Maldives' government and Indian Airlines. It replaced an earlier airline, Air Maldives which was wound up in 1977. The airline operates one Boeing 737, leased from Indian Airlines, from Hulule airport on Male atoll. Hulule airport is being extended. The Maldives' government hopes to reactivate the former RAF staging post on Gan in order to attract additional tourist traffic. Shipping. The merchant fleet consists ofabout 50 vessels of200,000 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1982) 1,540 telephones. An external telephone service links Tortola with Bermuda and the rest of the world, and cable communications also exist to all parts of the world. Radio ZBVI transmits 10,000 watts and has stand-by transmitting facilities of 1,000 watts. Cable and Wireless operate a commercial cable television service to provide subscribers with good quality reception of approximately 7 television channels plus a number of FM stereo broadcasting stations. JUSTICE, RELIGION EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is based on the Islamic Shari'ah. Religion. The State religion is Moslem of the Sunni sect. Education. In 1978 there were 8,749 pupils in primary and 3,652 in secondary schools. Health. In 1977 there was a 40-bed hospital in Male, and 9 doctors, 1 dentist, 177 midwives and 34 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in the Republic of Maldives High Commissioner: J. A. B. Stewart, CMG, OBE (resides in Colombo). Of the Republic of Maldives to the United Nations Ambassador: M. Musthafa Hussain. Books of Reference Bell, H. C. P., History, Archaeology and Epigraphy of the Maldive Islands. Ceylon Govt. Press, Colombo, 1940 Bernini, F. and Corbin, G M a l d i v e . Turin, 1973

MALI

Capital: Bamako Population: 7 • 72m. ( 1984) GNP per capita: US$ 190 ( 1981 )

République du Mali

HISTORY. Annexed by France between 1881 and 1895, the region became the territory of French Sudan as a part of French West Africa. It became an autonomous state within the French Community on 24 Nov. 1958, and on 4 April 1959 joined with Sénégal to form the Federation of Mali. The Federation achieved independence on 20 June 1960, but Sénégal seceded on 22 Aug. and Mali proclaimed itselfan independent republic on 22 Sept. The National Assembly was dissolved on 17 Jan. 1968 by President Modibo Keita, whose government was then overthrown by an Army coup on 19 Nov. 1968; power was assumed by a Military Committee for National Liberation led by Lieut, {now General) Moussa Traoré, who became President on 19 Sept. 1969. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mali is a landlocked state, consisting of the Middle and Upper Niger basin in the south, the Upper Sénégal basin in the southwest, and the Sahara in the north. It is bounded west by Sénégal, north-west by Mauritania, north-east by Algeria, east by Niger and south by Burkina Faso, the Ivory Coast and Guinea. The republic covers an area of 1,240,142 sq. km (478,832 sq. miles) and had a population of6,398,914 at the 1976 Census; the latest estimate (1984) is 7,722,000. The chief cities (with populations in 1976) are Bamako, the capital (404,022), Ségou (64,890), Mopti (53,885), Sikasso (47,030), Kayes (44,736), Gao (30,714), Tombouctou (20,483) and Koulikoro (16,876). The population of the regions (census 1976): Kayes, 871,871; Koulikoro, 916,148; Capital district, 404,022; Sikasso, 1,044,664; Ségou, 1,111,810; Mopti, 1,104,708; Tombouctou, 487,278; Gao, 367,819. The various indigenous languages belong chiefly to the Mande group; of these the principal are Bambara (spoken by 60% of the population), Soninké, Malinké and Dogon; non-Mande languages include Fulani, Songhai, Senufo and Minianka. The official language is French. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with adequate rain in the south and west, but conditions become increasingly arid towards the north and east. Bamako. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 80°F (26-7'C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,120 mm). Kayes. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 93°F (33-9°C). Annual rainfall 29" (725 mm). Tombouctou. Jan. 71"F(21 -TC), July 90°F(32-2°C). Annual rainfall 9 " (231 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was announced on 26 April 1974 and approved by a national referendum on 2 June; it was amended by the National Assembly on 2 Sept. 1981. The sole legal party is the Union démocratique du peuple malien (UDPM), formally constituted on 30 March 1979 and governed by a 19-member Central Executive Bureau responsible to a 137-member National Council who nominate all candidates for election. The President is directly elected and his term of office is now 6 years; Gen. Moussa Traoré was elected unopposed on 19 June 1979. The 82-member National Assembly is also directly elected (latest elections, 13 June 1982); its term of office is now 3 years. The Council of Ministers in June 1984 comprised: President, Head of Government, Defence and Security: Gen. Moussa Traoré. Ministers of State: Brig.-Gen. Amadou Baba Diarra (Equipment), Oumar Coulibaly (Economy and Plan). Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Alioune Blondin N'guéye. Planning: Ahmed 832

MALI

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Mohamed Ag Hamani. Agriculture: Nfagnanama Kone. Education: Lieut.-Col. Sékou Ly. Labour and Civil Service: Modibo Keita. Rural Development: Mady Diallo. Justice: Lieut.-Col. Issa Ongoiba. Public Works and Transport: Mamadou Haidara. Health and Social Affairs: Dr Ngolo Traoré. Finance and Commerce: Ydrissa Keita. State Enterprises: Bandiougou Bidia Doucoure. Interior: Lieut.Col. Abdourahmane Maiga. Information and Telecommunications: Gakou Nee Fatou Niang. Sports, Arts and Culture: N'tji Idrissa Mariko. Nationalflag: Three vertical stripes of green, yellow, red. Local Government: Mali is divided into the Capital District of Bamako and 7 regions, sub-divided into 46 cercles and then into 279 arrondissements. D E F E N C E . There is a selective system of 2 years' military service. Army. The Army consists of 3 infantry battalions, 1 tank battalion, 1 artillery battalion and support units. Equipment includes 21 T-34 tanks. Strength (1985) 4,600. There is also a paramilitary force of5,000 men. Air Force. The Air Force has 5 MiG-17 jet fighters, MiG-15UT1 jet trainer, some Yak-18 piston-engined trainers, 2 An-24, 1 An-26 and 3 An-2 transports, and 3 Mi-8 and Mi-4 helicopters from USSR. A twin-turbofan Corvette is used for VIP transport. Personnel total about 300. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Mali is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1981-85 Four Year Plan provides for expenditure of MF 795,200m. Budget. The budget for 1982 balanced at MF 88,800m. Currency. Mali introduced its own currency, the Mali franc, in July 1962 but reverted to the franc CFA on 1 June 1984, with a parity value of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. Banking. The Banque Centrale du Mali (founded in 1968) is the bank of issue. There are 4 domestic and 2 French-owned banks. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1981) totalled 91m. kwh. Hydro-electric dams have been built at Selingué (near Bamako) on the Upper Niger and at Manantali (near Kayes) on the Sénégal river. Minerals. Mineral resources are limited, but marble (at Bafoulabé) and limestone (at Diamou) are being extracted in the Upper Sénégal valley; iron ore deposits in this area await development. Salt is mined at Taoudenni in the far north (3,000 tonnes a year) and phosphates at Bouren (10,000 tonnes). Agriculture. Production in 1982 included (in 1,000 tonnes): Millet, 950; sugarcane, 225; groundnuts, 178; rice, 145; maize, 81; cottonseed, 60; cotton lint, 36; cassava, 65; sweet potatoes, 50. Livestock, 1983: Cattle, 5-4m.; horses, 140,000; asses, 425,000; sheep, 6 -45m.; goats, 7 • 5m.; camels, 240,000; chickens, 14m. Important irrigation schemes have been carried out in the Ségou and Mopti districts on the Niger River, of which the Sansanding Barrage and the Sahel Canal are the most important; 50,000 hectares of cotton and rice lands are being irrigated. Fisheries. About 100,000 tonnes of fish per annum are caught in the rivers. TRADE. Imports in 1982 totalled MF 218,400m., exports, 95,800m. Chief imports are foodstuffs, automobiles, petrol, building material, sugar, salt and beer.

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MALI

France and Ivory Coast are the main trading partners. Cotton formed 39% of exports in 1981. Total trade between Mali and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 11,318 7,878

1981 4,534 2,761

1982 3,385 4,403

1983 3,833 15,856

1984 5,646 5,471

Tourism. There were 19,853 foreign tourists in 1977. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1980) 13,360 km of roads, of which 6,869 km are usable in all seasons; they include 2,606 km of metalled road Dakar-Niger (of which 1,693 km are in Mali). There were 19,500 road vehicles in 1974. Railways. Mali has a railway from Kayes to Koulikoro by way of Bamako, a continuation of the Dakar-Kayes line in Sénégal. Total length 642 km and in 1983 the railways ran 156m. passenger-km and 132m. tonne-km. Aviation. Air services connect the republic with Paris, Dakar and Abidjan. There are international airports at Bamako and Mopti, and Air Mali operates domestic services to 10 other airports. Shipping. For about 7 months in the year small steamboats perform the service from Koulikoro to Tombouctou and Gap, and from Bamako to Kouroussa. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1982, 8,485 telephones and in 1983, 100,000 radio receivers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court was established at Bamako in 1969 with both judicial and administrative powers. The Court of Appeal is also at Bamako, at the apex of a system of regional tribunals and local juges de paix. Religion. In 1979,65% of the population were Sunni Moslems, 30% animists and 5% Christians. Education. In 1979 there were 293,227 pupils and 6,877 teachers in primary schools, 70,625 pupils and 3,004 teachers in secondary schools, (1977) 2,609 in technical schools, (1979) 2,511 in teacher-training colleges,and 5,281 students in higher educational establishments. A further 30,000 students were at 1,321 adult literacy centres. Health. In 1980 there were 12 hospitals, 327 health centres and 445 dispensaries, with a total of3,200 beds; there were 319 doctors, 18 surgeons, 14 dentists (1978), 24 pharmacists (1978), 250 midwives and 1,312 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Mali in Great Britain Ambassador: Yaya Diarra (resides in Brussels). Of Great Britain in Mali Ambassador: P. L. O'Keeffe, CMG, CVO (resides in Dakar). Of Mali in the USA (2130 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Lassana Keita. Of the USA in Mali (Rue Testard and Rue Mohamed V, Bamako) Ambassador: Parker W. Borg. Of Mali to the United Nations Ambassador: Seydou Niare. Books of Reference Hopkins,N.S.,PopularGovernmentinan African Town. Univ.ofChicagoPress, 1972 Jones, W., Planning and Economic Policy: Socialist Mali and Her Neighbors. New York, 1974

MALTA

Capital: Valletta Population: 329,189 ( 1983) GNP per capita: US$3,600 (1981)

Repubblika Ta' Malta

H I S T O R Y . Malta was held in turn by Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Romans, and was conquered by Arabs in 870. From 1090 it was joined to Sicily until 1530, when it was handed over to the Knights of St John, who ruled until dispersed by Napoleon in 1798. The Maltese rose in rebellion against the French and the island was subsequently blockaded by the British aided by the Maltese from 1798 to 1800. The Maltese people freely requested the protection of the British Crown in 1802 on condition that their rights and privileges be preserved. The islands were finally annexed to the British Crown by the Treaty of Paris in 1814. On 15 April 1942, in recognition of the steadfastness and fortitude of the people of Malta during the Second World War, King George VI awarded the George Cross to the island. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Malta is 246 sq. km (94 9 sq. miles); Gozo, 67 sq. km (25 • 9 sq. miles); Comino, 3 sq. km (1 • 1 sq. miles); total area, 316 sq. km (121-9 sq. miles). Population, census 27 Nov. 1967, 314,216; estimate (31 Dec. 1983) 329,189. Malta, 305,545; Gozo and Comino, 23,644. Chief town and port, Valletta, population 14,040 (1983). Vital statistics, 1983, estimate: Births, 5,651; deaths, 3,137; marriages, 2,780; emigrants, 641; returned emigrants, 1,052. C L I M A T E . The climate is Mediterranean, with hot, dry and sunny conditions in summer and very little rain from May to Aug. Rainfall is not excessive and falls mainly between Oct. and March. Average daily sunshine in winter is 6 hours and in summer over 10 hours. Valletta. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (578 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Malta became independent on 21 Sept. 1964 and became a republic within the Commonwealth on 13 Dec. 1974. For earlier constitutional and government history see T H E STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1980-« 1, p. 837. In 1971 Malta began to follow a policy of strict non-alignment and closed the NATO base. In March 1972 agreement was reached on the phasing out of the British Military base which was closed down completely on 31 March 1979. Malta is a democratic republic and the Constitution, which has been amended 7 times, the last in 1977, provides for a Parliament consisting of a President of the Republic, a House of Representatives of elected members and a Cabinet consisting of the Prime Minister and such number of Ministers as may be appointed. The Constitution which is founded on work, makes provision for the protection of fundamental rights and freedom of the individual, and ensures that all persons in Malta shall have full freedom of conscience and religious worship. Maltese and English, and such other language as may be prescribed by Parliament, are the official languages. Elections were held on 12 Dec. 1981. State of parties in Feb. 1983: Malta Labour Party, 34; Nationalist Party, 31. President: Agatha Barbara. The Cabinet (Malta Labour Party) was as at Jan. 198 5: Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior and of Education: Dr Karmenu Mifsud Bonnici. Senior Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Justice and Parliamentary Affairs: Dr Joseph Cassar. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance 835

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MALTA

and Customs: Wistin Abela. Works and Housing: Lorry Sant. Labour and Social Services: Freddie Micallef. Health: Dr Vincent Moran. Parastatal and People's Investments: Dr Philip Muscat. Tourism: Joseph Grima. Industry: Karmenu Vella. Foreign Affairs: Dr Alex Sceberras Trigona. Economic Planning and Trade: Lino Spiteri. Agriculture and Fisheries: Joseph DebonoGrech. Nationalflag: Vertically white and red, with a representation of the George Cross medal in the canton. D E F E N C E . The Maltese armed forces include 800 personnel, organized into 1 infantry battalion, and supported by a Helicopter Flight equipped with 4 Bell 47G-2 and 1 JetRanger light helicopters received in 1972-73, and 1 Agusta-Bell 204 received subsequently. Duties of the Flight include patrol, search and rescue. There is also a para-military force of 1,100. A coastal patrol force of small craft was formed in 1973. It is manned by the Maltese Regiment and primarily employed as a coastguard. In 1985 it comprised 15 patrol craft and customs launches manned by 150 officers and men. All UK forces were withdrawn in March 1979. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Malta is a member of UN, the Commonwealth and the Council of Europe. ECONOMY Planning. The Development Plan (1981 -8 5) aims at continued economic growth as a means towards improving living standards and towards enhancing the quality of life of the community. Given the lack of national resources and the small size of the home market, the development strategy is based on export-led growth in the production of goods and services and, in particular, in manufacturing industry as the mainstay of the economy; ship repair and shipbuilding; food production and the service sector including tourism and transhipment. This should enable the further diversification of the productive base of the economy and generate new employment opportunities. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Lm): Revenue Expenditure

1979 1 19802 1981 2 1982' 98,708,773 170,152,444 204,661,944 210,724,438 105,603,164 161,490,920 192,435,435 216,494,068 1 2 Nine months. April-Dec. Calendar year.

19832 224,522,930 220,908,608

The most important sources of revenue are customs duties, income tax, National Insurance contributions, receipts from the Central Bank of Malta and until 1979, rent from defence facilities. Currency. The Maltese currency is (Lm) Lira Maltija (Maltese Lira). Central Bank of Malta notes of Lml, Lm5 and LmlO denominations are in circulation. Malta coins are issued in the following denominations: 50,25,10,5,2and 1 cents; 5,3 and 2 mils. Total notes in circulation on 31 Dec. 1983 was Lm279-8m.; coins, Lm5 -3m. In March 1985,£1 sterling=Lm0-548;US$l =Lml -95. Banking. The Central Bank of Malta was founded in 1968. Commercial banking facilities are provided by Bank of Valletta Ltd, Lombard Bank (Malta) Ltd and MidMed Bank Ltd. The other domestic banking institutions are the Investment Finance Bank (long-term industrial loans), the Apostleship of Prayer Savings Bank Ltd, Lohombus Corporation Ltd (house mortgage) and Melita Bank International Ltd (offshore bank). ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. All towns and villages in Malta and Gozo are provided with electric current. Up to Sept. 1978 the islands obtained their electricity power supplies from 2 interconnected power stations located at Marsa (Malta) having a total installed

MALTA

837

capacity of 115 mw. The bigger power station with a generating capacity of 85 mw is also equipped with distillation plant capable of also producing fresh water for public consumption at the rate of 4m. gallons per day. An expansion programme is currently under way for the erection of two 30 mw turbo-generating sets and boiler plant which will increase the installed capacity to 175 mw. In Oct. 1978 another power station, which was formerly used to supply foreign military installations on the Island, was handed over to the Government of Malta and has been integrated in the national electricity supply system. The station has a generating capacity of 12 mw. The gross electricity generated in 1983-84 was 715 • 7m. kwh. Agriculture. In 1983 agriculture contributed Lm 18 • 1 m. to the Gross Domestic Product as against Lml6- lm. in 1982. (The 1983 figure represents a share of 4-3% in the GDP.) In 1983 there was a slight decrease in the cultivable area, which totalled 11,491 hectares as against 11,639 hectares in 1982. In 1983 agriculture employed 4,373 full-time farmers, 341 full-time wage earners and 10,903 part-time farmers against, 4,332,346 and 11,026 respectively in 1982. In 1983 the value of Malta's main agricultural exports reached Lml -27m. The 1983 exports consisted mainly of: Potatoes, Lm423,692; seeds, cut-flowers and plants, Lm569,975; wine, Lml67,808; onions, Lm2,326; hides and skins, Lm89,757; capers, Lm20,209. Livestock ( 1983): Cattle, 12,794; pigs, 53,366; sheep, 4,719; goats 4,569; poultry, lm. Fisheries. In 1983 the fishing industry occupied 1,052 power propelled and 93 other fishing boats, engaging 269 full-time and 676 part-time fishermen. The catch in 1983 was 993 tonnes valued at Lm837,548 at first sale. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Investors in industry in Malta are offered the following advantages: political stability, excellent industrial relations, a strategic geographic location, a special association agreement with the EEC, a fully developed and highly functional infrastructure, free repatriation of profits and capital, easily trainable and highly adaptable labour force, financing facilities at favourable rates of interest, readybuilt factories at attractive rents. About 260 aided firms are in operation in various industrial sectors, of which the majority are foreign-owned or have foreign interests. The Malta Development Corporation is the Government agency responsible for promoting and implementing new industrial projects, including joint ventures. The Corporation may also participate by way of equity capital, in certain projects jointly with Maltese or foreign industrialists. Labour. The total work force in Dec. 1983 was 121,560; males, 91,851; females, 29,709, distributed as follows: Agriculture and fisheries, 5,478; manufacturing, 29,444; building, construction and quarrying, 6,992; services, 36,155; electricity, gas and drydocks, 5,947; government, 24,384; armed forces, 763; Dejma and auxiliary workers, 1,476. The number of registered unemployed under Part I of the Employment Register was 10,283, and under Part II, 638. ITiere were 14 trade unions registered as at 30 June 1984, with a total membership of46,134 and 20 employers' associations with a total membership of7,326. Commerce. Imports and exports including bullion and specie (in Lm1,000): Imports Exports

1977 217,681 121,791

1978 221,505 131,949

1979 271,960 152,169

1980 323,737 166,722

1981 332,269 173,725

1982 325,073 169,036

1983 316,633 156,748

In 1983 the principal items of imports were: Semi-manufactures, Lm92-8m.; machinery and transport, Lm77 -5m.; food, Lm41 -7m.; fuels, Lm38 -2m.; manufactures, Lm22-S>m.; chemicals, Lm22m.; others, Lm21-5m. Of domestic exports: Manufactures, Lm92-9m.; machinery and transport, Lm20-7m.; semi-manufactures, Lml5-3m.; beverages and tobacco, Lm5-3m.; food, Lm3-9m.; others, Lm3-5m. In 1983, Lm84-8m. of the imports came from Italy, Lm53-4m. from UK,

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MALTA

Lm50-6m. from Federal Republic of Germany, Lm35-9m. from USA, Lml2-8m. from Asia, Lm9-8m. from the EFTA, Lm3-5m. from Africa, Lm21m. from Oceania, Lm20-9m. from other European countries; of domestic exports, Lm48 • 3 m. to Federal Republic of Germany, Lm24 • 6m. to UK, Lm 14 • 9m. to Italy, Lm9-8m. to Africa, Lm7m. to Asia, Lm4-4m. to USA, Lm3-7m. to EFTA and Lm8 • 7m. to other European countries. Total trade between Malta and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 46,609 87,527

1981 40,713 78,286

1982 42,792 71,823

1983 40,852 71,895

1984 45,076 89,468

Tourism. In 1983,490,812 tourists visited Malta, 312,302 from UK, 34,578 from Italy, 18,382 from Scandinavia, 26,422 from Federal Republic of Germany, 15,014 from Libya, 18,239 from France and 6,217 from USA. In 1983, gross tourist expenditure was Lm67 • 8m. (estimate). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Every town and village is served by motor omnibuses. There are ferry services running between Malta and Gozo; cars can be transported on the ferries. Motor vehicles registered at 31 Dec. 1983 totalled 105,252, of which 73,448 were private cars, 2,772 hire cars, 16,037 commercial vehicles, 138 buses, 12,019motor cycles and 838 other motor vehicles. Aviation. In 1983 the principal airlines, Air Malta, Alitalia, British Airways, Libyan Arab Airlines, Yugoslav Air Transport, Austrian Airlines, Balkan Airlines and Tunisavia, operated scheduled services between Malta and UK, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Egypt, Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Libya, Netherlands, Nigeria, Switzerland, Tunisia and Yugoslavia. In 1983 there were 12,948 civil aircraft movements at Luqa Airport. 1,083,230 passengers, 4,869 tonnes of freight and 517 tonnes of mail were handled. Shipping. The number of ships registered in Malta on 31 Dec. 1983 was 455; 972,660 GRT. Ships entering harbour during 1983,2,928. Post and Telecommunications. Telegraph and telephone services are administered by Telemalta Corporation with exchanges at Malta and Gozo. On 31 Dec. 1983 there were 110,191 telephones. A world-wide cable and telex service is also operated. Cinemas (1983). There were 26 cinemas with a seating capacity of 18,561. Newspapers. There were (1983) 1 English, 3 Maltese daily newspapers and 5 weekly papers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The number of persons convicted of crimes in 1983 was 2,391; those convicted for contraventions against various laws and regulations numbered 9,673. Eighty-eight were committed to prison and 10,181 were awarded fines. Police. On 31 Dec. 1983 police numbered 41 officers and 1,213 other ranks, including 22 women police. Religion. The majority of the population belong to the Roman Catholic Church. Education. Education in Malta is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 and free in government schools. In 1983 there were 162 kindergarten groups, with nearly 3,489 children in 62 centres throughout Malta and Gozo. The primary level enrols children between 5 and 11 years in a 6-year course. There were 24,825 children (12,952 boys and 11,873 girls) in 80 government schools. Four new Junior Lyceums (2 on Malta and 2 on Gozo) were opened in Sept. 1981 with a total of3,660 students (1,473 boys, 2,187 girls). TTiere were 31 other government secondary schools with a total of 11,796 (5,145 boys, 6,651 girls). Secondary schools run 5-year courses leading to GCE 'O' level. Two-year courses leading to GCE 'A' level on a worker/pupil

MALTA

839

system which alternates work with study periods are provided for in the New Lyceum, i.e., upper seconda 17 schools (1,326 students). Enrolment in craft and technician courses in 3 technical institutes amounted to 1,117, while 4,079 (3,041 boys and 1,038 girls) were enrolled in the 12 trade schools for boys and 6 trade schools for girls. Other students are enrolled in specialized vocational schools. Trade schools offer 2- to 4-year courses in specialized trades and are open to students who finish their third year of secondary education. The number of children in special education amounted to 906. There were 80 private schools with a population of 4,215 at the nursery level, 9,540 at the primary level and 6,854 at the secondary level. About 4,500 students attended evening courses in academic, commercial, technical and practical subjects established in 82 centres. Other schools run on a mainly part-time basis by the Education Department for adult students are the School of Art, the School of Music and the School of Art and Design. TTie University of Malta consists of 6 faculties: Law, Medicine and Surgery, Engineering and Architecture, Dental Surgery, Education and Management Studies (1,223 students in 1983-84). Degrees in Law, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Architecture and Civil Engineering, Accountancy; Business Management, Public Administration, Education, Medicine and Surgery, Pharmacy and Dental Surgery are conferred by the University. Welfare. The National Insurance Act, 1956, provides cash benefits for marriage, maternity, sickness, unemployment, widowhood, orphanhood, invalidity, old age, children's allowances and industrial injury. An agreement, signed on 26 Oct. 1956, established reciprocity in matters ofsocial insurance between Malta and the UK. The total number of persons in receipt of benefits on 31 Dec. 1983 was 82,965, viz., 884 in receipt ofsickness benefit, 818 unemployment benefit, 49 injury benefit, 218 disablement benefit, 87 death benefit, 20,154 retirement pensions, 7,910 widows' pensions, 12 widows' special allowance, 21 guardian's allowance, 5,087 invalidity pensions, 47,355 children's allowances and 370 maternity benefit. The National Assistance Act, 1956, provides for the payment of social assistance and medical assistance, while the Old Age Pensions Act of 1948 provides for the payment of non-contributory pensions to persons over 60 years of age, to blind persons over the age of 14 years and to handicapped persons over the age of 16 years. The number of households in receipt of social assistance and of medical assistance on 31 Dec. 1983 was 5,388 and 5,978 respectively, and the number of pensioners in receipt of a non-contributory pension under the Old Age Pensions Act, 1948,was7,357. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Malta in Great Britain (16 Kensington Sq., London, W8 5HH) Deputy High Commissioner: Francis Cassar. Of Great Britain in Malta (7 St Anne St., Floriana) High Commissioner: S. F. St. C. Duncan. Of Malta in the USA (2017 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Chargé d'Affaires: Lawrence Farrugia. Of the USA in Malta (Development Hse., St Anne St., Floriana) Ambassador: James Malone Rentschler. Of Malta to the United Nations Ambassador: Victor J. Gauci. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Office of Statistics (Auberge d'Italie, Valletta) was set up in 1947. It publishes Statistical Abstracts of the Maltese Islands, a quarterly digest of statistics, quarterly and annual trade returns, annual vital statistics and annual publications on shipping and aviation, education, agriculture and industry and National Accounts and Balance of Payments.

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MALTA

Government publications: Information Division (Kastilja, Malta), set up in 1955, publishes The Malta Government Gazette (twice weekly), ll-Gzejjer (monthly), Malta Review (bimonthly), Malta Handbook. Economic Survey, Malta: Guidelines for Progress, Development Plan for Malta 1981-85 and Supplement Paper Currency in Malta, Heritage of an Island, Reports on the Workingof Government Departments. Malta, 1982. Annua! Reports. Central Bank of Malta Trade Directory. Chamber ofCommerce (annual) The Year Book. Sliema (annual) Malta Independence Constitution (Cmnd2406). HMSO, 1964 Constitution of the Republic of Malta. Information Division, 1975 Malta Manufacturers and Exporters. Department of Industry, 1981 Economic Survey ¡983. Malta, 1983 Bapnerman, D. A., and Vella-Graffìero, J. A., Birds of the Maltese Archipelago. Valetta, 1976 Blouét, Brian, The Story of Malta. London, Rev. ed. 1981 Busuttil, E. D., Kalepin Dizzjunarju Malti-Ingliz. Valletta, 1971.—Kalepin Dizzjunarju Ingliz-Malti. 1976 Cassar, P., Medical History of Malta. London, 1966 Cremona, J/J., The Malta Constitution of1835 and its Historical Background. Malta, 1959.— The Constitutional Developments of Malta under British Rule. Malta .Univ. Press, 1963.—Human Rights Documentation in Malta. Malta Univ. Press, 1966 Gerada, E. and Zuber, C , Malta: An Island Republic. Paris, 1979 Hàslam, S. M., Sell, P. D., and Wolseley, P. A., A Flora of the Maltese Islands. Malta Univ. Press, 1977 Luke, Sir Harry, Malta. 2nd ed. London, 1962 Price, G. A., Malta and the Maltese: A Study in 19th-century Migration. Melbourne, 1954 Smith,Harrison, Britain in Malta. 2 vols. Malta,J954

MAURITANIA

Capital: Nouakchott Population: 1 -83m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$460 (1981)

République Islamique de Mauritanie

H I S T O R Y . Mauritania became a French protectorate in 1903 and a colony in 1920. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 28 Nov. 1958 and achieved full independence on 28 Nov. 1960. Under its first President, Moktar Ould Daddah, Mauritania became a one-party state in 1964, but following his deposition by a military coup on 10 July 1978, the ruling Parti du peuple mauritanien was dissolved. , Following the Spanish withdrawal from Western Sahara on 28 Feb. Î976, Mauritania occupied the southern part (88,667 sq. km) of this territory and incorporated it under the name of Tiris el Gharbia; on 8 Aug. seven additional members of the National Assembly were nominated to represent this teijitory. However in Aug. 1979 Mauritania renounced sovereignty and withdrew from Tiris el Gharbia. Following the coup of 10 July 1978, power was placed in the hands of a Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN); the constitution was suspended and the 70-member National Assembly dissolved. Col. Mustafa Ould Salek, Head of the CMRN, assumed the Presidency on 20 March 1979, and on 6 April the CMRN was renamed the Military Committee for National Salvation (CMSN)- On 3 June Col. Salek was replaced as President by Lieut.-Col. Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Ahmed Louly, who was in turn replaced on 4 Jan. 1980 by his Prime Minister, Lieut.-Col. Mohamed Khouna Ould Haydalla. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mauritania is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean, north by Western Sahara, north-east by Algeria, east and south-east by Mali, and south by Sénégal. The total area is 1,030,700 sq. km (398,000 sq. miles), and the population at the Census of 1976 was 1,419,939 including 12,897 in Tiris el Gharbia; latest estimate (1984) 1,834,500. The main towns (with 1976 populations) are the capital Nouakchott ( 134,986), Nouâdhibou (21,961 ), Kaédi (20,848), Zouérate (17,474), Rossô ( 16,466) and Atâr ( 16,326). In 1976,22% of the population were urban and 36% were nomadic. 68% of the inhabitants are Moorish, speaking the Hassaniyah dialect of Arabic, while the other 32% consist of Negro peoples, speaking mainly Tukulor (20%), Sarakole ( i 0%), and Wolof, all inhabiting the Sénégal valley in the extreme south. The official languages are French and Arabic. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, but conditions are generally arid, even near the coast, where the only appreciable rains come-in July to Sept. Nouakchott. Jan. 71°F(21 r C ) , July 82°F(27-8*C). Annual rainfall 6" (158 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A draft Constitution was published on 19 Dec. 1980, but not promulgated. Pending a return to constitutional rule, the 24-member CMSN wields all executive and legislative powers, working through an appointed Council of Ministers composed as follows in Oct. 1984: President, Prime Minister, Minister of Defence: Lieut.-Col. Mohamed Khouna Ould Haydalla (assumed office 4 Jan. 1980). See Addenda. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Maj. Ahmed Ould Minnih. Interior: LieutCol. Yall Abdoulaye. Justice and Islamic Affairs: Lieut.-Col. Cheikh Ould Boyda. Planning and Territorial Management: Ahmed Ould Zein. Economy and Finance: Sidi Ould Ahmed Deya. Fisheries and Maritime Economy: Capt. Mohamed Lemine Ould N'Diayane. Mines and Energy: Dr Diabira Maroufa. Industry: 841

842

MAURITANIA

Lieut.-Col. Ann Amadou Baraly. Rural Development: Dr Louleid Ould Weddad. Equipment and-Transport: Maj. Gabriel Cimper. Education: Hassiny Ould Didi. Higher Education, Cadre Training and Civil Service: Maj. Athie Hamath. Health and Employment: Maj. Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Deh. Culture, Youth and Sports: Mahmoud Ba. Telecommunications and Information: Dr Mohamed Salem Ould Zein. Secretary-General of the Government: Mohamed Ould Amar. Minister-Counsellor to the Presidency: Col. Ahmed Mahmoud Ould el-Hussein. Nationalflag: Green, with a crescent beneath a star in yellow in the centre. Local Government: Mauritania is divided into the District of Nouakchott and 12 regions—Hodh ech Chargui, Hodh el Gharbi, Assaba, Gorgol, Brakna, Trarza, Adrar, Dakhlet Nouâdhibou, Tagent, Guidimaka, Tins Zemmour and Inchin. Thé regions ire sub-divided into 44 départements. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 infantry and 1 artillery battalion, 3 armoured car squadrons and support units; total strength, 8,500 in 1985. Navy. The Navy consists of 4 patrol vessels and 4 small patrol craft. Personnel (1985)320. Air Force. The Air Force has 6 Britten-Norman Defender armed light transports, 2 Maritime Surveillance Cheyennes for coastal patrol, 1 Buffalo and 2 Skyyan transports and 2 Islander aircraft, and 4 Reims-Cessna 337 Mitirole twin-engined counter-insurgency, forward air control and training aircraft. Personnel XI984) 200. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Mauritania is a member of UN, OAU, the Arab League and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. Hie 1981-85 development plan stresses the development of agriculture and light industry. Budget. The ordinary budget for 1984 balanced at 13,800m. ouguiyas. Currency. The monetary unit is ouguiya which is divided into 5 khoums. Banknotes of 1,000,200 and 100 ouguiya and coins of 20, 10, 5 and 1 ouguiya and 1 khoum are in circulation. In March 1985, £1 = 71-73 ouguiya; US$1 = 67 16 ouguiya. Banking. The Banque Centrale de Mauritanie (created 1973) is the bank of issue, and there are 5-commercial banks situated in Nouakchott. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1979) 100m. kwh. Minerals. Iron ore deposits of (estimate) 200m. tonnes are found at Zouérate. Production (1981) 8-9m. tonnes. Copper mining, suspended in 1978, resumed in 1983. Agriculture. Agriculture is mainly confined to the south, in the Sénégal river valley. Production (tonnes) ( 1981 ) of millet, 67,000; dates, 14,000; potatoes, 4,000; maize, 6,000; sweet potatoes, 2,000; rice, 6,000; groundnuts, 4,000. In 1983 there were 750,000 camels, 1 5m. cattle, 143,000 asses, 15,000 horses, 5m. sheep, 3m. goats. Fisheries. About 300,000 tonnes of fish are caught in Mauritanian coastal waters each year, but only 34,200 tonnes (1978) are landed in the country (mainly at Nouâdhibou).

MAURITANIA

843

Forestry. There are 151,340 sq. km of forests, chiefly in the southern regions, where wild acacias yield the main product, gum arabic. TRADE. In 1982 imports totalled 14,213m. ouguiya, and exports, 12,050 ouguiya of which, iron ore comprised 60% of exports and salted and dried fish 40%; 26% of all exports went to Italy, 21% to France, and 20% to Japan, while France provided 29% of imports and Spain 9%. Total trade between Mauritania and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 9,438 5,647

1981 9,679 3,517

1982 5,462 1,943

1983 6,044 1,719

1984 10,343 2,656

Tourism. In 1975 there were 20,700 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 8,900 km of roads in 1983. In 1980 there were 8,300 passenger cars and 3,300 commercial vehicles. Railways. A 652-km railway links Zouérate with the port of Point-Central, 10 km south of Nouàdhibou, and is used primarily for iron ore exports. Aviation. There are international airports at Nouakchott, Nouàdhibou and Néma. Shipping. The major ports are at Point-Central (for mineral exports), Nouakchott and Nouàdhibou. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1977, over 2,000 telephones and 82,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. In 1977 there were 12 cinemas with a seating capacity of8,800. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are tribunaux de première instance at Nouakchott, Atar, Kaédi, Ai'oun el Atrouss and Kiffa. The Appeal Court and Supreme Court are situated in Nouakchott. Islamic jurisprudence was adopted in Feb. 1980. Religion. Over 99% of Mauritanians are Moslem, mainly of the Qadiriyah sect. Education. In 1981 there were 90,530 pupils in primary schools, 20,248 in secondary schools, 1,004 in technical schools and 850 in teacher-training establishments. Health. In 1976 there were 9 hospitals with 567 beds; there were 71 doctors, 4 dentists, 5 pharmacists, 20 midwives and 560 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Mauritania in Great Britain Ambassador: Ely Ould Allaf (accredited 15 Dec. 1983). Of Great Britain in Mauritania Ambassador: P. L. O'Keeffe, CMG, CVO. (resides in Dakar). Of Mauritania in the USA (2129 Leroy PL, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Abdellah Ould Daddah. Of the USA in Mauritania (PO Box 222, Nouakchott) Ambassador: Edward L. Peck. Of Mauritania to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohamed Mahjoub Ould Boye. Books of Reference Stewart, C.C., and Stewart, E. K , Islam and Social Order m Mauritania. New York, 1970 Westebbe, R. M., The Economy of Mauritania. New York, 1971

MAURITIUS

Capital: Port Louis Population: 969,191 ( 1983) GNPper capita: US$ 1,270 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . Mauritius was known to Arab navigators probably not later than the 10th century. It was probably visited by Malays in the 15th century, and was discovered by the Portuguese between 1507 and 1512, but the Dutch were the first settlers (1598). In 1710 they abandoned the island, which was occupied by the French under the name of lie de France (1715). The British occupied the island in 1810, and it was formally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris, 1814. Mauritius attained independence on 12 March 1968. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mauritius has an area of about 720 sq. miles (1,865 sq. km). According to the census of 30 June 1972, the population of the island was 826,199 (413,580 males, 412,619 females); that of the dependencies was 25,135 (30 June 1972). Estimated population of the island at the end of 1983 was 969,191, and the population of Port Louis, the capital with its suburbs, numbered 149,900. Port Louis was granted city status on 25 Aug. 1966. Other towns: Beau Bassin-Rose Hill, 88,890; Curepipe, 58,611; Quatre Bomes, 57,487; VascoasPhoenix, 56,756. Rodrigues (formerly a dependency but now a part of Mauritius) is about 350 miles east of Mauritius, 9 'A miles long, 4'/2 miles broad. Area, 40 sq. miles (103-6 sq. km). Population (31 Dec. 1983, estimate), 35,594. Imports, 1983, Rs 96-3m. Exports, 1983, Rs 9-7m. There are 5 government, 5 aided primary, 1 private and 1 state secondary school. Vital statistics, June 1983: Births, 19,948 (20-5 per 1,000); marriages, 10,067; deaths, 6,322 (6-6 per 1,000). The official language is English. Outer Islands. Agalega and St Brandon Group. St Brandon is 250 miles from Mauritius. Area, 71 sq. km. Total population of the islands, census 1972,366; estimated population on 31 Dec. 1983, 350. In 1965 the Chagos Archipelago was transferred to the British Indian Ocean Territory. C L I M A T E . The sub-tropical climate produces quite a difference between summer and winter, though conditions are generally humid. Most rain falls in the summer so that the pleasantest months are Sept. to Nov. Rainfall amounts vary between 40" (1,000 mm) on the coast to 200" (5,000 mm) on the central plateau, though the west coast only has 35" (875 mm). Mauritius lies in the cyclone belt, whose season runs from Nov. to April, but is seldom affected by intense storms. Port Louis. Jan. 73°F (22-8'C), July 8 P F (27-2'C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,000 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Mauritius became an independent state and a monarchial member of the British Commonwealth on 12 March 1968 after 7 months of internal self-government. The Governor-General is the local representative of HM the Queen, who remains the Head of the State. The Cabinet is presided over by the Prime Minister. Each of the other 18 members of the Cabinet is responsible for the administration of specified departments or subjects and is bound by the rule of collective responsibility. 10 Parliamentary Secretaries may also be appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Speaker, elected from its own members, and 62 elected members (3 each for the 20 constituencies of Mauritius and 2 for Rodrigues) and 8 additional seats in order to ensure a fair and adequate representation of each community within the Assembly. General Elections are held every 5 years on the basis of universal adult suffrage. The Constitution also provides for the Public Service Commission and the 844

MAURITIUS

845

Judicial and Legal Service Commission, which have both assumed executive powers for appointments to the Public Service. An Ombudsman assumed office on 2 March 1970. Adequate provision is also made for the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual. Elections were held in Aug. 1983. Governor-General: The Rt Hon. Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, GCMG. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Oct. 1984: Prime Minister, Defence and Internal Security, Information, Reform Institutions and External Communications: Aneerood Jugnauth. Deputy Prime Minister, Attorney-General and Minister of Justice: Gaetan Duval. Finance: Seetanah Lutchmeenaraidoo. Economic Planning and Development: Beergoonath Ghurburrun. Trade and Shipping: Abdool Kader Ahmed Bhayat. Employment and Social Security, National Solidarity: Diwakur Bundhun. External Affairs, Tourism and Emigration: Anil Kumarsingh Gayan. Agriculture, Fisheries and Natural Resources: Nunkeswarsingh Deerpalsingh. Works: Rohit Niemo Beedassy. Education, Arts and Culture: Armoogum Parsuraman. Housing, Lands and the Environment: Dwarkanath Gungah. Energy and Internal Communications: Mahyendrah Utchanah. Health: Rajkeswur Purryag. Industry: Ramsamy Chedumbarum Pillay. Labour and Industrial Relations: Joseph Herve Duval. Women's Rights and Family Welfare: Mrs Sheilabai Bappoo. Youth and Sports: Michael James Kevin Glover. Rodrigues and the Outer Islands: France Felicite. Local Government and Co-operatives: Karl Offman. National flag: Horizontally 4 stripes of red, blue, yellow and green. D E F E N C E . The Mauritius Police, which is responsible for defence, is equipped with arms; its strength at 30 June 1982 was 4,082 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Mauritius is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Rs) for years ending 30 June: 1978-79 ¡979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 Revenue 1,486,394,583 1,863,872,536 2,163,055,708 2,398,000,000 2,928,644,798 Expenditure 1,769,964,582 2,016,144,439 2,525,190,433 3,075,000,000 3,709,755,222

Principal sources of revenue, 1982-83 (estimate): Direct taxes, Rs 510-9m.; indirect taxes, Rs 1,919 -3m.; receipts from public utilities, Rs 135m.; receipts from public services Rs 102-5m.; interest and reimbursement, Rs 102-5 m. Capital expenditure, June 1983, was Rs 1,009-4. Capital revenue, Rs 842-1 m. On 30 June 1983 the public debt of Mauritius was Rs 6,096,744,688 after deducting the value of accumulated sinking funds. Currency. The unit of currency is the Mauritius Rupee, divided into 100 cents. The currency consists of: (i) Bank of Mauritius notes of Rs 50,25,10 and 5; (ii) Cupro-nickel coins of 1 rupee, 'A rupee, 'A rupee and 10 cents; (iii) Bronze coins of5 cents, 2 cents and 1 cent. In March 1985, £1 = 17 -68 rupees; US$1 = 16-84. Banking. The Bank of Mauritius was established in 1966, with an authorized capital of Rs 10m., to exercise the function of a central bank. There are 12 commercial banks, the Mauritius Commercial Bank Ltd (established 1838), Barclays Bank International, the Bank of Baroda Ltd, The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Mauritius Co-operative Central Bank Ltd, Banque Nationale de Paris (Intercontinentale), the Habib Bank (Overseas) Ltd, Citibank, the State Commercial Bank, the Bank of Credit and Commerce International SA, Indian Ocean International Bank Ltd and Habib Bank (Zurich). Other financial institutions include the Mauritius Housing Corporation, the Development Bank of Mauritius and the post office savings bank.

846

MAURITIUS

On 31 Dec. 1983 the post office savings bank held deposits amounting to Rs 129 -6m., belonging to 207,524 depositors. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Agriculture (1983). The area planted with sugar-cane was 209,010 acres. There were 21 factories in operation and the amount of sugar produced was: Raw sugar (1983), 558,000 tonnes; white sugar, 52,975 tonnes; molasses, 161,780 tonnes. The main secondary crops are tea (9,241 acres, yielding 6,142 tonnes of tea), tobacco ( 1,759 acres, yielding 800 tonnes of tobacco), potatoes ( 15,000 tonnes) and onions ( 1,684 tonnes). Livestock ( 1983): Cattle, 25,485; goats, 72,696; poultry, 1 -7m. Forestry. The total forest area is estimated at 21,005 hectares including some 11,578 hectares of plantations; if scrub and grazing are included the total area is approximately 56,197 hectares. In 1983 sales of forest produce from Crown land totalled 29,876 cu. metres, round wood. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. Manufactures include: Knitwear, clothing, diamond cutting, watch straps, fertilizers. Labour. There were on 31 Dec. 1983, 360 registered trade unions with a total membership of81,502 (on roll). Commerce. Total trade (in Rs) for calendar years: Imports' Exports 1

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 3,634,400,000 4,721,400,000 4,976,800,000 5,048,200,000 5,155,900,000 2,432,700,000 3,341,300,000 2,999,200,000 3,988,700,000 4,311,300,000 1 Excluding bullion and specié. 2 Including value of sugar quota certificates.

In 1983, Rs 611-5m. of the imports came from France, Rs 449-2m. from South Africa, Rs 449 -4m. from UK and Rs 242 -3m. from Australia; Rs 2,182 • 1 m. of the exports went to UK, Rs 1,009 -9m. to France, Rs 166 • 8m. to Federal Republic ofGermany and Rs 366 -2m. to USA. Sugar exports in 1983,569,501 tonnes (Rs2,597-8m.). Total trade between Mauritius and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 145,227 24,688

1981 97,435 21,612

1982 119,450 20,857

1983 128,437 22,499

1984 160,042 24,358

Tourism. In 1983,123,820 tourists visited Mauritius. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 25-5 miles of motorway, 523 miles of main roads, 361 miles of urban roads and 216 miles of rural roads. All the main urban and rural roads have a bitumen surface. At 31 Dec. 1983 there were 26,024 cars, including 2,954 for public hire, 1,418 buses, 8,523 motor cycles and 18,653 auto cycles. Commercial vehicles comprised 13,548 lorries and vans. Aviation. Mauritius is linked by air with Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia by the following airlines: Air France, Air India, Air Malawi, Air Mauritius, British Airways, Lufthansa, South African Airways and Zambia Airways. In addition to passenger services a weekly cargo flight is operated by Air France on the MauritiusPans route. Air Mauritius operates a Boeing 707 service to London via Nairobi and Rome and to Bombay via the Seychelles, and Twin Otter services to Réunion and Rodrigues. The company has commercial arrangements with Air France, Lufthansa, Alitalia, Zambia Airways and Air Malawi for the operation of services to Paris, Frankfurt, Rome, Lusaka and Blantyre.

MAURITIUS

847

Shipping. In 1983 898 vessels entered Port Louis; total tonnage of cargo, about 1 -8m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. In Dec. 1983 there were 31 telephone exchanges and 48,462 individual telephone installations in Mauritius and Rodrigues. Communication with other parts of the world is established via satellite. Television was introduced in Feb. 1965. At 31 Dec. 1983 there were 95,063 television sets and 125,625 radio sets. Cinemas (1984). There were 46 cinemas, with a seating capacity of about 46,000. Newspapers. There were (1984) 5 French daily papers (with occasional articles in English) and 2 Chinese daily papers with a combined circulation of about 66,000. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. At the 1972 census there were 245,570 Roman Catholics, 7,050 Protestants (Church of England and Church of Scotland). The Hindus numbered 421,707 and the Moslems. 136,997. State aid is granted to the churches and Rs 7m. is budgeted for 1984-85. Education. Primary education is free but not compulsory, though under the Education Ordinance of 1957 compulsion may be introduced as circumstances permit. In 1983 there were 219 government and 49 state-aided primary schools, 2 Hindu and 47 Roman Catholic. Enrolment at government schools was 105,467 and at stateaided primary schools 26,466. There were 8 special schools (blind, deaf, educationally sub-normal and industrial). For secondary education there were in 1983,5 government boys' schoolsfone of which has technical and commercial streams), 16 junior secondary schools (including one in Rodrigues) and 3 government girls' schools and 103 private secondary schools (including Mahatma Gandhi Institute) with 75,963 pupils. There is also a teachers' training college, known as the Mauritius College of Education, and 8 private vocational and technical training centres, 650 on roll including students following part-time courses. Health. In 1983 there were 690 doctors, including 120 specialists, and 2,841 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Mauritius in Great Britain (32-33 Elvaston PI., London, SW7) High Commissioner: D. Gian Nath (accredited 13 Dec. 1983). Of Great Britain in Mauritius (Cemé Hse., Chausée, Port Louis) High Commissioner: James Nicholas Allan, CBE. Of Mauritius in the USA (4301 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Chitmansing Jesse ramsing. Of the USA in Mauritius (Rogers Bldg., John Kennedy St., Port Louis) Ambassador: George Roberts Andrews. Of Mauritius to the United Nations Ambassador: Rameschand Seereekissoon. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Information Office (Rose Hill, Mauritius) was founded in July 1945. Its main publication is the Bi-annual Digest of Statistics. Brouard, N. R., A History of Woods and Forests in Mauritius. Government Printer, 1964 Buckory, S., Our Constitution. Port Louis, 1971.—An Outline of Local Government. Port Louis, 1970 Chelín, A., Une He el son passé (1507-1947). Mauritius Printing, 1973 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Fruits of Political and Social Democracy.— Mauritius Facts and Figures 1980 Napal, D., Les constitutions de I'ile Maurice. Port Louis, 1062 Simmons, A. S., Modern Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization. Indiana Univ. Press, 1982 Société de l'Histoire de l'lle Maurice. Dictionnaire de biographie mauricienne. Port Louis, 1967 Toussaint A., History of Mauritius. London, 1978 Library: The Mauritius Institute Public Library, Port Louis.

MEXICO

Capital: Mexico City Population: 76-79m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$2,2 50 (1981)

Estados Unidos Mexicanos

H I S T O R Y . Mexico's history falls into four epochs: the era of the Indian empires (before 1521), the Spanish colonial phase (1521-1810), the period of national formation (1810-1910), which includes the war of independence (1810-21) and the long presidency of Porfirio Diaz (1876-80, 1884-1911), and the present period which began with the social revolution of 1910-21 and is regarded by Mexicans as the period of social and national consolidation. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mexico is at the southern extremity of North America and is bounded in the north by USA, west and south-west by the Pacific, south by Guatemala and Belize and east by the Gulf of Mexico. It comprises 1,958,201 sq. km (756,198 sq. miles), including uninhabited islands (5,073 sq. km) offshore. The population at recent censuses has been as follows: 1900 1930

13,607,272 16,552,722

1960 1970

34,923,129 48,225,238

1980

66,846,833

The areas (in sq. km), populations and capitals of the states are: States Aguascalientes Baja California Baja California Sur Campeche Chiapas Chihuahua Coahuila Colima Distrito Federal Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco México Michoacán de Ocampo Morelos Nayarit Nuevo León Oaxaca Puebla Querétaro Quintana Roo San Luis Potosí Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tlaxcala Veracruz Yucatán Zacatecas

Sq. km 5,471 69,921 73,475 50,812 74,211 244,938 149,982 5,191 1,479 123,181 30,491 64,281 20,813 80,836 21,355 59,928 4,950 26,979 64,924 93,952 33,902 11,449 50,212 63,068 58,328 182,052 25,267 79,384 4,016 71,699 38,402 73,252

Census 1980 519,439 1,177,886 215,139 420,553 2,084,717 2,005,477 1,557,265 346,293 8,831,079 1,182,320 3,006,110 2,109,513 1 ¡547,493 4,371,998 7,564,335 2,868,824 947,089 726,120 2,513,044 2,369,076 3,347,685 739,605 225,985 1,673,893 1,849,879 1,513,731 1,062,961 1,924,484 556,597 5,387,680 1,063,733 1,136,830

Capital Aguascalientes Mexicali La Paz Campeche Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chihuahua Saltillo Colima México City Victoria de Durango Guanajuato Chilpancingo Pachuca de Soto Guadalajara Toluca de Lerdo Morelia Cuernavaca Tepic Monterrey Oaxaca de Juárez Puebla de Zaragoza Querétaro Chetumal San Luis Potosí Culiacán Rosales Hermosillo Villahermosa Ciudad Victoria Tlaxcala Jalapa Enriquez Mérida Zacatecas

At the 1980 census 33,039,307 were males, 33,807,526 females. Urban population was 66-3% and rural population was 33 -7%. Estimate (1984) 76,791,819. The 848

849

MEXICO

official language is Spanish, the mother tongue of over 92% of the population, but there are S indigenous language groups (Náhuatl, Maya, Zapotee, Otomi and Mixtee) from which are derived a total of 59 dialects spoken by 5,181,038 inhabitants (1980 census). In 1980, about 16% ofthe population were of European ethnic origin, 55% mestizo and 29% Amerindian. The populations (1980 Census) of the largest cities were: México 1 12,932,116 Guadalajara 2 2,244,715 Monterrey 2 1,916,472 Netzahualcóyotl 1,341,230 Puebla de Zaragoza 835,759 LéondelosAldamas 655,809 Ciudad Juárez 567,365 Culiacán Rosales 560,011 Mexicali 510,554 Tijuana 461,257 Mérida 424,529 Acapulco de Juárez 409,335 406,830 Chihuahua 406,630 San Luis Potosí 363,886 Torreón 359,454 Aguascalientes 357,071 Toluca de Lerdo

Morelia Hermosillo Saltillo Victoria de Durango Veracruz Llave Querétaro Tampico Villa Hermosa Mazatlán Irapuato Matamoros Cuernavaca Celaya Jalapa Enríquez Reynosa Nuevo Laredo Coatzacoalcos

353,055 340,779 321,758 321,148 305,456 293,586 267,957 250,903 249,988 246,308 238,840 232,355 219,010 212,769 211,412 203,286 186,129

' Metropolitan Area (including Netzahualcóyotl).

Tepic Ensenada Poza Rica de Hidalgo Tuxtla Gutiérrez Salamanca Oaxaca de Juárez Ciudad Victoria Campeche Uruapan Minatitlán Pachuca de Soto Ciudad Madero Cordoba Monclova Orizaba 1

177,007 175,425 166,799 166,476 160,040 157,284 153,206 151,805 146,998 145,268 135,248 132,444 126,179 119,609 114,848

Metropolitan Area.

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1978 1979 1980

Marriages 463,157 488,270 483,151

Births 2,346,862 2,448,774 2,428,499

Deaths 418,381 428,217 434,465

Crude birth rate in 1980 was 36-3 per 1,000 population; crude death rate, 6-5; marriage rate 7 -2. C L I M A T E . Latitude and relief produce a variety of climates. Arid and semi-arid conditions are found in the north, with extreme temperatures, whereas in the south there is a humid tropical climate, with temperatures varying with altitude. Conditions on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico are very warm and humid. In general, the rainy season lasts from May to Nov. Mexico City. Jan. 55°F (12-6°C), July 61°F (161°C). Annual rainfall 30" (747 mm). Guadalajara. Jan. 59°F (15-2°C), July 69°F (20-5°C). Annual rainfall 36" (902 mm). La Paz. Jan. 64°F (17-8°C), July 85°F (29-4°C). Annual rainfall 6" (145 mm). Mazatlan Jan. 66°F (18-9°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 33" (828 mm). Merida. Jan. 72°F (22-2°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 38" (957 mm). Monterey. Jan. 58°F (14-4°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 23" (588 mm). Puebla de Zaragoza. Jan. 54°F (12 • 2°C), July 63°F (17 • 2°C). Annual rainfall 34" (850 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 5 Feb. 1917 and has been amended from time to time. Mexico is a representative, democratic and federal republic, comprising 31 states and a federal district, each state being free and sovereign in all internal affairs, but united in a federation established according to the principals of the Fundamental Law. Citizenship, including the right of suffrage, is vested in all nationals of 18 years of age and older who have 'an honourable means of livelihood'. There is complete separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers (Art. 49). Legislative power is vested in a General Congress of 2 chambers, a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate (Art. 50). The Chamber of Deputies consists of400 members directly elected for 3 years, 300 of them from single-member constituencies and 100 chosen under a system of proportional representation (Arts.51-55). At the general elections held on 4 July 1982,299 of the single-member seats were won by the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) and 1 by the Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN); of the extra 100 seats, 50 were won by PAN, 17 by the Partido

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Socialista Unificado de México, 10 by the Partido Popular Socialista, 11 by the Partido Socialista de los Trabajadores and 12 by the Partido Demócrata Mexicano. The Senate comprises 64 members, 2 from each state and 2 from the federal district, directly elected for 6 years (Arts.56-58). At the elections of 4 July 1982, the PRI won all 64 seats. Members of both chambers are not immediately re-eligible for election (Art.59). Congress sits from 1 Sept. to 31 Dec. each year, during the recess there is a permanent committee of 15 deputies and 14 senators appointed by the respective chambers. The President is the supreme executive authority. He appoints the members of the Council of Ministers and the senior military and civilian officers of the state. He is directly elected for a single 6-year term. The names of the presidents from 1934 are as follows: Gen. Lázaro Cárdenas, 1 Dec. 1934-30 Nov. 1940. Gen. Manuel Avila Cámacho, 1 Dec. 1940-30 Nov. 1946. Miguel Alemán Valdés, 1 Dec. 1946-30 Nov. 1952. Adolfo Ruiz Cortinez, 1 Dec 1952-30 Nov. 1958.

Adolfo López Mateos, 1 Dec. 1958-30 Nov. 1964. Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, 1 Dec. 1964-30 Nov. 1970. Luis Echeverría Alvarez, 1 Dec. 1970-30 Nov. 1976. José López Portillo y Pacheco, 1 Dec. 1976-30 Nov. 1982.

President: Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (bom in 1934), formerly Minister of Planning, elected 4 July 1982. He assumed office on 1 Dec. 1982. In Nov. 1984 the Council of Ministers was composed as follows: Agrarian Reform: Luis Martinez Villicaña. Agriculture and Water Resources: Eduárdo Pesqueira Olea. Commerce and Industrial Development: Héctor Hernández Cervantes. Communication and Transport: Rodolfo Félix Valdés. Finance and Public Credit: Jesús Silva Herzog Flores. Foreign Relations: Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor. Interior: Manuel Bartlett Diaz. Health and Assistance: Dr Guillermo Soberón Acevedo. Urban Development and Energy: Marcelo Javelly Girard. Labour and Social Welfare: Arsenio Farell Cubillas. National Defence: Gen. Juan José Arévalo Gardoqui. Navy: Adm. Miguel Angel Gómez Ortega. Energy, Mines and State Industries: Francisco Labastida Ochoa. Planning and Budget: Carlos Salinas de Gortari. Public Education: Jesús Reyes Heroles. Tourism: Antonio Enriquez Savignac. Fisheries: Pedro Ojeda Paullada. Comptroller-General: Francisco Rojas Gutierréz. Attorney-General: Sergio García Ramirez. Governor of the Federal District: Ramón Aguirre Velázquez. Attorney-General' of the Federal District: Sra. Victoria Adato de Ibarra. Head of Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX): Mario Ramón Beteta. Governor of the Bank ofMexico: Miguel Mancera Aguayo. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, red, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Mexicanos, al grito de guerra (words by F. González Bocanegra; tune by Jáime Nunó, 1854). Local Government. Mexico is divided into 31 states and a Federal District. The latter is co-extensive with Mexico City and is administered by a Governor appointed by the President. Each state has its own constitution, with the right to legislate and to levy taxes (but not inter-state customs duties); its Governor is directly elected for 6 years and its unicameral legislature for 3 years; judicial officers are appointed by the state governments. D E F E N C E . Supreme command is vested in the President, exercised through the Ministries of Defence (for Army and Air Force) and Marine. Army. Enlistment into the regular army is voluntary, but there is conscription into a part-time militia, which numbers some 250,000. The regular army consists of 1 mechanized brigade group, 2 infantry brigade groups, I parachute brigade, 1 reconnaissance regiment, 1 armoured regiment, a garrison for each of the country's 35 military zones, and support units. Equipment includes 40 M-3AI and 20 M-5A1 light tanks and some 140 armoured cars. Strength of the regular army (1985)95,000.

MEXICO

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Navy. The fleet comprises 3 very old ex-US destroyers, 5 very old ex-US frigates (including 4 former destroyer escort transports), 6 modern light frigate or corvettetype with small helicopter and hangar and 1 frigate-size listed as patrol ships, 1 ancient frigate-size armed transport and 6 old ex-US armed tugs used as-patrol ships, 18 old ex-US fleet minesweepers, 16 old ex-US escort minesweepers, 21 fishery protection cutters of 130 tons built in.Britain in 1974-76 and 10 similardesign patrol craft built in Mexico in 1978-80, 18 patrol boats, 7 survey ships, 1 transport, 3 armed landing ships (2 used for rescue and 1 (with helicopter landing deck) for light forces repair), 2 oilers, 1 training ship, 21 auxiliary vessels and 8 tugs. There are 5 naval zones on the Gulf and 11 on the Pacific coast and 6 naval air bases holding 54 aircraft. Naval personnel in 1985 totalled 23,650 officers and men including naval air force and 3,800 marines. Air Force. The Air Force has a strength of about 5,500 officers and men, and has nine operational groups, each with one or two squadrons. No. 1 Group comprises No. 208 Squadron with 10 IAI Aravas for transport, search and rescue and counter-insurgency duties; and No. 209 Squadron With Bell 205A, 206B JetRanger, 212, Alouette III and Puma helicopters. No. 2 Group has two Squadrons (Nos. 206 and 207) of Swiss-built Pilatus PC-7 Turbo-Trainers for light attack duty. No. 3 Group (203 and 204 Squadrons) also operates PC-7s; No. 4 Group (201 and 205 Squadrons) is in process of conversion to PC-7s. No. 5 Group consists of No. 101 communications Squadron and a photo-reconnaissance unit, both equipped with Aero Commander 500S piston-engined light twins. Nos. 301 and 302 Squadrons, in No. 6 Group, operate a total of 5 C-54, 2 C-l 18A and 1 DC-7 piston-engined transports. The main combat Group, No. 7, comprises No. 401 Squadron with 12 F-5E Tiger II and F-5F 2-seat fighters; and No. .202 Squadron with AT-33A jet trainer/fighter-bombers. No. 8 Group has 7 C-47s in a VIP transport squadron. No. 9 Group operates the Air Force's remaining 12 or more C-47s in Nos. 311 and 312 transport Squadrons. There is a Presidential Squadron with 9 Boeing 727s, 1 737-247, 1 HS.125, 1 JetStar, 1 Islander and 1 Bell 212. The Military Academy continues to fly 14 veteran Stearman PT-17 biplanes. Other training aircraft include 20 Mudry CAP-lOBs, 20 Beech Musketeers, 20 Bonanzas, and PC-7 Turbo-Trainers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. M e x i c o is a m e m b e r of U N , O A S a n d A L I D E ( f o r m e r l y LAFTA).

External Debt. The public sector external debt (Dec. 1983) was US$62,556m. and private sector US$ 14,000m. ECONOMY Budget. The 1984 budget provides for expenditure of 12,023,282m. pesos. Currency. The monetary unit is the peso divided into 100 centavos. There are coins of 20 and 50 centavos and 1,5, 10, 50 and 100 pesos; and banknotes of 100, 500, 1,000,2,000,5,000 and 10,000pesos. Rate of exchange, March 1985:203 pesos=US$ 1; 216 pesos=£ 1. Banking. The Bank of Mexico, established 1 Sept. 1925, is the central bank of issue; it is modelled on the Federal Reserve system, with large powers to 'manage' the currency. On 1 Sept. 1982 the private banking sector was nationalized. Weights and Measures. The metric system was introduced in 1896, and its sole use is enjoined by law of 14 Dec. 1928. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1983 the 498 generating plants had installed capacity of 19m. kw. Production, 1983,79,951 m. kwh. Oil. The chief Mexican oilfields had proven reserves of oil and gas, in 1983, of 72,500m. bbls. In 1982 the oil industry generated 6-3% of the GDP and supplied

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about 85% of the enerpy consumed in the country. Since the nationalization of the industry in 1938, Petroleos Mexicanos, a government-owned enterprise, has exclusive rights to the exploitation, refining and sale of oil and its by-products. Initially centred on the northeast coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, the industry developed with the discovery of rich fields in the south and southeast, particularly in Veracruz, Tabasco and Chiapas. Offshore wells and those from the southeast now provide the main yields. Exploration has been primarily in recent years in deep waters on the continental shelf in the Gulf coast area, as well as in the northern and southern zones inland. Crude petroleum output was 150m. tonnes in 1984. Gas. Natural gas production came to 41,880m. cu. metres in 1983. Minerals. Uranium deposits were discovered in the states ofChihuahua, Durango, Sonora and Queretaro in 1959, rich deposits have been located in Nuevo Leon. Total reserves (proven 1982) 15,000 tonnes of uranium 308; potential reserves, 150,000 tonnes. Silver output (in tonnes) was 1,911 in 1983; gold 6,930 kg. Mexico has large coal resources, calculated at 5,448m. tonnes, including 1,675m. tonnes (65% cokeable) including high-grade coking coal in Coahuila. Output, 1983 (in 1,000 tonnes): Lead, 167-4; copper, 206-1; zinc, 257-4; fluorite, 557; pig iron, 5,306; sulphur, 1,602; manganese, 133. Agriculture. About 80% of Mexico's territory is unsuitable for agriculture. Irrigation is needed, 50% of the land having less than 500 mm of rain a year. In 1981 Mexico had 21 -9m. hectares of arable land, 74-4m. hectares of meadows and pastures, 48- lm. hectares of forests, 1 -6m. hectares of permanent crops and 40-6m. hectares of other land. In 1980, the government launched the Sistema Alimentario Mexicano to raise food production and rationalize land tenure, with the aim of achieving self-sufficiency in basic crops. Grains occupy most of the cultivated land, with about 43% given to maize, 10% to sorghum and 5% to wheat. In 1982 there were 146,083 tractors. It is estimated that Mexico should be self-supporting with at least 17m. hectares of land under irrigation and 20 • 3m. hectares under cultivation. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 37-5m.; sheep, 6-3m.; pigs, 19-4m.; horses, 6m.; goats, 9 • 8m.; mules, 3 • 1 m.; donkeys, 3-lm.; poultry, 204m. Mexico's basic food crop is maize, and a rapid expansion of this crop is one of the chief aims of Mexican agricultural policy, balanced by the demand for 'cash crops' for export, such as cotton, sugar, garbanzos (chick peas), bananas, winter vegetables and coffee. Production of crops for 1983 was as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Crop Maize Sorghum Wheat Barley Rice Cottonseed Cotton lint

1983 13,191 4,827 3,463 557 1,416 340 182

Crop Sugar-cane Tomatoes Potatoes Dry beans Soybeans Coconuts Coffee 1

1983 33,860 1,093 ' 868 ' 1,296 687 113 1 313

Crop Oranges Bananas Lemons Pineapples . Apples Grapes Mangoes

1983 1,758 1,382 601 635 312 478 750

1981.

Sugar-cane is linked closely with the export markets, although not to the same degree as coffee, in view of the fact that despite the large crop, the national consumption of sugar, at approximately 3 5 kg a year per person, is one of the highest in the world. Exports have however remained more or less stable: 1972 exports represented 25% of total output. Forestry. Forests extended over 48m. hectares in 1981, containing pine, spruce, cedar, mahogany, logwood and rosewood. There are 14 forest reserves (nearly 800,000 hectares) and 47 national park forests of 750,000 hectares. In 1983 total roundwood production amounted to 8 • 75m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Catch (1983, in tonnes): sardines, 303,290; anchoveta, 84,662; shrimp and prawns, 67,555; oysters, 27,810; tunny, 17,541; shark, 17,436; sea perch (mojarras), 63,989; sea bass, 10,723. Total catch in 1983 was 972,627 tonnes.

MEXICO

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INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. In 1983, the primary sector (agriculture etc.) provided 7-9% of GDP, the mining, oil and petrochemical industry 11 -2%, manufacturing and construction 27 -4% and the service sector (commerce, transport and communications, power supply and other services) 54 • 6%. Labour. In 1980, the economically active population was 22,066,084, of whom 5-7m. were engaged in the primary sector and 2-6m. in manufacturing. Approximately 5m. people belong to trade unions, of whom 85% are affiliated to the Congreso del Trabajo. Commerce. Trade for calendar years in US$ 1 m.: Imports Exports

1980 19,801 15,134

1981 25,061 19,420

1982 15,057 21,230

1983 8,200 21,012

Of total imports in 1983,60% came from USA, 4-5% from Federal Republic of Germany and 4-5% from France. Leading imports were maize, sorghum, transport equipment, machine tools, parts and spares. Of total exports in 1983,58% went to USA, 7-6% to Spain, 7-1% to Japan and 4• 3% to UK. The main exports (1983) were crude oil, coffee and vehicles. Total trade between Mexico and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m ¡ ¡gg2 m } m 4 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK.

111,636 188,133

108,749 209,596

106,067 160,978 162,946 - 95,674

175,487 150,126

Tourism. Tourism is the largest single source of dollar income. In 1983, there were 4,749,000 tourists; gross revenue, including border visitors, amounted to US$1,625m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length, (1982) 214,073 km, of which 1,178 km were motorways. Motor vehicles registered in 1982 comprised 5,221,200 passenger cars, and 1,891,400 commercial vehicles. Railways. In 1937 the main railway lines were nationalized. The principal group is the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México, with 25,474 km of track. Three lines (215 km) remain privately owned. In 1982, FNM carried 70m. tonnes of freight and 22m. passengers. In Mexico City an urban railway system opened in 1969 had78kmoftrackand51inesin 1982. Aviation. Mexico has an excellent air service. There are 32 international and 40 national airports. Each of the larger states has a local airline which links them with main airports, which, in turn, furnish services to US, Central and South America and Europe. In 1983, 34 companies maintained international services, of which 2 were Mexican. Domestic flights are handled by 77 companies. In 1983 commercial aircraft carried 20m. national and international passengers and some 127,000 tonnes of mail and freight. Shipping. Mexico has 49 ocean ports, of which, on the Gulf coast, the most important include Tampico, Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Progreso and Yucalpetén. On the Pacific are Ensenada, La Paz, Santa Rosalía, Guaymas, Mazatlán, Manzanillo, Acapulco and Salina Cruz. Merchant shipping loaded 73-6m. tonnes and unloaded 12-8m. tonnes in 1982. Passengers (1982), embarked and disembarked 2-8m. In 1982, the merchant marine comprised 545 vessels (of over 100 GRT) with a total tonnage of 1,251,630 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. In 1980 the telegraph and telephone system had 7,140 offices and 184,641 km of telegraph lines and 30-56m. km of telephone line. Teléfonos de México, a state-controlled company, controls about 98% of all the telephone service. Telephones in use, Jan. 1983, 6,395,000. In 1983 there were 1,014 commercial radio stations and 47 cultural government

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MEXICO

radio stations while (1982) 10,338,024 homes had receiving sets. In 1982 commercial television stations numbered 191 and cultural stations 8; there were 4,589,170 homes with receiving sets. Cinemas (1982). Cinemas numbered 1,789 with annual attendance of 278m. Newspapers (1982). There were 362 dailies and 36 weeklies, with an aggregate circulation of9-5m. In Mexico City the main dailies are, Excelsoir, El Sol de México, Uno más Uno, La Pressa, El Heraldo de México, Novedades, El Universal and Esto, with a combined circulation (1984) 1 • 8m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Magistrates of the Supreme Court are appointed for 6 years by the President and confirmed by the Senate; they can be removed only on impeachment. The courts include the Supreme Court with 21 magistrates, 12 collegiate circuit courts with 3 judges each and 9 unitary circuit courts with 1 judge each, and 68 district courts with 1 judge each. The penal code of 1 Jan. 1930 abolished the death penalty, except for the armed forces, and set up a commission of alienists and other specialists, in place of courts, to deal with criminal cases (for federal offences); each state also appoints its own local magistrates. The Mexican Constitution provides a guarantee of individual rights by means of a judicial procedure known as amparo, which gives any injured person whose constitutional rights have, in his opinion, been infringed, right to immediate access to the courts, and full remedy, combining the swiftness of the Anglo-Saxon writ of habeas corpus and the breadth of remedy available through the injunction. Religion. The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic (92-6% of the population in 1980); with (1983) 3 cardinals, 12 archbishops and 87 bishops, but by the constitution of 1857, the Church was separated from the State, and the constitution of 1917 provided strict regulation of this and all other religions. No ecclesiastical body may acquire landed property, and since 1917 the property of the Church has been held to belong to the State. In the 1920s the Government suppressed the political influence of the priesthood and temporarily (1929-31) closed the churches. An understanding between State and Church was, however, reached, and all churches eschewing public affairs flourish freely. At the 1980 census there were also 3 • 3% Protestants, and 4 1% members of other religions. Education. Primary and secondary education is free and compulsory, and secular. Clergy are forbidden to establish primary schools. All private schools must conform to government standards. In the Federal District education is controlled by the national government; elsewhere by the state authorities. In 1981-82 there were: „ ,, , ^ , Nursery Primary Secondary Preparatory/Vocational Teacher-training - Higher education

Establishments 17,937 76,652 15,753 2,163 512 941

Teachers 43,531 400,417 222,785 66,027 13,127 74,944

Students 1,411,316 14,981,028 3,987,964 1,140,610 203,557 1,009,123

The most important university is the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) in México City which, with its associated institutions, had, in 1982,136,534 students (excluding post-graduates). UNAM was founded in 1551, re-organized in 1910, and granted full autonomy in 1920. Other universities of particular importance in México City are the Instituto Politécnico Nacional, specializing in technology and applied science, with 52,694 students, and the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana with 27,452 students, opened in 1973. ' Outside México City the principal universities are the Universidad de Guadalajara (in Guadalajara) with 65,799 students; the Universidad Veracruzana (in Jalapa) with 57,755 students; the Universidad Autónoma de Nueva León (in Monterrey) with 48,124 students; the Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (in Puebla) with 39,505 students; the Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa (in Culiacán)

MEXICO

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with 33,366 students; and the Universidad Michoacana (in Morelia) with 23,935 students. Health. In 1980 Mexico had 66,373 physicians; there were 6,315 state and private hospitals and clinics with 82,717 beds. Social Welfare. The social welfare system administered mainly by the Mexican Social Security Institute covered 27m. on 31 Dec. 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Mexico in Great Britain (8 Halkin St., London, SW1X 7DW) Ambassador: Francisco Cuevas-Cancino (accredited 11 Feb. 1983). Of Great Britain in Mexico (Lerma 71, Col. Cuauhtémoc, México City 06500, D.F.) Ambassador: C. M. James, CMG. Of Mexico in the USA (2829 16th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Jorge Espinosa de los Reyes. Of the USA in Mexico (Paseo de la Reforma 305, México City 5, D.F.) Ambassador: John A. Gavin. Of Mexico to the United Nations Ambassador: Porfirio Muñoz Ledo. Books of Reference Anuario Estadístico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Annual Revista de Estadística (Monthly); Revista de Economia (Monthly) Alba, \.,A Concise History of Mexico. London, 1973 Banco de México S.A., Annual report Banco Nacional de Comercio Exterior. Comercio Exterior, monthly.—Mexico. Annual (in Spanish or English) Bazant, J., A Concise History of Mexico. CUP, 1977 Carrada-Bravo, F., Oil, Money, and the Mexican Economy. Boulder, 1982 Davies, N., The Aztecs. London, 1973 Domínguez, J. I., (ed.) Mexico's Political Economy: Challenges at Home and Abroad. London, 1982 Johnson, K. F., Mexican Democracy: A Critical View. Rev. ed. New York, 1978 Kaufman, S.,(ed.) The Politics of Mexican Oil. Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1981 Millor, M. R., Mexico's Oil. Boulder, 1982 Robbins, N., Mexico. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Velasco, S. J-A., Impacts of Mexican Oil Policy on Economic and Political Developments. Aldershot, 1983 Wyman, D. L.,(ed) Mexico's Economic Crisis: Challenges and Opportunities. San Diego, 1983

MONACO

Capital: Monaco Population: 27,1063 (1982)

H I S T O R Y . Monaco is a small Principality on the Mediterranean, surrounded by the French Department of Alpes Maritimes except on the side towards the sea. From 1297 it belonged to the house of Grimaldi. In 1731 it passed into the female line, Louise Hippolyte, daughter of Antoine I, heiress of Monaco, marrying Jacques de Goyon Matignon, Count of Torigni, who took the name and arms of Grimaldi. The Principality was placed under the protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Treaty of Vienna, 1815, and under that of France in 1861. Prince Albert I (reigned 1889-1922) acquired fame as an oceanographer; and his son Louis II (1922-49) was instrumental in establishing the International Hydrographic Bureau. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area is 195 hectares or 481 acres. The Principality is divided into 4 districts: Monaco-Ville, la Condamine, Monte-Carlo and Fontvieille. Population (1982), 27,063. The official language is French. C L I M A T E . A Mediterranean climate, with mild moist winters and hot dry summers. Monaco. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 30" (758 mm). R E I G N I N G P R I N C E . Rainier III, born 31 May 1923, son of Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois, daughter of Prince Louis II, 1898-1977 (married 19 March 1920 to Prince Pierre, Comte de Polignac, who had taken the name Grimaldi, from whom she was divorced 18 Feb. 1933). Prince Rainier succeeded his grandfather Louis II, who died on 9 May 1949. He married on 19 April 1956 Miss Grace Kelly, a citizen of the USA (died 14 Sept. 1982). Issue: Princess Caroline Louise Marguerite, born 23 Jan. 1957; married Philippe Junot on 28 June 1978, divorced, 9 Oct. 1980, married Stefano Casiraghi on 29 Dec. 1983, offspring: Prince Andrea, born 8 June 1984; Prince Albert Alexandre Louis Pierre, born 14 March 1958 (heir apparent); Princess Stephanie Marie Elisabeth, born 1 Feb. 1965. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O1 V E R N M E N T . Prince Rainier III on 28 Jan. 1959 suspended the Constitution of 5 Jan. 1911, thereby dissolving the National Council and the Communal Council. On 28 March 1962 the National Council (18 members elected every 5 years, last elections 1983) and the Communal Council ( 16 members elected every 4 years, last elections 1983) were re-established as elected bodies. On 17 Dec. 1962 a new constitution was promulgated. It maintains the hereditary monarchy, though Prince Rainier renounces the principle of divine right. The supreme tribunal becomes the custodian of fundamental liberties, and guarantees are given for the right of association, trade union freedom and the right to strike. It provides for votes for women and the abolition of the death penalty. The constitution can be modified only with the approval of the elected National Council. Women were given the vote in 1945. Monegasque relations with France were based on a convention of neighbourhood and administrative assistance of 1951. This was terminated by France on 11 Oct. 1962, but has been replaced by several new conventions signed on 18 May 1963. Nationalflag: Horizontally red over white. ECONOMY Planning. A 55-acre site has been reclaimed from the sea at Fontvieille. This land has been earmarked for office and residential development. The present industrial zone is to be reorganized and developed with a view to attracting new light industry to the Principality. 856

MONACO

857

Budget. The budget (in 1,000 francs) was as follows: Revenue Expenditure

1978 671,035 518,129

1979 784,319 551,632

1980 987,158 629,449

1 981 1,258,654 814,333

1982 1,429,968 1,171,757

Currency. The monetary unit is the French franc divided into 100 centimes. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Tourism. There were 216,110 tourists in 1982. Trade Unions. Membership of trade unions is estimated at 2,500 out of a work force of21,588(1984). Commerce. International trade is included with France. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 47 • 8 km of roads in 1984. Railways. The 1 -6m. km of main line passing through the country is operated by the French National Railways (SNCF). Aviation. The nearest airport is at Nice, France and a heliport at Fontvieille. Shipping. The harbour has an area of 47 acres, depth at the entrance 90 ft, and alongside the quay 24 ft at least. Post and Broadcasting. Telephone subscribers numbered about 17,700 in 1984 and telex subscribers, 597. Monaco issues its own postage stamps. Radio Monte Carlo broadcasts 2 commercial programmes in French (long- and medium-waves). Radio Monte Carlo owns 55% of Radio Monte Carlo Relay Station on Cyprus. The foreign service is dedicated exclusively to religious broadcasts and is maintained by free-will contributions. It operates in 36 languages under the name 'Trans World Radio' and has relay facilities on Bonaire, West Indies, and is planning to build relay facilities in the southern parts of Africa. Télé MonteCarlo broadcasts TV programmes in French, Italian and English. Cinemas. In 1981 there were 3 cinemas (one open air) with seating capacity of800. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Court of First Instance as well as a Juge de Paix's Court. Police: There is an independent police force (Surîté Publique) which comprised ( 198 5) 3 50 policemen and inspectors. Religion. There has been since 1887 a Roman Catholic bishop elevated since 1982 to an archbishop, directly dependent on the Holy See. Education. In 1984 there were 5,200 pupils with over 487 teachers. Health. In 1985 there were 515 hospital beds and 63 physicians. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES British Consul-General (resident in Marseille): D. A. S. Gladstone. British Honorary Consul (resident in Nice): Lieut.-Col. R. W. Challoner, OBE. Consul-General for Monaco in London: I. S. Ivanovic. Books of Reference Journal de Monaco. Bulletin Officiel. 1858 ff. Handley-Taylor, G., Bibliography of Monaco. London, 1968 La Gorce, P. M. de, Monaco. Lausanne, 1969

MONGOLIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC

Capital: Ulan Bator Population: 1 -82m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$940 (1978)

Biigd Nayramdakh Mongol Ard Uls

HISTORY. Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province from 1691 to 1911, an autonomous state under Russian protection from 1912 to 1919 and again a Chinese province from 1919 to 1921. On 13 March 1921 a Provisional People's Government was established which declared the independence of Mongolia and on 5 Nov. 1921 signed a treaty with Soviet Russia annulling all previous unequal treaties and establishing friendly relations. On 26 Nov. 1924 the Government proclaimed the country the Mongolian People's Republic. On 5 Jan. 1946 China recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia after a plebiscite in Mongolia (20 Oct. 1945) had resulted in an overwhelming vote for independence. A Sino-Soviet treaty of 14 Feb. 1950 guaranteed this independence. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mongolia is bounded north by the USSR, east and south and west by China. Area, 1,565,000 sq. km (604,250 sq. miles); population (1984) 1,820,000 (in 1977 719,000 urban; 51% male). Density, 1•12 per sq. km. Birth rate (1981), 37-9 per 1,000; death rate, 10-4 per 1,000. Rate of increase, 1982, 3%. The population is predominantly made up of Mongolian peoples (75% Khalkha). There is a Turkic Kazakh minority (5-2% of the population) and 8 Mongol minorities. The official language is Mongol. Expectation of life in 1983 was 65 years. 50% ofthe population is under 16. The republic is administratively divided into 3 cities (Ulan Bator, the capital, population 400,000 (1978), Darkhan, 52,000 (1981) and Erdenet 35,000 (1978)), and 18 provinces (aimag). Local government is administered by People's Deputies' Khurals. The provinces are sub-divided into districts (somon). C L I M A T E . A very extreme climate, with six months of mean temperatures below freezing, but much higher temperatures occur for a month or two in summer. Rainfall is very low and limited to the months mid-May to mid-Sept. Ulan Bator. Jan. -14°F (-25-6"C), July 61°F (161°C). Annual rainfall 8" (208 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . According to the fourth Constitution (1960) legislative power is vested in the Great People's Khural of deputies elected for 5 years by universal suffrage of voters over 18 years of age on a basis of 1 deputy per 2,500 inhabitants. It elects from its number 9 members of the Presidium, which carries on current state affairs. The last general election took place on 21 June 1981; 99-99% of an electorate of 792,896 were said to have voted for the 370 deputies (344 Party members; 100 industrial workers; 90 women). The Chairman of the Presidium of the Khural is Dr Jambyn Batmunkh. De facto power is in the hands of the only political party, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary (i.e., Communist) Party, which had 76,240 members and candidates in 1981 (workers 33%; peasants, 18%; women, 27%). The youth organization had over 180,000 members in 1982. The General Secretary of the Party is Dr 858

MONGOLIA

859

Batmunkh. The other members of the Politburo of the Party are: D. Sodnom, Prime Minister: D. Maydar, First Deputy Prime Minister and Chairman, State Committee for Science and Technology, T. Ragchaa, First Deputy Prime Minister, D. Molomjamts. D. Gombojav, B.-O. Altangerel, Ts. Namsrai, B. Dejid. Candidate members: N. Jagvaral, S. Luvsangombo. Ministers not in the Politburo include: Minister ofDefence: Col.-Gen. J. Yondon; Minister of Public Security: O. Choijilsuren; Foreign Minister: Mangalyn Dugesiiren; Minister of Foreign Trade: Yë Ôchir. Minister of Agriculture: S. Sodnomdoij. National flag: Red-sky-blue-red (vertical), with a golden 5-pointed star and under it the golden soyombo emblem on the red stripe nearest to the flagpole. The last local elections to the 380 khurals took place in June 1984. Turn-out was announced to be 99-99% of the electorate. There are some 15,000 councillors. White-collar, 50%; collective farmers, 30%; industrial workers, 20%; Communist Party members, 60%; women, 33%; under-30,20%, first term of office, 50%. D E F E N C E . Military service is 3 years. Army. The Army comprises 2 infantry divisions and 1 infantry brigade. Equipment includes T-54/-55/-62 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 33,000, with reserves of 40,000. There is a paramilitary Ministry of Public Security force of about 15,000 men. A civil defence force was set up in 1970.There were(1985)some 25,000 Soviet service personnel. Air Force. The Air Force has about 100 pilots and more than 60 aircraft, including 12 MiG-21 fighters; a total of about 40 An-2, An-24 and An-26 transports used mainly on civil air services; 3 Wilga utility aircraft; 10 Mi-4 and 3 Mi-8 helicopters; and Yakovlev trainers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Mongolia is a member of UN and Comecon. Aid. Mongolia receives economic aid from the USSR and other communist countries. There is also a UN development aid programme running at US$2m. per annum. Treaties. Relations with the USSR were based on treaties of friendship and mutual aid (27 Feb. 1946), trade (17 Dec. 1957), economic and technical assistance (9 Sept. 1960), now replaced by a 20-year treaty of friendship, co-operation and mutual assistance ( 15 Jan. 1966). Sino-Mongolian relations have deteriorated since the estrangement between China and USSR. 0 n 2 8 0ct. 1961 Mongolia was admitted to the United Nations. ECONOMY Planning. Mongolia has had for centuries a traditional nomadic pastoral economy, which the Government aims to transform into an 'agricultural-industrial economy'. For earlier plans see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1976-77, p. 1156. The 5-year plan (1976-80) increased national income by 30•'9%, industrial production by 50% and agricultural production by 6 -3% (Targets were 42%, 63% and 30%). The seventh 5-year plan is running from 1981 to 1985. Industrial output is scheduled to rise by 58%, agricultural by 25%. There is also a long-term plan to 1990 which emphasizes energy production, mining, metallurgy, chemicals, food processing and building. Budget (in 1 m. tugriks): Revenue Expenditure

1973 2,678 2,530

1974 2,716 2,670

1 975 2,696 2,686

1 976 2,988 2,973

1 977 3,312 3,300

1 978 3,660 3,650

1 980 4,070 4,058

In the 1971-75 planning period 7,010m. tugriks were invested in the national economy. During the 1976-80 plan period overall investment was doubled.

860

MONGOLIA

Currency. 100 môngô = 1 tugrik. Official exchange rates: £1 = 5-10 rouble=4-44 tugriks; US$ 1 =3-36 tugriks. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use.

tugriks;

1

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There are 6 thermal electric power stations. Production of electricity, 1980,1,400m. kwh. Minerals. There are large deposits of copper, nickel, zinc, molybdenum, phosphorites, tin, wolfram and fluorspar, annual production of the latter is 300,000 tonnes, entirely exported to the USSR. The ore-dressing plant at Erdenet was completed in 1981. Coal reserves are 17,000m. tonnes. Coal accounted for 74-6% of energy production in 1980. There are major coalmines near Ulan Bator and Darkhan. Coal (mainly lignite) production in 1981 was4-lm. tonnes. Agriculture. The economy remains predominantly agricultural (70% of agricultural production derives from cattle-raising). In 1981 there were 2,028,000 horses, 2,396,000 cattle, 14,955,000 sheep, 570,000 camels and 4,802,000 goats. Pastures occupy 84% of the total area, forests 10-5%. In 1983 there were 719,000 hectares of arable land. In 1981 there were 255 collective farms, 30 inter-farm associations and 57 state farms. All cultivated land and 75% of livestock belong to collective or state farms. Farms cover vast areas. In 1978 collective farms averaged 64,000 head of cattleand state farms about 36,000. The sown area 1978 was some 680,000 hectares, 500,000 hectares of which were sown to grain. The 1980 crop was 207,000 tonnes of wheat; 1,700 tonnes of rye; 31,800 tonnes of barley. Production of hay fodder was 10-4m tonnes in 1977. 6 -5m. litres of fermented mare's milk were produced in 1984. In 1981 there were 7,500 tractors ( 15 h.p. units) and 2,000 combine harvesters. Forestry. Forests, chiefly larch, cedar, fir and birch, occupy 156,700 sq. km. Production, 1976:1,067,000 cu. metres of timber. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry though still small in scale and local in character, is being vigorously developed and now accounts for a greater share of GNP than agriculture. The food industry accounts for 20% of industrial production. The main industrial centre is Ulan Bator; others Erdenet and Baga-Nuur, and another is under construction at Khutul. Production figures (1980): textiles, 1 -4m. cu metres; leather, 1 -4m. tonnes; cement, 178,000 tonnes; leather footwear, 2 • 1 m. pairs; meat, 56,700 tonnes; animal fat, 3,800 tonnes; beer 98,000 hectolitres. Employment. The labour force was 370,000 in 1980, including 130,000 shepherds. Average wage was 500 tugriks per month in 1981. Trade union membership was 400,000 in 1982. There is a serious labour shortage necessitating the employment of military personnel, and workers from the USSR and Eastern Europe. Commerce. Foreign trade is a state monopoly. Trade figures for 1976 (in lm. tugriks): exports, 775; imports, 1,007, Mongolia has been a member of Comecon since 1962. The main exports are live cattle and horses, wool and hair, meat, grain, hides, furs, ores, and butter. 96% of foreign trade is with communist countries (80%with USSR). There is a chronic trade deficit. Just over 25% of imports are consumer goods and the remainder are machinery and industrial raw materials. In 1976 trade with China was 28m. tugriks. Trade with Japan, previously valued at US$1 m. per annum, increased slightly after the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1972. Total trade between Mongolia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from U K

1982

3,861 64

I98S

1,350 242

1984

4,561 100

MONGOLIA

861

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are surfaced roads in and around Ulan Bator, from Ulan Bator to Darkhan and at points on the frontier with USSR. Truck services run throughout the country where there are no surfaced roads. 120m. passengers were carried in 1981.70-2% ofall freight was carried by lorry in 1983. Railways. The Trans-Mongolian Railway (1,423 km in 1983) connects Ulan Bator with the Soviet Union and China. The Moscow-Ulan Bator-Peking express runs each way once a week. There are spur lines to Erdenet and to the coalmines at Nalaykha and Sharin Gol. A separate line connects Choybalsan in the east with Borzya on the Trans-Siberian railway. 11m. passengers and 8-lm. tonnes of freight were carried in 1976. Aviation. Mongolair operates internal services and a flight to Irkutsk which links with the Moscow service. 7,000 tons of freight were carried in 1976 and 370,000 passengers. Soviet airlines (Àeroflot) and Mongolair jointly operate a daily service to Moscow. Shipping. There is a steamer service on the Selenge River and a tug and barge service on Hobsgol Lake. 3,000 tonnes of freight were carried in 1976. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1976, 382 post offices and 218 telephone exchanges. Number oftelephones(1977), 37,792. There are wireless stations at Ulan Bator, Gobi Altai and Olgiy. In 1978 there were 128,000 radio and 3,800 television receivers. Television services began in 1967. A Mongolian television station opened in 1970. Mongolia is a member of the international TV organisation Intervision. Cinemas. In 1976 there were 23 cinemas, 439 mobile cinemas and, in 1981, 10 theatres. Newspapers and books. In 1984, 12 newspapers and 32 journals were published. The Party daily paper Unen ('Truth') had a circulation of 112,000 in 1978. 400 book titles were published in 1982 in 70m. copies JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Procurator-General is appointed, and the Supreme Court elected, by the Khural for 4 years. There are also courts at province, town and district level. Lay assessors sit with professional judges. Religion. Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the prevalent form of religion. The Church was suppressed in the 1930s, and only one functioning monastery exists today, at Ulan Bator. Education. In 1983 there were 620 nurseries with 52,000 children. Schooling begins at the age of 8. There are 8- and 10-year schools. In 1983-84 there were 579 'general' schools with 394,000 pupils, 25 specialised secondary schools and 37 vocational technical schools with 22,000 pupils. There is a state university (founded 1942) at Ulan Bator (40 professors, 240 lecturers and 10,000 students in 1982), and 6 other institutes of higher learning (teacher training, medicine, agriculture, economics, etc.) with 14,000 students in 1982 under the supervision of an Academy of Sciences (founded 1953) which has 15 institutes and 190 research workers. In 1977 there were 23,550 students in institutes of higher learning, and some 6,000 students a year are sent to study abroad, principally in the USSR. In 1982-83 there were 885 'general' schools with 385,000 pupils and 37 technical schools with 21,100 pupils. In 1946 the Mongolian alphabet was replaced by a modern Cyrillic alphabet. Health. In 1983 there were 22 doctors and 107 hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Mongolia in Great Britain (7 Kensington Ct., London, W8 5DL) A mbassador: Jambalyn Banzar (accredited 20 Dec. 1984).

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MONGOLIA

Of Great Britain in Mongolia (30 Enkh Taivny Gudamzh, Ulan Bator) Ambassador: A. G. R. Butler. Of Mongolia to the United Nations Ambassador: Gendengtin Nyamdoo. Books of Reference The Central Statistical Office: Economic Statistics of the MPR for 40 Years. 1961 .—40 Years of the MPR Revolution. 1961.—National Economy MPR 1973. 1974 Bawden,C. R., The Modern History of Mongolia. London, 1968 Boberg, F., Mongolian-English, English-Mongolian Dictionary. 3 vols. Stockholm, 1954-55 Haltod, M. (ed.), Mongolian-English Dictionary. Berkeley, Cai., 1961 Jagchid, S., and Hyer, P. Mongolia's Culture and Society. Folkestone, 1979 Lattimore, O., Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia. Leiden, 1955.—Nomads and Commissars. OUP, 1963 Lorinc, L., Histoire de la Mongolie des Origines ànos Jours. Budapest, 1984 News from Mongolia. Ulan Bator, fortnightly, Jan. 1980 Petrov. V. P., Mongolia: A Profile. London, 1971 Rupen, R. A., How Mongolia is Really Ruled: A Political History of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1900-1978. Stanford, 1979 Sanders, A. J. K., The People's Republic of Mongolia: A General Reference Guide. OUP, 1968 Shirendev, B., and Sanjdoij, M. (eds.), History of the Mongolian People's Republic. Vol. 3 (vols. 1 and 2 not translated). Harvard Univ. Press, 1976 Socialist Mongolia. Ulan Bator, 1981

MONTSERRAT

Capital: Plymouth Population: 12,074 (1980) GNP per capita: US$2,200 (1983)

HISTORY. Montserrat was discovered by Columbus in 1493 and colonized by Britain in 1832 who brought in Irish settlers. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Montserrat is situated in the Caribbean Sea 25 miles south-west of Antigua. The area is 39-5 sq. miles (106 sq. km). Population, 1980,12,074. Chief town, Plymouth, 3,200 inhabitants. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate but with no well-defined rainy season, though July to Dec. shows slightly more rainfall, with the average for the year being about 60" (1,500 mm). Dec. to March is the cooler season while June to Nov. is the hotter season, when hurricanes may occur. Plymouth. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 65" (1,628 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Montserrat is a crown colony. The Executive Council is composed of 4 elected Ministers (the Chief Minister and 3 other Ministers) and 2 civil service officials (Attorney-General and Financial Secretary). The Legislative Council consists of 7 elected and 2 civil service officials (the Attorney-General and Financial Secretary) and 2 nominated members. The Executive Council is presided over by the Governor and the Legislative Council by the Speaker. Governor: A. C. Watson. Chief Minister: Dr J. A. Osbome. Flag: The British Blue Ensign with the shield of Montserrat in the fly. F I N A N C E . In 1982 the budget expenditure was at EC$35m. of which EC$12m. was capital expenditure. In 1981 the territorial budget ceased to be grant-aided by the British Government. A G R I C U L T U R E . Agriculture has been in decline for several years, but is likely to recover with the progress of the Integrated Sea Island Cotton Project and revised land tenure and settlement arrangements associated with the government's acquisition of a number of estates. Livestock (1983); Cattle, 4,000; pigs, 400; sheep, 4,500; goats, 4,500; poultry, 60,000. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. Considerable light industry was attracted to the territory from abroad during 1979-81 and there is 83,000 sq. ft of modem factory space available. Commerce. Imports in 1983 totalled EC$54m. (US$20m.); domestic exports, EC$4m. Chief imports were manufactured goods, food and beverages, machinery and transport equipment and fuel. Chief exports in 1983 were hot peppers, live plants, cattle and manufactured articles. Total trade between Montserrat and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 397 935.

1982 193 1,786

Tourism. In 1983,18,800 tourists arrived in Montserrat. 863

1983 164 2,159

1984 115 1,999

864

MONSERRAT

COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. At the modernized Blackbume airport 3,598 aircraft landed in 1983, disembarking 20,634 passengers and 278 tons of cargo. Shipping. In 1982, 311 vessels arrived, landing 34,698 and loading 789 tons of cargo. Post. Number of telephones (1983), 2,600; telex, 17. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 2 magistrates' courts, at Plymouth and Cudjoe Head. Strength of the police force (1983), 3 gazetted officers, 3 inspectors and 101 other ranks. Religion. In 1981 there were 1,329 Roman Catholics, 4,332 Anglicans, 3,249 Methodists, 804 Seventh Day Adventists, 1,091 Pentecostals and 254 members of the Church of God. There is also a Christian Council of Churches. Education. There are 9 government elementary, 1 government secondary, 2 grantaided denominational elementary schools, 2 government junior secondary schools, 2 preparatory private schools for children between the ages of 5 and 12 and 11 nursery schools. In 1983,1,723 children were enrolled in the primary schools, with 66 teachers; 871 in the secondary schools, with 60 teachers. There was 1 technical college with 66 students and 9 teachers. Health. In 1983 there were 6 doctors and 67 hospital beds. Books of Reference Overseas Trade 1983. Montserrat Government Preliminary National Account Statistics, 1975-1982.1982 Vital Statistics Report. Montserrat Government, 1982 Statistical Digest 1984. Montserrat Government Fergus, H.A., Montserrat: Emerald Isle of the Caribbean. London, 1983 Library: Public Library, Plymouth. Librarian: Miss J. Grell.

MOROCCO al-Mamlaka al-Maghrebia

Capital: Rabat Population: 21 • 16m. (1984) GNPper capita: US$860 (1981)

H I S T O R Y . From 1912 to 1956 Morocco was divided into a French protectorate (established by the treaty of Fez concluded between France and the Sultan on 30 March 1912), a Spanish protectorate (established by the Franco-Spanish convention of 27 Nov. 1912) and the international zone of Tangier (set up by France, Spain and Great Britain on 18 Dec. 1923). On 2 March 1956 France and the Sultan terminated the treaty of Fez; on 7 April 1956 Spain relinquished her protectorate, and on 29 Oct. 1956 France, Spain, Great Britain, Italy, USA, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden and Portugal abolished the international status of the Tangier Zone. The northern strip of Spanish Sahara was ceded by Spain on 10 April 1958, and on 30 June 1969 the former Spanish province of Imi was returned to Morocco. A tripartite agreement was announced on 14 Nov. 1975 providing for the transfer of power from Spanish Sahara (Western Sahara) to the Moroccan and Mauritanean governments on 28 Feb. 1976. Spanish troops left El Aaiun on 20 Dec. 1975. On 14 April 1976 a Convention was signed by Mauritania and Morocco in which the 2 countries agreed to partition the former Spanish territory, but on 14 Aug. 1979 Mauritania renounced its claim to its share of the territory (Tiris ElGharbiya) which was added by Morocco to its area. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Morocco is bounded by Algeria to the east and south-east, Western Sahara to the south-west, the Atlantic ocean to the north-west and the Mediterranean to the north. Excluding the Western Saharan territory claimed and occupied since 1976 by Morocco, the total area is 458,730 sq. km and its total population at the Sept. 1982 census was 20,255,687; the latest estimate (1984) is2116m. The areas (in sq. km) and populations (census 1982) of the provinces are: Province Agadir Taroudant Al-Hoceima Azilal Beni Mellal Ben Slimane Boulemane Casablanca-Anfa ' AYn Chok-Hay Hassani 1 Ben Msik-Sidi Othmane ' Hay Mohamed-Ai'n Sebäa ' Mohamedia-Znata ' Chechaouèn El Jadida El Kelàa-Srarhna Er Rachidia Es Saouira Fez Figuig Guelmim Kénitra Sidi Kacem Khémisset Khénifra Khouribga Marrakesh Meknès Ifrane

1982 Province 579,741 Nador 558,501 Ouarzazate 311,298 Oujda 387.1 15 Rabat-Salé 1 668,703 Safi 174,464 Settat 131,470 Tangier 923,630 Tan-Tan 298,376 Taounate 1,615 639,558 Tata 421,272 Taza 153,828 Tétouan 309,024 Tiznit 4,350 763,351 6,000 577,595 10,070 Morocco 421,207 59,585 393,683 6,335 805,464 5,400 Boujdour 101,359 55,990 (Bojador) 128,676 28,750 Es Semara 715,967 4,745 (Smara) 514,127 4,060 Laâyoune 405,836 8,305 (Al Aaiün) 363,716 12,320 Oued Ed 4,250 437.002 Dahab 14,755 1,266,695 3,995 Sahara 626,868 3,310 100,255 1 Urban prefectures Sq. km 5,910 16,460 3,550 10,050 7,075 2,760 14,395

865

Sq. km 6,130 41,550 20,700 1,275 7,285 9,750 1,195 17,295 5,585 25,925 15,020 6,025 6,960

1982 593,255 533,892 780,762 1,020,001 706,618 692,359 436,227 47,040 535,972 99,950 613,485 704,205 313,140

458,730

20,255,687

100,120

8,481

61,760

20,480

39,360

113,411

50,880

21,496

252,120

163,868

866

MOROCCO

The population of the largest municipalities (census) June 1971: Casablanca, 1,506,373; Rabat (capital), 367,620; Marrakesh, 332,741; Fez, 325,327; Meknès, 248,369; Tangier, 187,894; Oujda, 175,532; Salé, 155,557; Kenitra, 139,206; Tétouan, 139,105; Safi, 129,113; Khouribga, 73,667; Mohammedia, 70,392; Agadir, 61,192; El Jadida, 55,501. The official language is Arabic, spoken by 75% of the population; the remainder speak Berber. French and Spanish are considered subsidiary languages. CLIMATE. The climate ranges from semi-arid in the south to warm temperate Mediterranean conditions in the north, but cooler temperatures occur in the mountains. Rabat. Jan. 55°F (12-9°C), July 72"F (22-2'C). Annual rainfall 23" (564 mm). Agadir. Jan. 57°F(13-9°C), July 72°F(22-2"C). Annual rainfall 9" (224 mm). Casablanca. Jan. 54°F(12-2°C), July 72°F(22-2"C). Annual rainfall 16" (404 mm). Marrakesh. Jan. 52"F (11 0• 1°C), July 84°F (28 -9°C). Annual rainfall 10" (239 mm). Tangier. Jan. 53°F (11 -7 C), July 72°F (22-2'C). Annual rainfall 36" (897 mm). REIGNING KING. Hassan II, bom on 9 July 1929, succeeded on 3 March 1961, on the death of his father Mohammed V, who reigned 1927-61. The royal style was changed from 'His Sherifian Majesty the Sultan' to 'His Majesty the King' on 18 Aug. 1957. Heir apparent: Crown Prince Sidi Mohammed, bom 21 Aug. 1963. The King holds supreme civil and religious authority; the latter in his capacity of Emir-el-Muminin or Commander of the Faithful. He resides usually at Rabat, but occasionally in one of the other traditional capitals, Fez (founded in 808), Marrakesh (founded in 1062), or at Skhirat. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A new Constitution was approved by referendum in March 1972 and amendments were approved by referendum in May 1980. The Kingdom of Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with a legislature of a single chamber composed of306 deputies. Deputies for 102 seats are elected by indirect vote through an electoral college representing the town councils, the regional assemblies, the chambers of commerce, industry and agriculture, and the trade unions. Deputies for the remaining 204 seats are by general election. The King, as sovereign head of State, appoints the Prime Minister and other Ministers, has therightto dissolve Parliament and approves legislation. In the General Elections held on 14 Sept. 1984, the new Union constitutionelle (founded Jan. 1983) won 83 seats, the Rassemblement nationale des indépendants 38 seats, the Union socialiste des forces populaires 61 seats, the Mouvement populaire 47 seats, and Istiqlal (Independence) 41 seats. Nationalflag: Red, with a green pentacle star in the centre. Cabinet in Jan. 1985: Prime Minister: Mohamed Karim Lamrani. Justice: Moulav Mustapha Belarbi Alaoui. Interior: Driss Basri. Foreign Affairs: Abdelouahed Belakziz. Information: Abdellatif Filali. Planning: Abdelhaq Tazi. National Education: Azzeddine Laraki. Economic Affairs: Taib Bencneikh. Finance: Abdellatif Jouahri. Trade, Industry and Tourism: Azzeddine Guessous. Handicrafts and Social Affairs: Abbas el Fassi. Transport: Mansouri Ben Ali. Energy and Mining: Moussa Saadi. Health: Rahhali Rahal. Maritime Fishing and Merchant Navy: Bensalem Smili. Secretary-General of the Government: Abbas Kaissi. Cultural Affairs: Said Bel Bachir. Housing, Urban Affairs and Protection of the Environment: Mfadel Lahlou. Equipment, Executive and Professional Training: Mohamed Kabbaj. Minister at the Prime Minister's Office: Abdelkrim Ghallab. Posts and Telecommunications: Mohand Laensar. Agriculture and Land Reform: Otman Demnati. Relations with Parliament: Ahmed Belhadj. Youth and Sports: Abdellatif Semlali. Minister in charge ofCo-operation: Abdelouahed Radi. Labour: Moulay Zine Zahidi. Waqfs and Islamic Affairs: Abdelkbar Alaoui Medaghri. There are 8 Ministers of State, 4 Secretaries and 1 Under Secretary of State.

MOROCCO

867

Local Government: The country is administratively divided into 39 provinces and 6 urban prefectures. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 18 months. Army. The Army comprises 4 mechanized infantry, 1 light security, 1 parachute and 1 anti-aircraft brigades; 10 mechanized infantry regiments; 9 artillery groups; 7 armoured, 1 Royal Guard, 5 camel corps, 2 desert cavalry, 1 mountain, 3 commando and 4 engineer battalions; and 4 armoured car squadrons. Equipment includes 120 M-48 and 15 T-54 main battle tanks, 80 light tanks and 1,000 armoured cars. Strength (1985) 125,000 men. There are also 30,000 paramilitary troops. Navy. Navy includes 1 new missile-armed light frigate, 4 new missile armed large patrol vessels or small corvettes, 2 modern fast attack (corvette size) gunboats, 1 coastal minesweeper, 1 patrol vessel, 1 gunboat, 1 seaward patrol craft, 9 coastal patrol boats, 4 landing craft acquired from France, 2 logistic support vessels and 1 yacht training vessel. The construction of 5 corvettes of new design is under discussion. Personnel in 1985 totalled 1,800 officers and ratings including 500 marines. There were also 12 small customs cutters and a coastguard picket. Air Force. The Air Force was formed in Nov. 1956. Equipment in current use is mainly of US and West European origin. It includes 45 Mirage Fis, a total of 26 F-5 A/B/E/F fighter-bombers and RF-5 A reconnaissance-fighters, 4 OV-10 Bronco counter-insurgency aircraft, a Falcon 20 for electronic warfare, and 24 Hughes 500MD Scout Defender armed helicopters, 24 Alpha Jet advanced trainers, 22 Magister armed jet basic trainers, 12 T-34C-1 turboprop armed basic trainers, 10 Swiss-built Bravo primary trainers, 2 Mudry CAP 10B aerobatic trainers, 4 Broussard liaison aircraft, 75 Agusta-Bell 205 and 212, Puma and JetRanger helicopters, 10 Do 28D Skyservants for coastal patrol, 9 CH-47C heavy-lift helicopters, 12 C-130H turboprop transport aircraft, 3 KC-130H tanker/transports, a Falcon 50 VIP transport and 5 turboprop King Air light transports. The T-34C-1 s are intended to be replaced in the mid-80s by locally designed Gepal Mk IV 550 turboprop trainers. Personnel strength (1984) about 10,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Morocco is a member of UN, OAU, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Islamic Conference and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year plan (1973-77) envisaged a total investment of 11,751,874m. DH. A new 3-year plan (1978—80) was approved in Dec. 1978. The 5-year plan (1981-85) was approved in June 1981. Budget. The budget for 1982 envisaged revenue of 39,900m. DH and expenditure of46,800m. DH. Currency. In Oct. 1959, a national currency was introduced. Its unit is the dirham (abbreviated DH), equalling 100 centimes. Notes: 5, 10, 50, 100 DH; coins: 0 02, 0 05, 0 10,0-20,0-50, 1 DH. The exchange rate in March 1985 was £1 sterling = 10-50 DH; US$1 =9-95 DH. Banking. The bank of issue is the Banque du Maroc in Rabat. Other important institutions are the Banque Marocaine du Commerce Extérieur (Casablanca), the Banque Nationale pour le Développement Economique (Rabat), Crédit Populaire and the Crédit Immobilier et Hôtelier (Casablanca). There are 23 other banks in Casablanca, 3 in Tangier and 1 each in Tétouan, Fez, Kenitra, Meknès, Oujda and Rabat. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is the sole legal system. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power-plants produced 5,077-4m. kwh. in 1982.

868

MOROCCO

Oil. Crude oil production, 48,000 tonnes 1980. Minerals. The principal mineral exploited is phosphate, the output of which (under a state monopoly) was 17-09m. tonnes in 1982. Other important minerals (in 1,000 tonnes) are: Iron ore (223-8), lead (148-5), cobalt (6), zinc (22-4), manganese (94-1), silver (27). Production of minerals (1978) 2,829,284m. dirhams. Agriculture. Agriculture is by far the most important industry, on which 70% of the population exists. The principal crops are cereals, especially wheat and barley; beans, chickpeas, fenugreek and other legumens; canary seed; cumin and coriander, linseed; olives; almonds and other fruits, especially citrus. The almost universal wild palmetto is put to various lises, including the manufacture of crin végétal. The trees include cork, cedar, arar, argon, oak and various conifers. Wine production, 1975, 830,000 hectolitres. Tizra wood is exported for tanning purposes. Stockraising is an important industry. Production in 1982: Barley, 19-lm.; wheat, 18-2m.;maize,315,000; sugar-cane, 630,000; citrus fruit, lm. Livestock (in 1,000 heads), 1983: Camels, 240; horses, 315; cattle, 3,000; pigs, 11 ; sheep, 15,000; goats, 6,270; poultry, 25m. Fishing. The chief fishing centres are Agadir, Safi, Essaouira and Casablanca. There are over 5,000 fishing vessels and about 100 freezing and processing plants. The industry employs 50,000 workers. Total catch in 1982 was413,999 tonnes. C O M M E R C E . Imports and exports were (in lm. DH): Imports Exports

1978 12,361 6,262

1979 14,327 7,622

1980 16,792 9,645

1981 22,455 12,002

1982 25,990 12,439

Main imports, 1982, consumer goods and industrial products. Main exports, (1982 in lm. DH), phosphates (3,445), fruit and vegetables (1,086), phosphoric acid (1,586) and clothing (549). Main trading partners (1982): Exports, France (24%), Federal Republic of Germany (8%), Spain (6-7%), Italy (6-7). Imports, France (24-1%), Saudi Arabia (13-5%) Spain (7 • 1%), USA (6%). A royal proclamation of 30 Aug. 1959 abrogated the former economic status of Tangier and integrated the zone in the Kingdom. However, Tangier was declared a free port from 1 Jan. 1962; and commercial transactions within the free zone were further liberalized by decree of 8 Nov. 1965. Total trade between Morocco and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 62,582 69,223

1981 67,697 55,939

1982 60,219 95,487

1983 75,602 99,727

1984 79,738 79,850

T O U R I S M . In 1982,1 -9m. foreign visitors came to Morocco. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 57,592 km of classified roads, of which (1978) 27,671 km were surfaced. At the end of 1981 there were in use 207,370 lorries, 445,000 private care and 18,424 motor cycles. Railways. In 1982 there were 1,779 km of railways, of which 709 km were electrified. The principal standard-gauge lines are from Casablanca eastward to the Algerian border, forming part of the continuous rail line to Tunis; Casablanca to Marrakesh with 2 important branches, one eastward to Oued Zem tapping the Khouribga phosphate mines, the other westward to the port of Safi. Another branch serves the manganese mines at Bou Arfa. Two new double-track electrified lines are to serve a new deep-water port at Jorf Lasfar, and a 650 km south-east extension from Marrakesh to Laayoun in the south Sahara is planned. In 1982 the railways ran 1,374m. passenger-km and 3,851m. tonne-km ofgoods. Aviation. There are 19 airfields, of which Casablanca-Arfa and CasablancaNouaceur are the most important. Total international air services in 1982 com-

MOROCCO

869

prised 2,395,856 passengers arrived and departed and 32,445 tonnes of freight including mail. Shipping. In 1982, 18,974 vessels entered and cleared the ports of Morocco. In 1980 the merchant marine consisted of 145 vessels (of over 100 gross tons) with a total tonnage of359,552 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. Communication with Europe is maintained by cables between Casablanca and Brest, Tangier-Casablanca-Le Havre, TangierGibraltar, Tangier-Càdiz, Larache-Câdiz via Algeciras. Telephone subscribers totalled 241,000 in 1982. Broadcasting is done in Arabic, Berber, French, Spanish and English from Rabat and Tangier; television in Arabic and French began in 1962. In 1977 there were 1 -6m. radio and 597,000 television receivers. Cinemas. There were about 235 cinemas in 1971. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A uniform legal system is being organized, based mainly on French and Islamic law codes and French legal procedure. The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, courts ofappeal, regional tribunals and magistrates' courts. Religion. Islam is the established state religion. 98% are Sunni Moslems of the Malekite school and 2% are Christians, mainly Roman Catholic. Education. In 1959 a standardization of the various school systems (French, Spanish, Israeli, Moslem, etc.) was begun. Education has been made compulsory from the age of 7 to 13. In 1982-83 there were 2,377,568 pupils and 65,521 teachers in state primary schools; 902,234 pupils and 42,728 teachers in secondary schools; 10,020 (1981) students in technical schools and 16,148 (1981) students in teacher-training establishments. The language of instruction in primary and secondary schools is Arabic. Some scientific courses were (1985) still taught in French. There are six universities, Mohamed V at Rabat, Hassan II at Casablanca, Mohamed Ben Abdallah at Fez, Quaraouyine at Fez, Oujda and Marrakesh with a total enrolment of82,944 students and 4,007 teaching staff in 1982-83. Health. In 1982 there were 1,308 doctors and(1979)24,453 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Morocco in Great Britain (49 Queen's Gate Gdns., London, SW7 5NE) Ambassador: Mohamed Medhi Benabdeljalil (accredited 11 Feb. 1982). Of Great Britain in Morocco (17 Blvd de la Tour Hassan, Rabat) Ambassador: R. A. C. Byatt. Of Morocco in the USA (1601 21 st St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Maati Jorio. Of the USA in Morocco (2 Ave. de Marrakech, Rabat) Ambassador: Joseph V. Reed, Jr. Of Morocco to the United Nations Ambassador: Ali Ben Jelloun. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Service Central des Statistiques (BP 178, Rabat) was established in 1942. Its publications include: Annuaire de Statistique Générale.—La Conjoncture Économique Marocaine (monthly; with annual synthesis).—Bulletin économique et social du Maroc (trimestral) Bulletin Official (in Arabie and French). Rabat. Weekly Findlay, A. M. and A. M., and Lawless, R. I., Morocco. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Kinross, Lord, and Haies-Gary, D., Morocco. London, 1971 Rivière, P. L., Précis de Législation marocaine. New ed. in collaboration with G. Catteriz. 2 vols. Caen, 1942-46 National Library: Bibliothèque Générale et Archives, Rabat.

MOZAMBIQUE

Capital: Maputo Population: 13 • 14m. ( 1983) GNP per capita: US$2 70 ( 1980)

República Popular de Moçambique

HISTORY.Trading settlements were established by Arab merchants at Sofala (Beira), Quelimane, Angoche and Mozambique Island in the fifteenth century. Mozambique Island was visited by Vasco da Gamba's fleet on 2 March 1498, and Sofala was occupied by Portuguese in 1506. At first ruled as part of Portuguese India, a separate administration was created in 1752, and on 11 June 1951 Mozambique became an Overseas Province of Portugal. Following a decade of guerrilla activity, Portugal and the nationalists jointly established a transitional government on 20 Sept. 1974. Independence was achieved on 25 June 1975. In March 1984 the Republic of South Africa and Mozambique signed a non-agression pact. AREA AND POPULATION. Mozambique is bounded east by the Indian ocean, south by South Africa, south-west by Swaziland, west by South Africa and Zimbabwe and north by Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania. It has an area of 799,380 sq. km (308,642 sq. miles) and a population, according to the census of 1980, of 12- 13m. Estimate (1983) 13-14m. of whom (1982) 850,000 lived in the capital, Maputo. The areas, populations and capitals of the 10 provinces are: Province Cabo Delgado Niassa Nampula Zambézia Tete Manica I Sofala J Inhambane Gaza Maputo

Sq. km 78,374 120,135 78,265 102,880 100,714

Census 1970 546,113 285,329 1,716,486 1,747,888 488,668

129,854

1,079,718

68,470 82,534 16,783

748,575 756,654 799,502

Capital Pemba Lichinga Nampula Quelimane Tete í Chimoio I Beira Inhambane Xaixai Maputo

At the 1970 census, Maputo had 354,684 inhabitants; other large towns are Nampula (126,126) and Beira (113,770). The main ethnolinguistic groups are the Makua/Lomwe (37% of the population), mainly in Nampula and Zambezia provinces in the north, the Shona (10%) in Manica and Sofala, and the Thonga (23%) in the south. Portuguese remains the official language, but Swahili serves as a lingua franca, particularly north of the Zambezi. CLIMATE. A humid tropical climate, with a dry season from June to Sept. In general, temperatures and rainfall decrease from north to south. Maputo. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 65°F (18-3°C). Annual rainfall 30" (760 mm). Beira. Jan. 82°F (2 7 • 8° C), July 69° F (20 • 6° C). Annual rainfall 60" (1,522 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution adopted at independence on 25 June 1975, the directing power of the state is vested in the Frente de Libertafao de Mozambique (FRELIMO), the liberation movement, which in Feb. 1977 was reconstituted as sole political Party. The legislative organ is the People's Assembly of210 members, elected in Dec. 1977. The Council of Ministers in Dec. 1983 consisted of: President, and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, with overall responsibilityfor the Ministry of Defence: Samora Moises Machel. Foreign Affairs: Joaquim Alberto Chissano. Defence: Lieut.-Gen. Alberto Joaquim Chipande. Interior: Armando Emilio Guebuza. Security: Mariano de Araujo Matsinhe. Deputy Minister of Defence and Chief of Stajf of the Armed 870

MOZAMBIQUE

871

Forces: Sebastiào Marcos Mabote. Minister in the Presidencyfor Economic Affairs: Jacinto Soares Veloso. Planning: Mario da Gra^a Machungo. Justice: Dr José Oscar Monteiro. Finance: Dr Rui Baltazar dos Santos Alves. Education and Culture: Gra^a Simbine Machel. Information: José Luis Cabalo. Public Works: Julio Zamith Carrilho. Foreign Trade: Joaquim Ribeiro de Carvalho. Agriculture: Joào dos Santos Ferreira. Mineral Resources: José Carlos Lobo. Industry and Energy: Antonio José Lima Rodigues Branco. Health: Pascual Manuel Mucumbi. Ports, Railways and Shipping: Luis Maria Alcantara Santos. Posts and Telecommunications: Rui Jorge Gomes de Lousà. Domestic Trade: Manuel Jorge Aranda da Silva. Governor of the Bank ofMozambique: Prakash Ratilal. There are 8 Deputy Ministers and 9 Secretaries of State. National flag: Horizontally green, black, yellow with the black fimbriated in white; a red triangle based on the hoist, charged with a yellow star surmounted by an open white book and a crossed rifle and hoe in black. D E F E N C E . Selective conscription for 2 years is in force. Army. The Army consists of 1 tank brigade and 7 infantry brigades. Equipment includes T-34/-54/-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 11,000. There are also 4,000 Border Guards and various militias. Navy. The small flotilla comprises 6 former Portuguese coastal patrol boats, 6 exSoviet gunboats, 4 ex-Netherlands patrol craft, 1 ex-Portuguese survey ship (former British fleet minesweeper), 1 ex-Portuguese landing craft (used as a transport) and 2 ex-Portuguese minor landing craft. Naval personnel in 1985 totalled 700 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force is reported to have about 20 MiG-17 and 30 MiG-21 fighters, probably flown by Cuban pilots, An-26 turboprop transports, a Tu-134A for VIP use. Mi-8 helicopters, about 28 L-39 jet trainers, Zlin 326 primary trainers and a few ex-Portuguese Air Force transport/liaison aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Mozambique is a member of UN, OAU and SADCC. ECONOMY Budget. In 1982 the revenue was 18,500m. meticais; expenditure, 21,370m. meticais. Currency. In June 1980 the currency became the metical (pi. meticais) divided into 100 centavos. The metical was established at par with the former escudo. In March 1985,£1 =47-98 meticais;US$1 =44-87 meticais. Banking. Most banks had been nationalized by 1979. The Banco de Mozambique (bank of issue) and the Banco Popular de Desenvolvimento (state investment bank) each have a capital of 1,000m. meticais. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1980) 14,000m. kwh. Capacity (1977) 1,213 mw. The hydro-electric dam at Cabora Bassa on the Zambezi is the largest producer in Africa. Minerals. Coal mining is the main mineral being exploited. Output reached 460,000 tonnes in 1981 but has since fallen. Coal reserves (estimate) 400m. tonnes. Small quantities of bauxite, gold, titanium, fluorite and colombo-tantalite are produced. Iron ore deposits and natural gas are known to exist. Agriculture. Production in tonnes (1981): Cereals, 495,000; tea, 18,000; maize, 270,000; bananas, 65,000; sisal, 12,000; rice, 162,000; groundnuts, 80,000; copra, 70,000.

872

MOZAMBIQUE

Livestock 1983: l-44m. cattle, 350,000 goats, 112,000 sheep, 135,000 pigs, 20,000 asses. Forestry. Production (1981) 13-57m. cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1981 the catch was 30,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Although the country is overwhelmingly rural, there is some substantial industry in and around Maputo (steel, engineering, textiles, processing, docks and railways). Commerce. Imports in 1981 totalled 25,800m. meticais and exports 13,100m. meticais. 15-3% of imports came from the Republic of South Africa and 12-7% from the Federal Republic of Germany. Exports (1976 in tonnes): Coal, 204,843 while 27% of exports went to USA and 16% to Portugal. In 1977 cashew nuts formed 30%, textiles, 9% and tea, 8% of all exports. Total trade between Mozambique and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q m ¡ ¡ m ¡ m ¡ m Imports to UK Exportsand re-exports from UK

11,416 11,345

5,716 21,763

10,611 14,473

9,176 28,618

8,549 15,671

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1982,26,000 km of roads, of which 4,600 km were tarred. Motor vehicles, in 1980, included 99,400 passenger cars and 24,700 lorries and buses. The Government is devoting effort to constructing a new North/South road link, and to improving provincial rural feeder road systems. Railways. The Mozambique State Railways consist of 5 independent networks known as the Maputo, Mozambique, Sofala (Beira), Inhambane and Gaza, and Quelimane systems. The Maputo system has links with the Republic of South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe railways; the Sofala system links with Zimbabwe at Machipanda and by way of the Trans-Zambesia Railway with Malawi at Dona Ana; and the Mozambique system links with Malawi at Entre Lagos. The Inhambane and Quelimane systems have no international connections. Total route-km (1980), 3,696 km (1,067 mm gauge), and 147 km (762 mm gauge). Trans-Zambesia Railway, 318 km (1,067 mm gauge). In 1981, 12m. passengers and 5,166m. tonne-km of goods were carried. Rail links with Zimbabwe reopened in 1979. Aviation. There are international airports at Maputo, Beira and Nampula with regular services to European and Southern African destination by several foreign airlines and by Linhas Aéreas de Mozambique, who also serve 13 domestic airports. Shipping. The total tonnage handled by Mozambique ports (1981) was 912m. The principal ports are Maputo, Beira, Na^ala and Quelimane. Post and Broadcasting. Maputo is connected by telegraph with the Transvaal system. Quelimane has telegraphic communication with Chiromo. Number of telephones (1982), 56,305. Radio Mofambique broadcasts 5 programmes in Portuguese, English, Afrikaans, Ronga and Shangane as well as 4 regional programmes in 8 languages. Number ofreceivers(1984): radio, 450,000; (1979) TV, 1,500. Cinemas. There were, in 1971,31 cinemas withaseatingcapacity of20,195. Newspapers. There were (1984) 2 daily newspapers in Mozambique: Noticias, published in Maputo, and Diario de Mozambique. There are also 2 weekly magazines. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. A system of People's Courts exists at all levels.

MOZAMBIQUE

873

Religion. About 60% of the population follow traditional animist religions, while some 18% are Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) and 16% Moslem. Education. In 1981 there were 1,376,865 pupils in primary schools and 135,956 in secondary schools. The Universidade Eduardo Mondlane had 836 students in 1980. About 500,000 attend adult literacy classes. Health. There were (1980) 321 hospitals and medical centres and 13,180 hospital beds; there were 823 doctors, 96 dentists, 8 pharmacists, 457 midwives and 2,156 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Mozambique (Ave. Vladimir 1 Lenine, 310, Maputo) Ambassador: E. V. Vines, CMG, OBE. Of Mozambique in the USA (1990 M St., NW, Washington, D.C., 2003 7) Ambassador: Valeriano Ferrao. Of USA in Mozambique(35 Rua Da Mesquita, Maputo) Ambassador: Peter Jon de Vos. Of Mozambique to the United Natiòns Ambassador: Manuel dos Santos. Books of Reference Henriksen, T. H., Mozambique: A History. London and Cape Town, 1978 Houser, G., and Shore, H., Mozambique: Dream the Size of Freedom. New York, 1975 Isaacman, A., A Luta Continua: Building a New Society in Mozambique. New York, 1978. —Mozambique: From Colonization to Revolution, 1900-1982. Aldershot and Boulder, 1984 Mondlane,E., The Struggle for Mozambique. London, 1983 Munslow, B., Mozambique: The Revolution and its Origins. London and New York, 1983

NAURU

Population:»,42\ (1982)

HISTORY. The island was discovered by Capt. Feam in 1798, annexed by Germany in Oct. 1888, and surrendered to the Australian forces in 1914. It was administered under a mandate, effective from 17 Dec. 1920, conferred on the British Empire and approved by the League of Nations until 1 Nov. 1947, when the United Nations General Assembly approved a trusteeship agreement with the governments of Australia, New Zealand and UK as joint administering authority. Independence was gained in 1968. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The island is situated 0" 32'S. lat. and 166° 56' E. long. Area, 5,263 acres (2,130 hectares). It is an oval-shaped upheaval coral island of approximately 12 miles in circumference, surrounded by a reef which is exposed at low tide. There is no deep water harbour but offshore moorings, reputedly the deepest in the world, are capable of holding medium-sized vessels, including 30,000 tonne capacity bulk carriers. On the seaward side the reef dips abruptly into the deep waters of the Pacific at an angle of 45°. On the landward side of the reef there is a sandy beach interspersed with coral pinnacles. From the sandy beach the ground rises gradually, forming a fertile section ranging in width from 150 to 300 yd and completely encircling the island. There is an extensive plateau bearing phosphate of a high grade, the mining rights of which were vested in the British Phosphate Commissioners until 1 July 1970, subject to the rights of the Nauruan landowners. In July 1970 the Nauru Phosphate Corporation assumed control and management of the enterprise. It is chiefly on the fertile section of land between the sandy beach and the plateau that the Nauruans have established themselves. With the exception of a small fringe round a shallow lagoon, about 1 mile inland, the plateau, which contains the phosphate deposits, has few foodbearing trees and is not settled by the Nauruans. At the census held on 22 Jan. 1977 the population totalled 7,254, of whom 4,174 were Nauruans. Estimate (1983) 8,421. Vital statistics, 1982: Births, 286 (224 Nauruan); deaths, 77 (42 Nauruan). C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, tempered by sea breezes, but with a high and irregular rainfall, averaging 82" (2,060 mm). Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 75" (1,862 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A Legislative Council was established by the Nauru Act, passed by the Australian Parliament in Dec. 1965 and was inaugurated on 31 Jan. 1966. The trusteeship agreement terminated on 31 Jan. 1968, on which day Nauru became an independent republic but having special relationship with the Commonwealth. An 18-member Parliament is elected on a 3-yearly basis. President and Minister for Foreign Affairs: Hammer DeRoburt, OBE. National flag: Blue with a narrow horizontal gold stripe across the centre, beneath this near the hoist a white star of 12 points. F I N A N C E . Revenue and expenditure (in $A) for financial year ending 30 June 1983 (estimate): revenue, 97,279,300; expenditure, 111,284,800 (health, 1,602,200; education, 2,004,200). The interests in the phosphate deposits were purchased in 1919 from the Pacific Phosphate Company by the governments of the UK, the Commonwealth of Australia and New Zealand at a cost of £Stg3 • 5m., and a Board of Commissioners representing the 3 governments was appointed to manage and control the working of the deposits. In May 1967, in Canberra, the British Phosphate Corporation agreed to hand over the phosphate industry to Nauru and on 15 June 1967 agreement was reached that the Nauruans could buy the assets of the B.P.C. for 874

NAURU

875

approximately $A20m. over 3 years. It is estimated that the deposits will be exhausted by 1993. COMMERCE. The export trade consists almost entirely of phosphate shipped to Australia, New Zealand and Japan. The imports consist almost entirely of food supplies, building construction materials and machinery for the phosphate industry. Total trade between Nauru and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): [ m m ] m 2 [ m ] m Imports to UK Exports from UK.

70 821

83 326

32 1,843

1,421 1,715

916 1,332

COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. There is an airfield on the island capable of accepting medium size jet aircraft. Air Nauru, a wholly owned government subsidiary, operates services with Boeing 727 and 737 aircraft to Melbourne, Sydney, Apia, Honiara, Guam, Tarawa, Majuro, Kagoshima, Okinawa, Noumea, Port Vila, Suva, Nadi, Ponape, Manila, Taipei, Truk, Saipan, Korer (Pelan), Honolulu, Singapore, Auckland, Pago Pago and Niue. Shipping. The Nauru Local Government Council, through its agency the Nauru Pacific Shipping Line, owns 6 ships and 2 fishing boats. These snips ply between Australia, Pacific Islands, west coast of USA, New Zealand, Japan, Singapore etc. Other shipping coming to the island consists of those under charter to tne phosphate industry. Telecommunications. An earth satellite station became operational in 1976, offering 24 hour telephone, telegram and telex services world-wide. Number of telehones (1978) 1,500. Direct daily high frequency service is maintained with arawa and both long- and short-wave transmissions with merchant shipping. A separate tele-radio service exists between Nauru and Ocean Island. Cinemas. In 1978 there were 7 cinemas with seating capacity of 1,500.

?

JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. The highest Court is the Supreme Court of Nauru. It is the Superior Court of record and has the jurisdiction to deal with constitutional matters in addition to its other jurisdiction. There is also a District Court which is presided over by the Resident Magistrate who is also the Chairman of the Family Court and the Registrar of Supreme Court. The laws applicable in Nauru are its own Acts of Parliament and a large number of British statutes and the common law have been adopted for Nauru. Religion. The population is mainly Roman Catholic or Protestant. Education. Attendance at school is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 16. In June 1983 there were 8 infant and primary schools and 2 secondary schools. There were 44 teachers and 2,164 pupils in infant, primary and secondary schools. In addition, there is a trade school with 4 instructors and an enrolment of 74 trainees. Scholarships are available for Nauruan children to receive secondary and higher education and vocational training in Australia and New Zealand. In June 1983, 77 Nauruans were receiving secondary education abroad in Australia and New Zealand and 10 were enrolled in university and vocational training courses in Australia, New Zealand and Fiji. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Nauru High Commisioner: R. A. R. Barltrop, CVO (resides in Suva). Of Nauru in the USA Ambassador: T. W. Star (resides in Melbourne). Books of Reference Text ofTrusteeship Agreement. (Cmd. 7290; Treaty Series No. 89,1947) Packett, C. N., Guide to the Republic of Nauru. Bradford, 1970 Pittman, G. A., Nauru, the Phosphate Island. London, 1959 Viviani, N., Phosphate and Political Progress. Canberra, 1970

NEPAL Sri Nepala Sarkar

Capital: Kathmandu Population: 16 • 1 Om. (1982) GNPper capita: US$ 150 (1981)

HISTORY. From 1846 to 1951 Nepal was virtually ruled by the Rana family, a member of which always held the office of prime minister, the succession being determined by special rules. The last Rana prime minister(and, until 18 Feb. 1951, Supreme C.-in-C.) was HH Maharaja Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, who resigned in Nov. 1951. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Nepal, situated between 26° 20'and 30° 10'N. lat. and between 80° 15' and 88° 15' E. long., is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by Sikkim and West Bengal, on the south and west by Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. On 5 Oct. 1961 a treaty was signed in Peking, according to which the Chinese-Nepalese boundary line 'runs generally south-eastwards along the mountain ridge, passing through Cho Oyu mountain, Pumoli mountain, Mount Chomo Lungma (the Chinese name for Everest) and Lhotse Too Makalu mountain'. Nepal gained about 300 sq. miles of territory. Area 56,136 sq. miles (145,391 sq. km); population (estimate, 1982), 16-10m.; (census, 1981) 15,020,451 of whom 52-5% were Nepali-speaking and 18 • 5% Bihari-speaking. Capital, Kathmandu, 75 miles from the Indian frontier, population about 195,260. Other towns (1971) include Patan (also called Lalitpur), 48,577; Morang (Biratnagar), 44,938; Bhadgaon (Bhaktapur), 40,112. The aboriginal stock is Mongolian with a considerable admixture of Hindu blood from India. They were originally divided into numerous hill clans and petty principalities, one of which, Gorkha or Gurkha, became predominant in 1559 and has since given its name to men from all parts of Nepal. The 15 feudal chieftainships were integrated into the kingdom on 10 April 1961. The country is administratively divided into 14 zones and 75 development districts. C L I M A T E . The rainfall is high, with maximum amounts from May to Sept., but conditions are very dry from Nov. to Jan. The range of temperature is moderate. Kathmandu. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 57" (1,428 mm). R U L I N G KING. The sovereign is HM Maharajadhiraja Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev, who succeeded his father Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah E)ev on 31 Jan. 1972. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . On 18 Feb. 1951 the King proclaimed a constitutional monarchy, and on 16 Dec. 1962 a new Constitution of the 'Constitutional Monarchical Hindu State'. The village and town panchayat, recognized as the basic units of democracy, elect the district panchayat, these elect the zonal panchayat, and these finally the 112 members of the national panchayat. The Constitution was amended in 1975. In addition, 28 representatives of professional organizations and royal nominees not exceeding 15% of the elected members, will be included in the national panchayat. The executive power is vested in the King, who appoints a council of ministers from the national panchayat. A state council will advise the King and proclaim the successor or, if the heir is a minor, a regency council. Art. 81 empowers the King to declare a state of emergency and to suspend the Constitution. The Cabinet appointed in July 1983 was as follows: Prime Minister: Lokendra Bahadur Chand. Parliament and Local Development: Jog Mehar Shrestha. Home Affairs: Padma Sunder Lawati. Water Resources and Supply: Pashupati Shumsher Rana. Agricul876

NEPAL

877

ture and Land Reform: Hem Bahadur Malla. Commerce, Industry and Health: Narayan Dutta Bhatta. Law and Justice: Bakhan Singh Gurung. Foreign Affairs: Padma Bahadur Khatri. Public Works and Transport: Damber Narayan Yadau. Finance and Communications: Prakash Chandra Lohani. There were also 4 Ministers of State and 7 Assistant Ministers. National flag: Two triangular parts of red, with a blue border all round, bearing symbols of the moon and the sun in white. National anthem: 'May glory crown our illustrious sovereign' (1952). DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 6 infantry brigades, and single artillery, engineer, signals, parachute and transport battalions, and 1 air squadron. Equipment includes AMX-13 light tanks. Strength (1985) about 25,000, and there is also a 15,000-strong paramilitary police force. Air Force. Independent of the army since 1979, the Air Force has 1 Skyvan transport aircraft, 1 Puma helicopter, 3 Chetak trainers, and 2 Alouette III helicopters. An H.S. 748 turboprop transport and a Puma helicopter are operated by the Royal Flight. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Nepal is a member of UN and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth (1980-85) plan envisages expenditure of NRs 33,940m. Priority will be given to transport, communications, power, agriculture, irrigation, training of technicians and schools. Budget. The general budget for the fiscal year 1983-84 envisages total expenditure of NRs 2,439m. Revenues are estimated at NRs 4,306m. Currency. The Nepalese rupee is 171 grains in weight, as compared with the Indian rupee, which weighs 180 grains. The rate of exchange is 135 Nepalese rupees for 100 Indian rupees. 100 Nepalese pice = 1 Nepalese rupee. Coins of all denominations are minted. The Rastra Bank also issues notes of 1, 5, 10, 100 and 1,000 rupees. In March 1985, US$1 = 19 rupees; £1 =20-29 rupees. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1981) 232 kwh. A hydro-electric power scheme costing US$ 120m. was inaugurated in Dec. 1982. Agriculture. Nepal has valuable forests in the southern part of the country. In the northern part, on the slopes of the Himalayas, there grow large quantities of medicinal herbs which find a world-wide market. Of the total area, nearly onethird (11-2m. acres) is under forest; 5-4m. acres is.covered by perpetual snow; 9-6m. acres is under paddy, 2-9m. maize and millet, 800,000 wheat. Production (1982 in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 2,560; maize, 752; wheat, 526; sugar-cane, 590; potatoes, 320; millet, 122. Livestock (1983); Cattle, 6-98m., including about 470,000 cows; 4-46m. buffaloes; sheep, 2-48m.; goats, 2-65m.; pigs, 365,000; poultry, 24m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries, such as jute- and sugar-mills, match, leather, cigarette, and shoe factories, and chemical works have been established, including two industrial estates at Patan and Balaju. Production (1982 in 1,000 tonnes): Jute goods, 15-7; sugar, 21-1; cement, 30; iron goods, 7-4. Commerce. The principal articles of export are food grains, jute, timber, oilseeds, ghee (clarified butter), potatoes, medicinal herbs, hides and skins, cattle. The chief imports are textiles, cigarettes, salt, petrol and kerosene, sugar, machinery, medicines, boots and shoes, paper, cement, iron and steel, tea.

878

NEPAL

Imports and exports in NRs 1,000: Imports Exports

1979 3,509,600 1,136,900

1980 3,911,700 964,200

1981 4,332,400 1,797,500

1982 4,930,000 1,492,000

Total trade between Nepal and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): j m m j m 2 m } m 4 ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

2,253 2,956

2,324 2,980

3,844 4,650

6,115 5,011

5,564 6,453

Tourism. There were 175,448 tourists in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. With the co-operation of India and the USA 900 miles of motorable roads are being constructed, including the East-West Highway through southern Nepal. A road from the Tibetan border to Kathmandu was recently completed with Chinese aid. There are about 1,300 miles motorable roads. A ropeway for the carriage of goods covers the 14 miles from Dhursing above Bhimphedi into the Kathmandu valley. A road connects Kathmandu with Birgung. Railways. Railways (762 mm gauge) connect Jayanagar on the North Eastern Indian Railway with Janakpur and thence with Bijulpura (54 km). Aviation. The Royal Nepal Airline Corporation has linked Kathmandu, the capital, with 11 districts of Nepal; and 23 more airfields are under construction. The Royal Nepalese Airline Corporation has services between Kathmandu and Calcutta, Patna, New Delhi, Bangkok, Rangoon and Dacca, employing Boeing 727 jet aircraft. Post and Broadcasting. Kathmandu is connected by telephone with Bii^anj and Raxaul (North Eastern Indian Railway) on the southern frontier with Bihar; and with the eastern part of the Terai foothills; an extension to the western districts is being completed. Number of telephones (1978) 9,425, of which 5,431 were in Kathmandu. Under an agreement with India and the USA, a network of 91 wireless stations exists in Nepal, with further stations in Calcutta and New Delhi. Radio Nepal at Kathmandu broadcasts in Nepali and English. Wireless telecommunication was inaugurated on 1 Oct. 1964. All post, telephone and telegraph services have been taken over from India. The Indian, originally English, post office, established 1816, closed on 13 April 1965. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court Act, established a uniform judicial system, culminating in a supreme court of a Chief Justice and no more than 6 judges. Special courts to deal with minor offences may be established at the discretion of the Government. Religion. Sanaton of Pauranic, i.e., traditional or ancient Hinduism, and Buddhism are the religions of the bulk of the people. Christian missions are admitted, but conversion is forbidden. The royal family is Hindu. Education. In 1982 there were 1,475,000 primary school pupils, 370,000 secondary school pupils and the Tribhuvan University (founded 1960). About 20% of the population are literate. The national language is Nepali. Health. There were about 420 doctors and 2,586 hospital beds in 1979. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Nepal in Great Britain (12a Kensington Palace Gdns., London, W8 4QU) Ambassador: Ishwari Raj Pandey (accredited 4 Aug. 1983).

NEPÄL

Of Great Britain in Nepal (Läinchäur, Kithmändu) Ambassador: A. G. Hurrell, CMG. Of Nepal in the USA (2131 Leroy PL, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Bhekh Bahadur Thapa. Of the USA in Nepal (Pani Pokhari, Kithmändu) Ambassador: Carleton S. Coon. Of Nepal to the United Nations Ambassador.Uddhav Deo Bhatt. Books of Reference Statistical Information: A Department of Statistics was set up in Käthmändu in 1950. Barai, L. S., Political Development in Nepal. London, 1980 Bezruchka, S., A Guideto Trekking in Nepal. Leicester, 1981 Turner, R. L., Nepali Dictionary. 1980. Wadhwa, D. N., Nepal. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983

THE NETHERLANDS

Capital: Amsterdam Seat of Government: The Hague Population: 14-3 lm. (1982) GNPper capita: US$11,790 (1981)

Koninkrijk der Nederlanden H I S T O R Y . William of Orange (1533-84), as the German count of Nassau, inherited vast possessions in the Netherlands and the Princedom of Orange in France. He was the initiator of the struggle for independence from Spain (1568-1648); in the Republic of the United Netherlands he and his successors became the 'first servants of the Republic' with the title of'Stadhouder' (governor). In 1689 William III acceded to the throne of England, becoming joint sovereign with Mary II, his wife. William III died in 1702 without issue, and after a stadhouderless period a member of the Frisian branch of Orange-Nassau was nominated hereditary stadhouder in 1747; but his successor, Willem V, had to take refuge in England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French Army. In Nov. 1813 the United Provinces were freed from French domination. The Congress of Vienna joined the Belgian provinces, the 'Austrian Netherlands' before the French Revolution, to the Northern Netherlands. The son of the former stadhouder Willem V was proclaimed King of the Netherlands at The Hague on 16 March 1815 as Willem I. The union was dissolved by the Belgian revolution of 1830, and the treaty of London, 19 April 1839, constituted Belgium an independent kingdom. Netherlands 1815-1840 (died 1843) 1840-1849 1849-1890

Willem 1 Willem II Willem III

Sovereigns Wilhelmina Juliana Beatrix

1890-1948 (died 1962) 1948-1980 1980-

AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Netherlands is bounded north and west by the North Sea, south by Belgium and east by the Federal Republic of Germany. Growth of census population: 1829 1849 1869 1889

2,613,298 3,056,879 3,579,529 4,511,415

1909 1920 1930 1947

5,858,175 6,865,314 7,935,565 9,625,499

1960 1971

11,461,964 13,060,115

Area, density and estimated population on 1 Jan. 1974 and 1984: Province Groningen Friesland Drenthe Overijssel Gelderland Utrecht Noord-Holland Zuid-Holland Zeeland Noord-Brabant Limburg Almere 1 Dronten ' Lelystad 1

Land area (insq. km) 1984 2,335-24 3,335-72 2,653-56 3,811-24 5,005-61 1,331-54 2,667-86 2,907-34 1,785-36 4,956-80 2,169-76 148-40 332-56 270-60

Population 1974 1984 561,532 532,649 547,223 597,236 393,739 427,336 966,806 1,042,077 1,601,045 1,735,780 849,266 929,401 2,282,686 2,307,447 3,018,525 3,139,189 322,891 355,514 1,910,347 2,103,003 1,038,253 1,083,561 33,037 14,297 22,224 55,141

Density per sq. km 1984 240 179 161 273 347 698 865 1,080 199 424 499 223 67 204

1 Almere, Dronten and Lelystad are municipalities (ex-Zuidelijke Ijsselmeerpolders) and have not been incorporated into any province.

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THE

Province Zeewolde' Zuideijke Ijsselmeerpolders' Central Population Register 2

NETHERLANDS

Land area (insq. km) 1984 222-70

33,935-52»

Total

881

Population 1974 1984 821

Density per sq. km 1984 4

10,638 2,655

1,290

—

13,491,020

14,394,589

424

1

Zeewolde is a municipality (ex-Zuideijke Ijsselmeerpolders) and has not been incorporated into any province. The Zuidelijke Ijsselmeerpolders (drained in 1957) are part of the former Zuiderzee, now called Ijsselmeer, they have not been incorporated into any province. 2 The Central Population Register includes persons who are residents of the Netherlands but who have no fixed residence in any particular municipality (living in caravans and houseboats, population on inland vessels, etc.). ' Including 1 -25 sq. km not municipally classified.

Of the total population on 1 Jan. 1982, 7,081,566 were males, 7,204,263 females. The total area of the Netherlands is 41,548 sq. km (16,042 sq. miles), of which 33,930 sq. km(13,100sq. miles) is land area. On 14 June 1918 a law was passed concerning the reclamation of the Zuiderzee. The work was begun in 1920; the following sections have been completed: 1. The Noordholland-Wieringen Barrage (2-5 km), 1924; 2. The Wieringermeer Polder (210 sq. km), 1930 (inundated by the Germans in 1945, but drained again in the same year); 3. The Wieringen-Friesland Barrage (30 km), 1932; 4. The Noordoost Polder (501 sq. km), 1942; 5. Oost Flevoland (604 sq. km), 1957; 6. Zuidelijk Flevoland (499 sq. km), 1967. The polder Markerwaard (400 sq. km) is beingreclaimed.A portion of what used to be the Zuiderzee behind the barrage will remain a fresh-water lake: Ijsselmeer (1,400 sq. km). The 'Delta-project', scheduled to be completed in the 1980s, comprises the building of (semi) enclosure dams in the estuaries between the islands in the south-western part of the country, excluding the sea-entrances to the ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp; it will also create fresh-water reservoirs. See map in THE STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1 9 5 9 .

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Live births Total Illegitimate Still births Marriages 178,569 8,609 1,122 85,574 172,071 10,080 1,010 83,516 170,246 11,857 1,002 78,451

Divorces 28,509 30,877 32,589

Deaths 115,515 117,264 117,761

Net migration + 16,988 + 3,233 + 5,978

Population of principal municipalities on 1 Jan. 1984: Aalsmeer Achtkarspelen Alkmaar Almelo Almere Alphena/dRijn Amersfoort Amstelveen Amsterdam Apeldoorn Amhem Assen Baam Barneveld Bergen op Zoom Beverwijk de Bilt Boxtel Breda Brummen Brunssum

20,379 27,030 83,892 62,941 33,037 54,560 86,896 68,518 676,439 144,108 128,431 46,745 24,693 38,464 45,568 34,947 31,834 24,475 118,662 20,295 29,595

Bussum Capelle a/d Ijssel Casticum Delft Delfzijl Deurne Deventer Doetinchem Dongen Dongeradeel Dordrecht Dronten Edam-Volendam Ede(Gld.) Eindhoven Emmen Enschede Epe Ermelo Etten-Leur Franekeradeel

33,401 53,444 22,726 86,733 24,953 28,492 64,823 39,755 20,543 24,969 107,475 22,224 24,019 86,816 192,854 91,010 144,938 33,465 24,473 30,659 21,130

Geldermalsen 20,907 26,568 Geldrop Geleen 34,828 Gendringen 20,131 Gilze en Rijen 21,170 Goes 31,155 Gorinchem 27,538 Gouda 60,026 's-Gravenhage 445,213 Groningen 167,866 Haarksbergen 21,959 Haarlem 152,511 Haarlemmermeer 83,428 Hardenberg 31,799 Harderwijk 32,505 Heemskerk 31,782 Heemstede 25,730 Heerenveen 37,407 Heerhugowaard 34,583 Heerlen 93,283 Heiloo 20,908

882 Den Helder Hellendoorn Hellevoetsluis Helmond Hengelo (O.) 's-Hertogenbosch Hilversum Hoogeveen HoogezandSappemeer Hoorn Huizen Kämpen Katwijk Kerkrade Krimpen a/d Ijssel Landgraaf Leeuwarden Leiden Leiderdorp Leidschendam Lelystad Leusder) Lisse Loon op Zand Losser Maarssen Maassluis Maastricht Meerssen Meppel Middelburg Naaldwijk Nieuwegein Noordoostpolder Noordwijk Nunspeet

THE 63,826 33,508 30,291 60,582 76,855 89,059 88,417 45,031 34,980 50,473 35,741 31,944 38,659 53,231 28,238 39,918 85,435 104,261 21,352 30,597 55,141 24,174 20,135 20,063 21,771 32,768 33,107 113,277 20,319 22,752 38,854 26,145 53,601 37,884 24,270 23,134

NETHERLANDS

Nijkerk Nijmegen Oldebroek Oldenzaal Oosterhout Ooststellingwerf Opsterland Oss Papendrecht Poortugaa! Purmerend Raalte Renkum Rheden Ridderkerk Roermond Roosendaal Rosmalen Rotterdam Rucphen Rijssen Rijswijk (Z.-H.) Scharsterland Schiedam Schijndel Sittard Slied recht Smallingerland Sneek Soest Spijkenisse Stadskanaal Steenwijk Stein Terneuzen Tiel Tietjerksteradeel

24,266 147,102 20,192 28,827 45,927 24,533 26,240 50,086 25,787 22,110 45,829 25,481 33,738 47,934 47,124 38,209 56,519 24,121 555,349 20,133 22,5.38 49,790 22,699 69,849 20,510 43,889 22,746 50,724 29,473 40,355 54,381 34,095 21,084 26,513 35,339 29,849 29,564

Tilburg Uden Uithoom Utrecht Valkenswaard Veendam Veenendaal Veghel Veldhoven Velsen Venlo Venray Vlaardingen Vlissingen Voorburg Voorschoten Voorst Vught Waalwijk Waddinxveen Wageningen Wassenaar Weert Weststellingwerf Wierden Winschoten Winterswijk Wisch Woerden Wychen Zaanstad Zeist Zevenaar Zoetermeer Zutphen Zwolle Zwijndrecht

154,094 33,557 21,796 230,414 28,539 28,532 43,228 25,246 35,519 58,287 62,935 33,808 76,466 46,150 41,945 21,665 23,149 23,205 28,808 21,769 32,083 26,950 39,402 24,493 21,531 20,660 27,782 20,042 25,629 29,772 128,413 60,478 26,383 77,632 31,683 87,340 39,862

Urban agglomerations as at 1 Jan. 1984: Rotterdam, 1,025,466; Amsterdam, 994,062; The Hague, 672,127; Utrecht, 501,357; Eindhoven, 374,109; Arnhem, 291,399; Enschede-Hengelo, 266,095; Heerlen-Kerkrade, 248,200; Tilburg, 233,992; Nijmegen, 221,684; Haarlem, 217,191; Groningen, 206,611; DordrechtZwijndrecht, 199,156; 's-Hertogenbosch, 177,410; Geleen-Sittard, 186,946; Leiden, 176,360; Maastricht, 157,329; Breda, 153,517; Zaanstreek, 140,354; Velsen-Beverwijk, 125,016; Hilversum, 105,570. C L I M A T E . A cool temperate maritime climate, marked by mild winters and cool summers, but with occasional continental influences. Coastal temperatures vary from 37°F (3°Q in winter to 61°F (16°C) in summer, but inland the winters are slightly colder and the summers slightly wanner. Rainfall is least in the months Feb. to May, but inland there is a well-defined summer maximum in July and Aug. The Hague. Jan. 37'F (2-7°C), July 6 T F (16-3'C). Annual rainfall 32-8" (820 mm). Amsterdam. Jan. 36°F (2-3°C), July 62°F(16-5°C). Annual rainfall 34" (850 mm). Rotterdam. Jan. 36-5T (2-6°C), July 62°F (16-6°C). Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). REIGNING QUEEN. Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard, born 31 Jan. 1938 daughter of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard; married to Claus von Amsberg on 10 March 1966; succeeded to the crown on 1 May 1980, on the abdication of her mother. Offspring: Prince Willem-Alexander, born 27 April 1967; Prince Johan Friso, born 25 Sept. 1968; Prince Constantijn, born 11 Oct. 1969. Mother of the Queen: Queen Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina, bom 30 April 1909, daughter of Queen Wilhelmina (bom 31 Aug. 1880, died 28 Nov. 1962) and Prince Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (bom 19 April 1876, died 3

THE N E T H E R L A N D S

883

July 1934); married to Prince Bernhard Leopold Frederick Everhard Julius Coert Karel Godfried Pieter of Lippe-Biesterfeld (born 29 June 1911) on 7 Jan. 1937. Abdicated in favour of her daughter, the Reigning Queen, on 30 April 1980. Sisters of the Queen: Princess Irene Emma Elisabeth, born 5 Aug. 1939, married to Prince Charles Hugues de Bourbon-Parma on 29 April 1964, divorced 1981 (sons: Prince Carlos Javier Bernardo, born 27 Jan. 1970; Prince Jaime Bernardo, born 13 Oct. 1972; daughters: Princess Margarita Maria Beatriz, born 13 Oct. 1972; Princess Maria Carolina Christina, born 23 June 1974); Princess Maigriet Francisca, born in Ottawa, 19 Jan. 1943, married to Pieter van Vollenhoven on 10 Jan. 1967 (sons: Prince Maurits, bom 17 April 1968; Prince Bemhard, born 25 Dec. 1969; Prince Pieter-Christiaan, born 22 March 1972; Prince Floris, born 10 April 1975); Princess Maria Christina, bom 18 Feb. 1947, married to Jorge Guillermo on 28 June 1975 (sons: Bernardo, born 17 June 1977; Nicolas Daniel Mauricio, born 6 July 1979; daughter: Juliana, born 8 Oct. 1981). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . According to the Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Kingdom consists of the Netherlands and the Netherlands Antilles. Their relations are regulated by the 'Statute' for the Kingdom, which came into force on 29 Dec. 1954. Each part enjoys full autonomy; they are united, on a footing of equality, for mutual assistance and the protection of their common interests. The first Constitution of the Netherlands after its restoration as a Sovereign State was promulgated in 1814. It was revised in 1815 (after the addition of the Belgian provinces, and the assumption by the Sovereign of the title of King), 1840 (after the secession of the Belgian provinces), 1848, 1884, 1887, 1917, 1922, 1938, 1946, 1948,1953,1956,1963,1972 and 1983. The Netherlands is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is in the direct male or female line in the order of primogeniture. The Sovereign comes of age on reaching his 18th year. During his minority the royal power is vested in a Regent—designated by law—and in some cases in the Council ofState. The central executive power of the State rests with the Crown, while the central legislative power is vested in the Crown and Parliament (the Staten-Generaal), consisting of 2 Chambers. After the 1956 revision of the Constitution the Upper or First Chamber is composed of 75 members, elected by the members o f t h e Provincial States, and the Second Chamber consists of 150 deputies, who are elected directly from all Netherlands nationals who are aged 18 or over on polling day. Members of the States-General must be Netherlander or recognized as Netherlands subjects and 21 years of age or over, they may be men or women. They receive an allowance. First Chamber (as constituted in 1983): Labour Party, 17; Christian Democratic Appeal, 26; People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, 17; Democrats '66, 6; Party of Political Radicals, 1; Communist Party, 2; Pacifist Socialist Party, 2; Calvinist Party, 2; Reformed Political Federation, 1; Calvinist Political Union, 1. Second Chamber (elected on 8 Sept. 1982): Labour Party, 47; Christian Democratic Appeal, 45; People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, 36; Democrats '66, 6; Communist Party, 3; Party of Political Radicals, 2; Pacifist Socialist Party, 3; Calvinist Party, 3; Reformed Political Federation, 2; Calvinist Political Union, 1; Evangelical People's Party, 1; Conservative Nationalist Party, 1. The revised Constitution of 1917 has introduced an electoral system based on universal suffrage and proportional representation. Under its provisions, members of the Second Chamber are directly elected by citizens of both sexes who are Netherlands subjects not under 18years(since 1972). The members of the First Chamber and of the Second Chamber are elected for 4 years, and retire in a body. The Sovereign has the power to dissolve both Chambers of Parliament, or one of them, subject to the condition that new elections take place within 40 days, and the new House or Houses be convoked within 3 months. Both the Government and the Second Chamber may propose Bills; the First Chamber can only approve or reject them without inserting amendments. The

884

THE

NETHERLANDS

meetings of both Chambers are public, though each of them may by a majority vote decide on a secret session. It is a fixed custom, that Ministers and Secretaries of State, on their own initiative or upon invitation of the Parliament, attend the sessions to defend their policy, their budget, their proposals of Bills, etc., when these are in discussion. A Minister or Secretary of State, however, cannot be a member of Parliament at the same time. The Constitution can be revised only by a Bill declaring that there is reason for introducing such revision and containing the proposed alterations. The passing of this Bill is followed by a dissolution of both Chambers and a second confirmation by the new States-General by two-thirds of the votes. Unless it is expressly stated, all laws concern only the realm in Europe, and not the oversea part of the kingdom, the Netherlands Antilles. Every act of the Sovereign has to be covered by a responsible Minister. The Ministry, a coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals, was composed as follows in Nov. 1982: Prime Minister: Ruud Lubbers (CDA). Deputy Prime Minister and Economic Affairs: Gijs van Aardenne (WD). Foreign Affairs: Hans van den Broek (CDA). Finance: Herman Ruding (CDA). Defence: Jacob de Ruiter (CDA). Development Aid Co-operation: Eegje Schoo (WD). Social Affairs and Employment: Jan de Koning (CDA). Home Affairs: Koos Rietkerk (WD). Justice: Frits Korthals Altes (WD). Agriculture and Fisheries: Gerrit Braks (CDA). Welfare, Public Health and Culture: Elco Brinkman (CDA). Education and Science: Wim Deetman (CDA). Transport and Public Works: Neelie Smit-Kroes (WD). Housing, Physical Planning and Environment: Pieter Winsemius (WD). There are also 16 state secretaries. The Council of State (Raad van State), appointed by the Crown, is composed of a vice-president and not more than 28 members. The Queen is president, but the day-to-day running of the council is in the hands of the vice-prbsident. The Council can be consulted on all legislative matters. Decisions of the Crown in administrative disputes are prepared by a special section of the Council. The Hague is the seat of the Court, Government and Parliament; Amsterdam is the capital. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, blue. National anthem: Wilhelmus van Nassoue (words by Philip Mamix van St Aldegonde,c. 1570). Local Government. The kingdom is divided in 11 provinces and about 750 municipalities. The creation of a new province in the Zuiderzee area is in preparation. Each province has its own representative body, the Provincial States. TTie members must be 21 years of age or over; they are elected for 4 years, directly from the Netherlands inhabitants of the province who are 18 years of age or over. The electoral register is the same as for the Second Chamber. The members retire in a body and are subject to re-election. The number of members varies according to the population of the province, from 83 for Zuid-Holland to 43 for Zeeland. The Provincial States are entitled to issue ordinances concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise taxes pursuant to legal provisions. The provincial budgets and the provincial ordinances and resolutions relating to provincial property, loans, taxes, etc., must be approved by the Crown. The members of the Provincial States elect the First Chamber of the States-General. They meet twice a year, as a rule in public. A permanent commission composed of 6 of their members, called the 'Deputy States', is charged with the executive power and, if required, with the enforcement of the law in the province. Deputy as well as Provincial States are presided over by a Commissioner of the Queen, appointed by the Crown, who in the former assembly has a deciding vote, but attends the latter in only a deliberative capacity. He is the chief magistrate in the province. The Commissioner and the members of the Deputy States receive an allowance. Each municipality forms a Corporation with its own interests and rights, subject to the general law, and is governed by a Municipal Council, directly elected from

THE NETHERLANDS

885

the Netherlands inhabitants of the municipality who are 18 years of age or over, for 4 years. All Netherlands inhabitants aged 21 or over are eligible, the number of members varying from 7 to 45, according to the population. The Municipal Council has the right to issue bye-laws concerning the communal welfare. The Council may levy taxes pursuant to legal provisions; these ordinances must be approved by the Crown. All bye-laws may be vetoed by the Crown. The Municipal Budget and resolutions to alienate municipal property require the approbation of the Deputy States of the province. The Council meets in public as often as may be necessary, and is presided over by a Burgomaster, appointed by the Crown. The day-to-day administration is carried out by the Burgomaster and 2-7 Aldermen (wethouders), elected by and from the Council; this body is also charged with the enforcement of the law. The Burgomaster may suspend the execution of a resolution of the council for 30 days, but is bound to notify the Deputy States of the province. In maintaining public order, the Burgomaster acts as the chief of police. The Burgomaster and Aldermen receive allowances. DEFENCE. The Netherlands are bordered on the south by Belgium, on the east by the Federal Republic of Germany. On both sides the country is quite level and has no natural defences, except the barriers of some large rivers, running east to west and south to north. The country has an excellent roadnet and a vast railway system, enabling rapid movement. The west part of the country is densely populated. Army. Service is partly voluntary and partly compulsory; the voluntary enlistments bear a small proportion to the compulsory. The total peacetime strength amounts to 72,000, including Military Police. The number of regulars is 24,000. The Army also employs 13,000 civilians. The legal period of active service for national servicemen is 22-24 months; the actual service period is 14 months for other ranks and 16 months for reserve-officers and n.c.o.s. The balance may be spent at will as 'short leave'. After their period of actual service or short leave, conscript personnel are granted long leave. However, they will be liable to being called up for refresher training or in case of mobilization until they have reached the age of 3 5 (n.c.o.s 40, reserve officers 45). The 1st Netherlands Army Corps is assigned to NATO. It consists of 10 brigades and Corps troops. The active part of the Corps comprises 2 armoured brigades and 4 armoured infantry brigades, grouped in two divisions and 40% of the Corps troops. Part of this force is stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany. The peacetime strength of the active brigades is 80% of the war-authorized strength. The mobilizable part of the Corps comprises 1 armoured brigade, 2 armoured infantry brigades, 1 infantry brigade and the remaining Corps troops. The mechanized brigades comprise tank battalions (Centurion and Leopard I), armoured infantry battalions (YP-408 and YPR-765), medium artillery battalions (155 mm self-propelled), armoured engineer units, armoured reconnaissance units and armoured anti armour units. The Corps troops comprise headquarters units, combat-support units, including Engineer and Corps artillery (203 mm, 155 mm and Lance) and service-support units. Helicopter squadrons are also available. The National Territorial Command forces consist of territorial brigades, security forces, some logistical units and staffs. The major part of these units is mobilizable. Some units in the Netherlands are earmarked for assignment to the United Nations as peace-keeping forces. Since Dec. 1983 an infantry company, composed of regulars and conscripts, has been involved in the UN peace-keeping operations in Lebanon. For civil defence purposes there are a number of mobilizable firefighting, rescue and medical battalions. The army is responsible for the training of these units which in time of war are placed under the command of the National Commander of the Civil Defence. Navy. The Royal Netherlands Navy has its main base in the Netherlands at Den Helder and minor bases at Flushing and Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles). The Ministry of Defence is located in The Hague. The fleet comprises 6 diesel-electric patrol submarines, 18 frigates, 2 fast combat

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support ships, 1 mine countermeasures support ship (ex-ocean minesweeper), 11 coastal minehunters, 10 coastal minesweepers, 3 diving vessels, 1 torpedo maintenance vessel (ex-ocean minesweeper), 5 patrol vessels, 3 hydrographie survey ships, 10 minor landing craft, 2 training ships, 12 tugs and 30 small auxiliary ships. Two diesel-electric patrol submarines, 2 large frigates, 4 medium frigates, 8 coastal minehunters and 12 minor landing craft are under construction. The future construction programme includes two more diesel-electric patfol submarines. In 1985 personnel totalled 16,800 officers and other ranks, including the Naval Air Service, 410 female, and the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps. The naval air service (1,700 personnel) maintains 13 Orion P3C, 5 Breguet Atlantics (SP-13A), 23 Westland Lynx SH14B/C embarked and 5 Lynx UH 14A for SAR, utility and transport. Naval estimates (in lm. guilders): 1981,2,218; 1982,2,352; 1983,2,446; 1984, 2,418. Air Force. The Royal Netherlands Air Force was established 1 July 1913. Its current strength is approximately 19,000 personnel and it has a first-line combat force of 9 squadrons of aircraft and 3 groups of surface-to-air missiles. All squadrons are operated by Tactical Air Command. Aircraft operated are F-16 (4 squadrons for air defence and ground attack, 1 for tactical reconnaissance), and NF-5A/B fighterbombers (4 squadrons, to re-equip with F-16s in 1985-91). Also under control of Tactical Air Command is 1 squadron of the USAF, flying F-15C/D Eagles in the air defence role. 3 squadrons of Alouette III and Bôlkow Bo 105C helicopters are under control of the Royal Netherlands Army, but flown and maintained by the RNethAF for use in the communications and observation roles. Also operated is 1 squadron of F.27 Friendship/Troopship transport aircraft, and another (based in Curaçao) with 2 F.27 maritime patrol aircraft. Training of RNethAF pilots is undertaken in the USA. The surface-to-air missile force consists of 1 group of Nike Hercules (high altitude) and 2 groups of Hawk (low and medium altitude). The Nike will be replaced by Patriot missiles from 1987. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Netherlands is a member of UN, EEC, OECD, the Council of Europe and NATO.

ECONOMY Budget. The revenue and expenditure of the central government (ordinary and extraordinary) were, in 1 m. guilders, for calendar years: 19782 Revenue 1 92,262 Expenditure s 101,067

19792 98,810 110,776

1 Without the revenue of loans. * Revised budget figures.

2 5

19802 107,165 121,081

19811 110,866 130,455

1982 ' 113,923 141,715

Accounts. Without redemption ofloans.

1983' 114,227 145,752

1984 « 119,514 154,926

3

Preliminary accounts. ' Budget figures.

The revenue and expenditure of the Agriculture Equalization Fund, the Fund for Central Government roads, the Property Acquisition Fund (established in 1971), the Fund for the Development of a fast Breecfer Reactor (established in 1972 but discontinued in 1978) and of the Investment Account Fund (established in 1978) have been incorporated in the general budget.

The national debt, in 1 m. guilders, was on 31 Dec.: Internal funded debt „ floating „ Total

1979 64,086 20,314

1980 78,090 21,433

1981 96,830 21,629

1982 122,777 21,878

1983 153,262 21,535

84,400

99,523

118,459

144,655

174,797

Currency. The monetary unit is the gulden (guilder, florin) of 100 cents. In March 1985 the rate of exchange was US$ 1=3-88 guilders; £ 1 = 4-08 guilders. Legal tender are bank-notes, silver 10-guilder pieces, nickel 2'/2- and 1-guilder pieces, 25-cent, 10-cent pieces and bronze 5-cent pieces.

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Banking. T h e N e t h e r l a n d s Bank, f o u n d e d as a private institution, was nationalized o n 1 Aug. 1948, t h e shareholders receiving, for a share of 1,000 guilders, a security o f 2 , 0 0 0 g u i l d e r s o n t h e 2'/2% N a t i o n a l D e b t . S i n c e 1 8 6 3 t h e banlc h a s t h e sole right of issuing b a n k - n o t e s . T h e b a n k does t h e s a m e business as o t h e r banks, b u t with m o r e guarantees. T h e capital a m o u n t s to 2 0 m . guilders. W e i g h t s and M e a s u r e s . T h e m e t r i c s y s t e m o f w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s w a s a d o p t e d in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s in 1820. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. T h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y (in 1 m . k w h . ) a m o u n t e d in 1938 t o 3,688; 1958, 13,854; 1970, 40,859; 1980, 64,806; 1981, 64,053; 1982, 60,313; 1983,59,650. G a s . P r o d u c t i o n o f m a n u f a c t u r e d gas ( m i l l i a r d k j o u l e ) : 1 9 7 8 , 1 8 1 , 0 3 3 ; 1 9 7 9 , 2 3 3 , 5 5 3 ; 1 9 8 0 , 2 1 0 , 0 1 1 ; 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 7 , 5 8 6 . P r o d u c t i o n o f n a t u r a l g a s in 1 9 5 0 , 8 m . c u . m e t r e s ; 1 9 5 5 , 139; 1 9 6 0 , 3 8 4 ; 1 9 7 0 , 3 1 , 6 8 8 ; 1980, 9 1 , 1 5 3 ; 1 9 8 1 , 8 4 , 6 1 7 ; 1982, 72,035; 1983,76,536. M i n e r a l s . O n 1 J a n . 1 9 7 5 all c o a l m i n e s w e r e c l o s e d . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c r u d e p e t r o l e u m (in 1 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s ) a m o u n t e d in 1 9 4 3 y e a r ) t o 0 - 2 ; 1 9 5 3 , 8 2 0 ; 1 9 7 0 , 1,919; 1 9 7 8 , 1 , 4 0 2 ; 1 9 7 9 , 1 , 3 1 6 ; 1 9 8 0 , 1 , 2 8 0 ; 1,348; 1 9 8 2 , 1 , 6 3 7 ; 1 9 8 3 , 2 , 5 8 9 . T h e r e a r e s a l t m i n e s a t H e n g e l o a n d D e l f z i j l ; p r o d u c t i o n (in 1 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s ) , 4 1 2 - 6 ; 1 9 6 0 , 1 , 0 9 6 ; 1 9 7 0 , 2 , 8 7 1 ; 1 9 7 8 , 2 , 9 3 9 ; 1979, 3 , 9 5 1 ; 1 9 8 0 , 3 , 4 6 4 ; 3,578; 1982,3,191; 1983,3,124.

(first 1981, 1950, 1981,

Agriculture. T h e n e t a r e a o f all h o l d i n g s w a s d i v i d e d a s f o l l o w s (in h e c t a r e s ) : 1980' 1981 19821 1983' 1984' Field crops 704,710 702,510 702,287 706,120 715,887 Grass 1,197,592 1,187,719 1,178,098 1,181,297 1,178,534 87,121 89,600 94,210 89,371 91,031 Market gardening 14,307 14,390 14,189 14,165 14,558 Land for flower bulbs 5,180 5,267 5,472 5,615 5,824 Flower cultivation 6,228 6,413 6,386 6,431 6,498 Nurseries 5,099 4,769 4,577 5,713 3,763 Fallow land Total 2,020,237 2,010,668 2,005,219 2,008,712 2,016,095 Excluding holdings of less than 10 SFU (SFU = standard farm unit). 10 SFU is equal to a computed net value added at factor cost of about 4,000 guilders, in 197 5. 1

T h e n e t a r e a s 1 u n d e r s p e c i a l c r o p s w e r e a s f o l l o w s (in h e c t a r e s ) : 1984 1984 Products 1983 Products 1983 141,724 140,584 13,163 Autumn wheat Colza 13,211 4,112 Spring wheat 6,535 4,220 Flax 3,193 18,056 Rye ' 6,660 5,743 Agricultural seeds 18,149 102,433 Autumn barley 10,199 10,528 Potatoes, edible 2 100,998 58,230 Spring barley 27,275 23,517 Potatoes, industrial 1 62,458 129,304 Oats 13,527 12,495 Sugar-beet 116,739 4 2,169 Peas 7,636 11,051 Fodder-beet 2,119 ' Excluding non-agrarian holdings of less than 10 SFU. ' Including early and seed potatoes. « Source, 1RS. > Including seed potatoes. T h e yield o f t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t s , in t o n n e s , w a s a s f o l l o w s : A verage Average 19831 1982 1 Crop 1940-49 1950-58 1,042,914 322,003 348,464 967,263 Wheat 25,674 Rye 439,055 454,992 26,492 176,920 258,049 247,416 Barley 145,892 61,110 136,122 Oats 315,642 464,041 3,930 15,799 5,693 2,418 Field beans 31,773 65,460 93,664 28,153 Peas 37,976 18,358 33,336 , 24,763 Colza 20,848 25,062 82,906 138,165 Flax, unrippled 3,338,196 2,861,793 2,745,505 4,145,765 Potatoes, edible 2 1,974,243 1,242,326 1,003,994 2,072,857 Potatoes, industrial 5,445,498 7,945,554 1,667,711 2,935,881 Sugar-beet 164,600 213,457 Fodder-beet 1 Excluding holdings of less than 10SFU. 1984 figures provisional. 2 Including early potatoes.

1984 > 1,046,855 24,503 193,009 67,133 49^846 38,904 35,970 4,262,987

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Livestock, May 1984: 5,516,243 cattle, 11,146,085 pigs; 64,318 horses and ponies; 765,529 sheep, 84-5m. poultry. In 1983 the production of butter, under state control, amounted to 271,464 tonnes; that of cheese, under state control, to 477,664 tonnes. Export value (processed and unprocessed) of arable crops amounted to 16,420m. guilders; animal produce, 17,750m. guilders and horticultural produce, 8,661 m. guilders. Fisheries. The total produce of fish landed from the sea and inshore fisheries in 1981 was valued at 595m. guilders; the total weight amounted to 399,438 tonnes. In 1981 the herring fishery had a value of 26m. guilders and a weight of 16,710 tonnes. The quantity of oysters produced in 1981 amounted to 573 tonnes (10m. guilders). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Numbers employed (in 1,000) and turnover (in 1 m. guilders) in manufacturing enterprises with 10 employees and more, excluding building: Class in industry Mining and quarrying Manufacturing industry Foodstuffs and tobacco products Textile industry Clothing Leather and footwear Wood and furniture industry Paper industry Graphic industry, publishers Petroleum industry Chemical industry, artificial yarns and fibre industry Rubber and synthetic materials processing industry Building materials, earthenware and glass Basic metal industry Metals products (excl. machinery and means of transport) Machinery Electrical industry Means of transport Instrument making and optical industry Other industries Public utilities

Numbers employed 1982 1981 7-9 8-1 860-1 816-2 142-6 138-0 28-7 25-6 141 12-7 71 6-6 30-7 26-4 23-9 23-0 62-5 60-1 10 8 10 0

Turnover 1982 1981 29,510 30,710 226,030 223,440 60,460 63,990 4,270 4,230 1,620 1,570 760 800 4,020 3,810 5,340 5,450 9,810 9,660 32,560 31,170

85-5

83-7

33,710

33,260

24-1 35-2 35-9

23-6 31-4 34-5

4,230 5,540 8,540

4,440 5,430 8,110

78-9 81-5 112-8 71-4 9 0 5-3 47-0

73-0 78-1 107-6 68-1 8 6 5-0 46-8

10,470 11,380 17,880 11,400 1,080 570 19,180

10,780 11,600 18,210 11,630 1,130 590 20,350

Commerce. On 5 Sept. 1944 and 14 March 1947 the Netherlands signed agreements with Belgium and Luxembourg for the establishment of a customs union. On 1 Jan. 1948 this union came into force and the existing customs tariffs of the Belgium-Luxembouig Economic Union and of the Netherlands were superseded by the joint Benelux Customs Union Tariff. It applies to imports into the 3 countries from outside sources, and exempts from customs duties all imports into each of the 3 countries from the other two. The Benelux tariff has 991 items and 2,400 separate specifications. Returns of special imports and special exports (including parcel post and diamond trade, excluding unrefined and partly-worked gold, gold coins and coins in current circulation made of other metal) for calendar years (in 1,000 guilders): 1949 1959 1969 1978'

Imports Exports Imports Exports 5,331,569 3,851,126 1979' 134,885,386 127,689,416 14,968,454 13,702,927 1980 1 152,279,265 146,967,410 39,955,406 36,205,110 1981' 163,998,929 170,772,393 114,371,926 108,205,427 1982' 167,116,253 176,851,097 1 Including unrefined and partly-worked gold and gold coins.

Value of the trade (including parcel post and diamond trade, excluding unrefined

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and partly-worked gold, gold coins and coins in current circulation made of other metal) with leading countries (in 1,000 guilders): Country Belgium-Luxembourg France Germany (Fed. Rep.) Indonesia Italy Kuwait Sweden UK USA Venezuela

1981 18,627,846 10,535,248 35,202,710 582,710 4,892,484 2,506,535 2,956,972 14,003,953 15,567,121 424,431

Imports 1982 18,312,904 10,865,041 37,022,529 419,327 5,087,217 1,131,699 3^17',048 15,723,378 15,323,775 402,348

1983 18,804,391 11,684,553 38,617,811 696,904 5,491,599 1,868,200 3,281,229 15,329,336 16,026,219 351,578

1981 24,486,748 17,860,028 50,272,569 678,251 9,543,802 344,519 2,541,386 14,112,136 5,495,426 352,819

Exports 1982 25,092,899 18,404,759 52,188,052 601,520 9,766,040 318,363 3,172,025 16,359,875 5,741,457 479,623

1983 25,832,167 19,303,857 57,053,530 769,393 10,186,070 269,894 3,068,989 16,884,880 7,896,730 323,669

Total trade between the Netherlands and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exportsand re-exports from UK

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 3,406,928 3,895,486 4,474,663 5,097,673 6,147,298 3,845,412 4,019,435 4,653,416 5,440,701 6,127,991

Tourism. There were 2,991,300 foreign visitors in 1983 (hotels and boarding houses only). 601,100 came from the Federal Republic of Germany, 542,900 from UK and 475,600 from USA. Total income from tourism (1983) US$ 1,420m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 the length of the Netherlands network of surfaced inter-urban roads was 53,983 km, of which 1,749 km were motor highways. Number of private care(1983),4-7m. Railways. All railways are run by the mixed company 'N.V. Nederlandsche Spoorwegen'. Length of line in 1983 was 2,852 km, ofwhich 1,796 km were electrified. Passengers carried (1983), 202m.; goods transported, 18 -0m. tonnes. Aviation. The Royal Dutch Airlines (KLM) was founded on 7 Oct. 1919. The company has a paid-up capital of966m. guilders (1983-84). Revenue traffic, 1983-84: Passengers, 4-6m.; freight, 299m. kg; mail, 12m. kg. Sea-going Shipping. Survey of the Netherlands mercantile marine as at 1 Jan. (capacity in 1,000 GRT): Ships under Netherlands flag (including Netherlands Antilles) Passenger ships 1 Freighters (500 GRT and over) Freighters (under 500 GRT) Tankers 1

1982 Number Capacity 144 9 457 2,524 64 27 87 2,331

1983 Number Capacity 9 122 474 2,641 62 26 84 2,008

617 5,026 629 With accommodation for 13 or more cabin passengers.

4,796

In 1983,43,391 sea-going ships of323 -6m. gross tons entered Netherlands ports (1982,43,957 ships of335 -6m. gross tons). Total goods traffic by sea-going ships in 1983 (with 1982 figures in brackets), in lm. tonnes, amounted to 229 (241-7) unloaded, of which 110-9 (118-4) tankshipping, and 75-1 (75-7) loaded, of which 2 8 1 (31-7) tankshipping. The total seaborne freight traffic at Rotterdam was 233 -4m. (246m.) and at Amsterdam 23 -2m. (23-7m.) tonnes. The number of containers at Rotterdam in 1983 was: unloaded from ships, 782,536, ofwhich 199,777 from North America, and 836,011 loaded into ships, of which 139,225 to North America. Inland Shipping. The total length of navigable rivers and canals is 4,387 km, of which about 1,974 km is for ships with a capacity of 1,000 and more tonnes. On 1

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Jan. 1984 the Netherlands inland fleet actually used for transport (with carrying capacity in 1,000 tonnes) was composed as follows: Self-propelled barges Dumb barges Pushed barges

Number 5,418 433 455

Capacity 3,807 431 975

6,306

5,213

In 1983, 247m. (1982: 238m.) tonnes of goods were transported on rivers and canals, of which 176m. (169m.) was international traffic. Goods transport on the Rhine across the Dutch-German frontier near Lobith amounted to 125m. (124m.) tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. On 1 Jan. 1983 there were 5 -5m. telephone connexions (38 per 100 inhabitants). Number of telex lines, 37,000; teleprinters, 38,000. Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) provides 5 programmes on medium-waves and FM in co-operation with broadcasting organizations. Regional programmes are also broadcast. Advertisements are transmitted. NOS broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Advertisements, in the last quarter of 1980, were restricted to 4% of the transmission time in the evening. Television sets (1 Jan. 1984) totalled 4-5m.; holders of television licences may, in addition, have wireless receiving sets. Cinemas (end 1982). There were 546 cinemas with a seating capacity of 146,000. Newspapers (31 Dec. 1983). There were 79 daily newspapers with a total circulation of nearly 4 • 5m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the High Court of the Netherlands (Court of Cassation), by 5 courts ofjustice (Courts of Appeal), by 19 district courts and by 62 cantonal courts; trial by jury is unknown. The Cantonal Court, which deals with minor offences, is formed by a single judge; the more serious cases are tried by the district courts, formed as a rule by 3 judges (in some cases one judge is sufficient); the courts of appeal are constituted of 3 and the High Court of 5 judges. All judges are appointed for life by the Sovereign (the judges of the High Court from a list prepared by the Second Chamber of the States-General). They can be removed only by a decision of the High Court. At the district court the juvenile judge is specially appointed to try children's civil cases and at the same time charged with administration ofjustice for criminal actions committed by young persons between 12 and 18 years old, unless imprisonment of 6 months or more ought to be inflicted; such cases are tried by 3 judges. Number of sentences, and cases in which prosecution was evaded by paying a fine to the public prosecutor (excluding violation of economic and tax laws): Major offences Minor offences 1980 75,065 1980 1,528,772 1981 76,202 1981 1,491,879 1982 81,439 1982 1,317,213 In addition, prosecution was evaded by paying a fine to the police in 1,045,000 cases in 1981.

Police. There are both State and Municipal Police. The State Police, about 8,700 men strong, serves 630, and the Municipal Police, about 20,300 men strong, serves 140 municipalities. The State Police includes ordinary as well as water, mounted and motor police. The State Police Corps is under the jurisdiction of the Police Department of the Ministry of Justice, which also includes the Central Criminal Investigation Office, which deals with serious crimes throughout the country, and the International Criminal Investigation Office, which informs foreign countries of international crimes. Religion. Entire liberty of conscience is granted to the members of all denominations. The royal family belong to the Dutch Reformed Church.

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The number of adherents of the Churches according to survey estimates of 1983 was: Roman Catholics, 5,180,000; Dutch Reformed Church, 2,770,000; Reformed Churches, 1,134,000; other creeds, 631,000; no religion, 4,635,000. The government of the Reformed Church is Presbyterian. On 1 July 1972 the Dutch Reformed Church had 1 synod, 11 provincial districts, 54 classes, 147 districts and 1,905 parishes. Their clergy numbered 2,000. The Roman Catholic Church had, Jan. 1973, 1 archbishop (of Utrecht), 6 bishops and 1,815 parishes and rectorships. The Old Catholics had (1 July 1972) 1 archbishop (Utrecht), 2 bishops and 29 parishes. The Jews had, in 1970,46 communities. Education. Statistics for the scholastic year 1982-83: Full-time Part-time ' Pupils Pupils Total Female Schools Total Female 398,804 193,832 1,201,512 593,650 95,708 29,872 836,220 440,673 80 119,400 87,654

Schools 8,170 Nursery schools 8,745 Primary Schools 990 Special schools 1,487 Secondary general schools Secondary vocational schools: Junior— 390 211,291 511 130,184 Technical, nautical 12,601 129 31,177 8,224 177 2,979 Agricultural 474 Domestic science 552 115,046 110,872 'Ï4 Other 228 47,588 28,228 943 Senior— 125 68,233 4,812 Technical, nautical 55 6,063 Agricultural 49 15,045 2,458 29 2,553 184 Domestic science 42,883 41,017 16 2,928 Teachers' training (nursery schools) 49 8,069 7,961 49 2,630 Other 196 72,158 37,765 88 27,531 Third level non-university training: 61 3,592 39 4,957 Technical, nautical 35,143 11 2 Agricultural 5,150 882 63 3,806 Arts 35 12,123 6,139 20 Teachers' training: Primary schools 91 11,532 7,611 126 22,641 Secondary general schools 32 22,535 11,412 101 29,201 — — — Secondary vocational schools 5,458 23 Other 133 54,400 30,819 59 17,013 ' Including apprenticeship schemes, young workers' educational institutes.

University education: Humanities Social sciences Natural sciences Technical sciences Medical sciences Agricultural sciences

Academic Year 1983-84 1 Full-time Students Schools Total Female 29,043 68,762 15,003 20,396 18,308 6,048 Provisional figures.

22

15,298 25,693 3,231 1,406 6,418 1,365

43,373 690 463 13 228 170 2,878 2,614 15,396 497 8 1,506 20,028 16,070 224 8,592

Part-time Students Total Female 481 6,424 56

217 1,957 5

Health. On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 29,951 doctors and about 69,600 licensed hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Netherlands in Great Britain (38 Hyde Park Gate, London, SW7 5DP) Ambassador: Jan Louis Reinier Huydecoper van Nigtevecht, GCVO (accredited 3 March 1982).

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Of Great Britain in the Netherlands (Lange Voorhout, 10, The Hague) Ambassador: J. W. D. Margetson, CMG. Of the Netherlands in the USA (4200 Linnean Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Richard H. Fein. Of the USA in the Netherlands (Lange Voorhout, 102, The Hague) Ambassador: L. Paul Bremer, III. Of the Netherlands to the United Nations Ambassador: Max van der Stoel. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The 'Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek' at Voorburg and Heerlen, is the official Netherlands statistical service. Director-General of Statistics: Prof. Dr W. Begeer. The Bureau was founded in 1899. Prior to that year, statistical publications were compiled by the 'Centrale commissie voor de statistiek', the 'Vereniging voor staathuishoudkunde en statistiek' and various government departments. These activities have gradually been taken over and co-ordinated by the Central Bureau, which now compiles practically all government statistics. Its current publications include: Statistical Yearbook of the Netherlands. From 1923/24 (preceded by Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 1898-1922): latest issue, 1983 Statistisch zakboek (Pocket Year Book). From 1899/1924 (1 vol.); latest issue, 1984 CBS Select ¡(Statistical Essays), 1980.—CBS Select 2 (Statistical Essays), 1983 Statistisch Bulletin (From 1945; weekly statistical bulletin) Maandschrift (From 1944; monthly bulletin) Denken en meten (Statistical Essays) 85Jaren Statistiek In Tijdreeksen (historical series of the Netherlands 1899-1984) Nationale Rekeningen (National Accounts). From 1948-50; latest issue, 1982 Statistisch Magazine. From 1981 Statistische onderzoekingen. From 1977 Statistical Studies. From 1953

Other Official Publications Central Economic Plan. Centraal Plan bureau, The Hague (Dutch text), annually, from 1946 Netherlands. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Paris, annual from 1964 Staatsalmanak voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Annual. The Hague, from 1814 Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. The Hague, from 1814 Staatscourant (State Gazette). The Hague, from 1813 Atlas van Nederland. Government Printing Office, The Hague, 1970 and supplements up to and including 1973 Memoranda on the Condition of the Netherlands State Finances. Ministry of Finance, The Hague, from 1906 Basic Guide to the Establishing of Industrial Operations in the Netherlands 1976. Ministry of Economic Affairs, The Hague, 1976 The Kingdom ofthe Netherlands. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, Occasional Huggett, F. E., The Dutch Today. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, 1973.—The Dutch Connection. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, 1982 Aspects of Dutch Agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, The Hague, 1976

Non-Official Publications Jansonius, H., Nieuw Groot Nederlands—Engels Woordenboek Voor Studie en Praktijk. 3 vols. Leiden, 1973 (Vols. 1-3) Newton, G., The Netherlands: An Historical and Cultural Survey, 1795-1977. Boulder, 1978 Pinder, D., The Netherlands. Folkestone, 1976 Veldman, J., Agriculture in the Netherlands. Utrecht, 1974 Pyttersen's Nederlandse Almanak. Zaltbommel, annual, from 1899 Commerce and Industry in the Netherlands. Amsterdam-Rotterdam Bank. Amsterdam, 1977 Foreign Investment in the Netherlands. The Hague, 1975 The Information You Need When Planning a Business in the Netherlands. Algemene Bank Nederland. Amsterdam, 1975 A Compact Geography of the Netherlands. Utrecht, 1980

THE NETHERLANDS

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National Library De Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Prinz Willem Alexaiiderhof 5, The Hague. Director: Dr C. Reedijk.

THE NETHERLANDS ANTILLES De Nederlandse Antillen AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Netherlands Antilles are an integral part of the Netherlands and comprise two groups of islands, viz., the Leeward Islands, Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire, and the Windward Islands, St Maarten, St Eustatius and Saba. The Leeward Islands are situated 40-70 miles north of the Venezuelan coast between 12° and 13° N. lat. and 68° and 71° W. long. The Windward group lies east of Puerto Rico. For the constitutional position of the Netherlands Antilles see p. 883. The total area is 993 sq. km (383 sq. miles) and the population was 260,000 in 1983.

PopulaPopulaLeewardgroup Sq. km tion Windward group Sq. km tion Curaçao 444 165,011 St Maarten (St Martin)' 34 15,926 Aruba 193 67,014 St Eustatius 21 1,335 Bonaire 288 9,704 Saba 13 1,010 1 The southern part belongs to the Netherlands Antilles, the northern to France.

The capital is Willemstad on Curaçao, population (1983) 50,000. In 1975,4,258 births, 1,193 deaths and 1,536 marriages were registered. C L I M A T E . All the islands have a tropical marine climate, with very little difference in temperatures over the year. There is a short rainy season from Oct. to Jan. Willemstad. Jan. 79°F(26 1°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 23" (582 mm). G O V E R N M E N T . Since Dec. 1954, the Netherlands Antilles have been fully autonomous in internal affairs, and constitutionally equal with the Netherlands and Suriname. The Sovereign of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is Head of the Government of the Netherlands Antilles and is represented by a Governor. The executive power in internal affairs rests with the Governor and the Council of Ministers, who together form the Government. The Ministers are responsible to the unicameral legislature (Staten). This consists of 22 members ( 12 from Curaçao, 8 from Aruba, 1 from Bonaire, 1 from the Windward Islands) and is elected by general suffrage. It was agreed in 1977 that the 2 smallest islands, Saba and St Eustatius would each have a representative (non-voting) in the Staten. The executive power in external affairs is vested in the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom, in which the Antilles is represented by a Minister Plenipotentiary with full voting powers. In 1951 the Netherlands Antilles Islands Regulation provided for selfgovernment of each of the 4 insular communities Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao and the Windward Islands. The autonomous powers of the insular communities are divided between the Island Council (elected by general suffrage), the Executive Council and the Lieut.-Govemor (Gezaghebber), who is responsible for maintaining public peace and order. At the general election held on 25 June 1982,6of the 12 Staten seats in Curaçao were won by the Movimiento Antijas Nobo, 3 by the Democratic Party and 3 by the Nationale Volkspartij- Unie; of the 8 seats in Aruba, 5 were won by the Movimiento Electoral di Puebla, 2 by the Arubaanse Volkspartij and 1 by the Partido Patriótico Arubano; the 1 seat in Bonaire was won by the Unión Patriótico Bonairiano and the 1 seat in the Windward Islands by the Democratic Party. Following an earlier referendum, the government of the Netherlands announced on 28 Oct. 1981 that it had agreed that Aruba should at an early date proceed to independence separately from the other islands. Governor: Dr B. M. Leito.

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THE

NETHERLANDS

Prime Minister: Maria Liberia. Flag: White, with a red vertical strip crossed by a blue horizontal strip bearing 6 white stars. Dutch is the official language. In addition a 'lingua franca', Papiamento has evolved out of Spanish, Dutch and some other languages. F I N A N C E . The central budget for 1979 envisaged 213m. guilders revenue and 256m. guilders expenditure. The official rate of exchange was £1 = 1 -92 Antillian guilder, US$1 = 1-80 Antillian guilder in March 1985. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production(1981)totalled2,275m. kwh. Oil. The economy of the Netherlands Antilles is almost entirely based on the refining of oil imported from Venezuela to Curaçao and Aruba. About 25% (Curaçao) and 30% (Aruba) of the gainfully occupied are working at the refineries or their shipping establishments. On account of the activities of the oil companies (affiliated to the Royal Dutch/Shell and the Standard Oil of New Jersey), the prosperity on Curaçao and Aruba is good in comparison with the other islands. Refinery production ( 1981 ) 25m. tonnes. Minerals. About 100,000 tons of calcium phosphate are annually mined in Curaçao. Agriculture. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 9,000; goats, 23,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In Aruba there are some petrochemical factories; Curaçao has a paint factory, 2 cigarette factories, a textile factory, a brewery and some smaller industries. The Texas Instruments Co. and Electronic Fabriek have established electronic factories. Almost all products needed for consumption and production are imported, as the rocky soil permits little agriculture and local fishing is insufficient for home consumption. Bonaire has a textile factory and a modern-equipped salt plant. St Maarten has a rum factory and fishing is important. St Eustatius and Saba are of less economic importance. Trade (1980). Total imports amounted to US$5,944m., total exports to US$6,054m. Total trade between the Netherlands Antilles and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 36,243 33,375

1981 29,761 135,017

1982 62,946 47,396

1983 25,871 78,879

1984 221,012 20,235

The Free-Zones Ordinance of 1956 has established free zones in the ports of Curaçao and Aruba. Tourism. In 1981,764,000 foreign tourists visited the Netherlands Antilles. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984, the Netherlands Antilles had 1,200 km of surfaced highway distributed as follows: Curaçao, 550; Aruba, 380; Bonaire, 210; St Maarten, 3. Number of motor vehicles (31 Dec. 1975): 41,955 in Curaçao, 15,393 in Aruba. Shipping (1977). There entered the port of Curaçao, 11,432 vessels of 95m. gross tons; Aruba,2,798 vessels of 52m. gross tons. Curaçao has a dry dock of 120,000 tons. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones, 1 Jan. 1982, 72,168. Eight radio stations are operating on medium-waves from Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, and St Maarten. These stations broadcast in Papiamento, Dutch, English and Spanish and

THE NETHERLANDS

895

are mainly financed by income from advertisements. In addition, Radio Nederland and Trans World Radio have powerful relay stations operating on medium- and short-waves from Bonaire. There were (1980) 175,000 radio and 43,000 TV receivers. Cinemas (1973). Curaçao and Aruba had 13 cinemas with a seating capacity of 11,000. There is a drive-in for 500 cars in Curaçao, for 200 cars in St Maarten and for 350 cars in Aruba. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a Court of First Instance, which sits in each island, and a Court of Appeal in Willemstad. Religion. In 1980, 82% of the population were Roman Catholics, 8% were Protestants (St Maartin and St Eustatius being chiefly Protestant). Education (1977). There were 36,365 pupils and 1,458 teachers in primary schools, 10,685 pupils and 440 teachers in secondary schools, 7,825 students and 619 teachers in technical schools, and 358 students with 46 teachers in teacher-training colleges. Health. In June 1973 there were 155 physicians, 55 specialists, 33 dentists and 18 pharmacists. In 1973,11 hospitals had 2,037 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE USA Consul-General: Thomas M. Coony. The British consulate closed on 1 Sept. 1976. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Statistical publications (on population, trade, cost of living, etc., are obtainable on request from the Statistical Office, Willemstad, Curaçao. Statistical Jaarboek 79 70(text in Dutch, English and Spanish). De West Indische Gids. The Hague. Monthly from 1919 Braam, H. L., Hoe ons landgeregeerd wordt. Willemstad, 4th ed. 1972 Hartog, J., Aruba. Oranjestad, 1953.—Bonaire. Oranjestad, 1958.—Curaçao. Oranjestad, 1961 Nordlohne, E., De Economisch-geographische Structuur der Benedenwindse Eilanden. Rotterdam, 1951 Poll, W. van de, DeNederlandse Antillen. The Hague, 1950 Walle, J. van de, De Nederlandse Antillen. Willemstad, 1954 Westerman, J. H., Overzicht van de geologische en mtjnbouwkundige kennis der Nederlandse Antillen. Amsterdam, 1949

NEW ZEALAND

Capital: Wellington Population: 3 -2m. ( 1984) GNPper capita: US$7,700 ( 1981 )

H I S T O R Y . The first European to discover New Zealand was Tasman in 1642. The coast was explored by Capt. Cook in 1769. From about 1800 onwards, New Zealand became a resort for whalers and traders, chiefly from Australia. By the Treaty of Waitangi, in 1840, between Governor William Hobson and the representatives of the Maori race, the Maori chiefs ceded the sovereignty to the British Crown and the islands became a British colony. Then followed a steady stream of British settlers. The Maoris are a branch of the Polynesian race, having emigrated from the eastern Pacific before and during the 14th century. Between 1845 and 1848, and between 1860 and 1870, misunderstandings over land led to war, but peace was permanently established in 1871, and the development of New Zealand has been marked by racial harmony and integration. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . New Zealand lies south-east of Australia in the south Pacific, Wellington being 1,983 km from Sydney by sea. There are two principal islands, the North and South Islands, besides Stewart Island, Chatham Islands and small outlying islands, as well as the territories overseas (see pp. 911-13). New Zealand (i.e., North, South and Stewart Islands) extends over 1,750 km from north to south. Area, excluding territories overseas, 268,704 sq. km.; North Island, 11,469,000 hectares; South Island, 15,046,000 hectares; Stewart Island, 174,000 hectares; Chatham Islands, 96,000 hectares; minor islands, 82,900 hectares. Census population, exclusive of territories overseas: Average anAverage annual increase Total nual increase Total population population % % — 115,462 1,271,644 1858 1921 2-27 — 344,984 1874 1926 1,408,139 2 06 1878 458,007 7-33 1936 1,573,810 113 1881 534,030 510 1945' 1,702,298 0-83 1886 620,451 305 1951' 1,939,472 2-37 668,632 1956' 2,174,062 2-31 1891 1-50 2,414,984 212 1896 743,207 213 1961' 1901' 815,853 1-89 1966' 2,676,919 2-10 1-34 1906 936,304 2-75 1971' 2,862,631 1911 1,058,308 2-52 1976' 3,129,383 1-71 1916' 1,149,225 1-50 1981' 3,175,737 0-20 The census of New Zealand is quinquennial, but the census falling in 1931 was abandoned as an act of national economy, and owing to war conditions the census due in 1941 was not taken until 25 Sept. 1945. 1

Excluding members of the Armed Forces overseas.

The areas and populations of statistical areas (with principal centres) as at 31 11983 were a s follows ': Statistical area2 Northland (Whangarei) Central Auckland (Auckland) South Auckland—Bay of Plenty (Hamilton) East Coast (Gisborne) Hawke's Bay (Napier, Hastings) Taranaki (New Plymouth) Wellington (Wellington) Total, North Island

1 2

Sq. km 12,653 5,581 36,882 10,885 11,289 9,729 27,766 114.785

Total population 118,300 863,900 506,500 48,900 150,200 105,900 585,800 2,379.500

For statistical purposes, the 9 provincial districts have now been replaced by 13 statistical areas. Listed from north to south.

896

897

NEW Z E A L A N D Statistical area 1 Marlborough (Blenheim) Nelson (Nelson) Westland (Greymouth) Canterbury (Christchurch) 2 Otago (Dunedin) Southland (lnvercargill) 3 Total, South Island Total, New Zealand 1

Sq. km 10,210 18,948 15,477 43,346 36,873 28,464 153,318

Total population 36,500 78,200 23,200 422,500 182,000 108,100 850,500

268,103

3,230,000

Listed from north to south. 1 Includes Chatham Islands County. 5 Includes Stewart Island County.

New Zealand-born residents made up 85 -4% of the population at the 1981 census. Foreign-bom (provisional): UK, 253,810; Australia, 44,500; Netherlands, 21,630; Samoa, 26,180; Cook Islands, 14,370; USA, 5,430; Ireland, 6,970; others, 97,070. Maori population: 1896, 42,113; 1936, 82,326; 1945, 98,744; 1951, 115,676; 1961, 171,553; 1971,227,414; 1976,270,035; 1981,279,255. Populations of statistical divisions and main urban areas as at 31 March 1983 were as follows: Auckland Christchurch Dunedin Hamilton Napier-Hastings Palmerston North Wellington Urban areas: Gisbome

lnvercargill Nelson New Plymouth Rotorua Tauranga Timaru Wanganui Whangarei

863,900 322,200 112,000 164,600 114,400 93,700 342,500 32,200

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983

Total live births 50,794 49,938 50,474

Ex-nuptial births 11,441 11,386 11,979

Deaths 25,150 25,532 25,991

54,000 43,700 45,000 50,000 57,000 28,900 39,600 41,300

Divorces (decrees Marriages absolute) 8,590 23,660 12,395 25,537 9,750 24,678

Birth rate, 1983,15-65 per 1,000; death rate, 8 06 per 1,000; marriage rate, 7 -65 per 1,000; infant mortality, 12-54 per 1,000 live births. External migration (exclusive of crews and through passengers) for years ended 31 M a r c h . Arrivals Departures 1979 805,876 832,420 1980 925,939 947,253 1981 970,427 986,636 Population and Migration: Part B—External Annually

Arrivals Departures 1982 946,287 951,030 1983 915,463 900,021 1984 922,868 912,311 Migration. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington,

C L I M A T E . Lying in the cool temperate zone, New Zealand enjoys very mild winters for its latitude owing to its oceanic situation, and only the extreme south has cold winters. The situation of the mountain chain produces much sharper climatic contrasts between east and west than in a north-south direction. Observations for 1983: Auckland. Jan. 65-5°F (18-6°C), July 50°F (10-2°C). Annual rainfall 41-5" (1,053 mm). Christchurch. Jan. 61-3°F (16-3°C), July 42-4°F (5-8°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (737 mm). Dunedin. Jan. 5 7 - 4 T (14-PC), July 43-2°F (6-2°C). Annual rainfall 38-1" (968 mm). Hokitika. Jan. 56 T F (13-4°C), July 43-5°F (6-4°C). Annual rainfall 132-2" (3,357 mm). Rotorua. Jan. 61-2°F (16-2°C), July 43 r F (6-5°C). Annual rainfall 49 -9" (1,268 mm). Wellington. Jan. 59-9°F (15 • 5°C), July 46-4°F(8 -0°C). Annual rainfall 51 -2" (1,300 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Definition was given the status

898

NEW

ZEALAND

of New Zealand by the (Imperial) Statute of Westminster of Dec. 1931, which had received the antecedent approval of the New Zealand Parliament in July 1931. The Governor-General's assent was given to the Statute of Westminster Adoption Bill on 25 Nov. 1947. The powers, duties and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. In the execution of the powers vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council. The following is a list of Governors-General, the title prior to June 1917 being Governor Earl of Liverpool Viscount Jellicoe SirCharles Fergusson, Bt Lord Bledisloe Viscount Galway Sir Cyril Newall Lord Freyberg, VC

1917-20 1920-24 1924-30 1930-35 1935-41 1941-46 1946-52

LordNorrie Viscount Cobham Sir Bernard Fergusson Sir Arthur Porrit, Bt Sir Denis Blundell Sir Keith Holyoake Sir David Beattie

1952-57 1957-62 1962-67 1967-72 1972-77 1977-80 1980-

National flag: The British Blue Ensign with 4 stars of the Southern Cross in red, edged in white, in the fly. National anthems: God Save the Queen; God Defend New Zealand (words by Thomas Bracken, music by John J. Woods). Since Nov. 1977 both 'God Save the Queen' and 'God Defend New Zealand' have equal status as national anthems. Parliament consists of the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since 1 Jan. 1951. The statute law on elections and the life of Parliament is contained in the Electoral Act, 1956. In 1974 the voting age was reduced from 20 to 18 yeare. The House of Representatives from July 1984 consists of 95 members, including 4 members representing Maori electorates, elected by the people for 3 years. The 4 Maori electoral districts cover the whole country and adult Maoris of half or more Maori descent are the electors. From 1976 a descendant of a Maori is entitled to register either for a general or a Maori electoral district. Women's suffrage was instituted in 1893: women became eligible as members of the House of Representatives in 1919. The House in 1984 included 12 women members. During Parliamentary sittings the proceedings of the House are broadcast regularly on sound radio. House of Representatives as composed following the General Election in July 1984: Labour, 56; National Party, 37; Social Credit, 2. The Executive Council was composed as follows in July 1984: Governor-General and C.-in-C.: The Hon. Sir David Beattie, GCMG, GCVO, QC (from Oct. 1980). Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs, Security Intelligence Service: David R. Lange. Deputy Prime Minister, Attorney-General, Justice, the Legislative Department, the Government Printing Office: Geoffrey W. R. Palmer. Minister of State, Defence, War Pensions, Rehabilitation: Francis D. O'Flynn. Labour and State Services: Stanley J. Rodger. Transport, Railways, Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Pacific Island Affairs: Richard W. Prebble. Trade and Industry: David F. Caygill. Education and Environment: Cedric R. Marshall. Maori Affairs, Lands, Forests and the Valuation Department: Koro T. Wetere. Health and Local Government: Michael E. R. Bassett. Postmaster-Generat, Broadcasting: Jonathon L. Hunt. Inland Revenue, Friendly Societies, Finance: Roger O. Douglas. Overseas Trade and Marketing, Tourism, Publicity, Recreation and Sport: Michael K. Moore. Social Welfare, Police, Women's Affairs: Margaret A. Hercus.

NEW Z E A L A N D

899

Energy, Statistics, Science and Technology, Audit Department: Robert J. Tizard. Agriculture, Fisheries, Rural Banking and Finance Corporation: Colin J. Moyle. Works and Development, Earthquake and War Damage Commission: Fraser M. Colman. Regional Development, Employment, Immigration: Thomas K. Burke. Customs, Consumer Affairs: M. K. Shields. Internal Affairs, Civil Defence, Arts: Peter Tapsell. Housing, Government Life Insurance Corporation, State Insurance Office, Public Trust Office: Philip B. Goff. The Prime Minister (provided with residence) had in 1983 a salary of NZ$79,717 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $14,000 per annum; Ministers with portfolio, $55,115 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $5,750 (Minister of Foreign Affairs $10,750) per annum; Minister without portfolio, $44,572 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $4,500 per annum; Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, $42,814 plus an expense allowance of $4,500 per annum. In addition, Ministers and Parliamentary Under-Secretaries not provided with residence at the seat of Government receive $600 per annum house allowance. An allowance of $58 per day while travelling within New Zealand on public service is payable to Ministers. The Speaker of the House of Representatives receives $51,161 plus an expense allowance of $7,100 per annum in addition to his electorate allowance, and residential quarters in Parliament House, and the Leader of the Opposition $55,115 plus expense allowance of $5,750 per annum, and allowances for travelling and housing. Members were paid $32,271 per annum, plus an expense allowance varying from $4,500 to $9,250 according to the area of electorate represented. There is a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members; retiring allowances are payable to a member after 9 years' service and the attainment of 50 years of age. Dollimore, H. N., The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rded. Wellington, 1973 Scott, K.}., The New Zealand Constitution. OUP, 1962

Local Government. New Zealand is divided into 22 regions, excluding the Chatham Islands and various uninhabited minor islands. Of these, two (Auckland and Wellington Regions) are under directly-elected Regional Councils with direct rating powers, while the other twenty are under United Councils, appointed by constituent second-tier authorities upion which they precept. The regions are subdivided into (at 31 March 1983) 89 counties, 9 districts, 129 boroughs (and cities) and 3 town districts; further districts are being formed by the amalgamation of counties, boroughs and town districts, which they will eventually replace fully. The Chatham Islands form a 90th county outside the regional structure. There are also numerous other local authorities created for specific functions. D E F E N C E . The control and co-ordination of defence activities is obtained through the Ministry of Defence. This is a unitary department combining not only all joint-Service functions but also the former Departments of Army, Navy and Air. Army. The Chief of the General Staff commands the Army, assisted by the General Staff and the stafTs of Defence Headquarters. A regular force battalion is stationed in Singapore. Regular personnel, at 31 March 1984, totalled 5,563 all ranks; territorial personnel totalled 6,299; the cadet corps totalled (1984) 1,170 Army School cadets. Navy. The Royal New Zealand Navy is administered by the Chief of Naval StafT and the Deputy Chief of Naval Staff at Defence Headquarters. The RNZN ships include 4 frigates (including Wellington (ex-Bacchante) and Southland(ex-Diao) transferred from the Royal Navy in 1982 and 1983 respectively), 1 surveying vessel, 4 patrol craft, 5 old harbour defence motor launches, 2 survey boats, 1 oceanographic research ship, 1 tug and 1 tender. Personnel, in 1985, totalled 2,700 officers and ratings and 500 in the naval reserve.

900

NEW Z E A L A N D

Air Force. The Chief of Air Staff and Air Officer Commanding the RNZAF exercises command and administration of the RNZAF. Operational units of the RNZAF comprise a utility helicopter support unit (UH-1H Iroquois) based in Singapore as part of the NZ force, South-east Asia. A helicopter support unit is based in El Gorah, Sinai, with the Sinai Multinational Force and Observers. Two UH-1H Iroquois helicopters are leased from the US Army and 27 RNZAF and 2 NZ Army personnel are attached to the unit; maritime (P-3B Orion), long and medium-range transport (Boeing 727, C-130H Hercules, Andover, F.27 Friendship) and helicopter (Sioux, Iroquois, Wasp) squadrons based at RNZAF Base Auckland; and offensive support (A-4K Skyhawk) and medium-range transport/ communications squadrons (Andover, F.27 Friendship, Cessna 421) at RNZAF Base Ohakea. Flying training units (Airtrainer, Strikemaster, TA-4K. Skyhawks, Sioux) are located at RNZAF Bases Wigram and Ohakea; ground training is carried out at RNZAF Bases Auckland, Woodboume and Wigram. The strength as at 31 March 1984 was 4,296 regular personnel, 1,033 reserves. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. New Zealand is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OECD, ASEAN, South Pacific Forum and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Budget. The following tables of revenue and expenditure relate to the Consolidated Account, which covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the general government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, etc. Revenue in the Account (in NZ$ 1 m.) was as follows: Year ended 31 March 1981 1982 1983 1984

Customs and excise 413-6 549-4 660-9 705-6

Sales tax 775-6 1,084-1 1,211-7 1,312-3

Income tax 5,298-9 6,514-7 7,455-5 7,453-3

Other taxes 373-4 439-3 536-3 717-8

Trading profits and departmental receipts 493-1 592-5 709-7 759-9

Interest 597-8 664-4 719-5 796-2

Total 7,952-4 9,843-4 11,293-6 11,744-9

Expenditure from Consolidated Account, year ended 31 March, was as follows (in NZSlm.): Debt Social Industrial Total 1981 1982 1983 1984

services services ' development Defence 999-9 5,296-7 999-7 455-9 1,327-2 6,205-9 1,337-4 593-6 1,636-4 7,227-5 1,641-6 652-1 2,229-2 7,618-5 2,134-8 673-0 1 Includes education, health and social welfare.

(including other) 8,992-5 11,123-8 12,872-1 14,221-5

Taxation receipts in 1983-84 for all purposes amounted to $ 10,431 m., giving an average of $3,194 per head of mean population. Included in the total taxation is $242-3m. National Roads Fund taxation. The estimate for 1984-85 is $11,820m., the total being inclusive of an estimated $300m. of National Roads Fund taxation. The gross public debt at 31 March 1984 was $21,789m.,ofwhich$13,652m. was held in New Zealand, $5,73 lm. in London, Europe and Asia, $2,433m. in USA and $63m. in Canada, Australia and other sources. The gross annual interest charge on the public debt at 31 March 1984 was $2,014,875,000. New Zealand System of National Accounts. This replaces the National Income and Expenditure Accounts which have been produced since 1948. National Accounts aggregates for 4 years are given in the following table (in NZ$ 1 m.): Year ended 31 March 1980 1981 1982 1983

Gross domestic product 21,092 24,461 29,296 32,240

Gross national product 20,632 23,950 28,681 31,380

National income 20,632 23,950 28,681 31,380

NEW Z E A L A N D

901

Currency. The monetary unit is the New Zealand dollar, divided into 100 cents. In March 1985,£1 =2-460NZ$;US$l =2-212NZ$. Banking. The Reserve Bank is the sole note-issuing authority. Seven denominations ofReserve Bank notes are issued: NZ$1,2,5,10,20,50,100. The New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and 4 commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has a private savings bank-subsidiary. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits to clients. The primary functions of the Reserve Bank are to act as the central bank, to advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking and overseas exchange, and to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government. Of the 4 trading banks 2 are primarily Australian concerns, 1 until recently had its head office in London and the Bank of New Zealand has been state owned since 1 Nov. 1945. At the end of March 1984 the amount on deposit at trading banks was NZ$8,727m., while advances amounted to NZ$6,630-2m. The weekly average of bank debits for 1983 was $5,797m. excluding government. The number of accounts with the post office savings bank at 31 March 1984 was 3 -32m.; amount deposited during year ended March 1984, $5,783m.; withdrawn, $5,600m., total amount to credit of depositors at end of year, $2,397m. At 31 March 1984, $3,016m. was on deposit in Trustee Savings Banks to the credit of 3 19m. depositors. The amount to the credit of depositors with savings accounts in the trading banks was $769 -7m. at 3 f March 1984. Weights and Measures. Conversion to the metric system of weights and measures has been completed. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The general policy of the Government in regard to electric power is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of local authorities; some of these are cities and boroughs but most are electric power boards. During the year ending 31 March 1983 hydro energy provided 74% of the national electricity supply, the balance coming from coal, oil, natural gas and geothermal energy. The last is obtained from Wairakei in the thermal region; natural steam is used to drive the turbines. The transmission systems of the North and South Islands are linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission and 40 km of submarine cable in Cook Strait. Principal statistics for 4 years ended 31 March are: 1980 79 Number of establishments Generators (capacity) AC ( 1,000 kw.) 5,860 21,607 Units generated (lm. kwh.) Revenue ($1,000) 1,154,206 Expenditure: Operating ($1,000) 580,000 Management, etc. ($ 1,000) 96,933 266,611 Capital charges ($ 1,000) Capital outlay: 350,500 During year ($1,000) 3,414,200 To date ($1,000)

1981 81 6,018 22,111 1,276,853

1982 82 5,827 22,963 1,440,235

1983 82 5,820 24,301 1,720,058

666,419 118,898 299,756

773,764 142,714 329,162

947,179 163,403 359,989

370,700 3,359,100

459,200 3,744,100

491,286 4,235,386

Natural Gas. Resources discovered in the Taranaki area of the North Island in 1961 are now supplying gas for household use to North Island cities including Auckland and Wellington. The much larger Maui offshore gasfield was discovered in 1969 and is at present being developed. Minerals. New Zealand's production of minerals in 1983 included 301 kg of gold, 1,958 tonnes of bentonite, 97,944 tonnes of clay for bricks, tiles, etc., 23,917

902

NEW

ZEALAND

tonnes of potters' clays, 2,700,400 tonnes of iron sand, 1,459,600 tonnes of limestone for agriculture and 206,500 tonnes of limestone for industry, 1,469,800 tonnes of limestone, marl, etc., for cement, 16,800 tonnes of pumice, 64,100 tonnes of serpentine, 148,400 tonnes of silica sand. Mineral iuel production amounted to 2,543,500 tonnes of coal, 845,000 cu. metres of petroleum condensate and 2,473m. cu. metres of natural gas. Salt produced by the solar evaporation of sea water amounted to 81,000 tonnes. Mineral production for the year was valued at $191-6m. Agriculture. Two-thirds of the surface of New Zealand is suitable for agriculture and grazing. The total area under cultivation at 30 June 1983 was 11,155,000 hectares (including residential area and domestic orchards). There were 10,154,000 hectares of grassland, lucerne, and land in or prepared for fruit, grain, crops and vegetables, and 1,001,000 hectares of exotic timber plantations. The area of Crown lands (other than reserves) leased under various tenures at 31 March 1983 was 5,575,799 hectares. The largest freehold estates are held in the South Island. The extent of occupied as follows: Size of holdings (hectares) Under 5 5-19 20-39 40-79 80-99 100-149 150-199 200-299 300-399

Number 8,670 13,345 7,409 12,922 4,350 6,912 4,704 6,370 3,260

Aggregate area (hectares) 26,231 133,459 210,325 740,061 384,299 846,908 814,987 1,551,997 1,123,701

Size of holdings Number (hectares) 400-799 4,417 800-999 816 1,000-1,199 470 1,200-1,999 951 2,000-3,999 568 4,000 and over 581 Total

75,745

Aggregate area (hectares) 2,407,526 726,468 515,775 1,454,506 1,551,961 8,777,895 21,266,099

The area and yield for each of the principal crops are given as follows (area and yield for threshing only, not including that grown for chaff, hay, silage, etc.): Crop years 1982 1983

Area(l,000 hectares) 71-5 70-9

Wheat Yield(1,000 tonnes) 2921 300-8

Area(l,000 hectares) 18-8 17-2

Maize Yield(I,000 tonnes) 1701 142-8

Barley Area (1,000 Yield(l,000 hectares) tonnes) 88-5 355-8 81-7 346-4

Private air companies are carrying out such aerial work as top-dressing, spraying and crop-dusting, seed-sowing, rabbit poisoning, aerial photography and surveying, and dropping supplies to deer cullers and dropping fencing materials in remote areas. In 1983 a total area of6,849,400 hectares was top-dressed with fertilizer and lime; 2,233,800 tonnes by ground spread and 909,600 by air. Livestock at 30 June 1983: 7,631,000 cattle, 70-3m. sheep and 408,000 pigs. Total meat produced in the year ended 30 Sept. 1983 was estimated at 1 • 34m. tonnes (including 518,200 tonnes of beef and 510,200 tonnes of lamb). Total liquid milk produced in the year ended 31 May 1983 was 6,603m. litres. Production of wool for 1982-83,371,000 tonnes (greasy basis). Agricultural Statistics. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington. Annual. New Zealand Agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Wellington, 1974 Allsop, F., The First Fifty Years of New Zealand's Forest Service. Wellington, 1973 Evans, B. L., A History ofAgricultural Production and Marketing. Palmerston North, 1969 Levy, E. B., Grasslands of New Zealand. Wellington, 1970

Forestry. Of the 6-2m. hectares of indigenous forest only about lm. hectares are merchantable; they are being depleted at the rate of5,000 hectares a year (although the rate of cutting is diminishing) and mainly for sawn timber. There are about 992,000 hectares of productive exotic forest, and this produces far more timber than the indigenous forests. Introduced conifer pines form the bulk of the large exotic forest estate and among these radiata pine is the best multi-purpose tree, reaching saw-log size in 25-30 years. Other major species are Douglas fir, Corsican pine and ponderosa pine. The table below shows production of rough sawn timber in cu. metres for years ending 31 March:

NEW

1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

Indigenous Rimu ana Miro Beech 121,971 19,280 111,614 18,208 100,655 17,433

ZEALAND

Total 175,101 164,442 149,824

903

Exotic Exotic Douglas Pines Fir 1,798,060 168,025 1,885,761 173,377 1,777,012 163,694

All Species Total 2,007,245 2,105,991 1,986,079

Total 2,182,346 2,270,433 2,135,903

Forest industries consist of 3 9 4 saw-mills, 9 p l y w o o d a n d veneer plants, 3 particle b o a r d m i l l s , 7 p u l p a n d p a p e r m i l l s a n d 2 fibreboard m i l l s . T h e basic products of the p u l p a n d p a p e r mills are mechanical a n d chemical pulp which are converted into newsprint, kraft and other papers, paperboard and f i b r e b o a r d . P r o d u c t i o n o f w o o d p u l p , 31 M a r c h 1 9 8 3 , a m o u n t e d t o 1 • 1 l m . t o n n e s a n d of p a p e r (including newsprint p a p e r a n d p a p e r b o a r d ) t o 7 2 5 , 7 0 0 t o n n e s . Fisheries. T h e total value of N e w Z e a l a n d Fisheries exports d u r i n g t h e year e n d e d 30 J u n e 1983 was $ 2 8 5 - 5 m . , an increase of $ 5 5 - 2 m . (24-1%) over the previous year. Exports, 1983 Exports, 1982 Value Quantity Value Quantity $(1.000) kg (1.000) S (1.000) kg(l.OOO) 148,222 82,762 112,574 Finfish or wetfish 80,164 48,054 2,585 41,386 2,375 Rock lobster 75,092 42,537 64,161 42,980 Shellfish (squid, mussels, oysters, etc) 125,519 218,121 127,884 271,368 Total INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. M a j o r i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s in r e c e n t y e a r s h a v e i n c l u d e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n oil r e f i n e r y , a n i r o n a n d steel i n d u s t r y u s i n g N e w Z e a l a n d i r o n s a n d s and an a l u m i n i u m smelter using hydro-electric power. Statistics o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s : Net output (net value Sales and Cost of Salaries and other income materials wages paid Production added) Persons (NZ$1,000) (NZ$1,000) (NZ$1,000) year (NZ$1,000) engaged 18,382,363 10,381,973 3,798,032 1981-82 5.878,564 296,751 T h e f o l l o w i n g is a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o v i s i o n a l v a l u e o f t h e p r o d u c t s ( i n c l u d i n g r e p a i r s ) o f t h e p r i n c i p a l i n d u s t r i e s f o r t h e y e a r 1981 - 8 2 (in N Z $ 1,000): Industry group Food, beverage and tobacco manufacturing Textile, wearing apparel, leather industries Wood and wood products (including furniture) Paper and paper products, printing and publishing Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products Non-metallic mineral products (excludes products of petroleum and coal) Basic metal industries Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment Other manufacturing industries

Purchases & operating expenses

Sales and other Value income added (NZ$1,000)

Additions to fixed tangible assets

5,283,214

5,503,074

1,540,430

424,698

1,555,034

1,649,651

612,657

52,716

1,083,420

1,167,838

395,378

48,556

1,771,428

1,958,810

684,629

106,890

1,897,222

2,018,927

605,934

242,508

563,227 688,896

631,980 717,817

226,723 214,338

57,075 121,591

4,271,883

4,399,417

1,444,158

164,678

141,210

153,006

57,243

5,302

17,575,722 18,382,363 5,878,564 1,248,108 Total Census of Manufacturing. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington. Annual Labour. In D e c . 1 9 8 2 t h e r e w e r e 2 5 5 i n d u s t r i a l u n i o n s o f w o r k e r s w i t h a t o t a l o f 527,797 members.

904

NEW Z E A L A N D

The industrial distribution of the labour force as estimated in Feb. 1982 was: Primary industries, 150,500; manufacturing, 312,700; construction, 85,800; commerce, 311,800; transport and communication, 106,400; services, 298,700; armed forces, 11,300; unemployed, 46,900; total labour force. 1,340,100. By the Accident Compensation Act 1972 immediate compensation without proof of fault is provided for every injured person and wherever the accident occurred. Compensation is paid both for permanent physical disability and also—in the case of earners—for income losses on an income related basis. Regular adjustment in the level of payment is provided for in accordance with variations in the value of money. Non-earners such as tourists, housewives, children, students, retired people do not normally qualify for earnings related compensation but are eligible for all other benefits. These are not taxable. Housewives—including visiting women from overseas—who are non-earners are eligible for the benefits available to non-eamers and home help can be paid for or the husband compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the home until the injured wife can resume her duties. After the first week's incapacity and for the ensuing 4 weeks the earner can be paid 80% of his average earnings for the 28 days preceding the accident; after that the 80% is related to average earnings over the 12 preceding months. In addition— for earners—lump sums are payable for impairment, pain and disfigurement and for funeral expenses and weekly sums and lump payments to their widows and dependent children. All employees are covered by tne Accident Compensation Act 1972. Commerce. Trade (excluding specie and bullion) in NZ$1 m. for 12 months ended 30 J u n e .

Total merchandise imported (v.f.d.)' 4,809-6 5,587-3 7,044-8 6,928-2

1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83

Exports of domestic produce 5,012-5 5,830-0 6,527-8 7,427-7 1 Value for duty.

Re-exports 139-8 235-2 206-0 266-6

Total merchandise exported (f.o.b.) 5,152-2 6,065-3 6,733-8 7,694-3

The principal imports for the 12 months ended 30 June 1983 (provisional): Commodity Cereals and cereal preparations Fruit and vegetables Sugar and sugar preparations Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, etc. Beverages Tobacco and manufactures Crude rubber Textile fibres Crude fertilizers and minerals other than coal Petroleum and petroleum products Organic chemicals Inorganic chemicals Dyeing, tanning, etc. materials Medicinal and pharmaceutical products Fertilizers, manufactured Plastic materials, etc. Miscellaneous chemical materials and products Rubber manufactures' Paper and paperboard manufactures Textile yarn and fabrics, etc. Non-metallic mineral manufactures ' Iron and steel Non-ferrous metals Manufactures of metals General industrial machinery Electric machinery Road vehicles Professional scientific instruments 1 Miscellaneous manufactured articles Total merchandise imported 2 1

Not elsewhere specified.

Value (NZ$1,000) (c.i.f.) 32,851 105,758 66,953 67,960 41,693 24,626 32,510 20,924 170,008 1,422,088 131,519 107,344 38,713 136,273 74,713 220,681 82,836 61,139 104,696 447,027 94,995 378,283 108,918 198,953 551,039 268,320 497,501 139,017 287,451 7,595,828

' Including commodities not listed.

NEW

905

ZEALAND

The principal exports of New Zealand produce for the 12 months ended 30 June 1983 (provisional) were: Value Commodity (NZ$1,000) Meat Beef and veal 791,588 Lamb 904,322 Mutton 88,779 Edible offals 70,809 Dairy products Fresh milk and cream 13,500 Butter 660,595 Cheese 193,567 Fish 285,470 Cereals and cereal preparations 33,068 Apples 59,329 Animal feeding stuff 103,623 Wood and cork 100,252

Value Commodity (NZ$1,000) Pulp and waste paper 161,479 Wool 1,019,256 Sausage casings (hanks) 50,183 Tallow 55,476 Casein 199,224 Newsprint 60,855 Textile yarn 42,162 Carpets 58,688 Aluminium 294,893 Metal manufactures 101,422 General industrial machinery 53,244 Electric machinery, etc. 74,380 Total produce exported

7,427,708

The following table shows the trade with different countries for the year ended 30 June (in NZ$1,000): Countries Australia Bahrain Belgium Canada China Fiji France Germany (Fed. Rep. of) Greece Hong Kong India Iran Italy Japan Korea, Republic of Kuwait Malaysia Netherlands Philippines Saudi Arabia Singapore Sweden UK USSR USA

Imports v.f.d.from 1982 1983 1,400,519 1,367,934 92,781 23,787 40,566 32,516 149,267 168,416 48,002 48,863 22,493 29,687 72,725 96,397 280,694 307,404 2,551 3,317 89,974 97,097 33,918 29,567 166 213 86,871 105,761 1,199,913 1,165,997 53,416 100,594 31,437 34,438 36,581 34,049 76,740 95,225 8,346 9,676 273,622 142,140 395,062 278,813 58,958 52,069 636,056 637,759 34,618 9,023 1,202,380 1,168,548

Exports and re-exports f.o b. to 1982 1983 1,031,743 953,207 9,755 14,296 53,618 71,710 128,762 163,334 122,397 177,178 91,715 103,863 107,327 143,036 123,542 135,319 50,939 49,348 95,600 92,322 60,912 45,611 103,709 355,999 112,995 119,762 876,067 1,062,423 104,080 102,802 13,474 22,765 102,450" 113,202 89,346 94,169 98,886 90,318 50,792 75,081 97,319 138,522 5,504 6,159 962,540 990,143 361,772 344,763 853,011 1,170,415

Total trade between New Zealand and UK was as follows (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 414,630 250,413

1981 427,174 253,373

1982 539,137 323,201

1983 486,305 266,054

1984 483,749 367,512

Tourism. The country has a growing tourist industry. In the year ended 31 March 1984, 518,441 travellers visited New Zealand (including 402,638 tourists), compared with 487,658 (including 372,669 tourists) in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of formed roads and streets in New Zealand at 31 March 1983 was 92,909 km. There were 14,532 bridges of over 3 metres in length with a total length of 328,365 metres at 31 March 1983. The network of state highways comprised, at 31 March 1983,11,531 km, including the principal arterial traffic routes. Total expenditure on roads, streets and bridges by the central government and local authorities combined for the financial year 1983-84 amounted to $336 • 7m.

906

NEW Z E A L A N D

In the main, roads are financed from the National Roads Fund which is administered by the National Roads Board. This fund which is derived largely from petrol tax is used for the maintenance and improvement of existing roads. The board's income is currently of the order of $343m. per annum. Funds are apportioned on the following basis: 43% or more of motor revenue to local authorities, 47% or more to state highways and the remaining 10% is allocated at the discretion of the board. At 31 March 1984 motor vehicles licensed numbered 2,365,643, of which 1,447,298 were cars and 4,134 omnibuses and service vehicles. Included in the remaining numbers were 141,420 motor cycles, 1,379 power cycles, 294,033 trucks, 390,924 trailers and caravans, 713 contract vehicles and 74,318 farm tractors and other farm equipment. Railways. On 31 March 1984 there were 4,273 km of 1,067 mm gauge railway open for traffic (200 km electrified). Operating earnings from government railways, 1983-84, $497,126,000; operating expenses, $478,331,000. In 1983-84 the tonnage of goods (including livestock) carried was 10-63m. tonnes, and passengers numbered 14,533,000. In addition, the railways road motor services carried 17-3m. passengers. Four rail/road ferries maintain a regular service between the North and South Islands. The total revenue (including road motor and other subsidiary services) amounted to $626-6m., and total expenditure $583 -4m. in 1983-84. Aviation. International services are operated to and from New Zealand by a stateowned company, Air New Zealand Ltd, and by a number of overseas companies. Air New Zealand Ltd also operates most domestic scheduled passenger services. Non-scheduled services are run by the main companies and also by a number of small operators and aero clubs. Domestic scheduled services during the 12 months ended Dec. 1983: Passengers carried, 2,361,000. International services: Passengers carried, 1,684,000; mail, 3,208 tonnes; freight, 76,794 tonnes. Shipping. Container ships operate from Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton and Port Chalmers to the UK, Europe, North America and Japan. The government-owned New Zealand Shipping Corporation has begun to increase its activity into New Zealand—UKand Pacific trades. Entrances and clearances of vessels from overseas: 1981 1982 1983

Entrances No. Tons 2,671 12,738,000 2,855 13,083,000 3,119 13,074,000

Clearances No. Tons 2,704 12,868,000 2,846 13,071,000 3,106 13,013,000

Post and Broadcasting. Receipts of the Post Office for year ended 31 March 1984 were $1,364-8m.; total expenditure was $ 1,075m. The average staff for 1983-84 was 37,957. The telegraph and telephone systems are operated by the Post Office. At 31 March 1984 there were 2,010,684 telephones. The telecommunications receipts for the year 1983-84 were $867m. An earth satellite station has been built north of Auckland to link with the Pacific satellite Intelsat III to augment the Compac and Seacon telecommunications systems which link New Zealand with overseas countries. There are 2 TV channels both operated by the state-owned New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation, which also operates most of the broadcasting stations. Over 85% of New Zealand households have TV sets. There are 64 medium-wave broadcasting stations and 2 short-wave transmitters. Some commercial material is broadcast by both sound and TV services. Number of TV receiving licences at 31 March 1984 was 943,234. Cinemas. There were in 1981,154 cinemas withaseating capacity of89,364. Newspapers. There were (1984), 31 daily newspapers (8 morning and 23 evening) with a combined circulation of 1,058,805. Seven of these newspapers (2 each in

NEW

907

ZEALAND

Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch and 1 in Dunedin) had a circulation of 715,760. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The judiciary consists of the Court of Appeal, the High Court and District Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Other special courts include the Maori Land Court, Family Courts and Young Persons' Courts. At the end of Dec. 1983 the gaols and Borstal institutions contained 2,700 prisoners, 2,578 males and 122 females. The death penalty for murder was replaced by life imprisonment in 1961. The Criminal Injuries Act, 1963, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1964, provided for compensation of persons injured by certain criminal acts and the dependants of persons killed by such acts. However, this has now been phased out in favour of the Accident Compensation Act, 1972, except in the residual area of property damage caused by escapers. Since 1970 legal aid in civil proceedings (except divorce) has been available for persons of small or moderate means. For the year ended 31 March 1984 expenditure amounted to $4,211,168 and 11,365 applications for aid were granted. Police. The police in New Zealand are a national body maintained wholly by the central government. The total strength at 31 March 1984 was 5,088, the proportion of police to population being 1 to 642. The total cost of police services for the year 1983-84 was NZ$186m., equivalent to $57 per head of population. In New Zealand the police do not control traffic. Ombudsmen. The office of Ombudsman was created in 1962. From 1975 additional Ombudsmen have been authorized. There are currently three. Ombudsmen's functions are to investigate complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of government departments, local authorities and statutory organizations. During the year ended 31 March 1984,2,150 complaints were received, 138 of which were sustained. Religion. No direct state aid is given to any form of religion. For the Church of England the country is divided into 7 dioceses, with a separate bishopric (Aotearoa) for the Maoris. The Presbyterian Church is divided into 23 presbyteries and the Maori Synod. The Moderator is elected annually. The Methodist Church is divided into 10 districts; the President is elected annually. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into 4 dioceses, with the Archbishop of Wellington as Metropolitan Archbishop. Number of clergy (April 1977) Religious denomination 780 Church ofEngland Presbyterian 686 931 Roman Catholic (including 'Catholic' undefined) 349 Methodist 254 Baptist Brethren 187. 142 Ratana Protestant (undefined) — Salvation Army 241 Latter-day Saints (Mormon) 162 Congregationalist 10 Seventh-day Adventist 55 Ringatu 88 — Christian (undefined) 125 Jehovah's Witnesses Hebrew 7 All other religious professions Agnostic Atheist Not specified Object to state Total

4,712

Number of adherents 1976census I98Icensus 915,202 814,740 566,569 523,221 478,530 456,858 173,526 148,512 49,442 50,043 24,414 24,324 35,082 35,781 33,309 16,986 22,019 20,490 36,130 37,686 6,600 3,825 11,958 11,523 6,230 6,1 14 52,478 101,901 13,392 13,737 3,921 3,360 194,271 279,768 14,136 24,201 14,283 21,528 39,380 108,015 438,511 473,115 3,129,383

3,175,737

908

NEW ZEALAND

Education. New Zealand has 6 universities, the University of Auckland, University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Victoria University of Wellington, Massey University (at Palmerston North), the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch) and the University of Otago (at Dunedin). There is, in addition, Lincoln College near Christchurch, a university college of agriculture, which is a constituent college of the University of Canterbury. The number of students in 1983 was 56,913. There were 7 teachers' training colleges with 4,503 students in 1983. At 1 July 1983 there were 316 state secondary schools with 13,106 full-time teachers and 215,633 pupils. There were also 35 district high schools with 2,917 scholars in the secondary division. At 1 July 1983, 107,129 part-time pupils attended technical classes, and 29,899 received part-time instruction from the technical correspondence institute. At 1 July 1983, 885 pupils received tuition from the secondary department of the correspondence school. There were 15 registered private secondary schools with 759 teachers and 10,635 pupils. At 1 July 1983, there were 2,432 state primary schools (including intermediate schools and 'departments), with 454,363 pupils; the number of teachers was 18,922. A correspondence school for children in remote areas and those otherwise unable to attend school had 1,383 primary pupils. There were 58 registered private primary schools with 553 teachers and 10,670 pupils. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15. Children aged 3 and 4 years may enrol at the 539 free kindergartens maintained by Free Kindergarten Associations, which receive government assistance. There are also 681 play centres which also receive government subsidy. In July 1983 there were 40,895 and 16,170 children on the rolls respectively. Total expenditure out of government funds in 1982-83 upon education was NZ$1,679m. The universities and the affiliated agricultural colleges are autonomous bodies. Most secondary schools are controlled by their own boards. Virtually all state primal^ schools are controlled by the district education boards: there are 10 education districts. The Department of Education exercises certain defined functions in connexion with the general supervision of the education provided in state primary and secondary schools and disburses the government grants payable to controlling authorities for the running of those schools. Education in state schools is free for children under 19 years of age. Private schools are regularly visited by state school inspectors. Report of the Minister of Education ('E.l. Report'). Annually. Wellington, Government Printer N Z Committee on Secondary Education. Towards Partnership. Dept. of Education, 1976

Social Welfare. New Zealand's record for progressive legislation reaches back to 1898, when it was second only to Denmark in introducing non-contributory old-age pensions. The present system came into operation from 1 April 1972. It provides for retirement, unemployment, widowhood, invalidity and sickness, as well as hospital and other medical care. Since 1 April 1969 the scheme has been financed from general taxation. Previously there was a special social security tax on virtually all income of individuals and companies in excess of $4 a week which met approximately three-quarters of the cost of the scheme, the balance being met from general taxation. At 31 March 1984 the current weekly rates of widows', invalids', sickness, domestic purposes, unemployment and miners' benefits were $152-04 for a married couple, $91 • 22 for an unmarried person aged 20 years or over, and $69 -41 for those under 20 years. There are additional payments for dependent children. All benefits except superannuation and family allowances are subject to an income test. Family Benefit. A family benefit of $6 a week is payable for each dependent child. Unemployment Benefit. The payment is subject to the condition that the applicant is capable and willing to undertake suitable employment.

NEW

909

ZEALAND

Sickness Benefit. Payment is subject to medical evidence of incapacity of a person who has suffered a loss of weekly earnings as a result. Other benefits include emergency benefits and additional benefits for those in need but who either do not qualify for one of the standard benefits or who have special needs or commitments for which a benefit at the standard rate is insufficient. Medical, Hospital and Related Benefits. Medical, hospital and other related benefits are also provided under the Social Welfare scheme. These consist mainly of the payment of certain fees for medical attention by private practitioners, free treatment in public and mental hospitals, certain fees for treatment in private hospitals, maternity benefits (including ante-natal and post-natal treatment and services of doctors and nurses at confinements), pharmaceutical benefits (medicines, drugs, etc., prescribed by medical practitioners), etc. There are also benefits in connexion with dental services up to the age of 16, X-ray diagnosis, massage, home-nursing, artificial aids, etc. Pensions. Provision is made for the payment of pensions and allowances to members or dependants of disabled, deceased or missing members, of the New-Zealand Forces who served in the South African War, the two World Wars, the Korean War and the Vietnam War, to members of the New Zealand Mercantile Marine during the Second World War? or in connexion with any emergency whether arising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter of the United Nations or otherwise. Principal rates are: War pensions are payable to widows at a rate of $49 05 a week, together with a mother's allowance of $54-82 a week, increased by $6 a. week for each additional child, in addition to the normal child allowances of $6 per week for each child. These rates may be increased by an amount not exceeding $39-90 per week if the pensioner is suffering from total blindness, two or more serious disabilities or one extremely severe disability. An 'economic pension' is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is additional to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. The maximum weekly rates are $76-02 to a married person (if unmarried, $91-22); to the widow or dependent widowed mother of a member, $91-22. War veterans' allowances are $91 -22 weekly for a single person and $76 02 for a married person, plus an equal amount to a wife, increased by $ 1.50 a week each at age 65, subject to income qualifications. Domestic Purposes Benefit. A domestic purposes benefit is payable to unsupported male and female solo parents including divorced, separated and unmarried persons, prisoners' spouses and also to those who are required to give full-time care to a person (other than their spouse) who would otherwise have to be admitted to hospital. Death Benefit. A death benefit of $ 1,000 is payable to a widow or widower if totally dependent on the deceased plus $500 for each dependent child but not exceeding $1,500. Social Welfare Benefits and War Pensions: Benefits

Number in force at 31 March 1984

Total payments 1983-84 (NZ$1,000)

SOCIAL W E L F A R E :

Monetary— Superannuation Widows Orphans Family Invalids Miners Unemployment Sickness Domestic purposes Total

451,128 13,921 384 499,365 20,187 13 50,136 9,452 53,141

2,526,031 71,295 1,186 289,689 87,410 78 315,849 62,212 380,836

1,097,730

3,734,586

910

NEW

ZEALAND

Total payments ¡982-83 (NZ$1,000)

Benefits SOCIAL WELFARE (conid.):

Health, etc.— Medical Hospital Maternity Pharmaceutical Supplementary

41,072 46,453 11,052 220,644 42,711

Total W A R PENSIONS

as at 3 1 March

Type of Person War disablement Dependants of disabled Widows Other dependants of deceased Economic War service War veteran's allowance Police

377,361 1984:

Number in Force

Total

22,032 93 4,445

Dependent Wives Included — -

Annual Value NZ$(1,000) 26,427 365

1 11,435

57 1,841 2,705 1,520 34 32,727

J 80 1,736 721 -

8,568 18,327 10,126 44

2,537

75,292

Reciprocity with Other Countries. There are reciprocal arrangements between New Zealand and Australia in respect of age, invalids', widows', family, unemployment and sickness benefits, and between New Zealand and the UK in respect of family, age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness and unemployment benefits. Superannuation. Following the change of Government in Dec. 1975 the earningsrelated superannuation scheme described in T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1977-78, was abolished. Under the new system (operative from Feb. 1977) superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders on reaching the age of 60. It is taxable but not subject to an income test. The rates are based on the national average wage, of which married couples now receive 80% and single persons 60% of the married rate. Health. At 30 June 1983 there were 7,597 doctors on the medical register. At 31 March 1983 there were 25,304 public hospital beds, of which 2,274 were for maternity cases.

MINOR ISLANDS The minor islands (total area, 320 sq. miles, 829 sq. km) included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand (but not within any local government area) are the following: Kermadec Islands (34 sq. km), Three Kings Islands (8 sq. km), Auckland Islands (114 sq. km), Campbell Island (62 sq. km), Antipodes Islands (606 sq. km), Bounty Islands (1 sq. km), Snares Islands (3 sq. km), Solander Island (1 sq. km). With the exception of Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group (population, 5, 1981 census) and Campbell Island (population, 10, 1981 census) both of which have staffed meteorological stations, none of these islands is inhabited. The Kermadec Islands were annexed to New Zealand in 1887, have no separate administration and all New Zealand laws apply to them. Situation, 29° 10' to 131° 30' S. lat., 177° 45' to 179° W. long., 600 miles NNE of New Zealand. The largest of the group is Raoul or Sunday Island, 20 miles in circuit, while Macaulay Island is 3 miles in circuit.

THE COOK ISLANDS

911

TERRITORIES OVERSEAS Territories Overseas coming within the jurisdiction of New Zealand consist of Tokelau and the Ross Dependency. Tokelau. Situated some 480 km to the north of Western Samoa between 8° and 10° S. lat., and between 171° and 173° W. long., are the 3 atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu and Fakaofo of the Tokelau (Union) group. Formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, the group was transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand on 11 Feb. 1926. By legislation enacted in 1948, the Tokelau Islands were declared part of New Zealand as from 1 Jan. 1949. The area of the group is 1,011 hectares; the population at census 25 Oct. 1976 was 1,575; estimate, 31 Dec. 1981,1,572. By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now invested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. In Dec. 1976 the territory was officially renamed 'Tokelau', the name by which it has customarily been known to its inhabitants. From 8 Nov. 1974 the office of Administrator was invested in the Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Certain powers are delegated to the district officer in Apia, Western Samoa. Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the islanders agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. Up to March 1975, 528 migrants entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. At the request of the people the scheme has now been suspended. New Zealand Government aid to Tokelau totalled $2 • 64m. for the year ended 31 March 1984. Ross Dependency. By Imperial Order in Council, dated 30 July 1923, the territories between 160° E. long, and 150° W. long, and south of 60° S. lat. were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. The region was named the Ross Dependency. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand. The mainland area is estimated at 400,000-450,000 sq. km and is mostly icecovered. In Jan. 1957 a New Zealand expedition under Sir Edmund Hillary established a base in the Dependency. In Jan. 1958 Sir Edmund Hillary and 4 other New Zealanders reached the South Pole. The main base—Scott Base—at Pram Point, Ross Island—is manned throughout the year, about 12 people being present during winter. Vanda Station in the dry icefree Wright Valley is manned every summer. Quartermain, L. B., New Zealand and the Antarctic. Wellington, 1971

SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES OVERSEAS THE COOK ISLANDS HISTORY. The Cook Islands, which lie between 8° and 23° S. lat., and 156° and 167° W. long., were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and on 11 June 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand. In 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing territory in 'free association' with New Zealand. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The islands within the territory fall roughly into two groups—the scattered islands towards the north (Northern group) and the islands towards the south known as the Lower group. The names of the islands with their populations as at the census of 1 Dec. 1981 were as follows:

912 Area Lower Group— sq. km 67-2 Rarotonga Mangaia 518 Atiu 26-9 Aitutaki 18 0 Mauke (Parry Is.) 18-4 Mitiaro 22-3 Manuae and Te au-o-tu 6 2 Takutea 1-3

NEW Z E A L A N D Population 9,530 1,364 1,225 2,335 681 256 12

Area Northern Group— sq. km 1-2 Nassau Palmerston (Avarau) 20 Penrhyn (Tongareva) 9-8 Manihiki (Humphrey) 5-4 41 Rakahanga (Reirson) Pukapuka (Danger) 51 Suwarrow(Anchorage) 0-4

-

Population 134 51 608 405 272 796 —

—

Total

293

17,754

In 1983, 414 live births and 129 deaths were registered. In 1983 there were 24,000 Cook Islanders living abroad, mainly in New Zealand. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964, which provides for the establishment of internal self-government in the Cook Islands, came into force on 4 Aug. 1965. The Act establishes the Cook Islands as fully self-governing but linked to New Zealand by a common Head of State, the Queen, and a common citizenship, that of New Zealand. It provides for a ministerial system of government with a Cabinet consisting of a Premier and 6 other Ministers. The New Zealand Government is represented by a New Zealand Representative and the position of a Queen's Representative has recently been created by changes in the Constitution. New Zealand continues to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, subject to consultation between the New Zealand Prime Minister and the Prime Minister. The changed status of the Islands does not affect the consideration of subsidies or the right of free entry into New Zealand for exports from the group. The capital is Rarotonga. Prime Minister: Sir T. R. A. H. Davis. ECONOMY A N D TRADE Budget. Revenue is derived chiefly from customs duties which follow the New Zealand customs tariff, income tax and stamp sales. Grants from New Zealand, mainly for medical, educational and general administrative purposes totalled $7m. in 1982—83. Currency. The Cook Island dollar is at par with the New Zealand dollar. Agriculture. Livestock (1983): Pigs, 17,000; goats, 1,000. Commerce. Exports, mainly to New Zealand, were valued at $4-9m. in 1983. Main items of export were fresh fruit and vegetables, fruit juice, copra and clothing. Imports totalled $27m. in 1982. The main items were foodstuffs, manufactured goods (including transport equipment), petrol and petroleum products. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. New Zealand has financed the construction of an international airport at Rarotonga which became operational for jet services in Sept. 1973. Shipping. A fortnightly cargo shipping service is provided between New Zealand, Niue and Rarotonga. Telecommunications. Wireless stations are maintained at all the permanently inhabited islands. In 1982 there were 1,583 telephones. EDUCATION AND HEALTH Education. Twenty-eight primary schools are established in the various islands. Of these, two are Roman Catholic missionary schools and two are Seventh-Day Adventist missionary schools. Five primary schools have secondary school attachments, and there are also nine secondary schools. Two of these secondary schools

NIUE

913

are run by missions; one by the Roman Catholic Mission ana the other by the Seventh-Day Adventist Mission. The number of students enrolled at school on 31 March 1983, was 8,276. The instruction given at school is based on the New Zealand School syllabus and students can sit for the New Zealand School Certificate and University Entrance examinations. Most schools teach in both the English and Cook Island Maori languages, but the use of Cook Islands Maori is restricted to the primary school level. There were 102 Government-funded students studying at overseas tertiary or technical institutes in 1983. Health. All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment in their villages, the hospital and the tuberculosis sanatorium. Cook Island Maori patients in the hospital and the sanatorium and all schoolchildren receive free dental treatment.

NIUE History. Niue achieved internal self-government in Oct. 1974. Area and Population. Distance from Auckland, New Zealand, 1,343 miles; from Rarotonga, 580 miles. Area, 100 sq. miles; circumference, 40 miles; height above sea-level, 220 ft. Population at 28 Sept. 1981 was 3,296; 1984, estimate, 3,019. During 1983 births registered numbered 94, deaths 25. Migration to New Zealand is the main factor in population change. Constitution and Government. There is a Legislative Assembly of 20 members, and legislative measures apply as in the case of the Cook Islands. Premier: Robert R. Rex, CMG, OBE. Budget. Financial aid from New Zealand, 1983-84, totalled $7,138,000. Agriculture. The most important products of the island are coconuts, passion fruit, honey, limes and root crops. Trade. Exports, 1983, $632,976 (main export, canned coconut cream); imports, $3,158,778. Communications. There is a wireless station at Alofi, the port of the island. Two weekly commercial air services link Niue with Western Samoa, Cook Islands, American Samoa and New Zealand. Telephones (1982) 205. Education. There were 7 government schools with 832 pupils in 1984. Health. There is a 30-bed hospital in Alofi and clinics in some villages. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of New Zealand in Great Britain (New Zealand Hse, Haymarket, London, SW1Y 4TQ) High Commissioner: J. A. Walding. Of Great Britain in New Zealand (Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bldg., 2 The Terrace, Wellington, 1) High Commissioner: T. D. O'Leary, CMG. Of New Zealand in the USA (37 Observatory Cir., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Rt. Hon. Sir Lancelot Adams-Schneider, K.CMG. Of the USA in New Zealand (29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington) Ambassador: H. Monroe Browne. Of New Zealand to the United Nations Ambassador: Bryce Harland.

914

NEW

ZEALAND

Books of Reference • Statistical Information: The central statistical office for New Zealand is the Department of Statistics (Wellington, I). The beginning of a statistical service may be seen in the early 'Blue books' prepared annually from 1840 onwards under the direction of the Colonial Secretary, and designed primarily for the information of the Colonial Office in England. A permanent statistical authority was created in 1858. The Department of Statistics functions under the Statistics Act 1975 and reports to Parliament through the Minister of Statistics. A comprehensive statistical service has been developed to meet national requirements, and close contact is maintained with the United Nations Statistical Office and other international statistical organizations; through the Conference of Asian Statisticians assistance is being given with the development of statistics in the region. The oldest publications consist of (a) census results from 1858 onwards and (b) annual volumes of statistics (first published 1858 but covering years back to 1853). Main current publications: New Zealand Official Yearbook. Annual, from 1893 Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics. 1972 Statistical Reports of New Zealand. Annual Monthly Abstract of Statistics. From 1914 Pocket Digest of Statistics. Annual, 1927-31,1938 ff. Parliamentary Reports of Government Departments. Annual Pacific Islands Yearbook. Sydney, 1977 Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. 2 vols. Wellington, 1940 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 3 vols. Wellington, 1966 National Bibliography. Wellington, 1968 Alley, R., New Zealand and the Pacific. Boulder, 1983 Bedggood, D., Rich and Poor in New Zealand. Sydney, 1980 Bush, G., Local Government and Politics in New Zealand. Sydney, 1980 Easton, B., Social Policy and the Welfare State in New Zealand. Auckland, 1980 Grover, R. F., New Zealand. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Holcroft, M. H., The Shaping of New Zealand. Auckland, 1975 Kennaway, R., Jackson, K.., Henderson, J. (eds.) Beyond New Zealand: The Foreign Policy of a Small State. Auckland, 1980 Levine, S. (ed.), Politics in New Zealand. London, 1978.—The New Zealand Political System. London, 1979 Morrell, W. P., and Hall, D. O.W.,A History of New Zealand Life. Christchurch and London, 1957 Oliver, W. H. (ed.), TheOxfordHistory of New Zealand. OUP, 1981 Robson, J. L. (ed.), New Zealand: The Development of its Laws and Constitution. 2nd ed. London,1967 Shadbolt, M. F. R., The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Christchurch, 1976 Sinclair, K.., A History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. London, 1980 Traue, J. E., Who 's Who in New Zealand. 11 th ed. Wellington, 1978 Wards, I., A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand. Wellington, Government Printer, 1976 Wise s New Zealand Guide. 7th ed. Auckland, 1979

NICARAGUA

Capital: Managua Population: 2-9m.(1984) GNP per capita: US$860 ( 1981 )

República de Nicaragua

HISTORY. Active colonization of the Pacific coast was undertaken by Spaniards from Panama, beginning in 1523. After links with other Central American territories, and Mexico, Nicaragua became completely independent in 1838, but subject to a prolonged feud between the 'Liberals' of León and the 'Conservatives' of Granada. Mosquitia remained an autonomous kingdom on the Atlantic coast, under British protection until 1860. On 5 Aug. 1914 the Bryan-Chamarro treaty between Nicaragua and the US was signed, under which the US in return for US$3m. acquired a permanent option for a canal route through Nicaragua and a 99-year option for a naval base in the Bay of Fonseca on the Pacific coast and Corn Islands on the Atlantic coast. It was ratified by Nicaragua on 7 April 1916 and by the US on 22 June 1916. US Marines finally left in 1933. The Bryan-Chamarro treaty was abrogated on 14 July 1970 and the Corn Islands handed back in 1971. The 46-year political domination of Nicaragua by the Somoza family ended on 17July 1979,afterthe 17 years long struggle by the Sandinista National Liberation Front flared into civil war. A Government Junta of National Reconstruction was established by the revolutionary government on 20 July 1979 and a 51-member Council of State later created; both were dissolved on 10 Jan. 1985 following new Presidential and legislative elections. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Nicaragua is bounded north by Honduras, east by the Caribbean, south by Costa Rica and west by the Pacific. Area estimated at 148,000 sq. km (57,143 sq. miles) or 139,000 sq. km (54,296 sq. miles) if the lakes are excluded. The coastline runs 540 km on the Atlantic and 350 km on the Pacific. Population at the census of April 1971 was 1,877,972. Estimate (1984) 2,908,000. Nicaragua is the largest in area and most thinly populated of the Central American republics, 23 inhabitants per sq. km in 1984. In 1981, births, 104,000; marriages, 16,000; deaths, 10,000. The people of the western half of the republic are principally of mixed Spanish and Indian extraction, some of pure Spanish descent and many Indians. The population of the eastern half is composed mainly of Mosquito and other Indians and Zambos, and Negroes from Jamaica and other islands of the Caribbean. The main ethnic groups in 1974 were: Mestizo, 69%; white, 19%; Negro, 9%; Indio, 5%. Nicaragua is administratively divided into the following 16 departments with population as in 1981: Boaco Carazo Chinandega Chontales Esteli Granada

88,862 109,450 228,573 98,462 110,076 113,102

Jinotega Léon Madriz Managua Masaya

127,159 248,704 72,408 819,679 149,015

Matagalpa Nueva Segovia Río San Juan Rivas Zelaya

220,548 97,765 29,001 108,913 202,462

The capital is Managua, situated on the lake of the same name, 180 ft above sea level, with (1981) 615,000 inhabitants. Other cities: León, 15»,577; Grenada, 72,640; Masaya, 78,308; Chinandega, 144,291. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with a wet season from May to Jan. Temperatures vary with altitude. Managua. Jan. 79" F (26°C), July 86°F (30°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,140 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Elections for a President and 915

916

NICARAGUA

Vice-President and for a 96-member National Assembly were held on 4 Nov. 1984. All elections were by direct vote, with that for the National Assembly being by proportional representation. The minimum voting age is 16 years. President: Daniel Ortega Saavedra (elected 4 Nov. 1984, took office 10 Jan. 1985). Vice-President: Sergio Ramírez Mercado. In the legislative elections, 61 of the 96 National Assembly seats were won by the Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN), 14 by the Partido Conservador Demócrata, 9 by the Partido Liberal Independiente, 6 by the Partido Socialcristiano de Pueblo, and 6 by 3 parties of the far left. The National Assembly is charged with drafting a new Constitution by 1987, replacing the 1974 Constitution which was abrogated on 20 July 1979. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of blue, white, blue, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Salve a ti Nicaragua (words by S. Ibarra Mayorga, 1937). Local government. The republic is divided into a National District and 16 departments, each of which is under a political head (appointed by the President), who has supervision of finance, education and other matters. The departments have 134 municipios, headed by a mayor (alcalde). The Mosquito Reserve now forms part of the departments of Zelaya and Río San Juan. D E F E N C E . Conscription was introduced in 1983 for men between 17 and 22 years. Army. The Army is organized into 3 armoured, 10 infantry, 3 artillery and 1 engineer battalions and 1 anti-aircraft artillery group. Equipment includes 45 T-54/-55 and 3 M-4A3 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 22,000 with an additional 25,000 regular reservists. The Civilian Militia numbers about 30,000. Navy. Includes 2 ex-Soviet fast gunboats, 2 ex-North Korean fast torpedo boats, 5 fast attack craft, 4 coastguard cutters, 11 coastal patrol craft and 2 minor landing craft operated by the marine section of the National Guard to picket the east and west coasts. Personnel in 1985 totalled 1,500 officers and men. Air Force. Formed in June 1938 as the Nicaraguan Army Air Force, the Air Force has been semi-independent since 1947. Its combat units are reported to have more than 80 L-39 Albatross light jet attack/trainers, 4 Summit 02-337 Sentry counter-insurgency aircraft, 4 T-33 armed jet trainers, and 3 T-28 armed pistonengined trainers. Other equipment includes 4 C-47s, Spanish-built Arava STOL and 2 Israeli-built Arava STOL transports and smaller communications aircraft and helicopters, including 4 Mi-8s and a reported number of Mi-24 gunships. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Nicaragua is a member of the UN, OAS and the Central American Common Market. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for fiscal years, ending 31 Dec., in 1 m. córdobas: Revenue Expenditure

1979 3,760-1 3,409-0

1980 5,972-0 5,972-0

1981 5,874-0 6,720-0

1982 6,982-0 6,703-0

Currency. The monetary unit is the córdoba (C$), divided into 100 centavos. On 31 Dec. 1978 total money supply was l,887-8m. córdobas. Bills form the greater part of the currency, in denominations from 1,000 córdobas to 1 córdoba. Silver coins struck, but now out of circulation, are 50, 25 and 10 centavos; copper-nickel and copper-zinc coins, 1 córdoba, 50, 25, 10 and 5 centavos. March 1985, US$1 = 10córdobas-£1 =29-95 córdobas.

917

NICARAGUA

Banking. The National Bank of Nicaragua at Managua founded in 1912,owned by the Government since 1924 was reorganized in July 1979, becoming the National Development Bank and including the National Development Institute (INFONAC) and Special Fund for Development (FED). This new law gave it increased responsibilities as a development bank. The Central Bank of Nicaragua came into operation on 1 Jan. 1961 as an autonomous bank of issue, absorbing the issue department of the National Bank. In July 1979 private financial banking was nationalized and branches of foreign banks were prohibited from receiving deposits. Weights and Measures. Since 1893 the metric system of weights and measures has been recommended. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity for electric energy was 357,700 kw. in 1977 and 1,180-3 kwh. was produced. Minerals. Production of gold in 1980 was 67,000 troy oz.; of silver, 167,000 troy oz.; of copper, 3,000 tonnes. There is no iron or coalmining. Large deposits of tungsten in Nueva Segovia were announced in 1961. Exploration for petroleum began off the Pacific and Atlantic coasts in 1965. A petroleum refinery of650,000 tonnes capacity is functioning at Managua. Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal source of national wealth, finding work for 65% of the labour force, and lurnishing, 1975,22% of the GNP. Of the total land area (about 36 • 5m. acres), about 17 • 5m. acres are under timber 0-9m. acres are used for grazing and 2- lm. acres are arable. The unit of area used locally is the manzana (= 1-73 acres). Of the arable only 1 -2m. acres are actively cultivated, 780,000 in annual crops such as cotton and rice and the remainder in perennial crops such as coffee and sugar-cane, or in two harvests a year in the cases of maize, sorghum and beans. The products of the western half are varied, the most important being cotton, coffee, now under the aegis of the new Instituto del Café, sugar-cane, cocoa, maize, sesame and beans. Production (1982): Coffee, 57,000 tonnes; sugar, 3m. tonnes; cotton, 190,000 tonnes. There were about 2 -2m. head of cattle in 1983. There were 520,000 pigs (1983). Forestry. Timber production has been declining, though the forests, which cover 10m. acres, contain mahogany and cedar, which were formerly largely exported, three varieties of rosewoods, guayacán (lignum vitae) and dye-woods. Production of sawn wood in 1978,270,000 tonnes. Fishery. On the Atlantic coast fisheries are an important subsistence activity. Over 6-4m. lb. of shrimps were exported in 1978 and were processed in 3 plants at Schooner Cay and El Bluff. Catch (1981) 5,900 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Chief local industries are cane sugar, cooking oil, cigarettes, beer, leather products, plastics, textiles, chemical products, metal products, cement (349,000 tonnes in 1980), strong and soft drinks, soluble coffee, dairy products, meat, plywood. Production of oil products, in 1978, was valued at 526m. córdobas; food products, 3,338-4m.; beverages, 565-8m.; textiles, 328-7m.; chemical substances and products, 1,054m. Labour. In 1980 there were some 813,000 persons gainfully employed. Commerce. The foreign trade of Nicaragua, in US$ 1 m., was as follows in calendar years:

Imports Exports

1977 761-9 636-8

1978 ' 553-0 645-9

1979 388-0 598-0

1980 870-0 469-7

1981 807-6 520-0

918

NICARAGUA

Total trade between Nicaragua and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q ¡gg¡ ¡9g2 ¡ m ¡ m Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1,510 2,478

1,030 4,269

3,282 4,940

1,810 2,367

2,176 4,755

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984, 4,000 km were paved, out of a total of 25,000 km. The whole 368-5 km of the Nicaraguan section of the Pan-American Highway is now paved. The all-weather Roosevelt Highway linking Managua with the river port Rama was completed in 1968, to provide the first overland link with the Atlantic coast. There are paved roads to San Juan del Sur, Puerto Somoza and Corinto. In 1981 there were 66,000 vehicles in use including23,000 cars. Railways. The Pacific Railroad of Nicaragua, owned and operated by the Government, has a total length of 373 km, all single-track, and connects Corinto, Chinandega, León, Managua, Masaya and Granada. Passengers carried (1981) 640,000. Aviation. LANICA, the Nicaraguan airline has daily flights to Miami and 6 flights a week to Guatemala and to the inner cities of Bluefields, Puerto Cabezas and the mining towns of Siuna and Bonanza. PANAM and TACA (Transportes Aéreos Centroamericanos), COPA (Compañía Panameña de Aviación), have daily services to Panama, Mexico, the other Central American countries and USA. SAM (Servicio Aéreo de Medellín) has 3 flights a week to Nicaragua and Colombia. In 1977,223,420 passengers and 24-2m. tonnes of cargo were carried. Shipping. The Pacific ports are Corinto (the largest), San Juan del Sur and Puerto Saudino through which pass most of the external trade. The chief eastern ports are El Bluff (for Bluefields) and Puerto Cabezas. The merchant marine consists solely of the Mamenic Line with 8 vessels. In 1980,471,000 tonnes of goods were loaded and 1 • 14m. tonnes unloaded at Nicaraguan ports. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 there were 51,237 telephones. The Tropical Radio Telegraph Company maintains a powerful station at Managua, and branch stations at Bluefields and Puerto Cabezas. The Government operates the National Radio with 47 broadcasting stations: there are 31 commercial stations and some 70 others. Number of wireless sets in 1981 was 140,000 and television sets 180,000. There are 2 television stations at Managua. Cinemas. Cinemas numbered over 100 in 1977 and seated over 60,000. Newspapers. In 1983 there were 3 daily newspapers (2 in Managua and 1 in León), with a total circulation of about 105,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice at Managua, 5 chambers of second instance (León, Másaya, Granada, Matagalpa and Bluefields) and 153 judges of inferior tribunals. Religion. The prevailing form of religion is Roman Catholic, but religious liberty is guaranteed by the Constitution. The republic constitutes 1 archbishopric (seat at Managua) and 7 bishoprics (León, Granada, Esteli, Matagalpa, Juigalpa, Masaya and Puerto Cabezas). Protestants, established principally on the Atlantic coast, numbered 54,100 in 1966. Education. There were, in 1981, 4,577 primary schools, with a total of 503,497 pupils and 14,113 teachers; and 377 secondary schools, with 139,743 pupils and 4,221 teachers. It was claimed that the illiteracy rate was 13% in 1980. In 1977 there were 6 universities and technical colleges with 1,204 professors and 23,171 students. Social Welfare. In 1980 there were 1,600 physicians and 50 hospitals with 4,573 beds.

NICARAGUA DIPLOMATIC

919

REPRESENTATIVES

O f N i c a r a g u a in G r e a t Britain (8 G l o u c e s t e r R d . , L o n d o n , S W 7 4 P P ) Ambassador: Francisco d'Escoto. O f G r e a t Britain in N i c a r a g u a Ambassador and Consul-General:

P. W . S u m m e r s c a l e (resides in San José).

O f N i c a r a g u a in t h e U S A (1627 N e w H a m p s h i r e Ave., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., 20009) Ambassador: D r Carlos T u n n e r m a n n . O f t h e U S A in N i c a r a g u a ( K m . 4'h C a r r e t e r a Sur., M a n a g u a ) Ambassador: H a r r y E. Bergold, Jr. Of Nicaragua to the United Nations Ambassador: Javier C h a m o r r o Mora. B o o k s of Reference Dirección General Estadística y Censos, Boletín de Estadística (irregular intervals); and Indicadores Economicos. Black,G., Triumph of the People: The Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua. London, 1981 Boletín de la Superintendencia de Bancos. Banco Central, Managua Booth, J. A., The End of the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution. Boulder, 1982 Rosset, P., and Vandermeer, J., (eds.) The Nicaragua Reader: Documents of a Revolution under Fire. New York, 1984 Walker, T. W., Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino. Boulder, 1982 Weber, H., Nicaragua: The Sandinista Revolution. London and New York, 1981 Woodward, R. L., Nicaragua. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Managua, D.N.

NIGER

Capital: Niamey Population: 6-21 m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$3 30 ( 1981 )

République du Niger HISTORY. Niger was occupied by France between 1883 and 1899, and became a territory of French West Africa in 1904. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 18 Dec. 1958 and achieved full independence on 3 Aug. 1960. On 15 April 1974 the first President, Hamani Diori, was overthrown in a military coup led by Lieut.-Col. Seyni Kountché, who suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly and banned political groups. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Niger is bounded north by Algeria and Libya, east by Chad, south by Nigeria, south-west by Benin and Burkina Faso, and west by Mali. Area, 1,186,408 sq. km (458,075 sq. miles), with a population at the 1977 census of 5,098,657. Estimate (1984) 6,265,000. The major towns (populations 1977) are: Niamey, the capital (225,314 inhabitants), Zinder (58,436), Maradi (45,852), Tahoua (31,265), Agadèz (20',475). Arlit (28,000), Akouta (26,000). The population is composed chiefly of Hausa (54%), Songhai and Djerma (23%), Fulani ( 10%), Beriberi-Manga (9%) and Tuareg (3%). The official language is French. C L I M A T E . Precipitation determines the geographical division into a southern zone of agriculture, a central zone of pasturage and a desert-like northern zone. The country lacks water, with the exception of the south-western districts, which are watered by the Niger and its tributaries, and the southern zone, where there are a number of wells. Niamey, 95°F (35°C). Annual rainfall varies from 22" (560 mm) in the south to 7" (180 mm) in the Sahara zone. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The country is administered by a Supreme Military Council of 12 officers led by the President, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him. A system of elected Development Councils at all levels has been created, culminating in a 150-member National Development Council with limited legislative powers. The Council of Ministers, in Sept. 1984, comprised: Head of State, President of SMC, Defence and Interior: Maj.-Gen. Seyni Kountché. Prime Minister: Hamid Algabid. Ministers: Idé Oumarou (Foreign Affairs and Co-operation), Boukari Adji (Finance•), Daouda Diallo (Information), Issoufou Mayaki (National Education), Annou Mahamane (Planning), Amadou Nouhou (Commerce and Transport), Salaou Barmou (Posts and Telecommunications), Yahaya Tounkara (Hydrology and Environment), Hadji Nadji (Civil Service and Labour) Sani Koutoubi (Mines and Industry), Dr Ari Toubo Ibrahim (Rural Development), Ilia Maikassoua (Higher Education and Research), Amadou Djibo (Youth, Sports and Culture), Moumouni Yacouba (Public Works and Town Planning), Dr Abdou Moudi (Public Health and Social Affairs), al-Haji Allele Habibou (Justice). Minister-Delegate: Amadou Fity Maiga (Interior). Secretaries of State: Amadou Modieli (National Education), al-Housseini Mouloul (Planning), al-Moustapha Soumeila (Commerce and Transport). National flag: Three horizontal strips of orange, white and green, with an orange disc in the middle of the white strip. Local government: Niger is divided into 7 départements (Agadez, DifFa, Dosso, Maradi, Niamey, Tahoua and Zinder), each under a prefect; they are sub-divided into 38 arrondissements, each under a sub-prefect and some 150 communes. 920

NIGER

921

D E F E N C E . Selective military service for2 years operates. Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured reconnaissance squadrons, 4 infantry, 1 engineer, 1 parachute and 1 support company. Equipment includes 10 M-8 and 30 ERC-60-20 armoured cars. Strength (1985) 2,150. There are additional paramilitary forces of some 2,500 men. Air Force. The Air Force has 70 officers and men, 2 C-130H and 3 C-47 transports, 1 Boeing 737 VIP transport, 2 Cessna Skymasters, 3 Do 28D Skyservants and 1 Aero Commander 500 for communications duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Niger is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 5-year plan (1979-83) provided 116,400m. francs CFA for investment in the rural economy and francs CFA 70,000m. for mining, energy and industry. Budget. The ordinary budget for 1983 balanced at 81,268m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. Banking. The Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue, and there are 7 commercial banks in Niamey. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1981) amounted to 60m. kwh. Oil. Deposits in the Lake Chad area, located in 1978, are to be exploited. Minerals. Large uranium deposits are mined at Arlit and Akouta, in the Air mountains of northern Niger, with French and Japanese assistance. Concentrate production (1981) 4,585 tonnes. Phosphates are mined in the Niger valley, and coal reserves are being exploited by open-cast mining. Salt and natron are produced at Manga and Agadez, tin ore in Âïr. Agriculture. The chief agricultural products in 1982 (in 1,000 tonnes) were: Millet, 1,295; pulses, 305; sorghum, 357; cassava (1981), 225; sugar-cane, 130; in the river districts, cotton and rice (52,000 tonnes). Gum arabic is produced at Gouré, nearly all of which is exported to Nigeria. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 3,521,000; horses, 283,000; asses, 501,000; sheep, 3,448,000; goats,7,478,000; camels,410,000; chickens, 1 lm. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Some small manufacturing industries, mainly in Niamey, produce textiles, food products, furniture and chemicals. Trade Unions. The sole national body is the Union Nationale des Travailleurs du Niger, which has 15,000 members in 31 unions. Commerce. Imports in 1982 were valued at 145,000m. francs CFA and exports at 109,000m. francs CFA. In 1981, France provided 36% of imports and took 36% of the exports. Main exports were uranium (79%) and livestock, 12%. Total trade between Niger and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 184 7,885

1981 5,762 5,201

1982 574 17,346

1983 6,854 9,650

1984 391 10,682

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 8,547 km of roads. Niamey and Zinder are the termini of two trans-Sahara motor routes; the Hoggar-Aïr-Zinder road extends to Kano and

922

NIGER

the Tanezrouft-Gao-Niamey road to Benin. A 648-km 'uranium road' runs from Arlit to Niamey. There were (1980), 25,800 private cars and 4,400 commercial vehicles. Shipping. Sea-going vessels can reach Niamey (300 km. inside the country) between Sept. and March. Aviation. There are international airports at Niamey, Zinder and Maradi. Air Niger operates domestic services to over 20 other public airports. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1978) 8,500 telephones. In Dec. 1982 there were 150,000 radio and 10,000 television receivers. Gnemas. In 1970 there were 4 cinemas with a seating capacity of3,800. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 dailynewspaperwithacirculationof3,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are Magistrates' and Assize Courts at Niamey, Zinder and Maradi, and justices of the peace in smaller centres. The Court of Appeal is at Niamey. Religion. In 1979, 85% of the population was Moslem and the remainder mainly followed animist beliefs. There were about 20,000 Christians. Education. There were, in 1979, 187,151 pupils and 4,762 teachers in primary schools, and, 45,846 (1981) and 866 teachers in secondary schools, 1,259 and 64 teachers in 4 teacher-training colleges, 354 students and 31 teachers in the technical school in Maradi. In 1982 there were 1,825 students and 273 teaching staff at the University of Niamey. Health. In 1982 there were 2 hospitals, 36 medical centres and 116 dispensaries. In 1976 there were 110 doctors, 6 dentists, 8 pharmacists, 70 midwives and 575 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Niger in Great Britain Ambassador: Habou Saley (accredited 9 May 1984, resides in Paris). Of Great Britain Niger General: J. M. Willson (resides in Abidjan). Ambassador and inConsulOf Niger in the USA (2204 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Joseph Diatta. Of the USA in Niger (PO Box 11201, Niamey) Ambassador: William R. Casey, Jr. Of Niger to the United Nations Ambassador: Arouna Mounkeila. Books of Reference Bonardi, P., La République du Niger. Paris, 1960 Fugelstad, F., A History of Niger, 1850-1960. OUP, 1984 Séré de Rivières, E., Histoire du Niger. Paris, 1965

NIGERIA

Capital: Lagos Population: &2-39m. (1983) GNPper capita: US$870 ( 1981 )

Federal Republic ofNigeria HISTORY. The Federal Republic comprises a number of areas formerly under separate administrations. Lagos, ceded in Aug. 1861 by King Dosunmu, was placed under the Governor of Sierra Leone in 1866. In 1874 it was detached, together with Gold Coast Colony, and formed part of the latter until Jan. 1886, when a separate 'colony and protectorate of Lagos' was constituted. Meanwhile the United African Company had established British interests in the Niger valley, and in July 1886 the company obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Niger Company. This company surrendered its charter to the Crown on 31 Dec. 1899, and on 1 Jan. 1900 the greater part of its territories was formed into the protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Along the coast the Oil Rivers protectorate had been declared in June 1885. This was enlarged and renamed the Niger Coast protectorate in 1893; and on 1 Jan. 1900, on its absorbing the remainder of the territories of the Royal Niger Company, it became the protectorate of Southern Nigeria. In Feb. 1906 Lagos and Southern Nigeria were united into the 'colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria', and on 1 Jan. 1914 the latter was amalgamated with the protectorate of Northern Nigeria to form the 'colony and protectorate of Nigeria', under a Governor. On 1 Oct. 1954 Nigeria became a federation under a Governor-General. On 1 Oct. 1960 Nigeria became sovereign and independent and a member of the Commonwealth and on 1 Oct. 1963 Nigeria became a republic. For the history ofNigeria from 1961 to 1 9 7 8 , see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1979-80, pp. 923-924.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Nigeria is bounded north by Niger, east by Chad and Cameroon, south by the Gulf of Guinea and west by Benin. It has an area of 356,669 sq. miles (923,773 sq. km). Census population, Nov. 1963, 55,670,052. The results of the 1973 census have been officially repudiated. There is considerable uncertainty over the total population, but one estimate based on electoral registration in 1978 is 95m. Estimate ( 1983) 82 • 39m. There are 19 states and a Federal Capital Territory: States Anambra Bauchi Bendel Benue Borno Cross River Gongola Imo Kaduna Kano

Area (in sq. km) Population 17,675 3,596,618 64,605 2,431,296 35,500 2,460,962 45,174 2,427,017 116,400 2,997,498 27,237 3,478,131 91,390 2,605,263 11,850 3,672,654 70,245 4,098,306 43,285 5,774,840

States Kwara Lagos Niger Ogun Ondo Oyo Plateau Rivers Sokoto

Area (insq. km) 66,869 3,345 65,037 16,762 20,959 37,705 58,030 21,850 102,535

Population 1,714,485 1,443,568 1,194,508 1,550,966 2,729,690 5,208,884 2,026,657 1,719,925 4,538,787

See map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1977-78. The populations of the largest towns were (1975 estimate) as follows: Lagos, 1,060,848; and (in 1,000) Ibadan, 847; Ogbomosho, 432; Kano, 399; Oshogbo, 282; Ilorin, 282; Abeokuta, 253; Port Harcourt, 242; Zaria, 224; Ilesha, 224; Onitsha, 220; Iwo, 214; Ado-Ekiti, 213; Kaduna, 202; Mushin, 197; Maiduguri, 189;Enugu, 187; Ede, 182; Aba, 177; Ife, 176; Ila, 155;Oyo, 152; Ikere-Ekiti, 145; Benin, 136; Iseyin, 129; Jos, 123;Katsina, 122;Ilobu, 122;Sokoto, 118; Offa, 117; Owo, 109; Shaki, 103; Calabar, 103, Ondo, 101. 923

924

NIGERIA

It was announced in Feb. 1976 that the federal capital would be moved from Lagos to the Abuja area and, in Sept. 1982, Abuja was established as the future capital. C L I M A T E . Lying wholly within the tropics, temperatures everywhere are high. Rainfall varies very much, but decreases from the coast to the interior. The main rains occur from April to Oct. Lagos. Jan. 81°F (27-2X), July 78"F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,836 mm). Ibadan. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 5 " (1,120 mm). Kano. Jan. 70°F (21 • PC), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 35" (869 mm). Port Harcourt. Jan. 79°F (26 1°C), July 77"F (25°C). Annual rainfall 100" (2,497 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution drafted and ratified in 1977-78, Nigeria is a sovereign, federal republic comprising 19 states and a federal capital district. Elections were held in Aug. 1983 and President Shagari was returned with 48% of the vote but in Dec. 1983 the military again took over control in a coup and on 3 Jan. 1984 a 18-member Supreme Military Council was sworn in. The Supreme Military Council comprised in Jan. 1985: Head of State and Government, Chairman of the SMC, and C.-in-C. of the Armed Forces: Maj.-Gen. Mohammed Buhari. Chief of Staff: Brig. Tunde Idiagbon. Minister of Defence: Maj.-Gen. Domkat Yah Bali. Chief of Army Staff: Maj.-Gen. Ibrahim Babangida. Chief of Naval Staff: Cmdre. Augustine Aikomo. Chief of Air Force Staff: Air Vice-Marshal Ibrahim Alfa. Minister for Federal Capital Territory: Maj.-Gen. Mamman Vatsa. Internal Affairs: Brig. Mohammed Magoro. Insp.-Gen. of Police: Col. Salihu Ibrahim James Etim Nyang. Director-Gen. of Nigeria Security Organisation: Mohammed Rafindadi. Attorney-General and Justice: Chibe Offodile. Other Members of the Council: Brig. Sanni Abacha, Brig. Ola Oni, Brig. M. J. Nasco, Brig. Y. Y. Kure, Brig. Paul Omu, Capt. Ebelo Ukiwe, Air Cmdre. L. Koinyan. The Federal Executive Council, appointed by the SMC, comprised in Jan. 1985 the four Ministers mentioned above and 14 other Ministers: External Affairs: Dr I. A. Gambari. Communications: Lieut.-Col. A. Abdullahi. Employment, Labour and Productivity: Brig. S. A. Omojokun. Information, Social Development, Youth, Sports and Culture: Group-Capt. Samson Emeka Omeruah. Health: Dr Emmanuel Nyong Nsan. Finance: Dr Onaolapo Soleye. Planning: Chief M. S. Adigun. Works and Housing: Ibrahim Yarima Abdullahi. Education, Science and Technology: Abdullahi Ibrahim. Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Development: Dr B. Shaib. Transport and Aviation: Cmdre. Patrick S. Koshoni. Commerce and Industry: Dr M. Tukur. Mines, Power and Steel: A. R. Lukman. Petroleum and Energy: T. David-West. The official language is English but Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba languages are also used in the National Assembly, i.e. the Senate and the House of Representatives as well as in each of the State Houses of Assembly. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, green. Local Government: Each of the 19 states is administered by a military governor, who appoints and presides over a State Executive Council. The creation of further states by sub-division is under consideration. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured division, 2 mechanized divisions and 1 airborne and amphibious forces division, each with supporting artillery, engineer and reconnaissance units, and 1 Guards brigade. Equipment includes 65 T-55 and Vickers Mk 3 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 120,000 men. Navy. The Nigerian Navy was established in 1958. It comprises the frigates Aradu (completed in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1982) and Obuma (ex-Nigeria) acting as training ship (completed in the Netherlands in 1965), 4 corvettes built in

NIGERIA

925

Britain in 1970-72 (Dorina and Otobo), and 1975-80 (Erinmi and Enyimiri), 6 fast missile-armed attack vedettes (3 built in France and 3 in FR Germany), 9 patrol craft, 15 coastal patrol boats, 2 tank landing ships, 2 utility landing craft, 1 survey ship, 1 training ship, 60 launches and 5 tugs. There are also 80 small patrol launches operated by the Nigerian Police. Naval personnel in 1985 totalled 550 officers and 4,500 ratings. Air Force. The Nigerian Air Force was established in Jan. 1964. Pilots were trained initially in Canada, India and Ethiopia. The Air Force was built up subsequently with the aid of a Federal Republic of Germany mission; much first-line equipment has since been received from the Soviet Union. It has 18 MiG-21 supersonic jetfighters, 18 Jaguar attack aircraft and MiG-21U fighter-trainers, and 24 Alpha Jet light attack/trainers. Two F27 Maritime twin-turboprop aircraft are used for maritime patrol. About 20 BO 105 twin-turbine helicopters have been acquired from the Federal Republic of Germany for search and rescue. Transport units operate 9 C-130H-30 and C-130H Hercules 4-tuiboprop heavy transports, 5 twin-turboprop Aeritalia G222s and 5 F.27s, a Boeing 727, a Gulfstream II and a Fokker F.28 Fellowship twin-turbofan airliner for VIP use, 18 Dornier 128-6 twin-turboprop utility aircraft, 2 Navajos and a Navajo Chieftain. Training types include 30 Bulldog primary trainers and about 12 MB 339 jets for instrument training, transport and ambulance duties. Five heavy-lifl CH-47C Chinooks, 13 medium-lift Aérospatiale Pumas and a few light helicopters are also in service. Personnel (1984) total about 8,000. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Nigeria is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, ECOWAS, OAU, OPEC and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth plan (1981-85) was launched in 1981 but was rescheduled because of lower oil prices. Budget. The 1984 budget provided for expenditure (capital and recurrent) of N10,100m. and revenue o f N l 1,33 l m . (69% from oil revenues). Currency. Since 1 Jan. 1973 a decimal currency has been issued by the Central Bank of Nigeria, consisting of Naira (N) and divided into 100 kobo (k). Notes in circulation N 2 0 , N 1 0 , N 5 , N 1 , 5 0 k . Coins, 25k, 10k, 5k, lk,'/2k. In March 1985, £1 = N 1 1 3 ; U S $ l = M ) - 8 6 . Banking. There are 20 commercial banks including the First Bank of Nigeria (formerly Standard), Union Bank of Nigeria (formerly Barclays) and the United Bank of Africa. Eleven of the banks are indigenous. There are 3 merchant banks and 3 government-owned development banks in addition to the Post Office Savings Bank. In 1976 the Government took a 60% shareholding in all foreign banks. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The National Electric Power Authority generated 7,260m. kwh. in 1981. The Niger dams at Kainji were completed in early 1969 (investment of £87m.) and provide cheap hydro-electricity for rapid industrialization. Oil. There are refineries at Port Harcourt, Warn and at Kaduna. Oil represents 95% of exports. Production, 1983,1 -29m. bbls. per day. Gas. Natural gas is being used at electric power stations at Afam and Ughelli. Reserves: 1,422,000m. cu.metres. Minerals. Production: Tin, 1980, 2,527 tonnes; columbite, 1977 (the world's largest producer), 800 tonnes; coal (1981) 114,875 tonnes. There are large deposits of iron ore, coal (reserves estimate 245m. tonnes), lead and zinc. There are small quantities of gold and uranium.

926

NIGERIA

Agriculture. Groundnuts, cotton and soybean come mainly or wholly from the north, palm produce, cocoa, timber and rubber from the south. Tobacco is grown in commercial quantities. Production (estimates) 1981 were (in tonnes): Groundnuts (unshelled), 580,000; cocoa, 160,000; cereals, 9-9m. In 1981, the National Rice Production Scheme was launched; production (1981), about 75,000 tons from 66,000 hectares. Livestock (1983). There were 12-3m. cattle, 12-85m. sheep, 26-3m. goats, l -3m. pigs and 150m. poultry. Forestries. There are plywood factories at Epe, Sapele and Calabar, and numerous saw-mills. The most important timber species include mahogany, iroko, obeche, abwa, ebony and camwood. Fisheries. The total catch (1981) was 496,200 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. There were more than 2,000 industrial establishments in 1982. Timber and hides and skins are major export commodities. Industrial products include soap, cigarettes, beer, margarine, groundnut oil, meat and cake, concentrated fruit juices, soft drinks, canned food, metal containers, ply-wood, textiles, ceramic products and cement (3m. tonnes, 1985). Of growing importance is the local assembly of motor vehicles, bicycles, radio equipment, electrical goods and sewing machines. In 1982, the Delta Steel Plant opened at Ovwian—Aladja. Under a decree on indigenization Nigerians must have a minimum of 40% shareholding in all foreign enterprises. Trade Unions. All trade unions were dissolved in 1976 and 42 new unions, each organized around a particular occupation, have since been created. Commerce. There is a great deal, of internal commerce in local foodstuffs and imported goods moving by rail, lorry and pack animals overland, and by launches, rafts and canoes along an extensive and complex network of inland waterways. Kano is still, as it has been for centuries, the focus of caravan routes linking a territory which stretches from the Sudan in the east to Senegal in the west, with branches northwards across the Sahara. Total trade in Nm. for 4 years: Imports (c.i.f.) Exports and re-exports (f.o.b.)

1981 11,300 10,900

1982 11,300 8,700

1983 8,500 7,500

1 984 7,200 8,700

Total trade between Nigeria and UK (according to British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 1981 1982 151,563 95,069 356,802 1,204,358 1,428,018 1,225,164

1983 387,975 798,276

1984 375,796 768,449

Tourism. There were 114,000 foreign visitors in 1976. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1980). There were 108,000 km of maintained roads. In 1980,633,268 vehicles were registered. Bus services, by private owners, operate in the larger towns and between the main towns in southern Nigeria, but the bulk of passenger and goods traffic by road is carried in lorries (mammy wagons). Railways. There are 3,505 route-km of line 1,067 mm gauge, which in 1983 carried 1 -7m. tonnes of freight and 12-9m. passengers. Aviation. There is an extensive system of internal and international air routes, serving Europe, USA, Middle East and South and West Africa. Regular services are operated by Nigerian Airways (WAAC), British Caledonian, UTA, KIM, S A B E N A , Swissair, PANAM and other lines. In 1981, 2-3m. passengers were carried on domestic and international routes. Shipping. The principal ports are Lagos, Port Harcourt, Warri and Calabar.

NIGERIA

927

Post and Broadcasting. Postal facilities are provided at 1,667 offices and agencies; telegraph, money order and savings bank services are provided at 280 of these. Most internal letter mail is carried by air at normal postage rates. External telegraph services are owned and operated by Nigerian External Telecommunications, Ltd, at Lagos, from which telegraphic communication is maintained with all parts of the world. There were 708,390 telephones in use in 1982, of which 249,150 were in Lagos and 33,138 in Ibadan. There is also a telex service. Federal and some state governments have established commercial corporations for sound and television broadcasting, which are widely used in schools. In 1983 there were 5 -6m. radio and 455,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1974). There were 120 cinemas, with a seating capacity of 60,000. Mobile cinemas are used by the Federal and States Information Services. Newspapers. In 1983 there were 24 daily newspapers. The aggregate circulation is about 1 m., of which the Daily Times (Lagos) has about 400,000. (Another 2 dailies were published in Lagos, 4 in Ikeja, 3 in Enugu, and 4 in Ibadan.) J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The highest court is the Federal Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice of the Republic, and up to 15 Justices appointed by SMC. It has original jurisdiction in any dispute between the Federal Republic and any State or between States; and to hear and determine appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal, which acts as an intermediate appellate Court to consider appeals from the High Court. High Courts, presided over by a Chief Justice, are established in each state. All judges are appointed by the SMC. Magistrates' courts are established throughout the Republic, and customary law courts in southern Nigeria. In each of the northern States of Nigeria there are the Sharia Court of Appeal and the Court of Resolution. Moslem Law has been codified in a Penal Code and is applied through Alkali courts. Religion. Moslems, 48%; Christians, 34% (17% Protestants and 17% Roman Catholic); others, 18%. Northern Nigeria is mainly Moslem; Southern Nigeria is predominantly Christian and Western Nigeria is evenly divided between Christians, Moslems and animists. Education. In 1976 primary education became free throughout the country. Literacy rate(1973)25%. In 1979 there were 12-6m. primary school pupils, and 1 -9m. secondary school pupils. Teacher-training institutions totalled 157 in 1973. There were also 67 trade centres and vocational training institutes for sub-professional technicians and tradesmen. There are 24 universities in Nigeria, providing 3-5-year courses leading to the award of a first degree in various disciplines; these include 7 Federal Universities of Technology. There are also opportunities for taking higher degrees. Free tuition was provided from 1977. The total number of students (1982-83) was 88,636 in universities and 53,766 in polytechnics. Health. Most tropical diseases are endemic to Nigeria. Blindness, yaws, leprosy, sleeping sickness, worm infections, malaria are major health problems which, however, are yielding to remedial and preventative measures. In co-operation with the World Health Organization river blindness and malaria are being tackled on a large scale, while annual campaigns are undertaken against the danger of smallpox epidemics. Dispensaries and travelling dispensaries are found in most parts of the country. The teaching hospital at Lagos University has 350 beds; there is also a nursing school and a teaching hospital at Ibadan University. There are medical courses at Ahmadu Bello University, University of Ife, Benin University and at Nsukka.

928 DIPLOMATIC

NIGERIA REPRESENTATIVES

Of Nigeria in Great Britain (9 N o r t h u m b e r l a n d Ave., London, W C 2 N 5 B X ) High Commissioner: Maj.-Gen. H. A. Hananiya (accredited 15 June 1984). Of Great Britain in Nigeria ( 11 Eleke Cres., Victoria Island, Lagos) High Commissioner: (Vacant). Of Nigeria in the U S A (2201 M . St., N W , Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Ignatius C. Olisemeka. Of the U S A in Nigeria (2 Eleke Cres.,-Lagos) Ambassador: Thomas W. M. Smith. Of Nigeria to the United Nations Ambassador: Maj.-Gen. Joseph N. Garba. Books of Reference Nigeria Digest of Statistics. Lagos, 1951ff.(quarterly) Annual Abstract of Statistics. Federal Office of Statistics. Lagos, 1960 fF. Nigeria Trade Journal. Federal Ministry of Commerce and Industries (quarterly) Barbour, K. M. (ed.), Nigeria in Maps. London, 1982 Blitz, F. (ed.), The Politics and Administration of Nigerian Government. Lagos and London, 1965 Comhaire, 3., Le Nigeria el ses populations. Brussels, 1981. Kirk-Greene, A., and Rimmer, D., Nigeria since 1970. London, 1981 Luckham, R., The Nigerian Military: A Sociological Analysis of Authority and Revolt, 1960-67. C UP, 1971 Nnoli, O., Path to Nigerian Development. Dakar, 1981 Nwabueze, B. O., The Presidential Constitution of Nigeria. Lagos and London, 1982 Olaloku, F. A., (ed.) Structure of the Nigerian Economy. London, 1980 Oyediran, O., Nigerian Government and Politics under Military Rule, 1966-1979. New York, 1980 Panter-Brick, S. K., Nigerian Politics and Military Rule: Prelude to Civil War. London, 1970.—Soldiers and Oil. London, 1978 Shaw, T. M., and Aluko, O., Nigerian Foreign Policy: Alternative Perceptions and Projections. London,1984 Simmons, M.,and0be,0. A., Nigerian Handbook 1982-83. London, 1982 Tijjani, A. and Williams, D.,(eds.) Shehu Shagari: My Vision of Nigeria. London, 1981 Van Apeldoorn, G. J., Perspectives on Drought and Famine in Nigeria. London, 1981 Williams, D., President and Power in Nigeria. London, 1982 Zartman, I. W., The Political Economy of Nigeria. New York, 1983

NORWAY

Capital: Oslo Population: 4 1 m . (1983) GNPper capita: US$ 12,923 (1983)

Kongeriket Norge

H I S T O R Y . By the Treaty of 14 Jan. 1814 Norway was ceded to the King of Sweden by the King of Denmark, but the Norwegian people declared themselves independent and elected Prince Christian Frederik of Denmark as their king. The foreign Powers refused to recognize this election, and on 14 Aug. a convention proclaimed the independence of Norway in a personal union with Sweden. This was followed on 4 Nov. by the election of Karl XIII (II) as King of Norway. Norway declared this union dissolved, 7 June 1905, and Sweden agreed to the repeal of the union on 26 Oct. 1905. The throne was offered to a prince of the reigning house of. Sweden, who declined. After a plebiscite, Prince Carl of Denmark was formally elected King on 18 Nov. 1905, and took the name of Haakon VII. Inge Baardssen Haakon Haakonssen Magnus Lagaboter Eirik Magnusssn Haakon V Magnussan Magnus Eriksson Haakon VI Magnusson Olav Haakonssen Margreta

Norwegian 1204 1217 1263 1280 1299 1319 1355 1381 1388

Sovereigns Erik of Pomerania Kristofer af Bavaria Karl Knutssen Same Sovereigns as in Denmark Christian Frederik Same Sovereigns as in Sweden Haakon VII Olav V

1389 1442 1449 1450-1814 1814 1814-1905 1905 1957

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Norway is bounded north by the Arctic ocean, east by the USSR, Finland and Sweden, south by the Skagerrak Straits and west by the North Sea. Pop. per Census Fylker (counties) Oslo (City) Akershus Ostfold Hedmark Oppland Buskerud Vestfold Telemark Aust-Agder Vest-Agder Rogaland Hordaland Sogn og Fjordane More og Romsdal Sor-Trandelag Nord-Trondelag Nordland Troms Finnmark

Area (sq. km) 4710 4,916-4 4,183-4 27,388-3 25,259-6 14,933-2 2,215-8 15,315-3 9,211-8 7,280-3 9,140-6 15,633-7 18,633-5 15,104-2 18,831-4 22,463-3 38,327-1 25,953-9 48,637-3

Mainland total

323,883-1

1

population I Nov. 1980 452,023 369,193 233,301 187,223 180,765 214,571 186,691 162,050 90,629 136,718 305,490 391,463 105,924 236,062 244,760 125,835 244,493 146,818 78,331

Population ¡Jan. 1984 447,257 380,258 234,938 187,475 182,440 218,462 189,394 162,153 93,603 139,141 316,534 396,222 106,049 237,548 246,289 127,051 244,638 147,679 77,226

4,092,340

4,134,353

sq km (total area) 1984 985-1 77-3 56-2 6-8 7-2 14-6 85-5 10-6 10-2 19-1 34-6 25-3 5-7 15-7 13-1 5-7 6-4 5-7 1-6 12 8

Svalbard and Jan Mayen have an area o f 6 3 , 0 8 0 sq. km. Persons staying on Svalbard and Jan Mayen are registered as residents o f t h e i r home Norwegian municipality. ' 125,051 sq. miles.

On 1 Nov. 1980, 2,874,990 persons lived in densely populated areas and 1,197,939 in sparsely populated areas. 929

930

NORWAY

Population of the principal towns at 1 Jan. 1984: Oslo Bergen Trondheim Stavanger Kristiansand Drammen Troms0 Skien

447,257 207,332 134,143 92,883 61,704 50,809 47,406 46,693

Sandnes Sandefjord Alesund Bodo Porsgrunn Fredrikstad Haugesund Ringerike

Vital statistics for c a l e n d a r years: Marriages Divorces 6,634 1980 22,230 1981 22,271 7,136 1982 21,706 7,165 1983 20,803 7,668

Births 51,039 50,708 51,245 49,937

38,959 35,073 35,095 33,795 31,321 27,264 27,042 26,797 Si ill-born 363 299 324 303

Halden Gjsvik Moss Lillehammer Harstad Moide Steinkjer Kongsberg Illegitimate 7,392 8,169 9,041 9,616

1

26,050 25,990 24,881 22,092 21,851 21,148 20,654 20,720 Deaths 41,340 41,893 41,454 42,177

' Excluding still-bom.

CLIMATE. There is considerable variation in the climate because of the extent of latitude, the topography and the varying effectiveness of prevailing westerly winds and the Gulf Stream. Winters along the whole west coast are exceptionally mild but precipitation is considerable. Oslo. Jan. 25°F (-3-9°C), July 63°F (17°C). Annual rainfall 27" (683 mm). Bergen. Jan. 35°F(1-5°C), July 6PF(16- 1°C). Annual rainfall 78-3" (1,958 mm). Trondheim. Jan. 26°F (-3-5°C), July 57°F (14°C). Annual rainfall 32-1" (870 mm). REIGNING KING. Olav V, bom 2 July 1903, married on 21 March 1929 to Princess Martha of Sweden (born 28 March 1901, died 5 April 1954), daughter of the late Prince Carl (son of King Oscar II). He succeeded on the death of his father, King Haakon VII, on 21 Sept. 1957. Offspring: Princess Ragnhild Alexandra, born 9 June 1930 (married, 1953, Hr. Erling Lorentzen); Princess Astrid Maud Ingeborg, bom 12 Feb. 1932 (married, 12 Jan. 1961, Hr. Johan Martin Ferner); Crown Prince Harald, bom 21 Feb. 1937, married, 29 Aug. 1968,SonjaHaraldsen. Offspring: Princess Martha Louise, bom 22 Sept. 1971; Prince Haakon Magnus, bom 20 July 1973. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. Norway is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is in direct male line in the order of primogeniture. In default of male heirs the King may propose a successor to the Storting, but this assembly has the right to nominate another, if it does not agree with the proposal. The Constitution, vofed by the constituent assembly at Eidsvoll on 17 May 1814 and modified at various times, vests the legislative power of the realm in the Storting (Parliament). The royal veto may be exercised; but if the same Bill passes two Stortings formed by separate and subsequent elections it becomes the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign. The King has the command of the land, sea and air forces, and makes all appointments. Since June 1938 all branches of the Government service, including the state church, are open to women. Nationalflag: Red with a blue white-bordered Scandinavian cross. National anthem: Ja, vi elsker dette landet (words by B. Bjomson, 1865; tune by R. Nordraak, 1865). The Storting assembles every year. The meetings take place suo jure, and not by any writ from the King or the executive. They begin on the first weekday in Oct. each year, until June the following year. Every Norwegian subject of 18 years of age is entitled to vote,-unless he is disqualified for a special cause. Women are, since 1913, entitled to vote under the same conditions as men. The mode of election is direct and the method of election is proportional. The country is divided into 19 districts, each electing from 4 to 15 representatives. At the elections for the Storting held in 1981 the following parties were

NORWAY

931

elected: Labour, 66; Conservative, 53; Centre Party, 11; Christian Democratic Party, 15; Socialist Left Party, 4; Party of Progress, 4, and Liberal, 2. The Storting, when assembled, divides itself by election into the Lagting and the Odelsting. The former is composed of one-fourth of the members of the Storting, and the other of the remaining three-fourths. Each Ting (the Storting, the Odelsting and the Lagting) nominates its own president. Most questions are decided by the Storting, but questions relating to legislation must be considered and decided by the Odelsting and the Lagting separately. Only when the Odelsting and the Lagting disagree, the Bill has to be considered by the Storting in plenary sitting, and a new law can then only be decided by a majority of two-thirds of the voters. The same majority is required for alterations of the Constitution, which can only be decided by the Storting in plenary sitting. The Storting elects 5 delegates, whose duty it is to revise the public accounts. The Lagting and the ordinary members of the Supreme Court of Justice (the Hoyesterett) form a High Court of the Realm (the Riksrett) for the trial of ministers, members of the Heyesterett and members of the Storting. The impeachment before the Riksrett can only be decided by the Odelsting. The executive is represented by the King, who exercises his authority through the Cabinet or Council of State (Statsrad), composed of a Prime Minister (Statsminster) and (at present) 17 ministers (Statsrader). The ministers are entitled to be present in the Storting and to take part in the discussions, but without a vote. A Conservative Government was formed and took office on 14 Oct. 1981; after 16 Sept. 1983 the members of the Government were: Prime Minister: Kire Willoch. Foreign Affairs: Svenn Stray. Finance: Rolf Presthus. Defence: Anders C. Sjaastad. Agriculture: Finn T. Isaksen. Commerce and Shipping: Asbjern Haugstvedt. Justice: Mona Rekke. Ecclesiastical Affairs and Education: Kjell Magne Bondevik. Culture: Lars Roar Langslet. Local Government and Labour: Ame Rettedal. Industry: Jan P. Syse. Communications: Johan J. Jakobsen. Environment: Rakel S. Surlien. Social Affairs: Leif Arne Helae. Consumer Affairs and Government Administration: Astrid Gjertsen. Fisheries: Thor Listau. Oil and Energy: Kire Kristiansen. Development Co-operation: Reidun Brusletten. The official languages are Bokmil (or RiksmSl) and Nynorsk (or Landsmal). Local Government. For the purposes of administration the country is divided into 19 counties (fylkerj, in each of which the central government is represented by a county governor (fylkesmannen). In addition, there are 47 urban districts (bykommuner) and 407 rural districts (herredskommuner), each of which usually corresponds in size to a parish (prestegjeld). The districts are administered by district councils (kommunestyrer), whose membership may vary between 13 and 85 councillors, and by a committee (formannskap) which is elected by and from the members of the council. The council is four times the size of the committee. The council elects a chairman and a vice-chairman from among the committee members. Each of the 18 counties forms a county district (fylkeskommune), while the remaining one, Oslo, comprises an urban district. The supreme authority in a county district is the county council (fylkesting). The members of the county council are elected directly by the electors of the county and the number of representatives varies between 25 and 85. In a county district the county committee (fylkesutvalg) occupies a position corresponding to that of the committee (formannskap) in the primary districts. The county committee is elected by and from among the members of the county council. The number of county committee members is onefourth of the membership of the county council, but must be not more than 15. The county council elects from among the members of the county committee a county sheriff (fylkesordferer) and a deputy sheriff. D E F E N C E . Service is universal and compulsory, liability in peace-time commencing at the age of 19 and continuing till the age of 44. The training period in the Army is 12 months, in the Navy and Air Force, 15 months. The Norwegian Defence forces are organized into 2 integrated regional commands.

932

NORWAY

Army. In Northern Command the largest standing element is Brigade North. There are also 2 infantry battalions and 2 tank companies in the North. Southern Command comprises 1 infantry battalion, 1 tank company and 1 self-propelled field artillery battery. Equipment includes 78 Leopard I and 38 M-48A5 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 24,200 (including 18,300 conscripts). Reserves number 122,000. Navy. The Navy consists of the coastal batteries and other static defence systems and the following naval units: 14 coastal submarines, 5 small frigates, 2 minelayers, 1 submarine parent ship, 2 corvettes, 39 fast missile craft, 8 fast torpedo boats, 1 patrol vessel, 9 coastal minesweepers, 1 minehunter, 1 controlled minelayer, 2 coastal patrol boats, 1 research ship, 2 diving tenders, 7 coastal transports, 1 torpedo recovery vessel, 2 training craft, 7 landing craft, 2 tugs and the royal yacht. Personnel in 1985 totalled 8,750 officers and ratings including 2,000 in the Coast Artillery. Reserves number 25,000. Coastguard. The Coastguard was established in 1977 within the framework of the Armed Forces. Main tasks are Fishery Protection and Economic Zone Patrol. The Coastguard assists other government agencies in rescue service, environment, surveillance and police duties. It comprises 3 frigate-size monitors each equipped with a Lynx helicopter, 3 corvette type cutters, 7 armed trawlers (chartered until construction of patrol vessels), 12 survey and 8 inspection vessels. Air Force. The Royal Norwegian Air Force consists of 3 squadrons of F-16 Fighting Falcons, 2 squadrons of F-5 fighter-bombers, 1 maritime patrol squadron of P-3B Orions, 1 squadron of C-l 30H Hercules transports and Jet Falcons equipped for EW duties, 1 squadron with Twin Otter light transports and UH-1B helicopters, 2 squadrons of UH-1B. Ground based air defence forces deploy 4 Nike surface-toair missile batteries and several light anti-aircraft artillery units. Hawk missiles provide area and airfield defence. Ten Westland Sea King helicopters are used for search and rescue duties; 6 Lynx helicopters are operated for the Coast Guard. Total strength (1985) is more than 10,000 personnel, including4,700 conscripts. Home Guard. The Home Guard is organized in small units equipped and trained for special tasks. Service after basic training is 1 week a year. The total strength is approximately 90,000. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Norway is a member of UN, NATO, EFTA, OECD, the Council of Europe and the Nordic Council. ECONOMY

Budget. Current revenue and expenditure for years ending 31 Dec. (in 1,000 kroner). /979 m o 1981 m 2 1983 l984, Revenue 61,112,000 Expenditure 67,373,000

82,938,000 100,924,000 110,539,000 119,762,000 80,054,000 91,629,000 100,898,000 100,250,000 ' Voted budget.

122,023,000 109,905,000

National debt 1 for years ending 31 Dec. (in 1,000 kroner): 1975 41,082,800 1978 86,556,000 1981 107,662,000 1976 50,290,300 1979 103,605,000 1982 103,799,400 1977 66,786,000 1980 106,908,000 1983 92,406,100 1 At the rate of par on foreign loans: including treasury bills (in 1 m. kroner) which amounted to 6,000 in 1978; 9,600 in 1979; 14,600 in 1980,17,200 in 1981,13,880 in 1982 and 13,400 in 1983.

Currency. The Norwegian krone, of 100 ere, is of the value of about 11 kroner to £ 1 sterling. National bank-notes of 10, 50,100, 500 and 1,000 kroner are legal means of payment. March 1985,US$1 =9-79 kroner, £1 = 10-31 kroner. On 31 Aug. 1984 the nominal value of the coin in circulation was 1,016m. kroner; notes in circulation, 20,809m. kroner.

933

NORWAY

Banking. The Bank of Norway is a joint-stock bank; in 1949 the state acquired all the shares hitherto privately owned. The bank is governed by laws enacted by the State, and its directors are elected by the Storting, except the president and vicepresident of the head office, who are nominated by the King. It is the only bank of issue. At the end of 1983 there were 22 private joint-stock banks. Their total amount of capital and funds was 6,621m. kroner (capital 3,546m., funds 3,075m.). Deposits amounted to 127,184m. kroner, of which 29,976m. kroner were at call and notice, and 97,208m. kroner on time. The number of savings banks at the end of 1983 was 235. The total amount of funds of the savings banks amounted to 6,345m. kroner, and total deposits 96,810m. kroner, of which 20,572m. kroner were at call and notice and 76,238m. kroner on time. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures has been obligatory since 1875. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Norway is a large producer of hydro-electric energy. The potential total hydro-electric power, for a whole year at regulated minimum water flow and by 82% efficiency, is estimated at 15m. kw. or about 131,000m. kwh. annually. About 60% of the water power suitable for development consists of waterfalls with a height of at least 900 ft. By the end of 1982 the capacity of the installations for production of thermoelectric energy amounted to only 247 mw. On 31 Dec. 1982, the total capacity of generators (of hydro-electric plants) was 26 03m. kva. In 1982 the total production of electricity amounted to 93,156m. kwh. of which 99 • 7% was produced by hydro-electric plants. Most of the electricity is used for industrial purposes, especially by the chemical and basic metal industries for production of nitrate of calcium and other nitrogen products, carbide, ferrosilicon and other ferro-alloys, aluminium and zinc. The paper and pulp industries are also big consumers of electricity. Oil. In 1963 sovereignty was proclaimed over the Norwegian continental shelf and in 1966 the first exploration well was drilled. By 1982 production was 7 times the domestic consumption of petroleum and is valued at about 17% of the GNP. Production (1983) 30m. tonnes. Minerals. Production and value of the chief concentrates, metals and alloys were: Concentrates and minerals Copper concentrates Pyrites Titanium ore Zinc and lead concentrates

Tonnes 110,550 435,493 659,604 61,610

Metals and alloys Copper Nickel Aluminium Ferro-alloys Pig-iron Zinc Lead and tin

31,951 36,954 633,585 778,612 586,584 80,279 189

1981 1,000 kroner 180,490 36,684 97^286

4,74^804 2,119,754

Tonnes 107,448 425,251 551,764 67,292 24,358 25,833 638,091 730,229 456,490 72,016 88

1982 1,000 kroner 185,257 41,254 122,548

4,826,972

Agriculture. Norway, including Svalbard and Jan Mayen, is a barren and mountainous country. The arable soil is found in comparatively narrow strips, gathered in deep and narrow valleys and around fiords and lakes. Large, continuous tracts fit for cultivation do not exist. Of the total area, 79-3% is unproductive, 18% productive forest and 2 -6% under cultivation.

934 Principal crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats Mixed corn Potatoes Hay

NORWAY 1981 12,850 880 176,130 126,060 480 20,680 411,250

Area

1

(hectares) 1982 1983 16,690 23,270 1,000 700 169,530 181,160 133,550 119,260 510 650 21,140 21,100 417,370 421,980

1981 57,600 2,900 607,400 464,000 2,000 454,000 2,859,700

Produce ' (tonnes) 1982 1983 96,800 75,500 3,400 2,200 623,300 569,400 495,100 400,700 1,800 2,600 476,000 433,500 2,808,000 2,936,500

Livestock, 1983': 14,900 horses, 975,100 cattle (380,600 milch cows), 2,272,100 sheep, 72,100 goats, 705,200 pigs, 3,582,800 hens. Fur production in 1983-84 was as follows (1982-83 in brackets): Silver fox, 53,600 (32,000); silver-blue fox, 54,600 (17,000); blue fox, 321,000 (395,000); mink, 620,000 (737,000). 1

Holdings with at least 5 decares agricultural area in use.

Forestry. The area covered with productive forests is 66,600 sq. km. About 81% of this consists of conifers and 19% of broadleaves. Forests in public ownership cover 8,470 sq. km of productive area. Between 1973-74 and 1983-84 an annual average of 8-3m. cu. metres was cut for sale: 8 1 m . for industrial use, 0-2m. for fuel. Of industrial use, 4-5m. cu. metres in the lumber industry, 3m. as pulp, 200,000 as particle board. About 800,000 cu. metres are consumed annually on farms. The annual increment (estimate, 1982) is about 16m. cu. metres. Fisheries. The total number of registered fishermen in 1983 was 28,305, of whom 5,916 had another chief occupation. In 1983, the number of fishing vessels (all with motor) was 26,045, and of these, 17,077 were open boats. The value of sea fisheries in lm. kroner in 1983 was: Cod, 1,304; capelin, 634; mackerel, 122; coal-fish (saithe), 551; deep-water prawn, 434; haddock, 148; herring, 82; dogfish, 12. The catch totalled in 1983,2-6m. tons, valued at 3,982m. kroner. From 1 Jan. 1977 Norway established an economic zone of200 nautical miles, and from 3 June 1977 a fishery protection zone of 200 nautical miles around Svalbard. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Industry is chiefly based on raw materials produced within the country (wood, fish, etc.) and on water power, of which the country possesses a large amount. Crude petroleum and natural gas production, the manufacture of paper and paper products, industrial chemicals and basic metals are the most important export manufactures. In the following table are given figures for industrial establishments in 1982, excluding one-man units. Electrical plants, construction and building industry are not included. The values are given in 1 m. kroner. EstablishIndustries ments 1 Coalmining 7 Crude petroleum and natural gas Metal-mining 13 Other-mining 445 Food manufacturing 2,390 Beverages 67 6 Tobacco 437 Textiles 328 Clothing, etc. Footwear 43 Leather 70 Wood 1,520 Furniture and fixtures 529 Pulp and paper 159 Printing and publishing 1,603 Chemical, industrial 58 Chemical, other 165

Number of Salaried Wage earners staff 149 675 2,381 5,923 783 2,878 2,571 483 9,245 40,299 1,431 3,442 488 574 1,867 8,222 853 4,807 135 911 153 900 4,827 17,333 1,662 7,045 3,737 11,691 12,784 21,731 4,046 5,545 3,229 3,972

Gross value of produc- Value tion added 206 60 63,379 56,270 1,264 409 1,391 675 37,161 3,585 2,932 1,881 1,672 1,402 2,757 960 1,286 521 228 93 260 90 10,288 3,095 2,986 1,155 10,143 2,471 10,201 4,201 8,721 1,946 3,949 1,390

935

NORWAY

Industries Petroleum, refined Petroleum and coal Rubber Plastics Ceramics Glass Other mineral products Iron, steel and ferro-alloys Non-ferrous metals Metal products, except machinery Machinery and equipment Electrical apparatus and supplies Transport equipment Professional and scientific instruments, photographic and optical goods Other manufacturing industries Total (all included)

Establishments 3 58 78 314 32 66 493 53 69 1,545 1,120 390 1,008

Number of Salaried Wage staff earners 349 548 605 1,196 380 1,431 5,132 1,588 879 233 514 1,774 1,860 6,027 3,048 9,192 3,714 9,369 20,194 5,581 11,434 23,097 12,863 8,731 8,183 33,933

Gross value of production 12,374 1,538 589 2,735 252 806 4,588 5,675 9,539 8,545 19,531 8,363 16,826

Value added 280 297 247 907 148 326 1,642 1,680 2,198 3,496 6,347 3,539 5,720

50 301

322 612

881 2,183

383 789

188 324

13,421

98,949

263,676

251,356

107,541

The following table sets forth the estimated value of net production, at factor cost by industries, in 1 m. kroner: Agriculture Forestry Fishing Miningand quarrying Manufacturing Crude petroleum and gas production Electricity, gas and water Construction 2 Wholesale and retail trade Restaurants and hotels Water transport Other transport 1 Financial institutions Real estate Business services Government services, social and personal services Imputed bank service charge Net production at factor cost + Indirect taxes -Subsidies

1978 7,283 1,410 1,043 767 35,309

1979 7,273 1,535 1,162 809 41,484

1980 7,972 1,716 1,404 836 42,978

1981 8,852 2,260 2,048 1,179 44,845

1982' 10,127 2,146 1,943 1,198 47,835

1983' 9,814 1,941 2,234 1,219 50,243

8,458 3,975 13,476 18,256 2,490 3,235 8,386 7,217 6,731 4,278

15,346 4,020 13,326 18,336 2,682 4,708 9,192 8,164 7,407 5,665

32,007 4,181 14,753 23,101 3,049 6,747 10,4(54 10,015 8,321 6,380

37,395 5,852 17,274 27,405 3,674 6,263 12,912 12,726 7,600 9,710

41,258 7,020 19,110 31,534 4,597 3,835 15,380 15,209 9,018 11,046

48,898 8,768 19,747 33,746 5,383 4,131 17,114 17,670 10,616 12,513

40,825 43,596 49,423 57,074 65,220 72,358 -6,158 -7,278 -8,724 -11,349 -14,318 -17,139 156,981 177,427 214,623 245,720 272,158 299,256 37,946 41,106 49,024 55,696 61,423 68,496 16,446 16,743 19,960 21,795 23,680 24,652

Net domestic product (marketprice) 178,481 201,790 243,687 279,621 309,901 1 Provisional figures. 2 Including drilling of crude oil and natural gas wells. 1 Including pipeline transport of oil and gas.

343,100

Labour. The distribution of the population according to professions in 1980, showed 142,025 (7%) economically active1 in agriculture, forestry and gardening; 599,414 (29-6%) in mining, manufacturing, building, etc.; 308,408 (15-3%) in commerce; 176,853 (8-7%) in transport; 21,694 (1-1%) in fishery, sealing and whaling; 774,377 (38-3%) in public administration, liberal professions and services; 18,871 not reported; total, 2,041,642. ' Persons aged 16 or more with at least 100 hours paid work in one year.

Commerce. Total imports and exports in calendar years (in 1,000 kroner): Imports Exports

1978 60,168,613 57,083,799

1979 69,338,924 68,527,167

1980 1981 1982 1983 83,601,605 89,687,802 99,747,271 98,407,773 91,672,433 104,265,370 113,236,296 131,396,960

936

NORWAY

Trading according to countries was as follows (in 1,000 kroner): Countries Argentina Australia and New Zealand Belgium and Luxembourg Brazil Canada Czechoslovakia Denmark Fed. Republic ofGermany Finland France India Italy Netherlands Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland UK USA USSR

Imports 103,205 495,595 2,320,466 830,260 1,353,791 231,509 6,174,176 15,494,658 4,514,625 3,365,032 109,239 2,336,569 3,411,649 624,149 533,508 706,612 17,053,968 1,517,745 11,822,301 9,147,880 1,455,688

1982

Exports 53,139 258,667 1,207,635 461,411 456,574 120,708 4,269,930 22,914,654 1,812,090 2,501,412 515,537 1,581,639 6,586,928 305,602 324,805 550,927 10,434,765 887,846 41,291,127 3,173,182 624,692

Imports 99,219 754,662 2,519,246 817,784 1,705,769 208,616 6,374,608 14,506,190 3,428,478 3,543,895 99,038 3,373,438 3,532,098 338,981 637,128 719,096 18,485,501 1,558,153 10,264,385 8,995,192 961,775

1983

Exports 44,237 344,581 1,338,509 249,908 1,568,334 147,697 4,791,408 24,310,052 2,546,915 3,447,301 293,435 1,884,964 9,102,325 235,845 405,140 510,135 13,191,992 1,071,424 46,091,803 5,742,265 872,956

Principal items of import in 1983 (in 1,000 kroner): Machinery, transport equipment, etc., 36,170,483; fuel oil, etc., 10,270,603; base metals and manufactures thereof, 9,605,538; chemicals and related products, 6,882,069; textiles, 2,599,377. Principal items of export in 1983 (in 1,000 kroner): Machinery and transport equipment, 17,440,506; base metals and manufactures thereof, 15,226,997; crude oil, 40,653,248; edible animal products, 6,523,733; pulp and paper, 5,035,890. Total trade between Norway and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ' ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1,441,418 1,943,206 2,023,441 2,820,760 3,852,657 791,530 876,937 924,651 828,612 968,404

COMMUNICATIONS" Roads. On 31 Dec. 1983 the length of the public roads (including roads in towns) was 84,033 km. Of these, 57,235 km were main roads; 52,293 km had some kind of paving, mostly bituminous and oil-gravel treatment, the rest being gravelsurfaced. Number of registered motor vehicles (31 Dec. 1983) was 1,912,725, including 1,383,367 passenger cars (including taxis), 179,434 lorries and vans, 15,199 buses, 167,614 motor cycles and mopeds. The scheduled bus and lorry services in 1983 drove 3,952m. passenger-km and 632m. net ton-km. Railways. The length of state railways on 31 Dec. 1983 was 4,242 km; of private companies, 16 km. On 2,443 km of state and 16 km of private railways electric traction is installed. Total receipts of the state railways and road traffic in 1983 were 2,421m. kroner; total expenses (excluding depreciation and interest on capital), 3,314m. kroner. The state railways carried 19-4m. tonnes of freight (of which 9 -8m. was iron ore on the Ofoten railway) and 35 -9m. passengers. Aviation. Det Norske Luftfartselskap (DNL) started its post-war activities on 1 April 1946. On 1 Aug. 1946 DNL, together with DDL (Danish Airlines) and ABA/ SILA (Swedish Airlines), formed the 'Scandinavian Airlines System'—SAS. The 3 companies remained independent units, but all services were co-ordinated. In 1951 a new agreement was signed (retroactive from 1 Oct. 1950) according to which the 3 national companies became holding partners in a new organization which took over the entire operational system. Denmark and Norway hold each two-sevenths and Sweden three-sevenths of the capital, but they have joint responsibility towards third parties.

NORWAY

937

In the autumn of 1983 SAS had a fleet of 75 jet planes. Length of route network, about 252,000 km. Scheduled air services are run by SAS, Braathens SouthAmerican and Far East Air transport service (SAFE) and Wideroes Flyveselskap service. The Norwegian share of the scheduled air service run by SAS is twosevenths of the SAS service on international routes and the total SAS service in Norway.

1980 1981 1982 1983

1,000 km flown 57,885 55,091 56,070 59,638

Passengers carried 4,809,612 4,967,880 5,210,452 5,610,866

¡,000

Post, luggage, freight and

passengerkm 4,068,000 4,062,000 4,118,000 4,345,000

passengers (I.000 ton-km) Total Of which post 493,000 18,000 498,000 19,000 498,000 19,000 514,000 19,000

Shipping. The total registered mercantile marine on 1 Jan. 1984 was 1,620 vessels, 18m. gross tons (steam and motor vessels above 100 gross tons). These figures do not include fishing and catching boats, tugs, salvage vessels, icebreakers and similar special types of vessels, totalling 772 vessels of354,000 gross tons. Vessels entering Norway from foreign countries ¡980 No. Norwegian 7,720 Foreign 8,545 Total entered

16,265

Total Net tons 13,635 23,635 37,270

Goods (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1983 discharged, 16,349; loaded, 39,575, of which 10,712 was Swedish iron ore shipped from Narvik. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones on 31 Dec. 1983 was 2,394,712 (57-9 per 100 of population). Receipts, 7,880-4m. kroner; expenses, 6,716 01m. kroner (interest on capital included) for State Telecommunications. Norsk Rikskringkasting is a non-commercial enterprise operated by an independent state organization and broadcasts 1 programme (PI) on long-, medium-, and shortwaves and on FM and 1 programme (P2) on FM. Local programmes are also broadcast. It broadcasts 1 T V programme from 1,644 transmitters. Colour programmes are broadcast by PAL system. Number of television licences, 1,316,272. Cinemas. There were 446 cinemas with a seating capacity of 133,688 in 1982. Newspapers. There were 65 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 1,848,000 in 1983. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicature is common to civil and criminal cases. The same professional judges, who are legally educated, preside over both kinds of cases. These judges are as such state officials. The participation of lay judges and jurors, both summoned for the individual case, varies according to the kind of court and kind of case. The ordinary Court of First Instance (Herredsrett and Byrett) is in criminal cases composed of one professional judge and 2 lay judges, chosen by ballot from a panel elected by the district council. In civil cases 2 lay judges may participate. The ordinary Court of First Instance is in general competent in all kinds of cases with the exception of criminal cases where the maximum penalty prescribed in the Criminal Code for the offence in question exceeds five years imprisonment. Altogether there are 98 ordinary courts of first instance. In every community there is a Conciliation Council (Forliksrad) composed of 3 lay persons elected by the district council. A civil lawsuit usually begins with mediation in the council which also has judicial authority in minor civil cases. The ordinary Courts of Second Instance (Lagmannsrett), of which there are 5, are composed of 3 professional judges. Additionally, in civil cases 2 or 4 lay judges may be summoned. In criminal cases a jury of 10 lay persons is summoned to determine whether the defendant is guilty according to the charge. In civil cases, the Court of Second Instance is an ordinary court ofappeal. In criminal cases in which the lower court does not have judicial authority, it is itself the court of first instance. In other criminal cases it is an appeal court as far as the appeal is based on an attack against the lower court's assessment of the facts when determining the guilt of the

938

NORWAY

defendant. An appeal based on any other alleged mistakes is brought directly before the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court (Hoyesterett) is the court of last resort. There are 18 Supreme Court judges. Each individual case is heard by 5 judges. Some major cases are determined in plenary session. The Supreme Court may in general examine every aspect of the case and the handling of it by the lower courts. However, in criminal cases the Court may not overrule the lower court's assessment of the facts as far as the guilt of the defendant is concerned. The Court of Impeachment (Riksretten) is composed of 5 judges of the Supreme Court and 10 members of Parliament. All serious offences are prosecuted by the State. The Public Prosecution Authority (Patalemyndigheten) consists of the Attorney General (Riksadvokaten), the district attorneys (statsadvokater) and legally qualified officers of the ordinary police force. Counsel for the defence is in general provided for by the State. There are 3 central prisons in which were detained (11 Sept. 1984) 344 persons. There are also 35 local prisons in which were detained (11 Sept. 1984) 1,660 persons. Religion. There is complete freedom of religion, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, however, being the national church, endowed by the State. Its clergy are nominated by the King. Ecclesiastically Norway is divided into 11 Bispedommer (bishoprics), 89 Prostier (provostships or archdeaconries) and 618 Prestegjeld (clerical districts). There were 138,134 members of registered religious communities outside the Evangelical Lutheran Church, subsidized by central government and local authorities in 1983. The Roman Catholics are under a Bishop at Oslo, a Vicar Apostolic at Trondheim and a Vicar Apostolic at Tromsa. Education. In Norway the children normally start their school attendance the year they complete 7 and finish compulsory school the year they complete 16. On 1 Oct. 1983 the number of primary schools and pupils were as follows: 3,534 primary schools, 565,497 pupils; 89 special schools for the handicapped, 3,188 pupils. On 1 Oct. 1982 the number of pupils in upper secondary schools, i.e., folk high schools, secondary general schools and vocational schools, was 188,040. There are in Norway 4 universities and 8 institutions equivalent to universities. In autumn 1982 the total number of students was 41,002. The University of Oslo, founded in 1811, had 19,078 students. The University of Bercen, founded in 1948, had 7,771 students. The University of Trondheim consists of the Norwegian Institute of Technology, founded in 1910, and the College of Arts and Science, founded in 1925. At each of them the number of students was in autumn 1982, 4,940 and 3,384 respectively. The University of Tromso was established in 1968; 1,672 students were registered in autumn 1982. The other university institutions had 4,157 students. In addition there were at other schools of higher education, 47,006 students. These included 13,546 at colleges for teachers, 6,654 at colleges for engineers and 6,651 at district colleges. In 1983-84 there were 6,353 Norwegian students and pupils attending foreign universities and schools. Health. In 1982 there were 9,722 doctors and 66,861 hospital beds. Social Security. In 1983, about 63,000m. kroner were paid under different social insurance schemes, amounting to 18% of the net national income. The National Insurance Act of 17 June 1966, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1967, replaced the schemes relating to old age pensions, disability benefits, widows' and mothers' pensions, benefits to unmarried women, 'survivors' benefit for children and rehabilitation aid. Schemes relating to health insurance, unemployment insurance and occupational injury insurance were revised and incorporated in National Insurance Scheme on 1 Jan. 1971. As from 1 Jan. 1981, benefits to divorced and separated supporters also are covered by the National Insurance Scheme. The following conspectus gives a survey of schemes established by law. Many municipalities grant additional benefits to old-age, disablement and survivor's pensions.

939

NORWAY Type of scheme National insurance Sickness

benefits1

Unemployment benefits2

Rehabilitation fits'

Disability

bene-

benefits3

Introduced ' Scope 1967 (1984) 1911 All residents

Principal benefits as from 1 May 1984

1939

Nearly earners

1961

Persons unfit for work because of disablement and persons who have a substantially limited general func'' tional' capacity All residents

1961

all

wage-

All residents between 16 and 67 years of age

Occupational injury benefits1 (industrial workers 1895; fishermen 1909; seamen 1913: military personnel 1953, combined in the act of occupational injury insurance/960) Old age pensions'

Medical benefits: all hospital expenses; cost share of expense of medical consultation, important medicines, travel expenses, etc. (such costs exceeding 800kr. a calendar year are paid in full by the National Insurance). Daily sickness allowances: kr. 38 to 745 per day cash (5 days a week). The new sickness allowance scheme (1 July 1978) entitles employees to a daily allowance equal to 100% of their gross earned income (within certain limits) from and including the first day of absence; selfemployed persons, ordinarily 65% of gross earned income as from the 15th day. Supplementary ,insur ranee available. The allowances are taxable Daily allowance during unemployment kr. 36 to 290 per day, excluding supplement for supported child(ren) (six days a week), taxable as from 1 Jan. 1980. Contributions to training and retraining, removal expenses, wage subsidies Training; treatment; rehabilitation allowance grants and loans Full rehabilitation allowance equals old age pension (however, no special supplement is granted, seebelow.) A basic grant (ordinary rate kr. 3,348 per annum) and an assistance grant (ordinary rate kr. 5,580 per annum) to persons with special needs. In certain cases the benefits may be increased. The rates are fixed by the Storting, independent of the basic amount Disability pension to persons between 16 and 67 years of age, occupationally disabled by at least 50%, unfit for rehabilitation Full disability pension equals old age pension

The ordinary benefits of the National Insurance, alternative calculation of pensions etc. which in almost all cases are more favourable for the insured person —or his survivors than the ordinary rules An occupational injury compensation, alone or in addition to a disability pension 1937 All persons above 67 Basic pensions: Single, kr. 24,200; years of age couples, kr. 36,300 per annum; supplementary pensions based on revious pensionable income; see elow under 'Special supplement' and Compensation supplement' 1967 All residents A certain amount fixed by the Storting, for the time being kr. 4,000 For notes see bottom of p. 940. 1960

All employed persons, school children and students; self-employed on a voluntary basis

E

Death

grants

940

NORWAY

Type of scheme Survivors 'benefits1

IntroScope duced ' 1965 All residents

Children's pension '

1958

Under 18 (20) years of age. after loss of one or ' ' parents botli

Benefits married

to unsupporters1

1965

Unmarried or fathers

Benefits to divorced and separated supporters ' Benefits to unmarried persons forced to live at home '

1972

Divorced and separated supporters

Special supplement to National Insurance pensions or transitional benefits Compensation

sup-

to National forilement nsurance pensions transitional benefits

Family allowances

War pensions

Special pension schemes: Seamen

1965

mothers

Unmarried persons under 67 years of age having stayed at home for at least 5 years to give necessary care and attention to parents or other near relatives 1969 Pensioners and per(1983) sons with transitional allowance on basic rates

Principal benefits as from 1 May 1984 Full pension = kr. 24,200 per annum + 55% of the supplementary pension due to the deceased, transitional benefits, child care allowance and educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Compensation supplement') 40% of basic amount (kr. 9 680) for first child, 25% (kr. 6,050) for each additional child. Ifboth parents are dead, full survivors' pension for first, 40% of basic amount for second, 25% third, etc., child Maternity grant kr. 7,020, transitional benefit, full amount kr. 24,200 per annum, child care allowance and educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Family allowances') Same kind of benefits as unmarried supporters above Transitional benefit or a pension that equals the basic amount, educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement')

Full special supplement, 52 • 5% of basic amount, i.e. kr. 12,705. For a married pensioner full supplement is lower when spouse has her/his own pension (48 • 5%) 1970 Pensioners, persons Full compensation supplement (1972) with transitional kr. 500 for single persons and kr. benefits (except 750 for married couples unmarried, divorced and separated supporters) or rehabilitation allowances families with Kr. 4,164 per annum for the first 1946 All (1984) children under 16 child, kr. 5,028 for the second, kr. years of age 6,228 for the third, kr. 6,684 for the fourth and kr. 7,020 for the fifth and each additional child. Single supporters receive an additional benefit of kr. 5,028 per annum for the first, kr. 1 200 for the second, kr. 456 for the third and kr. 336 for the fourth child. (Limited to 4 children) 1946 War victims, 1939-45 Pensions up to kr. 98,244 per annum (excluding supplement for (1981) supported child(ren); widows' and children's pensions ! Maximum old-age pension for Persons with at least: couples:

1948 150 months service Kr. 79,304 6 per annum (officers) Kr. 56,646' „ „ (others) (1983) (360 „ „ ) ' Date of latest revision in brackets. 1 Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1971. 3 Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1967. 4 Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1981. s Requirements for maximum pensions in brackets. 6 Supplements for service during war not included. Provisions have been laid down for the integration of more than one benefit, pension, etc., so as to limit the total amount.

NORWAY Type of scheme Forestry workers Fishermen

941

InlroPrincipal benefits duced1 Scope as from I May ¡984 1952 750 premium weeks Kr. 26,000 per annum (excluding (1984) (1,500 „ „) supplement for supported children) 1958 750 premium weeks Kr. 31,500 „ (1983) (1,500 „ „) 1 Date of latest revision in brackets.

SVALBARD An archipelago situated between 10° and 35° E. long, and between 74° and 81° N. lat. Total area, 62,000 sq. km (24,000 sq. miles). The main islands of the archipelago are Spitsbergen (formerly called Vestspitsbergen), Nordaustlandet, Edgeoya, Barentsoya, Prins Karls Forland, Bjemoya, Hopen, Kong Karls Land, Kvitoya, and many small islands. The arctic climate is tempered by mild winds from the Atlantic. The archipelago was probably discovered by Norsemen in 1194 and rediscovered by the Dutch navigator Barents in 1596. In the 17th century the very lucrative whale-hunting caused rival Dutch, British and Danish-Norwegian claims to sovereignty and quarrels about the hunting-places. But when in the 18 th century the whale-hunting ended, the question of the sovereignty of Svalbard lost its significance; it was again raised in the 20th century, owing to the discovery and exploitation of coalfields. By a treaty, signed on 9 Feb. 1920 in Paris, Norway's sovereignty over the archipelago was recognized. On 14 Aug. 1925 the archipelago was officially incorporated in Norway. Coal is the principal product. Of the 3 Norwegian and 3 Soviet mining camps, 2 Norwegian and 2 Soviet camps are operating. Total population on 31 Dec. 1983 was 3,457, of which 1,305 Norwegians, 2,143 Soviet citizens, and 9 Poles. In 1983, 448,000 tonnes of coal were exported from the Norwegian and 477,481 tonnes from the Soviet mines. Norwegian and foreign companies have been prospecting for oil. So far 5 deep drillings have been made, but oil and gas finds have not been reported. There are Norwegian meteorological and/or radio stations at the following places: Bjarneya (since 1920), Hopen (1945), Isfjord Radio (1933), Longyearbyen (1930), Svalbard Lufihavn (1975) and Ny-Alesund (1961). A research station, administered by Norsk Polarinstitutt, was erected at Ny-Alesund in 1968 for various observations and investigations. An airport near Longyearbyen (Svalbard Lufthavn) opened in 1975. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Skrifter, Oslo, from 1948 (under different titles from 1922) Greve.T., Svalbard: Norway in the Arctic. Oslo, 1975 Hisdal, V., Geography of Svalbard. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo, rev. ed., 1984 Orvin, A. K., 'Twenty-five Years of Norwegian Sovereignty in Svalbard 1925-1950' (in The Polar Record, 1951)

JAN MAYEN This bleak, desolate and mountainous island of volcanic origin and partly covered by glaciers, is situated 71° N. lat. and 8° 30' W. long., 300 miles NNE of Iceland. Tne total area is 380 sq. km (147 sq. miles). Beerenberg, its highest peak, reaches a height of2,277 metres. Volcanic activity, which had been dormant, was reactivated in Sept. 1970. The island was possibly discovered by Henry Hudson in 1608, and it was first named Hudson's Tutches (Touches). It was again and again rediscovered and renamed. Its present name derives from the Dutch whaling captain Jan Jacobsz May, who indisputably discovered the island in 1614. It was uninhabited, but occasionally visited by seal hunters and trappers, until 1921 when Norway established a radio and meteorological station. On 8 May 1929 Jan Mayen was officially proclaimed as incorporated in the Kingdom of Norway. Its relation to Norway was finally settled by law of 27 Feb. 1930. A Loran station (1959) and a Consol station (1968) have been established.

942

NORWAY

BOUVET I S L A N D Bouvet0ya This uninhabited volcanic island, mostly covered by glaciers and situated 54" 2 5' S. lat. and 3° 21' E. long., was discovered in 1739 by a French naval officer, Jean Baptiste Loziert Bouvet, but no flag was hoisted till, in 1825, Capt. Norris raised the Union Jack. In 1928 Great Britain waived its claim to the island in favour of Norway, which in Dec. 1927 had occupied it. A law of 27 Feb. 1930 declared Bouvetaya a Norwegian dependency. The area is 50 sq. km (19 sq. miles). From 1977 Norway has had an automatic meteorological station on the island, and 5 men operated a meteorological station there during the 1978-79 season.

PETER I I S L A N D Peter 1 0 y This uninhabited island, situated 68° 48' S. lat. and 90° 35' W. long., was sighted in 1821 by the Russian explorer, Admiral von Bellingshausen. The first landing was made in 1929 by a Norwegian expedition which hoisted the Norwegian flag. On 1 May 1931 Peter I Island was placed under Norwegian sovereignty, and on 24 March 1933 it was incorporated in Norway as a dependency. The area is 180 sq. km (69 sq. miles).

QUEEN M A U D L A N D Dronning Maud Land On 14 Jan. 1939 the Norwegian Cabinet placed that part of the Antarctic Continent from the border of Falkland Islands dependencies in the west to the border of the Australian Antarctic Dependency in the east (between 20° W. and 45° E.) under Norwegian sovereignty. The territory had been explored only by Norwegians and hitherto been ownerless. Since 1949 expeditions from various countries have explored the area. In 1957 Dronning Maud Land was given the status of a Norwegian dependency. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Norway in Great Britain (25 Belgrave Sq., London, SW1X8QD) Ambassador: Rolf T. Busch. Of Great Britain in Norway (Thomas Heftyesgate 8,0264 Oslo, 2) Ambassador: Sir William Bentley, KCMG. Of Norway in the USA (2720 34th Street, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Kjell Eliassen. Of the USA in Norway (Drammensvien 18,0255 Oslo, 2) Ambassador: Robert D. Stuart, Jr. Of Norway to the United Nations Ambassador: Tom Eric Vraalsen. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistisk Sentralbyri (Skippergaten 15, P.B.8131 Dep.0033, Oslo 1), was founded in 1876 as an independent state institution. Director general: Arae 0ien. The earliest census of population was taken in 1769. The Sentralbyri publishes the series Norges Offisielle Statistikk, Norway's official statistics (from 1828), and Social Economic Studies (from 1954). The main publications are: Statistisk Arbokfor Norge(annua\, from 1880; from 1952 bilingual Norwegian-English) Okonomisk (Asy« (annual, from 1935; with English summary from 1952) Historisk Statistikk 1978 (historical statistics; bilingual Norwegian-English) Statistisk Manedshefte (monthly, from 1880; with English index) Sosialt Utsyn 1983 (social survey). Irregular Miljostatistikk 1983 (environmental statistics). Irregular

NORWAY

943

Norges Stalskalender. From 1816; annual from 1877 Facts about Norway. Ed. by Aftenposten. 17th ed. Oslo, 1982 Derry, T. K„ A History of Modern Norway. 1814-1972. OUP, 1973 —/I History of Scandinavia. London, 1979 Glässer, E., Norwegen [bibliography] Darmstadt, 1978 Gleditsch, Th., Engelsk-norsk ordbok, 2nd ed. Oslo, 1948 Greve, T., Haakon VI of Norway, Founder of a New Monarchy. London, 1983 Grönland, E., Norway m English, Books on Norway... ¡742-1959. Oslo, 1961 Haugen, E., Norwegian-English Dictionary, Oslo, 1965 Helvig, M., Norway: Land, People, Industries, a Brief Geography 3rded. Oslo, 1970 Holtedahl, O. (ed.), Geology of Norway Oslo, I960 Hornby, A. S.,andSvenkerud, H., Oxford engelsk-norsk ordbok. Oslo, 1983 Hove, O., The System of Education. Oslo, 1968 Imber, W„ Norway. Oslo, 1980 Knudsen, O., Norway at Work Oslo, 1972 Larsen, K., A History of Norway. New York, 1948 Midgaard, J., A Brief History of Norway. Oslo, 1969 Nielsen, K..,andNesheim, A., Lapp Dictionary Lapp-Enghsh-Norwegian. 5vols.,Oslo 1963 Orvik, N. (ed.), Fears and Expectations• Norwegian Attitudes Toward European Integration. Oslo, 1972 Paine, R., Coast Lapp Society. 2 vols. Tromso, 1957-65 Popperwell, R. G., Norway. London, 1972 Udgaard, N.M., Great Power Politics and Norwegian Foreign Policy. Oslo, 1973 Vorren,0. (ed.), Norway North of 65. Oslo, 1960 National Library: The University Library, Drammensvein 42b, 0255 Oslo. Director: Ben Rugaas.

OMAN

Capital: Muscat Population: 1 -5m. (1982) GNPper capita: US$5,920 (1981)

Sultanate of Oman A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Sultanate of Oman, known as the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman until 1970, is an independent sovereign state, situated in south-east Arabia. Its coastline is over 1,000 miles long and extends from the Ras al Khaimah Shaikdom near Bukha on the west side of the Musandum Peninsula to Ras Dharbat Ali, which marks the boundary between Oman and the territory of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. The Sultanate extends inland to the borders of the Rub' al Khali ('Empty Quarter') across three geographical divisions—a coastal plain, a range of hills and a plateau. The coastal plain varies in width from 10 miles near Suwaiq to practically nothing in the vicinity of Mutrah and Muscat towns, where the hills descend abruptly into the sea. These hills are for the most part barren except at the highest part of the mountainous region of the Jebel Akhdar (summit 9,998 ft) where there is some cultivation. The plateau has an average height of 1,000 ft. With the exception of oases there is little or no cultivation. North-west of Muscat the coastal plain, known as the Batinah, is fertile and prosperous. The date gardens extend for over 150 miles. Whereas the coastline between the capital, Muscat, and the southern province of Dhofar is barren, Dhofar itself is highly fertile. Its principal town is Salalah on the coast which is served by the port of Raysut. The area has been estimated at about 105,000 sq. miles and the population at 1 -5m., chiefly Arabs; of these, some 40,000 live in Dhofar. The town of Muscat is the capital which, while formerly of some commercial importance, has now lost most of its trade to the adjacent port of Mutrah (combined populations, 80,000), the starting point for the trade routes into the interior. The population of both towns consists of pure Arabs, Indians, Pakistanis and Negroes; numerous merchants are Khojas (from Sind and Kutch) and Hindus (mostly from Gujarat and Bombay). Other ports are Sohar, Khaburah and Sur, Raysut in the south; none, however, affords shelter from bad weather. The port of Gwadur and a small tract of country on the Baluchistan coast of the Gulf of Oman were handed over to Pakistan on 8 Sept. 1958. The Kuria Muria islands were ceded to the UK in 1854 by the Sultan of Muscat and Oman for the purpose of a cable station. On 30 Nov. 1967 the islands were retroceded to the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, in accordance with the wishes of the population. C L I M A T E . Oman has a desert climate, with exceptionally hot and humid months from April to Oct., when temperatures may reach 117°F (47°C). From Dec. to the end of March, the climate is more pleasant. Light monsoon rains fall in the south from June to Sept., with highest amounts in the western highland region. Muscat. Jan. 72°F (22-2'Q, July 91°F (33-3°C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (99 1 mm). Salalah. Jan. 72°F(22-2°C), July 78°F(25• 6°C). Annual rainfall 3 3 " (81 3 mm). R U L E R . The present Sultan is Qaboos bin Said (born Nov. 1940). He took over from his father Said bin Taimur, on 23 July 1970 in a Palace coup. In Oct. 1981 the Sultan issued three decrees establishing a 45-member State advisory council. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Oman is an absolute monarchy and there is no formal constitution. The Sultan legislates by decree and appoints a Cabinet to assist him; he holds the posts of Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Defence and Finance. Besides 17 departmental Ministers, the Cabinet also includes: 944

OMAN

945

Deputy Prime Minister for Security and Defence: Sayyid Fahar Bin-Taimur al-Said. Deputy Prime Minister for Finance and Economy: Qais Abdel-Moneim al-Zawawi. Deputy Prime Minister for Legal Affairs: Sayyid Fahad Bin-Mahmoud al-Said. Special Advisor to Sultan, Governor of Muscat: Sayyid Thuwaini Bin-Shihab al-Said. Special Advisor to Sultan on Religious and Historical Affairs: Mohammad BinAhmad. Minister of Statefor Foreign Affairs: Yusuf Alawi. Minister of State, Governor ofDhofar: Hilal Bin-Saud Bin-Hareb al-Busaidi. National flag: Red, with a white panel in the upper fly and a green one in the lower fly, and in the canton the national emblem in white. Local government: Oman is divided into 10 provinces (liwas) and sub-divided into 41 governates (wilayats) each under a governor (wali). DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 Royal Guard brigade; 1 armoured, 1 reconnaissance and 3 artillery regiments; 8 infantry battalions; 1 special force, 1 signals regiment, 1 engineer squadron and 1 parachute squadron. Equipment includes 6 M-60A1 and 12 Chieftain main battle tanks. Strength(1985)about20,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 3 new very fast missile-armed corvettes, 1 fast missilearmed patrol craft, 4 fast gunboats, 4 inshore patrol craft, 1 training ship/offshore patrol vessel, 2 logistic support ships, 1 supply ship, 5 landing craft, 1 survey craft, 1 supply ship and 1 training ship. All the warships are British-built. The marine police operate 10 coastal patrol boats, 2 logistics support craft, 2 inshore patrol boats and 7 launches. Naval personnel in 1985 totalled 2,000 officers and ratings. Air Force. The Air Force, formed in 1959, had in 1984 two strike/interceptor squadrons ofJaguars, a ground attack/interceptor squadron of Hunters, a squadron of Strikemaster light jet training/attack aircraft, 1 DC-8, 3 BAC One-Eleven and 1 Falcon VIP transports, 3 C-130H Hercules, 2 twin-turboprop Buffalo, 7 Defender and 15 Skyvan light transports, 26 Agusta-Bell 205,212,214B and JetRanger helicopters for security duties, 2 Super Puma VIP helicopters and 2 Bravo pistonengined trainers. Air defence force has batteries of Rapier low-level surface-to-air missiles. Personnel (1984) about 2,200. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Oman is a member of UN, the Arab League, the Islamic Conference Organisation and the Gulf Co-operation Council. Treaties. The Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Britain and the Sultan signed on 20 Dec. 1951, reaffirmed the close ties which have existed between the British Government and the Sultanate of Oman for over a century and a half. A Memorandum of Understanding signed in June 1982 provided for regular consultations on international and bilateral issues. ECONOMY Planning. The 5-year development plan (1976-80) had an expenditure of R.O. 2,556m. Expenditure for the second 5-year plan (1981-85) is (estimate) R.O. 7,368m. and a primary aim is to develop new sources of national income to augment and eventually to replace oil revenues. Budget. Revenue (1984) R.O. 1,561m. (1,100m. from oil); expenditure, 1,765m. Currency. The Rial Omani was introduced in Nov. 1972 replacing the Rial Saidi. It is divided into 1,000 baiza. There are notes of 100, 250 and 500 baiza and 1, 5 and 10 Rial Omani and coins of 2, 5, 10,20, 50 and 100 baiza. The exchange rate in March 1985 was £ 1 = 373 baiza; US$ 1 = 346 baiza.

946

OMAN

Banking. In 1983 there were 25 banks operating in Oman apart from the Central Bank ofOman. Weights and Measures. The metric system of measurement is in operation. Transactions in the former measurements are now illegal. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Oil. The economy of Oman is dominated by the oil industry, which provides nearly all Government revenue. In 1937 Petroleum Concessions (Oman) Ltd, a subsidiary of the Iraq Petroleum Co., was granted a 75-year oil concession extending over the whole of Oman, although it relinquished Dhofar in 1950. In 1951 the company's name was changed to Petroleum Development (Oman) Ltd. The company (PDO) regained the Dhofar concession area in 1969. When some of the IPC partners withdrew from Oman in 1960, Shell took over the management of PDO with an 85% interest (minority interests were held by Compagnie Française des Pétroles, 10% and Gulbenkian, 5%). At the beginning of 1974 the Oman Government bought a 25% share in PDO, increasing this retroactively to 60% in July. A Joint Management Committee was established. Other companies active in exploration activities in Oman, with mixed success, include Amoco, Elf-Acquitaine and a consortium of Deminex, Agip and Hispanoil with BP as operator. Oil in commercial quantities was discovered in 1964 and production began at a rate of200,000 bbls per day in 1967. Production has fluctuated from year to year, peaking in 1976 at 366,000 bbls per day. Due to conditions on the international oil market, production fell to a low of282,000 bbls per day in 1980 but was restored to about 410,000 bbls per day in the first quarter of 1984. Production in 1983 was 141 -6m. bbls. Total reserves were estimated in April 1984 to be 3,490m. bbls, or sufficient for 23 years at the current rate of production. Oman is not a member of OPEC or OAPEC but tends to follow OPEC pricing policy. Gas. Production (1982) 290m. cu. ft per day. In 1984 reserves were estimated at 7,600,000m. cu. ft. Water Resources. Two water desalination units were being built in 1984 which will produce 12m. gallons of drinking water water a day. The project is due to be completed in 1986. Minerals. Production of refined copper at the smelter at Sohar was about 6,700 tonnes in 1983. Copper mines produce about 11 m. tonnes annually. Agriculture. In the valleys of the interior, as well as on the Batinah, date cultivation has reached a high level, and there are possibilities of agricultural development subject to present water resources and soil surveys. The average annual crop of dates is estimated at 50,000 tons, most of which is exported to India. Camels (6,000 in 1983) are bred in large numbers by the inland tribes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Apart from oil production, copper mining and smelting and cement production there are no industries of any importance. Fishing, water resources, soil and agricultural surveys are being undertaken. Commerce. The total imports for 1983 were valued at R.O. 860-9m., including machinery and transport equipment (396-lm.), manufactured goods (166-8m.), food and live animals (107 1m.), petroleum products (14-lm.) and chemicals (31-7m.). In 1983,22% ofimports came from Japan, 18 -6% from UK, 17-5% from United Arab Emirates, 7 • 7% from USA and 7 • 3% from the Federal Republic of Germany; 50 -2% of exports went to Japan, 11 • 1% to the Netherlands, 10 -8% to the Federal Republic of Germany, 8 • 6% to Singapore and 7 • 7% to US A. Total trade between Oman and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling):

OMAN ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 28,728 131,094

1981 40,460 170,835

947 1982 46,425 265,283

1983 91,216 448,900

1984 82,655 390,275

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. A network of adequate graded roads links all the main sectors of population, and only a few mountain villages are not accessible by Land-Rover. A rapid road construction programme began in 1976, and by the end of 1981 there were 2,835 km of paved roads and 16,276 km of graded roads. There are good waterproof roads in the north of Oman, between Muscat and Sohar, Sohar and Buraimi, Nizwa and Buraimi and Nizwa and Seeb. In Dhofar tarmac roads have been completed from Raysut through Salalah to Taqa and also Bid Bid to Sur. A single arterial highway now links the interior, the Capital Area and the Batinah coast, and connects with the United Arab Emirates. Aviation. Gulf Air run regional services in and out of Seeb international airport (20 miles from Muscat) to Bahrain, Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Karachi and Bombay. They and British Airways each operate daily flights to qod from London. Other airlines serving Muscat are MEA, Kuwait Airlines, PIA, Air India, Iran Air, TMA (cargo) and Trade Winds (cargo). Shipping. In Mutrah a deep-water port (named Mina Qaboos) was completed in 1974 at a cost of R.O. 18-2m. It provides 12 berths, 9 of which are deep-water berths, warehousing facilities and a harbour for dhows and coastal vessels. The annual handling capacity has been raised to 1 -5m. tons. Mina Raysut, the port of Salalah, has a capacity of 1 m. tons per year. Post and Broadcasting. There are Sultanate post offices in Muscat and Mutrah, relying solely upon a Post Office Box system for delivery. Omantel maintain a telegraph office at Muscat and an automatic telephone exchange (23,000 lines, 1984) which includes Mutrah, Bait-al-Falaj and Mina al-Fahal, the oil company terminal. A high-frequency radio link with Bahrain was opened in Aug. 1972 providing communications with other parts of the world. Internally, there are radio telephone, telex and telegraph services direct between Salalah and Muscat, and a VHF radio link between Seeb international airport and Muscat. The airport is also served by a SITA telex system. Radio Oman broadcasts daily for 17 hours in Arabic and 2 hours in English. A colour television service covering Muscat and the surrounding area started transmission in Nov. 1974. A television service for Dhofar opened in 1975. Newspapers. There were (1984) 3 daily newspapers. EDUCATION AND WELFARE Education. In 1982-83, there were 455 schools with 140,582 pupils and 6,575 teachers. All Omanis desiring further education must obtain it abroad, but plans are being implemented for the development of technical and agricultural training and craft training at intermediate and secondary level. Oman's first university, in Nizwa, was under construction in 1984. There are also programmes to combat adult illiteracy. Health. Health services in 1984 were widely spread with 14 hospitals in use and 2 more planned, 13 health centres, 62 clinics, 6 small health centres and 4 maternity clinics; total beds, 2,000. There are also Save the Children Fund Welfare Clinics at Sohar and Sur. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Oman in Great Britain (44A Montpelier Sq., London, SW7 1JJ) Ambassador: Hussain bin Mohammed bin Ali (accredited 7 Dec. 1984). Of Great Britain in Oman (PO Box 300, Muscat) Ambassador: Duncan Slater, CMG.

948

OMAN

Of Oman in the U S A (2342 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC., 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: Ali Salim Bader Al-Hinai. Of the U S A in Oman (PO Box 966, Muscat) Ambassador: John R. Countryman. Of Oman to the United Nations Ambassador: Saoud Bin Salim Bin Hassan Al-Ansi. B o o k s of Reference Achievements. Ministry of Health. Oman, 1975 Hints to Exporters: VAE and the Sultanate of Oman 1981-82. British Overseas Board Oman in 10 years. Ministry of Information. Oman, 1980 Oman: A MEED Practical Guide. London, 1981 Clements, F. A., Oman: The Reborn Land. London and New York, 1980.—Oman. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Graz, L., The Omani's: Sentinals of the Gulf. London, 1982 Hawley, D., Oman and its Rennaissance. London, 1977 Peterson, J. E., Oman in the Twentieth Century. London and New York, 1978 Shannon, M. O., Oman and South-eastern Arabia: A Bibliographic Survey. Boston, 1978 Thesiger, W., Arabian Sands. London, 1959 Townsend, J., Oman. London, 1977 Wikan, U., Behind the Veil, in Arabia: Women in Oman. John Hopkins Univ. Press, 1982

PAKISTAN

Capital: Islamabad Population: (1983) GNPper capita: US$3 50 ( 1981 )

Islamic Republic of Pakistan H I S T O R Y . Pakistan was constituted as a Dominion on 14 Aug. 1947, under the provisions of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, which received the royal assent on 18 July 1947. The Dominion consisted of the following former territories of British India: Baluchistan, East Bengal (including almost the whole of Sylhet, a former district of Assam), North-West Frontier, West Punjab and Sind; and those States which had acceded to Pakistan. On 23 March 1956 an Islamic republic was proclaimed after the Constituent Assembly had adopted the draft constitution on 29 Feb. On 7 Oct. 1958 President Mirza declared martial law in Pakistan, dismissed the central and provincial Governments, abolished all political parties and abrogated the constitution of 23 March 1956. Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan, the Army Commander-in-Chief, was appointed as chief martial law administrator and assumed office on 28 Oct. 1958, after Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza had handed all powers to him. His authority was confirmed by a ballot in Feb. 1960. He proclaimed a new constitution on 1 March 1962. On 25 March 1969 President Ayub Khan resigned and handed over power to the army under the leadership of Maj.-Gen. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan who immediately proclaimed martial law throughout the country, appointing himself chief martial law administrator on the same day. On 29 March 1970 the Legal Framework Order was published, defining a new constitution: Pakistan to be a federal republic with a Moslem Head of State; the National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies to be elected in free and periodical elections, the first of which was held on 7 Dec. 1970. At the general election the Awami League based in East Pakistan and led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gained 167 seats and the Peoples' Party 90. Martial law continued pending the settlement of differences between East and West, which developed into civil war in March 1971. The war ended in Dec. 1971 and the Eastern province declared itself an independent state, Bangladesh. On 20 Dec. 1971 President Yahya Khan resigned and Mr Z. A. Bhutto became President and chief martial law administrator. On 30 Jan. 1972, Pakistan withdrew from the Commonwealth. A new Constitution was adopted by the National Assembly on 10 April 1973 and enforced on 14 Aug. 1973. It provided for a federal parliamentary system with the President as constitutional head and the Prime Minister as chief executive. President Bhutto stepped down to become Prime Minister and Fazal Elahi Chaudhry was elected President. The Chief of the Army Staff, Gen. M. Zia-uI-Haq, proclaimed martial law on 5 July 1977 and the armed forces took control of the administration; scheduled elections were postponed. Mr Bhutto was hanged (for conspiracy to murder) on 4 April 1979. Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq succeeded Fazal Elahi Chaudhry as President in Sept. 1978. Governors-General of Pakistan: Quaid-I-Azam Mohammed Ali Jinnah (14 Aug. 1947-11 Sept. 1948); Khawaja Nazimuddin (14 Sept. 1948-18 Oct. 1951; took over the premiership after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan); Ghulam Mohammad (19 Oct. 1951-6 Aug. 1955); Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza (assumed officeofPresidenton6 0ct. 1955, elected President on 5 March 1956). Presidents of Pakistan: Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza (23 March 1956-28 Oct. 1958); Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan (28 Oct. 1958-25 March 1969); Maj.-Gen. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (31 March 1969-20 Dec. 1971); 949

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Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (20 Dec.1971-14 Aug. 1973); Fazal Elahi Chaudhri (14 Aug. 1973-16 Sept. 1978); Gen. Mohammad Ziaul-Haq (16 Sept. 1978-). A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Pakistan is bounded north-west by Afghanistan, north by the USSR and China, east by India and south by the Arabian Sea. The total area of Pakistan is 307,293 sq. miles (796,095 sq. km); population (1981 census), 84-25m.; males, 44,232,000; females, 40,021,000. Density, 105-8 persq. km. Estimate (1983) 88m. Urban population, 28 -3%. Annual average growth rate, 1982-83, 2-8%. The crude birth rate was 41 (per 1,000 population); infant mortality 90 (per 1,000 live births); life expectancy, 55 years. The population of the principal cities is: Islamabad Karachi Lahore Faisalabad Rawalpindi Hyderabad

Census of 1981 201,000 Multan 5,103,000 Gujranwala 2,922,000 Peshawar 1,092,000 Sialkot 928,000 Sargodha 795,000 Quetta

730,000 597,000 555,000 296,000 294,000 285,000

Population of the provinces (census of 1981) was (1,000):

North-west Frontier Province Federally administered Tribal Areas Federal Capital Territory Islamabad Punjab Sind Baluchistan

Area (sq. km)

Total population

74,521

11,061

5,761

5,300

27,219

2,199

1,143

1,056

907 205,344 140,914 347,190

340 il,292 19,029 4,332

Male

Female

155 185 24,860 22,432 9,999 9,030 2,284 2,048

Urban 1,665 -

204 13,051 8,243 677

Density persq. km (number) 148 81 376 230 135 12

By June 1984 there were 2-3m. Afghan refugees in Pakistan, of whom some 78% were in the North-west Frontier Province, 17% in Baluchistan and 5% in the Punjab. Language. The commonest languages are Urdu and Punjabi. Urdu is the national language while English is used in business and in central government. Provincial languages are Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushtu (North-West Frontier Province), Baluchi and Brahvi. C L I M A T E . A weak form of tropical monsoon climate occurs over much of the country, with arid conditions in the north and west, where the wet season is only from Dec. to March. Elsewhere, rain comes mainly in the summer. Summer temperatures are high everywhere, but winters can be cold in the mountainous north. Islamabad. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 90°F (32-2°C). Annual rainfall 36" (900 mm). Karachi. Jan. 61°F (16-PC), July 86°F (30°C). Annual rainfall 8 " (196 mm). Lahore. Jan. 53°F (11-7°C), July 89°F (31-7°C). Annual rainfall 18" (452 mm). Multan. Jan. 51°F (10-6°C), July 93°F (33-9°C). Annual rainfall 7 " (170 mm). Quetta. Jan. 38°F(3-3°C), July 80"F(26-7°C). Annual rainfall 10" (239 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution of 1973 Parliament is bi-cameral, comprising the National Assembly and the Senate. The strength of the National Assembly is 210 including 10 women. The Senate consists of 63 members, 14 from each province, 5 from Federally Administered Tribal Areas and 2 from the federal capital area, elected by the members of the Provincial Assemblies. A constitutional amendment of 29 March 1976 provided 6 National Assembly seats reserved for non-Moslem minority representatives. With the proclamation of martial law the Constitution kept in abeyance, but not abrogated: The Provisional Constitution Order, 1981, promulgated on 24 March 1981, retains 119 Articles in whole or in part. The Constitution obliges the Government to use such ways and means as may enable the people to order their lives collectively and individually in accordance

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with the principles of Islam. The Council of Islamic Ideology was set up to this end under article 228 of the Constitution. An Ombudsman was appointed in Jan. 1983. In Jan. 1982 a Federal Council of 288 members was inaugurated, under the chairmanship of K. M. Safdar. The Council, of up to 350 members, was to act as an interim body until an elected Parliament could be set up. In Jan. 1985 the President announced that national elections would be held 5 Feb. 1985 on the basis of the 1973 Constitution, amended to provide wider presidential powers. On 19 Dec. 1984 a referendum was held to determine whether the President should continue in office for a 5-year term, following the elections; results were announced as 98% in favour. The Pakistan People's Party won 47 seats in the new Assembly, the Muslim League 17 and the Jamaat Islami Party, 9. In March 1985 the President set up a new National Security Council, led by himself; he assumed power to appoint and dismiss ministers. He retains the final decision on legislation. President and Chief Martial Law Administrator, Chairman of the Planning Commission, Science and Technology, States and Frontier Regions, Establishment: Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq. Federal Cabinet in Jan. 1985: Finance and Economic Affairs: G. Ishaq Khan. Foreign Affairs: S. Y. Khan. Attorney-General: S. Pirzada. Interior: Lieut.-Gen. S. F. S. Khan Lodhi. Defence: A. A. Talpur. Planning and Development: Mahboobul Haq. Housing and Works: Air Marshal I. Haq Khan. Water and Power: R. Sikandar Zaman. Industry: E. Bux Soomro. Culture, Sports and Tourism: A. Niaz Mohammad Arbab. Local Government and Rural Development: F. Imam. Labour, Manpower and Overseas Pakistanis: G. Dastegir Khan. Kashmir and Northern Affairs: Lieut.-Gen. J. Said Mian. Education: M. Afzal. Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives: Vice-Adm. M. F. Janjua. Communications: M. Baluch. Railways: N. A. Ghafoor Khan Hoti. Information and Broadcasting: Raja M. Zafarul Haq. Without portfolio; A. M. A. Khan Abbas. National flag: Green, charged at the centre, with a white crescent and white 5 -pointed star, a white vertical stripe at the mast to one-quarter of the flag. Local Government. Pakistan comprises the provinces of the Punjab, the Northwest Frontier, Sind and Baluchistan, the states of Bahawalpur and Khairpur, the Baluchistan States Union, the frontier states and the tribal areas of Baluchistan and the north-west. These were merged into a single unit on 14 Oct. 1955. In July 1970 the single unit was dissolved into the original 4 provinces. The provincial capitals are Peshawar (NW Frontier Province), Lahore (Punjab), Karachi (Sind) and Quetta (Baluchistan). Provincial governors are appointed by the President and are assisted by provincial councils. Within the provinces there are divisions administered by Commissioners appointed by the President; the divisions are divided into districts and agencies administered by Deputy Commissioners or Political Agents who are responsible to the Provincial Governments. There are 4 provincial assemblies. Kashmir. Between one-third and one-half of Kashmir is controlled by Pakistan. This area is the northern and western portion of the country. It has an area of 83,806 sq. km. and a population of about 1 • 3 m. Under a United Nations resolution of 1949 its future was to be decided by plebiscite; it is still a disputed territory. The people of Azad Kashmir have their own Assembly (42 members including 2 women), their own Council (of 14 members), High Court and Supreme Court. There is a Parliamentary form of Government with a Prime Minister as the executive head and the President as the Constitutional head. Elections to the Legislative's 40 general seats are to be held within 10 days of the general elections in Pakistan, according to a presidential proclamation of 8 Oct. 1977. The seat of government is Muzaffarabad. The Pakistan Government is directly responsible for Gilgit and Baltistan.

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DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured and 16 infantry divisions; 4 independent armoured, 5 independent infantry, 7 artillery and 2 anti-aircraft brigades; 6 armoured reconnaissance regiments, 6 surface-to-air missile batteries and 1 Special Services Group. Equipment includes 370 M-47/-48,51 T-54/-55 and 900 Type-59 main battle tanks. Strength (1985) 450,000, with a further 500,000 reservists. There are also 100,000 men in paramilitary units: National Guard, Frontier Corps, Pakistan Rangers, Coast Guard and Frontier Constabulary. Navy. The fleet comprises 6 diesel-powered patrol submarines (completed in France in 1969-80), 3 midget submarines, 1 "County" class destroyer, Babur (ex-HMS London) transferred from the Royal Navy in 1982, the ex-British .very old light cruiser (harbour training ship) ex-HMS Diadem, re-named Jahangir, 1 old destroyers (6 ex-US and 1 ex-British), 4 ex-Chinese corvette-type patrol vessels, 4 ex-Chinese fast missile craft, 12 ex-Chinese fast gunboats, 4 ex-Chinese fast (hydrofoil) torpedo boats, 1 seaward defence boat, 1 oceanographic survey ship, 6 coastal minesweepers, 1 fleet replenishment ship, 1 degaussing vessel, 1 rescue ship, 2 landing craft, 1 water earner and 3 tugs. The principal naval base and dockyard are at Karachi. Naval personnel in 1985 totalled 1,250 officers and 14,550 ratings. The naval air arm comprises 4 fixed-wing aircraft and 10 helicopters. Air Force. The Pakistan Air Force came into being on 14 Aug. 1947. It has its headquarters at Peshawar and is organized within 3 air defence sectors, in the northern, central and southern areas o f t h e country. Tactical units include 5 squadrons of Mirage III-EP/5 supersonic fighters, 1 squadron equipped with Mirage III-RP reconnaissance aircraft, and C-130 Hercules turboprop transports. Delivery of 34 F-16A and 6 F-16B Fighting Falcons began in late 1982, for operational service with 3 interceptor squadrons from 1984. Flying training schools are equipped with Masshaq (Saab Supporter) armed piston-engined primary trainers, T-37B/C jet trainers supplied by the USA, Mirage III-DPs and Chinese-built FT-5s (two-seat MiG-17s). Three Breguet Atlantics, plus a small number of Alouette III helicopters, are available to perform maritime reconnaissance, search and rescue duties in co-operation with Sea King helicopters of the Pakistan Navy Air Arm. A VIP transport squadron operates the Presidential F27 turboprop aircraft, a twin-jet Falcon 20 and smaller types. There is a flying college at Risalpur and an aeronautical engineering college at Korangi Creek. Total strength in 1984 was about 260 combat aircraft and 18,000 all ranks. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS External Debt (June 1983), about US$9,865m. Membership. Pakistan is a member of the UN, the Colombo Plan, and Regional Co-operation for Development. Treaties. A mutual defence assistance agreement between Pakistan and the USA was signed in Karachi on 19 May 1954. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth 5-year plan (1983-88) envisages a total fixed investment of Rs 495,000m. including Rs 77,000m. for industry, of which Rs 62,000m. would be spent in the private sector. Real growth in GDP is planned at 6 -5% annually (agriculture 5%; industry 9%). Expenditure will be met mainly (75%) from internal resources. Allocations for energy (Rs 116,000m.), agriculture and irrigation (Rs 88,OOOm.), special development programmes (Rs 22,000m.) and family planning (Rs 1,800m.) have been made. Budget. The following table shows the budget for the years 1982-83 and 1983-84 inRs lm.: 1982-83 1983-84 Internal revenue External revenue Current expenditure Development expenditure

Revised 58,040-2 14,973-9 50,949-6 28,255-0

Budget 63,212-3 16,775-3 57,289-6 31,000-0

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Currency. The monetary unit is the Pakistan rupee. In March 198 5 Rs 16 • 60=£ 1; Rs 16-03 = US$1. Decimal coinage was introduced on 1 Jan. 1961. The rupee, which previously consisted of 64 pice, now consists of 100 paisas. The notes are of Rs 100, 50, 10 and 5 denominations issued by the State Bank in the name of the Government, and Rs 1 issued by the State Bank incurring no liability; the coinage in the decimal series is 0 • 5,0-25,, 0 • 1,0-05 and 0-01 rupee. Total monetary assets (including currency in circulation and deposits) in March 1980 amounted to Rs 93,087m. Currency in circulation, Oct. 1980, Rs 30,812-4m. Banking. As from 1 Jan. 1985, banks and other financial institutions will abandon the payment of interest on new transactions. This does not apply to international business, but does apply to the domestic business of foreign banks operating in Pakistan. Investment partnerships, between bank and customer, are to replace straight loans at interest. The State Bank of Pakistan is the central bank; it came into operation as the Central Bank on 1 July 1948 with an authorized capital of Rs 30m. and was nationalized in Jan. 1974. As on 27 Oct. 1983 total assets or liabilities of the issue department amounted to Rs 46,464m. and those of the banking department Rs 59,254m.; reserve fund, Rs 1,300m. and total deposits, Rs 36,745m. It is the sole bank of issue for Pakistan, custodian of foreign exchange reserves (US$1,670m. in Oct. 1983) and banker for the federal and provincial governments and for scheduled banks. It also manages the rupee public debt of federal and provincial governments. It provides short-term loans to the Government and commercial banks and short- and medium-term loans to specialized banks. The Bank's subsidiary Federal Bank for Co-operatives makes loans to provincial co-operative banks. Loans made 1979-80, Rs 601-2m. There were 22 scheduled banks (banks with capital and reserves of an aggregate value of not less than Rs 500,000) in Pakistan on 30 June 1984. Of these 5 were Pakistani (National Bank of Pakistan, Habib Bank Ltd, United Bank Ltd, Muslim Commercial Bank Ltd and Allied Bank Ltd). Pakistani scheduled banks were nationalized in Jan. 1974. In addition, there were 17 foreign banks. Total deposits of all the scheduled banks stood at Rs 110,139m. on 27 Jan. 1983. The National Bank of Pakistan acts as an agent of the State Bank for transacting Government business and managing currency chests at places where the State Bank has no offices of its own. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity (1981) by type of generation: Thermal 1,648,830 kw.; hydro-electric, 1,767,200 kw.; nuclear, 137,000 kw. Total generated electrical energy in 1982-83, 19,636m. kwh; 60% of this was hydro-electricity, the main source being the Tarbela Dam. By 1983 30% of the population had access to electric power. Oil. Oil comes mainly from the Potowar Plain, from fields at Meyal, Tut, Balkassar, Joya Mair and Dhullian. Production in 1984 was 900,000 tonnes. Oil reserves were also found at Dhodak in Dec. 1976. Exploitation is mainly through government incentives and concessions to foreign private sector companies. The Pak-Arab refinery pipeline runs 865 km. from Karachi to Multan; capacity, 4-5m. tonnes of oil annually. Gas. Gas pipelines from Sui to Karachi (345 miles) and Multan (200) supply natural gas to industry and domestic consumers. A pipeline between Quetta and Shikarpur was constructed in 1982. There are 4 other productive fields. Reserves (1983), 500,000m. cu. metres; production in 1982-83 was 323,000m. cu. ft., or about 42% of energy needs. Water. The Indus water treaty of 1960, concluded between India and Pakistan, has created the basis for a large-scale development programme. The Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement has been subscribed by Australia, Canada, Federal

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Republic of Germany, New Zealand, UK and USA and is administered by the International Bank; the works to be constructed call for expenditure of US$1,000m. The main purpose of the treaty is the division of the water power of the Indus and its 5 tributaries between India and Pakistan. After the construction of some 460 miles of canals, the Indus and the 2 western tributaries will serve Pakistan and the entire flow of the 3 eastern tributaries will be released for use in India. The largest project is the construction of the Tarbela Dam, an earth-and-rock filled dam on the river Indus, 485 ft high, which has a gross storage capacity of 11 • 1 m. acre feet of water for irrigation. The Lloyd Barrage and Canal Construction Scheme, consists of a barrage across the river Indus at Sukkur and 7 canals—4 on the left and 3 on the right bank. Another barrage across the Indus, 4'/2 miles north of Kotri, called the Ghulam Muhammad Barrage, was completed in 1955. The Taunsa barrage on the Indus, 80 miles downstream of Kalabagh, was completed in 1958. The Gudu barrage, 10 miles from Kashmore, was completed in 1962. The province of the Punjab set up in 1949 the Thai Development Authority to colonize the Thai desert between the Indus and Jhelum rivers. The Chashma canal will carry water 172 miles across Dera Ismail Khan from the Chashma barrage on the Indus. The Mangla Dam on the Jhelum was inaugurated in Nov. 1967. Minerals. The main agencies are the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation, the Resource Development Corporation and the Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan. Coal is mined at Sharigh and Hamai on the Sind-Pishin railway and in the Bolan pass, also in Sor Range and Degari in the Quetta-Pishin district and in the Punjab; total recoverable reserves, about 480m. tonnes, mainly low-grade. A further 55m. tonnes was found at Lakhra in 1980 and reserves of over 500m. tonnes were found in the 300 sq. mile Thatta Sadha field in 1981. Copper ore reserves at Saindak, in Baluchistan, 412m. tons, containing (1984 estimate) 1 -69m. tons of copper; 2 -24m. oz. of gold; 2 -2m. oz. of silver. Chromite is extracted in and near Muslimbagh. Limestone is quarried generally. Gypsum is mined in the Sibi district and elsewhere; reserves (1983), about 370m. tonnes. Iron ore is being worked in Kalabagh and elsewhere; reserves, about 400m. tonnes, low-grade. A further 18m. tonnes, high-grade, has been found in Baluchistan. Uranium has been found in Dera Ghazi Khan. Production (tonnes, 1983): Coal, 1 -54m.; chromite, 3,225; limestone, 4-2m.; gypsum, 215,000; rock salt, 526,000; china clay, 72,705. Other minerals of which useful deposits have been found are magnesite, sulphur, barites, marble, bauxite, antimony ore, bentonite, celestite, dolomite, fireclay, fluorite, fuller's earth, phosphate rock, silica sand and soapstOne. Agriculture. The entire, area in the north and west is covered by great mountain ranges. The rest of the country consists of a fertile plain watered by 5 big rivers arid their tributaries. Agriculture is dependent almost entirely on the irrigation system based on these rivers. It employs (1983) 55% of labour and provides about 30% of GNP and 35% of foreign exchange earnings. Growth rate, 1982-83, 4-8%. The main crops are wheat, cotton, maize, sugar-cane and rice, while the Quetta and Kalat divisions (Baluchistan) are known for their fruits and dates. By 31 March 1977, 3-34m. acres of land had been taken away from landlords, and 1 -48m. acres had been distributed to 137,005 tenants. An ordinance of Jan. 1977 reduced the upper limit of land holding to 100 irrigated or 200 non-irrigated acres; it also replaced the former land revenue system with a new agricultural income tax, from which holders of up to 25 irrigated or 50 unirrigated acres are exempt. Of about 4m. farms, 89% are of less than 25 acres. Of the surveyed area of 156m. acres, cultivated land accounts for 63m. acres, of which 1 lm. acres consist of fallow land, so that the net area sown is 52m. acres. Pakistan is self-sufficient in wheat, rice and sugar. Production, 1982-83 (in 1,000 tonnes): Rice (cleaned), 3,272; wheat, 12,300; sugar-cane (gur), 31,604; cotton (lint, 1,000 bales), 4,800. Livestock (FAO estimate, 1983): Cattle, 16,157,000; buffaloes, 12,483,000; sheep, 23,531,000; goats, 27,716,000; poultry, 72m.

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Forestry. There were (1976) 7-3m. acres of reserved and protected forests and 10-6m. acres managed as pasture ranges by the Forest Department. Of the forests 1 -5m. acres are in Punjab, 1 -66m. in Baluchistan, 1 -46m. in Sind and 2-65m. in the North-West Frontier Province. Forests produce an annual average of over 20m. cu. ft of timber and 16m. cu. ft of fuel. Annual value of this and other produce, about Rs. 60m. Forest lands are also used as national parks, wildlife and game reserves. Fisheries. Landings of inland water and marine fish, about 200,000 tonnes annually. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Industry employs about 10% of the population, contributing (1982-83) about 17-5% of GDP. The growth rate in manufacturing, 1982-83, was 8-3%. In 1972 public sector companies were re-organized under a Board of Industrial Management. Government policy since 1977 has been to encourage private industry, particularly small industry. The public sector, however, is still dominant in large industries; in 1981-82 its gross vahie added was Rs. 4,291 -8m., number of employees 81,689, investment Rs. 45,886-98m., of which 60% was for Pakistan Steel. Pakistan is self-sufficient in cotton cloth and sugar. A public sector steel-mill (Pakistan Steel) has been built at Port Qasim near Karachi, capacity 11m. tonnes; production of coke and pig-iron began in autumn 1981 and of steel in 1983. Also recently completed are a heavy mechanical complex and a heavy forge and foundry plant at Taxila. There are plants processing barites and china clay. A private sector ferrous alloys plant has been approved near Peshawar, capacity 40 tonnes of ferrous silicon and manganese per day. There is an Export Processing Zone at Karachi, covering 500 acres; at 30 June 1981 investment here stood at US$58 - 8m. The largest project (approved Aug. 1981) is a Pakistan-Saudi aluminium extrusion plant. At Machi Goth there is a fertilizer plant, capacity 1,800 tonnes per day. Production 1982-83 (tonnes): Refined sugar, 1-lm.; vegetable ghee, 522,000; jute textiles, 62,461; soda ash, 93,638; sulphuric acid, 61,659; caustic soda, 41,195; chip board and paper board, 58,690; cycle tyres and tubes, 9-2m. units; cotton cloth, 305m. sq. metres; cotton yam, 399m. kg.; cement, 3 -9m. Labour. The Labour Force Survey of 1974-75 gave the total work force as 20-42m., of whom 54-8% (11 -22m.) were engaged in agriculture, forestry and fishing, 13-6% (2-8m.) in manufacturing; the textile industry was the largest single manufacturing employer. Estimates (1979-80) gave a labour force of 22-97m., 5 • 6m. ofthem urban. Commerce. Total value of exports during 1982-83 amounted to Rs 34,442m., and the total value of imports to Rs 68,151 m. The value of the chief articles imported into and exported from Pakistan in 1982-83 was (in Rs 1 m.): Imports Minerals, fuels, lubricants etc. Machinery and transport equipment Manufactured goods Chemicals

20,909-5 16,814-5 8,896-3 7,508-2

Exports Raw cotton Cotton cloth Cotton yams Rice Woollen carpets Leather

3,896-6 3,579-0 3,308-2 3,682-6 1,885-5 1,195-0

Total trade between Pakistan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exportsand re-exports from UK

1980 58,289 139,692

1981 63,249 149,370

1982 81,531 199,178

1983 80,277 191,647

1984 93,136 282,356

Tourism. Earnings in 1980, US$ 154m. There were 292,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. At the end of financial year 1975-76 Pakistan had 31,029 miles of roads, of which 16,875 miles were all-weather roads. The Karakoram highway to the

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Chinese border, through Kohistan and the Hunza valley, was opened in 1978. An all-weather road linking Skardu and the remote NE Indus valley to the highway was built in 1980. In 1982 there were l-3m. vehicles registered, including 635,196 motor-cycles and 304,449 cars, jeeps and station wagons. Railways. Pakistan Railways had (1982) a route of 8,822 km (of which 290 km electrified) mainly on 1,676 mm. gauge, with some metre gauge and narrow gauge line. In 1981-82: ran 16,502 passenger-km and 7,067m. tonne-km.. Aviation. Karachi is served by British Airways, KLM, PANAM, Lufthansa, Swissair, SAS, Iran National Airlines, Air France, Garuda, Gulf Air and by Philippine, Japanese, Chinese, East African, Syrian, Iraqui, Kuwait, Jordanian, Saudi Arabian, Romanian, Egyptian and Russian airlines. Pakistan International Airlines (founded 1955; the majority of shares is held by the Government) had 4 DC-10s, 7 Boeing 707Cs, 5 720Bs, 2 747Bs and 8 Fokker F27s in 1977; 2 other Boeing 720Bs were on lease to Air Malta. Services operate to 20 home airports, New York, Paris, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Istanbul, Athens, Rome, Cairo, Tripoli, Nairobi, Dhahran, Damascus, Amman, Baghdad, Persian Gulf points, Tokyo, Peking (Beijing), Zahedan, Singapore, Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, Colombo, London, Frankfurt, Bombay, Delhi, Dacca, Kabul, Tehran andJeddah. Shipping. There is a seaport at Karachi. A second port is being built at Phitti Creek on the Makram coast, 26 miles east of Karachi, to be called Port Muhammad Bin Qasim; this port will have iron and coal berths for Pakistan Steel Mills, multipurpose berths, bulk-cargo handling, oil and container-traffic terminals; the first phase (handling bulk and bagged cargo) will be operational it is hoped in 1983. The Pakistan National Shipping Corporation had 51 vessels in 1982, of700,000 DWT, carrying 38% of dry cargo handled. National flag carriers now operate between Pakistan and UK; USA and Canada; the Far East; the (Persian) Gulf, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea, Black Sea and Mekran Coast; Continental Europe and the Middle East. The Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works Ltd construct all types of vessels up to 27,000 DWT and repairs all types; dry-dock and under-water repairs can be done on vessels up to 29,000 DWT, above-water repairs on vessels and drilling rigs of all sizes. Post and Broadcasting. The telegraph and telephone system is government-owned. Telephones, on 1 Jan. 1982, numbered 393,010; a nationwide dialling system is in operation between 46 cities. In 1979 there were 10,488 post offices (8,193 rural) and 93 main telegraph offices; emphasis was laid on improving rural communications and 28 public call offices and 47 small exchanges were opened. Pakistan has international telephone connections by 102 satellite, 7 HF, 4 microwave and 10 carrier circuits. An international direct-dialling exchange with 25,000 connections was opened in July 1980. The Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation had 16 radio stations in Dec. 1983. Television stations operate in Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta and Rawalpindi-Islamabad. Cinemas (1983). There are about 600 cinemas. Newspapers. Dailies and periodicals numbered 1,156 in 1983: 763 were in Urdu, 272 in English and 70 in Sindhi; 121 were dailies, 315 weeklies, 562 monthlies and 158 quarterlies. Top circulation 300,000 for an Urdu daily paper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Central Judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, which is a court of record and has three-fold jurisdiction, namely, original, appellate and advisory. There are 4 High Courts in Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta and Karachi. Under the Constitution, each has power to issue directions of writs of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari and others. Under them are district and sessions courts of first instance in each division; they have also some appellate jurisdiction. Criminal cases not being sessions cases are tried by district magistrates and subordinate magistrates. There are subordinate civil courts also.

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The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, as the greatest safeguard of citizens' rights. The Laws (Continuance in Force) (Eleventh Amendment) Order, 1980, prescribed the date of 14 Aug. 1981 by which the judiciary shall be separated from the executive. There is an Attorney-General, appointed by the President, who has right of audience in all courts. A Federal Shariat Court at the Supreme Court level has been established to decide whether any law is wholly or partially un-Islamic. Islamic law is to be enforced as the law of the state; penalties for offences involving intoxicating liquor, offences against property and sexual offences have been specified. Imprisonment remains as a penalty in general use, but some offences in all the above categories are liable to whipping and some property offences, to amputation. Religion. Religious groups (1972 census): Moslems, 63 -28m.; Christians, 907,861; Scheduled Castes, 603,369; Caste Hindus, 296,837; Parsees, 9,589; Buddhists, 4,318; others, 205,250. There is a Ministry to safeguard the constitutional rights of religious minorities. Education. At the census of 1981,23-3% of the population were able to read and write. Adult literacy programmes have been established. The principle of free and compulsory primary education has been accepted as the responsibility of the state; duration has been fixed provisionally at 5 years. In 1982-83 there were 61,354 elementary schools with 7-lm. pupils; 5,686 middle schools with l-6m.; 3,773 high schools with 600,000; 257 secondary vocational schools with 41,000. Present policy stresses vocational and technical education, disseminating a common culture based on Islamic ideology. Sixth plan (1983-88) expenditure: Rs. 11,000m. on primary and secondary schools; Rs. 1,300m. on colleges and Rs. 2,100m. on universities. There were 1983,442 general colleges, 102 professional colleges. In 1983 there were 20 universities, including the open university at Islamabad and the privatelyfunded Aga Khan University. University and other college students, 1982-83, 379,000. Health. In 1982 there were 613 hospitals and 3,457 dispensaries (50,335 beds) and about 29,930 doctors. Sixth plan (1983-88) expenditure: Rs. 15,750m. Social Security. In 1981-82 expenditure on cash benefits under the employees' social security scheme was Rs 15 • 3m., on medical care, Rs.93 • 2m. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Pakistan in Great Britain (35-36 Lowndes Sq., London, SW1X 9JN) Ambassador: Ali Arshad (accredited 13 Feb. 1981). Of Great Britain in Pakistan (Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna 5, Islamabad) Ambassador: Richard Fyjis-Walker, CMG, CVO. Of Pakistan in the USA (2315 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ejaz Azim. Of the USA in Pakistan (AID/UN Bldg., Islamabad) Ambassador: Deane R. Hinton. Of Pakistan to the United Nations Ambassador: S. Shah Nawaz. Books of Reference Pakistan Year-Book, Annual Ahmed, A. S., Religion and Politics in Muslim Society: Order and Conflict in Pakistan. CUP, 1973 Ali, T., Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of the State. Harmondsworth, 1983 Burke, S. M., Pakistan 's Foreign Policy. OUP, 1973 Burki, S. J., Pakistan Under Bhutto. London, 1980 Griffin, K., and Khan, A. R. (ed.), Growth and Inequality in Pakistan. London and New York 1972 Hasan, M., (ed.) Pakistan in a Changing World. Karachi, 1978 Jennings, Sir Ivor, Constitutional Problems in Pakistan. CUP, 1957 Siddiqui, K., Conflict, Crisis and War in Pakistan. London, 1972

PANAMA

Capital: Panama City Population: 1 -97m. (1983) GNPper capita: US$ 1,910 ( 1981 )

República de Panamá

HISTORY. A revolution, inspired by the USA, led to the separation of Panama from the United States of Colombia and the declaration of its independence on 3 Nov. 1903. The de facto Government was on 13 Nov. recognized by the USA, and soon afterwards by the other Powers. In 1914 Colombia agreed to recognize the independence of Panama. This treaty was ratified by the USA and Colombia in 1921, and on 8 May 1924 diplomatic relations between Colombia and Panama were established. On 10 Oct. 1979 Panama assumed sovereignty over what was previously known as the Panama Canal Zone and now called the Canal Area. For the treaties regulating the relations between Panama and the USA see pp. 961-62. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Panama is bounded north by the Caribbean, east by Colombia, south by the Pacific and west by Costa Rica. Extreme length is about 480 miles (772 km); breadth between 37 (60) and 110 miles (177 km); coastline, 426 miles (685 km) on the Atlantic and 767 (1,234 km) on the Pacific; total area (including the Canal Zone) is 30,134 sq. miles (78,046 sq. km); population according to the census of 11 May 1980 was 1,830,175. Over 75% are of mixed blood and the remainder Indians, negroid, white and Asiatic. The capital is Panama City, on the Pacific coast; census population, 1980, 389,227. There are 9 provinces (with populations, 1980) as follows (the capitals in brackets): Bocas del Toro (Bocas del Toro), 53,579; Chiriquí (David), 287,801; Coclé (Penonomé), 140,320; Colón (Colón), 166,439; Los Santos (Las Tablas), 70,200; Herrera (Chitré), 81,866; Darién (La Palma), 26,497 ; Panama (Panama City), 830,278; Veraguas (Santiago), 173,195. The port of Colón on the Atlantic coast had 95,300 (78,000). Smaller ports on the Pacific are Aguadulce, Pedregal, Montijo, Puerto Mutis and Puerto Armuelles; in the Atlantic, Bocas del Toro, Almirante, Portobello, Mandinga and Permé. A new fishing port came into operation at Vacamonte in Aug. 1979. Vital statistics (1980): Births, 52,626; marriages, 8,850; deaths, 7,959. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, unvaryingly with high temperatures and only a short dry season from Jan. to April. Rainfall amounts are much higher on the north side of the isthmus. Panama City. Jan. 79°F (26- 1°Q, July 81"F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 70" (1,770 mm). Colón. Jan. 80°F (26 TC), July 80°F (26-TC). Annual rainfall 127" (3,175 mm). Balboa Heights. Jan. 80°F(26-7°C), July 81°F(27-2'C). Annual rainfall 70" (1,759 mm). Cristóbal. Jan. 80°F(26-7°C), July 81°F(27-2'Q. Annual rainfall 130" (3,255 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The 1972 Constitution, as amended in 1978 and 1983, provides for an Assembly of 505 representatives of municipal districts elected on a community rather than a party basis, a Legislative Council of 57 members and a directly-elected President and Vice-President. The formation of political parties is now permitted, subject to statutory regulations, and 5 such parties had achieved full legal recognition by Sept. 1981. Elections, the first to be held in Panama for 12 years, for the National Legislative Council were held in Sept. 1980. The Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD) gained 10 of the then 19 seats; Liberals, 5; Christian Democrats, 2; Independents, 2.

President: Nicolas Ardido Barletta (assumed office, 30 May 1984). 958

PANAMA

959

The Cabinet appointed in Sept. 1983 was composed as follows: Foreign Affairs: Oyden Ortega. Interior and Justice: Dr Carlos Ozores Typaldos. Treasury and Finance: Dr Gabriel Castro. Agriculutral Development: Frank Pérez. Public Works: Carlos Clement. Commerce and Industry: Dr Carlos Hoffman. Labour and Social Welfare: Arturo Melo. Health: Dr Guillermo Gaspar Garcia de Paredes. Housing: Raúl Rolando Rodriguez. Education: Sra. Susana Richa de Torrijos. Planning and Economic Policy: Menalco Solis. Presidency: Mario de Diago. The official language is Spanish. National flag: Quarterly: first a white panel with a blue star, second red, third blue, fourth white with a red star. National anthem: Alcanzamos por fin la victoria (words by J. de la Ossa; tune by Santos Jorge, 1903). Local government: The 9 provinces and a Special Territory (another is envisaged) are sub-divided into 64 municipal districts and 2 comarcas (special districts) and are further sub-divided into 505 corregimientos (electoral districts). DEFENCE Army. The Army numbered (1985) 1,500 men organized in 7 light infantry companies, equipped with 16 V-l 50 armoured cars. There is also a paramilitary force of about 7,500 men. Navy. Divided between both coasts, the flotilla comprises 4 patrol craft, 2 coastguard cutters, 2 coastal launchers, 3 medium landing ships, 3 utility landing craft and 3 logistic support vessels. In 1985 personnel totalled 500 officers and men. Air Force. The air force has 1 Lockheed Electra, 4 C-47, 3 CASA 212,2 Islander and 3 Twin Otter transports, 3 Cessna and 2 DHC-3 Otter liaison aircraft, a Shorts Skyvan, a Falcon VIP jet transport, 21 UH-1B/D/H Iroquois, twin-engined UH-IN helicopters and 1 Boeing 727-100. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Panama is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. The 1982 budget provided for expenditure of 1,395m. balboas and revenue of 1,055m. balboas. Public sector debt was 2,333m. balboas in Dec. 1981. Currency. The monetary unit is the balboa, which is of the same size and fineness as the US silver dollar but is maintained equivalent to the gold dollar. Other coins whose metallic content is required by law to correspond exactly to that of similar US coins are the half-balboa (equal to 50 cents US); the quarter and tenth of a balboa piece; a cupro-nickel coin of 5 cents, and a copper coin of 1 cent. US coinage is also legal tender. Volume of the currency has not been disclosed since 31 Dec. 1950, when it stood at 1 -5m. balboas. The only paper currency used is that of the USA. In March 1985, US$1 = 1 balboa, £1 = 1 07 balboas. Banking. There is no statutory central bank. The Government accounts are handled through the Banco Nacional de Panama. The number of commercial banks rose from 9 in 1964 to 116 by Sept. 1981; 62 have a general licence, 42 an international licence and 12 a representational licence. Leading banks are the Citibank, Lloyds Bank International (Bahamas) Ltd., and the Chase Manhattan Bank of New York. Other foreign-owned banks include the Bank of America, as well as Canadian, Columbian, Swiss, Federal German, French, Spanish, Dutch, Taiwan, Japanese and Brazilian banks. Weights and Measures. English weights and measures are in general use; those of the metric system are also used.

960

PANAMA

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production of electric energy, 1981,amounted to l,792-38m. kwh. Minerals. There are known to be copper deposits in the provinces of Chiriqui, Colon and Darien. The most important, containing possibly the largest undeveloped reserves in the world, is Cerro Colorado (Chiriqui) on which a feasibility study is being undertaken by the Rio Tinto Zinc Coporation Ltd. If it is eventually decided to develop the mine, it is expected that the annual production of copper will reach 260,000 to 280,000 tonnes within a few years. The cost of construction is estimated at about US$1,800m. The deposit has estimated reserves of 1,300m. tonnes, with an average grade of0 • 76% copper. Agriculture. Of the whole area (1975) 18 -5% is cultivated, 571% is natural or artificial pasture land and 9-5% is fallow. Of the remainder only a small part is cultivated, though the land is rich in resources. About 60% of the country's food requirements are imported. The Ministry of Agricultural Development (MIDA) buys leading crops at field prices. Of the land under cultivation, 26 -4% is owned and 44-7% is usufructuary. The most important export products are bananas, grown by an affiliate of the United Brands Company and sugar from 4 state-owned and 2 private mills. Production in 1982 totalled 1 • lm. tonnes of bananas and in 1981 187,000 tonnes of raw sugar. Oranges (64,000 tonnes) and mangoes (27,000 tonnes) are also produced. Most important food crop, for home consumption, is rice, grown on 80% of the farms; Panama's per capita consumption is very high. Output of rough rice was 150,000 tonnes in 1982. Other products are maize (63,000 tonnes in 1982), cocoa (1,000 tonnes), coffee (8,000 tonnes) and coconuts (25,000 tonnes). Beer, whisky, rum, 'seco', anise and gin are produced. Coffee is mainly grown in the province of Chiriqui, near the Costa Rican frontier; total production in 1982 was 8,000 tonnes, and small amounts were exported. The country has great timber resources, notably mahogany. Livestock (1983): 1,459,000 cattle, 197,000 pigs and 6m. poultry. Fisheries. The catch in 1981 was 132,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Local industries include cigarettes, clothing, food processing, shoes, soap, cement factories; foreign firms are being encouraged to establish industries, and a petrol refinery is operating in Colon. Commerce. The imports and exports (including re-exports) for the Republic of Panama, for 6 calendar years are as follows (in 1,000 balboas; 1 balboa=US$ 1): 1975 1976 1977

Imports 789,700 783,500 777,761

Exports 262,000 378,200 243,051

1978 1979 1980

Imports 862,000 1,185,000 1,277,000

Exports 381,700 291,506 407,000

Chief exports (48-2% to the USA) in 1980 were: Petroleum products, bananas, sugar, shrimps. Chief imports, "1979, were valued (in lm. balboas f.o.b.): Machinery and transport material, 214-7; manufactured goods, 308-9; fuel, minerals and similar, 319-4;chemicals, 116-7;food, 77-1. USA provided 32% of imports in 1979. Total trade between Panama (including Colon Free Zone) and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K 1

1980 3,941 24,032

1981 7,815 35,855

1982 9,521 83,250

1983 5,341 42,276

1984 9,681 74,322

' Including new ships built for foreign owners and registered in Panama.

Tourism. In 1980,392,062 people visited Panama. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Panama had on 1 Jan. 1980, 8,606 km of roads. The road from Panama

PANAMA

961

City westward to the cities of David and Concepción and to the Costa Rican frontier, with several branches, is part of the Pan-American Highway. A concrete highway connects Panama City and Colón. On 1 Jan. 1980 registered motor vehicles, private and commercial, numbered 111,052, this excludes vehicles owned by government departments. Railways. The Ferrocarril de Panama (Panama Railroad) (1,524 mm gauge) (through the Canal area), which connects Ancón on the Pacific with Cristóbal on the Atlantic, is the principal railway. It is 76 km long and runs along the banks of the Canal. As most vessels unload their caigo at Cristóbal (Colón), on the Atlantic side, the greater portion of the merchandise destined for Panama City is brought overland by the Ferrocarril de Panama. The United Brands Company runs 376 km of railway, and the Chiriqui National Railroad 126 km. Aviation. Commercial aviation has developed rapidly. PANAM, BranifF Airways, British Airways, KLM, Iberia Airlines and other international companies operate at Tocumen Airport, 17 miles from Panama City. Air Panama provides services between Panama City and New York, Los Angeles, Miami, Central America and some countries in South America. The Compañía Panameña de Aviación (COPA) and Aerolíneas Las Perlas provide a local service between Panama City and the provincial towns. COPA also provides an international service to Central America. Shipping. Ships under Panamanian registry on 25 Sept. 1981 numbered 10,859 of 27-2m. gross tons; most of these ships elect Panamanian registry because fees are low and labour laws lenient. All the international maritime traffic for Colón and Panama runs through the Canal ports of Cristóbal, Balboa and Bahia Las Minas (Colón); Almirante is used for both the provincial and international trade. There is an oil transfer terminal at Puerto Armuelles on the Pacific coast. Panama Canal. On 18 Nov. 1903 a treaty between the USA and the Republic of Panama was signed making it possible for the US to build and operate a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Isthmus of Panama. The treaty granted the US in perpetuity the use, occupation and control of a Canal Zone, approximately 10 miles wide, in which the US would possess full sovereign rights 'to the entire exclusion of the exercise by the Republic of Panama of any such sovereign rights, power or authority'. In return the US guaranteed the independence of the republic and agreed to pay the republic $10m. and an annuity of $250,000. The US purchased the French rights and properties—the French had been labouring from 1879 to 1899 in an effort to build the Canal—for $40m. and in addition, paid private landholders within what would be the Canal Zone a mutually agreeable price for their properites. Two new treaties between Panama and USA were agreed on 10 Aug. and signed on 7 Sept. 1977. One deals with the operation and defence ofthe canal until the end of 1999 and the other guarantees permanent neutrality. The USA maintains operational control over all lands, waters and installations, including military bases, necessary to manage, operate and defend the canal until 31 Dec. 1999. A new agency of the US Government, the Panama Canal Commission, operates the canal, replacing the Panama Canal Co. A policy-making board of 5 US citizens and 4 Panamanians serves on the Commission's board of directors. Until 1990 the canal administrator will be a US citizen and the deputy will be Panamanian. After that date the position will be reversed. Six months after the exchange of instruments of ratification Panama assumed general territorial jurisdiction over the former Canal Zone and became able to use portions of the area not needed for the operation and defence of the canal. Panamanian penal and civil codes became applicable. At the same time Panama assumed responsibility for commercial ship repairs and supplies, railway and pier operations, passengers, police and courts, all of which wefe among other areas formerly administered by the Canal Co. and the Canal Zone Government. 66% of the electorate of Panama agreed to the ratification of the treaties when a referendum was held on 23 Oct. 1977 and on 18 April 1978 the treaty was ratified by the US Congress. The treaty went into effect on 1 Oct. 1979.

962

PANAMA

The treaty of 1936 increased the annuity to US$430,000 and, as desired by Panama, withdrew the guarantee of independence. In 1955 the annuity was increased to US$1 -93m., and the Panama Canal Co. turned over to the Republic the Panama City railroad yards and other properties valued at US$22m. At the end of 1962 the US completed the construction of a high-level bridge over the Pacific entrance to the Canal, and the flags of Panama and the US were flown jointly over areas of the Canal Zone under civilian authority. Following the devaluation of the dollar in 1972 and 1973, the annuity was adjusted proportionally to US$2 • 1 m. and US$2-33m. respectively. The Panama Canal Commission, a US Government Agency, is concerned primarily with the actual operation of the Canal. On 8 July 1974, 18 Nov. 1976 and 10 Oct. 1979 tolls were increased. These were the first increases of toll rates in the history of the Canal. Tolls were raised again on 12 March 1983. The new rates are US$ 1.83 a Panama Canal ton for vessels carrying passengers or cargo and US$ 1 -46 per ton for vessels in transit in ballast. A Panama Canal ton is equivalent to 100 cu. ft of actual earning capacity. The new toll rate for warships, hospital ships and supply ships, which pay on a displacement basis, is US$ 1 -02 a ton. "Die changes were designed to continue the approximately break-even financial operating results after paying its own expenses and paying interest on the net direct investment of the US in the Canal. •Administrator of the Panama Canal Commission: Dennis P. McAuliffe. Deputy Administrator: Fernando Manfredo (Panama). The total civilian and military population of the Canal area is 34,700 (estimate), of whom about 30,750 are US citizens. The total force employed by the Panama Canal Commission on 13 Oct. 1984 was 8,083, comprising 1,520 US citizens, 6,355 Panamanians and 208 others. The Canal was opened to commerce on 15 Aug. 1914. It is 85 ft above sea-level. It is 51 -2 statute miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific ocean, and 36 statute miles from shore to shore. The channel ranges in bottom-width from 500 to 1,000 ft; the widening of Gaillard Cut to a minimum width of 500 ft was completed in 1969. Normally, the average time of a vessel in Canal waters is less than 30 hours, 8-12 of which are in transit through the Canal proper. A map showing the Panama, Suez and Kiel canals on the same scale will be found in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 9 and a new map in the 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 edition. Particulars of the ocean-going commercial traffic through the canal are given as follows (vessels of-300 tons Panama Canal net and 500 displacement tons and over; cargo in long tons): Fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1981 1982 1983 1984

North-bound South-bound (Pacific to Atlantic) (Atlantic to Pacific) Total Vessels Cargo Vessels Cargo Vessels Cargo 6,623 81,902,966 7,261 89,318,796 13,884 171,221,762 6,618 88,895,265 7,391 96,557,067 14,009 185,452,332 5,540 57,762,250 6,167 87,828,509 11,707 145,590,759 5,455 62,211,519 5,775 78,259,299 11,230 140,470,818

Tolls levied (in US$) 301,762,600 323,958,366 285,985,719 286,677,844

In the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1984, of the 11,230 ships which passed through the Canal, 1,770 were Panamanian; 1,379 Liberian; 1,191 Japanese; 788 Greek; 742 US; 454 British; 454 Ecuadorian; 435 Russian; 337 Norwegian; 250 Peruvian; 250 Danish; 232 Fed. German. Statistical Information: The Panama Canal Commission Office of Public Affairs. Annual Reports on the Panama Canal, by the Administrator of the Panama Canal Commission. Rules and Regulations Governing Navigation of the Panama Canal. The Panama- Canal Commission, Miamt, Florida or Washington, DC Cameron, 1., The Impossible Dream. London, 1972 Le Feber, W., The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical Perspective. OUP, 1978 McCullough, D., The Path Between the Seas New York and London, 1978

Post and Broadcasting. There are telegraph cables from Panama to North America

PANAMA

963

and Central and South American ports, and from Colón to the USA and Europe. There is also inter-continental communication by satellite. There are 93 licensed commercial broadcasting stations, nearly all operated by private companies, one of which functions in the canal. There are 5 television stations, one of them run by the US Army at Fort Clayton. In 1980 there were285,000 radio and 220,000 television sets. On 1 Jan. 1982 there were 212,992 telephones. Cinemas. In 1977 there were 52 cinemas in the district of Panama. All films must have Spanish subtitles. Newspapers. There are 1 English language and 4 Spanish language daily morning newspapers and 1 English/Spanish evening newspaper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court consists of 9 justices appointed by the executive. There is no death penalty. Religion. 95% of the population is Roman Catholic and 5% Protestant. There is freedom of religious worship and Separation of Church and State. Clergymen may teach in the schools but may not hold public office. Education. Elementary education is compulsory for all children from 7 to 15 years of age, with an estimated 545,800 students in schools in 1977. The University of Panama at Panama City, inaugurated on 7 Oct. 1935, had a total enrolment (1978) of 32,868 students. The Catholic university Sta. Maria La Antigua, inaugurated on 27 May 1965, had 1,916 students in Sept. 1978. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Panama in Great Britain (109 Jermyn St., London, SW1) Ambassador: Guillermo Vega (accredited 14 June 1984). Of Great Britain in Panama (Apartado 889, Panama City 1) Ambassador: T. H. Steggle. Of Panama iitfhe USA (2862 McGill Terr., NW, Washington, DC., 20008) Ambassador: Aquilino E. Boyd. Of the USA in Panama (Ave. Balboa y Calle 38, Panama City) Ambassador: Everett E. Briggs. Of Panama to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Comptroller-General of the Republic (Contraloria General de la República, Calle 35 y Avenida 6, Panama City) publishes an annual report and other statistical publications. Jorden, W. J., Panama Odyssey. Univ. of Texas Press, 1984 Langstaff, E. DeS., Panama. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara 1982 Ropp, S. C., Panamanian Politics. New York, 1982 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Departamento de Información. Calle 22, Panama.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Capital: Port Moresby Population: 3 -26m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$706 (1983)

HISTORY. To prevent that portion of the island of New Guinea not claimed by the Netherlands or Germany from passing into the hands of a foreign power, the Government of Queensland annexed Papua in 1883. This step was not sanctioned by the Imperial Government, but on 6 Nov. 1884 a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the southern portion of the eastern half of New Guinea, and in 1887 Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria undertook to defray the cost of administration, and the territory was annexed to the Crown the following year. The federal government took over the control in 1901; the political transfer was completed by the Papua Act of the federal parliament in Nov. 1905, and on 1 Sept. 1906 a proclamation was issued by the Governor-General of Australia declaring that British New Guinea was to be known henceforth as the Territory of Papua. The northern portion of New Guinea was a German colony until the First World War. It became a League of Nations mandated territory in 1921, administered by Australia, and later a UN Trust Territory (of New Guinea). The Papua New Guinea Act 1949-1972 provides for the administration of the UN Australian Trust Territory of New Guinea in an administrative union with the Territory of Papua, in accordance with Art. 5 of the New Guinea Trusteeship Agreement, under the title of Papua New Guinea. Australia granted Papua New Guinea self-government on 1 Dec. 1973 and, on 16 Sept. 1975, Papua New Guinea became a fully independent state. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Papua New Guinea extends from the equator to Cape Baganowa in the Louisiade Archipelago to 11° 40' S. lat. and from the border of West Irian to 160° E. long, with a total area of462,840 sq. km. According to the census the 1980 population was 3,010,727. Port Moresby, (1^80) 123,624; Lae, 61,617; Rabaul, 14,954; Madang, 21,335; Mount Hägen, 13,441. Area and population of the provinces: Provinces Milne Bay Northern Central National Capital District Gulf Western Southern Highlands Enga Western Highlands Chimbu Eastern Highlands Morobe Madang East Sepik WestSepik Manus West New Britain East New Britain New Ireland North Solomons

Sq.km 14,000 22,800 29,500 240 34,500 99,300 23,800 12,8001 8,500 J 6,100 11,200 34,500 29,000 42,800 36,300 2,100 21,000 15,500 9,600 9,300

Census¡971 109,460 66,514 117,330 76,507 58,564 70,898 192,854 346,032 160,245 239,640 249,032 170,953 181,893 93,978 24,866 61,515 113,750 59,543 96,363

Census 1980 127,975 77,442 116,964 123,624 64,120 78,575 236,052 J 164,534 1 265,656 178,290 276,726 310,622 211,069 221,890 114,192 26,036 88,941 133,197 66,028 128,794

Capital Alotau Popondetta Port Moresby —

Kerema Daru Mendi Wabag Mount Hägen Kundiawa Goroka Lae Madang Wewak Vanimo Lorengau Kimbe Rabaul Kavieng Arawa

Vital statistics (1983, estimate): Crude birth rate, 39 per 1,000; crude death rate, 17. C L I M A T E . There is a monsoon climate, with high temperatures and humidity 964

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

965

the year round. Port Moresby which is in a rain shadow and is not typical of the rest of Papua New Guinea. Jan. 82°F (27-8'C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,011 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Papua New Guinea has a Westminster type of government. A single legislative house, known as the National Parliament, is made up of 109 members from all parts of the country. The members are elected under universal suffrage and general elections are held every 5 years. All persons over the age of 18 who are Papua New Guinea citizens are eligible to vote and stand for election. Voting is by secret ballot and follows the preferential system. The first Legislative Council was established in 1951. It was abolished in 1964 and replaced with the House of Assembly. In 1950 the first village council was formed which established the basis of the now extensive local government system. A system of provincial government was introduced in 1976. In the national elections of 1982 a Pangu government, supported by the United Party, came to power with 67 members of Parliament. The administrative centre and capital is located at Port Moresby. National administration is carried out by a public service under the direction of 28 ministries. The country is divided into the National Capital District and 19 provinces: Western, Gulf, Central, Milne Bay, Northern, Southern Highlands, Enga, Western Highlands, Chimbu, Eastern Highlands, Morobe, Madang, East Sepik, West Sepik, Manus, New Ireland, East New Britain, West New Britain, and North Solomons. Each of the provincial governments has a secretariat headed by an Administrative Secretary. In many provinces the system of local governments still operates, although the provinces may make changes to this if they wish. Governor-General: Sir Kingsford Dibela, GCMG. The Cabinet in Jan. 1985 was as follows: Prime Minister: Michael Thomas Somare. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for National Planning: Paias Wingti. Finance: Philip Bouraga, OBE. Foreign Affairs and Trade: Rabbie Namaliu. Public Service: Anthony Siaguru. Education: Barry Holloway. Defence: Boyamo Sali. Provincial Affairs: John Nilkare. Primary Industry: Dennis Young. Commerce and Industry: Karl Stack. Health: Martin Tovadek. Works and Supply: Pato Kakarya. Justice: Anthony Bais. Labour and Employment: Caspar Anggua. Lands: Bebes Korowaro. Planning and Physical Services: Kala Swokim. Environment and Conservation: Halalu Mai. Posts and Telecommunications: Roy Evara. Transport: Mathew Bendumb. Information and Broadcasting: Epel Tito. Minerals and Energy: Francis Pusal. Police: John Giheno. Civil Aviation: Tom Pais. Religion, Youth, Women and Recreation: Tom Awasa. Forestry: Lukas Waka. Administrative Services: Sir Pita Lus. Correctional Services and Liquor Licensing: Pundia Kange. Culture and Tourism: McKenzie Javopa. The seat of the Government is at Port Moresby. National flag: Diagonally ochre-red over black, on the red a bird of paradise in gold, and on the black 5 stars of the Southern Cross in white. D E F E N C E . The Papua New Guinea Defence Force has a total strength of 3,800 (1985) consisting of land, maritime and air elements. The Army is organized in 2 infantry battalions, 1 engineer and 1 signals battalion with logistic units. The Navy has 4 large patrol craft and 2 landing craft. The nucleus of an Air Force was formed by 4 DC-3 piston-engined transports delivered from Australia in 1975; two more were delivered later. They have been followed by 7 Australian-built Missionmaster twin-turboprop support transports. A Gulfstream II and a Super King Air are available for VIP use. Personnel total 75. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Papua New Guinea is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the Colombo Plan, the South Pacific Commission and is an ACP state of EEC.

966

P A P U A NEW G U I N E A

ECONOMY Budget. Revenue (in K1,000) for calendar years was: Source Customs, excise and export tax Other taxes Foreign government grants ' Loans Other revenue Total 1

1981 115,534 144,270 184,348 57,178 127,545

1982 131,252 163,872 186,684 81,736 84,867

1983 145,000 179,114 212,238 93,563 82,724

628,875

648,411

712,639

1982 303,460 55,803 307,479

19832 306,219 70,278 327,900

Mainly from Australia.

Expenditure (in K.1,000) for the same periods: Source Consumption Capital Other expenditure

1981 302,997 75,952 280,094

Total 659,043 666,760 704,397 2 ' Includes transfers to provincial governments. Preliminary.

Currency. The unit of currency is the kina divided into 100 toea and is the sole legal tender. In March 1985,£1 =K1 09; US$1 =K1 04. Banking. The Bank of Papua New Guinea assumed the central banking functions formerly undertaken by the Reserve Bank of Australia on 1 Nov. 1973. A national banking institution which has been named the Papua New Guinea Banking Corporation, has been established. This bank has assumed the Papua New Guinea business of the Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia except where certain accounts give rise to special financial or contractual problems. The subsidiaries of 3 Australian commercial banks also operate in Papua New Guinea. These are the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group (PNG) Ltd, the Bank of New South Wales (PNG) Ltd, and the Bank of South Pacific Ltd, all of which offer trading and savings facilities. As from 1 Nov. 1973 these banks operated under Papua New Guinea banking legislation. In 1983, two additional commercial banks Indosuez Niugini Bank Ltd and Niugini Lloyds International Bank Ltd began operating, each with 51% national ownership, and the remaining 49% held by the affiliate of a major international bank. In addition to these five commercial banks, the Papua New Guinea Development Bank has provided long-term development finance with a particular attention to the needs of small-scale enterprises since 1967. The country's first merchant bank, Resources and Investment Finance Ltd (RIFL), specializing in large-scale financial services began business in late 1979. Its shares are owned by the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia and the Papua New Guinea Banking Corporation. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1983 installed capacity was 402,900 mw, production l,434-9m. kwh. Minerals. Copper is the main mineral product. Oil companies have been searching for oil, but by 1983 no commercial deposits had been found. Gold, copper and silver are the only minerals produced in quantity. Major copper deposits in the Kieta district of Bougainville have proved reserves of about 800m. tonnes and are worked by Bougainville Copper Ltd and production of copper concentrates for export began in 1972 from this source. Copper and gold deposits which were found in the Star Mountains of the Western Province are being developed by Ok Tedi Mining Ltd at the Mt. Fubilan mine and production of gold commenced in 1984. In 1983, B.C.L. produced 636,932 tonnes of copper concentrate containing

P A P U A NEW G U I N E A

967

approximately 183,191 tonnes of copper, 18 00tonnesofgoldand47-41 tonnes of silver. Agriculture. At 31 Dec. 1982, the total area of larger holdings was 395,000 hectares, of which 242,000 hectares were for agricultural purposes, the principal crops being coffee, copra and cocoa. Production of palm oil is of growing importance. Minor commercial crops include pyrethrum, tea, peanuts and spices. Locally consumed food crops include sweet potatoes, taro, bananas, rice and sago. Tropical fruits grow abundantly. There is extensive grassland. A newlyestablished sugar industry has made the country self-sufficient in this commodity while a beef-cattle industry is being developed. Livestock(1983):Cattle, 134,000;pigs, 1-45m.;goats, 16,000;poultry, lm. Forestry. Timber production is of growing importance for both local consumption and export. In 1983, about 2,004,500 cu. metres of logs were harvested; logs exported, 1,199,400 cu. metres. Production of sawn timber, 1983, 297,000 cu. metres, exports, 21,200 cu. metres; exports of woodchips, 154,400 tonnes. Fisheries. Tuna, both skipjack and yellowfin species, is the major fisheries resource; in 1980 the catch was 33,000 tonnes but has diminished sharply since then due to oversupply conditions on world markets. Exports of various crustacea, 1983,1,171 tonnes, value K8-79m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Secondary and service industries are expanding for the local market. Industries include the manufacture of paint, gases, concrete, twist tobacco and cigarettes, matches, soap, brewing, boat-building, furniture and the assembly of electrical appliances. In 1982 there were 720 factories employing 29,340 persons. Value of output K632m. Labour. In 1980 about 733,000 were gainfully employed. Trade. Imports (in K1,000) for calender years: Food and live animals Beverages and tobacco Crude materials, inedible, except fuels Mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials Oils and fats (animal and vegetable) Chemicals Manufactured goods, chiefly by material Machinery and transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured articles Commodities and transactions of merchandise trade, not elsewhere specified Total imports

1981 136,339 8,362 3,569

1982 138,692 8,388 3,566

1983 134,813 8,269 4,876

158,369 1,877 45,055 108,510 224,595 54,593

146,093 2,212 39,319 118,928 230,393 53,873

167,380 2,525 64,050 130,559 232,770 60,339

10,149

10,203

9,285

751,419

751,667

814,866

Exports (in K1,000) for calendar years: 1981

1982

1983

19,476 12,508 689

12,878 12,110 745

23,891 20,038 1,433

Total

32,673

25,733

45,452

Coffee beans Cocoa beans Crude rubber Tea Pyrethrum extract

74,218 34,135 3,403 7,131 890

77,780 31,822 1,406 6,682 498

94,659 41,376 2,153 10,391 397

Coconut and copra products— Copra Copra (coconut) oil Copra cake and pellets

968

PAPUA NEW GUINEA Forest and timber products Logs Sawn timber Veneers Plywood Other Total Crocodile skins Crayfish and prawns Gold Copper concentrate Other domestic produce Total domestic produce

1981

1982

1983

31,517 3,897 272 3,000 6,982

49,312 3,508

43,576 2,495

2,151 4,424

1,394 6,517

45,667

59,395

53,982

1,320 6,851 7,132 332J70 '

2,341 6,463 6,242 298,034 28,412

936 8,788 8,058 364,862 31,878

545,589

545,396

662,932

19,334

24,351

19,236

Re-exports

Total exports 564,923 570,247 682,168 1 Includes K292,336,000 for copper ore and concentrate.

Of exports in 1983, Japan took 35%, Federal Republic of Germany, 25% and Australia, 12%; of imports, Australia furnished about 40%, Singapore, 13% and Japan, 15%. Total trade between Papua New Guinea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

1980 22,861 10,978

1981 18,506 11,316

1982 28,031 15,911

1983 28,142 18,236

1984 68,245 14,643

Tourism. In 1983, there were 15,802 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Sept. 1976 there were approximately 19,538 km of roads including approximately 1,016 km of urban roads. Motor vehicles numbered (1980) 49,770 including 18,481 cars and station wagons. Aviation. Frequent air services operate to and from Australia (Sydney, Brisbane and Cairns), and there are regular flights to Djayapura (Indonesia), Manila, Hong Kong, Singapore, Guam and Auckland. A service is also maintained to Honiara in the Solomon Islands. In addition to Air Niugini, the national flag carrier, Qantas, Philippine Airlines, Air New Zealand, Cathay Pacific and South Pacific Island Airways operate in and out of Papua New Guinea. Shipping. There are regular shipping services between Australia and Papua New Guinea ports, and also services to New Zealand, Japan, Hong Kong, US west coast, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Taiwan, Philippines and Europe. Small coastal vessels run between the various ports. In 1982 cargo discharged from overseas was 1 • 7m. tonnes; cargo loaded for overseas was 2 • 1 m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. Telephones numbered 51,483 on 31 Dec. 1983. The National Broadcasting Commission operates three networks. A national service is relayed throughout the country by a series of transmitters on medium- and shortwave bands. Local services operate in each of the 19 provinces, mainly on shortwave, while the larger urban centres are also covered by a commercial FM network relayed from Port Moresby. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1983, over 1,500 criminal and civil cases were heard in the National Court and an estimated 120,000 cases in district and local courts. Police. Total uniformed strength at 31 Dec. 1983,4,497.

P A P U A NEW G U I N E A

969

Education. At 30 June 1983 about 328,600 children attended 2,258 primary schools and 51,711 enrolled in 209 secondary, technical and vocational schools. The University of Papua New Guinea and the Papua New Guinea University of Technology had 3,245 students enrolled in full-time courses in 1983. Health. In 1984, there were 19 hospitals, 459 health centres, 2,200 aid posts and 280 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Papua New Guinea in Great Britain ( 14 Waterloo PI., London, SW1R 4 AR) High Commissioner: Ilinome Frank Tarua, OBE (accredited 25 Oct. 1983). Of Great Britain in Papua New Guinea (Douglas St., Port Moresby) High Commissioner: A. J. Collins, OBE. Of Papua New Guinea in the USA ( 1140 19th St., NW, Washington D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Renagi Renagi Lohia. Of the USA in Papua New Guinea (Armit St., Port Moresby) Chargéd'Affaires: Morton R. Dworken, Jr. Of Papua New Guinea to the United Nations A mbassador: Renagi Lohia. Books of Reference The Territory of Papua. Annual Report. Commonwealth of Australia. 1906-1940-41 and from 1945-46 The Territory of New Guinea. Annual Report. Commonwealth of Australia. 1914-1940-41 and from 1946-47 Papua New Guinea, Annual Report. From 1970-71 Hasluck, P., A Time for Building. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1976 Ross, A. C.,and Langmore, J., Alternative Strategies for Papua New Guinea. OUP, 1974 Ryan, J., The Hot Land. London, 1970 Ryan, P. (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1972 Skeldon, R., (ed.) The Demography of Papua New Guinea. Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, 1979

PARAGUAY

Capital: Asunción Population: 3-48m. (1983) GNPper capita: US$ 1,630 (1981)

República del Paraguay

HISTORY. The Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spain on 14 May 1811. In 1814 Dr José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia was elected dictator, and in 1816 perpetual dictator by the National Assembly. He died 20 Sept. 1840. In 1844 a new constitution was adopted, under which Carlos Antonio López (first elected in 1842, died 10 Sept. 1862) and his son, Francisco Solano López, ruled until 1870. During the devastating war against Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay (1865-70) Paraguay's population was reduced from about 600,000 to 232,000. Argentina, in Aug. 1942, and Brazil, in May 1943, voided the reparations which Paraguay had never paid. Further severe losses were incurred during the war with Bolivia (1932-35) over territorial claims in the Chaco. A peace treaty by which Paraguay obtained most of the area her troops had conquered was signed in July 1938. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Oriental province is officially estimated at 159,827 sq. km (61,705 sq. miles) and the Occidental province at 246,925 sq. km (95,337 sq. miles), making the total area of the republic 406,752 sq. km (157,042 sq. miles). The population according to the official census in 1983 was 3,477,000. The capital, Asunción (and metropolitan area), had 708,000 inhabitants; other principal cities: Presidente Stroessner (92,000), Pedro Juan Caballero (39,000), Encarnación (28,800), Pilar (25,600), Concepción (24,000). The capital district and 19 departments had the following populations in 1982: Asunción Central Caaguazú Itapua Paraguari Cordillera San Pedro Alto Paraná Guaira Concepción Caazapá

455,517 494,575 299,227 263,021 202,152 194,826 189,751 188,351 143,374 135,068 109,510

Misiones Neembucu Amambay Canendiyú Oriente Presidente Hayes Boquerón Alto Paraguay Chaco Nueva Asunción Occidente

79,278 70,689 68,422 65,807 2,959,56« 43,787 14,685 4,535 286 231 63,524

Number of births, 1982, was 31,882; deaths, 10,201. The population is overwhelmingly mestizo (mixed Spanish and Guaraní Indian) forming a homogeneous stock. TÍere are some 46,700 unassimilated Indians of other tribal origin, in the Chaco and the forests of eastern Paraguay. There are some small traces of Negro descent. 40-1% of the population speak only Guaraní; 48 • 2% are bilingual (Spanish/Guarani); and 6 • 4% speak only Spanish. Mennonites who arrived in 3 groups (1927, 1930 and 1947) are settled in the Chaco and Oriental Paraguay and were estimated in 1969 to number 13,000, of whom 2,000 came from Canada and 11,000 from Germany. The Japanese colonists in the Oriental section, who first came in 1935, were reckoned to number 7,000 in 1983. Under an agreement signed with Japan in 1959 up to 85,000 Japanese were to be admitted over 30 years. An agreement with Korea was signed in 1966 and there were (1978) about 3,000 Korean families living in Paraguay. CLIMATE. A tropical climate, with abundant rainfall and only a short dry season from July to Sept., when temperatures are lowest. Asunción. Jan. 81°F (27-2'C), July 64°F(17-8°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,316 mm). 970

PARAGUAY

971

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A new constitution replacing that of 1940 was drawn up by a Constituent Convention in which all legally recognized political parties were represented and was signed into law on 25 Aug. 1967. It provides for a two-chamber parliament consisting of a 30-seat Senate and a 60-seat Chamber of Deputies, each elected for a 5-year term. Two-thirds of the seats in each Chamber are allocated to the majority party and the remaining onethird shared among the minority parties in proportion to the votes cast. Voting is compulsory for all citizens over 18. The President is directly elected for a 5-year (renewable) term; he appoints the Cabinet and during parliamentary recess can govern by decree through the Council of State, the members of which are representatives of the Government, the armed forces and other bodies. On 6 Feb. 1977 elections were held for a 60-member Constitutional Assembly to revise the 1967 Constitution. President: Gen. Alfredo Stroessner, Commander-in-Chief, elected 11 July 1954 to complete the presidential period of his predecessor. He was re-elected as 'Colorado'candidate in 1958,1963,1968,1973, 1978 and 1983. The following is a list of past presidents since 1940, with the date on which each took office: Gen. Higinio Morinigo, 7 Sept. 1940 (resigned). DrJuan Manuel Frutos, 3 June 1948.' Dr J. Natalicio González, 15 Aug. 1948 (deposed). Gen. Raimundo Rolón, 30 Jan. 1949. 1

Dr Felipe Molas López, 26 Feb. 1949' (resigned). Dr Federico Chávez, 16 July 1950 (resigned). Tomás Romero Pereira, 4 May 1954.

Provisional, i.e., following a coup d'etat.

The President has a cabinet of 11 ministers which in March 1985 was composed as follows: Interior: Dr Sabino A. Montanaro. Foreign Affairs: Dr Carlos A. Saldívár. Finance: César Barrientos. Education and Worship: Dr Carlos Ortiz Ramirez. Public Works and Communications: Juan A. Cáceres. Agriculture and Livestock: Hernando Bertoni. National Defence: Gen. Germán G. Martinez. Public Health and Social Welfare: Dr Adán Godoy Giménez. Justice and Labour: Dr Saúl González. Industry and Commerce: Dr Delfín Ugarte Centurion. Without Portfolio: (Vacant).. National flag: Red, white, blue (horizontal); the white stripe charged with the arms of the republic on the obverse, and, on the reverse, with a lion and the inscription Paz y Justicia—the only flag in the world with different obverse and reverse. National anthem: ¡ Paraguayos, república o muerte! (words by F. Acuña de Figueroa; tune by F. Dupey). The country is divided into 2 provinces: the 'Oriental', east of Paraguay River, and the 'Occidental', west of the same river. The Oriental section is divided into 14 departments and the capital. The more important departments are supervised by a Delegado appointed by and directly responsible to the central government. The Occidental province, or Chaco, is divided into 5 departments. D E F E N C E . The army, navy and air forces are separate services under a single command. The President of the Republic is the active Commander-in-Chief. The armed forces total about 15,500 officers and men. Army. The Army consists of 1 cavalry division, 8 infantry divisions, 1 independent infantry battalion, 1 Presidential Escort Regiment and supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. Equipment includes 6 M-4A3 main battle and 15 M-3A1 light tanks. Strength (1985) 12,500 (including 9,000 conscripts), and there are 25,000 reserves. Navy. The flotilla comprises 6 armoured river defence gunboats (1 new Brazilianbuilt, 2 ancient monitors of 636 tons built in Italy and 3 old ex-Argentinian minesweepers of 620 tons), 1 helicopter carrying converted landing ship, 1 river

972

PARAGUAY

patrol boat, 2 patrol launches, 6 coastal patrol craft, 2 landing craft, 1 survey craft, 1 transport training ship, 15 service craft and 2 tugs. There are 13 naval aircraft. Personnel in 1985 totalled 2,000 officers and men including coastguard and 500 marines. Air Force. The Air Force came into being in the early thirties. After operating only transport and training aircraft for a number of years, it received 9 Xavante light jet strike/training aircraft from Brazil. Other types in service include 3 DC-6B and 2 C-54 four-engined transports more than 20 C-47 and 4 Bandeirante twin-engined transports, 1 Convair C-131 A, a Twin Otter, an Otter, 8 Brazilian-built Uirapuru primary trainers, 12 T-6 Texan armed basic trainers and a number of light aircraft and helicopters. HQ and flying school are at Campo Grande, Asunción. Personnel total about 1,000. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Paraguay is a member of UN, OAS and LAI A (formerly LAFT A). ECONOMY

Budget. In 1984 budget balanced at Gs. 306,143,627,637. Currency. The guaraní was established on 5 Oct. 1943 equal to 100 old paper pesos. Total monetary circulation was Gs.81,531 m. in Dec. 1983. Rate of exchange, March 1985:240 guaraníes = US$1; 256 guaraníes =£1. Banking. The Banco Central del Paraguay opened 1 July 1952 to take over the central banking functions previously assigned to the National Bank of Paraguay, which had opened in March 1943 and been reorganized as the Banco del Paraguay in Sept. 1944 with a monetary, a banking and a mortgage department. The Banco del Paraguay closed in Nov. 1961 and has been replaced, with the aid of a US loan of US$3m., by the Banco Nacional de Fomento; the latter's assets in Jan. 1979 were Gs.47,621m. The Banco Central in Dec. 1981 had gold and exchange reserves amounting to US$733 -5m.; contribution to the IMF was Gs.47 -7m. The Banco Nacional de Fomento, Bank of London and South America, Ltd, Banco Exterior do Brasil, Citibank, Banco de Asunción, Banco Exterior SA, Banco Unión SA, Banco Paraguayo de Comercio, Banco Real del Paraguay SA, Banco Alemán Transatlántico, Banco Holandés Unido, Banco Nacional del Estado de Sao Paulo, Yegros y Azara, Bank of America, Chase Manhattan Bank, Bank of Boston, Interbanco, Banco Paraná and Banco de Inversiones all have agencies in Asunción and branches in some main towns. Weights and Measures. The metric system was officially adopted on 1 Jan. 1901. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electricity requirements are supplied by Acaray hydro-electric power plant. Production in 1983 was 847,748 kw. Itaipú, the largest hydro-electric dam in the world, a joint effort of the governments of Brazil and Paraguay was inaugurated in 1982 and it is estimated that the whole project will be completed in 1990. Eventually it will have 18 turbogenerators, each with a capacity of700,000 kw. In 1984 the first turbine started generating power. So far US$15,395,268,000 have been invested in this project which commenced in 1974. The Yacyretá project is being carried out by the Binational Commission Yacyretá which was created by a treaty between the governments of Argentina and Paraguay. Work is being carried out on this project and it is hoped that the plant will be in full operation by the end of this decade. Initially 20 turbines each of 135,000 kw generating capacity will be installed giving the plant an initial output of2-7m. kw. Oil. The oil refinery at Villa Elisa, which has been in operation since 1966, has a

PARAGUAY

973

production of about 3,500 bbls a day. Exploration for petroleum in the Chaco yielded negative results but prospecting was continuing in 1983-84. Minerals. Iron, manganese and other minerals have been reported but have not been shown to be commercially exploitable. There are large deposits of limestone, and also salt, kaolin and apatite. National and international firms have acquired licences to prospect for oil and natural gas in the Chaco. A uranium survey was being carried out in 1978 in the Oriental region. Agriculture. In 1981 it was estimated that agriculture absorbs some 51 20 surface 16 31 dived 2 •598' 3 15,000 6,888 1 Polaris 120 surface Completion:- '726' or 'Ohio' class in 1981-85 (five more to follow in 1985-89); '640' or 'Benjamin Franklin' class 1965-67; '616' or 'Lafayette' class in 1963-64; '608' or 'Ethan Allen' class in 1961-63; '598' or 'George Washington' class in 1959-61. All these ballistic missile armed submarines also have four 21 -inch torpedo tubes. ' This class reclassified as fleet submarines. Ethan Allen (608) stricken in 1983 (target). 2 Three of this class converted to fleet submarines and two scrapped, Theodore Roosevelt (600) and Abraham Lincoln (602) both targets.

Class '726'

No. 5

Nuclear Reactors

In addition to the above named principal surface ships there are 139 nuclearpowered submarines (including the ballistic missile armed vessels in the table), 5 conventionally propelled submarines, 84 destroyers, 105 frigates, 21 ocean minesweepers, 4 patrol vessels, 6 hydrofoil missile patrol craft, 1 fast patrol boat, 70 amphibious warfare ships, 95 landing craft, 37 replenishment ships, 100 sealift ships, 125 fleet support snips and auxiliaries, 60 oilers, 100 minor landing craft and 1,010 service craft. Ships under construction include 8 submarines of 18,700 tons submerged with nuclear propulsion and ballistic missiles, 17 nuclear propelled attack (fleet) submarines of6,900 tons submerged; the giant nuclear propelled aircraft carrier Theodore Roosevelt and 2 sister ships each of93,400 tons war load; 3 destroyers and 16 guided missile frigates.

1388

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

Projected new construction includes 11 more 'Ohio' class nuclear propelled deterrent or 'strategic' submarines; 18 more nuclear propelled fleet or 'attack' submarines; 2 more large aircraft carriers; 60 guided missile destroyers and 10 frigates. Naval Aviation. The official figures given in the total aircraft inventory are: 6,222 in the Navy and the Marine Corps of which 5,670 are active and 5,073 are operating. There are 597 naval aircraft in the pipeline. The US Coast Guard operates under the Department of Transportation in time of peace and as a part of the Navy in time of war or when directed by the President. The act of establishment stated the Coast Guard 'shall be a military service and branch of the armed forces of the United States at all times'. The Coast Guard did operate as part of the Navy during the First and Second World Wars. It also had some units serving in Vietnam. It comprises 250 ships including cutters of destroyer, frigate, corvette and patrol vessel types, powerful icebreakers, and paramilitary auxiliaries and tenders, plus some 2,000 small rescue and utility craft. It also maintains 50 fixed-wing aircraft and 110 helicopters. The Coast Guard missions include maintenance of aids to navigation, enforcement of maritime laws, enforcement of international treaties, environmental protection (especially waterway pollution), commercial vessel safety programmes, recreational boating safety, and search and rescue efforts. In the new construction programme are 11 cutters of frigate size and utility each capable of carrying a helicopter. The strength of personnel on 1 Jan. 1985 was 4,500 officers, 1,350 warrant officers and 26,220 enlisted personnel. A few ships had several women assigned as permanent members of the crew. Air Force. Secretary ofthe Air Force: Verne Orr. The Department of the Air Force was activated within the Department of Defense on 18 Sept. 1947, under the terms of the National Security Act of 1947. It is administered by a Secretary of the Air Force, assisted by an Under Secretary and 3 Assistant Secretaries (Research, Development and Logistics; Financial Management; and Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Installations). The USAF, under the administration of the Department of the Air Force, is supervised by a Chief of Staff, who is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He is assisted by a Vice Chief of Staff, Assistant Vice Chief of Staff, and 5 Deputy Chiefs of Staff (Manpower and Personnel; Programs and Resources; Research, Development and Acquisition; Plans and Operations; and Logistics and Engineering). The USAF consists of active duty Air Force officers and enlisted personnel, civilian employees, the Air National Guard and the Air Force Reserve. For operational purposes the service is organized into 13 major commands, 15 separate operating agencies and 4 direct reporting units. The Strategic Air Command, equipped with long-range bombers based both in the USA and overseas, and with intercontinental ballistic missiles, is maintained primarily for strategic air operations anywhere on the globe. Tactical Air Command is the Air Force's mobile strike force, able to deploy US general-purpose air forces anywhere in the world for tactical air combat operations. The Military Airlift Command provides air transportation of personnel and cargo for all military services on a worldwide basis; and is also responsible for Air Force audio-visual products, weather service, and aerospace rescue and recovery operations. The other major commands are the Air Force Systems Command, Air Force Logistics Command, Air Force Communications Command, Electronic Security Command, Air Training Command, Alaskan Air Command, Pacific Air Forces, Space Command, United States Air Forces in Europe, and Air University. The Alaskan, Pacific and European commands conduct, control and co-ordinate offensive and defensive air operations according to tasks assigned by their respective theatre commanders. The separate operating agencies are the Air Force Accounting and Finance Center, Air Force Audit Agency, Air Force Commissary Service, Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Air Force Inspection and Safety Center, Air Force Intelligence Service, Air Force Office of Security Police, Air Force Manpower and Personnel Center, Air Force Medical Service Center, Air Force Service Informa-

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1389

tion and News Center, Air Force Legal Services Center, Air Force Office of Special Investigations, Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center, Air Force Reserve, and Air Reserve Personnel Center. Air Force direct reporting units are the Air Force Academy, Air National Guard, Air Force Technical Applications Center and USAF Historical Research Center. Of the fighter and interceptor aircraft in service, the F-15 Eagle, F-5 Tiger II, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-106 Delta Dart, F-l 11 and F-4 Phantom II fly faster than the speed of sound in level flight and can carry a variety of armament. The E-3 Sentry (AWACS) is a large long-range airborne warning and control aircraft; the EF-111A Raven is a tactical electronics jamming aircraft produced by conversion of the F-111A fighter. The subsonic A-7 Corsair II and the A-10 Thunderbolt II are close-support aircraft. Strategic bombers are the B-52 Stratofortress heavy bomber (to be supplemented by B-1B from mid-80s) and the 'swing-wing' FB-111A. The Strategic Air Command also operates the KC-10A Extender and KC-135 Stratotanker for aerial refuelling, and the SR-71 Blackbird, U-2, and TR-1 for reconnaissance. Primary transport types include the C-141 StarLifter, C-5 Galaxy, K.C-1 OA Extender and the turboprop-powered C-130 Hercules. Intercontinental ballistic missiles in USAF service are Titan II (to be retired) and Minuteman II and III. In June 1984, the Air Force had about 594,000 personnel. The service operates, or has on order, 6,912 frontline and 4,927 support aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. USA is a member of UN, OAS, NATO, OECD and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Budget. The budget covers virtually all the programmes of federal government, including those financed through trust funds, such as for social security, Medicare and highway construction. Receipts of the Government include all income from its sovereign or compulsory powers; income from business-type or market-orientated activities of the Government is offset against outlays. Budget receipts and outlays (in $ 1 m.): Year ending 30 June 1945 1950 1955 1960 1970 1981 1 1982 1983

Receipts2 45,216 39,485 65,469 92,492 192,807 599,272 617,766 600,563

Outlays2 92,690 42,597 68,509 92,223 195,652 657,204 728,424 795,917

Surplus (+) or deficit (-) -47,474 - 3,112 - 3,041 + 269 - 2,845 -57,932 -110,658 -195,354

' From 1977 the fiscal year changed from a 1 July-30 June basis to a 1 0ct.-30 Sept. basis. From 1970, revised to include Medicare premiums and collections.

1

Budget receipts, by source, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Source Individual income taxes Corporation income taxes Social insurance taxes and contributions Excise taxes Estate and giti taxes Customs Miscellaneous Total 1

1981 ' 285,917 61,137 182,720 40,839 6,787 8,083 13,790

1982 ' 298,111 49,207 201,132 36,311 7,991 8,854 16,161

1983 1 288,938 37,022 209,001 35,300 6,053 8,655 15,594

599,272

617,766

600,563

From 1977, the fiscal year changed from a 1 July-30 June basis to a 1 0ct.-30 Sept. basis.

1390

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Budget outlays, by function, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Source National defence 2 International affairs General science, space, and technology Energy Natural resources and environment Agriculture Commerce and housing credit Transportation Community and regional development Education, training, employment and social services Health Income security Veterans benefits and services Administration ofjustice General government General purpose fiscal assistance Interest Allowances' Undistributed offsetting receipts

1981' 159,765 11,130 6,359 10,277 13,525 5,572 3,946 23,381 9,394 31,402 65,982 225,099 22,988 4,698 4,614 6,856 82,537 ... -30,320

1983 1 4 221,502 12,091 7,636 4,151 10,438 10,411 431 19,886 7,347 23,783 78,493 259,286 24,220 4,646 5,007 6,535 111,117 -4,687 -40,777

1982' 187,397 9,983 7,096 4,844 13,086 14,808 3,843 20,589 7,410 25,411 74,018 248,807 23,973 4,648 4,833 6,161 100,777 ... -29,261

Total budget outlays 657,204 728,424 761,516 ' From 1977,the fiscal year changed froma 1 July-30 June basis to a 1 0ct.-30 Sept. basis. 2 Includes allowances for civilian and military pay raises for the Department of Defense. ' Includes allowances for civilian agency pay raises and contingencies. 4 Estimate.

Budget outlays, by agency, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Agency Legislative branch The judiciary Executive Office of the President Funds appropriated to the President Agriculture Commerce Defence—Military 2 Defence—Civil Education 1 Energy 1 Health and Human Services Housing and Urban Development Interior Justice Labour State Transportation Treasury Environmental Protection Agency National Aeronautics and Space Administration Veterans Administration Other independent agencies: Foundation for Education Assistance Office of Personnel Management Postal Service Railroad Retirement Board All other Allowances 4 Undistributed offsetting receipts Total budget outlays

19811 1,209 637 96 7,010 26,030 2,226 156,035 3,148 15,089 11,797 226,987 14,033 4,262 2,682 30,084 1,897 22,554 92,633 5,232 5,421 22,903

1982' 1,362 705 95 6,073 36,213 2,045 182,850 2,971 14,081 7,577 251,259 14,491 3,922 2,584 30,736 2,193 19,917 110,521 5,004 6,026 23,937

18,089 1,343 5,308 10,803

19,973 707 5,733 6,697

21,275 789 6,236 5,991

—30306

-29^261

-35^566

657,204

728,424

795,917

1983 ' }

2,215 94 5,417 46,372 1,913 205,012 2,927 14,555 8,348 274,131 15,312 4,485 2,832 38,176 2,263 20,591 116,787 4,301 6,657 24,805

' From 1977, the fiscal year changed from a 1 July-30 June basis to a 1 Oct.-30Sept. basis. Includes allowances for civilian and military pay raises for the Department of Defense. The Administration proposed in the 1983 Budget that the Departments of Education and Energy be eliminated and that their programmes be transferred to other agencies. Many of the Education programmes went to the proposed Foundation for Education Assistance. 4 Includes allowances for civilian agency pay raises and contingencies. 2 1

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1391

National Debt: Gross federal debt outstanding (in $ 1 m.), and per capita debt (in $ 1) on 30 June to 1970 and then on 30 Sept.: Public debt Per capita1 Public debt Per capita1 1919' 25,485 243 1970 382,603 1,867 1920 24,299 228 1980 914,317 4,021 1930' 16,185 132 1,003,941 1981 4,365 1940 50,696 382 1982» 1,137,131 4,900 1950 256,853 1,687 1983 ' 1,273,505 5,420 290,862 1960 1,610 On 31 Aug. 1919 gross debt reached its First World War (1914-18) peak of $26,596,702,000, which was the highest ever reached up to 1934; on 31 Dec. 1930 it had declined to $ 16,026m., the lowest it has been since the First World War. On the 30 Nov. 1941, just preceding Pearl Harbor, debt stood at $61,363,867,932. The highest Second World War debt was $279,764,369,348 on 28 Feb. 1946. ' Per capita figures, beginning with 1960, have been revised; they are based on the Census Bureau's estimates of the total population of the US, including Alaska and Hawaii. ' Estimate.

State and Local Finance: Revenue of the 50 states and all local governments (82,688 in 1982) from their own sources amounted to $416,433m. in fiscal year 1980-81; in addition they received $80,294m. in revenue from fiscal aid, shared revenues and reimbursements from the federal government, bringing total revenue from all sources to $506,728m. Of the revenue from state and local sources, taxes provided $244,514m., of which property taxes (mainly imposed by local governments) yielded $74,969m. or 31% of all tax revenue; and sales taxes, both general sales taxes and selective excises, provided $85,971 m. (35%). State tax revenue totalled $ 149,738m. in fiscal year 1981. Largest sources of state tax revenue are general sales taxes (imposed during 1980 by 45 states), motor fuel sales taxes (all states), individual income (44 states), motor vehicle and operators' licences (49 states), corporation income (46 states), tobacco products (all states) and alcoholic beverage sales taxes (all states). General revenue of local units from own sources in fiscal year 1980-81 totalled $145,736m. In addition they received $111,443m. from state and federal aids. Property taxes provided 28% of total general revenue. Total expenditures of state and local governments were $487,048m. in 1980-81, of which approximately 71% was for current operation. Education took $145,784m. in current and capital expenditure; highways, $34,603m.; welfare (chiefly public assistance), $54,121m., and health and hospitals, $36,101m. Capital outlays (construction, equipment and land purchases) totalled $67,596m. Gross debt of state and local governments totalled $363,892m. or $1,606 per capita at the close of their 1980—81 fiscal year. Total cash and investment assets of state and local governments were $454,393m., about 23% being in cash and deposits, and the remainder in investments, mainly non-governmental securities. US Bureau ofthe Census, Governmental Finances in 1980-81. Washington, 1982 American Economic Association, Readings in Fiscal Policy. Homewood, 111., 1955 Brookings Institute and National Bureau of Economic Research, Role of Direct and Indirect Taxes in the Federal Revenue System. Washington, D.C., 1964

National Income. The Bureau of Economic Analysis of the Department of Commerce prepares detailed estimates on the national income and product of the United States. The principal tables are published monthly in Survey of Current Business; the complete set of national income and product tables are published in the Survey regularly each July, showing data for recent years. The National Income and Product Accounts of the United States, 1929-1976: Statistical Tables (1981) and the July 1982, July 1983 and July 1984 Survey contain complete sets of tables from 1929 through 1983. The conceptual framework and statistical methods underlying the US accounts were described in National Income, 1954. Subsequent limited changes were described in US Income and Output (1958), and in Survey of Current Business (Aug. 1965, Jan. 1976 and Dec. 1980). These latest figures 1 in $ 1,000m. for various years are as follows:

1392

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

I. Gross National Product

19292 1933' 1950 1960 103-4 55-8 286-5 506-5

(a) Personal consumption expenditures 77-3 (b) Gross private domestic investment 16-2 (c) Net exports of goods and services 1-1 (d) Government purchases of goods and services 8-8 1. G N P less capital consumption allowances with capital consumption adjustment, indirect business tax and non-tax liability, business transfer payments, statistical discrepancy, plus subsidies less current surplus of government enterprises, equals: 2. National Income 84-8 which, less corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments, contributions for social insurance, wage accruals less disbursements, plus government transfer payments to persons, interest paid by government to persons and business less interest received by government, interest paid by consumers, personal dividend income, business transfer payments, equals: 3. Personal income 85-0 whereof 4. Personal tax and non-tax payments take 2-6 leaving 5. Disposal personal income divided into 82-4 (e) Personal outlays 4 79-1 (j) Personal saving 3-3 IA. G N P in constant (1972) $s

1970 1980 1983 992-7 2,631-7 3,304-8

45-8 1-4 0-4

192 0 324-9 53-8 75-9 2-2 5-5

8-2

38-5 100-3

39-9

237-6 415-7

810-7 2,116-6 2,646-7

47 0

227-2 402-3

811-1 2,165-3 2,744-2

1-4 45-6 46-5 -0-9

315-7 222-1

20-6

50-4

206-6 352-0 194-7 332-3 11-9 19-7

612-7 1,668-1 2,155-9 144-2 401-9 471-7 6-7 23-9 -8-3 220-1

115-8

537-8

336-1

685-5

404-2

695-3 1,828-9 2,340-1 639-5 1,718-7 2,222-0 55 8 110-2 118-1

534-8 737-2 1,085-6 1,475-0 1,534-7

(a) Personal consumption expenditures 215-1 170-5 337 3 452-0 (b) Gross private domestic investment 55-8 8-4 93-5 104-7 3-7 0-4 5-9 7-7 (c) Net exports of goods and services (a) Government purchases of goods and 41-0 42-9 98 1 172-8 services

672-1 158-5 3-9

931-8 1,009-2 208-5 221-0 50-3 12-6

251-1

284-3

291-9

84-8

39-9

237-6 415-7

810-7 2,116-4 2,646-7

51 1 Compensation of employees 50-5 (g) Salaries and wages 0-6 (h) Supplements to wages and salaries 150 Proprietors' incomes 6-1 (i) Farm s 8-9 (j) Business and professional 5 6 4-9 Personal incomefrom rents 4-7 Net interest Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjust9-0 ments 1-4 (k) Tax liabilities 0-5 (I) Inventory valuation adjustment -1-4 (m) Capital consumption adjustment (n) Dividends , 5-8 2-8 (o) Undistributed profits

29-5 29-0 0-5 5-9 2-5 3-3 2-2 41

154-8 294-9 147-0 271-9 7-8 23-0 38-7 47-2 13-7 11-7 25-0 35-5 71 14-5 11-4 30

612-0 1,599-6 1,984-9 548-7 1,356-6 1,658-8 63-2 243-0 326-2 66-2 117-4 121-7 14-3 21-8 13-8 51-9 95-6 107-9 19-7 31-5 58-3 41-4 192-6 256-6

II. National Income composed of

-1-7 0-5 -2-1 0-6 2-0 -1-6

33-9 17-9 -5-0 8-8 16-2

47-6 22-7 -0-2 -2-0 12-9 14-3

71-4 191-7 192-0 34-2 84-8 75-8 - 6 6 -42-9 -11-2 33-2 2-5 -16-3 22-5 58-6 72-9 18-8 32-0 76-5

1 The inclusion of statistics for Alaska and Hawaii beginning in 1960 does not significantly affect the comparability of the data. 2 5 Peak year between First and Second World Wars. Low point of the depression. 4 Includes personal consumption expenditures, interest paid by consumers and personal transfer payments to foreigners (net). s With inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustment. 6 With capital consumption adjustment.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1393

Currency. Prior to the banking crisis that occurred early in 1933, the monetary system had been on the gold standard for more than 50 years. An Act of 14 March 1900 required the Secretary of the Treasury to maintain at a parity with gold all forms of money issued by the USA. For a description of these, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1934, p . 4 9 1 .

The old gold dollar had a par value of 49-32d., or $4-8666 to the £ sterling; it contained 25-8 grains (or 1 • 6718 grammes) of gold 0 •900 fine. By the act of 12 May 1933 the President of the USA was given authority to reduce the gold content of the dollar by not more than 50% and by the Gold Reserve Act of 30 Jan. 1934 the minimum reduction which he could make was fixed at 40%; on 31 Jan. 1934 he fixed its value at 59-06%, or 155/2i grains of gold 0-900 fine. This was equal to a price for gold of $35 a fine oz. (old price, $20-67183). The President's power to alter the gold content of the dollar to 50% of its value, which was extended by Congress in 1937,1939 and 1941, was not yet again extended in 1943. The Par Value Modification Act (Public Law 92-268), enacted on 31 March 1972, authorized and directed the Secretary of the Treasury to take the steps necessary to establish a new par value of the dollar of $1 = 0-818513 gramme of fine gold or $38 per fine troy oz. of gold. The Secretary of the Treasury, pursuant to the statutory directive, proposed the new par value for the US dollar to the International Monetary Fund, which par value became effective on 8 May 1972. In Public Law 93-110, enacted on 21 Sept. 1973, Congress amended the Par Value Modification Act of 1972, and authorized and directed the Secretary of the Treasury to take the steps necessary to establish a new par value of $1 equals 0-828948 Special Drawing Right or 1/42% of a fine troy ounce of gold. Pursuant to the statutory directive, the Secretary of the Treasury notified the International Monetary Fund that, effective 18 Oct. 1973, the par value of the dollar would be changed from 1/38 to 1/42% a fine troy ounce of gold. Expressed in terms of gold, the new par value of the dollar was 0-736662 gramme of gold per dollar, or $42.2222 per fine troy ounce of gold. Expressed in percentage, the change in the par value of the dollar amounted to a reduction of 10% in the former gold content of the dollar. This is the equivalent to an 11-1% increase in the former dollar price of gold. The USA, on 1 April 1978, accepted the second amendment to the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund. The par value of the dollar is no longer defined in terms of the Special Drawing Right and gold, and the USA is not obliged to establish and maintain a par value for the dollar. At the time of the banking crisis in March 1933 gold payments by banks and the Treasury were suspended by the Government, and an embargo was placed on gold exports. Steps were taken to withdraw from circulation all gold coin and gold certificates and to prohibit the private ownership of all gold certificates, gold bullion and gold coin except for numismatic purposes. Public Law 93-373, 14 Aug. 1974, amended the Par Value Modification Act so as to provide for the termination of all governmental restrictions on private ownership of gold, including gold coins, no later than 31 Dec. 1974. Currency in the USA for many years has comprised several varieties. Prior to May 1933 the legal tender qualities of the classes varied, but in that month all types of currency were made equally legal tender. Under the Coinage Act of 1965, all coins and currencies of the USA, regardless of when coined or issued, are legal tender for all debts, public and private. Only one of the eight kinds of notes outstanding is now significant: Federal Reserve notes in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The issue of (a) $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000 Federal Reserve notes; of (b) silver certificates, and of (c) $100, $5 and $2 US notes have been discontinued, although they are still outstanding. The following issues were stopped many years ago and have been in process of retirement: (1) Federal Reserve Bank notes; (2) National Bank notes; (3) Treasury notes of 1890; (4) fractional currency. Federal Reserve notes are obligations of the USA and a first lien on the assets of the Federal Reserve Banks, through which they are issued. Each of the 12 banks issues them against the security of an equal volume of collateral.

1394

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

Gold coins (of the old weight and fineness) were S20, S10, $5 and $2'/2 pieces called double eagles, eagles, half-eagles and quarter-eagles. The old eagle weighed 258 grains or 16-7181 grammes 0-900 fine, and therefore contained 232-2 grains or 15-0463 grammes of fine gold. Except for collector's holdings, these are no longer in circulation. The stock of gold bullion held by the Treasury on 31 Aug. 1982 was 264m. fine oz., valued at $11,100m.; stock of silver bullion was 38-7m. fineoz. (excluding 137-5m. fineoz. held for defence stockpile). Estimated stock of domestic coin in circulation on 30 June 1983 was $13,909m., including standard silver dollars and silver and other subsidiary coin. The silver dollar weighs 412-5 grains or 26-7296 grammes 0-900 fine, and contains 371 -25 grains or24-0566 grammes of fine silver. Subsidiary, 0-900 fine, silver coins contain 347-22 grains of fine silver per dollar. These are the half-dollar, quarter-dollar and dime (one-tenth). Minor coins currently issued are the cupronickel 5-cent piece and the bronze 1 -cent piece. Pursuant to the Coinage Act of 1965, Congress authorized the minting and issuance of new silver clad half-dollars containing 40% silver and cupro-nickel quarter-dollars and dimes containing no silver. In an amendment to the Coinage Act enacted on 31 Dec. 1970, Congress provided that all coins minted thereafter, including dollar and half-dollar coins, be made of cupro-nickel composition. However, a provision in the 1970 law permitted the coining of 1 •500 inch dollar coins containing 40% silver. These dollar coins, which bear the likeness of the late President Eisenhower, are sold at premium price to coin collectors. In Oct. 1978 there was authorization of a new dollar bearing the likeness of suffragette Susan B. Anthony. The new dollars, which are 1 -043 inches in diameter and weigh 8 -1 grammes, replace the cupro-nickel Eisenhower dollars. In 1981 the Mint began producing 1-cent coins made of 97-6% zinc and 2-4% copper (zinc and copper alloy blanks, barrel electro-plated with copper), pursuant to its authority under 31 USC 317(b) to alter the composition of the alloy of the 1 -cent coin. In 1983 it was in the process of phasing out production of bronze cents and will shortly only be producing zinc cents. On 22 July 1982, the Olympic Commemorative Coin Act authorized the limited issue of not more than 50m. one dollar silver coins and 2m. ten dollar gold coins to commemorate the 1984 Olympics. The coins are to be minted in proof and uncirculated condition. The 1 • 500 inch dollar coins containing 90% silver will be issued in 1983 and 1984. The 1983 Olympic silver dollar will feature the classic Greek discus thrower, while the 1984 Olympic silver dollar will depict the gateway for the entrance to the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The 1 -06 inch 1984 ten dollar gold coin weighs 16-718 grammes of an alloy of 90% gold, 10% copper. It features two Olympic Torch bearers and will be the first US coin to carry the 'W' mint mark of the US. Bullion Depository, West Point, N. Y. The coins are being sold at a premium price with the surcharge above the cost of manufacturing and marketing going to support equally the efforts of the US. Olympic Committee and the Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee. Banking. On 31 Aug. 1983 there were 14,795 domestic banks doing a general deposit business with the public and having aggregate deposits of $1,420,200m. The Federal Reserve System, established under an Act of 1913, comprises the Board of 7 Governors, the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks with their 25 branches, the Federal Open Market Committee and the Federal Advisory Council. The 7 members of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Each Governor is appointed to a full term of 14 years or an unexpired portion of a term, one term expiring every 2 years. No two may come from the same Federal Reserve District. The Board supervises the Reserve Banks and the issue and retirement of Federal Reserve notes; it designates 3 of the 9 directors of each Reserve Bank and designates the Chairman and Deputy Chairman; it passes on the admission of state banks to the System and has power to correct unsound conditions in State member banks or violations of banking law by them, including, if necessary, disciplinary action to remove officers and directors for unsafe or unsound banking practices or for continuous violations of banking laws; it also authorizes State member bank branches and approves mergers and consolidations if the acquiring, assuming or resulting bank is to be a State member; and it

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

1395

has power to control the expansion of bank holding companies and to require divestment of certain non-banking interests. The 12 members of the Federal Open Market Committee include the 7 members of the Board of Governors and 5 of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents. The latter serve 1 -year terms on the Committee in rotation except for the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, who is a permanent member. The Federal Open Market Committee influences credit market conditions, money and bank credit, by buying or selling US Government securities; and it also supervises System operations in foreign currencies for the purpose of helping to safeguard the value of the dollar m international exchange markets and facilitating co-operation and efficiency in the international monetary system. The Board also influences credit conditions through powers to set reserve requirements, to approve discount rates at Federal Reserve Banks, and to fix margin requirements on stock-market credit. The Reserve Banks hold bank reserves, advance funds to depository institutions, issue Federal Reserve notes, which are the principal form of currency in the US, act as fiscal agent for the Government and afford nation-wide cheque-clearing and fund transfer arrangements. They may issue notes, fully secured; discount paper for depository institutions; increase or reduce the country's supply of reserve funds by buying or selling Government securities and other obligations at the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee. Their capital stock is held by the member banks, but it carries no voting rights except in the election of directors. Every member bank is required to subscribe to stock in the Reserve Bank of its district in an amount equal to 6% of its paid-up capital and surplus. Only one-half of the par value of the stock is paid in, the other half remaining subject to call by the Board of Governors. However, no call has been made for tne second half of the subscription. All depository institutions with certain transaction accounts and time deposits are required to hold reserves with the Federal Reserve. Beginning in 1968, the Congress passed a number of consumer credit protection acts, the first of which was tne Truth in Lending Act (and including the Equal Credit Opportunity Act), Home Mortgage Disclosure Act, Consumer Leasing Act and the Fair Credit Billing Act, for which it has directed the Board to write implementing regulations and assume partial enforcement responsibility. To manage these responsibilities the Board has established a Division of Consumer and Community Affairs. To assist it, the Board consults with a Consumer Advisory Council, established by the Congress as a statutory part of the Federal Reserve System. The Consumer Advisory Council was established by Congress in 1976 at the suggestion of the Board of Governors. Representing both consumers and creditors, the Council meets several times a year to advise the Board on its implementation of consumer regulations and other consumer related matters. Another statutory body, the Federal Advisory Council, consists of 12 members (one from each district); it meets in Washington at least four times a year to advise the Board ofGovernors on general business and financial conditions. Following the passage of the Monetary Control Act of 1980, the Board of Governors established the Thrift Institutions Advisory Council to provide information and views on the special needs and problems of thrift institutions. The group is comprised of representatives of mutual savings banks, savings and loan associations, and credit unions. Banks which participate in the federal deposit insurance fund have their deposits insured against loss up to $100,000 for each depositor. The fund is administered by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation established in 1933; it obtains resources through annual assessments on participating banks. All members of the Federal Reserve System are required to insure their deposits through the Corporation, and non-member banks may apply and qualify for insurance. On 31 Dec. 1982, 14,487 commercial banks and 315 mutual savings banks with insured deposits of $ 1,100,000m. were members of the insurance fund. There were 647 uninsured banks comprising 644 commercial banks and trust companies and 103 mutual savings banks. There are also banks which operate solely in the field of agricultural credits under the Farm Credit Administration; Federal Home Loan Banks makes advances to financial associations and institutions upon the security of home mortgages.

1396

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

US Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve System Purposes and Functions. 6th ed., 1974.—Federal Reserve Bulletin. Monthly.—Annual Report.— Annual Statistical Digest.—The Federal Reserve Act, As Amended Through 1978 Beckhart, B. H., Federal Reserve System. New York, 1972 Chandler, L. V., Economics of Money and Banking. 7th ed. New York, 1977 Clifford, A. J., The Independence ofthe Federal Reserve System. Philadelphia, 1965 Horovitz, P. M., Monetary Policy and the Financial System. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1979 Maisel, S. J., Managing the Dollar. New York, 1973 Timberlake, R. H., The Origins of Central Banking in the United Stales. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1978 Young, R. A., Instruments of Monetary Policy in the United States; the Role ofthe Federal Reserve System. Washington, 1973

Weights and Measures. British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Winchester bushel and wine gallon are used instead of the new or Imperial standards: Wine gallon = 0-83268 Imperial gallon; Bushel = 0-9690 Imperial bushel. Instead of the British cwt of 112 lb., one of 100 lb. is used; the short or net ton contains 2,000 lb.; the long or gross ton, 2,240 lb. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Total value of non-fuel minerals produced in US (including Alaska and Hawaii) in 1983 was estimated at $21,134m. ($19,675m. in 1982). Details are given in the following tables. Production of metallic minerals (long tons, 2,240 lb.; short tons, 2,000 lb.): 1982 Metallic minerals Bauxite (dried equiv.) tonnes Copper (recoverable content), tonnes Gold (recoverable content), troy oz. Iron ore (usable)', 1,000 long tons, gross Lead (recoverable content), tonnes Molybdenum (content of concentrate), 1,0001b. Silver (recoverable content), 1,000 troy oz. Zinc (recoverable content), tonnes Other metals Total metals 1

1983

Quantity 732 1,146,975 1,465,686 35,751 512,516

Value ($1,000) 12,334 1,840,856 550,968 1,491,705 288,579

Quantity 679 1,038,098 1,957,379 44,295 449,038

Value ($1,000) 11,309 1,751,476 829,929 1,938,496 214,623

76,135

504,089

49,163

167,164

40,248 303,160

319,975 257,116 251,378

43,415 275,294 —

496,671 251,204 205,128

—

5,866,000

—

— 5,517,000 Excluding by-product iron sinter.

The two world wars and record levels of industrial production have hastened the depletion of once abundant supplies of metal and US is increasingly an importer. US is wholly or almost wholly dependent upon imports for industrial diamonds, bauxite, tin, chromite, nickel, strategic-grade mica and long-fibre asbestos; it imports the bulk of its tantalum, platinum, manganese, mercury, tungsten, cobalt and flake graphite, and substantial quantities of antimony, cadmium, arsenic, fluorspar, zinc and bismuth. In 1983 precious metals were mined mainly in Idaho, Nevada, Montana, Utah and Arizona (in order of combined output of gold and silver). US output of gold (troyoz.), 1930-39,31,453,370; 1940-49,24,171,646; 1950-59,18,817,241; total 1792-1970, 316,620,436. Output of silver (troy oz.), 1930-39, 466,412,499; 1940-49,434,656,631; 1950-59,374,055,521; total 1792-1970,4,701,429,507. Statistics of important non-metallic minerals and mineral fuels are: 1982 Non-metallic minerals Boron minerals, short tons Cement: Portland, 1,000 short tons Masonry, 1,000 short tons Clays, 1,000 short tons Gypsum, 1,000 short tons

Quantity 1,234,000

Value ($1,000) 384,597

61,080 2,364 35,345 10,538

3,084,439 145,172 825,064 89,131

1983 , Value Quantity ($1,000) 1,303,000 439,181 67,183 2,921 40,858 12,884

3,315,690 186,240 931,091 101,361

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1982 Non-metallic minerals L i m e , 1,000 short tons P h o s p h a t e rock, 1,000 t o n n e s

Potassium salts, 1,000 tonnes (KJO equivalent) Salt (common), 1,000 short tons Sand and gravel, 1,000 short tons Stone, 1,000 short tons Sulphur (Frasch-process), 1,000 tonnes Other non-metallic minerals Total non-metallic minerals

Quantity

Value ($1,000)

1397 1983 Quantity

Value ($1,000)

14,075 37,414

696,207 950,326

14,867 42,573

757,611 1,020,901

1,784 37,894 621,400 791,360 3,598 —

265,600 671,424 1,997,800 3,063,413 434,660 1,550,167

1,513 34,573 681,720 863,886 4,111 —

220,800 597,081 2,270,200 3,486,483 445,131 1,496,230

—

14,158,000

—

15,268,000

Mineralfuels 1981 1982 Coal: Bitum. and lignite, 1,000 short tons 823,800 21,510,000 824,000 22,380,000 1 Pennsylv. anthracite, 1,000 short tons 5,400 240,000 4,200 200,000 Gas: Natural gas,Mm.cu. ft 19,690,000 39,950,009 8,090,000 44,580,000 Petroleum (crude), 1,000 bbls of 42 gallons 3,129,000 99,400,000 3,165,000 90,330,000 1 Includes a small quantity of anthracite mined in states other than Pennsylvania. 2 Value at wells. Minerals Yearbook. Bureau of Mines. Washington, D.C. Annual from 1932-33; continuing The Mineral Resources of the United States series (1866-1931); from 1963 in 3 vols. (Metals, Minerals, Fuels; Area Reports, Domestic; and Area Reports, International)

Agriculture. Agriculture in the USA is characterized by its ability to adapt to widely varying conditions, and still produce an abundance and variety of agricultural products. From colonial times to about 1920 the major increases in farm production were brought about by adding to the number of farms and the amount of land under cultivation. During this period nearly 320m. acres of virgin forest were converted to crop land or pasture, and extensive areas of grass lands were ploughed. Improvident use of soil and water resources was evident in many areas. During the next 20 years the number of farms reached a plateau of about 6 • 5 m., and the acreage planted to crops held relatively stable around 330m. acres. The major source of increase in farm output arose from the substitution of powerdriven machines for horses and mules. Greater emphasis was placed on development and improvement of land, and the need for conservation of basic agricultural resources was recognized. A successful conservation programme, highly coordinated and on a national scale—to prevent further erosion, to restore the native fertility of damaged land and to adjust land uses to production capabilities and needs—has been in operation since early in the 1930s. Following the Second World War the uptrend in farm output has been greatly accelerated by increased production per acre and per farm animal. These increases are associated with a higher degree of mechanization; greater use of lime and fertilizer; improved varieties, including hybrid maize and grain sorghums; more effective control of insects and disease; improved strains of livestock and poultry; and wider use of good husbandry practices, such as nutritionally balanced feeds, use of superior sites and better housing. During this period land included in farms decreased slowly, crop land harvested declined somewhat more rapidly, but the number of farms declined sharply. Some significant changes during these transitions are: All land in farms totalled less than 500m. acres in 1870, rose to a peak of over 1,200m. acres in the 1950s and declined to 1,039m. acres in 1982, even with the addition of the new States of Alaska and Hawaii in 1960. The number of farms declined from 6-35m. in 1940 to 2-4m. in 1982, as the average size of farms doubled. The average size of farms in 1982 was 433 acres, but ranged from a few acres to many thousand acres. In 1978,215,088 farms (128,254 in 1974) were less than 10 acres; 475,241 (379,543), 10-49 acres; 814,689 (827,884), 50-179 acres; 596,356 (616,098), 180-499 acres; 215,112 (207,297), 500-999 acres; 98,521 (92,712), 1,000-1,999 acres; 63,635 (62,225) 2,000 acres or more. Farms operated by owners or part-owners, 1978, were 2,165,000 (87% of all

1398

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

farms), by all tenants, 314,000 (13%). The average size of farms in 1978 was 235 acres for full-owners, 792 acres for part-owners and 396 acres for tenants. Farms with white operators numbered 2,398,726, and those with operators who were black or of other races were 79,916. A higher proportion of blacks and operators of other races were tenants and operated a significantly smaller acreage than white operators. In 1982 (with 1960 figures in parentheses) large-scale, highly mechanized farms with sales of agricultural products totalling $20,000 and over per farm made up 40% (8 -6%) of all farms and accounted for 90% (48 -3%) of the value of farm products sold. Farms selling between $19,999 and $2,500 worth of products per farm were 39% (44 -8%) of all farms and sold 8 -2% (43 -3%) of all sales. The remaining 21% (46-6%) of all farms sold less than $2,500 worth of products per farm, 1 -8% (8-4%) of total sales. Operators in every sales category received off-farm income, but operators selling less than $2,500 per year received 91-7% of their average income of $22,063 from non-farm sources in 1980. A century ago three-quarters of the total US population was rural, and practically all rural people lived on farms. In April 1980 26% of the population was rural, and 6m. farm residents accounted for 3% of the total population. Hired farm workers in 1982 averaged about 2-5m., and farm family workers, including operators, about 2-6m. In 1950 there were nearly 10m. farm workers. At that time each farm worker supplied farm products for 15 people; in 1974, 55 people, in 1977,60 people and in 1982,76 people. Cash receipts from farm marketings and government payments (in $ 1 m.): 1932 1945 1950 1960 1970 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Crops 1,996 9,655 12,356 15,259 20,976 63,394 69,026 74,920 74,353 69,516

Livestock and livestock products 2,752 12,008 16,105 18,989 29,563 68,522 67,405 68,478 70,199 69,203

Government payments — 742 283 702 3,717 1,375 1,286 1,930 3,492 9,294

Total 4,748 22,405 28,744 34,950 54,256 133,291 137,717 145,328 148,043 148,014

Realized gross farm income (including government payments), in $lm., was 144,205 in 1981, compared with 148,043 in 1982; net income of farm operators (only from farm sources), 22,051 (25,100). Farm real estate debt, in 1982, was $105,539m.; 1983, $109,507m. US agricultural exports, fiscal year, totalled: 1974-75, $21,854m.; 1975-76, $22,760m.; 1976-77, $23,974m.; 1977-78, $27,290m.; 1978-79, $31,975m.; 1979-80, $40,48 lm.; 1980-81,$43,780m.; 1982,39,094m. Total area of farm land under irrigation in 1978 was 50,837,940 acres (302,674 farms). Federal income taxes paid by farm people was $ 15m. in 1941, $1,365m. in 1948, $l,182m. in 1967, $3,434m. in 1971, $5,309m. in 1972, $8,364m. in 1973 and $8,277m. in 1974. Total taxes levied on farm real estate were $3,039m. in 1977, $3,021m. in 1978, $3,215m. in 1979, $3,450-9m. in 1980, $3,695-5m. in 1981; $3,907-lm. in 1982. According to census returns and estimates of the Economic Research Service, the acreage and specified values of farms has been as follows (area in 1,000 acres; value in $1,000): 1910 1930 1940 1950 1959 1969 1978

Crop land available Value, land, bldgs. Value of products sold Farm area1 for crops machinery, livestock in preceding year 878,798 432,000 41,089,000 986,771 480,000 57,815,000 9,609,924 1,060,852 467,000 41,829,000 6,681,581 1,158,566 478,000 99,366,000 22,051,129 1,125,508 448,100 164,200,000 30,492,721 1,063,346 459,048 206,751,000 44,519,658 1,029,695 461,341 5,653,400,000 108,113,519 1 Acreages are for the preceding year except for 19 59.

1399

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The areas and production of the principal crops for 3 years were: 1980 1981 HarProduc- yield HarProduction per vested tion vested 1,000 1,000 acre 1,000 1,000 acres bu. bu. acres bu. Com for grain 73,030 6,644,841 9 1 0 74,700 8,201,598 Oats 8,652 458,263 53 0 9,415 509,167 7,275 360,956 49-6 9,158 479,333 Barley All wheat 70,984 2,374,306 33-4 81,013 2,798,738 3,792 182,742 Rice (cwt) 3,312 146,150 4,413 Soybeans for 67,856 1,792,062 26-4 66,368 2,000,145 beans 617 Flaxseed 683 7,928 116 7,799 Cotton lint 13,215 11,122 404 13,841 15,646 (bale) 1,237 Potatoes (cwt) 1,155 302,857 262 338,591 920 1,786,192 1,940 976 2,063,611 Tobacco (lb.)

Yield per acre bu. 109-8 54-1 52-3 34-5 4,819

1982 Har- Produc- Yield vested tion per 1,000 1,000 acre acres bu. bu. 73,152 8,397,334 1148 10,561 616,981 58-4 9,113 522,387 57-3 78,841 2,808,737 35 6 3,252 154,216 4,742

30-1 70,783 2,276,976 12-6 815 11,635 543 274 2,114

32-2 14 3

590 9,728 11,963 1,273 349,268 274 907 1,982,245 2,183

Wheat. The chief wheat-growing states (1982) were (estimated yield in 1,000 bu.): Kansas, 462,000; N. Dakota, 330,785; Oklahoma, 227,700; Montana, 183,560; Texas, 144,000; Washington, 138,880; Minnesota, 126,809; Nebraska, 101,500 Idaho, 94,200; Colorado, 87,504; California, 81,625; Missouri, 75,820. Cotton. Leading production, 1982, by state (in 1,000 bales, 480 lb. net weight) was: California, 3,073; Texas, 2,700; Mississippi, 1,760; Arizona, 1,095; Louisiana, 870; Arkansas, 534; Alabama, 460; Tennessee, 339; Oklahoma, 238; Missouri, 204. Tobacco. Output (1,000 lb.) of the chief tobacco-growing states (92% of the crop) was, in 1982: N. Carolina, 700,689; Kentucky, 577,100; Tennessee, 178,117; Virginia, 125,384; S.Carolina, 124,195; Georgia, 105,500. Fruit. A wide variety of fruits are grown; the chief products are as follows:

Apples Citrus Fruit Grapes

1980 Production Value 1,000 tons $1,000 4,414 762,509 16,484 1,905,648 5,595 1,341,052

1981 Production Value 1,000 tons $1,000 3,877 852,981 15,105 1,866,685 4,458 1,322,431

1982 Production Value 1,000 tons $1,000 4,055 803,723 12,113 1,712,712 6,616 1,349,808

Dairy produce. In 1982, production of milk was 135,795m. lb.; milkfat, 4,961m. lb.; cheese (not including cottage cheese), 4,540m. lb.; butter, 1,257m. lb.; eggs, 69,680m. Livestock (1983). Cattle, 115-2m.; pigs, 53-2m.; sheep, 11-9m.; goats, l-33m.; poultry, 544m. The value (in $ 1,000) was: 1 Cattle of all kinds Sheep and lambs Swine (hogs and pigs) 1 1

1981 54,292,044 903,332 4,113,725

At 1 Dec. of previous year.

1982 47,966,517 737,777 4,783,560

1983 46,749,210 615,691

Preliminary.

Total value of livestock, excluding poultry and goats and, from 1961, horses and mules (in $lm.) on farms in the USA on 1 Jan. was: 1930,6,061; 1933 (low point of the agricultural depression), 2,733; 1970, 22,886; 1978, 31,952; 1979, 50,612; 1980,60,598; 1981,60,016; 1982,53,601; 1983 (preliminary), 52,148. In 1982 the production of shorn wool was 105m. lb. from 13 • 1 m. sheep (average 1970-74, 320m. lb. from 18-2m. sheep); of pulled wool, 115m. lb. (1970-74, 101m. lb.). Forestry. In 1977 the US forest lands, including Alaska and Hawaii, capable of producing timber for commercial use, covered 482,485,900 acres (more than onelifth of the land area), classified as follows: Saw-timber stands, 215,435,700 acres; pole timber stands, 135,609,900 acres, seedling and sapling stands, 115,032,100 acres; non-stocked and other areas, 16,408,200 acres. Ownership of commercial

1400

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

forest land is distributed as follows: Federal government, 99,410,400 acres; state, county, municipal and Indian, 36,311,20Q acres; privately owned, 346,764,300 acres, including 115,777,100 acres on farms. Of the saw-timber stand (2,578,940m. bd ft) Douglas fir constitutes 514,317; Southern yellow pine, 321,563; Western yellow (ponderosa and jeffrey) pine, 192,070; other softwoods, 947,458; hardwoods, 593,532. In 1976 growing stock timber removals amounted to 14,229,023,000 cu. ft compared to net annual growth of about 21,664,316,000 cu. ft. Saw-timber removals amounted to 65,176,618,000 bd ft against an annual growth of74,620,832,000 bd ft. The net area of the 155 national forests and other areas in USA and Puerto Rico administered by the US Department of Agriculture's Forest Service, including commercial and non-commercial forest land, was in May 1983,191m. acres. Fire takes a heavy annual toll in the forest; total area burned over in 1982 was 2,382,037 acres; 1,500m. acres of land are now under organized fire-protection service. The area planted or seeded in forest and wind barrier nursery stock in the year ending 30 Sept. 1983 was425,561 acres. Land Areas of National Forest System. Forest Service, US Dept. of Agriculture, 1982 Report of the Forest Service, 1982

Fisheries. The main fishing industries are in California (anchovy, tuna and sole); Alaska (notably salmon); Washington (salmon and halibut); Florida (the main source of turtles and sponges); Massachusetts, Maine, North Carolina and Oregon. Total catch, 1981 (preliminary), 5,977m. lb. valued at $2,388m. Tennessee Valley Authority. Established by Act of Congress, 1933, the TVA is a multiple-purpose federal agency which carries out its duties in an area embracing some 41,000 sq. miles, in 125 counties (aggregate population, about 7 • 9m.) in the 7 Tennessee River Valley states: Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, North Carolina, Georgia and Virginia. In addition, 76 counties outside the Valley are served by TVA power distributors. Its 3 directors are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate; headquarters are in Knoxville, Tenn. There were 33,352 employees in May 1984. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Tennessee Valley offered the world a model of the first effort to develop all resources of a major river valley under one comprehensive programme, the Tennessee Valley Authority. The multipurpose development of the Tennessee River for flood control, navigation, and electric power production was the first big task for TVA. But there were other needs; controlling erosion on the land, introducing better fertilizers and new farming practices, eradicating malaria, demonstrating ways electricity could lighten the burdens in the home and increase production on the farm, and a multitude of potential job-producing enterprises. In the depression year, 1933, the average per capita income in the Valley was $168, compared with the national average of $375. Through the years, TVA has placed a strong emphasis on the economic development of the Valley. An abundant supply of reasonably priced power, combined with a reliable navigation system, has provided a strong incentive for industry to locate in the Valley. By 1981, the region's per capita income had multiplied over 48 times to $8,078, while the national average had increased 28 times. Taming the Tennessee River has had two positive effects on the Valley: flood damages averted by river control now total nearly $2,250m., and a navigable channel system 650 miles long, connecting with the American system of inland waterways, provides a readily accessible transportation system for industry. In 1982, 27m. (estimate) tons of barge-traffic travelled the TVA river system. Another activity is experimentation in the development and manufacture of chemical fertilizers, accompanied by programmes designed to encourage proper fertilizer use in all parts of the United States and the world. TVA's National Fertilizer Development Center is recognized world-wide for its expertise in fertilizer technology. TVA also works closely with other federal agencies, and with state and local authorities in combating soil erosion, improving forest resources, improving agriculture, and in the development of local industries based on natural resources.

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1401

In recent years, attention has focused mainly on TVA's power programme. TV A supplies electric power to 160 local distribution systems serving 2-9m. customers. The power system originated with the water-power development of the Tennessee River, but has become predominantly a coal-fired system as power requirements have outgrown the region's hydro-electric potential. In fiscal year 1983, the TVA system generated 114,33 lm. kwh. Installed capacity in 1983 was 32- lm. kw, with another 5 • 2m. kw under construction at TVA's nuclear plants. Because of the ever-increasing cost of energy in today's world, TVA has focused a good deal of its attention and resources on the research and demonstration of new and alternative energy sources. TVA is playing a lead role in the development of atmospheric fluidized bed combustion (AFBC) technology, an innovative process of burning high-sulphur coal cleanly and cheaply. TVA is continuing its research and demonstrations into solar energy, both for residential and commercial uses; energy from wood and waste products, and electric vehicle development. Other TVA activities include demonstration of effective ways of reclaiming strip-mined areas and development of new and improved methods of controlling air and water pollution. Power operations are financially self-supporting from revenues. In fiscal year 1983 power revenues were $4,114m., and net income $332m. Power facilities are financed from revenues and the sale of revenue bonds and notes, and TVA is repaying appropriations previously invested in power facilities. Other TVA resource development programmes continue to be financed from congressional appropriations, which amount to $ 125 • 5m. in 1983-84. Annual Report of the TVA. ICnoxville, 1934 to date Clapp, G.R., The TVA; An Approach to the Development of a Region. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1955 Lilienthal, D. E., TVA; Democracy on the March. 20th Anniversary ed. New York and London,1953 Owen, M., The Tennessee Valley Authority. New York, 1973 Tennessee Valley Authority. A History of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Knoxville, Tennessee, 1982.—TVA: The First Twenty Years (ed. R. C. Martin), Univ. of Tennessee Press, 1956

I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. The following table presents industry statistics of manufactures as reported at various censuses from 1909 to 1977 and from the Annual Survey of Manufactures for years in which no census was taken. The figures for 1958 to 1977 include data for some establishments previously classified as non-manufacturing. The figures for 1939, but not for earlier years, have been revised to exclude data for establishments classified as non-manufacturing in 1954. The figures for 1909-33 were previously revised by the deduction of data for industries excluded from manufacturing during that period. The statistics for 1958, 1963, 1967, 1972 and 1977 relate to all establishments employing 1 or more persons anytime during the year; for 1950, 1956-57, 1959— 62,1966 and 1968-74 on a representative sample of manufacturing establishments of 1 or more employees; for 1929 through 1939, those reporting products valued at $5,000 or more; and for 1909 and 1919, those reporting products valued at $500 or more. These differences in the minimum size of establishments included in the census affect only very slightly the year-to-year comparability ofthe figures. The annual Surveys of Manufactures carpi forward the key measures of manufacturing activity which are covered in detail by the Census of Manufactures. The estimate for 1950 is based on reports for approximately 45,000 plants out of a total of more than 260,000 operating manufacturing establishments; those for 1956-57 on about 50,000, and those for 1959-62,1966 and 1968-74 on about 60,000 out of about 300,000. Included are all large plants and representative samples of the much more numerous small plants. The large plants in the surveys account for approximately two-thirds of the total employment in operating manufacturing establishments in the US.

1402

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Number of establishments 264,810 270,231 206,663 139,325 173,802 260,000

Production Production Value added workers' wages workers by manufacture (averagefor year) total ($1,000) ($1.000) 1909 6,261,736 3,205,213 8,160,075 8,464,916 9,664,009 23,841,624 1919 8,369,705 1929 10,884,919 30,591,435 1933 5,787,611 4,940,146 14,007,540 24,487,304 1939 7,808,205 8,997,515 1950 11,778,803 34,600,025 89,749,765 1960 12,209,514 55,555,452 163,998,531 12,232,041 1963 62,093,601 192,082,900 306317 1966 13,826,500 78,256,400 250,880,100 1967 305^680 13,955,300 81,393,600 261,983,800 14,041,200 285,058,900 1968 87,480,400 14,357,800 93,459,600 304,440,700 1969 1970 13,528,000 91,609,000 300,227,600 1971 12,874,900 93,231,700 314,138,400 1972 312^662 13,526,500 105,494,700 353,974,200 1973 14,233,100 118,332,300 405,623,500 1974 13,970,900 124,983,200 452,468,400 1975 12,567,900 121,427,200 442,485,800 1976 13,051,200 137,564,000 511,470,900 1977 13,691,000 157,163,700 585,165,600 350,157 1978 14,228,700 176,416,800 657,412,000 1979 14,537,800 192,881,500 747,480,500 1980 13,900,100 198,164,000 773,831,300 1982 12,389,700 204,523,100 1 For the period 1954-67 value added represents adjusted value added and for earlier years unadjusted value added. Unadjusted is obtained by subtracting cost of materials, supplies and containers, fuel, electricity and contract work from the value of shipments for products manufactured plus receipts for services rendered. Adjusted value added also takes into account value added by merchandizing operations plus net change in finished goods and work-inprocess inventories between the beginning and end of the year.

For comparison of broad types of manufacturing, the industries covered by the Census of Manufactures have been divided into 20 general groups according to the Standard Industrial Classification. Value Production Production added workers workers' by manuCensus (average wages, total facture ' Code year for year) ($1.000) ($1,000) No. Industry group 14,814,400 75,490,900 1980 1,091,200 15,707,100 80,794,700 20. Food and kindred products 1981 1,068,700 16,409,800 1982 1,048,200 46,600 767,400 1980 6,147,600 49,100 891,400 21. Tobacco manufactures 1981 6,429,600 45,400 957,100 1982 706,200 7,212,400 1980 18,983,300 678,500 7,439,000 22. Textile mill products 1981 19,463,200 617,700 6,976,200 1982 1,129,500 8,503,400 1980 23,425,500 8,734,400 1981 1,078,600 25,639,900 23. Apparel and related products 8,826,300 1982 1,007,700 581,700 6,719,900 18,029,900 1980 543,800 6,752,900 1981 24. Lumber and wood products 17,321,000 480,400 6,439,700 1982 383,800 3,926,000 1980 11,631,100 374,100 4,189,100 1981 25. Furniture and fixtures 12,668,700 349,500 4,179,200 1982 493,900 8,203,500 1980 29,760,500 486,600 8,820,400 1981 26. Paper and allied products 32,366,700 459,100 9,018,000 1982 716,000 9,599,100 1980 44,374,700 719,700 10,454,000 27. Printing and publishing 1981 49,351,600 712,600 11,287,200 1982 1 Figures represent adjusted value added. For definitions see footnote to previous table.

UNITED

Code No.

STATES OF

Industry group

28. Chemical and allied products

29. Petroleum and coal products

30. Rubber and plastics products, not elsewhere classified 2 31. Leather and leather products

32. Stone, clay and glass products

33. Primary and metal industries

34. Fabricated metal products 2

35. Machinery (except electrical)

36. Electrical machinery 2

37. Transportation equipment 2

38. Instruments and related products 2

39. Miscellaneous manufacturing

AMERICA

Production workers Census (average year for year) 1980 544,700 1981 532,600 1982 504,100 1980 99,800 1981 101,000 1982 99,200 1980 544,400 1981 541,900 1982 521,700 1980 200,500 1981 196,800 1982 172,300 1980 479,700 1981 462,500 1982 407,500 1980 854,200 1981 825,900 1982 638,500 1980 1,224,000 1981 1,182,800 1982 1,065,800 1980 1,595,700 1981 1,561,000 1982 1,346,900 1980 1,303,000 1981 1,278,100 1982 1,200,900 1980 1,213,000 1981 1,185,300 1982 1,069,500 1980 370,700 1981 368,300 1982 362,300 1980 321,500 1981 307,500 1982 280,400

Production workers ' wages, total ($1,000) 9,482,600 10,230,100 10,463,900 2,135,000 2,522,100 2,612,800 6,777,300 7,392,700 7,684,500 1,635,300 1,766,000 1,625,200 7,190,300 . 7,568,600 7,153,900 17,306,200 18,564,100 14,460,100 17,908,500 19,134,000 18,339,300 25,771,300 27,762,200 24,903,900 17,762,600 19,192,400 19,369,900 24,109,000 26,096,600 24,513,800 5,021,400 5,536,700 5,896,000 3,318,400 3,447,100 3,406,300

1403 Value added by manufacture 1 ($1.000) 74,384,100 80,032,300 24,815,600 26,740,300 22,568,700 26,005,900 4,851,200 5,230,300 24,051,000 24,853,900 47,6 ¡9,200 49,550,600 57,9Í7,100 61,558,200 99,435,400 111,393,700 73,149,500 79,720,400 76,591,800 82,938,200 27,913,100 31,493,800 12,691,100 13,953,500

' Figures represent adjusted value added. For definitions see footnote to previous table, p. 1402. 2 Figures for 1967 are not comparable to 1972 due to revisions in the Standard Industrial Classification System.

Iron and Steel: Output of the iron and steel industries (in net tons of 2,000 lb.), according to figures supplied by the American Iron and Steel Institute, was:

1932' 1939 19444 1950 1960 1970 1980 1982 1983

Furnaces in blast 31 Dec. 44 195 218 234 114 152

Pig-iron (including ferroalloys) Raw steel 9,835,227 15,322,901 35,677,097 52,798,714 62,866,198 89,641,600 66,400,311 96,336,075 68,566,384 99,281,601 87,933,000 131,514,000 70,329,000 111,835,000 43,309,000 74,577,000 48,706,000 84,615,000

Steel by method of production 1 Open Basic Bessemer hearth Electric2 Oxygen 13,336,210 1,715,925 270,044 48,409,800 3,358,916 1,029,067 80,363,953 5,039,923 4,237,699 86,262,509 4,534,558 6,039,008 86,367,506 1,189,196 8,378,743 3,346^156 — 48,022,000 20,162,000 63,330,000 — 13,054,000 31,166,000 67,617,000 — 6,110,000 23,158,000 45,309,000 5,951,000 — 26,615,000 52,050,000

' The sum of these 4 items should equal the total in the preceding column; any difference appearing is due to the very small production of crucible steel, omitted prior to 1950. 2 Includes crucible production beginning 1950. 3 Low point ofthe depression. 4 Peak year of war production.

1404

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Wholesale price index of iron and steel mill products (1967 = 100) was: 1950, 59-4; 1960, 96-4; 1970, 114-3; 1978, 254-4; 1979, 280-4; 1980, 302-7; 1982, 349-7; 1983,352-5. Consumption of ore, 1983, was 68-3m. net tons, of which blast-furnaces took 56-9m. net tons; agglomerating plants, 11 -2m. net tons; and steel producing furnaces, 248,000 net tons. The iron and steel industry in 1983 employed 168,852 wage-earners (compared with 449,888 in 1960), who worked an average of 36-9 hours per week and earned an average of $15-09 per hour total wages were $4,900m. and total salaries for 73,893 employees were $2,477m. Annual Statistics Report. American Iron and Steel Institute

Labour. The American labour movement comprises about 190 national and international labour organizations plus a large number of small independent local or single-firm labour organizations. In 1980 total membership was approximately 23 • 9m., including 1 • 7m. Canadian workers affiliated with American labour organizations and under 120,000 others outside the USA. The American Federation of Labor (founded 1881 and taking its name in 1886) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merged into one organization, named the AFL-CIO, in Dec. 1955, representing 16-8m. workers in 1980. Unaffiliated or independent labour organizations, inter-state in scope, including those organizing coalminers, teamsters and government employees and railroad workers, had an estimated total membership excluding all foreign members (1980) of about 6 • 8m. Labour organizations represented approximately 20% of the labour force in 1980. The Labor-Management Relations (Taft-Hartley) Act, 1947, applicable to industries affecting inter-state commerce, prohibits the closed shop, but permits union shop arrangements except where forbidden by state laws. Statutes regulating, restricting or prohibiting union shop or other types of union security agreements are in effect in 20 states (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia and Wyoming). Colorado and Wisconsin ban all-union agreements unless a certain percentage of employees have voted for them; in Hawaii an all-union agreement may be entered into unless a majority of employees votes against it. Thirteen states have acts to prevent industrial disputes between public utilities and their employees by means of compulsory arbitration or seizure; however, a number of these laws have been declared unconstitutional in so far as industries in inter-state commerce are concerned. Laws to restrict or regulate picketing or other strike activities have been enacted in over half the states. About one-halfof the states also prohibit certain types of strikes, as 'sit down', jurisdictional or sympathy strikes. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 protects the interests of workers and their beneficiaries who are entitled to benefits from employee pension and welfare plans. The law requires disclosure of plan provisions and financial information and establishes standards of conduct for trustees and administrators of welfare and pension plans. It provides funding, participation and vesting requirements for pension plans and makes termination insurance available for most pension plans. The law does not require a company to establish a welfare or pension plan. Minimum wage laws governing private employers are in operation in 45 jurisdictions: 41 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have minimum wage laws and minimum wage rates. As of 1 Aug. 1978, all but one of thè laws cover men, women and, usually, minors. The exception covers only women and minors. The minimum wage rate under federal law is $3.35 per hour for employees who are engaged in commerce, in the production of goods for commerce or in Certain enterprises which are engaged in commerce as well as federal employees. A total of 81 strikes and lockouts of 1,000 workers or more occurred in 1983, involving 909,000 workers and 17-5m. idle days; the number of idle days was 0-08% of the year's total working time of all workers.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1405

There are 3 federal agencies which provide formal machinery for the adjustment of labour disputes: (1) The Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, now an independent agency, whose mediation services are available 'in any labor dispute in any industry affecting commerce'; under Executive Order 11491, as amended, to federal agencies and organizations of federal employees involved in negotiation disputes; and in state and local government collective bargaining disputes when adequate dispute resolution machinery is not available to the parties. Its aim is to prevent and minimize work stoppages. (2) The National Mediation Board (1934) provides much the same facilities for the railroad and air-transport industries pursuant to the Railway Labor Act. (3) The National Railroad Adjustment Board (1934) acts as a board of final appeal for grievances arising over the inteipretation of existing collective agreements under the Railway Labor Act; its decisions are binding upon both sides and enforceable by the courts. The National Labor Relations Act, as amended by the Labor-Management Relations (Taft-Hartley) Act, 1947 (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, p. 617), was amended by the Labor-Management Repprting and Disclosure Act, 1959, and again amended in 1974. The 1959 Act requires extensive reporting and disclosure of certain financial and administrative practices of labour organizations, employers and labour relations consultants. In addition, certain powers are vested in the Secretary of Labor to prevent abuses in the administration of trusteeships by labour organizations, to provide minimum standards and procedures for the election of union officers and to establish rules prescribing minimum standards for determining the adequacy of union procedures for the removal of officers. Other provisions impose a fiduciary responsibility upon union officers and provide for the exclusion of those convicted of certain named felonies from office for specified periods; more stringently regulate secondary boycotts and banning of 'hot' cargo agreements; put limitations upon organizational and recognition picketing ana permit States to assert jurisdiction over labour disputes where the National Labor Relations Board declines to act. The Act also contains a 'Bill of Rights' for union members (enforceable directly by them) dealing with such things as equal rights in the nomination and election of union officers, freedom of speech and assembly subject to reasonable union rules, and safeguards against improper disciplinary action. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated that in 1983 the labour force was 113,226,000 (64-4% of those 16 years and over); the resident armed forces accounted for 1,676,000 and the civilian labour force for 111 • 55m., of whom 100,834,000 were employed and 10,717,000—or 9-6%—were unemployed. The following table shows civilian employment by industry and sex and percentage distribution of the total: Percentage Industry Group Male Female Total distribution Employed (1,000 persons): 56,787 44,047 100,834 100 0 Agriculture, forestry and fisheries 2,838 705 3,542 3 -5 Mining 761 161 921 0-9 Construction 5,640 509 6,149 61 Manufacturing: Durable goods 8,629 3,079 11,708 11-6 Non-durable (including not specified) 4,825 3,412 8,238 8-2 Transportation, communication and other public utilities 5,204 1,784 6,988 6-9 Wholesale and retail trade 11,197 9,948 21,145 21 0 Finance, insurance and real estate 2,752 3,758 6,510 6-5 Business and repair services 3,204 1,711 4,916 4 -9 Personal services (including private household) 1,161 2,916 4,077 4 0 Entertainment and recreation services 739 476 1,215 1-2 Professional and related services 7,009 13,707 20,716 20-5 Public administration 2,829 1,880 4,709 4-7 Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Dept. of Labor. Directory of National Unions and Employee Associations in the US. 1979.—Brief History of the American Labor Movement. 1976.— Analysis of Work Stoppages. 1979.—Employment and Earnings. Monthly A Guide to Basic Law and Procedures under the National Labor Relations Act, National Labor Relations Board, Washington, D.C., 1976

1406

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Brody, D., Workers in Industriai America: Essays on the Twentieth-century York, 1980

Struggle. New

Commerce. The subjoined table gives the total value of the imports and exports of merchandise by yearly average or by year (in $ 1 m.): Exports General Exports3 General Total USmdse.' imports2 Total USmdse.' imports 11,829 11,673 6,659 1979 181,816 178,578 210,285 1946-50 15,196 10,832 245,262 1951-55 15,333 1980 220,783 216,668 1956-60 19,204 19,029 260,982 13,650 1981 233,739 228,961 24,006 24,707 243,952 1961-65 17,659 1982 212,275 207,158 43,224 42,590 1970 39,952 1983 200,538 195,969 258,048 1 2 Excludes re-exports. Includes US Virgin Islands trade with foreign countries. For a description of how imports and exports are valued, see Explanation of Statistics of Report FT990, Highlights of US Export and Import Trade, Bureau of the Census, US Department ofCommerce, Washington, D.C., 1946. The 'most favoured nation' treatment in commerce between Great Britain and US was agreed to for 4 years by the treaty of 1815, was extended for 10 years by the treaty of 1818, and indefinitely (subject to 12 months' notice) by that of 1827.

Imports and exports of gold and silver bullion and specie in calendar years (in

$1,000):

1932 1940 1944 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1982 1983

Exports 809,528 4,995 959,228 7,257 1,647 1,285,097 36,887 429,278 2,787,431 590,947 825,418

Gold

Imports 363,315 4,749,467 113,836 104,592 335,032 101,669 227,472 406,583 2,508,520 1,650,719 1,575,570

Exports 13,850 3,674 126,915 8,331 25,789 54,061 53,003 104,086 1,326,878 105,977 169,383

Silver

Imports 19,650 58,434 23,373 72,932 57,438 64,769 58,838 274,106 1,336,009 786,154 1,926,102

The domestic exports of US produce, including military, and the imports for consumption by economic classes for 3 calendar years were (in $m.):

Food and live animals Crude materials Machinery and transport equipment Chemicals Total

Exports (US merchandise) 1981 1982 30,291 23,950 20,993 19,248

1983 24,166 18,596

Imports for consumption 1982 1981 15,233 14,453 8,585 11,193

1983 15,412 9,590

95,736 21,187

87,148 19,890

82,578 19,751

69,627 9,448

73,320 9,493

86,131 10,779

168,207

150,236

145,091

105,501

105,851

121,912

Leading exports of US merchandise are listed below for the calendar year 1983: Special category merchandise is included. Data for major subdivisions of certain classes are also given: Commodity $lm. Commodity Sim. Machinery, total 54,309 Chemicals 19,751 Power generating machinery 8,718 Chemical elements and compounds 8,378 Metalworking machinery 1,121 Plastic materials and resins 3,732 5,925 Agricultural machines and tractors 2,346 Soybeans 1,817 Office machines 11,669 Cotton 2,368 Telecommunications apparatus 3,804 Textiles and apparel Electrical apparatus 11,936 Tobacco and manufactures 2,587 Electrical power machinery and Iron and steel-mill products 1,415 switchgear 2,379 Non-ferrous base metals and alloys 1,606 4,469 Automobiles (and parts) 14,463 Pulp, paper and products 4,115 Aircraft (and parts) 12,189 Coal Grains and preparations 15,152 Fruits, nuts and vegetables 2,444 Wheat (and flour) 6,509 Petroleum and products 4,557 3,092 Coarse grains 7,408 Firearms of war and ammunition

1407

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Chief imports for 28 commodity classes for consumption for the calendar year 1983:

Commodity Petroleum and products Petroleum Petroleum products Non-ferrous base metals Copper Aluminium Nickel Bauxite, crude Tin Pulp, paper and products Newsprint Wood pulp Fertilizers Sugar Iron and steel-mill products Cattle, meat and preparations Automobiles and parts Fish (and shellfish) Fruit, nuts and vegetables Alcoholic beverages Wool and other hair Metal manufactures Diamonds (excl. industrial)

$lm. 52,325 36,809 15,516 7,422 1,341 1,629 524

453 5,723 2,759 1,470 997 1,047 6,338 2,335 35,034 3,594 2,920 2,626 176 4,504 2,275

Commodity Rubber Textiles and apparel Clothing Cotton fabrics, woven Machinery, total Electrical machinery and parts Agricultural machines and tractors Office machines Coffee Chemicals Chemical elements and compounds Uranium oxide Plywood Oils and fats Cocoa (and cacao beans) Glass and pottery Footwear Toys and sports goods Furs, undressed Telecommunications apparatus Artworks and antiques Grains and animal feeds

$lm. 655 12,808 9,583 560 46,975 12,499 1,196 6,759 2,590 10,779 6,044 199 754 495 349 1,602 4,010 2,506 126 11,278 2,017 483

Total trade beween the USA and the UK for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 6,043,774 6,048,305 6,638,250 7,442,671 9,356,029 6,668,342 6,258,157 7,457,114 8,336,97910,149,479

Imports and exports by continents, areas and selected countries for calendar years (in$lm.): Area and country Canada 20 American Republics Western Europe

General imports 1982 1983 46,477 52,130 35,683 32,513 52,346 53,884

Exports incl. re-exports 1982 1983 38,244 33,720 30,086 22,618 60,054 55,980

93,873 67,312 Western Hemisphere 84,467 52,130 Canada 46,477 33,720 20 American Republics 32,513 35,683 30,086 1,585 1,467 1,405 Central American Common Market 358 387 330 Costa Rica 319 348 292 El Salvador Guatemala 336 371 390 365 381 275 Honduras 90 97 119 Nicaragua 255 337 839 Panama Latin American FTA 29,850 32,611 26,879 853 1,294 Argentina 1,128 Brazil 4,285 4,946 3,423 666 969 925 Chile 801 970 1,903 Colombia Ecuador 1,131 1,429 828 15,566 16,776 11,817 Mexico 39 32 Paraguay 78 Peru 1,099 1,151 1,117 Uruguay 258 381 190 814 Dominican Republic 629 664 310 336 299 Haiti 109 166 99 Bolivia 4,768 4,938 Venezuela 5,206 1,050 1,687 Bahamas 590 Netherlands Antilles 2,117 2,291 660 294 273 468 Jamaica 1,627 1,318 894 Trinidad and Tobago 1 'Special category' exports are included in these totals.

63,970 38,244 22,618 1,494 382 365 316 299 132 748 19,378 965 2,557 729 1,514 597 9,082 37 900 86 632 366 102 2,811 452 553 452 728

1408

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Area and country Europe Western Europe OECD Countries European Economic Community 2 Belgium and Luxembourg Denmark France Germany (Fed. Rep.) Ireland Italy Netherlands UK Greece Turkey EFTA countries Austria Norway Portugal Sweden Switzerland Finland Iceland Spain Yugoslavia Soviet bloc. Poland USSR Asia' 4 Near East Egypt Iran Iraq Israel Kuwait Lebanon Saudi Arabia Japan Other Asia Bangladesh Hong Kong India Indonesia Korea, Republic of Malaysia Singapore Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand Taiwan (Formosa) Vietnam China Oceania Australia New Zealand and W. Samoa

General imports 1982 1983

Exports itici, re-exports ' 1982 1983

52,346 51,966 42,509 2,396 904 5,545 11,975 556 5,301 2,494 13,095 242 274

53,884 53,468 43,892 2,412 1,067 6,025 12,695 560 5,455 2,970 12,470 238 320

60,054 59,378 47,932 5,229 732 7,110 9,291 983 4,616 8,604 10,645 721 868

55,980 55,261 44,311 5,049 649 5,961 8,737 1,115 3,908 7,767 10,621 503 783

491 1,973 283 1,993 2,340 414 184 1,505 360 1,067 212 228

447 1,358 280 2,429 2,494 496 219 1,533 386 1,359 189 347

371 950 838 1,689 2,707 489 77 3,456 494 3,610 295 2,587

371 813 1,212 1,581 2,960 413 53 2,763 572 2,891 324 2,003

85,686 11,812 547 585 39 1,164 40 19 7,443

91,743 7,135 303 1,130 59 1,255 130 17 3,627

67,409 15,950 2,875 122 846 2,271 941 294 9,026

66,483 13,796 2,813 190 512 2,017 741 484 7,903

37,744 45,139 70 5,540 1,404 4,224 5,637 1,885 2,195 165 1,806 175 884 8,893

41,183 48,035 88 6,394 2,191 5,285 7,148 2,124 2,868 167 2,001 185 967 11,204

21,894 39,725 190 2,564 1,828 1,466 5,925 1,684 3,759 812 1,807 75 1,063 4,667 21 2,173 4,827 3,954 625

-

-

2,284

2,244

20,966 40,912 227 2,453 1,599 2,025 5,529 1,736 3,214 700 1,854 198 915 4,367 32 2,912

3,131 2,287 777

3,044 2,222 737

5,700 4,535 900

' See note on previous page. 1982 and 1983 figures include Greece. Includes Egypt. ' Excludes Yemen (Aden) (formerly Southern Yemen), and Bahrain. 2 !

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Area and country Africa : Algeria Ethiopia Libya Morocco Ghana Liberia Nigeria Kenya Zaire South Africa, Republic o f '

General imports 1982 1983 14,122 17,223 2,673 3,551 102 87 512 45 31 362 120 91 91 3,736 7,045 71 65 407 366 2,028 1,973

1409 Exports ind. re-exports ' 1982 1983 7,396 5,955 594 909 43 43 191 301 440 397 116 119 113 110 864 1,295 98 69 91 83 2,133 2,376

' See note on p. 1407. Excludes Egypt. Includes also South-West Africa (Namibia).

2 3

US Department ofCommerce, Bureau of Census. Report FT 990, Highlights of US Export and Import Trade

Tourism. In 1983, 21 -7m. tourists visited the USA and spent over US$11,400m. They came mainly from Canada (12m.), Europe (3m.), Mexico (1 -9m.) and Asia (2-lm.). Approximately 24-9m. US tourists travelled abroad, mainly to Canada (11 • 2m.), Europe (4 -7m.), Mexico (3 • 9m.) and the Caribbean and Central America (2-9m.). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 Dec. 1983 the total US public road 1 mileage, including rural and urban roads, amounted to 3,879,638 miles, of which 3,424,530 miles were surfaced roads. The total mileage cited includes 817,206 miles of rural roads under control of the states, 2,137,960 miles of local rural roads, 263,015 miles of federal park and forest roads, and 662,350 miles of urban roads and streets. Expenditures for construction and maintenance amounted to $34,54lm. in 1983. By the end of 1983, toll roads, financed by private capital through bond issues and administered by state toll authorities, totalled 4,679 miles (including some under construction) compared with 344 miles in 1940. Motor vehicles registered in the calendar year 1983 were (Federal Highways Administration) 163,861,169, including 126,727,870 automobiles, 585,515 buses and 36,547,781 trucks. Inter-city trucks (private and for hire) averaged 502,000m. revenue net ton-miles in 1982. Of the 585,515 buses in service in 1983,470,727 were school buses. Intercity service operated a total of 1,140m. bus-miles and carried a total of 390m. revenue passengers in 1982. There were 42,595 deaths in road accidents in 1983. 1 Public road mileage excludes that mileage not open to public travel, not maintained by public authority, or not passable by standard four-wheel vehicles. This excluded mileage was reported to the US Federal Highway Administration prior to 1981.

Railways. Railway history in the USA commences in 1828, but the first railway to convey both freight and passengers in regular service (between Baltimore and Ellicott's Mills, Md., 13 miles) dates from 24 May 1830. Mileage rose to 52,922 miles in 1870; to 167,191 miles in 1890, and to a peak of 266,381 miles in 1916, falling thereafter to 261,871 in 1925;246,739 in 1940 and 222,164 in 1969 (these include some duplication under trackage rights and some mileage operated in Canada by US companies). The ordinary gauge is 4 ft 8V2 in. (about 99-6% of total mileage). The USA has about 29% of the world's railway mileage. In addition to the independent railroad companies, railway service is provided by two federally-assisted organizations, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak), and the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail). Amtrak was set up on 1 May 1971 to maintain a basic network of inter-city passenger trains with government assistance, and is responsible for almost all non-

1410

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

commuter services with 27,000 miles of route. From 1 Jan. 1983, an Amtrak commuter division took over from Conrail all commuter services not acquired by State or regional agencies. Conrail was established on 1 April 1976 to run freight services in the industrial north-east formerly operated by the bankrupt Penn Central, Reading, Lehigh Valley, Central of New Jersey, Erie Lackawanna, Lehigh & Hudson railroads, and Pennyslvania-Reading Seashore Lines which is being returned to the private sector in 1985. The following table, based on the figures of the Interstate Commerce Commission, shows some railway statistics for 4 calendar years: 1960 1970 1980' 1983 > ' Classes I and II Railroads 204,621 144,506 Mileage owned (first main tracks) 223,779 157,078 1,421 1,572 Revenue freight originated (1 m. short tons) 1,537 1,279 Freight ton-mileage (1 m. ton-miles) 591,550 771,012 932,748 825,250 3 Passengers carried (1,000) 488,019 289,469 281,503 J Passenger-miles (1 m.) 31,790 10,786 6,557 Operating revenues ($ 1 m.) 9,587 12,209 28,708 26,559 Operating expenses ($ 1 m.) 7,135 9,806 26,761 23,980 Net railway operating income ($ 1 m.) 1,055 506 1,364 1,817 Net income after fixed charges ($ 1 m.) 855 126 2,029 2,642 Class I Railroads: Locomotives in service 40,949 27,086 28,240 25,495 — — — 25,640 Steam locomotives 1,721,269 1,423,921 1,101,343 943,799 Freight-train cars (excluding caboose cars) 57,146 11,177 2,219 714 Passenger-train cars 1,220,784 566,282 458,996 322,050 Average number of employees 188.71 474.21 Average wage per week ($ 1) 72.59 617.79 1 Class I railroads only. From 1981, Class II railroads were no longer required to file annual reports. 2 Data for National Railroad Passenger Corporation excluded. 3 This data has been discontinued.

Aviation. In civil aviation there were, on 31 Dec. 1983, 718,004 certified pilots (including 147,197 student pilots) and 264,866 registered civil aircraft. Airports on 31 Dec. 1983: Air carrier, 677; general aviation, 15,352. Of these airports, 12,653 were conventional land-based, while 392 were seaplane bases, 2,918 were heliports and 66 stolports (STOL—Short Take-Off and Landing). Statistics from the Civil Aeronautics Board indicate that for 12 months ended June 1984 on US flag carriers in scheduled international service there were 23 -04m. enplanements with 313 -9m. aircraft miles (excluding all-cargo) for a total of 64,710m. revenue passenger-miles. The non-scheduled airlines had a total of 13,104m. revenue passenger-miles internationally and domestically. Domestically US scheduled airlines in 1984 had 304-3m. enplanements with a total of 2,615m. aircraft miles for 230,647m. revenue passenger-miles. (A revenue passenger-mile is one paying passenger carried per mile.) The Civil Aeronautics Board ceased to exist as an independent agency on 31 Dec. 1984 and its functions were transferred to the Department of Transportation. Shipping. On 1 Sept. 1984 the US merchant marine included 752 sea-going vessels of 1,000 gross tons or over, with aggregate dead-weight tonnage of 24m. This included 274 tankers of 16 • 1 m. DWT. On 1 Sept. 1984 US merchant ocean-going vessels were employed as follows: Active, 399 of 15-6m. DWT, of which 147 of 5m. tons were foreign trade, 188 of 9 -4m. tons in domestic trade and 64 of 1 -4m. tons in other US agency operations. Inactive vessels totalled 8m. DWT; 112 of 5-6m. DWT privately owned were laid up and 241 of 2 • 8m. tons were Government-owned National Defense reserve fleet. Ctfthe total vessels in the US fleet, 501 of 21 m. DWT were privately owned. US exports and imports carried on dry cargo and tanker vessels in the year 1983 totalled 630m. long tons, of which 36-7m. long tons or 5-8% were carried in US flag vessels. Post and Broadcasting. Until the beginning of 1984 the telephone business was

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1411

largely in the hands of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT & T) and its telephone operating subsidiaries, which together were known as the Bell System. Pursuant to a government anti-trust suit, the Bell System was broken up, with the telephone operating companies being divested from AT & T to create seven regional companies for providing local service. There are also many hundreds of smaller telephone companies having no common ownership affiliation with the Bell companies, but which connect with them for universal service, countrywide and worldwide. In addition, several new entrants have begun to compete with AT & T in the long-distance telephone market. The message telegraph and telex services are in the hands of The Western Union Telegraph Company, and the international record carriers, which compete with the telephone industry in providing leased private lines. Western Union also provides an inter-city telephone service. The number of telephones in service in the USA has increased in the period since 1945 at a much faster rate than has the population. Among principal reasons are the significant increase in the percentage of households with telephone service and the enormous growth in the number of extension telephones. In marked contrast, the number of public telegrams has decreased by a substantial amount. Telegrams have lost favour due to shifts in user preference to the airmail and to the telephone. The telex services of the telegraph company have also found broad acceptance in place of telegrams for business purposes. The following table contains key data items on a comparative basis for the domestic telephone and message telegraph services: 1 1970 1980 1960 All telephone systems: Total telephones 74,342,000 120,218,000 180,425,000 Bell System: Total telephones 60,735,100 96,561,000 141,674,000 Average daily telephone calls 219,093,000 368,363,000 580,230,000 Local 209,373,000 346,505,000 527,543,000 Longdistance 9,720,000 21,858,000 52,687,000 Total plant in service ($1,000) 24,072,499 54,813,202 132,831,794 Total operating revenues ($1,000) 7,958,125 17,094,846 51,203,404 Employees, number 580,405 772,980 847,768 Western Union Telegraph Co.: Public telegrams for year 102,931,000 46,084,000 40,801,398 Total plant ($1,000) 398,023 1,029,149 2,101,007 Revenue from public telegrams ($1,000) 160,746 126,739 115,612 Total operating revenues ($1,000) 262,365 402,456 696,972 Employees, number 32,655 24,293 12,649 •Preliminary.

2

¡983

181,891,000 2 142,386,000 2 601,200,000 ! 544,886,000 2 56,314,000 = 163,052,567 69,229,482 29,805,460 2,285,678 116,143 722,096

1981.

International communication services, providing overseas connexions with all parts of the world, are furnished principally by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and three telegraph companies. The old submarine cable telegraph systems have all been abandoned in favour of using telegraph circuits derived from voice channels in the newer telephone ocean cables, which have also made inroads on the use of high-frequency radio. More recently, satellite communications facilities have been utilized not only for telephone and telegraph services but for television and data transmission as well. International overseas telegrams, inbound to and outbound from the continental US, numbered 9-2m. in 1982 (11 -7m. in 1980). This service has tended to decline in volume in recent years. It first lost ground to the air-mail and then to the telex and telephone services. For the US and its possessions the volume of international overseas telephone calls has grown enormously with the availability of the excellent voice-transmission qualities provided in the telephone ocean cables and in the satellite radio relays. Whereas international telephone calls were 990,000 in 1955,. the last year in which there was no cable service available, there were 149 • 6m. such calls in 1980. Postal business for the years ended 30 Sept. included the following items:

1412

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1980 1981 1982 1983 Number ofpost offices, on 30 June 1 39,486 39,457 39,447 39,445 Postal operating revenue ($1,000) 2 17,142,760 19,133,041 22,599,937 23,581,667 3 Postal expenses ($1,000) 19,412,587 21,369,139 22,826,217 24,083,100 1 The US Postal Service was established 1 July 1971. Financial statements prior to that date are those of the Post Office Department. Such statements for 1968-71 have been restated to be in a format and on an accounting principle basis generally consistent with 1972. 2 Operating revenue excludes government appropriations, operating reimbursements and other income. 1 Operating expenses are stated net of operating reimbursements and exclude certain costs financed by revenue.

On 1 Jan. 1975 there were in the USA and Territories, 7,068 authorized commercial radio stations, 711 commercial television stations: of non-commercial stations 717 were for radio, 241 for television. Cinemas. Cinemas increased from 17,003 in 1940 to 20,239 in 1950 and decreased to 42,187 in 1967. Newspapers. Of the daily newspapers being published in the USA in 1971, 339 were morning papers with a circulation of 26,116,000, and 1,425 were evening papers with a circulation of36,115,000. The 590 Sunday papers had a total circulation of 49-7m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Legal controversies may be decided in two systems of courts: the federal courts, with jurisdiction confined to certain matters enumerated in Article III of the Constitution, and the state courts, with jurisdiction in all other proceedings. The federal courts have jurisdiction exclusive of the state courts in criminal prosecutions for the violation of federal statutes, in civil cases involving the government, in bankruptcy cases and in admiralty proceedings, and have jurisdiction concurrent with the state courts over suits between parties from different states, and certain suits involving questions of federal law. The highest court is the Supreme Court of the US, which reviews cases from the lower federal courts and certain cases originating in state courts involving questions of federal law. It is the final arbiter of all questions involving federal statutes and the Constitution; and it has the power to invalidate any federal or state law or executive action which it finds repugnant to the Constitution. This court, consisting of 9 justices who receive salaries of $94,700 a year (the Chief Justice, $ 100,700), meets from Oct. until June every year and disposes of about 4,450 cases, deciding about 380 on their merits. In the remainder of cases it either summarily affirms lower court decisions or declines to review. A few suits, usually brought by state governments, originate in the Supreme Court, but issues of fact are mostly referred to a master. The US courts of appeals number 12 (in 11 circuits composed of 3 or more states and 1 circuit for the District of Columbia); the 132 circuit judges receive salaries of $77,300 a year. Any party to a suit in a lower federal court usually has a right of appeal to one of these courts. In addition, there are direct appeals to these courts from many federal administrative agencies. In the year ending 30 June 1983, 29,630 appeals were filed in the courts of appeals. The trial courts in the federal system are the US district courts, of which there are 89 in the 50 states, 1 in the District of Columbia and 1 each in the territories of Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Guam and the Northern Marianas. Each state has at least 1 US district court, and 3 states have 4 apiece. Each district court has from 1 to 27 judgeships. There are 515 US district judges ($73,100 a year), who handle about 241,850 civil cases and 48,450 criminal defendants every year. In addition to these courts of general jurisdiction, there are special federal courts of limited jurisdiction. US Claims Court (6 judges at $77,300 a year) decides claims for money damages against the federal government in a wide variety of matters; the Court of International Trade determines controversies concerning the classification and valuation of imported merchandise. The judges of all these courts are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate; to assure their independence, they hold office during good behaviour and cannot have their salaries reduced. This does not apply to the territorial judges,

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

1413

who hold their offices for a term of years. The judges may retire with full pay at the age of 70 years if they have served a period of 10 years, or at 65 if they have 15 years of service, but they are subject to call for such judicial duties as they are willing to undertake. Only 9 US judges up to 1984 have been involved in impeachment proceedings, of whom 3 district judges and 1 commerce judge were convicted and removed from office. Of the 241,842 civil cases filed in the district courts in the year ending 30 June 1983, about 95,295 arose under various federal statutes (such as labour, social security, tax, patent, securities, antitrust and civil rights laws); 34,210 involved personal injury or property damage claims; 67,276 dealt with contracts; and 8,812 were actions concerning real property. Of the 35,872 criminal cases filed in the district courts in the year ending 30 June 1983, about 1,900 were charged with alleged infractions of the immigration laws; 3,400, the transport of stolen motor vehicles; about 3,400 larceny and theft; 7,650, embezzlement and fraud; and 7,650 narcotics laws. Persons convicted of federal crimes are either fined, released on probation under the supervision of the probation officers of the federal courts, confined in prison for a period of up to 6 months and then put on probation (known as split sentencing) or confined in one of the following institutions: 3 for juvenile and youths; 7 for young adults; 7 for intermediate term adults; 7 for short-term adults; 2 for females; 1 hospital and 15 community service centres. In addition, prisoners are confined in centres operated by the National Institutes of Mental Health. In addition, prisoner drug addicts may be committed to US Public Health Service hospitals for treatment. Prisoners confined in institutions operated by the US Bureau of Prisons for the year ending 30 Sept. 1982, numbered 28,133. The state courts have jurisdiction over all civil and criminal cases arising under state laws, but decisions of the state courts of last resort as to the validity of treaties or of laws of the US, or on other questions arising under the Constitution, are subject to review by the Supreme Court of the US. The state court systems are generally similar to the federal system, to the extent that they generally have a number of trial courts and intermediate appellate courts, and a single court of last resort. The highest court in each state is usually called the Supreme Court or Court of Appeals with a Chief Justice and Associate Justices, usually elected but sometimes app9inted by the Governor with the advice and consent of the State Senate or other advisory body; they usually hold office for a term of years, but in some instances for life or during good behaviour. Their salaries range from $24,000 to $84,584 a year. The lowest tribunals are usually those of Justices of the Peace; many towns and cities have municipal and police courts, with power to commit for trial in criminal matters and to determine misdemeanours for violation of the municipal ordinances; they frequently try civil cases involving limited amounts. The death penalty is illegal in Alaska, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, Oregon, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Michigan; in North Dakota it is legal only for treason and first-degree murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence for first-degree murder, in Rhode Island only for murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence and in Vermont and New York for the murder of a peace officer in the line of duty and for first-degree murder by those who kill while serving a life sentence for murder. The death penalty is legal in 37 states. Until 1982 it had fallen into disuse and had been abolished de facto in many states. The US Supreme Court had held the death penalty, as applied in general criminal statutes, to contravene the eighth and fourteenth amendments of the US constitution, as a cruel and unusual punishment when used so irregularly and rarely as to destroy its deterrent value. In 1967 only 2 persons were executed under civil authority; both for murder. There were no executions 1968-76. In 1977 a convicted murderer requested that he should be executed and after a lengthy legal dispute the sentence was carried out at Utah state prison. Six persons were executed between 1977 and 1982. In Jan. 1983, 1,050 prisoners in 31 states were reported under sentence of death. The total number of civilian executions carried out in the US from 1930 to 1982 was 3,866. Federal 'Political' Crimes. Prosecutions for what may be loosely described as

1414

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

'political' offences, or crimes directed towards the overthrow by violence of the federal government, which were s o m e w h a t numerous in the early 1950s, have declined sharply over the last 2 0 years and are n o w exceedingly rare. A Guide to Court Systems. Institute of Judicial Administration. New York, 1960 The United States Courts. Administrative Office ofthe US Courts, Washington, D.C., 20544 Blumberg, A. S., Criminal Justice: Issues and Ironies. 2nded. New York, 1973 Huston,L. A., The Department of Justice. New York, 1967 Huston, L. A., and others, Roles ofthe Attorney General ofthe United Stales. New York, 1968 McCloskey, R. G., The Modern Supreme Court. Harvard Univ. Press, 1972 McLauchlan, W. P., American Legal Processes. New York, 1977 Walker, S. E„ Popular Justice. New York, 1980 Religion. The Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches for 1984, published by the National Council o f the Churches o f Christ in the U S A , N e w York, presents the latest figures available from official statisticians o f church bodies. T h e large majority o f reports are for the calendar year 1982, or a fiscal year ending 1982. T h e 1982 reports indicated that there were 1 3 9 , 6 0 3 , 0 5 9 members with 3 4 1 , 1 1 1 local churches. There were 3 2 9 , 8 0 2 clergymen serving in local congregations. The principal religious bodies (numerically or historically) or groups of religious bodies are shown below: Denominations Summary: Protestant bodies Roman Catholic Church Jews ' Eastern Churches Old Catholic, Polish National Catholic and Armenian Buddhists Miscellaneous 2 1982 totals

Local churches

Total membership

310,284 24,071 3,500 1,632

76,754,009 52,088,774 5,725,000 3,859,668

427 62 1,135

924,861 100,000 150,747

341,111

139,603,059

Protestant Church Membership Total membership Baptist bodies Southern Baptist Convention 13,991,709 National Baptist Convention, USA 5,500,000 National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 2,668,799 National Primitive Baptist Convention 250,000 American Baptist Churches in the USA 1,621,795 American Baptist Association 225,000 Progressive National Baptist Convention 521,692 Conservative Baptist Association of America 225,000 Regular Baptist Churches 300,839 Free Will Baptists 243,658 Baptist Missionary Association of America 226,953 Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 1,156,458 Christian Churches and Churches ofChrist 1,063,254 Church ofthe Nazarene 498,491 Churches of Christ 1,605,000 The Episcopal Church 2,794,139 Latter-Day Saints: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 3,521,000 201,460 Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Lutheran Bodies: Lutheran Church in America 2,925,655 The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod 2,630,823 1

Includes Orthodox, Conservative and Reformed bodies. Includes non-Christian bodies such as Spiritualists, Ethical Culture, Unitarian-Universalists. ' Care should be taken in interpreting membership statistics for the US Churches. Some statistics are accurately compiled and others are estimates. Also statistics are not always comparable. 2

1415

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA Protestant Church Membership Lutheran Bodies (contd.): The American Lutheran Church Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod Methodist Bodies: United Methodist Church African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Pentecostal Bodies: Assemblies of God Church of God in Christ, International Church of God in Christ Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.) United Pentecostal Church, International, Inc. Presbyterian Bodies: 1 United Presbyterian Church in the USA Presbyterian Church in the US Reformed Churches: Reformed Church in America Christian Reformed Church The Salvation Army Seventh-day Adventists United Church ofChrist

Tota1 membership 2,346,710 412,529 9,457,012 2,210,000 1,134,179 786,707 1,879,182 200,000 3,709,661 463,992 465,000 2,342,441 814,931 346,293 223,976 419,475 606,310 1,716,723

' In June 1983, these two Presbyterian Bodies merged to form Presbyterian Church (USA). Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches. Annual, from 1951. New York Clarke, E. T., The Small Sects in America. Rev. ed. New York, 1949 Johnson, A. W., and Yost, F. H., Separation of Church and State in the United States. Minneapolis and London, 1949 Mead, F. S., Handbook of Denominations in the US. 6th ed. Nashville, 1975

Education. Under the system of government in the USA, elementary and secondary education is committed in the main to the several states. Each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia has a system of free public schools, established by law, with courses covering 12 years plus kindergarten. There are 3 structural patterns in common use; the K8-4 plan, meaning kindergarten plus 8 elementary grades followed by 4 high school grades; the K6-3-3 plan, or kindergarten plus 6 elementary grades followed by a 3-year junior high school and a 3-year senior high school; and the K6-6 plan, kindergarten plus 6 elementary grades followed by a 6-year high school. All plans lead to high-school graduation, usually at age 17 or 18. Vocational education is an integral part of secondary education. In addition, some states have, as part of the free public school system, 2-year colleges in which education is provided at a nominal cost. Each state has delegated a large degree of control of the educational programme to local school districts (numbering 15,840 in autumn 1982), each with a board of education (usually 3 to 9 members) selected locally and serving mostly without pay. The school policies of the local school districts must be in accord with the laws and the regulations of their state Departments of Education. While regulations differ from one jurisdiction to another, in general it may be said that school attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 to 16. The Census Bureau estimates that in Nov. 1979 only lm. or 0-6% of the 170m. persons who were 14 years of age or older were unable to read and write; in 1930 the percentage was 4-8. In 1940 a new category was established—the 'functionally illiterate', meaning those who had completed fewer than 5 years of elementary schooling; for persons 25 years of age or over this percentage was 3 in March 1982 (for the non-white population alone it was 7-4%); it was 0-8% for white and 0-7% for non-whites in the 25-29-year-old group. The Bureau reported that in March 1982 the median years of school completed by all persons 25 years old and over was 12-6, and that 17-7% had completed 4 or more years of college. For the 25-29-year-old group, the median school years completed was 12-8 and 21 • 7% had completed 4 or more years of college. In the autumn of 1983, 12,465,000 students (6,024,000 men and 6,441;000

1416

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

women) were enrolled in 3,284 colleges and universities; 2,444,000 were first-time students. About 26% of the population between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in colleges and universities. Public elementary and secondary school revenue is supplied from the county and other local sources (44-6% in 1982-83), state sources (48-3%) and federal sources (7-1%). In 1982-83 expenditure for public elementary and secondary education totalled about $119-lm., including $108-lm. for regular day school programmes, $2- lm. for other programmes, $6,500m. for capital outlay and $2-4m. for interest on school debt. The current expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance was about $2,948. The total cost per pupil, also including capital outlay and interest, amounted to about $3,190. Estimated total expenditures, for private elementary and secondary schools in 1982-83 were about $9,000m. In 1981-82 the 3,280 universities and colleges expended $70,339m. from current funds, of which $46,219m. was spent by institutions under public control. The federal government contributed 11 - 5% of total current-fund revenue; state governments, 30-3%; student tuition and fees, 21 -9%; and all other sources, 36-3%. Vocational education below college grade, including the training of teachers to conduct such education, has been federally aided since 1918. During the school year 1979-80 enrolments in the vocational classes were: Agriculture, 879,000; distributive occupations, 961,000; health occupations, 834,000; home economics, 3,938,000; trade and industry, 3,216,000; technical education, 499,000; office occupations, 3-4m.; other programmes, 2,726,000. Federal support funds were $745,481,000. Summary of statistics of regular schools (public and private), teachers and pupils in autumn 1983 (compiled by the US National Center for Education Statistics): Numberof Schools by level Elementary schools: Public Private Secondary schools: Public Private Higher education: Public Private Total

schools 1980-81

Teachers autumn 1983

Enrolment autumn 1983

61,069 16,792

1,175,000 230,000

23,655,000 4,200,000

24,362 5,678

950,000 100,000

15,673,000 1,500,000

1,497 1,734

515,000 200,000

9,683,000 2,782,000

3,170,000

57,493,000

111,132

Most of the private elementary and secondary schools are affiliated with religious denominations. Of the children attending private elementary and secondary schools in 1983, nearly 3,200,000 or 55-7% were enrolled in Roman Catholic schools. During the school year 1982-83 high-school graduates numbered about 2,910,000 (about 49% boys and 51% girls). Institutions of higher education conferred 952,998 bachelor's degrees for the academic year 1981—82,473,364 to men and 479,634 to women; 295,546 master's degrees, 145,532 to men and 150,014 to women; 32,707 doctorates, 22,224 to men and 10,483 to women; and 72,032 first professional degrees, 52,223 to men and 19,809 to women. During the academic year, 1983-84, 338,900 foreign students were enrolled in American colleges and universities. The percentages of students coming from various areas in 1983-84 were: South and East Asia, 39; Middle East, 17-9; Latin America, 15-5; Africa, 12-3;Europe,9-4;North America, 4-6; Oceania, 1-2. School enrolment, Qct. 1983, embraced 95% of the children who were 5 and 6 years old; 99% of the children aged 7-13 years; 95% of those aged 14-17, 50% of those aged 18 and 19, 32% of those aged 20 and 21, and 17% of those aged 22-24 years. The US National Center for Education Statistics estimates the total enrolment in the autumn of 1984 at all of the country's elementary, secondary and higher educational institutions (public and private) at 56,970,000 (57,493,000 in the autumn of 1983); this was24-l%of the total population ofthe USA as o f l Sept. 1984.

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1417

Enrolment at the elementary and secondary school level was expected to be down by 0 -9% in autumn 1984 and total enrolment in the colleges and universities to decline by about 1 %. The number of teachers in regular public and private elementary and secondary schools in the autumn of 1984 was expected to decrease slightly to 2,450,000. The average annual salary of the public school teachers was about $22,000 in 1983-84. Digest of Education Statistics. Annual. Dept. of Education, Washington 20202, D.C. (from 1962) American Community, Technical and Junior Colleges. 9th ed. American Council on Education. Washington, 1984 American Universities and Colleges. 12th ed. American Council on Education. Washington, 1983 Ayer's Directory of Newspapers and Periodicals. Annual, from 1880. Philadelphia

Health and Welfare. Admission to the practice of medicine (for both doctors of medicine and doctors of osteopathic medicine) is controlled in each state by examining boards directly representing the profession and acting with authority conferred by state law. Although there are a number of variations, the usual time now required to complete basic training is 8 years beyond the secondary school with up to 3 years of additional graduate training. Certification as a specialist may require between 3 and 5 more years of graduate training plus experience in practice. In academic year 1981-82 the 141 US schools (IS osteopathic and 126 allopathic) graduated 16,669 physicians. About 30-2% of first-year students were women. In Dec. 1981 the estimated number of active physicians (MD and DO—in all forms of practice) in the US, Puerto Rico and outlying US areas was 467,700 (1 active physician to S04 population). The distribution of physicians throughout the country is uneven, both by state and by urban-rural areas. In 1981—82 the 60 dental schools graduated 5,371 dentists. Active dentists in Dec. 1982 numbered 132,000(1 active dentist to 1,766 population). In academic year 1981-82, there were 1,422 registered nursing programmes in the US and 74,975 graduates. In Dec. 1981 registered nurses employed full- or part-time were 1 to 188 population. Number of hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association in 1980 was 6,965, with 1,365,000 beds and 38,892,000 admissions during the year, average daily census was l-06m. Of the total, 359 hospitals with 117,000 beds were operated by the federal government; 1,835 with 212,000 beds by state and local government; 3,339 with 693,000 beds by non-profit organizations (including church groups); 730 with 87,000 beds are proprietary. The categories of nonfederal hospitals are 5,904 short-term general and special hospitals with 992,000 beds; 157 non-federal long-term general and special hospitals with 39,000 beds; 534 psychiatric hospitals with 215,000 beds; 11 tuberculosis hospitals with 2,000 beds. Social welfare legislation was chiefly the province of the various states until the adoption of the Social Security Act of 14 Aug. 1935. This as amended provides for a federal system of old-age, survivors and disability insurance; health insurance for the aged and disabled; supplemental security income for the aged, blind and disabled; federal state unemployment insurance; and federal grants to states for public assistance (medical assistance for the aged and aid to families with dependent children generally) and for maternal and child-health and child-welfare services. The Social Security Administration of the Department of Health and Human Services has responsibility for the programmes—old-age, survivors and disability insurance, supplemental security income and aid to families with dependent children. The Health Care Financing Administration, an agency of the same Department, has federal responsibility for health insurance for the aged and disabled (Medicare) and medical assistance (Medicaid). The Department's Office of Human Development administers human service programmes for such groups as the elderly, children, youth, native Americans and persons with developmental disabilities, and its Public Health Service supports maternal and child-health services. Unemployment insurance is the responsibility of the Department of Labor. The Social Security Act provides for protection against the cost of medical care

1418

UNITED

STATES OF

AMERICA

through the two-part programme of health insurance for people 65 and over and for certain disabled people under 65, who receive disability insurance payments or who have permanent kidney failure (Medicare). During fiscal year 1982, payments totalling $34,343m. were made under the hospital insurance part of Medicare on behalf of 29- lm. people. During the same period, $ 14,806m. was paid under the voluntary medical insurance part of Medicare on behalf of 28 -4m. people. In 1982 about 116m. persons worked in employment covered by old-age, survivors and disability insurance. In Dec. 1982 over 35 • 8m. beneficiaries were on the rolls, and the average benefit paid to a retired worker (not counting any paid to his dependants) was about $419 per month. Benefits paid during calendar year 1982 totalled $156,173m., including $ 17,339m. paid to disabled workers and their dependants. In Dec. 1982, 10-5m. persons (adults and children) were receiving payments under aid to families with dependent children (average monthly payment, $310 per family). Total payments under aid to families with dependent children were $12,941m. forthe calendar year 1982. In Dec. 1982, about 3-8m. persons were receiving supplementary security income payments, including over l-5m. persons aged 65 or over, 77,000 blind persons, and over 2-2m. disabled persons. Payments, including supplemental amounts from various states, totalled $9,200m. in 1982. In 1981, block grants supplanted some categorical grants to states for services. In 1982, federal appropriations for the social services block grant amounted to $2,400m. In addition, 1982 federal appropriations for human services to selected target groups totalled $2;296m. Included in this amount were $1,416m. for children and youth; $729m. for the elderly; $58m. for persons with developmental disabilities; and $28m. for native Americans. During 1982, the public Health Services awarded a total of $373 • 8m. for maternal and child health services, $316 • 2m. as block grants to the states and the remaining $57 -6m. for special projects of regional and national significance. In addition, approximately $2-6m. was spent for research and $28 • 3m. for training in the fields of maternal and child health. Burns, E. M., Social Security and Public Policy. New York, 1956 (Repr. 1976).—Health Services for Tomorrow. New York, 1973 Friedlander, W. A., Introduction to Social Welfare. 4th ed. New York, 1974 Grob, G. N., (ed.), Social Problems and Social Policy Series. 51 vols. New York, 1975 Grob, G. N., el al., (eds.), Mental Illness and Social Policy: The American Experience. 41 books. New York, 1973

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the United States in Great Britain (Grosvenor Sq., London, W1A 1AE) Ambassador: Charles H. Price II (accredited 20 Dec. 1983). Of Great Britain in the USA (3100 Massachusetts Ave., Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Sir Oliver Wright, GCMG, GCVO, DSC. Of the United States to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference I.

STATISTICAL

INFORMATION

Within the federal government of the USA, responsibilities for the collection, compilation, analysis and publication of statistics are decentralized among a number of agencies, with specified responsibilities for general-purpose statistics in particular areas. In addition, most agencies of the Government collect statistical data as a by-product of their administrative or operating responsibilities in specific fields. Responsibility for co-ordinating the decentralized statistical activities rests in the Office of Statistical Standards Bureau of the Budget, Washington 25, D.C., as a part of the Executive Office of the President. This Office reviews all proposed collections of statistical data to avoid duplication or overlapping; promotes the use of improved statistical techniques; develops standard definitions and classifications so that the data collected by different agencies are comparable; serves as liaison between federal agencies and international organizations and as an information centre on government statistical programmes. The Division does not itself collect or publish statistics.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1419

The major general-purpose statistical agencies and their principal areas of responsibility are: (1) Bureau of the Census in the Department of Commerce (A. Ross Eckler, Director). Decennial censuses of population and housing and quinquennial censuses of agriculture, manufactures and business; current statistics on population and the labour force, manufacturing activity and commodity production, retail and wholesale trade and services, foreign trade, and state and local government finances and operations. (2) Bureau of Labor Statistics in the Department of Labor (Geoffrey H. Moore, Commissioner). Current statistics on employment, earnings, man-hours, labour turnover, industrial accidents, work stoppages, wage rates; collective bargaining agreements; construction; industrial productivity; wholesale prices, retail prices and urban consumers' price indexes; income and expenditures of urban families. (3) Statistical Reporting Service and Economic Research Service in the Department of Agriculture. Statistics on crop and livestock production and inventories; crop forecasts; food processing and food consumption; farm population, labour and wages; farm management; farm ownership values, transfers; taxation and finance; prices farmers pay and receive; farm income; accidents; studies of land and water uses. (4) National Center for Health Statistics in the Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education and Welfare (Theodore D. Woolsey, Chief). Current statistics on births, deaths, marriages and divorce. (5) Bureau of Mines in the Department of the Interior (John F. O'Leary, Director). Statistics on production, consumption and stocks of metals and minerals, and on injuries in mineral industries. Other agencies in which statistics are an important by-product of regulatory or other administrative functions include: Social Security Administration in the Department of Health, Education and Welfare; Internal Revenue Service in the Treasury Department; Federal Power Commission; Federal Trade Commission; Interstate Commerce Commission, and the Securities and Exchange Commission. Among the more important statistical publications of a fairly general nature are: Statistical Abstract of the United States, published by the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce. Annual. Important summary statistics on the industrial, social, political and economic organization of the USA, with a representative selection from most of the important statistical publications. Survey of Current Business, published by the Office of Business Economics, Department of Commerce. Monthly. Interpretative text and charts reviewing business trends, etc.; official estimates of national income. Economic Indicators, prepared by the Council of Economic Advisers and published by the Congressional Joint Committee on the Economic Report. Monthly. Tables and charts presenting current data on the total output of the economy; prices; employment and wages; production and business activity; purchasing power; money, banking and federal finance. Monthly Labor Review, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor. Federal Reserve Bulletin, published by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Monthly. Current data on money and banking and selected other economic series. Federal Reserve indexes of industrial production, etc.; international financial Statistics. Treasury Bulletin, published by the Office of the Secretary, Department of the Treasury. Monthly. Current coverage of federal fiscal statistics; international capital movements. Minerals Yearbook, published by the Bureau of Mines, Department of the Interior. Annual. Agricultural Statistics, published by the Department of Agriculture. Annual. Crops and Markets, published by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in the Department of Agriculture. Monthly. Crop report and market statistics. Foreign Agriculture, published by the Office of Foreign Agriculture Service, Department of Agriculture. Monthly. Foreign agricultural production, foreign government policies relating to agriculture and international trade in agricultural products. Vital Statistics of the United States, published by the Public Health Service, US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Monthly and Annual. Natality and mortality data tabulated by place of occurrence, with supplemental tables for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands; and tabulated by place of residence. An annotated bibliography of about 100 periodical statistical publications is included in Statistical Services of the United States Government, a pamphlet issued by the Division of Statistical Standards, Bureau of the Budget, describing the general organization of the statistical system ofthe USA and the principal types of economic statistics. II.

OTHER

OFFICIAL

PUBLICATIONS

Guide to the Study of the United States of America. General Reference and Bibliography Division, Library of Congress. 1960. Historical Statistics ofthe United States, Colonial Times to 1957: A Statistical Abstract Supplement. Washington, 1960.—Continuation to 1962 and Revisions, 1965. United Stales Government Manual Washington. Annual.

1420

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The official publications of the USA are issued by the US Government Printing Office and are distributed by the Superintendent of Documents, who issued in 1940 a cumulative Catalog of the Public Documents of the... Congress and ofAll the Departments of the Government of the United States. This Catalog is kept up to date by United Stales Government Publications, Monthly Catalog with annual index and supplemented by Price Lists. Each Price List is devoted to a special subject or type of material, e.g., American History or Census. Useful guides are Schmeckebier, L. F., and Eastin, R. B. (eds.), Government Publications and Their Use. 2nd ed., Washington, D.C., 1961; Boyd, A. M., United States Government Publications. 3rd ed. New York, 1949, and Leidy, W. P., Popular Guide to Government Publications. 2nd ed. New York and London, 1963. Treaties and other International Acts of the United States of America (Edited by Hunter Miller), 8 vols. Washington, 1929-48. This edition stops in 1863. It may be supplemented by Treaties, Conventions ... Between the US and Other Powers, ¡776-1937 (Edited by William M. Malloy and others). 4 vols. 1909-38. A new Treaty Series, US Treaties and Other International Agreements was started in 1950. Writings on American History. Washington, annual from 1902 (except 1904-5 and 194147). III.

NON-OFFICIAL

PUBLICATIONS

A. Handbooks National Historical Publications Commission. Guide to Archives and Manuscripts in the United States, ed. P. M. Hamer. Yale Univ. Press, 1961 Adams, J. T. (ed.), Dictionary of American History. 2nd ed. 7 vols. New York, 1942 Dictionary of American Biography, ed. A. Johnson and D. Malone. 23 vols. New York, 192964.—Concise Dictionary of American Biography. New York, 1964 Current Biography. New York, annual from 1940; monthly supplements Handlin, O., and others. Harvard Guide to American History. Cambridge, Mass., 1954 Herstein, S. R. and Robbins, N., United States of America. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Lord, C. L. and E. H., Historical Atlas of the US. Rev. ed. New York, 1969 Who 's Who in America. Chicago, 1899-1900 to date; monthly Supplement. 1940 to date B. General History Barck, Jr, O. T., and Blake, N. M., Since 1900: A History of the United States. 5th ed. New York, 1974 Bellot,H. H., American History and American Historians. London, 1952,repr. 1974 Billington, R. A., Westward Expansion. 4th ed. New York, 1974 Carman, H. J., and others, A History of the American People. 3rd ed. 2 vols. New York, 1967 Commager, H. S. (ed.), Documents of American History. 8th ed. New York, 1966 Divine, R. A., Since 1945: Politics and Diplomacy in Recent American History. New York, 1975 Hicks, J. D., The American Nation, A History of the United States from 1865. 5th ed. Boston, 1971 Link, A. S., and Catton, W. B., American Epoch: A History of the United States Since the 1890s. 4th ed. New York, 1967 Morison, S. E„ The Oxford History ofthe American People. OUP, 1968 Morison, S. E., with Commager, H. S., The Growth of the American Republic. 2 vols. 5th ed. OUP, 1962-63 Nicholas, H. G., The Nature of American Politics. OUP, 1980 Parkes, H. B., The United States of America, A History. 3rded. New York, 1968 Scammon, R. N. (ed.), American Votes: A Handbook of Contemporary American Election Statistics. Washington, D.C., 1956 to date (biennial) Schlesinger, A.M., The Rise of Modern America, 1865-1951. 4th ed. New York, 1951 —The Age of Roosevelt. 4 vols. New York and London, 1957—62.—A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House. New York and London, 1965 Snowman, D., America Since 1920. London, 1978 Watson, R. A., The Promise and Performance of American Democracy. 2nd ed. New York, 1975 C. Minorities Bennett, M. T., American Immigration Policies: A History. Washington, D.C., 1963 Burma, J. J., Spanish-speaking Groups in the US. Duke University Press, 1954, repr. 1974 Frazier, E. F., The Negro Family in the United States. Chicago Univ. Press, 1966 McNickle, D., The Indian Tribes of the United States. OUP, 1962.—Native American Tribalism. OUP, 1973 Sklare,M., The Jew in American Society. New York, 1974 Wissler, Clark, Indians of the United Stales. Rev. ed. New York, 1966

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1421

D. Economic History The Economic History of the United States. 9 vols. New York, 1946 ff. Bining, A. C , and Cochran, T. C , The Rise of American Economic Life. 4th ed. New York, 1963 Dorfman,J., The Economic Mind in American Civilization. 5vols. New York, 1946-59 Faulkner, H. U., American Economic History. 8th ed. New York, 1960 Friedman, M., and Schwartz, A. J., A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960. New York, 1963 Mund, V. A., Government and Business. 4th ed. New York, 1965 E. Foreign Relations Documents on American Foreign Relations. Princeton, from 1948. Annual The United States in World Affairs. 1931 ff. Council on Foreign Relations. New York, from 1932. Annual Allison, G., and Szanton, P., Remaking Foreign Policy: The Organizations Connection. New York, 1976 Bartlett, R. (ed.), The Record of A mencan Diplomacy; Documents and Readings in the History of American Foreign Relations. 4th ed. New York, 1964 Beloff, M., The United States and the Unity of Europe. London, 1963, repr. 1976 Connell-Smith, G., The United Stales ana Latin America. London, 1975 DeConde, A., The American Secretary of Stale. London, 1963, repr. 1976 Morgan, R., The United States and WestGermany, 1945-73. OUP, 1975 Schwab, G., (ed.), United States Foreign Policy at the Crossroads. Westport, 1982 Smith, R. F., The United States and Cuba• Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960. New York, 1962 Stebbins, R. P., and Adam, E. A., Documents of American Foreign Relations, 1968-69. New York, 1972 Vance, C., Hard Choices: Critical Years in America's Foreign Policy. New York, 1983 Wilcox, F. O., and Frank, R. A., The Constitution and the Conduct of Foreign Policy. New York, 1976 F. National Character Coan, O. W., America in Fiction, An Annotated List of Novels. 5th ed. Stanford Univ. Press, 1967 Curti, M. B., The Growth of American Thought. 3rd ed. New York, 1964 Degler, C. N., Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern A merica. Rev. ed. New York, 1970 Duigan, P., and Rabushka, A., (eds.), The United States in the 1980s. Stanford, 1980 Fawcett,E., and Thomas, T., America and the Americans. London, 1983 National Library: The Library of Congress. Washington 25, D.C. Librarian: Lawrence Quincy Mumford, AB, MA, BS.

STATES AND TERRITORIES For information as to State and Local Government, see under UNITED STATES, pp. 1378-80. Against the names of the Governors and the Secretaries of State, (D.) stands for Democrat and (R.) for Republican. Figures for the revenues and expenditures of the various states are those of the Federal Bureau of the Census unless otherwise stated, which takes the original state figures and arranges them on a common pattern so that those of one state can be compared with those of any other. Official publications of the various states and insular possessions are listed in the Monthly Check-List ofState Publications, issued by the Library of Congress since 1910. Their character and contents are discussed in J. K. Wilcox's Manual on the Use of State Publications (1940). Of great importance bibliographically are the publications of the Historical Records Survey and the American Imprints Inventory, which record local archives, official publications and state imprints. These publications supplement those of state historical societies which usually publish journals and monographs on state and local history. An outstanding source of statistical data is the material issued by the various state planning boards and commissions, to which should be added the annual Governmental Finances issued by the US Bureau of the Census. The Book of the States. Biennial. Council of State Governments, Lexington, 1953 ff. State Government Finances. Annual. Dept. ofCommerce, 1966 ff. Regionalism Odum, H. W., American Regionalism, A Cultural-Historical Approach to National Integration New York, 1938 Visher, S. X., Climatic Atlas of the USA. Harvard Univ. Press, 1954

1422

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

A. North-East Gottman, J., Megalopolis, the Urbanized North-eastern Seaboard of the US. New York, 1964 B. The South Clement, E.,A History of the Old South. New York, 1949 Ezell, J. S., The South Since ¡865. New York and London, 1963 Heseltine, W. B., and Smiley, D. L., The South in American History. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1960 Stephenson, W. H., and Coulter, E. M. (ed.), A History of the South. 10 vols. Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1947-67 C. The Middle West Lynd, R. S. and H. M., Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture. New York and London, 1929.—Middletown in Transition: A Study in Cultural Conflicts. New York and London, 1937 Nye, R. B., Midwestern Progressive Politics, 1870-1938. Michigan State Univ. Press, 1959 D. The West Fogelson, R. U., The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850-1930. Harvard Univ. Press, 1967 Fuller, G. W., History of the Pacific Northwest. 2nd ed. New York, 1938 Johansen, D. O., and Gates, C. M., Empire of the Columbia: A History of the Pacific NorthWest, New York, 1957 Parrish, P. H., Before the Covered Wagon. Portland, Oreg., 1931 Quiett, G. C., They Built the West: An Epic of Rails and Cities. New York and London, 1934 Scott, H. W., History of the Oregon Country. 6 vols. Cambridge, Mass., 1924 Winther, O. O., The Great Northwest: A History. 2nd ed., rev. New York, 1950

ALABAMA HISTORY. Alabama, settled in 1702 as part of the French Province of Louisiana, and ceded to the British in 1763, was organized as a Territory, 1817, and admitted into the Union on 14 Dec. 1819. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Alabama is bounded north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico and west by Mississippi. Area, 51,998 sq. miles, including 1,535 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,893,888, an increase of 13 06% over that of 1970. Estimate (1981) 3,917,000. Births, 1983,59,057 (14-4 per 1,000 population); deaths, 35,471 (8-7); infant deaths (under 28 days), 486 (8-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 47,469(11-6); divorces, 25,190 (6 • 2). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,228,832 1,700,844 2,283,609

Negro 908,282 944,834 980,271

1970 1980

2,533,831 2,872,621

903,467 996,335

Indian 909 465 1,726

Asiatic 70 105 915

All others 6,867 24,932

Total 2,138,093 2,646,248 3,266,521

Persq. mile 41-4 51 -3 640

3,444,165 3,893,888

66-7 74-9

Of the total population in 1980,49% were male, 61% were urban and 65% were 21 years or older. The large cities (1980 census) were: Birmingham, 284,413 (metropolitan area, 847,487); Mobile, 200,452 (443,536); Huntsville, 142,513 (308,593); Montgomery (capital), 177,857 (272,687); Tuscaloosa, 75,211 (137,541). CLIMATE. Birmingham. Jan. 46"F (7-8°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,346 mm). Mobile. Jan. 52°F (11 • PC), July 82"F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 63"(1,577 mm). Montgomery. Jan. 49°F(9-4°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,321 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1373. The growing season ranges from 190 days (north) to 298 days (south).

ALABAMA

1423

C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1901; it has had 447 amendments (at 2 Oct. 1984). The legislature consists of a Senate of 35 members and a House of Representatives of 105 members, all elected for 4 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 7 representatives. Applicants for registration must take an oath of allegiance to the United States and fill out a questionnaire to the satisfaction of the registrars. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 844,299 votes, Mondale, 540,445. Montgomery is the capital. Governor: George C. Wallace (D.), 1983-86 ($68,838). Lieut.-Governor: Bill Baxley (D.) ($ 1,900 a month plus daily allowances). Secretary ofState: Don Siegelman (D.) ($32,940). BUDGET. The total receipts for the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1981 were $ 13,845 • 5m.; total expenditure was $6,896 -3m. The net long-term debt on 30 Sept. 1981 amounted to $ 13,366 • 7m. Per capita income (1980) was $7,434. • ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Production of principal minerals (financial year 1982): Coal, about 27-5m. short tons; limestone, 15-2m. short tons. Total (non-fuel) mineral output was valued at $300m. Agriculture. The number of farms in 1984 was 54,000, covering 1 l-5m. acres; average farm had 213 acres and was valued at about $ 183,000. Cash receipts from farm marketings, 1983: Crops, $759m.; livestock and poultry products, $ 1,259m.; and total, $2,018m. Principal crops: soybeans, cotton, wheat, corn and peanuts; potatoes, hay, sorghum, pecans and tomatoes are also important. In 1983, poultry accounted for the largest percentage of cash receipts from farm marketings; cattle and calves were second, soybeans third, peanuts fourth. Forestry. Area of national forest lands, Oct. 1983, 644,432 acres; state forest, 147,400; industrial forest, 4,458,000; private non-industrial forest, 16m.; other government-owned forest, 324,200. I N D U S T R Y . Alabama is predominantly industrial. In 1981, 6,448 manufacturing establishments employed 364,130 production workers, earning over $5,725m. Pig-iron, 1981, amounted to 2 • 5m. net tons. T O U R I S M . In 1983 about 28m. travelled to or through Alabama from other states. Total income from tourism (including receipts from Alabama holidaymakers) was about $2,900m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Paved roads of all classes at 1 Jan. 1984 totalled 59,173 miles; total highways, 87,598 miles. Railways. At 1 Jan. 1984 the railways had a length of4,576 miles. Aviation. In 1982-83 the state had 88 publicly owned and 29 privately owned licensed airfields. Shipping. The only deep-water port is Mobile, with a large ocean-going trade; total tonnage (1983), 34-9m. tons. The docks can handle 33 ocean-going vessels at once. The 9-ft channel of the Tennessea River traverses North Alabama for 200 miles; the Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway (232 miles), open Feb. 1985, connects the Tennessee River with the Tombigbee River for access to the Gulf of Mexico. The Warrier-Tombigbee system (476 miles) connects the Birmingham industrial area to the Gulf. The Coosa-Alabama River system reaches central Alabama as far north as Montgomery from Mobile and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. The

1424

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Alabama State Docks also operates a system of 11 inland docks; there are several privately-run inland docks. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The prison population on 30 Sept. 1984 was 10,301. From 1 Jan. 1927 to 1 June 1983 there were 154 executions (electrocution): 122 for murder, 25 for rape, 5 for armed robbery, 1 for burglary and 1 for camal knowledge. Before 1 Jan. 1927, persons executed in Alabama were hanged locally by the sheriffs in the counties of their conviction. In 41 counties the sale of alcoholic beverage is permitted, and in 26 counties it is prohibited. Religion. Chief religious bodies (in 1980) are: Southern Baptist Convention (about 1,182,018), Churches of Christ (113,919), United Methodist (about 344,790), Roman Catholic (106,123), African Methodist Episcopal Zion (139,714), Christian Methodist Episcopal (about 53,493) and Assemblies of God (48,610). Education. In 1983 the 1,400 public elementary and high schools required 31,550 teachers to teach 721,900 pupils enrolled in grades K-12. In 1983 there were 15 senior public institutions with 102,769 students and 4,160 faculty members. In 1982 the 21 junior colleges had 38,858 students and 1,250 teachers, 22 technical schools had 24,743 students and 822 teachers. Health. In Sept. 1984 there were 137 hospitals (21,102 beds) licensed by the State Board of Health. In 1982-83 hospitals for mental diseases had 2,545 beds. Facilities for the mentally retarded (1 Sept. 1983) had 1,455 cases. Pensions and Security. In Aug. 1984 Alabama paid supplements (to federal welfare payments) to 13,992 recipients of old-age assistance, receiving an average of $59.76 each; 5,244 permanently and totally disabled, $63.78; 131 blind, $60.54. Combined state-federal aid to dependent children was paid to 54,752 families, average $111.40 per family. Books of Reference Alabama Official and Statistical Register. Montgomery. Quadrennial Alabama Encyclopedia. Vol. I. Northport, 1965 Economic Abstract of Alabama Center for Business and Economic Research, Univ. of Alabama, 1975 The Deep South m Transformation: A Symposium. Univ. of Alabama Press, 1964 Farmer,H., The Legislative Process in Alabama Univ. of Alabama, 1949

ALASKA H I S T O R Y . Discovered in 1741 by Vitus Bering, its first settlement, on Kodiak Island, was in 1784. The area known as Russian America with its capital (1806) at Sitka was ruled by a Russo-American fur company and vaguely claimed as a Russian colony. Alaska was purchased by the United States from Russia under the treaty of 30 March 1867 for $7-2m. It was not organized until 1884, when it became a 'district' governed by the code of the state of Oregon. By Act of Congress approved 24 Aug. 1912 Alaska became an incorporated Territory; its first legislature in 1913 granted votes to women, 7 years in advance of the Constitutional Amendment. Alaska officially became the 49th state of the Union on 3 Jan. 1959. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Alaska is bounded north by the Beaufort Sea, west and south by the Pacific and east by Canada. It has the largest area of any state, being more than twice the size of Texas. The gross area (land and water) is 591,004 sq. miles; the land area is 586,412 sq. miles of which 85% was in federal ownership in 1984. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 401,851, including military personnel, an increase of 33 -5% over 1970. Estimate (1983), 510,600. Births,

ALASKA

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1983, were 11,834 (23-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 1,897 (3-7); infant deaths (1982), 117 (12-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages (1982), 5,361 (13-4); divorces (1982),3,517(8-7). Population in 5 census years was: 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 39,170 92,808 174,649 236,767 309,728

Negro ... ... ... 8,911 13,643

All Others 33,354 35,835 51,518 54,704 78,480

Total 72,524 128,643 226,167 300,382 401,851

Per sq. mile 013 0-23 0-40 0-53 0-70

Of the total population in 1980, 53-01% were male, 64-34% were urban and 68-57% were aged21 years or over. The largest city is Anchorage, which had a 1980 census area population of 174,430 (1983 estimate, 227,100). Other census area populations, 1980 (and 1983 estimate), Fairbanks North Star, 53,983 (64,800); Juneau, 19,528 (26,000); Kenai Peninsula, 25,282 (34,900); Ketchikan Gateway, 11,316 (12,700); Kodiak Island, 9,939 (12,900); Matanuska-Susitna 17,816 (29,800). There are 11 boroughs and 142 incorporated cities. C L I M A T E . Anchorage. Jan. I2°F(-11 • 1°C), July 57°F(13-9°C). Annual rainfall 15" (371 mm). Fairbanks. Jan. - 1 1 ° F (-23-9°C), July 60°F (15-6°C). Annual rainfall 12" (300 mm). Sitka. Jan. 33°F (0-6°C), July 55°F (12-8°C). Annual rainfall 8 7 " (2,175 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . An important provision of the Enabling Act is that the state has the right to select 103-55m. acres of vacant and unappropriated public lands in order to establish 'a tax basis'; it can open these lands to prospectors for minerals, and the state is to derive the principal advantage in all gains resulting from the discovery of minerals. In addition, certain federally administered lands reserved for conservation of fisheries and wild life have been transferred to the state. Special provision is made for federal control of land for defence in areas of high strategic importance. The constitution of Alaska was adopted by public vote, 24 April 1956. The state legislature consists of a Senate of 20 members (elected for 4 years) and a House of Representatives of 40 members (elected for 2 years). The state sends 2 senators and 1 representative to Congress. The franchise may be exercised by all citizens over 18.

The capital is Juneau. A new capital site near Anchorage was chosen in 1976. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 138,392 votes, Mondale, 62,018. Governor: William Sheffield (D.), 1983-86 ($81,648). Lieut.-Governor: Steve McAlpine (D.) 1983-86 ($76,188). ECONOMY Budget. Total state government revenue for the year ended 30 June 1984 (Annual Financial Report figures) was $3,935-8m. ($2,914m. from petroleum revenue, $ 109 • 4m. from taxation). Total expenditure was $3,931 • 3m. In 1976 a Permanent Fund was set u p for the deposit of at least 25% of all mineral-related revenue; total assets at 30 June, 1984, $5,530- 8m. General obligation bonds at 30 June 1984, $ 169 • 5m. Per capita income (1983) was $ 16,820. Banking. Total bank assets 1981, $2,782m., total deposits $2,216m. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Oil and Gas. Commercial production of crude petroleum began in 1959 and by 1961 had become the most important mineral by value. Production: 1961, 6-3m. bbls (of 42 gallons); 1976, 67m. bbls; 1977, 169m. bbls; 1981, 587m. bbls; 1984, 630m. bbls. Oil comes mainly from Prudhoe Bay, the Kuparuk River field and several Cook Inlet fields. Natural gas marketed production, 1984,

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U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

200,296,680m. cu. ft. Value of crude oil and gas (1981), $12,479m. Alaska receives 84% of its total revenue from petroleum. Revenue to the state from oil production in 1984 was $2,861 -6m. from coiporate petroleum tax $265- lm. and from royalties $l,047-5m., severance tax, $l,393-lm., property tax, $131m., bonus sale, $10-1 m., rents, $3 -8m., intergovernmental receipts, $11 • 1 m. Oil from the Prudhoe Bay arctic field is now carried by the Trans-Alaska pipeline to Prince William Sound on the south coast, where a tanker terminal has been built at Valdez. Minerals. Value of production, 1983: gold (169,000 troy oz.) $67-6m.; antimony (22,400 lb.) $25,000; platinum $100,000; silver (33,200 troy oz.) $332,000; tin (215,000 lb.) $1 • lm.; jade and soapstone (2 -3 tons) $42,000; sand and gravel (50m. short tons) $120m.; building stone (5-27m. short tons) $25m.; coal (803,000m. short tons) $18m. Total value, $232,399,000. Agriculture. In some parts of the state the climate during the brief spring and summer (about 100 days in major areas and 152 days in the south-eastern coastal area) is suitable for agricultural operations, thanks to the long hours of sunlight, but Alaska is a food-importing area. In 1982 about 2m. acres was farmland; 90% of this was unimproved pasture primarily government leases for grazing of sheep and beef cattle in south-west Alaska. In 1980 (preliminary) there were 8,400 cattle, 1,100 milch cows, 1,800 hogs and 4,300 sheep stock. Farm income in 1981: $13m. of which $8m. was from crops (mainly hay and potatoes) and $5m. from livestock and dairy products. There were about 25,000 reindeer in western Alaska in 1980, owned by individual Eskimo herders except for 750 at Nome owned by the Government. Forestry. In south-eastern Alaska timber fringes the shore of the mainland and all the islands extending inland to a depth of 5 miles. The state's enormous forests could produce an estimated annual sustained yield of 1,500m. bd ft of lumber, nearly twice Alaska's record 1973 cut. Alaska has 2 national forests: the Tongass of 16-9m. acres and the Chugach of 5-9m. acres. An estimated total of 446m. bd ft was cut in 1981, of which 387-5m. came from national forests and 53,687,000 from state forests, 4,275,000 from land held by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and 362,000 from the Bureau of Land Management. Alaska has 2 large pulp-mills at Ketchikan and Sitka. Fisheries. The catch for 1982 was 1,300m. lb. offish and shellfish having a value to fishermen of $600m. and a wholesale value of over $1,000m. King crab, 39m. lb., snow (tanner) crab, 69m. lb., herring, 52m. lb., shrimp, 17m. lb. Salmon accounts for more than half of the US catch. I N D U S T R Y . Main industries with employment, 1984: Government, 66,400; trade, 44,700; services, 42,300; contract construction, 22,200; manufacturing, 9,600; mining including oil and gas, 7,900; transport, communication and utilities, 19,600; finance, insurance and property, 11,400; agriculture, forestry and fishing, 1,360 in 1982. The major manufacturing industry was food processing, followed by timber industries. Total non-agricultural employment, 1984, 224,100. Total wages and salaries, 1983,$6,075-7m. T O U R I S M . About 691,200 tourists visited the state in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Alaska's highway and road system, 1984, totalled 15,315 miles, including marine highway systems, local service roads, borough and city streets, national park, forest and reservation roads and military roads. Registered motor vehicles, 1983,475,378. The Alaska Highway extends 1,523 miles from Dawson Creek, British Columbia, to Fairbanks, Alaska. It was built by the US Army in 1942, at a cost of $ 138m. The greater portion of it, because it lies in Canada, is maintained by Canada. Railways. There is a railway of 111 miles from Skagway to the town of Whitehorse,

ALASKA

1427

the White Pass and Yukon route, in the Canadian Yukon region (this service was suspended in 1982 but may reopen). The government-owned Alaska Railroad runs from Seward to Fairbanks, a distance of 471 miles. This is a freight service with only occasional passenger use. A passenger service operates from Anchorage to Fairbanks via Denali National Park in the tourist season. Aviation. In- 1982 the state had about 1,070 airports, of which about half were publicly owned. Commercial passengers by air from Alaska's largest international airports Anchorage and Fairbanks numbered 1 • lm. at Anchorage and 273,512 at Fairbanks. General aviation aircraft in the state per 1,000 population was about ten times the US average. Shipping. Regular shipping services to and from the US are furnished by 2 steamship and several barge lines operating out of Seattle and other Pacific coast ports. A Canadian company also furnishes a regular service from Vancouver, B.C. Freight handled at the Port of Anchorage, 1981 (short tons): Bulk petroleum, 365,999; vans, flats and containers, 1,154,060; cement and drilling mud, 32,497; vehicles, 39,822; total 1 -65m. A 1,435 nautical-mile ferry system for motor cars and passengers (the 'Alaska Marine Highway') operates from Seattle, Washington and Prince Rupert (British Columbia) to Juneau, Haines (for access to the Alaska Highway) and Skagway. A second system extends throughout the south-central region of Alaska linking the Cook Inlet area with Kodiak Island and Prince William Sound. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is no death penalty in Alaska. Religion. Many religions are represented, including the Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist and other denominations. Education. During 1984 there were 100,000 pupils at public schools, 3,868 at private schools. The Bureau of Indian Affaire schools had 1,005 pupils attending schools in the state. The University of Alaska (founded in 1922) had (Spring 1984) 11,808 students in Fairbanks, Anchorage and Juneau and 19,296 in community colleges. Other colleges had 1,775 students in 1984. Health. In 1982 there were 28 acute care hospitals with 1,397 beds, of which 7 were federal public health hospitals; there was 1 mental hospital; there were 24 mental health clinics. Welfare. Old-age assistance was established under the Federal Social Security Act; in 1982 aid to dependent children covered a monthly average of 6,617 households; payments, an average of $409 per month; aid to the blind and to the disabled was given to a monthly average of 2,170 persons receiving on average $ 185 per month. An average of5,492 people per month received Medicaid. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Department of Commerce and Economic Development, Economic Analysis Section, Juneau. Alaska Blue Book, Department of Education, Juneau. Biennial Alaska Economic Outlook, Department of Labor, Juneau. Alaska Economy, The. Division of Economic Enterprise, Juneau. Annual Alaska Statistical Review. Office ofthe Governor, Juneau. Biennial Annual Financial Report, Department of Administration, Juneau. Gardey, J., Alaska: The Sophisticated Wilderness. London, 1976 Hulley, Clarence C., Alaska Past and Present. Portland, Oregon, 1970 Hunt, W. R., Alaska, a Bicentennial History. New York, 1976 Pearson, R. W., and Lynch, D.F., Alaska, a Geography. Boulder, 1984 Thomas, L., Jr., Alaska and the Yukon. New York, 1983 Tourville, M„ Alaska, a Bibliography, 1570-1970. 1971 Slate Library: Pouch G, Juneau. Librarian: Richard Engen.—Alaska Historical Library, Pouch G, Juneau. Librarian: Phyllis de Muth.

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ARIZONA H I S T O R Y . Arizona was settled in 1752, organized as a Territory in 1863 and became a state on 14 Feb. 1912. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Arizona is bounded north by Utah, east by New Mexico, south by Mexico, west by California and Nevada. Area, 113,909 sq. miles, including 492 sq. miles of inland water. Of the total area (72,586,880 acres) 42,826,259 were owned by the federal government in 1980, including 20,324,326 acres held by the Office of Indian Affairs. Census population on 1 April 1980 was 2,718,215, an increase of 53-4% over 1970. Estimate (1984) 2,794,000. Births, 1983, 52,919; deaths, 22,482; infant deaths (1983), 509; marriages, 30,819; divorces, 19,875. Population in 5 census years: 1910 1930 1960

White 171,468 378,551 1,169,517

Negro 2,009 10,749 43,403

1970 1980

1,604,498 2,260,288

53,344 74,159

Indian 29,201 43,726 83,387

Chinese 1,305 1,110 2,937 All others 117,557 383,768

Japanese 371 879 1,501

Total Per sq. mile 204,354 18 435,573 3-8 1,302,161 11-3 1,775,399 2,718,215

15-6 23-9

Of the population in 1980, 1,338,943 were male, 2,278,728 were urban and 1,822,127 were aged 20 and over. The 1980 census population of Phoenix was 789,704; Tucson, 330,537; Scottsdale, 88,412; Tempe, 106,743;Mesa, 152,453; Glendale, 97,172. C L I M A T E . Phoenix. Jan. 52°F (11 • 1°C), July 90°F (32-2°C). Annual rainfall 8 " (191 mm). Yuma. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 91°F (32-8'C). Annual rainfall 3 " (75 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The state constitution (1910, with 103 amendments) placed the government under direct control of the people through the Initiative, Referendum and the Recall. The state Senate consists of 30 members, and the House of Representatives of 60, all elected for 2 years. Arizona sends to Congress 2 senators and 5 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 669,353 votes, Mondale, 325,924. The state capital is Phoenix. The state is divided into 15 counties. Governor: Bruce Babbitt (D.), 1978-($62,500). Secretary of State: Rose Mofford (D.) ($35,000). B U D G E T . General revenues, year ending 30 June 1983 (US Census Bureau figures), were $l,692-9m. (taxation, $l,440-3m.); general expenditures, $l,762-4m. (education, $l,034-lm.; transport $2-4m., and public welfare, $240-2m.). Per capita income ( 1982) was $ 10,173. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mining industries of the state are important, but less so than agriculture and manufacturing. By value the most important mineral produced is copper. Production (1982): Copper (769,974 tonnes); gold (61,050 troy oz.) and silver (6 • 3m. troy oz.) are both largely recovered from copper ore. Other minerals include sand and gravel (19,231,000 short tons) and lead (359 tonnes). Total value of minerals mined in 1982 was $ 1,619 • 3m. Agriculture. Arizona, despite its dry climate, is well suited for agriculture along the water-courses and where irrigation is practised on a large scale from great reservoirs constructed by the US as well as by the state government and private interests.

ARIZONA

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Irrigated area, 1982, M m . acres. The wide pasture lands are favourable for the rearing of cattle and sheep, but numbers are either stationary or declining compared with 1920. In 1983 Arizona contained 7,334 farms and ranches with 1 -05m. acres of crop land, out of a total farm and pastoral area of 37-7m. acres. The average farm was estimated at 5,148 acres. Farming is highly commercialized and mechanized and concentrated largely on cotton picked by machines and by Indian, Mexican and migratory workers. Area under cotton (1983), 313,390 acres; 771,900m. bales (of480 lb.) of cotton were harvested. Cash income, 1982, from crops, $974-9m.; from livestock, $682-4m. Most important cereals are wheat, corn and barley; other crops include oranges, grapefruit and lettuce. On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 980,000 all cattle, 82,000 milch cows, 306,000 sheep and (1983) 150,000 swine. Forestry. The national forests in the state had an area (1983) of 11 • 22m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982 there were 3,041 manufacturing establishments with 154,278 production workers, earning S3,076m. TOURISM. In 1982 15-7m. tourists visited Arizona; direct employment, 71,700; indirect, 114,600; state tax revenue, $204m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 76,290 miles of public roads and streets; 2,215,549 motor vehicles were registered in the state. Aviation. Airports, 1984, numbered 251, of which 82 were for public use; 6,079 aircraft were registered. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A 'right-to-work' amendment to the constitution, adopted 5 Nov. 1946, makes illegal any concessions to trade-union demands for a 'closed shop'. The Arizona prisons 30 June 1981 held 5,199. There have been no executions since 1963; from 1930 to 1963 there were 38 executions (lethal gas) all for murder, and all men (28 whites, 10 Negro). Religion. The leading religious bodies are Roman Catholics and Mormons (Latter Day Saints); others include Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists and Episcopalians. No recent statistics of membership are available. Education. School attendance is compulsory to grade 9 (from 1985-86) and to grade 10 (from 1986-87). In autumn 1983 there were 597,537 pupils enrolled in grades K-12. Tlje state maintains 3 universities: the University of Arizona (Tucson) with an enrollment of 30,292 in autumn 1983; Arizona State University (Tempe) with 39,319; Northern Arizona University (Flagstaff) with 11,665. Health. In 1983 there were 80 hospitals reported by the State Department of Health; capacity 12,125 beds; the hospitals had 582 physicians and dentists, 9,015 registered nurses and 2,508 licensed practical nurses. Social Security. Old-age assistance (maximum depending on the programme) is given, with federal aid, to needy citizens 65 years of age or older. In June 1984, federal Social Security Insurance payments of $6,802,000 went to 10,448 aged, 598 blind, 19,643 disabled; 2,412 persons receive state-administered supplementation. Average weekly benefit for total unemployment was $102.41 in 1983; average weekly number of beneficiaries 16,762. Books of Reference Arizona Statistical Review. 39th ed. Valley National Bank, Phoenix, 1983 Federal Writers' Project. A rizona: The Grand Canyon State. 4th ed. New York, 1966 Comeaux, M. L., Arizona: a Geography. Boulder, 1981 Goff, J. S., Arizona Civilization. 2nd ed. Cave Creek, 1970 Mason, B. B.,and Hink, H., Constitutional Government of Arizona. 7th ed.Tempe, 1982 State Library: Department of Library, Archives and Public Records, Capitol, Phoenix 85007. Director: Sharon G. Turgeon.

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ARKANSAS HISTORY. Arkansas was settled in 1686, made a territory in 1819 and admitted into the Union on 15 June 1836. The name originated with the Quapaw Indian tribe. The constitution, which dates from 1874, has been amended 61 times. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Arkansas is bounded north by Missouri, east by Tennessee and Mississippi, south by Louisiana, south-west by Texas and west by Oklahoma. Area, 53,187 sq. miles (1,109 sq. miles being inland water). Census population on 1 April 1980 was 2,286,435, an increase of 18-9% from that of 1970. Estimate (1983) 2,328,000. Births, 1982, were 35,295 (15-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 22,327 (9-7); infant deaths, 355 (10-1 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 28,041(12-2); divorces 15,739 (6-8). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,131,026 1,375,315 1,395,703

Negro 442,891 478,463 388,787

1970 1980

1,565,915 1,890,332

352,445 373,768

Indian ! 460 408 580

Asiatic 72 296 1,202

Ali others 4,935 22,335

Total 1,574,449 1,854,482 1,786,272

Persq. mile 300 35-2 340

1,923,295 2,286,435

37 0 43-9

Of the total population in 1980, 48-3% were male, 51-6% were urban, 60-2% were 21 years of age or older. Little Rock (capital) had a population of 158,461 in 1980; Fort Smith, 71,626; North Little Rock, 64,288; Pine Bluff, 56,636; Fayetteville, 36,608; Hot Springs, 35,781; Jonesboro, 31,530; West Memphis, 28,138. The population of the largest standard metropolitan statistical areas: Little Rock-North Little Rock, 393,774; Fayetteville-Springdale, 178,609; Fort Smith (Arkansas portion), 132,064; Pine Bluff, 90,718; Memphis (Arkansas portion), 49,499; Texarkana (Arkansas portion), 37,766. C L I M A T E . Little Rock. Jan. 42°F (5-6°C), July 8 P F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 49" (1,222 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1373. G O V E R N M E N T . The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 35 members elected for 4 years, partially renewed every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. The sessions are biennial and usually limited to 60 days. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 2 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 4 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 533,624 votes, Mondale, 338,829. The state is divided into 75 counties; the capital is Little Rock. Governor: Bill Clinton (D.), 1985-86 ($35,000). Lieut.-Governor: Winston Bryant (D.) ($14,000). Secretary of State: V/. J. McCuen (D.) ($22,500). FINANCE Budget. The state's general revenue for the fiscal year 1982 was $2,238-4m., of which taxation furnished $ 1,263 • 7m. and federal aid, $691 • 1 m. General expenditure was $2,159 • 1 m., of which education took $934-4m.; highways, $289 -2m., and public welfare, $3 58 • 6m. Net long-term debt for the financial year 1982 was $ 127 -6m. Per capita income (1983) was $9,242. Banking. In 1983 total bank deposits were $ 12,016 - 8m.

ARKANSAS

1431

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. In 1982 crude petroleum amounted to 18-4m. bbls; natural gas, 150-7m. cu. ft; the state is an important source of bauxite, bromine, silica stone and barite, and also produces gallium, tripoli and vanadium. Value of mineral production, 1981,$ 1,099m. Agriculture. In 1982 (Federal Census Report), 50,525 farms had a total area of 14-7m. acres; average farm was of 291 acres; 7-5m. acres were harvested cropland; 2,022,695 acres were irrigated. The largest sources of income in 1982 were chickens including broilers ($681-4m.); soybeans ($588-3m.); cattle and calves ($316-3m.); rice ($658-2m.); wheat ($223-6m.). Cash farm income (1982) was $3,416-5m.; from crops, $ 1,790-8m., and from livestock, $ 1,625 • 8m. Livestock on 1 Jan. 1984 included 2m. all cattle, 84,000 milch cows and 395,000 swine. INDUSTRY. In Aug. 1984 total employment averaged 973,600 (74,600 agricultural, 213,300 manufacturing, 175,000 wholesale and retail trade, 128,800 government). The Arkansas Department of Labor estimated that 173,900 factory production workers earned an average $298.56 per week (40-4 hours). The most important manufacturing group was food and kindred products employing 37,900, followed by electric and electronic equipment (26,200) and lumber and wood products (20,300). Construction employed 34,100. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage, 82,647 miles. State-maintained highways (1 Jan. 1984) total 16,105 miles; local county highways, 49,682 miles; city streets, 9,628 miles; federal roads, 1,639 miles; roads not publicly maintained, 5,593 miles. In 1983 there were 1,451,356 registered motor vehicles. Railways. In 1984 there were in the state 5,308-4 miles of commercial railway. Aviation. Seven air carrier and 4 commuter airlines serve the state; there were, in 1984,140 airports (86 public-use and 54 private). Waterways. There are about 1,000 miles of navigable streams: the Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, White and Ouachita Rivers and the Kerr-McClellan Channel which flows eastward across the state and gives access to the sea via the Mississippi River. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. The most numerous religious bodies in 1980 were Baptist (603,884), Methodist (214,925), Church of Christ (90,671), Roman Catholic (56,911) and Assembly of God (53,555). Education. In the school year 1982-83 public elementary and secondary schools had 420,262 enrolled pupils and 24,874 classroom teachers. Average salaries of teachers in elementary schools was $14,579, secondary $15,459. Expenditure on elementary and secondary education was $894 -8m. An educational TV network began operating in 1966 with a full 12-hour-day telecasting; it had 5 stations in 1984. Higher education is provided at 32 institutions: 10 state universities, 1 medical college, 12 private or church colleges, 10 community or junior colleges. Total enrolment in institutions of higher education, 1983-84, was 73,905. There were (1983—84) 23 vocational-technical schools with 26,500 students, including extension class students. Total expenditure, $23 • 2m. Health. There were 98 licensed hospitals (11,702 beds) in 1984, and 231 licensed nursing homes (20,958 beds). Social Welfare. In Oct. 1983, 409,000 persons were drawing old-age assistance at an average amount of $317.85 per month; 22,085 families (43,618 children),

1432

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

$130.43 per family; 44,000 persons were receiving disability benefits at an average of $409.09 per month. State prisons in Sept. 1984 had 4,269 inmates (187 per 100,000 population). Books of Reference Current Employment Developments. Arkansas Employment Security Division, Little Rock Arkansas State and County Economic Data. Industrial Research and Extension Center, Little Rock State Government Finances. U.S. Dept. ofCommerce, Bureau of the Census. Agricultural Statistics for Arkansas. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Crop Reporting Service, Little Rock, 1982 Ferguson and Atkinson, Historic Arkansas. Little Rock, 1966

CALIFORNIA H I S T O R Y . California, first settled in July 1769, was from its discovery down to 1846 politically associated with Mexico. On 7 July 1846 the American flag was hoisted at Monterey, and a proclamation was issued declaring California to be a portion of the US. On 2 Feb. 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, the territory was formally ceded by Mexico to the US, and was admitted to the Union 9 Sept. 1850 as the thirty-first state, with boundaries as at present. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area, 158,706 sq. miles (2,407 sq. miles being inland water). In 1983 the federal government owned 45m. acres (45 03% of the land area); in 1975, 546,000 acres were under jurisdiction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, of which 472,000 acres were tribal. Public lands, vacant in 1975, totalled 15,607,125 acres, practically all either mountains or deserts. Census population, 1 April 1980, 23,667,902, an increase of 18-5% over 1970, making California the most populous state of the USA (New York: 17,557,288). Estimate (1983) 25,174,000. Births in 1982,429,902 (17-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 189,075 in 1981; infant deaths, 4,218 (9 -8 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 217,348 in 1981 (9); divorces, dissolutions and nullities, 140,473 in 1981 (5 -8). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970

White 2,259,672 5,408,260 14,455,230 17,761,032

Negro 21,645 81,048 883,861 1,400,143

1980

18,030,893

1,819,281

Japanese 41,356 97,456 157,317 213,280

Chinese 36,248 37,361 95,600 170,131

All other 3,817,728

Total (incl all others) 2,377,549 5,677,251 15,717,204 19,953,134

Persq. mite 150 35-8 990 125-7

23,667,902

149-1

Of the 1980 population 49 • 3% were male, 91 • 3% were urban and 67 • 2% were 21 years old or older. The largest cities with 1980 census population are: Los Angeles San Diego San Francisco San José Long Beach Oakland Sacramento

2,966,850 875,538 678,974 629,546 361,334 339,337 275,741

Anaheim 219,494 Fresno 217,289 Santa Ana 204,023 Riverside 170,591 Huntington Beach 170,505 Stockton 149,779 Glendale 139,060

Fremont Torrance Garden Grove San Bernardino Pasadena Oxnard

131,945 129,881 123,307 118,794 118,550 108,195

Urbanized areas (1980 census): Los Angeles-Long Beach, 9,477,926; San Francisco-Oakland, 3,191,913; San Diego, 1,704,352; San José, 1,243,900; Sacramento, 796,266; San Bernardino-Riverside, 703,316; Oxnard-VenturaThousand Oaks, 378,420; Fresno, 331,551. C L I M A T E . Los Angeles. Jan. 55°F(12-8°C), July 70"F(21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 15" (381 mm). Sacramento. Jan. 45°F (1-2°C), July 74°F (23 -3°C). Annual rainfall 19" (472 mm). San Diego. Jan. 55°F(12-8°C), July 69°F(20-6°C). Annual rainfall

CALIFORNIA

1433

10" (259 mm). San Francisco. Jan. 50°F (10"C), July 59"F (15°C). Annual rainfall 22" (561 mm). Death Valley. Jan. 52"F(11 , C), July 100°F(38°C). Annual rainfall 1-6" (40 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution became effective from 4 July 1879; it has had numerous amendments since 1962. The Senate is composed of 40 members elected for 4 years—half being elected each 2 years—and the Assembly, of 80 members, elected for 2 years. Two-year regular sessions convene in Dec. of each even-numbered year. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 4 years. California is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 45 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 5,291,747 votes, Mondale, 3,803,913. The capital is Sacramento. The state is divided into 58 counties. Governor: George Deukmejian (R.), 1983-86 ($49,100). Lieut.-Governor: Leo McCarthy (D.), 1983-86(542,500). Secretary of State: March Fong Eu (D.) ($42,500). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1984 total General Fund revenues were $23,195m.; total General Fund expenditures were $22,282m. ($11,682m. for education, $7,171 m. for health and welfare). The long-term state debt (general obligation bonds outstanding) was $6,903m. on 30 June 1984. Per capita personal income (1983) was $13,257. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. California is one of the three most important petroleum-producing states of the US (Texas and Louisiana being the other two); crude oil output was estimated at 375m. bbls in 1983. Output of natural gas was 400,872m. cu. ft; of natural gas liquids, (1983) 259m. bbls. Gold output was 6,300 troy oz. (1981); asbestos, boron minerals, diatomite, tungsten, sand and gravel, salt, magnesium compounds, lead, zinc, copper and iron ore are also produced. The estimated value of all the minerals produced (other than fuels) was $1,8 31m. in 1983. Agriculture. Extending 700 miles from north to south, and intersected by several ranges of mountains, California has almost every variety of climate, from the very wet to the very dry, and from the temperate to the semi-tropical. In 1982 there were 82,000 farms, comprising 32m. acres; average farm, 390 acres. Cotton, fruit, poultry and vegetables are important. Cash receipts, 1983, from crops, $8,054m.; from livestock and poultry, 54,160m. Dairy produce, cattle, grapes, cotton, hay, nursery products (in that order) are the main sources of farm income. Production of cotton lint, 1983, was 473,000 short tons; other field crops included sugar-beet (4-0m. short tons). Cereal crops include maize, lm. short tons; wheat, 1 -4m. short tons, and rice, 1 -2m. short tons. Principal crops include wine, table and raisin grapes (4-9m. short tons); peaches (527,000 short tons); pears (267,700 short tons); apricots (91,000 short tons); prunes (145,000 short tons); plums, nectarines, avocados, olives and cherries. Citrus fruit crops were: oranges, 2 -9m. short tons; lemons, 756,000 short tons; grapefruit, 238,000 short tons. On 1 Jan. 1984 the farm animals were: 962,000 milch cows, 5m. all cattle, 900,000 sheep and 155,000 swine. Forestry. Total forest area in 1979 was 32,558,000 acres, of which 15,795,000 acres were commercial forest. California ranks third to Oregon and Washington in volume of standing timber, total annual cut is about 3,358m. bd ft (1983). National forest service land in 1982 was 19-6m. acres. Fishery. California ranks fourth as a fishing state (by value of fishery products). The catch in 1983 was 641 m. lb.; leading species were anchovy, tuna and mackerel. INDUSTRY. In 1983, manufacturing employed about 2m. The fastest-growing

1434

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

industries were instruments and related products, non-electrical machinery, electric and electronic equipment, transport equipment and fabricated metal products. The aerospace industry is important, as is also food-processing. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 California had 53,891 miles of roads inside cities and 120,142 miles outside. In 1983 there were about 13-8m. registered cars and over 3-7m. commercial vehicles, leading all states in all items by a wide margin. Railways. Total mileage of railways, 1 Jan. 1977, was 7,600 miles. There are 2 systems: Amtrak and Southern Pacific Railroad commuter trains. Amtrak carries about 900,000 passengers per year, Southern Pacific about 5m. Amtrak services run from Oakland (San Francisco) to Seattle, Chicago, Bakersfield and Los Angeles, and also from Los Angeles to San Diego. Southern Pacific runs the Caltrains commuter route from San Francisco to San Jose. There is a metro (BART) and light rail (Muni) system in San Francisco, and a light rail line in San Diego. Aviation. In 1980 there were 311 public airports and 950 private airstrips. Shipping. The chief ports are San Francisco and Los Angeles. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State prisons, 1 Jan. 1983, had 32,439 male and 1,512 female inmates. From 1893 to 1942, 307 inmates were executed by hanging. From 1938 to 1976, 194 inmates were executed by lethal gas. No further death sentences were passed until 1980. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is much stronger than any other single church; next are the Jewish congregations, then Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists and Episcopalians. Education. Full-time attendance at school is compulsory for children from 6 to 16 years of age for a minimum of 175 days per annum, and part-time attendance is required from 16 to 18 years. In autumn 1983 there were 4m. pupils enrolled in elementary and secondary schools. Estimated expenditure on public schools, 1982-83, was$l 1,838m. Community Colleges had 1,199,269 students in autumn 1983. California has two publicly supported higher education systems: the University of California (1868) and the California State University and Colleges. In autumn 1983, the University of California with campuses for resident instruction and research at Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Francisco and 6 other centres, had 130,913 full-time students. California State University and Colleges with campuses at Sacramento, Long Beach, Los Angeles, San Francisco and 15 other cities had 199,800 full-time students. In addition to the 28 publicly supported institutions for higher education there are 117 private colleges and universities which had a total estimated enrolment of 171,084 in the autumn of 1983. Health. In 1984 there were 587 general hospitals; capacity, 112,225 beds. On 30 June 1984 state hospitals for the mentally disabled had 5,142 patients and state hospitals for the developmentally disabled had 7,451 patients. Social Security. On 1 Jan. 1974 the federal government (Social Security Administration) assumed responsibility for the Supplemental Security Income/State Supplemental Program which replaced the State Old-Age Security. The SSI/SSP provides financial assistance for needy aged (65 years or older), blind or disabled persons. An individual recipient may own assets up to $1,500; a couple up to $2,250, subject to specific exclusions. There are federal, state and county programmes assisting the aged, the blind, the disabled and needy children. In July 1984, 462,000 families with one or more children were receiving an average of $439 per month per family.

COLORADO

1435

Books of Reference California Almanac, 1984-85. Fay, J. S.,(ed.) Oxford, 1984 California Government and Politics. Hoeber, T. R., et al, (eds.) Sacramento, Annual California Handbook. California Institute, 1981 California Statistical Abstract. 25th ed. Dept. of Finance, Sacramento, 1984 Economic Report of the Governor. Governor's Office, Sacramento, Annual Lavender, D. S., California. New York, 1976 State Library: The California State Library, Library-Courts Bldg, Sacramento 95814.

COLORADO H I S T O R Y . Colorado was first settled in 1858, made a Territory in 1861 and admitted into the Union on 1 Aug. 1876. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Colorado is bounded north by Wyoming, north-east by Nebraska, east by Kansas, south-east by Oklahoma, south by New Mexico and west by Utah. Area, 104,090 sq. miles (496 sq. miles being inland water). Federal lands, 1974,23,974,000 acres (36% of the land area). Census population, 1 April 1980, was 2,889,964, an increase of 680,368 or 30-8% since 1970. Estimated (1982), 3,045,000. Births, 1982, were 54,786 (18 per 1,000 population); deaths, 19,638 (6 -4); infant deaths, 497 (9 per 1,000 live births); marriages (1981), 37,210 (12-5); dissolutions (1981), 19,515 (6-6). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1970

While 783,415 1,018,793 1,296,653 2,112,352

Negro 11,453 11,828 20,177 66,411

1980

2,570,615

101,702

Indian 1,482 1,395 1,567 8,836

1

Asiatic 2,674 3,775 5,870 10,388

All others 216,517 Preliminary.

Total 799,024 1,035,791 1,325,089 2,207,259

Persq. mile 7-7 too 12-7 21-3

2,888,834 '

27-7

Of the total population in 1980,49-6% were male, 80-6% were urban; 68% were aged 20 years or older. Large cities with 1980 census population (and 1983 estimate): Denver, 492,365 (500,600); Colorado Springs, 215,150 (230,553); Aurora, 158,588 (178,665); Lakewood, 112,860 (117,436); Pueblo, 101,686 (99,619); Arvada, 84,576 (91,262); Boulder, 76,685 (80,651); Fort Collins, 65,092 (68,307); Wheat Ridge, 30,293 (54,995); Greeley, 53,006 (54,063); Westminster, 50,211. C L I M A T E . Denver. Jan. 3rF(-0-6°C), July 73°F(22-8°C). Annual rainfall 14" (358 mm). Pueblo. Jan. 30°F (-11°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (312 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution adopted in 1876 is still in effect with (1983) 78 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 35 members elected for 4 years, one-half retiring every 2 years, and of a House of Representatives of 65 members elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual, beginning 1951. The Governor, Lieut.-Governor, Attorney-General and Secretary of State are elected for 4 years. Qualified as electors are all citizens, male and female (except convicted, incarcerated criminals), 18 years of age, who have resided in the state and the precinct for 32 days immediately preceding the election. The state is divided into 63 counties. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 6 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 768,711 votes, Mondale, 434,560. The capital is Denver. Governor: Richard D. Lamm (D ), 1983-86 ($60,000). Lieut.-Governor: Nancy Dick (D.), 1983-86 ($32,500). Secretary of State: Natalie Meyer(R.), 1983-86 ($32,500).

1436

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

BUDGET. The state's total budget, 1983-84, is $3,889m., of which taxation and other revenue furnish $2,904m. and federal grants $985m. Education takes $l,708m.; health, welfare and rehabilitation, $l,136m., and highways, $672m. Total state and local taxes per capita (1983-84) were $860. The state has no general debt. The net long-term debt (in revenue bond) on 30 June 1984 was $ 154m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $ 12,302. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Colorado has a variety of mineral resources. Among the most important are crude oil, metals and coal. Mineral production in 1983 (estimate) $2,050m. in value. An estimated 29,000 people were employed in extracting petroleum and natural gas in 1984; 9,800 in metals and 4,500 in coal and non-metals. Agriculture. In May 1984 farms numbered 27,000, with a total area of 33 -5m. acres. (66-7% of the land area); 6,625,600 acres (1982) were harvested crop land; average farm (1984), 1,400 acres. Cash income, 1984, from crops $2,200m.; from livestock, $2,020m. In 1984 there were 3,200,000 acres under irrigation. Production of principal crops in 1982: Maize for grain, 110-4m. bu. (from 830,000 acres); wheat, 87-5m. bu. (3-0m.); hay, 3-7m. tons (l-4m.); dry beans, 2 1 m . cwt (170,000); potatoes, 14-2m. cwt (51,400); sugar-beet, 920,000 tons (46,000); oats, barley and sorghums are grown, as well as fruit. On 1 Jan. 1984 the number of farm animals was: 75,000 milch cows, 3 - lm. all cattle, 690,000 sheep, 260,000 swine. The wool clip in 1984 yielded 7m. lb. of wool. INDUSTRY. In 1983 1,456,000 were employed in non-agricultural sectors, of which 328,000 were in trade; 288,200 in services; 238,800 in government; 185,100 in manufacturing; 80,000 in construction; 82,700 in transport and public utilities; 39,700 in mining; 84,400 in finance, insurance and property. In manufacturing the biggest employers were non-electrical machinery, foods and kindred products, and printing. Value added by manufacturing was $7,748m. (1984 estimate). TOURISM. In 1984 about 13-5m. people spent holidays in Colorado, of whom about 3% were Colorado residents. Overall expenditure, $2,500m.; $45m. of this was from ski-ing holidays. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway system (1983) included 9,232 miles of highway. County roads totalled 56,898, and city streets, 9,352 miles. Total road mileage, 80,483, of which 5,001 miles are unmaintained county and city roads. Railways. In 1982 there were in the state 4,500 miles of main-track and branch railway. Aviation. There were (1984) 233 airports in the state. Of these, 68 are publicly owned and open to the public; 16 are privately owned and open to the public; 149 are private and not open to the public. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. At 30 Sept. 1984 there were 3,050 people committed to the State Department of Corrections, inmates of the State Penitentiary, the State Reformatory and other institutions. In 1967 there was 1 execution; since 1930 executions (by lethal gas) numbered 47, including 41 whites, 5 Negroes and 1 other; all were for murder. Colorado has a Civil Rights Act (1935) forbidding places of public accommodation to discriminate against any persons on the grounds of race, religion, sex, colour or nationality. No religious test may be applied to teachers or students in the public schools, 'nor shall any distinction or classification of pupils be made on account of race or colour'. In 1957 the General Assembly prohibited discrimination in employment of persons in private industry and in 1959 adopted the Fair Housing

CONNECTICUT

1437

Act to discourage discrimination in housing. A 1957 Act permits marriages between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes. Religion. In 1984 the Roman Catholic Church had 550,300 members; the ten main Protestant denominations had 350,900 members; the Jewish community had 45,000 members. Buddhism is among other religions represented. Education. In autumn 1983 the public elementary and secondary schools had 545,174 pupils and 34,500 teachers and administrators; total instructional salaries averaged $20,600. Enrolments in universities and larger colleges, autumn 1983, were: US Air Force Academy (Colorado Springs), 6,000 students; University of Colorado (Boulder), 25,500; University of Colorado (Denver), 10,560; University of Colorado (Colorado Springs), 5,500; University of Colorado (Medical Center), 1,585; Colorado State University (Fort Collins), 17,500; University of Denver (Denver), 9,300; Colorado School of Mines (Golden), 3,200; University of Northem Colorado (Greeley), 10,700; University of Southern Colorado (Pueblo), 5,000; Western State College (Gunnison), 1,700; Adams State College (Alamosa), 2,000; Metropolitan State College (Denver), 17,690; Colorado College (Colorado Springs), 1,950; Fort Lewis College (Durango), 3,650; Mesa College (Grand Junction), 3,400. Health. Approved hospitals, 1983, numbered 98. In 1983, there were 25 public mental health centres and clinics. Social Security. A constitutional amendment, adopted 1956, provides for minimum old age pensions of $100 per month, which may be raised on a cost-ofliving basis; for a $5m. stabilization fund and for a $10m. medical and health fund for pensioners. In 1984 the maximum monthly retirement pension (for citizens of 65 and older) was $703; maximum monthly benefit for a disabled worker, $854. Books of Reference Directory of Colorado Manufacturers, 1982. Business Research Division, School of Business, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, 1982 Economic Outlook Forum, ¡982. Colorado Division of Commerce and Development, and the College of Business, Univ. of Colorado, Denver, 1981 Griffiths, M., and Rubright, L., Colorado: a Geography. Boulder, 1983 Sprague, M., Colorado: A History. New York, 1976 State Library: Colorado State Library, State Capitol, Denver, 80203.

CONNECTICUT HISTORY. Connecticut was first settled in 1634 and has been an organized commonwealth since 1637. In 1629 a written constitution was adopted which, it is claimed, was the first in the history of the world formed under the concept of a social compact. This constitution was confirmed by a charter from Charles II in 1662, and replaced in 1818 by a state constitution, framed that year by a constitutional convention. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Connecticut is bounded north by Massachusetts, east by Rhode Island, south by the Atlantic and west by New York. Area, 5,018 sq. miles (147 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,107,576, an increase of 2-5% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 3,153,000. Births (1980) were 34,069 (11 per 1,000 population); deaths, 26,597 (8-5); infant deaths, 343 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 25,761 (8 • 3); divorces, 11,448. Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,098,897 1,576,700 2,423,816

Negro 15,174 29,354 107,449

Indian 152 162 923

Asiatic 533 687 3,046

Total 1,114,756 1,606,903 2,535,234

Persq. mile 231-3 328 0 517-5

1970 1980

2,835,458 2,799,420

181,177 217,433

4,533

All others 15,074 18,970

3,031,709 3,107,576

629-0 634-3

1438

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Of the total population in 1980, 1,498,005 persons were male, 2,449,774 persons were urban. Those 19 years old or older numbered 2,228,805. The chief cities and towns, with census population 1 April 1980, are: Bridgeport Hartford New Haven Waterbury Stamford Norwalk

142,546 136,392 126,109 103,266 102,453 77,767

New Britain Danbury Bristol Menden West Haven Milford

73,840 69,470 57,370 57,118 53,184 50,898

Larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Hartford, 726,114; Bridgeport, 395,455; New Haven, 417,592; Waterfcury, 228,178; Stamford, 198,854. CLIMATE. New Haven: Jan. 28°F(-2-2°C), July 72°F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 46" (1,151 mm). See New England, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The 1818 Constitution was revised in June 1953 effective 1 Jan. 1955. On 30 Dec. 1965 a new constitution went into effect, having been framed by a constitutional convention in the summer of 1965 and approved by the voters in Dec. 1965. The 1965 Constitution provides for 30 to 50 members of the Senate (instead of 24 to 36) and for 125 to 225 members of the House of Representatives, to be elected from assembly districts, rather than 2 or 1 from each town, as in the former constitution. TTie convention has added a new provision for a 3-day session following each regular or special session, solely to reconsider bills vetoed by the Governor. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 36 members and a House of Representatives of 151 members. Members of each House are elected for the term of 2 years (annual salary $9,500 first year, $7,500 second year, expenses $2,000 and mileage allowance). Legislative sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. All citizens (with necessary exceptions and the usual residential requirements) have the right of suffrage. Connecticut is one of the original 13 states of the Union. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 883,486 votes, Mondale, 560,712. The state capital is Hartford. Governor: William A. O'Neill (D.), 1983-86 ($65,000). Lieut. - Governor: Joseph J. Fauliso (D.), ($40,000). Secretary of State: Julia Tashjian (D.) ($35,000). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1982 (state government figures) general revenues were $5,588m. (taxation, $3,723m., and federal aid, $998m.); general expenditures were $5,330m. (education, $ 1,843m., highways, $376m., and public welfare, $737m.). The total long-term debt on 30 June 1982 was $4,452m. Per capita income, 1982, was$13,748. N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. The state has some mineral resources: sheet mica, sand, gravel, clays and stone; total production in 1981 was valued at $63m. Agriculture. In 1983 the state had 5,000 farms with a total area of about 500,000 acres; average farm was of 111 acres, valued at $2,687 per acre. Total cash income, 1982, was $309m., including $ 117m. from crops and $192m. from livestock and products (mainly from dairy products and poultry). Principal crops are hay, silage, forest, greenhouse and nursery products, tobacco, potatoes, sweet corn, tomatoes, apples, peaches, pears, vegetables and small fruit. Livestock (1 Jan. 1980): 108,000 all cattle (value $70-7m.), 5,200 sheep ($387,000), 11,000 swine ($699,000) and 5 • 8m. poultry ($ 12m.).

CONNECTICUT

1439

Forestry. The state had (1980) 137,782 acres of state forest land, which is about 4-2% of the total land area. I N D U S T R Y . Manufacturing establishments employed 417,560 production workers in Aug. 1980 who earned average weekly wages of $294.47; value added by manufacture (1980), $15,973m. Total non-agricultural employment in 1982 was 1,426,000. The main employers are manufacturers (transport equipment, nonelectrical machinery and fabricated metals); trade (303,000 workers); services (301,000) and government (180,000). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1 Jan. 1981) maintains 4,035 miles of highways, all surfaced. Motor vehicles registered in 1979 numbered 2,229,000 (licences issued 1980, 1,688,373). Railways. In 1981 there were 950 miles of railway track. Aviation. In 1981 there were 61 airports (27 commercial including 5 state-owned, and 34 heliports). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. In 1981 there were no executions; since 1930 there have been 22 executions (19 by electrocution, 3 by hanging), including 19 whites and 3 Negroes, all for murder. In 1982 there were 3,809 inmates of the state prisons. The Civil Rights Act makes it a punishable offence to discriminate against any person or persons 'on account of alienage, colour or race' and to hold up to ridicule any persons 'on account of creed, religion, colour, denomination, nationality or race'. Places of public resort are forbidden to discriminate. Insurance companies are forbidden to charge higher premiums to persons 'wholly or partially of African descent'. Schools must be open to all 'without discrimination on account of race or colour'. Religion. The leading religious denominations (1980) in the state are the Roman Catholic (l-4m. members), United Churches of Christ, Protestant Episcopal, Jewish, Greek Orthodox, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian. Education. Elementary instruction is free for all children between the ages of 4 and 16 years, and compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 16 years. In 1981 there were 783 public elementary schools, 236 secondary schools and 5 combined. In 1982 there were 486,470 pupils and 83,301 classroom teachers. The 17 state vocational technical schools had 527,152 students. Expenditure of the state on public schools, 1981, $ 1,383m. Average salary of teachers in public schools, 1983, $20,800. Connecticut has 47 colleges, of which one state university, 4 state colleges, 5 state technical colleges and 12 regional community colleges are state funded. The University of Connecticut at Storrs, founded 1881, had 1,253 faculty and 22,407 students in 1980-81. Yale University, New Haven, founded in 1701, had 2,088 faculty and 9,626 students. Wesleyan University, Middletown, founded 1831, had 297 faculty and 2,775 students. Trinity College, Hartford, founded 1823, had 145 faculty and 2,007 students. Connecticut College, New London, founded 1915, had 203 faculty and 1,974 students. The University of Hartford, founded 1877, had 305 faculty and 9,836 students. The regional community colleges (2-year course) had 514 faculty and 34,082 students. Health. Hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association, 1981, numbered 65, with 17,935 beds. The state operated one general hospital, one veterans' hospital, 8 hospitals for the mentally ill (2,450 patients in Jan. 1981), 2 training schools for the mentally retarded (and 12 regional centres), one chronic disease hospital (56 in-patients in Jan. 1981) and a state-aided institution for the blind. Social Security. Disbursements during the year ending 30 June 1981 amounted to $10,751,924 for old-age assistance, and medical aid to the aged, $5,413,444. The

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average monthly number of cases, 1980-81, was 4,782. In other areas of welfare, there was an average of47,096 cases for aid to families with dependent children; 889 cases for such aid where the parent is unemployed; 84 cases for aid to the blind; 6,357 for aid to the disabled; 1,411 for Connecticut Assistance and Medical Aid to the disabled. Books of Reference The Register and Manual of Connecticut. Secretary of State. Hartford. Annual The Structure of Connecticut's State Government. Connecticut Public Expenditure Council. Hartford, 1973 Adams, V. Q., Connecticut: The Story of Your Slate Government. Chester, 1973 Smith, Allen R., Connecticut, a Thematic Atlas. Newington, 1974 State Library: Connecticut State Library, Capitol Avenue, Hartford, 06015. State Librarian: Clarence R. Walters.

DELAWARE HISTORY. Delaware, permanently settled in 1638, is one of the original 13 states of the Union, and the first one to ratify the Federal Constitution. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Delaware is bounded north by Pennsylvania, north-east by New Jersey, east by Delaware Bay, south and west by Maryland. Area 2,044 sq. miles (112 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980 was 594,338, an increase of 46,234 or 8-4% since 1970. Estimate (1983), 606,000. Births in 1983,9,546; deaths, 5,085; infant deaths, 102; marriages, 5,572; divorces, 3,060. Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 171,102 205,718 384,327

Negro 31,181 32,602 60,688

1970 1980

466,459 488,002

78,276 96,157

Indian 5 5 597

Asiatic 34 55 410

All others 3,369 10,179

Total 202,322 238,380 446,292

Persq. mile 1030 120-5 224 0

548,104 594,338

276-5 290-8

Of the total population in 1980,48-4% were male, 70-7% were urban and 65-7% were 21 years old or older. The 1980 census figures show Wilmington with population of 70,195; Newark, 25,241; Dover, 23,512; Elsmere Town, 6,493; Milford City, 5,356; Seaford City, 5,256. CLIMATE. Wilmington. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,076 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution (the fourth) dates from 1897, and has had 51 amendments; it was not ratified by the electorate but promulgated by the Constitutional Convention. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 21 members elected for 4 years and a House of Representatives of 41 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 4 years. With necessary exceptions, all adult citizens, registered as voters, who are bona fide residents, and have complied with local residential requirements, have the right to vote. Delaware is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 1 representative, elected by the voters of the whole state. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 151,494 votes, Móndale, 100,632. The state capital is Dover. Delaware is divided into 3 counties. Governor: Michael N. Castle (R.), 1984-88 ($70,000).

DELAWARE

1441

Lieut -Governor:S. B. Woo (D.),($ 19,200). Secretary of State: Glenn C. Kenton (R.) ($49,300) (appointed by the Governor). FINANCE. For the year ending 30 June 1984 general receipts were $l,040-6m., of which federal grants were $271- 8m. Total expenditure was $992 • 5m. On 30 June 1984 the total debt was $563 • 5m. Per capita income (1983) was $ 12,665. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mineral resources of Delaware are not extensive, consisting chiefly of clay products, stone, sand and gravel and magnesium compounds. Value of mineral production in 1980 was $2m. Agriculture. Delaware is mainly an industrial state, but 685,465 acres is in farms, which in 1982 numbered 3,338; average farm was of 196 acres and the average farm was valued (land and buildings) at $364,448. Cash income, 1983, from crops and livestock, $455m., of which $316m. was from livestock and products. The chief crops are corn and soybeans. I N D U S T R Y . In 1981 manufacturing establishments employed 70,512 people; value added by manufacture (1980), $2,466m., mainly from chemicals, transport equipment and food. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in 1982 maintained 4,671 miles of roads and streets and 1,369 miles of federally-aided highways. There were also 598 miles of municipal maintained streets. Vehicles registered in year ended 30 June 1984,468,019. Railways. In 1984 the state had 285 miles of railway. Aviation. Delaware had 12 airports, all of which were for general use in 1984. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State prisons, 1 July 1983-30 June 1984, had daily average of 1,921 inmates. The death penalty was illegal from 2 April 1958 to 18 Dec. 1961. Executions since 1930 (by hanging) have totalled 12 (none since 1946). Religion. Membership, 1979-80: Methodists, 60,489; Roman Catholics, 103,060; Episcopalians, 18,696; Lutherans, 10,000. Education. The state has free public schools and compulsory school attendance. In Sept. 1983 the elementary and secondary public schools had 91,406 enrolled pupils and 5,429 classroom teachers. Appropriation for public schools (financial year 1984—85) was about $245 • 7m. Average salary of classroom teachers (financial year 1983-84), $20,934. The state supports the University of Delaware at Newark (1834) which had 626 full-time faculty members and 17,859 students in Sept. 1983, Delaware State College, Dover (1892), with 74 full-time faculty members and 2,113 students, and the 4 campuses of Delaware Technical and Community College (Wilmington, Stanton, Dover and Georgetown) with 124 full-time faculty members and 7,177 students. Health. In 1983 there were 7 short-term general hospitals. During financial year 1982 patients in mental hospitals numbered 1,963. Social Security. In 1974 the federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programme lessened state responsibility for the aged, blind and disabled. SSI payments in Delaware (1983), $13m. Provisions are also made for the care of dependent children; in 1983 there were 26,000 recipients in 9,500 families (average monthly payment per family, $233). The total state programme for the year ending 30 June 1983 was $27 02m. for the care of dependent children.

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Books of Reference Information: Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Hall of Records, Dover. State Manual, Containing Official List of Officers, Commissions and County Officers. Secretary ofState, Dover. Annual Hoffecker.C. E., Delaware, a Bicentennial History. New York, 1977 Smeal, L., Delaware Historical and Biographical Index. New York, 1984 Weslager, C. A., Delaware Indians, a History. Rutgers Univ. Press, 1972 Topical History of Delaware. Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs. Dover, 1977

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA HISTORY. The District of Columbia, organized in 1790, is the seat of the Government of the US, for which the land was ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia to the US as a site for the national capital. It was established under Acts of Congress in 1790 and 1791. Congress first met in it in 1800 and federal authority over it became vested in 1801. In 1846 the land ceded by Virginia (about 33 sq. miles) was given back. AREA AND POPULATION. The District forms an enclave on the Potomac River, where the river forms the south-west boundary of Maryland. The area of the District of Columbia is 68 • 68 sq. miles, 6 sq. miles being inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 638,333, a decrease of 16% from that of 1970. Estimate (1982) 631,000. Metropolitan statistical area of Washington, D.C.-Md-Va. (1980), 3m. Density of population in the District, 1980, 10,453 per sq. mile. Births, 1980, in the District were 9,257 (14-5 per 1,000 population); resident deaths, 6,982 (10-9); infant deaths, 228 (24-6 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,182(8-1); divorces, 3,473 (5 -4). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 236,128 353,981 345,263

Negro 94,446 132,068 411,737

1970 1980

209,272 171,768

537,712 448,906

Indian 68 40 587

Chinese and Japanese 427 780 3,532

All others 9,526 17,659

Total 331,069 486,869 763,956

Persq. mile 5,517-8 7,981-5 12,523-9

*

756,510 638,333

12,321 0 10,184-0

CLIMATE. Washington. Jan. 34°F (l-l'C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,064 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. GOVERNMENT. Local government, from 1 July 1878 until Aug. 1967, was that of a municipal corporation administered by a board of 3 commissioners, of whom 2 were appointed from civil life by the President, and confirmed by the Senate, for a term of 3 years each. The other commissioner was detailed by the President from the Engineer Corps of the Army. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1967 submitted by the President to Congress on 1 June 1967 abolished the Commission form of government and instituted a new Mayor Council form of government with officers appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. On 24 Dec. 1973 the appointed officers were replaced by an elected Mayor and councillors, with full legislative powers in local matters as from 1974. Congress retains the right to legislate, to veto or supersede the Council's acts. The 23rd amendment to the federal constitution (1961) conferred the right to vote in national elections; in the 1984 presidential election Mondale polled 172,459 votes, Reagan, 26,805. On 23 Aug. 1978 the Senate approved a constitutional amendment giving the District full voting representation in Congress. In order to become part of the constitution the amendment must be ratified by 38 state legislatures within 7 years. It would give the District 2 senators and a number of representatives according to population. BUDGET. The District's revenues are derived from a tax on real and personal

D I S T R I C T O F COLUMBIA

1443

property, sales taxes, taxes on corporations and companies, licences for conducting various businesses and from federal payments. In financial year 1982 the Council authorized a budget of $ 1,513,255,700. The District of Columbia has no bonded debt not covered by its accumulated sinking fund. Per capita personal income, 1982, $14,550. I N D U S T R Y . The District's main industries (1982) are government service (37%); services (31%); wholesale and retail trade (10%); finance, real estate, insurance, communications, transport and utilities (12%); total employed, 1982, 282,000 (residents). T O U R I S M . About 17m. visitors stay in the District every year and spend about $1,000m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Within the District are 340 miles of bus routes. There are 1,101 miles of streets maintained by the District; of these, 673 miles are local streets, 262 miles are major arterial roads. Railways. There is a rapid rail transit system including a town subway system. This coordinates with the bus system and connects with Union railway station and the National Airport. Nine rail lines serve the District. Aviation. The District is served by 3 general airports; across the Potomac River in Arlington, Va., is National Airport, in Chantilly, Va., is Dulles International Airport and in Maryland is Baltimore—Washington International Airport. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. Since 1958 there have been no executions; from 1930 to 1957 there were 40 executions (electrocution) including 3 whites for murder and 35 Negroes for murder and 2 for rape. The death penalty was declared unconstitutional in the District of Columbia on November 16,1973 The District's Court system is the Judicial Branch of the District of Columbia. It is the only completely unified court system in the United States, possibly because of the District's unique city-state jurisdiction. Until the District of Columbia Court Reform and Criminal Procedure Act of 1970, the judicial system was almost entirely in the hands of Federal Government. Since that time, the system has been similar in most respects to the autonomous systems of the states. Religion. The largest churches are the Protestant and Roman Catholic Christian churches; there are also Jewish, Eastenl Orthodox and Islamic congregations. Education. In 1981-82 there were about 90,000 pupils in secondary and elementary schools. Expenditure on public schools, 1982-83, averages $3,530 per pupil. There are also 17,560 pupils in private elementary and secondary schools. Higher education is given through the Consortium of Universities of the Metropolitan Washington Area, which consists of six universities and three colleges: Georgetown University, founded in 1795 by the Jesuit Order (12,000 students in 1982); George Washington University, non-sectarian founded in 1821 (17,000); Howard University, founded in 1867 (11,000); Catholic University of America, founded in 1887 (7,700; American University (Methodist) founded in 1893 (12,500); University of D.C., founded 1976 (13,500); Gallandet College, founded 1864 (1,000); Mount Vernon College, founded 1875 (500); Trinity College, founded 1897 (1 ,000). There are four other schools of higher education. All benefit from such facilities as the 12 museums of the Smithsonian Institution, the Library of Congress, National Archives, and the Legal Libraries of the US Supreme Court and Department of Justice. Social Security The District government provides primary health care for residents, mainly through its Department of Human Services, (about 6,280 employees). Departmental budget, 1981, $470m. of District, Federal and other funds.

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Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Metropolitan Washington Board of Trade publications. Reports of the Commissioners ofthe District ofColumbia. Annual. Washington Federal Writers'Project. Washington, D.C.:A Guide to the Nation's Capital. New York

FLORIDA H I S T O R Y . White men, probably Spaniards but possibly English, saw Florida for the first time in t h e period 1497-1512. Juan Ponce de Leon sighted Florida on 27 March 1513. Going ashore between 2 and 8 April in the vicinity of what is now St Augustine, he named the land 'Pasqua de Flores' because his landing was 'in the time of the Feast of Rowers'. The first permanent settlement in the entire U S was made at St Augustine, 8 Sept. 1565. It was claimed by Spain until 1763, then ceded to England; back to Spain in 1783, and to the U S in 1821. Florida became a Territory in 1821 and was admitted into the Union on 3 March 1845. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Florida is a peninsula bounded west by the Gulf of Mexico, south by the Straits of Florida, east by the Atlantic, north by Georgia and north-west by Alabama. Area, 58,664 sq. miles, including 4,510 sq. miles ofinland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 9,746,324, an increase of 43-4% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 10,925,000. Births in 1980 were 131,923; deaths, 106,815; infant deaths, 1,904; marriages, 110,575; divorces, 71,409. Population in 5 federal census years was: 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 1,381,986 2,166,051 4,063,881 5,719,343 8,319,448

Negro 514,198 603,101 880,168 1,041,651 1,342,478

All Others 1,230 2,153 7,493 28,449 84,398

Total 1,897,414 2,771,305 4,952,788 6,789,443 9,746,324

Per Sq. Mile 35 0 51 1 91-5 125-6 180-1

Of the population in 1980, 48% of the total were male; 84-3% were urban and 72-4% were 20 years of age or over. The largest cities in the state (1980 census) are: Jacksonville, 540,898; Miami, 346,931; Tampa, 271,523; St Petersburg, 236,893; Fort Lauderdale, 153,256; Hialeah, 145,254; Orlando, 128,394; Hollywood, 117,188; Miami Beach, 96,298; Clearwater, 85,450; Tallahassee, 81,548; Gainesville, 81,371; West Palm Beach, 62,530; Largo, 58,977; Pensacola, 57,619. C L I M A T E . Jacksonville. Jan. 5 5° F ( 12 • 8*C), July 81°F (27 • 2°C). Annual rainfall 5 4 " (1,353 mm). Key West. Jan. 70°F (21 • 1°C), July 83°F (28 • 3°Q. Annual rainfall 3 9 " (968 mm). Miami. Jan. 67°F(19-4°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 6 0 " (1,516 mm). Tampa. Jan. 61°F(16-1 0 C), July 81°F (27-2'C). Annual rainfall 5 1 " (1,285 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1968 Legislature revised the constitution of 1885. The state legislature consists of a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and House of Representatives with 120 members elected for 2 years. Sessions are held annually, and are limited to 60 days. The Governor is elected for 4 years, and can hold two terms in office. Two senators and 19 representatives are elected to Congress. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,512,318 votes and Mondale, 1,373,137. The state capital is Tallahassee. The state is divided into 67 counties. Governor: Robert Graham (D.), 1983-86 ($69,550). Lieut. - Governor: Wayne Mixson(D.), 1983-86(560,455). Secretary of State: George Firestone (D.), 1983-86 ($59,385).

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F I N A N C E . There is no state income tax on individuals. For the year ending 30 June 1983 the state had a total revenue of $20,858m. and total expenditure of $20,681m. General revenue fund expenditure was $5,159m., of which education took $2,997m.; public welfare, $392m.; and highways, $98m. Net long-term debt, 30 June 1981, amounted to $ 1,940-8m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $ 11,592 (preliminary). NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Chief mineral is phosphate rock, of which marketable production in 1981 was 41-7m. tonnes, leading all states (national production 53-6m. tons). Total value of mineral production, 1981, $ 1,725 • 5m. Agriculture. In 1981, there were 40,000 farms; net income per farm was $21,817. Total value of all farm land and buildings, 1981, $19,600m. There were 847,056 acres in citrus groves and 12-2m. acres of other farms and ranches. Total cash receipts from crops and livestock (1981), $4,144m., of which crops provided $3,114-6m. Oranges, grapefruit, melons and vegetables are important. Other crops are soybeans ($68m.), sugar-cane, tobacco and peanuts. On 1 Jan. 1981 the state had 2 • 1 m. cattle, including 189,(XX) milch cows, and 257,000 swine. The national forests area in Sept. 1980 was 1,097,930 acres. There were (1983) 16m. acres of commercial forest. Fisheries. Florida has extensive fisheries for oysters, shrimp, red snapper, crabs, mackerel and mullet. Catch(1980), 187-4m. lb. valued at $132-8m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982 there were 13,610 manufacturers. They employed 469,745 persons. The metal-working, lumber, chemical, woodpulp, food-processing and instruments industries are important. T O U R I S M . During 1983 38-9m. tourists visited Florida. They spent $22,800m. making tourism one of the biggest industries in the state. There are 121 state parks, 4 state forests, 1 national park and 4 national forests. The state parks were visited by 15m. people in 1982,1 -3m. of them campers. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1981) had 97,186 miles of road and streets including 8,854 miles of primary federally-aided highways. In 1980-81,10-3m. vehicle licence plates were issued. Railways. In 1980 there were 3,681 miles of railway. Aviation. In 1984 Florida had 591 airports, including 137 public use airports of which 16 are international, 20 have air carrier service and 10 have scheduled commuter service. There are 3 public and 9 private seaplane bases. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. Since 1968 there have been 3 executions, by electrocution, for murder, from 1930 to 1968 there were 168 executions (electrocution), including 130 for murder, 37 for rape and 1 for kidnapping. State prisons, 30 June 1982, had 26,036 in-mates. Religion. The main Christian churches are Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian and Episcopalian. Education. Attendance at school is compulsory between 7 and 16. In 1981-82 the public elementary and secondary schools had 1,488,073 enrolled pupils. State expenditure on public schools (1981-82) was $4,133-5m. The state maintains 28 community colleges with 357,993 enrolments in 1982. There are 9 universities in the state system, namely the University of Florida at Gainesville (founded 1853) with 34,061 students in 1982; the Florida State University (founded at Tallahassee in 1857) with 22,116 students; the University of

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

South Florida at Tampa (founded 1960) with 24,978 students; Florida A. & M. University at Tallahassee (founded 1887) with 4,728 students; Florida Atlantic University (founded 1964) at Boca Raton with 8,296 students; the University of West Florida at Pensacola with 5,279 students; the University of Central Florida at Orlando with 13,093 students; the University of North Florida at Jacksonville with 4,998 students; Florida International University at Miami with 11,892 students. Health. Hospitals, 1983, numbered 263 with 59,048 beds; there were 225 general, 38 special and 1 tuberculosis hospitals. Social Security. From 1974 aid to the aged, blind and disabled became a federal responsibility. The state continued to give aid to families with dependent children and general assistance. Monthly payments 1981-82: aid to 4,800 blind averaged $188.44; aid to 174,089 dependent children averaged $63.46; aid to 145,000 disabled averaged $ 181.91; aid to 123,000 aged averaged $ 149.49. Books of Reference Florida Population: Summary of the 1980 Census. Univ. of Florida Press, 1981 Florida Statistical Abstract. Univ. of Florida Press, 1983 Florida Tourist Study. Florida Department of Commerce, Tallahassee. Annual Historical Florida Economic Data 1970-83. Florida Dept. ofCommerce, 1983 Report. Florida Secretary ofState. Tallahassee. Biennial Report of the Comptroller. Tallahassee. Biennial Dimensions. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. Monthly Morris, Allen. The Florida Handbook. Tallahassee. Biennial Femald, E. A., (ed.) Atlas of Florida. Florida State Univ., 1981 State Library: Gray Building, Tallahassee. Librarian: Barratt Wilkins.

GEORGIA HISTORY. Georgia (so named from George II) was founded in 1733 as the 13th original colony; she became the 4th original state. AREA AND POPULATION. Georgia is bounded north by Tennessee and North Carolina, north-east by South Carolina, east by the Atlantic, south by Florida and west by Alabama. Area, 58,910 sq. miles, of which 854 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 5,464,265. Estimate (1981), 5,639,000. Births, 1980, were 95,980 (17-5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 43,519 (7-9); infant deaths, 1,208 (12-6 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 69,416 (12-7); divorces and annulments, 33,636 (6-2). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,431,802 1,837,021 2,817,223

Negro 1,176,987 1,071,125 1,122,596

1970 1980

3,391,242 3,948,007

1,187,149 1,465,457

Indian 95 43 749

Asiatic 237 317 2,004

All others 11,184 50,801

Total 2,609,121 2,908,506 3,943,116

Per sq. mile 44-4 49-7 67-7

4,589,575 5,464,265

79 0 92-7

Of the 1980 population, 2,641,030 were male, 3,406,171 were urban and those 20 years of age and over numbered 3,601,895. The largest cities are: Atlanta (capital), with population, 1980 census, of422,293 (urbanized area, 2,010,368); Columbus, 168,598 (238,593); Savannah, 133,672 (225,581); Macon, 116,044 (251,736); Albany, 74,471 (112,257). CLIMATE. Atlanta. Jan. 43°F (6- 1°C), July 78"F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 49" (1,234 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A new constitution was ratified

GEORGIA

1447

in the general election of 2 Nov. 1976, proclaimed on 22 Dec. 1976 and became effective 1 Jan. 1977. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 56 members and a House of Representatives of 180 members, both elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Legislative sessions are annual, beginning the 2nd Monday in Jan. and lasting for 40 days. Georgia was the first state to extend the franchise to all citizens 18 years old and above. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 representatives. Registered voters, 1976, numbered 2,178,623. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,050,852 votes, Mondale, 696,181. The state capital is Atlanta. Georgia is divided into 159 counties. Governor: Joe F. Harris (D.), 1982-86 ($71,314). Lieut. - Governor: Zell Miller (D.), ($41,496). Secretary ofState: Max Cleland (D.), ($51,896). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 general revenue was $9,009m. (taxes, $4,666m.; federal aid, $2,158m.); general expenditure was $8,40 lm. (education, $2,900m.; public welfare, $895m.; hospitals, $1,384m.). On 30 June 1982 total liability was $6,877m. Estimated per capita personal income (1982), was $9,583. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Georgia is the leading producer of kaolin. The state ranks first in production of crushed and dimensional granite, second in production of filler's earth and marble (crushed and dimensional). Mineral products, 1981, had a value of $804m. Agriculture. In 1983, 55,000 farms covered 15m. acres; average farm was of 273 acres; average value per acre, $817. For 1982 cotton output was 235,000 bales (of 480 lb.). Other crops, 1982, included tobacco, 106m. lb; corn, 69m. bu.; soybeans, peanuts and pecans. Cash income, 1982, $3,210m: from crops, $l,550m.; from livestock, $ 1,660m. On 1 Jan. 1983 farm animals included 1 -9m. all cattle, including 130,000 milch cows, and 1 -4m. swine. Forestry. The forested area in 1980 was 25m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982 the state's manufacturing establishments had 501,000 workers; the main groups were textiles, transport equipment, food, wood products and paper, chemicals. Trade employed 520,000, services 372,000. T O U R I S M . In 1982 tourists spent $6,380m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage (Dec. 1980) was 134,500 including 88,900 rural and 11,850 primary federal-aided. Motor vehicles registered, 1981, numbered 3,850,000. Railways. In 1976 there were 5,417 miles of railways. A metro opened in Atlanta in 1979. Aviation. In 1981 there were 125 public and 168 private airports. Shipping. The principal port is Savannah. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. State prisons, 31 Dec. 1982, had 14,049 inmates. Since 1964 there have been two executions (for murder). From 1924 to 1964 there were 415 executions (electrocution), including 75 whites and 268 Negroes for murder, 3 whites and 63 Negroes for rape and 6 Negroes for armed robbery. Under a Local Option Act, the sale of alcoholic beverages (not including malt beverages and light wines) is prohibited in more than half the counties.

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Religion. An estimated 78% of the population are church members. Of the total population, 74-3% are Protestant, 3 • 2% are Roman Catholic and 1 • 5% Jewish. Education. Since 1945 education has been compulsory; tuition is free for pupils between the ages of 6 and 18 years. In 1981 there were 1,305 public elementary schools and 451 public secondary schools; in autumn 1982 they had lm. pupils and 56,510 teachers. Teachers' salaries averaged $17,400 in 1983. Integration in public schools is now an accepted practice. The University of Georgia (Athens) was founded in 1785 and was the first chartered State University in the US. Other institutions of higher learning include Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta), Emory University (Atlanta), Agnes Scott College (Decatur), Georgia College (Milledgeville), Georgia State University (Atlanta) and Mercer University (Macon). The Atlanta University Center, devoted primarily to Negro education, includes Clark College and Morris Brown College, co-educational, Morehouse, a liberal arts college for men, Interdenominational Theological Center, a co-educational theological school, and Spelman College, the first liberal arts college for Negro women in the US. Atlanta University serves as the graduate school centre for the complex. Wesleyan College near Macon is the oldest chartered women's college in the US. Total enrolment, 1982, was 198,000 in 80 institutions of higher education. Health. Hospitals licensed by the Department of Human Resources, 1980, numbered 191 with 31,100 beds. State facilities for the mentally retarded had 1,363 resident patients in 1980; there were 4,527 in mental care hospitals. Social Security. In Dec. 1980,71,100 persons were receiving SSI old-age assistance of an average $ 104 per month; 89,900 families were receiving as aid to dependent children an average of $133 per family; aid to 80,500 disabled persons was $163 monthly. Books of Reference Georgia History in Outline. Univ. ofGeorgia Press, Athens, 1978 Bonner, J. C., and Roberts, L. E., eds., Studies in Georgia History and Government. Reprint Company, Spartanburg, 1940 Repr. Pound, M. B., and Saye, A. B., Handbook on the Constitution of the U.S. and Georgia. Univ. of Georgia Press, Athens, 1978 Rowland, A. R., A Bibliography of the Writings on Georgia History. Hamden, Conn., 1978 Saye, A.B., A Constitutional History of Georgia, 1732-1968. Univ. of Georgia, Athens, Rev. ed., 1970 State Library: Judicial Building, Capital Sq., Atlanta. State Librarian: John D. M. Folger.

HAWAII HISTORY. The Hawaiian Islands, formerly known as the Sandwich Islands, were discovered by Capt. James Cook in Jan. 1778. During the greater part of the 19th century the islands formed an independent kingdom, but in 1893 the reigning Queen, Liliuokalani (died 11 Nov. 1917), was deposed and a provisional government formed; in 1894 a Republic was proclaimed, and in accordance with the request of the people of Hawaii expressed through the Legislature of the Republic, and a resolution of the US Congress of 6 July 1898 (signed 7 July by President McKinley), the islands were on 12 Aug. 1898 formally annexed to the US. On 14 June 1900 the islands were constituted as a Territory of Hawaii. Statehood was granted to Hawaii on 18 March 1959. AREA AND POPULATION. The Hawaiian Islands lie in the North Pacific Ocean, between 18° 50' and 28° 15' N. lat. and 154° 40' and 178* 15' W. long., about 2,090 nautical miles south-west of San Francisco. There are more than 20 islands in the group, of which 7 are inhabited. The land and inland water area of the state is 6,471 sq. miles, with census population, 1 April 1980, of 964,691, an increase of 194,778 or25-4%since 1970; density was 150 per sq. mile.

HAWAII

1449

The principal islands are Hawaii, 4,035 sq. miles (population, 1980, 92,053); Maui, 735 (62,823); Oahu, 618 (762,534); Kauai, 558 (38,856); Molokai, 264 (6,049); Lanai, 141 (2,119); Niihau, 71 (226); Kahoolawe, 46 (0). The capital Honolulu, on the island of Oahu, had a population in 1980 of365,017 and Hilo on the island of Hawaii, 35,269. Figures for racial groups, 1980, are; 331,925 White, 239,734 Japanese, 132,075 Filipinos, 118,251 Hawaiian, 55,916 Chinese, 17,453 Korean, 17,687 Negroes, 51,650 all others. Of the total, approximately 92% were citizens of the US. Inter-marriage between the races is popular. Of the 11,856 persons married in the calendar year 1980,37 • 6% married a wife or husband of a different race. Births, 1982, were 18,675; deaths, 5,123; infant deaths, 158; marriages, 13,483; divorces and annulments, 4,233. C L I M A T E . All the islands have a tropical climate, with an abrupt change in conditions between windward and leeward sides, most marked in rainfall. Temperatures vary little. Honolulu. Jan. 71°F(21 -7°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 31" (775 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution took effect on 21 Aug. 1959. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 25 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 51 members elected for 2 years. The constitution provides for annual meetings of the legislature with 60-day regular sessions. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The registered voters, 1982, numbered 405,005. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 183,998 votes, Mondale, 145,975. Governor: George R. Ariyoshi (D.), 1983-86 ($59,400). Lieut. - Governor: John Waihee (D.), 1983-86(553,460). BUDGET. Revenue is derived mainly from taxation of sales and gross receipts, real property, corporate and personal income, and inheritance taxes, licences, public land sales and leases. For the year ending 30 June 1982 state general fund receipts amounted to $l,148-3m.; special fund receipts, $841 -lm., and federal grants, $370-65m. State expenditures were $l,958-5m. (education, $632-6m.; highways, $48-9m.; public welfare, $317-2m.; figures include both special and general funds). Net long-term debt, 31 Dec. 1982,amounted to $2,359-5m. Estimated per capita personal income (1982) was $ 11,652. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Total value of mineral production, 1981, amounted to $58 • 7m. Cement shipped from plants amounted to 312,000 short tons; stone, 6 04m. short tons. Agriculture. Farming is highly commercialized, aiming at export to the American market, and highly mechanized. In 1981 there were 4,400 farms with an acreage of 1 -97m. Sugar and pineapples are the staple crops. Income from crop sales, 1982, was $434-3m., and from livestock, $78-3m. The sugar crop was valued at $230-8m.; pineapples, $99-5m.; other crops, $ 104m. Forestry. Commercial forests totalled 948,000 acres (1977 census); state lands in 1983, 1 -2m. acres. Land held by the federal government in 1983 totalled 328,414 acres. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. In 1978 manufacturing establishments employed 23,700 production

1450

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

workers who earned an estimated $285-2m.; value added by manufacture was estimated at $782-9m. Commerce. In 1981 imports of newsprint, fertilizer, lumber, feed, crude oil and other products from foreign countries such as Saudi Arabia, Indonesia and Japan were $l,982-2m.; exports, primarily food and manufactures, amounted to $23 7-7m. Tourism. Tourism is an outstanding factor in Hawaii's economy. Tourist arrivals numbered 109,798 in 1955, and reached 4-24m. in 1982. Tourist expenditures, totalling $55m. in 1955, contributed $3,700m. to the state's economy in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 671,513 motor vehicles, and a total of 4,060 miles of highways (including 36 miles of federally assisted highways). Aviation. There were 8 commercial airports in 1982; passengers arriving from overseas numbered 4-6m., and there were 7 • 3m. passengers between the islands. Shipping. Several lines of steamers connect the islands with the mainland USA, Canada, Australia, the Philippines, China and Japan. In 1980, 10,096 inbound vessels entered Hawaiian ports. Post. There were 728,352 telephones at 31 Dec. 1981. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is no capital punishment in Hawaii. Religion. The residents of Hawaii are mainly Christians, though there are many Buddhists. A sample survey in 1979 showed that 31% were Roman Catholic, 34% Protestant, 12% Buddhist, 2 • 5% Latter Day Saints. Education. Education is free, and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 18. The language in the schools is English. In 1982—83 there were 233 public schools (162,024 pupils with 8,083 teachers) and 140 private schools (38,105 pupils and 2,219 teachers) ranging from kindergarten through the 12th grade. The University of Hawaii, founded in 1907, had 20,629 day students in 1981; total university and college attendance 1982-83, 67,778 at the University and Community colleges, 6,619 at private colleges (1981—82). Social Security. During 1981 the state spent $286-7m., the federal government provided $137-7m. of this. In 1981 there were 25 non-military hospitals (2,925 beds) listed by the Department of Health. During 1982 the average number of persons served by major welfare programmes was 68,835. Books of Reference Government in Hawaii. Tax Foundation of Hawaii. Honolulu, 1984 Guide to Government in Hawaii. 8th ed. Legislative Reference Bureau. State of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1984 All About Hawaii: Thrum's Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Honolulu, 1875to 1974 Current Hawaiiana (quarterly bibliography). Hawaii Library Association, Honolulu Allen, G. E., Hawaii's War Years. 2 vols. Hawaii Univ. Press, 1950-52 Bell, R. J., Last Among Equals: Hawaiian Statehood and American Politics. Honolulu, 1984 Kuykendall, R. S., and Day, A. G., Hawaii, A History. Rev. ed. New Jersey, 1961 Morgan, J. R„ Hawaii. Boulder, 1982 Pukui, M. K., and Elbert, S. H., Hawaiian-English Dictionary. Honolulu, 1957

IDAHO HISTORY. Idaho was first permanently settled in 1860, although there was a mission for Indians in 1836 and a Mormon settlement in 1855. It was organized as a Territory in 1863 and admitted into the Union as a state on 3 July 1890.

IDAHO

1451

AREA A N D POPULATION. Idaho is bounded north by Canada, east by the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, south by Nevada and Utah, west by Oregon and Washington. Area, 83,564 sq. miles, of which 1,153 sq. miles are inland water. In 1970 the federal government owned 33,979,389 acres (64% of the state area). Census population, 1 April 1980, 943,935, an increase of 32-4% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 989,000. Births, 1983, 18,742 (19-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 7,204 (7-4); infant deaths, 195 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 13,421 (13-8); divorces, 6,228 (6-4). P o p u l a t i o n in 5 census years was: White Negro Indian 1910 319,221 651 3,488 1930 438,840 668 3,638 1960 1,502 657,383 5,231 1970 693,375 3,655 5,413 1980

901,641

2,716

Asiatic 2,234 1,886 2,958 2,526

All others 39,578

Total 325,594 445,032 667,191 713,008

Per sq. mile 3-9 5-4 81 8-5

943,935

11 -3

Of the total 1980 population, 471,155 were male, 509,702 were urban and those 20 years of age or older 600,242. The largest cities are Boise (capital) with 1980 census population of 102,160 (1982 estimate, 104,586); Pocatello, 46,340 (46,494); Idaho Falls, 39,734 (40,700); Lewiston, 27,986 (27,762); Twin Falls, 26,209 (26,947); Nampa, 25,112 (26,242). C L I M A T E . Boise. Jan. 29°F(-1-7°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (303 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. The constitution adopted in 1890 is still in force; it has had 104 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 42 members and a House of Representatives of 84 members, all the legislators being elected for 2 years. The Governor, Lieut.-Governor and Secretary of State are elected for 4 years. Voters are citizens, over the age of 18 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 296,687 votes, Mondale, 108,447. The state is divided into 44 counties. The capital is Boise. Governor: John V. Evans (D.), 1983-86 ($50,000). Lieut.-Governor: David Leroy (R.), 1983-86 ($ 14,000). Secretary of State: Pete Cenarrusa (R.), 1983-86 ($37,500). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1984 (State Auditor's Office) general revenues were $504-5m. and general expenditures included education, $506-8m. (which includes $7-7m. outstanding obligations), transport, $183-5m., and health and welfare, $ 195 • 8m. (which includes $66 • 6m. General Account money). Per capita personal income (1982) was $9,210. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Production of the most important minerals (1983): Lead, 25,726 tonnes; silver, 17-7m. troy oz.; copper, 3,556 tonnes; antimony, 585 short tons. There is some gold, zinc and vanadium. Non-metallic minerals include phosphate rock, barite, clay, garnet, gypsum, perlite, lime, cement, pumice, sand and gravel and dimension stone. Value of total mineral output was $415m. in 1983. Agriculture. Agriculture is the leading industry, although a great part of the state is naturally arid. Extensive irrigation works have been carried out, bringing an estimated 4m. acres under irrigation; 83 reservoirs have a total capacity of 10-4m. acre-ft, 7 -3m. acre-fi of which is primarily used for irrigation. In 1984 there were 24,000 farms with a total area of 14-7m. acres (27% of the land area); average farm had 598 acres with land and buildings valued at approximately $700 per acre.

1452

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

In 1984 there were 51 soil conservation districts, managed by local farmers and ranchers, covering most of the state. Cash receipts from marketings, 1983, was $2,082m. ($l,134m. from crops and $894m. from livestock). The most important crops are potatoes and wheat— potatoes leading all states; in 1983 the production amounted to 83-6m. cwt, cash receipts $288m. Other crops are sugar-beet, alfalfa, barley, field peas and beans, onions and apples. On 1 Jan. 1984 the number of sheep was 383,000; milch cows, 174,000; all cattle, l-89m.; swine, 120,000. Forestry. In 1983 a total of 20,635,700 acres (37-6% of the state's area) was in forests; 13,540,600 acres of this was commercial (non-reserved) forest. The volume of sawtimber in commercial forests was 139,600m. bd ft. The stumpage value of forest products was about $124m., and about $53 lm. was added by processing. Ownership of commercial forests is 70% federal, 6-5% state and local government, 0-5% Indian, 22 • 3% private. Some 16,100 workers are involved in forestry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1980 there were about 1,500 manufacturing establishments and they employed about 48,000 workers; value added by manufacture was $ 1,931 m. T O U R I S M . Money spent by travellers in 1983 was about $l,100m. Estimated state and local tax receipts from tourism, $48m. Jobs generated, 25,000 (pay-roll over $300m.). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state maintained in 1983, 4,951 miles of the total of 67,254 miles of public roads; 722,401 passenger vehicles were registered in 1983. Railways. The state had (1984) 1,910 miles of railways (including 2 AMTRAK routes) operated by 3 companies and serving all but 3 counties. Aviation. There were 71 municipally owned airports in 1983. Shipping. Water transport is provided from the Pacific to the Port of Lewiston, by way of the Columbia and Snake rivers, a distance of464 miles. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. The death penalty may be imposed for first degree murder, but the judge must consider mitigating circumstances before imposing a sentence of death. Since 1926 only 3 men (white) have been executed, by hanging (2 in 1951 and 1 in 1957). At 1 Oct. 1984 12 prison inmates (11 men and 1 woman) were under sentence of death. Execution is now by lethal injection. The state prison system, 1 Oct. 1984, had 1,137 inmates. Religion. The leading religious denominations are the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon Church), Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Lutherans. Education. In 1983-84 public elementary schools (grades K to 6) had 116,474 pupils and 5,285 classroom teachers; secondary schools had 91,891 pupils and 4,844 classroom teachers. Average salary, 1983-84, of elementary and secondary classroom teachers, $18,012. The University of Idaho, founded at Moscow in 1889, had 451 professors and 9,239 students in 1983-84. There are 9 other institutions of higher education; 5 of them are public institutions with a total enrolment (1983-84) of 23,880 (excluding vocational-technical colleges). Social Welfare. Old-age assistance is granted to persons 65 years of age. In Aug. 1984, 1,020 persons were drawing an average of $104.85 per month; 6,337 families with 11,551 children were drawing an average of $244.05 per case (or $88.74 per eligible person); 23 blind persons, $88.08; 508 children were receiving $207.37 per child for foster care. Health. In Sept. 1984 skilled nursing covered 4,535 beds; intermediate care,

ILLINOIS

1453

119; intermediate care for the mentally retarded 568. Hospitals had 3,524 beds and home health agencies totalled 29. Books of Reference Idaho Blue Book. Secretary ofState. Boise, 1981-82 Idaho. Idaho First National Bank Idaho Almanac. Division of Economic and Community Affairs, 1977 Idaho's Yesterdays. State Historical Society. Quarterly

ILLINOIS HISTORY. Illinois was first discovered by Joliet and Marquette, two French explorers, in 1673. In 1763 the country was ceded by the French to the British. In 1783 Great Britain recognized the United States' title to the land that became Illinois; it was organized as a Territory in 1809 and admitted into the Union on 3 Dec. 1818. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Illinois is bounded north by Wisconsin, northeast by Lake Michigan, east by Indiana, south-east by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Kentucky), west by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Missouri and Iowa). Area, 56,400 sq. miles, of which 652 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1980, 11,426,518, an increase of 2-71% since 1970. Estimate (1982), 11,448,000. Births in 1980 were 186,578; deaths, 100,356; infant deaths, 2,693; marriages 110,667; divorces, 50,405. Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 5,526,962 7,295,267 9,010,252

Negro 109,049 328,972 1,037,470

1970 1980

9,600,381 9,233,327

1,425,674 1,675,398

Indian 188 469 4,704

All others 2,392 5,946 28,732

All others 87,921 517,793

Total 5,638,591 7,630,654 10,081,158

Per sq. mile 100-6 136 4 180-3

11,113,976 11,426,518

199-4 203-0

Of the total population in 1980, 5,537,737 were male, 9,518,039 persons were urban and 5,597,360 were 18 years of age or older. The most populous cities with population (1980 census), are: Chicago Rockford Peona Springfield (cap.) Decatur Joliet Aurora Evanston Waukegan Elgin

3,005,072 139,712 124,160 99,637 94,081 77,956 81,293 73,706 67,653 63,798

Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area population, 1980 census (and 1982 estimate): Chicago, 7,102,378 (7,215,200); East St Louis, 565,874 (300,300); Peoria, 365,864 (363,500); Rockford, 279,514 (279,200); Springfield, 176,089 (187,700); Decatur, 131,375(129,900). CLIMATE. Chicago. Jan. 25°F (-3 -9°C), July 73"F(22 -8°C). Annual rainfall 33" (836 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution became effective 1 July 1971. The General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives of 118 members, elected for 2 years and a Senate of 59 members who are divided into three groups; in one, they are elected for terms of four years, four years, and two years; in the next, for terms of four years, two years, and four

1454

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

years; and in the last, for terms of two years, four years, and four years. Sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected as a team for 4 years; the Comptroller and Secretary of State are elected for 4 years. Electors are citizens 18 years of age, having the usual residential qualifications. The state is divided into legislative districts, in each of which 1 senator is chosen; each district is divided into 2 representative districts, in each of which 1 representative is chosen. Illinois is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 22 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,667,721 votes, Mondale, 2,036,337. The capital is Springfield. The state has 102 counties. Governor: James R. Thompson (R.), 1983-86 ($58,000). Lieut.-Governor: Georee Ryan(R.), 1983-86 ($45,500). Secretary of State: Jim Edgar, 1983-86 ($50,500). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1983 general revenues were $14,595m. and general expenditures were $ 14,671 m. Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1981, was $6,919 • 6m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $ 12,626. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Chief mineral product is coal; 61 operative mines had an output (1982) of 61-43m. tons. Mineral production also included: Crude petroleum and fluorspar. Total value of mineral products, 1980, was $2,770m. Agriculture. In 1982, 98,467 farms had an area of 28-7m. acres; the average farm was 292 acres. Cash receipts, 1982, from crops, $5,890-9m.; from livestock and livestock products, $2,221 m. Illinois is a large producer of maize and soybeans, the state's leading cash commodities. Output, 1981: maize, 1,453m. bu.; soybeans, 355m. bu; wheat, 92-5m. bu. In Jan. 1982 there were 234,000 milch cows, 2-8m. all cattle, 195,000 sheep and 5 -4m. swine. The wool clip in 1981 was 1 • 3m. lb. Forestry. National forest area under the US Forest Service administration, 1981, was 262,000 acres. Total forest land, 3 • 8m. acres. I N D U S T R Y AND TRADE Industry. In 1982, manufacturing establishments employed 1,117,477 workers; annual payroll, $23,314- 14m. Largest industry was machinery (excluding electrical). Labour. In 1983 there were 4-5m. employees, of whom 951,000 were in manufacturing, 1 • 1 m. in trade, 1 • 01 m. in services, 700,000 in government. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 5-9m. passenger cars, 11m. trucks and buses, 12,912 taxis, liveries and ambulances, 562,068 trailers, 325,969 motor cycles and 234,067 other vehicles registered in the state. In 1983 there were 17,307 miles of state administered roads. There were 4,291 miles of interstate or freeway roads. Railways. There were 1981, 10,143 miles of Class I railway. Chicago is served by Amtrak long-distance trains on several routes, and by a metro (CTA) system, and by 7 groups of commuter railways controlled by the Northeast Illinois Railroad Corporation. Shipping. In 1981 the seaport of Chicago handled 31,599,167 short tons of cargo. Aviation. There were (1984) 125 public airports and 780 restricted landing areas. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. In 1980 there were no executions; since 1930 there have been 90 execu-

ILLINOIS

1455

tions (electrocution), including 58 white men, 1 white woman and 31 Negro men, all for murder. In Dec. 1984 the total average daily prison population was 18,010. A Civil Rights Act (1941), as amended, bans all forms of discrimination by places of public accommodation, including inns, restaurants, retail stores, railroads, aeroplanes, buses, etc., against persons on account of'race, religion, colour, national ancestry or physical or mental handicap'; another section similarly mentions 'race or colour.' The Fair Employment Practices Act of 1961, as amended, prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, colour, sex, religion, national origin or ancestry, by employers, employment agencies, labour organizations and others. These principles are embodied in the 1971 constitution. Religion. Among the larger religious denominations are: Roman Catholic, Jewish, United Presbyterian Church, USA, Lutheran Church in America, Lutheran Church Missouri Synod, American Baptist, Disciples ofChrist, and Methodist. Education. Education is free and compulsory for children between 7 and 16 years of age. In autumn 1983 public school elementary enrolments were 1,271,525 pupils and 40,025 teachers; secondary enrolments, 581,791 pupils and 24,096 teachers. Enrolment (1982-83) in non-public schools was 263,146 elementary and 89,041 secondary. Teachers' salaries, 1980-81, averaged $ 19,519. Total enrolment in 179 institutions of higher education (autumn 1982) was 744,636. Colleges and universities with over 3,000 students: . Founded 1851 1857 1867 1867 1869 1870 1890 1895 1895 1897 1898 1899 1940 1945 1961 1 2 3

Name Northwestern University Illinois State University University of Illinois Chicago State University' Southern Illinois University Loyola University University ofChicago Eastern Illinois University Northern Illinois University Bradley University DePaul University Western Illinois University Illinois Institute of Technology 2 Roosevelt University Northeastern Illinois University'

Place Evanston Normal Urbana Chicago Carbondale Chicago Chicago Charleston DeKalb Peoria Chicago Macomb Chicago Chicago Chicago

Control Methodist Public Public Public Public Roman Catholic Non-Sect. Public Public Non-Sect. Roman Catholic Public Non-Sect. Non-Sect. Public

1982 Enrolment 15,703 20,565 65,483 7,389 34,831 14,860 9,013 10,354 25,676 5,637 12,867 12,411 6,926 6,685 10,349

Formerly Illinois Teachers College (South). Illinois Institute of Technology formed in 1940 by merger of two older technical schools. Formerly Illinois Teachers' College (North).

Health. In 1983 hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association numbered 281, with 71,211 beds. In 1980 state institutions for the mentally retarded had 3,791 residents and state hospitals for the mentally ill, 4,368. Social Security. State-administered Supplemental Security Income (SSI) was paid to 31,834 recipients in financial year 1984; payments totalled $31 m.; medical payments, $79-3m. Aid to families with dependent children was paid to 245,767 families, average monthly payment per family, $293-07; total payments, $864-3m.; medical payments, $442 -5m. Books of Reference Blue Book of the State of Illinois. Edited by Secretary of State. Springfield. Biennial Angle, P. M., and Beyer, R. L., A Handbook of Illinois History. Illinois State Historical Society, Springfield, 1943 Clayton, J., The Illinois Fact Book and Historical Almanac 1673-1968. Southern Illinois Univ., 1970 Howard, R. P., Illinois: A History of the Prairie State. Grand Rapids, 1972 Pease, T. C., The Story of Illinois. 3rd ed. Chicago, 1965 The Illinois Stale Library: Springfield, 11.62756. Stale Librarian:Mm Edgar.

1456

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

INDIANA HISTORY. Indiana, first settled in 1732-33, was made a Territory in 1800 and admitted into the Union on 11 Dec. 1816. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Indiana is bounded west by Illinois, north by Michigan and Lake Michigan, east by Ohio and south by Kentucky across the Ohio River. Area, 36,185 sq. miles, of which 253 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 5,490,224, an increase of 294,832 or 5-7% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 5,479,000. In 1983 births were 80,777 (14-7 per 1,000 population); deaths 47,698 (8-7); infant deaths, 923 (11 -4 per 1,000 live births); marriages 53,982 (9-9). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 2,639,961 3,125,778 4,388,554

Negro 60,320 111,982 269,275

1970 1980

4,820,324 5,004,394

357,464 414,785

Indian 279 285 948

Asiatic 316 458 2,447

Alt others 15,881 71,045

Total Per sq. mile 2,700,876 74-9 89-4 3,238,503 4,662,498 128-9 5,193,669 5,490,224

143-9 152-8

Of the total in 1980,2,665,805 were male, 3,525,298 were urban and 3,545,431 were 21 years of age or older. The largest cities with population (census 1980) are: Indianapolis (capital), 711,539; Fort Wayne, 172,196; Gary, 151,953; Evansville, 130,496; South Bend, 109,727; Hammond, 93,714; Muncie, 77,216; Anderson, 64,695; Terre Haute, 61,125. C L I M A T E . Indianapolis. Jan. 29°F (-1 7°C), July 76°F (24-4X). Annual rainfall 41" (1,034 mm). See The Mid-West, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution (the second) dates from 1851; it has had (as of Nov. 1983) 34 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. A constitutional amendment of 1970 allows the legislators to set the length and frequency of sessions, which are currently held annually. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,332,679 votes, Mondale, 814,659. The state capital is Indianapolis. The state is divided into 92 counties and 1,008 townships. Governor: Robert D. Orr (R.), 1984-88 ($66,000 plus expenses). Lieut. - Governor: John Mutz (R.), 1984-88 ($51,000 plus expenses). Secretary of Stale: Edwin Simcox(R.), 1982-86 ($46,000). B U D G E T . In the fiscal year 1982-83 (US Census Bureau figures) total revenues were $6,166-4m. ($1,271-5m. from federal government, $3,195-7m. from taxes), total expenditures were $5,843-3m. ($2,385m. for education, $837m. for public welfare and $546m. for highways). Total long-term debt, on 30 June 1983, was $1,061 m. Per capita personal income (1981) was $9,720. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The state produced 30-9m. short tons of crushed limestone and 161,000 short tons of dimension limestone in 1980; the output of coal was 30-9m. short tons; petroleum, 5m. bbls (of 42 gallons). Agriculture. Indiana is largely agricultural, about 75% of its total area being in

INDIANA

1457

farms. In 1982, 77,200 farms had 16m. acres (average, 211 acres). Cash income, 1982, from crops, $2,439m.; from livestock and products, $ 1,792m. The chief crops (1982) were maize (815m. bu.), winter wheat (46-4m. bu.), oats (6-lm. bu.), soybeans (183-2m. bu.), popcorn, rye, barley, hay (alfalfa, clover, timothy), lespedeza seed, mint, clover seed, apples, strawberries, tomatoes, watermelons and tobacco. The livestock on 1 Jan. 1982 included l-75m. all cattle, 207,000 milch cows, 138,000 sheep and lambs, 4 1 m . swine, 21-9m. chickens. In 1982 the wool clip yielded 852,000 lb. of wool from 124,000 sheep. Forestry. The national forests area, 9 Sep. 1983, was 188,252 acres; 13 state forests and 2 state nurseries totalled 142,336 acres in July 1983. INDUSTRY. Manufacturing establishments employed, in 1981, 649,032 workers, earning $ 13,541 • 8m. The steel industry is the largest in the country. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 91,469 miles of highways, roads and streets, of which 66,412 miles were county highways and 11,148 miles state highways. Motor vehicles registered, 1982,4,342,071. Railways. In 1980 there were 5,252 miles of mainline railway, 921 miles of secondary track and 3,295 miles of side and yard track. Aviation. Of airports, 1981, 125 were for public use, 401 were private and 3 were military. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. In 1963-80 there were no executions; in 1981 there was one (electrocution), for murder, since 1930 there have been 2 others (electrocution),' both for murder. State correctional institutions, 1 Oct. 1983, had 9,971 inmates. The Civil Rights Act of 1885 forbids places of public accommodation to bar any persons on grounds not applicable to all citizens alike; no citizen may be disqualified for jury service 'on account of race or colour'. An Act of 1947 makes it an offence to spread religious or racial hatred. A 1961 Act provided ' a l l . . . citizens equal opportunity for education, employment and access to public conveniences and accommodations' and created a Civil Rights Commission. Religion. Religious denominations include Methodists, Roman Catholic, Disciples of Christ, Baptists, Lutheran, Presbyterian churches, Society of Friends. Education. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 16 years. In 1981-82 public and parochial schools, had 1,123,812 pupils and 49,019 teachers. Teachers' salaries, grades 1-12, averaged $18,645. Total expenditure for public schools, $2,455-9m. The principal institutions for higher education are ( 1981 -82): Founded 1801 1824 1837 1842 1850 1859 1870 1874 1898 1963

Institution Vincennes University Indiana University, Bloomington De Pauw University, Greencastle University of Notre Dame Butler University, Indianapolis Valparaiso University, Valparaiso Indiana State University, Terre Haute Purdue University, Lafayette Ball State University, Muncie Indiana Vocational Technical College, Indianapolis 1 1982-83.

Control State State Methodist R.C. Independent Evangelical Lutheran Church State State State State

Students (full-time) 3,724 38,930 2,034 5,851 2,067 3,555 10,118 33,095 13,917

45,000'

1458

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Health. Hospitals listed by the Indiana State Board of Health (1981) numbered 120 (23,929 beds). On 30 June 1982, 11 state mental hospitals had 6,512 patients enrolled (4,519 present). Social Security. Old-age assistance, assistance to the blind and to the disabled were transferred from state to federal programmes in June 1974. In Jan.-June 1983, state supplemental assistance and/or Federal Supplemental Security assistance was paid to an average of 12,164 elderly persons per month (total $7 -6m.), 1,175 blind ($ 1 • 3m.) and 25,798 disabled ($26 • 89m.). Books of Reference Indiana State Chamber of Commerce. Here is Your Indiana Government. 21 st ed. Indianapolis, 1983 State Library: Indiana State Library, 140 North Senate, Indianapolis 46204. Director: C. Ray Ewick.

IOWA HISTORY. Iowa, first settled in 1788, was made a Territory in 1838 and admitted into the Union on 28 Dec. 1846. AREA AND POPULATION. Iowa is bounded east by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Wisconsin and Illinois), south by Missouri, west by the Missouri River (forming the boundary with Nebraska), north-west by the Big Sioux River (forming the boundary with South Dakota) and north by Minnesota. Area, 56,275 sq. miles, including 310 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,913,387, an increase of 3-17% since 1970. Estimate, 1984, 2,836,890. Births, 1983, were 43,247; deaths, 27,509; infant deaths, 385; marriages, 26,769; dissolutions of marriages, 10,588. Population in 5 census years was: 1870 1930 1960

White 1,188,207 2,452,677 2,729,286

Negro 5,762 17,380 25,354

1970 1980

2,782,762 2,838,805

32,596 41,700

Indian 48 660 1,708

Asiatic 3 222 1,022

All others 10,010 32,882

Total 1,194,020 2,470,939 2,757,537 2,825,368 2,913,387

Persq. mile 21-5 44-1 49-2 50-5 51-7

At the census of 1980, 1,416,195 were male, 1,624,547 were urban and 1,971,502 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities in the state, with their census population in 1980 are: Des Moines (capital), 191,003; Cedar Rapids, 110,243; Davenport, 103,243; Sioux City, 82,003; Waterloo, 75,985; Dubuque, 62,321; Council BlufTs, 56,449; Iowa City, 50,508; Ames, 45,775; Cedar Falls, 36,322; Clinton, 32,828; Mason City, 30,144; Burlington, 29,529; Fort Dodge, 29,423; Ottumwa, 27,381. CLIMATE. Cedar Rapids. Jan. 18-5°F (-7-5°C), July 74-3°F (23-5°C). Annual rainfall 36" (903 mm). Des Moines. Jan. 18-6'F (-7-5X), July 76-3°F (29-6°C). Annual rainfall 31" (773 mm). See The Mid-West, p. 1372. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution of 1857 still exists; it has had 37 amendments. The General Assembly comprises a Senate of 50 and a House of Representatives of 100 members, meeting annually for an unlimited session. Senators are elected for 4 years, half retiring every second year, representatives for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. Iowa is divided into 99 counties; the capital is Des Moines. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 698,239 votes, Mondale, 601,946.

IOWA

1459

Governor: Terry Branstad (R.), 1983-86 ($64,000). Lieut-Governor: Robert Anderson (D.), 1983-86 ($21,900). Secretary of State: Mary Jane Odell (R.) ($41,000). B U D G E T . For fiscal year 1983 state tax revenue was $l,732 0m. General expenditures were $l,526m. for education, $586-3m. for public welfare, and $971- 5m. for transport. On 30 June 1982 the net long-term debt was $857 • 3m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $ 10,791. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The leading products by value are crushed stone (28-4m. tons in 1983) and cement (1 -68m. short tons in 1983). Coalfields produced 526,929 tons in 1982. The value of mineral products, 1983, was $247 -4m. Agriculture. Iowa is the wealthiest of the agriculture states, partly because nearly the whole area (95-5%) is arable and included in farms. It has escaped large-scale commercial farming. The average farm (in 1983) was 293 acres. Cash farm income (1983 estimate) was $9,986-9m.; from livestock, $5,960-9m., and from crops, $4,026m. Production of corn in 1983 was 744m. bu. Red meat production in 1983 totalled 5,955m. lb. On 1 Dec. 1983 livestock included swine, 14-8m. (leading all states); milch cows, 385,000; all cattle, 6-0m., and sheep and lambs, 425,000. The wool clip(1983)yielded3-9m. lb.ofwool. I N D U S T R Y . In 1981 manufacturing establishments employed 235,800 people with annual payroll at $4,520-4m., value added by manufacture was $11,570m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1983 number of miles of streets and highways was 112,362; there were 2-6m. licensed drivers and 2-9m. registered vehicles. Railways. The state, 1983, had 5,027 miles of track, and 6 Class I railways. Aviation. Airports (1983), numbered 350, including 138 lighted airports and 93 all-weather runways. There were almost 3,100 private aircraft. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. There is now no capital punishment in Iowa. State prisons, 14 Oct. 1984, had 2,703 inmates. Religion. Chief religious bodies in 1980 were: Roman Catholic (542,698 members); United Methodists, 258,252; American Lutheran, 200,712 baptised members; United Presbyterians, 85,000; United Church ofChrist, 50,679. Education. School attendance is compulsory for 24 consecutive weeks annually during school age (7-16). In 1983-84 553,851 were attending primary and secondary schools; 50,735 pupils attending non-public schools. Classroom teachers numbered 20,140 with average salary of $19,257. Total expenditure on public schools in 1983-84 was $1,323,969,054. Leading institutions for higher education (1983-84) were: Founded 1843 1847 1847 1852 1853 1858 1876 1881 1881 1894

Institution Clarke College, Dubuque University of Iowa, Iowa City Grinnell College, Grinnell WartburgCollege, Waverly Cornell College, Mount Vemon Iowa State University, Ames Univ. of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls Drake University, Des Moines Coe College, Cedar Rapids Morningside College, Sioux City

Full-time Control Professors Independent 50 1,601 State 102 Independent 65 American Lutheran Independent 63 1,554 State 570 State 273 Independent 75 Independent 66 Methodist

Students 906 29,599 1,131 1,140 962 26,020 11,204 6,008 1,371 1,233

1460

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Health. In 1984, the state had 137 hospitals (about 20,019 beds). In Oct. 1983 hospitals for mental diseases had 2,022 resident patients. Social Security. Iowa has a Civil Rights Act (1939) which makes it a misdemeanour for any place of public accommodation to deprive any person of'full and equal enjoyment' of the facilities it offers the public. Supplemental security income (SSI) assistance is available for the aged (65 or older), the blind and the disabled. In May 1984, 9,093 elderly persons were drawing an average of $105 per month, 1,052 blind persons $206 per month, and 15,871 disabled persons $206 per month. Aid to dependent children, established in 1974, was received by 39,700 families representing 113,100 persons at a monthly average of $334 per family. Books of Reference Statistical Information: State Departments of Health, Public Instruction and Social Services; State Aeronautics, Commerce and Development Commissions; Crop and Livestock Reporting Services, Des Moines; Iowa Dept. of Transportation, Ames; Geological Survey, Iowa City; Iowa College Aid Commission. Annual Survey of Manufactures. US Department of Commerce Government Finance. US Department of Commerce Official Register. Secretary of State. Des Moines. Biennial Petersen, W. J., Iowa History Reference Guide. Iowa City, 1952 Smeal, L., Iowa Historical and Biographical Index. New York, 1984 Vexier, R. I., Iowa Chronology andFactbook. Oceana, 1978 Iowa State Library: Des Moines 50319.

KANSAS HISTORY. Kansas, settled in 1727, was made a Territory (along with part of Colorado) in 1854, and was admitted into the Union with its present area on 29 Jan. 1861. AREA AND POPULATION. Kansas is bounded north by Nebraska, east by Missouri, with the Missouri River as boundary in the north-east, south by Oklahoma and west by Colorado. Area, 82,277 sq. miles, including 499 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,364,236, an increase of 51% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 2,408,000. Vital statistics, 1981: Births, 41,202 (17-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 21,579 (9); infant deaths, 452 (11 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 26,137(10-9); divorces 13,484 (5 -6). Population in 5 federal census years was: 1870 1930 1960

White 346,377 1,811,997 2,078,666

Negro 17,108 66,344 91,445

1970 1980

2,122,068 2,168,221

106,977 126,127

Indian 914 2,454 5,069

Asiatic — 204 2,271

All others 17,533 69,888

Total 364,399 1,880,999 2,178,611

Persq. mite 4-5 22-9 26-3

2,249,071 2,364,236

27-5 28-8

Ofthe total population in 1980,1,156,941 were male, 1,575,899 were urban and those 20 years of age or older numbered 1,620,368. Cities, with 1980 census population, are Wichita, 279,835; Kansas City, 161,148; Topeka (capital), 115,266; Overland Park, 81,784; Lawrence, 52,738. CLIMATE. Dodge City. Jan. 29°F (-1 -7°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 21" (518 mm). Kansas City. Jan. 30"F (-1 • 1°C), July 79°F (26- PC). Annual rainfall 38" (947 mm). Topeka. Jan. 28"F(-2-2°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 35" (875 mm). Wichita. Jan. 31°F (-0-6°C), July 81°F (27-2'Q. Annual rainfall 31" (777 mm). See Mid-West, p. 1372.

KANSAS

1461

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The year 1861 saw the adoption of the present constitution; it has had 78 amendments. The Legislature includes a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 125 members, elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The right to vote (with the usual exceptions) is possessed by all citizens. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and S representatives. The state was the first (of 42 states) to establish in 1933 a Legislative Council; this is now called the Legislative Coordinating Council and has 7 members. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 649,423 votes, Mondale, 321,010. The capital is Topeka. The state is divided into 105 counties. Governor: John Carlin (D.), 1983-86 ($54,784). Lieut.-Govemor: Thomas Docking (D.), 1983-86 ($ 16,436). Secretary of State: Jack H. Brier (R.) ($33,480). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1982 (Governor's Budget Report) general revenue fund was $2,641,221,484. General expenditures were $ 1,333,496,424. Bonded debt outstanding for 1982 amounted to $316 -9m. Per capita personal income (1981) was $ 10,824. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Important minerals are coal, petroleum, natural gas, lead and zinc. Value of production (1980), $2,478m. Agriculture. Kansas is pre-eminently agricultural, but sometimes suffers from lack ofrainfall in the west. In 1982, 76,000 farms covered 48-5m. acres; average farm, 638 acres. Cash income, 1982, from crops was $2,470m.; from livestock and products, $3,305-3m. Kansas is a great wheat-producing state. Its output in 1982 was 462m. bu. Other crops in 1982 (in bushels) were maize, 140-2m.; sorghum, 207-7m.; soybeans, 47m.; oats, 7-5m.; barley, 2-3m. The state has an extensive livestock industry, comprising, on 1 Jan. 1983, 127,000 milch cows, 5-75m. all cattle, 190,000 sheep and lambs l -67m. swine. Wool clip (1981), 1,684,000 lb. from 230,000 sheep. INDUSTRY. Employment distribution (1982): 24-7% in trade; 20-3% in government; 18-8% in services; 18-1% in manufacturing; 6-7% in transport and utilities; 4.3% in finance, insurance and real estate; 4-1% in construction; 2% in mining. Value added by manufacture in 1980 was $7,498m. The slaughtering industry, other food processing, aircraft, the manufacture of transport equipment and petroleum refining are important. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in Dec. 1982 had 135,087 miles of roads and streets including 8,916 miles of interstate and other primary and federally-aided highways. Railways. There were 7,273 miles of railway in Jan. 1982. Aviation. There were 384 airports and landing strips in 1983, of which 168 were public. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There were 3,390 prisoners in state institutions, 30 June 1983. The death penalty (by hanging) for murder was abolished in 1907 and restored in 1935; there have been no executions since 1968; executions 1934 to 1968 have been 15 (all for murder). For the various Civil Rights Acts forbidding racial or political discrimination, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, p. 666. The 1965 Kansas Act against

1462

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Discrimination declared that it is the policy of the state to eliminate and prevent discrimination in all employment relations, and to eliminate and prevent discrimination, segregation or separation in all places of public accommodations covered by the Act. Religion. The most numerous religious bodies are Roman Catholic, Methodists and Disciples of Christ. Education. In 1982-83 organized school districts had 1,519 elementary and secondary schools which had 407,074 pupils and 26,053 teachers. Average salary of public school teachers, $18,231 (elementary and secondary). There were 20 independent colleges, 20 community colleges, 2 Bible colleges, 1 municipal university. Kansas has 6 state-supported institutions of higher education: the University of Kansas, Lawrence, founded in 1865; Kansas State University, Manhattan (1863); Emporia State University, Emporia; Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg; Fort Hays State University, Hays and Wichita State University, Wichita. The state also supports a two-year technical school, Kansas Technical Institute, at Salina. Health. In 1982 the state had 166 hospitals (188,512 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association; hospitals had an average daily occupancy rate of 70-3%. Social Security. In Dec. 1980,92,100 persons received state and federal aid under programmes of aid to the aged or disabled and aid to dependent children. Total payments amounted to $ 114 • 9m. in 1980. Books of Reference Annual Economic Report of the Governor. Topeka Directory of Slate Officers, Boards and Commissioners and Interesting Facts Kansas. Topeka, Biennial Drury,J. W., The Government of Kansas. Lawrence, Univ. of Kansas, 1970 Zornow, W. F., Kansas: A History of the Jayhawk State. Norman, Okla., 1957 State Library: Kansas State Library, Topeka.

Concerning

KENTUCKY H I S T O R Y . Kentucky, first settled in 1765, was originally part of Virginia; it was admitted into the Union on 1 June 1792 and its first legislature met on 4 June. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Kentucky is bounded north by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Illinois, Indiana and Ohio), north-east by the Big Sandy River (forming the boundary with West Virginia), east by Virginia, south by Tennessee and west by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Missouri). Area, 40,409 sq. miles, of which 740 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1980 3,660,777, an increase of 13-6% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 3,668,000. Births in 1981, 57,212 (15-6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 33,260 (9 1); infant deaths, 563 (9-8 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 32,217 (8-8); divorces, 16,671 (4-6). Population in 5 census years was: 1930 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 2,388,364 2,742,090 2,820,083 2,981,766 3,379,006

Negro 226,040 201,921 215,949 230,793 259,477

Allothers 185 795 2,124 6,147 22,294

Total 2,614,589 2,944,806 3,038,156 3,218,706 3,660,777

Persq.mile 65 1 73-9 76-2 SI 2 92-3

Of the total population in 1980, an estimated 1,789,000 were male, 1,862,183 were urban and 2,359,614 were 21 years old or older. The principal cities with census population in 1980 are: Louisville, 298,451 (urbanized area, 654,938); Lexington-Fayette, 204,165; Owensboro, 54,450; Covington, 49,563; Bowling Green, 40,450; Paducah, 29,315; Hopkinsville, 27,318; Ashland, 27,064; Frankfort (capital), 25,973.

KENTUCKY

1463

C L I M A T E . Kentucky has a temperate climate. Temperatures are moderate during both winter and summer, precipitation is ample without a pronounced dry season, and there is little snow during the winter. Lexington. Jan. 33°F (0 -6°C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,126 mm). Louisville. Jan. 33°F(0-6°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,077 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution dates from 1891; there had been 3 preceding it. The 1891 constitution was promulgated by convention and provides that amendments be submitted to the electorate for ratification. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 38 members elected for 4 years, one half retiring every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. A constitutional amendment approved by the voters in Nov. 1979, changes the year in which legislators are elected from odd to even numbered years and establishes an organizational session of the legislature, limited to ten legislative days, in odd-numbered years. The amendment provides for regular sessions limited to 60 legislative days between the first Tuesday after the first Monday of Jan. and 15 April of even numbered years. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. All citizens are (with necessary exceptions) qualified as electors; the voting age was in 1955 reduced from 21 to 18 years. Registered votes, Aug. 1981: 1,819,075. In the 1980 presidential election Reagan polled 816,444 votes, Mondale, 535,704. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 7 representatives. The capital is Frankfort. The state is divided into 120 counties. Governor: Martha Layne Collins (D.), 1983-86 ($60,000). Lieut.-Governor: Stephen L. Beshear (D.) ($51,008). Secretary of State: Drexell R. Davis (D.) ($51,008). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1983 revenues received within the five major operating funds amounted to $4,296-4m. Included in this figure are $2,211-9m. General Fund revenues and $844m. Federal Fund revenues. Total expenditures amounted to $4,424-8m. including education and humanities, $l,286-9m.; human resources benefits payments, $590-9m.; and transport, $723-3m. The general obligation bonded indebtedness on 30 June 1983 was $226m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $9,397. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The principal mineral product of Kentucky is coal, 131 - 2m. short tons mined in 1983, value $3,801m. Output of petroleum, 7-9m. bbls (of 42 gallons); natural gas, 46,720m. cu. ft; stone, 36-5m. short tons, value $135m.; clay 597,000 short tons, value $2 -2m.; sand and gravel, 6m. short tons, value $ 13m. Total value of non-fuel mineral products in 1983 was $241,520,000. Other minerals include fluorspar, ball clay, lead, zinc, silver, cement, lime, industrial sand and gravel, oil shale and tar sands. Agriculture. In 1983,103,000 farms had an area of 14-5m. acres. The average farm was 141 acres. Cash income, 1983, from crops, $l,300m., and from livestock, $l,500m. The chief crop is tobacco: production, in 1983, 324m. lb., ranking second to N. Carolina in US. Other principal crops include com, soybeans, wheat, barley, sorghum grain, hay, oats and rye. Stock-raising is important in Kentucky, which has long been famous for its horses. The livestock in 1983 included 243,000 milch cows, 2-7m. cattle and calves, 23,000 sheep, 960,000 swine. Forestry. Total forests area, 1978,12,160,800 acres. Total commercial forest land, 1978,11,901,900 acres; 92% is privately owned. INDUSTRY. In 1983 the state's 3,406 manufacturing plants had 185,622

1464

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

production workers; value added by manufacture in 1981 was $ 12,000m. The leading manufacturing industries (by employment) are non-electrical machinery, electrical equipment, apparel and other fabric products and foods. Direct foreign investment in manufacturing by foreign investors was $910m. in 1984. T O U R I S M . In 1983 tourist expenditure was $2,280m., producing over $ 157m. in tax revenues and generating 101,708 jobs. The state had (1984) 751 hotels and motels, 211 campgrounds and 43 state parks. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 the state had over 69,000 miles of federal, state and local roads. There were over 2 • 7m. motor vehicle registrations in 1983. Railways. In 1983 there were about 3,300 miles of railway. Aviation. There are (1983) 117 aircraft landing areas and 2,000 registered aircraft in Kentucky. Seven airports served 5-6m. passengers with scheduled services in 1982. Shipping. There is an increasing amount of barge traffic on 1,090 miles of navigable rivers. There are 5 river ports, 1 under construction and 3 planned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 10 prisons within the Department of Adult Institutions; average daily population (1983-84), 4,636. There has been no execution since 1962. A session of Congress in 1976 limited the death penalty to cases of kidnap and murder. Total executions, 1911-62, were 162, including 76 whites and 86 Negroes; 144 were for murder, 7 for rape, 6 for criminal offences, 5 for armed robbery. Religion. The chief religious denominations in 1980 were: Southern Baptists, with 883,096 members, Roman Catholic (365,277), United Methodists (234,536), Christian Churches and Church of Christ (81,222) and Christian (Disciples of Christ) (78,275). Education. Attendance at school between the ages of 6 and 15 years (inclusive) is compulsory, the normal term being 175 days. In 1983-84, 2*1,064 teachers were employed in public elementary and 11,396 in secondary schools, in which 431,243 and 216,171 pupils enrolled respectively. Expenditure on elementary and secondary day schools in 1983-84 was $l,618-3m.; public school classroom teachers' salariés ( 1983-84) averaged $ 19,663. There were also 4,260 teachers working in private elementary and secondary schools with 72,668 students. The state has 24 universities and senior colleges, 5 junior colleges and 13 community colleges, with a total (autumn 1982) of 134,841 students. Of these universities and colleges, 22 are state-supported, and the remainder are supported privately. The largest of the institutions of higher learning are (autumn 1982): University of Kentucky, with 22,829 students; University of Louisville, 19,744 students; Western Kentucky University, 12,855 students; Eastern Kentucky University, 13,041 students; Murray State University, 7,587 students; Morehead State University, 6,370 students; Northern Kentucky University, 9,339 students. Five of the several privately endowed colleges of standing are Berea College, Berea; Centre College, Danville; Transylvania University, Lexington; Georgetown College, Georgetown; and Bellarmine College, Louisville. Health. In 1984 the state had 109 licensed acute care hospitals (15,507 beds), 11 psychiatric hospitals (2,488 beds) and 4 children's hospitals (211 beds). There were 3 drug-dependency treatment centres (141 beds) and 2 acute rehabilitation hospitals (164 beds). Welfare. In July 1984 there were 262,435 persons receiving financial assistance;

1465

LOUISIANA

96,813 of these persons received the Federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI); 37,723 of them were aged, 2,120 blind, 56,970 disabled. Also, in the all state funded Supplementation programme payments were made in July 1984 to 7,539 persons, of which 4,042 were aged, 107 blind and 3,390 disabled. The average State Supplementation payment was $109.60 to aged, $62.81 to blind and $112.77 to disabled. In the Aid to Families with Dependent Children Programme as of June 1984, aid was given to 158,083 persons in 60,170 families. The average payment per person was $72.71, per family $ 191.02. In addition to money payments, medical assistance, food stamps and social services are available. Books of Reference Kentucky 1985 Economic Statistics. 21st ed. Department of Economic Development, Frankfort, 1984

LOUISIANA H I S T O R Y . Louisiana was first settled in 1699. That part lying east of the Mississippi River was organized in 1804 as the Territory of New Orleans, and admitted into the Union on 30 April 1812. The section west of the river was added very shortly thereafter. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Louisiana is bounded north by Arkansas, east by Mississippi, with the Mississippi River forming the boundary in the north-east, south by the Gulf of Mexico and west by Texas, with the Sabine River forming most of the boundary. Area, 52,453 sq. miles, including lakes, rivers and coastal waters inside 3-mile limit; land area, 44,873 sq. miles. Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,205,900, an increase of 15-5% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 4,362,000. Births, 1981, 81,105 (18-8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 35,747 (8-3); infant deaths, 1,112(13 -7 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 44,929; divorces, 17,377. Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 941,086 1,322,712 2,211,715

Negro 713,874 776,326 1,039,207

1970 1980

2,541,498 2,911,243

1,086,832 1,237,263

Indian 780 1,536 3,587

1

Asiatic 648 1,019 2,004

All others 12,976 55,466 Preliminary.

Total 1,656,388 2,101,593 3,257,022

Persq. mile 36-5 46-5 72-2

3,641,306 4,203,972'

81 1 93-5

Of the 1980 total, 2,039,894 were male, 2,885,535 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 2,699,100. The largest cities with their 1980 census population are: New Orleans, 557,482; Baton Rouge (capital), 219,486; Shreveport, 205,815; Lafayette, 81,961; Kenner, 66,382. C L I M A T E . New Orleans. Jan. 54°F (12-2°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 58" (1,458 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1974. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 39 members and a House of Representatives of 105 members, both chosen for 4 years. Sessions are annual; a fiscal session is held in odd years. The Governor and Lieut.-Govemor are elected for 4 years. A Governor may serve a second consecutive term. Qualified electors are (with

1466

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

the usual exceptions) all registered citizens with the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,030,091 votes, Mondale, 648,040. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes (corresponding with the counties of other states). Governor: Edwin W. Edwards (D.), 1984-88 ($73,440). Lieut.-Governor: Robert Freeman (D.), 1980-84 ($63,367). Secretary of State: James Brown (D.), 1984-88 ($60,169). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 (Louisiana State Budget Office figures) general revenues were $6,091,714,373, of which $1,236,983,444 were federal funds; total expenditures were $6,067,203,315 (education, $2,077,432,518; transport and development, $416,170,800; health, hospitals and public welfare, $ 1,578,334,592). Per capita personal income (1982) was $10,231. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The yield in 1982 of crude petroleum was 458m. bbls; marketed production of natural gas, 6,131,000m. cu. ft. Rich sulphur mines are found in the state, and wells for the extraction of sulphur by means of hot water and compressed air are in operation; output, 1980,2 • 6m. tonnes. Louisiana is the USA's main salt producer. Output of salt (1980) was 12-6m. short tons valued at $132-2m. Total output of raw, non-fuel minerals in 1981 was valued at $574m. Agriculture. The state is divided into two parts, the uplands and the alluvial and swamp regions of the coast. A delta occupies about one-third of the total area. Manufacturing is the leading industry, but agriculture is important. In 1983 there were about 37,000 farms with annual average sales of at least $ 1,000; average farm, 277 acres; average value per acre $ 1,481. Cash income, 1983, from crops $1,370m.; from livestock, $483m. Production of crops: corn for grain, 5m. bu.; cotton lint, 540,000 bales; hay, 735,000 tons; soybeans, 67m. bu.; wheat, 7 - 5m.bu. Rice and sugar are also important. In 1983 the state contained 102,000 milch cows, l -4m. all cattle, 9,000 sheep and 135,000 swine. Forestry. Forests, 14-5m. acres, represent 47% of the state's area. Income from manufactured products exceeds $2,500m. annually. In 1982 pulpwood cut, 3,867,994-3 cords; sawtimbercut, 927-4m. bd ft. INDUSTRY. The manufacturing industries are chiefly those associated with petroleum, chemicals, lumber, food, paper. Investment in manufacturing, 1980-81, about $9,000m. In 1982 206,000 were employed in manufacturing, 368,000 in trade and 302,000 in service industries. TOURISM. Travellers spent an estimated $3,300m. in 1982. State tax revenue, $99-3m. (3% of state tax revenue). New Orleans is the site of the Louisiana World Exposition in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state has more than 16,326 miles of public roads. In June 1982, over 4-6m. vehicles were registered in the state. Railways. In 1980 the railways in the state had a length of about 3,700 miles. Aviation. There were, 1981, about 240 commercial and private airports. Shipping. In 1981 New Orleans handled 188-9m. tons of cargo. The Mississippi and other waterways provide 7,500 miles of navigable water.

MAINE

1467

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Prisons, Oct. 1982, had 9,257 inmates. Execution is by electrocution; there were 135 between 1930 and 1961; between 1977 and 1985 there were 6. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest denomination in Louisiana, with 1,316,441 members in 1979. The leading Protestant Churches are Southern Baptist, with (1979) 524,566 members; Methodist, (1979) 136,972. Education. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, both inclusive. In 1981-82 there were 1,493 public elementary and high schools which had 808,322 pupils with a current expenditure of $2,297 per pupil. Private schools had 157,330. In 1981-82, instructional staff had an average salary of $18,500. There are 16 four-year public colleges and universities and 12 non-public four-year institutions of higher learning. There are 53 state trade and vocational-technical schools. Superior instruction is given in the Louisiana State University system with 56,520 students (1982). Tulane University in New Orleans had 10,400; The Roman Catholic Loyola University in New Orleans had 4,550; Dillard University in New Orleans had 12,000; and the Southern University system, 11,800. Health. In 1982 the state had 156 licensed hospitals (25,410 beds); 3 mental hospitals cared for 12,381 patients. Social Security. In Dec. 1982, assistance was being given to 94,264 elderly persons; 64,709 families with dependent children; 4,120 general assistance cases and 635 Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees. Supplemental Security assistance was given to 68,915 blind and physically disabled people. Aid was from state and federal sources. Books of Reference Louisiana Almanac. New Orleans, 1979-80 The History and Government of Louisiana. Legislative Council, Baton Rouge, 1975 Louisiana State Agencies Handbook. Public Affairs Research Council of Louisiana. Baton Rouge, 1979 The State of the State: an Economic and Social Report to the Governor. Louisiana State Planning Office, New Orleans, 1978 Statistical Abstract of Louisiana. Division of Business and Economic Research, Univ. of New Orleans, 1977 Davis, E. A., Louisiana, the Pelican State. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 1975 Hansen, H., (ed.), Louisiana, a Guide to the State. Rev. ed. New York, 1971 Kniffen, F. B., Louisiana, its Land and People. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 1968 State Library: The Louisiana State Library, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. State Librarian: Thomas F. Jaques.

MAINE HISTORY. After a first attempt in 1607, Maine was settled in 1623. From 1652 to 1820 it was part of Massachusetts and was admitted into the Union on 15 March 1820. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Maine is bounded west, north and east by Canada, south-east by the Atlantic, south and south-west by New Hampshire. Area, 33,265 sq. miles, of which 2,269 are inland water. Of the state's total area, about 17-2m. acres (87%) are in timber and wood lots. Census population, 1 April 1980 1,125,027, an increase of 13-29% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 1,133,000. In 1981 live births numbered 16,695; deaths, 10,451; infant deaths, 146; marriages, 12,388; divorces 5,804.

1468

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Population for 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950

White 739,995 795,185 910,846

Negro 1,363 1,096 1,221

1970 1980

985,276 1,109,850

2,800 3,128

Indian 892 1,012 1,522

Asiatic 121 130 185

All others 3,972 12,049

Total 742,371 797,423 913,774

Persq. mile 24-8 25-7 29-4

992,048 1,125,027

310 36-3

Of the total population in 1980,48-5% were male, 40-7% were urban and 60-5% were 21 years or older. The largest city in the state is Portland with a census population of 61,572 in 1980. Other cities (with population in 1980) are: Lewiston, 40,481; Bangor, 31,643; Auburn, 23,128; South Portland, 22,712; Augusta (capital), 21,819; Biddeford, 19,638; Waterville, 17,779. C L I M A T E . Average maximum temperatures range from 56-3°F in Waterville to 48-3°F in Caribou, out record high (since c. 1950) is 103°F. Average minimum ranges from 36-9°F in Rockland to 28-3"F in Greenville, but record low (also in Greenville) is -42"F. Average annual rainfall ranges from 48-85" in Machias to 36 09" in Houlton. Average annual snowfall ranges from 118-7" in Greenville to 59 -7" in Rockland. See New England, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1820 is still in force, but it has been amended 143 times. In 1951,1965 and 1973 the Legislature approved recodifications of the constitution as arranged by the Chief Justice under special authority. The Legislature consists of the Senate with 33 members and the House of Representatives with 151 members, both Houses being elected simultaneously for 2 years. Apart from these legislators and the Governor (elected for 4 years), no other state officers are elected. The Justices of the Supreme Judicial Court give their opinion upon important questions of law and upon solemn occasions when required by the Governor, Senate or House of Representatives. The suffrage is possessed by all citizens, 18 years of age; persons under guardianship for reasons of mental illness have no vote. Indians residing on tribal reservations and otherwise qualified have the vote in all county, state and national elections but retain the right to elect their own tribal representative to the legislature. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 336,500 votes, Mondale, 214,515. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. The capital is Augusta. The state is divided into 16 counties. Governor: Joseph E. Brennan (D.), 1983-86(535,000). Secretary ofState: Rodney S. Quinn (D.), 1983-86 ($30,000). B U D G E T . For the financial year ending 30 June 1984 total general revenue was $ 1,459,560,121 and expenditure was $ 1,440,274,458. Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1984 was $294-5m. Per capita personal income (Dec. 1983) was $9,487. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Minerals include sand and gravel, stone, lead, clay, copper, peat, silver and zinc. Non-fuel mineral output, 1982, was valued at over $35 -4m. Agriculture. In 1983,8,100 farms occupied 1-56m. acres; the average farm was 193 acres. Cash receipts, 1983, $413- lm., of which $91-7 came from potatoes; Maine is the third largest producer of potatoes (about 7% of the country's total of 325 -7m. cwt). Other important items include eggs ($94m.), dairy products ($107-5m.) and poultry ($29 -7m.); these with potatoes provide 78% of receipts. Sweet corn, peas and beans, oats, hay, apples and blueberries are also grown. On 1 Jan. 1983 the

MAINE

1469

farm animals included 57,000 milch cows, 146,000 all other cattle, and 14,000 sheep. Forestry. Lumber, wood turnings and pulp are important. In 1982 the cut of softwood was 769,195m. bd ft; hardwood, 150,878m. bd ft, and pulpwood, 3,417,586 cords. Spruce and fir, white pine, hemlock, white and yellow birch, sugar maple, northern white cedar, beech and red oak are the most important species cut. There were (1982) 17,600,000 acres of commercial forest (98% in private ownership). National forests comprise 37,500 acres; other federal, 35,800; state forests, 163,000 acres; municipal, 75,200 acres. Wood products industries are of great economic importance; in 1982 the lumber, wood and paper industries' production was valued at $3,355,731. There were (1982) 342 primary manufacturers and over 1,400 secondary. Fisheries. In 1983, 202,657,000 lb. offish and shellfish (valued at $107,889,000 were landed; the catch included 21,976,000 lb. of lobsters (valued at $51,234,000). 1 -97m. lb. of scallops ($10-8m.); 4- 14m. lb. of soft clams ($7-24m.); 12-3 lm. lb of dabs ($6 0m.); 42 -4m. lb. of menhaden ($846,000); 40m. lb. of herring ($2 • 14m.). I N D U S T R Y . In 1982, 2,289 manufacturing establishments reported 108,330 workers, earning $l,769-5m.; gross value of production, $7,948-9m. (increase of 1 -2% from 1981). Leading industry is paper with 47 plants, 17,957 workers and output valued at $2,714-2m. (34% of the state's total manufactures). L A B O U R . The four largest employers are government, education, health and tourism. T O U R I S M . In 1983 there were about 4m. tourists (including state residents on holiday), generating about $655-5m. in business. Eating, drinking and accommodation produce 12-4%ofsales tax. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 22,098 miles of roads, of which 3,973 miles were state highways and 4,3 59 miles were state-aided; town streets and miscellaneous, 13,766 miles. In July 1984, 847,922 motor vehicles were registered, including 669,240 passenger vehicles, 87,267 commercial vehicles and 40,361 motorcycles. Railways. In 1984 there were 1,516 miles of mainline railway tracks. Aviation. Licensed airports, 1984, numbered 76, including 37 commercial public airports, 12 non-commercial and 4 commuter airports, 15 commercial and 4 noncommercial seaplane bases, and 4 air-carrier airports. There were also 2 military airports and 23 private landing strips. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The state's penal system in Sept. 1984 held 435 adults in the State Prison, 237 in the Correctional Center and 332 juveniles in the Youth Center. There is no capital punishment. Inmates serving life sentences are eligible for parole consideration after 15 years, less remission for good conduct, provided they were imprisoned before the passage of a new Criminal Code by the 107th Maine Legislature, which abolished the parole system. Religion. The largest religious bodies are: Roman Catholic (270,283 members), Baptists (36,808 members) and Congregationalists (40,750 members), and other Christian Churches (34,066 members). Education. Education is free for pupils from 5 to 21 years of age, and compulsory from 7 to 17. In 1983-84 the 756 public schools (610 elementary, 105 secondary and 41 combined elementary and secondary) had 12,283 staff and 209,753 enrolled pupils. In 1983-84 there were 126 private schools with 1,035 teachers and 15,461 pupils. Public school teachers' salaries, 1983-84, averaged $17,328. Total public expenditure on public elementary and secondary education in 1982-83, $461,252,847.

1470

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The state University of Maine, founded in 1865, had (1983-84) 1,003 teaching staff and 28,591 students at 7 locations; Bowdoin College, founded in 1794 at Brunswick, (107 and 1,371); Bates College at Lewiston, (104 and 1,424); Colby College at Waterville, (125 and 1,733); Husson College, Bangor, (31 and 1,465); Westbrook College at Westbrook, (56 and 1,120); Unity College at Unity, (23 and 325), and the University of New England (formerly St Francis College) at Biddeford, (55 and 848). Health. In 1984 the state had 42 general hospitals (4,571 beds for acute care); 3 hospitals for mental diseases, acute and psychiatric care (541 beds); 144 nursing homes (10,220 beds). Social Security. Supplemental Security Income (SSI) (maximum payment for single person, $324 • 30 per month) is administered by the Social Security Administration. It became effective on 1 Jan. 1974 and replaces former aid to the aged, blind and disabled, administered by the state with state and federal funds. SSI is supplemented by Medicaid for nursing home patients or hospital patients. State payments for SSI recipients for Jan. 1983 totalled $381,000, covering 21,000 cases. Aid to families with dependent children is granted where one or both parents are disabled or absent and income is insufficient; aid was being granted in Aug. 1984 to 17,209 families (32,592 children) with an average payment per family of $292-95 per month. Total aid under the programme, Aug. 1984, $5 • 4m. Payments under Maine Medicaid Assistance programme totalled $217m. for the financial year 1983-84. There is a programme of assistance for catastrophic illness. Child welfare services include basic child protective services, enforcing child support, establishing paternity and finding missing parents, foster home placements, adoptions; services in divorce cases and licensing of foster homes, day care and residential treatment services, and public guardianship. There are also protective services for adults. Books of Reference Maine Register, State Year-Book and Legislative Manual. Annual Banks, R., Maine Becomes A State. Wesleyan U.P., 1970 Caldwell, B., Rivers of Fortune. Gannett, 1983 Calvert, M. R,,Dawn over the Kennebec. Private Pr., 1983 Clark, C., Maine. New York, 1977

Tower Publishing, Portland.

MARYLAND HISTORY. Maryland, first settled in 1634, was one of the 13 original states. AREA AND POPULATION. Maryland is bounded north by Pennsylvania, east by Delaware and the Atlantic, south by Virginia and West Virginia, with the Potomac River forming most of the boundary, and west by West Virginia. Chesapeake Bay almost cuts off the eastern end of the state from the rest. Area, 10,460 sq. miles, of which 623 sq. miles are inland water, in addition, water area under Maryland jurisdiction in Chesapeake Bay amounts to 1,726 sq. miles. Census population, 1 April 1980,4,216,975, an increase since 1970 of 293,078 or 7-5%. Estimate (1983) 4,304,000. In 1982 births were 63,759 (14-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 34,094 (7-8); infant deaths, 767 (12 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 47,867 (11 -2); divorces, 16,083 (3-8). Population for 5 federal censuses was: 1920 1930 1960

White 1,204,737 1,354,226 2,573,919

Negro 244,479 276,379 518,410

1970 1980

3,194,888 3,158,838

499,479 958,150

Indian 32 50 1,538

Asiatic 413 871 5,700

All others 28,032 99,987

Total 1,449,661 1,631,526 3,100,689

Persq. mile 145-8 165-0 314-0

3,922,399 4,216,975

396-6 428-7

MARYLAND

1471

Of the total population in 1980, 2,042,810 were male, 3,386,555 persons were urban and those 20 years old or older numbered 2,890,196. The laigest city in the state (containing 18-7% of the population of the state) is Baltimore, with 786,775 in 1980; population of metropolitan area, 3,273,015. Maryland residents in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area total more than 1 -3m.; other cities (1980) are Dundalk (71,293); Towson (51,083); Silver Spring (72,893); Bethesda (62,736), Bowie (33,695), Hagerstown (34,132), Annapolis (capital), 31,740. Incorporated places: Cumberland, 25,933; Cambridge, 11,703; Frederick, 28,086; Gaithersburg, 26,424; Rockville, 43,811. C L I M A T E . Baltimore. Jan. 36°F (2-2°C), July 79"F (26-1°C). Annual rainfall 41" (1,026 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1867; it has had 125 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 47, and a House of Delegates of 141 members, both elected for 4 years, as are the Governor and Lieut.-Governor. Voters are citizens who have the usual residential qualifications. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 836,295 votes, Mondale, 757,635. Maryland sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. The state capital is Annapolis. The state is divided into 23 counties and Baltimore City. Governor: Harry R. Hughes (D.), 1983-86 ($75,000). Lieut. - Governor: J. Joseph Curran (D.), 1983-86 ($62,500). Secretary of State: Patricia Holtz ($45,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1983 general revenues were $5,017,775,000 ($3,492,540,000 from taxation). General expenditures, $5,341,502,000, including $956,799,000 for education and $1,546,808,000 for public welfare and health; $775,800,000 for highways. Total authorized long-term state debt, 30 June 1983 was $2,998,191,000. (Issued and outstanding, $2,409,890,000; authorized but not issued, $588,301,000.) Per capita personal income (1983) was $12,994. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Value of non-fuel mineral production, 1983, was $201 -9m. Sand and gravel (10m. short tons) and stone (16-9m. short tons) account for over 54% of the total value. Coal is the leading mineral commodity by value followed by Portland cement, stone, sand and gravel. Output of coal was 3 1 m . short tons, valued at about $87m. Natural gas is produced from 1 field in Garrett County; 30-8m. cu. ft in 1983. A second gas field in the same county is used for natural gas storage. Agriculture. Agriculture is an important industry in the state. In 1983 there were approximately 18,000 farms with an area of 2 • 7m. acres (43% of the land area). Farm animals, 1 Jan. 1984, were: Milch cows, 125,000; all cattle, 420,000; swine, 200,000 (1983); sheep and lambs, 20,000; chickens (not broilers), 4-7m. (1983). The most important crops, 1983, were: corn for grain, 37-7m. bu.; soybeans, 9 • 3m. bu.; tobacco, 30m. lb., and hay, 627,000 tons. Cash receipts from farm marketings, 1983, were $1,032-5m.; from livestock and livestock products, $702m., and crops, $330-5m. Dairy products and broilers are important. I N D U S T R Y . In 1978 manufactories had 169,700 production workers earning $2,218-8m.; value added by manufacture, $7,739-2m. Chief industries are food and kindred products, primary metal products, electrical and electronic equipment, chemicals and products, transport equipment. T O U R I S M . Tourism is one of the state's leading industries. In 1983 tourists spent over $3,362m.

1472

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway department maintained, 1 Jan. 1982, 5,241 miles of highways, of which 80 miles were toll roads. The 23 counties maintained 17,245 miles of highways, and the 159 municipalities (including the city of Baltimore) maintained 3,916 miles of streets and alleys. Total mileage, 1 Jan. 1982, of public highways, streets and alleys, 26,402 miles. In 1983, about 3 -2m. automobiles were registered. Railways. Railways, in 1983,had 1,100 miles of line. Aviation. There were, 1983,41 commercially licensed airports. Shipping. In 1983 Baltimore was the sixth largest US seaport in value of trade, sixth in tonnage handled. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Prisons on 21 Sept. 1984 had about 12,700 men and 450 women; the total equalled 277 per 100,000 population, a high rate, which may be explained by the fact that Maryland incarcerates domestic relations law violators in state prisons; state prisons also receive a considerable number of persons committed for misdemeanours by magistrates' courts of the counties as well as from Baltimore's court system. Since 1930 there have been 68 executions (by lethal gas since 1957; earlier by hanging)—7 whites and 37 Negroes for murder, and 6 whites and 18 Negroes for rape. Last execution was June 1961. Maryland's prison system has conducted a work-release programme for selected prisoners since 1963. All institutions have academic and vocational training programmes. In accordance with the 1950 Supreme Court decisions declaring segregation unconstitutional, the University of Maryland and other public and private colleges admitted Negro students in Sept. 1956. Elementary and secondary schools accept the ruling, and gradual integration is under way in all counties under different methods. Religion. Maryland was the first US state to give religious freedom to all who came within its borders. Present religious affiliations of the population are approximately: Protestant, 32%; Roman Catholic, 24%; Jewish, 10%; remaining 34% is non-related and other faiths. Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age. In Sept. 1983 the public elementary schools (including kindergartens and secondary schools) had 683,491 pupils. Teachers and principals in the elementary and secondary schools numbered 40,089. Average salary of instructional staff (1982-83) was $22,786. Current expenditure by local school boards on education, 1983-84, was $2,260m., of which the state's contribution was $900m. In 1983 there were 3 5 degree-granting 4-year institutions and 21 2-year colleges. The largest two were the University of Maryland system, with 62,851 students (Sept. 1983) and Towson State College with 15,157 students (Sept. 1983). Health. In Jan. 1984,83 hospitals (21,561 beds) were licensed by the State Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. The Maryland State Department of Health, organized in 1874, was in 1969 made part of the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene which performs its functions through its central office, 23 county health departments and the Baltimore City Health Department. For the financial year 1983 the department's budget was $l,021m., of which $721 -6m. were general funds and $17m. special funds appropriated by the General Assembly. The balance of the budget, $282 -4m., derives from federal funds. During financial year 1983 Maryland's programme of medical care for indigent and medically indigent patients covered an average of 351,109 persons. The programme, which covers in-patient and out-patient hospital services, laboratory

1473

MASSACHUSETTS

services, skilled nursing home care, physician services, pharmacy services, dental services and home health services, cost approximately $535 • 7m. Social Security. Under the supervision of the Department of Human Resources, local social service departments administer public assistance for needy persons. In June 1984 families with dependent children received $16,704,311 (187,409 recipients, average actual monthly payment $89.13); general public assistance payments were $2,390,304 (19,909 recipients, average actual monthly payments $120.06). Books of Reference Statistical Information: Maryland Department of Economic and Community Development, Annapolis, 21401. Maryland Manual: A Compendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information Relating to the State of Maryland. Annapolis. Biennial DiLisio, J. E., Maryland. Boulder, 1982 Papenfuse, E. C., et al., Maryland, a New Guide to the Old Line Stale. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1976 Rollo, V. F., Maryland's Constitution and Government. Maryland Hist. Press, Rev. ed., 1982 State Library: Maryland State Library, Annapolis. Director: Michael S. Miller.

MASSACHUSETTS HISTORY. The first permanent settlement within the borders of the present state was made at Plymouth in Dec. 1620, by the Pilgrims from Holland, who were separatists from the English Church, and formed the nucleus of the Plymouth Colony. In 1628 another company of Puritans settled at Salem, forming eventually the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1630 Boston was settled. In the struggle which ended in the separation of the American colonies from the mother country, Massachusetts took the foremost part, and on 6 Feb. 1788 became the sixth state to ratify the US constitution. AREA AND POPULATION. Massachusetts is bounded north by Vermont and New Hampshire, east by the Atlantic, south by Connecticut and Rhode Island and west by New York. Area, 8,284 sq. miles, 460 sq. miles being inland water.The census population 1 April 1980, was 5,737,037, an increase of 47,867 or 0-8% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 5,741,000. Births, 1982 were 75,749 (13-1 per 1,000 population); deaths, 52,868 (9-2 per 1,000); infant deaths, 764 (10-1 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 48,654 (8-5); divorces, 19,531 (3 -4). Population at 4 federal census years was: 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 4,611,503 5,023,144 5,477,624 5,362,836

Negro 73,171 111,842 175,817 221,279

Other 5,840 13,592 35,729 152,922

Total 4,690,514 5,148,578 5,689,170 5,737,037

Per sq. mile 598-4 656-8 725-8 732-0

Of the total population in 1980,47-6% were male, 83-8% were urban and 32% were 21 years old or older. In 1980 the population of the principal towns and cities was: Boston Worcester Springfield New Bedford Cambridge Brockton

562,994 161,799 153,319 98,478 95,322 95,172

Fall River Lowell Quincy Newton Lynn Somerville

92,574 92,418 84,743 83,622 78,471 77,372

Framingham Lawrence Waltham Medford Weymouth Chicopee

65,113 63,175 58,200 58,076 55,601 55,112

The largest of 10 standard metropolitan statistical areas, 1980 census were: Boston, 2,763,357; Springfield-Chicopee-Holyoke, 530,668; Worcester, 372,940.

1474

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

C L I M A T E . Boston. Jan. 28"F (-2-2'C), July 71°F (21-7°C). Annual rainfall 41" (1,036 mm). See New England, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution dates from 1780 and has had 116 amendments. The legislative body, styled the General Court of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, meets annually, and consists of the Senate with 40 members, elected biennially, and the House of Representatives of 160 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 11 representatives to Congress. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,293,367 votes, Mondale, 1,219,513. Electors are all citizens 18 years of age or older. The capital is Boston. The state has 14 counties, 39 cities and 312 towns. Governor: Michael S. Dukakis (D.), 1983-86 ($75,000). Lieut. - Governor: (Vacant). Secretary of the Commonwealth: Michael J. Connolly (D.) ($60,000). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1984 the total revenue of the state was $8,763,776,497 ($5,659-5m. from taxes and $l,800-3m. from federal aid); general expenditures, $8,649,394,825 ($603-4m. for education, $330-5m. for highway and transport construction and $2,097m. for public welfare). The net long-term debt on 30 June 1984 amounted to $3,346m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $13,244. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. There is little mining within the state. Total mineral output in 1983 was valued at $95 • 7m., of which most came from sand, gravel and stone. Agriculture. On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 5,300 farms (11,179 in 1959) with an area of598,900 acres. Cash income, 1983, totalled $366-9m.; dairy, $91 -3m.; greenhouse and nursery, $100m.; poultry, $26-8m.; vegetables, $32m.; tobacco, $4-5m.; cranberries, $65m.; other fruit, $18- lm.; potatoes, $2-3m.; all other, $27- lm. Principal 1983 crops include cranberries, 1,460,000 bbls; apples, 2-3m. (42-lb. units); potatoes, 646,000 cwt, and tobacco, 0-8m. lb. On 1 Jan. 1982 farms in the state had 48,000 milch cows, 98,000 all cattle, 49,000 swine. In 1982 farms produced 145,000 turkeys and0-8m. chickens. Forestry. About 68% of the state is forest. State forests cover about 256,000 acres. Total forest land covers about 3 m. acres. Commercially important hardwoods are sugar maple, northern red oak and white ash; softwoods are white pine and hemlock. About 240m. bd ft of timber are cut annually. Fisheries. The 1983 catch amounted to 324-7m. lb. of finfish valued at $117m.; 27-8m. lb. of shellfish ($74m.); including 12-6m. lb. of lobster ($29-6m.). INDUSTRY. In 1983, 10,503 manufacturing establishments employed an average of632,375 workers, who earned $13,321. The 3 most important manufacturing groups, based on employment, were electric and electronic equipment, machinery (except electrical), instruments and related products. LABOUR. In May 1984 the work force was 3,019,000. Changes in the industrial pattern have caused the loss ofjobs in the shoe and textile industries. In 1981 there were 102 work stoppages involving 28,700 workers which resulted in 696,000 man-days idle. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Oct. 1984 the state had 33,800 miles of roads and streets and in 1984 registered 4m. motor vehicles. Railways. In 1984 there were 1,310 miles of mainline railway.

MASSACHUSETTS

1475

Aviation. There were, in 1983, 52 aircraft landing areas for commercial operation, of which 27 were publicly owned. Shipping. The state has 3 deep-water harbours, the largest of which is Boston (port trade (1983), 16,767,585 short tons). Other ports are Fall River and New Bedford. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. On 12 Sept. 1984 state penal institutions held 4,970 inmates. There have been no executions since 1947. Religion. The principal religious bodies are the Roman Catholics, Jewish Congregations, Methodists, Episcopalians and Unitarians. Education. A regulation effective from 1 Sept. 1972 makes school attendance compulsory for ages 6-16. In 1982-83 expenditure by cities and towns on public schools was $3,249m., including $ 199m. debt retirement and service payments. In 1983-84 there were 49,754 classroom teachers and 882,283 pupils. Within the state there were (1982) 126 degree-granting institutions of higher learning (including 89 colleges and universities) with (1982-83) 14,274 full-time teaching staff and about 415,320 students. Some leading institutions are: Year Name and location of universities Students opened and colleges 1982 1636 Harvard University, Cambridge ' 21,252 1 1793 Williams College, Williamstown 2,006 1821 Amherst College, Amherst 1 1,561 1 1837 Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley 1,979 1843 College ofthe Holy Cross, Worcester 1 2,511 1852 Tufts University, Medford 1 , 3 6,778 1861 Mass. Institute of Technology, Cambridge 1 9,510 1863 University of Massachusetts, Amherst 1 26,638 1 1863 Boston College (RC), Chestnut Hill 14,171 1865 Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester 1 3,552 1 1869 Boston University, Boston 28,042 1 1870 Wellesley College, Wellesley 2,220 1875 Smith College, Northampton 1 2,971 1879 Radcliffe College, Cambridge 1 2,435 1885 Springfield College, Springfield 1 2,511 1 1887 Clark University, Worcester 3,169 1894 University of Lowell 1 14,562 1 4 1898 Northeastern University, Boston , 42,406 1899 Simmons College, Boston 2 2,773 1 1948 Brandeis University, Waltham 3,580 1 Co-educational. ' Includes Jackson College for women. ! 4 For women only. Includes Forsyth Dental Center School.

Health. In 1982 the state had 182 hospitals (with 40,270 beds); average daily census, 32,736, including patients in public and private mental hospitals and institutions for the mentally retarded. Social Security. The Department of Public Welfare had an appropriation of $ 1,828m. in financial year 1984 and paid $388m. in aid to families with dependent children (average 95,798 families per month); other main items were general relief (average 27,242 cases), Supplemental Security Income (average 105,402 cases) and Medical Assistance only (average 65,841 cases). Books of Reference Annual Reports. Massachusetts and US Boards, Commissions, Departments and Divisions, Boston, annual Business Climate Studies (1983). Alexander Grant, Boston 1983 Manual for the General Court. By Clerk of the Senate and Clerk of the House of Representatives, Boston, Mass. Biennial Levitan, D., with Mariner, E.C., Your Massachusetts Government. Newton, Mass., 1984 Higher Education Publications, Washington, D.C., 1983

1476

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

MICHIGAN H I S T O R Y . Michigan, first settled by Marquette at Sault Ste Marie in 1668, became the Territory of Michigan in 1805, with its boundaries greatly enlarged in 1818 and 1834; it was admitted into the Union with its present boundaries on 26 Jan. 1837. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Michigan is divided into two by Lake Michigan. The northern part is bounded south by the lake and by Wisconsin, west and north by Lake Superior, east by the North Channel of Lake Huron; between the two latter lakes the Canadian border runs through straits at Sault Ste Marie. The southern part is bounded west and north by Lake Michigan, east by Lake Huron, Ontario and Lake Erie, south by Ohio and Indiana. Area, 58,527 sq. miles, of which 56,954 sq. miles are land area, 1,573 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 9,262,078, an increase of 380,252 or 4-3% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 9,069,000. In 1983 births were 131,873; deaths, 74,302; infant deaths, 1,474; marriages, 70,735; divorces, 39,733. Population of 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 2,785,247 4,663,507 7,085,865

Negro 17,115 169,453 717,581

1970 1980

7,833,474 7,872,241

991,066 1,199,023

Indian 7,519 7,080 9,701

Asiatic 292 2,285 10,047

All others 50,543 190,814

Total 2,810,173 4,842,325 7,823,194

Persq. mile 48-9 84-9 137-2

8,875,083 9,262,078

156-2 162-6

Of the total population in 1980, 4,513,951 were male, 6,547,842 persons were urban and those 20 years old or older numbered 6,144,925. 162,440 were of Spanish origin. Population of the chief cities (census of 1 April 1980) was: 1,203,339 Detroit 181,843 Grand Rapids 161,134 Warren 159,611 Flint Lansing (capital) 130,414 Sterling Heights 108,999 107,316 Ann Arbor 104,814 Livonia

Dearborn Westland Kalamazoo Taylor Saginaw Pontiac St Clair Shores Southfield

90,660 84,603 79,722 77,568 77,508 76,715 76,210 75,568

Royal Oak Dearborn Heights Troy Wyoming Farmington Hills Roseville

70,893 67,706 67,102 59,616 58,056 54,311

Larger standard metropolitan areas, 1980 census: Detroit, 4,344,139; Grand Rapids, 601,106; Hint, 521,541; Lansing, 467,584. C L I M A T E . Detroit. Jan. 25'F(-3-9"C), July 72°F(22-2°C). Annual rainfall 32" (813 mm). Grand Rapids. Jan. 23°F (-5°C), July 72°F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 32" (803 mm). Lansing. Jan. 23°F (-5°C), July 7 I T (21 -7°C). Annual rainfall 30" (754 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in April 1963 and became effective on 1 Jan. 1964. The Senate consists of 38 members, elected for 4 years, and the House of Representatives of 110 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Electors are all citizens over 18 years of age meeting the usual residential requirements. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 18 representatives. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,147,147 votes, Mondale, 1,468,512. The capital is Lansing. The state is organized in 83 counties. Governor: James J. Blanchard (D.), 1983-86 ($78,000). Lieut.-Governor: Martha Griffiths(D.), 1983-86 ($53,500). Secretary ofState: Richard H. Austin (D.), 1983-86 ($75,000).

MICHIGAN

1477

B U D G E T . For the financial year ending 30 Sept. 1983, the general fund revenue was $8,267,328,000 (taxation, $7,333,434,000, and federal aid, $2,768,773,000); total revenue, $11,158,538,000; special revenue funds, $2,891,210,000; general expenditures, $ 10,804,575,000. Per capita personal income (1983 estimate) was $ 11,466. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Most important minerals by value of production are iron ore, petroleum and cement. Output (1982): Iron ore, 6 • 7m. long tons ($313m.); Portland cement, 3-lm. short tons ($147-3m.); petroleum, 31-6m. bbls ($l,036-3m.); copper, 32,000 short tons ($35-9m.); sand and gravel, 24m. short tons ($72-4m.); stone, 21-7m. short tons ($70-9m.); lime, 680,000 short tons ($32-6m.); natural gas, 143,319m. cu. ft ($460-6m.). Total value of natural salines, $182m. Mineral output in 1982 was valued at $2,475 • 1 m. Agriculture. The state, formerly agricultural, is now chiefly industrial. In 1982 it contained 65,000 farms with a total area of 11 • 5m. acres; the average farm was 177 acres. Cash income, 1982, from crops, $l,687-6m.; from livestock and products, $l,175m. Principal crops are maize (production, 1983, 166m. bu. for grain), oats (15 -6m. bu.), wheat (35-7m. bu.), sugar-beet (1 -97m. tons); soybeans (32-3m. bu.), hay (4-5m. tons). On 1 Jan. 1984 there were in the state 110,000 sheep, 402,000 milch cows, 1 -47m. all cattle; on 31 Dec. 1983, 1,250,000 swine, 7-5m. chickens and 38,000 turkey breeder hens. In 1983 the wool clip yielded 902,000 lb. of wool. Forestry. The forests of Michigan consist of 18 -3 m. acres, about 50% of total state land area. About 17 • 5m. acres of this total is commercial forest, 64% of which is privately owned, 20% state forest, 14% federal forest and 1 -5% in various public ownerships. Three-fourths of the timber volume is hardwoods, principally hard and soft maples, aspen, oak and birch. Christmas trees are another important forest crop. Michigan leads in the number of state parks and public campsites. There are 79 state parks and recreation areas, 33 state forests, 3 national forests and 3 national parks. There are 171 state forest campgrounds and 64 state game areas. I N D U S T R Y . Transport equipment and non-electrical machinery are the most important manufactures. The state ranks first in 19 manufacturing categories; among principal products are motor vehicles and trucks, cement, chemicals, furniture, paper, cereal, baby food and pharmaceuticals. Total labour force, 1983, 4,216,000, of which 932,800 are in manufacturing. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. State trunk-line mileage (31 July 1980) totalled, 9,500, all hard surfaced. Passenger car registrations, 18 Sept. 1983,5,101,748. Railways. On 1 Jan. 1980 there were 6,153 miles ofrailway and 383 miles of active car-ferry routes. Aviation. Airports (1980) numbered 205 licensed airports, 88 certified but not licensed and 23 air carrier airports. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. The 1963 Constitution provides that no person shall be denied the equal protection of the law; nor shall any person be denied the enjoyinent of his civil or political rights or be discriminated against in the exercise thereof because of religion, colour or national origin. A Civil Rights Commission was established, and its powers and duties were implemented by legislation in the extra session of 1963. Earlier statutory enactments guaranteeing civil rights in specific areas are as follows. An Act of 1885, last amended in 1956, orders all places of public accommodation and resort, etc., to furnish equal accommodations without discrimination. An Act of 1941, as last amended, forbids the Civil Service in counties with

1478

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

population exceeding lm. to discriminate against employees or applicants on the ground of political, racial or religious opinions or affiliations. An Act of 1881 incorporated into the school code of 1955 forbids any discrimination in school facilities. An Act of 1893 incorporated in the insurance code of 1956 prohibits insurance companies from discriminating between white and coloured persons. In 1951 the legislature restored the unique one-man grand jury system abandoned in 1949. Religion. There were 2,004,288 Roman Catholics in 1979; largest Protestant denominations, Lutherans, 500,000; United Methodists, 278,245; United Presbyterians, 155,864; Episcopalians, 63,873. Education. Education is compulsory for children from 6 to 16 years of age. The operating expenditure for graded and ungraded public schools for the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982, was $4,479,187,725; total, including capital and debt expenditures, $5,102,796,831. In 1982-83 there were 573 school districts (elementary and secondary schools) with 1,742,831 pupils and 78,814 teachers. Teachers' salaries in 1983 averaged $25,712. In the autumn of 1981 the public 4-year institutions reported 235,027 students and the non-public institutions reported 67,509 students. The community colleges had an autumn enrolment (1981) of 211,871 students. Universities and students (1983): Founded 1817 1849 1855 1884 1885 1868 1892 1889 1903 1946 1959 1960 1965

Name University of Michigan Eastern Michigan University Michigan State University Ferris State College Michigan Technological University Wayne State University Central Michigan University Northern Michigan University Western Michigan University Lake Superior State College Oakland University Grand Valley State College Saginaw Valley College

Students 34,593 18,880 41,765 10,767 7,414 29,639 17,259 8,054 20,296 2,820 12,084 6,710 4,612

Social Welfare. Old-age assistance is provided for persons 65 years of age or older who have resided in Michigan for one year before application; assets must not exceed various limits. In 1974 federal Supplementary Security Income (SSI) replaced the adults' programme. In 1982-83 aid was supplied to a monthly average of 1,186,943 dependent children in 239,848 families at $424.85 per family. Health. In 1981 the state had 236 hospitals (41,000 beds) licensed by the state and 11 psychiatric hospitals, 11 centres for developmental disabilities, 5 centres for emotionally disturbed children. In 1957 a programme came into force which provided for free medical care and hospital treatment for certain categories of persons. On 1 Oct. 1966 this programme was superseded by a more comprehensive programme called 'Medicaid' which, with federal support, disbursed in 1981, $ 1,297 • 8m. to 480,299 persons. Books of Reference Michigan Department of Economic Development. Publications. Lansing Michigan Manual. Dept of State. Lansing. Biennial Bureau of Business Research, Wayne State University. Michigan Statistical Abstract. Detroit, 1983 Bald, F. C., Michigan in Four Centuries. 2nd ed. New York, 1961 Blanchard, J. ¡., Economic Report of the Governor 1983. Lansing, 1983 Catton. B., Michigan—a Bicentennial History. Norton, New York, 1976 Lewis, F. E., State and Local Government in Michigan. Lansing, 1979 Dunbar, W. F., and May, G. S., Michigan: A History of the Wolverine State. Grand Rapids, 1980 Sommers, L. (ed.), Atlas of Michigan. EastLansing, 1977

MINNESOTA

1479

Stale Library Services: Library of Michigan, Lansing 48909. State Librarian: James W. Fry.

MINNESOTA HISTORY. Minnesota, first explored in the 17th century and first settled in the 20 years following the establishment of Fort Snelling (1819), was made a Territory in 1849 (with parts of North and South Dakota), and was admitted into the Union, with its present boundaries, on 11 May 1858. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Minnesota is bounded north by Canada, east by Lake Superior and Wisconsin, with the Mississippi River forming the boundary in the south-east, south by Iowa, west by South and North Dakota, with the Red River forming the boundary in the north-west. Area, 84,402 sq. miles, of which 4,854 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,075,970, an increase of 7 1 % since 1970. Estimate (1983), 4,145,667. Births in 1981,68,652 (16-7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 32,815 (8 0); infant deaths, 701 (10-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 37,638 (9 -2); divorces, 16,505 (4). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 2,059,227 2,542,599 3,371,603

Negro 7,084 9,445 22,263

1970 1980

3,736,038 3,935,770

34,868 53,344

Indian 9,053 11,077 15,496

Asiatic 344 832 3,642

All others 34,163 86,856

Total 2,075,708 2,563,953 3,413,864

Persq. mile 25-7 320 42-7

3,805,069 4,075,970

47-6 51-4

Of the 1980 population, 1,997,826 were male; 2,725,270 were urban; those 21 years of age or older numbered 2,656,947. The largest cities are Minneapolis, 370,951; St Paul (capital), 270,230 (Minneapolis-St Paul standard metropolitan statistical area, 2,113,533 in 1980); Duluth, 92,811; Bloomington, 81,831; Rochester, 57,890. C L I M A T E . Duluth. Jan. 8°F (-13-3"C), July 63°F(17-2°C). Annual rainfall 29" (719 mm). Minneapolis-St. Paul. Jan. 12°F(-11PC), July 7rF(21-7°C). Annual rainfall 26" (656 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1858; it has had 94 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 67 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 134 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Mondale polled 971,648 votes, Reagan 941,609. The capital is St Paul. There are 87 counties, four containing less than 400 sq. miles, the largest being 6,092 sq. miles. Governor: Rudy Perpich(D.), 1983-86 ($84,560). Lieut.-Governor: Marlene Johnson (D.), 1983-86 ($46,510). Secretary ofState: Joan Anderson Growe (DFL.), 1983-86 ($46,510). BUDGET. The general fund budget for the 1983-85 2-year period was $9,407m.; tax reliefs 1,674m., education $3,456m., public welfare $ 1,986m., transport $48m. Net long-term debt, 30 June 1980, was $881 m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $11,913. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The iron ore and taconite industry is the most important in the USA. Production of usable iron ore in 1981 was 50m. tons, value $2,062m. Other impor-

1480

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

tant minerals are sand and gravel, crushed and dimension stone, lime and manganiferous ore. Total value ofmineral production, 1981, $2,151 • 9m. Agriculture. Agriculture, including processing, is the leading industry. In 1983 there were 103,000 farms with a total area of 30*4m. acres (60% of the land area); the average farm was of 295 acres. Average value of land and buildings (1982) $348,800. Commercial farms in 1982 numbered 94,385; 12% of the farms were operated by tenant-farmers. Cash income, 1982, from crops, $3,132m.; from livestock, $3,541m. In 1983 Minnesota ranked first in sugarbeet and wild rice, and second in spring wheat, oats, hay, rye, non-fat dry milk, processing sweet corn and turkeys. Other important products are butter, eggs, sheep, flaxseed, milch cows, milk, corn, barley, swine, cattle for market, soybeans, honey, potatoes, chickens, sunflower seed, dry edible beans, and green peas for processing. Of livestock, cattle represents 15-l%of total farm income, swine 12-6% and milk 20%. Ofcrops, corn represents 15-3% and soybeans 17%. On 1 Jan. 1984 the farm animals included 3-69m. all cattle, 910,000 milch cows, 255,000 sheep and lambs, 4-27m. swine, 13 -9m. chickens and 443,000 breeder hen turkeys. Turkey production, 1981,27m. In 1983 the wool clip amounted to 2 • 11 m. lb. of wool from 305,000 sheep. Honey production (1981), 8-2m. lb; beeswax, 188,000 lb. About 95% of US commercial wild rice paddies are in Minnesota. Production from 20,000 acres (1983), 3 • 2m. lb. of processed wild rice. Forestry. Forests of commercial timber cover 13-69m. acres, of which 53-5% is government-owned. The value of forest products in 1982 was $2,544m.; $674-3m. of this was from pulpwood and S1,595m. from secondary manufacturing. Logging, pulping, saw-mills and associated industries employed 46,800 in 1982. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982 manufacturing establishments employed 359,600 workers; value added by manufacture was $ 14,305m. T O U R I S M . In 1982, tourists spent about $2,500m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway system (interstate and state trunk highways) covered 12,100 miles in 1981; total highway, road and street mileage, 130,800. In 1981, 2,092,170 passenger automobiles were registered. Railways. There are 6 Class I and 9 Class II railroads operating, with total mileage of 5,318. Aviation. Airports in 1980 numbered 593 (139 municipal, 27 privately owned for public use, 387 personal use, 11 public seaplane bases, 14 private, 74 for personal use). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. A Civil Rights Act (1927) forbids places of public resort to exclude persons 'on account of race or colour' and another section forbids insurance companies to discriminate 'between persons of the same class on account of race'. Contractors on public works may have their contracts cancelled if 'in the hiring of common or skilled labour' they are found to have discriminated on the grounds of'race, creed or colour'. The state's penal reformatory system on 1 Jan. 1984 held 2,228 men and women. There is no death penalty in Minnesota. Religion. The chief religious bodies are: Lutheran with 1,112,495 members in 1970; Roman Catholic, 1,061,614; Methodist, 213,084. Total membership of all denominations, 3,044,055. Education. In 1983, there were 52,528 kindergarten students, 297,102 elementary students, and 362,084 secondary students enrolled in 1,504 public schools. There were 7,925 kindergarten students, 51,395 elementary students and 32,982 secondary students enrolled in 603 private schools. There were 39,704 public school classroom teachers and 5,382 private. The average salary for a public classroom

MISSISSIPPI

1481

teacher was $22,367. Total public school expenditures for 1983 were $2,333m. and total revenues were $2,322m. Of the total revenues, $1,923m. came from State funds and $113m. came from Federal funds. The University of Minnesota, chartered in 1851 and opened in 1869, had a total enrolment in 1982 of 59,290 students. The 14 public community colleges (2-year) had a total enrolment of 37,445. Seven state universities (4-year) had 1982 enrolment of 43,270, State universities are at Bemidji, Mankato, Marshall, Moorhead, St Cloud, Winona, Minneapolis and St Paul. Health. In 1983 the state had 172 general acute hospitals with 20,752 beds. Patients resident in institutions under the Department of Public Welfare on 30 June 1982 included 1,303 mentally ill, 2,368 mentally retarded and 581 chemically dependent. There are 2 state nursing homes with 774 residents in 1983. Social Security. On 1 Jan. 1974 the state administered programmes of old age assistance, aid to the disabled, and aid to the blind were given over to federal administration under the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Programme. For some states, the new maintenance grants were less than under the state administered programmes. These states could establish a supplemental programme to correct the deficiency. The Minnesota Supplemental Aid (MSA) programme was later expanded to cover individuals who were not receiving SSI and to provide onetime payment for certain special needs such as major home repair, replacement of essential basic furniture or appliances, moving expenses and fuel and utility adjustments. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Current information is obtainable from the State Planning Agency (101 Capitol Square Building, 550 Cedar Street, St Paul 55101); non-current material from the Reference Library, Minnesota Historical Society, St Paul 55101. Legislative Manual. Secretary of State. St Paul. Biennial Manufacturers' Directory. Nelson Name Service, Minneapolis, Biennial Minnesota Agriculture Statistics. Dept. of Agric., St Paul. Annual Minnesota Pocket Data Book, Minneapolis, 1983

MISSISSIPPI H I S T O R Y . Mississippi, settled in 1716, was organized as a Territory in 1798 and admitted into the Union on 10 Dec. 1817. In 1804 and in 1812 its boundaries were extended, but in March 1817 a part was taken to form the new Territory of Alabama, leaving the boundaries substantially as at present. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mississippi is bounded north by Tennessee, east by Alabama, south by the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana, west by the Mississippi River forming the boundary with Louisiana and Arkansas. Area, 47,689 sq. miles, 457 sq. miles being inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,520,638, an increase of 13-6% since 1970. Estimate (1983), 2,587,000. Births, occurring in the state, 1983, were 43,689; deaths, 23,314; infant deaths, 629; marriages, 26,921; divorces, 13,436. Population of 6 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1960

White 786,111 998,077 1,188,632 1,257,546

Negro 1,009,487 1,009,718 986,494 915,743

1970 1980

1,393,283 1,615,190

815,770 887,206

Indian 1,253 1,458 2,502 3,119

Asiatic 263 568 1,286 1,481

Alt others 7,859 18,242

Total 1,797,114 2,009,821 2,178,914 2,178,141 2,216,912 2,520,638

Persq. mile 38 8 42-4 46-1 46-1 469 530

Of the population in 1980, 1,213,878 were male, 1,192,805 were urban and 1,601,157 were 20 years old or older.

1482

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

The largest city (1980) is Jackson, 202,895. Others are: Biloxi, 49,311; Meridian, 46,577; Hattiesburg, 40,829; Greenville, 40,613; Gulfport, 39,676; Pascagoula, 29,318; Columbus, 27,383; Vicksburg, 25,434; Tupelo, 23,905. C L I M A T E . Jackson.Jan. 47°F (8-3°Q, July 82°F (27-8'C). Annual rainfall 49" (1,221 mm). Vicksburg. Jan. 48"F(8-9°C), July 81°F(27-2"C). Annual rainfall 52" (1,311 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in 1890 without ratification by the electorate; it has since had 48 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate (52 members) and a House of Representatives (122 members), both elected for 4 years, as are also the Governor and Lieut.-Governor. Electors are all citizens who have resided in the state 1 year, in the county 1 year, in the election district 6 months next before the election and have been registered according to law. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 577,378 votes, Mondale,351,195. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 5 representatives. The capital is Jackson; there are 82 counties. Governor: William A. Allain (D.), 1984-88 ($53,000). Lieut. - Governor: Bradford Johnson Dye (D.) ($34,000). Secretary of State: Dick Molpus (D.) ($34,000). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1984 the general revenues were $2,912,094,406 (taxation, $1,809,145,191; federal aid, $875,137,182; other state resources, $227,812,033), and general expenditures were $2,867,245,829 ($989,800,154 for education, $322,241,426 for highways and $174,967,870 for public welfare). On 30 June 1984 the total net long-term debt was $ 1,070-9m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $7,778 (lowest in US). ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Petroleum and natural gas account for about 90% (by value) of mineral production. Output of petroleum, 1981, was 34,381,093 bbls and of natural gas 229,404,669m. cu. ft. TTiere are 6 oil refineries. Value of oil and gas products sold 1981 was $1,807,679,550. Agriculture. Agriculture is the leading industry of the state because of the semitropical climate and a rich productive soil. In 1984 there were 82 soil conservation districts covering 26,342,406 acres. In 1983 farms with annual sales of $1,000 or more numbered 51,000 with an area of 14-3m. acres. Average size of farm was 280 acres. This compares with an average farm size of 138 acres in 1960. Cash income from all crops and livestock during 1982, including government payments, was $2,535 -2m. Cash income from crops was $1,488 • 1 m. and from livestock and products, $943-2m. The chief product is cotton, cash income $651 -9m. from lm. acres producing l-76m. bales of 480 lb. Soybeans (92-3m. bu. from 3-5m. acres), rice, com, hay, wheat, oats, sorghum, peanuts, pecans, sweet potatoes, peaches, other vegetables, nursery and forest products continue to contribute. On 1 Jan. 1983 there were 1 -8m. head of cattle and calves on Mississippi farms. Milch cows and heifers which had calved totalled 96,000, beef cows and heifers that had calved, 874,000; hogs and pigs, 280,000. Of cash income from livestock and products, 1982, $267-4m. was credited to cattle and calves. Cash income from poultry and eggs totalled $427 -7m.; dairy products, $ 127 • 3m.; swine, $56• 9m. In 1983 there were 82 soil-conservation districts covering 26,342,406 acres. Forestry. In 1983 income from forestry amounted to $484m.; output of logs, lumber, etc., was l,153-4m. bd ft; pulpwood, 4,764,132 cords; distillate wood, 16,862 tons; turpentine gum, 4,355 bbls. There are about 16-2m. acres of forest (53% ofthe state's area). National forests area, 1983,1 1m. acres.

MISSISSIPPI

1483

I N D U S T R Y . In 1983 the 2,968 manufacturing establishments employed 204,821 workers, earning $3,118,208,376. T O U R I S M . Total receipts, 1984,$ 1,400m. from about 9m. tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in July 1984 maintained 10,240 miles of highways, of which 10,199 miles were paved. In 1984,1,643,997 cars were registered. Railways. The state in 1984 had2,970-36 miles of railway. Aviation. There were 77 public airports in 1984, 67 of them general. There were also 5 privately owned airports open to the public. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1983 there was 1 execution; from 1955 to 1983 executions (by gaschamber) totalled 32(8 whites and 14 Negroes for murder, 9 Negroes for rape and 1 Negro for armed robbery). On 20 Oct. 1983 the state prisons had 5,552 inmates. Religion. Southern Baptists in Mississippi (1983), 638,235 members; United Methodists (1984)200,336; Roman Catholics (1984), 98,420 in Biloxi and Jackson dioceses; Negro Baptists about 475,000. The number of churches relative to the population is the highest in the US (one church per 289 persons; national average, 814). Education. Attendance at school is compulsory as laid down in the Education Reform Act of 1982. The public elementary and secondary schools in 1982-83 had 471,663 pupils and 25,256 classroom teachers. In 1982-83, teachers' average salary was $14,135. The.expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance, 1981-82, was $ 1,863. There are 22 universities and senior colleges, of which 8 are state-supported. The University of Mississippi, at Oxford (1844), had, 1983-84, 575 instructors and 8,715 students; Mississippi State University, Starkville, 842 instructors and 11,720 students; Mississippi University for Women, at Columbus, 143 instructors and 2,198 students; University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 634 instructors and 11,169 students; Jackson State University, Jackson, 353 instructors and 6,088 students; Delta State University, Cleveland, 202 instructors and 3,445 students; Alcorn State University, Lorman, 159 instructors and 2,400 students; Mississippi Valley State University, Itta Bena, 144 instructors and 2,396 students. State support for the 8 universities(1984-85) was $153 -2m. Junior colleges had (1983—84) 58,075 students and 2,279 instructors. The state appropriation for junior colleges, 1983-84, was $47 • 7m. Health. In 1984 the state had 125 acute general hospitals (13,007 beds) listed by the Mississippi Health Care Commission. In 1984,11 hospitals with facilities for care of the mentally ill had 2,428 beds. Social Security. Department of Public Welfare figures show (June 1984) 20 persons receiving State Mandatory Supplementation payments amounting to $198 or an average of $9.90 per case. TTie state Medicaid commission paid (1983-84) $324 -8m. for medical services, including $40m. for drugs, $45 -96m. for skilled nursing home care, $82m. for hospital services. There were 70,689 persons eligible for Aged Medicaid, 1,981 persons eligible for Blind Medicaid and 62,989 persons eligible for Disabled Medicaid benefits at 30 June 1984. In June 1984 52,899 families with 111,923 dependent children received $4,821,906 in the Aid to Dependent Children programme. The average payment was $91.15 per family or $43.08 per child. Books of Reference 1980 Census of Population and Housing: Mississippi. Mississippi Official and Statistical Register. Secretary of State. Jackson. Biennial Bettersworth, J. K., Mississippi: A History. Rev. ed. Austin, Tex., 1964

1484

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Mississippi Library Commission: PO Box 10700 Jackson, MS. 39209-0700. Manager of Information Services: Sharman B. Smith.

MISSOURI H I S T O R Y . Missouri, first settled in 1735 at Ste Genevieve, was made a Territory on 1 Oct. 1812, and admitted to the Union on 10 Aug. 1821. In 1837 its boundaries were extended to their present limits. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Missouri is bounded north by Iowa, east by the Mississippi River forming the boundary with Illinois and Kentucky, south by Arkansas, south-west by Oklahoma, west by Kansas and Nebraska, with the Missouri River forming the boundary in the north-west. Area, 68,945 sq. miles, 752 sq. miles being water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,916,686, an increase since 1970 of 5-1%. Estimate (1982), 4,951,000. Births, 1981, were 76,758 (15-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 49,780 (10 1); infant deaths, 971 (12-7 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 54,124 (11 0); divorces, 27,975 (5-7). Population of 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960

While 3,134,932 3,403,876 3,922,967

Negro 157,452 223,840 390,853

1970 1980

4,177,495 4,345,521

480,172 514,276

Indian 313 578 1,723

Asiatic 638 1,073 3,146

All others 19,732 56,889

Total 3,293,335 3,629,367 4,319,813

Per sq. mile 47-9 52-4 62-5

4,677,399 4,916,686

67 0 71-3

Of the total population in 1980, 2,365,487 were male, 3,350,746 persons were urban and those 18 years of age or older numbered 3,554,203. The principal cities at the 1980 census (and estimates, 1982) are: St Louis KansasCity Springfield Independence St Joseph

453,085(419,004) 448,159(436,002) 133,116(137,006) 111,806(111,009) 76,691(76,008)

Columbia Florissant University City Joplin St Charles

62,061(64,004) 55,372(56,006) 42,738(41,007) 38,893(39,002) 37,379(41,004)

Metropolitan areas, 1980: St Louis, 2,356,000; Kansas City, 1,327,000. C L I M A T E . Kansas City. Jan. 30°F (-1 • 1°C), July 79° F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 38" (947 mm). St. Louis. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July 79°F (26-l°C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,004 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution, the fourth, was adopted on 27 Feb. 1945; it has been amended 26 times. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 34 members elected for 4 years (half for re-election every 2 years), and a House of Representatives of 163 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Missouri sends to Congress 2 senators and 9 representatives. Voters (with the usual exceptions) are all citizens and those adult aliens who, within a prescribed period, have applied for citizenship. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,242,678, Mondale, 808,601. Jefferson City is the state capital. The state is divided into 114 counties and the city of St Louis. Governor: John D. Ashcroft (R.), 1985-88 ($75,000). Lieut.-Governor: Harriett Woods (D.), 1985-88 ($45,000). Secretary ofState: Roy D. Blunt (R.), 1985-88 ($60,000). BUDGET. For the year 1981-82 the total revenues from all funds were $4,951-5m. (federal revenue, $1,543-3m., general revenue, $2,833-3m.).

MISSOURI

1485

Total outstanding debt, 1981-82, was $3,181 • 4m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $10,188. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Principal minerals are lead (ranks first in USA), zinc (ranks second), clays, coal, iron ore, and stone for cement and lime manufacture. Value of production (1982) $733 • 8m., a 16 • 2% decrease from that of 1981. Agriculture. In 1983 there were (preliminary) 117,000 farms in Missouri covering 31 -4m. acres. The average size of farms is 268 acres. Production of principal crops, 1983: Corn, 74-36m. bu.; soybeans, 101-4m. bu.; wheat, 70-3m. bu.; sorghum grain, 40-8m. bu.; oats, 2-48m. bu.; cotton, 73,000 bales (of480 lb.). Cash receipts from farming, 1983, $3,906-5m. (preliminary). Export value of farm produce, $ 1,018m., to which soybeans contributed $629m. Forestry. Forest land area, 1982,32 -4m. acres. INDUSTRY. The largest employer in 1982 (preliminary) was manufacturing, in which the transport equipment industry employed 56,009 workers. Other large industries are food and kindred products, electrical equipment and supplies, apparel and related products and non-electrical machinery, leather products, chemicals, paper, metal industries, stone, clay and glass. Retail trade employed 326,375 in 1981, 103,233 of them in eating and drinking places; wholesale trade employed 135,282. L A B O U R . The State Board of Mediation has jurisdiction in labour disputes involving only public utilities. The Prevailing Wage Law (1959) provides that no less than the local hourly rate of wages for work of a similar character shall be paid to any workmen engaged in public works. The Industrial Commission has authority to inspect records and to institute actions for penalties described in the Act. There is a state programme for industrial safety in hand, under the Federal Occupational and Health Act. In June 1984 the estimated number of employed was 2,428,500, and 172,700 were unemployed. The unemployment rate was 7-1% (estimate). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Federal and state highways, Dec. 1981, totalled 118,403 miles. In 1981 there were 3 -3m. vehicles licensed in the state, of which 3,741 were private and commercial buses. Railways. The state has 10 Class I railways; approximate total mileage, 8,081. There are 7 other railways (switching, terminal or short-line), total mileage 229. Aviation. In 1984 there were 116 public airports and 277 private airports. Shipping. Ten carrier barge lines (1984) operated on about 1,000 miles of navigable waterways including the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Boat shipping seasons: Missouri River, April-end Nov.; Mississippi River, all seasons. Post and Broadcasting. There were 243 commercial radio stations and 30 TV stations in 1983 (preliminary). The number of telephones in 1980 was 3-87m. Newspapers. There were (1984) 44 daily and 226 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. State prisons in 1984 had an average of 8,167 inmates. Of those committed, 70% are aged 17-29. There have been no executions since 1965 although the death penalty was reinstated in 1978; since 1930 executions (by lethal gas) have totalled 40, including 31 for murder, 6 for rape and 3 for kidnapping. The Missouri Law Enforcement Assistance Council was created in 1969 for law reform. Religion. Chief religious bodies (1980) are Catholic, with 800,228 members, Southern Baptists (700,053), United Methodists (270,469), Christian Churches

1486

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

(175,101), Lutheran (157,928), Presbyterian (38,254). Total membership, all denominations, about 2-6m. in 1980. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years for the full term. In the 1983-84 school year, public schools (kindergarten through grade 12) had 795,453 pupils. Total expenditure for public schools in 1983, $2,065-2m. Salaries for teachers (kindergarten through grade 12), 1982-83, averaged $18,000. Institutions for higher education include the University of Missouri, founded in 1839 with campuses at Columbia, Rolla, St Louis and Kansas City, with 6,052 accredited teachers and 54,662 students in 1982. Washington University at St Louis, founded in 1857, and St Louis University (1818), are both private universities. Fifteen state colleges had 114,232 students in 1982. Private colleges had (1982) 43,171 students. Church-affiliated colleges (1982) had 28,689 students. Public junior colleges had 52,423 students. There are about 89 secondary and postsecondary institutions offering vocational courses, and about 201 private career schools. There were 244,238 students in higher education in autumn 1982. Health. There were 9 state mental health hospitals and centres and 2 children's psychiatric hospitals in 1983, admitting 23,692 patients. Social Security. In 1981 the number of recipients of medicaid was 361,000. The number of recipients of Aid to Dependent Children was 177,000 with an average monthly payment per family of $219. Books of Reference Missouri Final Production Count, Office of Comptroller and Budget Director, Jefferson City Missouri Corporate Planner, Division of Commerce and Industrial Development, Jefferson City Statistical Abstract for Missouri. State and Regional Fiscal Studies Unit, College of Business and Public Administration, Columbia 1983

MONTANA HISTORY. Montana, first settled in 1809, was made a Territory (out of portions of Idaho and Dakota Territories) in 1864 and was admitted into the Union on 8 Nov. 1889. AREA A N D POPULATION. Montana is bounded north by Canada, east by North and South Dakota, south by Wyoming and west by Idaho and the Bitterroot Range of the Rocky Mountains. Area, 147,138 sq. miles, including 1,551 sq. miles of water, of which the federal government, 1979, owned 27,741,000 acres or 29-7%. US Bureau of Indian Affairs administered 5-26m. acres, of which 2,204,000 were allotted to tribes. Census population, 1 April 1980, 786,690, an increase ofl3-3% since 1970. Estimate (1982), 801,000. Births, 1981, were 13,999 (18 per 1,000 population); deaths, 6,709 (8-5); infant deaths, 153 (10-7 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 8,209 (10-4); divorces 5,004 (6 -3). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1970 1980

White 360,580 519,898 572,038 663,043 740,148

Negro 1,834 1,256 1,232 1,995 1,786

Indian 10,745 14,798 16,606 27,130 37,270

Asiatic 2,870 1,239 —

1,099 2,503

Total 376,053 537,606 591,024 694,409 786,690

Persq. mile 2-6 3-7 41 4-7 5-3

Of the total population in 1980, 392,625 were male, 416,402 persons (52 -9%) were urban. Persons 20 years of age or older numbered 524,836. Median age, 29 years. Households, 283,742. The largest cities (1980) are Billings, 66,798; Great Falls, 56,725. Others, 1980: Butte-Silver Bow, 37,205; Missoula, 33,388; Helena (capital), 23,938; Bozeman, 21,645; Anaconda-Deer Lodge County, 12,518;Havre, 10,891; Kalispell, 10,648.

MONTANA

1487

C L I M A T E . Helena. Jan. 18°F (-7-8°C), July 69"F (20-6°C). Annual rainfall 13" (325 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was ratified by the voters on 6 June 1972, and fully implemented on 1 July 1973; the Senate to consist of 50 senators, elected for 4 years, one half at each biennial election. The 100 members of the House of Representatives are elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Montana sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 207,163 votes, Mondale, 131,975. The capital is Helena. The state is divided into 56 counties. Governor: Ted Schwinden (D.), 1985-89 ($47,963). Lieut.-Governor: George Turman (D.), 1985-89 ($34,344). Secretary of State: Jim Waltermire (R.), 1985-89 ($31,692). BUDGET. Total state revenues for the year ending 30 June 1981 were $1,269,327,000 ($465m. taxes); total expenditures were $1,096,301,000 ($307-8m. for education, $193m. for highways and $116-8m. for public welfare). Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1981 was $82,034,000. Per capita personal income (1981) was $9,412. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power generated in June 1983 was 1,027 gwh., of which 902 gwh. was hydro-electric and 123 gwh. from coal-fired plants; minimal amounts were from oil- and gas-fired plants and 1 gwh. from other sources. Minerals (1981). Output of crude petroleum, 31m. bbls; copper, 62,485 tonnes; sand and gravel, 6 1 m . short tons; phosphate rock, undisclosed; silver, 2-9m. troy oz.; gold, 54,267 troy oz.; zinc, 25 tonnes; natural gas, 56,565m. cu. ft; coal, 33 • 5m. short tons. Value of total mineral production (1981), $l,894-3m., with petroleum ($ 1,073 • 9m.) the first, coal ($407-2m.) the second, copper ($ 117 • 3m.) the third and natural gas ($ 108m.) the fourth most important commodity. Agriculture. In 1982 there were 24,000 farms and ranches (50,564 in 1935) with an area of 62- lm. acres (47,511,868 acres in 1935). Large-scale farming predominates; in 1982 the average size per farm was 2,588 acres. Income from all farm marketings was $1,483-3m. in 1981 (crops, $854-2m.; livestock, $629m.). Irrigated area harvested in 1981 was l-73m. acres; non-irrigated, 7-98m. acres. The chief crops are wheat, amounting in 1981 to 172-8m. bu., ranking sixth in US; barley, 56-7m. bu.; oats, 4-8m. bu.; sugar-beet, hay, potatoes, alfalfa, dry beans, flax and cherries. In 1981 there were 29,000 milch cows, 2-9m. all cattle; 200,000 swine. The wool clip in 1981 was5-56m. lb. from616,000 head ofsheep. Forestry. Total forest area (1977), 22-5m. acres. In 1981 there were 16-8m. acres within 11 national forests. I N D U S T R Y . In 1981 manufacturing establishments numbering 612 had 17,264 production workers; value added by manufacture was (1978) $850-6m. LABOUR (Aug. 1983). Work force, 393,200; total employed, 362,600; total nonagricultural workers, 320,900; agricultural workers, 41,700. Workers employed by major industry group: Mining, 7,000 (average net weekly earnings, $492.78); contract construction, 12,900 ($569.65); manufacturing, 21,000 ($422.75); transport and public utilities, 18,900 ($465.37; wholesale/retail trade, 73,700 ($206.38); finance/insurance/real estate, 13,100 ($207.27); services, 55,300 ($200.63); government, 64,200 (no income figures available). Average weekly earnings for all workers in private non-agricultural industries $281.60. Total unemployed 30,600 (7-8% of the work force in Aug. 1983 as compared to 9-2% nationally for that month).

1488

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

There were 16 work stoppages in 1980 involving 4,900 workers, with a total of 96,900 man days idle during the year. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Dec. 1982 the state had 63,151 miles of maintained public roads and streets including 11,733 miles of the federal-aid system. At 26 Oct. 1983 there were 506,080 passenger vehicles, 319,515 trucks and 50,688 motor cycles registered. Railways. In Dec. 1983 there were 4,314 route miles of railway in the state. Aviation. There were 126 airports open for public use in Dec. 1983, of which 120 were publicly owned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. On 1 Nov. 1983 the Montana state prison held 777 inmates and the Women's Correctional Center, 17. Since 1943 there have been no executions; total since 1930 (all by hanging) was 6; 4 whites and 2 Negroes, for murder. Religion. The leading religious bodies are (1982): Roman Catholic with 131,000 active members; Lutheran, 68,000; Methodist, 25,000 (church estimates). Education. In Oct. 1982 public elementary and secondary schools had 152,335 pupils. Public elementary and secondary school teachers (9,517 full-time) had an average salary of $19,488. Expenditure on public school education (1982-83) (excluding special education programmes) was $360-9m.; expenditure per pupil was $2,373. The Montana University system consists of the Montana State University, at Bozeman (autumn 1983 enrolment: 11,447 students), the University of Montana, at Missoula, founded in 1895 (9,371), the Montana College of Mineral Science and Technology, at Butte (2,306), Northern Montana College, at Havre (1,859), Eastern Montana College, at Billings (4,424) and Western Montana College, at Dillon (941). Social Security. In Sept. 1983,3,569 persons over age 65 were receiving in medical assistance an average of $772.21 per month; 52 blind persons, $579.42; 2,983 totally disabled, $599.85; 6,823 families (12,369 dependent children) receiving in aidto-dependent children assistance an average of $307.03 per month. Aid was from state and federal sources. Health. In Aug. 1983 the state had 61 hospitals (3,426 beds) listed by the Montana Board of Health. Four centres for mental disease and development disorders had 962 beds and 841 patients. Books of Reference Montana Agricultural Statistics. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Montana Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Biennial from 1946 Montana Employment and Labor Force. Montana Dept. of Labor and Industry. Monthly from 1971 Montana Federal-Aid Road Log. Montana Dept. of Highways and US Dept. of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. Annual from 1938 Montana Vital Statistics. Montana Dept. of Health and Environmental Sciences. Annually from 1954 Statistical Report. Montana Dept. of Social and Rehabilitation Services. Monthly from 1947 Lang, W, L.,and Myers, R. C., Montana, Our Land and People. Pruett, 1979 Malone, M. P., and Roeder, R. B., Montana. A History of Two Centuries. Univ. of Washington Press, 1976 Spence, C. C., Montana, a History. New York, 1978

NEBRASKA HISTORY. The Nebraska region was first reached by white men from Mexico under the Spanish general Coronado in 1541. It was ceded by France to Spain in

NEBRASKA

1489

1763, retroceded to France in 1801, and sold by Napoleon to the US as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Its first settlement was in 1847, and on 30 May 1854 it became a Territory and on 1 March 1867 a state. In 1882 it annexed a small part of Dakota Territory, and in 1908 it received another small tract from South Dakota. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Nebraska is bounded north by South Dakota, with the Missouri River forming the boundary in the north-east and the boundary with Iowa and Missouri to the east; south by Kansas, south-west by Colorado and west by Wyoming. Area, 77,355 sq. miles, of which 711 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1980: 1,569,825, an increase of 5-7% since 1970. Estimate (1982), 1,586,000. Births, 1982, were 26,954 (17 0 per 1,000 population); deaths, 14,567 (9 -2); infant deaths, 269 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 14,350 (9): divorces, 6,357(4). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1920 1960

White 1,180,293 1,279,219 1,374,764

Negro 7,689 13,242 29,262

1970 1980

1,432,867 1,490,381

39,911 48,390

Indian 3,502 2,888 5,545

Asiatic 730 1,023 1,195

All others 10,715 31,054

Total 1,192,214 1,296,372 1,411,330

Persq. mile 15-5 16-9 18-3

1,483,791 1,569,825

19 4 20-5

Of the total population in 1980, 48-8% were male,62-9% were urban 65-6% were 21 years of age or older. The largest cities in the state are: Omaha, with a census population, 1980, of 313,911; Lincoln (capital), 171,932; Grand Island, 33,180; North Platte, 24,509; Fremont, 23,979; Hastings, 23,045; Bellevue, 21,813; Kearney, 21,158; Norfolk, 19,449. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, as of 30 June 1981, administered 65,000 acres, of which 23,000 acres were allotted to tribal control. C L I M A T E . Omaha. Jan. 22°F (-5-6'C), July 77°F (25'C). Annual rainfall 29" (721 mm). See High Plains, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in 1875; it has been amended 176 times. By an amendment adopted in Nov. 1934 Nebraska has a single-chambered legislature (elected for 4 years) of 49 members—the only state in the Union to have one. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. Amendments adopted in 1912 and 1920 provide for legislation through the initiative and referendum and permit cities of more than 5,000 inhabitants to frame their own charters. A 'right-to-work' amendment adopted 5 Nov. 1946 makes illegal the 'closed shop' demands of trade unions. Nebraska is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 3 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 446,938 votes, Mondale, 183,838. The capital is Lincoln. The state has 93 counties. Governor: Robert Kerrey (D.), 1983-86 ($40,000). Lieut.-Govemor: Donald F. McGinley (D.) ($32,000). Secretary of State: Allen Beerman (R.) ($32,000). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1980 (US Census Bureau figures) the state's revenues were $l,506m. (taxation, $817m. and federal aid, $361m.); general expenditures were $l,341m. ($416m. for education, $265m. for highways and $ 191 m. for public welfare). The state has a bonded indebtedness limit of $100,000. Per capita personal income (1981) was $ 10,641. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The total output of minerals, 1983, was valued at $282-2m., petroleum (6m. bbls) and sand and gravel (12m. tons) being the most important.

1490

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Agriculture. Nebraska is one of the most important agricultural states. In 1983 it contained approximately 63,000 farms, with a total area of 45m. acres. The average farm was 746 acres. In 1982,7-7m. acres were irrigated and 70,233 irrigation wells were registered. Cash income from crops (1982), $2,855-4m., and from livestock, $4,231-4m. Principal crops, with estimated 1983 yield: Maize, 475-2m. bu. (ranking third in US); wheat, 98-9m. bu.; sorghums for grain, 60m. bu.; oats, 13-6m. bu.; soybeans, 59-5m. bu. About 753 farms grow sugar-beet for 5 factories; output, 1983, 1 -2m. short tons. On 1 Jan. 1984 the state contained 6 • 9m. all cattle (ranking third in US), 121,000 milch cows, 195,000 sheep and 3 • 5m. swine. Forestry. The area of national forest, 1982, was 352,000 acres. INDUSTRY. In 1978 there were 1,969 manufacturing establishments; 66,900 production workers earned $786 -5m. and value added by manufacturing was $3,249-7m. The chief industry is meat-packing, employing (1978), 8,200 (7,100 production workers) and value added was $258 • 3m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state-maintained highway system embraced 9,888 miles in 1982; local roads, 96,072 miles. In 1983,821,002 automobiles were registered. Railways. In 1981 there were 7,394 miles of railway. Aviation. Airports (1982) numbered 323, of which 112 were publicly owned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. A 'Civil Rights Act' revised in 1969 provides that all people are entitled to a 'full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities and privileges' of hotels, restaurants, public conveyances, amusement places and other places. The state university is forbidden to discriminate between students 'because of age, sex, color or nationality'. An Act of 1941 declares it to be 'the policy of this state' that no trade union should discriminate, in collective bargaining, 'against any person because of his race or color'. The state's prisons had, 23 Oct, 1984, 1,700 inmates (93 per 100,000 population). From 1930 to 1962 there were 4 executions (electrocution), 3 white men and 1 American Indian, all for murder, and none since. Religion. The Roman Catholics had 334,352 members in 1983; Protestant Churches, 671,000; Jews, 7,900 members. Total, all denominations, 1,013,252 (unofficial figures). Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years of age. Public elementary schools, autumn 1982, had 144,425 enrolled pupils. Teachers' salaries, 1983-84, averaged $ 18,785. Estimated public school expenditure for year ending 30 Aug. 1983 was $690-4m. Total enrolment in 30 institutions of higher education, autumn 1983, was 95,162 students. The largest institutions were (1983): Opened 1867 1869 1878 1883 1887 1891 1894 1905 1908 1910 1911 1923 1966

Institution Peru State College, Peru (State) • Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln (State) Creighton Univ., Omaha (RC) Midland Lutheran College, Fremont (Lutheran) Nebraska Wesleyan Univ. (Methodist) Union College, Lincoln (Seventh Day Adventist) Concordia Teachers' College, Seward (Lutheran) Kearney State College, Kearney (State) Univ. ofNebraska, Omaha (State) Wayne State College, Wayne (State) Chadron State College, Chadron (State) College of St. Mary Bellevue College, Bellevue (Private)

Students 1,130 27,372 6,301 881 1,222 1,040 960 7,664 14,531 2,405 1,916 1,207 2,717

The state holds 1 -52m. acres of land as a permanent endowment of her schools; permanent public school endowment fund in Sept. 1984 was $79 -2m.

NEVADA

1491

Health. In 1984 the state had 113 hospitals and 570 patients in mental hospitals. Social Security. The administration of public welfare is the responsibility of the County Divisions of Welfare with policy-forming, regulatory, advisory and supervisor functions performed by the State Department of Public Welfare. In 1983 public welfare provided financial aid and/or services as follows: for 6,588 individuals who were aged, blind or disabled, with an average state supplement of $55.82; for 14,639 families with dependent children, with an average payment of $318.60 per family; for 82,874 individuals who had medical needs, $1,753.97, per individual; for 1,842 children in need of child welfare services; for 3,516 children who were in need of crippled children's services and medical care. The amount of aid is based on need in accordance with State assistance standards; the programme of aid to families with dependent children is limited to a maximum maintenance payment of $293 for 1 child plus $71 for each additional child. Books of Reference Agricultural Atlas of Nebraska. Univ. ofNebraska Press, 1977 Climatic Atlas ofNebraska. Univ. ofNebraska Press, 1977 Economic Atlas ofNebraska. Univ. ofNebraska Press, 1977 Nebraska. A Guide to the Cornhusker State. Univ. ofNebraska Press, 1979 Nebraska Statistical Handbook, 1984-85. Nebraska Dept. of Econ. Development, Lincoln Nebraska Blue-Book. Legislative Council. Lincoln. Biennial Olson, J. C., History ofNebraska. Univ. ofNebraska Press, 1955 State Library: State Law Library, State House, Lincoln. Librarian: Larry D. Donelson.

NEVADA HISTORY. Nevada, first settled in 1851, when it was a part of the Territory of Utah (created 1850), was made a Territory in 1861, enlarged in 1862 by an addition from Utah Territory and admitted into the Union on 31 Oct. 1864 as the 36th state. In 1866 and 1867 the area of the state was significantly enlarged at the expense of the Territories of Utah and Arizona. AREA AND POPULATION. Nevada is bounded north by Oregon and Idaho, east by Utah, south-east by Arizona, with the Colorado River forming most of the boundary, south and west by California. Area 110,561 sq. miles, 667 sq. miles being water. The federal government in 1973 owned 60,908,872 acres, or 86-5% of the land area. Vacant public lands, 48,340,876 acres. TTie Bureau of Indian Affairs controlled l-35m. acres in 1975,ofwhich 1,062,047 acres have been assigned to Indian tribes. Census population on 1 April 1980, 799,184, an increase of 310,446 or 63-5% since 1970. Estimate (1981) 845,000. Births, 1980, were 13,156 (16 5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 6,408 (8); infant deaths, 157 (12 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 115,411 (144-5 per 1,000 population, largest of any state); divorces, 13,659(17 1). Population in 5 census years was: Asiatic and 1910 1930 1960 1970

White 74,276 84,515 263,443 449,850

Negro 513 516 13,484 27,579

1980

699,377

50,791

Indian 5,240 4,871 6,681 7,329

all others 1,846 1,156 1,670 3,980

All others 49,016

Total 81,875 91,058 285,278 488,738

Persq. mile 0-7 0 8 2-6 4-4

799,184

7-2

Of the total population in 1980, 404,372 were male, 681,682 were urban and 556,021 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities are Las Vegas, with population at the 1980 census of 164,674 (1982 estimate, 183,184); Reno, 100,756 (107,607); North Las Vegas, 39,196 (47,543); Sparks, 38,114 (42,604); Carson City, 30,807 (33,929); and Henderson,

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U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

20,905 (28,680). Clark County (Las Vegas, North Las Vegas and Henderson) and Washoe County (Reno and Sparks) together had 81% of the total slate population in 1980 (82% in 1982). C L I M A T E . Las Vegas. Jan. 44°F(6 r C ) , July 85°F (29-4°C). Annual rainfall 4" (112 mm). Reno. Jan. 32" F (0°Q, July 69" F (20 • 6°C). Annual rainfall 7" (178 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution adopted in 1864 is still in force, with over 60 amendments. The Legislature meets biennially (and in special sessions) and consists of a Senate of 20 members elected for 4 years, half their number retiring every 2 years, and an Assembly of 40'members elected for 2 years. The Governor, Lieut.-Govemor and Attorney-General are elected for 4 years. Qualified electors are all citizens with the usual residential qualification. Nevada is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 2 representatives. A Supreme Court of 5 members is elected for 4 years on a non-partisan ballot. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 188,794 votes, Mondale, 91,654. The state capital is Carson City. There are 16 counties, 17 incorporated cities and towns, 44 unincorporated towns and 1 city-county (Carson City). Governor: Richard Bryan (D.), 1983-86 ($65,000). Lieut.-Governor: Bob Cashell (D.) ($10,500). Secretary of State: William D. Swackhammer(D.) ($42,500). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1985 budget state general fund revenues were $433m., including federal receipts; budget expenditures were $415-5m. Education followed by human resources and public safety received the largest appropriations. State bonded indebtedness on 30 June 1984, was $45-9m. The state has no franchise tax, capital stock tax, special intangibles tax, chain stores tax, stock transfer tax, admissions tax, estate tax, gill tax, income taxes or inheritance tax. The sales and use tax and gaming taxes are the largest revenue producers. Per capita personal income (1982) was $ 11,981. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electricity power stations supplied 8,463m. mwh. in 1978. There were about 316,484 private and commercial customers in 1979. There are 8 suppliers of natural gas producing 51,696,121 m.cu. ft in 1978. Minerals. Production, 1981, in order of value was gold, barite, silver, and sand and gravel. Other minerals are gypsum, iron ore, mercury, lime, lithium, petroleum, gemstones, lead, molybdenum, fluorspar, perlite, pumice, clays, talc, salt, tungsten, magnesite, diatonite and zinc. Value of mineral output for 1981, $504m. Agriculture. In 1982, an estimated 2,900 farms had a farm area of 8-9m. acres (9-2m. in 1960). Farms averaged (1981) 2,871 acres. Area under irrigation (1979) was 1 • 3m. acres compared with 542,976 acres in 1959. Gross income, 1981, from crops, livestock and government payments, $249 • 1 m. Cattle, dairy products, hay, potatoes and sheep are the principal commodities in order of cash receipts. Total value of crops produced, $13-2m., of which hay accounted for 17-1%. On 1 Jan. 1982 there were 16,000 milch cows, 359,000 beef cattle, 129,000 sheep and 129 lambs. Forestry. The area of national forests (1983) under US Forest Service administration was 5,150,088 acres. National forests: Toiyabe (2,561,441 acres); Humboldt (2,527,938), Inyo (60,656); Eldorado (53). I N D U S T R Y . The main industries are the service industry, especially tourism and legalized gambling, mining and smelting, livestock and irrigated agriculture, chemical manufacturing, and lumber processing. In 1981 there were 843 manufacturing establishments with 20,094 employees, earning $362m.

NEVADA

1493

Gaming industry gross revenue for financial year 1983, $2,847m. There were at the same time 1,637 licences in force. L A B O U R . The annual average unemployment for 1983 was 9-8% of the work force. All industries employed 404,900 workers. Main industries and employees, 1983: Mining, 5,900; contract construction, 19,700; manufacturing, 19,000; transport (except railways), public works and utilities, 24,500; service industries, 178,800; retail trade, 66,700; government, 58,000; finance, insurance and real estate, 18,600. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Highway mileage (federal, state and local) totalled 51,118 in 1984, of which 16,798 miles were surfaced; motor vehicle registrations at 31 Dec. 1983 numbered 812,281. Railways. In 1973 there were 1,553 miles of main-line railway. Nevada is served by Southern Pacific, Union Pacific and Western Pacific railways, and Amtrac passenger service for Carlin, Elko, Reno and Sparks. Aviation. There were (1974) 114 civil airports and heliports (1,307 civil aircraft registered); 16 scheduled airlines operated. During 1983 McCarren International Airport handled 10-3m. passengers and Cannon International Airport handled 2-5m. passengers. Post. In 1976 there were 11 telephone exchanges with (1980), 787,232 telephones in service. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Prohibition of marriage between persons of different race was repealed by statute in 1959. A 1965 Civil Rights Act makes it illegal for persons operating public accommodations, employers of 15 or more employees, labour unions, and employment agencies to discriminate on the basis of race, colour, religion or national origin; a 1971 law makes racial discrimination in the sale or renting of houses illegal. A Commission on Equal Rights of Citizens is charged with enforcing these laws. Between 1924 and 1967 executions (by lethal gas—the first state to adopt this method, in 1921), numbered 31. Capital punishment was abolished in 1972 and later re-introduced; there was 1 execution (by lethal gas) in 1979. Religion. Roman Catholics are the most numerous religious group, followed by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and various Protestant churches. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to 17 years of age. In Oct. 1982 the 184 public elementary schools, including kindergartens, had 73,315 pupils; there were 95 secondary public schools, including junior and high schools, with 66,794. Special schools for handicapped pupils had 10,995. There were 3,411 elementary teachers (average salary $21,822), 2,827 secondary teachers with an average salary of $22,740. There were 36 parochial and private schools. The University of Nevada, Reno, had, in 1983-84, 351 full-time instructors and 9,875 students (regular, non-degree and correspondent), and University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 339 instructors and 11,401 students. Two-year community colleges operate as part of the University of Nevada system in Carson City, Elko and Las Vegas. There were (1983) 20,833 students. Health. In 1984 the state had 31 hospitals (3,730 beds) and 25 skilled nursing units (2,169 beds). Social Security. Old-age assistance is granted to all 65 years of age or older who are in need, and have assets not over $750 ($1,500 for married couples); end of fiscal year 1974-75, total expenditure was $6,179,040 at an average of $140 each person per month, for 3,678 people. Families with dependent children received

1494

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

at $ 4 5 . 5 2 monthly average per person. The blind received $ 3 2 8 , 4 4 0 at $ 170 for 161 people. Nevada is the only state without aid to the permanently and totally disabled. $7,613,458

Books of Reference Information: Bureau of Business and Economic Research (Univ. of Nevada). Handbook of the Nevada Legislature, 55th Session, 1969. Legislative Counsel Bureau. Carson City Legislative Manual, State of Nevada, 55th Session, 1969. Legislative Counsel Bureau. Carson City Political History of Nevada. Secretary of State. Carson City, 1965 Bushnell, E., and Driggs, D. W., The Nevada Constitution: Origin and Growth. Univ. of Nevada Press, 5th ed., 1980 Hülse, James W., The Nevada Adventure, A History. Univ. of Nevada Press, 2nd ed., 1969 Laxalt, R., Nevada: A History. New York, 1977 Mack, E. M., and Sawyer, B. W., Here is Nevada: A History of the State. Sparks, Nevada, 1965 Paher, S. W., Nevada, an Annotated Bibliography. Nevada, 1980 Stale Library: Nevada State Library, Carson City. State Librarian: Mildred J. Heyer.

NEW HAMPSHIRE HISTORY. New Hampshire, first settled in 1623, is one of the 13 original states of the Union. AREA AND POPULATION. New Hampshire is bounded north by Canada, east by Maine and the Atlantic, south by Massachusetts and west by Vermont. Area, 9,279 sq. miles, of which 286 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980,920,610, an increase of 24-8% since 1970. Estimate (1982), 951,000. Births, 1980, were 12,330; deaths, 7,190; infant deaths, 101; marriages, 9,049; divorces, 4,471. Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960

White 429,906 464,351 604,334

Negro 564 790 1,903

1970 1980

733,106 910,099

2,505 3,990

Indian 34 64 135

Asiatic 68 88 549

All others 2,070 6,521

Total 430,572 465,293 606,921

Per sq. mile 47-7 51-6 65-2

737,681 920,610

81-7 101-9

Of the total population in 1980,448,462 were male, 480,325 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 625,562. The largest city of the state is Manchester, with a 1980 census population of 90,757. Other cities are: Nashua, 67,817; Concord (capital), 30,; Portsmouth, 26,214; Dover, 22,265; Keene, 21,385; Rochester, 21,579; Berlin, 13,090; Laconia, 15,579; Claremont, 14,575; Lebanon, 11,052; Somersworth, 10,313. CLIMATE. Manchester. Jan. 22°F (-5-6'C), July 70"F (21 • PC). Annual rainfall 40" (1,003 mm). See New England, p. 1373. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. While the present constitution dates from 1784, it was extensively revised in 1792 when the state joined the Union. Since 1775 there have been 16 state conventions with 49 amendments adopted to amend the constitution. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 30 members, elected for 2 years, and a House of Representatives, restricted to between 375 and 400 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and 5 administrative officers called 'Councillors' are also elected for 2 years.

NEW

HAMPSHIRE

1495

Electors must be adult citizens, able to read and write, duly registered and not paupers or under sentence for crime. New Hampshire sends to the Federal Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 244,790 votes, Mondale, 110,268.

The capital is Concord. The state is divided into 10 counties. Governor: John Sununu (R.), 1985-88 ($44,520). Secretary of State: William M. Gardner (D.) ($31,270).

BUDGET. The state government's general revenue for the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 (US Census Bureau figures) was $ 1,306m. ($732m. from taxes, $320m. from federal aid); general expenditures, $ 1,392m. ($504m. on education, $188m. on public welfare, $ 174m. on highways). Net long-term debt, 30 June 1982, was $ 1,480m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $ 10,729. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Minerals are little worked; they consist mainly of sand and gravel, stone, and clay for building and highway construction. Value of mineral production, 1981, $26m. Agriculture. In 1983, there were 3,000 farms occupying lm. acres; average farm was 169 acres. Average value per acre, $1,109. The US Soil Survey estimates that the state has 164,167 acres of excellent soil, 486,615 acres of fair soil, 530,630 of poor soil and 3,843,798 of non-arable soil. Only 636,195 acres (11% of the total area) show moderate erosion. Cash income, 1983, from crops, $39-9m., and livestock, $78m. The chief field crops are hay and vegetables; the chief fruit crop is apples. On 1 Jan. 1975 animals on farms were 40,000 milch cows, 69,000 all cattle, 4,800 sheep, 8,700 swine, 1 • 8m. poultry, 28,000 turkeys and about 36,225 horses. Forestry. In 1979 forest land totalled 5m. acres; national forest, 705,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982, manufacturing establishments employed 112,000 workers; value added by manufacture (1980) was $3,606m.; 54% of manufacturing employment is accounted for in durable goods. Total non-agricultural employment, 393,000. Principal industries are, electrical machinery, non-electrical machinery, metal products, textiles and shoes. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1982 the state's highway mileage was 12,400 miles of rural roads, 2,100 miles of urban roads; there were 1,352 miles of federal-aid highways (primary), of which 202 miles were interstate. Motor vehicles registered, 1982, numbered 773,000. Railways. In 1975 the length of railway in the state was 826 miles. Aviation. In 1981 there were 15 public and 37 private airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state prison held 445 persons on 31 Dec. 1982. Since 1930 there has been only one execution (by hanging)—a white man, for murder, in 1939. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest single body. The largest Protestant churches are Congregational, Episcopal, Methodist and United Baptist Convention of N.H. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 6 to 14 years of age during the whole school term, or to 16 if their district provides a high school.

1496

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Employed illiterate minors between 16 and 21 years of age must attend evening or special classes, if provided by the district. In autumn 1982 the public elementary and secondary schools had 160,197 pupils and 9,758 classroom teachers. Public school salaries, 1983, averaged $ 15,400. Total expenditure on public schools in 1981 was estimated at $365m. Total enrolment, 1982, in 27 institutions of higher education was 52,000 students. Dartmouth College, at Hanover was founded in 1769, the University of New Hampshire, at Durham was founded in 1866. Health. In 1980 the state had 33 hospitals (4,680 beds). On 1 Jan. 1980 mental hospitals had 608 patients, and there were 679 persons in state institutions for the mentally retarded. Social Security. The Division of Welfare handles public assistance for (1) aged citizens 65 years or over, (2) needy aged aliens, (3) needy blind persons, (4) needy citizens between 18 and 64 years inclusive, who are permanently and totally disabled, (5) needy children under 21 years, (6) Medicaid and the medically needy not eligible for a monthly grant. In Dec. 1980, 2,100 persons were receiving SSI old-age assistance of an average $87 per month; 3,200 permanently and totally disabled, $166 per month; 8,600 families with dependent children, $271 per month. Books of Reference N.H. Register. State Year Book and Legislative Manual. Portland, Maine, 1965 Delorme, D. (ed.), New Hampshire Atlas and Gazetteer. Freeport, 1983 Morison, E. E., and E. F., New Hampshire. New York, 1976

NEW JERSEY H I S T O R Y . New Jersey, first settled in the early 1600s, is one of the 13 original states in the Union. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . New Jersey is bounded north by New York, east by the Atlantic with Long Island and New York City to the north-east, south by Delaware Bay and west by Pennsylvania. Area (US Bureau of Census), 7,787 sq. miles (319 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 7,364,823, an increase of 2-7% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 7,438,000. Births, 1982, were 98,225 (13 • 3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 67,470 (9 1); infant deaths, 1,153 (11 -7 per 1,000 live births); marriages (1982), 59,900 (8 1); divorces (1982), 30,322 (4 1). Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 2,445,894 3,829,663 5,539,003 6,349,908 6,127,467

Negro 89,760 208,828 514,875 770,292 925,066

Indian 168 213 1,699 4,706 8,394

Asiatic 1,345 2,630 8,778 20,537 103,847

All others 122 2,427 22,721 200,048

Total Per sq. mile 2,537,167 337-7 4,041,334 537-3 6,066,782 739-5 7,168,164 953-1 7,364,823 986-2

Of the population in 1980,3,533,012 were male, 6,557,377 persons were urban, 5,116,581 were 20 years of age or older. Census population of the larger cities and towns in 1980 was: Newark Jersey City Paterson Elizabeth Trenton (capital) Camden Clifton East Orange Bayonne

329,248 223,532 137,970 106,201 92,124 84,910 74,388 77,025 65,047

Irvington Union City Vineland Passaic Woodbridge Hamilton Edison Cherry Hill

61,493 55,593 53,753 52,463 90,074 82,801 70,193 68,785

ParsippanyTroy Hills Middletown Union Township Bloomfield Atlantic City Plainfield Hoboken Montclair

49,868 62,574 50,184 47,792 40,199 45,555 42,460 38,321

NEW JERSEY

1497

Largest urbanized areas (1980) were: Newark, 1,963,000; Jersey City, 555,483; Paterson-Clifton-Passaic, 447,785; Trenton (NJ-Pa.), 305,678. C L I M A T E . Jersey City. Jan. 31°F (-0-6"C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 41" (1,025 mm). Trenton. Jan. 32°F(0°Q, July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,003 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The legislative power is vested in a Senate and a General Assembly, the members of which are chosen by the people, all citizens (with necessary exceptions) 18 years of age, with the usual residential qualifications, having the right of suffrage. The present constitution, ratified by the registered voters on 4 Nov. 1947, has been amended 27 times. In 1966 the Constitutional Convention proposed, and the people adopted, a new plan providing for a 40-member Senate and an 80-member General Assembly. This plan, as certified by the Apportionment Commission and modified by the courts, provides for 40 legislative districts, with 1 senator and 2 assemblymen elected for each. Assemblymen serve 2 years, senators 4 years, except those elected at the election following each census, who serve for 2 years. TTie Governor is elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 14 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,861,774 votes, Mondale, 1,229,206. The capital is Trenton. The state is divided into 21 counties, which are subdivided into 567 municipalities—cities, towns, boroughs, villages and townships. Governor: Thomas H. Kean (R.), 1982-85 ($85,000). Secretary of State: Jane Burgio ($66,000). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1985 (budget figures) general revenues were $7,670-7m. (taxation $4,439m. and federal aid, $2,438-8m.); general expenditures were $7,574-6m. (education, $2,404m.; highways, $438-7m., and public welfare, $1,465-5m.). Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1984, was $2,307• 5m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $13,169. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The chief minerals are stone ($15m., 1984) and sand and gravel ($34-3m.); others are zinc ($3m.), clay products ($986,000), peat and gemstones. New Jersey is a leading producer of greensand marl, magnesium compounds and peat. Total value of mineral products, 1984, was $149m. Agriculture. Livestock raising, market-gardening, fruit-growing, horticulture and forestry are pursued. In 1982-83, 9,500 farms had a total area of 1 -03m. acres; average farm in 1982 had 108 acres valued at $3,118 per acre. Cash income, 1983, from crops and livestock, $532m. Leading crops are tomatoes (value, $20-5m., 1982), all com ($32-2m.), peaches ($21 • 5m.), hay ($27 -3 m.), blueberries ($18- 2m.), soybeans ($29 • 7m.). Farm animals on 1 Jan. 1982 included 41,000 milch cows, 100,000 all cattle, 9,700 sheep and lambs and 45,000 swine. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 manufacturing establishments employed 731,200 workers, receiving (preliminary) $19,700m. in wages. The principal industries by value are: Chemicals and allied products, construction, electrical and electronic equipment, machinery (except electrical). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 33,692 miles of roads (municipal, 23,890 miles; state, 2,237 miles; county, 6,655 miles; others, 910 miles). Railways. In Jan. 1984, the state had 1,411 • 3 route miles of railway.

1498

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Aviation. There were (1984) 90 airports, of which 14 were publicly owned and 60 allowed public use. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State prisons in 1984 had 12,645 inmates. The last execution (by electrocution) was in 1963; it was the 160th, all for murder. Future executions would be by lethal injection. The constitution of New Jersey forbids discrimination against any person on account of 'religious principles, race, color, ancestry or national origin'. The state has had, since 1945, a 'fair employment act', i.e., a Civil Rights statute forbidding any employer, public or private (with 6 or more employees), to discriminate against any applicant for work (or to discharge any employee) on the grounds of 'race, creed, color, national origin or ancestry'. Trade unions may not bar Negroes from membership. Religion. The Roman Catholic population of New Jersey in 1984 was 3 - lm. The five largest Protestant sects were United Methodists, 150,000; United Presbyterians, 174,000; Episcopalians, 147,000; Lutherans, 89,000; American Baptists, 74,000. There were 40,000 African Methodists and 4,000 Christian Methodist Episcopalians. The main Jewish sects were Reform (38,000) and Conservative (27,000). Education. Elementary 'instruction is compulsory for all from 6 to 16 years of age and free to all from 5 to 20 years of age. In autumn 1984 public elementary schools had 725,700 and secondary schools had 422,138 enrolled pupils; public colleges in autumn 1984 had 313,985 students, including 117,212 in community colleges, and independent colleges had 63,607. The total cost of public schools, 1983-84, $6,799-6m. Average salary of all elementary and secondary classroom teachers in public schools 1982-83 was $21,751. Rutgers, the State University (founded as Queen's College in 1766) had, in 1984, an opening autumn enrolment of 47,200 full- and part-time students. Princeton (founded in 1746) had 4,500 undergraduate and 1,500 graduate students. Fairleigh Dickinson (1941), had 9,770 undergraduate and 5,658 graduate students; Kean College, 12,930 students in 1983; Montclair State College, 14,949 in 1983; Glassboro State College, 8,960 in 1983; Trenton State College, 9,268 in 1983. Health. In 1983 the state had 131 hospitals (42,362 beds), listed by the American Hospital Association. Social Security. In the financial year 1982 gross expenditure for all public assistance programmes was $563,000,000. Average monthly total of cases was $358,000 with an average grant per case of $350. Books of Reference Legislative District Data Book. Bureau of Government Research. Annual Manual of the Legislature of New Jersey. Trenton. Annual Boyd, J. P. (ed.). Fundamentals and Constitutions of New Jersey, 1664-1954. Princeton, 1964 Cunningham, J. T., New Jersey: America's Main Road. Rev. ed. New York, 1976 League of Women Voters of New Jersey. New Jersey: Spotlight on Government. Rutgers Univ. Press, 3rd ed., 1978 Lehne, R., and Rosenthal, A. (eds.), Politics in New Jersey. Rev. ed., Rutgers Univ. Press, 1979 Slate Library: 185 W. State Street, Trenton, N.J. 08625. State Librarian: Barbara F. Weaver.

NEW MEXICO HISTORY. The first European settlement was established in 1598. Until 1771 New Mexico was the Spanish kings' 'Kingdom of New Mexico'. In 1771 it was annexed to the northern province of New Spain. When New Spain won its independence in 1821, it took the name of Republic of Mexico and established New

NEW

1499

MEXICO

Mexico as its northernmost department. When the war between the US and Mexico was concluded on 2 Feb. 1848 New Mexico was recognized as belonging to the US, and on 9 Sept. 1850 it was made a Territory. Part of the Territory was assigned to Texas; later Utah was formed into a separate Territory; in 1861 another part was transferred to Colorado, and in 1863 Arizona was disjoined, leaving to New Mexico its present area. New Mexico became a state in Jan. 1912. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . New Mexico is bounded north by Colorado, north-east by Oklahoma, east by Texas, south by Texas and Mexico and west by Arizona. Land area 121,335 sq. miles (258 sq. miles water). Public lands, administered by federal agencies (1975) amounted to 26 • 7m. acres or 34% of the total area. The Bureau of Indian Affairs held 7 • 3m. acres; the State of New Mexico held 9 -4m. acres; 34-4m. acres were privately owned. Census population, 1 April 1980, 1,302,894, an increase of 285,839 or 28% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 1,399,000. Vital statistics, 1983: Births, 27,508 (19 7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 9,138 (6-5); infant deaths, 274 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 16,728 ( 12); divorces, 9,063 (6 • 5). The population in 5 census years was:

1910 1940 1960 1970 1980

White 304,594 492,312 875,763 915,815 1,164,053

Negro 1,628 4,672 17,063 19,555 24,406 1

Asian and Pacific Indian Islander Other 20,573 506 324 34,510 56,255 1,942 7,842 1 72,788 1,491 106,119 6,825 Includes unspecified races, 1970.

Total 327,301 531,818 951,023 1,016,000 1,302,894

Per sq. mile 2-7 4-4 7-8 8-4 10-7

Of the 1980 total, 642,157 were male, 939,963 persons were urban; 884,987 were 18 years of age or older. Before 1930 New Mexico was largely a Spanish-speaking state, but since 1945 an influx of population from other states has reduced the percentage of persons of Spanish origin or descent to 36-6%. The largest cities are Albuquerque, with census population, 1980,332,336 (and 1982 estimate, 341,978); Santa Fe (capital), 48,953 (50,957); Las Cruces, 45,086 (46,476); Roswell, 39,676 (42,296); Farmington, 31,222 (3 5,659). C L I M A T E . Santa Fe. Jan. 29°F (-1 -7°C), July 68°F (20°C). Annual rainfall 15" (366 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1912 is still in force with 104 amendments. The state Legislature, which meets annually, consists of 42 members of the Senate, elected for 4 years, and 70 members of the House of Representatives, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Govemor are elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 3 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 304,950 votes, Mondale 200,953. The state capital is Santa Fe. For local government the state is divided into 33 counties. Governor: Toney Anaya (D.), 1983-86 ($60,000). Lieut-Governor: Mike Runnells(D.), 1983-86 ($38,500). Secretary of State: Clara Jones (D.), 1983-86 ($38,500). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1982 (US Census Bureau figures) general revenues were $2,773m. ($l,227m. from taxation and $454-9m. from federal government); general expenditures, $2,272-4m. (education, $l,010m.; highways, $287-9m., and public welfare, $215-1 m.). Long-term debt on 30 June 1982 was $820-8m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $9,640.

1500

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. New Mexico is the country's largest domestic source of uranium, perlite and potassium salts. Production of recoverable L^Os was 7-8m. lb. in 1982; perlite (1982), 408,000 short tons; potassium salts, 1 • 5m. tonnes; petroleum, 71 m. bbls (of 42 gallons); natural gas, 992,000m. cu. ft; natural gas liquids, 42-9m. bbls (of 42 gallons); copper, 59,693 tonnes; coal, 19 - lm. short tons marketed. The value of the total mineral output (1982) was $5,932m. An average of 26,300 persons were employed monthly in the mining industry in 1982. Agriculture. New Mexico produces cereals, vegetables, fruit, livestock and cotton. Dry farming and irrigation have proved profitable in periods of high prices. There were 13,500 farms and ranches covering 47-0m. acres in 1983, average farm (or ranch) was valued (land and buildings) at $618,708 in the 1982 US Census of Agriculture; 3,732 farms and ranches were of 1,000 acres and over. Cash income, 1983 (preliminary), from crops, $329-3m., and from livestock products, $634-7m. Principal crops are wheat (13-6m. bu. from 470,000 acres), hay (1 -4m. tons from 320,000 acres) and grain sorghums (6 -3m. bu. from 150,000 acres). Farm animals on 1 Jan. 1984 included 62,000 milch cows, 1 -4m. all cattle, 589,000 sheep and 30,000 swine. National forest area (1982) covered 9 • 3m. acres. INDUSTRY. Average monthly non-agricultural employment during 1983 was 478,000: 34,400 were employed in manufacturing, 127,200 in government. Value of manufactures shipments, 1981, $3,229-6m.; leading commodities, petroleum, food, electrical and electronic equipment. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1984 the state had 79,082 miles of road, of which the state maintained 12,905 miles. Motor vehicle registrations, 1983,1,391,770. Railways. In 1983 there were 2,061 miles of railway. Aviation. There were 78 public-use airports in Dec. 1983. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The number of state prison inmates on 18 Nov. 1984 was 2,511, including 417 in juvenile centres; there were also 95 New Mexico prisoners held outside the state. The death penalty (by electrocution formerly, and now by lethal injection) has been imposed on 8 persons since 1933,6 whites and 2 Negroes, all for murder. The last execution was in 1961. Since 1949 the denial of employment by reason of race, colour, religion, national origin or ancestry has been forbidden. A law of 1955 prohibits discrimination in public places because of race or colour. An 'equal rights' amendment was added to the constitution in 1972. Religion. There were (1975) approximately 356,530 Protestant Church members and 315,470 Roman Catholics. Education. Elementary education is free, and compulsory between 6 and 17 years or high-school graduation age. In 1982-83 the 89 school districts had an estimated enrolment of 258,862 students in public elementary and secondary schools. Private and parochial schools had 22,953 pupils. There were 14,012 teachers receiving an average salary of $20,380. Public education expenditure was $871 m. The state-supported 4-year institutes of higher education are (1983-84): University of New Mexico, Albuquerque New Mexico State University, Las Cruces Eastern New Mexico University, Portales New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas Western New Mexico University, Silver City New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro

Full-time Faculty 784 582 177 119 62 93

Students 27,144 16,463 6,950 2,326 1,750 1,345

1501

NEW Y O R K STATE

Health. In 1982 the state had 53 short-term hospitals (4,599 beds). Social Security. In Dec. 1983,14,874 persons were receiving federal supplemental security income for the disabled (average $223.93 per month); 9,234 persons were receiving old-age assistance (average $ 137.73 per month); 483 persons were receiving aid to the blind (average $227.68 per month). In 1982 a monthly average of 49,252 people received aid to families with dependent children (average $73.90 per month). Books of Reference New Mexico Business (monthly; annual review in Jan.-Feb. issue). Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Univ. ofN.M., Albuquerque New Mexico Statistical Abstract: 1984. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Univ. of N.M., Albuquerque, 1984 Beck, W., New Mexico: a History of Four Centuries. Univ. ofOklahoma, 1979 Garcia, C., Haine, P., and Rhodes, H., State and Local Government in New Mexico. Albuquerque, 1979 Jenkins, M., and Schroeder, Pi., A Brief History of New Mexico. Univ. ofNew Mexico, 1974 Muench, D., and Hillerman, T., New Mexico. Belding, Portland, Oregon, 1974

NEW YORK STATE HISTORY. From 1609 to 1664 the region now called New York was claimed by the Dutch; then it came under the rule of the English, who governed the country until the outbreak of the War of Independence. On 20 April 1777 New York adopted a constitution which transformed the colony into an independent state; on 26 July 1788 it ratified the constitution of the US, becoming one of the 13 original states. New York dropped its claim to Vermont after the latter was admitted to the Union in 1791. With the annexation of a small area from Massachusetts in 1853, New York assumed its present boundaries. AREA AND POPULATION. New York is bounded west and north by Canada with Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River forming the boundary; east by Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut, south-east by the Atlantic, south by New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Area, 49,108 sq. miles (1,731 sq. miles being water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 17,557,288, a decrease of 3-7% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 17,659,000. Births in 1983 (provisional) were 249,618; deaths, 170,464; infant deaths (1979), 3,177; marriages, 156,440; divorces, 64,480 (includes all dissolutions). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 8,966,845 12,143,191 15,287,071

Negro 134,191 412,814 1,417,511

1970 1980

15,834,090 13,961,106

2,168,949 2,401,842

Indian 6,046 6,973 16,491

Asiatic 6,532 15,088 51,678

All others 233,828 1,194,340

Total Persq. mile 9,113,614 191-2 12,588,066 262-6 16,782,304 350-2 18,236,967 17,557,288

380-3 367-0

Of the 1980 population, 8,338,961 were male, 14,857,202 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 12,232,284. Aliens registered in Jan. 1980 numbered 801,411. The population ofNew York City, by boroughs, census of 1 April 1980 was: Manhattan, 1,427,533; Bronx, 1,169,115; Brooklyn, 2,230,936; Queens, 1,891,325; Staten Island, 352,121; total, 7,071,030. The New York metropolitan statistical area had, in 1980,9,080,777. Population of other large cities and incorporated places census, April 1980, was: Buffalo Rochester Yonkers Syracuse

357,002 241,509 194,557 170,292

Albany (capital) 101,767 Utica 75,435 NiagaraFalls 71,344 NewRochelle 70,345

Schenectady MountVemon Troy Binghamton

67,877 66,023 56,614 55,745

1502 White Plains Rome Hempstead Freeport Jamestown Valley Stream

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA 46,999 43,826 40,404 38,272 35,775 35,769

N. Tonawanda Elmira Auburn Poughkeepsie Watertown

35,760 35,327 32,548 29,757 27,861

Lindenhurst Rockville Center Newburgh Garden City Massapequa Park

26,919 25,405 23,438 22,927 19,779

Other large urbanized areas, census 1980; Buffalo, l-2m.; Rochester, 970,313; Albany-Schenectady-Troy, 794,298. C L I M A T E . Albany. Jan. 24'F (-4-4'C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 34" (855 mm). BufTalo. Jan. 24°F (-4-4°C), July 70°F (21-1'Q. Annual rainfall 36" (905 mm). New York. Jan. 30°F (-1 • l'C), July 74°F (23 • 3*C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,087 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1894; a later constitutional convention, 1938, is now legally considered merely to have amended the 1894 constitution, which has now had 93 amendments. The Constitutional Convention of 1967 (4 April through 26 Sept.) was composed of 186 delegates who proposed a new state constitution; however this was rejected by the registered voters on 7 Nov. 1967. The Senate consists of 60 members, and the Assembly of 150 members, both elected every 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The right of suffrage resides in every adult who has been a citizen for 90 days, and has the residential qualifications; new voters must establish, by certificates or test, that they have had at least an elementary education. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 34 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 3,525,266 votes, Mondale, 3,013,521. The state capital is Albany. For local government the state is divided into 62 counties, 5 of which constitute the city of New York. New York leads in state parks and recreation areas, covering 252,984 acres in 1979. Cities are in 3 classes, the first class having each 175,000 or more inhabitants and the third under 50,000. Each is incorporated by charter, under special legislation. The government of New York City is vested in the mayor (Edward Koch), elected for 4 years, and a city council, whose president and members are elected for 4 years. The council has a President and 37 members, each elected from a state senatorial district wholly within the city. The mayor appoints all the heads of departments, except the comptroller, who is elected. Each of the 5 city boroughs (Manhattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens and Richmond) has a president, elected for 4 years. Each borough is also a county bearing the same name except Manhattan borough, which, as a county, is called New York, and Brooklyn, which is Kings County. Governor: Mario Cuomo (D.), 1983-86 ($ 100,000). Lieut. - Governor: Alfred del Bello(D.), 1983-86 ($85,000). Secretary of State: Gail Schaefer(D.), 1983-86 ($65,700). B U D G E T . The state's general revenues for the financial year ending 31 March 1982 were $16,142m. ($14,959m. from taxes); general expenditures were $16,126m. ($5,298m. for education, $8,049m. for social services, $ 1,893m. for transport). Per capita personal income was $12,314 in 1982. The assessed valuation in 1980 of taxable real property in New York City was $38,056m. The assessed valuation of the state was $86,741 m. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Production of principal minerals in 1980: Sand and gravel (22,000 short tons), salt (5,500 short tons), zinc (33,629 tonnes), petroleum (824,296 bbls), natural gas (15,680m. cu. ft). The state is a leading producer of titanium concentrate, talc, abrasive garnet, wollastonite and emery. Quarry products include trap

NEW YORK STATE

1503

rock, slate, marble, limestone and sandstone. Value of mineral output in 1980 $497-9m. Agriculture. New York has large agricultural interests. In 1983 it had 50,000 farms, with a total area of 10m. acres; average farm was 190 acres; average value per acre, $770. Cash income, 1982, from crops $721m. and livestock, $l,867m. Dairying, with 18,500 farms, 1981, is an important type offarming with produce at a market value of $ 1,520m. Field crops comprise maize, winter wheat, oats and hay. New York (1981) ranks second in US in the production of apples, and maple syrup. Other products are grapes, tart cherries, peaches, pears, plums, strawberries, raspberries, cabbages, onions, potatoes, maple sugar. Estimated farm animals, 1983, included 2m. all cattle, 935,000 milch cows, 63,000 sheep, 100,000 swine and (1981) 10-6m. chickens. I N D U S T R Y . In 1981 manufacturing establishments numbering 31,849 employed 1,439,872 workers whose average weekly earnings were $385. Leading industries were clothing, non-electrical machinery, printing and publishing, electrical equipment, instruments, food and allied products and Fabricated metals. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1981) 109,485 miles of municipal and rural roads. The New York State Thruway extends 559 miles from New York City to Buffalo; in 1981 receipts from tolls amounted to $ 183,289,532. The Northway, a 176-mile toll-free highway, is a connecting road from the Thruway at Albany to the Canadian border at Champlain, Quebec. Motor vehicle registrations in 1981 were 8-7m., most of which (7m.) were private passenger vehicles. Railways. There were in 1981,3,891 miles of Class I railways. New York City has NYCTA and PATH metro systems, and commuter railways run by Metro-North, New Jersey Rail and Long Island Rail Road. Aviation. There were 471 airports and landing areas in 1981. Shipping. The canals of the state, combined in 1918 in what is called the Improved Canal System, have a length of 524 miles, of which the Erie or Barge canal has 340 miles. In 1981 the canals carried 807,925 tons of freight. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The State Human Rights Law was approved 12 March 1945, effective 1 July, 1945. The State Division of Human Rights is charged with the responsibility of enforcing this law. The division may request and utilize the services of all governmental departments and agencies; adopt and promulgate suitable rules and regulations; test, investigate and pass judgment upon complaints alleging discrimination in employment, in places of public accommodation, resort or amusement, education, and in housing, land and commercial space; hold hearings, subpoena witnesses and require the production for examination of papers relating to matters under investigation; grant compensatory damages and require repayment of profits in certain housing cases among other provisions; apply for court injunctions to prevent frustration of orders of the Commissioner. On 30 Dec. 1982,27,951 persons were in state prisons. In 1963-81 there were no executions. Total executions (by electrocution) from 1930 to 1962 were 329 (234 whites, 90 Negroes, 5 other races; all for murder except 2 for kidnapping). In 1980 murders reported in New York were 2,225; total violent crimes, 179,981. Police strength (swom officers) in 1980 was 55,222 (27,394 New York City). Religion. The churches are Roman Catholic, with 6,367,576 members in 1981, Jewish congregations (about 2m. in 1981) and Protestant Episcopal (299,929 in 1980).

1504

U N I T E D S T A T E S O F AMERICA

Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16. In autumn 1982 the public elementary and secondary schools had 2,718,678 pupils; classroom teachers numbered 144,591 in public schools. Total expenditure on public schools in 1980-81 was $9,069,092,216. Teachers'salaries, 1983, averaged $25,100. The state's educational system, including public and private schools and seconds!^ institutions, universities, colleges, libraries, museums, etc., constitutes (by legislative act) the 'University of the State of New York', which is governed by a Board of Regents consisting of 15 members appointed by the Legislature. Within the framework of this 'University' was established in 1948 a 'State University' which controls 64 colleges and educational centres, 30 of which are locally operated community colleges. The 'State University' is governed by a board of 16 Trustees, appointed by the Governor with the consent and advice of the Senate. Higher education in the state is conducted in 296 institutions (642,000 full-time and 371,000 part-time students in autumn 1982); 573,000 students are in publiccontrol colleges and 439,000 in private. In autumn 1980 the institutions of higher education in the state included: Founded 1754 1795 1824 1831 1846 1846 1847 1848 1854 1856 1857 1861 1863 1865 1870 1948

Name and place Teachers Columbia University, New York 3,965 Union University, Schenectady and Albany 178 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy 442 New York University, New York 2,615 Colgate University, New York 205 Fordham University, New York 958 University ofthe City ofNew York, New York 12,426 University of Rochester, Rochester 1,549 Polytechnic Institute ofNew York 242 St Lawrence University, Canton 173 Cooper Union Institute of Technology, New York 161 Vassar College, Poughkeepsie 230 Manhattan College, New York 291 Cornell University, Ithaca 1,863 Syracuse University, Syracuse 1,100 State University ofNew York 13,228

Students 17,410 2,071 6,145 45,000 2,550 14,653 172,683 11,159 4,583 2,375 872 2,364 3,498 17,866 11,819 372,415

The Saratoga Performing Arts Centre (5,100 seats), a non-profit, tax-exempt organization, which opened in 1966, is the'summer residence of the New York City Ballet and the Philadelphia Orchestra—two groups which present special educational programmes for students and teachers. Health. In 1981 the state had 278 hospitals (67,798 beds), 585 skilled nursing homes (62,435 beds) and 241 other institutions (24,302 beds). In 1980 mental health facilities had 27,309 patients and institutions for the mentally retarded had 18,577 patients. Social Security. The federal Supplemental Security Income programme covered aid to the needy aged, blind and disabled from 1 Jan. 1975. In the state programme for 1980, $4,543m. was paid in Medicaid to 2,288,000 people; aid to dependent children in 1980 went to 1,248,900 recipients, average benefits $3 71 per family per month. Books of Reference New York Red Book. Albany, 1979-80 Legislative Manual. Department of State, 1980-81 New York State Statistical Yearbook, 1979-80. Albany Connery, R. and G. B., Governing New York State: The Rockefeller Years. Academy of Political Science, New York, 1974 Ellis, D. M„ History of New York State. Cornell Univ. Press, 1967 Flick, A. (ed.), History ofthe State of New York. Columbia Univ. Press, 1933-37 Lincoln, C., Constitutional History of New York ¡809-1877. Rochester, 1906 Rosenwhike, I., Population History of New YorkCity. Syracuse Univ. Press, 1972 Wolfe, G. R.,New York: A Guide to the Metropolis. New York Univ. Press, 1975 State Library: The New York State Library, Albany 12230. State Librarian and Assistant Commissioner for Libraries: Joseph Shubert.

NORTH CAROLINA

1505

NORTH CAROLINA HISTORY. North Carolina, first settled in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh and permanently settled in 1663, was one of the 13 original states of the Union. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . North Carolina is bounded north by Virginia, east by the Atlantic, south by South Carolina, south-west by Georgia and west by Tennessee. Area, 52,669 sq. miles, of which 3,826 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980,5,874,429, an increase of 15-5% since 1970. Estimated population (1982), 6,058,154. Births, 1979, were 83,782 (14-9 per 1,000 population); marriages, 45,064 (8); deaths, 46,640 (8 • 3); infant deaths, 1,270 (15 -2 per 1,000 live births); divorces and annulments, 27,445 (4-9). Population in 6 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1960

White 1,500,511 2,234,958 2,983,121 3,399,285

Negro 697,843 918,647 1,047,353 1,116,021

1970 1980

3,901,767 4,453,010

1,126,478 1,316,050

Indian 7,851 16,579 3,742 38,129

Asiatic 82 92 — 2,012

Ail others 53,814 105,369

Total 2,206,287 3,170,276 4,061,929 4,556,155

Persq. mile 45-3 64-5 82-7 92-2

5,082,059 5,874,429

104-1 111-5

Of the total population in 1980,2,852,012 were male, 2,818,794 were urban and 3,976,359 were 20 years old or older, 14-8% were non-white. Cities (with census population in 1980) are: Charlotte, 310,799; Greensboro, 154,763; Winston-Salem, 131,211; Raleigh (capital), 148,299; Durham (1970), 95,438; High Point, 63,169; Asheville, 57,708; Fayetteville, 59,476. C L I M A T E . Climate varies sharply with altitude; the warmest area is in the south east near Southport and Wilmington; the coldest is Mount Mitchell (6,684 ft). Raleigh. Jan. 42°F (5-6'C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 46" (1,158 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1971 (previous constitution, 1776 and 1868/76); it has had 12 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members and a House of Representatives of 120 members; all are elected by districts for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The Governor may succeed himself but has no veto. There are 17 other executive heads of department, 8 elected by the people and 7 appointed by the Governor. All registered citizens with the usual residential qualifications have a vote. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 11 representatives. In the presidential election of 1984 Reagan polled 1,314,802 votes, Mondale, 809,876. The capital is Raleigh, established in 1792. Governor: James G. Martin, (R.), 1985-89 ($60,768). Lieut. - Governor: Robert B. Jordan, III (D.) ($50,328). Secretary ofState: Thad Eure (D.) ($50,328). BUDGET. General revenue for the year ending 30 June 1983 was $2,403-8m. General expenditure was $3,440-7m. On 30 June 1981 the net total long-term debt amounted to $853-2m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $9,032. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Mining production in 1982 was valued at $275- lm. Principal minerals were stone, sand and gravel, phosphate rock, feldspar, clay, mica, lithium minerals,

1506

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

olivine, kaolin and talc. North Carolina ranked first in the production of mica, feldspar, olivine spodumene and phrophyllite. It is also the leading producer of bricks, making about 13% of the total US production. Agriculture. In 1981 there were 93,000 farms in North Carolina covering 11 -7m. acres; average size of farms was 126 acres and average value $ 167,400. The state leads in producing tobacco, sweet potatoes, turkeys and farm forest products. Cash receipts from farming (1981), $4,200m., of which $2,600m. was from crops and $ 1,600m. from livestock, dairy and poultry products. Value of crop production: flue-cured tobacco, $ 1,300m.; maize, $380m.; soybeans, $289m.; peanuts, $ 157m.; sweet potatoes, $64m.; wheat, $54m.; hay, $41 m. On 1 Jan. 1981 farms had 1 • 16m. all cattle, 1 -98m. swine and 18 • 5m. chickens. Forestry. Commercial forest covered 19-5m. acres (62-6% of land area), in 1983. Main products are hardwood veneer and hardwood plywood. Fisheries. Commercial fish catch, 1980, amounted to 356m. lb.; value approximately $68 -8m. The catch is mainly of menhaden, crabmeat, bay scallops, flounder, croaker, shrimps, sea trout, spots and clams. I N D U S T R Y . North Carolina's 9,668 industrial establishments in 1980 had 824,200 production workers. The leading industries are textile goods, manufacture of cigarettes, chemicals, electronics and electrical machinery, processing of food crops and the manufacture of furniture and bricks. In 1982 investment in new and expanded industry was $1,290m. T O U R I S M . Total receipts ofthe travel industry, $3,400m. in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state maintained, 1981,76,032 miles of highways, comprising all rural roads and 4,388 miles of urban streets which are major thoroughfares. In Sept. 1981, 2,989,776 automobiles, 904,708 trucks and 572,550 other vehicles were registered. Railways. The state in 1983 contained 4,117 miles of railway operating in 91 of the 100 counties. There are 23 Class I, II and III rail companies. Aviation. In 1981 there were 71 public airports of which 9 are served by major airlines and 5 by commuter airlines. Shipping. There are 2 ocean ports, Wilmington and Morehead City. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Total executions 1910-62, 362. There was one execution (by lethal injection) in 1984. Prison population at 8 Oct. 1983,15,995. Religion. Leading denominations are the Baptists (48 • 9% of church membership), Methodists (20-7%), Presbyterians (7-7%), Lutherans (3%) and Roman Catholics (2 • 7%). Total estimate of all denominations in 1983 was 2 • 6m. Education. School attendance is compulsory between 6 and 16. Public school enrolment, 1982-83, was 1,107,490; elementary and secondary schools numbered 2,005. Instructional staff (1980) consisted of 67,586 classroom teachers and administrators. Expenditure for public schools is 63-3% from state, 23 -6% from local and 13-1% from federal sources. In autumn 1982-83 state-supported colleges and universities included 23 community colleges with 60,730 students; 35 technical institutes with 55,897 students. The 16 senior universities are all part of the University of North Carolina system, the largest campus being at Chapel Hill, where the university was founded in 1789 and first opened in 1792. Its 1982 enrolment was 100,912 undergraduates. The total enrolment of public institutions of higher learning in 1982 was 218,606. In addition to the state-supported institutions there were 8 private junior colleges with an enrolment of 4,760 and 30 private senior institutions with a total

N O R T H DAKOTA

1507

enrolment of 41,904. The total enrolment in private institutions for 1982 was 52,538. Health. In Oct. 1983 the state had 157 hospitals (32,345 beds). Social Security. In June 1982 there were 900,070 persons receiving $300-4m. in social security benefits. Of that number 496,020 were retired, receiving $ 186 -67m.; 85,640 were disabled ($34- 7m.); 318,410 others received $79m. Books of Reference North Carolina Manual. Secretary ofState. Raleigh. Biennial Clay, J. W., et al, (eds.), North Carolina Atlas: Portrait of a Changing Southern Slate. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1975 Corbitt, D. L., The Formation of the North Carolina Counties. Raleigh, 1969 Lefler, H. T., and Newsome, A. R., North Carolina: The History of a Southern State. Univ. of N.C., Chapel Hill, 1963

NORTH DAKOTA H I S T O R Y . North Dakota was admitted into the Union, with boundaries as at present, on 2 Nov. 1889; previously it had formed part of the Dakota Territory, established 2 March 1861. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . North Dakota is bounded north by Canada, east by the Red River (forming a boundary with Minnesota), south by South Dakota and west by Montana. Land area, 69,262 sq. miles, and 1,403 sq. miles of water. The Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs administered (1971) 850,000 acres, of which 153,000 acres were assigned to tribes. Census population, 1 April 1980, 652,717, an increase of 34,956 or 5-7% since 1970. Estimate (1983), 680,000. Births in 1983 were 12,380 (18 per 1,000 population); deaths, 5,569 (8 -2); infant deaths, 110; marriages, 5,976; divorces, 2,321. Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

While 569,855 671,851 619,538

Negro 617 377 777

1970 1980

599,485 625,557

2,494 2,568

Indian 6,486 8,617 11,736

Asiatic 98 194 274

All others 15,782 24,692

Total 577,056 680,845 632,446

Persq. mile 8-2 9-7 91

617,761 652,717

8-9 9-4

Of the total population in 1980, 328,126 were male, 317,821 were urban and 419,234 were 21 years old or older. Estimated outward migration, 1970-80, 16,983. The largest cities are Fargo with population (census), 1980, of 61,383; Grand Forks, 43,765; Bismarck (capital), 44,485, and Minot, 32,843. C L I M A T E . Bismarck. Jan. 8°F (-13-3°C), July 71°F (211°C). Annual rainfall 16" (402 mm). Fai«o. Jan. 6"F (-14-4X), July 71*F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 20" (503 mm). See High Plains, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1889; it has had 95 amendments. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Senate of 53 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 106 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Qualified electors are (with necessary exceptions) all citizens and civilized Indians. The state sends to Congress 2 senators elected by the voters of the entire state and 1 representative. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 155,856 votes, Mondale, 80,839.

1508

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

The capital is Bismarck. The state has S3 organized counties. Governor:George A. Sinner(D.), 1985-89 ($60,812 plus expenses). Lieut.-Governor: Ruth Meiers (D.), 1985-89 ($12,500 plus expenses). Secretary of State: Ben Meier (R.), 1985-89 ($43,380 plus expenses). FINANCE. General revenue of state and local government year ending 30 June 1981, was $ 1,457m.; general expenditures, $ 1,271m., taxation provided $643m. and federal aid, $289m.; education took $479m.; highways, $179m., and public welfare, $115m. Total net long-term debt (local government) on 30 June 1981, $818m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $ 11,666. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mineral resources of North Dakota consist chiefly of oil which was discovered in 1951. Production of crude petroleum in 1983 was 50-7m. bbls; of natural gas, 73,000m. cu. ft. Output (1983) of lignite coal was 20- lm. short tons. Total value of mineral output, 1983, $ 1,870m. Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief pursuit of the North Dakota population. In 1983 there were 37,500 farms (61,963 in 1954) with an area of 42m. acres (41,876,924 in 1954); the average farm was of 1,112 acres. The greater number of farms are cash-grain or livestock farms with annual sales of $20,000-$39,999. Cash income, 1983, from crops, $2,086-lm., and from livestock, $628-9m. North Dakota leads in the production of barley, sunflowers, flaxseed and durum. Other important products are wheat, pinto beans, sugar-beet, potatoes, hay, oats, rye and maize. The state has also an active livestock industry, chiefly cattle raising. On 1 Jan. 1984 the farm animals were: 99,000 milch cows, 2m. all cattle, 224,000 sheep and 260,000 swine. The wool clip yielded (1983), l -6m. lb. of wool from 180,000 sheep. Forestry. National forest area, 1977, 422,000 acres, of which 115,000 acres are federally owned or managed. I N D U S T R Y . From 1970 to 1983 agricultural employment fell from 51,920 to 51,480; non-agricultural jobs rose from 148,910 to 267,180. Between 1970 and 1982, employment in manufacturing rose from 9,910 to 16,100, in trade from 43,890 to 65,530 and in government from 49,240 to 61,130. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway department maintained, in 1982, 7,224 miles of highway; local authorities, 95,900 miles, and municipal, 3,234 miles. Car and truck registrations in 1983 numbered 705,056. Railways. In 1984 there were 5,262 miles of railway. Aviation. Airports in 1984 numbered 262, of which 107 were publicly owned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state penitentiary, on 24 Jan. 1984, held 424 inmates. Of these, 55 were incarcerated at the North Dakota State Farm. There is no death penalty. Religion. The leading religious denominations are the Roman Catholics, with 171,185 members in 1975; Combined Lutherans, 216,579; Methodists, 28,880; Presbyterians, 18,636. Education. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16, or until the 17th birthday if the eighth grade has not been completed. In Oct. 1983 the public elementary schools had 81,797 pupils; secondary schools, 34,892 pupils. State expenditure on public schools, 1980, $427m. Private schools had 9,569 elementary pupils and 3,149 secondary pupils in 1983.

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The university at Grand Forks, founded in 1883, had 9,440 students in 1982; the state university of agriculture and applied science, at Fargo, 8,079 students. Total enrolment in the 8 public institutions of higher education, 1982,35,011. Health. In 1982 the state had 60 hospitals (5,880 beds), and 79 nursing homes (5,100). Social Security. In 1980 grants were made to 107,000 people, including 78,000 retired workers, 22,000 survivors of workers and 7,000 disabled workers. Books of Reference North Dakota Growth Indicators, 1984. 20th ed. Economic Development Commission, Bismarck, 1984 North Dakota Blue Book. Secretary of State, Bismarck, 1981 Statistical Abstract of North Dakota, ¡983. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Univ. of North Dakota, 1983 Glaab, C. L.,etal, The North Dakota Political Tradition. Iowa State Univ. Press, 1981 Jelliff, T. B„ North Dakota: A Living Legacy. Fargo, 1983 Robinson, E.B., History of North Dakota. Univ. ofNebraska Press, 1966

OHIO HISTORY. Ohio, first settled in 1788, unofficially entered the Union on 19 Feb. 1803; entrance was made official, retroactive to 1 March 1803, on8 Aug. 1953. AREA AND POPULATION. Ohio is bounded north by Michigan and Lake Erie, east by Pennsylvania, south-east and south by the Ohio River (forming a boundary with West Virginia and Kentucky) and west by Indiana. Area, 41,330 sq. miles, of which 325 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980 (preliminary), 10,797,419, an increase of 145,402 or 1-4% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 10,791,000. In 1980 births numbered 169,359 (15-7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 97,779 (9); infant deaths, 2,020 (12 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 99,522 (9 -2); divorces and annulments, 58,225 (5 -4). Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 4,654,897 6,335,173 8,909,698

Negro 111,452 309,304 786,097

1970 1980

9,646,997 9,597,266

970,477 1,076,734

Indian 127 435 1,910

Asiatic 645 1,785 8,692

All others 34,543 123,419

Total 4,767,121 6,646,697 9,706,397

Per sq. mile 117 0 161-6 236-9

10,652,017 10,797,419

260-0 263-5

Of the total population in 1980, 5,217,027 were male, 7,914,500 persons were urban. Those 20 years old or older numbered 7,294,471. Census population of chief cities on 1 April 1980 was: Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati Toledo Akron Dayton Youngstown Canton Parma Lorain Springfield

572,532 561,943 383,058 354,265 236,820 193,319 115,429 94,632 92,578 75,339 72,098

Hamilton Lakewood Kettering Euclid Elyria Cleveland Heights Warren Mansfield Lima Middletown

62,845 61,921 61,223 59,896 57,039 55,563 55,456 53,907 47,381 43,719

Cuyahoga Falls Mentor Newark Marion East Cleveland North Olmsted Upper Arlington Lancaster Garfield Heights Zanesville

43,710 42,065 41,200 37,040 36,957 36,486 35,648 34,953 33,380 28,655

Urbanized areas, 1980 census: Cleveland, 1,895,997; Cincinnati, 1,392,394; Columbus (the capital), 1,088,973; Dayton, 826,891; Akron, 660,233; Toledo, 791,137; Youngstown-Warren, 529,887; Canton, 403,847.

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U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

CLIMATE. Cincinnatti. Jan. 33'F (0-6"C), July 78"F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 39" (978 mm). Cleveland. Jan. 27°F(-2-8°C), July 71'F(21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 35" (879 mm). Columbus. Jan. 29°F (-1-TC), July 75°F(23-9'C). Annual rainfall 34" (850 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND GOVERNMENT. The question of a general revision of the constitution drafted by an elected convention is submitted to the people every 20 years. The constitution of 1851 had 105 amendments by 1978. In the 112th General Assembly the Senate consisted of 33 members and the House of Representatives of 99 members. The Senate is elected for 4 years, half each 2 years; the House is elected for 2 years; the Governor, Lieut.-Governor and Secretary of State for 4 years. Qualified as electors are (with necessary exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age who have the usual residential qualifications. Ohio sends 2 senators and 21 representatives to Congress. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,653,691 votes, Mondale, 1,804,870. The capital (since 1816) is Columbus. Ohio is divided into 8 8 counties. Governor: Richard Celeste (D.), 1983-86 ($50,000). Lieut. - Governor: Myrl H. Shoemaker (D.), 1983-86 ($50,000). Secretary of State: Sherrod Brown (D.), 1983-86 ($50,000). BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1982 (Budget of the State of Ohio) total general revenue was $ 16,461 m. and general expenditure was $ 16,972m. The total debt outstanding on 30 June 1982 was $ 11,268m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $ 10,677. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Ohio has extensive mineral resources, of which coal is the most important by value: output (1981) 37-4m. short tons. Production of crude petroleum, 1982,15m. bbls; natural gas, 123,000m. cu. ft. Other minerals include stone, clay, sand and gravel. Value of fuel minerals, 1981,$1,887m.; non-fuel,$554m. Agriculture. Ohio is extensively devoted to agriculture. In 1983, 92,000 farms covered 16m. acres; average farm value per acre, $ 1,297. Cash income 1982, from crop and livestock and products, $3,674m. The most important crops in 1983 were: Maize (232m. bu.), wheat (58-6m. bu.), oats (15-4m. bu.), soybeans (101-7m. bu.). On 1 Jan. 1983 there were l-8m. swine 1 -9m. all cattle and 275,000 sheep. Forestry. State forest area, 1978,170,000 acres including reclamation area. INDUSTRY. In 1981, manufacturing employed 1,219,000 workers. The value of shipments was $122,287m. The largest industry was manufacturing of nonelectrical machinery, then transport equipment and fabricated metals. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 the state had 29,000 miles of urban and 81,900 miles of rural highway. The federal-aid highway system included 7,872 miles of primary roads, of which 1,535 miles were interstate. In 1982 there were (estimate) 7-7m. cars, trucks and buses, and 274,000 motorcycles. Railways. The railroads had 7,400 route miles of track in 1978. Aviation. Ohio had (1978) 719 airports and airfields, of which 212 are commercial and 527 private, 130 heliports and 2 seaplane bases. There were 6,600 licensed aeroplanes. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A Civil Rights Act (1933) forbids inns, restaurants, theatres, retail stores

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and all other places of public resort to discriminate against citizens on grounds of 'colour or race'; none may be denied the right to serve on juries on the grounds of 'colour or race'; insurance companies are forbidden to discriminate between 'white persons and coloured, wholly or partially of African descent'. A state Civil Rights Commission (created 1959) has general administrative powers to prevent discrimination because of race, colour, religion, national origin or ancestry in employment, labour organization membership, use of public accommodations and in obtaining 'commercial housing' or 'personal residence'. Ohio has no dejure segregation in the public schools. The state's adult correctional institutions, 30 Oct. 1978, held 8,285 inmates (average daily count). Total executions (by electrocution) since 1930 were 170, all for murder. There have been no executions since 1963. The Department of Rehabilitation and Correction was created in July 1972, and has established probation services in 51 counties where services would otherwise be inadequate or nonexistent. Religion. Many religious faiths are represented, including (but not limited to) the Baptist, Jewish, Lutheran, Methodist, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. Education. School attendance during full term is compulsory for children from 6 to 18 years of age. In autumn 1982 public schools had 1,860,245 enrolled pupils and 94,126 classroom teachers. Teachers' salaries (1983) averaged $21,000 (secondary) and $19,900 (elementary). Operating expenditure on elementary and secondary schools for 1981 was $4,182m. The state's universities and colleges had a total enrolment (1982) of 532,000 students; the following had 7,000 or more students, autumn 1977: Founded 1804 1809 1826 1850 1870 1872 1872 1874 1887 1908 1910 1912 1962 1964 1964

institutions Ohio University, Athens (State) Miami University, Oxford (State) Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland University of Dayton (R.C.) University of Akron (State) Ohio State University, Columbus (State) University of Toledo (State) University ofCincinnati (State-affiliated) Sinclair Community College, Dayton Youngstown University (State) Bowling Green State University (State) Kent State University (State) Cuyahoga Community College (Municipal) Cleveland State University (State) Wright State University (State)

Enrolments 13,021 14,759 8,108 9,620 23,121 51,003 16,933 32,952 13,752 15,696 16,439 19,396 27,250 17,627 13,067

Health. In 1981 the state had 239 hospitals (63,600 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association. State and county mental care hospitals had 5,915 resident patients on31 Dec. 1980. State facilities forthe mentally retarded,3,710in 1982. Social Security. Public assistance is administered through 4 basic programmes: aid to dependent children, emergency assistance, Medicaid and general relief. Total public assistance expenditures during the year ending 30 June 1978 were $ 1,322 -4m. In 1976-77 the number of persons receiving public assistance averaged 626,100 per month. Under the aid to dependent children programme $429-9m. provided assistance to an average of 526,434 recipients per month. Payments for Medicaid were $603-5m.; for social services, $189m.; for general relief, $78-4m., and emergency assistance, $21 -6m. Recipients of'general relief averaged 47,923 per month, emergency assistance, 30,585. Recipients of Medicaid during the year, 799,915. Books of Reference Official Roster: Federal State, County Officers and Department Information. Secretary of State, Columbus. Biennial Rosebloom, E. H., and Weisenburger, F. P., A History of Ohio. State Arch, and Hist. Soc., Columbus, 1953

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OKLAHOMA H I S T O R Y . An unorganized area in the centre of the present state was thrown open to white settlers on 22 April 1889. The Territory of Oklahoma, organized in 1890 to include this area and other sections, was opened to white settlements by runs or lotteries during the next decade. In 1893 the Territory was enlarged by the addition of the Cherokee Outlet, which fixed part of the present northern boundary. On 16 Nov. 1907 Oklahoma was combined with the remaining part of the Indian Territory and admitted as a state with boundaries substantially as now. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Oklahoma is bounded north by Kansas, north-east by Missouri, east by Arkansas, south by Texas (the Red River forming part of the boundary) and, at the western extremity of the 'panhandle', by New Mexico and Colorado. Area 69,919 sq. miles, of which 1,137 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1 April 1980,3,025,266, an increase of 465,803 or 18% since 1970. Estimate (1983), 3,298,000. Births, 1980, were 52,065; deaths, 28,908; infant deaths 660; marriages, 46,509; divorces, including annulments, 24,226. The population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,444,531 2,130,778 2,107,900

Negro 137,612 172,198 153,084

1970 1980

2,280,362 2,597,783

171,892 204,658

Indian 74,825 92,725 68,689

Asiatic 187 339 1,414

All others 106,999 222,825

Total 1,657,155 2,396,040 2,328,284

Persq. mile 23-9 34-6 33-8

2,559,253 3,025,266

37-2 43-2

In 1980,1,476,719 were male, 2,035,082 were urban and those 20 years of age or older numbered 2,052,729. The US Bureau of Indian Affairs is responsible for 37 Indian tribes, 201,456 Indians on 1,229,341 acres (1984). The most important cities with population, 1980 are Oklahoma City (capital), 403,213, Tulsa, 360,919; Lawton, 80,054; Norman, 68,020; Enid, 50,363; Midwest City, 49,559. C L I M A T E . Oklahoma City. Jan. 37°F (2-8°C), July 8 I T (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 32" (803 mm). Tulsa. Jan. 37°F (2-8°C), July 82'F (27-8"Q. Annual rainfall 37" (925 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution, dating from 1907, provides for amendment by initiative petition and legislative referendum; it has had 106 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 48 members, who are elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives elected for 2 years and consisting of 101 members. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4-year terms; the Governor can only be elected for two terms in succession. Electors are (with necessary exceptions) all citizens 18 years or older, with the usual qualifications. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 793,258 votes, Mondale, 362,771. The capital is Oklahoma City. The state has 77 counties. Governor: George Nigh (D.), 1983-86 ($70,000). Lieut. - Governor: Spencer Bernard (D.), 1983-86 ($40,000). Secretary of State: Jeanette B.£dmondson p . ) , 1983-86 ($37,500). BUDGET. Total revenue for the year ending 30 June 1983 (State Budget Office figures) was $1,763 -4m. Total expenditure, $4,790- 5m. Bonded indebtedness for the year ending 30 June 1984, $ 135 -96m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $11,187. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Resources include petroleum, helium, natural gas, coal (bituminous),

OKLAHOMA

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cement, granite, gypsum, olivestone, sand, gravel and some copper and silver. Production for 1982 (preliminary) was: Petroleum, 159m. bbls; natural gas, 1,934,000m. cu. ft. In March 1981 there were 82,639 oilwellsand 16,994 natural gaswells introduction. Total value of mineral production, 1981,58,677,798. Agriculture. In 1980 the state had 73,000 farms with a total area of 35m. acres; average farm was 479 acres with an average gross income of $49,569. In 1980, there were 43,792 full-time farmers or ranchers, 25,719 part-owners and 10,019 tenants. Large-scale commercial farming is predominant. The conservation and development of the renewable natural resources of the state has received close attention by local, county and state governments during the past 40 years. All of the land in the state is within the boundaries of one of the 88 conservation districts. Of the total surface (44m. acres), 92% is under a basic conservation plan prepared by the conservation district with assistance from the Soil Conservation Service. The Oklahoma Conservation Commission reported that good conservation measures by farmers, such as minimum tillage and crop residue management, are helping to conserve moisture and protect crops from erosion. Through Jan. 1980,125 work plans had been approved for watersheds established in 1946 to aid flood control. In addition, 2,540 flood-prevention dams and 62 multi-purpose dams have been built or approved under this project. In 1981 there were 4 active Resource Conservation and Development Areas covering 16-8m. acres in 31 counties. Plans for 5 other areas covering another 32 counties have been submitted. A trend of the last 40 years has been the conversion of arable land to grass; cattle and calves rank first in agricultural products, valued, 1981, at $ 1,460m.; winter wheat is second, at $845m. Cash income from crops and livestock products 1981, $2,855m. The most valuable crop is winter wheat (production, 1981, 172m. bu.). Other crops (production, 1981) included hay (3-3m. tons), cotton (440,000 bales of 480 lb.), grain sorghums (22m. bu.) and peanuts (189m. lb.). On 1 Jan. 1982 the stock included 111,000 milch cows, 5-8m. all cattle, 105,000 sheep and lambs, 4-2m. farm chickens and 245,000 swine. Forestry. There are 8-5m. acres of forest, one half considered commercial. The forest products industry, concentrated in the southeastern counties, employs approximately 7,000 in over 100 manufacturing plants with an estimated combined annual payroll of $75m. Value of shipments of lumber and forest products in 1980 was over $50m. I N D U S T R Y . The retail trade and service industries each employed 15% of the working population in 1981. Among other industries the most important by payroll employment (1982) were: mining (103,700); construction (49,300); transport and utilities (67,700); manufacturing (193,700); government (245,000); finance, insurance and property (58,800). In 1982 the civilian non-agricultural labour force averaged 1 -2m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 12,178 miles of inter-state, federal and state highway open, 81,304 miles of county roads, 15,458 miles of city streets, 487 miles of turnpike and 344 miles of park and forest roads. Motor vehicle registrations, 1980,2,731,628. Railways. In 1983 Oklahoma had 5,005 miles of railway operated by 12 companies. Aviation. Airports, 1982, numbered 288, of which 131 were municipally owned. Seven cities were served by CAB-certificated airlines. Shipping. The McClellan-Kerr Arkansas Navigation System provides access from east central Oklahoma to New Orleans through the Verdigris, Arkansas and Mississippi rivers. The main ports are Catoosa and Muskogee.

1514

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Penal institutions, 30 Sept. 1984, held 7,500 inmates. There are 12 correction centres and 8 community treatment centres. The death penalty was suspended in 1966 and re-imposed in 1974. Since 1915 there have been 83 (52 whites, 27 Negroes, 4 other races) executions. Electrocution was replaced ( 1977) by lethal injection. Religion. The chief religious bodies in 1980 were Baptists, 674,766; United Methodists, 248,635; Roman Catholics, 122,820; Churches of Christ, about 80,000; Assembly of God, 63,992; Disciples of Christ, 45,070; Presbyterian, 38,605; Lutheran, 33,664; Nazarene, 22,090; Episcopal, 21,500. Education. In 1982-83 there were 622,630 pupils enrolled in elementary and secondary schools, 39,901 teachers at elementary schools and secondary schools had average salaries of $ 19,163. Total expenditure on public schools, $ 19,973 -7m. In 1980—81, there were 3,415 special education units with 65,598 students in class. The University of Oklahoma (founded at Norman in 1890) had 753 full-time faculty and 20,333 enrolled students in spring 1981 ; Oklahoma State University of Agriculture and Applied Science (founded in 1890 at Stillwater) had 718 full-time faculty and 20,739 students; Central State University (founded at Edmond in 1890) had 320 full-time faculty and 10,820 students. There are 10 other institutions of higher learning in the state system at the senior level and 14 junior colleges. Total enrolment in institutions of higher education, spring 1981,154,266. Health. In 1981 there were 134 hospitals (15,642 beds). In 1981 institutions for the mentally retarded had 1,828 inmates; the schools for deaf and blind had 234 children, 3 schools for delinquents, 862 children, 2 children's homes, 679 children. Social Security. Public assistance, financial year 1981 was being drawn by 148,435 persons, receiving an average monthly payment of $930. This includes old age assistance, aid to families with dependent children, AFDC emergency, AFDC foster home care, aid to the blind and aid to thé disabled. Medical payments were made for 234,393 persons, totalled $317-9m. and averaged $1,356.50 per person. Intermediate care was provided for 26,664 persons at an average of $5,914.05 per person. Non-technical medical care was provided for 10,129 persons at an average of $2,127.96 per person. A total of $29,954,310 was spent for vocational rehabilitation. Books of Reference Directory of Oklahoma. Dept. of Libraries, Oklahoma City Chronicles of Oklahoma. State Historical Society, Oklahoma City (from 1921, quarterly) Statistical Abstract of Oklahoma, 1982. Centers for Economic and Management Research, Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman, 1982 Dale, E. E.,and AIdrich,G„ History of Oklahoma. New York, 1969 Gibson, A. M., The History of Oklahoma. Rev. ed., Univ. ofOklahoma, Norman, 1984 McReynolds, Edwin C., Oklahoma: A History of the Sooner State. Rev. ed. Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman, 1964 Ruth, K., et al., (eds.), Oklahoma: A Guide to the Sooner State. Rev. ed. Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman, 1957 Strain, J. W., Outline of Oklahoma Government. Rev. ed., Central State Univ., Edmond, 1983 State Library: Oklahoma Dept. of Libraries, 200 N.E. 18th Street, Oklahoma City 73105. State Librarian and State Archivist: Robert L. Clark, Jr.

OREGON HISTORY. Oregon was first settled in 1811 by the Pacific Fur Co. at Astoria, a provisional government was formed on 5 July 1834; a Territorial government was organized, 14 Aug. 1848, and on 14 Feb. 1859 Oregon was admitted to the Union. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Oregon is bounded north by Washington, with

OREGON

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the Columbia River forming most of the boundary, east by Idaho, with the Snake River forming most of the boundary, south by Nevada and California and west by the Pacific. Area, 97,073 sq. -miles, 889 sq. miles being inland water. The federal government owned (1976) 32,370,216 acres (52-55% of the state area). Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,633,105, an increase of 541,720 or 26% since 1970. Estimated population (1982), 2,656,185. In 1980 births numbered 43,998 (16-7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 21,793 (8-2); infant deaths 556 (12 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 23,115 (8 -8), and divorces, 17,925 (6 -8). Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 655,090 938,598 1,732,037 2,032,079 2,490,610

Negro 1,492 2,234 18,133 26,308 37,060

Indian 5,090 4,776 8,026 13,510 27,314

Asiatic 11,093 8,179 9,120 13,290 34,775

Total 672,765 953,786 1,768,687 2,091,385 2,633,105

Per sq. mile 70 9-9 18-4 21-7 27-3

Of the total population in 1980, 1,296,566 were male, 1,788,354 persons were urban. Those 18 years and older numbered 1,910,048. The US Bureau of Indian Affairs (area headquarters in Portland) administers (1976) 742,151 -74 acres, of which 597,222-94 acres are held by the US in trust for Indian tribes, and 144,928 • 8 acres for individual Indians. The largest towns, according to 1980 census figures, are: Portland, 366,383; Eugene, 105,664; Salem (the capital), 89,233; Corvallis, 40,960; Medford, 39,603; Springfield, 41,621; Beaverton, 31,926; Albany, 26,678. Metropolitan areas (1980): Portland, 1,236,294; Eugene-Springfield, 273,114; Salem, 249,655. C L I M A T E . Portland. Jan. 39'F(3-9°C), July 67'F (19-4°C). Annual rainfall 44" (1,100 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1859; some 80 items in it have been amended. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Senate of 30 members, elected for 4 years (half tljeir number retiring every 2 years), and a House of 60 representatives, elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The constitution reserves to the voters the rights of initiative and referendum and recall. In Nov. 1912 suffrage was extended to women. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 5 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 618,824 votes, Mondale, 496,237. The capital is Salem. There are 36 counties in the state. Governor: Victor Atiyeh (R.), 1983-86 ($53,394 plus $1,000 monthly for expcnscs) Secretary of State: Barbara Roberts (D.) ($45,619). B U D G E T . Oregon has 2-year financial periods. Total resources for the biennium 1981-83 were $13,957,634,165 (federal funds, $l,003m.; individual taxes, $2,123-7m.; business taxes, $l,587-4m.); total expenditures, $10,052,272,033 (education, $2,451-9m.; economic development and consumer services, $2,983-5m.; human resources, $2,398-6m.). In Feb. 1983 the outstanding bonded debt was $6,000m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $10,335. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. On 1 Jan. 1982 four privately owned utilities, 11 municipally owned utilities, 18 co-operatives and 4 utility districts provided electricity in the state. The privately owned companies provided 73% of the electricity. Hydroelectricity plants (67 in 1983) have an installed capacity of 5m. kw., of which multi-purpose federal projects like the Bonneville Power Administration accounted for 3 • 5m. kw. The Trojan Nuclear plant has a capacity of l,080mw., and Boardman coal-fired plant, 530mw.

1516

U N I T E D S T A T E S OF AMERICA

Minerals. Oregon's mineral resources include gold, silver, nickel copper, lead, mercury, chromite, sand and gravel, stone, clays, lime, silica, diatomite, expansible shale, scoria, pumice and uranium. There is geothermal potential. Value of mineral products, 1981, was $ 163m. Agriculture. Oregon, which has an area of 61,557,184 acres, is divided by the Cascade Range into two distinct zones as to climate. West of the Cascade Range there is a good rainfall and almost every variety of crop common to the temperate zone is grown; east of the Range stock-raising and wheat-growing are the principal industries and irrigation is needed for row crops and fruits. There were, in 1983, 37,000 farms with an acreage of 18 • 3m. (29 • 7% of the land area); average farm size was 492 acres; most are family-owned corporate farms. Average value per acre, $580. Cash receipts from crops in 1983 amounted to $ 1,145m., and from livestock and livestock products, $555m., of which cattle and calves made most. Principal crops are hay (l-3m. tons), wheat (65-6m. bu.), potatoes, peppermint, ryegrass seed, pears, onions, snap beans, sweet corn and barley. Livestock, 1 Jan. 1983: Milch cows, 100,000; cattle and calves, l-7m.; sheep and lambs, 500,000; swine, 90,000. Forestry. About 29-8m. acres is forested, almost half of the state. Of this amount, 24-2m. is commercial forest land suitable for timber production; ownership is as follows (acres): US Forestry service, 11-6m. (48%); Forest Industry, 5-5m. (22 -8%); Small non-industrial landowners, 3-6m. (14-7%); US Bureau of Land Management, 2 • 2m. (9%); State of Oregon, 820,000 acres (3 -4%) and other owners (city, county, Indian), 496,000 acres (2-1%). Oregon's commercial forest lands provided an estimated 1982 harvest of 5,200m. bd ft of logs, as well as the benefits of recreation, water, grazing, wildlife and fish. Trees vary from the coastal forest of hemlock and spruce to tne state's primary species, Douglas-fir, throughout much of western Oregon. In eastern Oregon, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine and true firs are found. Here, forestry is often combined with livestock grazing to provide an economic operation. Along the Cascade summit and in the mountains of northeast Oregon, alpine species are found. Production, 1981: plywood, 5,561m. sq. ft (value $991-5m.); Douglas Fir lumber, 3,842m. bd. ft ($948-3m.); Ponderosa Pine lumber, 1,273m. bd. ft ($386m.); pulp and paper, 4 • 8m. tons ($8 • 5m.). Fisheries. All food and shellfish landings in the calendar year 1981 amounted to a value of $58m. The most important are: tuna, crabs, bottom fish, shrimp. I N D U S T R Y . Forest products manufacturing is Oregon's leading industry, and provides for 20% of the country's softwood lumber needs, 40% of its plywood and more than 25% of the hardboard. More than one-third of the economy depends directly or indirectly on timber industries; about 78,130 (1981) people are employed. The payroll was $ 1,600m. and value of production, $3,490m. During 1981, manufacturing employed 203,300, of which 148,500 made durable goods; trade, 253,700, construction, 37,600. T O U R I S M . In 1982, 14,391,400 out-of-state tourists visited Oregon; the total income from tourism was estimated to be $1,300m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state maintains (1982) 7,555 miles of primary and secondary highways, almost all surfaced; counties maintain 27,697 miles, and cities 6,913 miles; there were 79,167 miles in national parks and federal reservations. Registered motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1981, totalled 2-3m. Railways. The state had (1980) 19 common carrier railways with a total mileage of 4,428. Aviation. In Oct. 1982 there were 4 public-use and 85 personal-use heliports; 5 public-use seaplane bases; 206 personal-use airports; 110 public-use airports including 37 state-owned airports.

1517

OREGON

Shipping. Portland is a major seaport for large ocean-going vessels and is 101 miles inland from the mouth of the Columbia River. In 1982 the port handled 6 6m. short tons of cargo; main commodities for this and other Columbia River ports are grain and petroleum. Post and Broadcasting. In Dec. 1982 there were 137 commercial radio stations and 13 educational radio stations. There were 14 commercial television stations and 6 educational television stations. There were also S campus limited radio stations and 1 subscription radio station. Newspapers. In 1982 there were 21 daily newspapers with a circulation of653,392 and 89 non-daily newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are 3 correctional institutions in Oregon, all in Salem. The Oregon State Penitentiary, on 30 June 1982, held 1,779 males; the Women's Correctional Center had a resident population of 73; and the Oregon Correctional Institution, which is for first offenders, had a population of 926. The Oregon Correctional Division's Release Center in Salem held 323 inmates, 110 inmates were held in Oregon State Hospital wards and 16,174 offenders were on parole or probation. The sterilization law, originally passed in 1917, was amended in 1967. The amendments changed the number of persons on the Board of Social Protection from 15 to 7 and provided that the Public Defender would automatically represent all persons examined. The basis on which a person would be subject to examination by the Board are: (a) if such person would be likely to procreate children having an inherited tendency to mental retardation or mental illness, or (b) if such person would be likely to procreate children who would become neglected or dependent because of the person's inability by reason of mental illness or mental retardation to provide adequate care. Religion. The chief religious bodies are Catholic, Baptist, Lutheran, Methodists, Presbyterian and Mormon. Education. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 18 years of age if the twelfth year of school has not been completed; those between the ages of 16 and 18 years, if legally employed, may attend part-time or evening schools. Others may be excused under certain circumstances. In 1981-82 the public elementary schools had 330,810 students and the secondary schools, 148,458. Total expenditure on elementary and secondary education (1980-81) was $ 1,726 • 7m. Leading state-supported institutions of higher education (autumn 1982) included: University of Oregon, Eugene Oregon Health Sciences University: Oregon State University, Corvallis Portland State University, Portland Western Oregon State College, Monmouth Southern Oregon State College, Ashland Eastern Oregon State College, La Grande Oregon Institute ofTechnology, Klamath Falls

Students 15,467 1,431 16,759 14,541 2,473 4,161 1,764 2,653

Largest of the privately endowed universities are Lewis and Clark College, Portland, with (1982) 3,054 students; University of Portland, 2,872 students; Willamette University, Salem, 1,859 students; Reed College, Portland, 1,122 students, and Linfield College, McMinnville, 1,496 students. There are 13 community colleges and 1 area education district with an estimated enrolment of 293,886 students in 1981-82. Health. In Oct. 1982 there were 91 licensed hospitals. In Oct. 1979 there were 4 state hospitals for mentally ill and mentally retarded (2 for mentally ill, 1 for mentally retarded and 1 with both programmes). On 30 June 1982 there were 931 mentally ill patients and 1,629 mentally retarded.

1518

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

Social Security. Old-age assistance is provided for all needy persons 65 years or older who meet certain eligibility requirements. In financial year 1979-80, 3,598 cases per month received average payments of $5.36 cash and $87.54 services. For the same period 98,278 persons in 36,166 families with dependent children received an average $279.74 per month; 552 blind recipients $38.56 cash and $62.52 services; 7,009 disabled $15.94 cash and $41.86 services; 4,501 general assistance cases $134.73 cash and $5.45 services. Medical assistance and mental health costs averaged $ 14,494,000 per month. A system of unemployment benefit payments, financed by employers, with administrative allotments made through a federal agency, started 2 Jan. 1938, and covers about 66,500 employers with average employment in 1979 of 1,024,535. By June 1980, $l,717m. in taxes had been paid into the trust fund plus $297-3m. in interest and reimbursed benefits. About $ 1,691 m. has been paid in benefits which from July 1980 range from $38 to $138 weekly and up to $3,588 per year. About 38,406 state employees, 48,060 school employees, 5,507 community college employees and 18,879 political subdivision employees are participants in the public employees retirement programme. The same employees are covered under the federal old-age, survivors and disability insurance programme. Approximately 31,016 retired employees are receiving monthly benefit cheques. Books of Reference Oregon Blue Book. Issued by the Secretary of State. Salem. Biennial Federal Writers' Project. Oregon: End of the Trail. Rev. ed. Portland, 1972 Baldwin, E. M., Geology of Oregon. Rev. ed. Dubuque, Iowa, 1976 Carey, C. H., General History of Oregon, prior to ¡861. 2 vol. (1 vol. reprint, 1971) Portland, 1935 Corning, H. M. (ed.), Dictionary of Oregon History. New York, 1956 Dicken, S. N., Oregon Geography. 5th ed. Eugene, 1973.—with Dicken, E. F., Making of Oregon: a Study in Historical Geography. Portland, 1979.—with Dicken, E. F., Oregon Divided: A Regional Geography. Portland, 1982 Dodds, G. B., Oregon: A Bicentennial History. New York, 1977 Friedman, R., Oregon for the Curious. 3rd ed. Portland, 1972 Highsmith, R. M. Jr. (ed.), Atlas of the Pacific Northwest. Corvallis, 1973 McArthur, L. A., Oregon Geographic Names. 4th ed., rev. and enlarged. Portland, 1974 Patton, Clyde P., Atlas of Oregon. Univ. Oregon Press, Eugene, 1976 State Library: The Oregon State Library, Salem. Librarian: Marcia Lowell.

PENNSYLVANIA H I S T O R Y . Pennsylvania, first settled in 1682, is one of the 13 original states in the Union. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Pennsylvania is bounded north by New York, east by New Jersey, south by Delaware and Maryland, south-west by West Virginia, west by Ohio and north-west by Lake Erie. Area, 45,308 sq. miles, of which 420 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 11,863,895, an increase of63,129 or0-5% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 11,885,330. Births, 1982, 161,561; deaths, 118,450; infant deaths, 1,853; marriages, 93,350; reported divorces, 38,545. Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 7,467,713 9,196,007 10,454,004

Negro 193,919 431,257 852,750

1970 1980

10,745,219 10,652,320

1,015,884 1,046,810

Indian 1,503 523 2,122

All others 1,976 3,563 10,490

All others 39,663 164,765

Total 7,665,111 9,631,350 11,319,366

Persq. mile 171 0 213-8 251-5

11,800,766 11,863,895

262-9 264-3

PENNSYLVANIA

1519

Of the total population in 1980,47 -9% were male, 69 -3% were urban and 68 -1% were 21 years of age or older. The population of the larger cities and townships, 1980 census, was: Philadelphia Pittsburgh Erie Allentown

1,688,210 423,938 119,123 103,758

Scranton Reading Bethlehem Altoona

88,117 78,686 70,419 57,078

Lancaster Harrisburg Wilkes-Barre York

54,725 53,264 51,551 44,619

Larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Philadelphia (in Pennsylvania), 3,682,709; Pittsburgh, 2,263,894; Northeast, 640,396, Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton (in Pennsylvania), 551,052; Harrisburg, 446,576. C L I M A T E . Philadelphia. Jan. 32°F (0'C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,006 mm). Pittsburgh. Jan. 31°F (-0-6'C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 37" (914 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1968. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members chosen for 4 years, one-half being elected biennially, and a House of Representatives of 203 members chosen for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Govemor are elected for 4 years. Every citizen 18 years of age, with the usual residential qualifications, may vote. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 23 representatives. Registered voters in 1983,5,707,163. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,564,273 votes, Mondale, 2,209,137. The state capital is Harrisburg. The state is organized in counties (numbering 67), cities, boroughs, townships and school districts. Governor: Richard Thornburgh (R.), 1979-86 ($75,000). Lieut. - Governor: William W. Scranton (R.) ($54,500). B U D G E T . Total revenues for the year ending 30 June 1983 were $7,320-7m.; general fund expenditure, $7,604-4m. (education, $3,508-9m.; transport, $ 155 • 6m.; public welfare, $2,716-6m.; environment, $112-7m.). On 30 June 1984 outstanding long-term debt (excluding highway bonds) amounted to $3,340-9m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $11,448. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Pennsylvania is almost the sole producer of anthracite coal; its output reached a peak of 100,445,299 short tons in 1917 with a labour-force of 156,148 men. Production in 1983: Anthracite, 4-02m. tons, with about 1,700 men; bituminous coal, 62-21m. tons, with about 16,400 men; crude petroleum (1982), 4 -28m. bbls; natural gas (1982), 121,111 m. cu. ft. Total value of minerals produced (1981), $3,880m., of which $3,247m. was for fuel minerals. Agriculture. Agriculture, market-gardening, fruit-growing, horticulture and forestry are pursued within the state. In 1983 there were 59,000 farms with a total farm area of 8 • 3m. acres (4 -4m. acres in crops); the average farm was 149 acres with average value per acre of $1,520. Cash income, 1982, from crops, $825-4m., and from livestock, $2,166m. Pennsylvania ranks first in the production of mushrooms (246-6m. lb., value $172-6m. in 1983). Other crops are (1983) tobacco (22m. lb., $20-72m.), winter wheat (7-6m. bu.), oats (16-2m. bu.), maize (72-5m. bu.), barley (3-74m. bu.) and potatoes (4-30m. cwt). On 1 Jan. 1984 there were on farms: l-97m. cattle and calves, including 735,000 milch cows, 104,000 sheep, 950,000 swine. Milk production, 1983, was 9,510m. lb. valued at $l,351m., and eggs numbered 4,716m. valued at $232m. Pennsylvania is also a major fruit producing state; in 1983 apples totalled 500m. lb.; peaches, 94m. lb.; tart cherries, 8-5m. lb.; sweet cherries, 800 tons; and grapes, 62,500 tons. Other important items are soybeans (3-48m. bu.),

1520

UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA

vegetables for processing (102,000 tons), fresh vegetables (1 -2m. cwt) and broilerchickens (102 • 6m.). Forestry. In 1982 national forest lands totalled 510,517 acres; state forests, 2,064,533 acres; state parks, 278,930 acres; state game land, 1,250,980 acres; game land leased but not owned by the state, 3,957,438 acres (co-operative and safetyzone programmes). I N D U S T R Y . Pennsylvania is third in national production of iron and steel. Output of steel, 1982,10-9m. net tons. In 1981, 16,388 manufacturing establishments employed 1,321,109 workers (wages, $25,069m.). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Highways and roads in the state (federal, local and state combined) totalled (1984) 114,797 miles. Registered motor vehicles for 1983 numbered 7,562,726 (including 5,659,975 passenger cars, 1,582,096 trucks, truck-tractors and trailers). Railways. In 1983, 41 railways operated within the state with a line mileage of about 6,300. Aviation. There were (1982) 161 commercial airports, 3 public landing strips, 242 heliports, 391 airports for personal use and 16 seaplane bases. Shipping. Trade at the Ports of Philadelphia (1983), imports 48 -3 m. short tons, exports 5-7m. Post and Broadcasting. Broadcasting stations comprised (1982) 41 television stations and 378 radio stations. Newspapers. There were (1983) 111 daily and 219 weekly newspapers. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. No executions took place in 1963-84; since 1930 there have been 149 executions (electrocution), all for murder. State prison population, on 31 Dec. 1983, was 11,798. Religion. The chief religious bodies in 1977 were the Roman Catholic, with 3,717,667 members; Protestant, 3,150,920 (1971); and Jewish, 469,078. The 5 largest Protestant denominations (by communicants) were: Lutheran Church in America, 766,276; United Methodist, 728,915 (1971), United Presbyterian Church in the USA, 573,905 (1971); United Church of Christ, 257,138; Episcopal, 193,399(1971). Education. School attendance is compulsory for children 8-17 years of age. In 1983-84 the public kindergartens and elementary schools had 846,145 pupils; public secondary schools had 891,807 pupils. Non-public schools had 285,372 elementary pupils and 110,861 secondary pupils. Average salary, public school professional personnel, men $25,218; women $22,283; for classroom teachers, men $23,678, women $21,997. Leading senior academic institutions included: Founded 1740 1787 1832 1842 1846 1851 1852 1855 1855 1863 1866

Institutions University of Pennsylvania (non-sect.) University of Pittsburgh Lafayette College, Easton (Presbyterian) Villanova University (R.C.) Bucknell University (Baptist) St Joseph's College, Philadelphia (R.C.) California University of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State University Millersville University of Pennsylvania LaSalle College, Philadelphia (R.C.) Lehigh University, Bethlehem (non-sect.)

Faculty Students (Autumn 1983) (Autumn 1983) 1,005 22,277 1,486 35,613 159 2,383 473 11,728 212 3,264 139 6,061 269 4,959 2,425 63,989 302 6,768 200 6,725 349 6,355

RHODE Founded 1871 1875 1878 1884 1885 1888 1891 1900

ISLAND

Institutions West Chester University of Pennsylvania Indiana University of Pennsylvania Duquesne University, Pittsburgh (R.C.) Temple University, Philadelphia Bryn Mawr College University of Scranton (R.C.) Drexel University, Philadelphia Carnegie-Mellon University, Philadelphia

1521 Faculty Students (Autumn 1983) (Autumn 1983) 457 9,586 639 12,526 274 6,362 1,140 28,900 131 1,832 174 4,801 341 12,682 440 5,998

Health. In 1983 the state had 226 hospitals (54,617 beds) listed by the State Health Department, excluding federal hospitals and mental institutions. Social Security. During the year ending 30 June 1983 the monthly average number of cases receiving public assistance was: aid to families with dependent children, 577,740; blind pension, 4,455; general assistance, 186,771. Payments for medical assistance for the year ending 30 June 1983 totalled $2,067m. Under the medical assistance programme payments are made for inpatient hospital care ($683-6m.); care in public institutions (nursing homes, mental institutions and geriatric centres) ($697m.); private nursing home care ($345m.); other medical care ($356 -7m.). Books of Reference Encyclopaedia of Pennsylvania, New York, 1984 Pennsylvania Manual. General Services, Bureau of Publications, Harrisburg. Biennial Pennsylvania's Regions, A Survey of the Commonwealth. State Planning Board. Harrisburg, 1967 Pennsylvania Statistical Abstract. Dept. of Commerce, Harrisburg. Annual Pennsylvania State Industrial Directory. New York. Annual Cochran, T. C., Pennsylvania, New York, 1978 Klein, P. S., and Hoogenboom, A., A History of Pennsylvania. New York, 1973 League of Women Voters of Pennsylvania, Key to the Keystone Stale. Philadelphia, 1972 Majumdar, S. K.., and Miller, E. W., Pennsylvania Coal: Resources, Technology and Utilisation. Pennsylvania Science, 1983 Pennsylvania Chamber of Commerce, Pennsylvania Government Today. State College, Pa., 1973 Weigley, R. F., (ed.) Philadelphia: A 300-year History. New York, 1984 Wilkinson, N. B., Bibliography of Pennsylvania History. Pa. Historical & Museum Commission. Harrisburg, 1957

RHODE ISLAND H I S T O R Y The earliest settlers in the region which now forms the state of Rhode Island were colonists from Massachusetts who had been driven forth on account of their non-acceptance of the prevailing religious beliefs. The first of the settlements was made in 1636, settlers of every creed being welcomed. In 1647 a patent was executed for the government of the settlements, and on 8 July 1663 a charter was executed recognizing the settlers as forming a body corporate and politic by the name of the 'English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England, in America'. On 29 May 1790 the state accepted the federal constitution and entered the Union as the last of the 13 original states. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Rhode Island is bounded north and east by Massachusetts, south by the Atlantic and west by Connecticut. Area, 1,214 sq. miles, of which 165 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 947,154 a decrease of0-3% since 1970. Estimate (1983), 958,000. Births, 1983, were 13,060; deaths (excluding foetal deaths), 9,486; infant deaths, 157; marriages, 8,043; divorces, 3,521. Population of 5 census years was:

1522 1910 1930 1960 1970

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA White 532,492 677,026 838,712 914,757

Negro 9,529 9,913 18,332 25,338

Indian 284 318 932 1,390

Asiatic 305 240 1,190 5,240

Total 542,610 687,497 859,488 949,723 1

Persq. mile 508-5 649-3 812-4 905-0

All other 896,692 27,584 947,154 1980 22,878 903-0 Through tabulation errors there were 2,998 people unaccounted for, as to race and sex, in 1970. 1

Of the total population in 1980, 451,251 were male, 824,004 were urban and 665,054 were 20 years of age or older. The chief cities and their population (census, 1980) are Providence, 156,304; Warwick, 87,127; Cranston, 71,992; Pawtucket, 71,204; East Providence, 59,980; Woonsocket, 45,914; Newport, 29,259; North Providence (town), 29,188; Cumberland (town), 27,069. The Providence-Pawtucket-Warwick Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 919,216 in 1980. CLIMATE. Providence. Jan. 2 8 T (-2-2'Q, July 72"F (22-2'Q. Annual rainfall 43" (1,079 mm). See New England, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1843; it has had 36 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members and a House of Representatives of 100 members, both elected for 2 years, as are also the Governor ana Lieut.-Governor. Every citizen, 18 years of age, who has resided in the state for 30 days, and is duly registered, is qualified to vote. Rhode Island sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 212,080 votes, Mondale, 197,106. The capital is Providence. The state has 5 counties (unique in having no political functions) and 39 cities and towns. Governor: Edward DiPrete (R.), 1985-87 ($49,500). Lieut. - Governor: Richard Licht (D.), 1985-87 ($35,500). Secretary ofState: Susan Farmer (R.), 1985-87 ($35,500). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1984 (Office of the State Controller) total revenues were $l,272-4m. (taxation, $791-5m., and federal aid, $310-5m.); general expenditures were $1,241 -8m. (education, $347-6m.; highways, $65-8m.; and public welfare, $378m.). Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1984 was $245 -3m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $ 11,670. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The small mineral output, mostly stone, sand and gravel, was valued (1984)at$91m. Agriculture. While Rhode Island is predominantly a manufacturing state, agriculture contributed $33- lm. to the general cash income in 1983. In 1982 it had 728 farms with an area of 80,000 acres (12% of the total land area), of which 31,000 acres were crop land; the average farm was 86 acres. Fisheries. In 1983 the catch was 113m. lb (live weight) valued at $66m. I N D U S T R Y . Total non-agricultural employment in 1984 was 403,600, of which 119,600 were manufacturing, 284,000 non-manufacturing. Manufacturing firms totalled 3,039; average weekly earnings for production workers in manufacturing, $283.50; value added by manufacture (1980), $3,545m. Principal industries are metals and machinery, textiles and jewellery-silverware. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had (1 Jan. 1983) 6,396 miles of road, of which 1,366 were stateowned. In 1983,630,000 motor vehicles were registered.

SOUTH CAROLINA

1523

Railways. In 1984,5 railways operated 135 line-miles. Aviation. In 1984 there were 6 state-owned airports. Theodore Francis Green airport at Warwick, near Providence, is served by 10 airlines, and handled 989,000 passengers and 13m. lb. of freight in 1984. Shipping. Waterborne freight through the Port of Providence (1983) totalled 2m. tons. Broadcasting. There are 24 radio stations and 5 television stations in the state. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The state's penal institutions, Dec. 1982, had 781 inmates (81 per 100,000 population). The death penalty is illegal, except that it is mandatory in the case of murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence. Religion. Chief religious bodies are (estimated figures Sept. 1984): Roman Catholic with 550,000 members; Protestant Episcopal (baptized persons), 50,000; Baptist, 22,500; Congregational, 12,000; Methodist, 10,000; Jewish, 24,000. Education. In 1982-83 the 223 public elementary schools had 3,756 teachers and total enrolment of64,563 pupils; about 22,000 pupils were enrolled in private and parochial schools. The 60 senior and vocational high schools had 3,834 teachers and 67,833 pupils. Teachers' salaries (1983) averaged $23,200. Local expenditure, for schools (including evening schools) in 1982-83 totalled $419 • 1 m. There are 12 institutions of higher learning in the state, including 1 junior college. The state maintains Rhode Island College, at Providence, with 800 faculty members, and 8,500 full-time students (1984), and the University of Rhode Island, at South Kingstown, with over 900 faculty members and over 14,000 students (including graduate students). Brown University, at Providence, founded in 1764, is now non-sectarian; in 1984 it had over 500 full-time faculty members and 6,000 full-time students. Providence College, at Providence, founded in 1917 by the Order of Preachers (Dominican), had (1984) 250 professors and 4,000 students. The largest of the other colleges are Bryant College, at Smithfield, with 125 faculty and over 4,600 students, and the Rhode Island School of Design, in Providence, with about 100 faculty and 1,400 students. Health. In 1984 the state had 22 hospitals (over 7,000 beds), including 4 mental hospitals. Social Security. In 1982 aid to dependent children was granted to 44,900 children in 15,800 families at an average payment per family of $345 per month, and the state also had a general assistance programme. (All other aid programmes were taken over by the federal government.) Books of Reference Rhode Island Manual. Prepared by the Secretary of State. Providence Providence Journal Almanac: A Reference Book for Rhode Islanders. Providence. Annual Rhode Island Basic Economic Statistics. Rhode Island Dept. of Economic Development. Providence, 1982-83 McLoughlin, W. G., Rhode Island: a History. Norton, 1978 Wright, M. I., and Sullivan, R. J., Rhode Island Atlas. Rhode Island Pubs., 1983 State Library: Rhode Island State Library, State House, Providence 02908. State Librarian: Elliott E. Andrews.

SOUTH CAROLINA HISTORY. South Carolina, first settled permanently in 1670, was one of the 13 original states of the Union.

1524

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

AREA A N D POPULATION. South Carolina is bounded in the north by North Carolina, east and south-east by the Atlantic, south-west and west by Georgia. Area, 31,113 sq. miles, of which 909 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,121,833, an increase of 20-5 since 1970. Estimate (1983) 3,204,094. Births, 1983, were 50,731 (15-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 26,130 (7 -9); infant deaths, 730 (15 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 53,691(16 -2); divorces and annulments, 13,601 (4-1). The population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

While 679,161 944,049 1,551,022

Negro 835,843 793,681 829,291

1970 1980

1,794,432 2,150,507

789,040 948,623

Indian 331 959 1,098

Asiatic 65 76 946

All others 3,588 22,703

Total 1,515,400 1,738,765 2,382,594

Persq. mile 49-7 56-8 78-7

2,587,060 3,121,833

83-2 100-3

Of the total population in 1980, 49% were male, 54-1% were urban and 55% were 25 years old or older. Populations of large towns at the 1980 census (with those of associated metropolitan areas): Columbia (capital), 101,457 (422,900); Charleston, 70,776 (455,300); Greenville, 57,490; Spartanburg, 43,522 (Greenville-Spartanburg, 581,053). CLIMATE. Columbia. Jan. 47"F (8-3"Q, July 81°F (27-2'C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,125 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution dates from 1895, when it went into force without ratification by the electorate. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 46 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 124 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Only registered citizens have the right to vote. South Carolina sends to Congress 2 senators and 6 representatives. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 615,539 votes, Móndale 344,459 and Bergland 4,359. The capital is Columbia. Governor: Richard W. Riley (D.), 1983-87 ($60,000). Secretary of State: John Tucker Campbell (D.), 1983-87 ($55,000). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1984 general revenues were $2,210m.; general expenditures were $2,110- 7m. On 30 June 1984 the total bonded debt was $611 • 6m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $8,475. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Non-metallic minerals are of chief importance: value of mineral output in 1983 was $230-6m., chiefly from limestone for cement, clay, stone, sand and gravel. Production of kaolin, vermiculite, scrap mica and fuller's earth is also important. Agriculture. In 1984 there were 28,000 farms covering a farm area of 6m. acres. The average farm was of 190 acres. Of the 24,931 farms of the 1982 Census of Agriculture, there were 1,030 of 1,000 acres or more, average farm 224 acres; owners operated 14,761 farms; tenants 2,160. There were 2,334 farms with $100,000 or more in value of sales. Cash receipts from farm marketing in 1982 amounted to $601 • 8m. for crops and $366-6m. for livestock, including poultry. Chief crops are tobacco ($205m.), soybeans ($200m.), and corn ($62m.). Production, 1982: Cotton 147,822 bales; peaches, 144m. lb.; soybeans, 29m. bu.; tobacco, 119-78m. lb.; eggs, 1,656m. bu. Livestock on farms, 1982:660,000 all cattle, 440,000 swine.

SOUTH DAKOTA

1525

Forestry. The forest industry is important; state and private forest land (1983), 12 • 5m. acres. National forests amounted to 610,294 acres. I N D U S T R Y . A monthly average of 363,364 workers were employed in manufacturing in 1983, earning $6,096-3m. Major sectors are textiles (31-3%), apparel (13%) and chemicals (8-9%). Tourism is important; tourists spent an estimated $2,600m. in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total highway mileage in the combined highway system in 1983 was 39,824 miles. Motor vehicle registrations numbered 2m. in 1982. Railways. In 1984 the length of railway in the state was about 3,000 miles. Aviation. In 1984 there were 73 public airports, 58 private airports and 11 private heliports, and 1,120 registered aircraft. Shipping. The state has 3 deep-water ports. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. In Sept. 1984 penal institutions held 8,367 inmates. Education. In 1983-84 the total public-school enrolment (K-12) was 618,590; there were 358,227 white pupils and 260,363 non-white pupils. The total number ofteachers was 31,859; average salary was $ 17,384. For higher education the state operates the University of South Carolina, founded at Columbia in 1801, with, 1983-84,24,296 enrolled students; Clemson University, founded in 1889, with 12,459 students; The Citadel, at Charleston, with 3,040 students; Winthrop College, Rock Hill, with 4,999 students; Medical University of S. Carolina, at Charleston 2,254 students; S. Carolina State College, at Orangeburg, with 4,123 students, and Francis Marion College, at Florence, with 3,131 students; the College of Charleston has 5,323 students and Lander College, Greenwood, 2,136. There are 16 technical institutions (34,965). There are also 472 private kindergartens, elementary and high schools with total enrolment (1983-84) of 51,219 pupils, and 31 private and denominational colleges and junior colleges with (1983-84) enrolment of 27,503 students. Health. In 1984 the state had 181 hospitals and nursing homes and 108 intermediate care institutions licensed by the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control. Social Security. In 1983 (preliminary) there were 462,000 recipients of social security benefits. The average monthly expenditure in benefits was $ 163m. Books of Reference Reports ofthe South Carolina State Development Board. Columbia. Annual South Carolina Legislative Manual. Columbia. Annual South Carolina Statistical Abstract, 1983. South Carolina Budget and Control Board, Columbia, 1983 Jones, L., South Carolina: A Synoptic Historyfor Laymen. Lexington, 1978 League of Women Voters of South Carolina, Know Your State. Columbia, 2nd ed., 1977 State Library: South Carolina State Library, Columbia.

SOUTH DAKOTA HISTORY. South Dakota was first visited by Europeans in 1743 when Verendrye planted a lead plate (discovered in 1913) on the site of Fort Pierre, claiming the region for the French crown. Beginning with a trading post in 1794, it was settled from 1857 to 1861 when Dakota Territory was organized. It was admitted into the Union on 2 Nov. 1889.

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

AREA A N D POPULATION. South Dakota is bounded north by North Dakota, east by Minnesota, south-east by the Big Sioux River (forming the boundary with Iowa), south by Nebraska (with the Missouri River forming part of the boundary) and west by Wyoming and Montana. Area, 77,116 sq. miles, of which 1,164 sq. miles are water. Area administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1980, covered 5m. acres (10% of the state), of which 2-6m. acres were held by tribes. The federal government, 1979, owned 3,492,000 acres or 7-1% ofthe total. Census population, 1 April 1980, 690,178, an increase of 3-5% since 1970. Estimate (1981) 686,000. Births, 1982, were 12,839 (18-6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 6,588 (9-5); infant deaths, 131 (10-2per 1,000 live births); marriages, 8,353 (12-1); divorces, 2,564 (3-7). Population in 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960

White 563,771 669,453 653,098

Negro 817 646 1,114

1970 1980

630,333 638,955

1,627 2,144

Indian 19,137 21,833 25,794

Asiatic 163 101 336

All others 34,297 49,079

Total 583,888 692,849 680,514

Persq. mite 7-6 90 8-9

666,257 690,178

8-8 90

Of the total population in 1980, 340,370 were male, 320,223 were urban and 441,851 were 21 years of age or older. Population of the chief cities (census of 1980) was: Sioux Falls, 81,071; Rapid City, 46,340; Aberdeen, 25,973; Watertown, 15,632, Mitchell, 13,917; Brookings, 14,915; Huron, 13,000. CLIMATE. Rapid City. Jan. 25°F (-3-9°C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 19" (474 mm). Sioux Falls. Jan. 14°F (-10°Q, July 73°F (22-S'C). Annual rainfall 25" (625 mm). See High Plains, p. 1372. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. Voters are all citizens 18 years of age or older who have complied with certain residential qualifications. The people reserve the right of the initiative and referendum. TTje Senate has 35 members, and the House of Representatives 70 members, all elected for 2 years; the Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 1 representative to Congress. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 198,119 votes, Mondale, 114,967. The capital is Pierre (population, 1980, 11,973). The state is divided into 66 organized counties. Governor: William Janklow (R.), 1983-86 ($50,975). Lieut.-Governor: Lowell Hansen, 1983-86 ($7,075 plus expense allowance). Secretary of State: Alice Kundert, 1983-86 ($34,600). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1983 general revenues were $627-8m. and expenditures, $544-7m. Taxes and fees from state sources furnished $273 • 7m. and federal receipts $268 -3m. Per capita personal income (1981) was $8,833. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mineral products include gold (185,038 troy oz. in 1982, second largest yield of all states), silver (26,000 troy oz.). Mineral products, 1982, were valued at $ 13 5 - 6m., of which gold accounts for $69 -5m. Agriculture. In 1982, 37,148 farms had an acreage of 45m.; the average farm had 1,179 acres. Farm units are large; in 1982 there were only 4,024 farms of 50 acres or less, compared with 10,165 exceeding 1,000 acres. 17,371 farms sold produce valued at $40,000 or over.

SOUTH DAKOTA

1527

South Dakota ranks first in the US as producer of oats(133-8m.bu. in 1982)and rye (4-68m. bu.) and second in flaxseed (3-33m. bu.) and hay (8-63m. tons). The other important crops (1982) are sorghum (17-25m. bu.), and sunflower seeds (659-98m. bu.) The farm livestock on 1 Jan. 1983 included 4 06m. cattle, 680,000 sheep, 1 -51m. swine. Forestry. National forest area, 1981,1,998,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1982, manufacturing establishments had 24,881 workers who earned $398-2m. Food processing is by far the largest industry with 96 plants employing 7,678 workers. There are 168 printing and publishing plants employing 2,423 workers. Also significant are dairy, lumber and wood products, machinery, transport equipment, electronics, stone, glass and clay products. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total highway mileage was 17,056 in 1981. Registered passenger cars numbered 637,000 in 1981. Railways. In 1983 there were 1,927 miles of railway in operation. The state owns 837-8 miles of track of which 435 miles is operating. Aviation. In 1981 there were 69 general aviation airports and 9 air carrier airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The State prisons had, in 1982,693 inmates. The death penalty was illegal from 1915 to 1938; since 1938, one person has been executed, in 1949 (by electrocution), for murder. Religion. The chief religious bodies are: Lutherans, Roman Catholics, Methodist, Disciples of Christ, Presbyterian, Baptist and Episcopal. Education. Elementary and secondary education are free from 6 to 21 years of age. Between the ages of 8 and 16, attendance is compulsory. In 1982-83 128,625 pupils were attending elementary and high (including parochial) schools (8,124 full-time equivalent classroom teachers). Teachers' salaries (1981-82) averaged an estimated $14,717. Total expenditure on public schools (1982-83), $362 • 7m. The School of Mines at Rapid City, established 1885, had, spring 1984, 2,694 students; the State University at Brookings, 6,554 students; the University of South Dakota, founded at Vermillion in 1882, 5,753 students; Northern State College, 2,571 students; Black Hills State College, 2,072 students; Dakota State College, 1,081 students. The 9 private colleges had 6,041 students. The federal Government maintains Indian schools on its reservations and 2 outside at Flandreau and Pierre. Health. In Aug. 1983 the state Health Department listed 57 licensed hospitals (3,572 licensed beds). Social Security. In financial year 1982-83, 37,259 aged persons received $3,829,956; 1,623 blind persons received $339,744; 49,910 disabled persons received $8,627,820. Aid to dependent children was $17,542,976, to 11,554 children. Books of Reference Governor's Budget Report. South Dakota Bureau of Finance and Management. Annual South Dakota Historical Collections. 1902-80 South Dakota Legislative Manual. Secretary of State, Pierre, S.D. Biennial Berg, F. M., South Dakota: Land of Shining Gold. Hettinger, 1982 Karolevitz, Robert F., Challenge: the South Dakota Story. Sioux Falls, 1975 Milton, John R., South Dakota: a Bicentennial History. New York, W. W. Norton, 1977 Schell, H. S., History of South Dakota. 3rd ed. Lincoln, Neb., 1975 Vexler, R. I., South Dakota Chronology andFactbook. New York, 1978 State Library: South Dakota State Library, State Library Building, Pierre, S.D., 57501. State Librarian: Clarence L. Coffindafler.

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TENNESSEE H I S T O R Y . Tennessee, first settled in 1757, was admitted into the Union on 1 June 1796. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Tennessee is bounded north by Kentucky and Virginia, east by North Carolina, south by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi and west by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Arkansas and Missouri). Area, 42,144 sq. miles (989 sq. miles water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,591,120, an increase of 665,102 or 16-9% since 1970. Estimate (1984), 4,716,752. Vital statistics, 1983 (provisional): Births, 65,724 ( 13 -9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 41,461 (8-8); infant deaths 880 (13-4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 55,840 (23-6); divorces, 28,199 (11 -9). Population in 6 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1960

White 1,711,432 2,138,644 2,760,257 2,977,753

Negro 473,088 477,646 530,603 586,876

1970 1980

3,293,930 3,835,452

621,261 725,942

Indian 216 161 339 638

Asiatic 53 105 334 1,243

All others 8,496 29,726

Total 2,184,789 2,616,556 3,291,718 3,567,089

Per sq. mile 52-4 62-4 78-8 85-4

3,923,687 4,591,120

95-3 111-6

Of the population in 1980, 2,216,600 were male, 2,773,573 were urban and those 21 years of age or older numbered 3,026,398. The cities, with population, 1980, are Memphis, 646,356; Nashville (capital), 455,651; Knoxville, 175,030; Chattanooga, 169,565; Clarksville, 54,777; Jackson, 49,131; Johnson City, 39,753; Murfreesboro, 32,845; Kingsport, 32,027; Oak Ridge, 27,662. Standard metropolitan areas (1980): Memphis, 810,043; Nashville, 850,505; Knoxville, 476,517; Chattanooga, 320,761; Johnson City-BristolKingsport, 343,041; Clarksville, 83,342. C L I M A T E . Memphis. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 49" (1,221 mm). Nashville. Jan. 39"F (3-9"C), July 79°F (26 T Q . Annual rainfall 48" (1,196 mni). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The state has operated under 3 constitutions, the last of which was adopted in 1870 and has been since amended 22 times (first in 1953). Voters at an election may authorize the calling of a convention limited to altering or abolishing one or more specified sections of the constitution. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 33 members and a House of Representatives of 99 members, senators elected for 4 years and representatives for 2 years. Qualified as electors are all citizens (with the usual residential and age (18) qualifications). Tennessee sends to Congress 2 senators and 9 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 990,212 votes, Mondale, 711,714. For the Tennessee Valley Authority see pp. 1400-01. The capital is Nashville. The state is divided into 95 counties. Governor: Andrew Lamar Alexander (R.), 1983-86 ($68,226). Lieut. - Governor: John S. Wilder (D.), 1983-86 ($8,308). Secretary of State: Gentry Crowell (D.), ($51,510). B U D G E T . For 1981-82 total revenue was $4,521-3m.; general expenditure, $4,298-4m. Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1982 amounted to $ 1,3 50m. Per capita personal income (1983) was $9,362.

TENNESSEE

1529

ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Total value of mineral production 1980: fuel minerals (mainly coal), $280m.; non-fuel (mainly stone and zinc), $408m. Agriculture. In 1982,90,564 farms covered 12-47m. acres. The average farm was of 138 acres (only a few states had a smaller average) valued, land and buildings, at $1,014 per acre. Cash income (1982) from crops was $848-8m.; from livestock, $835m. Main crops were cotton, tobacco and soybeans. On 1 Jan. 1982 the domestic animals included 217,234 milch cows, 2-2m. all cattle, 11,385 sheep, 866,226m. swine. Forestry. Forests occupy 13-16m. acres (50% of total land area). The forest industry and industries dependent on it employ about 40,000 workers, earning $150m. per year. Wood products are valued at over $500m. per year. National forest system land(1981)623,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . The manufacturing industries include iron and steel working, but the most important products are chemicals, including synthetic fibres and allied products, electrical equipment and food. In 1980, manufacturing establishments employed 491,000 workers; value added by manufactures was $ 16,138m. T O U R I S M . 22-2m. out-of-state tourists spent $3,000m. in 1983. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 83,757 miles of municipal and rural roads. The state is served by 115 intrastate bus companies and 31 privately owned internal bus services. Motor-vehicle registrations, 1983, totalled 3,849,449, of which 3,232,032 were cars. Railways. The state had (1982) 5,696 miles of track on 10 railways. Aviation. The state is served by 11 major airlines. In 1981 there were 74 public airports and 78 private; there were 71 heliports and 2 military air bases. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND W E L F A R E Justice. There has been no execution since 1960; since 1930 there have been 22 whites and 44 Negroes executed (by electrocution) for murder and 5 whites and 22 Negroes for rape. A US Supreme Court ruling prohibits the use of capital punishment under present Tennessee law, except for first degree murder. Prison population, 31 July 1984,7,488. The law prohibiting the inter-marriage of white and Negro was declared unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in June 1967. Religion. The leading religious bodies are the Southern Baptists, Methodists and Negro Baptists. Education. School attendance has been compulsory since 1925 and the employment of children under 16 years of age in workshops, factories or mines is illegal. In 1982-83 there were 1,691 public schools with a net enrolment of 860,708 pupils. In 1982-3 46,691 teachers earned an average salary of $17,697-58. Total expenditure for operating county and city public schools (kindergarten to Grade 12) in 1982-83, $l,658-5m. Tennessee has 49 accredited colleges and universities, 18 2-year colleges and 28 vocational schools. The universities include the University of Tennessee, Knoxville (founded 1794), with 26,752 students in 1982-83; Vanderbilt University, Nashville (1873) with 8,782, Tennessee State University (1912) with 8,011, the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (1886) with 7,543 and Fisk University (1866) with 743. Health. In 1983 the state had 150 hospitals with 27,806 beds. State facilities for the

1530

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

mentally retarded had 2,174 resident patients; mental hospitals had 3,200 (1 Jan. 1980). Social Security. In 1980 Tennessee paid $2,233m. to retired workers and their survivors and to disabled workers. Total beneficiaries: 448,000 retired; 169,000 survivors and 122,000 disabled. 354,000 people received $380m. in Medicaid. 56,000 families received aid to dependent children ($85m.). Supplemental Security Income ($ 198 • 7m.) was paid to 130,600. Books of Reference Tennessee Dept. of Finance and Administration, Annual Report, Annual Dept. of Education Annual Report for Tennessee, Annual Tennessee Blue Book. Secretary of State, Nashville Tennessee Statistical Abstract, Center for Business and Economic Research, Univ. of Tennessee. Annual Corlew, R. E., Tennessee: A Short History. Univ. Tennessee, 2nd ed., 1981 Davidson, D., Tennessee: Vol. I, The Old River Frontier to Secession, Univ. Tennessee, 1979 Dykeman, W., Tennessee, Rev. Ed., New York, 1984 State Library: State Library and Archives, Nashville. Librarian: Miss O. Young. Stale Historian: Wilma Dykeman.

TEXAS HISTORY. In 1836 Texas declared its independence of Mexico, and after maintaining an independent existence, as the Republic of Texas, for 10 years, it was on 29 Dec. 1845 received as a state into the American Union. The state's first settlement dates from 1686. AREA A N D POPULATION. Texas is bounded north by Oklahoma, northeast by Arkansas, east by Louisiana, south-east by the Gulf of Mexico, south by Mexico and west by New Mexico. Area, 266,807 sq. miles (including 4,790 sq. miles ofinland water). Census population, 1 April 1980 (provisional), 14,228,383, an increase of 27% since 1970. Estimate (1982), 15,280,000. Vital statistics for 1980: Births, 268,717 (18-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 108,586 (7• 6); infant deaths, 3,226 (12 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 187,118(13-2); divorces, 97,161 (6-8).

Population for 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 3,204,848 4,967,172 8,374,831

Negro 690,049 854,964 1,187,125

1970 1980

9,717,128 11,197,663

1,399,005 1,710,250

Indian 702 1,001 5,750

Asiatic 943 1,578 9,848

All others 80,597 1,320,470

Total 3,896,542 5,824,715 9,579,677

Per sq. mile 14-8 22 1 36-5

11,196,730 14,228,383

42-7 54-2

Of the population in 1980, 6,998,301 were male, 11,327,159 persons were urban. Those 20 years old and older numbered 9,357,309. A census report, 1980, showed, 2,985,643 persons of Spanish origin. The largest cities, with census population in 1980, are: Houston 1,554,992 Dallas 901,450 San Antonio 783,296 Fort Worth 382,349 El Paso 424,522 Austin (capital) 343,390 230,715 Corpus Christi Lubbock 174,157

Amarillo Beaumont Wichita Falls Irving Waco Arlington Abilene Pasadena

149,167 118,031 93,543 109,575 101,267 159,117 98,231 111,884

Odessa Garland Laredo San Angelo Galveston Midland Tyler Port Arthur

89,797 138,749 91,229 72,655 61,601 70,291 70,720 61,106

Larger urbanized areas, 1980: Houston, 2,891,146; Dallas-Fort Worth, 2,964,342; San Antonio, 1,070,245.

TEXAS

1531

CLIMATE. Dallas. Jan. 45°F (7-2"C), July 84°F (28-9"C). Annual rainfall 38" (945 mm). El Paso. Jan. 44°F(6-7°C), July 8rF(27-2'C). Annual rainfall 9" (221 mm). Galveston. Jan. 54°F (12-2°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 46" (1,159 mm). Houston. Jan. 52°F (11 • 1°C), July 83°F (28-3'Q. Annual rainfall 48" (1,200 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1372. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution dates from 1876; it has been amended 233 times. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 31 members elected for 4 years (half their number retire every 2 years), and a House of Representatives of 150 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Govemor are elected for 4 years. Qualified electors are all citizens with the usual residential qualifications. Texas sends to Congress 2 senators and 27 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 3,301,024 votes, Móndale, 1,873,499. The capital is Austin. The state has 254 counties. Governor: Mark White (D.), 1983-86 ($88,900). Lieut. - Governor: William P. Hobby (D.),1983-86 ($7,200). Secretary of State: John W. Fainter, Jr. (D.), ($61,200). BUDGET. In the fiscal year ending 31 Aug. 1982 general revenues were $23,617m. ($13,671m. from taxes, $4,154m. federal aid); general expenditures, $21,334m. ($8,743m. on education, $2,506m. on highways, $2,067m. on hospitals, $ 1,741 m. on public welfare). Texas has a large revenue derived from the severance tax (i.e., tax on the removal of oil, natural gas and sulphur from the soil or waters of the state). Net long-term debt, 31 Aug. 1982, was $22,516m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $11,419. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. In 1975 Texas had 31% of proved US crude oil reserves. Production, 1981: Crude petroleum, 945m. bbls. Other mineral products include natural gas (7,010,000 m.c.f.), natural gasoline, butane and propane gases, helium, crude gypsum, granite and sandstone, salt and cement. Total value of mineral products in 1981, $48,708m., of which $47,050 was for fuels. Agriculture. Texas is one of the most important agricultural states of the Union. In 1983 it had 184,000 farms covering 138m. acres; average farm was of 752 acres valued, land and buildings, at $593 per acre. Large-scale commercial farms, highly mechanized, dominate in Texas; farms of 1,000 acres or more in number far exceed that ofany other state. But small-scale fanning persists. Soil erosion is serious in some parts. For some 97,297,000 acres drastic curative treatment has been indicated and for 51,164,000 acres, preventive treatment. Production, 1983: Cotton, 2,391,500 bales (of 480 lb); maize (104-7m. bu.), wheat (161m. bu.), oats (24m. bu.) and barley (2-5m. bu.), soybeans (9-6m. bu.), peanuts, oranges, grapefruit, peaches, potatoes, sweet potatoes. Cash income, 1983, from crops was $3,448 -2m.; from livestock, $5,522 -2m. The state has a very great livestock industry, leading in the number of all cattle, 15m. on 1 Jan. 1983, and sheep, 2-2m.; it also had 335,000 milch cows, and 550,000 swine. Forestry. There were (1980) 23 • 3m. acres of forested land. INDUSTRY. In 1980 manufacturing establishments employed lm. workers; value added by manufacturing, $47,145m. Chemical industries along the Gulf Coast, such as the production of synthetic rubber and of primary magnesium (from sea-water), are increasingly important.

1532

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1979 there were 264,900 miles of roads including 199,500 miles of rural roads. Motor registration in 1980,10-2m. Railways. The railways ( 1974) had a total mileage of 19,134 miles, of which 13,303 miles were main lines. Aviation. In 1981 there were 322 public and 1,109 private airports. Shipping. The port of Houston, connected by the Houston Ship Channel (50 miles long) with the Gulf of Mexico, is the largest inland cotton market in the world. Cargo handled 1981,100-9m. tonnes. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. On31 Dec. 1982 the state prison held 36,149 men and women. Execution is by lethal injection; there were 300 between 1930 and 1968; between 1977 and 1984 there were 2. Texas has adopted 11 laws governing the activities of trade unions. An Act of 1955 forbids the state's payment of unemployment compensation to workers engaged in certain types of stnkes. Religion. The largest religious bodies are Roman Catholics, Baptists, Methodists, Churches of Christ, Lutherans, Presbyterians and Episcopalians. Education. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 17 years of age. In autumn 1982 public elementary and secondary schools had 2,985,659 enrolled pupils and there were 166,961 classroom teachers. Teachers' salaries, 1983, averaged $ 19,500. Total public school expenditure, 1981, $6,403m. The state has 157 institutions of higher learning with an estimated enrolment, Sept. 1982, of759,000 students. The largest institutions, with faculty numbers and student enrolment, spring 1983, were: Founded 1845 1852 1869 1873 1876 1876 1879 1883 1890 1891 1889 1899 1903 1906 1911 1923 1923 1925 1934 1947 1951

Institutions Baylor University, Waco St Mary's University, San Antonio Trinity University, San Antonio Texas Christian University, Fort Worth Texas A. and M. Univ., College Station Prairie View Agr. and Mech. Coll., Prairie View Sam Houston State University University of Texas System (every campus) North Texas State University, Denton Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene East Texas State University, Commerce South West Texas State University, S&fi IVidrcos Texas Woman's University, Denton Abilene Christian College, Abilene Southern Methodist University, Dallas Stephen F.Austin State University Texas Technical University, Lubbock Texas Arts and Industries University, Kingsville University of Houston, Houston Texas Southern University, Houston Lamar University, Beaumont 1 1982.

Control Baptist R.C. Presb. Christian State State State State State Baptist State State

Faculty Students 587 10,473 187 3,311 316 3,103 422 6,283 2,093 36,127 288 4,495 486 10,270 1,173 123 401 668

State 622 Church ofChrist 286 Methodist 622 State 585 State 1,539 State 202 State 3,236' State 453 State 650

9,856 114,800 18,782 1,948 7,768 16,038 7,827 4,546 9,150 11,881 23,000 5,245 49,241' 9,147 14,600

Health. In 1980, the state had 561 hospitals (81,800 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association; on 1 Jan. 1980 mental hospitals had 6,559 resident patients and state institutions for the mentally retarded, 11,178 resident patients (1980). Social Security. Aid is from state and federal sources. Old-age assistance (SSI) was being granted in Dec. 1980 to 146,800 persons, who received an average of $101 per month; aid was given to 320,000 dependent children (average payment per family, $109 per month).

1533

UTAH

Books of Reference Texas Almanac. Dallas. Biennial Texas Factbook. Univ. ofTexas, 1983 Benton, W.E., Texas, its Government and Politics. 4th ed., Englewood Cliffs, 1977 Cruz, G. R. and Irby, J. A. (eds.), Texas Bibliography. Austin, 1982 Jordan, T.G., and Bean, J. L„ Jr., Texas. Boulder, 1983 MacCorkle, S. A., and Smith, D., Texas Government. 7th ed. New York, 1974 Richardson, R. N., Texas, the Lone Star Slate. 3rded. New York, 1970 Legislative Reference Library: Box 12488, Capitol Station, Austin, Texas 78811. Director: James R. Sanders.

UTAH H I S T O R Y . Utah, which had been acquired by the US during the Mexican war, was settled by Mormons in 1847, and organized as a Territory on 9 Sept. 1850. It was admitted as a state into the Union on 4 Jan. 1896 with boundaiies as at present. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Utah is bounded north by Idaho and Wyoming, east by Colorado, south by Arizona and west by Nevada. Area, 84,899 sq. miles, of which 2,826 sq. miles are water. The federal government (1967) owned 35,397,274 acres or 67-1% of the area of the state. The area of unappropriated and unreserved lands was 23,268,250 acres in 1974. The Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1974 administered 3,035,190 acres, all of which were allotted to Indian tribes. Census population, 1 April 1980, 1,461,037, an increase of 38% since 1970. Estimate (1982), 1,554,000. Births in 1980 were 43,708 (29-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 8,556 (5-9); infant deaths, 505 (11 - 5 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 17,074 (11-7); divorces, 7,957 (5 -4). Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 366,583 499,967 873,828 1,031,926 1,382,550

Negro 1,144 1,108 4,148 6,617 9,225

Indian 3,123 2,869 6,961 11,273 19,256

Asiatic 2,501 3,903 5,207 6,230 15,076

Total 373,851 507,847 890,627 1,059,273 1,461,037

Persq. mile 4-5 6-2 10-8 12-9 17-7

Of the total in 1980, 724,501 were male, 1,232,908 persons were uiban; 860,304 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities are Salt Lake City (capital), with a population (census, 1980) of 162,960; Provo, 74,007; Ogden, 64,444; Bountiful, 32,877; Orem, 52,399; and Logan, 26,844. C L I M A T E . Salt Lake City. Jan. 29°F (-1 • 7°C), July 77°F (25°Q. Annual rainfall 16" (401 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Utah adopted its present constitution in 1896 (now with 61 amendments). It sends to Congress 2 senators and 3 representatives. The Legislature consists of a Senate (in part renewed every 2 years) of 30 members, elected for 4 years, and of a House of Representatives of 75 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The constitution provides for the initiative and referendum. Electors are all citizens, who, not being insane or criminal, have the usual residential qualifications. The capital is Salt Lake City. There are 29 counties in the state. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 464,535 votes, Mondale, 154,239. Governor: Norman Bangerter(R.), 1985-88 ($52,000). Lieut.-Governor: W. ValOveson (R.), 1985-88 ($35,500).

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BUDGET. For the year ending 30 June 1982 general revenue was $2,490m. ($ 1,332m. from taxes, $612m. from federal aid) while general expenditures were $2,490m. ($l,104m. on education, $279m. on highways, $234m. on public welfare). TTie net long-term debt on 30 June 1982 was about $2,171 m. Per capita personal income (1982) was $8,875. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals The principal minerals are: copper, gold, petroleum, lead, silver and zinc. The state also has natural gas, clays, tungsten, molybdenum, uranium and phosphate rock. Total value of mineral production, 1981, $2,067m. Agriculture. In 1983 Utah had 13,000 farms covering 12m. acres, of which about 2m. acres were crop land and about 300,000 acres pasture. About lm. acres had irrigation; the average farm was of953 acres. Of the total surface area, 9% is severely eroded and only 9-4% is free from erosion; the balance is moderately eroded. Cash income, 1982, from crops, $ 130m. and from livestock, $412m. The principal crops (1983) are: Barley, 1 lm. bu.; wheat (spring and winter), 8m. bu.; oats, 884,000 bu.; potatoes, l-2m. cwt; hay (alfalfa, sweet clover and lespedeza), 270,000 tons; maize, 1 -5m. bu. In 1983 there were 565,000 sheep; 84,000 milch cows; 950,000 all cattle; 32,000 swine. Forestry. Area of national forests, 1981, was 9,129,000 acres, of which 8 05m. acres were under forest service administration. INDUSTRY. In 1980 manufacturing establishments had 93,000 workers; value added by manufacture was $3,415m. Leading manufactures by value added are primary metals, ordinances and transport, food, fabricated metals and machinery, petroleum products. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state has about 50,000 miles of highway. In 1980 there were 1,009,000 motor vehicles registered. Railways. On 1 July 1974 the state had 1,734 miles of railways. Aviation. In 1981 there were 57 public and 45 private airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The number of inmates of the state prison on 31 Dec. 1982 was 1,199. Since 1930 total executions have been 14 (13 by shooting, 1 by hanging—the condemned man has choice), all whites, and all for murder. Religion. Latter-day Saints (Mormons) form about 73% of the church membership of the state, with approximately 829,990 members in 1974; their church is a substantial property-owner. There were (1970) about 50,483 Catholics. Most Protestant denominations are represented. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 6 to 18 years of age. There are 40 school districts. Teachers' salaries, 1983, averaged $19,700. There were (autumn 1982) 370,183 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools, and 15,227 classroom teachers. In 1981 estimated public school expenditure was $752m. The University of Utah (1850) (24,364 students in 1983) is in Salt Lake City; the Utah State University (1890) (11,112 students) is in Logan. The Mormon Church maintains the Brigham Young University at Provo (1875) with 2,700 students. Other colleges include: Westminster College, Salt Lake City, 1,120 students in 1982; Weber State College, Ogden, 10,000; Southern Utah State College, Cedar City, 2,400; College of Eastern Utah, Price, 1,250 in 1982; Snow College, Ephraim, 1,404 in 1982; Dixie College, St George, 2,010; L.D.S. Business College, Salt Lake

VERMONT

1535

City, 895. Total higher education students in 14 institutions, 1981,97,000. A state bond of $70m. was approved in July 1975 for the University of Utah medical centre. Health. In 1980, the state had 42 hospitals (5,300 beds) listed by the Utah Department of Social Services. Mental hospitals had 317 resident patients on 1 Jan. 1980; state facilities forthe mentally retarded had 763. Social Security. The state department of public welfare provided assistance during Dec. 1980 to 43,700 persons receiving aid to dependent children at an average $314 per family per month; aid to the aged, the blind and disabled is provided from federal funds. Books of Reference Compiled Digest ofAdministrative Reports. Secretary of State, Salt Lake City. Annual Statistical Abstract of Government in Utah. Utah Foundation, Salt Lake City. Annual Utah Agricultural Statistics. Dept. of Agriculture, Salt Lake City. Annual Utah: Facts. Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Univ. of Utah, 1975 Arlington, L., Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-Day Saints, 18301900. Cambridge, Mass., 1958 Petersen, C. S., Utah, a History. New York, 1977

VERMONT HISTORY. Vermont, first settled in 1724, was admitted into the Union as the fourteenth state on 4 March 1791. The first constitution was adopted by convention at Windsor, 2 July 1777, and established an independent state government. AREA AND POPULATION. Vermont is bounded north by Canada, east by New Hampshire, south by Massachusetts and west by New York. Area, 9,614 sq. miles, of which 341 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 511,456, an increase of 15% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 515,700. Births, 1982, were 8,028 (15-5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 4,479 (8-6); infant deaths, 75 (9-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,570(10-7); divorces, 2,620 (5). Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 354,298 358,966 389,092 442,553 506,736

Negro 1,621 568 519 761 1,135

Indian 26 36 57 229 984

Asiatic 11 41 172 787 1,355

Total 355,956 359,611 389,881 444,732 511,456

Per sq. mile 390 38-8 42 0 480 551

Of the population in 1980, 249,080 were male, 172,735 persons were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 343,666. The largest cities are Burlington, with a population in 1980 of37,712; Rutland, 18,436; Barre, 9,824. CLIMATE. Burlington. Jan. 17°F (-8-3°C), July 70°F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 33" (820 mm). See New England, p. 1373. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The constitution was adopted in 1793 and has since been amended. Amendments are proposed by two-thirds vote of the Senate every 4 years, and must be accepted by two sessions of the legislature; they are then submitted to popular vote. The state Legislature, consisting of a Senate of 30 members and a House of Representatives of 150 members (both elected for 2 years), meets in Jan. in odd-numbered years. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 2 years. Electors are all citizens who possess certain residential qualifications and have taken the freeman's oath set forth in the constitution. The state is divided into 14 counties; there are 251 towns and cities and other minor civil divisions. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 1 representative, who are elected by the voters of the entire state.

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In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 134,252 votes, Mondale, 94,518. The capital is Montpelier (8,241, census of 1980). Governor: Madeleine Kunin (D.), 1985-87 ($50,003). Lieuu-Governor: Peter Smith (R.) ($22,006). Secretary of State: James Douglas (R.) ($29,993). B U D G E T . The total revenue for the year ending 30 June 1984 was $763 9m.; total disbursements, $786-9m. Total net long-term debt, 1 July 1984, was $273,900,000. Per capita personal income ( 1983) was $9,979. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Stone, chiefly granite, marble and slate, is the leading mineral produced in Vermont, contributing about 60% of the total value of mineral products. Other products include asbestos, talc, peat, sand and gravel. Total value of mineral products, 1981,$51 m. Agriculture. Agriculture is the most important industry. In 1978 the state had 7,273 farms covering 29-6% of the land area; the average farm was of 241 acres. Cash income, 1981, from livestock and products, $365-4m.; from crops, $30-2m. The dairy farms produce about 2,300m. lb. of milk annually. The chief agricultural crops are hay, apples and maple syrup. In 1981 Vermont had 355,000 cattle, 11,000 sheep, 9,000 swine, 425,000 poultry. Forestry. In 1982 the harvest was 82m. bd ft hardwood and 93m. bd ft softwood saw-logs, and 267,000 cords of pulpwood and boltwood. About 600,000 cords was cut for firewood. The state is nearly 80% forest, with 12% in public ownership. National forests area (1983), 285,000 acres. State-owned forests, parks, fish and game areas, 250,000 acres; municipally-owned, 38,500 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1983, manufacturing establishments employed an average 47,785 workers who earned $926-5m.; main manufactures include machine tools and electronic components. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had 14,000 miles of roads in 1984, including 12,900 miles of rural roads. Motor vehicle registrations, 1984,510,267. Railways. There were, in 1983, 756 miles of main line railway, 300 of which was leased by the state to private operators. Aviation. There were 22 airports in 1983, of which 10 were state operated, 2 municipally owned and 10 privately owned but open to public use. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. In financial year 1984 6 prisons and centres had an average of524 inmates; average total inmates, 576; there were an average of4,350 people on probation and 313 on parole. Religion. The principal denominations are Roman Catholic, United Church of Christ, United Methodist, Protestant Episcopal, Baptist and UnitarianUniversalist. Education. School attendance during the full school term is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years of age, unless they have completed the 10th grade or undergo approved home instruction. In 1982-83 the public elementary schools had 48,166 enrolled pupils; the public secondary schools had 43,344 pupils; the 82 private schools had 8,580 pupils. Full-time teachers for public elementary schools numbered 2,941, secondary schools 3,310. Teachers' salaries for 1983 averaged $ 15,794 (elementary) and $ 16,747 (secondary).

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The University of Vermont (1791) had 9,218 full-time students in 1981-82, of whom 7,833 were undergraduates; Middlebury College (1800), 1,932 students; Norwich University (1834 but founded as an academy 1819), 2,308 students (including Vermont College); St Michael's College, 1,721 students; the 5 state colleges, 3,796 students; all other colleges, 3,120. Health. In Sept. 1983 the state had 16 general hospitals (898 beds), 2 mental hospitals and 1 T.B. hospital. There was 1 federal general hospital with 224 beds. Social Security. Old-age assistance (SSI) was being granted in 1980 to 2,400 persons, drawing an average of $108 per month; aid to dependent children was being granted to 24,300 persons, drawing an average of $340 per family per month; and aid to the permanently and totally disabled was being granted to 5,200 persons, drawing an average of $ 192. Books of Reference Legislative Directory. Secretary of State, Montpelier. Biennial Vermont Facts and Figures. Office of Statistical Co-ordination, Montpelier Vermont Year-Book, formerly Walton's Register. Chester. Annual BassettT., and Seymour D.(eds.), Vermont: A Bibliography of its History, Boston, 1981 Delorme, D. (ed.), Vermont Atlas and Gazetteer, Rev. ed., Freeport, 1983 Morrissey, C. T., Vermont, New York, 1981 State Library: Vermont Dept.of Libraries, Montpelier. State Librarian: Patricia Klinck.

VIRGINIA HISTORY. The first English Charter for settlements in America was that granted by James I in 1606 for the planting of colonies in Virginia. The state was one of the 13 origjnal states in the Union. Virginia lost just over one-third of its area when West Virginia was admitted into the Union (1863). AREA AND POPULATION. Virginia is bounded north-west by West Virginia, north-east by Maryland, east by the Atlantic, south by North Carolina and Tennessee and west by Kentucky. Area, 40,767 sq. miles including 1,063 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 5,346,818, an increase of 695,370 or 14-9% since 1970. Estimate (1982) 5,479,000. In 1983 there were 80,779 births (14-6 per 1,000 population); 43,734 deaths (7-9); 984 infant deaths (12 • 2 per 1,000 live births); 61,858 marriages and 25,482 divorces. Population for 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,389,809 1,770,441 3,142,443

Negro 671,096 650,165 816,258

1970 1980

3,761,514 4,230,000

861,368 1,008,311

Indian 539 779 2,155

Asiatic 168 466 4,725

All others 25,612 108,517

Total 2,061,612 2,421,851 3,966,949

Persq. mile 512 60-7 99-3

4,648,494 5,346,818

116-9 134-7

Of the total population in 1980,49% were male, 66% were urban and 59% were 21 years of age or older. The population (census of 1980) of the principal cities was: Norfolk, 266,979; Virginia Beach, 262,199; Richmond, 219,214; Newport News, 144,903; Hampton, 122,617; Chesapeake, 114,226; Portsmouth, 104,577; Alexandria, 103,219; Roanoke, 100,427; Lynchburg, 66,743. CLIMATE. Average temperatures in Jan. are 41°F in the Tidewater coastal area and 32°F in the Blue Ridge mountains; July averages, 78°F and 68°F respectively. Precipitation averages 36" in the Shenandoah valley and 44" in the south. Snowfall is 5-10" in the Tidewater and 25-30" in the western mountains. Norfolk. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 79°F (261°C). Annual rainfall 46" (1,145 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1373.

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C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1971. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Delegates of 100 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Qualified as electors are (with few exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age, fulfilling certain residential qualifications, who have registered. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 10 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,325,516 votes, Mondale, 793,711. The state capital is Richmond; the state contains 95 counties and 41 independent cities. Governor: Charles S. Robb(D.), 1983-86 ($60,000). Lieut-Govemor: Richard J. Davis (D.) $ 16,000. Secretary of the Commonwealth: Laurie Naismith (D.) ($21,400). B U D G E T . General revenue for the year ending 30 June 1983 was $5,064m. (taxation, $3,336m., and federal aid, $l,157m.); general expenditures, $4,705-5m. ($1,335m. for education, $985-6m. for transport and $ 1,510m. for public welfare). Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1983, amounted to $348,770,279. Per capita personal income (1982) was $11,095. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals (1981). Coal is the most important mineral, with output of 41,977,807 short tons. Lead and zinc ores, stone, sand and gravel, lime and titanium ore are also produced. Total mineral output was 53m. tons. Agriculture. In 1978 there were 57,000 farms with an area of 10m. acres; average farm had 175 acres and was valued at $163,918. Income, 1982, from crops, $674m., and from livestock and livestock products, $l,005m. The chief crops (1982) are com, hay and peanuts (330-8m. lb.), tobacco (158m. lb.). Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1982 included 170,000 milch cows, 1 85m. all cattle, 170,000 sheep and 640,000 swine (Dec. 1981). Forestry. National forests, 1982, covered 1,628,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . The manufacture of cigars and cigarettes and of rayon and allied products and the building ofships lead in value of products. T O U R I S M . Tourists spend about $3,700m. a year in Virginia, attracted mainly by the state's outstanding scenery, coastline and historical interest. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highways system, 31 Dec. 1982, had 61,801 miles of highways, of which 8,958 miles were primary roads. Motor registrations, 1982,3-9m. Railways. In 1983 there were 3,693 miles of railways. Aviation. There were, in 1981,260 airports, of which 58 were publicly owned. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Executions (by electrocution) since 1930 totalled 97. Prison population, 31 Dec. 1982,9,715 in federal and state prisons. Religion. The principal churches are the Baptist, Methodist, Protestant-Episcopal, Roman Catholic and Presbyterian. Education. Elementary and secondary instruction is free, and for ages 6-17 attendance is compulsory. No child under 12 may be employed in any mining or manufacturing work. In 1983 the 139 school districts had, in primary schools, 653,495 pupils and 22,783-8 teachers and in public high schools, 280,991 pupils and 17,124 teachers.

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Teachers' salaries (1982-83) averaged $18,467. Total expenditure on education, 1982-83, was $2,773-5m. The more important institutions for higher education (1982) were: Founded 1693 1749 1776 1819 1832 1832 1838 1839 1865 1868 1872 1882 1908 1910 1930 1956

Name and place of college William and Mary College, Williamsburg (State) Washington and Lee University, Lexington Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney (Pres.) University of Virginia, Charlottesville (State) Randolph-Macon College, Ashland (Methodist) University of Richmond, Richmond (Baptist) Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond Virginia Military Institute Lexington (State) Virginia Union University, Richmond Hampton Institute Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Virginia State University, Petersburg James Madison University, Harrisonburg Radford University (State) Old Dominion University, Norfolk George Mason University (State)

Staff 557 178 64 1,681 92 295 2,520 133 90 260 2,594 228 521 315 830 750

Students 6,520 1,714 770 17,118 884 4,469 20,211 1,309 1,300 3,824 21,510 4,564 9,048 5,903 14,712 14,273

Health. In 1981 the state had 136 hospitals (31,400 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association. Social Security. In 1938 Virginia established a system of old-age assistance under the Federal Security Act; in March 1983 persons in 2,034 cases were drawing an average grant of $202.79; aid to permanently and totally disabled, 1,766 cases, average grant $218.96; aid to dependent children, 164,383 persons, average grant $85.77; general relief, 6,642 persons, average grant $146.62. Books of Reference Virginia Facts and Figures. Annual Division of Industrial Development, Richmond. Annual Dabney, V., Virginia, the New Dominion. 1971 Friddell.G., The Virginia Way. Burda, 1973 Gottmann,J., Virginia in our Century. Charlottesville, 1969 Morton, R. L., Colonial Virginia. 2 vols. Univ. Press ofVirginia, 1960 Rouse,P. Virginia: a Pictorial History. Scribner, 1975 Rubin, L.D., Jr., Virginia: a Bicentennial History. Norris, 1977 State Library: Virginia State Library, Richmond 23219. State Librarian: Donald Haynes.

WASHINGTON H I S T O R Y . Washington, formerly part of Oregon, was created a Territory in 1853, and was admitted into the Union as a state on 11 Nov. 1889. Its settlement datesfrom 1811. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Washington is bounded north by Canada, east by Idaho, south by Oregon with the Columbia River forming most of the boundary, and west by the Pacific. Area, 68,139 sq. miles, of which 1,627 sq. miles are inland water. Lands owned by the federal government, 1977, were 12 -4m. acres or 29 • 1% of the total area. Census population, 1 April 1980 (preliminary), 4,130,163, an increase of730,994 or 21 -4% since 1970. Estimated population (1982), 4,265,400. Births, 1980 were 67,518; deaths, 32,304; infant deaths, 143; marriages, 47,836; divorces and annulments, 28,733. Population in 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 1,109,111 1,521,661 2,751,675 2,351,055 3,777,296

Negro 6,058 6,840 48,738 71,308 105,544

Indian 10,997 11,253 21,076 33,386 60,771

Asiatic and others 15,824 23,642 31,725 53,420 186,552

Total 1,141,990 1,563,396 2,853,214 3,409,169 4,130,163

Persq. mile 171 23-3 42-8 51-2 620

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Of the total population in 1980,2,051,369 were male, 3,037,765 persons were urban; 2,837,607 were 20 years of age or older. There are 24 Indian reservations, the largest being held by the Yakima tribe. Indian reservations in Sept. 1979 covered 2,496,423 acres, of which 1,996,018 acres were tribal lands and 497,218 acres were held by individuals. Total Indian population, 1980,60,771. Leading cities are Seattle, with a population (1980 census) of491,897; Spokane, 170,993; Tacoma, 158,101; Bellevue, 73,711. Others : Yakima, 49,826; Everett, 54,413; Vancouver, 42,834; Bellingham, 45,794; Bremerton, 36,208; Richland, 33,578; Longview, 31,052; Renton, 30,612; Edmonds, 27,526; Walla Walla, 25,618. Urbanized areas (1980 census): Seattle-Everett, 1,600,944; Tacoma, 482,692; Spokane, 341,058. C L I M A T E . Seattle. Jan. 40°F (4-4'C), July 63°F (17-2X). Annual rainfall 34" (848 mm). Spokane. Jan. 2 T F (-2-8°Q, July 70"F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 14" (350 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1372. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution, adopted in 1889, has had 63 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 49 members elected for 4 years, half their number retiring every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 98 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 7 representatives to Congress. Qualified as voters are (with some exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age, having the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 939,124 votes, Mondale, 731,440. The capital is Olympia (population, 1980 census, 27,447). The state contains 39 counties. Governor: Booth Gardner (D.), 1985-89 ($63,000). Lieut.-Governor: John A. Cherberg (D.), 1985-89 ($28,600). Secretary of State: Ralph Munro (R.), 198 5-89 ($31,000). B U D G E T . For the 2-year budget period 1981-83 the state's total revenue is (projected) $13,545-2m.; general expenditure is (projected) $13,873-5m. (education, $6,150-7m.; transportation, $706-6m., and human resources, $3,636m.). State revenue in the period 1979-81 was$10,623-7m. and expenditure $10,857-8m. Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1980 was $627,784,980. Per capita personal income (1982) was $11,635. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. With about 20% of potential water-power resources of US, the state is first in developed and potential hydro-electricity. Electric energy produced in 1982,99,684m. kw. Minerals. Mining and quarrying employed about 3,000 in 1981, and the sector is not as important as forestry, agriculture or manufacturing. Uranium is mined but figures are not disclosed; other minerals include sand and gravel, stone, coal and clays. Agriculture. Agriculture is constantly growing in value because of more intensive and diversified farming and because of the lm.-acre Columbia Basin Irrigation Project. Irrigated land in farms (1974) amounted to 1,286,412 acres. In 1983 there were 38,000 farms with an acreage of 16m.; average farm was of 429 acres. Average value per acre, $888. Value of farm production, 1982, was $3,057m. (from field crops, $1,359m.; from speciality products, including flowers, bulbs, Christmas trees, $170m., fruit and vegetables, $621 -4m., and from livestock and dairy products, $906-5m.). Wheat, the leading farm commodity, was valued at $555-5m. Cattle and calves were valued at $348m. Other major commodities are milk ($440m.), apples ($297m.).

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1541

On 1 Jan. 1983 animals on farms included 213,000 milch cows, 157m. all cattle, 65,000 sheep and 51,000 swine. Forestry. Forests cover about 23m. acres, of which 9m. acres are national forest. In 1982, lumber production was 3,014m. bd ft; plywood, 1,200m. bd ft, and pulp wood (1981)3,494,000 short tons. Fisheries. Washington ranks second only to Alaska in the catch of salmon and halibut, and in the production of canned salmon. I N D U S T R Y . In 1981 manufacturing employed 301,900 workers, of whom 79,100 were in aerospace and 61,200 in the forest products industry. Gross manufacturing income (1 Oct. 1980-30 Sept. 1981): aerospace, $8,380-6m.; forest products, $6,415-6m., of which paper and pulp made $2,571-4m.; food products, $4,801 -4m.; primary metals, $2,728 -9m.; refining petroleum, $2,227 -2m. Abundance of electric power has made Washington the leading producer of primary aluminium. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1979) maintained 6,920 miles of highway; the counties, 40,767 miles; municipalities, 9,888 miles. Motor vehicle registrations (1980), 3,566,639. Railways. The railways had, in 1980,6,057 miles. Aviation. There were in 1979, 365 airports, 120 publicly owned. In 1978 SeattleTacoma Airport traffic was 8-3m. passengers, 48,000 tons of mail and 185,000 tons of freight and express. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The average daily adult population in state prisons in Jan. 1982 was 4,674. Since 1963 there have been no executions; total 1930-63 (by hanging) was 47, including 40 whites, 5 Negroes and 2 other races, all for murder, except 1 white for kidnapping. Religion. Chief religious bodies are the Roman Catholic, United Methodist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Latter-day Saints and Episcopalian. Education. Education is given free to all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years, and is compulsory for children from 8 to 15 years of age. In autumn 1982 there were 739,215 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools, with 34,056 classroom teachers. In 1983 the average salary of teaching staff was $23,400. The total expenditure on public elementary and secondary schools for the school year 1980-81 was $ 1,791 • 6m. The University of Washington, founded 1861, at Seattle, had, autumn 1982, 34,769 students, and Washington University at Pullman, founded 1890, for science and agriculture, had 16,829 students. Twenty-seven community colleges had (1981) a total enrolment of 161,244 students (89,263 full-time equivalent). Health. In 1981 the 2 state hospitals for mental illness had a daily average of 1,204 patients; schools for handicapped children, 1,999 residents in Sept. 1981. In 1981 the state had 109 licensed general hospitals (13,201 beds), 3 licensed psychiatric hospitals (181 beds) and 3 alcoholism hospitals (174 beds). Social Security. Old-age assistance is provided for persons 65 years of age or older without adequate resources (and not in need of continuing home care) who are residents of the state. In July 1981, 14,287 people were drawing an average of $130-93 per month; aid to 139,514 children in 52,781 families averaged $333 -86 per family monthly; to 500 blind persons, $218-05 per person monthly; to 25,557 totally disabled, $216-59 monthly. 5,057 persons, under foster care, received payments of $366-11 per person. Total unemployment in 1981 averaged 176,000 (9-1% of the population). In June 1980 the unemployment insurance system covered 90-5% of employers (103,391). Benefits ranged from $41 to $150 per week and averaged $117 -75 per week.

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Books of Reference Washington State Research Council. Handbook: A Compendium of Statistical and Explanatory Information about State and Local Government in Washington. 4th ed. Olympia, 1973.—The Book of Numbers: A Statistical Handbook on Washington State Government. Olympia, 1977 Washington (State) Office of Financial Management. Pocket Data Book ¡978 Avery, M. W., Washington, a History of the Evergreen State. Univ. of Wash. Press, 1965.— Government of Washington State. Univ. of Wash. Press, revised ed. 1973 State Library: Washington State Library, Olympia. State Librarian: Roderick Swartz.

WEST VIRGINIA H I S T O R Y . In 1862, after the state of Virginia had seceded from the Ui)ion, the electors of the western portion ratified an ordinance providing for the formation of a new state, which was admitted into the Union by presidential proclamation on 20 June 1863, under the name of West Virginia. Its constitution was adopted by the voters almost unanimously on 26 March 1863. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . West Virginia is bounded north by Pennsylvania and Maryland, east and south by Virginia, south-west by the Sandy River (forming the boundary with Kentucky) and west by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Ohio). Area, 24,282 sq. miles, of which 102 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1 April 1980,1,949,644, an increase of 11 -8% since 1970. Estimate (1982), 1,948,000. Births, 1980, 29,438; deaths, 19,178; infant deaths, 347; marriages, 17,391; divorces, 10,275. Population in 5 federal census years was: 1910 1940 1960 1970 1980

White 1,156,817 1,614,191 1,770,133 1,673,480 1,874,751

Negro 64,173 114,893 89,378 67,342 65,051

Indian 36 18 181 751 1,610

Asiatic 93 103 419 1,463 5,194

Total 1,221,119 1,729,205 1,860,421 1,744,237 1,949,644

Persq. mile 50-8 71-8 77-3 71-8 80-3

Of the total population in 1980,945,408 were male, 705,319 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 1,319,566. The 1980 census population of the principal cities was: Huntington, 63,684; Charleston, 63,968. Others: Wheeling, 43,070; Parkersburg, 39,967; Morgantown, 27,605; Weirton, 24,736; Fairmont, 23,863; Clarksburg, 22,371. C L I M A T E . Charleston. Jan. 34°F (1 • 1°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,010 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in 1872; it has had 51 amendments. The Legislature consists of the Senate of 34 members elected for a term of 4 years, one-half being elected biennially, and the House of Delegates of 100 members, elected biennially. The Governor is elected for 4 years and may succeed himself once. Voters are all citizens (with the usual exceptions) 18 years of age and meeting certain residential requirements. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 4 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 396,332 votes, Mondale, 322,142. The state capital is Charleston. There are 55 counties. Governor: Arch Moore Jr. (R.), 1985-89 ($60,000). Secretary of State: Ken Hechler (D.), ($36,000). F I N A N C E . General revenues for the year ending 30 June 1982 were $3,169m. ($ 1,632m. from taxes, $898m. from federal funds); general expenditures were $3,170m. (education, $ 1,138m.; highways, $535m.; public welfare, $267m.).

WEST VIRGINIA

1543

Debts outstanding were $3,700m. on 30 June 1982. Estimated per capita personal income (1982) was $8,769. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. 55% of the state is underlain with mineable coal; 128-8m. short tons of coal were produced in 1982. Petroleum output, 3m. bbls; natural gas production was 152,000m. cu. it. Salt, sand and gravel, sandstone and limestone are also produced. The total value of mineral output in 1981 was $5,000m. Agriculture. In 1983 the state had 21,000 farms with an area of 4-2m. acres; average size of farm was 203 acres and valued at $829 per acre. Livestock farming predominates. Cash income, 1983, from crops was $54-7m.; from government payments, $3 -9m., and from livestock and products, $ 172 • 87m. Major crops harvested, 1983: hay (594,000 tons); all corn (4-3m. bu.); tobacco (3-3m. lb.). Apples and peaches are important fruit crops. Livestock on farms, 1 Jan. 1980, included 545,000 cattle, of which 37,000 were milch cows; sheep, 113,000; hogs, 56,000; chickens, 940,000 excluding broilers. Production, 1980,included21-8m. broilers, 149m. eggs; 2-3m. turkeys. Forestry. State forests, 1980, covered 79,307 acres; national forests, 1,647,146 gross acres; 75% of the state is woodland. INDUSTRY. In 1980, 1,730 manufactories had 116,552 production workers who earned $2,167-9m. Value added by manufacture (estimate) was $3,660m. Leading industries are primary and fabricated metals, glass, chemicals, wood products, textiles and apparel, and machinery. In 1982 non-agricultural employment was 609,000 of whom 128,000 were in trade, 126,000 in government and 103,000 in service industries. The first commercial coal liquefaction plant in the USA is being built near Morgantown with the co-operation of the governments of Federal Republic of Germany and Japan and the Gulf Oil Co. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total highways in 1980, 37,527 miles (state maintained, 33,436 miles; inter-state, 390 miles; national parks and other roads, 4,091 miles; West Virginia Turnpike, 87 miles). Registered motor vehicles, financial year ending 30 June 1980, numbered 1,140,673. Railways. In 1980 the state had 3,941 miles of railway, all operated by diesel or electric trains. Aviation. There were 42 licensed airports in 1980. Post and Broadcasting. There are 65 AM radio stations, 41 FM radio stations. Television stations number 9 VHF and 3 UHF. Newspapers. Daily newspapers number25; weekly newspapers 78. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state court system consists of a Supreme Court and 31 circuit courts. The Supreme Court of Appeals, exercising original and appellate jurisdiction, has 5 members elected by the people for 12-year terms. Each circuit court has from 1 to 7 judges (as determined by the Legislature on the basis of population and case-load) chosen by the voters within each circuit for 8-year terms. Effective on 1 July 1967, the West Virginia Human Rights Act prohibits discrimination in employment and places of public accommodations based on race, religion, colour, national origin or ancestry. There are 8 penal and correctional institutions which had, on 30 June 1980, 1,590 inmates. In 1965 the State Legislature abolished capital punishment.

1544

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Religion. Chief denominations in 1980 were United Methodist (175,000 members, estimate), Baptists (141,000) and Roman Catholics (102,600). Education. Public school education is free for all from 5 to 21 years of age, and school attendance is compulsory for all between the ages of 7 and 16 (school term, 200 days—180—185 days of actual teaching). The public schools are non-sectarian. In autumn 1982 public elementary and secondary schools had375,115 pupils and 22,159 classroom teachers. Average salary of teachers in 1983, $17,400. Total 1981 expenditures for public schools, $849m. Leading institutions of higher education in 1981 : Founded 1837 1837 1867 1868 1872 1872 1872 1891 1895 1895 1901 1972 1976

Marshall University, Huntington School of Medicine West Liberty State College, West Liberty Fairmont State College, Fairmont West Virginia University, Morgantown School of Medicine Concord College, Athens Glen ville State College, Glenville Shepherd College, Shepherdstown West Virginia State College West Virginia Institute of Technology, Montgomery Bluefield State College, Bluefield Potomac State College of West Virginia Univ., Keyser West Virginia College of Graduate Studies School of Osteopathic Medicine, Lewisburg

Full-time students 11,482 401 2,668 5,262 19,874 1,437 2,174 1,920 3,001 4,368 3,343 2,340 1,104 3,323 231

In addition to the universities and state-supported schools, there are 3 community colleges (8,326 students in 1981), 10 denominational and private institutions of higher education (11,221 students in 1981) and 14 business colleges. Health. In 1980-81 the state had 66 hospitals and 34 licensed personal care homes, 71 skilled-nursing homes and 6 mental hospitals. Social Security. The Department of Welfare, originating in the 1930s as the Department of Public Assistance, is both state and federally financed. In the year ending 30 June 1981 day care for 5,288 children per month was provided; aid was given to 24,158 families with dependent children (average award, $173-05 per month); handicapped children's services conducted 134,640 examinations; 65,526 families per month received food stamps. On 1 Jan. 1974 all blind, aged and disabled services were converted to the Federal Supplemental Security Income programme. Books of Reference West Virginia Blue Book. Legislature, Charleston. Annual, since 1916 West Virginia Statistical Handbook, ¡974. Bureau of Business Research, W. Va. Univ., Morgantown, 1974 Bibliography of West Virginia. 2 parts. Dept. of Archives and History, Charleston, 1939 West Virginia History. Dept. of Archives and History. Charleston. Quarterly, from 1939 Conley, P., and Doherty, W. T., West Virginia History. Charleston, 1974 Davis, C. J., and others, West Virginia State and Local Government. West Virginia Univ. Bureau for Government Research, 1963 Williams, J. A., West Virginia: A Bicentennial History. New York, 1976 State Library: Division of Archives and History, Dept. of Culture and History, Charleston.

WISCONSIN HISTORY. Wisconsin was settled in 1670 by French traders and missionaries. Originally a part of New France, it was surrendered to the British in 1763 and in 1783, when ceded to the US, became part of the North-west Territory. It was then contained successively in the Territories of Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. In 1836 it became part of the Territory of Wisconsin, which also included the present states

WISCONSIN

1545

of Iowa, Minnesota and parts of the Dakotas. It was admitted into the Union with its present boundaries on 29 May 1848. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Wisconsin is bounded north by Lake Superior and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois, west by Iowa and Minnesota, with the Mississippi River forming most of the boundary. Area, 56,153 sq. miles, including 1,727 sq. miles of inland water, but excluding any part of the Great Lakes. Census population, 1 April 19804,705,335, an increase of 6-5% since 1970. Estimated population (1984), 4,774,383. Births in 1983 were 72,499 (15-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 40,985 (8-6); infant deaths, 688 (9-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 40,754 (8-6); divorces and annulments, 16,503. Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

While 2,320,555 2,916,255 3,858,903 4,258,959 4,442,598

Negro 2,900 10,739 74,546 128,224 182,593

All others 10,405 12,012 18,328 30,750 80,144

Total 2,333,860 2,939,006 3,951,777 4,417,933 4,705,335

Persq. mile 422 53-7 72-2 80-8 86-4

Of the total population in 1980, 49% were male, 64-2% were urban and 67% were 20 years old or older. Population of the larger cities, 1980 census, was as follows: Milwaukee Madison Racine Green Bay Kenosha West Allis Wauwatosa

636,212 170,616 85,725 87,889 77,685 63,982 51,308

Appleton Oshkosh La Crosse Sheboygan Janesville Eau Claire Waukesha

59,032 49,678 48,347 48,085 51,071 51,509 50,319

Beloit Fond du Lac Manitowoc Wausau Superior Brookfield

35,207 35,863 32,547 32,426 29,571 34,035

Population of larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Milwaukee, 1,207,008; Madison, 213,678; Duluth-Superior (Minn.-Wis.), 132,585; Racine, 118,987; Green Bay, 142,747. C L I M A T E . Milwaukee. Jan. 19°F (-7-2°C), July 70°F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 29" (727 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1373. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution, which dates from 1848, has 118 amendments. The legislative power is vested in a Senate of 33 members (1985 term: 19 Democrats, 14 Republicans) elected for 4 years, one-half elected alternately, and an Assembly of 99 members (1985 term: 52 Democrats, 47 Republicans) all elected simultaneously for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 4 years. All 6 constitutional officers serve 4-year terms. Wisconsin has universal suffrage for all citizens 18 years of age or over; but, as there is no official list of voters, the size of the electorate is unknown; 2,211,689 voted for President in 1984. Wisconsin is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 9 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,198,584 votes, Mondale, 995,740. The capital is Madison. The state has 72 counties. Governor: Anthony S. Earl (D.), 1983-87 ($75,337). Lieut. - Governor: James T. Flynn(D.), 1983-87 ($41,390). Secretary of State: Douglas La Follette (D.), 1983-87 ($37,334). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1984 (Wisconsin Bureau of Financial Operations figures) total revenue for all funds was $10,581,177,270 ($4,909,439,067 from taxation and $1,813,137,493 from federal aid). General expenditure from all funds was $8,888,929,927 ($2,549,387,301 for education, $2,631,115,550 for human resources).

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U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

Per capita personal income (1982) was $ 10,774. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There were, Dec. 1983, 89 hydro-electric power plants (15 of them municipal, 59 private in Wisconsin; 15 private outside the state) operated by public utilities with a total installed capacity of 452,930 kw.; output, 1983, was 2,510,704m. kwh. The 15 outside plants are in Michigan; installed capacity 99,990 kw., output 561,189m. kwh. Fossil fuel and nuclear plants numbered 24 (4 municipal); the former had a total installed capacity of6,235,266 kw.; total output, (1983), 23,772,507m. kwh; the 2 nuclear plants had an installed capacity of 1,540,682 kw. and a total output (1983) of9,099,277m. kwh. There were also 31 internal combustion reciprocating plants (one in Michigan), with a total installed capacity of 105,498 kw. and a total output of (1983) 2,568m. kwh., and 17 internal combustion turbine plants with a total installed capacity of 1,285,950 kw.; total output was (1983) 69,688m. kwh. There was a total of 161 plants, with a total installed capacity of 9,620,326 kw. and a total output of (1983) 3 5,454,744m. kwh. Minerals. Sand and gravel, crushed stone and lime are the chief mineral products. Mineral production in 1983 was valued at $111 -5m. This value included $38m. for sand and gravel, $48m. for crushed stone and about $18m. for lime. Value of all other minerals including natural abrasives, peat, cement and gemstones, $7m. The large Forest County sulphide deposit (5,000 ft long, about 200 ft wide and over 1,500 ft deep and almost vertical) south of Crandon is estimated at over 77m. tons, averaging 5% zinc, 1% copper and lesser amounts of lead, silver and gold. The company owning the Crandon zinc-copper deposit initiated the process to acquire mine permits in 1982. In 1981, northern Wisconsin was explored for base metal deposits in Price, Forest, Lincoln, Rusk, and Marathon counties. Agriculture. The total number of farms has declined in the last 48 years, but farms have become larger and more productive. On 1 Jan. 1983 there were 90,000 farms with a total acreage of 18-2m. acres and an average size of 202 acres, compared with 142,000 farms with a total acreage of 22 -4m. acres and an average of 158 acres in 1959. Cash income from products sold by Wisconsin farms in 1983, $4,984m.; $3,911 m. from livestock and livestock products and $1,072m. from crops. Wisconsin ranked first among the states in 1983 in the number of milch cows, milk and butter production, output of American, both Brick and Munster, Italian and Blue Mold Cheese. Production of all cheese accounted for 35-9% of the nation's total. The state also ranked first in bulk whole condensed milk and bulk sweetened skim condensed milk and dry whey. In crops the state ranked first for snap beans for processing, green peas for processing, all hay, beets for canning, corn for silage and sweet corn for processing. Production of the principal field crops in 1983 included: Com for grain, 223m. bu.; com for silage, 10-38m. tons; oats, 45- lm. bu.; all hay, 12-2m. tons. Other crops of importance 18-9m. cwt of potatoes, 16 • 1 m. lb. of tobacco, 1 • 1 m. bbls of cranberries, 1 • 5m. cwt of carrots and the processing crops of568,280 tons of sweet com, 110,160 tons of green peas and 210,680 tons of snap beans. Forestry. In June 1984 national forests comprised l-5m. acres; state forests, 426,312 acres; the county forests, 2-28m. acres. Wisconsin has an estimated 14-4m. acres of forest land (about 41 -5% of land area) which consists of private (about 58%) and industrial forest. The production and remanufacture of wood and wood-products is one ofthe state's most important industries. INDUSTRY. Wisconsin has much heavy industry, particularly in the Milwaukee area. In 1982 the state ranked thirteenth in manufactured exports; nonelectrical machinery was the major industrial group (20% of all manufacturing

WISCONSIN

1547

employment), followed by food processing, fabricated metals, electrical machinery, paper and products, transport equipment, primary metals and printing. Manufacturing establishments in 1983 provided 26-9% of all employment, 32-4% of all earnings; exports (1981) $4,030m. The total number of establishments was 9,197 in 1983; the biggest concentration is in the south-east. TOURISM. The tourist-vacation industry ranks among the first three in economic importance. The decline of lumbering and mining in the northern section of the state has increased dependency on the recreation industry. The Division of Tourism of the Department of Development spent $914,000 to promote tourism in financial year 1982—83. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had on 1 Jan. 1984,108,093 miles of hifehway. 74% of all roads in the state have a bituminous (or similar) surface. There are 11,920 miles of state trunk roads and 19,534 miles of county trunk roads. In the year ending 1 Jan. 1984 Wisconsin registered, 3,580,684 motor vehicles. Railways. On 1 July 1983 the state had 4,534 road-miles of railway. Aviation. There were, in 1984,96 publicly operated airports. Fifteen scheduled air carrier airports were served by 9 national air carriers and 7 by regional air carriers. Shipping. With the opening of the St Lawrence Seaway in 1959, 14 Wisconsin ports became accessible to ocean-going vessels. Green Bay, Kenosha, Manitowoc, Marinette, Milwaukee, Sheboygan and Superior (one of the world's largest iron-ore and grain ports) have developed foreign waterborne commerce. Cargo is also carried by barge on the river Mississippi. Other ports handle mainly Great Lakes traffic. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The state's penal, reformatory and correctional system on 30 June 1984 held 4,591 men and 212 women in 13 state-owned and other institutions for adult and juvenile offenders; the probation and parole system was supervising 19,998 men and 3,910 women. Wisconsin does not impose the death penalty. Religion. Wisconsin church affiliation, as a percentage of the 1980 population, was estimated at 32-2% Catholic, 20-06% Lutheran, 3-74% Methodist, 10-41% other churches and 32-6% un-affiliated. Education. All children between the ages of 7 and 16 are required to attend school full-time to the end of the school term in which they become 16 years of age. Children living in a district with a vocational school must attend until 18. In 1983— 84 the public school grades kindergarten-8 had 501,319 pupils and 28,828 (fulltime equivalent) teachers; school grades 9-12 had 273,327 pupils and 16,582 teachers. Grade kindergarten-8 teachers' salaries, 1983-84, averaged $21,062; grade 9-12 teachers, $22,024. In 1983-84 vocational, technical and adult schools had an enrolment of 460,158, and there were 6,840 faculty members in 1982-83. There is a school for the visually handicapped and a school for the deaf. The University of Wisconsin, established in 1848, was joined by law in 1971 with the Wisconsin State Universities System to become the University of Wisconsin System with 13 degree granting campuses, 13 two-year campuses in the Center System, and the University Extension. The 26 campuses had, in 1983-84, 6,835 full-time professors and instructors and 2,104 (full-time equivalent) teaching assistants. In autumn 1983,161,693 students enrolled (11,072 at Eau Claire, 4,880 at Green Bay, 8,958 at La Crosse, 42,921 at Madison, 26,468 at Milwaukee, 11,053 at Oshkosh, 6,008 at Parkside, 5,488 at Platteville, 5,368 at River Falls, 8,871 at Stevens Point, 7,470 at Stout, 2,219 at Superior, 10,493 at Whitewater and 10,454 in the Center System freshman-sophomore centres). There are also several

1548

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

independent institutions of higher education. These (with 1983-84 enrolment) include 2 universities (12,696), 21 liberal arts colleges (16,337), 5 technical and professional schools (3,916), and 4 theological seminaries (509). The total expenditure, 1983-84, for all public education (except capital outlay and debt service) was $3,964m. The state maintains an educational broadcasting and television service. Health. In Oct. 1984 the state had 145 general and allied special hospitals (21,967 beds), 19 mental hospitals (1,803 beds), 11 treatment centres for alcoholism and 1 rehabilitation centre. Patients in state and county mental hospitals and institutions forthe mentally retarded in June 1982 averaged 2,699. Social Security. On 1 Jan. 1974 the US Social Security administration assumed responsibility for financial aid (Supplemental Security Income) to persons 65 years old and over, blind persons and totally disabled persons, who satisfy requirements as to need. Recipients receive a federal payment plus a federally administered state supplementary payment, except for those who reside in a medical institution. In Oct. 1984, there were 65,069 SSI recipients in the state. In Jan. 1984 payment levels increased to $413 for a single individual, $463 for an eligible individual with an ineligible spouse, and $633 for an eligible couple. A special payment level of $511 for an individual and $975 for a couple may be paid with special approval for SSI recipients who are developmentally disabled or chronically mentally ill, living in a non-medical living arrangement not his or her own home. All SSI recipients receive state medical assistance coverage. Under the Aid to Families with Dependent Children programme, 92,699 families constituting 279,847 persons received an average of $482.38 per family in Aug. 1984. Medicaid in financial year 1982 cost $932-6m. Books of Reference Wisconsin Statistical Abstract. Wis. Dept. of Administration, State Bureau of Planning and Budget, Madison, 1979 Dictionary of Wisconsin Biography. Wis. Historical Society, Madison, 1960 Wisconsin Blue Book. Wis. Legislative Reference Bureau, Madison. Biennial Current, R. N., The History of Wisconsin, Vol. II. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1976.—Wisconsin, a History. New York, 1977 Nesbit, R. C., Wisconsin, A History. State Historical Society ofWisconsin, Madison, 1973 Smith, Alice E., The History of Wisconsin, Vol. 1. State Historical Society ofWisconsin, Madison, 1973 Vexler,R. I., Wisconsin Chronology andFactbook. New York, 1978 State Information Agency: Legislative Reference Bureau, State Capitol, Madison, Wis. 53702. Chief: Dr H. Rupert Theobald.

WYOMING HISTORY. Wyoming, first settled in 1834, was admitted into the Union on 10 July 1890. The name originated with the Delaware Indians. AREA AND POPULATION. Wyoming is bounded north by Montana, east by South Dakota and Nebraska, south by Colorado, south-west by Utah and west by Idaho. Area 97,809 sq. miles, of which 820 sq. miles are water. The Yellowstone National Park occupies about 2,221,733 acres; the Grand Teton National Park has 310,350 acres. The federal government in 1979 owned 28,888,546 acres (46-1% of the total area of the state). The Federal Bureau of Land Management administers 17,546,188 acres. Census population, 1 April 1980, 469,557, an increase of 41-25% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 487,243. Births in 1980 were 10,546 (22 per 1,000 population); deaths, 3,215 (7); infant deaths, 104 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 6,868; divorces, 4,003. Population in 5 census years was:

WYOMING 1910 1930 1960

White 140,318 221,241 322,922

Negro 2,235 1,250 2,183

1970 1980

323,619 446,488

2,568 3,364

Indian 1,486 1,845 4,020

1549 Asiatic 1,926 1,229 805

All others 6,229 19,705

Total 145,965 225,565 330,066

Per sq. mile 1-5 2-3 3-4

332,416 469,557

3-4 4-8

Of the total population in 1980, 240,560 were male, 295,898 were urban and those over 21 years of age numbered 295,908. The largest towns are Cheyenne (capital), with census population in 1980 of47,283; Casper, 51,016; Laramie, 24,410; Rock Springs, 19,458. CLIMATE. Cheyenne. Jan. 25"F (-3-9"C), July 66°F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 15" (376 mm). Yellowstone Park. Jan. 18"F (-7-8°C), July 61°F (16- 1°C). Annual rainfall 18" (444 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1372. CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. The constitution, drafted in 1890, has since had 43 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 30 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 64 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 1 representative, elected by the voters of the entire state. The suffrage extends to all citizens, male and female, who have the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 131,998 votes, Mondale, 53,154. The capital is Cheyenne. The state contains 23 counties. Governor: Ed Herschler (D.), 1983-86 ($70,000). Secretary of State: Mrs Thyra Thomson (R.), 1983-86 ($52,500). BUDGET. In the fiscal year ending 1 July 1984 (State Treasurer's figures) general revenues were $ 1,913,858,323; general expenditures were $ 1,454,378,833. Per capita personal income (1983) was $ 11,969. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Wyoming is largely an oil-producing state. In 1983 the output of petroleum was valued at $3,182-4m.; natural gas, $978-5m. Other mining: Coal, $989-7m.; trona, $121 -6m.; uranium, $45-5m.; other minerals mined include iron ore, feldspar, gypsum, limestone, phosphate, sand, gravel and marble, taconite, bentonite and hematite. Agriculture. Wyoming is semi-arid, and agriculture is carried on by irrigation and by dry fanning. In 1983 there were 9,200 farms and ranches; total land area 35 • 3m. acres. Cash receipts, 1982, from crops, $115-7m.; from livestock and products, $414-5m. Principal commodities are wheat, cattle and calves, lambs and sheep, sugar-beet, barley, hay and wool. Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1983 included 12,000 milch cows, 1 • 5m. all cattle, 1 m. sheep and lambs and 33,000 swine. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1981-82 there were 570 manufacturing establishments. There were 458 mining establishments. A large portion of the manufacturing in the state is based on natural resources, mainly oil and farm products. Leading industries are food, wood products (except furniture) and machinery (except electrical). Casper is the most industrialized city, with 64 manufacturers and 145 mining companies. There were 1,541 new business incorporations in 1983. The Wyoming Industrial Development Corporation assists in the development of small industries by providing credit. Available capital, $3m.

1550

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Labour. Mining is the largest employer in the state with 26,900 workers in 1984. The total civilian labour force for June 1984 was 266,931; nonagricultural, 209,200. The average unemployment rate was 5-4% and average weekly earnings were $362.50 for manufacturing production workers. Tourism. There are over 5m. tourists annually, mainly sportsmen. The state has the largest elk and pronghorn antelope herds in the world, 11 fish hatcheries and numerous wild game. Receipts from hunters and fishermen in 1983, $ 14,529,948. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The roads in 1983 comprised 5,670 miles of federal highways, 353 miles of state highways and 917 miles of inter-state highway. There were (1981) 554,264 registered motor vehicles and 11 bus companies. Railways. The railways, 1983, had a length of2,070 mainline miles. Aviation. There were 9 towns with regular scheduled services and 5 towns on jet routes in 1979. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The state penitentiary in July 1982 held 657 inmates, the Womens' Center, 32. There are 2 other state correctional institutions. There have been 14 executions in Wyoming, 8 by hanging and 6 by lethal gas. Religion. Chief religious bodies are the Roman Catholic (with 45,917 members in 1974), Mormon (28,954 in 1971) and Protestant churches (83,327 in 1974). There were 5,000 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1972. Education. In 1984-85 public elementary and secondary schools had 101,261 pupils. Enrolment in the parochial elementary and secondary schools was about 4,000. Approximately 7,791 public school teachers earned an average of $25,439. The average total expenditure per pupil for 1982-83 was $4,085. The University of Wyoming, founded at Laramie in 1887, had in autumn 1984, 9,866 students. There are 2-year colleges at Casper, Riverton, Torrington, Cheyenne, Powell, Rock Springs and Sheridan with 38,187 students in 1982-83. Social Welfare. In Jan. 1974 the federal government assumed many of the previous state programmes including old age assistance, aid to the blind and disabled. In 1983 financial year, $10,895,373 was distributed in food stamps; $10,331, 324 in aid to families with dependent children; $651,587 in emergency aid and $599,577 in general assistance. Total state expenditure on public assistance and social services programmes, financial year 1983, $47-8m. Health. In 1983 the state had 28 hospitals. There are 33 registered nursing homes. Books of Reference News of Big Wyoming. Cheyenne, 1975 Official Directory. Secretary of State. Cheyenne. Biennial 1983 Wyoming Data Handbook. Dept. of Administration and Fiscal Control. Division of Research and Statistics, Cheyenne, 1983 Brown, R. H., Wyoming: A Geography. Boulder, 1980 Larsen, T. A., History of Wyoming. Rev. ed. Univ. ofNebraska, 1979 Treadway, T., Wyoming. New York, 1982 Vexler, R. I., Wyoming Chronology and Factbook. New York, 1978

OUTLYING TERRITORIES Non-Self-Governing Territories: Summaries of Information Transmitted to the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations. Annual Coulter, J. W., The Pacific Dependencies of the United Slates. New York, 1957 Perkins, W. T., The United States and its Dependencies. Leiden, 1962 Wiens, H. J., Pacific Island Bastions ofthe US. New York and London, 1962

GUAM

1551

GUAM H I S T O R Y . Magellan is said to have discovered the island in 1521; it was ceded by Spain to the US by the Treaty of Paris (10 Dec. 1898). The island was captured by the Japanese on 10 Dec. 1941, and retaken by American forces from 21 July 1944. Guam is of great strategic importance; substantial numbers of naval and air force personnel occupy about one-third of the usable land. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Guam is the largest and most southern island of the Marianas Archipelago, in 13° 26' N. lat., 144 43' E. long. The length is 30 miles, the breadth from 4 to 10 miles, and there are about 209 sq. miles (541 sq. km). Agana, the seat of government is about 8 miles from the anchorage in Apra Harbour. The census on 1 April 1980 showed a population of 105,979, an increase of 20,983 or 24-7% since 1970; those of Guamanian ancestry numbered about 50,794; foreign-born, 28,572; density was 507 per sq. mile. Estimated population (1984), 115,756. On 1 July 1980 transient residents connected with the military were estimated at 20,000. The Malay strain is predominant. The native language is Chamorro; English is the official language and is taught in all schools. C L I M A T E . Tropical maritime, with little difference in temperatures over the year. Rainfall is copious at all seasons, but is greatest from July to Oct. Agana. Jan. 8PF(27-2°C), July 810F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall93"(2,325 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Guam's constitutional status is that of an 'unincorporated territory' of the US. Entry of US citizens is unrestricted; foreign nationals are subject to normal regulations. In 1949 the President transferred the administration of the island from the Navy Department (who held it from 1899) to the Interior Department. The transfer was completed by 1 Aug. 1950, on the passage of the Organic Act, which conferred full citizenship on the Guamanians, who had previously been 'nationals' of the US. The Governor and his staff constitute the executive arm of the government. The Legislature is unicameral; its powers are similar to those of an American state legislature. At the general election of Nov. 1982, the Democratic Party won 14 seats and the Republicans 7. All adults 18 years of age or over are enfranchised. Guam returns one non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives. Governor: Ricardo Bordallo (D.), 1982-85. ($50,000). Lieut.-Governor: Edward D. Reyes (D.), 1982-85. ECONOMY Budget. At 30 Sept. 1983 total assets were $65- lm.; federal grants $35-2m., taxes, $26-7m.: total liabilities were $149-3m. Banking. Recent changes in banking law make it possible for foreign banks to operate in Guam; the first to obtain a licence was the First Commercial Bank of Taiwan. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Water. Supplies are from springs, reservoirs and groundwater; 65% comes from water-bearing limestone in the north. The Navy and Air Force conserve water in reservoirs. The Water Resources Research Centre is at Guam University. Agriculture. The major products of the island are sweet potatoes, cucumbers, water melons and beans. In 1982 there were 140 full-time and 1,904 part-time farmers. Livestock (1983) included 790 cattle, 2,932 hogs, and 36,430 poultry. Commercial productions (1983) amounted to 6-6m. lb. of fruit and vegetables ($3-4m.), 567,000 doz. eggs ($811,093). There is an agricultural experimental station at Inarajan. Fisheries. Fresh fish caught in 1982, 319,300 lb. Offshore fishing produced 100,687 lb., including 6,080 lb. of shrimps.

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INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Guam Economic Development Authority controls three industrial estates: Cabras Island (32 acres); Calvo estate at Tamuning (26 acres); Harmon estate (16 acres). Industries include textile manufacture, cement and petroleum distribution, warehousing, printing, plastics and ship-repair. Other main sources of income are construction and tourism. Labour. In 1983 51 % of employment was in government, 18% in trade, 5% in construction, 13% in services, 4% in manufacturing, 5% in transport and 4% in finance. Trade. Guam is the only American territory which has complete 'free trade'; excise duties are levied only upon imports of tobacco, liquid fuel and liquor. In the year ending 31 Dec. 1980 imports were valued at $544- lm. and accounted for 90% of trade. Tourism. Tourism is developing; there were 1,900 visitors in 1964 and 345,805 in 1983,294,429 of them from Japan. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 419 miles of all-weather roads. Aviation. Seven commercial airlines serve Guam. Post and Broadcasting. Overseas telephone and radio dispatch facilities are available. In 1983 there were 23,442 telephones. There are 4 commercial stations, a commercial television station, a public broadcasting station and a cable television station with 24 channels. Newspapers. There is 1 daily newspaper, a twice-weekly {taper, and 4 weekly publications (all of which are of military or religious interest only). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Organic Act established a District Court with jurisdiction in matters arising under both federal and territorial law; the judge is appointed by the President subject to Senate approval. There is also a Supreme Court and a Superior Court; all judges are locally appointed except the Federal District judge. Misdemeanours are under the jurisdiction of the police court. The Spanish law was superseded in 1933 by 5 civil codes based upon California law. Religion. About 98% of the Guamanians are Roman Catholics; others are Baptists, Episcopalians, Bahais, Lutherans, Mormons, Presbyterians, Jehovah's Witnesses and members of the Church of Christ and Seventh Day Adventists. Education. Elementary education is compulsory. There are Chamorro Studies courses and bi-lingual teaching programmes to integrate the Chamorro language and culture into elementary and secondary school courses. There were, Dec. 1983, 24 elementary schools, 6 junior high schools, 5 senior high schools, one vocationaltechnical school for high school students and adults and 1 school for handicapped children. There were 17,725 elementary school pupils, 7,418 junior high and 5,776 senior high school pupils. Department of Education staff included 1,258 teachers. The Catholic schools system also operates 3 senior high schools, 3 junior high and 5 elementary schools. The Seventh Day Adventist Guam Mission Academy operates a school from grades 1 through 12, serving over 100 students. St John's Episcopal Preparatory School provides education for 530 students between kindergarten and the 9th grade. The University of Guam (an accredited institution) had 2,774 students, 1983-84. Health. There is a hospital, 8 nutrition centres, a school health programme and an extensive immunization programme. Emphasis is on disease prevention, health education and nutrition.

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Books of Reference Report (Annual) of the Governor of Guam to the US Department of Interior Careno, P., and Sanchez, P. C., Complete History of Guam. Rutland, Vt, 1964 Guam Annual Economic Review. Economic Research Center, Agana

COMMONWEALTH OF PUERTO RICO HISTORY. Puerto Rico, by the treaty of 10 Dec. 1898 (ratified 11 April 1899), was ceded by Spain to the US. The name was changed from Porto Rico to Puerto Rico by an Act of Congress approved 17 May 1932. Its territorial constitution was determined by the 'Organic Act' of Congress (2 March 1917) known as the 'Jones Act', which ruled until 25 July 1952, when the present constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was proclaimed. AREA AND POPULATION. Puerto Rico is the most easterly of the Greater Antilles and lies between the Dominican Republic and the US Virgin Islands. The island has a land area of 3,459 sq. miles and a population, according to the census of 1980, of3,196,520, an increase of484,487 or 17 -9% over 1970. Of the population in 1970 about 529,000 were bilingual, Spanish being the mother tongue and (with English) one of the two official languages. Urban population (1980)2,134,365(66-8%). Vital statistics (1981-82): Births, 69,336 (21-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 21,522 (6-5); deaths under 1 year, 1,193 (17 -6 per 1,000 live births). Chieftowns (1980) are: San Juan, 434,849; Bayamon, 196,207; Ponce, 189,046; Carolina, 165,954; Caguas, 117,959; Mayaguez,96,193; Arecibo, 86,766. The Puerto Rican island of Vieques, 10 miles to the east, has an area of 51 -7 sq. miles and 7,662 inhabitants. The island of Culebra, with 1,265 inhabitants, between Puerto Rico and St Thomas, has a good harbour. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Puerto Rico has representative government, the franchise being restricted to citizens 18 years of age or over, residence (1 year) and such additional qualifications as may be prescribed by the Legislature of Puerto Rico, but no property qualification may be imposed. Women were enfranchised in 1932 (with a literacy test) and fully in 1936. Puerto Ricans do not vote in the US presidential elections, though individuals living on the mainland are free to do so subject to the local electoral laws. The executive power resides in a Governor, elected directly by the people every 4 years. Fourteen heads of departments form the Governor's advisory council, also designated as his Council of Secretaries. The legislative functions are vested in a Senate, composed of 27 members (2 from each of the 8 senatorial districts and 11 senators at large), and the House of Representatives, composed of 51 members (1 from each of the 40 representative districts and 11 elected at large). Puerto Rico sends to Congress a Resident Commissioner to the US, elected by the people for a term of 4 years, but he has no vote in Congress. Puerto Rican men are subject to conscription in US services. On 27 Nov. 1953 President Eisenhower sent a message to the General Assembly of the UN stating 'if at any time the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico adopts a resolution in favour of more complete or even absolute independence' he 'will immediately thereafter recommend to Congress that such independence be granted'. For an account of the constitutional developments prior to 1952, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1952, p. 742. The new constitution was drafted by a

Puerto Rican Constituent Assembly and approved by the electorate at a referendum on 3 March 1952. It was then submitted to Congress, which struck out Section 20 of Article 11 covering the 'right to work' and the 'right to an adequate standard of living'; the remainder was passed and proclaimed by the Governor on 25 July 1952.

At the election on 4 Nov. 1984 the Popular Democratic Party, headed by Rafael

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Hernández Colon, polled 822,783 votes (47-8% of the total); the New Progressive Party, headed by Carlos Romero Barceló, polled 768,742 votes (44-6% of the total); the Independence Party (full independence by constitutional means), 61,316 (3-6% of the total); Renewal Puerto Rican Party, 69,865 votes (3 -6% of the total). Governor: Rafael Hernández Colon (Popular Democratic Party), 1985-89 ($35,000). ECONOMY Budget. Receipts and disbursements (US$) in central government fund for the year ending 30 June 1982 were: Balance, 1 July 1981 Receipts Total

16,632,000 3,878,806,000

Disbursements Balance, 1 July 1979

3,818,678,000 76,760,000

3,895,438,000

Assessed value of property, 30 June 1984, was $9,341 -9m., and bonded indebtedness (30 June 1984),$l,917-5m. The US administers and finances the postal service and maintains air and naval bases. US payments in Puerto Rico, including direct expenditures (mainly military), grants-in-aid and other payments to individuals and to business totalled: 1977-78, $2,563-4m.; 1978-79, $2,814-4m.; 1979-80, $3,176m.; 1980-81, $3,426-5m.; 1981-82, $3,553-6m.; 1982-83, $3,626-3m. Banking. Banks on 30 June 1984 had total deposits of $15,149- lm. Bank loans were $8,422-7m. This includes 18 commercial banks, 2 government banks and 4 trust companies. NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Production: Cement (1983-84), lm. short tons; stone (1981), 20-5m. short tons, value $96 -2m. Total value of mineral production in 1981 was $208m. Agriculture. In 1974 there were 47 'proportional profit' farms of 22,051 cords (about 22,704 acres) (mostly sugar-cane). The land had been bought from the big corporations by the Land Authority. Production of raw sugar, 96 degrees basis, 1984 crop year, was 95,751 tons. Livestock (1984): Cattle, 591,972; pigs, 202,764; goats, 15,531; and poultry, 6-4m. C O M M E R C E . In 1983-84 imports amounted to $9,529m., of which $5,456-5m. came from US; exports were valued at $9,145-9m., of which $7,559 -7m. went to US. In financial year 1984 the US took: Sugar, 11,585 short tons; tobacco and products, 2,298,062 lb.; rum, 21,975,086 proof gallons. Puerto Rico is not permitted to levy taxes on imports. Total trade between Puerto Rico and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK.

1980 33,002 16,970

1981 29,085 19,819

1982 33,445 25,735

1983 58,804 35,936

1984 76,854 72,695

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Department of Public Works had under maintenance in June 1983, 6,562 miles of paved road. Motor vehicles registered 30 June 1984,1,227,000. Shipping. In financial year 1983-84, 7,965 American and foreign vessels of 47,244,352 gross tons entered and cleared Puerto Rico. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 99 broadcasting stations and 11 television companies. There were (1984) 730,949 telephones. Cinemas (1981-82). Cinemas had an annual attendance of 7 • 3m.

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Newspapers. In Sept. 1984 there were 5 main newspapers, El Nuevo Dia had a circulation of about 194,679; El Vocero, 206,247; San Juan Star, 38,000; El Mundo, 107,000 and El Reportero, 50,000. J U S T I C E AND E D U C A T I O N Justice. The Commonwealth judiciary system is headed by a Supreme Court of 7 members, appointed by the Governor, and consists of a Superior Tribunal with 11 sections and 92 superior judges, a District Tribunal with 38 sections and 99 district judges, and 60 municipal judges all appointed by the Governor. The police force (1982) consisted of 10,051 men and women. Education. Education was made compulsory in 1899, but in 1981, 3 6% of the children still had no access to schooling. The percentage of illiteracy in 1976 was 8 • 7% of those 10 years of age or older. Total enrolment in public schools, 1983-84, was 709,135. Accredited private schools had 87,055 pupils (1983-84). All instruction below senior high school standard is given in Spanish only. The University of Puerto Rico, in Rio Piedras, 7 miles from San Juan, had 53,816 students in 1983-84 of which 19,756 were in 8 Regional Colleges. Higher education is also available in the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico (39,123 students in 1983-84), the Catholic University of Puerto Rico (13,808), the Sacred Heart College (7,985) and the Fundación Educativa Ana G. Méndez (16,226). These and other private colleges and universities had 106,387 students. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The area of Economic Research and Evaluation of the Puerto Rico Planning Board publishes: (a) annual Economic Report to the Governor; (b) Statistical Yearbook (since 1940-41); (c) External Trade Statistics (annual report); (d) Economic Bulletin (monthly); (e) Reports on national income and balance of payments; (J) Socio-Economic Statistics (since 1940); (g) Puerto Rico Monthly Economic Indicators. In addition there are annual reports by various Departments. Annual Reports. Governor of Puerto Rico. Washington Bird, A., Bibliografía Puertorriqueña, 1930-45. Social Science Research Centre, Univ. of Puerto Rico. 2 vols. 1946-47 Carr, R., Puerto Rico: A Colonial Experiment. New York Univ. Press, 1984 Cevallos, E., Puerto Rico. [Bibliography], Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985 Crampsey, R. A., Puerto Rico. Newton Abbot, 1973 Jones, C. F., and Pico, R. (eds.), Symposium on the Geography of Puerto Rico. Univ. of P.R. Press, 1955 Commonwealth Library: Univ. of Puerto Rico Library, Rio Piedras. Librarian: José Lázaro.

AMERICAN SAMOA HISTORY. The Samoan Islands were first visited by Europeans in the 18th century; the first recorded visit was in 1722. On 14 July 1889 a treaty between the USA, Germany and Great Britain proclaimed the Samoan islands neutral territory, under a 4-power government consisting of the 3 treaty powers and the local native government. By the Tripartite Treaty of 7 Nov. 1899, ratified 19 Feb. 1900, Great Britain and Germany renounced in favour of the US all rights over the islands of the Samoan group east of 171° long, west of Greenwich, the islands to the west of that meridian being assigned to Germany (now the Independent State of Western Samoa, see p. 1591). The islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u were ceded to the US by their High Chiefs on 17 April 1900, and the islands of the Manu'a group on 16 July 1904. Congress accepted the islands under a Joint Resolution approved 20 Feb. 1929. Swain's Island, 210 miles north of the Samoan Islands, was annexed in 1925 and is administered as an integral part of American Samoa. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The islands (Tutuila, Aunu'u, Ta'u, Olosega, Ofu and Rose) are approximately 650 miles east-north-east of Fiji. The total area of

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American Samoa is 76-1 sq. miles (197 sq. km); population, 1980, 32,297, nearly all Polynesians or part-Polynesians. The island's 3 Districts are Eastern (population, 1980,17,311), Western (13,227) and Manu'a(l,732). There is also Swain's Island, with an area of 1 • 9 sq. miles and 29 inhabitants (1980), which lies 210 miles to the north west. Rose Island (uninhabited) is 0-4 sq. mile in area. In 1981 there were 1,158 births and 153 deaths. C L I M A T E . A tropical maritime climate with a small annual range of temperature and plentiful rainfall. Pago-Pago. Jan. 83°F (28-3°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 194" (4,850 mm). CONSTITUTION A N D GOVERNMENT. American Samoa is constitutionally an unorganized unincorporated territory of the US administered under the Department of the Interior. Its indigenous inhabitants are US nationals and are classified locally as citizens of American Samoa with certain privileges under local laws not granted to non-indigenous persons. Polynesian customs (not inconsistent with US laws) are respected. Fagatogo is the seat ofthe Government The islands are organized in 15 counties grouped in 3 districts; these counties and districts correspond to the traditional political units. On 25 Feb. 1948 a bicameral legislature was established, at the request of the Samoans, to have advisory legislative functions. With the adoption of the Constitution of 22 April 1960, and the revised Constitution of 1967, the legislature was vested with limited lawmaking authority. The lower house, or House of Representatives, is composed of 20 members elected by universal adult suffrage and 1 non-voting member for Swain's Island. The upper house, or Senate, is comprised of 18 members elected, in the traditional Samoan manner, in meetings of the chiefs. Governor: A. P. Lutali. Lieut.-Governor: High Chief Tufele Lia. ECONOMY Planning. The first formal Economic Development and Planning Office completed its first year in 1971. Much has been done to promote economic expansion within the Territory and a large amount of outside investment interest has been stimulated. The Office initiated the first Territorial Comprehensive Plan. This plan when completed will, with periodic updating, provide a guideline to territorial development for the next 20 years. The planning programme was made possible under a Housing and Urban Development '701' grant programme, and Economic Development Administration '302' planning programmes. The focus will be on physical development and the problems of a rapidly increasing population with severely limited labour resources. Budget. The chief sources of revenue are annual federal grants from the US, and local revenues from taxes, and duties, and receipts from commercial operations (enterprise and special revenue funds), utilities, rents and leases and liquor sales. During the financial year 1983-84 the Government had a revenue of $76-6m. including local appropriations of $9-5m., federal appropriations of $39-6m. and enterprise funds of $ 17 • 5m. Banking. The American Samoa branch of the Bank of Hawaii and the American Samoa Bank offer all commercial banking services. The Development Bank of American Samoa, government owned, is concerned primarily through loans and guarantees with the economic advancement of the Territory. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Net power generated (financial year 1981) was 72-2m. kwh., of which 23- lm. kwh. was supplied to large power users and 20-2m. kwh. to householders. All the Manu'a islands have electricity.

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Agriculture. Of the 48,640 acres of land area, 11,000 acres are suitable for tropical crops; most commercial farms are in the Tafuna plains and west Tutuila. Principal crops are taro, bread-fruit, yams, bananas and coconuts. Local sales (1982): taro, 770,315 lb.;bananas, lm. lb.; vegetables, 584,143 lb. Livestock (1981): Pigs, 8,000; goats, 8,000; poultry, 45,000. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Fish canning is important, employing the second largest number of people (after government). Attempts are being made to provide a variety of light industries. Tuna fishing and local inshore fishing are both expanding. Commerce. In 1982 American Samoa exported goods valued at $186,782,060 and imported goods valued at $119,416,918. Chief exports are canned tuna, watches, pet foods and handicrafts. Chief imports are building materials, fuel oil, food, jewellery, machines and parts, alcoholic beverages and cigarettes. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are (1983) about 76 miles of paved roads and 16 miles of unpaved within the Federal Aid highway system. There are 21 miles of other unpaved roads. Motor vehicles registered, 1983,3,657. Aviation. South Pacific Island Airways and Polynesian Airlines operate daily services between American Samoa and Western Samoa. South Pacific Island Airways also operates between Pago Pago and Honolulu, and between Pago Pago and Tonga. The islands are also served by Air Nauru which operates between Pago Pago, Tahiti and Auckland, and Air Pacific (Fiji and westward). South Pacific and Manu'a Air Transport run local services. Shipping. The harbour at Pago Pago, which nearly bisects the island of Tutuila, is the only good harbour for large vessels in Samoa. By sea, there is a twice-monthly service between Fiji, New Zealand and Australia and regular service between US, South Pacific ports, Honolulu and Japan. Post and Broadcasting. A commercial radiogram service is available to all parts of the world through 2 principal trunks, United States and Western Samoa. Commercial phone and telex services are operated to all parts of the world on a 24-hour service. Number of telephones (Sept. 1983), 6,029; telex subscribers, 78. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Judicial power is vested firstly in a High Court. The trial division has original jurisdiction of all criminal and civil cases. The probate division has jurisdiction of estates, guardianships, trusts and other matters. The land and title division decides cases relating to disputes involving communal land and Matai _ title court rules on questions and controversy over family titles. The appellate division hears appeals from trial, land and title and probate divisions as well as having original jurisdiction in selected matters. The appellate court is the court of last resort. Two American judges sit with 5 Samoan judges permanently. In addition there are temporary judges or assessors who sit occasionally on cases involving Samoan customs. TTiere is also a District Court with limited jurisdiction and there are 69 village courts. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 18. The Government (1983) maintains 24 consolidated elementary schools, 5 senior high schools with technical departments, 1 community college, special education classes for the handicapped and 92 Early Childhood Education Centres for pre-school children. Total elementary and secondary enrolment (1983), 8,300; in ECE schools, 1,611; classes for the handicapped, 68; total elementary and secondary classroom teachers, 480. Ten private schools had 2,108 students. Learning is by a variety of media including television. Health. The Department of Health provides the only curative and preventive

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medical and dental care in American Samoa. It operates a general hospital (173 beds including 49 bassinets), 3 dispensaries on Tutuila, 4 dispensaries in the Manu'a group, 1 on Aunu'u and 1 on Swain's Island. A $3 -5m. tropical medical centre was completed and placed in service in 1968. This now embraces the general hospital as well as preventive health services and out-patient clinics for surgery, obstetrics, gynaecology, emergencies, family practice, internal medicine, paediatrics; there are clinics for treatment of the eye, ear, nose and throat, dental and public health departments. In 1983 there were 27 doctors, 7 dentists, 2 optometrists, 3 nurse anaesthetists, and 3 physician assistants. Total number of health service employees, 397.

VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE UNITED STATES H I S T O R Y . The Virgin Islands of the United States, formerly known as the Danish West Indies, were named and claimed for Spain by Columbus in 1493. They were later settled by Dutch and English planters, invaded by France in the mid-17th century and abandoned by the French c. 1700, by which time Danish influence had been established. St Croix was held by the Knights of Malta between two periods of French rule. They were purchased by the United States from Denmark for $25m. in a treaty ratified by both nations and proclaimed 31 March 1917. Their value was wholly strategic, inasmuch as they commanded the Anegada Passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean Sea and the approach to the Panama Canal. Although the inhabitants were made US citizens in 1927, the islands are, constitutionally, an 'unincorporated territory'. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Virgin Islands group, lying about 40 miles due east of Puerto Rico, comprises the islands of St Thomas (32 sq. miles), St Croix (84 sq. miles), St John (20 sq. miles) and about 50 small islets or cays, mostly uninhabited. The total area of the 3 principal islands is 132 sq. miles, of which the US Government owns 9,599 acres as National Park. The population, according to the census of 1 April 1980, was 95,591, an increase of 33,123 or 53% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 100,000. Population had slowly declined since 1835, when it stood at 43,000, but began to recover in the 1940s. Population of St Croix, 49,013; St Thomas, 44,218; St John, 2,360. About 20-25% are native-born, 35-40% from other Caribbean islands, 10% from mainland USA and 5% from Europe. St Croix has over 40% of Puerto Rican origin or extraction, Spanish speaking. In financial year 1983, live births were 2,593 and deaths, 510. The capital and only city, Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas, had a population (1980) of 11,756; there are two towns on St Croix. Christiansted with 2,856 and Frederikstedwith 1,054. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Oixanic Act of 22 July 1954 gives the US Department of the Interior full jurisdiction; some limited legislative powers are given to a single- chambered legislature, composed of 15 senators elected for 2 years representing the two legislative districts of St Croix and St Thomas-St John. The Governor is elected by the residents. A new Constitution was under consideration in March 1979, but was rejected by the electorate; a further constitutional convention was held in 1980. A new document was submitted to the President of the United States and to Congress; it was approved and submitted to the Virgin Islands electorate and was defeated in a referendum in Nov. 1981. For administration, there are 13 executive departments, 12 of which are under commissioners and the other, the Department of Law, under an Attorney-General. The US Department of the Interior appoints a Federal Comptroller of government revenue and expenditure.

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The franchise is vested in residents who are citizens of the United States, 18 years of age or over. In 1984 there were 30,430 voters, of whom 22,274 (or 73-2%) participated in the local elections that year. They do not participate in the US presidential election but they have a nonvoting representative in Congress. The capital is Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas Island. Governor: Juan Luis ($51,000). Lieut. - Governor: Julio A. Brady ($47,000). ECONOMY Budget. Under the 1954 Organic Act finances are provided partly from local revenues—customs, federal income tax, real and personal property tax, trade tax, excise tax, pilotage fees, etc.—and partly from Federal Matching Funds, being the excise taxes collected by the federal government on such Virgin Islands products transported to the mainland as are liable. Budget for financial year 1984, $259-8m. Currency and Banking. United States currency became legal tender on 1 July 1934. Banks are the Chase Manhattan Bank; the Bank of Nova Scotia; the First Federal Savings and Loan Association of Puerto Rico; Barclays Bank International; Bank of America; Citibank; First Pennsylvania Bank, Banco Popular de Puerto Rico, and the Royal Bank of Canada. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority provides electric power from generating plants on St Croix and St Thomas; St John is served by power cable and emergency generator. Water. Large de-salinization plants have been established, but rain-water remains the most reliable source. Every building must have a cistern to provide rain-water for drinking, even in areas served by mains (10 gallons capacity per sq. ft of roof for a single-storey house). Agriculture. With the phasing out of the sugar-cane industry in St Croix, and the accelerated construction activities carried on in all three islands, the number of farms decreased, but there has recently been a revival of interest in food crops. The government has bought 2,000 acres on St Croix, partly for farming. Land for fruit, vegetables and animal feed is available on St Croix, and there are tax incentives for development. Sugar has been terminated as a commercial crop and over 4,000 acres of prime land could be utilized for food crops. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 7,188; goats, 6,724; pigs, 2,469; sheep, 3,018. Fisheries. There is a fishermen's co-operative with a market at Christiansted. There is a shellfish-farming project at Rust-op-Twist, St Croix. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main occupations on St Thomas are tourism and government service; on St Croix manufacturing is more important. Manufactures include textiles, pharmaceuticals, rum and fragrances. The Martin Marietta Alumina plant processes bauxite from Africa for refining in mainland USA. The Amerada Hess oil refinery has a capacity of700,000 bbls per day. The Virgin Islands offer liberal tax exemptions to persons, firms or companies prepared to invest $50,000 in new industries or in the promotion of tourism. Commerce. Exports, calendar year 1984, totalled $3,600m. and imports $4,700m. Total trade between the US Virgin Islands and UK (financial years, British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 13 2,882

1982 137 27,450

1983 9,706 4,981

1984 56,871 3,657

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Tourism. Tourism is the most important business. There were about 1 -3m. visitors in 1984 spending $360m. About 657,460 tourists came on cruise ships which made 789 calls, mainly at St Thomas which has a good, natural deepwater harbour. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Virgin Islands have (1984) 660 miles of roads, and 42,669 motor vehicles registered. Aviation. There is a daily cargo and passenger service between St Thomas and St Croix. Alexander Hamilton Airport on St Croix can take all aircraft except Concorde. Harry S. Truman Airport on St Thomas takes 727-class aircraft; it is being enlarged (1983) to take larger aircraft. There are air connexions to mainland USA, other Caribbean islands, Latin America and Europe. Shipping. The whole territory has free port status; there is a container port in St. Croix. There is an hourly boat service between St Thomas and St John. Post and Broadcasting. All three Virgin Islands have a dial telephone system. In Jan. 1985 there were 53,306 telephones. Direct dialling to Puerto Rico and the mainland is now possible. Worldwide radio telegraph service is also available. The islands are served by 7 radio stations, 3 television stations and cable TV, 2 daily newspapers and several monthlies. RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Religion. There are churches of the Protestant, Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths in St Thomas and St Croix and Protestant and Roman Catholic churches in St John. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 5l/i and 16 years, inclusive. In 1984-85 there were 37 public schools (ranging from kindergarten to high schools); enrolment was 25,568; 27 private schools had 7,030 pupils; the public school budget was $66-2m. In 1984 the College of the Virgin Islands had 2,862 registered students; 777 full-time undergraduates, 1,906 part-time undergraduates and 179 graduate students. The College is part of the United States landgrant network of higher education; it has campuses on St. Thomas and St. Croix. Books of Reference Boyer, W. W., America's Virgin Islands. Durham, N.C., 1983 Dookhan, A History of the Virgin Islands of the United States. Caribbean Univ. Press, 1974 McGuire, J. W., Geographic Dictionary of the Virgin Islands of the United States. US Coast and Geodetic Survey. Special Publication No. 103. Washington, 1925 Reid, C. F., Bibliography of the Virgin Islands of the United States. New York, 1941

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS HISTORY. Under the Treaty of Versailles (1919) Japan was appointed mandatory to the former German possessions north of the Equator. In 1946 the US agreed to administer the former Japanese-mandated islands of the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana groups (except Guam) as a Trusteeship for the United Nations; the trusteeship agreement was approved by the Security Council 27 April 1947 and came into effect on 1.8 July 1947. The Trust Territory was administered by the US Navy until 1951, when all the islands except Tinian and Saipan in the Marianas were transferred to the Secretary of the Interior. In 1962 the Interior Department assumed responsibility for them also. On 17 June 1975 the voters of the Northern Mariana Islands, in a plebiscite observed by the UN, adopted the covenant to establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Union

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with the USA. In April 1976 the US government approved the convenant and separated the administration of the Northern Marianas from that of the rest of the Trust Territory; the group has a constitution and a constitutional government, installed 9 Jan. 1978; population, 1 April 1980,16,800. The rest of the Trust Territory is divided into 3 entities, each with its own constitution. The Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Kosrae, Truk and Ponape) had negotiated compacts of free association with the US in 1984; the Republic of Palau was still negotiating. Free association gives the USA the authority to control military and defence activities in return for federal government assistance and budget supports to the autonomous constitutional governments. Termination of the UN Trusteeship Agreement is contingent upon establishing a political status, either free association or independence, for the islands. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Trust Territory extends from 1° to 22° N. lat. and from 142° to 172° E. long. The area is generally known as Micronesia, or 'land of the small islands' (Guam, Kiribati and Nauru not part of the Trust Territory, are also ethnically and geographically Micronesian); total land area 708 sq. miles; population (1980 census), 116,974. This excludes the Northern Marianas, which had (1980 census) an area of 471 sq. km (182 sq. miles) and a population of 16,800. The census population of the 6 administrative districts as of Sept. 1980 was: Truk, 37,742; Ponape, 22,319; Marshall Islands, 31,042; Palau, 12,177; Yap, 8,172; Kosrae, 5,522. Nine different languages are spoken, each with variations; English is used in the schools and is the official language. C L I M A T E . Marked by high temperatures throughout the year and high rainfall. Marshall Islands, Jaluit. Jan. 8 T F (27-2°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 161" (4,034 mm). Caroline Islands, Ponape. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 194" (4,859 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Constitutional governments are functioning in the Mariana Islands (1978), the Marshall Islands (1979), the Federated States of Micronesia (1979) and the Republic of Palau (1981). Each of the 4 entities is autonomous from the other 3 but all are still legally under the Trust Territory system. The citizens are Trust Territory citizens until the termination of the Trusteeship. Majuro is the capital of the Marshall Islands. Kolonia, Ponape, is the capital of the Federated States, Koror is the headquarters of Palau and Saipan is the capital of the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, as well as the US administrative headquarters. High Commissioner: Janet J. McCoy. I N D U S T R Y . Tourism is the main source of income from overseas; industrial development is limited. There is some commercial fishing and agriculture, a coconut-processing plant and a tuna-freezing plant. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. The island groups are served by Continental Air Micronesia via Honolulu. Internal commuter airlines operate in Ponape, Yap, Marshalls, Belau and the Marianas. There are connexions to international routes in Guam, Hawaii, Taiwan, Papua-New Guinea, the Philippines and Japan. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Local constitutions and government statutes are the basis for law; the Trust Territory Code operates if a local constitution or statute fails to cover a particular area which the Code covers. The Trust Territory High Court is confined to specific areas of responsibility, most areas are covered by the constitutional courts. Local customs are recognized and protected in legal practice, when not in conflict with higher law.

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Religion. Freedom of religion is guaranteed in the Trust Territory Code and all constitutions. Education. Education is free and compulsory through elementary school (grades 1-8). There are public and private elementary and secondary schools and government post-secondary education. Health. The public health system, which includes 6 district hospitals as well as other hospitals and clinics in outlying areas, is carried on by a staff consisting chiefly of trained Micronesian medical and dental officers and assistants, and senior US doctors. Books of Reference Report to the United Nations Trusteeship Council, 1979. Dept. of State, Washington, D.C., 1980 Basic Information. High Commissioner's Office, Saipan; Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan; Office of the President, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Majuro; Office of the President, Federated States of Micronesia, Ponape, Caroline Islands; Office of the President, Republic of Palau, Palau, Caroline Islands.

UNINCORPORATED TERRITORIES Johnston Atoll. Two small islands 1,150 km south-west of Hawaii, administered by the US Air Force. Area, under 1 sq. mile; population (1980 census) 327, with Sand Island. Midway Islands. Two small islands at the western end of the Hawaiian chain, administered by the US Navy. Area, 2 sq. miles; population ( 1980 census) 453. Wake Island. Three small islands 3,700 km west of Hawaii, administered by the US Air Force. Area, 3 sq. miles; population(1980census)302.

URUGUAY

Capital: Montevideo Population:2-99m. (1983) GNPper capita: US$2,820 ( 1981 )

República Oriental del Uruguay

HISTORY. The Republic of Uruguay, formerly a part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata and subsequently a province of Brazil, declared its independence 25 Aug. 1825 which was recognized by the treaty between Argentina and Brazil signed at Rio de Janeiro 27 Aug. 1828. The first constitution was adopted 18 July 1830. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Uruguay is bounded on the north-east by Brazil, on the south-east by the Atlantic, on the south by the Rio de la Plata and on the west by Argentina. The area is 186,926 sq. km (72,172 sq. miles). The following table shows the area and the population of the 19 departments (capitals in brackets) as estimated in May 1975: Departments Artigas (Artigas) Canelones (Canelones) Cerro-Largo (Meló) Colonia (Colonia) Durazno (Durazno) Flores (Trinidad) Florida (Florida) Lavalleja (Minas) Maldonado (Maldonado) Montevideo (Montevideo City) Paysandú (Paysandú) Río Negro (Fray Bentos) Rivera (Rivera) Rocha (Rocha) Salto (Salto) San José (San José) Soriano (Mercedes) Tacuarembó (Tacuarembó) Treinta y Tres (Treinta y Tres) Total

Areasq. km 11,378 4,752 14,929 5,682 14,315 4,519 12,107 12,485 4,111 664 13,252 8,471 9,829 11,089 12,603 6,963 9,223 21,015 9,539 186,926

Population 57,528 313,858 73,204 110,820 54,990 24,684 66,092 65,240 75,607 1,345,858 98,735 49,816 79,330 59,952 100,407 88,281 80,114 84,829 45,680 2,843,296

Pop. per sq. km 4-6 54-3 4-8 18-5 3-7 5-2 5-3 5-3 14-9 2,102-4 6-6 5-5 7-8 5-0 7-3 114 8-4 3-7 4-5 15-2

Estimated population in 1983 was 2,991,341. In 1980 Montevideo (the capital) had an estimated population of 1,362,000. Other cities (1975): Salto, 80,000; Paysandu, 80,000; Mercedes, 53,000. C L I M A T E . A warm temperate climate, with mild winters and warm summers. The wettest months are March to June, but there is really no dry season. Montevideo. Jan. 72°F(22-2°C), July 50°F(10°C). Annual rainfall 38" (950 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Since 1900 Uruguay has been unique in her constitutional innovations, all designed to protect her from the emergence of a dictatorship. The favourite device of the group known as the 'Batllistas' (a Colorado faction) which, until defeated at the 1958 elections, held the majority for over 90 years, has been the collegiate system of government, in which the two largest political parties were represented. One such pattern lasted from 1917 to 1933, when it was abolished by a dictator who re-established the system of an individual President. Until 1951 Presidents 1563

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were elected every 4 years and they selected their own Cabinet Ministers (see list of Presidents in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1956, p. 1493). In 1951, on the initiative of the 'Batllistas', the Constitution was amended. Parliament was dissolved in June 1973, and a military government installed. Presidential elections were held on 25 Nov. 1984 and Julio Maria Sanguinetta of the Colorado Party was elected. The first-choice candidates of the National (Blanco) Party and the Broad Front Party were vetoed by the military government. Gen. Gregorio Alvarez resigned on 12 Feb. 1985 and a return to civilian rule took place on 1 March 1985. President: Julio Maria Sanguinetta (sworn in on 1 March 1985). The Cabinet in March 1985 was as follows: Defence: Juan Vicente Guarino. Foreign Affairs: Enrique Iglesias. Interior: Carlos Manini Rios. Economy: Ricardo Zerbino. Public Health: Raul Ugarte. Industry and Energy: Carlos Piran. Transport and Public Works: Jorge Sanguinetti. Labour: Hugo Fernandez. Agriculture: Roberto Vasquez Platero. Justice, Education and Culture: Adela Reta. National flag: Nine horizontal stripes of white and blue, a white canton with the 'Sun of May' in gold. National anthem: Orientales, la patria ó la tumba (words by Francisco Acuna de Figueroa; music by Francisco José Deballi). DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of volunteers who enlist for 1 -2 years service. There are 3 cavalry, 5 infantry, 1 artillery and 1 engineer brigades, 1 air defence and 1 parachute battalion. Equipment includes 17 M-24,29 M-3 A1 and 22 M-41 light tanks. Strength was (1985) 22,300, with about 120,000 former regulars as reserve. Navy. The Navy consists of 3 frigates (ex-US old destroyer escorts), 1 corvette (exUS fleet minesweeper), 1 patrol vessel (ex-coastal minesweeper), 3 coastal patrol craft, 1 transport, 1 training ship, 1 salvage vessel, 7 minor amphibious craft, 2 oilers and 1 tender. Personnel in 1985: totalled 5,500 officers and ratings including naval infantry (marines) and Coastguard, and the small US-equipped naval air service of 30 aircraft and 4 helicopters. Air Force. Organized with US aid, the Air Force has about 3,500 personnel and 110 aircraft, including 1 counter-insurgency squadron with 4 LA 58 Pucara, 4 AT-33 armed jet trainers and 8 A-37B light strike aircraft, a reconnaissance and training squadron with 10 T-6Gs, 3 transport squadrons with 4 turboprop FH-227/F.27 Friendships, 5 Brazilian-built EMB-110 Bandeirantes (1 equipped for photographic duties), 5 CASA C-212 Aviocars and 6 Queen Airs, a search and rescue squadron with Cessna U-17 A aircraft and light helicopters, and a number of Cessna 182 light aircraft for liaison duties. Basic training types are the T-41 and T-34. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Uruguay is a member of UN, O A S and L A I A (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY Budget. The receipts and expenditure of the national accounts as approved by the National Council of Government (UR$ 1 m.): Revenue Expenditure

1980 14,954,800 14,879,900

1981 21,260,000 21,368,600

1982 19,551,900 30,761,400

1983 29,486,400 36,897,300

Now covering a 5-year period the budget is presented during the year following election of each new government; differences in actual annual income and expen-

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diture and amendments to the budget (including new taxes) must be approved by Parliament each year-end; these usually come forward in July each year. Expenditures in 1983 included: Salaries and social security payments, 66-5%; other current expenditure, 11-1%; subsidies and transfer payments, 5-8%; interests of public debts, 6-1%; and investments, 10-5%. Expenditure on public works is separately financed from specific revenues (e.g., fuel tax). A law inaugurating income tax came into operation on 1 July 1961, but was repealed on 1 March 1974. Foreign debt outstanding in Dec. 1983 was US$4,589m. Total reserves of the Banco Central in Dec. 1983 were US$258-4m. Currency. The unit of currency is the Nuevo Peso (1,000 old pesos) of 100 centésimas. The actual circulating medium consists of paper notes issued by the Central Bank in Nuevo Peso denominations of 50,100,500 and 1,000 Nuevo Peso, and 1, 2,5 and 10 coins. In March 1985, US$1 =90 05pesos', £1 =96 08pesos. Banking. The Bank of the Republic (founded 1896), whose president and directors are appointed by the Government has a paid-up capital of N$ 1,852m. The Banco Central was inaugurated on 16 May 1967. Note circulation in Dec. 1983 was N$10,538-7m. A state-owned National Insurance Bank (Banco de Seguros del Estado) has a monopoly of new insurance business of all kinds. The Bank re-insures much of its business in London. Of the 25 banks in Uruguay the Bank of London and South America (British) has a main office and 16 branch agencies. Weights and Measures. The metric system was adopted in 1862. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The supply of electricity for light, power and traction has been a State monopoly since 1897. In Jan. 1949 the first hydro-electric plant at the site of the dam of Rincón del Bonete was completed with an installed capacity of 128 megawatts. Another plant at Rincón de Baygonia on the Rio Negro came into operation in 1960, with a capacity of 108 megawatts. Palmar hydro-electric dam came into operation in early 1982 with an installed capacity of 330 mw. Salto Grande came into full operation in Dec. 1982 with an installed capacity of 1,890 mw, of which Uruguay is getting one-sixth at present. Power output in Dec. 1983 was 3,653,000 mwh. Oil. An extension of the ANCAP refining plant, opened at Montevideo on 6 Dec. 1961, gives a capacity of 7,500 cu. metres daily of high-octane petrol and highgrade gas for domestic and industrial use. Agricolture. Uruguay is primarily a pastoral country. Of the total land area of 46m. acres some 41m. are devoted to fanning, of which 90% to livestock and 10% to crops. Some large estancias have been divided up into family farms; rural landlordism is much less than elsewhere. Uruguay is said to be the only Latin American country in which agricultural workers have the protection of a minimum-wage law. Animals and animal products constituted 34 • 9% of the exports in 1983. There were (1983) 10m. cattle, 21-2m. sheep, 530,000 horses, 450,000 pigs, 12,000 goats and 8m. poultry. The wool clip in 1981-82 was 81,300 tonnes. Agricultural products are raised chiefly in the departments of Paysandú, Rio Negro, Colonia, San José, Soriano and Florida. The average farm is about 250 acres. The principal crops and their estimated yield (in tonnes) in 2 crop years were as follows: Wheat Linseed Oats

1982 387,800 11,000 20,600

1983 363,100 4,700 26,600

Barley Maize Rice

1982 85,300 97,300 418,900

1983 45,000 103,700 323,100

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Uruguay is self-sufficient in rice, with a surplus for export. Three sugar refineries handle cane and (mainly) beet, their total production being approximately 92,000 tonnes, and approaching self-sufficiency. Wine is produced chiefly in the departments of Montevideo, Canelones and Colonia, about enough for domestic consumption. The country has some 6m. fruit trees, principally peaches, oranges, tangerines and pears. Forestry. In 1980 roundwood removals were 1,729,000 cu. metres, of which 100,000 cu. metres was softwood. Fisheries. In 1983, the total catch was 142,300 tonnes. Exports were valued at US$43m! INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1978 there were nearly 77,000 registered enterprises with 405,000 employees. These cover activities such as meat packing, oil refining, cement manufacture, foodstuffs, beverages, leather and textile maufacture, chemicals, light engineering and transport equipment. There are about 100 textile mills, but with the exception of halfa dozen large plants, these are on the whole small. The development of industry is an important economic policy objective and there is a liberal attitude to foreign investment for industrial promotion. There are a number of public works programmes including airport modernization, port of Montevideo modernization, highways improvements, Montevideo sewage disposal, power production and transmission and telecommunications. Trade Unions. Trade unions number about 150,000 members. About l-05m. (35%) population are classed as gainfully occupied. Unemployment rate (average for the country) was 15 • 5% in Dec. 1983. Commerce. The foreign trade (officially stated in US$, with the figure for imports based on the clearance permits granted and that for exports on export licences utilized) was as follows (in US$ 1,000): Imports Exports

1980 1,602-5 1,209-3

1981 1,598-9 1,215-4

1982 1,057-9 975-8

1983 705-0 1,044-5

Of the imports in 1983 (in USSlm.) USA, 53 -6; Nigeria, 116-9; Brazil, 94-1; Venezuela, 19-6; Middle East, 78 -5; Iran, 78; Argentina, 73-2; Federal Republic of Germany, 40-2; UK, 17 -8. Of the exports in 1983 Brazil took 121-4; Argentina, 91; Federal Republic of Germany, 82 -4; USSR, 61-9; USA, 102 -2; Iran, 121-6; Egypt, 83-5; UK.41-9. Principal imports and exports (in US$ 1,000): Imports Chemicals Transport materials Fuel and lubricants Machinery and accessories

1982 1 983 112,100 96,900 109,800 26,300 416,000 286,200 141,500

87,000

Exports Meat and meat products Hides, furs and leather manufactures Wool and manufactures Vegetable products

1982 170,300

1983 222-5

135,600 262,600 147,300

139-2 266 -6 139-3

Total trade between Uruguay and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m Q ¡gg] ¡ m ¡ m ¡ m Imports to UK Exportsand re-exports from UK

16,884 26,619

26,330 20,103

23,107 13,926

33,361 10,763

33,292 13,980

Tourism. There were 480,900 tourists in 1981 spending an estimated US$283m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The main highways, linking Montevideo with the interior, have a total length of9,899 km, of which about 5,000 km are paved. Other roads, unpaved, are about 4,726 km. Considerable improvements, financed both internally and by international loans, have been carried out in the last few years.

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Registered motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1978, are estimated at 220,000 passenger cars and 92,150 trucks and buses. Railways. The 4 principal railway systems, embracing 2,987 km, were all built by British capital amounting to £14,513,000. The Uruguayan Government in 1948 bought these railways for £7- 15m., assuming control that year. The East Coast Railway (125-5 km) and 3 minor lines were already controlled by the State under a separate administration. In Oct. 1952 the railways were brought under a single administration and a major programme of track upgrading and rolling stock rehabilitation is being carried out. The total railway system open for traffic was (1980) 3,004 km of 1,435 mm gauge. In 1981 it carried 3-3m. passengers and 1 -2m. tonnes of freight. In 1979 the 27 km line between Mercedes and Ombucito was opened, providing a direct route from Montevideo to Fray Bentos, while a link with Argentina across the Salto Grande dam was completed in 1982. Aviation. Carrasco, 22-5 km from Montevideo, is the most important airport. US, Argentine, Brazilian, Chilean, Dutch, French, Fed. German, Scandinavian and Paraguayan airlines fly to and from Uruguay. The state-operated civil airline P L U N A runs services in the interior of the country and to Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, and Spain. Shipping. In 1983 there were 13 merchant vessels and 3 tankers. In 1982, 1,115 vessels cleared Montevideo, 17 being British. River transport (1,270 km) is extensive, its main importance being to link Montevideo with Paysandú and Salto. Post and Broadcasting. The telegraph lines in operation have a total length of 12,083 km. The telephone system in Montevideo is controlled by the State; small companies operate in the interior. Telephone instruments, 1982, numbered 294,350. There are 1,277 post offices. Uruguay has 85 long-wave and 17 shortwave broadcasting stations. There are about lm. wireless sets and 440,000 television receivers. There are 4 television stations in Montevideo and 11 in the interior. The State itself operates one of the most powerful sound broadcasting stations in South America. Colour television was inaugurated 1981. Cinemas ( 1980). Cinemas numbered 8 5 with seating capacity of47,000. Newspapers (1984). There were 5 daily newspapers in Montevideo with aggregate daily circulation of about 210,000; most of the 25-30 provincial newspapers appear bi-weekly. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Ministry of Justice was created in 1977 to be responsible for relations between the Executive Power and the Judiciary and other jurisdictional entities. The Court of Justice is made up by 5 members appointed by the Council of the Nation at the suggestion of the Executive Power, for a period of 5 years. This court has original jurisdiction in constitutional, international and admiralty cases and hears appeals from the appellate courts, of which there are 4, each with 3 judges. In Montevideo there are also 8 courts for ordinary civil cases, 3 for government (Juzgado de Hacienda), as well as criminal and correctional courts. Each departmental capital has a departmental court; each of the 224 judicial divisions has a justice of peace court. In Sept. 1907 the death penalty was abolished, replaced by penal servitude for a period of30-40 years. Religion. State and Church are separated, and there is complete religious liberty. The faith professed by the majority of the inhabitants is Roman Catholic. The archbishop of Montevideo has 10 suffragan bishops in Salto, Melo, Florida, Minas, San José, Canelones, Tacuarembó, Mercedes, Maldonado and Montevideo (Auxiliary Bishop). Protestants numbered about 10,500 in 1957. Education. Primary education is obligatory; both primary and superior education are free. In 1979 there were 1,050 primary public schools with 364,910 pupils and

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approximately 10,300 teachers; in 1979, 249 secondary schools had 196,462 pupils. There are also evening courses for adults. Illiteracy is now confined largely to the older age groups. The University of the Republic at Montevideo, inaugurated in 1849, has about 16,200 students; tuition is free to both native-born and foreign students; there are 10 faculties. There are 43 normal schools for males and females, and a college of arts and trades with about 33,000 students. There are also many religious seminaries throughout the Republic with a considerable number of pupils, a school for the blind, 2 for deaf and dumb and a school of domestic science. Health. Hospital beds, 1981, numbered (estimate) 23,000; physicians numbered 5,600. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Uruguay in Great Britain (48 Lennox Gdns., London, SW1X0DL) Ambassador: Dr Luis M. de Posadas Montero (accredited 6 May 1983). Of Great Britain in Uruguay (Calle Marco Bruto 1073, Montevideo) Ambassador: Charles William Wallace, CMG, CVO. Of Uruguay in the USA ( 1918 F St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20006) Ambassador: Walter Ra Venna. Of the USA in Uruguay (Calle Lauro Muller 1776, Montevideo) Ambassador: Thomas Aranda, Jr. Of Uruguay to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Juan Carlos Blanco. Books of Reference The official gazette is the Diario Oficial Statistical Reports of the Government. Montevideo. Annual and biennial Anales de Instrucción Primaria. Montevideo. Quarterly Arcas, J. A., Historia del siglo XX uruguayo, 1897-1943. Montevideo, 1950 Fernández Saldaña, J. M., Diccionario Uruguayo de Biografías. Montevideo, 1945 Finch, M.H.J., A Political Economy of Uruguay Since 1870. London, 1981 Montañés, M. T., Desarrollo de la agricultura en el Uruguay. Montevideo, 1948 Porzecanski, A. C., Uruguay's Tupamaros. London and New York, 1973 Salgado, José, Historia de la República O. del Uruguay. 8 vols. Montevideo, 1943 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional del Uruguay, Guayabo 1793, Montevideo. It publishes Anuario Bibliográfico Uruguayo.

VANUATU

Capital: Vila Population: 117,000(1980) GNPper capita: US$350 ( 1981 )

Republic of Vanuatu

H I S T O R Y . The group was administered for some purposes jointly, for others unilaterally, as provided for by Anglo-French Convention of 27 Feb. 1906, ratified 20 Oct. 1906, and a protocol signed at London on 6 Aug. 1911 and ratified on 18 March 1922. On 30 July 1980 the Condominium of the New Hebrides achieved independence and became the Republic of Vanuatu. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Vanuatu group lies roughly 500 miles west of Fiji and 250 miles north-east of New Caledonia. The estimated land area is 5,700 sq. miles (14,760 sq. km). The larger islands of the group are: Espiritu Santo, Malekula, Epi, Pentecost, Aoba, Maewo, Paama, Ambrym, Efate, Erromanga, Tanna and Aneityum. They also claim Matthew and Hunter islands. Population at the census(1979) 112,596. Estimate (1980) 117,000. Vila (the capital) 14,000. There are 3 active volcanoes, on Tanna, Ambrym and Lopevi, respectively. Earth tremors are of common occurrence. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, but moderated by oceanic influences and by trade winds from May to Oct. High humidity occasionally occurs and cyclones are possible. Rainfall ranges from 9 0 " (2,250 mm) in the south to 155" (3,875 mm) in the north. Vila. Jan. 80°F (26-7'Q, July 72'F(22-2°C). Annual rainfall 8 4 " (2,103 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . General elections took place in Nov. 1975 to elect a 42-member Representative Assembly, replacing the former advisory council. Further general elections took place in Nov. 1979. A committee system was instituted and the Assembly chose its own President from its own members in 1977. The President replaced the Co-Presidents, who were the Resident Commissioners. President: (Vacant). The cabinet in Jan. 1984 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Walter Hadye Lini, CBE. Home Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister: S. Regenvanu. Foreign Affairs: D Kalpokas. Education: O. Tahi. Finance: K. Kalsakau. Health: W. Korisa. Transport, Communications and Public Works: A. Sande. Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries:}. Hopa. Lands: S. Molisa. Flag: Red over green, with a black triangle in the hoist, the three parts being divided by fimbriations of black and yellow, and in the centre of the black triangle a boar's tusk overlaid by two crossed fern leaves. Language: The national language is Bislama; English and French are also official languages. ECONOMY Planning. A National Development Plan (1982-86) envisages expenditure of US$12m. Budget. The budget for 1982-83 envisages expenditure of 2,472m. Vatu. The main sources of revenue were import and export duties. Currency. In 1982 a new currency, the Vatu was introduced. 1569

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VANUATU

Banking. A Central Bank was established in 1980. Because of the absence of direct taxation, with the exception of an added value tax on sales of sub-divided land, there has been growing interest in Vanuatu as a finance centre and 500 overseas companies are using Vila and have contributed 450m. Vatu in invisible export earnings. There were 8 banks in Vila in 1980. There is a National Development Bank and a Central Bank operated by the government and branches of the Bank of Indochine et de Suez at Vila and Santo. Barclays Bank International has a branch in Vila and Santo. Other overseas banks are: ANZ Bank, Westpac Banking Corporation and Hongkong and Shanghai Bank. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The manganese mine, established at Forari on Efate by the Compagnie Française de Phosphates de l'Océanie, closed in 1968 but was reopened in 1970 by Southland Mining of Australia. Manganese exports, all to Japan, 1979,25m. Vatu. Agriculture. The main commercial crops are copra, cocoa and coffee. Yams, taro, manioc and bananas are grown for local consumption. A large number of cattle are reared on plantations, and an up-grading programme using pure-bred Charolais, Limousins and Illawarras has begun. A beef industry is developing. Livestock (1983): Cattle, 100,000; goats, 8,000; pigs, 70,000. Forestry. An active forestry development programme is in progress and more than 26 plantations of South American hardwoods have been established. Fisheries. The principal catch is tuna (1980, 10,000 tonnes) mainly exported to USA. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Industries include a saw-mill, a soft drinks factory, meat canneries and a modern abattoir, and a fish-freezing plant. A few indigenous crafts, such as basketry, canoe-building and pottery, are practised. Subsistence fishing is done by the Vanuatuan, and a plant for freezing of tuna and bonito commenced operation in 1957. This plant, which is sited on Santo, freezes and packages for export to Japan and elsewhere, fish caught by Taiwanese and other vessels under contract to the British company running the plant. There are over 300 co-operative societies handling 85% of the distribution ofgoods in the islands. Commerce. Imports and exports were (in 1 m. Vatu): Imports Exports

1979 4,276 2,851

1980 4,220 1,759

1981 5,123 2,832

1982 5,794 2,199

In 1979 the main exports were: Copra, 39,821 tonnes, 1,505m. NH francs; fish, 7,623 tonnes, 831m. NH francs; beef, 750 tonnes, 135m. NH francs. Australia, France and Japan were the major sources of imports and principal imports were food and drink, manufactured goods and petroleum products. Total trade between Vanuatu and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1982 21 294

1983 28 811

1984 80 479

Tourism. Tourism is a growing industry and in 1980 there were 22,000 visitors to Vanuatu. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are approximately 1,000 km of roads in Vanuatu, of these about 35 km are sealed, mostly on Efate Island. There were 7,000 registered motor vehicles in Vanuatu (1980). Aviation. External air services are provided by Air Pacific, Solair and Air Vanuatu. Solair has a weekly service Honiara-Santo-Vila and return. Air Vanuatu has 3 ser-

VANUATU

1571

vices a week Sydney-Vila-Sydney, UTA (Unions de Transports Aériens) and Air Nauru. Air Pacific has two services a week Nandi-Vila-Honiara-Brisbane, and one Nandi-Vila-Noumea-Brisbane. UTA has daily flights from Noumea, and a weekly flight to Wallis. Air Nauru gives a weekly service Vila-Nauru. Inter-island flights are provided by Air Melanesiae. The principal airports are Bauer Field (for Vila) and Pekoa (for Santo). Seventeen smaller airfields provide an internal network. In 1977 there were 1,001 overseas aircraft arrivals in Vila, carrying 59,141 passengers. Shipping. Several international shipping lines serve Vanuatu, linking the country with Australia, New Zealand, other Pacific territories notably Hong Kong, Japan, North America and Europe. The chief ports are Vila and Santo. In 1977,394 vessels arrived including 48 cruise ships carrying 40,412 visitors. 92,340 tons of cargo were exported and 102,867 tons discharged. Small vessels provide frequent interisland services. Télécommunications. Internal telephone and telegram services are provided by the Posts and Telecommunications and Radio Departments. There are automatic telephone exchanges at Vila and Santo; rural areas are served by a network of teleradio stations. In 1981 there were 3,000 telephones. External telephone, telegram and telex services are provided by VANITEL, through their satellite earth station at Vila. There are direct circuits to Noumea, Sydney, Hong Kong and Paris and high quality communications are available on a 24-hour basis to most countries in the world. Air radio facilities are provided. Marine coast station facilities are available at Vila and Santo. Radio New Hebrides operates a service 7 days a week in 3 languages, French, English and Pidgin. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A study was being made in 1980 which could lead to unification of the judicial system. Religion. The Presbyterian, Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seven Day Adventists, Church of Christ, Apostolic and Assemblies of God have churches and chapels in Vanuatu. Education. Primary and secondary education facilities are provided in both English and French. There is one technical training facility in Vila and students undergo higher (university) education either at the University of the South Pacific in Fiji, or University of Papua New Guinea or in France. Teacher training for both English and French language teachers is conducted in Vanuatu. There were (1980) 115 French language primary and 3 secondary schools and 161 English language primary and 5 secondary schools. Health. Medical care is provided through a network of 106 hospitals, health centres, clinics and dispensaries administered by the Government with the help of a number of voluntary agencies, and WHO. Public health measures and the control of communicable diseases are the responsibility of the public health administration. Local training schemes are devoted to basic community nurse training at hospitals in Vila, to rural health training and refresher courses at a special training health centre in North Efate, or by attachment to other suitable clinics and health centres, and to training of village sanitarians or health orderlies. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Vanuatu in Great Britain High Commissioner: Barak Teme Sope (accredited 4 June 1981). Of Great Britain in Vanuatu (Melitco Hse., Rue Pasteur, Vila) High Commissioner: R. B. Dorman, CBE.

VATICAN STATE

CITY

Stato della Città del Vaticano

H I S T O R Y . For many centuries the Popes bore temporal sway over a territory stretching across mid-Italy from sea to sea and comprising some 17,000 sq. miles, with a population finally of over 3m. In 1859-60 and 1870 the Papal States were incorporated with the Italian Kingdom. The consequent dispute between Italy and successive Popes was only settled on 11 Feb. 1929 by three treaties between the Italian Government and the Vatican: (1) A Political Treaty, which recognized the full and independent sovereignty of the Holy See in the city of the Vatican; (2) a Concordat, to regulate the condition of religion and of the Church in Italy; and (3) a Financial Convention, in accordance with which the Holy See received 750m. lire in cash and 1,000m. lire in Italian 5% state bonds. This sum was to be a definitive settlement ofall the financial claims of the Holy See against Italy in consequence of the loss of its temporal power in 1870. The treaty and concordat were ratified on 7 June 1929. The treaty has been embodied in the Constitution of the Italian Republic of 1947. A revised Concordat between the Italian Republic and the Holy See was signed on 18 Feb. 1984 and on its ratification, the 1929 Concordat will lapse. The Vatican City State is governed by a Commission appointed by the Pope. The reason for its existence is to provide an extra-territorial, independent base for the Holy See, the government of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1930 the issue of Papal coinage was resumed, after a lapse of 60 years. In virtue of a special convention between the Vatican City and the Italian Government (last renewed in 1962), each state allows the currency of the other to circulate in its territory. The Vatican City has, however, given an undertaking that the total value of its coins issued in ordinary years will not exceed 100m. lire, 200m. lire in years of'Sede vacante' or holy years, or 300m. in the year of the opening of a Council. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Vatican City is 44 hectares (108-7 acres). It includes the Piazza di San Pietro (St Peter's Square), which is to remain normally open to the public and subject to the powers of the Italian police. It has its own railway station (opened Nov. 1932), postal facilities, coins and radio. Twelve buildings in and outside Rome enjoy extra-territorial rights, including the Basilicas of St John Lateran, St Mary Major, St Paul without the Walls and the Pope's summer villa at Castel Gandolfo. On 8 Oct. 1951 extra-territorial rights were also granted to a new Vatican radio station on Italian soil. Radio Vaticana is broadcasting an extensive service in 34 languages from transmitters in the Vatican City and in Italy. The Vatican City has about 1,000 inhabitants. C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Pope exercises the sovereignty and has absolute legislative, executive and judicial powers. The judicial power is delegated to a tribunal in the first instance, to the Sacred Roman Rota in appeal and to the Supreme Tribunal of the Signature in final appeal. The Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals, meeting in secret conclave. The election is by scrutiny and requires a two-thirds majority. Name and family Benedict XIV (Lambertini) Clement XIII (Rezzonico) Clement XIV (Ganganelli)

Election 1740 1758 1769

Name and family Pius VI (Braschi) Pius VII (Chiaramonti) Leo XII (delta Genga)

1572

Election 1775 1800 1823

VATICAN CITY Name andfamily Pius VIII (Castiglioni) Gregory XVI (Cappellani Pius IX (Mastai-Ferretti) Leo XIII (Pecci) Pius X (Sarto) Benedict XV (della Chiesa)

Election 1829 1831 1846 1878 1903 1914

STATE Name andfamily Pius XI (Ratti) Pius XII (Pacelli) John XXIII (Roncalli) Paul VI (Montini) John Paul I (Luciani) John Paul II (Wojtyla)

1573 Election 1922 1939 1958 1963 1978 1978

Supreme Pontiff: John Paul II (Karol Wojtyla), born at Wadowice near Cracow, Poland, 18 May 1920. Archbishop of Cracow 1964-78, created Cardinal in 1967, elected Pope 160ct. 1978, inaugurated 22 Oct. 1978. Pope John Paul II was the first non-Italian to be elected since Pope Adrian VI (a Dutchman) in 1522. Secretary of State: Cardinal Agostino Casaroli (appointed May 1979). Flag: Vertically yellow and white, with on the white the crossed keys and tiara of the Papacy. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. The Roman Pontiff (in orders a Bishop, but in jurisdiction held to be by divine right the centre of all Catholic unity, and consequently Pastor and Teacher of all Christians) has for advisers and coadjutors the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting in Oct. 1984 of 124 Cardinals appointed by him from senior ecclesiastics who are either the bishops of important Sees or the heads of departments at the Holy See. In addition to the College of Cardinals, the Pope has created a ' Synod of Bishops'. This consists of the Patriarchs and certain Metropolitans of the Catholic Churcn of Oriental Rite, of elected representatives of the national episcopal conferences and religious orders of the world, of the Cardinals in charge of the Roman Congregations and of other persons nominated by the Pope. The Synod meets as and when decided by the Pope; its first session was held in the autumn of 1967 and its sixth General Assembly in Sept.-Oct. 1983. The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is carried on by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations, each composed of a number of Cardinals and diocesan bishops (both appointed for 5-year periods), with Consultors and Officials. Besides the Secretariat of State and the Council for Public Affairs of the Church (which deals with external relations) there are now 9 Sacred Congregations, viz.: Doctrine, Oriental Churches, Bishops, the Sacraments and Divine Worship, Clergy, Religious, Catholic Education, Evangelization of the Peoples and Causes of the Saints. There are also 3 Secretariats: for Christian Unity, Non-Christians and Non-Believers; a Prefecture of Economic Affairs, a Prefecture of the Pontifical Household and a Statistical Office. Furthermore, the Roman Curia contains 3 tribunals, the Apostolic Penitentiary, the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature and the Sacred Roman Rota; and, lastly, various other councils and commissions dealing with the Laity, Justice and Peace, Women, the Family, the Information and Revision of Canon Law, Social Communications, Migration and Tourism and Culture. The Pontifical Academy of Sciences was revived by Pius XI in 1936 with 70 members. More than 2,500 Roman Catholic prelates and 99 observer-delegates from 27 other Christian Churches attended the Second Vatican Council which met 11 Oct. 1962 and 8 Dec. 1965. Sixteen Constitutions and Decrees were approved at the Council, and 7 commissions were set up to implement these decisions. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES In its diplomatic relations with foreign countries the Holy See is represented by the Council for Public Affairs of the Church. It maintains permanent observers to the UN in New York and Geneva and to UNESCO and FAO. The Holy See is a member of IAEA and the Vatican City State is a member of UPU and ITU. It therefore attends as a member those international conferences open to State members of the UN and specialized agencies. Of the Holy See in Great Britain Apostolic Pro-Nuncio in Great Britain: Mgr Bruno Heim, Titular Archbishop of Xanto.

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Of Great Britain at the Holy See Ambassador: David Lane. First Secretary: R. J. Griffiths. Of the Holy See in the USA Apostolic Pro Nuncio: Most Rev. Pio Laghi. Of the USA at the Holy See Ambassador: William A. Wilson. Books of Reference Acta Apostólica Sedis Romana. Rome Annuario Pontificio. Rome. Annual L'Attivià delta Santa Sede. Rome. Annual The Catholic Directory. London. Annual Code ofCanon Law. London, 1983 The Catholic Directory for Scotland. Glasgow. Annual Bilan du Monde: Encyclopédie catholique du monde chrétien. Tournai, 1964 Cardinale, Mgr. Igino, Le Saint-Siège et la diplomatie. Paris and Rome, 1962.—The Holy See and the International Order. Gerrards Cross, 1976 Hales, E. E., The Catholic Church and the Modern World. London, 1958 Mayer, F. et al, The Vatican: Portrait of a State and a Community. Dublin, 1980 Nichols, R, The Politics of the Vatican. London, 1968 Pallenborg, C., Vatican Finances. Harmondsworth, 1971 Walsh, M. J., Vatican City State. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983

VENEZUELA

Capital: Caracas Population: 15-26m.(1984) GNP per capita: US$4,644 ( 1982)

República de Venezuela

H I S T O R Y . Venezuela formed part of the Spanish colony of New Granada until 1821 when it became independent in union with Colombia. A separate, independent republic was formed in 1830. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Venezuela is bounded north by the Caribbean, east by Guyana, south by .Brazil, south-west and west by Colombia. The official estimate of the area is 912,050 sq. km (352,143 sq. miles); the frontiers with Colombia, Brazil and Guyana extend for 2,972 miles and its Atlantic coastline stretches for some 2,000 miles. Over half the population live in the valleys of Caracas and Valencia (once the capital). There are 20 states, 2 territories, the federal district and the federal dependencies (i.e. 72 islands in the Antilles); further states may be created from the territories. Bolivar, the largest state, has an area of 91,868 sq. miles; the other states are far smaller. The federal district embraces 745 sq. miles. The language of the country is Spanish. Population according to the 1971 census (estimate (1984) 15 -26m.): State Anzoátegui Apure Aragua Barinas Bolivar Carabobo Cojedes Falcon Guárico Lara Mérida Miranda Monagas Nueva Esparta

Capital Population Barcelona 506,297 San Fernando 164,705 Maracay 543,170 Barinas 231,046 391,665 Ciudad Bolivar 659,339 Valencia San Carlos 94,351 Coro 407,957 San Juan 318,905 671,410 Barquisimeto 347,095 Mérida 856,272 Los Teques Maturin 298,239 118,830 La Asunción

State Portuguesa Sucre Táchira Trujillo Yaracuy Zulia Ter. Amazonas Ter. Delta Amacuro Federal District Federal Dependencies

Population Capital 297,044 Guanare 469,006 Cumaná San Cristóbal 511,344 381,335 Trujillo San Felipe 223,540 Maracaibo 1,229,037 Puerto Ayacucho 21,696 Tucupita Caracas —

Total

48,139 1,860,637 463 10,721,522

The 1971 census excluded tribal Indians estimated at 31,800, of whom 20,000 are in Ter. Amazonas and 4,000 in Zulia. Excluding illegal immigrants, estimated (1979)atabout3m. The 1971 population of Caracas was 1,035,499; Maracaibo 651,574; Barquisimeto, 330,815; Valencia, 367,154; Maracay, 255,134; San Cristobal, 152,239; Ciudad Guyana, 143,540; Cabimas, 122,239; Maturin, 121,662; Baruta, 121,066; Cumana, 119,751; Ciudad Bolivar, 103,728. Vital statistics, 1979 (estimate): 484,700 births, 74,950 deaths. Life expectancy (1978) 66 years with 53% of population under 18 years. C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from warm temperate to tropical. Temperatures vary little throughout the year and rainfall is plentiful. The dry season is from Dec. to April. Caracas. Jan. 65°F(18 -3°C), July 69°F(20-6°C). Annual rainfall 32" (833 mm). Ciudad Bolivar. Jan. 79°F (26- 1°C), July 81°F(27-2"C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,016 mm). Maracaibo. Jan. 81°F (27-2'Q, July 85"F (29-4'C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (577 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1961 pro1575

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VENEZUELA

vides for popular election for a term of 5 years of a President, a National Congress, and State and Municipal legislative assemblies, and guarantees the freedom of labour, industry and commerce. Aliens are assured of treatment equal to that extended to nationals. Congress consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. At least 2 Senators are elected for each State and for the Federal District. Senators must be Venezuelans by birth and over 30 years of age. Deputies must be native Venezuelans over 21 years of age; there is 1 for every 50,000 inhabitants. The territories, on reaching the population fixed by law, also elect deputies. Voting (by proportional representation) is compulsory for men and women over 18. Owing to the high rate of illiteracy, voting is by coloured ballot cards. The President must be a Venezuelan by birth and over 30 years of age; he has a qualified power of veto. The following is a list of presidents since 1941: Took Office Took Office Gen. IsaiasMedina Angarita 6 May 1941 DrEdgardSanabria 14 Nov. I9583 Rómulo Betancouit 20 Oct. 1945 Rómulo Betancourt 13 Feb. 1959 Rómulo Gallegos 15 Feb. 1948 Raul Leoni 11 March 1964 Lieut.-Col. Carlos Delgado Rafael Caldera 11 March 1969 Chalbaud 24 Nov. 19484 Carlos Andrés Pérez ! Dr G. Suárez Flamerich 27 Nov. 1950 Rodriguez 12 March 1974 Col. Marcos Pérez Jiménez. 3 Dec. 1952 1 Dr Luis Herrera Campíns 12 March 1979 Rear-Adm. Wolfgang Dr Jaime Lusinchi 2 Feb. 1984 Larrazábal Ugueto 23 Jan. 1958 1 ' 4 'Deposed. 'Resigned. ' Provisional. Assassinated 13 Nov. 1950.

President: Dr Jaime Lusinchi, elected 4 Dec. 1983 with 57% of the votes, assumed office on 2 Feb. 1984. Foreign Minister: Isidro Morales Paul. Finance Minister: Manuel Azpurua. At the Congressional elections held 4 Dec. 1983, 112 of the 200 seats in the Chamber of Deputies were won by Acción Democrática, 61 by COPEI (the Social Christians) and 27 by other parties. The city of Caracas is the capital. The 20 states, autonomous and politically equal, have each a legislative assembly and an elected governor. The states are divided into 156 districts and 613 municipalities. There are also 2 federal territories with 7 departments, and a federal district with 2 departments and 2 parishes. Each district has a municipal council, and each municipio a communal junta. The federal district and the 2 territories are administered by the President of the Republic. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of yellow, blue, red, with an arc of 7 white stars in the centre, and the national arms in the canton. National anthem: Gloria al bravo pueblo (1811; words by Vicente Salias, tune by Juan Landaeta). D E F E N C E . All Venezuelans on reaching 18 years of age are liable for 2 years in the Armed Forces. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured and 1 Ranger brigades; 1 horsed cavalry, 26 infantry and 5 engineer battalions; and 5 artillery groups. Equipment includes 75 AMX-30 main battle and 40 AMX-13 light tanks. Army aviation comprises 30 helicopters and 2 STOL transports. Strength (1985) 27,500. Navy. Strength includes 3 diesel-powered patrol submarines (2 modern built in Federal Republic of Germany and 1 very old ex-US submarine), 8 frigates built in Italy (6 new and 2 old), 6 fast missile-armed patrol craft built in Britain in 1974-75, 5 tank landing ships, 1 medium landing ship, 1 transport landing ship (ex-repair ship), 2 new utility landing craft, 12 minor landing craft, 1 survey ship, 2 survey launches, 2 transports, 1 training ship and 8 tugs. Coastal patrol boats operated by the National Guard (Fuezzas Armadas de Cooperacion) now number 46, and there are some 30 service craft.

1577

VENEZUELA

New construction planned includes 4 corvettes, 2 more submarines from the Federal Republic of Germany, 6 fast attack craft, 6 mine countermeasures vessels, 2 landing ships and 1 survey ship. There is a naval academy and sail training ship for the training of officer cadets and a school of staff studies and various technical training schools. Personnel in 1985 totalled: 13,500 officers and men including 5,500 of the Marine Corps and pilots and crew of the Naval Air Arm comprising 8 S2E Trackers, 6 Agusta AB-212 shipbome helicopters, 6 Bell 47s helicopters and 10 other light aircraft for various and coastguard duties. Air Force. Formed in 1920, the Air Force of some 4,500 officers and men is a small, but well-equipped service with a total of about 200 aircraft. There are 6 combat squadrons. One is equipped with 18 F-16A and 6 F-16B Fighting Falcons. Two others have 14 Canadair CF-5A fighter-bombers and 6 two-seat CF-5Ds, and 16 Mirage III/5s respectively. Two bomber squadrons are equipped with 19 modernized Canberra jet-bombers and a single reconnaissance Canberra. Another operational squadron has 15 OV-lOE Bronco twin-tuiboprop counter-insurgency aircraft. A helicopter force consists of more than 40 Bell JetRangers, 212s, 214STs and 412s, UH-1B/D/H Iroquois, Agusta A 109s and Alouette Ills. Transport units are equipped with 12 C-123 Providers, 5 C-130H Hercules and 6 Aeritalia G222s. Communications aircraft are Queen Airs and other types. T-34 Mentors are used for training, together with 20 T-2D Buckeye advanced jet trainers, which have a secondary attack role. A battalion of paratroops comes within Air Force responsibility. There is a staff college and a cadet academy. National Guard, a volunteer force of some 15,000 under the Ministry of Defence, is broadly responsible for internal security. It includes customs and forestry duties among its tasks. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Venezuela is a member of UN, OAS, L A I A (formerly LAFTA), OPEC and the Andean Group. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth 5-year plan (1981-85) aims to achieve economic growth but with a reorientation of priorities towards social programmes: Education, housing and public services. There are 5 major projects: Caracas metro, Guri hydro-electric scheme, INOS water supply, major housing schemes and the Corpozulia coal and steel complex. These will cost Bs. 67,000m. over 5 years. Budget. The revenue and expenditure for calendar years were, in Bs.lm., as follows: Revenue Expenditure

1979 50,588 51,236

1980 71,508 72,868

1981 94,865 94,544

1982 82,101 86,884

1983 87,978 86,110

Currency. The bolivar (Bs.) is divided into 100 céntimos. Gold coins, 100 (pachanos), 20 and 10 bolivars have been minted but are no longer in circulation; silver coins are 5 {fuerte), 2, 1 bolivars-, nickel, 50 (real), 25 (medio) and 12-5 céntimos (locha), coppemickel, 5 céntimos (puya). The bank-notes in circulation are 500,100, 50,20 and 10 bolivars. The circulation of foreign bank-notes is forbidden. In March 1985,£1 = Bs.l411;US$l = 13-40. Banking. The major banks include: Banco Industrial de Venezuela, Banco de Venezuela, Banco nacional de Descuento, Banco Unión, Banco Mercantil y Agrícola, Banco de los Trabajadores de Venezuela, Banco Provincial SAICA, Banco Latino, Banco de Maracaibo, Banco Unido. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Oil.The oil-producing region around Maracaibo, covering some 30,000 sq. miles,

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produces about three-quarters of Venezuelan petroleum. Deposits in the Orinoco region are likely to prove one of the largest heavy oil reserves in the world. Nationalization of the privately owned oil sector in 1976 has proved successful. New distribution channels have been established, with the result that the major transnational companies which took 80% of Venezuela's oil in 1976 handled only 50% in 1980. Crude oil production (1984) 95m. tonnes. Proven reserves in mid-1979 stood at 18,500m. bbls, probable reserves at 15,000m. and possible at 102,000m. However, these are considered conservative estimates and new fields off-shore have estimated reserves of6,000-40,000m. bbls. The Orinoco tar sands belt has reserves variously estimated at between 700,000m. bbls. and 3,000,000m. bbls. Gas. Production (1978) 34,842m cu. metres. Minerals. Bauxite is being exploited in the Guayana region by Bauxien, a state agency. There are important goldmines in the region south-east of Bolivar State, and new deposits have been discovered near El Callao (1959) and Sosa Méndez (1961) in the Guayana region. Output, 1982, amounted to 902 kg. Diamond output, from Amazonas territory, was 687,000 carats in 1977. Manganese deposits, estimated at several million tons, were discovered in 1954. Phosphate-rock deposits (yielding from 64 to 82% tricalcium phosphate) are found in the state of Falcon; reserves of 15m. tons of high-quality rock have been established. The state of Sucre has large sulphur deposits. Coal is worked in the states of Táchira, Aragua and Anzoátegui. Coal proven reserves in Zulia (160m. tons) are to be developed to service a new thermal power station in the Maracaibo area. An important nickel deposit (at Loma de Hierro near Tejerías) is estimated to equal 600,000 tons of pure nickel. Saltmines are now worked by the Government on the Araya peninsula. Asbestos and copper pyrite are being exploited. There were proven reserves (1984) of bauxite totalling 200m. tonnes and production of about 3m. per annum are scheduled from 1986. Iron ore is exploited in Bolivar State by the Orinoco Mining Co. and Iron Mines of Venezuela, subsidiaries respectively of the US Steel Corp. and the Bethlehem Steel Co. Proven reserves at the end of 1980 were 1,800m. tonnes. National output of iron ore, 1983,9 -3m. tonnes of which 7 -4m. was exported. Agriculture. Venezuela is divided into 3 distinct zones—the agricultural, the pastoral and the forest zone. In the first are grown coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, maize, rice, wheat (grown in the Andes), tobacco, cotton, beans, sisal, etc.; the second affords grazing for more than 6m. cattle and numerous horses; and in the third, which covers a very laige portion of the country, tropical products, such as caoutchouc, balatá (a gum resembling rubber), tonka beans, dividivi, copaiba, vanilla, growing wild, are worked by the inhabitants. The 1983 livestock estimate showed cattle, 12,092,000; pigs, 3-2m.; goats, 1,322,000; sheep, 412,000; poultry, 42m. Area under cultivation is 5,530,898 acres. Over 50% of all farmers are engaged in subsistence agriculture and growth rates in agricultural production have not kept pace with the high population increase. Government has introduced a programme of price support, tax incentives and price increases but cattle farming is at present the only profit opportunity. Production (1982, in 1,000 tonnes) rice, 670; maize, 501; cassava, 360; raw sugar, 367 (sugar-cane, 5,000); sorghum, 337; bananas, 926; oranges, 370; potatoes, 216; tomatoes, 135; coffee, 59; sesame seed, 53; tobacco, 17;cocoa, 15. The coffee plantations number 62,673, covering 543,400 acres with 135m. bushes. The Venezuelan cocoa, from 13,000 plantations, is considered to be of high quality; it is grown chiefly in the states of Sucre and Miranda. The sugar industry has 6 government and 20 privately owned mills. Forestry. Resources have been barely tapped; 600 species of wood have been identified. Output of roundwood timber, 1977, broadleaved, 8m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Total catch (1981) was 181,000 tonnes.

VENEZUELA

1579

I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Production (1982): Steel, 1 -99m. tonnes; aluminium, 273,000; ammonia, 535,000; fertilizers, 630,000; cement, 5-43m.; paper, 481,000; vehicles (units) 155,000. Industrial development is concentrated in capital intensive areas where it can have a competitive advantage within the Andean Group, whereas in more labour intensive industries, the low labour costs of other member countries gives them an advantage. However, Venezuela currently produces 90% of its requirements of processed food, beverages, tobacco, clothing and textiles. Labour. The labour force in 1983 was 6m., 19-5% were in agriculture, 18-8% in manufacturing and 9 • 6% in construction. Wages are the highest in Latin America, there is a high turnover of labour and a corresponding rate of absenteeism. 45% of the labour force is unionized. The most powerful confederation is the CTV (Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela, formed 1947), which is dominated by the Acción Democrática party. Estimated membership, 11m., claims 2m. Comprises 68 regional and industrial federations with over 6,000 unions, including: FCV (peasants), 700,000; FETRACONS (construction workers), lm.; FETRASALUD (health workers), 45,000; FETRAMETAL (metal workers and miners), 32,000; the very important FEDEPETROL (oil workers), 6,000; Federación Venezolana de Maestros (teachers). Other confederations are CUTV (Confederación Unitaria de Trabajadores Venezolanos, formed 1963). Estimated membership, 40,000, claims 100,000. Comprises 8 regional and 5 industrial federations in 185 local unions; and, CODESA (Confederación de Sindicatos Autonomos de Venezuela, formed 1964). Estimated membership, 10,000, claims 35,000. Dominated by COPEI party. Comprises 120 local unions, including textile, petrol distribution, public health and education workers' federations. Commerce. Venezuela's exports and imports (in US$ 1 m.): Exports Imports

¡980 19,281 11,318

1981 20,100 12,400

1982 16,549 13,200

1983 16,180 6,115

Main export markets in 1982 were USA, Netherlands Antilles because of its oil refining and transhipment facilities, Canada, Puerto Rico, Italy and Spain. Principal imports are machinery and equipment, manufactured goods, chemical products, foodstuffs. The USA supplied 47% of all imports in 1982, followed by Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Italy and the UK. Total trade between UK and Venezuela (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1980 117,614 131,684

1981 124,020 125,315

1982 141,892 148,666

1983 183,731 87,937

¡984 253,770 102,400

Tourism. 652,000 tourists visited Venezuela in 1977. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, 1983, 61,059 km of road fit for traffic the year round; of these 20,000 km are paved. There are 10,097 km of high-speed 4-lane motorway type. The motorway system runs from Caracas to Puerto Cabello via Valencia and will shortly be linked direct with one from La Guaira to Caracas. Railways. Plans have existed since 1950 for large-scale railway construction but only the Puerto Cabello to Barquisimeto line (175 km-1,435 mm gauge) has been completed. A metro is under construction in Caracas the first section of which was opened in March 1983. Aviation. In 1984 there were 7 international airports, 51 national and over 200 private airports. The chief Venezuelan airlines are LAV (Líneas Aéreas Venezolanas), a government-owned concern, and AVENSA (Aerovías Venezolanas). Both oper-

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ate numerous internal services. VIASA operates international routes in conjunction with KLM. There are also 3 specialist air freight companies. In all there are over 100 commercial aircraft in operation. In addition to Venezuelan international services, a number of US and Latin American and European lines operate services to Venezuela. British Caledonian operates twice-weekly flights between London and Caracas. Shipping. Foreign vessels are not permitted to engage in the coasting trade, except by special concessions or by contract with the Government. La Guaira, Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello, Puerto Ordaz and Guanta are the chief ports. In Dec. 1978 the merchant fleet had an aggregate gross tonnage of 824,000; this included tankers of 368,000 gross tons. The principal navigable rivers are the Orinoco and its tributaries Apure and Arauca, from San Fernando to Tucupita through Ciudad Bolívar, Puerto Ordaz and San Félix; San Juan from Caripito to the Gulf of Paria; and Esculante in Lake Maracaibo. Post and Broadcasting. There were 1,377,630 telephones in 1982; 511,336 were in Caracas. An international telex service operates in the Caracas metropolitan zone. There is a submarine telephone link with USA. In 1983 there were 5m. radio receivers and there were 77 radio stations at Caracas, Maracaibo, Maracay and other towns. There were 3 television stations in Caracas (two privately owned), of which 2 cover, with relays, most of the country. In 1983 there were about 2m. homes with TV receivers. Cinemas (1977). There were 563 cinemas and 25 drive-ins. Newspapers (1983). There were 25 leading daily newspapers with a circulation of over l-7m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D HEALTH Justice. The Supreme Court, which operates in Divisions, each with 5 members, is elected by Congress for 5 years. The country is divided into 20 legal districts. They select their own President and Vice-President. The Federal Procurator-General is appointed for 5 years. There are lower federal courts. Each state has a Supreme Court with 3 members, a superior court, or superior tribunal, courts of first instance, district courts and municipal courts. In the territories there are civil and military judges of first instance, and also judges in the municipios. Finally, there is an income-tax claims tribunal. Religion. The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion, but there is toleration of all others. There are 4 archbishops, 1 at Caracas, who is Primate of Venezuela, 2 at Mérida and 1 at Ciudad Bolivar. There are 19 bishops. In the state primary schools instruction is given only to those children whose parents expressly request it. Protestants number about 20,000. Education. In 1979-80 there were 12,753 primar/ schools with 88,493 teachers and 2,456,815 pupils; there were 751,356 pupils in secondary schools, 40,264 in technical schools and 29,040 in teacher-training establishments, with a total of 45,888 teachers in the 1,447 establishments in this sector, the number of students in higher education was 299,773 with 27,025 teaching staff in the 68 establishments, including 17 universities. Health. In 1976 there were 14,211 doctors and 386 hospitals and dispensaries with 36,126 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Venezuela in Great Britain ( 1 Cromwell Rd., London SW7) Ambassador: Dr José Luis Salcedo-Bastardo (accredited 25 Oct. 1984). Of Great Britain in Venezuela (Torre Las Mercedes, Avenida La Estancia, Chuao, Caracas 1060) Ambassador: M. J. Newington.

VENEZUELA

1581

O f Venezuela in t h e U S A (2445 Massachusetts Ave., N W , Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Valentin H e r n a n d e z . O f t h e U S A in Venezuela (Avenida Francisco de M i r a n d a a n d Avenida Principal de la Floresta, Caracas) Ambassador: G e o r g e W. L a n d a u . O f Venezuela t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Ambassador: José Francisco Sucre-Figarella. B o o k s of Reference Statistical Information: The following are some of the principal publications: Dirección General de Estadística, Ministerio de Fomento, Boletín Mensual de Estadística.—Anuario Estadístico de Venezuela, 1978. Caracas, 1979 Banco Central, Memoria Annua!and Boletín Mensual Ministerio de Sanidad y Asistencia Social, Dirección de Salud Pública, Anuario de Epidemiología y Asistencia Social Betancourt, R., Venezuela's Oil. London, 1978 Bigler, G. E., Politics and State Capitalism in Venezuela. Madrid, 1981 Buitrón, A., Causas y Efectos del Exodo Rural en Venezuela.—Efectos Económicos y Sociales de las Inmigraciones en Venezuela.—Las Inmigraciones en Venezuela. Pan American Union, Washington, D.C., 1956 Ewell, J., Venezuela: A Century of Change. London, 1984 GilYepes,J. A., The Challenge of Venezuelan Democracy. London, 1981 Lombard, J., Venezuelan History: A Comprehensive Working Bibliography. Boston, 1977— Venezuela: The Searchfor Order, the Dream ofProgress. OUP, 1982 Salazar-Carrillo, J., Oil in the Economic Development of Venezuela. New York, 1976

VIETNAM Công Hòa Xä Hôi Chu Nghïa Viêt Nam—The Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Capital: Hanoi Population: 60m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 100 ( 1984)

HISTORY. The recorded history of Vietnam can be traced to Tonkin (now known as the northern part of Vietnam) at the beginning of the Christian era. Conquered by the Chinese in B.C. 111, the kingdom of Nam-Viet, as it was then called, broke free of Chinese domination in 939, though at many subsequent periods it became a nominal vassal of the Chinese emperors. By the end of the 15th century the Vietnamese had conquered most of the kingdom of Champa (in Annam, now known as the central part of Vietnam) and by the end of the 18th had acquired Cochin-China (now known as the southern part of Vietnam), formerly Cambodian territory. French interest in Vietnam started in the late 16 th century with the arrival of French and Portuguese missionaries. The most notable of these was Alexander of Rhodes, who, in the following century, romanized Vietnamese writing. At the end of the 18 th century France helped to establish the Emperor Gia-Long (with whom Louis XVI had signed a treaty in 1787) as ruler of a unified Vietnam, known then as the Empire of Annam. An expedition sent by Napoleon III in 1858 to avenge the death of some French missionaries led in 1862 to the cession to France of part of Cochin-China, and thence, by a series of treaties between 1874 and 1884, to the establishment of French protectorates over Tonkin and Annam, and to the formation of the French colony of Cochin-China. By a Sino-French treaty of 1885 the Empire of Annam (including Tonkin) ceased to be tributary to China. Cambodia had become a French protectorate in 1863, and in 1899, after extension of French protection to Laos in 1893, the Indo-Chinese Union was proclaimed. In 1940 Vietnam was occupied by the Japanese. During the occupation there was considerable underground activity among nationalist, revolutionary and Communist organizations. In 1941 a nominally nationalist coalition of such organizations, known as the Vietminh League, was founded by the Communists. On 9 March 1945 the Japanese interned the French authorities and proclaimed the 'independence' of Indo-China. In Aug. 1945 they allowed the Vietminh movement to seize power, dethrone Bao Dai, the Emperor of Annam, and establish a republic known as Vietnam, including Tonkin, Annam and Cochin-China, with Hanoi as capital. In Sept. 1945 the French re-established themselves in CochinChina and on 6 March 1946, after a cease-fire in the sporadic fighting between the French forces and the Vietminh had been arranged, a preliminary convention was signed in Hanoi between the French High Commissioner and President Ho Chi Minh by which France recognized 'the Democratic Republic of Vietnam' as a 'Free State within the Indo-Chinese Federation'. Two conferences in 1946 broke down chiefly over the question of whether Cochin-China should be included in the new republic. On 19 Dec. Vietminh forces made a surprise attack on Hanoi, the signal for hostilities which were to last for nearly 8 years. An agreement signed by Emperor Bao Dai on 8 March 1949 recognized the independence of Vietnam within the French Union, and certain sovereign powers were transferred to Vietnam. The Paris agreements of 29 Dec. 1954 completed the transfer of sovereignty. Treaties of independence and association were initialled by the French and Vietnamese governments on 4 June 1954. An agreement on the cessation of hostilities in Vietnam was reached on 20 July 1954 at the Geneva conference. The agreement was signed on behalf of the C.-in-C. 1582

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VIETNAM

of the French Forces in Indo-China and on behalf of the C.-in-C. of the People's Army of Vietnam. The Government of Vietnam did not sign the agreement. The final declaration of the Geneva conference (21 July 1954) declared that general elections should take place in July 1956. With the departure of the French Ngo Dinh Diem became Prime Minister of South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) in 1954 and President in 1955. Elections were never held. In 1963 Diem was overthrown. In 1965 Nguyen Van Thieu took power as chairman of a National Leadership Committee, becoming President in 1967. From 1959 the North promoted insurgency in the South; US involvement began in 1961. In Paris on 27 Jan. 1973 an agreement was signed ending the war in Vietnam. After the US withdrawal, however, hostilities continued between the North and the South until the latter's defeat in 1975. President Thieu resigned on 21 April. Gen. Duong Van Minh surrendered to the Communist forces on 30 April. 150,000-200,000 South Vietnamese fled the country, including the former President Thieu. For details of the former Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1975—76. After the collapse of President Thieu's regime the Provisional Revolutionary Government established an administration in Saigon on 6 June 1975 under the presidency of Huynh Tan Phat. A North-South conference on reunification of Nov. 1975 announced that agreement on 'the basic problems' had been reached. A general election was held on 25 April 1976 for a National Assembly representing the whole country. Voting was by universal suffrage of all citizens of 18 or over, except former functionaries of South Vietnam undergoing 're-education'. The unification of North and South Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam took place formally on 2 July 1976. After previous US vetoes the new administration of President Carter indicated that it was not opposed to Vietnam's application to join the UN, and Vietnam was admitted unanimously and without a vote on 20 Sept. 1977. In June 1978 Vietnam was admitted to Comecon and in Nov. 1978 signed a 25-year treaty of friendship and co-operation with the USSR. Relations with China correspondingly deteriorated, an especially exacerbating factor being the successful Vietnamese military intervention in Kampuchea. On 17 Feb. 1979 China invaded North Vietnam, but claimed that its troops had all withdrawn by 19 March. Peace negotiations were commenced on 18 April 1979 but broken off by the Chinese on 6 March 1980. Skirmishing continues along the frontier. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The country has a total area of 329,566 sq. km and is divided administratively into 36 provinces and 1 special area. Areas and populations (in 1,000) at the census of Oct. 1979 were as follows: Province Lai Chau Son La Hoang Lien Son Ha Tuyen Cao Bang 1 Lang Son J Bac Thai Quang Ninh Vinh Phu Ha Bac Ha Son Binh Hanoi (city)' Hai Hung Thai Binh Hai Phong (city) 1 Ha Nam Ninh Thanh Hoa Nghe Tinh Binh Tri Thien Quang Nam - Da Nang Nghia Binh

Sti km 17,408 14,656 14,125 13,519 13,731 8,615 7,076 5,187 4,708 6,860 597 2,526 1,344 1,515 3,522 11,138 22,380 19,048 11,376 14,700

1979 322,077 487,793 778,217 782,453 1479,823 1484,657 815,105 750,055 1,488,348 1,662,671 1,537,190 2,570,905 2,145,662 1,506,235 1,279,067 2,781,409 2,532,261 3,111,989 1,901,713 1,529,520 2,095,354

' Autonomous city.

Province Sq. km Già Lai - Kon Tum 18,480 DacLac 18,300 Phu Khanh 9,620 Lam Dong 10,000 Thuan Hai 11,000 Dong Nai 12,130 Song Be 9,500 Tay Ninh 4,100 Long An 5,100 Dong Thap 3,120 ThanhPho1 HoChi Minh 1,845 Tien Giang 2,350 Ben Tre 2,400 Cuu Long 4,200 An Giang 4,140 Hau Giang 5,100 Kien Giang 6,000 Minh Hai 8,000 Vung Tau - Con D a o :

3,419,978 1,264,498 1,041,838 1,504,215 1,532,362 2,232,891 994,673 1,219,595 91,160

329,466

52,741,766

1

Special area.

1979 595,906 490,198 1,188,637 396,657 938,255 1,304,799 659,093 684,006 957,264 1,182,787

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VIETNAM

At the census of Oct. 1979 the population was 52,741,766 (25,580,582 male; 19-7% urban). Population (1985), 60m. (Ho Chi Minh 3-5m. (1981); Hanoi, 2m. (1979); growth rate (1983) 2-3% per annum. Contraception is encouraged, and women urged to confine their families to two children, one not before 22 and one 5 years later. 84% of the population are Vietnamese (Kinh). There are also over 60 minority groups thinly spread in the extensive mountainous regions. The largest minorities are (1976 figures in 1,000): Tay (742); Khmer (651); Thai (631); Muong (618); Nung(472); Meo (349); Dao (294). In 1981 0-5m. Vietnamese were living abroad, mainly in USA. From 1979 to July 1984 59,730 persons emigrated legally. Between Apr. 1975 and Aug. 1984 a further 554,000 'boat people' succeeded in finding refuge abroad. By 1983 more 'boat people' were arriving in countries of first asylum than were leaving under the UN's orderly departure scheme. (For previous details see THE

STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1981-82). In Sept. 1984 the USA announced a plan to

offer asylum to Vietnamese political prisoners and to accept all Asian-American children in Vietnam as refugees.

C L I M A T E . The humid monsoon climate gives tropical conditions in the south and sub-tropical conditions in the north, though real winter conditions can affect the north when polar air blows south over Asia. In general, there is little variation in temperatures over the year. Hanoi. Jan. 62°F (16-7°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,830 mm). CONSTITUTION

AND

GOVERNMENT.

A

new

Constitution

was

adopted in Dec. 1980. It states that Vietnam is a state of proletarian dictatorship and is" developing according to Marxism-Leninism. At the elections for the new National Assembly held on 26 April 1981, 613 candidates stood and 496 were elected. 70% of the candidates were standing for the first time. Local government authorities are the people's councils, which appoint executive committees. Local elections were held in Ho Chi Minh City and the 38 provinces of the former South Vietnam on 5 May 1977. The 1980 Constitution replaced the Presidency with the State Council, 'the standing organ of the National Assembly and presidium of the Republic'. Chairman: Truong Chinh. Vice-Chairmen: Nguyen Huu Tho, Le Thanh Nghi, Chu Huy Man, Huynh Tan Phat. The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Pham Van Dong. Chairman of the National Assembly: Nguyen Huu Tho. All political power stems from the Communist Party of Vietnam (until Dec. 1976 known as the Workers' Party of Vietnam), founded in 1930; it had lm. members in Dec. 1979 (8-8% workers; 17% women). In April 1984 the Politburo consisted of Le Duan (First Secretary); Truong Chinh; Pham Van Dong; Pham Hung (Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior); Le Due Tho; Gen. Van Tien Dung (Minister of Defence); Vo Chi Cong; Gen. Chu Huy Man; To Huu (First Deputy Prime Minister); Vo Van Kiet (Deputy Prime Minister and Chairman, State Planning Commission); Do Muoi (Deputy Prime Minister) Le Due Anh; Nguyen Due Tam. Candidate members: Nguyen Co Thach (Foreign Minister); Dong Si Nguyen (Deputy Prime Minister). Ministers not in the Politburo include: Vo Nguyen Giap; Tran Quynh; Vu Dinh Lieu; Tran Phuong (Deputy Prime Ministers); Chu Tham Phuc (Finance); Le Khac (Foreign Trade); Le Due Thinh (Home Trade); Dong Si Nguyen (Transport); Mme. Nguyen Thi Binh (Education); Nguyen Ngoc Triu (Agriculture); Phan Hien (Justice). There are 2 puppet parties, the Democratic (founded 1944) and the Socialist (1946), which are unified with the trade and youth unions in the Fatherland Front. Nationalflag: Red, with a yellow 5-pointed star in the centre. National anthem: 'Tien quan ca' ('The troops are advancing').

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1585

D E F E N C E . Men between the ages of 18 and 35 and women between 18 and 25 are liable for conscription. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured division, 58 infantry divisions (of varying strengths), 7 engineer and 15 economic construction divisions, 10 marine brigades, 5 field and 4 anti-aircraft artillery brigades, 4 engineer brigades, and 6 independent armoured regiments. Equipment includes some 2,000 main battle and 600 light tanks. Strength was (1985) about l-2m. Paramilitary forces are Border Defence (60,000) ana Militia (1 -5m.). In 1985 some 45,000 troops were stationed in Laos and 150,000 in Cambodia. Navy. Before the North Vietnamese victory in 1975 the Navy comprised 3 old coastal escorts, 2 fast missile boats, 28 fast torpedo boats, 22 fast motor gunboats, 34 small patrol boats, 24 landing craft, 4 minesweeping boats, 10 tenders, 100 auxiliaries and 200 armed junks. It also had 10 Mi-4 SAR helicopters. At least 1 frigate, several other major warships and a considerable number of auxiliaries were captured after the South Vietnamese surrender. The fleet reportedly includes 4 ex-Soviet escorts, 2 old frigates, 2 old corvettes, 1 minesweeper, 6 old submarine chasers, 8 fast missile boats, 16 fast torpedo boats, 18 fast gunboats, 16 fast patrol craft, 5 seaward defence boats, 9 landing ships, 12 landing craft, 1 torpedo recovery vessel, 15 riverine craft, 24 minesweeping launches, 1 survey ship, 15 auxiliaries and 100 armed junks; but due to the lack of maintenance, spares and trials it is difficult to accurately assess the operational availability , fitness for sea or steaming capacity of this heterogeneous collection or the availability of trained personnel. It is estimated that 4 missile craft, 12 torpedo boats, 22 gunboats, 3 minesweepers, 24 patrol craft, 25 coastguard cutters and 100 motor launches are nonoperational together with 550 riverine craft, 100 landing craft, 30 monitors, 100 converted amphibious craft, 26 vedettes, 36 auxiliaries and 75 service craft. In 1985 there were an estimated 4,000 naval personnel regulars, with additional conscripts on three to four year terms. Air Force. The Air Force, built up with Soviet and Chinese assistance, has about 12,000 personal and 275 combat aircraft (plus many stored), including modern US types captured in war. There are reported to be 2 squadrons of variable-geometry MiG-23s, 3 squadrons of MiG-17s, Su-7s and Su-20s, about 180 MiG-21 interceptors; An-2, Li-2, An-24, An-26 and 11-14 transports; and a strong helicopter force with UH-1 Iroquois, Mi-6 and Mi-8 helicopters. 'Guideline', 'Goa' and 'Gainful' missiles are operational in large numbers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Vietnam is a member of UN, Comecon and IMF. ECONOMY Planning. Long-term forward planning gives priority to creating self-sufficiency in agriculture before progressing to further industrialization. Targets for the second 5-year plan 1976-80) were not met. Growth in agriculture, 18-7%; industry, 17-3%. The third 5-year plan covered 1981-85. An agreement co-ordinating this plan with the current Soviet plan was signed with the U S S R in July 1981. (For previous plans see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1976-77, p. 1473). Curtailment of Western imports, and the effect of floods and resistance to the Government's economic measures have contributed to a serious shortage of consumer goods and widespread malnutrition, which it is hoped to correct by stimulating regional industry and utilizing the expertise of former businessmen. Currency. The monetary unit is the dong = 10 hao, the hao = lOxu. There are coins of 1,2 and 5 xu, 1,2 and 5 hao, 1 dong-, and notes of 1,2,5,10,20,30,50 and 100 dong. In March 1985, £1 = 11 59 dong\ US$1 = 10 93 dong. Banking. The bank of issue is the National Bank of Vietnam (founded in 1951). There is also a Bank for Foreign Trade (Vietcombank). In 1980 this bank ceased all transactions with US banks.

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VIETNAM

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1982, 4,045m. kwh. of electricity were produced. A hydro-electric power station with a capacity of 2m. kw. is being built at Hoa-Binh with Soviet assistance. Minerals. North Vietnam is rich in anthracite, lignite and hard coal: total reserves are estimated at 20,000m. tonnes. Anthracite production in 1975 was 5m. tonnes. Coal production was 5-3m. tonnes in 1980. There are deposits of iron ore, manganese, titanium, chromite, bauxite and a little gold. Chromite production in 1962 was 35,000 tons. Reserves of apatite are some of the biggest in the world. Estimated production of phosphates in 1971, M m . tonnes; salt, 150,000 tonnes. Western companies have pulled out of exploration for oil as uneconomic, but a Soviet-Vietnamese enterprise claims to have struck oil in May 1984. There are large limestone deposits in Kien Giang, Chau Doc and Thua Thien provinces. A recent geological survey reported on the prospects of valuable bauxite deposits. There is a small coal-bearing region at Nong-Son. Agriculture. In 1980, 71% of the population was engaged in agriculture. In 1977 there were 15,200 co-operatives in the North averaging 300-500 hectares (less than 100 hectares in mountain regions) and a workforce of 1,000-2,000. The intemperate collectivization of agriculture in the South after 1977 had disastrous effects which the Government is now trying to rectify by a system of incentives to peasants which allows them small private plots and the right to market some of their own produce. There were 105 state farms employing in all 70,000 workers and with 55,000 hectares arable and 50,000 hectares of pasture. Other crops include maize, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes and cotton. The cultivated area in 1980 was 6-97m. hectares (5 • 54m. hectares for rice). In 1984 there were some 23,000 production collectives and 268 agricultural cooperatives in the South accounting for 47% of the cultivated area. There were about 300 state farms. Production in 1,000 tonnes in 1980: Soybeans (32), tea (21), rubber (45), maize (475), oil seed plants (595), tobacco (15-6), potatoes (684). (1979) sweet potatoes (from 380,000 hectares), sorghum (35) from 30,000 hectares), beans (45) from 93,000 hectares), coffee (15). The main crop is rice. Cereals production was 14m. tonnes in 1982,17m. tonnes in 1983. Livestock (1983): Cattle 2m.; pigs, 10,785,000; goats, 200,000; poultry, 50m. Animal products, 1980: Eggs, 1,129m., meat, 427,000 tonnes. Forestry. 1,626,000 cu. metres of timber were produced in 1980. Fisheries. Fishing is important, especially in Halong Bay. In 1976, 6m. tonnes of sea fish and 180,000 tonnes of freshwater fish were caught (representing only 83% of the planned target). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Next to mining, food processing and textiles are the most important industries; there is also some machine building. Older industries include cement, cotton and silk manufacture. Local industries and handicrafts account for 50% of production. Private businesses were taken over in 1978. Foreign firms, principally French, are continuing to function, but all US property has been nationalized. There is little heavy industry. Most industry is concentrated in the Ho-Chi-Minh area. Production (1980, in 1,000 tonnes) iron, 125; steel, 106; sulphuric acid, 6,700; caustic soda, 4,500; mineral fertilizer, 260; pesticides, 18,400; paper, 54,000; sugar, 94,000, cement, 705. 1,500 tractors were built in 1980, and 621 railway coaches. Footwear production, 200,000 pairs. Beer, 942,000 hectolitres. Kenaf yarn production was 1,615 tons in 1972. Labour. Average wage (1984) 200 dong per month. Non-agricultural workforce (1980) 3,587,000, of whom 2,238,000 in industry. Commerce. USSR and Japan are Vietnam's main trading partners; others are

1587

VIETNAM

Singapore and Hong Kong. Main exports are coal, farm produce, sea produce and livestock. Imports: technical equipment, industrial raw materials, foodstuffs and medical supplies. The Vietnamese Government recognizes a need for foreign aid and credit for the development of an industrial base. An aid agreement was reached with the USSR in Sept. 1981 for 5 years under which the USSR will participate in 40 construction projects and oil exploration in exchange for foodstuffs. Western aid has been significantly curtailed since the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia. In 1982 Vietnam's total indebtedness was estimated at US$3,000m. In 1978 the IMF approved a virtually interest-free loan of US$90m. repayable over 50 years, but in July 1982 refused Vietnam's request for US$150m. in Special Drawing Rights until there are reforms in the economy. Foreign investments are encouraged and guaranteed for 15 years. Profits may be transferred and indemnities paid in the event of nationalization. In the case of foreign firms installed in Vietnam all capital may remain in foreign hands if goods are produced for export only; otherwise the Vietnamese Government will retain 51% of shares. Trade between Vietnam and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1981 130 1,180

1982 133 876

1983 603 951

1984 1,154 1,787

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1973 there were about 9,500 km of roads in the North. In 1970 there were 20,905 km of roads in the South. Of these, 5,908 km were asphalted. Railways. 'Project Reunification', the rebuilding of the Hanoi-Ho Chi Minh City railway, is a major part of the new authorities' programme to repair and extend all communications systems and link them with the North. The Da Nang-Hue railway was reopened in 1975. Important sections of railway have been reconstructed rapidly since the cessation of hostilities in 1975. The systems total 2,600 km. Aviation. Civil Aviation of Vietnam operates internal services from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City, Cao Bang, Na Son and Dien Bien, Vinh and Hue, and from Ho Chi Minh City to Ban Me Thuot and Da Nang, Can Tho, Con Son Island and Quan Long. Aeroflot (USSR) operate regular services from Ho Chi Min City to Moscow and from Hanoi to Moscow, Rangoon and Vientiane, Interflug (German Dem. Rep.) to Berlin, Moscow and Dacca and Air France to Paris. Shipping. The major ports are Haiphong, which can handle ships of 10,000 tons, Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang, and there are ports at Hong Gai and Haiphong Ben Thuy. There are regular services to Hong Kong, Singapore, Kampuchea and Japan. In 1953 there were 830 km of navigable waterways in the North and, in 1971,4,783 km in the South. Cargo is handled by the Vietnam Ocean Shipping Agency; other matters by the Vietnam Foreign Trade Transport Corporation. Post and Broadcasting. In 1966 there were 1 -4m. radios. There were 46,509 telephones in the South in 1974. There were 2m. TV sets in 1980. Cinemas and theatres. 116 films were produced in 1980 (including 10 full-length). There were 145 theatres. Newspapers and books. The Party daily is Nhan Dan ('The People') circulation, 1984:300,000. The official daily in the South is Giai Phong. Two unofficial dailies, Cong Giao Va Dan Toe (Catholic) and Tin Sang (independent) are also published. 2,564 books were published in 1980 totalling 90-9m. copies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are the Supreme People's Court, local people's courts and military courts. The president of the Supreme Court is responsible to the National Assembly, as is the Procurator-General, who heads the Supreme People's Office of Supervision and Control.

1588

VIETNAM

Religion. Taoism is the traditional religion but Buddhism is widespread. At a Conference for Buddhist Reunification in Nov. 1981, 9 sects adopted a charter for a new Buddhist church under the Council of Sangha. The Hoa Hao sect, associated with Buddhism, claimed 1 -5m. adherents in 1976. Caodaism, a synthesis of Christianity, Buddhism and Confucianism founded in 1926, has some 2m. followers. There are some 3m. Roman Catholics headed by Cardinal Trinh Van Can, Archbishop of Hanoi and 13 bishops. In 1983 the Government set up a Solidarity Committee of Catholic Patriots. Education. Primary education consists of a 10-year course divided into 3 levels of 4, 3 and 3 years respectively. Numbers of pupils and students in 1980-81: nurseries, 2enis (France), 480 Sekondi (Ghana), 5 4 6 - 4 7 , 5 4 9 Selangor(Pen. Malaysia), 816, 820 Selebi-Pikwe (Botswana), 222-24 Selenice (Albania), 69 Selfoss (Iceland), 606 Selingue (Mali), 833 Selkirk (Botswana), 224 Selkirk (Man.), 300 Selosecha (S. Afr.), 1092 Seltjarnames (Iccland), 606 Semarang (Indon.), 6 8 2 , 6 8 5 Sembawang (Singapore), 1057 Semipalatinsk (USSR), 1212, 1266-67 Semnan (Iran), 688 Semporna (Sabah), 825 Sendai (Japan), 745,751 Senegal, 1043-46 Senegal-oriental (Senegal), 1043 Senegambia, see The Gambia and Senegal Sennar (Sudan), 1122 Seongnam (Korea), 766 Seoul (South Korea), 765-66, 768-69 Sept-Iles (Quebec), 320 Seraing (Belgium), 195 Serbia (Yug.), 1601-03,1608-09, 1611-12 Serdang (Pen. Malaysia), 823 Seredou (Guinea), 571 Seremban (Pen. Malaysia), 820 Sergipe (Brazil), 226 Seria (Brunei), 2 3 8 - 3 9 Serra Pelado (Brazil), 232 Serres (Greece), 555 Setif(Algeria), 7 2 , 7 6 Settat (Morocco), 865 Setubal (Port.), 1001,1004, 1006 Sevastopol (USSR), 1212,1220 Sevenoaks(UK), 1286 Severodesky (Czech.), 394 Severodvinsk (USSR), 1212 Severomoravsky (Czech.), 394 Sevilla (Spain), 1098-1100,1103, 1108 Seward (Alaska), 1427 Seward (Nebr.), 1490 Seychelles, 1047-49 Seyoisfjor&ur (Iceland), 606 Sfax (Tunisia), 1188,1191 Sf. Gheotghe (Romania), 1013 Shaanxi (China), 347 Shaba (Zaire), 1614,1616 Shag Is. (Aust.), 129 Shah Alam (Pen. Malaysia), 820-21,823 S h a h r K o r d (Iran), 688 Shaikh O t h m a n (S. Yemen), 1597 Shakhty (USSR), 1212 Shaki (Nigeria), 923 Shallili (Iran), 692 Shandong (China), 347,352, 356-57 Shanghai (China), 3 4 6 - 4 8 , 3 5 1 52,354-55,357 Shan State (Burma), 251 Shanxi (China), 3 4 7 , 3 5 2 , 3 5 5 57 SHAPE, 38 Sharaf-Khaneh (Iran), 692

Shargiyah (Syria), 1162 Sharigh (Pak.), 954 S h a n n Gol (Mongolia), 861 Sharjah(UAE), 1277,1279-81 Sharon (Israel), 718 Sharqiya (Egypt), 431 Sha-Tin (Hong Kong), 591,594 Shayandima (Venda), 1095 Shearwater (N.S.), 273 Sheboygan (Wise.), 1545,1547 Shedgum (Saudi Arabia), 1040 Sheffield (UK), 1286,1339 Shek Kong (Hong Kong), 592 Shell Harbour (NSW), 131 Shendi (Sudan), 1122 Shengjin (Albania), 70 Shengli (China), 352 Shenyang (China), 347,355 Shepherdstown (W. Va.), 1544 Shepparton (Vic), 155,158 Sherbrooke (Quebec), 319,321 Sheridan (Wyo.), 1550 Sherkhan Bandar (Afghan.), 64 Sherpur (Afghan), 62 Shetland Is. (UK), 1288,1298, 1311 Shevchenko (USSR), 1225 Shiberghan (Afghan.), 6 1 , 6 3 - 6 4 Shibin el-Khom (Egypt), 431 Shihchiachuang, see Shijiaazhuang Shijiazhuang (China), 347 Shikarpur (Pak.), 953 Shikoku (Japan), 745 Shillong (India), 621,635, 658 Shimoga (India), 649 Shimonoseki (Japan), 745 Shindand (Afghan.), 62 Shinyanga (Tanz.), 1165 Shipsk (Poland), 992 Shiraz (Iran), 6 8 8 , 6 9 1 - 9 2 Shiselwem (Swazi), 1130 Shizuoka (Japan), 745 Shkodea, see Shkoder Shkoder (Albania), 67, 70 Shoa (Ethiopia), 447 Shoalhaven (Aust.), 131 Shobak (Jordan), 755 Sholapur (India), 6 1 4 , 6 5 4 - 5 5 Shortland (Solomon Is.), 1061 Shreveport (La.), 1369,1465 Shropshire (UK), 1285 Shuaiba (Kuwait), 777 Shubra-el-Khama (Egypt), 431 Shumen (Bulg.), 240 Shuwaikh (Kuwait), 777 Sialkot (Pak.), 950 Siam, see Thailand Sian, see Xian Siang (India), 675 Siauhai (Lithuania, USSR), 1264 Sibasa (Venda), 1095 Sibenik (Yugo.), 1602 Siberia (USSR), 1225, 1235, 1239 Sibi (Pak.), 954 Sibiu (Romania), 1013,1019 Sibu (Sarawak), 827 Sichuan (China), 3 4 7 , 3 5 2 - 5 3 , 356-57 Sicily (Italy), 7 2 5 , 7 2 8 , 7 3 0 Sidamo (Ethiopia), 447 Sidi-Bel-Abbes (Algeria), 7 2 , 7 6 Sidi Bouzid (Tunisia), 1188 Sidi Kacem (Morocco), 865 Sidon (Lebanon), 784-86 Siedlce (Poland), 992 Siegen (FRG), 518

Stem Reap (Cambodia), 260 Siena (Italy), 734 Sieradz (Poland), 992 Sierra Leone, 1050-54 Siglufjorftur (Iceland), 606 Signakh (USSR), 1255 Sihanoukville, see Kompong Som Siirt (Turkey), 1194 Sikang, see Szechwan Sikasso (Mali), 832 Sikka (India), 643 Sikkim (India), 6 1 4 , 6 1 7 , 6 3 2 , 635-36,665-67 —agriculture, 666 —area and pop., 665 —education, 667 —govt, and representation, 665-66 Silchar (India), 639 Silesia (Poland), 994 Silhouette (Seychelles), 1047 Siliana (Tunisia), 1188 Siliguri (India), 667 Silistra (Bulg.), 2 4 0 , 2 4 5 Silva Porto, see Bie. Silvassa (India), 6 7 6 - 7 7 Silver Bow (Mont.), I486 SilverCity (N.M.), 1500 Silvermine (S. Afr.), 1072 Silver Spring (Md.), 1471 Simferopol (USSR), 1212 Simla (India), 6 3 5 , 6 4 5 - 4 6 Simonstown (S. Afr.), 1072 Sinai (Egypt), 4 3 1 , 4 3 4 Sinaloa (Mex.), 848 Sincelejo (Colom.), 363 Sind (Pak.), 9 5 0 - 5 1 , 9 5 5 Sine-Salouin (Senegal), 1043 Singa (Sudan), 1122 Singapore, Rep. of 8 1 8 , 8 2 2 , 8 2 6 , 1055-60 Singave (Wallis), 503 Singida (Tanz.), 1165 Singora, see Songkhla Singtam (Sikkim), 666-67 Sinjar (Iraq), 698 Sinkat (Sudan), 1121-22 Sinkiang, see Xinjiang Sinkiang-Uighur, see XinjiangUygur Sinoe (Liberia), 791 Sinoia, see Chinhoya (Zimbabwe) Sinop (Turkey), 1194 Sintra (Port.), 1006 Sinuiji (N.Korea), 770, 773 Sioux City (Iowa), 1458-59 Sioux Falls (S.D.), 1526 Siquijor Is. (Philipp.), 984 Siracusa (Italy), 725 Sironj (India), 652 Siteki (Swazi.), 1129 Sitka (Alaska), 1425-26 Sitra (Bahrain), 181 Sittard (Neth.), 882 Sitten (Switz.), 1158 Siuna(Nicar.), 918 Sivas (Turkey), 1194 Skagway (Alaska), 1426-27 Skaraborg (Sweden), 1133 Skardu (Pak.), 956 Skelleftea (Sweden), 1134 Skien (Norway), 930 Skiemiewice (Poland), 992 Skikda (Algeria), 72 Skopje (Yug.), 1601,1605-07, 1610

Skovde (Sweden), 1134

1668 Skrapar (Albania), 67 Skye and Lochalsh (U K), 1288 Slatina (Romania), 1013 Slavonia (Yug.), 1610 Slavonski Brod(Yug.), 1601 Sliedrecht (Neth.), 882 Sligo (Ireland), 701,711 Sliven (Bulg.), 240,242 Slobedzeisk (USSR), 1259 Slobozia (Romania), 1013 Slough (UK), 1286 Slovakia (Czech.), 393-94 Slovenia (Yug.), 1601-03, 1608-09,1613 Slupsk (Poland), 992 Slyudianka (USSR), 1226 Smalkalden (Suriname), 1127 Smallingerland (Neth.), 882 Smara (W.Sahara), 865 Smederevo (Yug.), 1601 Smithfield (R.I.), 1523 Smolensk (USSR), 1212,1239 Smolyan (Bulg.), 240 Smyrna, see Izmir Snares Is.(NZ),910 Sneek (Neth.), 882 Sochi (USSR), 1212 Society Archipelago, 500 Socna (Libya), 797 Socorro (N. Me*.), 1500 Socotra (S. Yemen), 1597 Sodermanland (Sweden), 1133 Sodertalje (Sweden), 1134 Sodusu (N. Korea), 772 Soest (Neth.), 882 Sofala (Mozamb.), 870,872 Sofia (Bulg.), 240-42,245-46 Sogn og Fjordane (Norway), 929 Sohag (Egypt), 431 Sohar (Oman), 944,946-47 Sokode (Togo), 1177,1179 Sokolov (Czech.), 397 Sokoto (Nigeria), 923 Solander Is. (NZ), 910 Soldeu (Andorra), 78 Soleure, see Solothum Solihull (UK), 1286 Solingen (FRG), 518 Sollentuna (Sweden), 1134 Solna (Sweden), 1134 Solola (Guat.), 564 Solomon Is., 1061-63 Solothum (Switz.), 1149,1151, 1158 Solwezi (Zambia), 1619 Somalia, 1064-67 Sombrero (Anguilla), 83 Somerset (UK), 1285 Somersworth (N.H.), 1494 Somerville (Mass.), 1473 Somogy (Hungary), 598 Sonamura (India), 670 Sonde r) >11 and s (Denmark), 401 Sondre Sromfiord (Greenland), 413 Song Be (Vietnam), 1583 Songjin (N. Korea), 770 Songkhla(Thail.), 1170,1174 Son La (Vietnam), 1583 Sonora (Mex.), 848,852 Sonsonate (El Salv.), 438,441 Sopore (India), 647 Soria (Spain), 1099 Soriano (Urug), 1563, 1565 Sorkapp, see Spitsbergen Sorok (USSR), 1259 Sortavala (USSR), 1243

INDEX Sor-Trondelag (Norway), 929 Sosa Méndez (Venez), 1578 Sosnowiez (Poland), 992 Sotavento (Cape Verde Is.), 329-30 Soubré (Ivory Coast), 737 Sousse (Tunisia), 1188,1191 South Africa, Republic of, 1068-97, see also under provinces Southampton (UK), 1286,1339 South Auckland (N.Z.), 896 South Australia, 94-95,98, 110-12,114-16,145-49 —agriculture, 147 —area and pop., 145 —education, 149 —govt, and representation, 145-46 South Bedfordshire (UK), 1286 South Bend (Ind.), 1369,1456 South Buganda (Uganda), 1207 South Caicos, 1202-03 South Cambridgeshire (UK), 1286 South Carolina (USA), 1367, 1373, 1377-78, 1399, 1404,1523-25 —agriculture, 1524 —area and pop., 1524 —education, 1525 —govt, and representation, 1524 South Cholla (Korea), 765 South Chungchong (Korea), 765 South Dakota (USA), 1367,1372, 1378, 1404,1525-27 —agriculture, 1526-27 —area and pop., 1526 —education, 1527 —govt, and representation, 1526 South Dist. (Iceland), 606 South-East U n e s (UK), 1286 Southend-on-Sea (UK), 1286 Southern Dist. (Israel), 715 Southern Dist. (Sikkim), 666 Southern Dist. (Uganda), 1207 Southern Fung (Sudan), 1121 Southern Highlands (Papua New Guinea), 964 Southern Prov. (Saudi Arabia), 1037 Southern Prov. (Sn Lanka), 1111 Southern Prov. (Uganda), 1207 Southern Prov. (Zambia), 1619 Southern Region (Malawi), 811, 813 Southern Region (Sierra Leone) 1050,1054 Southfield (Mich.), 1476 South Georgia, 452,454 South Glamorgan (UK), 1285 South Hadley (Mass.), 1475 South Hamgyong (N. Korea), 770 South Hwanghai (N. Korea), 770 South Is. (Coco Is.), 127 South Is. (NZ), 896,901-02, 906 South Kesteven (UK), 1286 South Kingstown (R.I.), 1523 South Kyongsang (Korea), 765 South Lakeland (UK), 1286 Southland (NZ), 897 South Norfolk (UK), 1286 South Orkney Is., 236 South Ossetia (USSR), 1257 South Oxfordshire (UK), 1286

Southport (N.G.), 1505 South Portland (Maine), 1468 South Pyongan (N. Korea), 770 South Ribble (UK), 1286 South Sandwich Is., 452 South Shetlands, 236 South Staffordshire (UK), 1286 South Tyneside (UK), 1286 Southwark(UK), 1287 South-West Africa, 1070, 1072,1087-90 South Yorkshire (UK), 1284, 1297 Soviet Central Asia (USSR), 1265-76 Soviet Russia, see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Sovyetsk (USSR), 1213 Spain, 1098-1110 Spandau (FRG), 532 Spanish Africa, 1109-10 Sparks (Nev.), 1491-93 Spartanburg (S.C.), 1524 Sparte (Greece), 554 Spelthome (UK), 1286 Speyer (FRG), 542 Spijkenisse (Neth.), 882 Spiti (India), 645 Spitsbergen (Svalbard), 941 Split (Yug.), 1601-02,1606 Spokane (Wash.), 1369,1540 Springdale (Ark.), 1430 Springfield (111.), 1453-54 Springfield (Mass.), 1369, 1473,1475 Springfield (Mo.), 1369,1484 Springfield (Ohio), 1509 Springfield (Ore.), 1515 Springlands (Guyana), 579 Springs (Transvaal), 1069 Sri Lanka, 1111-18 —agriculture, 1114 —area and pop., 1111 —education, 1117 —govt, and representation, 1112 Srinagar (India), 614,635, 645-46,672 Stadskanaal (Neth.), 882 Stafford (UK), 1286 Staffordshire (UK), 1285 Staffordshire Moorlands (UK), 1286 Stalingrad, see Volgograd Stalinogrod, see Katowice Stamford (Conn.), 1369,1438 STANAVFORCHAN, 38 STANAVFORLANT, 38 Stanley (Falkland Is.), 452-54 Stanleyville, see Kisangani Stanlow (UK), 1324 Stann Creek (Belize), 204 Stanton (Dela.), 1441 Stara Zagora (Bulg.), 240,245 Starbuck (Kiribati), 762 Starkenburg (FRG), 536 Starkville (Miss.), 1483 Staten Is. (N.Y.), 1501 Stavanger (Norway), 930 Stavropol (USSR), 1212, 1225, 1239 Steenwijk (Neth.), 882 Steglitz (FRG), 532 Steiermark, see Styria Stein (Neth.), 882 Steinkjer (Norway), 930 Stellenbosch (Cape), 1078-79 Stepanakert (USSR), 1253-54

INDEX Stephenville (Nfndlnd.), 306 Sterling Heights (Mich.), 1369, 1476 Sterlitamak (USSR), 1212 Stettin, see Szczecin Stevens Point (Wise.), 1547 Stewart Is. (NZ), 896 Stewart ry (UK), 1287 Steyr (Austria), 171 Stillwater (Okla.), 1514 Stirling (UK), 1287, 1338-39 Stockholm (Sweden), 1133-34, 1137,1143-44,1148 Stockport (UK), 1286 Stockton (Calif.), 1369,1432 Stockton-on-Tees (UK), 1286 Stoke-on-Trent (UK), 1286 Stonecutters Is. (Hong Kong), 591 Storrs (Conn.), 1439 Storctrams (Denmark), 401 Stout (Wise.), 1547 Strabane (N. Ireland), 1349 Straits Settlements, see Singapore Strasbourg (France), 470-71, 483 Strassa (Sweden), 1138 Stratford on Avon (UK), 1286 Strathclyde Region (UK), 1288, 1338-39 Strathkelvin (UK), 1288 Stredcx;esky (Czech), 394 Stredoslovensky (Czech.), 394 Stroud (UK), 1286 Stung Treng (Cambodia), 260 Stuttgart (FRG), 518, 529-30 Styria (Austria), 171-72 Suakoko (Liberia), 791 Suao (Taiwan), 362 Subansin (India), 675 Subotica (Yug.), 1601 Suceava (Romania), 1013,1019 Suchitepequez (Guat.), 564 Sucre (Bolivia), 2 1 6 - 1 7 , 2 2 0 - 2 1 Sucre (Colom.), 363 Sucre (Venez.), 1575, 1578 Sud Dept. (Haiti), 581 Sudan, Republic of the, 1119-24 Sudan, French, see Mali Sudbury (Ont.), 2 6 9 , 3 1 4 Sud-Ouest Prov. (Cameroon), 263 Suez (Egypt), 431,436 Suez Canal, 4 3 6 - 3 7 Suffolk, Coastal (UK), 1286 Suffolk, East and West (UK), 1285 Su-gnai Kolok (Thail.), 1174 Suhl (GDR), 511 Sui (Pak.), 953 Suita (Japan), 745 Sukamapura, see Jayapura Sukhumi (USSR), 1254-56 Sukkur (Pak.), 954 Sulaimaniya (Iraq), 698 Sulawesi (Indon.), 6 8 1 - 8 2 , 6 8 4 86 Sulawesi Selatan (Indon.), 682 Sulawesi Tengah (Indon.), 682 Sulawesi Tenggare (Indon.), 682 Sulawesi Utara (Indon.), 682 Sulu Is. (Philipp.), 984 Sumatera Barat (Indon.), 681 Sumatera Selatan (Indon.), 681 Sumatera Utara (Indon.), 681 Sumatra (Indon.), 681 - 8 2 , 684-86

Sumgait (USSR), 1212, 1252-53 Summerside (P.E.I.), 273,317 Sumy (USSR), 1212,1248 Sunday Is. (NZ),910 Sunderland (UK), 1286 Sundsvall (Sweden), 1134 Sungei Golok (Pen. Malaysia), 822 Sunnyvale (Calif.), 1369 Sunshine Coast (Aust.), 140 Sunyani (Ghana), 546,549 Suoyarvi (USSR), 1243 Superior (Wise.), 1545, 1547 Sur (Oman), 9 4 4 , 9 4 7 Surabaya (Indon.), 682,685 Surakana (Indon.), 682 Surakhany (USSR), 1253 Surat (India), 6 1 4 , 6 4 2 - 4 3 Surendranagar (India), 642 Suriname, 1125-28 Suriname Dist., 1125-26 Surkhan-Darya (USSR), 1270 Surrey (B.C.), 299 Surrey (UK), 1285, 1339 Sussex (New Bruns.), 304 Sussex (East and West) (U K), 1339 Sutherland (UK), 1288 Sutton (UK), 1287 Suva (Fiji), 455-58 Suwaiq (Oman), 944 Suwalki (Poland), 992 Suwarrow (Cook Is.), 912 Suweon (Korea), 766 Svalbard (Norway), 9 3 3 - 3 4 , 9 4 1 Svay Rieng (Cambodia), 260 Sverdlovsk (USSR), 1212, 1231,1236,1239 Swain's Is. (Samoa, USA), 155556, 1558 Swale (UK), 1286 Swan Hill (Vic.), 155 Swansea (UK), 1286, 1338-39 Swaziland, 1129-32 Sweden, 1133-48 Swedru (Ghana), 546 Sweida (Syria), 1161 Swift Current (Sask.), 322 Switzerland, 1149-60 Sydney (N.S.), 310 Sydney (NSW), 9 4 - 9 5 , 1 0 0 , 1 3 1 , 135,137-38 Sydney Mines (N.S.), 310 Syktyvkar (USSR), 1212, 1243 Sylhet (Bangladesh), 185 Syra (Greece), 559 Syracuse (N.Y.), 1369,1501, 1504 Syr Darya (USSR), 1270 Syria, 1161-64 Syzran (USSR), 1212 Szabolcs-Szatmar (Hungary), 598 Szczecin (Poland), 9 9 2 - 9 3 , 9 9 7 Szechwan, see Sichuan Szeged (Hungary), 599,604 Szekesfehervar (Hungary), 598 Szekszard (Hungary), 598 Szolnok (Hungary), 598 Szombathely (Hungary), 598 Taabo (Ivory Coast), 737 Tabasco (Mex.), 8 4 8 , 8 5 2 Tabiteuea (Kiribati), 762 Tabligbo (Togo), 1179 Tabora(Tanz.), 1165,1169 Taboshar (USSR), 1226 Tabouk (Saudi Arabia), 1037 Tabriz (Iran), 6 8 8 , 6 9 1 - 9 2

1669 Tabuaeran (Kiribati), 762 Taby (Sweden), 1134 Tachira (Venez.), 1575, 1578 Tacna (Peru), 977 Tacoma (Wash.), 1369,1540 Tacuarembo(Urug.), 1563,1567 Tadjoura (Djibouti), 415 Tadzhikistan (USSR), 1212, 1215, 1265-66, 1272-74 Taedonggang(N. Korea), 772 Taegu (Korea), 765-66 Taejon (Korea), 766 T a f f E l y (UK), 1286 Tafileh (Jordan), 755 Taganrog (USSR), 1212 Tagent (Mauritania), 842 Tahaa (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Tahiti (Fr. Polyn.), 500-01 Tahoua (Niger), 920 Tahuata (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Taibei (Taiwan), 347 Taichung (Taiwan), 359,362 Taif(Saudi Arabia), 1037,1041 Taimyr (USSR), 1239 Tainan (Taiwan), 359 Taiohae (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Taipa (Ma^ao), 1007-08 Taipei (Taiwan), 358-59 T a i P o (Hong Kong), 591 Taitung (Taiwan), 359 Tai Wai (Hong Kong), 595 Taiwan (China), 3 4 6 - 4 7 , 358-62 Taiyuan (China), 347,355 Ta'iz (Yemen), 1594-96 Takamatsu (Japan), 745 Takatsuki (Japan), 745 Takeo (Cambodia), 2 6 0 , 2 6 2 Takoradi (Ghana), 546,549 Takulea(N.Z-), 912 Talara (Peru), 979 Talca (Chile), 340 Talcahuano (Chile), 341 Taldy-Kurgan (USSR), 1266 Tallahassee (Fla.), 1444-46 Tallinn (Estonia, USSR), 1211-12,1261 Tamale (Ghana), 546-47, 549 T a m a n a (Kiribati), 762 Tamanrasset (Algeria), 72 Tamatave (see Toamasina) T a m a n a (Kiribati), 762 Tamaulipas (Mex.), 848 Tambacounda (Senegal), 1043 Tambao (Burkina Faso), 249-50 Tambov (USSR), 1212,1239 Tameside (UK), 1286 Tamil Nadu (India), 6 1 4 , 6 1 6 - 1 7 , 625-26, 6 3 2 , 6 3 5 , 6 6 7 - 6 9 —agriculture, 668 —area and pop., 668 —education, 669 —govt, and representation, 668 Ta'min (Iraq), 695 Tammerfors, see Tampere T a m p a (Fla.), 1369,1444,1446 Tampere (Finland), 4 6 1 , 4 6 7 Tampico(Mex.), 8 4 9 , 8 5 3 Tamuning (Guam), 1552 Tamworth (NSW), 131 Tananarive, see Antananarivo Tandil (Argen.), 92 Tandjile (Chad), 337 Tanga (Tanz.), 1165,1167 Tangail (Bangladesh), 185 Tanganyika (Tanz.), 1167 Tangier (Morocco), 865-69 Tanjungkarang (Indon.), 681

1670 Tanjung Priok (lndon.), 686 Tanna (Vanuatu), 1569 Tanta (Egypt), 431,437 Tan-Tan (Morocco), 865 Tanzania, 1165-69 Taoudenni (Mali.), 833 Taounate (Morocco), 865 Taoyuan (Taiwan), 359,362 Tappita (Liberia), 791 Taqa (Oman), 947 Taracapa (Chile), 340 Taranaki (NZ), 895,896,901 Taranto (Italy), 725,729 Tarapaca (Chile), 343 Tarawa (Kiribati), 762-64 Tarcoola (Aust.), I l l , 126,148 Taree Greater (NSW), 131 Tarhuna (Libya), 797 Tarija (Boli via), 216-17,220-21 Tamobrzeg (Poland), 992 Tamow (Poland), 992 Taroudant (Morocco), 865 Tarrafal (Cape Verde Is.), 330 Tarragona (Spain), 1099-1100 Tarrasa (Spain), 1100 Tareus (Turkey), 1194 Tartar (USSR), 1239 Tartous (Syria), 1161-63 Tartu (Estonia, USSR), 1236, 1261-62 Tashauz (USSR), 1268-69 Tashguzar (Afghan.), 64 Tashkent (USSR), 1211-12, 1231,1236,1270-71 Taskizak (Turkey), 1196 Tasmania (Aust.), 94-95,98, 110-12,115-16,150-54 —agriculture, 152 —area and pop., 150 —education, 154 —govt, and representation, 150-51 Ta-Ta (Morocco), 865 Tatabanya (Hungary), 598 Tatar Rep. (USSR), 1245 Tatung, see Dadong Ta'u Is. (Samoa, USA), 1555 Taunggyi (Burma), 254 Tauranga (NZ), 897 Tavastehus (Finland), 460-61 Tavoy (Burma), 251 Tavsan Is. (Turkey), 1193 Tawau (Sabah), 824-25 Tawi-tawi (Philipp.), 984 Taxila (Pak.), 955 Tayeh, see Daye Taylor (Mich.), 1476 Tayninh (Vietnam), 1583 Tayside Region (UK), 1288 Taza (Morocco), 865 Tbilisi (USSR), 1211-12, 1230-31, 1235-36, 125456 Tchad, see Chad Tchibanga (Gabon), 504 Tchimbele (Gabon), 505 Te au-o-tu (Cook Is.), 912 Tebessa (Aigena), 72 Tegucigalpa (Hond.), 586-87, 589-90 Tehran (Iran), 688-89,691-93 Tehri-garwhal (India), 671 Teignbndge (UK), 1286 Tekirdag (Turkey), 1194 Tela (Hond.), 586-87 Telanaipura (lndon.), 681 Telangana (India), 636 Telavi (USSR), 1255

INDEX Tel-aviv (Israel), 715-16,720, 722 Telemark (Norway), 929 Teleorman (Romania), 1014 Tel-Kotchek (Iraq), 698 Telugu (India), 636 Teluk Anson (Malaysia), 822 Tema (Ghana), 546,549 Temburong (Brunei), 237 Temirtau (USSR), 1212 Temotu (Solomon Is.), 1061 Tempe (Ariz.), 1369,1428-29 Tempelhof (FRG), 532 Temuco (Chile), 340 Tena (Ecuador), 426 Tenali (India), 637 Tenasserim (Burma), 251 Tendring(UK), 1286 Tenerife (Canary Is.), 1099 Tengréla (Ivory Coast), 737 Tennant Creek (N. Aust.), 123-24,126 Tennessee (USA), 1367-69, 1373, 1378, 1399, 1404,1528-30 —agriculture, 1529 —area and pop., 1528 —education, 1529 —govt, and representation, 1528 Tennessee Valley Authority, 1400-01 Tenom (Sabah), 825-26 Tepelenë (Albania), 67 Tepic (Mex.), 848-49 Teraina (Kiribati), 762 Teramo (Italy), 734 Terceira (Azores), 1001 Teresina (Brazil), 226 Termez (USSR), 1274 Temeuzen (Neth.), 882 Temi (Italy), 725 Temitz (Austria), 171 Ternopol (USSR), 1248 Terrace (B.C.), 299 Terre Adélie (Fr. Ant.), 496-97 Terre de Bas (Guadai.), 487 Terre Haute (Ind.), 1456-57 Territorial Sea Limits, xxv-xxviii Teruel (Spain), 1098 Tessin, see Ticino Test Valley (UK), 1286 Tete (Mozamb.), 870 Tetiaoro (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Tetovo (Yug.), 1601 Tetuän (Morocco), 865-67 Texarkana (Ark.), 1430 Texas (USA), 1367-69, 1372, 1378, 1399,1404, 1530-33 —agriculture, 1531 —area and pop., 1530 —education, 1532 —govt, and representation, 1531 Teyateyaneng (Lesotho), 788 Tezpur (India), 639 Thaba Tseka (Lesotho), 788 Thadeua (Laos), 781 Thai Binh (Vietnam), 1583 Thailand, 1170-76 Tha-Kanon (Thail.), 1174 Thamesdown (UK), 1286 Thana (India), 614,654-55 Thanet (UK), 1286 Thanh Hoa (Vietnam), 1583 Thanh Pho (Vietnam), 1583 Thatta Sadha (Pak ), 954 The Pas (Canada), 302

Theruvelli (India), 661 Thesprotia (Greece), 554 Thessaloniki (Greece), 555, 559 Thessaly (Greece), 554,557 The Valley (Anguilla), 83 Thiès (Senegal), 1043, 1045 Thika (Kenya), 757 Thimphu (Butàn), 213 Thionville (France), 471 Thompson (Man.), 300 Thorehavn (Denmark), 412 Thousand Oaks (Calif.), 1432 Thrace (Greece), 555,559 Three Kings Is. (NZ), 910 Thuan Hai (Vietnam), 1583 Thua Thien (Vietnam), 1586 Thule (Greenland), 412 Thunder Bay (Canada), 269,275 Thurgau (Switz.), 1149,1151 Thuringia (GDR), 514 Thurrock (UK), 1286 Tiagura (Libya), 798 Tianjin (China), 346-47 354-55,357 Tianshui (China), 354 Tiaret (Algeria), 72, 76 Tibet, 346-48 Ticïno (Switz.), 1149, 1151, 1158 Tidewater (Va.), 1537 Tiel (Neth.), 882 Tien Giang (Vietnam), 1583 Tientsin, see Tianjin Tiergarten (FRG), 532 Tierra del Fuego (Argen.), 87-88 Tierra del Fuego (Chile), 340 Tietjerksteradeel (Neth.), 882 Tiflis, see Tbilisi Tigré (Ethiopia), 447 Tihwa, see Urumchi Tijit (India), 659 Tijuana (Mex.), 849 Tiko (Cameroon), 265 Tikopia (Solomon Is.), 1061 Tiksi Bay (USSR), 1231 Tilaran (Costa Rica), 378 Tilburg (Neth.), 882 Timaru (NZ), 897 Timehri (Guyana), 578 Timis (Romania), 1014 Timisoara (Romania), 1014, 1019 Timor, see Loro Sae Timor Timur (lndon.), 682 Tin Can Is. (Tonga), 1181 Tinsukia (India), 639 Tipperary (Ireland), 700 Tipuani (Bolivia), 219 Tirana (Albania), 66-67,70 Tirap (India), 675 Tiraspol (USSR), 1259 Tirgoviste (Romania), 1013 Tirgu Jiu (Romania), 1013 Tirgu Mures (Romania), 1013 Tins el Gharbia (Morocco), 875 Tiris Zemmour (Mauritania), 842 Tirol (Austria), 171-72 Tiruchirapalli (India), 614,669 Tirunelveli (India), 614 Tirupati (India), 637-38 Titograd (Yug.), 1601,1606-07, 1611

Titova Mitrovica (Yug.), 1601 Tivat (Yug.), 1606 Tizi-Ouzou (Algeria), 72, 76 Tiznit (Morocco), 865 Tkibuh (USSR), 1255 Tkvarcheli (USSR), 1255 Tlaxcala (Mex.), 848

INDEX Tlemcen (Algeria), 72,76 Tlhabane (Bophuth). 1091 Toamasina (Madag.), 807,809 Tobago, 1184-87 Tobruk (Libya), 798 Togliatti (USSR), 1212 Togo, 1177-80 Tokaj (Hungary), 602 Tokat (Turkey), 1194 Tokelau Is. (NZ),911 Tokmak (USSR), 1275 Toknam (N. Korea), 773 Toksong (N. Korea), 773 Tokushima (Japan), 745 Tòkyo (Japan), 745-47, 750-52 Tolbukhin (Bulg.), 240 Toledo (Belize), 204 Toledo (Ohio), 1369,1509,1511 Toledo (Spain), 1099, 1108 Toliary (Madag.), 807,809 Tolima (Colom.), 363,366 Tolna (Hungary), 598 Toluca de Lerdo (Mex.), 848-49 Tombali (Guinea-Bissau), 573 Tombouctou (Mali), 832,834 Tomsk (USSR), 1212,1236, 1239 Tonbridge and Mailing (UK), 1286 Tonga (Pacific), 1181-83 Tongareva (Cook Is.), 912 Tongatapu (Tonga), 1181,1183 Toowoomba (Queensld.), 140 Topeka (Kans.), 1369,1460-61 Topusko (Yug.), 1605 Toibay(UK), 1286 Torfaen (Wales), 1286 Torghundi (Afghan.), 64 Torkham (Afghan.), 64 Toronto (Ont.), 268,273,278, 314,316 Torrance (Calif.), 1369,1432 Torre del Greco (Italy), 725 Torrejon de Ardoz (Spain), 1100, 1102 Torréon (Mex.), 849 Tomngton (Wyo.), 1550 Tortola (Br. Virgin Is.), 1589-90 Tornii (Poland), 992 Toscana (Italy), 724,727 Totonicapàn (Guat.j, 564 Touba (Ivory Coast), 736 Touba (Senegal), 1045 Toulon (France), 471,474 Toulouse (France), 471,483 Toumai (Belgium), 195 Tours (France), 471,483 Tower Hamlets (UK), 1287 Tower Hill Lake (Vic.) 157 Townville (Queensld.), 140 Towson (Md.), 1471-72 Toyama (Japan), 745 Toyohashi (Japan), 745 Toyonaka (Japan), 745 Toyota (Japan), 745 Trabzon (Turkey), 1194, 1198-99 Traflbrd(UK), 1286 Trakya (Turkey), 1193 Tralee (Ireland), 711 Transcaucasia (USSR), 1212, 1235 Transjordan, see Jordan Transkei (Cape), 1071-72,1076, 1093-94 Transvaal (S. Afr.), 1068-69, 1072,1084-85 Transylvania (Romania), 1014, 1016,1019

Trappes (France), 471 Traralgon (Vic.), 155 Trarza (Mauritania), 842 Traun (Austria), 171 Travancore-Cochin (India), 63536 Treasury Is. (Solomon Is.), 1061 Trcinta-y 1res (Lrug.), 1563 Trelawny (Jamaica), 740 Trengganu (Pen. Malaysia), 817, 820

Trentino (Italy), 724,727 Trento (Italy), 724,734 Trenton (N.J.), 1496-98 Trenton (Ont.), 273-74 Trepéa (Yug.), 1605 Treptow (FRG), 532 Trier (FRG), 542 Trieste (Italy), 725,734 Trikkala (Greece), 554 Trincomalee (Sri Lanka), 1111-13 Trinidad (Bolivia), 216-17, 220-21 Trinidad (Urug.), 1563 Trinidad and Tobago (W. Indies), 1184-87 Tripoli (Lebanon), 784-86 Tripoli (Libya), 795, 797-99 Tripolis (Greece), 554 Tripolitania (Libya), 797-98 Tripura (India), 614,617,63132,635-36,669-71 —agriculture, 670 —area and pop., 670 —education, 670 —govt, and representation, 670 Tristan da Cunha (Atlantic), 1027 Tnvandrum (India), 614,630, 635,650-51 Trnava (Czech.), 394 Trois Rivières (Quebec), 269,319 Trollhättan (Sweden), 1134 Tromelin (Réunion), 493 Troms (Norway), 929 Troms0 (Norway), 930,938 Trondheim (Norway), 930,938 Tropojë (Albania), 67 Troy (Mich.), 1476 Troy (N.Y.), 1501-02,1504 Troyes (France), 471 Trucial States, see U AE Trudovaya (USSR), 1225 Trujillo (Peru), 976 Trujillo (Venez.), 1575 Truk Is. (Pacific), 1561 Truro(N.S.), 310,313 Tsamkong (China), 351 Tselinograd (USSR), 1212,1231, 1266,1268 Tsévié (Togo), 1177 Tsikhisdziri (USSR), 1257 Tsinan, see Jinan TsingYi (Hong Kong), 591 Tsining, see Xining Tsitsihar, see Qiqihan Tskhinvali (USSR), 1257 Tsuen Wan (Hong Kong), 591, 595 Tuàmotu (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Tuapse (USSR), 1225, 1255 Tuaran (Sabah), 825 Tubingen (FRG), 530 Tubmanburg (Liberia), 791 Tubuai (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Tubuai Manu (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Tucson (Ariz.), 1369,1428-29

1671 Tucumàn (Argen), 87,92-93 Tucupita (Venez.), 1575, 1580 Tuen Mun (Hong Kong), 591 Tuensang (India), 658-59 Tuimazy (USSR), 1225 Tula (USSR), 1212, 1239 Tulcan (Ecuador), 425 Tulcea (Romania), 1014 Tuléar, see Toliary Tuli (India), 659 Tulsa (Okla), 1369, 1512 Tumangang(N. Korea), 773 Tumbes (Peru), 977 Tumkur (India), 649 Tumpat (Pen. Malaysia), 822 Tumu (Ghana), 549 Tunbndge Wells (UK), 1286 Tunceli (Turkey), 1194 Tundo (India), 641 Tungurahua (Ecuador), 425 Tunis (Tunisia), 1188,1191-92 Tunis-Carthage (Tunisia), 1191 Tunis Goulette (Tunisia), 1191 Tunisia, 1188-92 Tunis Nord (Tunisia), 1188 Tunis Sud (Tunisia), 1188 Tunja (Colom.), 363, 367 Tupelo (Miss.), 1482 Tupiza (Bolivia), 220 Tureia (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Turfan (China), 354 Turgai (USSR), 1266 Turgovishte (Bulg.), 240,245 Turin (Italy), 725, 734 Turkey, 1193-1201 Turkmenistan (USSR), 1211-12, 1232,1265-66,1268-70 Turks and Caicos (W. Indies), 1202-03 Turku-Pori (Finland), 460-61, 467 Tumhout (Belgium), 195 Tumu-Severin (Romania), 1013 Turrialba (Costa Rica), 377 Tuscaloosa (Ala.), 1422 Tuscany (Italy), 730 Tut (Pak.), 953 Tuticorin (India), 614,631,669 Tutong (Brunei), 237 Tutuila Is. (Samoa, USA), 1555,1557-58 Tuva (USSR), 1235,1239,1245 Tuvalu, 1204-05 Tuxtla Gutierrez (Mex.), 848-49 Tuzla (Yug.), 1601 Tweeddale (UK), 1287 Twin Falls (Idaho), 1451 Tychy (Poland), 992 Tyler (Tex.), 1530 Tyndin (USSR), 1231 Tyne and Wear (UK), 1284, 1297 Tyneside (UK), 1286 Tyre (Lebanon), 784 Tyrone (N. Ireland), 1351 Tyube (USSR), 1274 Tyumen (USSR), 1212, 1225, 1239 UaHuka(Fr. Polyn.), 500 Ua Pu (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Ubol Rat Tham (Thai!.), 1174 Ucayali (Peru), 977 Uccie (Belgium), 195 Udaipur (India), 665,670 Uddevalla (Sweden), 1134 Uden (Neth.), 882 Udine Pordenone (Italy), 725,

1672

INDEX

Udmurt (USSR), 1239,1245-46 Udon Thani (Thail.), 1170 Ufa (USSR), 1212 Uganda, 1206-09 Ughelli (Nigeria), 92S Uiback (Afghan.), 61 Uige (Angola), 80 Uithoom (Neth.), 882 Ujjain (India), 614,652,654 Ujung Padang (Indon.), 682 Ukraine (USSR), 1211-13,1226, 1235,1248-50 Ulan Bator (Mongolia), 858, 860-62 Ulan-Ude (USSR), 1212,1240 1'lcJborg, sec Oulu Ulhasnagar (India), 614 Ulm (FRG), 530 Ulsan (Korea), 766 Ulster (Ireland), 701 Ulster (N. Ireland), 1354, 1356-57 Ulyanovsk (USSR), 1212,1239 Umanak (Greenland), 413 Umbria (Italy), 724,727 UmeA (Sweden), 1134 Umm al Qaiwain (UAE), 1277, 1279 Umm-An-Nassan Is. (Bahrain), 181

Umm-Bab (Qatar), 1010 Umm Said (Qatar), 1010-11 Urn Qasr (Iraq), 698 Umtali, see. Mutare Umtata (Transkei), 1093 Umzimvubu (Transkei), 1093 Una (India), 645 Unbong (N.Korea), 772 UNDP, 9-10 UNESCO, 15-16 UNFPA, 9-10 Ungava (Quebec), 319 Unggi (N.Korea), 772 UNHCR, 10-11 UNICEF, 9 - r 0 Union Is. (St Vincent), 1030-31 Union City (N.J.), 1496 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), 1210-76, see also under each republic —agriculture, 1226-27 —area and pop., 1210-12 —commerce, 1230 —communications, 1231-33 —communist party, 1216-17 —constitution and govt. 1212-15 —defence, 1217-21 —diplomatic representatives, 1237 —education, 1236 —finance, 1224 —health, 1236-37 —industry, 1228-29 —justice, 1233-34 —mining, 1226 —planning, 1221-24 —religion, 1234-35 —republics, list of, 1211 —trade unions, 1229 Union Township (N.J.), 1496 United Arab Emirates, 1277-82 United Kingdom, see Great Britain United Nations, The (for details see 'Contents'), 3-27 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, see Uttar Pradesh

United States of America, 1365— 1562, see also component stales —agriculture, 1397-99 —air force, 1388-89 —area, 1366-68 —army, 1381-83 —aviation, 1410 —banking, 1394-96 —broadcasting, 1412 —budget, 1389-90 —cabinet, 1376-77 —cinemas, 1412 —cities, principal, 1368-69 —climate, 1372-73 —commerce, 1406-09 —communications, 1409-12 —congress, 1377 —constitution, 1373-74 —currency, 1393-94 —defence, 1381-89 —diplomatic representatives, 1418 —education, 1415-17 —electorate, 1377 —exports, 1406-09 —finance, 1391 —fisheries, 1400 —forests and forestry, 1399-1400 —govt, federal, 1373-80 local, 1380 —health and social welfare, 1417-18 —immigration, 1371-72 —imports, 1406-09 —Indians, 1378 —industry, 1401-04 —iron and steel, 1403-04 —justice and crime, 1412-14 —labour, 1404-06 —manufactures, 1402-03 —mining, 1396-97 —national debt, 1391 —national income, 1391-92 —navy, 1383-88 —Negroes in, 1365 —newspapers, 1412 —petroleum, 1403 —population, 1365-69 —posts and telegraphs, 1410-12 —presidency, 1374-76 —production and industry, 1402-03 —railways, 1409-10 —religion, 1414-15 —representation, 1378 —roads, 1409 —senate, 1377 —shipping, 1410 —state govt., 1378-80 and local finance, 1391 representatives, 1378 —states and territories, 1366-68 —Tennessee Valley Authority, 1400-01 —territories, outlying, 1368 —trade unions, 1404-05 —trust territory, Pacific, 1368 —vital statistics, 1370-71 —weights and measures, 1396 Unity (Maine), 1470 University City (Mo.), 1484 UNRWA, 10 Unterwalden (Switz.), 1151-52 Upolu Is. (W. Samoa), 1591, 1593 Upper Arlington (Ohio), 1509 Upper Austria, 171-72

Upper Nile Region (Sudan), 1119 Upper Region (Ghana), 546 Upper Sileni (India), 637 Upper Volta, see Burkina Faso Uppsala (Sweden), 1133-34 UPU,22 Uralsk (USSR), 1212,1266,1268 Urawa (Japan), 745 Urbana (111.), 1455 Urbino (Italy), 734 Urengoi(USSR), 1226, 1231 Urfa (Turkey), 1194 Uigench (USSR), 1269 Uri (Switz.), 1149,1151 Urosevac (Yug.), 1601 Uruapan (Mex.), 849 Uruguay, 1563-68 Urumchi, see Ummqi Urumqi (China), 347,354 Urundi, see Burundi Usak (Turkey), 1194 Ushuaia (Argen.), 88 Ust-Uimskaya (USSR), 1225 Usti nad Labem (Czech.), 394 Ustinov (USSR), 1212 Ust-Kamenogorsk (USSR), 1212, 1226 Ust-Ordynsky (USSR), 1239 Usulutan (El Salv.),438,441 Utah (USA), 1367, 1369, 1372, 1378,1396,1404,1533-35 —agriculture, 1534 —area and pop., 1533 —education, 1534-35 —govt, and representation, 1533 Uthmaniya (Saudi Arabia), 1040 Utica(N.Y.), 1501 Utrecht (Neth.), 880,882,891 Utsunomiya (Japan), 745 Uttarpara (India), 673 Uttar Pradesh (India), 6 1 4 , 6 1 6 17,626,632,635.671-72 —agriculture, 671 —area and pop., 671 —education, 672 —govt, and representation, 671 Uturoa (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Uusimaa (Finland), 460 Uva (Sri Lanka), 1111,1116 Uvéa (New Caled.), 498,502 Uvéa(Wallis), 502-03 Uzbekistan (USSR), 1211, 1265-66, 1270-72 Uzhgorod (USSR), 1226 Vaasa (Finland), 460,467 Vacamonte (Panama), 958 Vadarevu (India), 638 Vadodara (India), 614,642-43 Vaduz (Liechtenstein), 800 Vaishali (India), 641 Vaitupu (Tuvalu), 1204 Valais (Switz), 1149-51, 1158 Val de Marne (France), 480 Valdez (Alaska), 1426 Valdivia (Chile), 340,345 Val d'Oise (France), 480 Valence (France), 471 Valencia (Spain), 1099-1100, 1108 Valencia (Venez.), 1575,1579 Valenciennes (France), 471 Vale of Glamorgan (UK), 1286 Vale ofWhite Horse (UK), 1286 Vale Royal (UK), 1286 Valias (Albania), 69

INDEX Valkeakoski (Finland), 461 Valkenswaard (Neth.), 882 Vailadolid (Spain), 1099-1100, 1108 Valle (Hond.), 586 Valle d'Aosta (Italy), 724,726-27 Valle de Angeles (Hond.), 388 Valle del Cauca (Colom.), 363 Valledupar (Colom.), 363 Vallendar (FRG), 542 Valletta (Malta), 835 Valley Stream (N.Y.), 1502 Valona, see Vlore Valparaiso (Chile), 340-41, 344-45 Valparaiso (Ind.), 1457 Valverde (Dom. Rep.), 420 Van (Turkey), 1194 Vanakbori (India), 642 Vancouver (B.C.), 268,273, 278,297,299 Vancouver (Wash.), 1540 Vancouver Is., 297,299 Vanda, see Vantaa Vanda Stn. (Ross Dependency), 911 Vanimo (Papua New Guinea), 964 Vantaa (Finland), 461 Vanua Ix'vu (Fiji), 455,457 Vanuatu, 1569-71 Varanasi (India), 614,672 Varbeig (Sweden), 1134 Vares(Yug.), 1605 Varkaus (Finland), 461 Varmland (Sweden), 1133 Varna (Bulg.), 240,243,245 Varzob (USSR), 1274 Vas (Hungary), 598 Vasa, see Vaasa Vascoas (Mauritius), 844 Vaslui (Romania), 1014 Vasterbotten (Sweden), 1133 Vasternorrland (Sweden), 1133 Vastervik (Sweden), 1134 Vastmanland (Sweden), 1133 Vatican City Stote, 1572-74 Vaud(Switz.), 1149-51,1158 Vaupes (Colom.), 364 Vava'u (Tonga), 1181,1183 Vaxjo (Sweden), 1134 Veendam (Neth.), 882 Veenendaal (Neth.), 882 Veghel (Neth.), 882 Vejle (Denmark), 401 Veldhoven (Neth.), 882 Veliko Tumovo (Bulg.), 240, 245-46 Velia La Velia (Solomon Is.), 1061 Velsen (Neth.), 882 Venda (S.Afr.), 1071,1094-96 Veneto (Italy), 724,727 Venezia, see Venice Venezia Giulia (Italy), 724 Venezia Giulia (Yug.), 1601 Venezuela, 1575-81 Venice (Italy), 725,729,734 Venlo (Neth.), 882 Venray (Neth.), 882 Ventspils (Latvia, USSR), 1232, 1262 Ventura (Calif.), 1432 Veracruz (Me*.), 848-49,852-53 Veraguas (Pan.), 958 Verawal (India), 643 Verdun (Quebec), 319 Vereeniging (S. Afr.), 1069

Verkhoiansk (USSR), 1231 Vermillion (S.D.), 1527 Vermont (USA), 1366,1373, 1378,1413,1535-37 —agriculture, 1536 —area and pop., 1535 —education, 1536-37 —govt, and representation, 1535-36 Vemon (B.C.), 297,299 Vemy, see Alma-Ata Verona (Italy), 725, 734 Venia (Greece), 555 Versailles (France), 483 Verviers (Belgium), 195 Vest-Agder (Norway), 929 Vestfold (Norway), 929 Vestmannaeyjar (Iceland), 606 Vestjallands (Denmark), 401 Veszprèm (Hungary), 598 Viacha (Bolivia), 217 Viana do Castelo (Port.), 1001 Viborg (Denmark), 399,401 Vicenza (Italy), 725 Vichada (Colom.), 364 Vicksburg (Miss.), 1482 Victoria (Aust.), 94-95,98,100, 110-12, 114-16, 155-62 —agriculture, 159 —area and pop., 155 —education, 161 —govt, and representation, 155-57 Victoria (B.C.), 269,273,297, 299 Victoria, see Nimbe Victoria (Hong Kong), 594 Victoria de Durango (Mexico), 848-49 Victoria (Seychelles), 1047-49 Victoria Harbour (Malaysia), 824 Vidin (Bulg.), 240,245 Viedma (Argen.), 88 Vienna (Austna), 171-72,174-75 Vientiane (Laos), 779-82 Vieques Is. (Puerto Rico), 1553 Vietnam, 1582-88 Vieux Fort (St Lucia), 1029 Vigo (Spain), 1100 Viipuri (USSR), 1242-43 Vijayawada (India), 614,638 Vila (Vanuatu), 1569-71 Vila Nova da Gaia (Port.), 1001,1006 Vila Pereira d'Ega, see N'giva Vila Real (Port.), 1001 Vilcea (Romania), 1014 Villach (Austria), 171 Villa Clara (Cuba), 380 Villacoublay (France), 476 Villa Elisa (Para.), 972 Villa Hermosa (Mex.), 848-49 Villa Montes (Bolivia), 217,220 Villamca (Para.), 975 Villavicencio (Colom.), 363 Villazon (Bolivia), 220 Villmanstrand, see Lappeenranta Vilnius (Lithuania, USSR), 1211-12,1233,1264-65 Viluisk(USSR), 1231 Vilvorde or Vilvoorde (Belgium), 195 Vinà del mar (Chile), 341 Vindhya Pradesh (India), 636, 652 Vineland(N.J.), 1496 Vinh (Vietnam), 1587 Vmh Phu (Vietnam), 1583

1673 Vinnitsa (USSR), 1212, 1248 Virgin Gorda (Br. Virgin Is.), 1589 Virgin Is. (Br.), 1589-90 Virgin Is. (USA), 1365, 1368, 1378, 1380-81, 1383, 1404,1412,1558-60 —agriculture, 1559 —area and pop., 1558 —education, 1560 —govt, and representation, 1558-59 Virginia (USA), 1367, 1369, 1373,1378,1399-1404, 1412,1537-39 —agriculture, 1538 —area and pop., 1537 —education, 1538-39 —govt, and representation, 1538 Virginia Beach (Va.), 1369,1537 Viseu (Port.), 1001,1006 Vishakhapatnam (India), 614, 621,631,637-38 Vitebsk (USSR), 1212,1250 Viterbo (Italy), 734 VitiLevu (Fiji), 455,457 Vitoria (Brazil), 226 Vitoria (Spain), 1099-1100 Vizcaya (Spain), 1098-1100 Vizianagaram (India), 636-37 Vlaardingen (Neth.), 882 Vladikavkaz, see Ordzhonikidze Vladimir (USSR), 1212,1239 Vladivostok (USSR), 1212,1231, 1233,1236 Vlissingen (Neth.), 882 Vlona, see Vlore Vlore (Albania), 67-70 Voinjama (Liberia), 791 Vojvodina (Yug.), 1602-03, 1608-09,1611-13 Volgograd (USSR), 1212, 1228, 1232,1239 Volhynia (USSR), 1248 Vologda (USSR), 1212,1239 Volos (Greece), 554 Volta Redonda (Brazil), 232 Volta Region (Ghana), 546 Volzhsky (USSR), 1212 Voorburg (Neth.), 882 Vooischoten (Neth.), 882 Voorst (Neth.), 882 Vorarlberg (Austria), 171-72 Voronezh (USSR), 1212,1231, 1239 Voroshilovgrad (USSR), 1212, 1248 Voskresensk (USSR), 1226 Vostochny (USSR), 1232 Vostok (Kiribati), 762 Vrancea (Romania), 1014 Vratsa (Bulg.), 240 Vuelta (Cuba), 383 Vught (Neth.), 882 VungTau (Vietnam), 1583 Vyborg, see Viipuri Vychodoiesky (Czech.), 394 Vychodoslovensky (Czech.), 394 Waadt, see Vaud Waalwijk (Neth.), 882 Wabag (Papua New Guinea), 964 Wabana (Nfndlnd.), 306 Wabush City (Lab.), 306,308 Waco (Tex.), 1369,1530,1532 Waddinxveen (Neth.), 882 Wadi Haifa (Sudan), 1120,1122

1674 Wadi Medani (Sudan), 1119, 1122 Wadi Musa (Jordan), 755 Wageningen (Neth.), 882 Wagerup (Aust.), 166 Wagga-Wagga (NSW), 131 Wairakei (NZ), 901 Wakayama (Japan), 745 Wakefield (UK), 1286 Wake Is. (USA), 1368, 1562 Wakenaam Is. (Guyana), 578 Wakra (Qatar), 1010 Walbrzych (Poland), 992 Wales, see England and Wallachia (Romania), 1019 Walla Walla (Wash.), 1540 Wallis, see Valais Wallis and Futuna (Pacific), 502-03 Walpole (New Caled.), 498 Walsall (UK), 1286 Waltair (India), 638 Waltham (Mass.), 1473,1475 Waltham Forest (UK), 1287 Walvis Bay (S.W. Afr.), 1077, 1087,1090 Wanehai (Hong Kong), 594 Wandsworth (UK), 1287 Wanganui (NZ), 897 Wangaratta (Vic.), 155,158 Wankie, see Huronge Warangal (India), 614,636-38 Wardha (India), 654 Warragul (Vic.), 155 Warren (Mich.), 1369,1476 Warren (Ohio), 1509 Warn (Nigeria), 925-26 Warrington (UK), 1286 Warmambool (Vic.), 155 Warsaw (Poland), 991-94 997,999 Warsaw Pact, 47 Warwick (R.I.), 1522-23 Warwick (UK), 1286,1339 Warwickshire (UK), 1285 Washington (D.C.), (USA), 1365,1368,1382,1400, 1418,1442-43,1471 Washington (state) (USA), 1367-69,1372,1378, 1399,1539-42 —agriculture, 1540-41 —area and pop., 1539-40 —education, 1541 —govt, and representation, 1540 Washoe County (Nev.), 1492 Wasit (Iraq.), 695 Wassenaar (Neth.), 882 Waterbury (Conn.), 1369,1438 Waterford (Ireland), 701,711 Waterloo (Hong Kong), 595 Waterloo (Iowa), 1458 Watermael Boitsfort (Belgium), 195 Watertown (N.Y.), 1502 Watertown (S.D.), 1526 Waterville (Maine), 1468,1470 Watson Lake (Yukon), 326,328 Wau (Sudan), 1122 Waukegan (III.), 1453 Waukesha (Wise.), 1545 Wausau (Wise.), 1545 Wauwatosa (Wise.), 1545 Waveney(UK), 1286 Waverley (UK), 1286 Waverly (Iowa), 1459 Wayne (Nebr.), 1490 Wealden (UK), 1286

INDEX Wedding (FRG), 532 Weert (Neth.), 882 Weights and Measures, vi Weipa (Queensld.), 141 Weirton (W. Va.), 1542 Weissensee (FRG), 532 Welkom (O.F.S.), 1069 Wellesley (Mass.), 1475 Wellington (India), 620 Wellington (NZ), 896-97,899, 901,906-08,913 Wels (Austria), 171 Welwyn Hatfield (UK), 1286 West Allis (Wise.), 1545 West Bank (Jordan), 753 West Bengal, see Bengal, West Westbrook (Maine), 1470 West Dist. (Iceland), 606 West End (Bahamas), 177 Western Area (Sierra Leone), 1050,1053-54 Western Australia, 94-95,98, 110-12,115-16,162-70 —agriculture, 165 —area and pop., 162-63 —education, 169 —govt, and representation, 163-64 Western Dist. (Samoa, USA), 1556 Western Dist. (Sikkim), 666 Western Dist. (Uganda), 1207 Western European Union, 38-39 Western Highlands (Papua New Guinea), 964-65 Western Peninsula (Iceland), 606 Western Prov. (Kenya), 757-59 Western Prov. (Papua New Guinea), 964,965-66 Western Prov. (Saudi Arabia), 1037 Western Prov. (S. Afr.), 1072 Western Prov. (Solomon Is.), 1061

Western Prov. (Sri Lanka), 1111 Western Prov. (Uganda), 1207 Western Prov. (Zambia), 1619 Western Region (Ghana), 546 Western Sahara, 1109-10 Western Samoa, 1591-93 West Falklands, 452 West Glamorgan (UK), 1285 West Haven (Conn.), 1438 West Is. (Ashmore Is.), 130 West Is. (Cocos Is.), 127-28 West Lancashire (UK), 1286 Westland (Mich.), 1476 Westland (NZ), 897 West Liberty (W. Va.), 1544 West Lothian (UK), 1288 West Malaysia, see Peninsular Malaysia Westman Is. (Iceland), 606 Westmeath (Ireland), 700 West Memphis (Ark.), 1430 West Midlands (UK), 1284, 1297 Westminster (Colo.), 1435 Westminster (UK), 1287,1307 Westmoreland (Jamaica), 740 West New Britain (Papua New Guinea), 964-65 West Palm Beach (Fla.), 1444 Westphalia, see N. Rhine-Westphalia West Point (USA), 1394 West Sepik (Papua New Guinea), 964-65

Weststellingwerf (Neth.), 882 West Sussex (UK), 1285 West Virginia (USA), 1367, 1373,1378,1413, 1542-44 —agriculture, 1543 —area and pop., 1542 —education, 1544 —govt, and representation, 1542 West Wiltshire (UK), 1286 West Yorkshire (UK), 1284, 1286,1297 Wetaskiwin (Alb.), 293-94 Wewak (Papua New Guinea), 964 Wexford (Ireland), 700 Weybum (Sask.), 322 Weymouth (Mass.), 1473 Whangerei (NZ), 896-97 Wheat Ridge (Colo.), 1435 Wheeling (W. Va.), 1542 Whitehorse (Yukon), 326-28 White Nile (Sudan), 1121 White Plains (N.Y.), 1502 White Russia, see Belonissia Whitewater (Wise.), 1547 Whyalla (S. Aust.), 145,148 Wichita (Kans.), 1369,1460, 1462 Wichita Falls (Tex), 1530 Wicklow (Ireland), 700 Wien, see Vienna Wiener Neustadt (Austria), 171 Wierden (Neth.), 882 Wiesbaden (FRG), 536 Wigan (UK), 1286 Wigram (NZ), 900 Wigtown (UK), 1287 Wilkes-Barre (Pa.), 1519 Wilkes Land (Aust. Ant. Terr.), 127 Willemstad (Neth.), 893,895 Williamsburg (Va.), 1539 Williamstown (Mass.), 1475 Williamstown (Vic.), 100 Willis Is. (Aust.), 130 Wilmersdorf (FRG), 532 Wilmington (Del.), 1440-41 Wilmington (N.C.), 1505-06 Wilrijk (Belgium), 195 Wilton (UK), 1300 Wiltshire (UK), 1285 Winchester (UK), 1286,1337 Windhoek (S.W. Afr.), 1074, 1088-89 Windsor (Nfndlnd.), 306 Windsor (Ont.),269,314 Windsor and Maidenhead (UK), 1286

Windward Is. (Fr. Polyn.), 500 Windward Is. (Neth. Ant.), 893 Winneba (Ghana), 546 Winnipeg (Man.), 268,272-73, 300-02 Winona (Minn.), 1481 Winschoten (Neth.), 882 Winston-Salem (N.C.), 1369, 1505 Winterswick (Neth.), 882 Winterthur (Switz.), 1150 WIPO, 26-27 Wirrai (UK), 1286 Wisch (Neth.), 882 Wisconsin (USA), 1367-69, 1373,1378,1404,1413, 1544-48 —agriculture, 1546

INDEX Wisconsin (USA) (conld) —area and pop., 1545 —education, 1547-48 —govt, and representation, 1545 Witten (FRG), 518,541 Witwatercrand (S. Air.), 1072, 1079 Wloclawek (Poland), 992 WMO, 23 Wodonga (Vic.), 158 Woerden (Neth.), 882 Wokha (India), 659 Wokingham (UK), 1286 Woleu-Ntem (Gabon), 504 Wolfsberg (Austria), 171 Wolfsbuig (FRG), 518 Wollega (Ethiopia), 447 Wollo (Ethiopia), 446-47 Wollongong (NSW), 94,131 138 Woluwe St. Lambert (Belgium), 195 Woluwe St. Pierre (Belgium), 195 Wolverhampton (UK), 1286 Wonsan (N. Korea), 770,773 Woodboume (NZ), 900 Woodbridge (N.J.), 1496 Woodspring (UK), 1286 Woonsocket (R.I.), 1522 Worcester (Mass.), 1369,1473, 1475 World Confederation of Labour, 32,34 World Council of Churches, 31-32 World Fed. of Trade Unions, 32-34 World Health Organ., 16-18 Worsley (Aust.), 166 Worthing (UK), 1286 Wrekin (UK), 1286 Wrexham Maelor(UK), 1286 Wroclaw (Poland), 992-94 Wuhan (China), 347,352,354, 357 Wuppertal (FRG), 518 Württemberg, see Baden-W. Würzburg (FRG), 518, 532 Wusong (China), 354 Wychavon (UK), 1286 Wychen (Neth.), 882 Wycombe (UK), 1286 Wyoming (Mich.), 1476 Wyoming (USA), 1307,1372, 1378,1404,1548-50 —agriculture, 1549 —area and pop., 1548-49 —education, 1550 —govt, and representation, 1549 Wyre (UK), 1286 Wyre Forest (UK), 1286 Xaixai (Mozam.), 870 Xanthi (Greece), 555 Xian (China), 347-48,354,357 Xiangfan (China), 355 Xianggang (China), 346 Xieng Khouang (Laos), 781 Xining (China), 347,355 Xinjiang (China), 346,354-56 Xinjiang-Uygur (China), 346-47, 355 Xuzhou (China), 354 Yakima (Wash.), 1540 Yakut Rep. (USSR), 1239, 1246

Yakutsk (USSR), 1231,1246 Yalloum Works (Vic.), 155, 157-59 Yamalo (USSR), 1239 Yambol (Bulg.), 240,245 Yamoussoukro (Ivory Coast), 736 Yanam (India), 680 Yanaon (India), 636 Yanbu (Saudi Arabia), 1037, 1040-41 Yanggang (N. Korea), 770 Yang Ping Guan (China), 354 Yannina (Greece), 554 Yantai (China), 354 Yao (Japan), 745 Yaoundé (Cameroon), 263-64, 266 Yap (Pacific), 1561 Yaracuy (Venez.), 1575 Yarimca (Turkey), 1199 Yarmouth (N.S.), 310 Yaroslavl (USSR), 1212,1231, 1239 Yasoof (Iran), 688 Yasui (USSR), 1274 Yavan (USSR), 1274 Yazd (Iran), 688 Yefren (Libya), 797-98 Yekepa (Liberia), 791 Yellowknife (N.W. Terr.), 274,324-26 Yemen Arab Republic, 1594-96 Yemen People's Democratic Republic, 1597-1600 Yendi (Ghana), 549 Yengema(S. Leone), 1052 Yeotmal (India), 654 Yeovil (UK), 1286 Yerevan, see Erevan Yerim (Yemen), 1594 Yezd (Iran), 692 Yinchuan (China), 347,355 YolT (Senegal), 1045 Yogyakarta (Indon.), 682 Yokkaichi (Japan), 745 Yokohama (Japan), 745,750 Yokosuka (Japan), 745 Yonkere (N. Y.), 1369,1501 York (Pa.), 1519 York (UK), 1286, 1331-32, 1337,1339 Yorkton (Sask.), 322 Yoro (Hond.), 586 Yoshkar-Ola (USSR), 1212,1243 Youngstown (Ohio), 1369,1509, 1511 Youyiguan (China), 355 Yozgat (Turkey), 1194 Yucalpetén (Méx.), 853 Yucatán (Méx.), 848 Yuen Long (Hong Kong), 591 Yugoslavia, 1601-13 Yukon Territory (Canada), 26870,274-75,279,286-87, 326-28 —area and pop., 326-27 —education, 328 —govt, and representation, 327 Yuksam (Sikkim), 667 Yuma (Ariz.), 1428 Yumen (China), 354 Yundum (Gambia), 509 Yunlin (Taiwan), 359 Yunnan (China), 347,352-57 Yvelines (France), 480 Zaanstad (Neth.), 882

1675 Zaanstreek (Neth.), 882 Zabid (Yemen), 1595 Zabrze (Poland), 992 Zacapa (Guat.), 564 Zacatecas (Mex.), 848 Zadar(Yug.), 1601,1606 Zagazig (Egypt), 431,437 Zagreb (Yug.), 1601-02,1604, 1606-07,1610 Zahedan (Iran), 688,692 _ Zahle (Lebanon), 784 Zaire, 1614-18 Zaire (Angola), 80 Zakarpatskaya (USSR), 1248 Zakho (Iraq), 698 Zakynthos (Greece), 554 Zala (Hungary), 598,601 Zalaegerszeg (Hungary), 598 Zalau (Romania), 1013 Zaluzi (Czech.), 396 Zambezia (Mozamb.), 870,872 Zambia, 1619-22 Zamboanga (Philipp.), 984 Zamora (Ecuador), 426 Zamora (Spain), 1099 Zamora-Chinchipe (Ecuador), 426 Zamosc (Poland), 992 Zanderij (Suriname), 1127 Zanesville (Ohio), 1509 Zanjan (Iran), 688 Zante (Greece), 554 Zanzibar (Tanz.), 1165-69 Zapadoslovensky (Czech.), 394 Zapodoiesky (Czech.), 394 Zaporozhye (USSR), 1212, 1248 Zara (Yug.), 1601 Zaragoza (Spain), 1098-1100, 1102,1108 Zaria (Nigeria), 923 Zarka (Jordan), 753,755 Zamowiec (Poland), 99 5 Zavia (Libya), 795 Zeeland (Neth.), 880, 884 Zeewolde (Neth.), 881 Zehlindorf(FRG), 532 Zeist (Neth.), 882 Zelaya (Nicar.), 915-16 Zemun (Yug.), 1604 Zenica (Yug.), 1601 Zeravshan (USSR), 1271 Zevenaar (Neth.), 882 Zhanjiang (China), 351 Zhdanov (USSR), 1212 Zhejiang (China), 347 Zhengzhou (China), 347,354 Zhitomir (USSR), 1212,1248 Zhuzou (China), 354-55 Zielona-Gora (Poland), 992 Zifta (Egypt), 434 Ziguinchor (Senegal), 1043,1046 Zilina (Czech.), 394 Zimbabwe, 1623-28 Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, see Zimbabwe Zinder (Niger), 920-22 Zipaquira (Colom.), 366 Zizya (Jordan), 755 Zlatoust (USSR), 1212 Zlin, see Gottwaldov Zoetermeer (Neth.), 882 Zomba (Malawi), 811-12 Zonguldak (Turkey), 1194,1197, 1199 Zorzor (Liberia), 791 Zou (Benin), 207 Zouerate (Mauritan ia), 841 - 4 3

1676 Zrenjanin (Yug.), 1601 Zuara (Libya), 798 Zuénoula (Ivory Coast), 737 Zug(Switz.), 1151 Zuidejike (Neth.), 881 Zuid-Holland (Neth), 880,884

INDEX Zulia (Venez.), 1575,1578 Zululand (Natal), 1079,1084 Zunheboto (India), 659 Zürich (Switz.), 1 149-51, 1153, 1158-59 Zutphen (Neth.), 882

Zvishavane (Zimbabwe), 1623 Zwedru (Liberia), 791 Zwelitsha (Ciskei), 1096 Zwickau (GDR), 511 Zwijndrecht (Neth.). 882 Zwolle (Neth.), 882

PRODUCT

INDEX

Aluminium, see Bauxite Asbestos, production of: —Afghanistan, 63 —Brazil, 231 —Canada, 278 Newfoundland, 308 Quebec, 320 —China, 353 —Cyprus, 388 —India, Andhra Pradesh, 637 Bihar, 640 Madhya Pradesh, 649 Rajasthan, 664 —South Africa, 1074-75 Bophuthatswana, 1092 —Sudan, 1121 —Swaziland, 1130-31 —USSR, 1226 Tadzhikistan, 1274 Tuva, 1245 —USA, California, 1433 Vermont, 1536 —Venezuela, 1578 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Barley, world production of, xv Bauxite, production of: —Australia, N. Terr., 124 Queensland, 141 W. Aust., 165 —Brazil, 231 —Burkina Faso, 249 —Cameroon, 264 —China, 353 —Dominican Republic, 422 —France, 478 —Ghana, 548 —Greece, 557 —Guinea, 570-71 —Guinea-Bissau, 574 —Guyana, 577-78 —Haiti, 583 —Hungary, 601 —India, 625 — - A n d h r a Pradesh, 637 Goa, Daman and Diu, 678 Gujarat, 642 — - J a m m u and Kashmir, 647 ——Madhya Pradesh, 653 Maharashtra, 655 Tamil Nadu, 668 Uttar Pradesh, 671 —Indonesia, 684 —Italy, 730 —Jamaica, 742 —Mozambique, 871 —Pakistan, 954 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Romania, 1016 —Sierra Leone, 1051 —Suriname, 1126-27 —Togo, 1178 —USSR, 1226 Kazakhstan, 1267 —USA, 1396 Arkansas, 1431 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yugoslavia, 1605,1609-11 Cereals, world statistics, xin-xx Coal, production of: —Afghanistan, 63 —Albania, 69 —Algeria, 74

Coal, production of: —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 105,109 NSW, 134,136 Queensland, 141-43 ——S. Australia, 147 Tasmania, 152 Victoria, 158-59 W. Australia, 165 —Bangladesh, 188 —Belgium, 199 —Bhutan, 214 —Botswana, 223 —Brazil, 231 —Bulgaria, 243 —Burma, 253 —Canada, 278 Alberta, 295 British Columbia, 298-99 New Brunswick, 304 Nova Scotia, 312 Saskatchewan, 323 —Chile, 343 —China, 352 —Colombia, 366 —Czechoslovakia, 397 —France, 478 —Germany (GDR), 514 —Germany (FRG), 522,543 —Great Britain, 1312-13 —Greece, 557 —Hungary, 601 —India, 625-26 Andhra Pradesh, 637 Assam, 639 Bihar, 640 Gujarat, 642 Jammu and Kashmir, 647 Madhya Pradesh, 653 Maharashtra, 655 Meghalaya, 658 Orissa, 661 Tamil Nadu, 668 Uttar Pradesh, 671 West Bengal, 673 —Indonesia, 684 —Iran, 691 —Ireland, 706 —Japan, 748 —Korea, 767 —Korea, North, 772 —Mexico, 852 —Mongolia, 860 —Mozambique, 871-72 —New Zealand, 902 —Niger, 921 —Nigeria, 925 —Norway, 934-35 —Pakistan, 954 —Philippines, 987 —Poland, 995,997 —Portugal, 1004 —Romania, 1017 —South Africa, 1074 Natal, 1083 Venda, 1095 —Spain, 1104 —Sudan, 1121 —Svalbard, 941 —Swaziland, 1130 —Taiwan, 361 —Tanzania, 1167 —Thailand, 1173 —Tibet, 348 —Turkey, 1197-98 —USSR, 1226, 1228-29 Abhazia, 1256 Bashkino, 1240

1679

Coal, production of: Bunat, 1240 Georgia, 1255 Gorno-Altai, 1246 Gorno-Badakshan, 1274 Kabaidino-Balkar, 1242 Kazakhstan, 1267 Khakass, 1247 Kirghizia, 1275 Komi, 1243 Mari, 1244 RSFSR, 1239 Tadzhikistan, 1274 Turkmenistan, 1269 Ukraine, 1247-48 Uzbekistan, 1271 Yakut, 1246 —USA, 1397,1406 Alabama, 1423 Alaska, 1425 Colorado, 1436 Illinois, 1454 Indiana, 1456 Iowa, 1459 Kansas, 1461 Kentucky, 1463 Maryland, 1471 Missouri, 1485 Montana, 1487 New Mexico, 1500 North Dakota, 1508 Ohio, 1510 Oklahoma, 1512 Pennsylvania, 1519 -Tennessee, 1529 Virginia, 1538 Washington, 1540 West Virginia, 1543 Wyoming, 1549 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586-87 —Yugoslavia, 1604,1610,1612 —Zambia, 1621 —Zimbabwe, 1625 Cocoa, production of: —Bolivia, 219 —Brazil, 232 —Cameroon, 265 —Comoros, 370 —Congo, 373 —Costa Rica, 377 —Dominican Rep., 422 —Ecuador, 428 —Equatorial Guinea, 444 —Fiji, 457 —Gabon, 505 —Ghana, 548-49 —Grenada, 562 —Haiti, 583 —India, 625 —Ivory Coast, 738 —Jamaica, 742 —Liberia, 793 —Nicaragua, 917 —Nigeria, 926 —Panama, 960 —Papua New Guinea, 967 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Philippines, 987 —Sabah,825 —Säo Tomé e Principe, 1036 —Sierra Leone, 1051 —Solomon Is., 1062 —St Lucia, 1028 —St Vincent, 1031 —Sunname, 1126 —Tanzania, 1167

1680 Cocoa, production of: —Tobago, 1183 —Togo, 1178-79 —Trinidad, 1185 —Vanuatu, 1570 —Venezuela, 1578 —Western Samoa, 1592 Coffee, production of: —Angola, 80-81 —Benin, 208 —Bolivia, 219 —Brazil, 232-33 —Burundi, 257-58 —Cameroon, 265 —Cape Verde Is., 330 —Cent. Afr. Republic, 335 —Colombia, 366 —Comoros, 370 —Congo, 373 —Costa Rica, 377 —Cuba, 383 —Dominican Rep., 422 —Ecuador, 428 —El Salvador, 440 —Equatorial Guinea, 444 —Ethiopia, 449 —Gabon, 505 —Ghana, 548 —Grenada, 562 —Guatemala, 566 —Guinea, 571 —Haiti, 583 —Honduras, 588 —India, 625-26,628 Andaman Is., 675 Arunachal Pradesh, 676 Kamataka, 649 Kerala, 650 Nagaland, 659 Tamil Nadu, 668-69 —Indonesia, 685 —Ivory Coast, 738 —Kenya, 759 —Laos, 781 —Liberia, 793 —Madagascar, 809 —Mayotte,492 —Mexico, 852-53 —New Caledonia, 499 —Nicaragua, 917 —Panama, 960 —Papua New Guinea, 967 —Paraguay, 973 —Peru, 980 —Philippines, 987 —Rwanda, 1022-23 —Sâo Tomé e Principe, 1036 —Sierra Leone, 1051 —South Africa, Venda, 1095 —Suriname, 1126 —Tanzania, 1167-68 —Togo, 1178-79 —Uganda, 1208 —Vanuatu, 1570 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yemen, Arab Republic, 1595 —Zaïre, 1616-17 —Zimbabwe, 1625 Copper, production of: —Afghanistan, 63 —Albania, 69 —Algeria, 74 —Angola, 80 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 105

INDEX Copper, production of: NSW, 134 N.Terr., 124 Queensland, 141,143 S.Aust., 147 Tasmania, 152-53 Western Australia, 165 —Bhutan, 214 —Botswana, 223 —Burma, 253 —Canada, 278 British Colombia, 298-99 -Manitoba, 302 New Brunswick, 304 Newfoundland, 308 NW Terr., 325 Ontario, 316 Quebec, 320 Saskatchewan, 323 —Chile, 343-44 —China, 353 —Colombia, 366 —Congo, 373 —Cuba, 382 —Czechoslovakia, 397 —Ecuador, 428 —Finland, 464 —Great Bntain, 1313 —Guatemala, 566 —Guyana, 577 —Honduras, 588 —India, 625 Bihar, 640-41 Madhya Pradesh, 653 Rajasthan, 664 Sikkim,666 Uttar Pradesh, 671 —Indonesia, 684-85 —Iran, 691 —Japan,749 —Korea, 767 —Korea, North, 772 —Lebanon,785 —Mauritania, 842 —Mexico, 852 —Mongolia, 860 —New Caledonia, 498 —Nicaragua, 917 —Norway, 933 —Oman, 946 —Pakistan, 954 —Panama, 960 —Papua New Guinea, 966-68 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Peru, 980-81 —Philippines, 987-88 —Poland, 995-96 —Romania, 1016 —Sabah, 825 —South Africa, 1074-75 Venda, 1095 —Spain, 1104 —Sudan, 1121 —Sweden, 1139-40 —Taiwan, 361 —Tanzania, 1167 —Thailand, 1173 —Turkey, 1197-98 —USSR, 1226 Armenia, 1258 Azerbaijan, 1252-53 Karelia, 1243 Kazakhstan, 1267 RSFSR, 1239 Uzbekistan, 1271 —USA, 1396 Alaska, 1426 Arizona, 1428

Copper, production of: California, 1433 Idaho, 1451 Maine, 1468 Michigan, 1477 Montana, 1487 New Mexico, 1500 Oklahoma, 1513 Oregon. 1516 Utah, 1534 Wisconsin, 1546 —Venezuela, 1578 —Yugoslavia, 1605,1611-12 —Zaire, 1616-17 —Zambia, 1621 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Cotton, production of: —Afghanistan, 63-64 —Albania, 69 —Angola, 80 —Antigua, 85 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, NSW, 134 Queensland, 142 —Benin, 208 —Bolivia, 219 —Brazil, 232 —Bulgaria, 243 —Burkina Faso, 249 —Burma, 253 —Burundi, 258 —Cameroon, 265 —Cent. Afr. Republic, 335 —Chad, 338 —China, 353 —Cuba, 383 —Egypt, 435 —El Salvador, 440 —Gambia, 508 —Ghana, 548 —Greece, 558 —Grenada, 562 —Guatemala, 566 —Haiti, 583 —Honduras, 588 —India, 625,629 Andhra Pradesh, 637 Assam, 639 Gujarat, 642 Haryana, 644 Kamataka, 649 Madhya Pradesh, 653 Maharashtra, 655 Meghalaya, 658 Pondicherry, 680 Punjab, 663 Rajasthan, 664 Tamil Nadu, 668 —Iraq, 697 —Israel, 719 —Ivory Coast, 738 — Kenya, 759 —Laos, 781 —Madagascar, 809 —Malawi, 813 —Mali, 833-34 —Mexico, 852 —Nicaragua. 917 —Niger, 921 —Nigeria, 926 —Pakistan, 954-55 —Paraguay, 973 —Peru, 980 —St Kitts, 1024 —Somalia, 1065 —South Africa, 1075 —Spain, 1105

INDEX Cotton, production of: —Sudan, 1121-22 —Swaziland, 1131 —Syria, 1163 —Tanzania, 1167-68 —Thailand, 1173 —Togo, 1178-79 —Turkey, 1197-98 —Uganda, 1208 —USSR, 1227,1230 Armenia, 1258 Azerbaijan, 1252-53 Kara Kalpak, 1272 Kazakhstan, 1267 Kirghizia, 1276 Nagorno Karabakh, 1254 Nakhichevan, 1253 Tadzhikistan, 1273 Turkmenistan, 1269 Ukraine, 1248 Uzbekistan, 1271 —USA, 1399,1406 Alabama, 1423 Arizona, 1429 California, 1433 Georgia, 1447 Louisiana, 1466 Mississippi, 1482 Missouri, 1485 New Mexico, 1500 Oklahoma, 1513 South Carolina, 1524 Tennessee, 1529 Texas, 1531 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yemen, Arab Republic, 1595 —Yemen, Rep. of, 1599 —Yugoslavia, 1610 —Zaire, 1616 —Zambia, 1621 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Diamonds, production of: —Angola, 80-81 —Australia, 165 —Botswana, 223 —Brazil, 232 —Cent. Afr. Republic, 335 —Ghana, 548 —Guinea, 570 —Guyana, 577 —India, 626 Madhya Pradesh, 653 —Ivory Coast, 738 —Lesotho, 789 —Liberia, 792 —Sierra Leone, 1051 —South Africa, 1074-75 Bophuthatswana, 1092 SW Africa, 1089 —Tanzania, 1167 —USSR, Yakut, 1246 —Venezuela, 1578 —Zaire, 1616-17 Energy, statistics, xxiv Gold, production of: —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 105 NSW, 134 N.Terr., 124 Queensland, 141 Victoria, 159 W.Aust., 165 —Bolivia,219 —Brazil, 232

Gold, production of: —Cambodia, 261 —Canada, 278 Manitoba, 302 New Brunswick, 304 Newfoundland, 308 NW Terr., 325 Ontario, 316 Quebec, 320 Saskatchewan, 323 Yukon, 327 —China, 353 —Colombia, 366 —Congo, 373 —Costa Rica, 377 —Cuba, 382 —Dominican Republic, 422 —Ecuador, 428 —Ethiopia, 449 —Fiji, 457 —Gabon, 505 —Ghana, 548-49 —Guyana, 577 —Honduras, 588 —India, 625-26 Karnataka, 648 Madhya Pradesh, 653 Sikkim, 666 —Indonesia, 684 —Japan, 749 —Kenya, 759 —Korea, 767 —Liberia, 792 —Madagascar, 809 —Mexico, 852 —Mozambique, 871 —New Caledonia, 498 —New Zealand, 901 —Nicaragua, 917 —Nigeria, 925 —Pakistan, 954 —Papua New Guinea, 966-68 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Peru, 980 —Philippines, 987-88 —Portugal, 1004 —Sarawak, 828 —Sierra Leone, 1051 —South Africa, 1074-75 —South Africa, Orange Free State, 1086 -Transvaal, 1085 —Sudan, 1121 —Taiwan, 361 —Tanzania, 1167 —Thailand, 1173 —USSR, 1226 Buriat, 1240 Gomo, Altai, 1246 Gorno-Badakhshan, 1274 RSFSR, 1239 Tuva, 1245 Uzbekistan, 1271 Yakut, 1246 —USA, 1396 Alaska, 1426 Arizona, 1428 California, 1433 Idaho, 1451 Montana, 1487 Nevada, 1492 Oregon, 1516 South Dakota, 1526 Utah,1534 Wisconsin, 1546 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yugoslavia, 1605

1681 Gold, production of: —Zaire, 1616 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Graphite, production of: —Austria, 173 —Bhutan, 214 —Brazil, 231 —China, 353 —Czechoslovakia, 397 —India, 640 Bihar, 650 Kerala, 650 Orissa, 660-61 —Madagascar, 809 —South Africa, Venda, 1095 —Sri Lanka, 1114-15 —Sudan, 1121 —USSR, 1226 Iron and steel, production of: —Algeria, 74-75 —Angola, 80 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 105 NSW, 135-36 S.Aust., 147 — - T a s m a n i a , 152-53 W.Aust., 165, 167 —Austria, 173-74 —Bahrain, 183 —Bangladesh, 188 —Belgium, 199 —Brazil, 232-33 —Bulgaria, 243-44 —Cambodia, 261 —Canada, 278 Labrador, 308 Newfoundland, 308 Ontario, 316 Quebec, 320 —Chile, 343-44 —China, 352-53 —Cuba, 382 —Cyprus, 388 —Czechoslovakia, 397 —Ecuador, 428 —Egypt, 434-35 —Finland, 464 —France, 478 —Gabon, 505 —Germany (GDR), 514 —Germany (FGR), 522,540, 543 —Great Britain, 1313 —Greece, 557-58 —Guinea, 570 —Honduras, 588 —Hungary, 601-02 —India, 625-27,629 Andhra Pradesh, 637 Bihar, 640 Goa, Daman and Diu, 678 Haryana, 644 Karnataka, 648 Kerala, 650 - — - M a d h y a Pradesh, 653 Maharashtra, 655 Orissa, 660-61 Tripura, 670 West Bengal, 673 —Iran,691 —Italy, 730-32 —Japan,749 —Kenya, 759 —Korea, 767 —Korea, North, 772 —Laos, 781

1682 Iron and steel, production of: —Lebanon, 785 —Liberia, 792-93 —Libya, 797 —Luxembourg, 805 —Mauritania, 842-43 —Mexico, 852 —Morocco, 868 —New Caledonia, 498 —New Zealand, 903 —Nigeria, 925 —Norway, 933,935 —Pakistan, 954-55 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Peru, 980-81 —Philippines, 988 —Poland, 995-96 —Qatar, 1011 —Romania, 1016-17 —S. Africa, 1074 Bophuthatswana, 1092 Natal, 1084 —Saudi Arabia, 1041 —Senegal, 1045 —Sierra Leone, 1051 —Spain, 1104-06 —Sudan, 1121 —Swaziland, 1130-31 —Sweden, 1138-39 —Switzerland, 1154 —Taiwan, 361 —Tanzania, 1167 —Thailand, 1173 —Togo, 1178 —Trinidad, 1185 —Tunisia, 1190 —Turkey, 1198 —USSR, 1226, 1228-30 Azerbaijan, 1252 Bashkiria, 1240 Georgia, 1255 Karelia, 1243 Kazakhstan, 1267 RSFSR, 1239 Ukraine, 1249 Uzbekistan, 1271 —UAE, 1280 —USA, 1396,1406 Alabama, 1423 California, 1433 Indiana, 1457 Michigan, 1477 Minnesota, 1479 Missouri, 1485 Nevada, 1492 Pennsylvania, 1520 Tennessee, 1529 Wisconsin, 1546 Wyoming, 1549 —Venezuela, 1578-79 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yugoslavia, 1605,1609, 1610-13 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Lead, production of: —Algeria, 74 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 105 NSW, 134 Northern Territory, 124 Queensland, 141,143 Tasmania, 152-53 —Austria, 173 —Bhutan, 214 —Brazil, 231 —Burkina Faso, 249 —Burma, 253

INDEX Lead, production of: —Canada, 278 New Brunswick, 304 Newfoundland, 308 NW Terr., 325 •—-Yukon, 327 —Chile, 343 —China, 353 —Colombia, 366 —Congo, 373 —Czechoslovakia, 397 —Ecuador, 428 —Finland, 464 —Great Britain, 1313 —Greenland, 413 —Guatemala, 566 —Honduras, 588 —India, 625 Bihar, 640 Madhya Pradesh, 653 Orissa, 661 Rajasthan, 664 Sikkim, 666 —Iran, 691 —Ireland, 706 —Italy, 730 —Japan, 749 —Korea, 767 —Korea, North, 772 —Mexico, 852 —Morocco, 868 —New Caledonia, 498 —Nigeria, 925 —Norway, 933 —Peru, 980-81 —Philippines, 987 —Poland, 995-96 —Spain, 1104 —Sudan, 1121 —Sweden, 1139-40 —Thailand, 1173 —Tunisia, 1190 —Turkey, 1197 —USSR, 1226 Azerbaijan, 1252 Karelia, 1243 Kazakhstan, 1267 RSFSR, 1239 Tadzhikistan, 1274 Yakut, 1246 —USA, 1396 Alaska, 1426 Arizona, 1428 California, 1433 Idaho,1451 Kansas, 1461 Kentucky, 1463 Maine, 1468 Missouri, 1485 Nevada, 1492 Oregon, 1516 Utah, 1534 Virginia, 1538 Wisconsin, 1546 —Yugoslavia, 1605 —Zambia, 1621 Maize, world production of, xvn Manganese, production of: —Angola, 80 —Aigentina, 91 —Australia, N. Terr., 124 —Brazil, 231 —Bulgaria, 243 —Burkina Faso, 249 —Chile, 343 —China. 353

Manganese, production of: —Colombia, 366 —Gabon, 505 —Ghana, 548 —Guyana, 577 —India, 625-26 Bihar, 640 Goa, Daman and Diu, 678 Karnataka, 648 Madhya Pradesh, 653 Maharashtra, 655 Orissa, 660-61 Tamil Nadu, 668 —Iran, 691 —Italy, 730 —Japan,749 —Korea, North, 772 —Mexico, 852 —Morocco, 868 —New Caledonia, 498 —Romania, 1016 —S. Africa, 1074-75 Bophuthatswana, 1092 —Sudan, 1121 —Syria, 1163 —Thailand, 1173 —USSR, 1226 Georgia, 1255 Kazakhstan, 1267 Ukraine, 1249 —USA, Minnesota, 1480 —Vanuatu, 1570 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yugoslavia, 1605 —Zaire, 1616 Millet, world production of, xix Nickel, production of: —Albania, 69 —Australia, Queensland, 141 W. Aust., 165 —Botswana, 223 —Burkina Faso, 249 —Burma, 253 —Canada, 278 Manitoba, 302 New Brunswick, 304 Ontano, 316 —Cuba, 382 —Dominican Rep., 422 —Finland, 464 —Greece, 557-58 —Indonesia, 684 —Mongolia, 860 —New Caledonia, 498-99 —Norway, 933 —Philippines, 987 —South Africa, 1074 —Tanzania, 1167 —USSR, Kazakhstan, 1267 —USA, Oregon, 1516 —Venezuela, 1578 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Oats, world production of, xvi Oil, world production of, xxii-xxiv, see also —Albania, 68-69 —Algeria, 74-75 —Angola, 80-81 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 109 New South Wales, 136 Northern Terr., 124 Victoria, 158

INDEX Oil, production of: W. Aust., 165,167 —Austria, 173 —Bahrain, 182 —Bangladesh, 188 —Barbados, 192 —Benin, 208 —Bolivia, 218 —Brazil, 231 —Brunei, 238-39 —Bulgaria, 243 —Burma, 253 —Cameroon, 264-65 —Canada, 278 Alberta, 294-95 British Columbia, 298 Manitoba, 302 New Brunswick, 304 Newfoundland, 308 NW Territory, 325 Saskatchewan, 323 —Chad, 338 —Chile, 343 —China, 352,354 —Colombia, 366 —Congo, 373-74 —Cuba, 382 —Ecuador, 428 —Egypt, 434-35 —El Salvador, 440 —Ethiopia, 449 —France, 477 —Gabon, 505 —Germany (FRG), 522 —Ghana, 548 —Great Britain, 1312 —Greece, 557 —Guatemala, 566 —Guyana, 577 —Hungary, 601 —India, 624 Assam, 639 Gujarat, 642 —Indonesia, 684-85 —Iran, 690-91 —Iraq, 697 —Israel, 718 —Italy, 730 —Ivory Coast, 738 —Japan, 748 —Korea, North, 772 —Kuwait, 776-77 —Libya, 797 —Mexico, 851-53 —Morocco, 868 —Netherlands, 887 —New Zealand, 902 —Norway, 933-36 —Oman, 946 —Pakistan, 953 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Peru, 980 —Poland, 996 —Qatar, 1011 —Romania, 1016 —Sabah, 825 —Sarawak, 828 —Saudi Arabia, 1039-40 —South Africa, 1074 —Spain, 1104 —Sudan, 1121 —Sweden, 1139 —Syria, 1162 —Taiwan, 361 —Thailand, 1173 —Trinidad, 1185 —Tunisia, 1190 —Turkey, 1197-98

Oil, production of: —USSR, 1225-26, 1228,1230 Azerbaijan, 1252 Bashkiria, 1240 Checheno-Ingush, 1241 Georgia, 1255 Kazakhstan, 1267 Komi, 1243 RSFSR, 1239 Tadzhikistan, 1274 Turkmenistan, 1269 Ukraine, 1249 Uzbekistan, 1271 —UAE, 1279 —USA, 1397,1406 Alaska, 1425-26 Arkansas, 1431 California, 1433 Colorado, 1436 Illinois, 1454 Indiana, 1456 Kansas, 1461 Kentucky, 1463 Louisiana, 1466 Michigan, 1477 Mississippi, 1482 Montana, 1487 Nebraska, 1489 Nevada, 1492 New Mexico, 1500 New York, 1502 North Dakota, 1508 Ohio, 1510 Oklahoma, 1512-13 Pennsylvania, 1519 Texas. 1531 Utah, 1534 West Virginia, 1543 Wyoming, 1549 —Venezuela, 1577-78 —Yugoslavia, 1605,1610,1613 —Zaïre, 1616 Opium, world production of: —India, 626 —Laos, 781 Rice, world production of, xviii, see also: —Afghanistan, 63 —Albania, 69 —Argentina, 91 —Australia (NSW), 134 —Bangladesh, 188 —Benin, 208 —Bhutan,214 —Bolivia, 219 —Brazil, 232 —Brunei, 238 —Bulgaria, 243 —Burkina Faso, 249 —Burma, 253 —Cambodia, 261 —Central Afr. Republic, 335 —Chad, 338 —Chile, 343 —China, 353 —Comoros, 370 —Costa Rica, 377 —Cuba, 383 —Dominican Republic, 422 —Ecuador, 428 —Egypt, 435 —El Salvador, 440 —Fiji, 457 —France, 478 —Gabon, 505 —Gambia, 508

1683 Rice, production of: —Ghana, 548 —Greece, 558 —Guiana (Fr.), 489 —Guinea, 570-71 —Guinea-Bissau, 574 —Guyana, 577-78 —Haiti, 583 —India, 625,628 Andaman Is., 675 Andhra Pradesh, 637 Arunachal Pradesh, 676 Assam, 639 Bihar, 641 Dadra and Nagar Haveli, 676 Goa, Daman, Diu, 678 Gujarat, 642 Himachal Pradesh, 645 Jammu and Kashmir, 647 Kamataka, 649 Kerala, 650 Maharashtra, 655 Manipur, 657 Nagaland, 659 Orissa,66l Pondicherry, 680 Punjab, 663 Sikkim,666 Tamil Nadu, 668 Tripura, 670 West Bengal, 673 —Indonesia, 684 —Iran, 691 —Iraq, 697 —Italy, 731 —Ivory Coast, 738 —Japan, 749 —Kenya, 759 —Korea, 767 —Korea, North, 772 —Laos, 781 —Liberia, 793 —Madagascar, 809 —Malawi, 813 —Mali, 833 —Mauritania, 842 —Mexico, 852 —Mozambique, 871 —Nepal, 877 —Nicaragua, 917 —Niger, 921 —Nigeria, 926 —Pakistan, 954-55 —Panama, 960 —Papua New Guinea, 967 —Paraguay, 973 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Philippines, 987 —Portugal, 1004 —Senegal, 1045 —Sierra Leone, 1051 —Solomon Is., 1062 —Spain, 1104 —Sri Lanka, 1114 —Suriname, 1126-27 —Swaziland, 1131 —Taiwan, 361 —Tanzania, 1167 —Thailand, 1173-74 —Togo, 1179 —Turkey, 1198 —USSR, Azerbaijan, 1252 Kirghizia, 1276 Tadzhikistan, 1273 Uzbekistan, 1271 —USA, 1399 Arkansas, 1431

1684 Rice, production of: California, 1433 Louisiana, 1466 Minnesota, 1480 Mississippi, 1482 —Uruguay, 1565-66 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586 —Zaïre, 1616 Rubber, production of: —Brazil, 232 —Brunei, 239 —Cambodia, 261 —Cameroon, 265 —Colombia, 366 —El Salvador, 440 —Ghana, 548 —Guinea-Bissau, 574 —India, Andaman Is., 675 Arunachal Pradesh, 676 Kerala, 650 Tamil Nadu, 668 —Indonesia, 685 —Ivory Coast, 738 —Liberia, 793 —Nigeria, 926 —Papua New Guinea, 967 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Philippines, 987 —Sabah, 825 —Sarawak, 828 —Sri Lanka, 1114-15 —Thailand, 1174 —USSR, Azerbaijan, 1252 Belorussia, 1251 Kazakhstan, 1267 Ukraine, 1248 —Vietnam, 1586 —Zaire, 1616 Rye, world production of, xiv Silver, production of: —Argentina, 91 —Australia (NSW), 134 N. Terr., 124 Queensland, 141 Tasmania, 152 —Brazil, 232 —Burma, 253 —Canada, 278 British Columbia, 298 Manitoba, 302 New Brunswick, 304 Newfoundland, 308 NW Terr., 325 Saskatchewan, 323 Yukon, 327 —China, 353 —Colombia, 366 —Cuba, 382 —Dominican Republic, 422 —Ecuador, 428 —Guatemala, 566 —Honduras, 588 —India, 625 Bihar, 640 Karnataka, 648 Rajasthan, 664 Sikkim,666 —Indonesia, 684 —Japan, 749 —Korea, 767 —Mexico, 852 —Morocco, 868 —New Caledonia, 498 —Nicaragua,9l7

INDEX Silver, production of: —Pakistan, 954 —Papua New Guinea, 966-67 —Peru, 980 —Philippines, 987 —S.Africa, 1074-75 —Thailand, 1173 —USSR, 1226 Karelia, 1243 Yakut, 1246 —USA, 1396 Alaska, 1426 Arizona, 1428 Idaho, 1451 Kentucky, 1463 Maine, 1468 Montana, 1487 Nevada, 1492 Oklahoma, 1513 Oregon, 1516 S.Dakota, 1526 Utah, 1534 Wisconsin, 1546 —Yugoslavia, 1605 —Zaire, 1616 —Zimbabwe, 1625 Sorghum, world production of, xx Sugar, world production of, xxi see also: —Albania, 69 —Angola, 80 —Antigua, 85 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 106,109 NSW, 134 Queensland, 142-43 —Austria, 173 —Bangladesh, 188 —Barbados, 192 —Belgium, 199 —Belize, 205 —Bolivia, 219 —Brazil, 232 —Burma, 253 —Cambodia, 261 —Cameroon, 265 —Cape Verde Is., 330 —Chile, 343 —China, 353 —Colombia, 366 —Comoro Is., 370 —Congo, 373 —Costa Rica, 377 —Cuba, 383 —Czechoslovakia, 397 —Dominican Republic, 422 —Ecuador, 428 —Egypt, 435 —El Salvador, 440 —Ethiopia, 449 —Fiji, 457 —France, 478 —Gabon, 505 —Germany (GDR), 514 —Germany (FRG), 523,529, 531,537-38,540-41, 543-44 —Ghana, 548 —Great Britain, 1314 —Greece, 558 —Grenada, 562 —Guadeloupe, 487-88 —Guatemala, 566 —Guiana (Fr.), 489 —Guinea, 571 —Guinea-Bissau, 574

Sugar, production of: —Guyana, 577-78 —Haiti, 583 —Honduras, 588 —Hungary, 602 —India, 625,629 Andhra Pradesh, 637 Assam, 639 Bihar, 641 Delhi, 677 Haryana, 644 Karnataka, 649 Kerala, 650 Madhya Pradesh, 653 Maharashtra, 655 Orissa, 661 Pondicherry, 680 Punjab, 663 Rajasthan, 664 Tamil Nadu, 668 Tripura,670 Uttar Pradesh, 671 —Indonesia, 685 —Iran, 691 —Ireland, 706 —Israel, 719 —Italy, 731 —Ivory Coast, 738 —Jamaica, 742 —Japan,749 —Kenya, 759 —Lebanon,785 —Liberia, 793 —Madagascar, 809 —Mali, 833 —Martinique, 491 —Mauritius, 846 —Mexico, 852 —Morocco, 868 —Nepal, 877 —Netherlands, 887 —Nicaragua, 917 —Niger, 921 —Pakistan, 954 —Panama, 960 —Papua New Guinea, 967 —Paraguay, 973 —Peru, 980 —Philippines, 987-88 —Poland, 996 —Puerto Rico, 1554 —Réunion, 494 —Romania, 1017 —Senegal, 1045 —Somalia, 1065 —S.Africa, 1075 Natal, 1084 —Spain, 1104 —St. Kitts, 1024-25 —Sudan, 1122 —Suriname, 1126 —Swaziland, 1130-31 —Sweden, 1139 —Switzerland, 1154 —Syria, 1163 —Taiwan, 361 —Tanzania, 1167 —Thailand, 1173-74 —Trinidad, 1185 —Turkey, 1197 —Uganda, 1208 —USSR, 1227 Armenia, 1258 — B e l o r u s s i a , 1251 Georgia, 1255 Kazakhstan, 1267 Kirghizia, 1275-76 Latvia, 1263

1685

INDEX Sugar, production of: Lithuania, 1264 Moldavia, 1259 Mordovia, 1244 Tadzhikistan, 1273 Ukraine, 1248 —USA, California, 1433 Colorado, 1436 Rorida, 1445 Hawaii, 1449 Idaho, 1452 Louisiana, 1466 Michigan, 1477 Minnesota, 1480 Montana, 1487 Nebraska, 1490 North Dakota, 1508 Puerto Rico, 1554 Wyoming, 1549 —Venezuela, 1578 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yugoslavia, 1605,1610, 1612-13 —Zaïre, 1616 —Zambia, 1621 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Tea, production of: —Argentina, 91 —Bangladesh, 188 —Burundi, 258 —China, 353 —India, 625-26,628 Assam, 639 Kerala, 650 Nagaland, 659 Sikkim, 666 Tamil Nadu, 668-69 • Tripura, 670 —Indonesia, 685 —Iran, 691 —Japan, 749 —Kenya, 759 —Laos, 781 —Malawi, 813 —Mauritius, 846 —Mozambique, 871-72 —Papua New Guinea, 967 —Paraguay, 973 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Rwanda, 1022 —Seychelles, 1048 —South Africa, Transkei, 1093 Venda, 1095 —Sri Lanka, 1114-15 —Taiwan, 361 —Turkey, 1198 —Uganda, 1208 —USSR.Abhazia, 1256 Adjara, 1256 Azerbaijan, 1252 Georgia, 1255 —Vietnam, 1586 —Zimbabwe, 1625 Tin, production of: —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 105 N.S.W., 134 Northern Territory, 124 Queensland, 141 Tasmania, 152-53 W.Aust., 165 —Bolivia,218 —Brazil, 232 —Burma, 253 —Canada, New Brunswick, 304 —China, 353

Tin, production of: —Great Britain, 1313 —India, Madhya Pradesh, 653 —Indonesia, 684-85 —Laos, 781 —Mongolia, 860 —Niger, 921 —Nigeria, 925 —Norway, 933 —Peninsular Malaysia, 821 —Portugal, 1004 —Rwanda, 1022-23 —S. Africa, 1074 —Spain, 1104 —Tanzania, 1167 —Thailand, 1173-74 —USSR, Karelia, 1243 RSFSR, 1239 Yakut, 1246 —USA, Alaska, 1426 Tobacco, production of: —Albania, 69 —Angola, 80 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, Queensland, 142 —Bangladesh, 188 —Belgium, 199 —Brazil, 232 —Bulgaria, 243-44 —Canada, 279-80,284 —Costa Rica, 377 —Cuba, 383 —Dominican Republic, 422 —Fiji, 457 —France, 478 —Germany (FRG), 541 —Ghana, 548 —Greece, 558 —Guyana, 577 —Honduras, 588 —India, 628 Andhra Pradesh, 637 Bihar, 641 Karnataka, 649 Tamil Nadu, 668 —Indonesia, 685 —Iran, 691 —Israel, 718 —Italy, 731 —Japan,749 —Korea, 767 —Laos, 781 —Libya, 798 —Madagascar, 809 —Malawi, 813 —Mauritius, 846 —Nigeria, 926 —Paraguay, 973 —Philippines, 987 —Réunion, 494 —South Africa, 1076 —Spain, 1105 —Swaziland, 1131 —Switzerland, 1154 —Tanzania, 1167-68 —Thailand, 1173 —Turkey, 1197-98 —Uganda, 1208 —USSR, Abhazia, 1256 Azerbaijan, 1252 Georgia, 1255 Kazakhstan, 1267 Kirghizia, 1275 Moldavia, 1260 Nakhichevan, 1252 Ukraine, 1248 —USA, 1399,1406

Tobacco, production of: Connecticut, 1438 Florida, 1445 Georgia, 1447 Indiana, 1457 Kentucky, 1463 Maryland, 1471 Massachusetts, 1474 North Carolina, 1506 Pennsylvania, 1519 Puerto Rico, 1554 South Carolina, 1524 Tennessee, 1529 Virginia, 1538 West Virginia, 1543 Wisconsin, 1547 —Venezuela, 1578-79 —Vietnam, 1586 —Yugoslavia, 1605,1610 —Zambia, 1621 —Zimbabwe, 1625-26 Tungsten, production of: —Argentina, 91 —Australia, Tasmania, 153 —Brazil, 231 —Burma, 253 —Canada, New Brunswick, 304 NW Terr., 325 —China, 353 —Guatemala, 566 —Japan,749 —Korea, 767 —Mongolian Rep., 860 —Nicaragua, 917 —Portugal, 1004 —Rwanda, 1022 —Spain, 1104 —Thailand, 1173 —Turkey, 1197 —USSR, 1226 Buriat, 1240 Georgia, 1255 Kazakhstan, 1267 —USA, California, 1433 Nevada, 1492 Utah, 1534 Uranium production of: —Argentina, 91 —Australia, N. Terr., 124 Queensland, 141 —Bolivia,219 —Canada, Labrador, 308 ——New Brunswick, 304 Saskatchewan, 323 —Czechoslovakia, 397 —Gabon, 505 —Germany (GDR), 514 —Guyana, 577 —Mexico, 852 —Niger, 921 —Nigeria, 925 —North Korea, 772 —Pakistan, 954 —Portugal, 1004 —Romania, 1016 —Somalia, 1065 —Spain, 1104 —Sweden, 1139 —USSR, 1226 Tadzhikistan, 1274 —USA, New Mexico, 1500 Oregon, 1516 Utah,1534 Washington, 1540 Wyoming, 1549

1686 Wheat, world production of, xiu Wolfram, see Tungsten Zinc, production of: —Algeria, 74 —Argentina, 91 —Australia, 105 NSW, 134 Queensland, 141 Tasmania, 152-53 Western Australia, 165 —Austria, 173 —Burkina Faso, 249 —Burma, 253 —Canada, 278 Manitoba, 302 New Brunswick, 304 Newfoundland, 308 NW Terr., 325 Quebec, 320 Saskatchewan, 323 Yukon, 327 —Chile, 343 —China, 353 —Congo, 373 —Ecuador, 428 —Finland, 464

INDEX Zinc, production of: —Gabon, 505 —Great Britain, 1313 —Green land, 413 —Guatemala, 566 —Honduras, 588 —India, 625 Bihar, 641 Rajasthan, 664 Sikkim, 666 —Iran, 691 —Ireland, 706 —Italy, 730 —Japan, 749 —Korea, North, 772 —Mexico, 852 —Mongolia, 860 —Morocco, 868 —Nigeria, 925 —Norway, 933 —Peru, 980-81 —Philippines, 987 —Poland, 995-96 —South Africa, 1074-75 —Spain, 1104 —Sudan, 1121 —Sweden, 1139 —Thailand, 1173

Zinc, production of: —Tunisia, 1190 —USSR, 1226 Armenia, 1258 Azerbaijan, 1252 Karelia, 1243 Kazakhstan, 1267 RSFSR, 1239 Tadzhikistan, 1274 —USA, 1396 California, 1433 Idaho,1451 Kansas, 1461 Kentucky, 1463 Maine, 1468 Missouri, 1485 Montana, 1487 Nevada, 1492 New Jersey, 1497 New York, 1502 Tennessee, 1529 Utah, 1534 Virginia, 1538 Wisconsin, 1546 —Yugoslavia, 1605 —Zaire, 1616 —Zambia, 1621