The Reports of the Last British Consul in Trabzon, 1949-1956: A Foreigner's Perspective on a Region in Transformation 9781463225773

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T h e Reports of the Last British Consul in Trabzon, 1949-1956

Analecta Isisiana: Ottoman and Turkish Studies

A co-publication with The Isis Press, Istanbul, the series consists of collections of thematic essays focused on specific themes of Ottoman and Turkish studies are brought together in Analecta Isisiana. These scholarly volumes address important issues throughout Turkish history, offering in a single volume the accumulated insights of a single author over a career of research on the subject.

The Reports of the Last British Consul in Trabzon, 1949-1956

A Foreigner's Perspective on a Region in Transformation

Christopher Harris

The Isis Press, Istanbul

pre** 2010

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2010 by The Isis Press, Istanbul Originally published in 2005 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of The Isis Press, Istanbul. 2010

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ISBN 978-1-61719-123-7

Printed in the United States of America

Consul Vorley Harris, 1951

TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Profile of Consul Vorley Harris Facts and Figures The Consulate at Trabzon, 1951 Tour Reports, by date order - Vilayet of Rize, July 1950 - Vilayets of Van and Agri/Karakose, October 1951, including Route Report - The Eastern Black Sea Zone, July 1952 - The Vilayet of Trabzon, July 1952 - T h e Vilayet of Giresun, July 1952 - The Vilayet of Ordu, July 1952 - The Vilayets of Gumii§hane, Erzurum and Kars, including subsequent correspondence re. Serderabad Barrage, November 195 2 - Tours in Eastern Anatolia: The Vilayet of Samsun, June-July 1953 - The Vilayets of Amasya and Ordu, September 1953 - Joint Visit with H.M. Ambassador Through North Eastern Turkey, Summer 1954 - The Vilayets of Sinop and Tokat, September 1954 - The Vilayets of Rize and £oruh, October 1955 including Route Reports Political Reports, by date order 1957 Final Consular Report to UK Foreign Office Annex: Correspondence with the British Embassy, Ankara regarding Consul Vorley Harris' driving licence ILLUSTRATIONS

6 7 19 23 37 53 81 85 Ill 125

139 161 185 207 217 249 301 345 385 391

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The principal acknowledgement must be to my father himself, Group Captain Vorley Harris, whose reports form the bulk of this book, and who communicated his enthusiasm and affection for Turkey and the region of Northeastern Turkey in particular to his children, so that the preparations leading up to the publication of this book were first and foremost a great pleasure. It is an opportunity also to record and acknowledge the contribution of my mother Mrs. Mary Harris who had painstakingly typed all the reports and who was central to our lives at the Consulate in Trabzon. My sister Mrs. Josie Mahon, my constant companion in our childhood years in Trabzon, has given me tremendous encouragement and supplied photos, memories and anecdotes. She made many useful suggestions for improvements to my early drafts of the Profile of my father. In the development from an idea to the reality of a book, there always has to be some catalysts, and I would like to acknowledge several people who fulfilled this role for me. I am indebted to my cousin Jenny who, following her marriage to Professor Anthony Bryer, invited me to stay in the "Trabzon Room" of their home in Birmingham. Bryer's infectious enthusiasm and his continuing interest in this project inspired me to re-visit Trabzon regularly after many years' absence. In Trabzon itself, I had the unstinting support of Mrs. Sevtap Tiirko, daughter of my father's friend Cumhur Odabagioglu, and of her daughter Miss Sena Tiirko. They convinced me that my father's reports were a precious historical record of the Trabzon region and that it was necessary to have them published and made available to the region's universities. I would like to thank Mr. John Scott, editor of the magazine Cornucopia for the interest he took in the project, and whose suggestion it was that I contact Isis Publishing and Mr. Sinan Kuneralp. I am grateful to Mr. Kuneralp for having taken on the project and for having guided me in the most gentle and professional manner through the editing process, in which respect his own work-rate has been prodigious. There are many other individuals who have facilitated the work at various stages or given inspiration at critical moments. These included Professors Alaaddin Yalgmkaya and Hasan Ozyurt of KTU in Trabzon and the staff at Bogazi§i University and at the Public Record Office in Kew, England. I would like to thank two Turkish Consul-Generals in Geneva, Mr. Burhanettin Muz and Mr. Cemil Karaman. Mr. Theodore Wilden provided some valuable insights in the writing process and Mr. Mustafa Somersan was a source of great encouragement. Mr. Hasan Kilig, former Head Kavas at the Consulate, and his family were very supportive during my stays in Trabzon. The works of Mr. Chris Hann and Mr. Michael Meeker have been essential to the improving of my own understanding of the region over the last two years. I would like to thank the staff at my office in Geneva, Mrs. Florence Niel and especially Mr. Hasan Yildiz for their great support work. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Hannah for the support and encouragement she has given through each stage of the project.

PROFILE OF THE BRITISH CONSUL, VORLEY HARRIS AND LIFE AT THE CONSULATE, TRABZON 1949-1956

Discovery of the reports The sober black rectangular box-files must have been stored away and not touched since 1960. I had expected to find them at some time, for my father who died a few years ago aged almost 97 hated to throw away letters or documents. He had left behind a challengingly large volume of papers which required my attention. I suppose that, if I had not shared that hoarding quality of his or had not been regularly visited by the images of him carefully stocking these items of importance, it would have been the matter of a moment to throw away the papers for ever. As it is, I began the task of examining the documents and it has been a task that I have tackled intermittently whenever other obligations allowed. The box-files were official-looking and inside it was marked "Specially made for His Majesty's Stationery Office"; the rusty lever handles holding the files in place had left large brown stains. The ancient clasps holding the pages together testified to the age of the material and the official British Government seal on the paper indicated that I had in front of me copies of the official reports that my father had sent in to the Foreign Office in the late 1940s and early 1950s during his seven years as H.M. British Consul in Trabzon. The career of Vorley Harris My father came late to the profession of Consul, to be precise he was almost 50 years old when he arrived in Trabzon in 1948 and Trabzon (covering the region of Northeast Turkey) was his first post as Consul. He was an unusual Consul. A Welshman born in 1899, one of four children of the headmaster and headmistress of the Pontypridd local boys' and girls' schools, he had his life transformed by the First World War. Conscripted and undergoing rigorous training in a cold army barracks in North Wales, he was almost ready to be sent off to the trenches in Northern France, when he saw on the barracks' notice board an application form advertising for trainees as an airforce pilot. Shortly afterwards at the age of 18, he found himself in Egypt and flying warplane sorties in Palestine while learning Arabic in his spare time. The Royal Air Force appreciated his liking for languages and he spent most of his 25 year airforce career in the Middle East, not only as a pilot but also in liaison work. While he got on well with the Arabs in Egypt, Aden and Iraq, he reserved his liking and admiration for the Turks. He learned Turkish to interpreter standard and during the Second World War he spent two years as Chief Instructor at the Turkish War Academy.

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My father's final report on his 3-year wartime assignment in Turkey is not without interest to students of the Second World W a r and T u r k e y ' s neutrality in the conflict. The full report has its place in a study of wartime Turkish Armed Forces, but the short summary that follows can provide useful background here. My father, at the time Wing Commander in the Royal Air Force, was employed under a 3-year contract beginning January 1941 with the Turkish Government, and was paid by the Turkish Government. He and the only other British Instructor, Wing Commander Bartholomew, gave instruction at the W a r A c a d e m y , initially in Istanbul until April 1941 (when all military training establishments were evacuated from that city) and then in Eski§ehir and Ankara. At Eski§ehir, he was responsible for the supervision of operational training in three Turkish Air Force B o m b e r units; and the constructive criticisms of the standard of readiness of these units, of the organisational hierarchy within the units and of crew training standards are revealing. Because they were only two (and had been asked to do all the work of the four British Instructors who preceded them), they were obliged in Ankara to carry out the full programme of lectures in Air subjects, giving an average of 35 lectures each per month. In addition, they supervised two outdoor exercises a month, conducted a number of war-games and supervised the work of students on Staff Tours. His strong criticisms of the senior ranks of the Turkish Air Force were followed by comments such as "the young flying personnel are really good material and only need opportunity and guidance". However, "in equipment, training and organisation they were quite unready for war. They would, however, all die gallantly on the way to their targets". Despite their neutrality during the War, the Turks employed British instructors in preference to Germans, for example. The British Foreign Service believed that the Turks "have allowed British Officers to have the leading influence in the ab initio, elementary, advanced and operational training as well as being advisers in all other matters connected with the Turkish Air Force". Under the terms of his contract, my father received a large part of his salary in Turkish Liras, and at a time of major Lira depreciation, this was a subject of complaint. At the end of his assignment, my father chose to invest some of these Liras in some Turkish shares, the subsequent roller-coaster progress of which has been a source of much excitement. Leaving the R A F in 1945 to start a new career in agriculture proved to be a mistake. Now married and starting a family, he could not stay out of work for long. On my mother's suggestion, he wrote a speculative letter to the Foreign Office. By a lucky coincidence, the post of Consul in Trabzon had that week become vacant and he was called to London for an interview. He was pleased to learn that the Turkish War A c a d e m y had reported very favourably on him. It was no doubt also his background of experience in

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Turkey and language ability which persuaded the Foreign Office to prefer him over career diplomats. He was never given "permanent" status by the Foreign Office, as this status (and the related privileges like pension rights) was reserved for career diplomats. He told me that this temporary status made him a target of choice for the budget officials in the British Foreign Office administration, who were under great pressure in the early post-war years to find cost savings wherever and whenever possible. The Consulate was consequently under constant threat of closure and he was always conscious that he had only a precarious hold on the post of Consul. Nevertheless, by dint of hard work in carrying out his functions and responding to the requests of the UK Ambassadors in Ankara, his own very tight control of all expenses as well as efforts directed at mollifying the Foreign Office administration departments, he contrived to extend his tenure in Trabzon until end 1956. In 1956, he believed that he had negotiated a further 3-year extension under which his duties would cover all of Eastern Turkey including Southeast Turkey which had previously been handled f r o m Iskenderun, but the Budget Department was finally adamant that both Consulates had to close. This decision spelled not only the end of a posting that he loved, but also the end of his working career.

The Consul loved his job in Trabzon The region of Northeast Turkey, despite its glorious history of empires such as the Pontic Kingdom and the Comnene Empire and its pivotal role in the ancient trade routes prior to the construction of the Suez Canal, had become a relatively backward part of Turkey by 1950. As far as my father was concerned, its relative isolation and poor communications were positive aspects, as it offered more opportunities for local initiatives without constant checking with higher authority. He was responsible for 14 vilayets of northeastern Turkey and he took this responsibility seriously making sure that he visited regularly each of the 14 vilayets. For my father who by nature had no great desire for material possessions and was rather of an ascetic disposition taking pleasure in meeting the challenge of physical discomforts if this was necessary to reach a given target, the details of life in the region held a great fascination. The prospect of a tour in these relatively uncharted areas was an excitement for him. He used to arrange to receive from the Foreign Office a regular supply of textbooks for distribution to local schools, as well as English educational and other films which he did not hesitate to have shown to the general public during his stay in the major towns he visited. With a genuine liking for the Turkish people and an unusually good knowledge of the language, his position as Consul opened all doors to him in these districts. All in all, Trabzon was a post which suited him admirably.

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As an independent example of the unusual interest that my father took in local affairs, I would quote an extract from Lord Kinross' beautifully written book Within the Taurus: T h e Consul led m e d o w n into ( T r a b z o n ) , to drink cups of c o f f e e with Turkish notables. There was the Vali, the Governor of the province, a suave Mr. Punch w h o had only lately arrived f r o m Ankara. There w a s the Chief of the Secret Police, haggard, watchful and courteous. T h e r e was the General, w h o held f o r t h e x p a n s i v e l y on Atlantic Pact strategy, m o v i n g ash-tray, blotter and ink-pot this way and that, on a large desk u n e n c u m b e r e d with f i l e s , concluding with the advice that Britain and A m e r i c a should, in the interest of security, occupy France and Italy n o w . T h e C o n s u l , with his f l u e n t c o m m a n d of Turkish, was at h o m e with all these dignitaries, as with the butcher and the baker, the bank manager, the editors of the two local, single-sheet n e w s p a p e r s and the merchants w h o m w e subsequently visited, stopping f r e q u e n t l y in the s o m n o l e n t streets to receive t h e greetings of other Turkish acquaintances.

My f a t h e r ' s friends in Trabzon did indeed come f r o m varied backgrounds. There was ihsan Bey Nemlizade, head of the local Ottoman aristocratic family, who owned huge acres of land and villages and who was fond of hunting, ihsan Bey was an educated man, he spent some school years at Le Rosey in Rolle, Switzerland, but when we were invited to his yayla my mother was not allowed to join the men but disappeared into the area reserved for the ladies. There was Kemal Attal, owner of a Trabzon shoe-shop and a religious man, a leading light of the Democrat Party at a time when it was challenging the old one-party system but whose fiery temperament led him to start a new party and end up in prison when that party was closed down on the grounds of religious extremism. There was Cumhur Odaba§ioglu, an educated businessman of Western leanings, always of great help to visitors f r o m England. There was Asim Zihnioglu, the enthusiastic promoter of the tea industry in Rize who, ignoring my father's scepticism about the long term future of a very new industry that survived thanks to high tariffs, never ceased to try and persuade him to invest in the tea industry. There were the many businessmen involved in the export of hazelnuts and the bankers that financed their activities. Among the foreigners, there were regular visitors from the American radar station, including Paul Bryant who taught my sister to blow bubble-gum, an expertise that spread rapidly among the children nearby. The Swiss engineer in charge of the building of the Trabzon port (which was taking shape steadily as we watched from the Consulate windows), Willy Cramer, a soft-spoken and dedicated man, was a frequent visitor. 1 The Governors and other local notables changed often and Turkish politics largely dictated their coming and their going. My father maintained

'On the Swiss-Levantine family Cramer, details can be found in Schweizer im Orient by St. Sigerist.

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cordial relations with all these notables, but there was inevitably a distance. The early 1950s saw the arrival into power of the Democrat Party, who brought an urgency into infrastructure work and health improvements, at the same time fixing high minimum prices for a range of agricultural products which greatly pleased the largely peasant voters of the region. Inevitably, these expenditures brought a financial strain on the Turkish economy, as well as political strains, which dominated the years of the mid-1950s that my father described in his reports.

A different

ambition

It was Lord Kinross who, under the heading "The Civilized Consul", gave a general description of my father which I do not agree with in all respects (as I shall explain further on) but which is the only written assessment of which I am aware and so I quote this also:The British Consul in Trabzon was one of that civilized but vanishing breed: a man without ambition. He had but two aspirations. One was to leave Trabzon with a better strain of tomatoes than he found there. The other was to spend the rest of his days in Turkey, among the Turks...The Consul's second aspiration was harder to achieve. In the good old days of the Levant Consular service men such as he were encouraged to spend a lifetime in the Ottoman Emoire and British influence grew accordingly. For in the East there is a deeper respect for the man than for the system and these men earned it by their understanding of the country, their knowledge of its language and an individualism amounting often to eccentricity. The British Consul in Trabzon was just such a man. Celtic, humorous, with a nomadic disposition and an interest in human nature, he had come to Turkey by accident with the RAF, fallen in love with it and after learning its language and winning the affection of its people had been allowed to remain for a while as Consul. But his tenure was insecure. The Foreign Office of today discourages both amateur and specialist. Thus, this Consul, with his deep knowledge of Turkey, might soon be replaced by another with, perhaps, a slight knowledge of Mexico, who would remain for a space and then step onwards up the professional ladder in his turn.

It is an engaging description and one that contained many elements of truth, but in its key assessment, that of describing my father as lacking in ambition, it is not correct. He had after all stayed 27 years in the Royal Air Force, rising to the senior rank of Group Captain and this despite his Welsh roots which were not the ideal recommendation in an organization which had more than its share of blue-blooded English. His life in the Royal Air Force had been full of danger, being repeatedly called upon in both the First and Second World Wars to fly sorties over enemy territory where his chances of survival must be rated as low. Nor were these the only dangers. I am a member of the RAF Museum in London and I have been struck by the high

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mortality rate in the training process in the early 1900s. My father was a pioneer in experimenting in night flying in the 1930s, also a high risk activity. When working in Aden and Iraq in the 1920s and 1930s, he was transferred to the post of Governor of Perim Island, an isolated island in the Red Sea, the two previous occupants of which had been murdered by Yemenite bandits. While in Aden itself, he was in charge of the armoured cars division which put down a riot and revolt among the local population. In Baghdad, at the time of the British Mandate, he was the Chief Liaison Officer for several years, perhaps the most vulnerable position at a time of great turbulence. The fact is, he never flinched from dangerous responsibilities and in doing so he believed that he was also furthering his own career. He has told me that a recognition at the end of the Second World War that further advancement in the Royal Air Force was blocked to him (partly because of his Welsh roots, partly because his Empire-related experience was no longer so important) caused him to reassess his life and was the major reason for his decision to leave in 1945. Putting myself in his place in 1948, his R A F ambitions thwarted, I can readily imagine that the Trabzon posting was a gift f r o m heaven, notwithstanding the absence of a career path and Lord Kinross might well have perceived this as lack of ambition. It is probable that my father took a conscious decision to make the most of the j o b in Trabzon, while at the same time occupying himself with his family and the education of his children. While giving up the pursuit of personal ambition, his mind would have been freed to give full attention to the tasks required of the Consul in Trabzon as well as additional initiatives which could be deemed of a consular nature and he prepared to devote his full energies to these tasks. In my own discussions with my father, I know that he worked particularly hard to obtain Ankara's support and other facilities such as a robust LandRover, so that he could depart on lengthy tours of the vilayets, with the aim precisely of writing up his experiences in the form of reports of which he could be proud. He had given up the single-minded pursuit of personal ambition, but his energies were intact and the Trabzon post offered outlets for these energies and the possibility of giving expression to a range of interests wider than those of a focused ambitious person.

Life in the Consulate

itself

As I mentioned above, the Trabzon region had by the 1940s become a relatively isolated part of Turkey. There was no British community in the town. During the summer, there were visitors curious to see the Sumela Monastery and other ancient historical sites, often eccentric people, many talented writers like Lord Kinross or Rose Macaulay. The long wet winters were times when there were very few visitors f r o m abroad, when it was impossible to travel by car outside the coastal road and the Consul's family

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and entourage provided the only social life. For much of the year, it was the Consulate itself and its grounds which were the centre of social life. My sister and I who spent our childhood years there reminisce frequently about the Consulate and the splendour that it represented in our eyes. My father was scornful of all things sentimental, but he said himself that the happiest days of his life were spent in Trabzon and perhaps he would now be indulgent of our strong sentimental attachment to the old building and its grounds. We have a selective memory of course, so I have resorted to my father's official description of the Consulate, as follows: "The residence contains four bedrooms, dining room, large salon, a library, gun room, wine cellar, kitchen and wash house. There are also cellars for the storage of garden implements, wood and coke and a concrete dug-out in which petrol for the Consular car is stored. The Consular offices occupy three rooms in the east wing of the consulate building; one for the Consul, one for the clerk and the third houses the wireless station. The house which is over 100 years old (in 1951) is owned by a Persian living in Tehran and has been in occupation as the British Consulate for some 50 years. The grounds which are about an acre in extent are surrounded by high walls which ensure privacy. The garden is divided into two parts by the office extension. In the garden on the living side of the house, which is laid out in terraces, flowers and fruit are grown and on the other side vegetables." In contrast to my father's immediate predecessor as Consul who bewailed the "unhealthy" conditions for children in Trabzon, my father says in his report, "With its large garden the consulate is ideal for children and the hot damp climate of summer and the dark sunless days of winter seem to have little effect on their energy or on their health; there is a large park just outside the walls of the Consulate and the bathing beach is quite near. All in all, at least under the conditions prevailing at the Consulate, children remain strong and healthy without leave of any kind". Our old photos are a witness of the glory of the old building, the balconies and balustrades, its self-assured beauty an abiding memory of the countless times that we drove up towards it from the centre of Trabzon. In the words of Lord Kinross, visiting Trabzon for the first time, " W e drove swiftly upwards f r o m the harbour, through the centre of the town. Just above, commanding both, stood a gentlemanly white house, with arcades. I reflected that in the palmy days of the Great Elchi, when British prestige was paramount, this would have been the British Consulate. W e turned in at its entrance. It was the British Consulate. Soon I was drinking whisky and soda and listening to the news of the B.B.C." Sadly, the old building has been demolished in 1985 and replaced by a lesser building housing the Iranian Consulate. My father took a great interest in the maintenance of the house and the gardens. Especially, I remember the joys of the garden and the chickens. The garden, particularly the greenhouse was a labour of love for my father and \ recall how well organized the terraces were and the marvellous crops of oranges, tomatoes, cucumbers and other vegetables. How impatient my sister

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and I were to eat these fruits and what a pity it was that my father's office had a commanding view over all the vegetables. I can still hear the panes of glass rattling as he caught sight of us in the cucumber patch. My father's training at an English agricultural college for 2 years was put to good use in the organization of the garden terraces and he supervised closely as his instructions on planting, protection against disease etc. were carried out by the servants (not always without muttered complaints). Among the servants, I recall only vaguely the nursemaids we supposedly had; my mother was so devoted to her children, it is difficult to see what work she would have entrusted to the nursemaids. Ulla, the old cleaning lady born in Lvov (Ukraine) I do recall, she stayed on for years when she was unable to do any work because my mother felt sorry for her. Cevdet, an excellent chauffeur and kindly man, was much appreciated by my mother. Hasan was the star among the servants. Very tall and upright bearing, full of dignity in his uniform, he gave the perfect first impression for visitors, but as far as we were concerned, he was the man who could be called upon at any time, he would take us places and he would lean over our garden wall and steal a ripe fig off our neighbour's tree for us. He clearly liked children and we benefited at this time because he was not yet married. My father kept a very tight control of the household expenses and he would make a point of checking closely all bills presented and the servants knew that he knew what were the correct market prices. Hasan and the others were in attendance for the official occasions, of which I recall the tensions of the preparations on the terrace and in the dining room. Rarely were we allowed to disturb these events, but I do recall the large salon full of chairs for a showing of the film "Conquering Everest" which made a big impression on the gathered notables and on myself. Our education was not neglected during this time, with my father himself giving us daily tuition. This took place as I recall on the first floor in one of the rooms at the head of the grand staircase. I remember the main room on this first floor for containing an enormous piece of furniture which was the radio and which for all its size was rarely able to pick up the BBC frequency without terrible crackling noises — We used to gather round the radio after dinner and I recall hearing the voice of Prime Minister Winston Churchill. My father was so intent on obtaining the news that on days of bad connection he would put his ear close to the contraption with the volume turned to full blast, against the background of thundering crackles. Also, there was a wide window which had a magnificent view eastwards over the port and out onto the Black Sea and I could admire this view while kneeling on the comfortable Ottoman-style divan conveniently placed the length of the window — What a spectacle when there was a thunder and lightning storm! I was often on my knees on the floor with my favourite atlas spread out before me on a convenient divan or chair, the atlas was an endless source of interest and I still have it. All visitors spoke of the charm of the old Consulate building, its veranda and its gardens and my father and the whole family were immensely proud of it. I regret that it is no longer possible

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to identify with the building on the site. The old building was the building that had housed some 20 British Consuls whose reports over a period of some 150 years constitute one of the most valuable sources of economic and social history of the area and that had welcomed innumerable British, Turkish and other visitors over the years including, in our time (Mr. and Mrs. Harris "kept open house", according to the Foreign Office report) Rose Macaulay who was writing her masterpiece "Towers of Trebizond" and Lord Kinross whose biography of Atattirk is the work of reference even today.

Objective reports; But Vorley Harris had his own viewpoints This is the background against which I began to read my father's tour reports. Included in the papers were 14 reports on each vilayet, plus several reports on the post itself and a final report on his departure summarizing his conclusions. Each report was prefaced with a covering letter to the Ambassador in Ankara, of which I was struck by one dated 3rd. November, 1952 — where he says "I have decided to do what has never been attempted before, a write-up of each of my fourteen vilayets from the point of view of recent changes and developments in the social and economic life of the people, with special reference to communications, education, agriculture and politics". I wondered whether his claim for uniqueness was exaggerated, however the 14 reports were there (all carefully typed, as I knew, by my mother who had been drafted in on a low-paid basis to do this work in the interests of cost saving). What qualities of knowledge, experience, attitudes, preconceptions or prejudices did he bring to his self-appointed task? Although spending his early years in the strongly working class coal-mining valleys of South Wales, it was the middle class values of his teacher parents, educated, highly respected but not wealthy, that defined his thinking. It was and still is, the accepted wisdom in Wales that by education you can raise yourself to great heights and this conviction remained with my father all his life. For him, it was selfevident that without the provision and encouragement of education no progress could be possible and at the same time the nature of the education provided was of great importance. In the early 1900s, the Harris family was unusual for its insistence on equality of access to education for girls; my father had three academically brilliant sisters and he would have applauded each and every evidence of progress in the education of girls in Turkey. My father believed strongly that religion should be kept out of education; brought up as a Baptist, he was never able to believe that one faith was better than another and remained a firm sceptic all his life. Rose Macaulay reported in Towers of Trebizond and it rings very true, the alleged reaction of the consul to Aunt Dot's mission of conversion "of which he took a poor view, not thinking it the thing to try to convert the nationals of a country one was visiting to another faith, when they had a perfectly good one of their own". He believed

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that it was the incursion of religion into education that perpetuated fanaticism, a feature of Eastern Turkey at the time, which could only be combated in his view through long term progress in education. This is why he took a keen interest in the extension of schools and the progress of modernization of religious schools, notably the replacement of medreses by new Imam schools with a modern curriculum, a modernization that was being carried out in the teeth of bitter opposition f r o m traditionalist Imams. M y father, who had learned in the R A F the importance of discipline, teamwork and the maintenance of a target, would have been quietly encouraging the Turkish local authorities to modernize the religious schools, ideally by persuasion, leadership and example, but if necessary by force. The 1950s in Eastern Turkey were not only a time of progress in education, but also in road communications, water supply, health and agriculture and my father was well placed to document the progress in agriculture in particular thanks to the two years he had spent in 1946/47 on an agricultural course in the UK. Many of the attitudes of my father, notably regarding education of girls, were not shared by the local notables, nor by the people generally and he was on the whole very cautious in expressing his own views. When he travelled, he was a keen observer, curious to learn and he strove to show to the Valis, businessmen and others that he was genuinely interested in their affairs and preoccupations. Undoubtedly, it was this approach which gained for him the full co-operation which he so obviously received throughout his tours.

My father's

relationship

with Foreign Office staff

In writing his reports, my father wanted to impart to the reader something of the knowledge he gained which was not always typically consular material. Staff at the Foreign Office sometimes described this as "providing local colour", but it was clear from other comments that this was not really considered of any value by the Foreign Office. Indeed, the Foreign Office comments in general were frankly critical of what was seen as undue lengthiness and repetitiveness of the reports. Seen from the viewpoint of 50 years later, however, I consider that the local colour provides some invaluable additional insights. On the other hand, it is interesting to include the comments of the Foreign Office staff in the record, because of the light this sheds not only on the relationship between a British Consul and headquarters but also on the attitude generally of the British Foreign Service towards the host community and officials. For this reason, I have included, in addition to the exchange of covering notes written at the time of presentation of the reports, some exchanges in 1952 between my father and the Embassy in Ankara on the subject of renewal of his Turkish driving licence (which I found when visiting the Public Records Office in Kew). The local Vali had refused renewal on the

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basis of an " o f f i c i a l " eye-test, the results of which had in my f a t h e r ' s opinion been deliberately falsified to show a dangerous condition (Independent tests at the time c o n f i r m e d my f a t h e r ' s opinion that his eye-sight was excellent, and indeed his e y e - s i g h t c o n t i n u e d e x c e l l e n t until his death at a g e 96). T h e exchange with A n k a r a is most revealing, showing that in the 1950s the local Vali could effectively block the renewal of a British C o n s u l ' s driving licence (an action that 5 0 years earlier would have earned the Vali a reprimand and a demotion) while at the same time the British Foreign Service considered itself powerless to intervene despite the evident injustice of the V a l i ' s actions.

Historical

value of the reports;

availability

to scholars

and

historians

R e a d i n g the reports, I reflected that they represented s o m e t h i n g of historical value and m i g h t well be a unique witness to the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of life in this region of T u r k e y at the time. I t h e r e f o r e contacted the Foreign O f f i c e and obtained c o n f i r m a t i o n that there was n o l o n g e r any limitation regarding the public availability of these papers. I was also able to spend some time in the Public Records O f f i c e ( P R O ) in K e w , Surrey. Although 1 was able to find copies in P R O of most of the reports in my possession, one or two of the reports had not f o u n d their way into the public record. It was a pity that in most cases the attachments listed as a c c o m p a n y i n g the reports were no longer attached to the d o c u m e n t in P R O . It is appropriate to mention at this point that s o m e pages are missing in some of the reports (notably that on the Post itself) and these missing sections are clearly indicated. In keeping with the a c a d e m i c inclinations of my f a m i l y , m y thoughts turned to the idea that they should be held in an institution of learning, where they could be consulted by f u t u r e generations of scholars and historians. T h e next step was to research the possibilities f o r publishing the reports and I a m e n o r m o u s l y grateful to Sinan K u n e r a l p and the Isis Press in Istanbul w h o have enthusiastically taken up the project and enabled the publication to take place.

FACTS AND FIGURES

National Government in Britain

National Government in Turkey

a) Prime Minister

a) President

Clement Attlee Winston Churchill Anthony Eden Harold Macmillan

(Labour) (Cons,) (Cons.) (Cons.)

1948-1951 1951-1955 1955-1957 1957-

1948-1950 1950-1957

b) Prime Minister

b) Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin Anthony Eden Harold Macmillan Selwyn Lloyd

ísmet inönü Celai Bayar

(Labour) (Cons.) (Cons.) (Cons.)

1948-1951 1951-1955 1955 1956-

Hasan Saka (Trabzon CHP) §emsettin Günaltay (CHP) Adnan Menderes (Democrat)

1948-1949 1949-1950 1950-1958

c) Foreign Minister Necmettin Sadak M.F. Köprülü Ethem Menderes

Staff at British Embassy. Ankara

1948-1949 1950-1955 1955-1957

Valis in Trabzon

a) Ambassadors Sir Noel Charles Sir Alexander Knox Helm Sir James Bowker

1949-1951 Salim Giinday 1951-1953 Necmeddin Ergin 1954-1956 Memduh Payzin Kamuran Cuhruk Adii Cigercioglu Muhlis Babaoglu

b) Head of Chancery/ First Secretary/Counsellor Guy Millard (later Sir) David Scott Fox (later Sir) J.L.B. Titchener Desmond Pemberton Pigott Anthony Parsons (later Sir)

1949-1953 1951-1954 1953-1954 1954-1956 1955-1956

-1948 1948-1950 1950-1951 1951-1953 1953-1955 1955-1957 1957-

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Local Election results People's Republican Party (PRP) held majority of seats up to 1950. Democrat Party won landslide victories 1950 + 1954 though certain Eastern vilayets (Kars and Sinop) stayed true to PRP.

Key Events affecting Anglo-Turkish relations 1948 1949 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956

Marshall Plan North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signed by UK Turkey becomes full member of N A T O Anglo-Iranian oil dispute Continued problems in Cyprus Signature Baghdad Pact (inc. UK and Turkey) Suez Crisis

Population In 1950 the population of the Black Sea coastal vilayets from Sinop to Hopa contained 2.15 million people or 10.3% of the country's total population of 20.9 million. Population, as everywhere in Turkey, was growing rapidly in the 1950s, by over 2.5% p.a. The vilayet figures are as follows:-

Coruh Rize Trabzon Giresun Ordu Samsun Sinop

1945 159,328 171,929 395,384 283,626 333,008 407,541 205,276

1950 174,977 181,512 420,279 299,555 373,028 475,660 225,621

1955 176,845 211,967 462,249 334,297 407,687 549,156 239,027

1960 196,301 248,930 532,999 381,453 469,379 654,602 249,730

+23.2% +44.8% +34.8% +34.5% +41.0% +60.6% +21.7%

Turkey as a country was predominantly rural. (77.9% of the country in 1950, falling to 73.4% in 1960) - Figures taken from Population Monograph Series Greenwood Press 1976 And the region was more rural than the average. It was a region of emigration, both seasonal and permanent.

Currency Exchange Rates and Purchasing Power of TL and Kurus Reference is made in the reports to T L and kuru§ prices prevailing in the 1950s. In the 1950s, the Kuru§ was widely used. Kuru§ 100 = T L 1.00. The official exchange rate between Turkish Lira and US$ was held at the level of T L 2.80 = U S $ 1 from 1947 until 1959, when the Democrat

FACTS

AND

21

FIGURES

Government of Adnan Menderes was forced to devalue. The official exchange rates in the 1950s were as follows: US $ 1.00 = TL 2.80 £GBP 1.00 = TL 7.84 There was an active black market in currency in the 1950s. With inflation proceeding apace, the over-valuation of the TL at its official rate became chronic especially after 1955, the devaluation when it took place in 1959 was to US$ 1.00 = TL 9.40. A realistic valuation of the TL in 1950 could arguably be TL 3 = US$ 1, rising to TL 4.5 = US$ 1 in 1956. When assessing the purchasing power of TL in the 1950s, bear in mind also that the US$ and £GBP were themselves subject to significant inflation in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Trade In the years 1947-1950, imports and exports held fairly steady at a level of around US$270 million. Under the impetus of the postwar Marshall Plan and with the arrival of the Democrats to power, imports jumped and averaged US$ 500 million in the years 1951-1955. The ratio of exports to imports fell from around 90% to around 70% on average in the two periods. Balance of payments pressures required the implementation of increasing]) severe import restrictions during the 1950s. Date 1950 1960

Rapid growth of the tea industry Area under Tea production Processed Tea (hectares) (tons) Leaves tea 884 2'992 207 13'488 25'958 5'815

Figures from Chris Hann, 1990 Eothen Press "Tea and the domestication of the Turkish State" N.B. Plantations not productive for first 5-10 years. Tea consumption was growing rapidly. Hann Quotes figures for consumption 1950 1 '741 tons, and 1960 7'754 tons.

Production of hazelnuts Date Tons 1949 1950 1954 1955

87-000 21-000 115-700 46-150

Long established activity, Turkey (i.e. Black Sea) being 75% world exports. Production varies sharply year to year.

In the 1950s farmers growing both tea and hazelnuts were heavily subsidized by the Government. In the case of tea, this was achieved by heavy import tariffs. In the case of hazelnuts, farmers received a guaranteed minimum price which shielded them from the vagaries of the fluctuating world market price.

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Infrastructure / Government Expenditure/ US Aid Statistics covering the nation as a whole indicate that the immediate post-war period was one of sustained investment in health, education and infrastructure generally. While the Eastern region received the benefit of this, it is generally considered that Western regions benefited more. The nation-wide figures below show the extent of the improvement. Hospital beds (per Ceteris Paribus) 1945 1950 1955 1960

18'837

Literacy (% population 6 years & over) (Statesman's Year Books) 29.0% 33.6% 40.5%

45'807

As reported by V. Harris, the majority of villages in the Eastern region were supplied with running water in the 1950s. The roads and highways situation in the 1940s was appalling, especially in Eastern regions, as reflected in V. Harris' early tour reports. Robert S. Lehman in "Hands Across Frontiers" Cornell University Press 1955 summarizes the roads situation in Turkey as a whole in 1947:Good asphalt national roads "Passable" macadam national roads Poor quality national roads Poor quality provincial roads

500 4'882 7'343 26'350

miles miles miles miles

It can be safely assumed that almost all the good asphalt roads were in the Western region.

Powered by very substantial grants and technical aid from the USA, and greatly increased Turkish budget allocations to roads, the position was greatly improved by mid-1950s. Turkish 1948 1950 1953

national road budget T L 38 million Under 1948 Agreement with American Mission for T L 76 million Aid to Turkey, disbursements by U S A on road T L 140 million programme up to June 1952 totalled US$ 23.845 million. (Figures from Robert S. Lehman)

U S non-military aid under the 1948 Agreement totalled $ 296.6 million in the period 1948-52, of which 62% by direct grant and 38% low interest long term loans. US aid was a vital dynamic in the post-war improvements in Turkey.

THE CONSULATE AT TRABZON June 1951 Consular Area 1. The Trabzon consular area is the largest in Turkey and extends over the following 14 vilayets: Sinop, Samsun, Ordu, Giresun, Trabzon, Rize, C'oruh, Kars, Karakose, Erzurum, Giimii§hane, Erzincan, Tokat, Amasya.

Trabzon Town Description 2. Trabzon, in which the consular residence and office are situated, lies on the Black Sea coast some 300 Kilometres by road from the Turkish eastern frontier with Russia. When the transit trade with Persia was in a flourishing condition, Trabzon was a thriving port with a population of well over 80,000, but with the gradual decline in this trade over the last 20-30 years to its present day stagnation, the population has fallen to under 30,000. Recent census reports, however, indicate that the population is on the upgrade again. Although the prosperity of the old camel transport days with its large but leisurely transit trade to and from Persia, is unlikely to come back to Trabzon again, the port would certainly improve its position if it were possible to persuade the Russians to open the shipping route from Trabzon to central Europe via the Danube and it is, probably in the hope that this may one day happen, that a modern port is in the process of construction here, for the volume of shipping using the port at present does not justify anything so ambitious. The harbour will be enclosed by two breakwaters, one 750 metres long and the other about 200 metres and there will be dock space for three 10,000 ton ships lying end to end. At present, ships anchor about a quarter of a mile from the shore in an open roadstead unprotected from north and northeast winds, which can be very violent and destructive in winter. Cargoes are loaded and discharged by lighters. In stormy weather, however, neither passengers nor cargo can be discharged at Trabzon and ships either ride out the storm at sea or take refuge at Ak§aabat about 13 kilometres west of Trabzon, where there is a more sheltered anchorage.

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People 3. Up to the formation of the Republic there were flourishing Armenian, Greek and Jewish communities in Trabzon, but in the purge which followed, only people of undoubted Turkish origin were allowed to remain, Greeks for the most part being repatriated to Greece, while the Armenians and Jews were concentrated in Istanbul and Ankara. The result is that the town has become a purely Mohammedan one and the local Catholic church, which once had a flourishing congregation, now depends almost entirely on the small European community domiciled here.

Habits and Customs 4. Isolated as they are from the more progressive and enlightened centres such as Izmir, Istanbul and Ankara, the inhabitants of Trabzon and those of the towns and villages of the eastern vilayets generally, are inclined to be fanatical in religion and if allowed free rein, might become very reactionary. As a natural corollary of this family life and customs here show little change from that of pre revolutionary days. Most of the women of the working classes and of the villages still cover their faces quickly when a man approaches and the women generally have little latitude in their movements and activities. There are special performances for women in the cinemas and Turkish women are rarely if ever, seen in other places of amusement or in a restaurant or coffee shop. Men however, seem to spend most of their time in coffee shops. The two social clubs in Trabzon appear to cater only for gambling and drinking. The people generally, due it is said to the damp and humid climate, are of an unstable nature and when quarrels occur the knife is very much in evidence. When fatal affrays of this nature become too prevalent and the usual punishments inflicted fail to keep them in check, a public hanging is arranged in the centre of the town. This public spectacle is reported to be a very powerful deterrent and the effects may last for a considerable period. These rather unpleasant traits are more than counterbalanced by the general honesty, kindness and hospitality of the mass of the population and if one takes the trouble to learn their language thoroughly and through this get to know them better, the effort involved is amply rewarded.

Sport and Recreation 5. In addition to organised games in the schools, where soccer and netball are played, there are sports clubs in Trabzon itself and in most of the other towns of any size in the vilayet. Each club has a soccer team. A soccer league for the whole of the teams in the vilayet has been formed and each team

THE

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25

in the league plays every other one twice during the season. The team at the head of the league at the end of the season represents the vilayet in the national games, where there is a knock out competition to determine the best vilayet team in the country. Soccer league games are played every Sunday afternoon amid scenes of great enthusiasm and it is not unusual for feelings to run so high amongst the supporters that police intervention becomes necessary. In addition to soccer the local sports clubs go in for swimming, cross country running and gymnastics. Apart from these, there are no other organised games in Trabzon. For the rather wealthier Turks and foreigners who have time on their hands and the money to afford transport further afield, there is good duck, quail and woodcock shooting and trout is plentiful in the upper reaches of the Degirmendere river. One should bring a 12 bore and cartridges (Nos 4, 6 and 8) for the latter are not locally obtainable. Wild boar and types of mountain goat can also be hunted in the vicinity of Trabzon, for which sport a 300 or similar weapon would be necessary. [CLAUSES 6-10 HAVE BEEN LOST] one fixes a charge by bargaining with the taxi driver, but as an illustration of the scale of charges, one should not pay more than two and a half liras for a taxi from the pier to the Consulate, a distance of one kilometre. For journeys outside the town, provided they are over 20 kilometres one should pay about 40 kuru§ per kilometre. This is not excessive considering that the price of petrol per gallon is 2 liras 10 kuru§ and 25 kilometre per gallon is a good average on these very bad and hilly roads. Buses run along the coastal road in both directions and there is a Government run bus service to Erzurum along the transit road to Persia. Buses also ply between Trabzon and various small villages in the vicinity. 11. There are no boarding houses or pensions in Trabzon and the only accommodation available, unless one runs a house, is an hotel. There are at least 20 hotels in Trabzon, but only one or two are suitable for Europeans. The hotel most frequented by Europeans is the Ye§il Yurt which overlooks the park in the central square of the town. Charges are moderate and one can obtain food in the restaurant attached to the hotel, [a single room 3-4 liras (seven shillings & sixpence to ten shilling) with 2 shillings extra per bath] Food is plentiful and the menus are varied, but the dishes being predominantly Turkish, do not always appeal to Europeans. Food at the hotel would cost, on an average eleven shillings to fourteen shillings per day, if all meals are taken there.

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Lighting 12. The electric power for lighting and heating in the town of Trabzon comes from a barrage which controls the waters of the Kalimma river near Viscera. The barrage is about 15 kilometres from the centre of Trabzon and the poles carrying the current pass through some very difficult country. It is not surprising therefore, that in winter when there are heavy falls of snow, poles and wires collapse and the current may then be cut off for some days. In the very heavy snowstorms of 1949/1950 electric power was cut off for nearly a month. The barrage was constructed and the generator installed by the Germans in 1932 and in the meantime the population has increased and with it, the number of people using electricity. This combined with lack of proper maintenance of the hydro-electric installation has resulted in a shortage of power, especially during the peak load hours (17.00-20.00) in the winter months. The voltage is 220, 3 phase.

Heating 13. The rather wealthier Turks and Europeans, as a general rule, use coke stoves for heating their homes, but the poorer classes use wood and charcoal. Specially designed coke and wood stoves can be bought locally, but they are not efficient and it is almost impossible with such stoves to maintain a uniform pleasant temperature. Coke is rationed and costs over 11 a ton. Charcoal is used for both cooking and heating and is burnt in a special contraption called a mankal.

Cooking 14. Wood is in general use for cooking purposes and is burnt in special stoves made for this purpose. Its use however, is rather confined to the wealthier classes and one might say that 90% of the population of Trabzon use either charcoal or hazelnut shells for all cooking purposes. There is no gas in Trabzon and cooking by electricity is much too expensive.

Water 15. The water supply for Trabzon is pumped from the bed of the Degirmen river on the outskirts of the town and is stored in storage tanks placed on convenient high ground overlooking the town. Electric pumps are used and the power for driving these is obtained from a Diesel oil engine. Until quite recently these pumps were driven by power from the already

T H E

C O N S U L A T E

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27

overloaded town electric supply, with the result that during the peak load hours from 17.00 hours to 20.00 hours in winter, the voltage fell to less than half the scheduled amount; 100 watt lamps gave less light than a candle; and frigidaire and wireless sets did not function. The water is well purified before being stored, but it is said to contain a high percentage of lime. For this reason many people obtain their drinking water from wells in the mountains about 5 kilometres distance, where the lime content of the water is less.

Customs Duty 16. Customs duty on imports into Turkey of what are deemed non essential goods or which the Turks either manufacture themselves or consider they have the resources to manufacture, are very heavy. The consul here has certain diplomatic bag privileges and can, if he first obtains permission from Ankara, import certain things duty free in the name of the Ambassador, in cases where goods would be too bulky or unsuitable for sending by diplomatic bag. The customs duties in Turkey are so high on household goods that if they cannot be imported duty free it is better to do without them until one returns to the United Kingdom.

Cos! of Living 17. The cost of living in Trabzon, after being stationary for some months, commenced rising again after the Korean War. Household goods and clothing of all kinds are almost prohibitive in price, but the price of food stuffs grown locally has remained almost constant. How long this will last with cloth, shoes and other manufactured goods soaring in price is very problematical. The Shell index of the cost of living for Istanbul is 500 taking the 1938 index figure as 100.

Clothing 18. Full morning dress is worn by the Vali, the assistant Vali, the Mayor and the Consuls at the parades for the occasion of the Genglik ve Spor Bayrami and Cumhuriyet Bayrami. Full evening dress is never worn and dinner jackets only on rare occasions. 19. For ordinary wear in the winter months, good warm clothing of the type necessary for a British winter is essential. Sports coats and flannels and a few white drill suits, will be found very useful for s u m m e r wear. It is essential to buy these at home before leaving to take up the appointment, SOT although cloth is obtainable and tailors are reasonably good, prices are extortionate.

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Education 20. It is estimated that only 25% of the population of the Trabzon vilayet have passed through a primary school and this percentage is likely to be less in the more primitive vilayets further east. Villages, as we know them, are largely non existent in these vilayets, the villagers living in houses widely spaced over the countryside. The provision of primary education is, therefore, a matter of some difficulty even apart from the question of funds. Nevertheless, the problem is being tackled with enthusiasm and it is hoped that within the next ten years primary school education will be available for at least 80% of the children of these remote eastern vilayets. 21. There are intermediate schools (Orta Okul) in most of the kaza, into which the vilayet is divided and Trabzon itself has 10 primary schools, an intermediate school and a Lycée in the same building, technical schools for both boys and girls and a teachers' training college. To enter the university at either Ankara or Istanbul a student must be a graduate of a Lycée. There is only one Lycée for the whole of Trabzon vilayet and until quite recently students came here from as far afield as Ordu, Giresun and Rize, as there were no lycée in those vilayets. 22. The nearest educational facilities for non Turkish children are in Istanbul and if it is not feasible to send them there, such children have to be educated at home. Advice on this matter can be obtained and special books bought from the Parents' Educational Association in London.

Local

Antiquities

23. There are many interesting antiquities here in Trabzon. Apart from the old walls of the town, the old harbour built at Molos and early Greek churches, there is much of interest for the amateur archaeologist. A book called Byzantine Painting in Trabzon by Millet and Talbot-Rice is well worth studying in this connection.

Languages 24. For all practical purposes Turkish is the only language here in Trabzon, but Laz is spoken in the Pazar coastal area, some 130 kilometres further east. English, French, German are taught in the schools, but f e w children at the end of their schooling can talk reasonably fluently in any of these languages.

THE

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Required in the Mode of Living

25. These are considerable, but provided one is adaptable and the consular residence is adequately equipped, one can make oneself quite comfortable here in Trabzon. The British wife here has naturally many more difficulties to contend with than her counterpart in the United Kingdom, for servants are lazy and, if left to their own devices, their standards of cleanliness and hygiene are low. It is indeed essential that servants be very carefully supervised and controlled if efficient service is to be obtained and a high standard of cleanliness and hygiene maintained. A married consul accompanied by his wife and if possible his children, can spend a very happy two and a half years in Trabzon if he and his wife are content with the simple pleasures and can adapt themselves to the rather more primitive conditions. If he takes the trouble to learn Turkish well, such a consul will find it easy, if he so desires, to take part in the local Turkish family social life, which would not be possible for a bachelor or a married man without his wife, in these rather backward eastern vilayets of Turkey. As a bachelor or a married man unaccompanied by his wife, life can be desperately lonely here, for one cannot mix socially with the Turks and the European community is small and not very inspiring. Indeed I would say that if it can be avoided, a single man should not be appointed as consul, to Trabzon and a married man should be accompanied by his wife and family.

Local

Taxation

26. A consul must obtain a licence for the use of firearms, to shoot game and to drive a motor car. He will also be required to pay custom duty on all goods imported out to Turkey other than by diplomatic bag, if a takrir has not been obtained from the Embassy.

Tipping 27. Outside hotels and restaurants tipping is not necessary or usual here in Trabzon. Ten per cent generally added to the bill in restaurants and hotels and if one is a regular customer in a restaurant it is advisable to choose one's waiter carefully and tip him separately every month. If one lives in an hotel it is usual to give a monthly tip to one's room servant. Further tipping is neither necessary nor advisable.

30 Climate and

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Health

28. Winters here in Trabzon and along the whole of the Black Sea coast of Turkey are usually mild and not unpleasant. The temperature in summer rarely rises above 80° F in the shade, but excessive humidity and overcast skies make it appear much higher. Spring is hardly noticeable in the rapid change over f r o m winter to summer. The long autumn, which frequently extend almost to Christmas, is the most pleasant period of the year. During this season there is very little rain and the clear blue skies, the soft winds and the cool evenings, are a welcome change after the oppressive humid heat of the summer months. January and February are two most unpleasant months and snow can be expected throughout that period. Except on high ground, however, it rarely stays on the ground for any length of time and the coastal road is seldom closed to traffic f r o m this cause. Rainfall in Trabzon is only about 40" compared to double that amount at Rize only about 90 kilometres to the east. Most of the rain in Trabzon falls during the winter months. 29. Lack of sunshine during the summer months and the high humidity throughout the year are the unpleasant and harmful features of the climate of the eastern end of the Black Sea coast of Turkey. Nevertheless children under five, providing they get orange juice and cod liver oil in sufficient quantity to provide vitamin D both in winter and summer seem to thrive in this climate and adults, if they can avoid rheumatism brought on by the high humidity, can remain reasonably healthy for long periods. The scourge of Trabzon is, of course, consumption, the control of which is hindered by the ignorance of the people; their poverty with its attendant under-nourishment; the bad housing throughout the vilayet; and the lack of sunshine throughout most of the year. A medical team to combat the incidence of tuberculosis has been established with headquarters in Trabzon and its members travel all over the vilayet giving advice and treatment to sufferers. However, they suffer from lack of funds and the ignorance, poverty and fatalism of the people militate against the success of the work. Another widespread disease is hookworm, some species of which enter the system through eating unwashed or uncooked food and others, enter through cuts in the flesh. Malaria is now very rare in Trabzon and, according to the doctors, venereal disease in Trabzon itself has largely been eradicated. There are occasional cases of typhus and typhoid in the town, but nothing in the nature of an epidemic has occurred for many years. Epidemics of plague, which were of frequent occurrence up to 50 years ago, are now unknown. Before leaving the United Kingdom it is advisable to get inoculated against typhoid and tetanus and to be vaccinated. A good medical box should be obtained from the Embassy doctor in Ankara before proceeding to the post. 30. Most of the wealthier Turkish families retire to their property in the villages for the summer months and the breadwinners come in to work each morning by bus. There is also a summer resort called Soguk Su in the hills about 5 miles south of the town. To rent a small wooden house equipped

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with electricity and water in this summer resort would cost about 300-400 liras for the season, but the consulate with its fine position on the hillside overlooking the sea and surrounded by cool well kept grounds offers a much more attractive dwelling even in the hottest months of summer. 31. The ideal would, of course, be for the consul and his family to get out of Trabzon during the hot summer season for a month's local leave. Unfortunately, however, the only suitable places for local leaves are Istanbul and izmir and it takes 5 days on the slow boat to Istanbul and a further 3 days to get to izmir. In addition to this time factor there is the cost of transport to these places and the expense of obtaining reasonably good accommodation there. Unless special allowances are given for the purpose, or he is lucky enough to have private means, a married consul with children cannot afford to take local leave in Turkey with his family.

Medical Services

in the Trabzon

vilayet

32. The medical services made available by the Government in the Trabzon vilayet are all directed and supervised by the Saglik Miidtiru or Director of Health, whose headquarters are in Trabzon town. The organisation is shown in diagrammatic f o r m in appendix A and those parts of the organisation not yet fully established are marked with an asterisk. In addition to these government services, there are, of course, a large number of private doctors and specialists who practice in the town. Once can say, indeed, that Trabzon is over provided with doctors and some of them might, with advantage, take up residence in towns and villages in the more remote parts of Anatolia, where doctors at present, are conspicuous by their absence. 33. It is not possible for a layman to judge the skill and standing of the numerous specialists, surgeons and doctors who operate the Government medical services and practice privately in Trabzon and other towns in the vilayet, but the local doctors with whom the present consul has come in contact seem reasonably efficient and it can be said that apart from serious operations, when it would be advisable to go to Istanbul or Ankara, reasonably good treatment for all the commoner diseases and ailments can be obtained here in Trabzon. 34. Charges by private medical practitioners are standard: L.T.10 (One pound five shillings and six pence) for a consultation with a specialists; L.T.5 (Twelve shillings and six pence) for a visit to the patient in his home, but this is exclusive of any taxi fare that doctor may charge if the patient lives a distance from the doctor's surgery; L.T.3 (seven shillings and six pence) for a visit to the doctor during surgery hours. A private room in the hospital would cost T.L.10 a day.

32 Consular

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Residence

35. The Consulate, the official address of which is Kizil Toprak Sokagi No 1. Iskender Pa§a Trabzon, is built on a steep hill overlooking the harbour. The grounds which are about an acre in extent are surrounded by high walls, which ensure privacy. This house, which is over 100 years old, is owned by a Persian living in Teheran and has been in occupation as the British consulate for some 50 years. It is the only building in Trabzon suitable as a consulate both from a prestige and utilitarian point of view and it is large enough to contain both the consular residence and the consular offices. The owner is anxious to sell this property to the British Government and negotiations to that end are in progress at present (June 1951). 36. Much money has been spent on improvements and ameliorations to the property since we occupied it and compared to most Turkish houses here in Trabzon it is in a good condition. To bring it up to an European standard of comfort and sanitation would, however, be very costly. Indeed, the Ministry of Works representative after a visit here last year, recommended that if the property is bought by the British Government, repairs and improvements to the value of T.L. 10,000 should be carried out. 37. The residence contains 4 bedrooms, dining room, large salon, a library gun room, wine cellar, kitchen and wash house. There are also cellars for the storage of garden implements, wood and coke and a concrete dugout, in which petrol for the consular car is stored.

Furniture Apart from two rikety camp beds bought by the Foreign Office some years ago and a few dilapidated chairs, no provision has been made by the Foreign Office for furnishing the Consulate. It is not possible to hire decent furniture, or soft furnishings here in Trabzon and the hire of crockery and glass is prohibitive in price. One cannot, therefore, give a reliable figure for the cost of hiring sufficient furniture, soft furnishings, crockery and glass to equip this large consulate, but it would certainly cost at least 1500 to buy and a considerable sum to transport the articles to this remote area. When the present Consul was appointed in May 1949 the Foreign Office had not the funds to provide the equipment necessary and the consul had to provide it himself. This is, of course, not all, for the replacement of glass and crockery due to breakages and carelessness of inefficient local servants and the rapid deterioration of furniture and soft furnishings due to the damp humid climate, cause an additional heavy burden of expense.

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Garden 39. The consular garden, which is almost an acre in extent, is divided into two parts by the office extension. In the garden on the living side of the house, which is laid out in terraces, flowers and fruits are grown and on the other side vegetables. To keep this large garden in first class condition requires the services of a full time gardener, but if one's standards are not so high, a part time gardener, 3 or 4 days a week, might be sufficient. The Foreign Office makes no allowances for the upkeep of the consular garden, so the cost of providing a gardener, implements, seeds etc., devolves on the consul. This can easily run to over 1000 liras a year.

Lighting, Heating and Cooking 40. Electric light and power is laid on throughout the house. Voltage is 220-230 3 phase. There are frequent breakdowns in the supply and oil lamps and candles must be kept in convenient positions in case of such eventualities. In the summer, breakdowns are never of long duration but in the winter they may last for weeks. The cooking stove provided by the Government is about 20 years old and is designed to burn wood. For any attempt at serious cooking, however, some more efficient medium is necessary and the present consul has provided himself with a Valor paraffin cooker, which gives good results even in the hands of the local cooks. An electric cooker would be the ideal but it would be too expensive to run and would certainly be ruined in a short time by the careless and inefficient handling of the local servants. As for heating, there are two stoves designed to burn wood in the clerks office and in the kavasses room; and a kitchen cooking stove, a washhouse boiler and a bathroom boiler all of which burn wood.

Servants 41. A cook, a housemaid, a washerwoman and a gardener are essential if the consulate is to be run efficiently. There are no cooks here trained in European cooking, and one takes the untrained local product and does ones best to turn him into a good plain cook. Even then, constant supervision is necessary to prevent him falling back into his old bad habits. A cook of this nature is paid about TL 120 per month plus his food and working clothes. Women servants here in Trabzon, besides being lazy and inefficient in their work are notorious pilferers. The only safeguard is to keep all things not in use locked up and to have frequent checks of the other articles. Even then losses through petty pilfering can be considerable over a period and threats of police action appear to be of little avail. A so called trained woman servant

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can demand about 60 liras a month plus her food and working clothes. It is advisable to have them living in, but most of them are married with children and they refuse to do this. If there are young children a nursemaid must be employed and a good type of nursemaid is extremely difficult to find in this rather remote part of Turkey. A trained nurse or governess from the United Kingdom, or even from the more enlightened parts of Turkey cannot stand the lonely life here in Trabzon, so that one is forced to fall back on the local girls. Only girls from very poor families in Trabzon will take on work of this nature and they are for the most part of low intelligence and completely untrustworthy. They are paid, after some training, about 80-90 liras a month. Most housemaids and nursemaids refuse to do washing, so it is necessary to send it out or employ a washerwoman to come to the house 4 times a week, twice for washing and twice for ironing. The charge is 3 liras a day whether for washing or ironing. No gardener is provided by the Foreign office. If the consul wants to keep the extensive grounds in good order and it would not be a good thing for British prestige if they were allowed to go into decay, he must employ a gardener himself. In the winter months of January, February and March only a part time man is needed but in the summer months, a full time man is essential. A good gardener will ask at least 200 liras a month, but it is possible with adequate supervision to get along with a rather less efficient type and this class of gardener would ask 150 liras a month, in addition to a midday meal.

Children 42. With its large garden the consulate is ideal for children and the hot damp climate of summer and the dark sunless days of winter seem to have little effect on their energy or on their health; There is a large park just outside the walls of the Consulate and the bathing beach is quite near. All in all, at least under the conditions prevailing at the Consulate, children remain strong and healthy without leave of any kind, but one must give them liberal supplies of cod liver oil and orange juice for the sun rarely shines in the winter months and the skies are overcast for long periods in the summer.

The Consular

Office

The consular offices occupy three rooms in the east wing of the consulate building; one for the consul, one for the clerk and the third houses the wireless station. When in operation, this station is in communication once daily with Istanbul.

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Establishment 43. The establishment at Trabzon allows for a consul, a consular clerk who in the past has acted as wireless operator, two kavasses, chauffeur and a cleaner. The present consul has been without a clerk for over 12 months and it seems almost impossible to persuade a locally employed British subject to take up an appointment here in Trabzon. This is largely due to the isolation of Trabzon combined with the fact that the financial inducements offered are not sufficient to attract a first class man. It would be a great relief to the Consul if a part or full time gardener could be included in the establishment for the Consulate.

Type of Work 44. There is little normal consular work here. In the summer months, however, if one has a consular clerk, long tours by the consul in his area are part of the normal routine and reports on these tours, plus the normal periodical political and economical reports and liaison with Press Office and British Council, can keep him fully occupied. In the summer and autumn months visitors are numerous and there is much entertaining to be done.

TOUR OF THE RÌZE VILAYET 3rd-7th July 1950 General 1. Although on my way to places further afield I have often travelled along the coastal road which runs through the vilayet of Rize, and have spent some hours in Rize itself, my short stays had always precluded contact with officials other than the Vali, the mayor and the Director of the tea factory, and I determined that, during this tour, I would stay long enough to get to know at least the heads of the Government departments in the vilayet headquarters, to spend some time travelling in the outlying "Kazas", and to contact the leaders in the social and political life of this somewhat primitive community. 2. To ensure the best reception possible, I wrote to the Vali and Mayor of Rize telling them I would shortly be visiting their town and, with their help and co-operation, hoped to contact the higher Government officials in the vilayet headquarters and in the kazas, the leaders of the town council, and the heads of the political organisations in the vilayet. The) both replied that they would be pleased to welcome me to Rize and would do their best to arrange the contacts 1 desired. In the diary of my tour set out below I have recorded, as briefly as possible, the more important points brought out in these conversations. 3. It was raining in Rize when I arrived, and although it was the height of summer, rain fell several times during my short stay in the town. Rize although only about 90 kilometres east of Trabzon, has a rainfall three times as great as the latter town, and the hilly terrain, combined with the subtropical climate and high humidity, makes the area around Rize, and indeed the whole coastal region between Of and Hopa, eminently suitable for the cultivation of tea. At the moment tea is only cultivated up to a maximum distance of 25 kilometres from the tea factory at Rize, because for high quality tea production the leaf should, as far as possible, be delivered at the factory and start weathering within a period of 8 hours after picking. However, as the area under tea cultivation extends, it is planned to build new factories, and it is hoped that within 15-20 years the whole of Turkey's needs in tea (1200 tons of tea compared to present production of 200 tons) will be provided by the tea plantations and tea factories along this stretch of coast. 4. The town of Rize lies on the south side of the bay, the open beach having no protection from the weather. Most of the houses are of wood in their own gardens, and are built on both sides of the Tasli river and on rising ground with hills clothed in luxurious vegetation behind. Oranges, lemons and apples are grown extensively, and hazelnuts are cultivated in many parts of the vilayet, although on a much smaller scale than those in the Trabzon, Giresun

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and Ordu vilayets. Some walnuts are also exported. Flax is grown and the material after bleaching on the sea shore, is woven into scarves, socks, and shirts which are in great demand locally. 5. The people of the Rize vilayet are mostly Laz. Few people in Rize towns, however, speak the Laz language, although it is spoken extensively in the Pazar area about 50 kilometres to the east. I found the seafaring people of this coastal vilayet much more suspicious of strangers and foreigners than those in the coastal vilayets west of Trabzon, and this atmosphere of tension and suspicion becomes more and more pronounced as one approaches the Russian frontier. However, once the people are convinced that you are not a Russian spy or agent, they become friendly and co-operative and it would be difficult to find a kinder and more hospitable people.

Diary of the Tour First day - July 3rd 6. Left Trabzon at 09.00 hours, my first stop being at Siirmene, a Kaza (now called Ilge) headquarters, in the Trabzon vilayet. The Kaymakam here, §inasi Ozdenoglu, has written several books on Turkish literature and is certainly above the average in intelligence and ability. He has unbounded political ambitions and coming from a wellknown family in the Gtimii§hane vilayet, thinks he has quite a good chance of being selected when he stands as an independent candidate in the "ara segimleri" or bye elections to be held in 1951. He has no use for the Halk party, but cannot conscientiously join the Democrat party for he believes passionately in the benefits to Turkey of a policy of "etatism" rather than private enterprise. The Government building in Siirmene stands on the main street facing the sea and is certainly the most impressive building in this small scattered village, which extends for several kilometres along the coast. A few weeks previous to my visit, the Vali of Trabzon who is a pompous and unapproachable individual, had been removed from his position as Vali of Trabzon, and posted to a very minor j o b in the Ministry of Interior. Although there is no doubt that this transfer was the result of the Vali's open espousal of the Halk party cause during the elections, I suggested to the Kaymakam that, outside the Vali's unreliability to the Democrat party, pomposity, and unapproachability were characteristics which could hardly be recommended in these democratic days in a person holding a position where continuous close contact with the people and public opinion was so necessary. The Kaymakam was not in agreement with this. He pointed out that Turkish democracy had characteristics of its own, often very different f r o m those of British and American democracy, and in addition the general standard of education and political development in Turkey is much lower than that in those two leaders of the democratic world. He thought that in the

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present stage of development in Turkey, it is unwise for a Vali, or even a Kaymakam, to be too approachable or too familiar with the common people, for it would almost certainly be taken as a sign of weakness, and advantage taken of it when occasion arose. The Kaymakam felt that many Valis and Kaymakams under the new dispensation were overdoing the so called democratic approach, and there was no doubt in his mind that they will regret it. 7. After coffee the Kaymakam took me to see some of the larger boat building establishments in Siirmene and neighbouring villages. These are all family concerns and in prosperous times, when orders pour in from all parts of Turkey for the 10-600 ton "kayiks" in which they have specialised for generations, the village of Siirmene and adjacent villages hum with activity. To-day, boat building in Siirmene, and indeed along the whole stretch of coast between Siirmene and Pazar, is almost at a standstill, and most of the craftsmen have either emigrated to other parts of Turkey or taken up employment in agriculture for there are no other industries in Siirmene. Between Siirmene and the village of Kemerli 7 kilometres away, only two kayiks were being built; one of 250 tons capacity in Siirmene itself and one of 75 tons in the village of Kemerli. 8. With boat building almost at a standstill, and the chief crop, the hazelnut, a failure this year (the crop along the Black Sea coast averaged 20% of normal), the economy of this small community has been dealt a heavy blow, from which it will take a long time to recover. The Government has already begun to think in terms of loans and distributions of maize to the needy peasants, while increasing numbers of the male population of this area will be compelled to emigrate to other areas for the summer months where they can obtain temporary work and thus help to maintain their families and pay back any Government loans that may have been incurred. 9. I left the Kaymakam of Siirmene in Kemerli and continued my journey to Rize, arriving at the tea factory, which is situated on the western outskirts of the town, about 14.00 hours. The Manager of the tea factory was in his office in the administrative building overlooking the sea. The tea industry in Turkey is concentrated in the coastal strip between Rize and Cayeli 21 kilometres to the east, and from this area, with only one factory in full production, just over 200 tons of tea are produced annually, 1/6 the annual requirements of the Turkish people. Although from a purely climatic point of view tea can be grown along the whole of the Black Sea coast between Of and Hopa, without another modern factory being constructed the area under tea cultivation cannot be extended beyond Cayeli, for to produce a good quality tea no more than 8 hours should elapse between the plucking of the leaf and the commencement of weathering, and to ensure this, at least in the Rize area, the growing areas and leaf collecting centres should not be more than 20-25 kilometres from the factory. There is a small tea factory at Gun Dogu which was in operation prior to the construction of the modern large factory at Rize

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and is equipped with rather inferior machinery of local manufacture, but the quality of tea produced there was bad and it is now used only as a leaf collecting centre, except when communications between £ayeli and Rize are interrupted, when it comes into operation until communications are restored. 10. The average cost of production of tea in the Rize factory, where all the latest types of tea making machines are installed is 11 liras per kilogram, of which almost 70% is represented by the cost of the leaf. This compares with the cost of production of equivalent grades Indian tea of under 4 liras per kilogram, a discrepancy hardly conducive to complacency in those responsible for Turkish tea production. By running the factory at full capacity throughout the season (May-Sept.) and perhaps a small reduction in management expenses, a useful contribution to the reduction in costs could be achieved, but with 70% of the costs of production represented by the cost of the raw product, the main contribution to the overall aim of making Rize tea competitive, at least in price, with that produced outside Turkey must come f r o m a sizeable reduction in the cost of the leaf. Unfortunately with an inflationary price structure in Turkey superimposed upon small scale production and primitive methods of cultivation, any attempt to do this under present conditions would result in many of the smaller plantations closing down, create discontent amongst the growers, and cause serious loss of production at the factory. It is evident, therefore, that a reduction in the finished product, cost of leaf, and as a natural corollary, a reduction in the costs of production of tea can only come about if at all, over a period of years, and in the meantime the Turkish people must continue to subsidise the Rize tea industry by paying 16 liras a kilogram for a very inferior mixture of Indian and Rize tea, when they could, if there were no crippling customs duty, buy a better quality Indian tea at less than half the price. Salvation can only come, if at all, by increasing the productive capacity of the area under tea cultivation and this can only be achieved by: (a) The selection and use of only high bearing strains of tea. (b) Attention to routine cultivation, the application of adequate quantities of manure, and annual pruning of the bushes, (c) Having plantations containing a high percentage of mature trees (12-14 years old) which have reached their maximum productive capacity. The third condition depends upon the passage of time, and the other two on the co-operation of the growers, but if they can be achieved, given sufficient leaf to allow the factory to work to capacity throughout the growing season and a lowering of the Turkish price structure to conform more closely with world prices, there seems no reason why the Rize tea industry should not be able to compete on equal terms with tea producing areas in other parts of the world. 11. Some months before the advent of the Democrats to power, the manager of the Rize tea factory, who speaks English well and has spent many years on tea plantations in India and Ceylon, prepared five year and ten year plans for the expansion of the Rize tea industry which he presented to the

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Government. Under these plans growers would be encouraged to increase the area under tea cultivation from 14,000 doniims to 30,000 doniims within a period of five years. By the end of this five years period a high percentage of the tea bushes in the original plantations, which were for the most part put down some 5-7 years ago, will be nearing maturity (12-14 years old) and maximum productive capacity, and the leaf from the mature plantations and those planted up at the commencement of the five year plan should give sufficient leaf to run the present day factory at full capacity throughout the growing season and an annual production of 500 tons of tea. This is about 40% of Turkey's requirements. At this stage the growers with a high percentage of mature bushes in their plantations would be given a lower price for their products than those with comparatively young bushes in their planted areas. At the end of ten years most of the bushes in the 30,000 doniims under tea cultivation will have reached maximum productive capacity, and with the increased productivity of the whole area a further reduction in the price given to the growers for their leaf is envisaged, and this progressive reduction in price may be facilitated by a gradual fall in the Turkish price structure. The production of leaf from an area of 30,000 doniims of mature bushes should be sufficient for the production from an enlarged factory of 1200 tons of tea annually, sufficient to meet the present day needs of Turkey at a price not very much above that in world markets. 12. The Democrats, however, being rather more realistic than their predecessors and in any case somewhat prejudiced against state run enterprises, were very critical of the plan and sceptical about the feasibility of its achievement without the expenditure of much money, which they feel could be used to greater advantage elsewhere. They are, apparently , toying with the idea of forming a co-operative society to take over the factory similar to that running the hazelnut industry. Unfortunately, even if this plan were adopted, it would not solve the basic problem, the high cost of production of tea in Rize compared to that in producing centres outside Turkey, for this is, for the most part tied up with the high prices paid by the factory for their leaf supplies, and can only be influenced to a small degree by economies or increased efficiency in factory administration and control. Therefore, whether the factory at Rize is handed over to a co-operative society or not, the responsibility of the Government for protecting the growers remains, and this can, at present, only be effected by continuing the subsidy to the tea industry in the form of penal tariffs on imported tea, and by selling the mixture of Rize and Indian tea in the Turkish monopoly market at prices much in excess of those prevailing for similar quality tea in the free market outside. 13. After a cup of special Rize tea with the manager and his wife, I continued my journey into the town and established myself in the Can hotel which is reputed to be the best hotel in Rize. Had dinner that night with the manager of the tea factory who had invited some of his senior assistants to meet me. There seems a very good spirit prevailing in this factory both

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between the manager and administrative staff and between the staff and tea workers. It only remains f o r the growers to be infected with the same enthusiasm for efficient tea production, but with high prices prevailing for their product it is difficult to make them realise the necessity for increased efficiency and productive capacity if the tea industry is to be put on a stable footing. 2nd Day - July 4th 14. My first official call was on the Vali, Hifzi Tuz whom I had met several times before on my numerous short visits to Rize. Although a comparatively young man, he look far f r o m healthy, and the damp sultry climate of Rize does not suit him or his family. He told me that he had applied for a transfer to another post on the grounds of ill health and had been told that his application would be sympathetically considered. I heard later that he had been appointed to Bitlis. He will be a great loss to Rize for despite his ill health, he is energetic and full of enthusiasm, and his devotion to duty and complete detachment from politics has made him popular amongst all classes of the community. Throughout my stay in Rize the Vali was friendly and cooperative, and gave me every facility to interview his officials both in Rize itself and in the outlying "kazas". 15. The Government buildings stand on the main street a few yards away from the municipal park. The Vali was in his office when I arrived and as he did not appear to be very busy I took the opportunity of having a long talk with him about economic conditions in his vilayet. Rize, although it has a large variety of crops and is therefore, spared the many problems associated with complete dependence on one or two uncertain croppers such as hazelnuts and tobacco, the ever pressing problems associated with the stretch of the Black Sea coast from Samsun to Hopa, of excessive population in relation to the land available for cultivation, and the persistent refusal of the landless peasants to seek a new life in areas where land is available on which they could be settled, are ever present. The peasants with insufficient land to provide for their families prefer rather to take temporary employment in the work areas of Samsun and Zonguldak and even as far afield as Istanbul and Ankara, returning to their villages for a long rest during the winter months. The Vali said that efforts had been made to persuade landless peasants to settle with their families on land provided by the Government in good agricultural areas but the response was almost negligible. The population of the Rize Vilayet is about 150,000 of whom at least 70% live in the narrow cultivated coastal strip. This area, naturally enough, is quite insufficient to provide a living f o r such a density of population in the absence of any employment locally outside agriculture apart from a few hundred employed seasonally in the tea factory. For this reason, 30,000 or 60% of the vilayet's 50,000 male working population migrate each year, just after the fields have been dug and

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the maize sown towards the end of March, to one of the work areas mentioned above, returning in September in time for the maize and hazelnut harvests, after which they rest until the time comes round for them to set off on their travels again. The women of Rize are strong and industrious and work the small farm holdings during the absence of their men folk. The Vali stresses that this annual migration, although essential under present day conditions in the vilayet could only be regarded as a palliative and not as an effective solution of the problem of overpopulation. Indeed, it brought in its train many serious domestic problems, not the least being the transmission of venerea] disease to their wives by husbands who in their long absence from home, have departed from the path of strict chastity. On the question of the future of the tea industry and the attitude of the Democrat Government to it the Vali said there had been a great deal of nonsense talked about the intentions of the Government in this matter. The tea industry in Rize had come a long way since the first tentative experiments some 20 years ago, and much capital had been expended in the process. The industry was far from standing on its own feet, continued the Vali, and it might never succeed in doing so, but the six fold expansion in production aimed at by those controlling the industry, even if it does not result in the production of tea at world prices would enable Turkey to dispense with imports from abroad, and the guaranteed prices to tea growers for their leaf is not only a stabilising factor in the tea industry, but in the economic life of the vilayet as a whole. With a background such as this, it is hardly feasible that any Government would, at this stage, attempt to abolish the subsidy to the Rize tea industry in the form of high tariffs on imported tea, and an artificially high price for the local mixture in the Turkish market. They may hand the factory over to a local co-operative society and this may ensure its more efficient operation, but the tea industry as a whole, with the maintenance of high prices for their leaf to the growers, must remain the responsibility of the Government, whatever its complexion, for many years to come. 16. The next person on my list was the Mayor. He had only recently taken over from his predecessor who had resigned to stand as Halk party candidate in the general elections, but had suffered defeat in the general landslide towards Democracy in the Rize vilayet. The municipal building is situated on the main street near the jetty, the Mayor having a large room overlooking the main street in which meetings of the town council are also held. The Mayor, who lost his seat on the council a short time later in the municipal elections is a prominent tradesman of the town and a pleasing personality. When I arrived he was waiting the arrival of the necessary quorum of councillors to start the weekly routine council meeting, which was due to commence 15 minutes before my arrival. I stayed talking to the Mayor for well over half an hour and even at the end of that time only 2 or 3 councilors had arrived. The Mayor explained that his enthusiastic band of co-workers on the council were not too punctual in attendance at meetings and I felt that this

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might be termed a masterpiece of understatement. I asked the Mayor as a good Halk party man, the Halk party at that time having a large majority on the council, what he thought of the chances of the Halk party in the forthcoming elecition for the town councils. He thought that within the town boundaries, Halk party member were in the majority and as for as the Rize town council was concerned he was reasonably confident that the Halk party would gain a majority. In addition the voters showed much less interest in the local elections than in the general election and he would be surprised if more than 40-50% of the electors cast their votes. The voters, the Mayor continued, also tended in these local elections, to vote for the men rather than the party and he felt that the Halk party list of candidates would be more inspiring than that of the opposition. In the event, although his estimate of the number of electors who would cast their votes was correct, his other forecasts were the reverse of what happened. The Democrat party gained an overwhelming majority on the Rize town council, while the Halk party were more successful in elections outside the town, and the electors in the mass appeared to have voted for the party rather than the candidate. 17. From the Mayor I went a little way down the street to the office of the harbour master. Like all other harbour masters I have met in Turkey he is an ex-ship's captain, and his experience in that capacity would undoubtedly help him in his present work. Although slightly hostile at first he rapidly thawed and in the end proved very friendly and co-operative. The harbour master did not keep, or said he did not keep detailed figures of imports and exports for each commodity, but he gave me figures of exports for 1949 under three headings, namely, materials, animals and timber. The main exports under the heading materials, are oranges, tangerines, lemons, apples, hazelnuts, tea, and walnuts, oranges and tangerines forming a little over 50% of the total of 40,420 metric tons of these materials exported in 1949. The winter of 1949/50 in Rize, and indeed along the whole length of the Black Sea coast was the most severe and most prolonged in living memory, and practically all the lemons and a good proportion of the orange trees were destroyed, and those that survived will not bear fruit for many years to come. In addition the hazelnut crop this year was a complete failure. Fortunately, the tangerine trees, which are much hardier than the oranges and lemons, were not so badly affected by the severity of the winter, and although this year's almost complete absence of orange, lemon and hazelnut exports is bound to have a serious effect on the economy of the vilayet, Rize is fortunate in that its agriculture is more diverse than that of most of the vilayets along this coast. The almost complete loss of one or two crops is therefore not the complete disaster it can be in vilayets like Ordu and Giresun whose economy is based almost exclusively on the fickle hazelnut. With regard to animals 9495 head of cattle and sheep were exported from Rize in 1949, and timber was also exported in small quantities. The only imports of any importance are salt, maize, and wheat.

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18. The harbour master has some justification for his lack of enthusiasm for the port of Rize and its equipment, The bay in which the roadstead is situated is without protection from winter gales, and between December and February, when gales are frequent, boats are often unable to unload or passengers come ashore. In suitable weather ships lie off shore and are unloaded by means of lighters which discharge their cargo at the jetty, a 60 year old structure about 50 metres long. The first 35 metres (from the shore) of the jetty is supported on steel piles 5 metres apart in the row and about 5 metres between the rows. These steel piles are sunk into the sea bed and steel cross supports take the wooden roadway of the structure. The seaward 15 metres section is supported on concrete piles. The wooden roadway is about 5 metres wide and is about 6ft above the surface of the water. Towards the seaward end of the jetty wooden steps lead down to sea level, and passengers and their luggage are disembarked there. There are no lifting appliances on the pier and cargo is handled by coolies who carry it to transport vehicles, mostly horse drawn, which are drawn up off the jetty. Customs and police buildings are situated on the street just opposite the pier. There is no quarantine officer. 19. Plans have been drawn up for a new steel and concrete jetty and for the construction of an all weather harbour, but neither of these projects is likely to be implemented in the foreseeable future. The harbour master and his family are accommodated in a few rooms over his office for which privilege he pays 10 liras a month. He said his basic pay was 200 liras a month and he gets certain additions as family allowances. Vegetables and meat are cheap in Rize and there are few distractions so that a small salary like this often suffices for an official with a large family. The harbour master certainly made no complaint about the inadequacy of his pay and even boasted that although lie could afford no luxuries, he and his wife and family were well fed and moderately well clothed on his salary. He did complain, however, of the fact that he was single handed, which meant that his job was a 24 hour one. On the other hand, in the winter, weeks may pass without a ship being able to make a call at Rize owing to the rough weather, but against this he can point out that whether ships arrive or not he still has his routine work to carry out, which necessitates him being on the job. 20. This concluded my interviews for the day. In the evening I received calls from the Vali, the mayor, and the harbour master at my hotel. The Vali said he was going to visit (^ayeli the next day and would not, therefore, be available to help me with my next day's programme of visits. He was, however, arranging for a guide to be available to conduct me to whatever department I required, for owing to the smallness of the vilayet headquarters' building, many of them have been forced to take offices in different buildings in the town. After these visits I went out to dinner with one of the control staff of the agricultural experimental station which is situated on a hillside a few kilometres outside the town. He was busy learning English for he wanted to be able to read the latest agricultural and horticultural publications from the research stations in England and the standard English text books on these subjects, for there were no modern textbooks on agriculture and horticulture in the Turkish language.

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3rd day - July 5th 21. My first visit was to the Director of Agriculture whose office was on the ground floor of a large house on the coastal road to Trabzon about a kilometre from the centre of the town. The ground floor was occupied by the veterinary department. The Director had, unfortunately gone away the day before on a week's leave to settle some urgent private affairs, and would not, therefore, be back before my departure. I had heard that the Director was a man with some very novel ideas on agriculture and especially in the future direction of the tea industry, and I was very sorry to have missed talking with him. From here my guide took me to the offices of the Director of Development which are situated almost on the seashore a little to the west of the main Government building. The Director told me his work included responsibility for the supervision of all building construction in the vilayet, and the repair, maintenance, and construction of all "vilayet" roads, any "national" roads which pass through the vilayet being the responsibility of the central Government. There is only one completed "national" road passing through the vilayet: that is the coastal road f r o m Trabzon-Hopa, but the construction of a new "national" motor road linking Rize with Ispir, later to be extended to Erzerum, has been commenced and has now gone as far as Giineyce, the headquarters town of the "kaza" of that name. I was told that this road could not stand up to even the limited lorry and passenger car traffic to which it had been subjected, and was in such a bad condition that anyone who valued his car would be foolish to use it. This new road construction does not, unfortunately, come under any of the 3 year plans for road development, but is supported by a special Government fund called "Kalkmma Yardimi" or "Aid for development purposes". This fund is necessarily a small one and work on the road only proceeds as money becomes available. It is thought that it will be at least a year before the section from Giineyce to the boundary between the Rize and Erzurum vilayets is completed, and at this rate it will be many years before the road reaches Ispir. For the purpose of constructing and maintaining the "national" roads of the country, Turkey is divided into areas, the Rize vilayet coming within the 10th Area with headquarters at Trabzon. The people of Rize are very road minded and have great hopes from the construction of the road Rize-lspir-Erzurum, for it will enable the agricultural products of the fertile Ispir area to be sent by a direct road to the sea, instead of by pack transport to Erzurum and then by lorry on the transit route to Trabzon, more than 3 times the distance of the direct route between Ispir and Rize. If the road to Ispir from Rize is extended to Erzurum, Rize has great hopes of capturing some of the trade which now goes from Erzurum to Trabzon along the transit road, f o r the direct route f r o m Erzurum to the sea at Rize via Ispir is considerably shorter than that from Erzurum via Bayburt and Giimii§ane to the sea at Trabzon. However, all this is, at the present time, very much in the future, but a good motor road f r o m Rize to Erzurum via ispir is almost certain to stimulate trade with the hinterland, and appears to be the brightest hope for the future expansion of the traffic passing through the port of Rize.

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22. As for the "vilayet" or local roads, which are the responsibility of the Director of Development at vilayet headquarters, survey parties first go out and lay down the alignment of the proposed roads, which are for the most part short ones connecting villages, with no attempt at present to link them up with a main road. These roads, which are unmetalled, are roughly constructed along the alignment laid down by the survey party, and the labour involved is supplied on a voluntary basis by the vilayets themselves, for the latter are very conscious of the benefits of good communications in their area. Where bridges are necessary, they are constructed with materials and labour provided by the Director of Development. If these preliminary earth roads are considered of sufficient importance, and funds are available, they are later graded and metalled, but cannot even stand up then to any volume of heavy traffic, especially in the winter months. The money for this work has to be found from vilayet funds, and Rize is a comparatively poor vilayet, while, in addition, the mountains and difficult terrain makes even the most primitive form of road making very expensive. For these reasons the vilayet authorities have to weigh things up very carefully before they embark on any new road building project, and this is perhaps why there are, at present, only three "vilayet" roads under construction. These are: Pazar - Hem§in ; Rize Guneysu ; Cayeli - Kaptan Pa§a. The Director hoped to have these roads open for motor traffic earl} in 1951. 23. The next person on my programme was the Director of Education, whose offices are in the main street about 300 yards from the vilayet headquarters building. The Director is 31 years old, but despite his youthful appearance gives the impression of having the job well under control. He is of peasant origin and takes pride in the fact he is the youngest Director of Education in Turkey and has risen to this, for a teacher, exalted position without any benefits of birth or influence. The big problem in a mountainous vilayet like Rize, with a population necessarily widely dispersed, was to provide elementary education to every child who came within the vilayet boundaries. At present only about 30% of the child population received elementary education, but they hoped to increase the percentage to 80% in the next ten years. This is a very ambitious target in a vilayet like Rize for except along the coast there are few villages where houses are closely grouped together for ease of administration and provision of amenities. Indeed, the so called villages in the interior of the Rize vilayet may contain only about 500 houses, but being widely dispersed, the area covered by the village is considerable. As far as primary education is concerned the best that can be done is to build a school in as nearly as possible the centre of the village area, but even then children in dwellings at the edge of the area often find it impossible to attend classes owing to the distance involved and the difficult country to be traversed. However, the Director continued, parents are, for the most part, eager for their children to receive the benefits of a primary education, and if it is at all possible see that they attend the classes regularly.

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Of the 260 villages in the Rize vilayet, 152 have already been provided with primary schools, and on an average 12 schools are being erected every year. The teachers for these village elementary schools are provided by the village institutes, which are a sort of teachers' training college f o r village boys and girls. When admitted to the village institute, these village boys and girls undertake, on graduating, to serve at least 10 years as elementary school teachers in their own village or in any other village the Government may select. Being village born and bred, these teachers are much more contented living in the depths of the country than a town bred teacher would be, and these village institutes have already proved their worth. In addition to the ordinary elementary schools in the villages, there are four travelling schools organised by the vilayet headquarters, each consisting of one man and one woman teacher. These travelling schools often stay as long as one year in a village community, the man teacher instructing the peasants in the repair of agricultural implements, and the woman teacher giving instruction to the women in needlework and domestic science generally. A percentage of the village teachers, despite their village background, became discontented with the isolation and rude life of the villages after some years of a rather fuller life in the village institute, but the Director thought that if communications between the different villages and between the villages and the administrative centre could be improved, the freer movement involved would remove the sense of isolation and with it much of the present feeling of discontent. In addition to the elementary schools in the villages, Rize boasts an "Orta Okul" or Secondary Okul, a Technical School, a girls' Domestic Science school, a school for apprentices, and 4 elementary schools. There is no Lise or Lycée in Rize, advanced students being compelled to go as boarders at the Trabzon Lycée or further afield, but it is hoped to establish a Lycée in Rize in 1951. 24. From the Director of Education I went to visit the President of the Democrat party. Unfortunately, the President of the Halk party was still in Ankara, having gone there to attend the Annual Congress of that party, and was not expected back for some time. I was introduced to the person acting for him in his absence, the owner of a transport agency and depot in the main street, but he was not a friendly and certainly not a very inspiring individual, so I did not call on him in his office. The President of the Democrat party is in the same line of business as the acting President of the Halk party, but he is a completely different type. Possessing energy, intelligence and enthusiasm in good measure, and gifted with a keen sense of humour, he must be a great asset to the Democrat party. Indeed, there is little doubt that the eclipse of the Halk party in the Rize vilayet, both in the local town councils and in the wider sphere of parliamentary representation, is due in no small measure to his enthusiastic and energetic leadership. I noticed that despite the keen rivalry between the two parties in Rize, the leaders were quite friendly, and the Democrat leader told me he tried his best not to allow his political feelings to influence his friendships or his social life, but he naturally found the company

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of his fellow Democrats more congenial. I wanted the President's views on public versus private enterprise and chose the Rize tea industry as a starting point. The Democrat Government, the President said, was determined to get rid of this incubus left from the previous regime, although he qualified this by saying that the transfer from Government control must be effected with the minimum loss and inconvenience to those whose livelihood is involved. He thought the factory with its ten officials was run like all Government ventures, on too grand a scale, and he was convinced it could be run as efficiently on half this number of permanent staff. He had great admiration for the Manager of the tea factory, who, he said, should be kept on under the new dispensation. The consensus of opinion in Government circles at present was that it was not feasible to sell the factory, but that it should be handed over to a co-operative society of the tea growers themselves, who would pay an annual rent for its use. The upkeep of the factory would be the responsibility of the co-operative society as would the pay of the officials necessary to run it. He realised that a co-operative society would not be able to continue the high price paid to the growers for leaf and run at a profit, unless the Government continued to levy a prohibitive customs duty on imported tea and kepi: the selling price of tea in the interior market at something like the present price. I pointed out to the President that the Turkish people are paying a high price at present for the privilege of having a tea industry in Rize, for the price paid for tea in Turkey is almost three times that paid in the world markets, and this fact would not be much altered whether the tea factor) remains under the Monopoly or is handed over to a co-operative society. He agreed that the future of the tea industry in Rize depended mainly on the efficiency of the tea growing side of the industry, and to a very much smaller degree on that of the tea factory, but he thought a small start in the direction of increased efficiency was better than no movement at all in that direction. There was no question, at this stage, of abandoning the tea industry to its fate, and the community must continue to bear the heavy burden of a home tea industry. The President was an enthusiastic believer in the concentration of Government energies on the encouragement and stimulation of the production under private enterprise of those things which can be produced in Turkey at competitive world prices, and within the limits of national security and the control of key industries, the abandonment of subsidies to industries which cannot be made to pay their way in the foreseeable future. 2 5 . 1 had arranged to go after lunch to Gun Dogdu, a village about 10 kilometres east of Rize on the coastal road, accompanied by the Director of the Plant Breeding station in Rize and two of his assistants, to visit a few of the tea plantations in that area. The Director's car, a 15 year old Ford station wagon, broke down just outside Rize and we all had to crowd on the Consular Land Rover. We started our long climb just outside Gun Dogdu and passed plantation after plantation constructed in terraces on the mountain side. I asked the Director why, if tea was such a vulnerable crop, they chose to go to the

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expense of constructing terraces f o r it on the mountain side, instead of growing it in place of maize in the fertile comparatively flat, coastal strip, where the provision of manure and carrying out of cultivation would be comparatively cheap. He explained that all land in the valleys and lower slopes of the hills has grown maize for generations, and that crop being a lover of lime, liberal doses of it have been applied over the years. Tea, on the other hand, loves an acid soil, indeed the type of soil on which forests have grown for generations, and would not, therefore, thrive on the rich lime soil of the cultivated areas. The tea plants are grown on terraces 1 metre 20 cm wide, and it is important that the terraces should not be narrower than this if erosion is to be avoided, and the plant given sufficient room to form a good root system. It takes 4 years for a tea plant to come into bearing, and it reaches its m a x i m u m cropping capacity at 10-18 years old. The plants often go on cropping for 60 years. The two tea inspectors who were with us, and whose j o b it is to visit the growers periodically and to advise them on the cheapest and most effective methods of increasing the production of leaf for a given area, were not pleased with the response of the growers to their pleas for better methods and increased production. Most of the growers avoided spending money on the application of manure, pruning of the bushes and the routine cultivations, with the result that the plantation became a great useless growth and the cropping capacity of the bushes was greatly reduced. As we passed through the various plantations the Director illustrated these points by comparing well maintained plantations with those where the growers took little pains to keep the bushes in good condition. We called at the house of one of the wealthier and more co-operative growers and he regaled us with coffee followed by "Ayran". The worthy grower took nothing himself for it was Ramazan and the period of fasting was not yet over. I felt tired after these long hours climbing in the sun and had to refuse an invitation to go out to dinner with the President of the Democrat party. 4th day - 6th July 26. I had reserved this day for visits to the headquarters towns of the three "kaza" into which the vilayet of Rize is divided, namely Gtineyce, Cayeli and Pazar, but the bad condition of the road prevented me from visiting the first named. I omitted to let the Kaymakam of Cay el i and Pazar know that I would be visiting them, and found the former out when I arrived in the village. He had gone to visit a rather distant village and would not be back until the evening. I called again on my way back f r o m Pazar to Rize but he had not yet returned. Driving onto Pazar, which is about 48 kilometres east of Rize, I arrived there just after midday. The Government building is situated on the seashore about £ mile west of the town, where there is a small bay with some protection against westerly and north westerly winds.

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27. The Kaymakam had not returned from lunch when I arrived at his office just after 14.00 hours, and I sat awaiting him on the balcony of his office which overlooks the bay. The Kaymakam came bustling in a few minutes later with the Attorney General for the kaza, who is a native of Trabzon and was anxious to see someone from his native town. Almost all the population of Pazar are Lazes and speak their own peculiar dialect both in their homes and in the coffee shops. When I asked for some information about imports and exports at the port of Pazar, the Kaymakam called for his harbour master, but the latter was exceptionally vague on the subject. By dint of much questioning, however, I elicited the following information: Imports: The only imports of any consequence are maize (80%), wheat and barley (small amounts), sugar, olive oil, and cloth. The staple diet of the inhabitants of Pazar is maize bread and almost 70% of the requirements of the kaza has to be imported. Exports: Apples are grown on a large scale in the Pazar kaza and form almost 50% by value of the exports. The remainder consist of citrus fruits (26%), tobacco (used in making cigars) 10%, and smaller amounts of beans, timber and rice. Apples are grown on the lower slopes of the hills, but with the complete absence of spraying against insect pests, and lack of adequate cultivation, pruning and manuring, the fruit is of poor quality. No attempt is made to grade the product and the packing is very primitive, with the result that the price obtained is not very remunerative to the growers. Under such conditions, it is difficult to get the growers to give more attention to cultivation, manuring and pruning, for this involves greatly increased expenditure, and granting that attention to such points gives a bigger and a better quality apple crop, the growers of Pazar are not convinced that the increased price, if any, obtained for their products will offset the extra expenditure involved. In addition, the orchards in Pazar are laid down to permanent grass on which sheep and cattle graze under the tall standard apple trees. The profit from this side line forms a useful supplement to the income from the sale of apples, and in the event of a failure of the apple crop, which is not infrequent in this area, serves to cushion the economic effects of such a disaster. The cultivations and sprayings necessary for efficient apple growing would prevent the use of the orchards for the grazing of sheep and cattle, and as the growers are almost certain not to implement such action, no change, at least in the foreseeable future, is likely to be made in the present procedure of allowing the apple trees of Pazar to produce their annual crop, with the minimum of attention to those points of good management on which efficient apple growing depends. 28. Goods for export from Pazar are brought down to the beach in front of the Government building and loaded on to small rowing boats drawn up on the beach. These small boats transfer their cargo either to "kayiks" anchored close inshore or to the large steamers which anchor further out. The same procedure in reverse is used for goods imported into Pazar. The jetty which

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was formerly used for loading and unloading barges is situated just off the estuary of the Pazar Dere, a river which empties into the sea east of the town. Owing to the silting up of the estuary over the years, the jetty is now high and dry, and was abandoned some years ago. Plans have been drawn up for the construction of a breakwater west of the bay at which loading and unloading takes place at present. This breakwater would not only protect ships from the violent west and north-west winds, but would at the same time act as a jetty. When one considers the almost cut-throat competition among the ports of the Black Sea for some form of breakwater protection for their harbours, the plan for Pazar is likely to remain in the "drawing board" stage for many years to come. 29. Said good-bye during the morning to all the people I had met during my stay in Rize, and later set off on the return journey to Trabzon.

REPORT ON TOUR IN THE VILAYETS OF AGRI / KARAKOSE AND VAN 10 th -21 st October 1951 (I) The vilayets of ERZERUM and KARAKOSE being in a military area, all foreigners desiring to enter them must first of all obtain permission from the military authorities through the Ministry of Interior or Foreign Office. Consuls send their applications to the Valis in whose areas they are normally resident and the latter forward it to the Ministry of Interior in Ankara. A helpful and co-operative Vali can often obtain such permission in under a week, but to cover all eventualities it is advisable to allow at least 1012 days for one's application to be approved. Although I took this precaution, however, two months elapsed before I was finally given permission to cross into the Erzurum military area in the consular car. It was then about the middle of October and the early Winter rains had rendered the earth roads of the Karakose and Van vilayets almost impassable and it was only with great difficulty and discomfort that I succeeded in negotiating the earth road from Karakose to Van. Apart from a 7-kilometre stretch of tarmac road from Van town to the lakeside jetty there are no metalled roads in that vilayet and after the difficulties of the journey along the main road from Karakose to Van which, from a prestige point of view alone, would almost certainly be maintained in a better condition than any of the other roads in the Van vilayet, I reluctantly decided to confine my activities in that vilayet to the streets of Van itself. I left Trabzon at 06.30 hours on the 10th October and headed for the "Forbidden City" of the Turkish military world, Erzurum. My permission for the tour specified that I should stop at Ilica, a military centre a few kilometres west of Erzurum and obtain an escort before entering the latter town. I acted in accordance with the instructions, but as the Chief of Police in Trabzon had omitted to inform the military authorities of my movements (although he had promised faithfully to do so), no escort was available on my arrival and after wasting more than an hour in a temperature below zero, I was in the end allowed to proceed without one. This permission was given, however, on the understanding that I did not spend the night in Erzurum but continued on my way to Karakose. The road from Erzurum to Karakose is a part of the main transit road to Persia and it is well maintained. Soon after leaving Erzurum darkness fell and there was a thin drizzle of rain. Snow was falling on the Velibaba and Kiz Kasan passes, but after passing Aleskirt the weather cleared and the remainder of the journey to Karakose was in bright moonlight. We arrived in Karakose just before midnight, the journey from Trabzon having taken 18 hours.

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Statistics kept over a long period show that the mean winl temperature in Karakose is the lowest for any town in Turkey and althou the really severe weather does not commence until the end of November, t place was certainly very cold and depressing at midnight on October 1C 1951. The only hotel in the town with any pretence to cleanliness and comix is the Transit Hotel. This building was constructed and furnished by t government, but the latter very wisely let the building and furniture for t best price they can get to a manager who undertakes to run the p l a efficiently primarily for the convenience of those travelling along the I r a n i road to Persia. On the night of my arrival in Karakose, I found, to n discomfiture, that all the rooms in the hotel had been taken and the manag could only offer me a bed made up on a table in the restaurant. This did n look too inviting so I decided, with the help of the local police, who we very co-operative, to try and find a room elsewhere. All my efforts, howeve were in vain and I was faced with the alternative of either accepting the bed c the restaurant table or continuing my journey to Van. The intense cold and tl muddy condition of the earth road to Van made me decide in the end to acce] the somewhat unconventional accommodation at the Transit Hotel. The ne: day I was lucky enough to be able to share a room with two young officei from Dogu Bayazit who had arrived in Karakose the day before to take the promotion examination at the 1st Cavalry Division Headquarters in the towi They were part of a large contingent of officers who had come up froi outlying stations for this purpose and it was unfortunate f o r me that ih influx of officers, coincided with my arrival in the town. I stayed two days in Karakose and took the opportunity of visiting th Vali and talking to the local officials. Throughout that time the weather WE fine with a drying wind and on the morning of the third day I set out for Vai The drying winds of the previous two days however, were not sufficient t effect any great improvement and parts of the road were only traversed wit great difficulty owing to the thick mud. Indeed, we passed many heavily lade lorries whose drivers had temporarily abandoned the unequal struggle and wer waiting hopefully for a few more days of sunshine which might dry the road sufficiently to enable them to continue their journey. The rivers en route wer also in spate and when they had to be forded sometimes presented difficulties Altogether, the distance of 260 kilometres between Karakose and Van, whicl under normal conditions in the summer time can be traversed in 6-8 hours, oi this occasion took nearly twelve hours to complete and it might have takei much longer but for the fact that we were lucky enough to complete the mor< difficult parts of the route before night fall. It had been raining heavily in Van for several days before my arriva and most of the higher mountains were covered in snow. Apart from a fev kilometres of metalled road, near the towns of Erci§ and Van, all roads in th< Van vilayet are unmetalled and snow, on high ground and rain had renderec most of them impassable and many of the others could only be negotiated

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with extreme difficulty in low gear. I thought it advisable, therefore, to confine my activities on this occasion to the immediate vicinity of Van itself. I did, however, visit the old fortress of Van perched on the top of a massive rock formation some 6 kilometres S.S.W of Van town. From its ancient battlements the whole Van plain lay like a map in front of me and the ruins of the old city with its ancient walls stood forlorn and deserted at its foot. It was, perhaps, fortunate that I was forced by muddy roads and unseasonable weather to give up any idea of touring in the vilayet, for stocks of petrol in Van were so low that they were being strictly reserved for the refuelling of lorries bringing essential food and other supplies into the town and it was only after intervention by the Mayor of Van that the head of the petrol office could be cajoled or cudgelled into supplying even the few tins of petrol needed for my return journey to Karakose. I understand that the shortage of petrol at that time was not due in any way to the dispute between the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. and the Persian Government, but merely to delays in the arrival of supplies by lorry due to the muddy conditions of the roads. Petrol in Van was over 10 liras a four gallon tin compared with 8 liras in Trabzon and considering the state of the roads in the vilayet and the long distances over which it has to be transported, I am surprised that it is not very much more expensive. After 3 days in Van, during which time rain fell intermittently, I returned to Karakose by the route I had come. In dry weather the road from Muradiye to the main transit road at Dogubayazit is passable, although in a bad state of repair, but winter had come early to the Van vilayet and the rain (and snow on high ground) had already (October 17) rendered it impassable. In the event of the road from Van to Karakose via Erci§ and Patnos being completely impassable, it would be possible to get back to Erzurum by shipping the car by lake steamer to Tatvan, proceeding thence by road through Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Elazig and Tunceli. I was told by lorry drivers who have used the route, however, that the road from Tatvan to Bitlis is not completely metalled and parts of the road between Bitlis and Diyarbekir are often impassable for short periods after heavy rains. Although the mud delayed us considerably on the return journey to Karakose via Erci§ and Patnos (see route report), where rivers had to be forded en route, the crossing was much easier, as the flood water had subsided considerably in the 3 or 4 days which had elapsed since we traversed the route on the outward journey. Heavily laden lorries, however, were still finding the muddy stretches north of Patnos very difficult and many had decided to halt and await further favourable drying winds before attempting to negotiate that hazard. The whole of the road between Karakose and Patnos had been what the Turks call 'stabilised' that is, a 6" to 8" layer of soil had been taken off the surface of the road by a grader and this soil replaced by sand and gravel. N o roller was used, the road being consolidated by the passage of vehicles over it. I understand that this method of road making, which being comparatively cheap, is likely to become the standard method in isolated vilayets like Karakose and Van, gives satisfactory

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results provided the subsoil is sandy and rain water can get away quickly. When the subsoil is clay as it is around Patnos, a layer of sand and gravel of up to 12" thickness is required, if the surface is not to be cut up badly by heavy traffic after rain. To provide a layer of sand and gravel of this thickness makes the work very much more expensive and the Turks often take the line of least resistance and either leave the clay sections of the route in their virgin state, or provide the usual 6" of sand and gravel. The result of such shortsightedness can be seen in the last 10 kilometres of the road between Karakose and Patnos, where the inadequate 6" layer of sand and gravel over the clay subsoil had been churned into a morass of mud by heavy traffic. The Vali of Karakose told me that this stretch of road would be effectively stabilised during 1952 and he thought this would still be cheaper than metalling it. My journey back from Van to Karakose took just over 11 V2 hours. I stayed three days in Karakose during which time, apart for a journey along the transit road to the frontier village of Dogubayazit where I saw the commander of the local garrison and the Kaymakam and a visit to one of the recently built village schools, I was confined to the limits of the town. During my stay I interviewed the Vali and his officials, the Mayor and the political leaders in the town and I found them helpful and co-operative. Karakose is not a pleasing town even under the best of conditions, but during the period of early winter rains, when the weather is cold and damp and heating arrangements not yet in operation, it can be a very unpleasant spot, especially for those not acclimatised to such conditions. While I was in Karakose the tezek or dried cow dung, which outside government military circles is the universal fuel for heating and cooking in this area, was being brought into the town from surrounding villages in large quantities, a sure sign that the rigours of winter are not far away. Life in winter is indeed hard on this bleak inhospitable Armenian plateau and it was with a feeling of relief that I headed north, towards the Black Sea coast and Trabzon with its mild winter and comparatively wide range of domestic comforts. In the paragraphs that follow, I have set down as concisely as possible the information, economic, political and military, I was able to obtain f r o m observation and from my contacts with local officials and others during my tour.

VILAYET OF VAN The vilayet of Van, which lies in the south east corner of Turkey, has common boundaries with the Karakose (Agri), Mu§, Bitlis, Siirt and Hakkiari (Colemerik) vilayets. It covers an area of approximately 13,000 square kilometres, an area more than twice that of the Trabzon vilayet. T h e population of the Van vilayet, however, is only just over 100,000 or about 8 persons per square kilometre compared to a density of about 70 persons to the

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square kilometre in the Trabzon vilayet. In addition to being much larger in area than the Trabzon vilayet the vilayet of Van has a much higher percentage of fertile and cultivable land and given stable government and some encouragement to mechanisation on the farms, there is no doubt that a very much larger population could be supported. The vilayet is divided into 7 kaza, namely, Erci§, Muradiye, Cevas, (,'atak, Baikal e, Ozalp and Giirpinar. All around the lake, ruins of churches and monasteries can be seen and these and other evidences are a reminder that there must have existed in recent times a denser and different type of population than is present today. Indeed, before 1914 the province contained a fairly dense Armenian population settled in towns and villages, in addition to the Kurds who were, for the most part, nomadic. During the first world war, a large part of this region became a battleground over which the Russian and Turkish armies ranged and by the end of it, the ancient city of Van lay in ruins and the remaining population had been reduced to misery and destitution. The local Armenians revolted when the Russians invaded the province in 1914 and most of them, very wisely, accompanied the latter when they retired across the frontier. Many Armenians, however, remained in their villages and were massacred. Those who survived were forcibly removed and settled in Istanbul and Ankara. Today there are no Armenians in the area and the Kurds have been forced to settle on the land and abandon their nomadic life. A period of stable government has restored confidence to the area and the population is on the increase and agricultural production is rising steadily. It has been suggested that the Turkish refugees from Bulgaria could be settled in large numbers on agricultural land in the Van vilayet and experts f r o m Ankara are at present in Van investigating the possibilities in this direction and the expense likely to be involved. It is to be hoped that the project will materialise, f o r such an influx of new blood, capital, experience and ideas would almost certainly have a stimulating effect on the local agriculture and given encouragement and direction from Ankara might well lead to a new era of prosperity and progress for this long suffering and much maligned vilayet. Eighty per cent of the population of the Van vilayet are of Kurdish origin although the Turks maintain they are not Kurds but Turks who for centuries have been neglected by government and allowed to degenerate. Famed in the old days for their lawlessness and predatory instincts, the Kurds are, by today, completely tamed. Indeed, forced abandonment of the nomadic life, combined with the removal of their tribal leaders and other recalcitrants, have turned the Kurds into a law abiding and hard working community. Although, outside the larger towns and villages the majority of them still speak only Kurdish, the establishment of elementary schools in all their villages and the enforcement throughout the vilayet of the law with regard to the compulsory elementary education f o r all children, should result in the new generation losing their sense of Kurdish nationality and becoming absorbed in the Turkish community. Large numbers of Kurds have migrated to the towns and

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the coolie population of Van is largely made up of such people. The Chief of Police, who came from Giresun to take up the appointment at Van, told me he found Van somewhat of a health resort after service in that coastal vilayet. The Kurds throughout the vilayet, he said, were quiet, hard working and lawabiding and he only wished that the population in other parts of the country possessed these qualities in the same degree. The people of the vilayet as a whole take little active interest in politics. The local newspaper, which goes by the name of Van Sesi or Voice of Van is published every day except Sunday. 300 to 400 copies are sold daily, most of these in the Van vilayet, but copies are sent as far afield as Ankara and Istanbul. In the days of the supremacy of the Halk Party, the Van Sesi, I am told, was a strong and forceful advocate of the policies of that party, but now that Democracy is in the ascendant, it has changed its allegiance and comes out with no less vigour in support of the new regime. At the last general election two Halk Party candidates and one Democrat Party candidate were returned to parliament for the Van vilayet, but in the election for the Van town council, which came later in the year, the Democrats gained an overwhelming majority. I was told that in the local government elections only 30% of the electors took the trouble to record their votes.

Headquarters

Town

The headquarters of the government administration of the vilayet is the town of Van. With a population of 13,000, Van is by far the largest town in the vilayet. It is situated some 7 kilometres east of the lake, to which it is connected by a first class tarmac road and about 6 kilometres N.N.E. of the old city of Van, which lies in ruins at the foot of the citadel rock. The new town is built in what was once the cultivated gardens of the old city and the mud built huts in which the majority of people are housed, are hidden from view amongst the profusion of trees. The wide main street with its iwo iines of traffic, runs north and south and on it lie all the government buildings, hotels restaurants and shops of which the town can boast. Except on two days a week, when the mail boat arrives, the few restaurants in the town close before 20.00 hours and the streets are quite deserted by 21.00 hours. Women are seldom seen in the streets even in daytime and those that are have their faces almost completely covered. Alcoholic drinks are sold in some restaurants, but drinking seems to be almost entirely confined to visiting lorry drivers and local officials. The male element frequent the local coffee shops in the evenings but the general air is one of gravity and sobriety. Disputes and brawls, which are such a feature of coffee shop life in the towns along the Black Sea coast are rare in Van and this lack of exuberance is due, in part, to the hard and exacting conditions of life in this vilayet.

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There are several hotels in the town, but in all of them the accommodation is primitive and service very bad. The most modern has accommodation f o r 30 guests but only one small bowl, situated in a communal wash house adjacent to the lavatory, at which a guest can wash himself. There is only one possible restaurant in the town and even there, one meal was sufficient to make me realise that careless abandon in the choice of dishes could very easily be fatal. Indeed, throughout my 3 days stay in Van, apart from visits to houses of friends and officials, I adhered faithfully to a one course meal for both lunch and dinner, namely Tas Kebabi and bread, choosing the meat myself and seeing it skewered and cooked. There is no piped water in the town and water for drinking and washing purposes was brought into the hotel in large buckets from a nearby well. There are no bathrooms and no hot water in the hotels and as far as I could gather in the private houses. Public baths which are a feature of most towns in Turkey are unknown in Van and the inhabitants evidently indulge very sparingly in such luxuries as hot baths. The Mayor told me that they had plans to build a small barrage at a place called Zernabat 20 kilometres east of the town, where there is a well famed for the purity and general excellence of its water. The water could be piped to storage tanks in the town and he thought the water available would be sufficient for the needs of at least 25,000 people. As the population of Van is not much more than 13,000, this source of water will be quite sufficient for many years to come. At present, electric power comes from a small Diesel engine in the town, the power being switched on at 17.00 hours and off at 23.00 hours. The electric power available is not sufficient to meet the demand during the peak loading hours, 17.30-20.00 and during these hours high powered bulbs are no better than candles and radio sets function with difficulty. The town council are very dissatisfied with these arrangements and plans have been drawn up to provide the town with ample electricity from a hydro-electric power plant. The plan envisages the building of a barrage on the Semiram Su near Artemid about 15 kilometres south east of Van (see eastern Turkey — Asia map No 19 Van - Bitlis). These water and electric projects are, of course, much beyond the resources of the Van town council but the Mayor was confident that the Central government would come to the rescue and that piped water would be available in the town at the beginning of 1953 and the hydro-electric plant in operation by the end of 1954. It remains to be seen whether the Mayor's hopes are fulfilled, but the Vali, at any rate, was not prepared to subscribe to any such facile optimism. Coke is unobtainable in Van and wood and paraffin are expensive. Tezek or dried dung is the fuel in general use for both cooking and heating, except of course, in government buildings, the houses of high officials and the better class hotels and restaurants. It was very cold, to my way of thinking, on my arrival in Van on October 14th 1951, but no steps had yet been taken \tv Government offices or hotels to get any sort of heating system going. As far as government offices are concerned, winter starts officially on November 1st

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and no heating arrangements can be made before that date. I understand that in most years October is a mild month in Van, but the cold rainy weather, which heralds the arrival of winter, came early this year (1951), before the winter supplies of wood and tezek had been brought in from the surrounding villages. Fuel for heating purposes was, therefore, not available in the town even if they had the money to buy it. Actually neither the local officials nor the ordinary people of Van registered any protest at the lack of heating in their homes and offices in the cold damp weather then prevailing. 1 could perhaps, have made myself comfortable in a private house, but in a small, bare, concrete floored room in the hotel, without heating and no lounge or room where one could sit and read, life was singularly uncomfortable and unpleasant. Indeed, had I realised the difficulties and discomforts of driving a car on the earth roads of the Van vilayet after heavy rain and the unpleasantness of life in a Van hotel in that cold, damp, rainy period immediately prior to the advent of the winter season, I would certainly not have set off so light-heartedly into the wilds of south eastern Turkey in late October.

Lake Van Lake Van stands at an elevation of almost 1720 metres and was apparently formed by outflows of lava across the valley of a tributary of the Euphrates. The basin is filled to the point where evaporation seepage and supply have reached a balance without outflow. The lake is about 120 kilometres long from E.N.E. to W.S.W and 56 kilometres across at its widest point. It covers an area of 3764 sq kilometres. Communications on the lake are dealt with under the general heading "Communications". The waters of lake Van are bitter and undrinkable and contain a high percentage of sulphate and carbonate of soda. There is only one kind of fish found in the lake, a species about 10" long and the absence of larger types is said to be due to the high soda content of the water. Apart from a few motor boats and kayiks under construction at Van, I saw no small boats of any kind on the lake. The people who live along the shores of the lake apparently lack the skill to construct such boats themselves and find it too expensive to bring them in sections by train or lorry from the Black Sea or Mediterranean coasts. The small species of fish found in the lake ascend the rivers to spawn in the months of May and June and they are then caught in nets. The people of Van and other lakeside towns eat their fill of fresh fish during these months and the provident amongst them dry a quantity for use later on in the year. Fish surplus to requirements are either used as manure or thrown back into the sea. Before the first world war large quantities of dried fish were exported to Russia and the soda in the lake was extracted and used to make soap. Unfortunately, neither of these sources of wealth is exploited today. Plans have been

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submitted for the construction of a canning factory at Artemid near the mouth of the Ho§ab Su where caviar would be made from the fish caught while coming up the rivers to spawn and the product would afterwards be canned and exported. The local people, however, cannot finance the scheme themselves and the government is not likely to give such a project a high priority in these days of rearmament and general financial stringency. If and when the railway is extended to Tatvan on the extreme west of the lake, a stimulus may be given to the extraction of soda from the waters of the lake and to the export of dry fish to other parts of Turkey.

Communications General: Isolation, poor communications and until recent years, lack of strong and stable government, have been the main causes of the poverty and backwardness of the Van vilayet and, indeed, of the whole of south eastern Turkey. A strong stable government has been in operation for many years but land communications show little advance on those of 50 years ago. The Government undoubtedly appreciates the importance of improving and extending main road communications, in the Van vilayet, but the importance of the area does not at present justify the inclusion of any of these roads in the Government plans for road development and many years must elapse before any large scale funds can be allocated for that purpose. In the meantime the minimum amount of repair work is being carried out by the Director of the 19th Road Area, who is responsible for the construction, repair and maintenance of all national roads in this area. Van is a poor vilayet and the funds available locally for the construction and repair of the minor vilayet roads is very small. Roads: Roads in the Van vilayet, as in all others, are divided into two classes, national roads, which are the responsibility of the Central government and vilayet roads, which are constructed and maintained by the vilayet authorities from taxes collected locally. The National roads passing through the Van vilayet are given below: (a) ERCI§ - BENDEMAHI - VAN (b) VAN - BA§KALE - HAKKLARI (COLEMERIK) (c) VAN - OZALP (d) VAN - TATVAN (the road running south of the lake) (e)ERd§-TATVAN

(f)VAN-gATAK

(g) BENDEMAffl - MURADIYE - fALDIRAN - DOGUBAYAZIT (h) VAN - GURPINAR

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All these roads are unmetalled apart from the 7 kilometres of the road from the town of Van to the jetty on the lake which is tarmac; the first 7 kilometres of the road from Van to Ozalp; and the few kilometres of road from Erci§ to the jetty on the lake. Fortunately, many of the roads are laid on a sandy subsoil which allows excess rain water to pass away quickly. Indeed, without this saving grace, the normal maintenance work carried out by the 19th Road Area would be insufficient to keep them open to heavy traffic. The main road from Karakose to Van via Patnos, Erci§ and Bendemahi was in such a bad state when I motored over it that I decided on arrival in Van to confine myself to the few metalled roads in that town rather than risk severe damage to the car on any other unmetalled road in the Van vilayet, as these were likely if anything, to be in a worse condition than the so called main road I had traversed. Attached at Appendix A is a route report on the Karakose - Patnos, Erci§ - Van road. As for the vilayet roads of Van, all of them are unmetalled. No new ones are under construction at present and the Bayindirlik Mudiirii told me his funds only allowed of his carrying out a minimum amount of construction and repair of bridges (mostly wooden) along these routes. He was evidently keen on initiating road construction in the vilayet and he showed me many reports he had written on this subject without result. Actually the money allotted to his department for work on the vilayet roads had never allowed of his attempting anything beyond a minimum programme of replacement and repair. The primitive ox wagon is by far the most important means of transport in the vilayet and has the advantage of being able to move with little loss of efficiency over the snowbound roads in winter. In the Van vilayet, snow lies thickly on the ground from the end of November to the beginning of April and although the roads are not impassable to motor transport, little if any movement of motor vehicles takes place during that period. Railway: No railway passes through the Van vilayet, but the people are very interested in the completion of the long delayed extension of the railway from Mu§ to Tatvan on the western shores of Lake Van. With the roads more or less impassable for motor transport owing to snow and mud during the period December to April, the vilayet of Van is at present, almost completely isolated from the outside world for almost half the year. With the completion of the railway to Tatvan, passengers and goods will be able to arrive there from any part of Turkey throughout the year and taken cheaply and easily from there to Van or any of the other towns and villages along the shores of the lake. This would end the vilayet's age old winter isolation and in addition, almost certainly speed up the development of the area. The merchants of Van were confident that the projected railway line from Elazig to Tatvan which, they thought, had now reached Mu§ would be completed by the end of 1953. The Vali of Van was unable to give any authoritative information about future railway construction in the Mug area, but he confirmed that the line had been completed as far as Mu§ and that train services to that town from Elazig

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would be in operation by the middle of 1952. The Vali thought, however, that the extension of the line through the formidable terrain between Mu§ and Tatvan would be both difficult and expensive and he personally, would prefer not to indulge in any optimistic forecasts of the date of its completion. L a k e C o m m u n i c a t i o n s : Communications on the lake f o r both passengers and goods have improved considerably in recent years. There are at present four passenger and five cargo boats (which can also take a few passengers) operating on scheduled services between the towns and villages on the shores of the lake. There is a repair depot at Tatvan and it is usual for one cargo and one passenger boat to be under repair at any one time. None of the boats were constructed locally but were transported from the Mediterranean coast in sections which were then erected on the lake at Tatvan. Jetties at which passengers can be embarked and disembarked and goods loaded and unloaded, have been built at Erci§, Amis, Van, Artemid, Hm, Tatvan, Ahlat and Abdelcevas. The boat travels in an anti clockwise direction around the lake and there are two goods and two passenger services weekly. On the days passenger boats arrive, Van assumes an air of gaiety and the restaurants in the town which normally close before 20.00 hours, stay open on these occasions until well into the night. Air Communications: The town of Van is the terminus of an air service which takes off from Istanbul and lands en route at Ankara, Sivas, Elazig and Diyarbekir. The programme allows for three services a week to and f r o m Van, but the number, in fact, depends on the condition of the earth runway there. This is unserviceable for some time after heavy rain and under such conditions air services have to be cancelled until the runway becomes serviceable again. T h e Director of the airport at Van told me that the authorities aimed at keeping this air service in operation throughout the winter, the aircraft landing at Van if and when the aerodrome is serviceable. This must be a bit of propaganda, for the people I met in Van, told me that from the end of November to the middle of April the aerodrome is covered in deep snow and, as far as they know, aircraft services were always suspended during that period. Few services are cancelled during the period May to September. The civil aerodrome (there is no military aerodrome) at Van, lies some 12 kilometres south west of the new town. Outside the limits of the town, the road leading to it is unmetalled and after heavy rain, would become impassable, at least for heavy traffic. The runway which is about 1800 metres long and 50 metres wide is of consolidated earth. At the time of my visit it was overgrown with grass, its alignment being indicated to pilots by white signs on the ground on either sides of the runway at intervals of about 40-50 metres. There are no buildings on the aerodrome apart f r o m the house of the supervisor and a small hut housing a meteorological station. Water is obtained from a nearby well. There are no repair facilities.

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Trade and Commerce Although the Van vilayet and indeed much of S.E. Turkey, has great potentialities, in the past, disturbed conditions, bad administration and the isolation of the area from the main centres of population all combined to hinder and delay the development and expansion of its trade and commerce. The region is of course, agricultural and its export trade therefore, confined almost entirely to animal and agricultural produce. Large quantities of wheat are exported together with smaller quantities of barley and oats. During August and September, large numbers of sheep and cattle which are ready for slaughter are driven south into Syria or to Mersin and thence shipped to Cyprus and Egypt. During the same period other sheep and cattle are driven north to Horasan from whence they are sent by rail to Ankara and Istanbul. Small numbers of sheep and cattle from the Van area are driven the whole way to Trabzon and shipped from there to Istanbul. The animals suffer considerably on the rail journey from Horasan to Istanbul, for shortage of wagons leads to overcrowding, the time taken is often considerable and watering and feeding are seldom attended to efficiently. The result is that the animals are in poor condition when they arrive at their destination and for this reason many exporters would prefer to face the delays involved in driving the animals to Trabzon, if there was an adequate service of cattle boats between there and Istanbul. Unfortunately the animals have often to wait for long periods for a suitable ship and this involves expense for food and personnel to attend them.

Agriculture Agricultural methods in the Van vilayet and indeed throughout eastern Turkey are very primitive, wooden ploughs drawn by oxen being the principal means of cultivation. In recent years, the Government with the aid of funds from America, has encouraged the farmers to go in for mechanisation and a showroom in the main street in Van contains a number of International Harvester tractors, which are demonstrated at frequent intervals to the farmers of the vilayet. These tractors are sold below ordinary market prices to the farmers, who pay a small lump sum down, the remainder being paid by instalments spread over a long period. I was told that about forty tractors had been sold in the last two years and the demand was steadily increasing. There is no lack of fertile land in the Van vilayet and given modern methods of cultivation, the area under crops could be rapidly increased. The Government in recent years has also taken steps to safeguard the farmer against low prices for his cereal crops. Branches of the Office of Soil Products have been established in all the vilayet headquarters in these eastern vilayets and there is one in the town of Van. This office advises the farmer on the sale of his products and if he so desires will buy them from him at prices

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depending on market conditions and the quality of his crops. The prices offered are usually better than he could obtain from private merchants, but in times of high prices, the farmer can and does dispose of his crops in the open market. Some farmers sell their crops to private merchants even when their prices are lower than those offered by the Government rather than wait their turn (and it can be a long wait) at the Office of Soil Products. During times of slump with its possible catastrophic fall in prices on the open market, the Office of Soil Products is of inestimable value to the farmers, for even under such circumstances, the prices given there always allow some return to the farmer for his labours, whereas he might be compelled to sell on the open market at a ruinous loss. Indeed, under this Government scheme the farmer seems to have obtained the best of all possible worlds, for he is no longer faced with ruinous loss in times of slump prices and can take advantage of the high prices of the free market in times of scarcity. In this bleak and isolated vilayet, however, with it lack of amenities and its primitive methods of agriculture, a farmer's life must be a toilsome and laborious one and he certainly deserves all the incentives the Government can bestow upon him. Cereals are the main crop in the vilayet and wheat forms at least 70% of the total product. Here in Van wheat is, if possible, sown in September, October or November, but if for any reason sowing cannot be completed in this period, a spring type is sown as soon as the snow clears. The farmers avoid a spring sowing if they can, because the yield is not good and the harvest operations are often interfered with by early winter rains and snow. The seed research stations at Ankara and Mu§ are experimenting with a spring and winter wheat which will ripen about 15 days earlier than the varieties at present in use. This year the winter rains (and snow on high ground) came early in eastern Turkey and harvesting operations were greatly delayed. I was told that in exposed places on high ground the wheat was under snow, towards the end of September 1951 and farmers feared that much of the crop would be ruined. With a wheat ripening a fortnight to three weeks earlier, these losses might be avoided. The Director of Agriculture told me that farmers in the vicinity of Van bring their seed wheat in to him to be treated against disease free of charge. The seed of those further afield is treated, again free of charge, by teams of men who travel throughout the vilayet and are paid by the Ministry of Agriculture. The average yield of wheat is low in the vilayet, but the director hoped that with better method of cultivation and the use of a better yielding and earlier ripening seed, better results would be obtained. Barley is grown quite extensively and forms about 15% of the cereal crop in the vilayet. It is always sown in the spring and is given no treatment against disease. Oats are also grown, the amount depending on the price likely to be obtained. They are sown in July and harvested in the following June. The yield is high and for this reason many farmers sow a mixed crop of wheat and oats which is bought by the Office of Soil Products the price obtained depending on the proportion of oats in the mixture. Small amounts of millet are also produced. Fruit and vegetables are grown extensively on the Van plain and around Erci§ and Cevas, but the produce is all consumed locally.

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Education In recent years rapid progress has been made in educating the younger generation in the vilayet of Van. Indeed, great enthusiasm is being shown by those responsible for devising and carrying out the plans for the advancement of education in the vilayet and if the programme is adhered to an 80% standard of literacy throughout the vilayet should be attained within the next ten to fifteen years. This compares with an 80% standard of illiteracy at the present time. Fortunately for the organisers, the population of the Van vilayet is concentrated in villages of various sizes and suitable schools can be put in each village which all children of school age can be compelled to attend. Contrast this with the conditions in the mountainous Black Sea vilayets where apart from the coastal strip, there are no villages in the sense of a group of houses in close proximity to one another, but only numbers of widely dispersed houses. The provision of elementary school education to the children of these widely dispersed families is a problem which tests all the ingenuity and resource of the local educational authorities and they look with envy at the comparatively ideal conditions for the establishment of facilities for primary education in the Van vilayet. The design of schools built varies with the size of the village and the number of children of school age. In a village with under 4 0 children of elementary school age, the school building consists of a classroom, a room for a teacher to live in and a room in which the school equipment can be kept. Such a school would only have one teacher, who would be responsible for teaching all the 4 or 5 classes into which the pupils would have to be divided according to their age. For a village with 40 to 60 children, there would still be only one teacher, but the classroom would be bigger and there is better accommodation for the teacher. T w o teachers are provided for a village school with 60 to 120 schoolchildren and three teachers for a village with more than 120. In schools m a d e to a c c o m m o d a t e more than 60 children the schoolmaster's house is built separately. T w o hundred and fifty schools will be required to provide primary education for all those of school age in the Van vilayet but only one hundred elementary school, are in operation at present. Twenty five schools were built in the villages in 1951 and it is hoped to erect a further seventy five in 1952. The remaining fifty will be built in 1953. This seems an ambitious programme but the Director of Education was confident that it would be completed in time. When these schools are established, compulsory primary education for all children between the ages of 6 and 14 will be strictly enforced. In addition to the elementary schools of the vilayet there is a combined, Lise and orta (secondary) school, a girls' technical school and a boys' technical school in Van; Ernis has a Koy Enstitiisii or Village Institute which trains teachers for the village schools; and Erci§ has an orta (secondary) school. The Turkish Prime Minister visited Van some months ago ostensibly

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to decide whether it would be suitable as a university centre for the eastern vilayets of Turkey. A suitable site was found and a poor unsuspecting sheep was slaughtered to give a good send off to the venture, but the people of Van do not lay any great hopes on the scheme coming to fruition. They point out that the eastern vilayets of Turkey are not sufficiently developed to provide enough students for a full sized university and students from other parts of Turkey would naturally prefer to go to the older established university of Ankara or Istanbul. In addition, if eastern Turkey does in time become sufficiently developed to justify a university of its own, Van with its isolated position, backward population and poor communications with the outside world, would hardly be an ideal site for such a project.

Military

and

Gendarmerie

The garrison at Van consists of an Infantry regiment, detachments from which take turns on frontier duty. There is an albay in command, but he was away on duty during my stay in Van. The officers have a very fine Ordu Evi or officers' club situated off the main street and compared to the restaurants in the town, the food served there is luxury indeed. The Gendarmerie, as is usual in all vilayets, comes under the command of an albay, who is responsible for the efficient f u n c t i o n i n g at patrols throughout the vilayet area. The gendarmerie and the army have a hard life in these eastern vilayets and there can hardly be any enthusiastic volunteers for the job. Conscripts must do their military service where they are sent and vacancies are filled as required from the general pool, but with regular officers and N.C.O's, an attempt is made to ensure that eastern service, which is defined as a normal tour of duty in one of the vilayets of Erzurum, Kars, £oruh, Karakose, Mu§, Bitlis, Siirt, Van and Hakkiari, is divided fairly amongst them. Formerly officers with influence and these seemed to form a high proportion of the army, avoided eastern service and with those available for such duty cut down in this arbitrary way, the unlucky officers without influence were often called upon to spend the greater part of their service life east of Erzurum. This discrimination naturally caused bad feeling and the system today is that every regular officer and N.C.O. in the army and gendarmerie does at least one period of eastern service during his career. This system has been extended to the permanent civil service and has given general satisfaction.

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VILAYET OF AGRI General The Agri vilayet, which was formerly known as the Karakose vilayet has an area of about 9500 sq. kilometres. It has common boundaries with the vilayets of Erzurum, Van, Bitlis and Mug and its eastern side forms part of the Turco - Persian boundary. It has a population of 119,000 which works out at 13 persons per sq. kilometre compared to Van 8 and Trabzon 70. The vilayet is divided into 6 kaza namely, Aleskirt, Karakose, Dogubayazit, Diyadin, Tutak and Patnos. Much of the vilayet lies at a height of over 1500 metres and the lowest recorded temperature in Turkey has been registered at Karakose, the headquarters town of the vilayet. Owing to underpopulation and antiquated methods of cultivation much fertile land in the vilayet remains uncultivated and a concerted drive is being made to increase the numbers on the land and to encourage a greater degree of mechanisation. Most of the population of this vilayet are of Kurdish origin, although as in Van, government and other officials claim that the inhabitants are in reality of the Turkish race who, by long centuries of neglect by the Central Government have degenerated to such an extent that they adopted Kurdish habits and customs and often still have no other language but a debased form of Kurdish. Be that as it may, the majority of them speak no language but Kurdish and following their defeat in the 1928 Kurdish rebellion and the removal of their hereditary chiefs, they seem to have lost their former predatory instincts and with this, much of their pride and independence of spirit. Indeed, with their forced abandonment of the nomadic life and their resettlement in villages as farmers and cultivators, they have become the most law abiding of people and government officials speak highly of their industry and adaptability in the new life that has been forced upon them. A s regards the health of the people, there is a small private hospital in Karakose which the Government will probably take over in the near future and a Government hospital at Dogubayazit. The villagers seldom come into the town f o r treatment and these two hospitals seem adequate to deal with serious illness in the towns. T h e majority of the people in the vilayet take little interest in politics. In the last general election for members of parliament the Democrat Party captured all the seats, but in the election for the town council which followed some months later the position was reversed, the Halk Party gaining a decisive majority. No newspaper of any kind is published in the vilayet.

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Headquarters

The headquarters of the Government administration of the vilayet is Karakose, which lies on the right bank of the Murat Su (a tributary of the Euphrates) where it turns south west towards Aleskirt and Mu§. It stands at an elevation of 1800 metres and is one of the coldest places in Turkey. The town has a population of almost 10,000 and is by far the biggest in the vilayet. The main transit road to Persia is the main street of the town. The majority of the houses are mud built and are said to be warm in winter and cool in summer. The vilayet headquarters and the boys' technical school are the only buildings of note in the town. The people of Karakose, like those of Van, are quiet and law abiding and serious crime of any kind is rare. Life in these bleak and inhospitable surroundings is indeed, hard and rigorous for the majority of the people and there can be little occasion for exuberance in their sombre lives. The Transit Hotel in Karakose, lying as it does on the main transit road to Persia and catering for large numbers of people travelling to and from that country, has to maintain a reasonably high standard in food, service and accommodation and is certainly much superior to any hotel in Van. There is no piped water in the town and in the hotel water is pumped up from a well to tanks in the roof of the building. Electrical power is generated by a small diesel engine installed in the large flour mill in the town and is switched on at the mains as soon as darkness falls. The voltage, however, is seldom adequate to give sufficient light, even with bulbs of high wattage, to read anything but very large print. Electric light is switched off at the mains about 23.00 hours. In the hotel the electric was supplemented by Tilley oil pressure lamps hanging from the roof and ordinary oil lamps were provided in the bedrooms. On two of the three nights I spent in Karakose on the return journey to Trabzon we were without electricity altogether and even on the third night when it did come on, the light given was so faint that it could serve no practical purpose. The Mayor of Karakose, who has held this position for 5 years, told me that the municipality planned to obtain water and electric power from a place about 10 kilometres north of Karakose just off the Karakose Kagizman road. A barrage and reservoir were in the process of being constructed there and according to the terms of the contract the work should have been completed some months ago. The Mayor was evidently very annoyed with the engineer in charge who, he said, had shown a lamentable lack of energy and zeal in the performance of his duties and he felt that the forfeiture clause in the contract should be strictly enforced. The work is being done by an Ankara contracting firm under instructions from the Iller Bankasi which is advancing the money necessary to complete the project. The capital sum involved plus interest will be paid back to the bank by the Karakose municipality in fifteen yearly instalments and will be a first charge on the profits made from the sale of water and electric power. When completed the new hydroelectric station will provide ample electric power for the present needs of the town and the station can be enlarged if and when the need arises.

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In Karakose, as in most places on the bare Armenian plateau, the almost universal fuel for heating and cooking is tezek or dried cow dung. Coke can be obtained at a price and a mixture of coke and wood is used for heating Government offices and military establishments. Wood is used for heating in the schools. Although the temperature was below zero at night while I was there in the middle of October and even in the daytime it was quite cold, the heating of Government offices and schools was not due to start until November 1st. The hotel in Karakose had double windows and thick walls and I did not feel the cold to the extent I did in the hotel, in Van, but it was certainly not pleasant living in an unheated hotel in temperatures approaching zero. The day I left, the first loads of tezek began to arrive in the town from the surrounding villages; the accumulation of stocks of fuel for the long winter ahead had commenced.

Communications The main transit road to Persia runs through the whole length of the vilayet and every attempt is made to keep it open to motor traffic throughout the winter. While motor transport in Van comes to a standstill in the winter months and the vilayet is almost completely isolated from the outside world, the economy of the Agri vilayet is kept on the move, if rather creakingly, by the fact that it is traversed by an important transit road. The only other metalled road in the vilayet is 30 kilometres of the Dogubayazit - Igdir road. These two metalled all weather roads, as well as the stabilised earth road from Karakose to Patnos are national roads and maintained by personnel of the 10th Road Area, with headquarters at Trabzon. When I passed through the vilayet in October a concerted effort was being made to improve the last 10 kilometres of the Karakose - Patnos roads and four graders on tracks were being employed, The three most important roads for which the vilayet is responsible are : (a) 63 kilometres of the road Karakose - Kagizman and 16 kilometres are 'stabilised' and it is hoped to do a further 16 kilometres in 1952. (b) Tutak Aleskirt. This is an earth road and there are no plans yet to stabilise it. (c) The road leading off the main transit road (at a distance of 56 kilometres west of Dogubayazit) to Diyadin. This road is about 7 kilometres long and is 'stabilised'. T h e total money available to the vilayet f o r road construction maintenance and repair during 1951 was 70,000 liras and this included a grant f r o m the central Government at Ankara. This money was only just sufficient to construct three wooden bridges on brick piles and to do the minimum amount of repair work. T h e villagers have recently begun to object to compulsory work on the roads in lieu of paying road tax, a tax on all males over 21 years of age. Many of them have indeed intimated that they are not

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prepared to continue such work in the spring of 1952 despite the exhortation of the Kaymakams who point out the benefits that are likely to accrue to these villagers from improved communications in their area. It is not known yet what will be the outcome of the dispute, but the government is thought to be sympathetic towards the villagers and is considering doing away with all compulsory labour of this kind. Such a ban would be a severe blow to those responsible for the construction and repair of vilayet roads in the difficult country in eastern Turkey, for the funds allotted to them for the purpose would hardly cover repair work under such conditions. Small civil and military aircraft can land on the military aerodrome just outside the town. There are no railways in the vilayet.

Trade and

Commerce

The trade and commerce of the Agri vilayet is of the same pattern as that of Van for both vilayets are predominantly agricultural. Wheat forms 70% of the cereals exported. Cattle and sheep ready for slaughter are driven in large numbers to the railhead (standard gauge) at Horasan during August and September. From here they are railed to Ankara and Istanbul. A few of the animals are driven to Trabzon from whence they go by boat to Istanbul. Almost all the fruit and vegetables consumed in the vilayet have to be imported, for the high altitude, long winter and short summer is not conducive to the growth of such commodities. Vegetables are brought in from Kagizman and Igdir in the Kars vilayet and f r o m Trabzon, while fruit comes from Gumii^hanc and sometimes as far afield as Izmir and Adana. A variety of manufactured goods are also imported, mainly from Istanbul.

Agriculture The general remarks on agriculture in the Van vilayet apply to that in the Agri vilayet. Wheat is the principal crop and in most years forms 70% of all cereal crops grown in the vilayet. Oats and barley are grown in smaller quantities, the amount depending on the prices likely to be obtained. In early winters much of the wheat crop is ruined by heavy and continuous rain at harvest time and the Director of Agriculture, in association with the agricultural research stations, is experimenting with earlier ripening seed than that at present used. N o fruit is grown in the vilayet and few vegetables. Little if any manure is applied to the land, despite the thousands of cattle that are reared, the dung f r o m those animals being dried and used as fuel. Yields of cereals could be increased by the judicial use of inorganic fertilisers, but these are expensive and their potentialities little understood by the average cultivator. Such yields could also be raised by the use of better strains of seed and methods of cultivation and the Government is working on these lines rather than on the increased use of fertilisers. Cereal crops are taken every other year, the land lying fallow in the intervening period.

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Education There is little difference between the educational method adopted in the Van and Agri vilayets. The aim is to extend elementary education to every village of any size and to attain a standard of 80% literacy in the next ten years. Fortunately for the organisers, the people of the Agri vilayet are concentrated in villages, not in widely dispersed houses as in the Black Sea coastal vilayets, where the siting of schools to facilitate attendance by the maximum number of children of school age is a matter of some difficulty. At present there are 103 elementary schools scattered throughout the towns and villages of the vilayet and it is estimated that 30% of the children of school age attend those schools. To give every child in the vilayet an elementary education 354 schools would have to be provided. Only 16 new schools were built in 1951 but the Director of Education is hoping to do better than this in 1952. Mobile schools also spend periods in the village and give instruction to men and women of all ages. At present there are 5 of these schools for women and they give instruction in needlework and cooking; one mobile school for the training of blacksmiths; and one for training in carpentry. The teachers in these mobile schools, both men and women, are selected from graduates of the Men's and Women's Technical schools in Karakôse. A mobile school usually stays 6-7 months in a village, the members thereof providing the accommodation and the necessary materials and equipment. On the completion of their period in a village, the school and teachers return to Karakôse and prepare for the next year's course. People of all ages can and do attend these courses and they certainly serve a very useful purpose in this rather backward vilayet. As regards higher education in the vilayet, Karakôse has a secondary school (but as yet no Lycée), a boys' technical school and a girls' technical school. There is also a secondary school at Dogubayazit. Attendance at these secondary and technical schools is not compulsory, but under the law the attendance at elementary schools of children between the ages of 6 and 14 is. This law, of course, cannot at present be fully applied, but those responsible for implementing educational policy in the vilayet are energetic and enthusiastic and are determined as far as lies in their power to provide these facilities as quickly as possible and to see that attendance is strictly enforced. Nevertheless, many years must elapse before this ideal can be attained and in the meantime the best use must be made of the existing facilities.

Frontier

Problems

The Agri vilayet has a short frontier with Persia and the main transit road from Trabzon crosses that frontier just beyond Dogubayazit. Raids by nomadic Kurdish tribes domiciled in Persia into Turkish territory have recently

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resulted in serious losses of sheep and cattle by villagers on the Turkish side of the frontier and frequent meetings have taken place between Turkish and Persian officials in an effort to settle the matter. As regards restitution of the stolen property, the Persians are full of promises but nothing concrete materialises and they do not seem to have sufficient control of their frontier tribes to inflict punishment on those responsible for the outrages. When I was in Dogubayazit the K a y m a k a m there had just returned f r o m one of his periodical visits to Maku, the Persian frontier town, but no settlement of the frontier dispute was yet in sight. The Kaymakam contrasted the law abiding villagers on the Turkish side of the frontier, who no longer raided and promptly handed over to the Turkish authorities any sheep or cattle which strayed across the frontier, with the wild and woolly Kurdish nomadic tribesmen on the Persian side, where the authorities seemed unable to put a stop to their raiding activities and powerless to effect restitution of the stolen property when this is demanded by the Turkish authorities. The complete inability of the Persians to control their tribesmen, to e f f e c t prompt restitution of stolen cattle and to punish the offenders, had infuriated the law abiding Turkish villagers who had to bear their losses without opportunity for reprisals and the Turkish authorities had now decided that more effective measures for protecting the interests of their frontier people must be devised. The Kaymakam did not say what these measures would be. A s regards the oil dispute, the K a y m a k a m was convinced from conversations with officials and others that the majority of the Persians in this frontier area were solidly behind their government in its stand against the Anglo Persian Oil Company. A s far as his observations went there was no change for the worse in the economic conditions of the frontier population due to the oil dispute. This is, of course, not surprising, f o r it is unrealistic to suppose that even large losses in trade and foreign exchange by the Central government could have any pronounced effect on the economic conditions of these frontier people, for their economy is a simple one and most of their wants can be supplied from local sources. Indeed, one can say that when signs of serious economic difficulties are observed in this frontier district, Persia will have already gone a long way on the road to final ruin and collapse.

Military Karakose is the headquarters of the 1st Cavalry Division, which is at present commanded by a colonel named Akkog, who is said to be highly thought of by the General Staff in Ankara. There is a garrison at Dogubayazit which I am told, comes directly under the third army commander at Erzurum and not under the 1st Cavalry Division.

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The Forces at Dogubayazit consist of an infantry regiment, a cavalry regiment and frontier troops (strength unknown but commanded by a colonel), the whole garrison coming under the command of Colonel Kiratli, a general staff officer, about 52 years old, who like Colonel Akkog, the commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, is hoping to get promoted to Tuggeneral in the not too distant future. An American combat team complete with interpreters arrived in Karakose in late July and are working with the 1st Cavalry Division. It consists of three lieutenants-colonels, one major and four sergeants. They have taken over a wing of the Transit Hotel and have their own messing arrangements. They also have their own transport and move about quite a lot between Karakose, Dogubayazit and Erzurum. The four officers had completed a course at Levenworth Army Staff College immediately prior to their being posted to Turkey and were certainly above the average in keenness and intelligence. When I arrived in Karakose they had only been there three months but were already disillusioned and frustrated. Confidently expecting support and encouragement in their efforts to improve Turkish efficiency, it naturally came as a shock to find the senior officers at best apathetic and if roused from their torpor, often actively antagonistic. The Americans were quite enthusiastic about the rank and file and, to a lesser extent, the younger officers, who, if left to their own devices, were often eager to try out new approaches and learn new methods. Unfortunately, however, the typical senior Turkish officer, far from encouraging independence of mind and eagerness for new ideas in their juniors, seem to dislike such qualities and they have become a liability rather than an asset to an ambitious young officer. The American Combat team found the new commanding officer of the 1st Cavalry Division, Colonel Akkog, singularly uncooperative and this was a particularly bitter blow for them, for without help and encouragement from the top, foreign advisers are in a particularly vulnerable position. So bitter were they about the commander's attitude to them, that they complained about him to General Arnold and General Collins when these officers visited the division with the 3rd Army Commander in October 1951. They are hoping that Colonel Akkog will be replaced in the near future by someone more cooperative, or, at least, less obstructive. ROUTE REPORT KARAKOSE-VAN General The earth road from Karakose to Van is a national road and repair and maintenance are the responsibility of the Central Government and not the vilayets through which it passes. From Karakose town to the point where it crosses into the Van vilayet the maintenance of the road is the responsibility of the 10th Road Area with headquarters in Trabzon and from there on to Van that of the 19th Area, whose headquarters are in Diyarbekir. The distance between Karakose and Van along the route is 258 kilometres. The route has been divided for convenience into two stages, as follows:

THE VILAYETS ÔF AGRI / K A R A K O S E AND VAN Stage I Stage II

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Karakose-Erci§ Ercig-Van

This road was traversed on October 15th 1951. In most years the first heavy winter rains are in late October or early November, but in 1951 they commenced in early October when large numbers of lorries are engaged in bringing in merchandise and food for Van prior to the commencement of the long hard winter. Stage I Karakose - Erci§: Distance 146 kilometres (all distances given are from Karakose unless otherwise stated). Route The road branches off the main transit road passing through Karakose at a point opposite to the vilayet headquarters building and heads due south. Just outside the town it passes over a tributary of the Murat Su. A mile further on, the Murat Su itself is crossed and the road now runs in a direction a little south of west and follows closely the alignment of that river. At kilometre 14 the road passes out of the plain into rather more mountainous country but continues to hug the bank of the Murat Su which here runs in a south westerly direction. At kilometre 44, opposite the village of Tutak, which lies on the opposite side of the river, the road leaves the Murat Su, turns due south and crosses open flat country to Burnibulak at kilometre 69. Here it turns in a south easterly direction and enters Patnos at kilometre 85. After leaving Patnos the road runs in a general easterly direction, through rather broken country until it reaches Kami§van (kilometre 96), when it turns south east into flat country. This lasts for about 5 kilometres giving way to hilly ground which continues until kilometre 125. Here the road enters a broad flat plateau from which one obtains the first glimpse of L. Van. This continues for 10 kilometres when the road begins to descend from the plateau into the valley of the Zilan Su. This river is crossed by a wooden bridge at a village called Vertul and then continues across the delta of the river for a distance of 6 kilometres to Erci§ at kilometre 146. Width (3) Throughout this stage the road is wide enough to take two lines of traffic. Type and condition of surface (4) The first 15 kilometres is across a wide plain liable to flooding by the nearby Murat Su and for this reason is built on a bund above the surrounding countryside. The six kilometres of road between Vertul and Erci§ where it runs across the delta of the Zilan Su is liable to flooding from that river, are also built on a bund. From Karakose to Patnos the road has been, what the Turks call 'stabilised', that is, a 6" to 8" layer of soil has been taken off the surface by a grader and the soil has been replaced by a mixture of sand and gravel. No roller is used, the surface being consolidated in the course of time by the light and heavy traffic which passes over it. I am told that this type of surface is quite satisfactory even for heavy traffic (except of course after heavy rain) provided the subsoil is

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sandy and the rain water can get away quickly. When the subsoil is clay as it is from kilometre 70 to Patnos at kilometre 85, a layer of 6" to 8" of sand and gravel is not sufficient to prevent the surface being cut up by heavy traffic and indeed, from becoming a quagmire. For the first 70 kilometres of the route, the surface although corrugated and potholed presented no difficulty, the section from kilometre 58 to kilometre 70 being extremely good. Between kilometre 70 and kilometre 85, the road was a complete quagmire and impassable, all vehicles leaving it and taking to the open plain. A jeep type vehicle with chains and in bottom gear can get through to Patnos off the road, provided there has been a few days of good drying weather after the rain has ceased, but laden lorries have sometimes to wait for several weeks before the ground has been dried sufficiently to do this cross country stretch. The 10th Road area, which is responsible for the maintenance of this route is concentrating all its energies on putting this 15 kilometres of quagmire into serviceable condition and 4 graders on tracks were in operation when we passed through. The graders were taking off a 12" to 14" layer of soil instead of the usual 6" to 8" and replacing it with sand and gravel and it is hoped that this treatment will enable it to hold up even under heavy traffic using the route immediately after rain. Between Patnos and Erci§ the surface is just consolidated earth, but the soil on which the road is laid is sandy and excess rain water can get away quickly, with the result that, although potholed and corrugated, it is rarely churned up by the passage of heavy traffic. The last 2 ¡2 kilometres of the road into Erci§ is metalled. I saw no maintenance work in progress on the road between Patnos and Erci§ and no preparation had been made for such work. The road being unmetalled, it is likely to break up very quickly under heavy and continuous traffic even in the dry season and after rain, would become a morass. Bridges (5)

Kilometre

0

Kilometre

1.

Kilometre Kilometre

10.

Kilometre

14.

Just outside Karakôse the road crosses the Gorcay (a tributary of the Murât Su) by a wooden bridge 35 metres long, with a roadway of wooden planks. Width only sufficient for one line of traffic. The bridge is about 10ft above the river bed and is supported on wooden piles embedded in concrete blocks sunk in the river bed. Capacity unknown. Here the Murât Su (a tributary of the Euphrates) is crossed by a wooden bridge 60 metres long, with a roadway of wooden planks. One line of traffic. Height above river bed 15 feet. The bridge is supported on wooden piles sunk in the bed of the river. Capacity unknown. Wooden bridge 20 metres long over small stream. One line of traffic. Supported on wooden piles in the river bed Two wooden bridges between 15 and 20 metres long close together. No supports in the bed of the stream. Wooden bridge 30 metres long over a tributary of the Murât Su, with a roadway of wooden planks. One line of traffic. Height above river bed is 10ft. Supported on four sets of wooden piles sunk in the bed of the stream.

THE VILAYETS OF AGRI / KARAKÓSE AND VAN Kilometre Kilometre

16. 20.

Kilometre Kilometre

30. 39.

Kilometre

44.

Kilometre

55.

Kilometre

86.

Kilometre

129.

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Small wooden bridge. Wooden bridge 20 metres long over a stream. Roadway of wooden planks only wide enough for one line of traffic. The bridge is supported on a cement pillar in the bed of the river. Small wooden bridge. Wooden bridge 25 metres long over a small stream. Supported on wooden piles sunk in bed of stream. Surface of wooden planks and only wide enough for one line of traffic. There is a wooden bridge 100 metres long over the Murat Su at this point which connects with the village and kaza headquarters of Tutak on the other side of the river. It has a wooden roadway only wide enough for one line of traffic and is 10ft above the surface of the river. The bridge is supported on groups of wooden piles, 10 in number sunk in the bed of the stream. The road to Patnos does not cross this bridge but leaves the Murat Su and heads due south. Wooden bridge 30 metres long over a stream. Wooden roadway only wide enough for one line of traffic. Supported on piles sunk in bed of stream. Wooden bridge 30 metres long over the Patnos Su. Road surface of wooden planks. Can take only one line of traffic Height above the water 12 to 15 ft. Supported on four groups of wooden piles sunk in river bed. Here the Zilan Su is crossed by two wooden bridges connected by a bund. The first wooden bridge is 30 metres long and supported on two stone and concrete pillars in the bed of the stream. Roadway of wooden planks wide enough for one line of traffic. The second wooden bridge is 20 metres long supported on two stone pillars in the bed of the stream. It has a roadway of wooden planks capable of taking only one line of traffic.

(6) Apart from the Murat Su and the Zilan Su, the streams which are bridged could be forded easily in summer if the bridges became unserviceable for any reason. It is not known whether the Murat Su and Zilan Su could be forded in the summer time, but few if any of the streams or rivers could be forded when in flood. It will be observed that all the bridges are of wooden construction and a large number of them are supported on wooden piles sunk in the river bed. All wooden bridges are liable to be severely damaged or even washed away by flood water, but the danger is very much greater in the case of those resting on wooden piles in the bed of the stream. These unfortunately form the majority of the bridges on this section of the route. Plans have been put forward for the replacement of these bridges by ferroconcrete constructions, but many years are certain to elapse before these plans can be implemented, for the area through which the road passes is at present relatively unimportant economically and is likely to have a low

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priority in any large scale allotment of money for road and bridge construction. Limiting Factors General type of terrain (7) This section of the road passes for the most part over comparatively flat country which gives ample scope for manoeuvre off the road and even in the broken and hilly country, apart from between kilometres 21 and 24, movement off the road would be easy. There are no marked gradients or tortuous bends on this stage of the route. WEATHER EFFECTS (8) The route can usually be traversed without difficulty in the dry season, but heavy rain in autumn and the snow and ice in winter render it impassable for lorries and extremely difficult even for light cars of the jeep type. Indeed, few if any cars attempt the route between late November and late April, for in addition to the danger of accident due to mud snow and ice on the roads, 30 to 40 degrees of frost is common in this area in the winter months and in the event of a breakdown on the road at a distance from town or village help would be difficult to obtain and long exposure in the open in such temperatures might be attended with serious consequences. The wooden bridges are liable to be seriously damaged or swept away by the floods from the melting snows of the early summer, or at any time after continuous heavy rain, but these can usually be replaced or repaired very quickly and in any case apart from the Murat Su and Zilan Su, the streams en route can be forded as soon as the flood waters have subsided a little. FORDS instead of BRIDGES (9) All rivers and streams between Karakose and Patnos are bridged. The first stream to be forded is at kilometre 103. Heavy rains had fallen some days previously and indeed, intermittently during the fortnight prior to my tour and the water was 3ft deep in the centre of the stream. Nevertheless, the Land Rover forded it without difficulty. When this stream is in flood in early summer from melting snows or from heavy and continuous rain at any time during the year, it would become impassable to wheeled transport while the floods lasted. The other ford is at kilometre 133. This stream might also become impassable for motor vehicles after heavy and continuous rain or from flood waters caused from melting snows. STAGE H Erci§ - Van. Distance 112 kilometres (all distances given in this stage are from Erci§ unless otherwise stated).

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Route (10) The road leaves Erci§ in a south easterly direction and hugs the coast closely. At kilometre 2 a branch road runs down to the jetty at which the cargo and passenger boats plying on lake Van make regular calls. The road passes the village of Amis at kilometre 20 and a branch road runs from here to the large Koy Enstitiisii or Village Institute, at which village children are trained to become village teachers. The road continues in an easterly direction keeping within a few kilometres of the coast line and at kilometre 27 a river has to be forded. The floods caused by the heavy and sustained rains of the previous fortnight had not yet fully subsided and the river was only crossed with great difficulty at a point further up stream from the usual fording place. The river Bendemahi, which enters lake Van at its most easterly point, is crossed at kilometre 32, after which the road turns in a south westerly direction still hugging the shores of the lake. At kilometre 54 the road leaves the shore and heads inland passing though the villages of Timar at kilometre 61, Shah Keldi at kilometre 73 and Kolli at kilometre 80. The road is now heading almost due south and crosses the river Mermid by wooden bridge at kilometre 88. Continuing across the wide open plain in a general southerly direction the road returns to the coastline again at kilometre 96 and continues parallel to it until iskele Koy is reached at kilometre 105. Here we join the tarmac road running due east from the jetty to the new city of Van, a distance of 7 J kilometres. Width The road is wide enough throughout to take two lines of traffic. Type and condition of surface (12) Apart from a few kilometres on either side of Erci§ which is metalled and 7 kilometres of tarmac road from Iskele Koy to Van the surface of the road on this stage of the route is of consolidated earth and in a very bad condition throughout. After the heavy rain of the previous three days long stretches of road were inches deep in mud and slowed down our progress considerably. The muddy stretches were probably those with a clay subsoil where the rain is unable to get away quickly. These stretches of road would certainly be impassable for lorries after heavy rains and even jeep type vehicles would find them extremely difficult to negotiate under such conditions. No repair work was being done on this section of the route and there were no signs of any preparations for such work. The repair and maintenance of this section of the route is the responsibility of the 19th Road Area with headquarters at Diyarbekir.

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Bridges (13) Kilometre 12. Small wooden bridge over stream. Kilometre

32.

Kilometre

88.

The road crosses the Bendemahi river by two bridges. The first, a stone bridge with two arches and 30 metres long, is connected by an earth bund to the second bridge, a wooden one supported on one stone pillar in the bed of the river. These bridges are about 15ft above the water and the roadway in each case is only wide enough for one line of traffic. The river Mermid is crossed here by a wooden bridge 40 metres long supported on seven groups of wooden piles sunk in the bed of the stream. The roadway, which is of wooden planks, is only wide enough for one line of traffic and stands 15ft above the surface of the water.

Limiting Factors General type of terrain (14) The road passes for the most part through open country and deployment across country would be possible at almost any point en route. There are no steep gradients or tortuous bends. Weather Effects (15) The remarks in paragraph 8 of stage I of the route apply equally to Stage II. The consolidated earth section, which forms the major part of this stage naturally becomes unserviceable quicker than the 'stabilised' section of the route between Karakose and Patnos and remains unserviceable for longer periods. Few, if any, motor vehicles use this stage from the end of November to the end of April and transport is confined to pack animals and the familiar ox wagon. All the rivers and streams en route could be forded easily in the dry season if this became necessary. Fords instead of bridges (16) The first stream to be forded in this stage is at kilometre 27. It had been raining some days before we arrived but the flood waters had, fortunately, subsided considerably. Nevertheless the usual fording place was too deep for an attempt at crossing to be made and an easier place up stream was eventually found. This stream would not be fordable if in full spate. Another stream has to be forded at Kilometre 45 and this again might present difficulty if in flood.

THE EASTERN BLACK SEA ZONE OF TURKEY July 1952 General The eastern Black Sea zone consists of the vilayets of (xiruh, Rize, Trabzon, Giresun and Ordu and the coastline of the zone extends a distance of 300 miles, from the western boundaries of Ordu to the Russian frontier. Few irregularities disturb the smooth curve of the coastline and the bays formed between the minor promontories are for the most part exposed to the full fury of the winds and storms of the Black Sea. There is no good natural harbour on this stretch of coastline and throughout its length it is steep, frequently cliffed and backed by wooded mountains. This chain of mountains, with peaks rising to 3000 and 4000 metres, runs approximately parallel to the coast and the valleys of the rivers, deep narrow and tortuous, offer little scope for the construction of routes inland. Indeed, along the whole 300 miles of this coastline there are only five motor roads into the interior. Apart from the main transit road from Trabzon via Erzurum to the Persian frontier, which is kept open in winter by an efficient organisation of snow ploughs, all are closed to motor traffic during the severe winter months of January, February and March. Snow lies rarely on the ground for any length of time in the coastal area and the coastal road is seldom closed for this reason even for short periods. The main rivers, after a difficult passage through the mountains between the central plateau and the sea, drop quantities of silt when their currents are checked at their outlets. Apart from the £oruh river, which is navigable by small kayiks from Artvin to its outlet near Batum, these rivers are not navigable and the silt they deposit makes the surrounding coast unapproachable by large vessels. In addition to the main rivers there are a number of short coastal streams which reach the sea through gullies and ravines and render coastal communications difficult and expensive even where the mountain bluffs leave room for a road. As we have seen the coastline of this zone contains no natural harbour, but a breakwater 850 metres long has been constructed at Trabzon which gives protection to shipping in all weathers. Although Trabzon is the only port of commercial importance in this area, there are about 14 other small ports from which the resources of the interior, timber from the forests, tobacco, hazelnuts, cereals and dairy products are exported. These are in order of importance: Giresun, Ordu, Rize, Hopa, Uniye, Fatsa, Vakfi Kebir, Siirmene, Of, Akgaabat, Pazar, Bulancak and Per§embe. The depth of the flat coastal strip varies between 5 and 3000 metres, the remaining cultivable land being of varying slope and in area not exceeding V4 of the total land surface. Despite this shortage of cultivable land the five

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vilayets which comprise the Black Sea zone are very densely populated, £oruh having 43 persons per square kilometre, Rize 49, Trabzon 92, Giresun 4 4 and Ordu 72. This is indeed a high incidence of population when one considers that 3 /4 of the land surface is unsuitable f o r cultivation and the whole population almost completely dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. These densities of population compare with 8 persons per square kilometre for Van, for Agri and 15 for Erzurum, all of which have very much more land available for agriculture than the coastal vilayets. Of the 300,000 families living in the five vilayets forming the Black Sea zone, 135,000 or almost 40% have less than 3 acres of cultivable land and with the type of agriculture practised at present are unable to support themselves and their families. The inability to earn a livelihood from the land available to them forces the male members of such families to leave their homes and families every year and seek work for varying periods in other parts of the country. The money saved from their wages is sent home to their families who have remained behind to cultivate the land and the exiles themselves return to their homes for a period of several months, during which time they sometimes help in the harvest but more often spend their time idling in the coffee shops until lack of funds compels them to set off again in search of work. The annual migration of such a large part of the male population of these vilayets is not looked upon with favour either by the Government or the local vilayet authorities, although it is recognised that, for the present at least, nothing can be done about it. The Government looks upon these annual movements of the population in search of work as an uneconomic use of the nation's labour resources, while the vilayet authorities think more of the loss of the services of a large part of their male population for the greater part of the year and the effect the separation from their homes may have on the family life of those who are forced by the pressure of circumstances to undertake these migrations. A s there are no industries to absorb those whose land is insufficient to support them and their families and only a very limited possibility of bringing more land under cultivation for distribution to such people, there are only two possible practical solutions to this problem of overpopulation and its resultant poverty in the eastern Black Sea zone. One is the permanent resettlement in other parts of the country of all those families who cannot make a living on the land available to them in their h o m e vilayets, the other is to increase the prosperity of the vilayets comprising the zone by improved communication; increased fertility of land; the choice of more profitable crops; the encouragement of better methods of animal husbandry; the development of mineral wealth; and the gradual establishment of small local industries, e.g. fishery industries, utilization of forest waste products, electric power. The transport to new areas of some 133,000 families of the eastern Black Sea zone together with the provision of land, tools, housing and some capital to tide them over the first season, would cost at a conservative estimate about 470 million liras. If the problem of

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overpopulation is to be solved in this way these families are not the only ones in Turkey who need resettling. There are at least 250,000 families living in and near forest land in various parts of the country whose need for resettlement is much greater, for they are a menace to the preservation of the forest areas of Turkey. To resettle these would cost at least 875 million liras. Add to these the problem of resettling the 200,000 families of Turkish origin who are likely to be expelled from Bulgaria and the resettlement bill rises to over 2000 million liras. The expenditure by the Turkish Government of such a vast sum on resettlement is patently impossible and even if the money were forthcoming there is not sufficient suitable land available in the country for resettlement on such a scale. This is evident when one considers that the authorities are finding difficulty in finding suitable land even for the 40,000 or so refugees who have already arrived from Bulgaria, although money for the purpose is available. T h e Government has decided therefore, to confine all plans f o r resettlement to the refugees f r o m Bulgaria and to attack the problem of overpopulation in the Black Sea zone with its attendant annual mass migration in search of work, by formulating plans for the development and exploitation to the best advantage, of the resources of the vilayet and to encourage and facilitate their implementation. Although the Government are prepared to study the problems involved and put forward considered plans, they insist that the capital necessary to bring these plans to fruition must be provided by the people of the vilayet themselves. They will only intervene when this is found to be impracticable. The first essential is, of course, the development of road communications throughout the area. In this way the products of the villages can be brought quickly to the collection markets. Equally important in this struggle for advancement and prosperity are methods of agriculture designed to ensure increased cropping and fertility; the choice wherever possible of more profitable crops; the opening up of new land for cultivation outside the forest areas; and the establishment wherever possible on a small scale of local industries, which might include cement, tiles, fertilisers, canned fruit, canned fish, bricks, leather and commercial alcohol. Committees of experts from Ankara will study the possibilities in all these fields and render their report to the ministry concerned. Unfortunately most of these plans for a brave new world of plenty have been examined before by committees of experts and many reports have been written, but the plans formulated have never yet progressed beyond the blue print stage. It is not surprising therefore, that there are many who regard investigations and reports with some degree of cynicism and are waiting to see some practical results emerge before they indulge in any psalms and praises to their deliverers. The population of this zone, however, is still increasing at an alarming rate and with it the number of families who cannot support themselves and their families on the land available to them. Something on the lines indicated above must therefore be done in the reasonably near future if the problem is not to become insoluble.

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The question of the control and exploitation of the forest areas of the eastern Black Sea zone can usefully be considered under this general heading. For forestry control, Turkey is divided into five areas, one of which covers the 5 vilayets of this zone and Gtimu§hane and has its headquarters in Trabzon. This area is one of the biggest and most important forest areas in Turkey and contains a large number of varieties of trees. Beech outnumber all others and next come scotch firs and pines. These are followed by chestnut, alder and elm, in that order. Besides these varieties one comes across small groups of oak trees and isolated specimens of maple, ash and poplar. Speaking generally, chestnut and alder predominate in the coastal areas; further inland on higher ground beech trees outnumber all others; while on the high ground in the south of the vilayet, the forest area consists almost entirely of scotch firs and pines. At least 80% of the land in this eastern Black Sea zone is suitable forest land and it can be said that apart from the flat coastal strip most of the land at present under cultivation was until comparatively recent times, part of the forest area. Even today villagers relentlessly encroach on the forest areas in a ceaseless effort to obtain land for cultivation despite every effort on the part of the forestry service to prevent such vandalism. Indeed, stealing of wood for sale as timber or firewood is almost unknown, forestry destruction being almost entirely confined to land hungry peasants, who, without permission from the authorities make clearings in the forest where they grow crops to feed themselves and their families. The soil in these forest areas is shallow and of low fertility and rainfall being high and the land steeply sloping, the soil in these clearings is quickly washed away. Although reasonable yield can be obtained from such clearings during the first few years, after this, continually decreasing yields compel the luckless cultivator to increase the area of his clearing to provide sufficient food for himself and his family. Indeed, the sloping land, the shallow soil with its low fertility and the high rainfall of the forest area all combine to make cultivation there an unprofitable experiment and if convincing evidence of this is needed, abandoned forest clearings with the bare rocks showing above the thin layer of soil, provide it in plenty. The Government has at last awakened to the fact that if the present rate of forestry destruction continues, Turkey will be almost completely denuded of her forest areas in less than 25 years. In an effort to reverse this process the forestry service has been greatly expanded, replanting is being carried out on a large scale and every effort is being made to prevent the present encroachment on the forest area by the peasants. It is to be hoped that their efforts will be successful. In the above paragraphs the topography of the whole eastern Black Sea zone has been described and some of the problems facing the vilayet administrations and the central government have been discussed. It is now proposed to consider separately the 5 vilayets which constitute the zone and to discuss in some detail, recent advances and developments in the political, social and economic life of the people. The vilayets will be taken in this order: Trabzon, Giresun, Ordu, Rize and £oruh.

THE VILAYET OF TRABZON July 1952 General

The vilayet of Trabzon has its headquarters in the town of that name. It lies between longitude 39.07 and 40.29 East and between latitude 40.50 and 41.10 North. On its east it is bounded by the vilayet of Rize, on the south by Gumiighane and on the west by Giresun. It has an area of 4541 square kilometres. Land is cultivated up to a height of 1,200 metres, all of the 585 villages in the vilayet lying within this height range. Higher up the land is principally forest with some mountain pasture land called yayla to which villagers and their cattle retire in the summer months. The most important of these mountain pastures are Beypinan, Karadag, Harman, Tepecik, Mescit and Sultanmurat. Being enclosed by the high northern Anatolian range of mountains sometimes called the Pontic Alps, which run from the Russian frontier to the Har§it river, the climate of the Trabzon vilayet and indeed the whole zone, is entirely different from that of the Armenian plateau to the south. The temperature in summer rarely rises above 80° F. in the shade which is not much different from the Mediterranean but the overcast skies and high humidity make it appear very much higher. Spring is hardly noticeable in the rapid change over from winter to summer. The long autumn which frequently extends almost to Christmas is the most pleasant period of the year. Most of the rain falls in the spring, autumn and winter. In recent years the days on which rain has fallen have averaged 159 and rainfall 1041 mm. January and February are the coldest and most unpleasant of the winter months and snow can be expected throughout that period. Except on high ground in the interior, however, it rarely stays on the ground for any length of time and the coastal road is seldom closed to traffic from this cause. Starting from the eastern boundary the main rivers of the Trabzon vilayet are the Baltaci, Solakli, Humurgan, Karadere, Yanbolu, Dirana, Degirmendere, Sera, Kalanima, Fal, £amlik and Akhisar. The 1950 census shows that the population of the Trabzon vilayet was 419,143, compared to 295,384 in 1945, an increase of 40 percent in the last five years. With an area of 4,541 kilometres this gives a density of population of 92 to the square kilometre, making Trabzon one of the most densely populated vilayets in Turkey. The vilayet is divided into seven kazas, including the central kaza of Trabzon, the names and populations being given below:

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Kaza Trabzon Akçaabat Çaykara Maçka Of Siirmene Vakfikebir

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Population

99,465 66,399 34,257 35,492 43,237 71,229 69,069

Up to the War of Independence there were flourishing Armenian, Greek and Jewish communities in the town of Trabzon and many Greek and Armenian villages in the interior of the vilayet. In the purge which followed, however, only people of undoubted Turkish origin were allowed to remain, Greeks for the most part being repatriated to Greece while the Armenians and Jews were forced to live in Istanbul, Ankara & izmir. The vilayet has thus become a purely Mohammedan one and the Greek and Armenian churches in Trabzon and other parts of the vilayet have either been pulled down or are being used as storage depots by the army and local traders. The Mohammedan population of the Trabzon vilayet with its tradition of fanaticism and its remoteness from the capital and other progressive and enlightened centres might easily become a prey to reaction if not kept on a tight rein. Family life and customs here have changed little since the revolution. Most of the women of the working classes and in the villages quickly cover their faces when a man approaches and the women generally are kept under a strict discipline which limits their m o v e m e n t s and their activities. There are special performances for women in the cinemas and coffee shops and restaurants are confined almost entirely to the male population. The men are quick to anger and when quarrels occur the local sharp pointed knife, the manufacture of which has now been forbidden, is often drawn in anger, sometimes with fatal results. These knife affrays are for the most part over women and rights in the yaylas or mountain pastures and despite punishment they show little sign of diminishing. In the past and indeed up to quite recent times, when fatal knife affrays became too common it was usual to arrange a public hanging of one or more of the offenders in the main square of Trabzon town and this public spectacle is said to have been a very effective short term deterrent. The practice has now been abandoned.

Communications There are only two national roads running through the vilayet, the transit route to Persia which runs through Maçka and Hamsi Kôy to the Zigana Pass where it passes into the Giimu§hane vilayet and the main coastal road which hugs the coast from Of, to Be§ikduzii. These two roads are the responsibility of the 10th Road Area whose headquarters are at present in

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Trabzon. The transit road is, of course, one of Turkey's windows on the world and from a prestige point of view alone the authorities see that it is kept in a first class condition. The coastal road on the other hand has been very neglected in recent years. I noticed during my tours this year, (1952) however, that the route is much improved. Throughout its length potholes have been filled in and small stones and sand have been used to resurface the road where necessary. Near the eastern border of the vilayet and about 64 kilometres from Trabzon the alignment of the road has been changed. Formerly it went inland about a kilometre and crossed the Baltaci river by a wooden bridge. The new road keeps to the coast and (coming from the Trabzon direction) crosses the river here a wide delta, first by a ferro-concrete bridge (200 metres long; concrete roadway wide enough to take two lines of traffic; wooden railings; height above water about 15ft and supported on 14 iron pillars sunk in the bed of the river) then runs on a bund for 120 metres and crosses the remaining 20 metres by means of a concrete culvert. Three kilometres further on towards Trabzon the alignment of the road again changes. Instead of going inland the road keeps to the coast and crosses a stream by a ferro-concrete bridge (60 metres long; concrete roadway wide enough for two lines of traffic; iron railings; surface of bridge 15ft above water; and supported on 4 iron pillars). The new road joins the old alignment about 800 metres beyond the bridge. The new road is much wider than the old one and has been stabilised, that is covered with small stones and sand. About two kilometres east of Of and 56 kilometres from Trabzon the alignment of the road changes again. The new alignment hugs the coast with the old one some 100-200 metres inland. The new road is wide and straight and has been stabilised. It skirts the town of Of on the shore side and continuing along the coast crosses the Solakli river by a ferro-concrete bridge. This bridge is 180 metres long with concrete roadway wide enough for two lines of traffic; iron railings; surface of bridge about 15ft above water and supported on 14 iron pillars. Formerly the road went inland and crossed the Solakli river by a wooden bridge. The new road joins the old alignment at kilometre 53 from Trabzon and is therefore about 3 kilometres long. From here into Trabzon the coastal road follows the old alignment and there are no new bridges. Between Trabzon and the boundary with Giresun, too, there have been some improvements in the coastal roads. Under the heading "Limiting Factors" in paragraph 7 of my route report on the Trabzon Samsun coastal route, I mention that between kilometres 31.5 and 33 the road ascends in a steep spiral reaching the top at kilometre 32.5 from which point it descends steeply in a series of hairpin bends to the coast at sea level. Here a new alignment is under construction. It leaves the present road at kilometre 31.5 before it begins to ascend steeply and then follows the shore closely until it meets the present road at kilometre 33. In this way it avoids the steep ascent and the hairpin bends of the descent to the sea. At kilometre 14 from Trabzon where the road crosses the delta of the Kalanima river high earthen bunds have been constructed with the object of keeping the flow of water in the channel

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which runs under the two-arched stone bridge which is strong enough to stand up to any flood waters. After the stone bridge the road goes along the river bed for about 100 metres then crosses the last 2 0 metres over conduits laid in the bed of the river which allow a free passage for the river water. In the last two years two wooden bridges and one road over the cement conduits have been washed away in flood water at this point, but it is hoped that the earth bund mentioned above will be strong enough to keep most of the flood water in the main channel passing under the stone bridge and thus save the conduits from being washed away again. Within the next two or three years it is hoped to build a ferro-concrete bridge to span the whole width of the Kalamma river and engineers have already surveyed the site and sent in their recommendations. In addition to the national roads there are village and vilayet roads which are the responsibility of the authorities of the vilayet in which they lie. I f the construction of a road between two or more villages is approved, the route is first examined by competent engineers from the vilayet and the alignment laid down. T h e villagers in the area through which the proposed road passes are then persuaded or forced (for according to the law recalcitrant villagers can be forced to do this work and if they persist in their refusal can be sent to prison) to complete the earth work of the road construction. This work is, of course, unpaid but every effort is made to divide it equally among the villagers. When the earth work of a number of village roads is completed the members of the General Vilayet committee, who represent all parts of the vilayet and have their meetings under the leadership of the Vali, decide which of the newly constructed roads will be taken over by the vilayet authorities and made fit for wheeled traffic. This involves constructing bridges, culverts, strengthening walls and in some cases a metalled or stabilised surface. I f a vilayet road becomes of sufficient importance it can be taken over at any time by the Central Government, its maintenance then being the responsibility of the Road Area Organisation in which it lies. The Bayindirhk Mudurii or Director of Public Works for the vilayet is responsible for the initiation and supervision of all village and vilayet roads in his area. This work is in addition to his main task of looking after existing Government buildings; the planning and supervision of the construction of new buildings; and the provision of water supplies to the villages. In these numerous and varied tasks he is assisted by three engineers and five road supervisors and his equipment consists of 8 lorries, 2 pick -ups, 1 water tank, two compressors and 3 horse drawn graders. There are few permanent maintenance men working on the vilayet roads, the majority being temporarily employed for special tasks such as the clearance of blocked roads, the construction of bridges and the surfacing or metalling of the small number of these roads which are considered of sufficient importance to justify the expense. Placed as they almost invariably are in mountainous and difficult country and in areas of high rainfall, these village and vilayet roads are in need of constant attention if they are to remain serviceable for any length of time.

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Indeed it is estimated that to keep them in really good order and repair would need on an average at least 1000 liras per kilometre per annum. This standard of maintenance is, of course, not possible, with the funds available, but a little more money could be allotted to road maintenance and less to road construction. This would help to prevent roads becoming unserviceable within a few years of their being opened for motor traffic as frequently happens today. The authorities are beginning to realise the futility of cheese-paring on road maintenance in this way and the decision to employ permanent maintenance personnel on three of the more important vilayet roads is a step in the right direction. The importance of good vilayet communications in the struggle for increased production and prosperity is beginning to be understood by the Government authorities and this is reflected in the amount of money allotted annually for road communications. The Government allotment for the Trabzon vilayet for this purpose amounted to 100,000 liras in 1950, 220,000 liras in 1951 and 380,000 liras in 1952, a fourfold increase in three years. During this period 5 important vilayet roads have been opened to motor traffic. They are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Vakfikebir - Tonya Kalenima - Visera Siirmene - Kopriibagi Of-Hayrat Arsen - Sincancami

25 24 17

Kilometres Permanent " » ii II

12 7 V2

"

maintenance personnel " ii it II

" N o No

The following roads are being worked on this year (1952): (f) Oksu Suva (g) Suva - tie (h) Oksu - Zangariye (i) Zafanos - Kavala (j) Kavala Komera (k) Hos - Hosmeseloz (1) Magka - Larhan. Most of these were either constructed by the Russians 35 years ago or in later years by the Government, but neglect of maintenance over the years has rendered them unserviceable. It is hoped to make them fit for motor traffic by the end of 1952. In 1951 and 1952 much work has been done towards providing pure supplies of drinking water f o r the villagers of the vilayet. In 1951 the Government allotted 120,000 liras for this purpose and 61 villages were provided with good water supply, while in 1952 the allotment was 400,000 liras. It is hoped to provide 100 more villages with good water supplies by the end of 1952. There are no railway or air communications in the Trabzon vilayet at present but an aerodrome is in the process of construction at Kovata on the coastal road some 5 kilometres east of Trabzon. It was scheduled to be finished two years ago but it is today (October 1952), still far f r o m completion. The area in which the aerodrome is being built slopes gently towards the sea and this facilitates drainage. A diagram of the proposed aerodrome showing the method of drainage, facilities etc., is attached at

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Appendix A. The runway which runs due east and west will be 1450 metres long and 48 metres wide. There will be no provision for landings in any other direction. A taxi track will run on the north side from both ends of the runway to a concrete apron. There will also be a taxi track connecting the apron directly to the runway. The runway will be of the consolidated earth type with asphalt surface and will be suitable for aircraft of the Dakota type. To make the runway the top soil is being removed to a depth of 20 inches and then filled to within 10 inches with layer on layer of earth each layer being rolled and consolidated before the next one is put on. The top 10 inch layer will be of asphalt and this will be rolled and consolidated. It will then be cambered with a slope of 1 in 100 from the centre to the sides. It was originally intended to make the top 10 inch layer concrete instead of asphalt, but shortage of concrete and of money has ruled this out. Deep drainage pipes will run along each side of the runway, drainage water running into the main drainage channel 3 metres wide which leads to the sea. Deep drainage pipes are also being laid each side of the asphalt taxi rack and surface drainage pipes will be laid in the area between the taxi track and the main runway. Water, electricity, petrol and oil supplies will come f r o m Trabzon. The only buildings will be for meteorological observation, administrative personnel, passenger reception and storage of petrol and oil. There will be no repair facilities at the aerodrome. When the aerodrome is completed there will be a twice weekly service between Samsun and Trabzon with a possible extension to Kars later. This service will be confined to the summer and autumn months. There is no space on the available area for the construction of a landing strip in any other direction but east and west, in which directions fortunately there are no obstructions, but in any case high hills near the aerodrome in the south would render approach from that direction dangerous. In the event of strong to gale force winds in directions outside east and west, which are of rare occurrence in summer and autumn months, the service for that day may have to be cancelled. No facilities for blind landing or night landing are likely to be installed. The main coastal road from Trabzon to Rize runs along the southern edge of the aerodrome area and a motor road will be built connecting it with the aerodrome buildings.

Sea

communications

With high mountains running parallel to the coast; the valleys of the rivers, deep, narrow and tortuous, offering little scope for the construction of routes inland; and the numerous short coastal streams, which reach the sea through steep gullies and ravines rendering coastal communications difficult and expensive even when the mountain bluffs leave room for the road, it is not surprising that up to recent years the main and in many cases the only method of transporting goods and passengers within the vilayet and indeed

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throughout the whole of the eastern Black Sea coast zone, was by boat. Indeed, the completion of the coastal road from Hopa to Samsun has dealt a heavy blow to the once prosperous kayik trade along this stretch of the coast and the boat building yards at Siirmene which not so many years ago hummed with activity are now silent and deserted. Most of the craftsmen in this trade have either emigrated to other parts or taken up other employment. The kayiks that remain, however, still do a vigorous trade today and being equipped with auxiliary engines as well as sails are able to keep to a more regular schedule than in the old days, when they were purely sailing vessels. In addition to the kayiks there are regular steamer services between Istanbul and Hopa calling at all the small ports en route. Apart from what is called the fast passenger service, which only calls at Trabzon, the slower passenger boats and the cargo boats, if weather conditions are suitable and there is cargo to be loaded or discharged or passengers to be picked up, call also at Vakfikebir, Akçaabat, Siirmene & Of. There is only one fast passenger service a week to and from Istanbul and two slow passenger and goods services calling at all ports. This is in addition to purely cargo boats. Italian, Swedish and German boats call frequently at Trabzon to load tobacco and hazelnuts. The ports of Trabzon, Vakfikebir, Akçaabat and Siirmene are described later under the heading kazas of the Trabzon vilayet.

Agriculture Material is not yet available.

Education From an educational point of view the Trabzon vilayet is the most advanced in the eastern Black Sea zone. In the vilayet headquarters town of Trabzon there is a lycée with just under 900 students; a commercial lycée with 164 students; a training school for teachers with 340 students; a girls' secondary school; a boys' technical school and a girls' day and evening technical school in addition to 10 elementary schools. In addition to these schools for higher education in Trabzon itself, there is a teachers' training school (Kôy Enstitiisii) with 560 students at Be§ikdiizu which trains village boys and girls as prospective teachers in the villages and secondary schools (orta okulu) in Of, Akçaabat, Siirmene and Vakfikebir. Of the 585 villages in the vilayet 236 are provided with elementary schools. Of these 20 are placed in such a position that each school can serve five or six villages and by this means elementary education is provided for pupils from a hundred villages who have not, as yet, been provided with a school. 23 new elementary schools are being built in 1952.

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Only 24,035 or 68% of the 35,780 boys and girls in the vilayet between the ages of six and fifteen are provided with the facilities for elementary education and it is estimated that at the present rate of construction of new schools it will be at least 12 years before these facilities are available to all children of that age group. In addition to the elementary schools in the vilayet there are four travelling schools giving instruction in needlework to village women and two travelling schools teaching carpentry and smithery to the men. 611 teachers are employed in the schools of the vilayet. Unfortunately the facilities for elementary education in the smaller villages is not matched by a corresponding increase in the number of suitable men and women coming forward to train as teachers and later man these village schools. The village teachers receive the same pay as their counterparts in the towns, but the former have, of course, the advantage of cheap living expenses. This advantage is, however, more than counterbalanced by the primitive conditions under which the village teachers have to live and the complete absence of any distractions in his lonely life. Indeed, as the standard of living rises it will become progressively more difficult to persuade young men to become village teachers unless their pay is considerably increased and more amenities are provided.

Health The biggest scourge of Trabzon is tuberculosis and more people die from this disease than from any other. Unfortunately its control is hindered by the i g n o r a n c e of the p e o p l e ; their p o v e r t y with its a t t e n d a n t undernourishment; the low standard of housing throughout the vilayet; and inadequate sunshine. A medical team with its headquarters in Trabzon and representatives scattered throughout the vilayet, does its best to combat the spread of tuberculosis but their funds are small and the ignorance, poverty and fatalism of the people militate against the success of their work. Another widespread affliction is hookworm, some species of which enter the system via the mouth when certain unwashed or uncooked food is eaten and others through cuts in the flesh. Sufferers from worms, especially in the villages are numerous and although many of them carry on with their normal work for years without feeling the need for treatment, the presence of the pests causes progressive weakness and anaemia and if this is combined with inadequate food and sunshine, may end in consumption. Here again a medical combat team with headquarters in Trabzon and ramifications throughout the vilayet give free treatment to all sufferers. The damp humid climate causes widespread rheumatism and bronchial diseases are also common. The latter often a preliminary to tuberculosis. Infectious diseases are rare in Trabzon vilayet and malaria has been almost completely wiped out.

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The medical services made available by the Government in the Trabzon vilayet are all directed and supervised by the Saglik Mudiiru or Director of Health, whose headquarters are in the vilayet headquarters' building in Trabzon town. Working with the Director of Health are two Government doctors who are responsible for the control of epidemics and the establishment of good hygienic conditions throughout the vilayet. They also give free medical attention to all Government employees in Trabzon. Under these doctors come the travelling health teams, the establishment allowing for one team for every 7 villages. These teams consist of a male nurse, a midwife and a female nurse; they are responsible for simple medical services to the villagers and for reporting and removing serious cases to the nearest kaza headquarters where a Government doctor is established. In Trabzon town there is also a doctor serving the municipality and he is responsible for the hygiene of Trabzon town and for the treatment of any of its inhabitants too poor to afford a private doctor. The only hospitals in the vilayet are the 350 bed General Hospital and the 60 bed tuberculosis hospital both in Trabzon town. The General Hospital was completed some 8 years ago and, is therefore, quite up to date. There are specialists in almost every department of medicine and surgery and the hospital has a high reputation in these eastern vilayets. There are however insufficient nurses to run the hospital and those available are badly trained. A school for nurses was recently opened at the hospital but it is early to say whether this will make any appreciable difference to the standard of nursing there. A new tuberculosis hospital with a projected 1000 beds is being constructed on a pine covered hillside south of Trabzon. The first block of this building with accommodation for 50 beds will be completed in 1953 and other blocks will be added as money and materials become available. Although there are no hospitals outside Trabzon town there are private dispensaries in Vakfikebir, Of and Maçka.

Political Halk Party: Within the last twelve months 3 big buildings belonging to the Trabzon Halk Party have been confiscated by the Government. They are the old and rather dilapidated Halk Evi; the vast almost completed structure which was designed before the Democrats came to power and built to act both as the Halk Evi and as the headquarters of the party organisation in the vilayet; and the large two storied house and garden in one of the main streets of the town which, up to its confiscation, was the headquarters of the party organisation in the vilayet. The future of the Halk Evi and the party headquarters has not yet been decided and they remain gaunt and deserted, but the vast structure built at great expense from party funds has now been handed over on lease to a private company, who are already running a cinema there.

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The Halk Party headquarters are now located in comparatively humble quarters in the centre of the town and the bitterness and resentment associated with what the Halk Party call these confiscations seems to have died down. They have not been forgotten however and seem to have had the effect of rallying the Halk Party supporters more solidly behind their leaders. This unity of aim and purpose, in contrast to the sordid internal quarrels within the higher hierarchy of the Democrat Party which threaten to destroy that party as an effective fighting organisation, must be a great source of strength to the Halk Party leaders in the difficult times through which they are passing. At the moment they are working quietly and unostentatiously to maintain their position in the vilayet. T h e Halk Party holds eight of the twelve parliamentary seats in the vilayet (they had 9 deputies but one of them deserted to the Democrat camp soon after the victory of that party in the general election) and t w o of them have held high o f f i c e in f o r m e r governments. Hasan Saka was Prime Minister for almost a year and Faik Ahmed Barutfu was head of the Halk Party group in the last government and has also been a minister. Another highly respected Halk Party deputy is General Naci Altug, who formerly commanded the Trabzon garrison. Of the remainder, three are university men with several books on economic and social subjects to their credit. With age and experience at their head and backed by a well organised and enthusiastic party machine, which can exploit the rifts and dissensions in the Democrat Party organisation, there seems on present form no reason why these deputies should not repeat the success they obtained at the last general election if and when they are put to the test. Democrat Party: The Democrat Party in the Trabzon vilayet has a history of squabbles, strife and dissension amongst its higher hierarchy which would be hard to surpass. A few months before the last general election at a time when all their energies should have been devoted to the task of putting the Democrat case before the public, internal differences caused the party to split into two groups one of which with its leader went over to the Millet Party, while the leaders of the remaining group took over the depleted and somewhat demoralised Democrat Party organisation and tried to instil some enthusiasm and unity of purpose into their supporters. Feuds and mutual recriminations amongst the leaders of a party hardly inspire confidence among the electorate and there is little doubt that this was the main cause of the poor s h o w i n g m a d e by the D e m o c r a t Party in the last general election. Unfortunately, the tradition of internal dissension has persisted in the reformed organisation and today it is again split into two warring camps. The chief protagonists in the present struggle f o r power in the higher organisation of the Democrat Party in the Trabzon vilayet are the ex-Mayor of Trabzon and the president of the vilayet committee. It is not known how or when the rivalry commenced but its first manifestations were in the meetings of the town council. In the last town council elections, which were held some months after the general election, the Democrats captured all the seats, but in

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spite of this, squabbling and bickering between those members who supported the elected mayor and those followers of the President of the vilayet committee who wanted his removal soon became a regular feature of the meetings of the town council and brought the work of that organisation almost to a standstill. After some months of this undignified squabbling the Vali intervened, forced the Mayor to resign and appointed the assistant Vali as temporary Mayor until the members of the town council could decide on a new one. Smarting under his dismissal from the mayoralty, the disgruntled ex-Mayor, who is a member of the vilayet committee, returned to the attack in committee meetings and succeeded in splitting that organisation into two warring factions more eager to wage war against each other than the opposition parties. In face of this dangerous and critical situation the President of the vilayet committee wrote to the Prime Minister asking him to show his support for the leaders of the Trabzon Democrat Party in their efforts to save the organisation from the influence which threatened to destroy it by visiting Trabzon and addressing the delegates of the vilayet annual party congress. The Prime Minister promised to make every effort to attend the Congress, but although he was given a choice of several dates pressure of business on each occasion prevented him from implementing his promise. This was a severe blow to the president of the vilayet committee, for he had counted on the support of the Prime Minister to maintain his position and to infuse a little unity into the party followers. In the end the party congress was held in early October without the presence of the Prime Minister, but despite much vulgar brawling and shouting down of delegates the President was reelected and his rival with many of his supporters lost their positions on the vilayet committee. With his rivals ousted from all positions of influence in the higher direction of the party the President should now be able to devote his energies to the main task of advancing the Democratic cause in the vilayet and to be able to ensure freedom from dissension and feuds. However, he is hardly an inspiring personality and his health is none of the best. With a weak and uninspiring leader at the head bickering and strife are almost certain to break out again in the near future and the only hope for the Democrat Party in Trabzon is the emergence of a strong, popular and influential leader whose personality and record will inspire confidence and devotion in the rank and file of the party and whose transcendent position in the higher direction of the party will discourage rivalry and intrigue. Given sound direction and unity of purpose the Democrats might well become the dominant party in the Trabzon vilayet, but radical changes in the leadership are essential if this is to become any more than a remote and distant aspiration. Millet Party: The Millet Party or national party has in recent years somewhat increased its prestige and influence in the vilayet and this is largely due to the enthusiasm and energy of the President of the party's vilayet committee, Kemal Attal. This man resigned from the Democrat Party just before the general election and transferred his allegiance with that of his

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followers to the Millet Party. An organisation of sorts has been built up throughout the vilayet but although they have many ostensible supporters few men of energy and ability appear to be attracted to the party. Indeed, apart from Kemal Attal, the lists of the National Party's candidates in the various elections contains no name of any consequence and one can say, for the present at least, that this party presents no serious challenge to the party in power.

The Kazas of the Trabzon Vilayet As mentioned before the Trabzon vilayet is divided into 7 kazas as follows: Trabzon Central kaza, Siirmene, Of, £aykara, Ak?aabat, Vakfikebir and Magka. Trabzon Central Kaza The Trabzon central kaza can be controlled directly by the Vali from his vilayet headquarters in the town of Trabzon and the appointment of a Kaymakam is therefore not necessary. The main town of this kaza is, of course, Trabzon. This ancient city whose history goes back to 700 BC., extends along the coast from Degirmendere on the east to the old port of Molos on the west and also a short distance inland along the lower slopes of the dome-like Boz Tepe (800 ft) which dominates the town. The deep ravine, along both sides of which the ancient walls extend, is spanned by an old fortified bridge and the ravine itself is now filled with gardens. The ruined walls of the castle and defences of Byzantine times still remain. There are some relics at Molos of the Genoese and Venetian trading concessions and some well preserved 13th century Greek churches either converted into mosques or storage dumps for the Turkish army. At one time Trabzon was the centre of the transit and other trade of the east and the trade routes to and from Asia and the east converged on the port. It was indeed, considered one of the main gateways to the east and as such it flourished up to quite recent times. The extension of the railway to Erzurum enabled the transit trade from northern Persia to be sent more quickly and economically to the Mediterranean by the railway than by the long camel journey to the sea at Trabzon via Bayburt and Gumii§hane where the road crosses over two 800ft passes and is closed by snow for many months of the year. The Erzurum railway extension also deprived Trabzon of a great deal of trade with eastern Anatolia. The railway from Tabriz through the Caucasus to Batum or Poti also began at this time to attract some of the transit trade of northern Persia. With the advent of motor traffic, much of the transit trade from Persia which was not sent by rail to Batum or Poti or from Erzurum to the Mediterranean, was despatched by lorry via Kermanshah and Baghdad to

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the Mediterranean ports of Haifa or Beirut. From this time the fortunes of Trabzon progressively declined and by 1935 its population had fallen to under 30,000 from a peak of 85,000 prior to 1914. An agreement between Turkey and Iran on facilities for the northern Persian transit trade through Turkey was arrived at in 1949, but it is not known whether it has been ratified by both sides. The provisions which interest Trabzon are as follows: (a) Both countries will give every facility for the transit of goods and passengers through the respective territories. (b) Neither country will take customs dues of any kind on the transit trade. (c) Both countries agree to permit the repair, exhibition and cleaning of goods in the transit depots. (d) Persia will allow Turkish lorries to go as far as Tabriz and Turkey will allow Persian lorries to go as far as Trabzon.

Up to date, little if any Persian transit trade has been drawn to Trabzon as a result of this agreement but the omens today are much more propitious than at any time before. The tendency to bypass Trabzon was accentuated by the fact until quite recent years the road from the Persian frontier to Trabzon was in a bad condition and for many months in winter was impassable owing to snow. In addition, the port facilities at Trabzon were very primitive compared to those of Poti or Batum. All these objections to the use of Trabzon as a port should be removed in the next year. The road from the Persian frontier is now a good modern highway and snow ploughs struggle with varying success to keep the passes open throughout the winter. At the port the 850 metre breakwater has been completed and within a year or so there will be a wharf equipped with modern loading and unloading facilities. It is proposed to grant Iran a free port area and all the customary facilities at Trabzon and if the satellite countries of the Balkans could throw off the Russian yoke and the Danube then be open to the traffic of all nations, it is certain that some at least of the former transit trade would return to this port. It is unlikely, however, to regain its former pre-eminence amongst the Black Sea ports of Turkey. Lighting: The electric power and heating in the town of Trabzon comes from a barrage which controls the waters of the Kalanima river near Viscera. The barrage which is about 15 kilometres from the centre of Trabzon and the poles carrying the current pass through some very difficult country. It is not surprising that in winter when there are heavy falls of snow poles and wires collapse and the current may then be cut off for several days. The barrage was constructed and the generators installed by the Germans in 1932 and in the meantime the number of subscribers has increased considerably. Add to this the needs of the port constructional work and it is not surprising that in winter time during the hours of peak load between 17.00 and 21.00, the system is very overloaded. Indeed, during this period the voltage often falls

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from the standard 220 volts to just under 100 volts when reading or writing is impossible even with 100 watt lamps and electric machines of all kinds refuse to function. If the somewhat nebulous plans for the establishment of small industries are to materialise, the 800 kilowatt now provided by the Viscera barrage and the newly installed Diesel engine, whose main function is to pump the town water supply into storage tanks, must be supplemented. As an illustration of the increased electric power that will be required in the next five years, it may be of interest to list the projects that are planned for completion in that period. First of all there is the harbour which when completed in a few years time will have a wharf capable of taking two 6000-ton ships, electric crane, and silos for storage of the grain for export from the whole of eastern Anatolia. Secondly, nearing completion are a tobacco factory which will employ over 100 workers, a tile and brick factory and a cold storage depot. Thirdly, plans are well advanced for the establishment of two big factories just outside the town, one for the manufacture of super phosphate and the other for cement. These last two factories alone will need over 1000 kilowatts and within the next five years it is thought that the town will need a total electric power of at least 3,500 kilowatts to meet the needs of the rapidly increasing population and the planned industrialisation. Fortunately, this is available in the 180 metre fall of the river Degirmen in the 11 kilometres between Ma?ka and a place called E§iroglu, 15 kilometres south of Trabzon. T o build a barrage on this stretch of river and install the necessary hydroelectric equipment will cost five million liras but engineers are confident that it could supply 4000 kilowatts and this will ensure an adequate supply of electric power for Trabzon for as far ahead as can be seen at present. Heating: The rather wealthier Turks and Europeans in Trabzon, heat their houses with stoves specially constructed for burning coke but the poorer people use wood, charcoal, or hazelnut shells both for heating and cooking purposes. Coke is rationed and costs over £11 a ton. Charcoal and hazelnut shells are usually burnt in a special contraption called a 'mangal'. There is no gas in Trabzon and heating and cooking by electricity is almost unknown. Water: The water supply for Trabzon is pumped from the bed of the Degirmen river on the outskirts of the town and is stored in storage tanks placed on convenient high ground. Electric pumps are used and power for driving them is obtained from a 200 watt diesel oil engine. This engine was installed in 1949 and before this time pumps were driven by power f r o m the already overloaded town electric supply, with unpleasant results in the way of reduced voltage and dim lighting. The new diesel engine is switched on at times of peak load to help the town supply, but even with this aid the overloading is still considerable. The water is well purified before being stored, but it is said to contain a high percentage of lime. For this reason many people buy special drinking water with a low lime content f r o m wells at Zephanos, some five kilometres distance f r o m the town.

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Hotels: The ancient city of Trabzon, with its Roman, Greek, Genoese and Venetian remains, its beautiful coastline and the majestic scenery of the forest clad mountains of the interior, is eminently suitable as a tourist centre, but it has no hotels worthy of the name. The only passable hotel f o r Europeans is the Ye§il Yurt, a thirty bedroom hotel just off the main square, but the town council are planning the construction of a first class municipal hotel near the British Consulate. These plans have been proudly displayed to successive British Consuls for the last twelve years but they seem no nearer implementation today than they were twelve years ago. Imports and Exports: The main exports are hazelnuts, tobacco, beans, livestock, wool, eggs and skins. Imports consist mainly of finished cotton goods and woollen goods, leather and hardware and metals. Import and export figures for 1949 were £T 200,000 and £T 1,400,000 respectively. The Harbour: The sea coast of the Trabzon vilayet has no inlets or estuaries which might f o r m natural harbours f o r shipping, the nearest approach to this being the bay at Ak^aabat which is protected from the violence of the north, north west and westerly winds by the headland called Yoroz Burnu. Until quite recently when storms blew up, as they do quite frequently and suddenly especially in the winter months, ships anchored in the roadstead at Trabzon took refuge in the comparatively calm waters of the bay at Akgaabat, or rode the gale out with two anchors in the roadstead. With the completion of the breakwater at Trabzon and the greater part of the dredging operations in the harbour, Ak§aabat is no longer needed as a refuge and ships in the Black Sea within reasonable distance of Trabzon make for that port if a violent storm should arise. The negotiations for the construction of the harbour at Trabzon began soon after the end of the Second Word War. Tenders for the work were confined to Turkish firms and the contract was finally awarded to the R.A.R. Company of Istanbul. This company is merely a finance company with no previous experience of harbour building and as a safeguard the Turkish Government stipulated that the company should collaborate closely with a British firm with long experience of such work. The firm chosen was the Mitchell Engineering Co. of London who agreed to provide the necessary equipment and send out one of their engineers to supervise the job. Although the contract was awarded in 1946 delays in the delivery of equipment prevented the commencement of large scale operations and it was not until July 1949 that the first train carrying stone for the breakwater passed along the railway track. At that time, the port facilities were very rudimentary (see photograph appendix B). 1 The anchorage for large boats was east of Giizelhisar point in 5 fathoms. It was completely exposed to north and north west winds and as stated previously, ships at anchor usually took refuge at Akgaabat if a violent *Not available (ed.)

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storm broke out. About 150 yards east of Giizelhisar point was the custom's quay extending in a southerly direction for about 350 ft. and with a depth alongside of 3-4 feet. On this quay a German Diesel crane operated and still operates today (Oct. 1952). It runs on rails and has a capacity of 6 tons at 4 0 feet radius and 10 tons at 16 ft radius. There are also a goods jetty 200 f t long and a passenger jetty. About one and a half miles south east of Giizel Hisar point is the old breakwater at Eleusa Burnu. It extended 290 metres in a north easterly direction and then 340 metres in an easterly direction. About a quarter of a mile east of this breakwater were the half submerged remains of the breakwater built by the Russians in 1918 and between this and the old breakwater at Eleusa Burnu is a small jetty for unloading military stores and petrol. About three quarters of a mile west of Giizel Hisar Burnu is the old port of Molus. The breakwater of this old Genoese harbour is submerged but there is a reinforced goods jetty about 276 feet long with a depth at the loading point of between 8 and 10 feet. Position Today (October 1952) Composite photographs of the port taken in June 1952 with points of interest numbered and described on the reverse, are attached as Appendices C and D. 1 T w o sketch maps of the harbour one showing the position in October 1952 and the other what the port should be like on completion are attached at appendices E and F. The Graded Breakwater This has been completed to a distance of 850 metres and heavy weather protection consisting of 25-30 ton cement blocks, supplemented where possible by heavy stones blown in the quarry, have been placed in position right up to the end of the breakwater. In the original plan the length of the breakwater was to be 750 metres but complaints were received from ships captains and others of the inadequacy of this length during the approach and entrance to the harbour when violent north winds are blowing. It was pointed out that if the approach is made slowly, as it should be, the ship, during the entrance to the harbour, is in danger of being blown on to the old breakwater at Eleusa Burnu and if entrance is made at speed, the ship would escape being blown on to the rocks but may not be able to stop before hitting the wharf wall. A length of breakwater of 1100 metres was suggested but the Government only agreed to its extension to 850 metres. Although this does not fulfil all requirement no more can be done with the money and materials at the Government's disposal. The 4 0 ton transporter which laid the cement blocks and large stones on the weather side of the breakwater has now been ' Not available (ed.)

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taken away and will shortly commence laying the cement blocks for the foundation of the wharf wall. The 15 ton Henderson crane on its return journey from the end of the breakwater will assist in the laying of the concrete capping slab on which will be placed the bollards for end on berthing. See Appendix G attached. Dyke Wall This wall which runs between the old breakwater at Eleusa Burnu and the commencement of the wharf wall has now been completed and the ground behind filled in and levelled. The wall itself was constructed by tipping large stones on to the seaward side of the area filled in and has been constructed to safeguard the dredged area. The wall is on an average 1 metre 50 centimetres high. The Small Harbour for kayiks This is enclosed between the old breakwater at Eleusa Burnu and the partly submerged Russian breakwater which has been repaired and extended. To take the breakwater at Eleusa Burnu first. The scheduled 50 metre extension (ungraded) to this breakwater has been completed and large stones blown on the quarry have been laid on both sides of the extension as heavy weather protection. The 15 ton Henderson derrick on standard gauge rail track is still on this breakwater, but the 5 ton derrick has been removed. The 15 ton derrick has been used in recent months to make the extension to the breakwater and to lay the big stones as heavy weather protection on this extension. The one time partly submerged breakwater built by the Russians in 1918 to the east of the breakwater at Eleusa Burnu has now been repaired and extended to a distance of 276 metres. It will be given heavy weather protection throughout its length, this consists of stones of about 15 tons blown in the quarry. By October 20th such heavy weather protection had been laid for about half the length of this breakwater. The stones are being laid by a P & H 855 1 */2 yard excavator now converted into a 25 ton crane. For information on the dredging of this small harbour see under heading Dredging". The Quarry With the completion of the main breakwater, the extension of the breakwater at Eleusa Burnu with its heavy weather protection and the repair and extension of the old Russian breakwater further east, work at the quarry is now confined to the provision of overburden and quarry waste for the fill behind the wharf wall; the blowing of heavy stones for the remainder of the heavy weather protection on the repaired and extended Russian breakwater; and the supply of stones for the stone-cracking machine and grader which provide various sizes of small stones for the cement mixer in the 25-30 ton cement blocks. For this work the equipment at present at the quarry is as follows:

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2 Henderson 15 ton Derricks 1 P.&H. 855 1 l n yard excavator 1 10 ton crane (formerly a Titan I yard excavator) 1 Belgian 3 yard excavator 2 Neal 4 ton crawler cranes 1 Ingersol Rand Stationary compressor (1500 c.ft. per min) 1 Ingersol Rand Portable compressor 1 Stone cracking machine 1 Stone washing and grading machine.

Blockyard This is shown clearly on the photograph at Appendix C. The construction of cement blocks for the heavy weather protection on the main breakwater has now been completed and rather differently shaped blocks for the wharf wall are now in the process of construction in the blockyard. These will be laid in position by the 40 ton transporter as is described under the heading "Wharf Wall". The Wharf Wall The wharf wall will stretch from the western end of the dyke wall to the breakwater and will have a depth alongside of 10 metres (see sketch map at Appendix F). It will be 5 V2 metres wide and will consist of 25-30 ton cement blocks laid in position by the 40 ton transporter which laid the heavy weather protection of 25-30 ton cement blocks on the weather side of the graded breakwater. The transporter can lay the blocks at a maximum distance of 33 metres. To facilitate this work an earthen bund about 10 metres wide about has been constructed from the Dyke wall to the south end of the customs wharf on which two standard gauge railway lines have been laid, one to take the transporter and the other the railway trucks carrying the cement blocks. The dredger has dredged to a depth of 10 metres for a distance of 20 metres on either side of the line of the wharf wall, with a ditch half a metre deep and five and a half metres wide along this line to take the cement blocks forming the foundation of the wall. The 40 ton transporter is expected to start laying the cement blocks towards the end of November. The P & H 2 l h yard excavator formerly in use at the quarry, has now been converted into a 60 ton crane and is being used to stack the 30 ton cement blocks preparatory to their being laid in position by the transporter. It is thought that the construction of the wharf wall and the filling up of the area behind will take about a year.

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Dredging A bucket type dredger, incidentally the only dredger in Turkey arrived in Trabzon for operations on the 13th October 1951 and after some work at the entrance to the harbour started dredging along the line of the wharf wall. Dredging was carried out to a depth of 10 metres for a distance of 20 metres on either side of the line of the wharf and with a ditch half a metre deep and five and a half metres wide to take the cement blocks for the foundations. These dredging operations along the line of the wharf wall took longer than was expected owing to the nature of the sea bottom in the harbour. This is of very fine silt and sand and as fast as it was brought up on the line of the wharf wall, it was replaced by similar material which gradually drifted in from further out in the harbour. In addition the dredger was continually going unserviceable and the dredging operations are at present some months behind schedule. It was planned to complete the dredging of the large harbour by the end of September, but it is unlikely now to be finished before the end of the year. When dredging operations here are completed the total dredged area will be 85 acres with a minimum depth of 10 metres. The Small Harbour This is scheduled for use by fishing and other small craft up to 500 tons. It is planned to dredge to a depth of 6 metres, the limit of the dredging area being shown on the map at Appendix F. There are two reasons why this is unlikely to be carried out for some time. The dredging work in the main harbour is many months behind schedule and with urgent demands from other ports for the use of the dredger, incidentally the only one in Turkey, it is likely to be withdrawn from Trabzon as soon as work in the large harbour is completed. If this is true, it may be many years before work on the small harbour can be commenced. As will be noticed from the diagram at Appendix F the limit of the 6 metre dredged area is about 20 metres from the edge of the old Eleusa Burnu breakwater. This is because that breakwater is supported on concrete piles sunk only 1 metre into the sand and if an attempt was made to dredge to six metres up to the edge of it the whole structure would collapse. The depth alongside at the steps of this breakwater is 2 x li to 3 metres which is not deep enough for the large 500 ton kayiks to come alongside for loading and unloading. To allow of this, a short jetty out from the steps of the breakwater to the 6 metre dredged area would be necessary and this is likely to be constructed when dredging operations are completed.

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Projected Port Buildings and Installations On the north side of the reclaimed area near true quayside will be the buildings housing the Liman i§letme Mudurliigii or Port Authority. Here will be passenger waiting rooms, ticket offices and accommodation f o r those concerned with the administration of the port. Further south again on the quayside will be a very large store building to house the goods landed from ships and awaiting shipment. Behind this building will be the grain silos which will be designed to house the whole of the grain of eastern Anatolia available for export. Until quite recently the grain went by train from the Office of Soil Products at Erzurum to Samsun and was exported from that port. It now comes by lorry to Trabzon and until the grain silos are in position is being stored under tarpaulins on the shore near the break-water at Eleusa Burnu. Mechanical loading will be used to load ships alongside with grain from the silos. Running in front of the whole length of administrative and store buildings will be a standard gauge railway line on which two Portal type cranes each of 3 to 6 tons lifting capacity with 5-12 metres reach will operate. Near the breakwater will be a fixed crane of twenty five ton capacity for dealing with military supplies. Along the reclaimed land behind the dyke wall will be pens for housing sheep and cattle until they can be loaded at the quayside and it is suggested that storage space in this area should also be provided for fresh and dried fruits for export. The last suggestion is now frowned upon because it would mean kayiks using the large harbour when the policy is to confine them to the small. Harbour Pollution Most of the sewage from Trabzon until quite recently ran into the large harbour area, as did the drainage water from the slopes of Boz Tepe mountain. With the harbour in operation this naturally could not be tolerated and a cement conduit has now been constructed which runs from the old breakwater at Eleusa Burnu approximately parallel to the shore line and is led into the sea at a point a little west of Giizel Hisar Burnu. There is sufficient slope between these two points to allow of a steady flow of water along the conduit. It is not known when orders will be issued for ships to seal up their septic tanks while in harbour. Such orders are even now long overdue.

The Kaza of Vakfikebir This kaza contains 135 villages and has a population of 67,675. The headquarters town of Vakfikebir which is situated on the coast around 4 0 kilometres west of Trabzon has a population of 1400. Although electric power is available from a small hydroelectric station it is not sufficient for the

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needs of the population. There is no piped water, the people's need being supplied by wells and springs in and near the town. The town council has prepared a project for piping water to the town from some mountain springs about 6 kilometres away, but with an annual budget of only T.L. 35,000, this can only be done by borrowing from the Government via the Iller Bank and first needs the approval of the Minister of the Interior. The kaza of Vakfikebir has a great reputation for its butter and over 300,000 kilograms are exported annually to other parts of Turkey. The butter is all made by hand in the villages. The main crop in the kaza is, of course, hazelnuts and on an average three million kilograms are produced annually. Maize and tobacco are also grown. The villagers of Vakfikebir and those of the neighbouring kaza of Akgaabat are forever squabbling about their rights in the yayla or mountain pastures and these affrays often result in fatal casualties. A committee was sent f r o m Ankara this year to enquire into the causes of these continual disputes and to recommend an equitable solution. The villagers have now agreed to the formation of an impartial tribunal of three members who will carry out a thorough investigation and make recommendations f o r the settlement of their disputes. When approved by the Vali these are final and binding on all concerned and villagers infringing them will be severely punished. It is hoped in this way to put an end to these quarrels over rights in the yayla. Vakfikebir has one intermediate school and one elementary school, which are sufficient for its needs. Of the 135 villages in the kaza, however, only 39 are provided with village schools. As in most other kazas in the eastern Black Sea zone large numbers of the male population are compelled to leave their villages every year and find work elsewhere in order to support their families. Most of the villagers of this kaza emigrate to the Zonguldak and Samsun areas where they find work down the mines or as coolies in the port area. They send any money they save from their wages back to their families the sum amounting to about T. L. 50,000 per month.

The Kaza of Akgaabat This kaza is one of the biggest and wealthiest in the Trabzon vilayet. The headquarters town of the same name is situated on the coast 16 kilometres west of Trabzon. There are 88 villages with a total population of 61,272. Akgaabat is the centre of a big and thriving tobacco industry and possesses the nearest approach to a natural harbour which exists on this stretch of coastline. Before the breakwater at Trabzon was completed this harbour was considered to be the best refuge in rough weather on the whole stretch of coastline between the Russian frontier and Sinop. The port possesses a very primitive passenger and goods jetty. This structure, which is about 40 metres long and five metres wide, was built about 14 years ago by the town council and is far

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from meeting the needs of the town and thriving kaza. Every five metres along the length of the jetty are sets of five iron piles spaced one metre apart across the width of the jetty. See diagram below. The outer piles on each side support iron girders five metres long which run the whole length of the jetty. Wooden beams are placed laterally every two and a half metres. These girders and beams take the roadway of wooden planks. This wooden roadway is in a very dilapidated condition. There are no lifting appliances, any goods heavier than a man can lift being unloaded at Trabzon and sent by lorry to Ak£aabat. N o transport of any kind is allowed on the jetty. The jetty is connected to the road by two girders attached at one end to the iron piles supporting the jetty the other ends being buried in a 3 1 /2 metre wide masonry abutment. As no vehicles of any kind are allowed on the jetty all goods are carried by coolies from the road to the loading point on the jetty and vice versa. Passengers are embarked and disembarked and goods loaded and unloaded on the wooden steps situated a few feet from the end on the port side of the jetty looking out to sea. These steps go almost down to sea level and the depth alongside at this point is about two metres. The roadway of the jetty is about one and a half metres above the surface of the water. Ships anchor about 300 metres out from the jetty and passengers and goods embark and disembark in large rowing boats. The beach at Ak§aabat runs almost parallel to the road for about a kilometre. It is, on an average 40-50 metres wide with a slight slope above sea level which gets much steeper under water (1 in 8). As far as is known there are no tidal streams or currents which might affect the handling of small craft. The surface of the beach is soft sand and would present some difficulty to wheeled vehicles. In 7 7 of the 88 villages of the kaza tobacco is the only crop of importance. On an average 3,200,000 kilograms are produced annually. Some maize is also grown but this only covers a small proportion of the needs of the population. Indeed, one can say that for all practical purposes the people of the kaza depend for their livelihood on one crop, tobacco and if there is a failure in this crop or the quality is bad, there is much distress. This reliance on the bounty of one crop makes the growers very dependent on Government help and assistance in bad years, but an auxiliary crop as valuable as tobacco and as suitable to the soil and terrain that might help to tide the growers over the years when the tobacco crops fail, would be difficult to find. The Government rather than advise on those lines, stress the importance of using good strains of tobacco seed and taking greater care in the cultivation and curing of the crop which would go a long way towards lessening the incidence of bad years. Tobacco is grown year after year on the same land with the aid of artificial fertilisers, little if any organic manures being used. Nevertheless, the soil seems to stand up well under such treatment and in any case the villagers cannot afford to let any part of their very limited land go fallow. From very ancient times olive trees have been grown near Akgaabat, but the size of the

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plantations has progressively decreased and today very few remain. The annual production of olives is about 450 tons. In addition to tobacco, olives and maize, small quantities of wheat, barley, oats and hazelnuts are grown. Ak§aabat is a good fruit growing area and small quantities of apples, pears, lemons, oranges and tangerines are grown for sale locally. Market gardens occupy most of the land along the coast and here almost every variety of vegetables is grown. These vegetables are sent by lorry as far afield as Erzurum and Karakose. Although Ak9aabat has a good natural harbour there is no hinterland f r o m which products could come for export. Exports are confined to the products of the kaza, the more important being tobacco, butter, eggs and fish oil. Electric power is provided in sufficient quantity by a small hydroelectric station and water is piped from the mountains and laid on to subscribers in the town. There are many big buildings in the town among them the (monopoly) tobacco factory and the building housing the kaza headquarters.

The Kaza of Surmene This kaza lies about 30 kilometres east of the central kaza of Trabzon. The men are fine seamen and they are found as seamen and captains along the whole length of the Black Sea coast. Although the distance between Surmene and the neighbouring kaza of Of is small the people of these two kazas differ considerably in character. While the people of Of are rather close fisted and puritanical, those of Surmene are generous and light-hearted. Surmene and the near coastal villages were up to quite recently the centre of a considerable boat-building industry, skill which has been handed down from father to son f o r generations. These boats were built and are still being built in small numbers, without plans of any kind and their only measuring instrument is a rod about 10 inches long. With hereditary skill and this measuring rod as a basis, kayiks up to 500 tons have been built, but today the yards for the most part lie empty and deserted and the skilled craftsmen have dispersed to other parts of the country or taken up other occupations. Even if the skilled craftsmen were available and the demand for kayiks revived, however, the industry could not be revived on the former scale for suitable timber for the work in the adjacent forests is almost exhausted and it would not be economic to bring it to Surmene from other areas. Living as they do on the sea coast most families have small boats which they use to procure their own domestic supplies of fish, with the result that fish caught for sale goes for practically nothing in the local market. Deprived of this source of livelihood, the fishermen are compelled to go further afield and hunt for dolphin which run in shoals off the Black Sea coast between Hopa and Pergembe. With Government and Marshall Plan aid a co-operative society for the extraction and sale of oil from the dolphin has been formed, but the numbers caught are not sufficient

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to keep the factory going continuously during the season. The motor kayiks in this trade operate far out from territorial waters and they are often harried by Russian boats on the same mission. These Russian boats are much better equipped than the Turkish boats and they always carry wireless. The Turkish boats being without wireless cannot appeal for help when the Russians interfere with their operations. The Turkish method of extracting oil from the carcass of the dolphin is also rather primitive. Although the percentage of oil extracted is low by this method, the local fishermen cut the fish up into slices and boil them in large containers. A s they have no suitable instruments to skin them the hide is cut up as well and the valuable material from which shoes and handbags can be made, is lost. In addition to the low extraction rate of oil, the unhappy fishermen have great difficulty in obtaining a reasonable price for their product. This is because the only customer of any size is Italy, who takes advantage of this to force down prices to uneconomic levels. Until the construction of the coastal road from Trabzon to Hopa via Siirmene, Rize and Pazar, practically all the trade of the coast was carried by sea and the owners of the sailing ships and kayiks which plied from port to port along the coast were prosperous indeed. The construction of the road and the increase in motor transport put an end to this monopoly and today only goods of low value which it is uneconomic to send by road, are despatched by kayik. This is, of course a severe blow to the kayik owners and their numbers have seriously declined in recent years. There are 85 villages in the Siirmene kaza, of which only 35 are provided with village elementary schools. Although some hazelnuts are grown in the Siirmene kaza, tangerines and orange are the main fruit crops. A little maize is also grown, but the great hope of the future is tea growing. Under the plan for increased tea cultivation along the coastal area between Siirmene and Hopa, the farmers of Siirmene are being allowed to plant up to 1,500 acres over the next eight years. A subsidy is being paid by the Government for each acre planted, but up to 150 acres can be planted by private individuals without the Government subsidy, if they are public spirited enough to do so. The villagers are showing great enthusiasm for tea cultivation and over 300 acres have been prepared and planted since the scheme came into operation.

The Kaza of Of Of is often referred to as the hoca fabrikasi or Imam factory and indeed the people of this kaza are today, as of old when Christianity held sway here, great disputers on points of dogma and passionately opposed to any deviation f r o m what they consider to be the true faith. They are also good tradesmen and being somewhat parsimonious often succeed in gaining great wealth when they heave their home kaza f o r more profitable fields elsewhere. The natives of Of are adaptable and when they emigrate they soon begin to identify

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themselves with the life of the towns in which they settle. Nevertheless they seldom sever their connections completely with Of. Although land can be sold for high prices today, the people of Of seldom sell any and those who go far afield keep their land cultivated and consider it a sort of refuge to which they can return if necessary in a time of crisis. They are always ready to defend their rights and interests and this whatever the opposition and however small the issue. They are however very law abiding and theft is almost unknown amongst them. The Of kaza contains 80 villages and has a population of 42,000. These villages as in other kazas of the eastern Black Sea zone are very dispersed and all the available cultivable land is occupied. It is difficult and expensive to provide these dispersed villages with schools but despite this there are village elementary schools in 35 of the 80 villages and there is also a secondary school and one elementary in Of itself. The interior of the kaza itself is very mountainous and it is impossible to reach some villages except on foot. In this type of country road making is both difficult and expensive, nevertheless, it is hoped within a few years to complete about twenty village roads. Last year good supplies of pure water were provided for five villages and this year, 1952, 15,000 metres of galvanised piping have been distributed to the villagers on condition that they lay it themselves under direction from the vilayet engineers. There is no shortage of volunteers for this work for the villagers realise the direct benefits to themselves of a good water supply reasonably near at hand. A s is usual in the coastal vilayets those who cannot support themselves and their families on the land available to them in their villages emigrate every year in search of work to supplement their income. Land in the Mu§ and Samsun vilayets surplus to the requirements of the local population is sometimes offered for permanent settlement to such families and nowhere are such offers grasped with greater enthusiasm than in the Of kaza. The number that can be accommodated however, is pitifully small and does no more than scratch the surface of the problem. The great hope for the future is the cultivation of tea. Under the recent scheme for the expansion of tea growing in the eastern Black Sea zone, Of is allowed the same acreage as Siirmene (1,500 acres) and in addition a small tea factory for weathering the leaf preparatory to sending it to the main factory in Rize is to be built. The villagers are showing great enthusiasm for tea planting and about 500 acres have already been planted. Hazelnuts are by far the most valuable crop produced in the kaza, the value being about 4 million liras annually. Butter is produced and exported in small quantities and so are oranges, apples and tangerines. Maize is grown extensively but production only meets t w o thirds of the needs of the population. The remainder is imported. Most of the people of the Of kaza as indeed throughout the coastal kazas of the Black Sea areas, eat maize bread and this has, of course, been largely forced upon them by circumstances. With a dense population and a very limited area of cultivable land, the villagers are forced to grow maize, for it gives a much greater yield per acre than any other cereal and a high yielding cereal is a necessity if enough grain is to be produced on the available land to feed the population.

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The Kaza of Magka This lies about 30 kilometres south of Trabzon and has a population of 34,000. Like £aykara most of the area of the kaza is mountain and forest land incapable of cultivation. Some hazelnuts and tobacco are grown in addition to the villagers staple food maize, but the latter is not sufficient to meet the needs of the population. Some butter is also produced but it is all sold locally. Some 10 miles south east of Ma^ka is the monastery of Stimelas which dates back to the 10th century. It is now in ruins. The main transit route from Trabzon to the Persian frontier passes through the whole length of the kaza and keeps the inhabitants in touch with the world.

The Kaza of Qaykara This lies some 50 kilometres south of Of. There is a track suitable for motor vehicles running from Of through (Jaykara to Bayburt but the Turkish authorities do not readily give permission for it to be used by foreigners. The writer has never been south of Of and the kaza of (iiykara is therefore an unknown quantity to him. It is certainly the most isolated and poorest kaza in the Trabzon vilayet and has no commercial or political significance.

THE VILAYET OF GIRESUN July 1952 General The vilayet of Giresun with the headquarters town of the same name is bounded on the east by the Trabzon and Giimu§hane vilayets, on the south by Sivas and Erzincan and on the west by Ordu. It has an area of 6,812 square kilometres and a population in the 1950 census of 299,243. This gives a density of population of 4 4 to the square kilometre, which considering the small amount of land available for cultivation and the absence of industry of any kind, is very high indeed. The population has only increased by about 20,000 between 1940 and 1950 that is about 6 ! / 2 %. The vilayet is divided into seven kazas including the central kaza of Giresun. The names of these kazas with their populations are given below: Giresun Alucra Bulancak Gorele Ke§ap §ebinkarahisar Tirebolu

64,945 32,630 45,529 43,709 28,222 24,826 59,382

Like most of these coastal vilayets in the eastern Black Sea zone, Giresun, up to the formation of the Republic, contained flourishing Greek, Armenian and Jewish communities both in the headquarters town and in the villages. Today none of these communities remain and their loss has been a severe blow to the economy of the vilayet, for all the trade, commerce and skilled work in the vilayet was confined almost entirely to these people. Indeed, the vilayet is only now beginning to recover from the effects of this f o r c e d m o v e m e n t of population. The people w h o remain are all Mohammedans and the local officials, who should know, describe the male element as lazy, heedless of advice and highly strung. While the men spend their time idling in coffee shops the women busy themselves with both the household duties and the work of cultivation in the fields. Marrying often before they are 17 years of age, these patient, disciplined and prolific females loaded with the heavy burden and responsibility of rearing large families and the cultivation of the land, wear themselves out while still comparatively young. Yet they seldom complain to anyone of their lot least of all to their selfish and lazy husbands. Indeed, they take a special pride in shielding their husbands from work of any kind in the home and any woman courageous or foolhardy enough to inveigh against the harsh discriminations between the

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sexes would be roundly condemned by her fellows. In this coffee shop life of the man, with its gambling and drinking, quarrels are frequent and I was told by the police that of the 703 crimes that had come before the courts in the first seven months of 1952, some 400 were for malicious wounding, mostly with the knife, the direct result of quarrels in coffee shops and other places of amusement. The police have now forbidden the manufacture in the vilayet of knives with a sharp point, which are the main weapon of attack in such affrays and they seem confident that this will reduce the incidence of such crimes. Drunkenness with or without violence is next on the list and this again is the result of the men having too much time on their hands. T h e solution is of course, the training of the men to take a greater share in the work on the land and in the home, but it will take many years to educate them up to this standard. Thieving of almost any kind is almost unknown amongst the people of the Giresun vilayet and this can be said of almost all the vilayets in the eastern Black Sea zone. Outside the towns the people are very hospitable and this admirable trait helps one if not to forget, at least to look with a certain amount of indulgence on some of their less pleasing characteristics. The people of the vilayet are on the whole very politically minded and all three political parties, the Halk, the Democrat and the Millet are well organised. Splits and squabbles in the higher hierarchy of the Democrat Party have become a commonplace of political life in these eastern vilayets of Turkey and Giresun is no exception to the general rule. The Mayor of Giresun and a number of his supporters, including the editor of the local Democrat paper Kale have resigned their membership of the vilayet committee, which directs the party's activities in the vilayet. They have not resigned from the Democrat Party but they are naturally a centre of intrigue against the remaining members of the vilayet organisation. In addition, one of the members of parliament for the Giresun vilayet who was elected as a Democrat has resigned f r o m that party on the grounds that it was fast becoming a dictatorship and has transferred his allegiance to the Millet Party. The member of parliament concerned, by name Arif Pamukoglu, comes of a very wealthy and influential family in Giresun and his money and influence has transformed the Millet Party in the vilayet. Indeed the weakening of the Democrat Party by internal dissension has given an opportunity to the Millet Party to increase its following and the general impression is Giresun is that the Democrat Party which captured all the parliamentary seats in the last election would find it very difficult to repeat its performance today. The Halk Party, as becomes an old and conservative organisation, betrays, on the surface at least, no sign of the internal strain and stresses which periodically afflict the Democrat Party and is quietly building up its strength in preparation for the next general election.

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Three daily and three weekly newspapers are published locally and these cater for every shade of opinion. The daily papers are l§ik (C.H.P), Kale (D.P.) and Giinduz (Millet). The weekly newspapers are Karadeniz (independent with leanings towards C.H.P.), Qaglayan (D.P.) and Uyanan Millet (Millet). The editors of these papers told me that their circulation, daily or weekly, varies between 400 and 500, most of which are sold in the town of Giresun. The problem of the annual migration of large numbers of the male population of the Giresun vilayet in search of work is here if anything, more intractable than in any other of the vilayets of the eastern Black Sea zone. This is because the proportion of cultivable land is smaller in this vilayet than in any of the others and because, for all practical purposes, the population is almost completely dependent on the vagaries of one crop, the hazelnut. Between the two world wars and for some years before that, the average price obtained for one kilogram of hazelnuts was sufficient to buy seven kilograms of sugar, or four kilograms of maize, or three kilograms of rice, all of them necessities in a village household. The position today, except in the case of maize is reversed, for rice and sugar are more expensive than hazelnuts. The result is that the hazelnut producer and with him the vilayet, for the hazelnut crop forms 80% by value of the total produce of the vilayet, is relatively much worse off than before the war. Again, between 1939 and 1946, when the war cut the growers off from the best markets in Germany and the other countries involved in the war stopped importing hazelnuts because they were considered a luxury, the price of the crop fell disastrously and although an attempt was made to extract the edible oil and export it in place of the nuts, the process was found to be uneconomic and was abandoned. The hazelnut growers were compelled in the majority of cases to borrow money from the Agricultural Bank to enable them to buy sufficient maize to feed themselves and their families and they are only now beginning to recover from the effects of the war time slump in the demand for their product. Lastly, due mainly to inadequate cultivation, pruning and manuring, the hazelnut crop fails completely once every three or four years and always falls far short of the possible optimum yield. When the crop fails completely there is widespread distress in the vilayet, for the hazelnut is the only crop of any significance. Under such circumstances the Government has to intervene and lend money to the growers to enable then to buy maize to feed their families. Although the rate of interest on these loans is low, they are hardly repaid before the next crop failure comes along. In the last two years, however, hazelnut crops have been good and the Government has intervened to prevent the price falling below 100 kuru§ a kilogram (unshelled nuts). During this period many of the growers have paid off their debts and some are in possession of more money than they have had for years.

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Despite the present prosperity, the Government and the vilayet authorities are giving much thought to methods of lessening the vilayet's complete dependence on the hazelnut crop. A committee of agriculturalists is coming to the vilayet soon to carry out a survey of the available cultivable land and to assess the possibility of growing other crops to lessen the dependence on the hazelnut. The crops suggested by the Minister of Agriculture during his recent visit to Giresun were tea, olives and fruit and it is thought that the committee will confine their investigation to these. As regards the development of small industries in the vilayet, the Minister of Commerce is understood to favour the expansion of the dairying industry, with emphasis on the production of butter and cheese; an increase in the number of mulberry trees and the culture of the silk worm in areas where soil and climate are suitable and the expansion and development of the local fish industry. Unfortunately, the local people are reluctant to risk their capital in ventures of this nature and with the Government unwilling or unable to advance the capital themselves progress in this direction is likely to be slow.

Communication Communications in the vilayet of Giresun are still very primitive and there is no doubt that the Government are right to give first priority to improving them. The terrain is very difficult; the equipment is not available in sufficient quantity to meet the needs of the planning staff; and the funds although greatly increased in recent years are still inadequate. As throughout Turkey, the responsibility for the construction and maintenance of roads in the vilayet is divided between the vilayet and the appropriate Road A r e a headquarters. The 7th Road Area Organisation with headquarters at Samsun is responsible for the maintenance of the national roads in the Giresun vilayet, while the vilayet look after the village and vilayet roads. There are two national roads running through the Giresun vilayet. First the coastal road running from the border with the Trabzon vilayet on the east to the border with the Ordu vilayet in the west. A number of new bridges have been constructed on this route since 1951. Travelling from east to west, the first new bridge is over the Gorele river some 8 4 kilometres f r o m Trabzon. Formerly this river was crossed in part by a wooden bridge 50 metres long, the remainder of the crossing being on the river bed. This bridge was often washed away and the road cut in the flood season. Now the first 60 metres is spanned by a ferro-concrete bridge. After crossing this the road passes on to an earth bund about seven metres above the bed of the stream and continues on this for about 100 metres. The final 15 metres is spanned by a concrete structure supported between concrete abutments on the earth bund and the river bank. To minimise the chances of the earth bund on which the road runs, being washed away in the flood season, another earth bund has been

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constructed to divert flood waters into the river channel running under the ferro-concrete bridge. It remains to be seen whether this will save the road bund in very high floods. The ferro-concrete bridge mentioned above is supported on five concrete pillars in the river bed; the roadway has a concrete surface and can take only one line of traffic; there are iron railings and a small pavement either side for pedestrians; and the surface of the bridge is 20 feet above the river bed. The next new bridge is at kilometre 100 from Trabzon. A dilapidated wooden bridge formerly spanned a part of the wide delta of the river Harsit at this point, the remainder being crossed on the river bed. Now the whole width of the river bed is spanned by a ferro-concrete bridge 200 metres long supported by eleven stone and concrete pillars in the river bed. The roadway has a concrete surface and is wide enough to take two lines of traffic; there is a small pavement for pedestrians on either side with iron railings; and the surface of the bridge is about 15 to 20 feet above the surface of the river. The third new bridge is at kilometres 127 from Trabzon. Here the old wooden bridge over the river Elva has been replaced by a new wooden bridge. This is supported on eleven sets of iron piles sunk in the bed of the river and is 55 metres long; its roadway is of wooden planks and only wide enough for one line of traffic : and the surface of the bridge is about 10ft above the river bed. The other national road runs inland from Giresun via Kulakkaya, §ebinkarahisar to Alucra. This road is closed by snow from late December to the middle of April. In contrast with the coastal road, this highway has been badly neglected and the surface is in a very bad condition. No attempt is made to keep it open in winter with snow ploughs. There are four vilayet roads completed or partly completed : (a) Tirebolu-Har§it: Starting from the coastal road near Tirebolu it has been completed and opened to motor traffic as far as the nahiye headquarters village of Hargit just inside the Gumii§hane vilayet. This is the last section of the potentially important route from Torul to the coast near the mount of the Har§it river. Following the valley of the Hargit river it avoids any crossing of the high mountain ranges where it would be closed by snow in the winter months. When completed, this route to the coast might very well replace the present transit road over the 7000 ft Zigana Pass for this distance to the coast is much shorter and no expensive organisation of snow ploughs would be required to keep it open during the winter months. The harbour at Tirebolu, if a little money was spent on it would be capable of handling the increased trade that would accrue to that port. (b) Testik-Agvanis: This leaves the Alucra-Siran road 15 kilometres east of Alucra and goes south a distance of 38 kilometres. As the road has not been metalled and many of the bridges are weak, it is only used by light motor traffic during the summer months. (c) Aksu-Dereli-§ebinkarahisar: As a possible winter alternative to the present national road from Giresun via Kulakkaya to §ebinkarahisar a

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road is being constructed up the valley of the Aksu river which enters the sea 6 kilometres east of Giresun and the earth work and bridges have been completed as f a r as Dereli, a nahiye headquarters, some 28 kilometres from the juncture with the coastal road. The alignment from Dereli to §ebinkarahisar has not yet been definitely decided but the authorities say that a route can be chosen which will avoid high ground and it could therefore, be kept open to motor traffic all the year round. If this is true, a metalled or stabilised road along the route is almost certain to replace the present national road to §ebinkarahisar, which is closed for at least three months during the winter, (d) Goreli-Canakci-Kiirtun: Of the 45 kilometres planned 28 kilometres have been made suitable for motor traffic, 38 bridges and culverts having been constructed in the last two years. It is open to motor traffic throughout the year. There are also twelve village roads under construction by the villagers themselves with the aid and advice of the vilayet authorities. These when completed will be taken over as expedient and necessary by the vilayet authorities. When a village road is taken over by the vilayet authorities much work has to be done on it to make it fit for motor traffic. First it has to be widened; bridges and culverts have to be constructed; and when sufficient money is available the surface is metalled or stabilised. Giresun has been allotted 7 4 0 , 0 0 0 liras by the G o v e r n m e n t f o r the construction and maintenance of vilayet and village roads during 1952 and the vilayet have supplemented this by 80,000 liras from their own funds. This total allotment of 820,000 liras for road construction and repair during 1952 compares with only 300,000 liras for 1951 and illustrates the increased importance given to development of vilayet communications by the present Government. In the vilayet of Giresun there are at present 325 kilometres of village and vilayet roads suitable for use by motor traffic. As regards water supplies for the villagers, ten villages were given a good water supply in 1951. This year (1952) 130,000 liras has been allotted and with this money it is hoped to provide 30-35 villages with good water supplies. The vilayet usually provide the piping and the construction of the fountain themselves, laying of the pipes is put out to tender. In many instances the villagers agree to lay the pipes and construct the fountain themselves under supervision if the piping is provided. The greatest need for pure water supplies is in the kazas of Alucra and §ebinkarahisar and at present the authorities are concentrating their efforts in these areas.

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Agriculture The most suitable areas for field cultivation are the kazas of Alucra and §ebinkarahisar. In these two kazas wheat, barley and oats are grown and an area of 25,865 hectares is cultivated. Maize is grown mostly in the coastal kazas but a dwarf variety with small cobs is cultivated in the Alucra area. Maize is grown on just over 32,000 hectares in the vilayet but the crop barely suffices for the needs of 30% of the population. Maize is the staple food of the majority of the villagers in this vilayet and the necessity to import 70% of their requirements is a serious problem even under normal conditions. When there is a failure of the hazelnut crop it can take the form of a major disaster. Apart from a few hectares in the coastal areas near the large towns where vegetables are grown, the remaining cultivable land, a matter of some 50,000 hectares, is devoted to the hazelnut. The crop this year (1952) is estimated at about 30 million kilograms. It can be seen f r o m the above that, for all practical purposes the prosperity of Giresun depends on the annual crop of hazelnuts. This being so, one would expect the hazelnut growers to take all possible steps to ensure maximum and regular cropping, but, despite the advice and exhortation of the vilayet agricultural officials, pruning, cultivation and manuring, which are essential if full and regular cropping are to be maintained, continue to be neglected. Indeed the vilayet agricultural officials have despaired of persuading the hazelnut growers to mend their ways and are agitating for some form of punishment to be meted out to those who refuse to implement the advice given to them.

Education Progress in the provision of facilities for primary school education for all children between the ages of 6-14 in the Giresun vilayet is hampered considerably by a situation which is almost entirely confined to these coastal vilayets of the eastern Black Sea zone. Here there are no villages in the sense of a group of houses in close proximity to one another. Instead family dwellings are almost invariably built on the land available for cultivation and this varies from one to thirty acres. A village often presents a very dispersed picture. Indeed a village is often designated as consisting of from 30 to 40 houses of this nature. The provision of elementary school education for all children in a mountainous vilayet like Giresun where communications are bad and the so called villages numerous and dispersed needs much money and ingenuity and the Director of Education and his staff must look with envy on those vilayets where the population is concentrated in the orthodox type of village.

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The population of the Giresun vilayet is about 320,000 (1950) of whom 60,000 are between the ages of 6 to 14, the age limit for compulsory education. Facilities for elementary school education are provided for 20,000 of this number or just 33% of the children eligible. Elementary schools have been built in 191 of the 466 villages in the vilayet (1952) and the aim is to establish a further 10 to 15 schools each year until every boy and girl within the age limit laid down is provided with facilities for elementary school education. At the present rate of construction twenty five years will be needed to bring the scheme to fruition. As regards higher education, Giresun town has a lycée and an intermediate school (orta okul) and a boys' and a girls' technical school, a commercial school and in six of the seven kazas there are intermediate schools. The kaza of Ke§ap is not considered big enough to justify the expense of providing an intermediate school. T o cater to some extent for those over elementary school age, there are four travelling schools which move about amongst the villages. T w o of these schools are for women and instruction is given in sewing and domestic science; the other two are for men and carpentry and black smiths work are taught.

Military

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Gendarmerie

There are no military units in Giresun, but the gendarmerie is well represented. In addition to the vilayet gendarmerie organisation with a lieutenant colonel in charge, there is a gendarmerie school in the town of Giresun where conscripts detailed for the gendarmerie are given instruction preparatory to passing out to the units.

The Kazas of the Giresun Vilayet The Central Kaza of Giresun The main town and headquarters of this kaza is, of course, Giresun and as this town also contains the vilayet headquarters, the kaza is administered by the Vali direct and not through a Kaymakam. It has a population of nearly 65,000 about 12,000 of whom live in the town of Giresun. This town occupies the slopes of a rugged volcanic promontory connected by a low wooded isthmus, with the main range. On the summit are the ruins of a towered Byzantine fortress, the walls of which extend down the slopes on both sides. Giresun was in ancient times a Greek colony called Cerasus from which the first cherries were brought to Rome by Lucullus. The wild cherry is still abundant in the district. Before the War of Independence the people of Giresun numbered over 28,000 half of whom were Greeks, Armenians and Jews. On the completion of exchange of population between Greece and Turkey and the

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compulsory settlement of Jews and Armenians in the large towns of Izmir, Istanbul and Ankara the population of the town fell to under 11,000 and even today (October 1952) at 12,367 it is only a shadow of its former self. There are several hotels in the town, but in all but one of them, the Govelli Hotel, the accommodation is primitive and the service bad. Even the Govelli Hotel considers one communal wash basin for thirty guests an ample allotment. There are two good restaurants in the town, one in the municipal park and the other just off the Ataturk Boulevard. These restaurants are clean and the food and service quite good. Water is piped to the town from the mountains and is considered sufficient for the present needs of the town. The town electric supply is 220-230 volts 3-phase alternating current and is provided by two Diesel engines of 150 hp., each producing just under 200 kilowatts. There are at present 2000 subscribers and the power available does not permit any extension of the service. Indeed, at peak hours the voltage falls f r o m 220 to just over 100 volts and the overloaded service is continually breaking down. The Mayor has submitted a scheme for the construction of a barrage on the river Aksu from which 2000 kilowatts could be obtained, but it would cost 2 million liras to complete the scheme. The Iller Bank which finances such schemes in the vilayets has been approached in the matter, but there is a general feeling in Government circles that the scheme is too ambitious f o r a poor town like Giresun. It is, therefore, unlikely to be approved and the municipality are already considering the purchase of a new 400 h.p. Diesel engine which will reinforce the two engines at present in use. The town has an effective sanitation system, the sewage being conveyed out to sea in pipes. Sokoni Vacuum and Shell have petrol and oil depots in the town and petrol is stored there in 50 gallon drums. It is estimated that there are about 100,000 litres or 25,000 gallons of petrol stored at any one time. Coke is available at Giresun and wood, paraffin and hazelnut shells are also used for both heating and cooking. Hazelnut shells are mostly used by the poorer people and coke and wood in the Government buildings and the houses of the well to do. The Harbour The bay at Giresun offers no protection from the north and north west winds which can be very destructive in winter. The jetty is of ferro-concrete construction built partly on the south end of a rock formation running north and south. The length of the jetty marked A and B (see diagram at Appendix A ) runs east and west and is 25 to 30 metres long. The depth alongside is between 4 and 6 metres and the height of the surface of the jetty above the water is two metres. There are no steps along this length of the jetty. A 600 ton kayik can tie up here for loading and unloading in calm weather. The jetty now changes direction through 90 degrees and runs for 40 to 50 metres in a

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north-south direction (on diagram marked B-C). Here the depth alongside is 34 metres and height above water 2 metres. Barges of all sizes load and unload goods here for the steamers which anchor in the bay. There is a 10 cwt fixed hand crane on this length of jetty which has a sweep of 6 metres. The remainder of the jetty (marked C-D) (on diagram) is used for loading hazelnuts and is of approximate circular shape. It stretches for a distance of 80 metres and depth alongside is 2 metres. On this length of the jetty there is a fixed 5 cwt hand crane with a sweep of 4 metres and concrete steps go down to water level for more than half its length. The continuation of this is a sort of sea wall about 8 f t above water (D E F on diagram) the distance E - F being provided with steps where passengers embark and disembark. The jetty is very exposed to north westerly and northerly winds which can be very destructive and under such conditions the loading and unloading of barges is not possible. A plan has been drawn up for making the port an all weather one by extending the arm A-B of the jetty a distance of 130 metres. Here the depth of water would be over 13 metres and ships could come alongside on the north side not on the south side as at present. To make the harbour weather proof a small breakwater would have to be constructed a short distance to the north. The cost of the scheme would be about 4 million liras, but despite its comparative cheapness, Giresun at present is not of sufficient economic importance to justify such an expenditure. The water within a short distance of the jetty is quite deep and even 7000 ton ships like the Ankara or Trabzon can safely approach to within 20 metres. There are twelve barges (nine of which are serviceable at any one time), one tug and a motor boat in the port. All these belong to private individuals. Exports from the port of Giresun in 1951 by weight and value are given below: Name Filberts Filberts Fish Oil Casings Eggs

shell kernel

weight or number 1,367,405 kilograms 5,278,964 22,700 5,600 1,460,160

value T.L. T.L. T.L. T.L. T.L.

1,313,211 12,254,870 24,970 134,000 73,000

The Ziraat, 1§ and Ottoman Banks have branches in the town of Giresun.

The Kaza of Gorele This coastal kaza borders on the Trabzon and Giimu§hane vilayets. It contains 6 4 villages with a population of 4 0 , 0 0 0 inhabitants. T h e headquarters town of Gorele has 3000 inhabitants. Water supplies from wells and fountains do not at present meet the needs of the population but T.L.

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116,000 is being borrowed from the Iller Bank to cover the cost of laying a pipeline to a source of supply about one kilometre from the town. This new supply should meet all needs. A small hydroelectric station was opened in 1950, but this is not now (1952) sufficient owing to the increase of small industries in the town. Another 150 hp. electric turbine is being installed in the near future and this should be sufficient. There is a health centre with 15 beds in Gorele but it is quite inadequate for a kaza of this size. Gorele contains an intermediate and three elementary schools. Maize is the staple food of the inhabitants but the amount grown only covers the needs of half the population. Here as elsewhere in the vilayet, hazelnuts are the main crop and form 80% by value of the exports of the kaza, but small quantities of apples, timber (specially walnut and alder), eggs and butter are also exported. The products of the kaza are not sufficient to support the inhabitants and thousands emigrate each year in search of work. These men send between 40 and 60 thousand liras home to their families every year. Boats call at the port once a week and kayiks take goods for Trabzon and Samsun. For the future, great store is put on the possibility of growing large numbers of mulberry trees in this area and establishing a small silk factory. The soil and climate are suitable but it remains to be seen whether the local people will be willing to put up sufficient capital to bring the scheme to fruition.

The Kaza of Tirebolu The coastal kaza of Tirebolu has a population of 59,382 and is one of the most important in the vilayet. The headquarters town of Tirebolu has 4,236 inhabitants and with the construction of a good road along the Har§it river to Torul and the expenditure of a small sum to extend the natural breakwater to enclose a reasonably sized harbour, the kaza and the town could expand its trade and commerce considerably. The water supply of the town which is obtained f r o m fountains and an old pipe line is not sufficient and T.L. 20,000 have been allotted to provide a new source of supply to cover all the needs of the population. There is also a shortage of electric power which at present, is also not sufficient to meet the needs of the inhabitants. The 120 hp. Diesel engine which is being operated at present is scheduled to be replaced by a larger one in the near future. When implemented, these schemes to provide ample water and electric supplies to Tirebolu will load the municipality with an annual payment of 13,000 liras out of a total budget of 55,000 liras. The town council is at present controlled by the Halk Party. There are six hotels, two cinemas and two public baths in Tirebolu. To meet the needs of the kaza in higher education an intermediate school has been built in Tirebolu.

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ofBulancak

This coastal kaza has a population of 45,509 of whom 40,207 live in the villages. The kaza has officially 52 villages but these are simply a number of dispersed houses. In this kaza every villager lives on his own land and a village may extend over a distance of six miles. Most of the villagers have to walk many miles to obtain water and the provision of health and educational services provides an almost insoluble problem. Of the 52 villages only five are provided with village schools. The economy of the vilayet revolves around the hazelnut and there are no other crops of economic importance. The town of Bulancak has a population of about 3,000. A small diesel engine provides the town's electric power but it is far from meeting the requirements of even the present subscribers. The town has no piped water supply at present but a scheme costing 72,000 liras is likely to be approved and this when completed will ensure adequate supplies for all purposes.

The Kaza of Kesap This coastal kaza which lies about 15 kilometres east of Giresun has a population of 28,222 of whom 26,000 live in the villages. This area became a separate kaza only six years ago. In this kaza as in all the other coastal kazas in the vilayet, the hazelnut is the only product of economic importance. However, apples are grown on a small scale and fishing provides a livelihood for a number of people. The headquarters town of Kesap has a population of 2,000. At present there is only a very ancient Diesel engine to provide electric power for the town but a scheme to replace this by a hydroelectric station has been prepared and submitted to the Government for approval. Kesap is also without a piped water supply but this could be provided at the same time as the hydroelectric station. There are 42 villages in the kaza of which 25 are provided with village schools. There is no intermediate school in Kesap as it is considered too small to justify the expense, but it has an elementary school. Although Kesap is such a small town it boasts a weekly newspaper called Kesap which is printed in Giresun and professes to be politically neutral. The political parties are well represented in the headquarters town and throughout the kaza and what is more surprising the protagonists of the various parties seem to live amicably together.

The Kaza of §ebinkarahisar The inland kaza of §ebinkarahisar has a population of 19,000 of whom 17,000 live in the villages. The headquarters town of the same name has a population of 1,500. Animals and animal products are the foundation of the

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economy of the kaza and eggs, butter, cheese and leather are exported in quite large quantities. Cereals, peas, beans, vegetables and fruit are the principal crops of the kaza. Small quantities of maize are also grown. The town of §ebinkarahisar is provided with electricity by a small diesel engine which is sufficient for the needs of the population. Water is piped to the town from wells in the nearby mountains and the supply meets the needs of the subscribers. There is a Government hospital in the town with 50 beds and a dispensary for tuberculosis patients. The town is well placed educationally having an intermediate and two elementary schools. Although it lies at an elevation of over 5000 ft, §ebinkarahisar is very hot in the summer and the wealthier inhabitants retire during these months to the summer resort at Tamzara, some 5 kilometres distant. The winter is severe and the roads to Giresun, Alucra and Koyulhisar are closed for over four months of the year.

The Kaza of Alucra This inland kaza lies to the east of the kaza of §ebinkarahisar and has a population of about 33,000, of whom 32,000 live in the villages. The crops grown are the same as those in the §ebinkarahisar kaza. T h e small headquarters town of Alucra has a population of just over 900. Electric power is provided by a small diesel engine, but owing to the small number of subscribers the profit after running costs have been deducted does not even cover the interest on the capital borrowed, to say nothing of amortisation. There is no piped water, but fountains in the town meet the needs of the people. Alucra is completely cut off f r o m the world as f a r as road communications are concerned, from the end of December to the beginning of April. In cases of serious illness patients are taken by sledge to §ebinkarahisar where there is a modern hospital.

THE VILAYET OF ORDU July 1952 General The vilayet of Ordu with headquarters town of the same name is bounded on the east by the Giresun vilayet and on the south by Sivas and on the west by Tokat and Samsun. It covers an area of 5,377 square kilometres and has a population of 386,377. This gives a density of population of 72 which is somewhat excessive when one considers that there is little if any industry in the vilayet and the land available for cultivation is only 1,354 square kilometres or less than 25% of the available land area. The population of the vilayet is increasing steadily. In 1935 it was 283,000, in 1940 305,000, in 1945 333,000 and in 1950 372,000 a 33% increase in ten years. The vilayet is divided into six kazas including the central kaza of Ordu. The names of these kazas with their populations are given below. Ordu central kaza Fatsa Golkoy Mesudiye Perjembe Uniye

88,599 89,126 44,588 33,691 28,415 88,073

Before the revolution, Ordu like Giresun contained Greek, Armenian and Jewish communities both in the headquarters town and the villages. These communities have since been dispersed, the Greeks by an exchange of population with Greece and the Armenians and Jews by compulsory resettlement in one of the big towns of Istanbul, Izmir and Ankara. The removal of these communities was a severe blow to the economy of the vilayet, for they controlled its trade and commerce and revival has been slow and painful. The population is now completely Turkish and Mohammedan and politically therefore, much more reliable to the regime than formerly. The inhabitants are said to be much more energetic and enterprising than those of the Giresun vilayet but in general they have the same characteristics. Here again, as in Giresun, theft is very rare but brawls culminating in knife affrays are frequent and these, with drunkenness, form the bulk of the crime registered. The people are much less politically minded than those of Giresun. In place of the three daily and three weekly papers published in Giresun only one is published in Ordu and even that has to be printed in Giresun owing to lack of proper printing facilities in Ordu. The two older political parties, the Halk and the Democrat, are well organised in this vilayet, but the Millet Party has only

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a very skeleton organisation. In the last general election the Halk Party won six out of the eight seats, the remaining two going to the Democrats. Later one of the Halk Party members resigned and after a short time as an independent transferred his allegiance to the Democrat Party. This defection has had little effect on the underlying unity and loyalty of the Halk Party members as a whole and the general consensus of opinion is that the influence of the party in the vilayet has increased rather than declined since the last general election. In Ordu, as in all other vilayets of the Black Sea zone a large proportion of the male village population is forced every year to migrate to other areas in search of work because the land available to them in their villages is insufficient to support themselves and their families. This necessity, the result of over population, can only be eliminated by improving the productivity of the villagers and in this way raise their standard of living and increase their purchasing power. The first essential is, of course, to bring the villages into close contact with each other and with the towns. To this end the Govt, has greatly increased the amount allotted to the maintenance and construction of road communications throughout the country and this is reflected in the greatly increased allotment to the Ordu vilayet in 1952. The policy, an eminently sensible one, under present conditions is to construct as wide a network as possible of rough but adequate roads instead of concentrating on a few classic models. However, to increase the agricultural and other productions in the vilayet is bound to be a lengthy process and in the meantime this annual migration cannot be avoided. Fortunately, the vilayet is not so dependent on the hazelnut crop as is Giresun, although this, at 60% of the value of the total production of the vilayet is sufficiently large to cause much distress when the crop fails or world prices collapse. Crop failures could be greatly minimised, if not prevented, by attention to manuring cultivation and pruning and the growers are now shielded from the full effects of falls in world prices, for if the international market prices of hazelnuts falls below 100 kuru§ a kilogram, the Government immediately intervenes and buys all the produce offered at that price. With a normal crop, 100 kuru§ a kilogram ensures a good profit for the grower and if the crop is above normal the price is indeed a handsome one. Other crops grown in the vilayet are maize, potatoes, wheat, barley, oats, beans, Soya beans and flax. Much larger quantities of potatoes could be grown in the Golkoy and Fatsa areas and this would be greatly encouraged if road communications were better and the potatoes grown could be brought cheaply to the markets. At competitive prices there is a good market for them in Istanbul and other large towns, for being grown on high ground they are of good quality. Potatoes surplus to the requirements for home consumption could be converted cheaply into starch and alcohol for which a good price is obtainable. At present the expense of bringing potatoes to the markets from the rather remote potential growing areas would be prohibitive. The Soya bean is also a valuable crop in world

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markets but the agricultural authorities are finding it difficult to persuade the villagers to increase the area under cultivation. There are two other possible counterblasts to the unhealthy reliance on one crop the hazelnut. One is the expansion of fruit production and the Per§embe kaza is said to be very suitable for this purpose. The second is tea growing. A committee of tea experts visited the vilayet in July 1952 to find out whether any areas in the vilayet are suitable from the point of view of soil and climate for the production of this commodity. Their report is awaited with great interest in the vilayet. As regards local industries, the production of alcohol and starch from surplus potatoes and the extraction of oil from the dolphin on a large scale by modern methods offer the best prospects of success. T o establish such industries even on a small scale will require considerable capital and the problem arises as to how this money is to be raised. The Government has made it clear that the major part of the capital necessary to establish these industries must be raised locally. Only in rare cases will they give financial backing to these schemes, but the full technical resources of the State will be available to give help and encouragement to local private enterprise. This appeal to private enterprise to take the initiative in the development of industry is a new departure in Turkish economic practise. In the past, Turks have always looked to the Government to provide the initiative, the capital and the technical resources for industrial and other development and it will be no easy task to persuade them now to abandon this tradition of dependence on the Government and to replace it by a ready acceptance of the financial risks involved in providing the capital from their own resources for these somewhat rickety schemes of local industrialisation.

Commun ications There are, as usual, three types of roads in the vilayet. The national roads, whose repair and maintenance is the responsibility of the 7th Road Organisation with headquarters in Samsun; the vilayet roads which are the responsibility of the vilayet authorities; and the village roads, the necessary earth work on which is done by free village labour. These village roads can be taken over at any time by the vilayet authorities and as money and materials become available are made suitable for motor traffic by the construction of bridges and culverts; the widening of the road; and the metalling or stabilising of the surface. National Roads There are only two national roads running through this vilayet. T h e coastal road running f r o m the boundary with the Giresun vilayet to the boundary with the Samsun vilayet; and the road running inland from Ordu to

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Golkoy and Mesudiye. Repair work on the coastal road has been stepped up in recent months and the surface is now reasonably good. Between Giresun and Ordu two new ferro-concrete bridges have been constructed. The first is at kilometre 203 from Trabzon. Here the road crosses the wide delta of the Turna river and there was formerly a wooden bridge 110 metres long which was continually being damaged or washed away by flood water. The new bridge, which is 120 metres long, is a ferro-concrete structure and is situated about one and a half kilometres down stream f r o m the old bridge, thus saving a distance of 3 kilometres on the old alignment. It is supported on four massive concrete pillars in the bed of the stream and is joined to both banks by concrete abutments; the road surface is of concrete and wide enough for two lines of traffic; and the surface of the bridge is 25ft above the river. Five kilometres west of this bridge (kilometre 208 from Trabzon) the two wooden bridges spanning the wide delta of the Melet river have been replaced by a single ferro-concrete structure placed about 100 metres downstream from the old structure. The new bridge was not in use in July 1952 but it was almost complete in July 1952 and will certainly be open to traffic by the end of that year. It is 220 metres long and supported on 10 concrete pillars in the bed of the stream; the roadway has a concrete surface and is wide enough for two lines of lorry traffic; and the surface of the bridge is about twenty feet above the river. It is not known whether there are any new bridges between Ordu and the boundary with the Samsun vilayet, but intensive repair work was in progress (July 1952) on the section between Uniye and Terme. Here the road surface is being repaired and the alignment is being altered where necessary to d o away with dangerous hairpin bends. The national road f r o m Ordu to Mesudiye is in a bad state of repair and little attention is being paid to it by the 7th Road Area Organisation which is responsible for its maintenance. It is invariably blocked by snow between the end of December and beginning of April and it is not considered of sufficient economic value to justify the expense of keeping it open by snow ploughs. A good road from Sivas to Ordu via Mesudiye and open throughout the year might attract some of the trade of the Sivas and Erzincan vilayets to the port of Ordu and traders in Ordu are agitating for such a road to be built. However, the cost of construction and maintaining such a road would be very high and the authorities evidently think that the money involved could be used more profitably elsewhere.

Vilayet

Roads (a) Uniye-Niksar: As one of the main routes into the interior from the coast this has all the qualifications of a national road and it is said that responsibility for it will be transferred to the 7th Road Area in the near future. At present (July 1952) the surface is very bad and little repair and maintenance has been done on it in the last year.

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(b) Fatsa-Re§adiye: A road is being constructed up the Bolaman river through Aybasti to the border with the Tokat vilayet whence it will be continued to Re§adiye. This will give Fatsa direct road communications with Sivas. The earth work of this road has been completed as far as Aybasti. (c) Fatsa-Kumru: Kumru is a nahiye headquarters village 30 kilometres south west of Fatsa. This road when completed will enable the produce of a large number of villages to be brought cheaply to the coast. (d) Mesudiye - Gebemene (e) Fatsa-Kurgan: Kurgan is a nahiye headquarters village 10 kilometres south east of Kumru. When completed this road too will open up a fertile interior and enable produces to reach the coast cheaply. (f) Per§embe and across Kogboynuzu peninsular to Kale. This road was intended originally to hug the shore of the peninsular all the way round but a shorter alignment has now been chosen. This alignment is shown on the map at appendix A. To make the road suitable for motor traffic will necessitate the construction of five large bridges. (g) Golkoy-Aybasti: Aybasti lies on the projected road from Fatsa to Re§adiye and with the completion of the road to Golkoy it will have direct communication with the coast at both Fatsa and Ordu. Golkoy and Aybasti are the centres of a potentially large potato growing areas and when competed these roads will enable potatoes grown in this area to be brought cheaply to the coastal markets for sale locally or f o r export. It is hoped that these improved communications will result in a great development of potato growing in this area. (h) Ordu-£amba§i: The biggest effort in 1952 seems to have been expended on this road. It leaves the Ordu-Mesudiye road about 6 kilometres from Ordu and cuts across the Melet river by a wooden bridge. The road from here is in the process of construction earth work having been completed to the nahiye headquarters at Kabazuz. £amba§i is one of the biggest yaylas or summer pastures in the Ordu vilayet and a good road to there would be a big boon to the villagers. The country, however, is very difficult and at the rate of progress envisaged at present it will be several years before it is completed. Eight village roads are at present under construction. An allotment of T.L. 400,000 has already been received for the 1952 programme of work on the vilayet and village roads. A further 300,000 has been promised making 700,000 f o r 1952. An allotment of T.L. 50,000 f r o m the vilayet authorities brings the total allotment for this purpose up to T.L. 750,000, almost double that of 1951. The provision of adequate pure water supplies to the villagers to

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which the Govt, has given almost as big a priority as to the construction of the vilayet roads, is also the responsibility of the Director of Public Works in the vilayet headquarters. During 1952, T.L. 50,000 has been allotted by the Government for this purpose and this sum has been supplemented by a grant of T.L. 10,000 from the vilayet authorities. With this money it is hoped to provide water for 14 villages.

Education As in the Giresun vilayet, the villages in Ordu consist for the most part of a number of widely dispersed houses. This imposes severe restrictions and limitations in the field of administration and nowhere are these limitations more pronounced than in the provision of facilities for elementary education in the villages. It is not surprising, therefore, that the percentage of children in the vilayet for whom elementary school facilities are provided is low. The population of the vilayet is 386,377 and there are 512 villages. Of this total population, there are approximately 70,000 boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 14 which are the statutory age limits for compulsory elementaryeducation. Of this number only 21,000 or 30% were attending elementary schools in 1952, the remainder not being able to do so owing to the failure of the authorities to provide the necessary facilities. There are at present 118 elementary schools in the villages and new ones are being built at the rate of 10 per annum. To give elementary education to village children of school age would require at least another 200 schools. This is, of course, the ideal aimed at by the authorities, but at the present rate of school building it will be at least twenty years before it is attained. As regards higher education, there is a lycée and an intermediate school combined in Ordu, together with a boys' and a girls' technical school and an evening technical school for girls. Intermediate schools have been established in Ùniye, Fatsa and Per§embe. For men and women in the villages over school age there are three travelling schools, two of these giving instruction in needlework to the women and the other instructs the men in carpentry and blacksmiths work.

Health The health establishments of the vilayet are quite inadequate to meet the need. In Ordu itself there is a 50 bed general hospital together with three dispensaries for the provision of medical treatment to those suffering from consumption, malaria and syphilis. In addition to these there are small establishments with accommodation for five patients in each of the five kazas in the vilayet. Doctors are available to give treatment in these establishments but serious cases must be sent to Ordu.

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Agriculture More than 85% of the population of the Ordu vilayet are farmers and agriculturalists. Of the total area of 598,000 hectares only 230,000 or about 38% are suitable for use in agriculture. Only 120,000 of these 230,000 hectares are cultivated, the remainder being high summer pastures, or yayla. Rotational cropping is not practised and there is no land laid down to grass. In April the villagers with their sheep and cattle retire to the yaylas or high mountain pastures where abundant summer grazing for their animals is available and return to their villages in September. The table below gives the areas allotted to the different crops in the Ordu vilayet in 1951 with the appropriate yield in each case. Crop Barley Wheat Oats Maize Beans Potatoes Soya Beans Flax Hazelnuts

Area grown in hectares 5,230 8,625 2,050 57,750 5,200 5,704

Crop in tons 6,729 8,665 1,326 55,355 41,764

2,000

1,234

2,500 50,000

28,000

Note Grown mainly in the M e s u d i y e & Golkoy areas Grown in coastal kazas Grown mostly in Golkoy kaza Grown mostly in Ordu, Fatsa areas Grown in Uniye Grown up to 600 metres in coastal areas

In addition to these crops some 30,000 tons of apples, 5,500 tons of pears, 1377 tons of walnuts and a whole range of vegetables are produced. The hazelnut crop accounts for 60% in value of the whole range of commodities produced. Animal husbandry is increasing in the vilayet and the Govt, has given it their blessing. In 1951 there were 148,500 cows, 200,000 sheep and goats, 12,000 buffaloes and about 15,000 horses, mules and donkeys. These animals are fed on grass cut from the edges of the gardens and on maize straw. On higher ground they are fed on wheat and oat straw. Only animals used on heavy work such as ploughing are given oats and barley. Chickens, ducks and geese are also kept in large numbers and the export of eggs has increased considerably in the last few years. As the land in the vilayet is for the most part steeply inclined and also divided into small farms, the work of cultivating and digging is for the most part done by hand with spade, fork and hoe. Oxen pulling the plough are seen only on level ground in the deltas of river valleys and along coast, on high plateaux inland and generally when farms are large. There are indeed very few

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ploughs in use and as for tractors the whole vilayet can only boast eight large and four small two wheeled types. The latter could be profitably used in larger numbers for cultivation and spraying in the larger hazelnut plantations. Modern machines for making butter and cheese are almost unknown in the villages although used to a limited extent in the larger towns. Wooden churns are a feature of every village home. Modern harvesting methods are unknown, all work of this nature being done by hand. There are over 5000 two wheel ox carts in the vilayet and about 4,000 four wheeled carts. To improve methods of hazelnut cultivation and animal husbandry it is proposed to open a school for animal husbandry in the Gôlkoy kaza and two model hazelnut plantations will be prepared at Ordu and Uniye. It is thought that if the farmers and hazelnut growers see for themselves the advantage of modern methods in animal husbandry and hazelnut cultivation, they will be persuaded to follow their example.

The Central Kaza of Ordu The kaza of Ordu with headquarters in the town of Ordu has a population of 88,500 of whom 12,000 are in the town and 76,500 in the villages. As the vilayet headquarters are also in the town of Ordu the Vali administers the kaza directly and not through a Kaymakam. The town of Ordu extends from the river Melet on the east to the rocky Biiyiik Kale point on the Boz Tepe promontory on the west. The main buildings are the hospital, the vilayet headquarters buildings, the Lycée, the girls' and the boys' technical school and the building housing the Hazelnut Co-operative Society. There are two reasonably good hotels, one of which has been opened in the last year and two of the restaurants, although not first class, are clean and the service is good. Adequate electrical and water supplies and a modern sewage system are the main requirements of the town, the pipe being laid in 1929 when the population of Ordu was much smaller than it is today. A project for laying another pipeline from the same area has been prepared which will cost 600,000 liras. This scheme has been put up to the Government for approval. Electric power f o r Ordu is provided by two diesel engines and one Lokomobil. One of the diesel engines is of 375 hp. and the other 100 hp., while the Lokomobil is of 120 hp. Unfortunately, the electric power produced is far f r o m meeting the need of the population and the engines, from old age, lack of maintenance and constant overloading are approaching the end of their useful life. A s a replacement for these aging engines a scheme for obtaining electric power from a hydroelectric station on the river Turna has been prepared and engineers are at present studying the problem. The present electric system is 220 wolt 3-phase alternating current and there are 1600 subscribers. There is no sewage system in the town each house having its own cesspit. A scheme has been drawn up and approved for a modern sewage system and it is hoped to commence work at the end of 1952.

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The majority of members of the town council belong to the Halk Party. The Mayor who was elected to the town council and the mayoralty as a Halk Party member, last year transferred his allegiance to the Democrat Party while retaining his position as mayor. A Democrat Mayor at the head of a predominantly Halk town council hardly makes for the smooth running of the town's affairs and it is fortunate that the man in office as mayor must be approved every year by the members of the town council or otherwise this state of affairs might continue until the next elections for the town council in 1954. Both Socconi Vacuum and Shell have depots in the town. Here again petrol is stored in 50 gallon drums and there is likely to be a store of 100,000 litres or 25,000 gallons in the town at any one time. As an indication of the number of vehicles in the town, there are 237 lorries, buses and motor cars, 15 motor cycles and 50 bicycles registered at the town council in July 1952. Sport is catered for by a large stadium just outside the town where football matches are played every week and great enthusiasm is aroused. The town budget for 1952 totalled 389,441 liras an increase of 48,000 liras on that of 1951. There are branches of the Ziraat and I§ Banks in Ordu. The Port There is no harbour at Ordu, passenger and cargo boats anchoring in 10 to 60 fathoms north of the town. There are two jetties one for the embarkation and disembarkation of passengers and the other for the loading and unloading of cargo. The goods jetty is east of the centre of the town and is 105 metres long and 5 metres wide. The depth of water alongside at the end is 2 metres and in the centre it is only 60 centimetres. The structure rests on iron piles and the roadway is of wooden planks. Electric power is available on the jetty. The only equipment available for loading and unloading cargo is an old hand operated crane with a capacity of half a ton and a circular sweep of 6 metres. There is great need here for a 4 ton crane and a Decauville line running from the unloading place to the roadway where the vehicles wait. However, to deal with a load factor of this nature the jetty would first have to be strengthened considerably. The passenger jetty is 300 metres west of the goods jetty: It is 55 metres long and nearly 4 metres wide. The depth of water alongside at the steps near the end where the passengers embark and disembark, is nearly 1 metre and at the centre 60 centimetres. At this point on the shore there is much silting up f r o m the sand and silt brought down by the rivers Melet, Bulbiil and Civil, which flow into the sea within a few kilometres of the town. If silting continues to take place at the same rate as at present it is estimated that this passenger jetty will be useless in a few years time. In addition to the problem of silting up, a jetty in this position has no protection f r o m the north and north east winds which can be very violent in winter. Actually even strong to moderate winds from these directions render the

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embarking and disembarking of passengers difficult. For these reasons it has been decided to build another jetty some 1,000 metres along the coast to the north of the present passenger jetty at a place called Ciftegegmeler. The jetty will be 400 metres long and in the new position there will be more protection from the northerly and north-easterly gales. Passengers will therefore be able to embark and disembark at the jetty in much rougher weather than at present. At present if gale force winds from the north, north east, west and west north west are blowing ships take refuge in the natural harbour at Vonu some 7 kilometres north west of Ordu where passengers can embark and disembark in very rough weather. Attached to the port at Ordu are 13 motor boats for loading and unloading goods; 7 motors boats and 11 large rowing boats for embarking and disembarking passengers; 19 barges f r o m 3-5 tons load capacity for loading and unloading cargo and 50 rowing boats used by the fishermen. There are 250 motor boat men and 180 fishermen registered by the harbour authorities. Exports from Ordu The following goods by weight were exported from the port of Ordu in 1936, 1945 and 1951. Name

1936

Hazelnut Soyabeans Potatoes Walnuts (unshelled) Apples Eggs

3,800,000 400,000 325,000 105,000 960

1945 kgms

cases

6,200,000 510,000 3,880,000 260,000 450,000 1,270

1951 kgms

cases

5,900,000 kgms 650,000 2,200,000 360,000 300,000 2,036 cases

Imports are maize, salt, cement and manufactured goods.

The Kaza of Uniye The coastal kaza of Uniye borders on the Samsun vilayet. 1950 census figures give the kaza a population of 88,000 of whom 8,500 live in the headquarters town of Uniye. The agricultural production of the kaza and there is no other production, does not justify a population of more than 55,000. This is confirmed by the fact that almost 40 % of the male population of the kaza emigrate annually in search of work in other areas and their families are supported by the money they save and send back to their villages. The town of Uniye is well laid out, the streets being wide and straight and the houses well preserved. Electric power is provided at present by a 120 hp. Diesel motor but this is far from meeting the need of the population. A scheme is being studied

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to obtain electric power from a waterfall near the village of Laleli a few kilometres from the town. Engineers think that a hydroelectric station there would give sufficient electric power for the present population of the town and the Diesel engine could if necessary, be used to step up power at times of peak load. It is not known if and when this hydroelectric scheme will come to fruition. The town has an abundant supply of pure water sufficient indeed for twice the population. Large quantities are bottled and sent by sea to Samsun where they are sold in the restaurants as bottled water is sold in Istanbul. There is an intermediate school and four elementary schools in the town. Of the 115 villages in the kaza only 25 have village schools. The Agricultural Bank has an agency in the town. The town boasts one good hotel, the Ayla Palas but there are six others of varying degrees of cleanliness. A s is usual in the bigger towns along the Black Sea coast, the town council has plans for erecting a first class modern hotel. These plans have been in existence for many years and their implementation is no nearer today than when they were initiated. Politics in Uniye are conducted in a very gentlemanly manner and there is none of the bitterness here one sees in some of the larger towns in the vilayet. The town council is controlled by the Halk Party who holds 12 out of the 16 seats. Exports from Uniye The table given below gives the exports from the port of Uniye during 1951. They are by weight unless otherwise stated. Name of Goods Hazelnuts Flax Flax Seed Beans Apples Maize Walnuts Eggs

The Kaza

Amount 4,000,000 237,000 321,000 950,000 400,000 300,000 150,000 5,000

kilograms

cases

ofFatsa

The coastal kaza of Fatsa borders on that of Uniye. It contains 136 very dispersed villages and has a total population of 89,000. Of this number 5000 live in the headquarters town of Fatsa. This kaza is not over populated as is that of Uniye. The hazelnut is the main crop, 7,500 tons being produced in 1951. In addition 5,000 tons of potatoes 300 tons of flax, 150 tons of flax seed and 300 tons of Soya beans were produced. Some areas in the kaza are eminently suitable for large scale fruit growing, but no one appears prepared

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to risk his capital in such ventures. Instead the land hungry peasants constantly encroach on the forests in their search for land on which they can grow maize to feed themselves and their families with disastrous results both to themselves and to the country; for land in these forest areas is quite unsuitable for food crops. Practically all cultivation is done by hand only three tractors being in use throughout the kaza. The dolphin is caught by the local fishermen for the extraction of oil but owing to the poor method of extraction the yield is only 60% of what could be obtained with modern methods. The local fishmen are being urged to form a co-operative society, to which they will all subscribe and with these funds buy some modern equipment. They are, however, loath to risk their own money in such a venture and as usual wait for the Government to provide both money and equipment. The villages of this kaza are only villages in name, for they are only a number of very dispersed houses. Each villager builds his house on his own land and as this land may vary between 3 and 30 acres, a village may cover an area of several square miles. This feature of life in the vilayet greatly increases the work of administration of all kinds, more especially that of medicine and education. Of the 136 areas listed as villages in the kaza, only 29 are provided with village schools. Five new schools are being provided in 1952. As mentioned before, the three vilayet roads in the kaza are: (a) Fatsa-Albasti-Re§adiye: The work on this road has started. (b) Fatsa - Kumru - (nahiye headquarters) (c) Fatsa - Kurgan (nahiye headquarters) In addition to the above, 3 village roads are being constructed by the villagers themselves. These roads when completed will facilitate the despatch of potatoes from the growing areas to the coast for export and it is hoped, lead to an expansion of potato growing in the Fatsa and Golkoy areas. Speaking generally the villagers of the Fatsa kaza are well supplied with water, each house or every two or three houses having a well or spring. However, in villages where there is a need the vilayet are taking steps to Drovide a good water supply. The town of Fatsa which is, of course, the headquarters of the kaza, is situated on the coast east of Uniye. Electric power for the town is supplied by two Diesel engines, one 160 hp. and the other 80 hp. This meets the needs of the town at present, as there are only 480 subscribers. A good and sufficient water supply is pumped to the town from the Terziler area some 6 kilometres east of the town. There are however, only 150 subscribers out of a population of 5000. There is no sewage system in the town at present but work has commenced on a modern system in one of the quarters of the town and this will be extended to other quarters as money and material become available. The town boasts of 9 hotels but none of them can be recommended. This year (1952) the town council have allotted funds for construction of a public bath and for the purchase of a fire engine. There are 46 motor vehicles registered in the municipality.

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Exports from Fatsa port Name of Product Hazelnut Flax Flax seed Soya Bean Runner bean Walnuts Potatoes Maize Eggs

Quantity 6,000,000 500,000 500,000 100,000 1,000,000 600,000 5,000,000 500,000 5,000

Kilograms

cases

The Kaza of Per§embe This coastal kaza occupies the Ko£boynuzu peninsula and its headquarters town Per§embe is about 18 kilometres from Ordu. In the 1950 census this kaza had a population of 23,400 of whom 2,180 lived in the headquarters town. This area has only recently been made into a kaza and for this reason the social and other services have not yet been fully developed. The main crops grown in the kaza are hazelnuts and Soya beans. Apples and walnuts are also grown and eggs are produced. The headquarters town of Peir§embe has no electricity and no piped water supply. The kaza is not considered sufficiently large or important f o r the establishment of an intermediate school. Only a very few of the villages in the kaza are provided with schools. About 1,000 tons of fish oil are produced annually from the dolphin nearly all of which is exported to Italy. Here again the method of extraction is primitive and results in a loss of about 40% of the available oil. Roads are almost non existent in this kaza and most of the transport of goods is done by sea. A road is being constructed by the vilayet from Ordu to Pergembe and thence around the peninsular to Kale and Bolaman. Below is a list of goods exported from the port of Pergembe in 1951 Quantities are by weight unless otherwise stated: Name of Products Hazelnuts Soya Beans Fish Oil Eggs

The Kaza of

Quantity 500,000 kilograms 900,000 820,000 1,500 cases

Mesudiye

The inland kaza of Mesudiye lies on both sides of the Ordu-Sivas roads about 120 kilometres south of Ordu and the headquarters town of the same

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name has the appearance of being a very active trading centre. The population of the kaza in the 1950 census was 33,750 of which 2,000 live in the headquarters town. Apart from officials almost all the people are employed in agriculture. The principal crops are wheat and barley. The town of Mesudiye has no electric power and water is obtained from wells and springs. There is a small Government dispensary in the town but no hospital.

The Kaza of Golkoy The inland kaza of Golkoy lies on both sides of the Ordu-MesudiyeSivas road. The headquarters town of the same name lies about 70 kilometres south of Ordu. In the 1950 census the kaza had a population of 44,580, of which 3,400 live in the headquarters town. The principal crops of the kaza are potatoes, beans, maize and barley and there is a substantial production of eggs and fats. Potatoes and eggs are exported. With the completion of the vilayet roads now under construction and the possibility of the cheap transport of goods to the coastal markets the production and export of potatoes and eggs should be greatly increased. Golkoy town has no electricity and no piped water. The inhabitants obtain their water from wells and springs.

TOURS IN EASTERN ANATOLIA: VILAYETS OF GUMU§HANE, ERZURUM AND KARS INCLUDING CORRESPENDENCE RE. SERDERABAD BARRAGE November 1952 Impressions of the People and their views on local Topics of Interest General To avoid the inevitable delays and exasperations associated with a series of applications to tour in my consular area during the summer months, I prepared this year a programme for the whole touring period commencing in June and ending in September. My first tour was planned to take place from the 20th-30th of June in the Amasya and Tokat vilayets, but although my programme of tours was submitted in late May it took over five weeks for a reply to be received. This delay meant that I had to abandon the idea of going to Tokat and Amasya and commence my touring season with the second on the programme. Below is a list of the tours which I submitted for approval to the Vali: (a) Trabzon - Uniye - Tokat - Amasya - Samsun - Trabzon (20th - 30th June). (b) Trabzon - Giresun - Ordu - §ebinkarahisar - Alucra - Giimu§hane Trabzon (20th - 30th July) (c) Trabzon - Erzurum - Kars - Kagizman - Igdir - Dogubayazit - Karakose Erzurum - Trabzon (20th - 30th August) (d) Trabzon - Rize - Hopa - Artvin - Ardahan - Gole - Oltu - Tortum - Erzurum - Trabzon (10th - 20th September)

As I have mentioned above tour (a) had to be abandoned owing to the delay in receiving approval. There was no difficulty about tour (b) but the route specified in tour (c) did not meet with the approval of the authorities, or perhaps the Vali of Trabzon, for I have no way of finding out what happens to my applications after they reach the vilayet headquarters. I was not to be allowed to go from Kars to Dogubayazit via Kagizman and Igdir, but only via Horasan and Karakose. When I arrived in Kars I had no difficulty in persuading the Vali there to give me permission to go by the route I had requested originally. As regards tour (d) the road from Tortum to Erzurum was evidently far too secret for a Consul to see, and I was told to return to Trabzon from Tortum the way I had come thus doubling the distance I had to travel. As it happened floods and landslides preventing me getting even as far as Ardahan so this prohibition did not affect me at all. Before passing on to the Gumii§hane vilayet I should like to record two impressions of my tour in Ordu which I could not include in my detailed report on this vilayet. The first is the extreme gullibility of the villagers in

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this and neighbouring vilayets. A few months before I arrived reports of a spring on a mountain top with miraculous curative powers began to circulate in the towns and villages of the vilayet. A man who had suffered from kidney trouble all his life was said to have drunk the water from this healing spring and to have been immediately cured. With no more evidence than this to go on thousands of people from the towns and villages of Ordu and sometimes as far afield as Samsun and Trabzon began to flock by taxi and bus to a conical fountain called §uaip some 18 kilometres south of Ordu and just off the main road to Golkoy and Mesudiye. Within a few months a small settlement of wooden huts had sprung up on the side of the hill just below the well, for the flow of water from the spring was a mere trickle and hotels and restaurants were necessary to cater for the many hundreds of people who had to stay there, often as long as a week before they could take their turn at the spring. Yet an analysis of the water had shown that it contained nothing that might help in the cure of any disease and although every publicity had been given to this by the authorities, the surge of pilgrims to the mountain top showed no sign of diminishing. This mountain top would, 1 imagine, be a distinctly unpleasant place in the depth of winter and the authorities are hoping that this will damp the enthusiasm of these credulous people. Another impression I took away with me from Ordu and I think it applies generally throughout these eastern vilayets, was the unconcealed welcome given to news that might be considered as a victory for the Persian side in the Anglo Persian Oil dispute. While I was in Ordu the news came through that the International Court at The Hague had declared itself incompetent to deal with the oil dispute, but a number of Turkish officials including the assistant Vali and the Director of Health told me with glee that the Persians had won their case before that court. Indeed, it took me quite a long time to convince them that the court had merely declared its incompetence to judge the dispute. The older generations of officials in Turkey who remember the occupation of Istanbul and the period of Capitulations find it hard to feel any sympathy f o r the big country bested by the small one, although they will readily admit that the big country in this case has most of the right on its side. However, Dr Moussadek's recent gesture of defiance in the breaking off of diplomatic relations with Great Britain has completely changed the picture. There is now no sympathy whatsoever with Persia and he is roundly condemned on all sides for his intransigence. This is not because of any sympathy for Great Britain in her discomfiture but rather because they fear that the dispute will now be indefinitely prolonged and Persia as a result so weakened that she may fall an easy prey to the communists. From Giresun I went via Kulakkaya, §ebinkarahisar, Alucra and §iran to Gumu§hane staying one night on the way at Alucra. Alucra, which is the headquarters of the kaza of the same name in the Giresun vilayet has a population of only 800, yet it has a better electric light system than Giresun the headquarters town of the vilayet. The Kaymakam of Alucra, a very

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pleasant and intelligent young man, told me that for reasons of prestige the Government try to provide electric power for all kaza headquarters even though the population and budget of the town does not justify such expenditure. In the case of Alucra the number of subscribers is hardly sufficient to pay for the oil and maintenance of the system to say nothing of the interest on and amortisation of the capital sum spent on installing the system. As is usual in such cases the money was advanced by the iller Bank, a Government institution which lends money for such purposes to municipalities, all over the country, provided the expenditure is approved by the Government. The repayment of the loan is likely to be a headache both for Ankara and for the íller Bank. There was a small hotel in the town but the rooms were none too clean and the Kaymakam and Mayor suggested I put my camp bed up in the I alter's parlour. I accepted this offer with alacrity and I spent a very pleasant night in the centre of administration of the local municipality. There is no piped water in Alucra and I had to conduct my ablutions the following morning at the fountain outside the Mayor's office. The Kaymakam took me out to dinner at the only restaurant in the town on the night of my arrival after which we went on to the local club for coffee. This was a room with a few tables and chairs in it where coffee and soft drinks were served and in no place but Turkey could such an establishment attain to the dignity of a club. Here I met most of the officials of the kaza and they were all very interested in life in the United Kingdom. Indeed, I was faced with a barrage of questions and I was not able to extract myself until a late hour. I left Alucra for §iran and Gümü§hane about 08.00 hrs, the next morning and the Kaymakam and the Mayor were among those there to see me off. The earth road between Alucra and §iran is in a very bad condition owing to lack of maintenance and movement is slowed down still further by the habit of the local farmers of making shallow irrigation channels across the road at frequent intervals. It took me about four and a half hours to cover the sixty odd kilometres between these two places and I can hardly imagine that lorry or taxi drivers would have the temerity to do the journey unless they were very well paid for it. I stopped at §iran to call on the Kaymakam who was in his office when I arrived. He said the kaza of §iran was poor and it formed part of one of the poorest vilayets in the country — Gümü§hane. This vilayet had always in the past been neglected in the development plans of the Government, but there were signs of a change in policy. The first essential in any plan of economic development was, in his view, the provision of good road communications and he thought the plan for the construction of a good metalled and stabilised road parallel to the Erzincan - Erzurum - Kars road and passing through §ebinkarahisar, Alucra, §iran, Kelkit, Bayburt, Ispir, Tortum, Oltu and Gole was a big step in this direction. The road would bypass Gümü§hane but that was just too bad f o r Giimii§hane. The Kaymakam said the Government would be financing the construction of the road to the extent of three million liras. The earth road from §iran to the junction with the transit road about 10

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kilometres west of Giimiighane is very bad for the first thirty kilometres but after that it improves considerably. The road is being metalled and stabilised throughout its length and preparations for this work are well in hand. I arrived at Gumiighane at dusk and put up at the transit hotel. The next morning I called on the Vali with whom I had a long talk about the Giimii§hane vilayet and its problems. This is his second post as Vali and before that he was a Vilayet Inspector for several years. He emphasised that Giimiishanc was a poor vilayet and although the density of population was only 15 per square kilometre, about a sixth of that of Trabzon, even so the cultivable area, which did not exceed 20% of the total land area of the vilayet, was not sufficient to provide a living for all the families domiciled here. For this reason some 30% of the male population of the villages migrate annually to other parts of the country for the winter months, where they work as wood cutters and coolies, sending any money they can save from their wages back to their families. They themselves return to their villages in late spring when they help in the cultivation of the land for summer cereal crops and in the subsequent harvesting operations before setting off again on their winter migration. He said that in any plan for the development of the resources of the vilayet we must take into consideration the fact that it consists of two distinct zones, a northern and a southern section. In the northern section, the country is mountainous and rocky and the soil is poor and it is therefore, not suitable for any large scale agricultural development. It is however, undoubtedly rich in minerals and its hope for the future lies rather in the exploitation of these than in any effort to promote agriculture. The Government were arranging for a detailed geological survey of the whole of this area to be carried out and when this is completed a decision can be made about a possible large scale development. In the meantime the Government has decided to give five year concessions to those with capital who will develop and work small concession areas. Most of these areas have been worked before some from ancient times but have been abandoned because they could not be worked profitably. In these days of comparatively high prices for lead and silver, it is possible that they can be worked again but the present trend of commodity prices is downward and this is not a good omen for small scale mining operations of this nature. The ore produced by these small concession areas will all be sold for shipment to Istanbul where it is refined and sold. The southern section of the vilayet, which contains the plains of Bayburt and Kelkit, is eminently suitable for large scale farming. The main crops at present are wheat and barley with varying quantities of oats and rye depending on the prices ruling at the time. With tractors and harvesting machinery the amount of land under cultivation could be increased as well as the yields. Experiments have shown, the Vali continued, that sugar beet could be grown profitably on this land and he had suggested to the Government that to encourage the farmers to go in for this crop on a large scale, a sugar beet

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factory should be established at Bayburt which could handle sugar beet from as far afield as Erzurum and Kelkit. The Government however, do not appear to have received this suggestion with enthusiasm. A second line of agricultural development which needs no Government intervention and little capital expenditure is the large scale planting of trees, in particular the Canadian type of poplar tree which has recently been introduced into this country. This type of poplar comes to maturity some years before the local variety and its wood is harder and therefore more suitable for making the boxes in which the fruit produced in the Giimughane area is packed. These trees are planted about one metre apart along both banks of a river, stream, or irrigation channel and come to maturity in 20-25 years. It is aimed to persuade the villagers to plant about 11,000 trees per village settlement and to this end propaganda leaflets and sheets illustrating the increase in value over the years to maturity of a poplar tree are hung prominently in public places and young poplar trees grown from shoots in the Government experimental station near Bayburt are distributed free to those who guarantee to plant and tend them. The Vali here, like all the rest I met on my tour, stressed the importance to the economy of new road construction in the vilayet. He spoke with pride of the work that was being done in this direction in the Giimiighane vilayet and this he said was just a beginning. The road from Siran to the juncture with the transit road is to be metalled and stabilised and work has already started on this project. The main road constructional work, however, was on the road along the Hargit river from Torul through Kiirtiin and Har§it and joining up with the coastal road just east of Tirebolu. The section from Torul to Kiirtiin was almost complete and the authorities of the Giresun vilayet have completed the section from the coastal road to Har§it a nahiye head-quarters just inside the Giimu§hane border. The section from Hargit to Kiirtiin was proving the most difficult of all and it was almost unbelievable the amount of rock that had to be blasted. Delays were inevitable under such conditions and the amount of money spent on dynamite was fantastic. The Vali hopes, however, that with a little luck, the earth work, the bridges and the culverts, en route would be completed by the end of 1953. Metalling or stabilising would come later. The Vali also mentioned the projected metalled road from §ebinkarahisar through Alucra, §iran, Kelkit, Bayburt, Ispir, Tortum, Oltu and Gole to the Russian frontier. He thought the Government looked with favour on this three million liras project and he expected the allotment of money to be made and work to be started sometime in 1953. The Vali of Giimti§hane was very cautious in his remarks on political matters, but my visit to the acting Mayor, a census officer appointed temporarily to the post by the Vali, yielded some information on the political atmosphere in the vilayet. In the last general election Democrat Party captured all the seats in the vilayet and in the local elections for the town council in Giimiighane the Democrats again gained the majority of the seats. Despite the Democrat Party's large majority in both these national and local elections in

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the vilayet rifts soon began to appear in the party leadership. These resolved themselves in part into petty squabbles and feuds amongst the Democrat majority on the town council and these made the efficient running of the municipality impossible. Indeed, the Mayor's position finally became untenable and he was forced or persuaded to resign by the Vali who appointed his census officer as Mayor until the members could compose their differences and select a new one. The Vali's nominee is hardly an inspiring personality and for the sake of the town's future it is devoutly to be hoped that the members of the town council will soon come to a modus vivendi amongst themselves and appoint a new Mayor as soon as possible. The Acting Mayor told me that the town council were experiencing great difficulty in paying the interest and capital instalments on the money borrowed from the iller Bank for the construction of the hydroelectric station on the Har§it river which provides the town of Gumu§hane with electricity. The number of subscribers was small and the houses dispersed with the result that the expense of connecting up subscribers and the maintenance of the circuit was usually greater than the money obtained from the sale of current. They would like to take more subscribers from the outlying villages but the expense of connecting them up to the circuit was prohibitive at present. Unless and until they had more subscibers the system was bound to run at a loss, but their resources were not sufficient to connect up new subscribers in the outlying villages where the people were clamouring for electricity. It was difficult at present to see how they could break the vicious circle without borrowing money and with the heavy millstone of debt already round their necks this was not a feasible proposition. After leaving the Mayor I went to see the Director of Education. Villages in this vilayet, unlike those in the Black Sea coastal areas, are a collection of houses close together. This greatly facilitates the provision of school and medical services in the villages and this is shown in the comparatively high percentage of boys and girls in the vilayet within the statutory age limits who attend the primary schools. At 50% this is much higher than any of the Black Sea coastal vilayets other than Trabzon and is an achievement for a poor vilayet like Gumii§hane. There is no Lycée in the vilayet and parents who can afford it send their children to Lycées in other vilayets more especially Trabzon and Erzurum. Despite appeals from the Vali and the people the Government still refuse to establish a Lycée in Giimii§hane on the grounds that there are not sufficient students to justify the expense of such an undertaking. There are intermediate schools, however, in both Gumiighane and Bayburt and the number of village schools is steadily increasing.

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The Vilayets of Erzurum and Kars I left Trabzon on the 20th August on the commencement of my tour in the Erzurum, Kars and A g n vilayets arriving in Erzurum the same evening. After being checked over at the entrance to the town by the secret police I went to see the Chief of Police to enlist his aid in finding accommodation for me in one of the local hotels. On former visits I have always had a constant companion with me from the secret police but this time there was no suggestion of this nature. The next morning I called on the Vali and after being kept waiting in an ante room for over 45 minutes I was shown into the august presence. The Vali was a very dignified looking man with a heavy jaw and I would judge him to be about 47 years old. I naturally wanted to concentrate in our talk together on the Erzurum vilayet and its problems but in the short time I had before the arrival of the Chief of Staff of the 3rd army the Vali talked airily about the international situation and the strategic position of Russia vis a vis the countries of the Free World. The Chief of Staff is an old friend of mine for we were fellow instructors in the War Academy in 1941 and I had met him in 1950 at a cocktail party in Erzurum given by the then Corps commander. He was evidently pleased to meet me again but I could see he wanted to discuss something of importance with the Vali and I decided to take my departure as soon as a favourable opportunity occurred. Before leaving however, as is my usual custom, I asked the Vali's permission to talk with his heads of departments, more especially the departments of education, public works and agriculture and this has always been granted to me without hesitation in all the vilayets I have visited. To my surprise, however, the Vali indicated that it was not possible for a foreign representative to talk with Turkish Government officials and if I wanted any information on the vilayet in the way of education public work and agriculture, I could get it from my Embassy who were in constant touch with the Ministry of Interior. I told the Vali that I had always been given this permission before indeed I numbered many heads of departments in the vilayet amongst my personal friends. However, I did not think it worth while to pursue the matter any further and after wishing both the Chief of Staff and the Vali good-bye I left. I had intended to spend two days in Erzurum talking to Government officials, the Mayor, political leaders and the editors of the two local papers, but with the hostile attitude of the Vali thought it wiser to leave the next morning for Hasan Kale where I planned to stay the night. The rest of the day I spent drinking coffee in the gardens of the Cumhuriyet hotel and visiting the personnel of the three American combat teams in Erzurum, two of whom occupy complete floors in one of the local hotels while the third has taken over a large house in the centre of the town. The personnel of these teams have a very self contained life with their P.X., private cinema shows and other amenities and have little if any, social contact with the Turkish officers with whom they work. The American officers, or at least those who

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take their work seriously are generally angry at the lack of co-operation shown by the Turkish officers, especially the more senior ones, but despite complaints about this to their headquarters in Ankara there is little if any improvement. Just before I left Erzurum the following morning, I was informed by the Police headquarters that an officer from the garrison had been detailed to accompany me for the remainder of my tour. The officer arrived a few minutes later and said he had received instructions from the Chief of Staff of the 3rd Army to accompany me on my tour and help me as much as possible in anything I wanted to do. We spent the night at Hasan Kale as I had planned and proceeded the next morning to Kars. In this town are hot springs which are reputed to be very good for rheumatism, but there are, unfortunately, no amenities to attract a good class clientele. An earthquake struck the town about six months ago and caused many casualties. Large numbers of the population are still living in tents but the Government engineers are in the process of building a village for those whose homes were destroyed in the earthquake and these should be ready for occupation before the severe winter weather commences. Each house costs 3,000 liras and those given possession will have to pay this sum back by instalments over a period of 20 years. I arrived in Kars on the evening of the following day and the police conducted me to what is considered the best hotel in the town and gave instructions f o r a room to be cleaned thoroughly and clean bedclothes provided. A short time afterwards both the Director of the Police and the Director of the Secret Police, an old friend of mine who had just been posted to Kars from Trabzon, came to see if I was comfortably housed. The next morning I went to call on the Vali. Although he had two of the Kars deputies with him he told the doorkeeper to show me straight in, a welcome change from the attitude of the Vali of Erzurum. Indeed, the officials in Kars from the Vali downwards were very kind and co-operative. In place of the suspicion and boorishness of Erzurum here there was a welcome and a desire to help the visitor in any way they could. The Vali of Kars, a pleasant looking man of about 39, by name Niyazi Aka, spoke English very well for he had spent three years in America studying the work of municipalities and town planning. He immediately asked me to come and stay with him in his official residence while I was in Kars. This is, undoubtedly the best official residence in Turkey outside perhaps Ankara and Istanbul. It was built by the Russians for the Governor of Kars when that province was part of the Russian Empire and with its polished parquet flooring and beautiful panelling is a welcome change from the drab uniformity of the average Vali's residence. I had been shown over this house by a former Vali when I visited Kars in 1950 and I accepted the Vali's kind invitation with alacrity. The two Kars deputies soon left and I had the opportunity of a long talk with the Vali about his vilayet and the social and economic problems with which it was faced.

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The Vali started by saying that the first duty of a good administration was to ensure the security of his area and since his appointment he had spent much time on this problem. There are two reasons why this question of security looms large in the administration of the Kars vilayet. In the first place Kars has for generations been the scene of revolution against the Turkish State, sometimes by the Armenians and sometimes by the Kurds and although the expulsion of the Armenians and the resettlement of the Kurds has brought stability and security to the vilayet, the Soviet Government is ready at any time to seize an opportunity to stir up strife by propaganda and infiltration. Secondly the Kars vilayet has a frontier of 450 kilometres with the Soviet Union. It is clear therefore, that in this frontier area even the smallest incident must be guarded against for it may have international complications. At the moment, he continued, security and respect for the law were well established in this once lawless vilayet but he was wide awake to the possibilities of subversive actions from across the border. There were, however, no signs of any such action at present, but if the need arose he knew how to deal with it promptly and effectively. The Vali then passed to the subject of plans for the development of the agricultural resources of his vilayet. We live, he said, in an age when technical progress is rapidly changing the nature of our countryside and the life of our villagers. Tractors are rapidly ploughing up land in central Anatolia which had been permanent grazing f o r generations and turning the area into a fertile wheat belt. The result is that animal husbandry which once formed the principal source of wealth of the villagers of this area is progressively declining in importance and if our meat and dairy products are to be sustained even at a level which will provide for the needs of our people, eastern Anatolia must fill the gap in the supply of animal products that has been caused by the ploughing up policy in central Anatolia. The vilayet of Kars has an important part to play in this increased production of meat and dairy produce in eastern Anatolia. It is ideally suited for such production. Unfortunately, the villagers are ignorant and the cattle are of a poor type, with the result that production is low in relation to the number of cattle kept. Given better stock and improved pastures the number of animals per acre and yield of milk or meat per animal could be greatly increased. To ensure this the Government must encourage rotational crops with its sequence of leys and clover crops; establish insemination centres with good types of bulls by means of which the indigenous yellow strain of cattle can be improved; and provide a more extensive Government service of veterinary officers and their assistants. The Vali then turned to the possibilities of increased agricultural and horticultural production, especially in the south of the vilayet. W e in Kars, he said, are at 6000 ft and as you travel south to Igdir along the frontier road there is a gradual descent to 2000ft. This wide range of height in the vilayet allows the culture of all kinds of crops f r o m cereals to cotton and rice, a large variety of fruit and on the plain of Igdir, given adequate water supplies almost every

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variety of vegetable. Unfortunately the maximum advantage has not been taken of these assets. Here the Vali walked to a map and pointed to the plain of Igdir and its continuation, the plain of Erivan on the Russian side of the border. Although there is no difference between these two areas from the point of view of climate and soil, he said, on the Russian side abundant water supplies from the barrage on the Aras river and Government direction and encouragement of cotton and rice production had made it one of the most prosperous agricultural areas in the Soviet Union. On the Turkish side however, neglect of their frontier areas by Governments in the past and the resultant failure to ensure adequate supplies of water for irrigation purposes has held back the expansion of the area under valuable cash crops like rice and cotton. Indeed, it was only within the last year or so that the Government had begun to tackle seriously the problem of ensuring adequate water supplies for irrigating Igdir plain but he could now say that the present Government were determined to ensure such supplies in some way or other within the next few years. They in Kars would do all in their power to help the Government in this very essential task. Turning to the harvesting of crops, the Vali told me that the Government had come to the aid of farmers in a big way in 1952. In 1951 owing to heavy rains during and prior to the harvesting season there was much delay in harvesting the crop with the result that great losses were suffered by the farmers. This year (1952) the Ministry of Agriculture had sent 7 combined harvesters and 7 tractors and these machines are being sent to the kaza headquarters to help in the 1952 harvesting operations. As a last word on agriculture the Vali dwelt on the subject of Kars as a centre for an university specialising in veterinary science and agriculture. He could think of no other place in the country so suitable as a university centre of this nature as Kars for there was abundant land available for establishing model farms and large numbers of animals on which to experiment. In addition, the farms associated with the university would not only be a means of training students, but might also serve as models to the farmers of the vilayet. He had put these views forward to the Government but he did not know what effect they were likely to have. After this the Vali talked about the road communications system in the vilayet. He said that the vilayet was fortunate in possessing a large network of earth and metalled roads. Up to quite recent years however, the work of road construction, maintenance and repair had to be financed entirely f r o m vilayet f u n d s , which meant that n o new construction and very little repair and maintenance work could be carried out. This policy has now been completely changed. The roads of the country have now been divided into national and vilayet roads, the former being the responsibility of the Government Road Area Organisation in the case of Kars the 10th Road Area Organisation with headquarters in Trabzon. In addition, the Government is now liberal in its allotment of funds for the construction, repair and maintenance of vilayet

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roads. In 1951 the Government only allotted T.L. 250,000 for this purpose in the Kars vilayet, but this year (1952) we have already received T.L. 850,000. This, said the Vali, was a lot of money and he had given great thought to the probem of using it to the best advantage. Cotton production in the plain of Igdir was capable of rapid expansion given an adequate supply of water for irrigation and he had decided to spend a large percentage of this allotment on the vilayet roads in that area to ensure that this valuable crop when produced can be brought cheaply f r o m the centre of production to the market. With regard to the supplies of pure drinking water to the villages, the Vali said, that they had been forced to follow a special policy in this matter. A large percentage of the villages in the vilayet were without a supply of pure drinking water and most of the villagers rather than walk long distances to obtain such supplies place water f r o m the irrigation ditches in large earthenware containers and after allowing the mud to settle, drink it. It is impossible for the inhabitants of a village of this kind to remain healthy. Adequate sanitation is not possible; the irrigation water contains parasites which are taken into the system when the water is drunk; and there is also a grave danger of epidemics. Such villages are being provided with pure water supplies as soon as money and materials are available. Villages with springs or wells come second on the list and supplies here will, if necessary, be improved when essential work in the villages without drinking water is completed. During 1952 pure drinking water was piped to 30 villages in the vilayet which up to that time had been completely without such water. At this point the Vali received a telegram from Ardahan to say that the Minister of Education had just left there and was heading for Kars. He immediately ordered his car and a few minutes later left to meet the Minister. During the remainder of my stay in Kars, the Vali was busy showing the Minister around the town and I had few opportunities to speak with him. That afternoon I went to see the ruins at Am about 50 kilometres due west of Kars. The Vali asked the editor of the Democrat paper Ekinci to act as our guide and he agreed to come with us. Unfortunately, he neither knew the road to the ruins or anything about them when we arrived there. However, he was an amusing character who enlivened the journey with his anecdotes. He had recently resigned from the position of President of the Kars vilayet committee of the Democrat Party, the result of disagreement in the higher direction of the party in his vilayet. However, he indulged in no bitterness or recriminations, but he confessed that here in Kars, as in so many other vilayets in eastern Anatolia, the Democrat Party was rent by endless squabbles and feuds amongst those striving for power and influence in the party. He was of the opinion that unless they could find some way of avoiding these recurring feuds and dissensions their influence in the country was almost certain to be affected. On arrival at the village of Qah which lies a short distance to the west of the ruins of Am we stopped at the headquarters of the infantry company

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guarding the frontier in this area. The captain in charge appeared to be about 46 years old and had just received the glad tidings that he had been promoted to Major and was being posted to Istanbul. He had been in £ah for nearly three years. His senses must have been dulled by the long period spent amongst the remains of former civilisations for he showed no enthusiasm at his double dose of good news. His second in command, a lieutenant, volunteered to show us around the ruins but he confessed that despite his two years at the post he knew little if anything about the history of the place. He did, however, show me a pamphlet in Turkish which described the ruins and their history but I had no time to read it before we set off for Am. I wanted to take this pamphlet back with me to Kars and make a copy of it so that I could compare the Turkish account with that of Lynch's Armenia, but it is the only one they had. I therefore know no more about the history of Am than I did before I visited the ruins, but there was much to interest me in the frontier with Russia at this point. The Arpa £ay which forms the frontier here winds and twists in a deep ravine and there were no visible obstacles on either side to prevent anyone escaping across the river frontier. The lieutenant told me that the Russians had a barbed wire fence running parallel to the frontier but behind the brow of the hill and therefore not visible from the Turkish side. Apart from frontier guards only herdsmen tending their flocks and agricultural workers, mostly women, were allowed to go beyond the frontier frances. The people of the village of Harkhof which lies inside the frontier fence and opposite the ruins of Am were said to have special passes to allow them to pass the frontier guards on their way to and from work. I could only see one Turkish frontier post from these ruins but I was told that they were spaced every four kilometres along the length of the Arpa £ay. I could see no Russian frontier post and I was told that they were all placed behind the brow of the hill and therefore not visible from the Turkish side of frontier. Russian frontier guards do not patrol along the line of the frontier, that is the Arpa £ay, in the daytime, but they are said to patrol day and night along the barbed wire fence. Some night, however, Russian guards become quite active along the river bank. I watched the Russian village of Harkhof through field glasses for some considerable time but I could see no movement in the streets or outside the houses. I was told that every morning the men of the village are taken by lorry to their work in the factories and the women to work in the fields and when they return about 17.30 hours the village becomes a hive of activity. The women working in the fields are said to do so under the supervision of armed guards but with the one group of women I observed working in the fields there was no sign of any armed guard. Where armed guards are employed with working parties in these frontier areas I imagine that they are not there to supervise the work being done but to ensure that no one attempts to escape across the frontier. On the Turkish side the frontier line is patrolled continuously throughout the twenty four hours. The procedure for patrols is as follows: On the return to the post from patrol of a frontier guard -

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the next detail sets out to walk along the frontier line in the direction of one or other of the two neighbouring posts and continues walking until he meets the frontier guard coming from the opposite post. Here they give the password and sign each others guard duty book as a check to see that patrols are carried out correctly. Any person trying to cross the frontier would be shot from whichever side he came. The captain in charge of this area of the frontier told me that he had no record of any Russian having succeeded in getting safely across the frontier in his area and as far as he knew the same applied to the Turks. By agreement with the Russians photography of any kind is forbidden on the frontier line and although it is permissible for field glasses to be used to observe activities on the other side of the frontier, the person doing so must not point out or indicate in any way any particular feature in the territory of the other side. While I was looking through field glasses at the Russian frontier village of Harkhof I forgot this stricture and indicated some women working in the field to the Turkish lieutenant who accompanied us to A m . I apologised profusely and asked him whether he would now receive a protest f r o m the Russians about my contravention of the regulations. He said that they were continually receiving protests f r o m the Russians about such incidents but as their protests to the Russians were invariably automatically rejected whether the substance of the complaints were true or not, they had come to adopt the same attitude themselves. He had indeed, ceased to care whether the Russians protested or not, although he would not of course, say that publicly. In Kars the next day I had long talks with the Directors of Public Works, Education, Police, Health and Education. The information they gave me was mainly technical and I am not including their comments in this report. I spent three days in Kars after which I headed south for Kagizman, Tuzluca and Igdir. Kagizman is perched on a hilltop some six kilometres off the main road to Tuzluca and Igdir, but I was anxious to see the town again and in any case the Vali had rung up the Kaymakam and told him I would be coming to see him. It was about midday when I arrived outside the kaza headquarters in Kagizman and the Kaymakam took me straight away to the Mayor's parlour where a nice lunch had been prepared for us. The town of Kagizman is the headquarters of the kaza of that name and has a population of about 5,000. There is no electricity but water is piped to the town from springs in the nearby mountains. The town is surrounded by fruit gardens in which apples, pears, apricots and plums are grown. More than 70% of the trees are apple. These trees are, however, of ancient vintage and should have been replaced by new type many years ago but the growers hesitate to spend the money necessary to carry out comprehensive schemes of replacement. This despite the knowledge that such a policy would amply repay the effort and expense involved in the changeover, after the lapse of a few years. The present ancient specimens are disease ridden and for the last two years no crop of any size has been obtained. The growers are consequently in a bad way financially.

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As for the kaza itself the main source of wealth is from animal husbandry and ka§er cheese and a white type of cheese are exported. Wheat and barley are the main agricultural crops and some attempt is made to grow clover leys for the cattle. From Kagizman the road follows the river Aras closely until beyond Tuzluca. I called on the Kaymakam there but he had left word to say that he had gone to Dogubayazit in company of the Vali and the Minister of Education. I arrived in Igdir at dusk and the police helped me to get a room in the best hotel in the town. Even so it was one of the dirtiest hotels I have ever had the misfortune to encounter in eastern Anatolia. I stayed in Igdir three days and visited frontier posts and villages in company with the Kaymakam who entertained me right royally and was very pleased that I took an interest in the plans for expanding agricultural production in his kaza. The first frontier post I visited was the one at Karakale, some 16 kilometres from Igdir on the road to Tuzluca. Here the road on the Turkish side comes right up to the bank of the river Aras and the Russian and Turkish posts face each other across the far from wide river. The bridge here is intact and Russian and Turkish guards stand sentry at each end. T w o massive screens about two metres apart run across the centre of the bridge, one built by the Russians and the other by the Turks. If one side wants to talk with the other or deliver a protest, a whistle is blown and the doors of the massive screen are unlocked and an officer from each side with an interpreter meet in the no man's land in the centre of the bridge. When the parley is over and the note has been delivered the officers retire to their respective sides and the doors are once again firmly locked. In a room in the Turkish post overlooking the river is a very fine graduated telescope used by the commander of the post and his staff to observe the activities of the Russians across the river. They told me that the Russian women at the post often bathe in the nude in the river to the amazement and amusement of the Turks. The Russian sentries, however, hardly bother to look up and watch the proceedings. About 200 metre up stream from the post is a barrage built in two halves one on the Turkish side of the river and the other on the Russian. The barrage on the Russian side has been in operation since 1937 but that on the Turkish side has never been used although a tunnel about 300 metres long has been constructed through a hill on the side of the river and on its emergence the tunnel is replaced by a concrete channel running for about one and a half kilometres. The Turks were very vague about the agreement with the Russians, but as far as I could gather the Russians completed both sides of the barrage in 1937 but when the time came to pay their part of the cost the Turks began haggling about the price and the opportunity to buy at a price which would be considered cheap today passed. The argument was unresolved in 1939 when the Second World War broke out and when this ended in 1945 the Turks offered the Russians a much bigger price than that they had haggled about six years earlier, but it was now the turn of the Russians to be difficult. In recent years the Russians have given no reply to repeated Turkish offers to buy their part of the barrage for

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dollars and it is difficult to see what the Turks can do about it. There the matter stands today and the barrage which could, in operation, bring prosperity to the Igdir plain stands idle and deserted. I asked the Kaymakam why since the Russians refused their offers of payment, the Turkish Government did not start using the barrage on their side of the river. He said that such action would be contrary to the agreement signed with Russia and in any case, although the barrage they coveted was on their side of the river it was like the one on the Russian side of the river, constructed with Russian labour, materials and money and to use it without payment would amount to confiscation. Such action might have unpleasant reactions for Turkey. The Kaymakam said his Government was determined to settle the question of irrigation for the Igdir plan in the next few years, either by coming to an arrangement with Russia for the use of the barrage or by finding some other source or sources of essential water supplies. Machinery for digging artesian wells had arrived and the possibility of obtaining water from such wells in the Igdir kaza was being investigated. The Kaymakam said it was too early yet to judge the prospects of success in this direction but preliminary results had been encouraging. The water from artesian wells could be supplemented, if necessary, by water from the Balik Lake located in the mountains some 20 kilometres south west of Igdir. The other post I visited on this section of the frontier with Russia was at Markara which lies on the river Aras some 16 kilometres north east of Igdir. One of the culverts on the road had collapsed and we had to make a long detour over village tracks to get to our objective. The bridge across the river here was blown up accidentally in 1947. Lightning apparently struck the bridge and ignited the explosive charge put there by the Turks to ensure quick destruction in the event of hostilities. There is little likelihood of it being repaired until there is a lessening of tension between the Turkish and Russian Governments. Opposite the Turkish post at Markara and extending some distance up and down the river bank the Russians have put up a high fence of brushwood and coconut matting ostensibly to conceal their movements from the Turks. The Turks have done the same on their side of the river but only in front of their post. It was here I first heard the news that General Ridgway and F. M. Montgomery would be visiting the frontier posts in this area in the very near future. Life must be very lonely for officers in these frontier posts for the work is monotonous and there are no distractions. The commander of the post at Markara was a married man and he had his family with him. The commander at Karakale was a bachelor and he confessed to me that he was glad his time at the post was drawing to a close. The Kaymakam of Igdir who took up the appointment some eight months ago is a progressive and energetic type. He deplored the attitude of successive former Governments who made no effort to develop the great resources of these frontier kazas on the ground that the Russians may invade the country at any time and any development work carried out would then be

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wasted. He pointed out that Turkey and Russia had been fighting on and off for over a century and yet Turkey occupied almost the same territory today as she did a century ago. Such a policy he said, was futile and suicidal and he was pleased to say that the present Government had completely reversed it. His kaza and especially the Igdir plain, had great potentialities as a cotton growing area provided there were ample supplies of water for irrigation. This plain was being carefully mapped to facilitate the implementation of development plans; a hydroelectric plant was to be built on a tributary of the Aras river some twenty seven miles west of the town; a strong earth bund was being built to prevent the flood water from the Aras river inundating the surrounding good agricultural land; and the Government intends to bring under cultivation the tongue of land where the Russian, Turkish and Iranian frontiers meet and which had been neglected for centuries. One and a half million liras are being spent on the development of road communicatios and three and a half million liras on the development of the agricultural side of the project in this area. Cotton and rice will be the main crops grown but fruit, especially apples and apricots will also be cultivated on a large scale. Other establishments will include a station for the production of good strains of pure seeds and a model dairy farm and artificial insemination centre. Even if only a part of these ambitious plans can be implemented the town and kaza of Igdir are assured of a bright future. While I was in Igdir I met the president of the commission enquiring into the possibilities of resettling a number of Turkish refugees from Bulgaria in the Kars vilayet. He was not very sanguine about the possibility of settling a large number of these refugees on land in the northern part of the vilayet but he thought there were better prospects in the south, especially in the Igdir plain, when adequate supplies of water are available. In the wheat and barley growing areas in the north of the vilayet, with its long severe winter, the president thought that a settler would need at least 220 hectares (55 acres) of land to assure a reasonable living for himself and his family, but in the cotton growing areas of the Igdir plain this could be reduced to 75 hectares. He admitted that the commission was experiencing great difficulty in finding sufficient suitable land to resettle even the 40,000 refugees who had already crossed into Turkey from Bulgaria and he was glad that the flow of refugees had now slowed down. In addition to the land allotted to these settlers, they will each be given a small house, essential tools and a cash advance with which to buy seed and food grains to tide them over the first season. The cash advance together with the cost of the house have to be paid back by instalments over a twenty year period.

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The Serdarabad Dam To the British Embassy, Ankara, 21st July 1953 Thank you for sending me a copy of your report reference number 1423/3/53 of June 17th to the Western and Southern Department on the Serdarabad barrage near Igdir. I visited this barrage in July 1952 despite an attempt by the authorities in Ankara to forbid my journeying along the Kars Kagizman - Igdir road and I described the barrage and the irrigation works on the Turkish side and the attitude of the Turkish officials to its use. At that time the Turks seemed to have abandoned any hope of the Russians coming to terms with them on the use of this barrage and were exploring every avenue in the search for alternative sources of supplies of irrigation water for the Igdir plain. The main endeavour was in the field of artesian water supplies. Reports by geologists had indicated that artesian wells might be found in the Igdir plain itself, equipment for digging such wells had already arrived in the area and operations had commenced sometime before my arrival. I have heard recently from a reliable source that a number of wells have been discovered and that operations are still continuing. It is even suggested in some quarters that there is sufficient artesian water in this area not only to meet the needs of the present day cropping but to cope with any possible expansion likely to materialise in the next few years. If this source of irrigation water should prove insufficient for the area under crops Turkish engineers are confident that it can be supplemented without excessive expenditure of labour and materials from the waters of Lake Balik which lies in the hills some 20 kilometres south west of Igdir. Although at that time the intransigence of the Russians in the matter of the use of the Serdarabad dam was the main cause of the intensive search for alternative sources of supply of irrigation water to that of the Aras river, the Turks were motivated by other reasons as well. Turkish officials have always disliked and distrusted the Russians and they do not look with favour on the idea of their depending on a Russian built barrage to provide irrigation water for an important agricultural area like the Igdir plain. They were convinced that even if an agreement were arrived at on the use of the barrage by both sides that there would be endless frustration and bickering when the agreement came to be implemented. In addition, the Turks know that the irrigation works on their side linking the barrage with the Igdir plain are quite inadequate to deal with the volume of water from the barrage when the sluice gates are opened. Indeed, on the few occasions in the early thirties when it was tried, the water quickly over flowed the irrigation ditches and flooded the surrounding fields doing much damage to the crops. Much capital expenditure would, indeed, be needed today to repair and extend the irrigation system on the Turkish side. This was built at a cost of half a million liras in 1932 and apart from a few singularly unsuccessful tests was never brought into operation. This expenditure would, of course, be in addition to any sum paid for the use of the barrage itself.

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Now that the Russians are prepared to come to an agreement with the Turks on the use of the barrage for the payment of 400,000 dollars, the Turks may decide to forget their dislike of working with the Russians and being dependent on their barrage, and accept their offer with its attendant large scale expenditure on irrigation works. Alternatively they may concentrate all their available money on the provision of artesian water and in linking the wells with the area to be irrigated. The Turks being what they are, are likely to try to get the best of both worlds, that is to accept the Russian offer for the use of the barrage and at the same time continue the search for and development of artesian water. Provided financial resources are sufficient to cover the efficient prosecution of both projects this is perhaps good policy, for a good reserve supply of artesian water available for use in irrigation in an emergency is bound to increase the bargaining power of the Turks in any difficulties that may arise with the Russian over the use of the barrage. * *

*

To the British Embassy, Ankara, 10th November 1953 Thank you for your letter 1423/8/53 of 29th October 1953. Although, as I shall attempt to show later, there are other solid reasons for my statement that the Turks haggled for many years over the price to be paid for the barrage, I based it primarily on a conversation I had in July 1952 with the Kaymakam of Igdir while we were inspecting the barrage at Serderabad and the irrigation works on the Turkish side. As you know these consist of a 300 metre long concrete tunnel leading from the sluice gate at the barrage through a small hill on the river bank into a wide concrete channel. I was told that this concrete channel was about 3 kilometres iong, but I cannot vouch for the accuracy of this statement. It certainly links up with the irrigation system for the Igdir plain which has been in existence for generations. The Kaymakam said that the tunnel and concrete channel had been built at a cost of half a million liras between 1929 and 1931 that is, while the Russians were building the barrage itself. The Kaymakam deplored the fact that, apart from a few unsuccessful tests in the early thirties, these expensive irrigation works had never been put into operation. It was clear now, he said, that much of the blame f o r this deplorable state of affairs, at least up to the commencement of the 2nd World War, could be laid on the shoulders of those on the Turkish side who had the task of negotiating an agreement with the Russians on the use of the barrage. They had for the most part, little sympathy with development plans in areas bordering on Russia, especially if such plans were likely to entail any large capital expenditure which could, in their opinion, be used to more advantage

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in less vulnerable areas of Turkey. Such an attitude, the Kaymakam continued, inevitably led to hard bargaining tactics in the negotiations with the Russians on the money to be paid for the use of the barrage and could hardly be conducive to a quick settlement. Indeed, no agreement had been arrived at when the outbreak of war put an end to negotiations and they had not been resumed since, despite the fact that it was well known that the Turkish Government was now (July 1952) prepared to pay a great deal more for the privilege of using the barrage than in the early negotiations. I will endeavour to explain why I think the Kaymakam's opinion is likely to be more in accordance with the facts than that of the head of the Second Department in the Turkish Foreign Office. Memories are short and negotiations associated with the construction and use of this barrage happened many years ago. It was early in 1927 that the Turkish and Russian representatives signed a convention governing the use of the waters, rivers, streams, etc., on the borders of Turkey and the Soviet Union. Appended to this convention was a protocol, which accorded to the Russian Government the right to build a barrage on the Aras river at Serdarabad within a distance of 750 metres upstream from the Karakale bridge. The cost of construction was to be borne by the Russian Government, but the latter granted to the Turks the right to draw off, by means of a canal to be constructed later, up to 50% of the water from the barrage for the purpose of irrigating the plain of Igdir. The Turkish Government f o r their part undertook to share the construction expenses of the barrage in the proportion of the amount of water used and of the economic benefit resulting to the two parties from the barrage. The Turks also reserved the right to benefit from the barrage when they wished subject to the payment of the expenses as laid down above, the date for the payment of the expenses to be fixed by the two Governments. To safeguard the existing irrigation system on the Turkish side until benefit could be obtained from the new barrage, the protocol laid down that the Russians, in constructing the barrage, must take steps to see that this system obtained the same amount of water as it did before the barrage was constructed. The convention and protocol were duly signed and ratified by both sides; the barrage was built by the Russians who also built a wide concrete channel on their side leading to the plain of Erivan; and the Turks on their side constructed the tunnel and the cement channel which I have already described. When the barrage was completed tests showed that the irrigation system on the Turkish side was inadequate to deal with the flow of water from the barrage when the sluice gates were open and this led to flooding and damage to crops. This meant that before the water f r o m the barrage could be used with safety and benefit on the Turkish side, in addition to the payment for the use of the barrage and the expenditure incurred on the tunnel and concrete channel, the Turks would have to find further large sums of money for deepening and widening the existing canals and ditches and in expanding the system to accommodate the increased volume of water now available.

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The Turks at that time had many cogent reasons for avoiding a large expenditure on an irrigation project in this frontier area. Firstly, the irrigation system in use at that time and indeed still in use today, provided sufficient irrigation water for the then cropping programme on the Igdir plain and no one at that time realised the agricultural potentialities of this area. Indeed it was only just before the 2nd World War, when they saw the once poor and underdeveloped plain of Erivan converted, by the use of the abundant irrigation water from the Serdarabad barrage, into one of the richest and most prosperous agricultural areas in the Soviet Union, with abundant crops of cotton and rice, that the Turks began to realise what could be done on their side of the frontier given adequate water supplies from that barrage. Secondly in 1932 and even up to quite recent times Turkish leaders and administrators were against spending any large sums of money on the development of areas closely bordering on Russian territory because such areas could not be defended and would be quickly overrun in the event of hostilities with that country. The Turks now realise that such a policy is at best short sighted and recent Turkish Governments have allotted funds for agricultural and other developments in these frontier areas on the same scale as in other parts of the country, Thirdly, Turkish negotiators then, as today, feared and mistrusted the Russians and their motives and in addition to being doubtful of the benefits to be derived from the barrage, were not convinced that if the agreement were signed and the capital payment made, the Russians would cooperate wholeheartedly with them to make it work. Russia, on the other hand had everything to gain and nothing to lose in 1932 by coming to a quick agreement with the Turks in the use of the barrage. In accordance with the 1927 protocol this barrage had been constructed in two distinct halves, one on the Russian side and the other on the Turkish. The irrigation water available to the Russians, therefore, would differ little whether the Turks used their side of the barrage or not, so there was no economic advantage for the Russians in putting obstacles in the way of its use by the Turks, provided the latter paid for the privilege in accordance with the terms of the protocol to the 1927 convention. Again, the Russians had spent a considerable amount of money in constructing this barrage at Serdarabad at a time (1929-1932) when capital in Russia, as in other parts of the world, was in short supply. A capital payment by the Turks for the use of the barrage on their side of the river would certainly have been very welcome to the Russians at the time for it would have enabled them to recoup some of their expenditure without diminishing in any way the supply of water available for use in the irrigation projects on their side. There is, indeed, little doubt that up to the outbreak of the 2nd World War, the main reason for Turkey's non participation in the use of the waters of the Serdarabad dam was her failure to make an offer of payment in conformity with the terms of the protocol to the 1927 convention and Russia's legitimate refusal to consider any less advantageous terms. In short, the Russians were not prepared to accept the Turkish plea for

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concessions in the matter of capital payment for use of the barrage because the cost of constructing a suitable irrigation system on their side of the river was much greater than anticipated when the 1927 convention and protocol were signed. T o sum up, I think we can say that the Russians were anxious to come to an agreement with the Turks on the latter's use of the barrage even up to the outbreak of the 2nd World War, but were not prepared to make the concessions asked by the Turks in the matter of the capital payment as laid down in the 1927 Convention and protocol. A f t e r the War however, the positions were reversed. By that time abundant supplies of irrigation water from the Serdarabad dam had converted the underdeveloped sparsely populated plain of Erivan into a rich and fertile agricultural area, with crops of rice and cotton. The Turks who up to that time had not realised the immense advantages to be gained from the use of the barrage, now began to press for the implementation of the terms of the 1927 protocol and to make plans for similar developments in the plain of Igdir. The Russians, however, for political and other reasons no longer desired an agreement with Turkey in this matter and studiously ignored offers made by that Government, although by all accounts they were far more realistic than those put forward in negotiations before the War. This condition of stalemate continued until the death of Stalin and the emergence of new leaders in Russia made the resumption of negotiations possible.

TOUR IN THE VILAYET OF SAMSUN 30th June - 4th July 1953 Tours in my consular area west of Trabzon require no permission from the authorities in Ankara and for my tour in the Samsun vilayet I merely had to give a copy of my proposed itinerary to the Vali before departure. The beginning of my tour coincided with the return of the Ambassador to Ankara after his short tour in the Erzurum, Trabzon and Rize vilayets. His route was by road to Samsun via Giresun and Ordu and thence by air to Ankara and I accompanied him on the road journey to Samsun. We stayed the night of 29/30 June in Ordu and starting off before 07.00 hours the next morning, arrived at Samsun just before midday. After calling on the Vali we had lunch at one of the local restaurants and at 14.30 hours the Ambassador left by air for Ankara. I had arranged an interview with the Vali for the next day so I spent the remainder of the 30th June walking and riding round the town. Samsun, a town of 43,000 inhabitants, lies on the west shore of the open bay between the Ye§il Irmak delta and the steep spurs of the coastal range behind Kalyon point. In addition to the coastal road which runs to Sinope on the west and to the Russian frontier on the east and the narrow gauge railway to £ar§amba, Samsun is linked to the interior by a road and rail over the Kavak pass. It is, therefore, the natural outlet for the trade of the comparatively densely populated Amasya, Tokat and Erbaa areas and although the construction of the railway linking Ankara and Sivas with eastern Turkey has lessened the importance of Samsun as an outlet for the trade of the central plateau and the eastern provinces, there is still a sizeable flow of goods to the port from the Sivas, Kayseri and Yozgat areas. The town is growing rapidly and modern apartment houses, shops and stores are being put up at great speed to meet the needs of a developing economy. Old houses are also being repaired and modified to conform with more modern standards. Two of the main streets have been asphalted and plans are being made to extend this to most of the other main streets of the town. No attempt, however, seems to have been made to control or plan the large scale building development now taking place and the Town Council must take action quickly if the town of Samsun is not to grow in ugliness and to suffer the disabilities of the many large centres in Turkey which have been allowed to expand in a similar haphazard fashion. The shoreline too, as every Samsun citizen will admit, is not only an eyesore, but with the open drains traversing it, a menace to the health of the inhabitants. When I returned to the hotel the Manager asked me if I would like to talk with the boatman who brought Mustafa Kemal Pasha ashore at Samsun on May 7th 1919 when he landed there on his way to take over his duties of inspector of the 9th Army. I was very interested indeed, to meet the man and

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we had a long talk together about the events of those stirring days some 34 years ago. He described how he and a party of boatmen awaited with eagerness the arrival of the Bandirma the small mail boat on which the Pasha and his staff were making the journey to Samsun. When the Bandirma anchored in the bay, he took his boat out, in company with many others and in a stiff swell took aboard the Pasha, who was in civilian clothes and accompanied by six staff officers. Neither the Mutasarrif (in those days Samsun was a Mutasarriflik under the vilayet of Trabzon) nor the Mayor of the town were there to greet the great man and he and his party went in silence to an hotel near by. As the boat approached the jetty, three British torpedo boats passed on the skyline and Mustafa Pasha said quietly "I wonder are they looking for me". The boatman said that he at once realised from this that Mustafa Pasha had not really come to Samsun to take over the inspectorship of the 9th Army but for some very much higher purpose. After two days, he continued, Mustafa Pasha left for Kavak and Havza where he learnt that a price had been put on his head by the Sultan and the occupying Powers in Istanbul. His progress from there to Ankara and the commencement of the War of Independence was a matter of history. Twice again before his death, the boatman said he had the honour of bringing Atatiirk ashore in his boat and now that his revered leader is dead, each year on May 7th the anniversary of his historical landing in 1919, he carries a large bust of him ashore on his shoulders. The next morning at ... .00 hours I called on the Vali Cemal Ding, who had only taken up his duties as Vali of Samsun some two months before. A short biography of the Vali is given in Appendix A. He was very kind and co-operative and went out of his way to help me in any way he could during my stay in the vilayet. I had no difficulty in obtaining his permission to talk with the heads of departments in the vilayet headquarters and he talked at length with me about the vilayet and its problems. He first touched upon the roads now being constructed and maintained by the vilayet authorities, the so called vilayet roads to distinguish them from the main roads which are the responsibility of the Central Government. They were busily engaged, he said, (he talked about the mobilisation of their energies) on the work of constructing 1000 kilometres of these roads connecting adjacent villages together and these villages in turn with the nahiye and kaza headquarters. The villagers, he continued, realised the importance of communications both in their village areas and beyond and with few exceptions they joined with enthusiasm in the work on the roads passing through their village areas, although it was unpaid and quite voluntary. (Actually the word voluntary cannot strictly be applied to this work, for whether the villagers show enthusiasm or not, they cannot refuse to do it without risking a large fine and even imprisonment if they persist in their recalcitrance. It is seldom however, that disciplinary measures of this kind have to be taken, for the Turkish peasant is not one to rebel against

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authority). The Ministry of Works Representative in the vilayet, who is responsible for organising and supervising the work on these vilayet roads, has in the last few years, been greatly assisted in his task by the provision by the Government of mechanised equipment, including graders, bulldozers, compressors and lorries. In addition to the construction of new vilayet roads, they were also engaged in repairing the large number of these roads which had become impassable through long years of neglect. During 1953 they hoped to level and grade 200 kilometres of these roads, thus enabling them to be used at least in the summer months and to stabilise a further 100 kilometres which would permit of wheeled traffic throughout the year. The annual amount allotted by the Government for the construction and maintenance of vilayet roads had increased greatly in the last three years, the Vali continued and he compared the rather meagre sum of 120,000 liras allotted in 1950 with the 800,000 given for this purpose in 1953. Such a massive increase in the funds allotted by the Government for the construction and maintenance of vilayet roads, a policy which appears to be nation wide in its scope, does give an indication of the importance attached by the Government to the improvement of the economic lot of the peasant. T u r n i n g to agriculture, the Vali dwelt on Samsun's excessive dependence on a single crop, tobacco, and the possibly disastrous economic effects of such a dependence in times of low world prices for this commodity. Many of the growers knew from experience that this is no idle threat and but for the fact that the Tobacco Monopoly, backed by the Government, now intervenes in times of low world prices and buys all the tobacco produced at a price which allows them a reasonable profit they might be persuaded to get rid of this unhealthy dependence on tobacco by adopting a more varied cropping policy. The alternatives which have been suggested are sugar beet, cotton, sesame and sunflower, one or two of which can be grown with tobacco in a rotational system. Sugar beet is of course, an ideal crop for a rotation, for the regulations lay down that it can only be grown on the same ground once every four years, but, unfortunately, as far as the southern predominantly tobacco growing kazas of Samsun, Bafra and Ala?am are concerned, the sugar beet factory at Turhal and even the new one to be completed in 1954 and situated between Havza and Amasya are much too distant for sugar beet to be grown at a profit in these kazas. It could be seen now, continued the Vali, that to persuade the growers to adopt a more varied cropping policy was likely to be a long term affair and although this was undoubtedly the ideal solution, something had to be done now to preserve the reputation for quality of the Samsun tobacco. To do this, his agricultural staff were doing their best to maintain a strict control on the strain tobacco used; on the methods of cultivation; and on the picking and drying of the crop. This was not an easy task, said the Vali, but they were determined to do their best to carry it out.

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In conclusion, the Vali touched on the forthcoming port constructional work at Samsun. He said that although the contract for the work had long since been given to the R.A.R. (Tiirk) Company, who would be working in collaboration with two German firms, operations had not yet started, (July 1953) and indeed could not start on any scale until Trabzon finished with the quarry and other equipment in use there and despatched them to Samsun. This was not likely to take place until April or May 1954. A final decision too had not yet been made on the quarry site, although a site just off the railway to Kavak about 11 kilometres f r o m Samsun had been provisionally chosen. Borings were continuing there to see if the stone was present in sufficient quantity for this immense undertaking and of suitable quality too. T h e Government were extremely anxious to get the work started before the General Election in 1954. From the Vali I went to visit the Director of Education. A graduate of the University of Istanbul, he had started his career as a teacher in the Lycée and after serving as headmaster for many years, was appointed Director of Education in Samsun. Facilities for both primary and secondary education in the vilayet, he said, were woefully inadequate to meet the needs of the people and although they could do little at present about secondary education, he was hoping to complete ten village schools and staff them by the end of this year. With only 361 out of 747 villages at present provided with primary schools, it must be many years at a building rate of ten schools a year, before their aim of 100% literacy is attained in the Samsun vilayet, but they were hoping that grants would be provided for this purpose in the coming years. The position as regards primary education in the towns is much better than in the villages and he was pleased to say that upwards of 80% of the town children attended school regularly. In Samsun itself, the Director of Education continued, they had a Lycée, a school of commerce, a girls' technical school, (day and evening classes), a boys' technical school, an intermediate school (Orta Okul) and fourteen elementary schools. There were intermediate schools in the kaza headquarters towns of Alaçam, Bafra, Çar§amba, Ladik, Vezirkòprii, Havza, Kavak and Terme together with fifteen elementary schools. In addition to an intermediate school (Orta Okul) Ladik had a village institute where village boys were trained as teachers for village schools. I passed from the Director of Education to the office of the Director of Agriculture. He was not in his office but his deputy talked at length about the agricultural situation in the vilayet. Almost 80% of the people of the Samsun vilayet, he said, are engaged in agriculture and a much greater number could be supported on the available land if the fertile deltas of the Kizil and Ye§il Irmak were used to better advantage. These two deltas comprise an area 1 V2 million doniims (a doniim is a little less than an acre) of very fertile land and if the whole area were properly drained the money spent on this work could be repaid in 3-4 years from the abundant crops obtainable from the reclaimed land. The Director then passed to the agricultural crops of the vilayet and gave me the following details of agricultural production in 1952.

THE Crop Peas and Beans Grain

VILAYET Weight 4,800 2 5 11,000 ,000

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16,500

Sugar Beet

50,000

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Wheat and barley predominate in the kazas of Ladik, Havza, and Vezirköprü. India Corn in ('arjamba and Terme. Is almost the sole crop in the kazas of Samsun, Bafra and Ala§am. A much smaller quantity is also grown in the kaza of Vezirkoprii. For most part in Ladik, Havza and Vezirkoprii. Practically all grown in Terme.

Taking these crops in detail, the Director first dealt with grain. He thought that 1954 would see a 17% increase in wheat and barley production in the vilayet, but the maize crop, which was grown largely in the delta of the Kizil Irmak around £ar§amba, was likely to be poor. This was certain to be a serious blow to the villagers of the coastal vilayets further east, whose staple food was maize bread and whose production of maize was often less than 40% of their needs, for their shortfall in production is made up by imports for Car^amba. Wheat of which there is a large surplus can be imported instead of maize but this would not be very popular with the villagers even if sold at the same price as maize. 1 The Director next dealt with tobacco, sugar beet and rice. Like the Vali he deplored the excessive dependence on the tobacco crop by the peasants in the three most densely populated kazas in the vilayet, namely the central kaza of Samsun and neighbouring kazas of Bafra and A1 again and pointed out the possibly serious economic consequences of such an unbalanced economy in times of falling prices for the commodity. The production of tobacco in these kazas has increased greatly in recent years, but as usually happens when tobacco production is increased without adequate safeguards, relatively larger amounts of tobacco of poor quality were being produced, which were a glut on the market and in general had to be bought by the Tobacco Monopoly at the minimum price laid down by the Government. This minimum price gives the grower a margin of profit on his crop however poor the quality and not only puts a premium on inefficiency, but encourages the production of tobacco in places where the soil and climate may not be ideally suited to it. The Director of Agriculture was in favour of limiting tobacco production by law to those areas where the soil and climate were especially suitable and to the provision of selected tobacco seed to the growers in these areas at low prices. Advice from experts was available to the growers on the cultivation, picking and drying of tobacco and a combination of good soil and climate, a well tried strain of tobacco and adequate cultivation should produce a first class product, readily sold at good prices. ' i t is now the settled policy of the Government to woo the peasants of the Black Sea coastal vilayets from maize bread to wheat bread by offering them only restricted supplies of maize at low price (20 kuru§) but as much as they want of wheat at same price.

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In those areas where tobacco is now grown but where it would be forbidden under the proposed new rules, the tobacco growers will, of necessity, have to experiment with other crops and this will not only reduce the vilayet's dependence on tobacco but limit the production of poor quality leaf which is seriously harming the reputation of Samsun tobacco in world markets. Reduced quantity but high quality must be the motto for tobacco growing in the Samsun vilayet, for any other course means their gradual elimination from the highly competitive world market. A s regards sugar beet, the Director of Agriculture thought that the opening of the new sugar beet factory at Salucu, a station on the railway line between Havza and Amasya, would result in greatly increased beet cropping in the southern kazas of Ladik, Havza, Kavak and Vezirkopru. The shorter distances to the new factory compared to the existing one at Turhal should result in increased profits to the growers and increased prosperity throughout the area. After being forbidden for over 2 4 years owing to the menace of malaria, rice growing started again in the Terme kaza in 1951, and in 1952 the rice grown there accounted for much the greater part of the 3,800 tons produced in the whole vilayet. The clearing and cleaning of the beds of the Terme and Milie rivers to prevent flooding; the medical treatment for sufferers from Malaria; and the control of mosquitoes and mosquito breeding grounds by D.D.T. have resulted in the incidence of malaria being greatly decreased in this kaza. (See description of the Terme kaza). The Director then spoke about the great work being done in the vilayet in improving the quality of the seed (especially maize which as bread is the staple food of the villagers for the whole of the Black Sea coast) and its distribution and sale cheaply to the growers; in expanding the activities of the Vilayet Pest Control Organisation; and in improving the quality of the local cattle. As regards seed, there are two important stations situated just outside Samsun (on the Samsun-£ar§amba road) whose services to Turkish agriculture extend far beyond the frontier of the Samsun vilayet. The more important of them is, of course, the Seed Improvement Experimental Station where new improved types of seed, developed locally and imported from abroad, are tested. Seeds found suitable for use in Turkey and more especially in the Black Sea coastal vilayets, are produced by the neighbouring Seed Propagation Station in sufficient quantities for the needs of the growers. A s regards pst control, the vilayet organisation has been changed and expanded almost beyond recognition in the last few years and equipped to deal efficiently and promptly with all the pests of fruits and crops. Until quite recently the villagers regarded insect attacks on their crops as acts of God and bore the losses with characteristic fatalistic resignation. They were at first profoundly sceptical of the benefits of pest control, whatever form it took, but gradually over the years their interest has been awakened and they were now quite eager to try the effects of the new methods. Good results had been obtained over a wide field.

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As regards cattle, local strains were being improved on the farm devoted to cattle breeding, which lies just off the main Bafra-Samsun road about 30 kilometres from the latter place. This farm which started operating in 1949 at present occupies an area of 1,500 acres, but the Government has the right to extend the area to 10,000 acres when funds are available. It is too soon yet to evaluate the work of this organisation but it should be a great help to the improvement of the local cattle and the extension of stock-farming in Turkey, particularly in the coastal areas between Bafra Point and the mouth of the Terme river, where in Osmanli times and for generations before that, cattle raising was an important source of income. As regards agricultural methods, the Director had to confess with sorrow that mechanisation had made little progress in the vilayet compared to areas in the central plateau and in southwestern Turkey, although the delta areas of the Ye§il and Kizil Irmak rivers would appear suitable for such development. As from times immemorial ploughing and harrowing were done with oxen, although the implements used had in recent years improved considerably. Most of the ploughs used in the vilayet were made by a small Turkish firm in £ar§amba. The corn was harvested with scythe and sickle, the women using the sickle and the men the scythe. Five doniims a day could be completed with a sickle and 5-7 doniims with a scythe. Harvesting methods have been little changed in historical times. A sheltered level piece of land is chosen and the ears of corn are pounded by the feet of horses or oxen and the grain separated from the chaff by winnowing. I asked this Director how the work of resettling the Turkish refugees from Bulgaria was proceeding in the vilayet. He said that although there had been many difficulties, chief among them being the absence of large scale maps to delineate land boundaries accurately and the fact that title deeds for land, when they existed, were often very vague if not inaccurate the work of resettling the refugees allotted to the Samsun vilayet had been completed with the minimum of friction and delay. The Government evidently thought the Samsun vilayet particularly suitable for refugee settlement for in early 1951 2,800 refugees in 562 families, a larger number than was allotted to any other vilayet, were sent for resettlement in various parts of the vilayet. Of these 562 families, 487 were satisfied with the allotment and conditions of settlement and remained, the rest thought they could do better elsewhere and left. By the end of 1952 all the families that remained had been settled on the land and small two roomed houses (with kitchen and an outhouse for cattle) built for them. Seed was distributed free and most families were given credits ranging from 800-1,000 liras each. In addition credit facilities for the purchase of four tractors were given. Just over 70% of the refugees were divided between the Bafra and Havza kazas, the remainder being settled evenly over the rest of the vilayet. Families in the tobacco growing areas were given 2-3 acres of land, those in the southern wheat, barley and sugar beet growing areas 25-30 acres. Although there is a lot of potentially good arable land in the Samsun vilayet

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not under cultivation at present, it needs draining and cleaning before crops can be grown on it. This work is proceeding slowly but it does not keep pace with the needs of existing land hungry peasants, to say nothing of an influx of several thousand refugees. There was, therefore, bound to be some grumbling and discontent from landless peasants who felt they had a better claim to settlement on the land at Government expense than the refugees. However, the Director concluded, the work had been completed without any serious untoward incidents and the refugees were very grateful for the consideration and help they had received.

Visit to the Mayor In the afternoon of the 1 s t of July I called on the Mayor of Samsun in his office. He was a staunch Democrat, the Democrats being in the majority on the council. The Mayor talked first about the town's major headaches, the shortage of both water and electricity. These shortages were becoming more and more pronounced every day owing to the rapid expansion of the town. The town's water supply is obtained f r o m wells in the mountains some 12 kilometres distance and is piped to storage depots on the hillside above the town. It is quite inadequate for the needs of the town. Plans have been drawn up to pipe water from other sources to make up the deficiency, but it may be some years before this can be realised. It has been suggested, said the Mayor, that they should make use of the open water channel which formerly provided water for the town from Murat river. The channel being an open one, the water cannot be kept clean but it could be used in house construction, street washing and household cleaning, thus conserving the good water f r o m the mountains for drinking and washing purposes. The Mayor said he was seriously considering a temporary solution of this nature as he knew from experience the annoyance and distress caused by inadequate water supplies in a town. There was the danger too, he hoped it was a remote one, of an extensive outbreak of fire, with which the available water supplies would be inadequate to deal. With regard to electricity, the Mayor continued, here again the supply was woefully inadequate and rationing of available supplies had proved necessary. Overloading, too, caused temporary failure of supplies. With the assistance of the iller Bank a steam driven alternator of 1,000 hp. formerly in use in Karabiik had been bought and had recently arrived in the town. Unfortunately, many of the parts were missing when it arrived and it has not yet been possible to assemble it. In addition to this, two 500 kilowatt diesel engines were arriving shortly. When all these erected and in operation the diesel engines now in use will be kept in reserve for peak hours demands for electric power. When the extra power becomes available the municipality hope to help the consumers by cheaper prices. A s a business man he knew that a

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plentiful and cheap supply of electricity was necessary for any development of small secondary industries which are so necessary to Samsun if employment is to be found for the ever expanding population. Just before going I mentioned to the Mayor the question of the unsightly appearance of the foreshore and the open drains which run across it. He realised, he said, the importance of making the foreshore of Samsun more attractive and for providing a modern drainage system for the town, but unfortunately, his budget was limited and the provision of a good water and electric supply must come first. His annual budget amounted to 1,200,000 liras and half of that was disposed of straight away in salaries of officials and health services in the town. After paying for necessary repairs and improvements to the roads in the town, which are the responsibility of the Town Council and the amortisation payment on the loans provided by the tiler Bank for the provision of essential services, there was little left at present for either drainage or beautifying the town.

The Port of Samsun Later in the afternoon I went to see the Controller of the Construction of Ports and Harbours for the Black Sea coast whose headquarters are in Samsun, to get information on the present day organisation of the port of Samsun and the constructional details of the new harbour and breakwaters (see map at appendix B). The Controller described the present day harbour and anchorage to me at some length and spoke of the careless handling and inordinate delays in the delivery of goods arriving at the port. I am however, confining my remarks to handling delays and to the constructional details of the new port as the J.I.B. Report on Samsun port gives detailed information on the port as it is today. If my informant is correct the J.I.B. Report would appear inaccurate in its figures of barges and tugs available for handling goods at the port. He gives a figure of 18 barges and 2 tugs available which can handle 1,200 tons daily, while J.I.B. Report states that 40-50 barges with 7 tugs are available for this purpose. He insists that even in the slack season the port facilities he specified are fully extended and in the rush periods the disorganisation must be seen to be believed. There are in addition, serious delays and excessive carelessness in the handling of goods on the wharf, which is almost entirely due to the employment of young, irresponsible and inexperienced coolies on this work merely because their services are cheap compared to the experienced and reliable coolie. This search for cheap labour, despite its inefficiency, is a result of the practice of the Port Authorities granting the concession for the work of handling the goods arriving at and leaving the port to the person who makes the lowest bid, often regardless of his financial standing and personal character. This man in turn invariably divides the concession amongst a number of subcontractors who necessarily

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have to bid high in the face of competition to get a share of the contract. As a result the subcontractors are forced to employ inefficient cheap labour for handling the goods if they are to make their concession pay. The Controller was convinced that the practice of granting concessions for the handling of goods at the port should be abolished immediately and that the Port Authorities should take over the responsibility themselves. For this purpose an efficient organisation that can deal with a peak load of 3,000 tons a day is needed and this would require double the barges and motor tugs in use today and the employment of a force of well paid and experienced coolies. The Port Authorities insist however, that the concession system must remain for the simple reason that under present day conditions in the port it had proved the most efficient. The delays and carelessness on the wharf are therefore, likely to continue, even if the extra barges and tugs for the loading and unloading of ships are made available. W e then turned to the harbour constructional work at Samsun which is officially scheduled to start at the end of 1953. It is surprising, he said, that Samsun, the biggest port on the Black Sea coast and an entrepot for a wide and wealthy hinterland should still be without an all weather harbour and even reasonably efficient port facilities. However, the need has now been recognised by the Government and a project, the first part of which will cost 70 million liras and take seven years to complete, has been approved by the Government and given out to contract (see diagram at Appendix B). The contract for the first part of the scheme has been given to a Turkish company called the R.A.R. §irketi (Tiirk) who will work in close collaboration with two German firms, Hochtief A G of Essen and Philipp Holzmann Aktiengesellschaft of Frankfurt-on-Main. The consulting engineers are Kampsa of Copenhagen. The main features of the first stage of the project are a graded breakwater 1,600 metres long, with heavy weather protection of 25 ton cement blocks or stones of the same weight, or bigger if these can be blown at the quarry, placed on the windward side; an ungraded breakwater on the sea side of the harbour 2,300 metres long; a wharf wall 650 metres long which will accommodate 2 x 10,000 ton or 3 x 7000 ton ships; and a light breakwater 300 metres long inside the harbour running in a south easterly direction from the shore which will protect ships at the wharf f r o m any swell coming in at the harbour mouth. The harbour area will be dredged to 10 V2 metres which will allow of the entry of boats up to 10,000 tons. With any considerable swell in the 10 V2 metre deep harbour ships much above 10,000 tons are liable to bump the sea bed. The harbour entrance will be 220 metres wide. The second part of the project will not be put out to contract until the first part is completed. This project visualises the extension of the wharf wall in a series of bays and the extension of the dredged harbour area to allow of ships coming alongside. No decision has yet been made on the nature and extent of port buildings or facilities but substantial storage space is likely to be provided f o r coal and wheat. The Government, continued the Controller, were very anxious to get

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all operations in full swing before the end of the year (1953) but this depended upon several factors outside the control of the contractors. Firstly, most of the equipment to be used in the quarry site in Samsun will have to come from Trabzon, and work there is likely to continue and the equipment be in use until April 1954. Secondly, even if this equipment were available by the end of 1953 the provision of a quarry site on or near the main railway line to Kavak and not more than 12 kilometres from Samsun where the stone is of good quality and in sufficient quantity for a j o b of this size and where the percentage of overburden, that is small stones and earth, is small, is proving a matter of some difficulty. The advantage of a quarry site on the existing railway line is that the Government is saved the expense of constructing a railway line to the quarry, which, if bridges have to be constructed, may run into hundreds of thousands of liras. In addition to the equipment now in use in Trabzon (this includes 3 Henderson 15 ton cranes; 2 Neal 4 ton crawler cranes; 1 Ingersoll Rand stationary wagon compressor (1,000 c feet per min.) and one portable compressor; 1 Titian 1 yard excavator; 1 Belgian 5/8 yard excavator and bucket type dredger), which will be sent to Samsun when harbour construction work in Trabzon is completed. Additional equipment consisting of 2 suction type dredgers, a sixty ton floating crane, 2 large motor boats and numerous barges will be made available for the job. The dredgings from the suction type dredgers will be used for the fill in behind the wharf wall. On the following day, I set out to visit the headquarters towns of the southern kazas of Ladik, Havza and Vezirkoprii. I went first to Kavak, the headquarters town of the kaza of that name, which lies on the main road through Merzifon and Chorum to Ankara, about 45 kilometres south of Samsun. It also lies on the main railway line to Havza, Amasya and Sivas. With a population of only 1,658 it is the smallest kaza headquarters in the vilayet, while the kaza itself with a population of only 33,000 is very diminutive compared to those in the coastal belt. The people are poor and the town's only distinction appears to be that Mustafa Kemal Pasha stayed there two nights on his way from Samsun-Sivas prior to the opening of the War of Independence. The main crops grown in the kaza are wheat, barley and sugar beet. Little if any tobacco is grown. With the new sugar beet factory on the railway line between Havza and Amasya, coming into operation for the 1954 sugar beet season the area in the kaza in which that crop can be profitably grown will be extended for the new factory is very much nearer than the old one at Turhal and the cost of transport will be considerably reduced. Most of the growers within economic range will take advantage of this to start a 4 year rotation of wheat, barley and sugar beet, for sugar beet can only be grown on the same ground once every four years. There is neither electric power nor piped water in the town of Kavak but projects for the supply of both have been prepared and approved by the Government. It may b e some years, however, before work is commenced.

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I was unable to interview the Kaymakam of Kavak as he was out in one of the villages in his kaza when I arrived and after a short conversation with his deputy I set off for Ladik, headquarters of the kaza of that name. The road to Ladik branches from the main Samsun, Kavak, Havza-Merzifon road at Ladik Station on the railway and lies at a distance of 15 kilometres from this point. The road is in a good state of repair and continues on through Ta§ova and Erbaa to Niksar. On arrival at the town I called on the Kaymakam who talked at length on the town and kaza. Ladik lies at a height of 3,100 ft to the south of the fertile Ladik plain or Ova as it is called in Turkish. The town was of considerable importance in Sel§uk times and possesses a mosque of great beauty built by Ahmed Kopriilii in the 17th Century. It was severely damaged in the 1939 earthquake and is only now being repaired. The population of the town is just under 5,000 and of the kaza 18,500. Lying at over 3,000 ft the winter is very severe but the summers are cool and the town is used as a summer resort by the inhabitants of the hot humid Black Sea coast. It has no electric supply and no piped water but plans are far advanced to remedy this. Owing to the high A k mountain to the south the rainfall of the kaza is almost as high as that on the Black Sea coast and twice that of Amasya and Merzifon. The most important river passing through the kaza is the Tersakan which is an important source of irrigation water for the Ladik and Havza kazas and for the Sulu plain in the Amasya vilayet. It flows from Ladik lake situated some 10 kilometres east of the town and joins the Ye§il Irmak some 6 kilometres north of Amasya. Ladik is a sweet water lake about 5 kilometres long and 2 kilometres wide. It is fed by streams from the Ak mountain and under water springs. With the excessive rainfall in spring the water in the lake overflows forming the reed covered marshes around the lake, the reeds being collected by neighbouring villagers who make them into rushmats which they sell in the towns. Despite the marshes there is little if any malaria, as the lake stands at 2,500 ft. The lake is well stocked with fresh water fish, but the inhabitants only do sufficient fishing to provide for their own needs. It was intended at one time to build a regulator at the exit of the Tersakan river from the lake to control the waters of that river for irrigation purposes, but this has now been dropped. The new scheme is to reclaim the 10 sq. kilometres of rich agricultural land which lies beneath the lake, although how and when this is to be done has not yet been propounded. The Ladik kaza is famous for its hot springs, the best known being the Kaphca at Hamamyagi (Hilyas) about 10 kilometres west of Ladik town. It is said to be good for rheumatism, sciatica and eczema, but as there are no motor roads leading to it and it possesses nothing in the way of an habitable hotel, it is patronised solely by the local villagers. One quarter of the land area of the Ladik kaza is covered with forest. It commences at 800-900 metres and extends to a height of 1800-2000 metres. The low lying deciduous trees include oak, beech, elm, alder, ash, chestnut, cherry wood and wild hazelnuts. These grow

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up to 1000 metres and afterwards come the non-deciduous trees among which are the pine, (pinus negra and pinus silvestris) and fir. As we ascend the proportion of fir trees increases. Above 1,600 metres the forest begins to thin out and practically disappears at 1,700 metres. At this height commence the grass and moss of the yayla or summer station for the villagers and their cattle. Owing to the abundant rainfall there are several lush grazing areas in the kaza and Ladik is above all a sheep and cattle raising kaza. In addition to sheep and goats which at 23,000 head are most numerous, there are 12,000 cows and 4,000 water buffalo. Three hundred tons of butter and 400 tons of cheese are produced, much of which is exported. Wool, mohair and leather are also exported. Turkeys, geese and chickens are kept in large numbers by the villagers and on an average 5 million eggs are produced annually the larger proportion of which go to Samsun. The main agricultural crops of the kaza are wheat, barley and maize, the acreage of sugar beet is increasing rapidly. Beet is grown for the most part in areas bordering the railway line which runs through Amasya to Turhal in which town lies the only sugar beet factory at present within economic range of this area. When the new sugar beet factory at Salucu which lies on the railway line between Havza and Amasya, comes into operation in 1954, the sugar beet crop of the kaza should show a great increase. The principal imports of the Ladik kaza are cloth, sugar and other articles of food, paper, glass, glassware, petrol, paraffin and ironmongery. The main exports are butter, cheese, eggs, yoghurt and wool. Most of the exports go to Samsun.

Havza After lunch with the Kaymakam of Ladik I proceeded to Havza some 45 kilometres southwest of Kavak on the Samsun-Sivas railway and on the Tersakan river a tributary of the Ye§il Irmak. There is a motor road going north west via Vezirkoprii-Boyabat, the road was still not metalled (July 1953) and is not passable for wheeled traffic in winter or after heavy rain. Roads also go south to Amasya and southwest through Merzifon, Chorum, Sungurlu and Kirikkale to Ankara. The town's main claim to fame is its sulphur baths and the fact that Ataturk stayed in the local hotel there some three weeks before proceeding to Sivas and Ankara prior to the opening of the War of Independence. On my arrival I called on the Kaymakam who supplied me with the following information on the town and the kaza. The population of the town in the last census was just over 5,000 and the kaza 32,000. For its size the town has the smallest budget of any kaza in the Samsun vilayet. Electric power is provided by a small diesel engine, but there is no piped water. The

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annual budget of the municipality amounts to 37,000 liras a sum which no more than covers the wages of officials and some road maintenance work. Hot sulphur springs whose curative powers have been known and esteemed since Roman times, lie on a steep hill above the town. There are hotels near the springs which purport to cater for visitors taking the waters, but they are quite uninhabitable with the result that the curative powers of these springs are confined almost entirely to the local inhabitants. The water is very hot and only those with strong hearts and constitutions can safely take the baths. The main crops grown in the Havza kaza are wheat, barley, maize, sugar beet and a small amount of rice. Tobacco is grown in only one village in the kaza. As in the case of Ladik the production of sugar beet in the kaza is likely to be greatly increased in 1954 when the new sugar beet factory between Havza and Amasya comes into operation. Abundant irrigation water is available in the kaza from the 2 canals which run from both banks of the Tersakan river just below Havza to irrigate areas on the Sulu plain west of Amasya. The Kaymakam told me that much money was being spent on the construction and maintenance of village roads in his area. Between 47 and 50 families of Turkish refugees from Bulgaria had been settled in various parts of the kaza during 1952 most of them in the northwest between Havza and Vezirkoprii. The small houses in which they live have been built in groups just off the Havza-Vezirkoprii road. They are of the bungalow type with two living rooms, a kitchen and a cowhouse. Seed and money credits had been given them and they were now self supporting.

Vezirkoprii Vezirkoprii, the headquarters town of the kaza of that name, is situated 30 kilometres northwest of Havza on the main road to B o y a b a t and Kastamonu and about 15 kilometres f r o m the Kizil Irmak river. With a population of 6,500 it is the third largest town in the Samsun vilayet The Vezirkoprii kaza has a population of 46.000. One of Vezirkoprii's principal claims to f a m e is that it is the birthplace of Kopriilii Mehmet Pasha and his son A m c a z a d e Hiiseyin Pasha who played an important role in Turkish History. On arrival I called on the Kaymakam who gave me the following information on his kaza. The climate was mild and the soil fertile. In the large majority of the 122 villages in the kaza wheat was the principal crop but barley, maize, sugar beet, hemp and tobacco were also important crops. Sheep and cattle were raised in large numbers in the kaza. Sugar beet was grown in the eastern part of the kaza as near as possible to the railway but the profitability of the crop was seriously diminished by the high cost of transporting it to the factory at Turhal. Here again the new factory between A m a s y a and Havza would almost certainly result in increased cropping of sugar beet in the kaza. Grain, hemp, tobacco, eggs, sheep and cattle are the chief exports. Timber is floated down the river from the Kunduz forest to the factory at Bafra, the annual production of planks being about 15,000 cubic metres. There are also two flour mills and one timber factory on the Kizil Irmak near Vezirkoprii.

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After leaving the Kaymakam I was told that one of the deputies of the Samsun vilayet, a native of Vezirkoprii would like to see me and I called on him in his house. He appeared in a very weak condition and he told me he had just recovered from a serious illness. Vezirkoprii is a Democrat stronghold and the deputy had a number of his supporters with him. He had no doubts on the benefits which had accrued to the nation by his party's accession to power in 1950. He told me with a sense of pride that when Lord Kitchener, then Major Kitchener, visited Vezirkoprii many years ago, his father had put him up. Kitchener apparently stayed several days and went on numerous shooting trips in the area between the town and the Kizil Irmak. Just before his departure Kitchener asked the deputy's father whether he could do anything for him in return for the great kin and hospitality that had been shown. The deputy father in the true tradition of a village Turk replied that he was grateful for the offer, but he sought no reward or return. After this interview with the deputy I set off on the long journey back to Samsun.

Bafra and Alagarn The next day (2nd July) accompanied by a tobacco expert detailed by the Director of Agriculture I visited the kazas of Bafra and Alacam. Passing through the delta town of Bafra I first went to Alacam the headquarters of the tobacco growing kaza of that name and a minor port. The town stands on rising ground on the banks of the Alacam stream. 1 V2 miles from the coast and about 30 kilometres west of Bafra. The road from Samsun through Bafra to Alagam. which is, of course, part of the coastal road to Sinop is generally in a good state of repair. It follow the coast closely until it reaches the jetty at Kumcagiz, the port for Bafra and then turns inland to avoid the marshes of the Kizil Irmak. The river is crossed by a reinforced concrete bridge of bowstring design, with 7 spans and a length of 251 metres. This bridge takes a heavy volume of traffic because of intensive tobacco cultivation in both the Ala9am and Bafra kazas. On arrival at Alacam I first called on the Kaymakam but he was out visiting one of the villages in his kaza and I talked instead with his deputy. I was given the following information on the town and kaza. Ala§am is one of the richest kazas in the Samsun vilayet and almost completely dependent for its prosperity on the tobacco crop. The tobacco produced in this kaza has not the reputation of that produced in the central kazas of Samsun. On an average 1,250,000 kilograms of tobacco are produced there every year. The town is a stronghold of the Democrat Party and most of the members of the town council belong to that party. The Mayor being elected by a majority vote of the members of the town council was naturally, also a staunch Democrat. He had been Mayor since the Democrats came into power

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in 1950 and seemed very proud of the work he and his colleagues had done for the town during their period of office. The annual income of the municipality was about 6 7 , 0 0 0 liras w h i c h did not allow much scope f o r the implementation of the plans of improvement he had in mind. Nevertheless with a loan f r o m the iller Bank, a hydroelectric installation had been completed at a cost of 184,000 liras. Electric was a great boon and blessing but with the small number of subscribers the municipality were finding it difficult to make sufficient profit to cover the annual interest on the loan and its amortisation. However, the price of electricity in the kaza at 22 kuru§ a kilowatt was very much cheaper than anywhere else in the vilayet. When 1 was in Alagam work on the provision of piped water for the town had started and should be completed in 1954. The Mayor said a drainage scheme had been approved by the Government and he hoped work on it would be commenced within the next few years. After lunch with the Mayor I set off for Bafra. The town of Bafra has a population of 15,000 compared to 58,000 in the total of 73 villages in the kaza. The town stands about 1 mile from the right bank of the Kizil Irmak and 12 miles from its mouth. It was apparently founded as a port with an anchorage and jetty at Kumcagiz on the east of the delta about 15 miles away. A Decauville line is connecting the two places. On arrival in Bafra I called on the Kaymakam, but he had gone on tour and was not expected back for several days. I talked with his chief clerk about the town, the kaza and the tobacco industry, but as most of what he said about the tobacco industry has been said already I have condensed it very much. For many years Bafra has depended for its prosperity and even existence almost entirely on tobacco, of which it produces about 5 million kilograms annually. An economy dependent f o r its prosperity almost entirely on one crop, especially one like tobacco or hazelnuts, a large proportion of which has to be sold abroad, suffers a very serious economic crisis when there is a fall in the price of the commodity on world markets. Endeavours have and are being made to reduce this dangerous dependence on tobacco by persuading the farmers to adopt a more varied cropping policy, but it was not possible yet to say that their endeavours had met with any notable success. It would be a great help in the attainment of this ideal of rotational cropping in the Bafra kaza if valuable crops like sugar beet and cotton could be grown in this rotation. The experts state that given adequate irrigation water supplies the soil and climate are most suitable for both these crops. The big snag is that the nearest sugar beet factory at present is at Turhal and even when the new factory between Amasya and Havza comes into operation in 1954, transport there from Bafra would cancel out any profit made in the sale of beet. A s regards irrigation water, plans have been prepared f o r the construction of a barrage in the gorge of the Ye§il Irmak near a place called Kapikaya. This would not only provide irrigation water for the 700,000 acres of fertile land of the Kizil Irmak delta but combined with a hydroelectric scheme could bring cheap electric power to the Samsun vilayet. If in addition

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to this, a small sugar beet factory could be established at Bafra there would be no difficulty in persuading thé tobacco growers of the kazas of Samsun, Bafra and Alaçam to adopt a rotation of sugar beet, tobacco and cotton and thus renounce their dangerous excessive reliance on tobacco. In addition to tobacco, rice is grown successfully in a small area in the neighbourhood of the Ye§il Irmak river. It is not a popular crop however, owing to its associations with malaria in the past, although this disease has by today been almost totally eradicated in the delta. Later I talked with the Mayor on the problems connected with the town itself. With a population of only 15,000 the revenue of the Bafra municipality amounts to 1 V2 million liras annually, a sum equal to that of Trabzon, a town of twice its population. A good and plentiful piped water supply has been provided recently at a cost of 613,000 liras and a 500 kilowatt diesel engine ensures an adequate supply of electric power. Plans have been approved by the Government for a modern drainage system for the town and work on this project is scheduled to start early in 1954. There is an ice factory in the town and a timber factory on the Ye§il Irmak, but no secondary industries. The Ziraat (agriculture) and i§ banks have branches in the town. With regard to political life, although the Democrats had captured all the parliamentary seats in the vilayet in the 1950 election the Town Council was predominantly Halk Party. The Mayor although a member of the Halk Party was against party feeling entering into the business of the Municipality and he tried his best to act as a non party man in his official capacity as Mayor. He confessed however, that he found this very difficult in the rather tense political atmosphere prevailing at the time, but he was pleased to say that the people of B a f r a generally were more tolerant and less prone to fanaticism whether in religion or politics, than in other places in the vilayet. After my talk with the Mayor, I went on a very poor specimen of a road almost to the shores of the salt water lagoon called Balik Gôlii which has a very narrow exit to the sea near the small port of Kumcagiz. All Turks are convinced that this lagoon could be a great source of wealth to the country if proper use was made of the valuable fish it contained. Before the 1st World War thousands of tons of salted fish were sent annually to Bulgaria, Roumania and Greece, but today the fish caught there barely meets the needs of the Samsun vilayet. More valuable than the fish itself is the caviar which given good m a n a g e m e n t could be produced there. As an indication of the profitability of the caviar industry I was told that for every 100 kilo of carp 3 / 4 of a kilo of red caviar can be produced and from the same weight of grey mullet almost a kilogram. The price of red caviar is about 15-20 liras a kilogram. If the necessary facilities were available it is no exaggeration to say that thousands of kilograms of this valuable product could be produced from the grey mullet which every year enter the lagoon to spawn and the fish after the removal of the roe could be salted and exported, as in the past, to the Balkan countries mentioned above. The carp stay always in the lagoon and

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spawn there, but for the grey mullet it is an annual migration which takes place in early April. This fish enters from the open sea by the narrow channel and after spawning, if not prevented by nets or other obstacles, returns to the open sea again. The number of these fish entering the lagoon annually cannot be stated with any accuracy, but certainly many hundreds of thousands and some years even millions of them can be said to spawn in the waters of this large lagoon. At present only small numbers of these fish are caught and after the roes has been extracted, they are thrown back into the sea. In addition to the grey mullet and carp in the Balik Golii, sturgeon in large numbers come up the mouth of the Ye§il Irmak at B a f r a Point. A concession to catch sturgeon and produce caviar is given annually to local fishermen by the Ministry of Finance. Under the terms of the agreement these fishermen are not allowed to sell their production on the open market but must dispose of it to the Ministry of Finance at fixed prices usually less than half the price they could obtain outside. T h e s e arrangements give no incentive to the concessionaires to increase their production, for the profits gained from the enterprise at present do not justify any large sums of money being spent on modern equipment and without this no sizeable increase in production would be possible. If this concession system were abolished and the production of caviar from sturgeon left open to anyone with sufficient f u n d s to provide himself with the necessary equipment, production would almost certainly go up considerably and the price of the commodity could very probably be reduced. When I returned from the Balik Golii it was getting dark and I had to abandon my intention of visiting the animal breeding station at Karakoy, which the Director of Agriculture had thought well worth a visit. The third day of my visit I spent in Samsun town visiting newspaper editors and party leaders. I did not have the time to call on all the editors and party leaders so I chose the two most important, one supporting the Democrat Party and the other the Halk. At the time I was in Samsun, the Democrat and Halk parties had come to some sort of modus vivendi and relations between them seemed to be quite harmonious. This was reflected in the press on both sides. Samsun is well provided with newspapers. Political and non political, daily and weekly they number six f o r a town of only 43,000 inhabitants. These papers have no circulation outside the vilayet and even in the vilayet itself, the number of copies sold outside Samsun town is very small indeed. Many of the kaza headquarters towns have newspapers of their own, but their circulation rarely exceeds 200 copies a day. Indeed, newspapers in these Black Sea coastal vilayets are run merely as adjuncts to a printing press and they change ownership and often their political complexion with the sale of the printing press. Profits on sales of the newspapers rarely cover the cost of paper and printing, but there are advertisements and ownership often gives influence in political party circles. In Samsun, of the daily papers one supports the Halk, two the Democrat Party and the fourth although nominally independent, has leanings towards the Halk Party. The two weekly papers are equally divided one for the Halk and one for the Democrat Party.

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The three parties with organisations in Samsun are the Halk, the Democrat and Millet parties and all three are very active. The first two seem to be well provided with funds both for propaganda purposes and for the day to day running of their organisations. Their vilayet headquarters buildings compare favourably with those in Ankara. The Millet Party's headquarters on the other hand are a few rooms in a side street but the leaders mostly lawyers practising in Samsun are clever and enthusiastic. Up to six months ago the Millet Party had no organisation outside Samsun town, but it now has its ocaks or meeting places for members, which are usually coffee shops with the name of the party on a large signboard outside, in every nahiye and kaza headquarters town in the vilayet. Their propaganda, which includes criticisms of the Government policy and religious matters and a promise that if returned to power they will give complete freedom in the practice of religion, seems to be bringing them adherents. The Halk Party, as usual, appears to be the most united. The continued rise in the cost of living and the consequent discontent amongst all classes in the town is being cleverly exploited and there is little doubt that amongst the urban population of the vilayet their adherents have increased considerably in recent months. Amongst the villagers however, their following is generally small and it is doubtful whether their predominance in the town can be translated into success at the polls. Relations between the Halk and Democrat parties in Samsun were much more cordial, perhaps one can describe it better as being much less strained, during this visit (July 1953) than when I was here in the summer of 1952 and this was evidently the direct result of a rapprochement between the leaders in Ankara. That this tranquillity and harmony can last for any length of time with the General Election on the horizon is, to say the least of it, doubtful indeed. The great strength of the Democrat Party now as always lies in the villages and the present Government throughout its period of office, has certainly exerted every effort to retain that support. As in so many other vilayets, however, this party is weakened by dissension and strife amongst the leaders in the vilayet organisation, more especially in Samsun itself. Indeed, the rival leaders seem more eager to fight one another than in preparing for the big election fight which lies ahead. This is indeed, a great handicap to success and there are many amongst the younger elements who feel that unless leaders of these warring groups are removed from office and their places on the Vilayet Committee taken by more co-operative and less self seeking types, the party will meet with disaster at the polls. Such action would mean the replacement of elected members by nominees of Ankara and the high leaders of the party could only contemplate this as a last resort immediately prior to the election. Samsun vilayet is often referred to as the fortress of Democracy, a reflection of the Democrat Party's sweeping victory there in the 1950 general election. Although areas outside the towns are probably still within the

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fortress, the Democrat Party has undoubtedly lost a large number of supporters amongst the urban population. This is due largely to discontent at the continual rapid rise in the cost of living, but it also has its roots in hostility to many aspects of the Government policy. For example, many merchants in the towns were induced to vote for the Democrat Party in the last election by their promise to stimulate private enterprise whenever possible, but this class has, in practice, seen the field for private enterprise contract rather than expand, in their rather restricted sphere of action. This discontent in the towns is bound to be reflected in votes against the ruling party in the 1954 elections, unless conditions change radically for the better in the interval. In assessing the effect on the election results, however, one must remember that the urban voters in the Samsun vilayet form only 25% of the whole (and this proportion is high compared to that in most of the coastal vilayets in the eastern Black Sea zone and indeed, in eastern Turkey generally) and the villagers who form the remaining 75% are thought to be still predominantly in favour of the Democrats, although the Millet Party seem to be making some headway at present in the villages, almost entirely at the expense of the Democrats. If the Millet Party continue to advance and capture votes in this way, the chances of the Halk Party coming back to favour will be greatly increased. Another thing that would favour the Halk Party would be the institution of small single member constituencies. Under the present electoral law the constituencies in the vilayet and the Samsun vilayet constituency is represented by twelve deputies. The voters in this constituency therefore, vote for twelve candidates. In such a large constituency the town voters who after all are only 25% of the total, are completely submerged by the flood of village votes, but if the vilayet were divided into 12 single member constituencies of approximately equal population, the urban vote might have a much greater effect on the results of the election. The Halk Party would certainly like to have the electoral law changed in this way and have already started campaigning to this end, but the Democrats on whom the decision rests, are unlikely to approve of the idea. I arrived at (.'ar^amba at about 08.00 hours and had a look around the town. The town of £ar§amba, the headquarters of the kaza of that name, lies on both banks of the Ye§il Irmak near head of the delta below the Pontic foothills. £ a r § a m b a means Wednesday which is the local market day. The delta of the Ye§il Irmak extends to an area of over 700,000 acres of potentially fertile land, but more than 200,000 acres of it is marshland or covered with rough scrub, but with the other more important schemes in progress, funds are not available yet for this work. The Government however, has promised to put this in the forefront of their programme when more funds are available. A narrow gauge railway line runs f r o m Samsun to £ar§amba, a distance of 39 kilometres. At one time it was planned to extend this line to Terme, but with the construction of a first class road between these two places, the railway project has been abandoned. The road crosses the Ye§il Irmak by a reinforced

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girder bridge 150 yards long supported on ten concrete piles sunk into the bed of the river. The bridge has a concrete roadway wide enough to take two lines of traffic. Behind Carsamba the coastal range is only 3,000-5,000 ft and the Ye§il Irmak river breaks through this coastal range in a gorge almost as deep as the Kizil Irmak further west. It later turns north to (,'anjamba. Like the valley of the Kizil Irmak, the Ye§il Irmak valley is impracticable as a route way and roads into the interior cross the mountains rather than follow the narrow valleys of these rivers. At 09.00 hours I went to call on the Kaymakam of £ar§amba. He was very enthusiastic about the agricultural potentialities of his kaza. With a population of 74,000 (9,000 in Car§amba town) it was the most densely populated kaza in the Samsun vilayet and the population was rapidly increasing. The delta in which the kaza lay was a fertile one and the climate and soil was suitable for a variety of crops. At present maize, beans and tobacco were the principal crops, but fruit growing had been developed considerably in the last few years. The most important crop in the kaza was easily maize, the production in 1952 being between 35-40,000 tons. The shortfall in production of maize in the eastern Black Sea coastal villages where maize bread is the staple food, is made good by imports from the surplus production of the £ar§amba delta. Besides maize, beans (3,500 tons) and wheat (3,500) small amounts of oats, rye and rice were produced. Vegetables were grown on a large scale and much more could be grown if there was a greater demand locally or a canning factory could be established f o r preserving vegetables over and above those needed for the urban population of the vilayet. The area under forest was also expanding rapidly and cotton was being grown experimentally both here and in the other kazas of the vilayet. A little tobacco was grown, but the quality was not high. Cattle raising was being developed considerably and poultry too was an expanding industry. Most of the cultivating in the kaza is done by oxen pulling locally made ploughs and harrows which are said to be very efficient. A 3 oxen team with a locally made plough can cover one acre of ground in a day. More use could be made of tractors in the delta and indeed, a few of the more wealthy farmers are going in for mechanisation in a big way. The villagers, are for the most part, small farmers with about 10-15 acres of land and some form of cooperative enterprise would be needed to bring mechanisation to such farms. The Turkish smallholder farmers, however, are strong individualists and prefer independence to mechanisation under a co-operative scheme. The Kaymakam deplored the shortage of elementary schools in his kaza. Even in £ar§amba itself, he said, 700 children, nearly 40% of the total number of children of school age, received no education owing to the lack of accommodation in the available elementary schools. In the villages the situation was worse. Out of a total of 133 villages in the kaza as a whole, only 25 % of the children of school age were provided with facilities for primary education. This is much below the average even f o r the rather backward Eastern Black Sea zone vilayets.

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The Kaymakam now took me across to the Mayor of £ar§amba. Unfortunately he was not in his office and his chief clerk was nowhere to be found. I was unable therefore, to obtain any details of the activities of the town council or the political complexion of its members. I noticed however, that the roads were for the most part clean and well maintained and that piped water was laid on to the houses. As is usual in the rapidly growing kaza headquarters towns, the electric power which is provided by a 500 kilowatt Diesel engine is not sufficient even to meet the present needs and additional electric power must be provided if the town continues to develop at its present rate. I was told that several plans have been prepared for the construction of a barrage in the gorge of the Ye§il Irmak where it passes through the coastal range and this combined with an hydro-electrical installation could provide both irrigation water and electrical power for the fertile Yesil Irmak delta.

Terme The town of Terme, the seventh and last kaza which I visited in the Samsun vilayet, lies on both banks of the Terme river about 2 kilometres from the west shore of a wide bay formed by the Ye§il Irmak delta and the Uniye Promontory. Near Terme the mountains reach the coast which again becomes steep and rugged. The coastal road crosses the Terme river by a reinforced concrete girder bridge 55 metres long supported on three concrete piers which rest on a foundation of reinforced concrete piles in the bed of the river. The bridge has a concrete roadway which can take two lanes of traffic. At the mouth of the Terme river there is a good anchorage at 4-5 fathoms which is protected from northwest winds. Kayiks, the small sailing boats constructed since times immemorial between Surmene and Pazar on the eastern Black Sea coast and now modernised by the addition of auxiliary petrol engines come up the river to load rice and grain. The tree lined streets give the town a pleasing appearance and the houses, many of which are of wood, are well constructed. After looking around the town I called on the Kaymakam who was in his office. We talked about the kaza and its problems. Terme, the headquarters of the kaza of that name has a population of 4,500. Almost 41,000 or 90 % of the total population of the kaza live in the villages. The delta marshes to the north west of the town of Terme and rice cultivating valleys of the Terme and the adjacent Mili§ rivers have, from time immemorial, been afflicted with the scourge of malaria and blackwater fever. So much so that in 1928 rice cultivation was forbidden and 42 villages officially declared to be malaria infested areas. It was only in 1951 after much labour spent on cleaning out the beds of the Terme and Mili§ rivers to prevent the annual flooding of the surrounding countryside; the elimination as far as possible of stagnant water; the use of D.D.T. on all potential mosquito breeding grounds where these cannot be dried out; and the treatment and if possible, the cure of all those afflicted with the disease, that malaria has been eradicated sufficiently to allow of rice growing again in the valley. The marshy land around the Semenlik Lake is still a fertile breeding ground for mosquitoes but it is too far away

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from the cultivated areas and centres of population to be a menace. If this land were drained many thousands of acres of potential fertile land would be reclaimed for agriculture and the last large mosquito breeding ground in the kaza destroyed. By 1953 rice had again become the chief agricultural crop of the Terme kaza; and at 3,500 tons represented about 85% of the total rice crop of the Samsun vilayet. In addition to rice, the Terme kaza produces beans and maize and a start has recently been made with hazelnut cultivation. Mechanisation is moving faster in this kaza than in £ar§amba mainly because the farms are on an average bigger and the owners have more money for this purpose. In 1953 there were over 50 tractors in use throughout the kaza. With the newly found freedom from the scourge of malaria and the consequent rapid expansion of agriculture, the population of the T e r m e kaza is rapidly increasing by the influx of peasants from less fortunate areas. The Kaymakam was concerned at the destruction being done to the forests behind Terme by those living in areas bordering on these forests. These people who are generally very poor enter the forests, build movable shelters for themselves and as a means of livelihood destroy large areas of forest for sale in the interior as firewood. Although the perpetrators were often caught and severely punished, this senseless destruction still went on. The forestry service, although it had been expanded considerably in the last three years, was still not large enough to cope successfully with this menace, which was on a nation wide scale. The Kaymakam thought the Forestry Service in Turkey should be expanded sufficiently to prevent any further destruction of this nature, for unless this was done the extensive and valuable forest areas of Turkey would soon be reduced to very small proportions indeed. From Terme I proceeded along the coastal road to Ordu where I stayed the night, arriving back in Trabzon towards evening on the next day. APPENDIX A SHORT BIOGRAPHY OF THE VALI OF SAMSUN (September 1953) The Vali of Samsun, Cemal Ding is a man about 52 years old. He graduated from the Law Faculty of the University of Istanbul in 1926 and entered the Ministry of Interior as a Kaymakam in 1927. Served in various parts of the country as a Kaymakam and then in 1939 became an Inspector of Vilayet administration. He served as Inspector for three years, his first appointment as Vali being in 1942. First appointment or appointments not known but in 1947 was appointed Vali of Erzurum where he stayed nearly four years. In 1951 shortly after the Democrats came into power he was recalled to Ankara and worked there for two years before his appointment as Vali of Samsun in March 1953. Cemal Din9 is always well dressed and, unlike the usual run of Valis has an air of distinction about him. His wife is a graduate of the Law Faculty of Istanbul and has qualified as a lawyer. Cemal Din9 himself although a graduate of the law faculty has to do two years as an assistant before he can practice as a lawyer on his own. On his retirement in four years time he plans to work as his wife's assistant for the statutory period of two years in Samsun' and then start himself as a lawyer in that town. ' Appointed to Seyhan (Adana) as Vali in December 1953 after only eleven months as Vali of Samsun.

TOUR IN THE AMASYA AND ORDU VILAYETS September 1953 I took with me on this tour films of the Coronation Ceremony provided by the Information Office and they were shown in the Samsun and Ordu vilayets with great success. The Vali of Amasya was very disappointed that the films could not be shown in his vilayet and I promised that, if at all possible I would bring them with me on my way to the Tokat vilayet in May 1954. In Samsun the Director of Education had the films shown four times a day for four days in conjunction with other short films of topical interest which belonged to the vilayet. In Ordu the vilayet possessed no other films and as the coronation films only lasted for 25 minutes, the performance was rather a short one. However, the people flocked to see them and they were shown four or five times a day for three days in the Assembly Hall of the old Halk Evi building. This was good British propaganda and I hope to repeat the process in other vilayets in 1954. I left Trabzon at 09.00 hours on the 9th September 1953 and arrived in Ordu at 15.00 hours the same day. I went to call on the Vali immediately and discussed with him arrangements for the showing of the coronation films in Ordu on my return from Amasya. I was informed that the vilayet headquarters had no 16 mm projector but they would probably be able to borrow one from a citizen of the town and they had a teacher who had been trained as an operator. He (the Vali) would arrange to have the films shown in the Halk Evi and would see to it that as many of the children and people of Ordu had an opportunity to see them. I promised to let him have the films for three days and said I would be touring in his vilayet while the films were being shown. I stayed the night in Ordu and left the next morning (10th September 1953) for Samsun. During my last visit to Samsun I had missed the opportunity of seeing the Seed Research and Seed Propagating Stations situated just outside Samsun on the road to (,"ar§amba; the Animal Breeding Station between Bafra and Samsun; and the Semenlik Lake near Terme and not being due in Amasya until 13th September I decided to use my three days in Sarnsun visiting these places. I have described them in the report on my tour in the Samsun vilayet. During this period the Coronation films were being shown to the school children and others in Samsun. On the morning of 14th September I left Samsun for Amasya. The road to Amasya follows the Ankara road southwards through Kavak to a point about 12 kilometres south of Havza where it leaves it in a south easterly direction. About three miles from here I met the tremendous convoy of cars accompanying the President and the Prime Minister on their journey back to Merzifon after laying the foundation stone of the new sugar beet factory at a place called Salacu which is situated on the railway midway between Havza

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and Amasya. The dust from this fast moving convoy was so disagreeable that I thought it better to let them all pass before I continued my journey. The President and his party later left Merzifon by air for Ankara. On arrival at A m a s y a I went to the Kitap?ilar hotel, which has the reputation of being the best in the town, where I had booked a room. I had been given the best room in the hotel and it was quite clean and airy, but, unfortunately, underneath the hotel was a coffee shop and the narrow street in which it stood seemed to be full of garbage which was never collected. There are no restaurants in the town at which one can eat with any degree of safety, but the secretary of the local club called the §ehir Klubii which is situated on the river bank and catered for all the local officials agreed to my having my meals there whenever I wanted to. I found the food there very unappetising and it may have been unhygienic as well, for I suffered from some sort of stomach trouble for many weeks after my return to Trabzon from this very ancient but not very salubrious town. The Vali had accompanied the President's party to Merzifon so I went to call on the Director of Education and asked him to let the Vali know I would be paying a call on him the next morning. I had written to the Vali from Trabzon some weeks before giving the probable date of my arrival and asking his help in arranging my tour in his vilayet and the Director of Education said that the Vali had mentioned my visit to him. After dinner I went for a walk round the town. It is not known by whom and when this ancient town was first established, but it is certain that it was flourishing long before the Christian era. For many centuries it was the capital city of the Pontus kings but on this dynasty being overthrown by the Romans it became a province of the Roman Empire. When the Roman Empire divided into two independent parts, a Western with Rome and an Eastern with Constantinople as its capital, Amasya passed under the control of Constantinople. It was captured by the Sel§uk Turks in 1071 and in Sel§uk times it was famous as a centre of medicine and of learning. Many of the greatest doctors and savants of that time had their early training in Amasya. The Selguks were overthrown by the Mongols in 1256 and Anatolia became a part of the Mongol Empire. Amasya, however, continued to flourish as a medical centre and acquired a great reputation in the treatment and cure of mental diseases. In Osmanli times Amasya continued to be a centre of learning and culture right up to the end of the 15th century, but after this its influence declined. In 1732 and again in 1841, the town was destroyed by earthquake and coming to more recent times a great fire destroyed most of the town. Four years later, on 20th June 1919, a number of generals with Mustafa Kemal Pasha at their head met in Amasya and there made the historic decision to fight until independence was achieved. The War of Independence may therefore, be said to have its roots in Amasya. In 1938, the town was again severely damaged by an earthquake in which over 600 people lost their lives and 1,800 houses were wholly or partially destroyed. In 1948 serious flooding of the Ye§il Irmak caused widespread damage and loss of life.

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The town of A m a s y a extends along both banks of the Ye§il Irmak which here lies in a deep gorge;. Garden and fruit plantations stretch out from the river banks and give the town an added beauty. On the left bank of the river, the precipitous rock on which the castle and fort built by the Romans stands, rises 1,000 ft above the river. In the rock face below are the tombs of the kings of Pontus who flourished three centuries before Christ. Among the historical buildings are a mosque built by Beyazit II which was severely damaged in the 1938 earthquake and is now being restored; a Medressa or Mohammedan school which dates from the Sel§uk times but is in ruins; and what is called the "Daru§§ifa", the school of medicine which although built in the 14th century is in a good state of preservation. The next morning I called on the Vali who was in his office when I arrived. I have attached a short biography of this Vali at Appendix A to this report. He is a very stout man but gives the impression of being energetic and wide awake. He had been Vali of Amasya for nearly four years. I found him very kind and very co-operative and he seemed pleased to answer the questions I asked him about his vilayet. The Amasya vilayet, he said, was a small one both in area and in population compared to its northern neighbour Samsun. It was predominantly agricultural, only about 25% of the population living in the towns, the remainder being dispersed in 288 villages. The area of the vilayet was 4,885 sq. kilometres and the population 163,500 (1950 census), giving a density of 33 persons per sq. kilometre and compares with a density of 70-100 per sq. kilometre in the Black Sea coastal vilayets and from 10-15 in the Van and Karakose. The vilayet is divided into four kazas namely, Amasya (central), Merzifon, Giimu§hacikoy and Ta§ova. The last named only became a kaza in late 1952. Before that it was a nahiye in the kaza of Erbaa in the Tokat vilayet. The town of Amasya, the headquarters of the vilayet of the same name had from times immemorial been an important centre, both economically and strategically and although many times stricken by earthquake, fire and flood and subdued by conquest, it had always risen Phoenix like from the ashes. Before the First World War Amasya had a population of 40,000 but with the destruction by fire of a large proportion of the town in 1915 and movement of population during and after the War of Independence, it had by 1927 fallen to 12,800. Since then the population had gradually risen and in the last census in 1950 stood at 14,500. The town of Merzifon a kaza headquarters town in the vilayet had expanded much faster than Amasya, its population rising from 11,300 in 1927 to 15,500 in the 1950 census. Although there were other vilayets in the same category it was some thing of an anomaly for a kaza headquarters to be larger than its vilayet headquarters town and many prominent citizens in Merzifon had expressed the view that their town should either be made the headquarters of Amasya vilayet or that a new vilayet should be established with headquarters in Merzifon. The Vali did not express an opinion on the merits of these suggestions.

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From organisation the Vali turned to agriculture, in particular to the irrigation of the fruit gardens and vineyards along the Ye§il Irmak and Tersakan rivers. The Ye§il Irmak passes right through Amasya town and the Tersakan joins the Ye§il Irmak six kilometres north of the town. These gardens and vineyards extend for 25 kilometres on both banks of the Yc§il Irmak north and south of the town and for twelve kilometres on both banks of the Tersakan river from its junction with the Ye§il Irmak. The fruit gardens rarely extend more than 100-200 metres f r o m the river but the vineyards are more extensive. These gardens and vineyards must be irrigated during the summer months by water from the river if they are to survive and to effect this, the ancient system of bunds and water wheels are still in use. These bunds and water wheels are spaced at intervals on both sides of the river and each water wheel provides sufficient irrigation water for a definite area of plantations and operates during the summer and autumn months. For the water wheels to operate efficiently they must have a good depth of water in which to work and this can only be assured in the summer months when the water level is low by building a bund or dam downstream of each water wheel. These dams not only hold up the water but the mud and the silt brought down by the river as well and in the course of centuries of this practise the level of the river bed has risen considerably, with the result that in times of flood the water soon rises above the banks of the river and floods the surrounding country side with its plantations and houses. In the 1948 floods in Amasya many people were drowned, houses were washed away and much damage was done to the plantations. To prevent these annual floods and resultant damage along the banks of the Ye§il Irmak and Tersakan rivers near Amasya it was necessary to get rid of these dams and water wheels. Before they can dispense with them, however, they must provide an alternative source of irrigation water during the summer months and plans to this end are well in hand. The first essential is cheap electric power to work the electric pumps which will replace the water wheels now in use. This will be obtained f r o m an hydroelectric station now being established on a small tributary of the Ye§il Irmak called the Daracu Su about 30 kilometres from Amasya on the Amasya Ta§ova road. A barrage has been built across the stream and the water led off in a new channel which finally reaches a hill over-looking the Ye§il Irmak and pours down a steep incline into the power station at the bottom and then into the river. This hydroelectric station should provide about 1000 kilowatts which will be used to supplement the four Diesel engines at present providing the electric power for Amasya and to run the electric pumps which will be placed at intervals along the Ye§il Irmak and Tersakan rivers to provide irrigation water for the plantations. The water will be pumped up to storage tanks on the hillside above the plantations and irrigation water will be supplied to growers at the lowest price possible. It is hoped that the cables and their supports will be in a position between Amasya and the power station by the middle of 1954 and the machinery

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installed in the power house about the same time. He (the Vali) could not say when the electric pumps and the storage tanks will be ready for operation as this will inevitably depend on the money available for development and the speed with which the work can be accomplished, but everyone is eager to see the end of the water wheels and dams and the sooner that day comes the better. Irrigation water for agricultural crops was another headache in many parts of the vilayet. The most important area where water shortage was a serious problem was the extension of the Sulu Ova or plain south of Merzifon. Most of the Amasya vilayet, including Merzifon is an area of low rainfall having a mean annual precipitation of 16,7 ins which compares with 11.7 ins on the central plateau and 42.2 ins for the coastal vilayet of Samsun. With such a low rainfall crops like sugar beet and maize require irrigation water if a good crop is to be obtained, although wheat and barley can and are grown without it. At present about 90% of the available agricultural land in the Amasya vilayet is devoted to grain, that is wheat, barley, oats and maize. With the completion in 1954 of the new sugar beet factory at Salucu midway between Amasya and Havza many growers whose land was formerly out of range of the Turhal factory will be within economic range of the new factory and will undoubtedly want to grow their quota of this valuable crop. In the Merzifon area any expansion of sugar beet growing will be seriously limited by the irrigation water available, unless some new source of irrigation water is found. The cheapest source of such water in the plain south of Merzifon would be artesian wells and experimental borings under the direction of a senior geologist are now in progress. Results so far have been very encouraging, continued the Vali, 12 real artesian wells, that is wells in which the water comes up under its own power and II from which the water will have to be pumped up, have been discovered in the plain south of Merzifon. If adequate artesian water is available, it will be a great boon both to Merzifon and the vilayet as a whole. I asked the Vali if any refugees from Bulgaria had been settled in his vilayet. He said that Amasya was not an ideal spot for resettling refugees as land was limited and even before the arrival of the refugees quite a large number of the families living in the villages were without land. There is a certain amount of Government land in the vilayet, but this is usually being cultivated by the villagers often without permission or any form of legal tenure. The refugees had to be settled on this land for there was none other available. In many cases this meant evicting present cultivators occupying such land without authority and their substitution by the refugees and this naturally did not conduce to good feelings between the newcomers and the local inhabitants. In all 200 families were sent to Amasya for resettlement and of these, 65 were dissatisfied with their allotment of land and elected to go to Bursa. The remaining 135 families were successfully settled on Government land and many of them are widely dispersed over the vilayet. He (the Vali) was glad that all the refugee families sent to Amasya who wished to remain were

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now settled on the land and the hostility which the operation aroused had now almost disappeared. The amount of land distributed to refugees depended on the area in which they were settled and to some extent on the amount of Government land available there. In any case the land granted them could give little more than a bare living. In addition to land, small bungalow type houses consisting of living room, bedroom and kitchen with a small byre attached were given to each family. Seed and a loan sufficient to cover their living expenses until the harvest were also given them. This loan had to be repaid over a period of years. A resettlement officer had now been appointed for the vilayet, but prior to this the Director of Agriculture had been responsible for this work. To a question of mine about vilayet roads the Vali said the Government attached the utmost importance to the provision of a good system of vilayet roads joining villages with one another and with their kaza headquarters. The supply of pure drinking water to the villages had also been treated as a matter of urgency and he felt proud that during his term of office all the 289 villages in the Amasya vilayet had been so supplied. For 1953 400,000 liras had been allotted by the Government for the construction and repair of village roads and bridges which compared with 50,000 when he came to Amasya four years ago. In most years a great part of the allotment is devoured up in the repair or replacement of bridges over the Ye§il Irmak and Cekerek rivers many of which are seriously damaged every year in the flood season. The remainder of the money goes in the construction of new roads, in which work the villagers through whose area the roads run join with enthusiasm and energy and in what is called 'stabilisation' (which in Turkey usually means covering the road with small stones from the river valleys although this is not at all what is meant by scientific stabilisation) of those which are considered of sufficient importance. The Works Department of the vilayet was not highly mechanised compared to some of the larger vilayets, but the number of lorries available had risen to seven in the last few years and a large grader was also in service. The last point discussed by the Vali was education. Ke said that the progress made in the provision of facilities for elementary education in the villages during the four years he had been in office although considerable had not been as great as he would have liked. Lack of f u n d s and not lack of enthusiasm was of course, the cause, but despite this the position in Amasya compared quite favourably with that of other predominantly agricultural vilayets. Of the 288 villages in the Amasya vilayet 144 or 50% were provided with elementary schools at the beginning of 1953 and seven more schools were being provided this year. The fact that there were elementary schools in 50% of the villages did not unfortunately mean that 50% of the children of school age in the villages could obtain a primary education. Many of the village schools did not have sufficient accommodation for all the boys and girls of school age in their villages and a figure of 4 0 % for the Amasya vilayet would perhaps be nearer the mark. Nevertheless this was much better than Samsun and most of the Black Sea coastal vilayets further east.

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The Vali deplored the fact that an ancient centre of learning like A m a s y a with important neighbouring kazas like Erbaa, Niksar, Ta§ova, Mecitozti, Havza, Merzifon and Gùmù§hacikôy did not possess a Lycée. The Government, however, were giving careful consideration to the matter and it is hoped that one will be provided in the near future. If the Government agree to a Lycée being opened in Amasya, the present intermediate school and adjacent elementary school could be joined together for the purpose, or use made of the Halk Evi which is at present occupied by the Monopoly Administration. At present those who want to continue their education beyond the intermediate school (Orta Mektep) must attend lycées at Samsun, Sivas, or Yozgat. Although Amasya possessed no lycée it had an intermediate school, five elementary schools, a girls' technical school and a boys' technical school. There were also intermediate schools in Merzifon and Giïmû§hacikôy in addition to the seven primary schools. From the Vali I went to see the Director of Agriculture for the vilayet. He was young and enthusiastic and said he would be pleased to accompany me on my visits to the headquarters t o w n s of the kazas of M e r z i f o n , Gumiighacikoy and Ta§ova. I asked him to give me a short account of the agriculture and horticulture pursued in the vilayet. Standing by a big map of the vilayet he said that the total land area of the Amasya vilayet was 485,000 hectares (1,212,000 acres) of which only 141,000 (352,000 acres) or 30% was suitable for cultivation. This gives just over two acres of cultivable land per head of the population. It was not surprising, therefore, that of the 20,000 peasant families in the vilayet 1,500 had no land of their own. Of the land under cultivation over 90% was devoted to cereals, 2% to beans, 5.5% to sugar beet and poppies for morphia and the remainder to fruit plantations and vineyards. The most important agricultural crops with their productions in 1952 is given below: Wheat Barley Oats Maize Sugar beet

55,000 tons 33,000 4,500 3,800 60,000

The Director then talked about the new factory near Amasya and its effect on sugar beet cropping in the vilayet. At present, only 60,000 tons of sugar beet were being grown all on a rotational system, which only allowed the grower to produce sugar beet once every four years on the same land. All this sugar beet now goes by road and rail to Turhal in the Tokat vilayet. The crop is grown chiefly in the Sulu Ova which extend f r o m northwest of Amasya to south of Merzifon which is watered by the Tersakan river; the Gumii§ova south of Gumu§hacikdy watered by the Gtimtig river; and the Geldigin Ova some 20 kilometres south west of Amasya which is watered by the £ekerek Irmak. The more distant producers in the Sulu Ova and Giimii§

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Ova were well over 100 kilometres from the factory at Turhal, but those in the Geldigin Ova were comparatively near. With the new factory in operation, the producers in the Sulu Ova will be the most advantageously situated for distance and one would, therefore expect the greatest increase in production f r o m this area. Here however, the limiting factor is water and some large source of irrigation water must be found if this fertile plain is to take full advantage of the increase of sugar beet made possible in the near future. The kazas in the Amasya vilayet however, will not be the only ones to benefit by the opening of the new factory in 1954. The kazas of Havza, Ladik and Kavak which now send their production to the distant Turhal factory will also want their share in the new factory's production. It is understood that when in full production the factory will be able to take 200,000 tons of sugar beet in a season, produce 30,000 tons of sugar in addition to molasses. On present day production figures for sugar beet in the Samsun and Amasya producing areas, such production must be doubled to meet the needs of the new factory. The Director had little doubt that this would be available when required. Turning to fruit production the director said the fruit plantations and vineyards extend to a total of 37 kilometres along both banks of the Ye§il Irmak and the Tersakan rivers and occupy an area of 2,600 hectares (6,500 acres). Amasya was one of the principal fruit producing centres in the country, but up to the time of the formation of the Technical Services for Agriculture in 1946 plantations had been allowed to develop haphazardly. No thought was given to intelligent pruning; to the optimum distance between different varieties of fruit trees; to the choice of varieties to suit the soil and climate; and to the prevention and control of disease and insect attack. One could search the plantations in vain for one established on sound scientific principles. The Technical Service had already done valuable service in two directions. In the first place they had taken steps to ensure that all new gardens and plantations were established in accordance with modern scientific principles and perhaps more important still they had done their best by precept and example to persuade the growers to take all steps short of uprooting the trees and planting tried modern varieties in their place, to ensure the production of better quality fruit in greater quantities. The following main principles are stressed: (a) Measures must be taken to raise the quality of the fruit now being produced. (b) New plantings of fruit trees must in future, be limited to good standard varieties which are known to be suitable for the soil and climate of the locality. (c) Growers must be given access to the latest technical information. (d) The methods of packing fruit for sale must be greatly improved. (e) Unsatisfactory varieties in existing plantations should be grafted with one or other of the standard types mentioned in sub paragraph (b) and this should be carried out in accordance with a carefully prepared programme.

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In 1952 the annual production of fruit in Amasya area was as follows: Name of Fruit Apples Pears Quince Cherries Apricots Plums Peaches Grapes

Quantity (in tons) 1,200 800 750 220 160 60 55 4,000

In addition to fruit of all kinds, walnuts and many different varieties of vegetables are produced. Production figures for 1952 are given below: Vegetable Tomato Melon Pepper plant Egg Plant Okra (Bamya) Walnuts

Quantity (in tons) 1,000 4,000 200 800 170 400

Okra, called bamya in Turkish, is grown in many places in Turkey but the best quality comes from the village of Ziyere, near Amasya. The bamya dried and strung in this little village finds a ready market at high prices all over Turkey. On my second day in Amasya I visited Merzifon and Giimu§hacikoy which with the central kaza of Amasya and Tagova make up the four kazas into which the Amasya vilayet is divided. The road from Amasya to Merzifon joins the main Havza-Merzifon road 12 kilometres S. of Havza and Merzifon lies about 110 kilometres S. W. of this point on the road to £ o r u m . The main road to (,'orum and on to Ankara passes at a distance of a kilometre from Merzifon and a few kilometres beyond this forks, one branch going south west to ' f o r u m and the other turning west to Gumiighacikoy which is about 21 kilometres from Merzifon. Gumii§hacikoy the headquarters of the kaza of that name lies to the north of the fertile Gumiig Ova or Silver Plain which is well watered by the Giimiig river. It gets its name from the old lead zinc mine at Gumu§ four kilometres south of the town. Lead and zinc often occur together in limestone formation as gelena and zinc blend, accompanied by some silver and gold. Such deposits in Turkey are often quite rich but usually irregular, with the result that they are quickly exhausted. As in Giimughane south of Trabzon there is much talk of the Government conducting a survey of the area to see if there are any extensions of the deposits either on the surface or at depth, but nothing has yet materialised. The population of the kaza of Gumii§hacik6y is 36,000 of whom 8,000 live in the headquarters town. The

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people of the kaza have the reputation of being very industrious and the housewives certainly seem to spend most of their time weaving cloth and making linen. The Kaymakam told me that the main products of his kaza were wheat, barley, tobacco, flax and in the areas nearest to the railway line sugar beet. Flax and poppies are also grown, the latter for the extraction of morphia. I was told that Turkey and Yugoslavia jointly control 90% of the world's supply of morphia and similar medicines obtained from the congealed juices of poppy capsules. Production is a State monopoly the Government buying straight from the grower. The poppy is also cultivated south of Amasya town. The area around Gumiighacikoy produces tobacco with a very pleasant aroma, but the leaf does not compare in quality with Bafra or Samsun tobacco. The Kaymakam thought that sugar beet cultivation would expand considerably in the GumLiij Ova when the new factory comes into operation in 1954 for the distance to this factory will be only half the distance to Turhal where their beet is now sent. Water supplies in the Gum(i§ Ova were ample and the limiting factor would almost certainly be the capacity of the new factory to absorb the output of the beet growing kazas in the A m a s y a and Samsun vilayets. Electric power for Giimu§hacik6y is provided by a 100 kilowatt diesel engine which is sufficient for the present needs of the town. Piped water was laid on in 1937 but this proved insufficient for the demand and a new source of supply was provided in 1952. It comes from the village of Emirler about 4 V2 kilometres from the town. About four kilometres south of Gumu§hacikoy lies the nahiye headquarters town of Giimus where the abandoned lead-zinc mine, which has been referred to before, is located. In the caves in the mountains just south of Gumii§ the villagers store large quantities of snow and ice which they sell during the summer months in the neighbouring towns and villages. On the return journey I called in at Merzifon which lies a f e w kilometres off the main road to f o r u m . The town of Merzifon, which is the headquarters town of the kaza of that name, has a population of 15,500 a thousand more than Amasya the vilayet headquarters. The kaza itself has a population of 41,500 of whom 26,500 live in 6 4 villages. The town stands on the southern slopes of the wooded Tav§an Dag which protects it from the cold north wind. South of the town is a fertile plain an extension of the Sulu Ova, which is well cultivated but the supply of irrigation water is insufficient to meet the needs of the expansion in sugar beet production which will be possible when the new sugar beet factory near Amasya comes into operation. To meet the deficiency in irrigation water experimental borings to find artesian water have commenced and results to date have been encouraging. Merzifon is connected by motor road with Havza on the Samsun-Sivas railway and with the lateral road to Adapazan through Gumiighacikoy, to the west. A road leads south f r o m Merzifon to Mecitozii. A large Turkish Air Force station lies just outside Merzifon and here bomber aircraft are stationed and crews are trained. A number of British and American personnel are working at this air base, on radar and other installations, but I had no opportunity of contacting them during my short stay there. There is a meteorological station in the town.

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My first visit in the town was to the Kaymakam. He was a fluent talker and was a mine of information on the town and kaza. He dealt first with education. Of the 64 villages in his kaza only 29 were provided with some form of elementary school. In Merzifon itself, however, conditions were better, the intermediate school, the girls' technical school, a boys' technical school and the five elementary schools provide for the 80% of the children of school age. There was a 50 bed hospital in the town but this was quite inadequate for a kaza of the size of Merzifon. The Kaymakam said that road communications in the kaza, although not as good as they would like, had been much improved in the last few years. Earth roads were being constructed connecting the villages together and these in turn to the kaza headquarters. The more important earth roads in the vilayet were being stabilised. As regards agriculture, the Kaymakam, as did the Vali, stressed the need for increased supplies of irrigation water in the Sulu Ova if the growers were to be in a position to produce more sugar beet when the new sugar beet factory near Amasya comes into operation. An expert geologist was at present examining the rock strata in the plain south of Merzifon and experimental borings for artesian water were being carried out under his direction. The most important crop grown in the kaza was, of course, wheat and this was followed by barley and sugar beet. No tobacco was grown. I went to lunch with the Mayor of Merzifon and afterwards toured the town with him. He told me that the population of the town was growing rapidly and houses and shops were being constructed apace to meet the needs of an expanding economy. The buildings in the main streets are quite pleasing and its long straight roads which were lined with trees, kept in good repair. Indeed the whole town seemed prosperous, in vivid contrast to the impression of neglect and decay given by Amasya. Wine making and weaving are the principal secondary industries in Merzifon and they both seemed to be in a flourishing condition. The women spend most of the day weaving and their production is handed over to the local co-operative society who make the best arrangements they can for marketing it. In addition to the home weaving there are many small companies who employ up to 8 or 10 women and these sometimes make their own arrangements for marketing outside the Cooperative Society. Merzifon seems to have acquired quite a reputation for producing hard wearing materials and their face and bath towels and tablecloths are in great demand everywhere. In years gone by the Merzifon area was famous f o r its vineyards and excellent wine, but somehow or other the industry went into decay and is only now beginning to recover. Wine is produced from the locally grown Papaskarasi variety of grape and there are two companies whose wine has gained some reputation in Ankara and Istanbul. These are the Cogkundere and §ekerpare white and red wines. The vintage grapes grown in the area are not available in sufficient quantity to allow the building up of a stock of well matured wine. Methods of production are primitive and the demand is greater than the supply. None of the wine is

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matured properly before sale. If more grapes could be grown in the area and this, like sugar beet is tied up with an increased supply of irrigation water, a large stock of well matured good quality wine could be built up. Talking about the work of the municipality, the Mayor said that the revenue of the Municipality at 550,000 was sufficient to meet the essential needs of the town and left a little over for alterations and improvements. Much money had been spent on asphalting the main roads of the town but this had been well worth while as it decreased maintenance costs considerably. The Weavers' Cooperative Society in Merzifon had contributed financially to this work. Turning to electric power the Mayor said that up to 1950 they had had to be content with a 60 kilowatt German Diesel engine. This although over 30-years old, is still used when necessary, but the main source of electric power today is the Swedish steam turbine. This was installed in 1950 and has an output of 330 kilowatts. Lignite for running this steam turbine is obtained from the mines at Celtek some 18 kilometres from Merzifon near the junction of the Havza-Merzifon road with the branch road to Amasya. I was told that this lignite mine, which is situated to the north of the railway line, is approaching the end of its productive life, but another field has been discovered a f e w kilometres away. The undertaking which comes under the railway administration will be transferred to the new site when the present mine can no longer be run economically. The population of Merzifon is growing very rapidly and the 330 kilowatt steam turbine, with the 60 watt Diesel engine in reserve, are not now sufficient to meet the demand. The Municipality has therefore, purchased a new 280 kilowatt diesel engine which should be installed and in operation by the beginning of 1954. The two Diesel engines and the turbine will give an output of 6 7 0 kilowatts which should be sufficient to meet demands for many years ahead. U p to 1947 Merzifon was dependent for supplies of drinking water on wells in the town. In that year water was piped to the town from a place called Pa§a Deresi some 5 kilometres from the town where there were a number of springs. This proved insufficient and another source of water supply to supplement the present supply has been found and pipes were being laid while I was in the town (September 1953) to connect this source with the storage tanks now in use. One of Merzifon's greatest needs is a modern sewage system and the Mayor said that plans had been prepared to this end and sent to Ankara for approval. If the Government approved the plans a loan would be negotiated with the tiler Bank to cover the major part of the cost of the project. The absence of a modern drainage system in a rapidly expanding town of 15,000 inhabitants could not but be viewed with grave concern, concluded the Mayor and both he and the members of the town Council were using all their influence to get the Government to approve the scheme they had put forward as quickly as possible.

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The Mayor of Merzifon avoided any discussion of politics but told me that the town council was predominantly Democrat and that he too was elected as a Democrat. He did not however, intend to allow politics to influence his judgement or his actions as Mayor of the town but he confessed he found it difficult to persuade the Democrat members of the Town Council to think and act on these lines. Indeed, he would be unable to pursue this policy in towns where relations between the Halk and Democrat parties were strained. Fortunately the people of Merzifon were not very politically minded and there were no local political papers to arouse their feelings. Istanbul and Ankara papers were sold in the town but they were often a week old before they arrived and only the higher officials and the intelligentsia amongst the townspeople read them. Merzifon is full of buildings of historical interest and I visited the more important. They include the Medressa or religious school of (,.'elebi Sultan Mehmet; the Kara Mustafa Pasha mosque; and several ancient Hans or inns of the camel and mule caravan days. The village of Maranca about 4 kilometres from Merzifon is the birth place of Kara Mustafa Pasha and the grave of his mother in that village is a place of pilgrimage for the local people. The American college at Merzifon which was built some 50 years ago is now used as a barracks for the local garrison. Although it was midnight before I returned to my hotel in Amasya that night, I was off again early the following morning (16th September) for Ta§ova (shown as Dester on 1,200,000 map of Samsun). This town which was formerly a nahiye in the kaza of Erbaa, was only very recently made into a kaza headquarters, part of its area being taken from the central kaza of Amasya. The town has a population of 4,000 and the kaza 33,000. The road from Amasya to Ta§ova was completed in 1952. It leaves the main road from Amasya to Havza just before it crosses the bridge over the Ye§il Irmak at kilometre 1 from the centre of the town and for the first 15 kilometres of the route follows closely the course of that river remaining on the right bank throughout. This section of the route is hardly wide enough for two lines of traffic and the surface is very bad. At kilometre 15 the road crosses the Ye§il Irmak by a ferro-concrete bridge about 50 metres long with concrete roadway and room for two lanes of traffic. From this point the road continues to follow the general course of the river but does not hug it closely as in the first 15 kilometres. In addition, it has been widened considerably and stabilised. At kilometre 42 the road leaves the river and cuts across the mountain range to Ta§ova. About 33 kilometres f r o m Amasya we passed a Bulgarian refugee settlement. This consisted of about 30 houses in 10 groups of three houses along the side of the road. A large tract of land had been divided among these 30 families and the houses form a small village where some sort of village community life would be possible. At kilometre 30 we passed the buildings which house the hydroelectric installation for the new hydroelectric scheme for Amasya. A barrage was being built on the Duraca stream (1262 I: 200,000

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Samsun) and from the barrage a canal will run to the brow of a hill over looking the Ye§il Irmak. From here it will run down the side of the hill into the power house at the bottom. This is expected to provide 1,000 kilowatts. Some of the water in the barrage will be used for irrigating the Ta§ova plain. At kilometre 50 the road begins to descend the mountains into the Ta§ova plain and at kilometre 56 enters Tagova. The town of' Tasova in addition to producing the usual wheat and barley (it is too far f r o m the sugar beet factory f o r sugar beet to be grown economically in any quantity) produces about 200,000 kilograms of tobacco. I have no information on the quality of the tobacco produced at Ta§ova but the Monopoly Administration has constructed a large building there f o r its manipulation and agents of the Geary and Anglo American Tobacco company come there every year to buy the better quality leaf. Flax is also grown and under the stimulus of the local Technical Service for Agriculture fruit plantations and vineyards are being established on modern principles along the banks of the Dester river which f l o w s past the town. I went with the Kaymakam to visit a few of the nahiye headquarters in his kaza and we travelled on some of the much vaunted vilayet roads. If these are a representative sample, vilayet roads in Turkey should be avoided at all costs. It took us three hours to cover about 22 kilometres of these roads and we were lucky to get back to Ta§ova without severe damage to the sturdy Land Rover. Electric power f o r this kasaba (the Turkish n a m e f o r a kaza headquarters) is provided by two 50 kilowatt diesel engines, this is more than sufficient for the needs of the town. The power is cut off at night and comes on again at 08.00 hours. A good supply of drinking water is piped from the hills. I spent the fourth day of my visit to Amasya talking to the Mayor, the editor of the one newspaper (Democrat) in the town and the party leaders. I toured the town with the Mayor and one of the members of the Municipality, but neither of them knew much about the history of the town, at least before Osmanh times. In the Museum however, there are several books in Turkish giving a history of the town through the ages. On our return, I talked with the Mayor about the work of the municipality and the problems facing them. Here in Amasya, as in Merzifon, the Democrats won all the seats of the Town Council but the Mayor in Amasya, unlike his colleague in Merzifon did not believe in hiding his faith in Democracy under a bushel. With a revenue of only 362,000 liras there was little over when the routine administration work of the Municipality and the minimum maintenance work on the roads in the municipal area had been paid for. Money had to be borrowed to finance any new project which the council thought would benefit the town. Approval had been given by Ankara for the construction of a new covered market place for sale of cereals; and what promises to be the pride of Amasya a modern hotel and restaurant combined with a large garage where cars can be serviced. The hotel, the restaurant and the garage will be leased to the highest bidder and the money obtained from these leases should enable them to pay back the loan in about 10 years.

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Electricity for the town is at present provided by four German diesel engines. Two of these engines are much reduced in power by age and use and the system is not sufficient to meet the needs of the town. Electricity is switched off at the main at midnight and comes on again just before lighting up time in the evening. Only by rationing the available output in this way can the system continue to function. The townspeople and incidentally the Mayor, for he is inundated with complaints about the system, are looking forward to the completion of the barrage and hydroelectric installation on the Duraca stream which is expected to provide a further 1,000 kilowatts for Amasya. As regards water supply, Amasya is very lucky. There are several sources from which they can draw their supplies and even if the population of Amasya rises to 50,000 their needs could easily be met from the available sources. At present, water comes from two sources, springs at Soguk Pinar and Gezilik. The pressure of water coming from the Soguk Pinar is so great that pipes are sometimes burst. The town has a primitive drainage system, but the sewage pipes instead of running into a sewage farm go into the Ye§il Irmak. In the summer time the flow of water is sometimes not sufficient to keep the bed of the streams clear and the smell can become very offensive. This type of drainage is not only offensive but could be a source of epidemics. The Mayor said he realised the danger of the present system and he would like very much to alter it but the construction of a modern drainage system for the town would cost a lot of money and the money for such a large project was not available at present. He was afraid the inhabitants of Amasya must put up with the present system for many years. In any case the system had been in existence for generations and in that time much more damage had been done by earthquake, fire and flood than by epidemics. I left the Mayor to call on the leader of the Halk and Democrat parties in the vilayet. The people of Amasya are of much more placid disposition than those in the coastal vilayets and the political atmosphere throughout the vilayet is more restrained. There was for instance none of the bitterness between the Halk and the Democrat parties I noticed in Samsun and Trabzon. The Millet Party had been proscribed some months before my arrival in Amasya but they had not established any organisation in the vilayet. At the last general election the Democrats won all four seats from the Halk Party and the general consensus of opinion here is that the Democrats will retain these seats in the forthcoming elections. Unlike most other vilayets I have visited the Democrat Party here in Amasya appears strong and united. The Halk Party on the other hand, although there are no visible dissensions, hardly seem to have recovered from the crushing defeat in 1950 and they also suffer under the handicap of having to make their appeal to a people who are not easily swayed by propaganda. The peasants are very well off today compared to the townsfolk. They pay little if any taxes; they obtain guaranteed prices for many of their crops which shield them from the economic effects of low prices; and

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their communications, water supplies and standard of living generally have been transformed in the last four years of Democrat rule. The peasants, therefore, can have no real resentment against the present Government and in Amasya at least, even the townspeople seem to be resigned to the ever mounting cost of living. The only newspaper published in the vilayet of Amasya is the Emel, which supports the Democrat Party. Nominally a daily paper, such is the lack of interest in newspapers and politics in Amasya that sales are too low to support more than a twice weekly issue. It seems strange that the people of a city which in the not too far distant past was a great centre of learning; whose doctors were acknowledged leaders in medical practices; and whose schools produced so many distinguished scholars of their day, should not today display sufficient interest in the written word to support a modest daily paper. I left Amasya on the 18th September for Samsun where I picked up the films of the Coronation I had left with the Vali. After spending one night in Samsun I proceeded along the coastal road to Ordu where I had made arrangements to have the Coronation film shown while I visited two of the kazas of the Ordu vilayet, Mesudiye and Pergembe. I was not able to visit these kazas during my previous tour in the vilayet. The Ordu vilayet was on the threshold of great constructional activity and my hotel was full of contractors and engineers who had arrived there from Ankara and Istanbul to collect material on the sites and complete their plans for the start of operations in early 1954. Three new projects have recently been approved for the town of Ordu, all designed to improve the health, living conditions and the education of the people. These projects are a new piped water supply, additional to that already in use (600,000 liras); a 100 bed hospital for the vilayet (400,000 liras); and a new technical school (200,000 liras). In addition to these projects for 1954, the construction of a new passenger and goods jetty is far advanced and should be completed by the end of 1954. This will replace the two jetties now in use (one for goods and one for passenger traffic) which are gradually being left high and dry owing to the sea receding at this point. This recession is caused by the silt brought down by the Melet and Turna rivers being deposited in the sea just east of Ordu and being taken by currents to the shore at that point. The new position of the jetty is not only free from this silting up but is more sheltered and the depth of water is much greater. The new jetty which lies up the coast about one kilometre northwest of the old jetties will be about 150 metres long and will serve not only as a jetty but as a sort of breakwater as well. It will have two arms at about 120° to each other, the longer arm from the shore being 90 metres and the other 60 metres (see diagram). In most weathers boats up to about 3000 tons will be able to come along side on the seaward side of the 60 metres arm and in winds from N. and N. W. boats up to 2,000 tons will be able to unload on the leeward side of the jetty. It can be seen that the bay is well sheltered from both north and northwest winds but in strong northeasterly winds loading and unloading would have to be abandoned. The construction of the jetty will cost one and a half million liras.

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JETTY AT ORDU 60 metres

Bay sheltered from N & N.W. winds

SHOP

The other projects in Ordu town can be classified as pre-election ameliorations. One is the provision of drinking water from a new source in the mountains. Work on the laying of pipes to the storage tanks has already begun. This will cost 600,000 liras. The two other projects are the building of a 100-bed hospital and a technical school for boys. The total cost of these projects is well over 3 million liras over half of which is in projects to improve the living conditions of the people rather than to promote economic development. The following morning (20th September 1953) I went by road to Per§embe, the headquarters town of the kaza of that name in the Ordu vilayet, which lies on the coast some 16 kilometres west of Ordu. I was interested to see how constructional work on the new road along the coast to Fatsa, which will replace the very difficult, badly constructed and badly maintained road crossing the mountainous peninsular of Kog Boynuzu (the Ram's Horn), was proceeding and to see the site of the hydroelectric project for Per§embe, work on which will commence in the spring of 1954. As for the hydroelectric scheme a barrage will be built in a mountain stream some three kilometres from the town and the water led down a steep slope to the power house. This hydroelectric installation should provide 100 kilowatts which is sufficient for the needs of the town of Per§cmbe. Water supplies will also be piped to the town from springs in the mountains some four kilometres distance. These two projects will cost 600,000 liras and there are plans which have been approved, for the construction of a new intermediate school in a hall overlooking the bay, the building which houses the school at present together with the attached elementary school will be converted into a hospital for the kaza. The constructional work on the coastal road to Fatsa is meeting with many delays owing to the extremely difficult country through which it is at present passing. When I was there (Sept. 1953) it had advanced 20 kilometres beyond Pergembe and a tunnel over 100 metres long was in the process of

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construction. The route has been thoroughly surveyed to the point where the new road will meet the old one across the peninsula. The new road will keep at or near sea level throughout its length and in contrast to the present road across the high mountains of the peninsular which is often blocked by snow for long periods during the winter months, can easily be kept open even in the severest winters. On the 21st September I set off by road to Mesudiye which lies 118 kilometres south of Ordu on the road to Sivas through Koyulhisar, Su§ehri and Zara. The surface of the road is bad throughout and is closed to wheel traffic for several months during winter. The Mayor of Mesudiye was in Ordu when I arrived and when he knew I was about to visit his town and stay the night there, he telephoned and arranged for a bed to be prepared for me in the Mayor's parlour. The Vali also telephoned the Kaymakam of Mesudiye to let him know that I was on my way there. The journey of 118 kilometres took me 5 hours excluding short stops for a meal and to call on the Kaymakam of Golkoy which is a kaza headquarters in the Ordu vilayet half way between Ordu and Mesudiye. A few miles outside Mesudiye the Kaymakam and the judge for the area came out to meet me in a jeep which the former shares with the Kaymakam of Golkoy. After coffee with the Kaymakam of Mesudiye we went to see the site of the hydroelectric station, work on which has just started. The building which will house the machinery was already almost completed and the installation of the dynamo was about to commence. This building stands on the bank of the Melet river which here is a small stream (it enters the sea just east of Ordu). We walked up the river bank to the barrage which was in process of construction and situated about 3 kilometres from the town. Water will be led f r o m the barrage by canal to the brow of a steep hillock overlooking the Melet river and finally run down the slope into the power station. The fall would be about 4 0 f t giving a power output of 150-200 kilowatts. The water supply for the town will be obtained from a bore hole in the bed of the Melet river a few yards away from the electric power station, energy f r o m which will be used to pump water from the bore hole to the storage tanks on the hillside overlooking the town. In addition to water and electricity Mesudiye is being provided with a 24 bed hospital. The three projects mentioned above will cost about a million liras, no mean sum f o r a small, remote and very poor kaza headquarters town. The money for these electric and water projects is being advanced by the tiler Bank which is the medium through which municipalities obtain loans for developments of this nature. I asked the Kaymakam how a poor town of 2,000 inhabitants like Mesudiye could contemplate the expenditure of 800,000 liras on the provision of electric power and piped water, when it is clear that with the small number of subscribers that are able or willing to take advantage of these facilities it will be difficult to avoid a loss on the running of these undertakings and even if there are profits, they cannot possibly be sufficient to

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cover the interest charges and amortisation of the big capital sum involved. He explained to me that it was the policy of the Democrat Government to provide as quickly as possible piped water, electricity and modern drainage systems to all vilayets and kaza headquarters' towns throughout the country whether the financial position of the municipalities warrants it or not. This entails subsidising the poor municipalities and this is done partly by payments from Government funds but chiefly by making the wealthier municipalities pay more for the privilege of borrowing money for these purposes than the poorer ones. Thus, although Mesudiye will officially borrow 800,000 liras from the Iller Bank for the provision of water and electric supplies she will only have to pay interest on and make provision for the amortisation of a sum within her capacity to pay. The decision as to what proportion of the capital sum advanced will be serviced by each Municipality is made in Ankara after consultations between the iller Bank and the Ministry of Interior. The Mesudiye kaza is mountainous and stony and the soil poor. The chief crops are wheat and barley but the amount produced does not suffice to provide the needs of the population. A s a result about 35-40 % of the able bodied males in the kaza emigrate each winter in search of work, many going as far afield as Istanbul and izmir. They return to their villages in the spring to help in the work on the land. I asked the Kaymakam what he thought of this money being spent on amenities in his kaza when a large proportion of the peasants could not make a living on the land and he said that in his view, the Government were devoting too great a proportion of the resources of the country to amenities while urgent tasks in the economic field remained undone. The money could be spent to better effect in these difficult days on projects to improve methods of cattle raising and strains of cattle; on providing improved strains of wheat and barley; and on forest preservation in the kaza. The people of Mesudiye, he said, could wait a little longer for their piped water, electricity and the 24 bed hospital, but the preservation of the forest areas which were being relentlessly despoiled by unthinking peasants and the raising of economic standard in the kaza brooked no delay. If he (the Kaymakam) were Prime Minister he would take immediate steps to increase the strength of the Forestry Service before spending money on amenities on remote kaza headquarters towns like Mesudiye. After a very comfortable night on a bed rigged up in the Mayor's parlour I made ready to return to Ordu. Mesudiye is a stronghold of the Halk Party. The Municipality in predominantly Halk, and the Mayor a staunch supporter of that party. Four members of the Municipality came to see me in the Mayor's parlour just before my departure. They were all merchants in the town and had been hit hard by the Government's price support policy f o r wheat and barley. This policy dates from the Democrat Party's advent to power and the four Councillors contrasted the promises of that party in the 1950 election and their performance since. It was strange, they said, that a Government which came to power with a promise to foster private enterprise

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in any way possible had almost closed the field for enterprise in the Mesudiye kaza. The main crops in their kaza were wheat and barley and in the days of the Halk Party rule the buying and selling of these products was almost completely in the hands of private traders and the prices paid were in line with those on world markets. It was quite a profitable trade but by today it had almost completely disappeared. This was because the Democrat Government nominally to promote development in the village areas, but in reality to appease and placate the peasants in order to retain their support, instead of leaving matters in the hands of the private trader annually fix the minimum prices for wheat and barley which are much above world prices. The result is that all the wheat and barley is bought by the Government at the minimum price through the Office of Soil Products. The private trader is in this way, effectively eliminated for, unlike the Government he cannot contemplate a loss in the sale of the product. Unless and until the Government fixes a minimum price for wheat and barley which is competitive on world markets, or alternatively abandons the policy of giving guaranteed minimum prices altogether, private enterprise will be unable to function in this market. I arrived back in Ordu towards evening of the 22nd September. In my detailed report on the economy of the Ordu vilayet, which I wrote after a four day visit there in 1952 I described how at that time officials were bursting with plans to bring a new era of prosperity and plenty to the vilayet. They were to build on sound economic foundation for the future and present discomforts must be borne with fortitude. The problem of overpopulation, which makes it impossible for large numbers of the peasants in the vilayet to earn a livelihood from the land available to them and forces them to make an annual migration to other areas in search of work, was to be solved by improvement in methods of agriculture and stock raising leading to greater production and the possibility of supporting more peasants on the available land; and this was to be supplemented by the establishment of secondary industries, notably the manufacture of alcohol from potatoes in excess of requirements for human consumption and the extraction, in a modern factory to be built for the purpose, of oil f r o m fish generally and dolphins in particular. No one talks about these plans today: instead the accent is on hydroelectric schemes, piped water, hospitals and higher education. T h e cynical Halk Party leaders in Ordu say that this change of front f r o m economics to welfare is part of the vote caching tactics of the Democrats prior to the General Election and this may well be the real reason behind the present heightened solicitude for the people's welfare. I left Ordu at 09.00 hours on the 23rd September and arrived back in Trabzon at 19.30 hours on the same day. During my tour in A m a s y a and Ordu I covered over 2,000 kilometres and talked with most of the people of note in the political and economical life of these vilayets. All those with whom I came in contact were friendly and co-operative and they went out of their way to help me to acquire an up to date picture of the social, political

THE AM AS Y A A N D O R D U and e c o n o m i c enthusiastically themselves and appreciation f o r films.

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l i f e of t h e i r a r e a s . T h e f i l m s of t h e C o r o n a t i o n w e r e r e c e i v e d a n d t h e V a l i s of S a m s u n a n d O r d u , on b e h a l f of t h e p e o p l e of t h e i r v i l a y e t s , e x p r e s s e d t h e i r t h a n k s a n d the o p p o r t u n i t y of seeing t w o such interesting a n d historical

APPENDIX A SHORT BIOGRAPHY OF THE VALI OF AMASYA (September 1953) Esat Onat, the Vali of Amasya is a stout pleasant type of man about 52 years old. Graduated from the Law Faculty of the University of Istanbul in 1925 and joined the Ministry of Interior in 1926. Served in various places as Kaymakam and in 1938 became an Inspector of vilayet administration. He served as an Inspector for four years and was then appointed Vali of Kars. He held this appointment for five years. The vilayet of Kars is a difficult one and Esat Onat must have shown considerable administrative competence to have held the appointment so long. (In five years from 1949-1954 the Vali of Kars has been changed five times). From 1947-1949 he was employed in the Ministry of Interior, after which he was appointed as Vali of Amasya. He is unlikely to be kept in Amasya very much longer as he had already completed four years there when I visited the town in September 1953. Esat Onat is a fat jolly man with a keen sense of humour. A popular type both with the people and his subordinates. Despite his corpulence he seems to have plenty of energy and spends much of his time visiting the outlying parts of his vilayet. With 14 years as a Vali and Inspector he is one of the senior career Valis in the service. This Vali has completed 27 years service and he can retire on pension at any time he wishes. He told me that he intended to complete 30 years service and then retire. Most Valis are in any case compulsorily retired after 30 years service.

NOTES ON A TOUR OF NORTH-EASTERN TURKEY AT THE END OF MAY AND THE BEGINNING OF JUNE 1954 (BY AMBASSADOR SIR JAMES BOWKER) Her Majesty's Consul at Trabzon, who accompanied me for the greater part of the time and made all arrangements most efficiently has in past years furnished exhaustive reports on the details of conditions in the areas concerned. This part of Turkey is however still relatively seldom visited by foreigners and there is singularly little in the way of works of references on a region which seems to have rarely figured in literature between Xenophon's "Anabasis" and Buchan's "Greenmantle". Some account of my general impressions may therefore nonetheless be useful. The new roads built during the past few years now make it possible to travel, at any rate by Landrover, in even the most out of the way parts of Turkey. If visitors to Erzurum and the frontier areas are still few and far between, it is principally because these are a military zone and the Turks do their best to discourage foreigners from entering them. Exceptions are sometimes made for Americans who have business there in connection with the U.S. military and economic aid programmes, but foreigners in general find great difficulty in getting permission to travel in these areas. In my own case I had the advantage that a senior official at the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs was intending to accompany me. (Monsieur Eralp's acceptance of my invitation had come as a welcome surprise: It is still almost unheard of for a Turk to visit the remoter and more uncomfortable parts of his country if he can possibly avoid it; and in any case he would usually be shy of travelling under foreign auspices). At the last moment Monsieur Eralp unfortunately fell out because he had to go to Washington with his Prime Minister; but it was almost certainly the fact that he was expected to be with me that finally persuaded the Turkish Government to reverse their initial refusal to allow the Air Attaché to fly us to Erzurum. Nothing less than a cabinet decision was however required; and even so I was refused permission to visit the old Armenian capital at Ani, which lies south-east of Kars, near the frontier. The Turks have always been exceedingly spy-conscious. A British traveller thus described his experiences at Trabzon at the end of last century: "One of the principal buildings of the Comnene Palace is now occupied by military stores and forbidden ground. I contrived to effect an entrance and found it quite empty, a palpable reason for much exclusive measures..." and one cannot help wondering whether the same is not very often the answer today. As another British traveller at about the same period (Edward Lear in Calabria) put it: "The passage of a stranger through these outlandish places is so unusual an occurrence that on no principle but one can the aborigines account for your appearance. "Have you no rocks, no towns, no trees in your own

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country? Then what can you wish here — here, in this place of poverty and incommodo?" For Lear's Italian aborigines espionage could be the only explanation; and for the Turks today, it is equally inconceivable that anyone in his senses should voluntarily renounce the relative comforts of Ankara or Istanbul for the incommodo of such "outlandish places" unless he had some unavovvable and sinister motive for doing so. Once, however, that having penetrated the barrier of obstruction and delay, one arrives in the area armed with the necessary permit, the local officials are comparatively helpful. In Erzurum, in particular, the Vali gave us a most friendly welcome and went out of his way to be civil to us (according to M r . Harris, Sir K n o x H e l m got a very different reception f r o m the authorities when he visited Erzurum a year before; possibly, therefore, the Vali has now got a new directive from Ankara). Admittedly w e were followed wherever w e went in the town by a seedy individual who was evidently some kind of plain clothes detective and had been told too keep an eye on us, but he gave no trouble and was at pains to be useful to us as a guide. The plateau. Geographically north-eastern Turkey falls into two welldefined areas. The eastern end of the Anatolian plateau rises as it approaches the Russian frontier into a series of mountain ranges generally running east and west and leading eventually towards the Caucasus. The most important of the valleys between these ranges is the Kars-Erzurum gap; although twice the altitude of western Anatolia, this is very similar to the rest of the Anatolian plateau. North of this valley, the Pontic Alps run parallel to the coast and on the sea-side of the mountains, completely different conditions prevail. For f i v e hundred years this area has usually been Turkish, but once the tide of Turkish expansion had receded in face of the Russian advance, it became a battlefield with Russia and a part of it was occupied by the latter. During the preceding twenty centuries, however, what is now north-eastern Turkey was generally the eastern frontier of the western world. Greek settlers colonised the coast as far east as Trabzon and R i z e as early as the 5th century B.C. The marches of the Roman and Byzantine empires ran here and even after Constantinople had fallen to the Turks, the barrier of the Pontic A l p s enabled the Comnene Empire of Trabzon to survive f o r a f e w years. If this region has today become the eastern outpost of the North Atlantic Treaty area, it has therefore only reverted to its historic role. Historically a frontier area and lying at the crossing of the ways between Persia and the Black Sea, Caucasia and Anatolia, there is nothing surprising in finding a great mixture of races in north-eastern Turkey. Erzurum and Kars lie in Armenia; and it is little more than 30 years ago that President Wilson, in his award under the Treaty of Sevres allotted the whole of northeast Turkey to an independent Armenian state, regardless of the awkward circumstance that there were then already virtually no Armenians left in the area. T h e Turks have a short w a y with minorities and any sprinkling of Armenians which may now remain on the plateau is being rapidly assimilated,

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in the same way as the few Kurds and presumably also the small White Russian minority around Kars and Ardahan. The case of the littoral is similar: the large Greek population which inhabited the littoral until the exchange of population after the Greco-Turkish war in the early nineteen-twenties, has been entirely eliminated; and the Lazes (of Caucasian descent) can now be considered to have been assimilated. The whole area has in fact a more nearly homogeneous population today than ever before. So much for the general background. Erzurum itself is now a squalid and depressing garrison town. The head of the American military missions in Turkey recently described the Turkish infantry as the "worst-dressed in the world"; the ubiquitous soldiery in Erzurum fully maintain this reputation. With its beggars and its slums, Erzurum today looks much what Ankara must have looked like when Ataturk arrived there. It was apparently a fairly flourishing place in the nineteenth century but the elimination of the Armenian population and the decline in the Persian transit traffic, for reasons described later in this report, have reduced it to a shadow of its former self. It retains some importance, however, as the headquarters of the Turkish Third army and the traditional key to the defence of Anatolia. Turkey's north-east flank is well protected by difficult mountainous country and any large invading force has to follow the valley leading from the frontier via Kars to Erzurum. Erzurum itself lies in a naturally strong position with a series of low hills to the east which would evidently permit defence in a certain depth. Now, however, that airborne landings have to be reckoned with, the weakness of the town's position seems, to the inexpert eye, to lie in the open plain to the west, from which its main defences could be turned. The Erzurum military zone extends some 20 miles to the east along the road to Kars and foreigners are given an army officer to escort them up to its boundary at Pasinler. On the road to Kars east of Pasinler, no special security precautions are apparently taken and this may be explained by the fact that the terrain between Pasinler and the frontier is only lightly held by a Cavalry division at Sarikami§ (60 miles beyond Pasinler) and part of another cavalry division which is now being moved up to Kars itself. The latter town makes quite a different impression to Erzurum. The Vilayets of Kars and Ardahan were for nearly fifty years part of Russia, only being returned to Turkey in 1921; and Kars, with its substantial official buildings and broad avenues, still retains something of the outward appearance of a minor tsarist provincial capital. North-east Anatolia was until recently the Cinderella of the Turkish provinces; now however it seems that in A. Menderes, Cinderella may at last have found her man. The Turks apparently considered that, as these Vilayets would, sooner or later, once again be invaded by Russia (who formally renounced her claims to Kars and Ardahan only a year ago), it was therefore not worth while expending any effort to develop them; and, for the average Turkish officer or civil servant, Erzurum and Kars were little better than

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punishment stations. From conversations with officials and others it was, however, evident that there is now a different spirit abroad. Turkey's entry into N.A.T.O. has inspired a new feeling of confidence; she now considers that it is worth bothering about the welfare of the frontier districts. Even those who had best reason to criticise the Democrats were prepared to admit that since the Democrat Government came into power four years ago, the eastern Vilayets had been given a new deal; economic and public works developments are evidently going ahead fairly fast and the day may not be far off when they may catch up with the rest of Turkey. This is however still more the case with the Erzurum vilayet than with Kars, although the latter Vilayet is also potentially a rich one, with its corn and cattle on the plateau in the north and its rice, cotton and fruit on the lower lands to the south. Any revival of trade with Russia would of course help these frontier districts. There is some kind of Russian Trade Commissioner at Kars; but his ostensible function can give him very little to do, since apart f r o m one deal for the export of Turkish cattle to Russia a few months ago, there is virtually no frontier trade or traffic. If the Turks continue to tolerate his presence at Kars, it is presumably as a quid pro quo f o r some corresponding facilities for themselves at Batum. Although a modest beginning is now being made with economic development which contrasts with the neglect of the P.R.P. Governments, there is still a lot of lee-way to be made up. All said and done, the Kars area remains one of the most backward parts of Turkey and this is probably the principal explanation for the fact that Kars was one of the only three Vilayets which remained faithful to the P.R.P. in the Democrat landslide of the 1954 election. The editor of the principal daily paper in Kars has, however, his own version of the reason for the P.R.P. success. He himself had been a leading spirit in the newly-founded local branch of the Republican National Party. The latter party, although it only had a few weeks to set up its organisation, obtained a relatively large percentage of the poll in the elections at Kars and he asserted that it was this that had turned the scales in keeping out the D.P. In its new policy of encouraging the development of north-eastern Anatolia, the Government no doubt has more than economic motives in mind. When it became apparent some two years ago that religious reaction was still rife in Turkey's eastern provinces, the Government became seriously alarmed at the political implications of the backwardness of the Turkish peasantry in the remoter parts of Turkey; and the efforts which it has recently been making to improve the economic conditions of these people, can be considered as part and parcel of its policy of trying to remedy this state of affairs. The peasants have shown themselves ready enough to accept the modern devices which the Government is now gradually making available to them; tractors and motorcars are already becoming nearly as familiar parts of their landscape as they are in the rest of Turkey. But these are only the superficials of westernisation; it is more difficult to judge how far the Democrat Government had yet been able to break down their attachment to the "old way of life", before the Atatiirk revolution which secularised religion.

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The Government is probably justified in hoping, that the spread of education and of economic development (particularly the improvements in communication, not least the third-class roads, which are putting an end to the isolation of even the remoter villages), will ultimately bring these backward peasants into line with the rest of Turkey. Education must clearly provide the main answer: the local officials claim that half the villages already have schools and that the rest will have them within the next ten years. But even the Government would not claim that the job has yet been completed; political and religious reaction remains a factor to be reckoned with in the east, although the Government, by making it very clear that it would not tolerate any exploitation of religious sentiments by the political parties, was fairly successful in preventing this from being an important factor in the elections of May 1954. The closing down of the National Party for flirting with religious reaction, was evidence that the Government meant business; and the Republican National Party, when it took the National Party's place, did not dare openly to court the reactionary vote. One of its officials admitted to me, however, that his party had still not given up hope that it might win over the conservative and religious elements amongst the peasants. In general, the R.N.P. in this part of Turkey seem to have attracted some good men; but if they are apparently full of confidence as to their party's future prospects, sometimes to the extent of claiming that it may eventually supplant the P.R.P. as the D.P.'s principal rival, it is probably because they believe that they can ultimately gain the support of the more backward section of the electorate. The littoral. If Erzurum, Kars and the plateau are the eastern projection of Anatolia, the Black Sea coast is an entirely different and contrasting world. The two regions are divided by the Pontic Alps, which constitute a formidable barrier running parallel to the coast. There is no railway link between the plateau and the littoral and there are only two roads, the Kars-Ardahan-Artvin road to Hopa which runs parallel to the Russian frontier and is passable only during the summer months, and the ErzurumTrabzon road, which is the historic road from Persia and is open all the year round. It is a delightful experience to cross the mountains by the 8,000 foot pass from Erzurum and to find oneself a few kilometres after leaving the bleak Anatolian steppe, in the wooded and well-watered valleys leading down to the coast. On the higher levels there are dense forests of conifers, with wild rhododendrons and azaleas and from time to time clearings with lush meadows and well-built chalets reminiscent of the Swiss or Austrian Alps. Coming down towards the coast, there is a belt of many miles of hazel plantations, the hazel-nut crop forming an important factor in the economy of this part of Turkey. The contrast with the rugged austerity of the plateau is complete and there is an air of greater prosperity. The people are a little better dressed and less dour; the houses are rather better built; and even the hotels are a little less insanitary.

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The long period during which there was a large Greek population on the coast is no doubt one reason for the difference; but the principal reason is surely that the climate of the coast is so very different to that of the interior. If the sea is not always as black as it is painted, it is a fact that it is very often covered by low could, and there are frequent sudden and violent storms. It is therefore seldom the bright blue colour of the eastern Mediterranean or the Aegean and it is easy to understand how it got its name. In compensation, however, the fine coastal ranges and the abundance of the vegetation make this in many ways the most attractive of Turkey's coasts. The rainfall along the eastern end of the Turkish Black Sea coast is many times what it is on the plateau a few miles to the south. At Rize, for instance, there are, on average, only fifty rainless days in the year. Frost is practically unknown there and the almost sub-tropical character of the climate is illustrated by the fact that it is possible to grow tea at Rize and other parts of the littoral east of Trabzon. Tea growing has been long established in the Batum area on the Russian side of the frontier and it was from there that the Turks imported their first seedlings in the nineteen-thirties. The Rize factory was then started and the Government Monopoly which runs the industry is now planning to build three other factories in this area. Even so, however, Turkey will not be self-supporting in tea. As in the case of most other semiluxuries, the rising standard of living is increasing Turkish consumption by leaps and bounds; so that considerable imports of Indian tea with which the local product is blended, will continue to be necessary. Like the well-populated Rize coastal strip, Trabzon itself gives the impression of economic progress. Historically it owes its importance to its geographical situation as the port f o r the principal trade-route f r o m the interior; as lately as the beginning of the present century, the camel caravans brought considerable traffic from Persia over the Pontic Alps down to the sea at Trabzon, from where the goods were shipped to Danube or Mediterranean ports. It is a relic of these days that there are still a few hundred Persian traders in this part of Turkey and that there is a Persian Consul at Trabzon — the only foreign Consul in north-east Turkey besides our own. The unhappy man who is now in charge of the Persian Consulate finds the lonely life of Trabzon very far from his liking; and he admitted that he has practically nothing to do, since the Turco-Persian Transit Convention which entered into force a few months ago has so far been quite ineffective in reviving the Persian transit traffic, which has never recovered f r o m the blow it suffered when the Iron Curtain closed down over the Danube ports. Although Trabzon can expect little in the way of a revival of its historic international transit trade, its prosperity is however likely to grow in future if it can provide the port for the increasing production of the Eastern Anatolian plateau. The approaching completion of its port facilities, followed as this will be by the construction of an airport and of a more direct road link with Anatolia, will be an economic asset, not only to Trabzon itself but to

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the whole surrounding area. The absence of natural harbours along the coast has always held back the economic development of north-east Turkey; the Turks have a saying that there are only four good harbours on the Turkish Black Sea coast: "June, July, August and Sinop". Now, however, with a port of a kind at Zonguldak and the port developments at Trabzon and Samsun, a new chapter is opening. If Trabzon is the natural outlet for north-east Turkey, a similar function would seem naturally to fall to Samsun f o r the central Anatolian plateau. Samsun is for the present a step behind Trabzon, insofar on the construction of the port (by a German firm) is still only just about to begin; but in compensation it has the great advantage of a railway link with Ankara. It also has the advantage of being situated in the middle of the only considerable plain along the north-eastern Black Sea coast, since along the rest of the coast the hills fall more or less steeply into the sea. Brash and unattractive, it is obviously a thriving little place. It shows signs of becoming a boom town, whose commercial importance will probably out distance that of Trabzon. A great contrast to Samsun is Sinop, which lies some 100 miles further west along the coast. Sinop has kept its name f o r 2,500 years, since the time when it was a Greek colony. It has an exceptionally beautiful situation on a tongue of land a few hundred yards wide and its Byzantine fortifications are largely intact. It is a very attractive old Turkish town, but economically it is obviously on the decline, for, like Kars, it is "at the end of the line". The coastal road which runs from the Soviet frontier via Trabzon and Samsun peters out at Sinop and the geography of the coast between Sinop and the Bosphorus and its lack of population, except in the Zonguldak coal basin, make it likely that it will be a very long time before a coastal road west of Sinop becomes a practical proposition. Like Kars again, Sinop was one of the only three Vilayets to vote P.R.P. at the general elections in May 1954. It gives the impression of having been left on one side by the Government's general economic development policies and it is therefore understandable if it felt little reason to show gratitude to the D.P. * *

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LETTER FROM H. M. CONSUL TRABZON TO DAVID SCOTT FOX, IN ANKARA, RE. AMBASSADOR BOWKER'S REPORT OF JUNE 1954 British Consulate Trabzon Turkey 29th September 1954 Many thanks for your letter of August 30th which arrived just as I was about to start on my long tour in the Sinop and Tokat vilayets. On my return from this very interesting and instructive tour, Maclean, the prospective Member of Parliament for some remote Scottish constituency, called and presented me with your very interesting report on our tour. This does, indeed, bring out clearly and concisely all the more important economic and political factors operating in these rather remote and backward eastern vilayets and I am very grateful to you for putting aside a copy for me and for the provision of an early safe hand. As you suggested, I have tried my best to pick out some howlers in your report on which I could concentrate in this letter but I have to confess that all my efforts have been in vain. I will confine my remarks, therefore, to the elaboration of two points brought out in your report on which I have some information which may interest you. The first concerns the down at heel appearance of Erzurum. I must admit that the town has a sombre and unattractive air, due primarily, I imagine to the colour of the stone from which the houses are built; their depressing uniformity of style; the scarcity of trees; and perhaps a little to the all pervading smell of tezek, that almost universal fuel for cooking and heating on the bare Anatolian plateau. Nevertheless, despite its generally squalid and depressing appearance, its beggars and its slums, Erzurum, I am told, is at present an exceedingly prosperous town, with a rapidly expanding population and economy. With a present population of close on 70,000 if its present rate of expansion continues it is confidently expected to top the 100,000 mark by 1965. In recent years the Government have given much attention to the economic advancement of the Erzurum area. Roads have been constructed; factories have and are being built; and a cheap source of power at Tortum falls is being exploited. Standing as it does at the junction of the great highways of Trabzon and Iskenderun to Persia, Erzurum is in an ideal position to take advantage of all opportunities and seems assured of a very prosperous future. These and other factors in the rapidly expanding economy of Erzurum are clearly brought out in a report written a few months ago by the manager of the Ottoman Bank in Trabzon as a result of a week's visit to the area and which is in essence a plea for the reopening of Ottoman Bank's former branch in that town. I have translated it and enclose two copies with this letter. The information contained therein may be of interest to the Commercial Counsellor. From the purely commercial point of view I think a good case could be made out for making Erzurum the headquarters of this consular area in place of Trabzon, but today's restrictions on the movements and residence of foreigners there make this a remote possibility. With the future of Erzurum disposed of, may I add a few words to your very able dissertation on religious reaction, actual and potential, in these long neglected, remote and backward eastern vilayets. Up to 1952 the Democrat Government fondly imagined that a leisurely progress in the provision of elementary schools in the villages combined with comprehensive measures to

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improve the social and economic conditions of the peasants would be enough to wean them from their attachment to the old religious way of life and keep them firmly in the Democratic camp. Events in 1952, however, forced them to think again. In that year not only had they to deal severely with the outbreak of religious reaction but they also had to face a dangerous threat from the Millet Party whose leaders seized the opportunity to advance their cause in the rural areas, mainly at the expense of the Democrat Party by exploiting the resentment felt by the peasants at what they considered attacks on religion by the Democrat Government. Although the Millet Party has now been closed down and the exploitation of religion for political ends proscribed by law, it is a fact that until ignorance and superstition, the twin pillars on which fanaticism intolerance and reaction are supported and flourish, are eradicated the threat, however potential and latent, will remain. To eliminate or at least greatly reduce this threat as quickly and as efficiently as possible, the Democrat Government has organised a two pronged attack, one against ignorance and the other against superstition, typified in the class of imam at present functioning in the villages. To combat ignorance, greatly increased grants are being allotted for the construction of elementary schools in the villages, the aim being to have an adequate number of these schools to provide primary education for at least 80% of the children of school age in the area by 1960 compared to 1970-75 under the previous plan. The Vali of Erzurum spoke with pride of this new policy when we visited him in late May, but I personally doubt whether the materials and labour will be available for such a large scale enterprise even if the funds are provided. However, even if this target is not attained the effort should be well worth while and the enterprise will certainly not fail for lack of enthusiasm on the part of the Directors of Education in the vilayet headquarters, who will be responsible for directing the operations. It is difficult to assess the strength and degree of religious fanaticism in these eastern vilayets, for much of it is, of necessity, concealed from the outside world. It is generally agreed however, that although its tentacles are widespread, such feeling is stronger in the more remote areas where communications are bad and that it is kept alive and vigorous in the rural areas by the activities of Imams who function there. These are, for the most part, either relics of the old regime, who remember with nostalgia the days when the religious laws controlled the lives of the people and they themselves were a power in the land, or have been trained for the religious life by such men. Sadly deficient in general education and often with only a superficial knowledge even of the Koran, they strive to maintain their influences by a show of fanaticism and intolerance in their religious teaching. In these backward eastern vilayets this is indeed playing with fire, for such teaching is a definite encouragement to reactionary movements and if these are allowed to spread through the indulgence or weakness of central Government, they could, in Eastern Turkey at any rate, quickly become a menace to the stability of the country and of the regime. To combat the influence of this type of imam, the Government are now taking steps to train a new type of religious leader, intelligent, comparatively well educated and free from fanaticism or intolerance in their religion. Their training is being undertaken in special schools two of which were opened in my area in October 1953, one in Trabzon and the other in Tokat. These schools are called imam Hatip Okulu (Hatip means a preacher and Okul of course a school) The trainees are chosen from boys who express a desire to follow a religious calttng and who have successfully passed through the Orta Okul or intermediate school. The course of instruction lasts for 7 years, two years longer than that in the Lycée. The two extra years are occupied in religious instruction, the Arabic language and

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script and in reading from the Koran. Apart from those giving instruction in religion, the Arabic language and script and the Koran, all the teachers in these new schools are former Lycee instructors and their function is to see that the general education of these trainees is not in any way neglected. The headmaster of the Imam Hatip Okul in Tokat told me his primary aim was to produce a type of Imam who was first and foremost a good Turk. He must in addition be reasonably well educated and as far as possible f r e e from any suggestion of religious fanaticism. With a 7-year course the first Imams trained in these new type religious schools, will be taking up their duties in the villages sometime in 1960. They will be considered as full time civil servants with all the benefits and privileges attached to such service and their pay and conditions of service will be on a par with teachers of equivalent educational attainments. The policy of accelerating the tempo of elementary school construction in these backward eastern vilayets of Turkey is being implemented with enthusiasm by the leaders of education in the vilayets and the two new religious schools in my area for training the religious leaders of the future are now in their second year. The result of this two pronged attack on fanaticism and intolerance in religion can hardly begin to be visible in much under ten years, but the stakes are high and the Government set on seeing its policy carried to fruition. If success crowns their efforts and religious reaction becomes a thing of the past in these eastern vilayets, a serious potential threat to the stability of the regime and what is perhaps even more important to the members of the present Government, to the continuance in power of the Democrat Party, will have been removed.

THE VILAYETS OF SINOP AND TOKAT 4-20 September 1954 Some fourteen days before I left on this tour I wrote letters to the Valis of Sinop and Tokat giving the proposed dates of my arrival in and departure from their vilayets. I told them that as a Consul I was very interested in all commercial, agricultural and mining developments in their vilayets and, if it was at all possible wanted to see these at first hand. I added that I would like to visit all the kaza headquarters towns in their vilayet and intimated that it would be a great help to me if I could be accompanied on these visits by a knowledgeable member of their staff. In conclusion I told the Valis that I would have some films with me which I wanted the maximum number of people in the vilayet to see and I should be very grateful if they could arrange a large hall or open air cinema with a 16mm projector and operator for this purpose. On tours in my consular area I also contact the Mayors of the various towns party leaders and newspaper editors of all shades of opinion but I wait until I arrive in the vilayet before I say anything about this to the Vali. Only in Erzurum have I experienced any difficulty in contacting such people during my tours, the Valis usually being very pleased at the interest I show in their affairs. I left Trabzon on the morning of the 4th September and arrived in Ordu in the early afternoon. On arrival I went to the vilayet headquarters to pay my respects to the Vali, but found he had been recalled to Ankara a few months previously and that the assistant Vali was acting as Vali until the appointment of a successor. This came as a great surprise to me for he had only been appointed in the Spring of 1953 and as a comparatively young, energetic and intelligent type one might have expected him to prove a success in the vilayet. I was told by friends from both the Democrats and Halk parties that his fall was the result of too much neutrality and independence in ideas of the duty of a Vali and that his attitude during the 1954 elections had not pleased the local Democrat Party and deputies. It would appear as difficult for a Vali to steer a successful middle course under the present regime as it was in the days when the Halk Party was in power. I was told by the acting Vali that the newly constructed road to Fatsa which goes along the coast of the mountainous Kog Boynuzu peninsula rather than, as at present, scaling the mountains in its passage across it, would be opened to traffic in a week or so. This new road which has been under construction for three years and has entailed much blasting and the cutting of a 100 metre tunnel through solid rock, follows the coast throughout and no difficulty should be experienced in keeping it open even in the severest winters. The route across the peninsula, which is in very bad repair, rises to a height of nearly 3000 ft and heavy falls of snow often block traffic for comparatively long periods despite an efficient

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service of snow ploughs. The steep gradients and the deep snow make the crossing of this peninsula during the severe winter months a formidable venture. I found on my return that this new road was open to traffic but I was unable to use it because a lorry had overturned and blocked it completely. I understand from the lorry and car drivers I spoke to that this coastal road is well surfaced and wide enough for two lines of traffic throughout its length. It should be of great economic benefit to the area. I set off early the next morning for the long journey to Sinop. The two big Government Road Areas, with headquarters in Samsun and Trabzon, are, at present devoting a large part of their resources to improving the alignment and surface of the coastal road between Hopa and Sinop. Long detours from the coast, sharp bends and steep ascents and descents are being eliminated, as far as this is possible by altering the alignment of the road and narrow stretches are being widened. In addition new ferro-concrete bridges with room for two lines of traffic are rapidly replacing the old narrow wooden structures which have always been so vulnerable to serious flooding and many sections of the road are being resurfaced and stabilised. With the extension of the Black Sea coastal road beyond Sinop to Ayancik the first step has been taken in the gigantic task of constructing a good motor road from Sinop to Istanbul which the Government plan to do when money, materials and labour are available. A good motor road running along the whole length of the Turkish Black Sea coast from Istanbul to Hopa on the Russian frontier would not only meet a strategic need but also almost certainly contribute very considerably to the rapid development of a healthy tourist trade in this area. Apart f r o m the difficult passage across the Ko? Boynuzu peninsula, which I have described in a previous paragraph, the coastal road between Ordu and Bafra presents no difficulty, speeds of ninety kilometres and over being easily maintained for long periods on the stretch between Terme and Samsun. Beyond Bafra, however, the road in parts is not properly metalled and surfaced and becomes very muddy and slippery after rain. This is especially evident a few miles on either side of Alagam and for the last 8 kilometres of the road f r o m Gerze to Sinop. I noticed however, that work was proceeding apace on the bad stretches of road near Alagam in the Democrat vilayet of Samsun but there was no sign of any repair work on the extremely bad 8 kilometre stretch leading into the Halk stronghold of Sinop. A t 09.00 hours, the f o l l o w i n g morning I went to the vilayet headquarters to call on the acting Vali, for I had been told on arrival that the Vali had been recalled to Ankara a few months previously and a replacement had not yet been appointed. The acting Vali was not in this case the aged and ailing assistant Vali but the Hukuk Igleri Mudurii', the official to whom the Vali turns for advice on the legality or otherwise of all his actions. This man, although very polite and pleasant, seemed rather surprised that I should want to stay 4 or 5 days in the vilayet and visit the kaza headquarters towns. He was rather curious too, about what I did before coming to Trabzon as Consul and

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his worst suspicions were probably confirmed when I told him I was a regular air force officer. I changed the subject rapidly to the question of a hall and projector for the presentation of films I had brought with me. The hall or open air theatre the acting Vali said, could easily be arranged, but he was afraid the only projector available in the vilayet was unserviceable. I had to take his word for this, but I heard later from another source that the instrument had been repaired and the films could have been shown with it. However, he had detailed the Assistant Director of Agriculture, (an expert in the world of animal husbandry and a mine of information on the Sinop vilayet where he was born and had spent most of his life) to accompany me on my travels in the vilayet. Wanting nothing further from the acting Vali, I prepared to take my leave. Unfortunately I had already told him that my next visit would be to the Mayor followed by calls on the editors of the two newspapers. Whether from a desire to help me or from a determination to keep me under his eye, I am unable to say, but instead of letting me depart on my mission, he rang up the Mayor and the two editors and asked them to come along to his office where the British Consul in Trabzon was wanting to speak to them. Only the Mayor and the editor of the more influential local newspaper turned up, the other editor being on a visit to Boyabat. I did my best to talk with these two under the jaundiced eye of the acting Vali but it was an uphill struggle, for both of them were ill at ease in that environment. I learnt, as I expected, that the Mayor was a Halk Party supporter and that all the members of the local Town Council were of a similar persuasion. He did not seem at all eager to extol the merits of his party and although they held all the seats in the Town Council in the last election was not too confident of his party's chances in the approaching Borough elections. After talking to him I felt that if he was in any way typical of the Halk Party leaders in Sinop their chances of success in future elections would be small. The editor of the local newspaper was a Democrat, his paper being called "Demokrat Sinop". His family had fled from Trabzon when the Russians occupied the town in the First World War and had never returned. Although educated in the Lycée in Trabzon he had decided that his future lay in Sinop and he had never regretted that decision. He offered to come with me to Ayancik the following day, to which I agreed and I resolved to continue our conversation under more favourable conditions then. After the Mayor and the editor had departed, the acting Vali changed his attitude completely. I had been conducting the above interviews in the acting Vali's office as Hukuk Igleri Mudiirii not in the luxurious Vali's office, but we now retired to the latter where the acting Vali became more cheerful and communicative. He said that the position of a Vali in a vilayet like Sinop was an unenviable one. With the Halk Party in control of the Town Council and the deputies all belonging to that party, the maximum difficulties were put in the way of carrying out Government decisions and rulings. This was unfortunate for the Vali who although ostensibly neutral in public affairs was,

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in reality a political figure whose ability and fitness were judged by his success in that field. It was for this reason that Valis in Sinop follow each other in rapid succession and the administration of the vilayet is continually in the hands of deputies who are often more successful for they are not weighed down by political responsibilities. The remainder of the day I spent visiting places of historical interest in Sinop itself. For information on the historical side I took with me the two German professors who are carrying out excavations on the hill called Boztepe which overlooks Sinop. There they hope to unearth the grave of the Pontus king Mithridates who was defeated by the Roman general Lucullus just before the dawn of the Christian era. The Germans know the position of the tomb from contemporary writings and they say that with any luck they should complete the j o b early next year after which they intend to transfer their headquarters to Trabzon. Sinop, the only safe natural roadstead between the Bosphorus and Batum and in ancient times the northern port for the Anatolian and caravan traffic from the Euphrates, has by today sunk in population and importance to the level of a large village. Built on the landward slope of the flat topped Boztepe hill and along the narrow isthmus of the peninsula of the same name and enclosed in part within medieval walls, the town has a majestic and spectacular setting, which with a more enterprising and energetic population could be the basis for a prospering economy. Sinop, unfortunately, has no future as a port despite its wonderful natural harbour for it has no hinterland to draw on and it has already largely been replaced by Samsun. This replacement will be complete when the port under construction there comes into operation. But with its wonderful setting, its historical relics and its sheltered position on the sea coast, there is no doubt of its potentialities as a tourist centre and seaside resort. The people, however, are apathetic about the future, the historical relics are slowly disintegrating under vandalism and neglect and without a change of population or of spirit these natural advantages will remain sterile and unproductive. The people of Sinop appear to be idle and they certainly lack initiative. As there is no Lycée in the vilayet the more intelligent and energetic of the youth have to go elsewhere for their higher education and with little scope for advancement in their native town few return. Indeed, Sinop is one of the few towns in modern Turkey where the population is tending to decrease rather than to increase. This is reflected in the lack of any considerable building construction in the town and in the stagnation in the port. There is no industry in Sinop. The match factory which was built just before the Second World War and on which great hopes were placed, soon got into financial difficulties and had to be closed down. The building in which it was housed is now used as the headquarters of the agricultural department of the vilayet. The main buildings of the town are the hospital with 75 beds; an intermediate school; a technical school f o r boys; a technical institute f o r girls; 3 elementary schools; the Government headquarters and the prison.

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On the morning of the 7th of September accompanied by the assistant Director of Agriculture, who was acting as my guide and the editor of the Demokrat Sinop newspaper, I went by car to Ayancik. The route follows the main coastal road to Gerze until kilometre 6 where it turns off in a general easterly direction until it enters the valley of the Karasu (/.ay which it follows in its southerly course. In this rich wide river valley rice and maize, both almost ready for harvesting, were the only crops, wheat the other element in the three year rotation followed here, having already been harvested. To irrigate their rice crops the villagers dig wide irrigation canals leading from the upper reaches of the river to their own particular area of land to be irrigated. Each village is responsible for keeping its own irrigation canal in good order and repair. A 3 year rotation of rice maize and wheat is strictly enforced by the Sinop Agricultural Directorate and to simplify control the crop to be grown in each area is specified. There is no fallow land under this system. To combat the menace of malaria the water in the irrigation channels in the rice fields is drained away into the river once every ten days, this time being slightly less than the incubation period of the mosquito larvae. In this way the larva is washed away and destroyed before the mosquito is ready to emerge. In addition to this periodic draining of the irrigation channels, the medical service concerned with the fight against malaria, which is very active throughout this rice growing vilayet, distributes free medicine to all those afflicted with the disease; takes steps to see that all stagnant water in the area is either drained away or sprayed with D.D.T.; and sees to it that rice growing with its attendant irrigation work is not carried out within 500 metres of a kaza headquarters town or within 1000 metres of the vilayet headquarters. In this way malaria, once the scourge of all rice growing areas, has been largelyeliminated in the valley and indeed throughout the vilayet. At kilometre 30 the road crosses the Kara Su £ a y by a small wooden bridge and begins to ascend into the mountains, rising to a height of 1500 ft before descending to the valley of the Ayancik Su at Osmanh (Yeni Konak) a nahiye headquarters in the Ayancik kaza. From here the road follows the valley of the Ayancik Su crossing the river by a wooden bridge some two kilometres south of the town. This bridge is 100 metres long and is supported on brick and concrete pillars sunk in the bed of the stream. The distance from Sinop to Ayancik by this route is about 78 kilometres and with the hair-pin bends and bad surface almost throughout its length this distance can hardly be covered in safety in under 3 V2 hours. Practically the whole kaza of Ayancik is designated as a forest area and both wheat and maize have to be imported to meet the needs of the population. Timber f r o m the forest is, therefore, practically the only source of wealth and the saw mills just outside the town are the mainstay of the population of just under 3000. Rice is now grown experimentally in the valley of the Ayancik Su and if the experiment proves successful, rice growing will be extended to the valley of this river. This would indeed be a blessing for it would lessen the town's present dangerous dependence on a single source of wealth, the saw mills.

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The saw mills at Ayancik are claimed by the Turks to be one of the largest and most modern in Europe. A 14 kilometre overhead cable brings the logs to the railhead of the Decauville track along which it is brought to the mills in trucks pulled by miniature engines. There are two mills in the factory, one dealing with hardwood and one with softwood. The logs are cut into planks of standard size and thickness, dried and then loaded on the kayiks for transport to Istanbul where the soft wood is sold for building construction and the hard wood for furniture. The whole factory is highly mechanised, even the kayiks being lifted from the sea and brought ashore by overhead crane, loaded and returned to the sea in the same way. Only one of the two mills was working when I visited the place for heavy falls of snow in January and February this year had caused the old wooden roof to collapse and the new corrugated iron roof was still in the process of erection. Production was limited to 60,000 cubic metres a month in an effort to conserve the forest areas which have and are being used up at an alarming rate. Power is obtained from furnaces burning sawdust produced in the mill, the heat generated being used to run steam engines which in turn provide electric power both for the mills and for Ayancik town. The saw mills at Ayancik were built, equipped and run for many years by a Belgian firm under a concession from the Turkish Government. In 1945 the concession was annulled and the factory was taken over by the Turkish Government on the grounds that the Belgian firm had infringed the terms of the concession. The firm was accused of destroying valuable forest areas by maintaining maximum production at the mills without any attempt at conservation and replacement. The Belgians denied the charge and the matter of compensation for the loss of the concession, plant and equipment and buildings is still under discussion in the Turkish courts. When the concession ended the Belgians were certainly producing at a very high rate, their monthly production figures at 200,000 cubic metres being over three times the production under the present regime. The high handed cancellation of this valuable concession by the Turkish Government and the inadequate compensation offered for the building, plant and equipment taken over, has caused much indignation in Belgian official circles and the fact that legal proceedings on the question of compensations are still dragging on in the Turkish courts after nearly nine years is hardly an encouragement to other foreign firms to build up successful enterprises in Turkish territory. The editor of the principal Democrat newspaper in Sinop accompanied me to Ayancik and I had long conversations with him about the political situation in the Sinop Vilayet. I was particularly interested in Sinop's loyalty to the Halk Party in the 1954 elections when such temerity was certain to bring retribution in its train and when practically all the other vilayets who had shown a preference for the Halk Party in the 1950 elections had seen the red light and switched over to the Democrat Party by 1954. He said that the victory of the Halk Party in Sinop in 1950 was not surprising as the founder of that party in Sinop had built up the organisation on foundations strong

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enough to withstand the first assaults of the Democrats. Between 1950 and 1954, however, the foundations weakened and large inroads were made on the Halk Party following in the vilayet. So much so that immediately prior to the General Election in 1954 it was estimated that the Democrat Party supporters were only slightly less than those of the Halk Party. It was at this juncture that three renegade Democrat Party deputies who had resigned from their party owing to differences with the Democrat Party leaders, descended on Sinop and took over the organisation and leadership of the newly established Curnhuriyetgi Millet Party (the successor to the proscribed Millet Party) there. Within a month their efforts had transformed the prospects of that party in Sinop. Able, convincing and eloquent speakers, they attacked the policy of their former comrades to such effect that the percentage of votes cast for the C.M.P. in the 1954 election (13%) was almost four times that cast in 1950 for its predecessor the Millet Party. This gain in votes was naturally at the expense of the Democrat Party and it was a result of this, the editor claimed, that the Halk Party succeeded in retaining all the five seats in the vilayet. Nevertheless, a comparison of the results in the 1950 and 1954 elections did show very clearly the progress made by the Democrat Party in those four years. While the votes cast for the Halk Party fell from 62 to 47 per cent of the total the Democrats succeeded in raising their total from 11 to 37 per cent. The peasants, he continued, are evidently beginning to realise the futility of voting for a party like the Halk which can clearly bring them no benefit in the struggle for prosperity and progress. This process was certain to continue even without any active intervention in the way of propaganda from the Democrat Party and he predicted that by the 1958 elections there will be a large majority in the vilayet in favour of the progressive, energetic and successful Democrat Party. The above, of course, are the views of a fervent Democrat but they are confirmed to some extent by the election figures and my talk with the Halk Party leader in Sinop gave further confirmation of the weakening of that party's following in the vilayet. He said that the loyalty of the peasants of Sinop to the Halk Party had been built on strong foundations and was of long standing. He had to admit however, that the Halk Party's long sojourn in the wilderness and the progressive deterioration in its position and following since 1950 strained the loyalty of the followers to the full. He accused the Democrat Party of deliberately withholding economic benefits from Sinop which were freely given to the vilayets in which the Democrats were supreme and of using this policy to further their political aims. If you will only vote for us, they say in effect to the peasants, Sinop will become a land of plenty, but if you continue in your allegiance to the Halk Party poverty and backwardness must be your portion. Such propaganda, he continued, was almost bound to have a weakening effect on the cohesion and solidarity of his party, for their leaders, as opposed to the Democrat leaders, had nothing to offer their supporters but hope of success in the future and this was perhaps, not a very effective answer to the Democrat approach. They would continue, he said, to do their best in these difficult days to further the cause of their party and to hope for better results in the not too distant future.

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During my stay in Sinop I also visited the headquarters of the C.M.P. there and spoke at some length with the leader of that party in the vilayet. He was a young lawyer (the majority of leaders in this party are said to be lawyers) and had great confidence in the future of his party. Our greatest asset in the coming struggle he said, is that we are a new party with no unsavourypast to live down like the Democrat and Halk parties. The magnificent results they had attained in the short time available to them before the last election had given them confidence and hope in the future and with an organisation extending down to the smallest village in the vilayet, which they hope to complete in the near future and with reasonable freedom to operate, they are confident that in the forthcoming general election they will do better than in the last. I noticed the same spirit of confidence amongst the lawyer and newspaper proprietor leaders of the C.M.P. in Kars, where again C.M.P. intervention at the last moment decided the issue against the Democrat Party. Both Sinop and Kars can be described as poor and backward vilayets and it would appear that the appeal of the particular type of propaganda put out by the C.M.P. is more effective in such areas than in the more enlightened vilayets which support the Democrats. Indeed the success of this party has, up to the present, always been in direct proportion to the degree of poverty and ignorance in the area in which they are operating and results in past elections show clearly that in these backward eastern vilayets, given good leaders and a full out effort, the C.M.P can be relied on to give a good account of themselves. The next morning (8th September 1954) I set off with the assistant Director of Agriculture to visit the southern kaza headquarters towns of B o y a b a t and Duragan, the latter only recently established as a kaza headquarters. There is only one road out of Sinop and runs in a general south westerly direction down the centre of the narrow isthmus. At kilometre 6 where the road to Ayancik branches off, the direction changes due south and follows the coast closely until Kilometre 20 when it turns inland. At Kilometre 31 it crosses the Kabali Qay by a wooden bridge 130 metres long, which had been destroyed by floods a few months previously. It was formerly supported on wooden piles sunk in the river bed but these are being replaced in the new construction by seven massive concrete pillars which should be proof against any flooding. The superstructure will again be of wood and have room for only one line of traffic. Cars now ford the river but this presented no difficulty. Much rice is grown along the valley of the Kabali £ a y , irrigation water being obtained as in the case of the Karasu £ a y by bringing water in deep channels from the upper reaches of the stream. Here again the rotation and the crops to be grown in individual fields are laid down every year by the Director of Agriculture in the vilayet headquarters. I asked the Assistant Director of Agriculture who accompanied me, whether they had any difficulty in enforcing this apparent regimentation. He intimated that far from resenting it the villagers welcomed such direction f r o m his department and on rare occasions their orders were disobeyed, the peasants or peasant concerned were dealt with very effectively by their own organisation without the necessity for any intervention by the Director.

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At Kilometre 28 the road to Gerze branches off in an easterly direction while the road to Boyabat turns south west. The long climb over the £al mountains commenced at Kilometre 36, the top of the pass (1500 metres) being reached at Kilometre 74. Here there is a garage connected by telephone with the exchanges at Boyabat, Gerze and Sinop, which houses the one ambulance in the vilayet. This point was chosen as being as near as possible to the centre of the vilayet and from this point of advantage the ambulance can be directed in the shortest possible time to any desired point. From the top of the pass the road descends steeply to the valley of the Gok Irmak which stands at a height of 300 metres. Here the river is crossed by a wooden bridge 120 metres long supported on five concrete and stone pillars in the river bed. It is only wide enough for one line of traffic. Although the superstructure is of timber construction with its 5 massive stone pillars it should be able to stand up to the most severe flooding. Just before crossing this bridge a road branches off in an easterly direction following the north bank of the river to Duragan. After crossing the river the road to Boyabat continues in a general southerly direction the road to Ta§koprii and Kastamonu branching in a north westerly direction 2 kilometres further on. Boyabat lies on the Kar Deresi a tributary of the Gok Irmak, about 6 kilometres south of its junction with the latter river. The Kar Deresi is crossed just before entering the town by a ferroconcrete bridge 70 metres long with room for 2 lines of traffic. The town of Boyabat, which is the headquarters of the kaza of that name, is the centre of an important rice growing area, the rice grown here being reputed to be of high quality. This crop is grown not only along the valley of the Gok Irmak but along the numerous small tributaries of that river. This year nearly 12,000 dekars were sown down to rice in the Boyabat and Duragan kazas in addition to that grown in the kaza of Gerze (2440 dekars) and 2000 dekars along the valley of the Karasu (,'ay in the central kaza of Sinop. In 1953 the crop produced throughout the vilayet totalled 5000 tons and this should be exceeded in 1954. The provision for irrigation water; the three year rotation and the arrangements for ensuring it; and the safeguard against malaria are similar to those in the other rice growing areas I have described. With its abundant rice, wheat and maize crops Boyabat is the most prosperous kaza in the Sinop vilayet and its population is increasing rapidly. If present trends continue it is certain to exceed the vilayet headquarters town in population, as it has already left it far behind in wealth and prosperity. The kaza of Boyabat was the only one in the Sinop vilayet to give a majority of votes to the Democrat Party in the 1954 elections, an indication that the peasants are beginning to realise that if they want development and progress they must align themselves with the party in power. During my stay in Boyabat I had a long talk with the Kaymakam and was invited to lunch by the Mayor. The Kaymakam told me that rice was grown in nearly 60% of the villages in his kaza and the prosperity of the peasants, the tradesmen and indeed the whole economy of the kaza was largely

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based on this crop. The rice is cleaned and polished locally in 6 competing factories, although 2 or at maximum 3 were ample to do the job. This is not an unusual occurrence in Turkey and in the Middle East generally. Any successful enterprise immediately attracts imitators many of them without knowledge or experience of the work. The result is uneconomic competition with its accompanying price cutting from which no one benefits and many lose their all. Floods are also a serious problem in Boyabat. The town is built along the banks of the Kar Deresi and after many hours of heavy and continuous rain there is always the danger of the rivers overflowing its banks and causing much damage and loss of life. In 1948 houses were destroyed and many people were drowned and the building housing the Diesel engine providing electricity for the town was seriously damaged. The Mayor said it would need at least 150,000 liras to clean out the bed of the river and put up protecting bunds along the river bank where the danger of flooding was greatest. The Town Council were not in a position to raise such a large sum of money which must be provided by the Government, but in the meantime they were doing as much as possible necessarily on a small scale, to lessen the effect of any future floods. After lunch I set off for the newly formed kaza of Duragan. As I noted above, the road to Duragan leaves the main Sinop Boyabat road just before it crosses the Gok Irmak river 6 kilometres north of Boyabat. The road to Duragan runs along the north bank of the Gok Irmak the whole way, a distance of 30 kilometres. Fields of rice and maize stretched for about 1 X!1 kilometres on either side of the river, wheat the third element in the three year rotation in this area having been harvested a few months previously. Here again the rotation and cropping of individual fields are strictly controlled by the Director of Agriculture in Sinop and the usual measures to combat malaria are in operation. I was told that there was little malaria in either Boyabat or Duragan despite the extensive area under rice cultivation. The kaza of Duragan had only been functioning 2 months when I arrived, it being formerly a nahiye headquarters in the Boyabat kaza. The Kaymakam, a very young man, had just completed his two years' training and this was his first post. Until houses are erected and the kaza organisation put on a sound basis the officials, who are continually arriving from all parts of Turkey are certain to have a rough time. The Kaymakam told me he was trying to persuade the local men of substance to build houses for renting to his ever growing staff of officials, but although some of them had agreed to do so, it might be several years before there would be sufficient houses available to meet the requirements of the officials to say nothing of the growing needs of an expanding economy. I was given a great welcome in the new kaza headquarters, all the heads of departments together with the doctor, the headmaster of the elementary school and the head of the forestry service in the kaza (this kaza in addition to being a rich rice growing area is also designated a forest area) crowding in to

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the Kaymakam's office to make me welcome. The Kaymakam pressed me to stay the night there and go on horseback next morning to visit one of the villages on the fringe of the forest area but I was unable to accept his invitation for I had to return to Sinop that might. I found time however, to visit several rice fields, write a letter in English for the Government doctor who was leaving for New York to take up an appointment in the hospital there in January 1955; and to take tea with the local school-master. It was, indeed, a tonic to meet cheerful and hospitable officials in such an isolated village and living under such difficult conditions. I visited Gerze, the remaining kaza of the Sinop vilayet, on the 9th of September, the day prior to my departure f o r Tokat. The route to Gerze follows the Boyabat road until kilometre 30 when it branches off in an easterly direction to the sea some 18 kilometres away. The waters of Kabali (Jay and its tributary the Karhk ("ay over which we cross on this route, are used to provide irrigation water for about 2,500 dekars under rice, a crop which has only been introduced within the last three years. On arrival in Gerze I went first of all to see the Kaymakam. He turned out to be a former Kaymakam of Bafra whom I had met when I visited that town in 1953. He insisted on taking me round the town and I afterwards went out to lunch with him at one of the local restaurants. To come to the stagnant Gerze from the up and thriving Bafra was something of a shock, nevertheless, he continued, the Gerze kaza had considerable potentialities if the people cared to show some spirit of enterprise. Fish abounded in the sea around Gerze and a cold storage factory had recently been opened at Sinop, which would enable fish to be stored prior to export to neighbouring vilayets or abroad. Yet there was no one in Gerze with sufficient enterprise to establish a small well equipped fishing industry there. The Town Council in Gerze like all the other kaza headquarters towns in the vilayet is predominantly Halk Party. Electric power for this town of 4,500 inhabitants is obtained f r o m a 120 h.p. Diesel engine but this is insufficient for its needs. Application has been made to the Iller Bank for a loan to buy a further diesel engine of about the same or slightly larger horsepower, but it was not possible to say at present whether the bank would grant the Town Council the facilities asked for. There is no piped water in the town, the people drawing their water supplies f r o m springs, fountains and wells. The water has a high lime content and the eggs produced in this area are consequently of the hard shelled variety a type which keeps fresh for long periods and is therefore eminently suitable for export. Over a million eggs are exported annually from Gerze. Other exports from the Gerze kaza are rice, tobacco, sheep and cattle. Wheat and maize were only grown in sufficient quantity to meet the needs of the kaza. I had been unable to contact the Americans during the first 3 days of my stay in Sinop to ask them for the loan of their 16mm projector. On the morning of the fourth day, however, I was informed that the projector and an

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operator would be available that day. I immediately contacted the Director of Police and it was arranged to have the films shown in an open space in the park. After the show had been well advertised, however, the Americans rang up to say that their projector had gone unserviceable and the whole arrangement had to be cancelled. It was impossible, therefore, to show the films in Sinop. I left Sinop in the early morning of 10th September on the journey to Merzifon (via Duragan, Vezirkóprü and Havza) where I intended to stay the night. I have described the route from Sinop to Duragan in a previous paragraph. The road up to this point is in good order and repair but between Duragan and the crossing over the Kizil Irmak the road is not metalled and has fallen into disrepair. It took us three hours to get from Duragan to the boat ferry across the Kizil Irmak although the distance is only 40 kilometres. Some 100 metres up stream from the ferry a ferro-concrete bridge is almost completed. The bridge is supported on 7 massive pillars in the bed of the river all of which are in position. It will be 600 metres long and will have a concrete roadway capable of taking two lines of traffic. The superstructure is in the process of construction. The chief Government engineer supervising the job there told me that the bridge would be completed before the end of 1954. The road from Duragan to the new bridge would soon be taken in hand and made fit for motor traffic in all weathers. He (the Government Engineer) thought the completion of the bridge would mean a lot to the economy of this rapidly developing area. Cars are at present taken across the river on two kayiks lashed together, which service costs 12 V2 liras. I thought this was rather high, but the Government engineer assured me that the usual charge was 15 liras for a car and 25 liras for a lorry. The road from the south bank of the Kizil Irmak to Vezirkóprü is in much better state of repair than the section on the other side of the river and that from Vezirkóprü to Havza is one of the best in this part of Anatolia. At Havza we came on to the main Ankara-Samsun highway and followed it to Merzifon situated some 28 kilometres from Havza. Just outside Merzifon and a few kilometres off the main road is a large Turkish military aerodrome at which a large force of bomber aircraft is maintained. It is for this reason, perhaps, that the arrival of a foreigner in Merzifon although the town is not a military area, arouses such suspicion in the minds of the local secret police, who appear to be in some strength in the town. Indeed, my unheralded arrival at a hotel to stay the night there caused much consternation and alarm amongst this worthy body of men and it took me some time to convince them that I had no sinister motive in visiting their town but merely that it was the most convenient place to spend the night on the journey from Sinop to Tokat. I set off early the next morning for Tokat. The road from Merzifon to Tokat passes through Amasya and Turhal and is in good condition throughout. I covered the distance of 156 kilometres in just over 5 V2 hours with a short stop for lunch. On entering Tokat I was stopped by a police car and directed to

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the Melek hotel where a room had been reserved for me by the Vali. I had no sooner bathed and made myself presentable than the Chief of Police and the Director of Agriculture called on me and said the Vali would like to see me in his private residence. As it was Sunday the day of rest for overworked officials, I had thought to defer my call on the Vali until the next morning, but an invitation from a Governor is a command in these parts and I therefore proceeded with all haste to his official residence on the outskirts of the town. The Vali greeted me very cordially and introduced me to his wife and his niece who was going up to the University (Istanbul) in September to study Physics and Chemistry. The niece spoke a little English but the Vali and his wife spoke nothing but Turkish. The Vali's only child, a girl about 17 years old was in bed with a cold. After dinner I had a long talk with the Vali about the economy of the vilayet and its problems and arranged to call on him in his office the next morning. I have given a short biography of this very cooperative and friendly Vali in Appendix A. In our long conversation the Vali spoke at length on many subjects. He began by defining the position of a Vali vis a vis the Government of the day and emphasised the fact that the appointment is first and foremost political. Failure or unwillingness to realise this had been the downfall of many Valis. A Vali, if he wants to be a success or indeed, under Turkish conditions, retain his position, must first gain the confidence of the political leaders in Ankara. To do this he must of course, be a good administrator but this in itself is not enough, he must also show by the energy and enthusiasm with which he carries out Government policy that he has faith in its efficiency and practicability. In short the Vali, as distinct from the ordinary official in Government service, while showing complete impartiality in his dealings with the different political groupings in the interpretation and application of Government laws and rulings, must be in general agreement with the tenets of the ruling party and have confidence in its motives. This is the first time I have heard a Vali discuss this controversial subject with sincerity and candour. As to his views they are in complete contradiction to those expressed by Valis in 1953, that is before the General Election and the overwhelming success of the Democrats. Then the line was to emphasise rather the non political nature of a Vali's duties. If the doctrine propounded by the Tokat Vali is a reflection of Government thinking, then it represents a complete volte-face and confirms what several recent events have implied (e.g. recall to Ankara of Valis of Ordu and Sinop who had not shown sufficient enthusiasm and energy in their cause; the open espousal of the Democrat cause by the Valis of Erzurum and Trabzon during the last election without any punishment being meted out to them; and the placing on pension of a large number of Valis with over 25 years service who did not have the complete confidence of Government leaders) that the Government have now abandoned any pretence at maintaining the principle of the complete neutrality of Valis in political affairs. This is, perhaps, a wise course to adopt, for it was obvious to anyone who studied Turkish affairs that this principle was very rarely observed.

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From doctrine the Vali went on to discuss the work done by his officials in agriculture; in road communications within the vilayet; in the provision of pure water supplies to the villages; in the expansion of the educational services in the villages; and in the maintenance and preservation of the valuable forest areas in his vilayet. To begin with agriculture the Vali was enthusiastic about the progress made since the Democrats came to power, especially in methods of crop production and control of disease. A wide range of crops, he said, were produced in the vilayet. Chief amongst them were tobacco and sugar beet; the industrial crops of cotton, flax and opium; cereals; vegetables; and a large selection of fruit including superior varieties of apples, peaches and grapes. From a financial point of view the most valuable crop was tobacco, which was grown on a small scale in the central kaza of Tokat and on a much larger scale in the kazas of Erbaa, Niksar and Almu§. In 1953, 5,300 hectares in the vilayet were planted with tobacco and about 3 x !i million kilograms produced. This tobacco is of low quality compared to that grown in Bafra and Samsun but that grown in Erbaa has one attribute which makes it readily sold despite its low quality. It burns slowly and steadily under all conditions and has become an almost essential addition to all Turkish tobacco mixtures. Large quantities of Erbaa tobacco are also exported. Next in order of importance and profitability comes the sugar beet crop, which can, of course, only be grown where abundant irrigation water is available and the area concerned is within economic distance of the sugar factory at Turhal. At the moment this crop is confined to the central Tokat, Turhal, Zile and Artova kazas, where irrigation water can be obtained from the Ye§il Irmak and its tributary the Cekerek Irmagi. Sugar beet is also grown on a small scale, however, in the narrow valleys formed by mountain streams, again within economic distance of the sugar factory. He (the Vali) did not know the area under sugar beet cultivation in his vilayet but about 250,000 tons were sent to the sugar factory at Turhal in the 1953 season. Before anyone is allowed to grow sugar beet his land is first inspected by officials of the factory who report on its suitability. If the land is passed as suitable the grower first signs a contract which specifies, amongst other things, the rotation he must follow (in the Tokat beet growing areas the rotation is a four year one usually sugar beet, wheat, maize, wheat) and lists the rules of good husbandry in beet growing. After the grower has signed the contract he is included on the list of those entitled to sell sugar beet to the factory and for every ton of sugar beet he sends to the factory he is allowed to take away V2 ton of oil cake, a by-product in the manufacture of sugar. Advances are made to the growers on the basis of the crop grown and artificial manures are given to them free. The sugar beet is bought by the factory at a standard price irrespective of the sugar content and if the grower is an efficient one and his land is situated reasonably near to the factory, he can make a good profit. There are fines for infringement of the terms of the contract after due warning, they can be removed f r o m the list of those allowed to send beet to the factory. This is only done on rare occasions, for with no other outlet for his crop, it means ruin for the grower.

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Flax, cotton and rice are at present being grown experimentally in various parts of the vilayet and results, said the Vali, seem to be reasonably good. There are two areas in the Tokat vilayet where these valuable crops could be grown with success provided ample water supplies for irrigation were available. These are the Kaz Ova which lies on both sides of the Yegil Irmak between Tokat and Turhal and the Niksar Ova which stretches south and west of Niksar town and is considered a part of the extensive Ta§ Ova which extends beyond Erbaa to the kaza headquarters town of Ta§ova. Plans to provide this irrigation water have been prepared and sent to Ankara. They include the building of a canal on the south or left bank of the Ye§il Irmak to irrigate the part of the Kaz Ova lying on that side of the river (this project is linked with the proposed barrage and hydroelectric installation near Almus) and the construction of a regulator on the Kelkit river above Niksar from which a canal will run to irrigate the Niksar Ova. (These projects are described later in this report). In the kazas where sugar beet and tobacco are grown wheat and maize are usually grown as part of the prescribed rotation. In 1953, a good year, about 300,000 tons of cereals were produced from about 150,000 hectares (375,000 acres). Much of this was exported. The long severe winter of 1953/54 had a serious effect on the yield of wheat in the 1954 season and reports indicate that the crop is only about 70% of normal. This means that exports this year will have to be seriously curtailed. The opium crop was completely wiped out this year by the same cause and late frosts largely destroyed the peach crop. The Vali then passed on to the work being done on the vilayet and village roads which are the responsibility of his headquarters. Much money had been spent on the construction and maintenance of vilayet and village roads which connect the villages with one another and with the kaza and vilayet headquarters towns. The village roads were largely constructed by the peasants themselves, their work being voluntary and unpaid. All bridges however, are constructed by the representative of the Ministry of Works in the vilayet, who also provides teams of paid trained workers f o r blasting operations and to control the work of the volunteers. I found the vilayet and village roads in the Tokat vilayet over which I later did many hundreds of kilometres, some of the best in the country and the maintenance work on them excellent. As regards pure water supplies to the villagers the Vali said that the Government attached great importance to the speedy provision of such water to every village of any size in the vilayet. He hoped that by the end of this year every village in his vilayet would be so provided. The Vali then touched on the question of preserving the valuable forest areas not only in his own vilayet but throughout the country. Up to the First World War and the subsequent development of heavy motor transport, the forests of Turkey, being for the most part remote from the large centres of

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population, had remained almost inviolate, for the depredations of the peasants, usually land hungry peasants, on the fringe of the forests area were necessarily on a very small scale. The advent of the lorry and the construction of roads linking the forest areas with the centres of population made possible the provision of firewood in the large quantities necessary to meet the needs of a population largely without indigenous supplies of coal. The destruction was increased by the establishment of modern sawmills to meet the ever soaring needs of the building and furniture industries in an expanding economy. This increased tempo of forest clearance combined with the absence of any sustained attempt at re-afforestation has resulted in large areas of wonderful forest country, which many middle aged Turks remember with nostalgia, being completely denuded of trees. This vandalism, said the Vali, continued until the Democrats came into power. By this time irreparable damage had been done and it was realised that drastic measures were necessary to preserve what remained. The number of forest guards was increased; heavy fines and imprisonment are being inflicted on those found guilty of damaging or destroying trees; and the forestry service were strictly controlling the amount of timber used both for firewood and in the saw mills. Now that the menace of uncontrolled forest destruction was realised and the Government determined to take the measures necessary to put an end to it, the Vali felt that the task of conserving and indeed expanding the valuable forest areas of Turkey had been considerably simplified. To complete the picture the Vali turned to the facilities for elementary and other education in the vilayet. In the headquarters town of Tokat, he said, there were eight elementary schools, sufficient to provide primary education to all the boys and girls of school age; an intermediate school (orta okul); a Lycee; a boys' technical institute; a girls' technical institute; and a domestic economy school for girls. There are intermediate schools also in all but two of the kaza headquarters towns. In those towns too, sufficient schools have been built to provide primary instruction to over 80 per cent of the boys and girls of school age. In the villages however, the situation was less satisfactory. Of the 703 villages in the vilayet only 260 were provided with elementary schools which meant that even today only about 40 percent of the boys and girls of school age (there were over 46,000 of them in 1953) in the villages of the Tokat vilayet had a chance of an elementary school education. In recent years funds have only allowed for the construction of about 10 new elementary schools annually in the villages which implied a period of at least 20 years (some elementary schools are big enough to cope with the boys and girls of two and even three villages in close proximity) before sufficient of these schools would be available in the villages to provide elementary education for all. The Government had realised, continued the Vali, that this leisurely progress in the construction of elementary schools in the villages is not good enough and a bill has recently been passed authorising greatly increased grants for this purpose from the national budget. It is hoped now to provide

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elementary schools in 80% of the villages by 1960, which should ensure primary education for the large majority of boys and girls in the country. This was a formidable programme in a primarily agricultural vilayet like Tokat but he (the Vali) would do his best, in conjunction with the Director of Education, to carry it out. Allied with this problem of providing adequate primary education was that of training and sending to these village communities a more enlightened and tolerant type of imam to direct their religious life. The imams functioning in the villages today and especially in the more remote villages of eastern Turkey were in general ignorant and fanatical, qualities which rendered them unsuitable as religious leaders and teachers in the Turkey of today. The Government realised that to produce imams more in accord with the times modern schools must replace the age old types attached to the mosques and those directing studies there, the aged Alims or scholars whose claims to scholarship were largely illusory, must give way to trained and qualified teachers. It was f o r this reason that in 1953 the responsibility f o r the education and training of imams was transferred to the Ministry of Education. The first of the new schools called imam Hatip Okulu (hatip means preacher, okul a school) came into operation in September 1953 and one of them was established in Tokat. The Vali suggested I should go round and see it for myself. The aim is to produce religious leaders who are first and foremost good Turks, with a good general education and without any trace of fanaticism. They will be treated as ordinary Government officials with the same privileges and responsibilities while their pay will be equivalent to that of teachers with similar qualifications. The revised pay and conditions of service combined with the new look in education and training should attract a good type of student to these schools. I called on the Vali the next morning to arrange the programme for my four days stay in the Tokat vilayet and to arrange for the films I had brought with me to be shown to the maximum number of people. To accompany me on my travels the Vali had detailed the Director of Agriculture who proved most co-operative and helpful and was a mine of information on all aspects of life in the vilayet. A s for the films, the Vali said he could not show them unless he had an assurance from me that they had been passed by the Turkish censorship in Istanbul. I naturally could not give him any such assurance and on ringing up the press attache from the Vali's office found that the films had not in fact been subjected to Turkish censorship. I told the Vali that I had shdwn these and various other films in at least 7 vilayets at different times but no one had brought up this point before. The Vali said he would ring up Ankara again in the afternoon and would do his best to have the objection waived. The permission must have been forthcoming for the films were shown that night and on following nights to very enthusiastic audiences. The Vali thanked me for bringing the films and for giving him and the people of Tokat an opportunity to see modern methods of agriculture and what was more interesting to him, the British people in their own setting.

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I spent the first day visiting places of interest in and near the town of Tokat. The following paragraphs describe briefly what I saw and heard during that day. Coming into the town from the Turhal direction the road turns south to cross the Ye§il Irmak by an ancient stone bridge (which is said to date from Selfuk times) and soon after the 3 kilometre long highway, which runs straight through the town from north to south, begins. This road when completed will be asphalted throughout its length and will be in the form of a boulevard, with two broad avenues lined with trees and divided by a grass border. At present only the first 1 kilometres is constructed in this form, but when funds are available the Town Council plan to complete it. Along the boulevard, buildings are in the process of construction which will give an air of distinction to the town. Outside this main street, however, the town is largely in ruins. The great earthquake of 1939 destroyed a large part of the town and the houses of today are merely the patched up ruins of the old. I asked the manager of the Tokat branch of the Emlak Kredi Bankasi which gives credits for building construction, what developments there were in this direction in Tokat. He said his bank was doing very little business in Tokat the main reason for this being the terms under which they are allowed to give credits for building in an earthquake zone. They were not allowed to give such credits in areas of this kind unless the structure concerned was to be built to an earthquake proof design. In the past a high percentage of the casualties caused by earthquakes have been due to badly constructed houses. Yet, despite the lessons learnt from past experience a majority of the people cling to the old cheap designs rather than pay a little more to incorporate adequate safeguards. As regards amenities, Tokat is provided with adequate electric power by two 125 kilowatt turbines; ample supplies of pure water are piped to the town from the mountains 15 kilometres south of the town and laid on to the houses; and an efficient system of drainage is in being. The town itself is built in the valley of the Behzat Deresi, a small tributary of the Ye§il Irmak and lies about 6 kilometres south of the latter river. Its position in this valley deprives it of much sunshine and in addition considerably : ncreases the humidity of the climate. It exposes the town also to the danger of flooding with its accompanying damage and loss of life. As an indication of what can happen in such floods, in 1908 over a hundred people lost their lives and a large number of houses were destroyed or damaged. It has been suggested that the present site of the town be abandoned and a new site chosen further up the hillside. The new site would have a better climate; avoid the menace of floods; and of special significance in an earthquake give a rock foundation for the houses rather than the present silt and gravel. Even if the complete abandonment of the present site is not possible owing to economic objections many people think that at least the schools, the hospitals and the official buildings should be moved to a safer area. If the town is to remain in the valley of the Behzat Deresi and there is little doubt that it will, steps must be taken to remove or minimise the danger of floods. The first essential is to

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deepen and widen the bed of the stream both in the approach to the town from the south and in the town itself. As an additional safeguard the short level bridges across the stream, which form an obstacle to the free flow of the water in flood time and thus increase the severity of the floods, should be replaced by hump backed structures. These would allow of the free flow of the flood water under all conditions. These floods arise after heavy and continuous rain in July, August and September when the ground is hard and dry and its powers of absorption limited. The result is that most of the rain water pours down the bare hillside into the bed of the stream and if the downpour is sustained the water level rises rapidly. If this excess water cannot get away quickly enough the stream over-flows its banks and when this occurs in the towns it may have disastrous effects. If the bare hills on either side of the valley of the stream were wooded, the branches and leaves would break the momentum of the heavy fall of rain and allow it to be absorbed more readily into the ground where it would be taken up by the roots of the trees. The amount of rain water flowing into the bed of the stream would thus be greatly diminished and the fear of floods correspondingly reduced. It would seem therefore, that the widening and deepening of the bed of the stream and the replacing of level bridges by the hump-back variety could be supplemented by a third and perhaps more decisive safeguard, the afforestation of the hillside above the river valley. This would also be a source of health and wealth to the community. The immediate environs of Tokat and indeed the whole of the central kaza are suitable for fruit growing and fruit plantations are being established rapidly throughout the area. Just outside the town on the Turhal road lies the 250 acre Government model fruit plantation which is controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture, This plantation not only produces good quality apples, pears, peaches, cherries and grapes and therefore serves as a good example to other fruit growers in the vilayet, but also raises annually about 100,000 young fruit trees which are distributed at prices well below the cost of production, to growers in the Samsun, Amasya, Zonguldak and Mara§ vilayets. Eighty per cent of these young trees are different varieties of apples, the remainder being pears, peaches and plum. Tokat has no big factories, but small artisans of many kinds flourish. Various copper utensils are made in the bazaar; the hand painting and printing of cloth has been developed successfully and much weaving is also done. Wine is also made from the grape called Narence which is grown extensively in the area. Wine is produced in Tokat by both the Monopoly and private firms and much of it is of high quality. Towards the evening of the first day I visited two schools in the town, the Lycée opened some 25 years ago and the i m a m Hatip Okulu or Training School of imams opened in September last year. I was not impressed with the Lycée. The building needed repair and the classrooms wanted brightening up with a coat of paint; the library consisted of a few ragged paper books quite

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inadequate I imagine for a school of over 700 pupils; and the equipment in the science section besides being very scanty looked in poor condition. The training school for imams, however, was in a different category. The building in which the school was housed was a temporary one but it had been repainted; the classrooms were a model of cleanliness and freshness and even the stoves were shining with a fresh coat of aluminium paint; the headmaster seemed much above the average and was full of energy and enthusiasm and the whole atmosphere was one of efficiency and modernity. The Headmaster said the school would soon be starting its second year with 140 students, the policy being to take 7 0 students per annum. The present building, he continued, although adequate for 140 students could not possibly accommodate a three year intake of 210 students. This was of course, not the end, for when the first year's intake are in their seventh and last year there should be almost 500 students in the school. The Government had now agreed to construct a new building especially designed to meet their requirements and the foundation stone had already been laid. The new school should be completed by September 1955, but if not, they hoped to occupy at least a part of it in that month. With regard to policy, the Headmaster said his aim was to produce imams who would be first and foremost good Turks. General education would go hand in hand with the religious instruction necessary to fit them for this calling. He hoped the imams produced would be good religious men but without any trace of bigotry or fanaticism. On the second day I visited Zile and Turhal. Zile is a town of nearly 20,000 inhabitants. It lies on the main Samsun-Ankara railway about 21 kilometres south east of Turhal. A Government highway runs from Tokat to Zile (through Turhal). An alternative route to Turhal is the vilayet road on the south bank of that river which passes through the village of Pazar. Zile is also connected via Turhal to Amasya and there is also a badly maintained road running direct to Amasya from Zile joining the Turhal-Amasya highway 12 kilometres south of Amasya. Plans are in hand to join Zile by a Government highway through £ekerek and Alaca to the main Samsun-Ankara highway at Sungurlu, which would bring Zile within 5 hours journey of Ankara. Zile is much the largest of the kazas of the Tokat vilayet and in ancient times was a prominent trade centre. After this it went into decay and it is only within the last ten years that it has begun to regain some of its former lustre. The long years of neglect however, have left their mark. The town despite its size has no hospital. It is only within the last six months that a good water supply has been provided and laid on to the houses; and there is no sewage system worthy of the name. The town however is provided with adequate electric power by two diesel engines and the town council have rather grandiose plans for the construction of hotels, shops and a market place for grain. Zile has awakened from her long sleep and the next few years should see great changes.

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Like Tokat, Zile is exposed to flooding from two small streams the little Bigaz Deresi and Sayar Deresi which are liable to overflow their banks after heavy and continuous rain in July, August and early September. To eliminate this menace the Ministry of Works has allotted 200,000 liras for the widening and deepening of the beds of these streams and for the construction of bunds on both banks of the streams where danger of flooding in the town is greatest. Work has already started on this project. The Zile Ova or plain in the centre of which the town stands produces a variety of crops, chief amongst these being sugar beet, cereals and opium. Of the opium produced in Turkey the best quality comes from the Zile plain and the complete failure of the 1954 crop due to the lateness and severity of winter came as a great blow to the farmers. Eggs are also produced in large quantities and in 1953 over 12 million of them were exported. After lunch with the Kaymakam of Zile in the restaurant attached to the fine hotel recently built by the Town Council, I set out for Turhal a rapidly expanding town on the Ye§il Irmak some 21 kilometres north east of Zile. After calling on the Kaymakam I was shown over the local sugar factory by the assistant manager who described various processes and gave me production figures for the last 3-4 years. The factory came into production in 1934 and until the opening of the new factory at Sulucu a village on the road some 8 kilometres north west of Amasya, Turhal was the youngest and the most modern sugar factory operating in Turkey. With the coming into operation of the factory at Sulucu in September this year, many of the more experienced workers in the Turhal factory were lent to the newcomer at Sulucu to help in bringing it to full production as quickly and as smoothly as possible. No new staff had been taken on in Turhal to replace those sent to Sulucu with the result that instead of 3 shifts of 8 hours there were now only 2 shifts of 12 hours. Twelve hours at a shift is certainly too long a time in the hot, noisy and humid atmosphere of a sugar factory and I noticed that both the administrative staff, who also have to do 12 hour shifts and the workers were looking pale and wan. The sugar factory at Turhal is operating continuously by day and by night for four months every year. During this period 300,000 tons of sugar beet are treated and about 50,000 tons of sugar extracted. The sugar content is on an average 18-19 per cent. The wealth produced by the factory is the basis of the prosperity of Turhal and the Kazova plain generally and the major cause of the town's rapid expansion and modernisation. Just outside the t o w n of Turhal is a large a n t i m o n y mine. Unfortunately I had no time to visit this mine but I was told that the equipment was of the best. Given reasonable prices on the world market this mine could be fairly prosperous but production is, at present almost at a standstill, owing to the low price f o r the metal obtainable on the world market. Antimony ore is still being mined in small quantities by a skeleton staff but it is being stored locally and will be sold when prices improve.

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I went to Turhal and Zile along the vilayet road through Pazar which runs along the south bank of the river. On the return journey to Tokat we followed the main highway along the north bank and thus had the opportunity to see the canal which irrigates the fertile Kaz Ova or that part of it which lies on the north or right bank of the river. A regulator has been built on the Ye§il Irmak some 10 kilometres upstream from Tokat and the irrigation water is led off from here in a wide canal which skirts the foothills on the north side of the river returning to the Ye§il Irmak at a point some 7 kilometres up stream f r o m Turhal. The length of this canal is just under 60 kilometres. The regulator maintains a good head of water and the sluice gate controls the quantity of water entering the canal. To complete the scheme a drainage canal should be dug into which any irrigation water not taken up by crops would drain. At present this water collects on low lying ground forming swamps which cut down the area of land available for agriculture. There is no canal as yet on the south bank of the Ye§il Irmak to water the fertile plain on that side of the river. This must wait the construction of the proposed barrage and hydroelectric scheme at Almus. To protect the Turhal plain from serious flooding when the Ye§il Irmak is in spate 200,000 liras is being spent on the erection of bunds at danger points on both sides of the river. On the third day I visited the headquarters town of the Ortova and Almus kazas. Almus had only been created a kaza a few months prior to my arrival. The road to Almus, which I visited first, leaves the main highway to Niksar at a point some 9 kilometres from Tokat where that highway crosses the Yegil Irmak by a ferro-concrete bridge. This is a recently constructed vilayet road which is kept in good condition. Almus lies about 25 kilometres from the junction of the road with the main Niksar highway. On arrival I went to call on the Kaymakam a young man who had only recently completed his two year preliminary training as Kaymakam. This was his first appointment and it was taking all his energies and abilities to put this new kaza organisation on a sound basis. Almus is situated some 4 kilometres from the Ye§il Irmak and there is as yet only a very bad track leading to the site of the proposed barrage and hydroelectric station. I succeeded in negotiating it on the Land Rover with some difficulty and found that the site was as near as I could judge it, at the point 7429 (1,200,000 Re§adiye). Here the hills on either side come down almost to the river bank and I judged that a barrage 200-300 f t high would have to be about 1000-1200 metres long at this point to close the narrow valley. The Director of Agriculture told me that a number of Turkish engineers had been down to examine the site and report on its suitability but he personally had no reliable information on the height and length of the barrage, or the area of land which would be submerged. He had heard a height of 90 metres mentioned for the barrage and that three villages would be submerged, but he would not be prepared to vouch for the accuracy of these statements. One can say however, that the project is a big one and the contract worth having. The consensus of opinion in Tokat seems to be that the large number of higher priority undertakings in hand at the moment must hold up for many years the commencement of work on this project.

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The construction of a barrage near Almus would certainly be of great benefit both to the agricultural and general economy of the Tokat vilayet. It would enable areas in the valley of the Ye§il Irmak to be irrigated where it is not possible to do so today; it could be a valuable source of electric energy; and by controlling the flow of water in the Ye§il Irmak could effectively prevent further flooding in the valley of this river which has, throughout the ages, caused so much destruction of property and loss of life. From Almus we returned to Tokat and then went down south to Kizilca the headquarters town of Ortova kaza. This kaza was established in 1921 and the headquarters town has been in succession Sulusaray, Q f t l i k (shown in the 1,200,000 map as Ortova) and now Kizilca. The move to Kizilca took place about five years ago mainly because it is situated on the railway from Samsun to Ankara but this change is now felt to have been a mistake. Standing at over 1000 metres the new headquarters at Kizilca is a bleak spot in winter, good houses are insufficient to accommodate the officials of the kaza headquarters; and snow often blocks road communications there for long periods, isolating the kaza from the vilayet headquarters in winter. From Tokat we followed the main Sivas-Tokat road to kilometres 13 where we branched off on to the vilayet road to Kizilca, a distance of 18 kilometres. This vilayet road is kept in good condition but we met no traffic on it apart from bullock carts and horse drawn vehicles. The shortest distance to the railway from Tokat is via this route to Kizilca and it was thought that this new vilayet road would encourage people to use Kizilca as a railhead rather than the more distant Turhal. This has not turned out as expected, mainly due to the primitive loading and unloading facilities on the railway there and frequent closure of the roads in winter due to heavy snowfall. It was getting dark when I arrived in Kizilca and I found the Kaymakam down towards the railway station with one of his officials. W e walked back to the town and had a coffee in the local coffee shop. This for lack of anything better, served as a club or meeting place for the local officials. I was soon surrounded by a circle of eager questioners and listeners, for the arrival of a foreign consul must be something of an event for officials serving in this isolated and unattractive village. During my short stay I learnt a great deal about the geography and agriculture of the Ortova kaza. It is divided into three nafaiye — Kizilca, Sulusaray and Q f t l i k . The land is very fertile but owing to its elevation and the consequent long and severe winter the crops are confined to cereals and sugar beet. In addition to these crops large numbers of sheep and cattle are reared. Near Sulusaray are some thermal springs which are said to be good f o r rheumatism, but the village has no amenities and the curative properties of these springs are largely untested. The village itself is built on what is called in Turkish a hoyiik or mound, which is said to be the site of an ancient Roman town. West of Kizilca is a chrome mine where the deposits of chromite are said to be very rich. The site, however, is some distance from the railway and road and has no modern equipment. The production therefore, is

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limited to about 5000 tons of chromite a year which is sent as such to Istanbul for sale. Production and transport costs are naturally high and the mine only pays in times of high prices for the metal. To run the concession efficiently would necessitate the purchase of modern equipment and machinery such as a concentrator, aerial ropeways and a fleet of lorries, all of which are beyond the means of the Turk who is at present running the mine. It is not known whether the grade of ore and the available reserves at the mine would justify the Government either taking the mine over or providing the necessary finance to run it efficiently and at full capacity. On the return journey to the main Tokat-Sivas highway we followed our original road as far as kilometre 10 but here we branched off to the right on to another vilayet road and crossing the £ekerek Irmagi by a ferro-concrete bridge, joined the main road a few kilometres south of Ciftlik. This large village was formerly the headquarters of the Ortova kaza and is very suitably placed for this purpose. It stands on the main Sivas-Tokat road which is never closed to traffic for any length of time; it has adequate well built houses to accommodate officials of the kaza headquarters; and the climate in winter is comparatively mild. The Director of Agriculture who accompanied me on this and my other tours in the vilayet, said the present Vali would like to go in reverse and transfer the kaza headquarters from Kizilca back to (,'iftlik, but the expense involved would be considerable and he did not think it could be justified in these difficult days. My last two days in the Tokat vilayet were spent in visiting Erbaa, Niksar and Re§adiye kaza headquarters towns on the Kelkit river. The road from Tokat to Niksar follows the main boulevard north from the centre of the town and branches to the right about one kilometre before the ancient bridge across the Ye§il Irmak is reached. It follows closely the south bank of the Ye§il Irmak until it crosses that river (at kilometre 9) by a ferro-concrete bridge 4 0 metres long supported by 3 massive pillars (brick concrete) in the bed of the river. The concrete roadway of the bridge is wide enough to take two lines of traffic. The road now follows the north bank of the river and at kilometre 10 we pass the regulator for the canal which irrigates that part of the Kazova lying to the north of the Ye§il Irmak. At kilometre 24 just before we leave the plain behind and begin to climb into the hills, a road branches off to the left to Erbaa. This was some years ago the main route and is undoubtedly the shortest route to that town from Tokat. It has however, been allowed to go into disrepair and although still passable it is seldom used today except by village transport. At kilometre 38 we began to descend the mountain range to the extensive Niksar plain. At the foot of this descent the vilayet road to Erbaa branches off in a north easterly direction, while the main road to Niksar continues north across the plain, crossing the Kelkit river by a ferro-concrete bridge 230 metres long, at kilometre 60 from Tokat. This bridge lies about three kilometres south west of Niksar.

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We left the main road to Niksar and followed the vilayet road to Erbaa. This road which is kept in good condition keeps to the south of the Kelkit river the whole way to Erbaa, a distance of 35 kilometres. On arrival at Erbaa I went to call on the Kaymakam whom I immediately recognised as the Kaymakam of Hopa in 1952. I was very pleased to see him for he had been very kind to me when I visited Hopa and had even allowed me to go in my car to the Russian frontier, a privilege only given on rare occasions to favoured people. After lunch I walked around the town with the Kaymakam and visited the tobacco store belonging to the Government Monopoly. The town of Erbaa was almost completely destroyed in the earthquake of 1939 and has been rebuilt on higher and from an earthquake point of view safer ground some three kilometres east of the old site. The town has been rebuilt mainly by the efforts of the inhabitants themselves although the Government has given several grants in aid. The new houses have, for the most part, been designed to afford the maximum protection against earthquake shock and Erbaa can face a severe earthquake shock today with much greater confidence than in the past. The new town which has a population of about 7000, is provided with adequate electric power by two Diesel engines and water is piped to the town and laid on to the houses. There is no drainage system. The main agricultural crop in the Erbaa kaza is tobacco which is grown in rotation with wheat and fallow. In a normal season 2 {¡2 million kilograms of tobacco are produced of which 500,000 kilograms is of too low a quality to be used in tobacco mixtures. Erbaa tobacco has a good colour and no smell. It burns well and for this reason although not of high quality is in great demand when tobacco mixtures are being prepared. I was told by the Director of Agriculture in Erbaa that the whole of the 1953 tobacco crop had been sold without difficulty at a good price. Another important crop is opium of which in a normal season two tons are produced from about 1,200 acres. The 1954 crop was completely destroyed by late frost. Only enough wheat and other cereals are grown to meet the needs of the vilayet. Part of this kaza is a forest area and animal husbandry is a source of livelihood for large numbers of people. Fruit, especially apples and grapes, are grown and exported on quite a large scale. Large quantities of vegetables of all varieties are also grown. Walnuts, salep (root of orchis mascula) and mahlep (berries of the prunus mahalep species of cherry) are also produced and for the most part, exported. Sugar beet is also being grown experimentally in the kaza and if results are satisfactory permission will be given to grow the crop in a four year rotation. Shortage of irrigation water and the long distance from the sugar factory in Turhal, however, are at present limiting factors in the production of this crop, in the Erbaa kaza. When the sugar factory near Amasya is in full production, however and irrigation water is available in larger quantities it will be quite economic to send the beet by road to that factory via Ta§ Ova (marked Dester on 1: 200,000 map of Samsun) and from there along the recently constructed highway to Amasya. The distance from Erbaa to the new sugar factory near A m a s y a is just about half the distance to the sugar factory at Turhal via Niksar and Tokat.

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I left Erbaa after lunch and proceeded to Niksar. The old road to Niksar crossed the Kelkit river by an ancient stone bridge some 150 metres long at kilometre 16 from Erbaa and then proceeded along the north bank of the Kelkit river to Niksar. This ancient bridge however was severely damaged in the 1939 earthquake and is officially closed to motor traffic generally and heavy lorries in particular. Villagers and others going to their work are allowed to cross the bridge for it is quite safe for pedestrians but a keeper is installed in a house at the entrance to the bridge to see that no motor traffic of any kind attempts to cross. Motor transport to Niksar from Erbaa now keep to the vilayet road until its junction with the main Tokat-Niksar road and then follow this north across the plain to Niksar. As I did not want to return by the same route as I had come and the Director of Agriculture who accompanied me was certain that the ancient stone bridge across the Kelkit river was quite strong enough to take the Land Rover, I suggested that we should persuade the bridge keeper to let us cross the bridge and proceed along the north side of the river to Niksar. This we did and found the distance to Niksar by this route 10 kilometres shorter than that south of the river. The road, however, had been badly neglected over the years and it took us over an hour to negotiate the 17 kilometres to Niksar. On arrival in Niksar I called first of all on the Kaymakam who has the reputation of being the most intelligent and efficient Kaymakam in the vilayet. He was born in Of, a kaza headquarters town in the Trabzon vilayet some 60 kilometres along the coast from Trabzon and a centre from which energetic and clever (other Turks call them cunning) men emigrate to all parts of Turkey. Both he and the Mayor who gave us dinner in his parlour, were very helpful and co-operative. I talked with them at length about the town and its history and its politics and the Tokat Director of Agriculture described the system of agriculture in the kaza. The town of Niksar which was badly damaged in the 1939 earthquake has been largely rebuilt further up the deep ravine on both sides of which it stands. As Cabeira in the ancient Kingdom of Pontus, it owed its importance to its great temple and its position on the route down the Kelkit river. On its annexation by Rome just before the Christian era it was renamed Neo Caesarea which survives in the Niksar of today. The town lies at the junction of motor roads north to Unye on the Black Sea, east to Re§adiye, south to Tokat and Sivas and west to Erbaa. As I mentioned previously the road west to Erbaa on the north bank of the Kelkit river now only runs about 16 kilometres to the ancient stone bridge across that river for the bridge was damaged in the 1939 earthquake and although still fit for pedestrian traffic, is unsafe for motor transport. Niksar is provided with electric power by a small hydro-electric installation on the Canikli Deresi which passes through the town and joins the Kelkit river four kilometres to south west. This hydro-electric power has recently been supplemented by a 120 hp. Diesel engine. These two sources together are sufficient to give a 24 hour service of electric power, a rare

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circumstance in the smaller towns of the Anatolian plateau. Drinking water is piped from three wells in the mountains to water tanks on the hillside above the town and from there laid on to the houses. There is no modern drainage system. The Niksar kaza consists of three nahiye Ladik, ("amici and the central kaza of Niksar. The (>imici nahiye is a forest area animal husbandry and forest products being the main source of wealth, although small amounts of cereals are grown. Most of the tobacco produced in the kaza, which amounts to ' / 2 a million kilograms, is grown in the Ladik nahiye. It is of better quality than that grown in the Erbaa kaza. An expansion of tobacco growing would be possible if the marsh land of the Niksar Ova could be drained, for if this reclaimed land were used for food crops, that further up the hillside, which is at present being used for this purpose, could be switched to tobacco growing for which it is eminently suitable. Experiments have shown that the Ladik nahiye is suitable for sugar beet cultivation and but for the uneconomic distance from the sugar factory at Turhal, production of this valuable cash crop would have started many years ago. With the completion of the new sugar factory at Sulucu near Amasya which was opened for production in September this year (1954) the Ladik nahiye has come within economic distance of a sugar factory via the route Brbaa-Tasova-Amasya. The year 1955 should therefore see a considerable acreage under sugar beet in the Ladik nahiye. It will probably be grown in a rotation with tobacco and wheat. The central nahiye of the Niksar kaza contains the fertile Niksar Ova or plain which is part of the Ta§ Ova which extends from Niksar to the kaza of Tagova. Large areas of the plain of Niksar are, unfortunately marshland and therefore unsuitable at present for cropping. These marshes were formed and are now kept in being by surplus rainfall in the hills seeping into the hills and gradually descending to the plain. As there are no drainage channels to take this surplus water away it forms marshy land in low lying areas, a feature of most of the undrained fertile ovas or plains in Turkey. T o prevent this some form of drainage system is necessary and here this should take the form of one wide drainage channel along the foothills with narrower subsidiary channels leading the water collected into the river. Although drainage channels as suggested above could effectively prevent the present marshy areas f r o m being replenished or extended by the surplus rainfall f r o m the hills, there must be parallel action to dry out the existing marsh land which covers such a large area of this fertile plain. A method of doing this which, it is claimed, would be quite effective and at the same time comparatively inexpensive, would be to let flood water from the Kelkit river flow over these marshy areas every year over a period of years. The silt which is brought down in large quantities suspended in the flood water is, in this way, deposited on the surface of the marshy ground while the water sinks below. Some ten or fifteen years of this treatment should result in the marshy areas so treated being covered with a deep layer of fertile soil or silt which would permit of these areas being brought back into cultivation.

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With the elimination of the extensive area of marsh land in the Niksar Plain, attention could be directed to making possible the use of land in the wide bed of the Kelkit river as it crosses this plain. This fertile land cannot be brought under cultivation at present for in the flood season the flood waters often extend and fill the whole wide bed of the river, destroying crops that may have been planted there, although for the rest of the year it only occupies a comparatively narrow channel. If the river could be confined to one main channel by deepening it and constructing bunds on each bank to prevent water over flowing into the plain, the fertile silt covered land of the present wide river bed could be successfully cropped. The only remaining problem would then be the irrigation of the large area of land made available for cultivation. This would entail building a regulator, preferably with some hydroelectric installation, at the place where the Kelkit river emerges from the ravine into the Niksar Plain and digging canals on both sides of the river from this point skirting the foothills and returning to the river some 30 miles downstream from the regulator. (A diagram illustrating the above irrigation scheme is given at Appendix B) The schemes outlined above, even if the money was available to carry them out, would take many years to complete. If brought to fruition, however, many thousands of acres of potentially fertile land could be successfully cropped and given sufficient irrigation water, valuable cash crops like rice and cotton grown, in rotation with wheat and maize. An increased acreage of tobacco would also be possible, for as stated in a previous paragraph, land on the lower slopes of the hills, which is at present used for food crops, could be switched to tobacco growing, the food crops being transferred to the more suitable reclaimed areas on the plain. The above schemes, however, are for the future. At present the plain of Niksar produces all varieties of vegetables, maize, opium, wheat and other cereals. This year (1954) the opium crop was destroyed by late frosts while the severe winter took its toll of autumn sown wheat. Fruit growing is also important in this area, grapes being exported to neighbouring kazas and vilayets. Eggs are also produced in large quantities, nearly 2 V2 million being exported in 1953. I stayed the night in a house in the grounds belonging to the Town Council, a few kilometres south west of the town. In these grounds is the famous Ayvaz thermal spring over which a house containing two bedrooms has been built. In addition to this accommodation three self contained chalets for the use of families have been erected in the grounds. Further chalets will be built when funds are available. A caretaker paid by the Town Council looks after the accommodation and the general running of the small estate. The water from the thermal spring is practically free from mineral content of any kind and is said to be good for kidney trouble. The night I stayed there, the chalets were unoccupied and the coffee shop empty, but I was told that the place is crowded, especially at week ends, during the summer months. Visitors come

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both from Niksar and further afield, for it is cool and refreshing under the trees after the close and sultry atmosphere of the town. The tepid water of the thermal spring is also a great attraction. After breakfast with the Kaymakam and the Mayor we set off the next morning for Re§adiye, the most distant kaza in the Tokat vilayet. The road from Niksar-Re§adiye runs almost due south from Niksar and stays on the north (right) bank of the Kelkit river until Kilometre 12 when it crosses the river and soon after turns east following the south bank of the river closely until Kilometre 24. Here the road leaves the river bank never, however, straying far away. At kilometre 39 the road descends to the river bank again and at Kilometre 46 crosses the left bank of the Kelkit river and enters the town of Re§adiye. I noticed that throughout the length of the road along the river bank there were signs of land slides and I was told that the whole of this area was of limestone formation and therefore subject to such earth movements. Many officials say that these land slides are a formidable obstacle and that the main road to Re§adiye should not approach that town along the banks of the Kelkit river but along the north bank of the Ye§il Irmak and Tuzanli Irmak cutting across the mountains to Re§adiye where the Kelkit and Tuzanli rivers are closest together (I: 200,000 0524 Re§adiye) The new route to Resadiye from Tokat might then be Tokat to Almus crossing the Ycsil Irmak at the village of Kadi Kopriisii and following the right bank of the Ye§il Irmak and Tuzanli Irmak until point 0254 given above where the road would cross the high mountains to the valley of the Kelkit river near Re§adiye. However, a great deal of money has and is being spent on the present alignment of the road so that it is safe to say that the Ministry of Works has definitely decided on the present alignment. At Kilometre 24, where the present road leaves the river bank and ascends the hills by a series of hairpin bends, a bridge is being built across the Kelkit and the new road continues on the right bank until it crosses back on to the left bank at Kilometre 39. It will then follow the present alignment into Regadiye. T w o bridges and a new road about 15 kilometres long have to be constructed before this route is completed. I was told that it was hoped to complete the new road and the two new bridges by late 1955. The town of Re§adiye has a population of just under 2,000 yet it has electric power sufficient for its needs from a small hydroelectric installation and water is piped to the town from the nearby mountains and laid on to the houses. The town was almost completely destroyed in the 1939 earthquake, but it has been rebuilt and there is now no sign of that disaster. The surrounding country in densely forested and there are numerous yayla or summer pastures to which the peasants retire in the summer months with their sheep and cattle. I called on the Kaymakam but he was away visiting a village in his kaza. I talked instead with the head of the Jandarma as the police stationed outside the towns are called, the Mayor and the leaders of the Halk and Democrat parties.

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Resadiyc being largely mountainous forest area the main occupation of the peasants is animal husbandry. The kaza is a poor one and overpopulation and shortage of agricultural land force a large proportion of the peasant population to leave their homes in the winter months and seek work in more fortunate areas. Many go as farm labourers and coolies to Niksar and Erbaa but they can be found as far afield as Istanbul, Samsun and Zonguldak. From there they send money to their families returning home in the spring to help in the spring cultivations. The area under wheat and other cereals is insufficient to meet the needs of the population and a large proportion of them have to be imported. Among the exports of this kaza are walnuts, walnut tree burrs, cattle and sheep and their skins, timber, honey, butter and eggs. Just outside the town is a thermal spring but this changes position so frequently that it is not possible to put a building over it. The temperature of the water is 38°—40°C. and it is said to be very good for rheumatism and skin disease. The water if drunk acts as an efficient purgative. The economy of Re§adiye will be greatly helped by the completion of a good road westward to Niksar and eastward to Koyulhisar where good roads connect to Sugehri, Sivas, Mesudiye and Ordu. The new alignment of the road westward to Niksar will be completed in 1955, but work on the eastward section has not yet been started. I have left comment on the political life of the Tokat vilayet to the end of the report because politics seem to play such a small part in the life of the quiet subdued people of this area. However, to get a picture of the situation I talked with most of the nine Tokat deputies (they are all Democrats) who were in the vilayet for the summer recess to contact their constituents and the local leaders of the Democrat and Halk parties, but found little of interest to record. The vilayet is, of course, overwhelmingly Democrat and unless and until something happens to prevent the Democrat Government from maintaining the present high prices for the crops produced there, is certain to remain so. I noticed that the Cumhuriyet Millet Party had no organisation in the Tokat vilayet an indication that the people of this area are not a particularly fertile field for their type of propaganda. I returned to Tokat during the afternoon and left on morning of the 19th September for Ordu. Before I went I called on the Vali to thank him for his many kindnesses to me during my stay in Tokat. I arrived back in Trabzon on the night of 20th September having been away nearly sixteen days during which I covered a distance of over 2,500 kilometres.

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APPENDIX A SHORT BIOGRAPHY OF FAZIL KAFTANOGLU, VALI OF TOKAT Fasil Kaftanoglu was born in Erzurum in 1909 and attended the elementary school, the Intermediate and the Lycée in that town. From the Lycée he passed into the Miilkiye in Istanbul where the career Valis of the future are trained. Passing out in 1933 he spent two years training at a vilayet headquarters before being appointed as Kaymakam. He served in different places as Kaymakam for 13 years when he became a Miilkiye Miifetti§ or vilayet Inspector which position he held for two years. He was then appointed Kaymakam at Bcçiktaç and when the Democrats came to power in 1950 was given Sinop as his first post as Vali. He found that vilayet a difficult proposition for a first appointment for the whole vilayet was and is predominantly Halk Party while he had the task of promoting Democrat Party legislation. He was very pleased to get posted from Sinop after about 1 ^¡i years as Vali although his appointment to the most distant and undeveloped vilayet of Hakkiari was hardly a compliment to his conduct of affairs in Sinop. However, he did not stay there long being appointed as Vali of Tokat in 1953. Fasil Kaftanoglu is married and has one daughter aged 17 1 / 2 - He is a well dressed and pleasing type of official. He appears energetic and intelligent. He seems to get on well with his subordinates and with the leaders of the Democrat Party both in Ankara and Tokat. He frankly admits that he feels it his duty as Vali to be whole hearted in his support of the policy laid down by the Democrat Government and to be enthusiastic and energetic in carrying it out. This Vali is good natured and has a very pleasant personality. I found him co-operative and helpful and he gave me the impression of being a good friend of Britain.

THE VILAYETS OF RIZE AND gORUH INCLUDING ROUTE REPORTS 10 October 1955 The vilayet of Rize has its headquarters in the town of that name. It lies between Longitude 41 and 43 east and Latitude 41 and 42.5 North. On the east it is bounded by the vilayet of (.'oruh; on the south by Erzurum; and on the west by Trabzon. With the recently acquired kaza of Findikh it covers an area of 4,400 sq. kilometres. Running parallel to the coast and at a distance of 40 kilometres from it are the Tatos range of mountains, with peaks reaching in places up to 4000 metres. The highest of these peaks are Bulut Dagi (3500 metres), Ka9kar Dagi (3940 metres — the fourth highest mountain in Turkey) and the Vercinen Dagi (3700 metres). Short swiftly running rivers flow in deep valleys from this mountain range to the sea. Starting from the east, the main rivers in the Rize vilayet are: Abu Deresi, Findikh Deresi, Firtina Deresi, Pazar Deresi, Kalayci Deresi, A§iklar Deresi, §airler Deresi, Biiyuk Deresi, Taslik Deresi, Q f t e Kavak Deresi, Dere Pazar Deresi and lyi Deresi. Land is cultivated up to a height of 1200 metres and all the 267 villages in the vilayet lie within this range. Higher up the land is principally forest with some pasture land called yayla to which the villagers and their cattle retire in the summer months. Apart from copper and manganese, the latter being produced in a rather primitive way in a mine near the coast, no minerals in workable concentration have been discovered in this vilayet. Organised prospecting, however, might reveal a different picture. Mineral springs occur in various parts of this vilayet and many of them are reputed to have remarkably curative properties. The best known thermal springs are at Hem§in a village some 20 kilometres south of Pazar, but in the absence of road communications and hotel facilities there is no prospect of it being developed in the foreseeable future. As one goes eastwards along the Turkish Black Sea coast the dry period of the hot summer season gets shorter and shorter until in the region of Rize it seldom exceeds three weeks to a month. Here rain falls on 252 days in the year, the annual rainfall averaging about 250 cm. The temperature in summer rarely rises above 80 degrees in the shade but the overcast skies and high humidity make it appear much higher. Sheltered from the north winds by the Caucasian mountains, winters in the coastal region of the Rize Vilayet are generally mild and it is only on very rare occasions that the temperature falls below freezing point. January and February are the coldest and most unpleasant of the winter months and snow sometimes falls during that period. Except on high ground further inland, however, it seldom stays on the ground for any length of time and the coastal road is rarely closed to traffic from this cause. On the south side of the Tatos mountain range is the high Armenian

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plateau and here the climate is quite different; drier and sunnier throughout the year, very hot in the summer season and very cold in winter. In place of the dense vegetation and greenness of the coastal mountain slopes we have the bare bleak ridges of the Armenian plateau. According to the 1950 census the population of the Rize vilayet was about 192,000 of whom some 165,000 lived in the villages and 28,000 in the towns. The recent census is said to have shown an increase of 20 per cent bringing the population of this vilayet well above the 200,000 mark. This number would be further increased if the thousands of young villagers who leave their homes every winter in search of work and are therefore registered in other areas were included, although the number of these has been steadily decreasing in recent years owing to great expansion in the tea industry with the increased demand for labour. Assuming the population of the Rize vilayet is now 210,000 (20 per cent increase since 1950 census), there are 46 persons to the square kilometres. The Rize vilayet is divided into five kazas including the central kaza of Rize. The names of these kazas and their population according to the 1950 census are given below: Name Central kaza Rize gayeli Pazar Fmdikh Ikizdere

Population in towns

Population in villages

15,070 6,350 1,970 2,298 2,200 27,888

56,556 29,718 52,479 8,958 17,100 164,811

The coastal region between Rize and Hopa is the old district of Lazistan, whose inhabitants are allied to the Georgians of the Caucasus as are the Ajars of the former district of Ajaristan, the mountainous area on the right bank of the (Toruh between Artvin and the Russian frontier and extending southwards to the Yalniz ('am mountain range. The present day inhabitants of Lazistan still preserve their language (as do the Ajars) which closely resembles that of the Georgians, but they differ from the latter in religion and customs, having been forcibly converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest of the area. Russia acquired Ajaristan by the treaty of San Stefano in 1878 but not Lazistan. Since 1921 both Lazistan and Ajaristan have been reunited under Turkey and are now roughly included in the two vilayets of £oruh and Rize. The Lazis who form the major section of the inhabitants of the Rize vilayet are an honest, intelligent and hospitable race. Like the majority of the people of the Black Sea coast they are quick to anger especially in disputes over land and women and quarrels of this nature often culminate in a shooting or stabbing affray. A Laz is an individualist and like the typical Englishman regards his home as his castle. Family ties, too, are very strong. Outside the

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towns the houses of the villagers are widely spaced and this wide dispersal of dwellings in the difficult mountain country of the Rize vilayet does not make for efficient administration and in particular adds to the difficulty of establishing sufficient elementary schools to meet the needs of the area. These dispersed dwellings are typical of all the eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets and account in part for the higher proportion of children without facilities for elementary education in these vilayets compared to those situated on the plateau where compact villages are the order of the day. The average Laz family seldom contains less than four or five children and with holdings rarely exceeding 3-5 donums the head of the family finds it difficult, if not impossible to support his family on the land available to him. He must therefore find some employment outside agriculture to supplement the income available from the cultivation of his land. As there is no alternative source of employment in his own vilayet the able bodied male members of the family have to leave their homes every year and seek work in other areas, often in distant parts of the country. The cultivators of Central Anatolia also have to do this in large numbers but one must distinguish between them and those of the Black Sea coastal vilayets. The peasants of Central Anatolia generally leave their villages and obtain work elsewhere in order to buy clothing and pay their tax for they can usually produce enough cereals on the land available to them, to feed their families. As stated above however, the Rize cultivator and this applies also to other Black Sea coastal vilayets, cannot produce enough food for his family from the land available to him and as he cannot see them starve, he has no alternative but to seek work in other areas and save sufficient money from his earnings to provide the food he cannot produce on his own land. Before the First World War and between the wars, many of these forced exiles went to Russia, Bulgaria and Roumania where they engaged in trade. Some amongst them went as far afield as Poland and became very wealthy. Today the exile in search of work must confine his activities to Turkey. This annual migration which in the past often amounted to 60 per cent of the able bodied male population of the vilayet, has grave social implications and is perhaps one of the causes why the women of these coastal vilayets are kept under such iron discipline throughout their lives. Isolated f r o m the A r m e n i a n plateau by t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of communications across the high mountains of the Tatos range the Lazis throughout the centuries have had to rely on the sea as the sole means of maintaining contact with the outside world and bringing in the maize and other supplies to make good the deficiencies in their own production. This dependence on the sea for all communications, for it is only in recent years that the coastal road has been built, has made the Laz a seafaring race and in addition to their skill in handling ships, they have acquired competence in building boats also. These boats are called kayiks and they vary in size from 25-500 tons load carrying capacity. They are built without plans, drawings, or specifications of any kind, production methods and skills having been handed

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down from father to son for many hundreds of years. Alterations in design rarely occur, although in recent years diesel and petrol engines have been installed as an auxiliary to sail. Their ceaseless struggles with the sea have kept the Lazis active and wide awake and contact with other peoples and other lands during their frequent voyages has made them more sociable and better mannered than the Turks of the Anatolian plateau. The population of the Rize vilayet is entirely Mohammedan and they are somewhat inclined to fanaticism in their religion. Family life and customs have changed little despite the Ataturk reforms, and the status of women, in European eyes at least, would appear to be low indeed. The women work in the fields and do the household duties, for their menfolk are often away for six months of the year earning money to support the family and on their return feel themselves entitled to a life of ease until the time arrives for them to leave again for another period of exile from their homes and families. The womenfolk seem content with this arrangement and have long since become accustomed to a life of hard work and sacrifice. They appear happy to allow their menfolk to disport themselves in the coffee shops while they do all the work and their wrath would immediately descend on any of their number who might have the temerity to complain of this rather one sided arrangement. The women of the villages and some even in the towns quickly cover their faces when a man approaches.

Communications Roads in Turkey are classified under three headings; national roads, vilayet roads and village roads. The national roads are built and maintained by the central Government through its Road Directorate, while the vilayet and village roads are dealt with by the local vilayet authorities. In the Rize vilayet there are only two national roads. One is the section of the coastal road Trabzon-Rize-Hopa passing through the Rize vilayet and the other is the road going inland to ikizdere and thence to ispir and Erzurum. The coastal road is at present being widened and the alignment altered where necessary. Every effort is being made to eliminate the present frequent incursions into the interior mostly to seek narrow river crossings or to avoid natural obstacles on the coast. With today's equipment such deviations from the coast are often quite unnecessary and the Turkish engineers in the 10th Road Area, w h o are responsible f o r this route, are confident that by means of ferro-concrete bridges, the construction of bunds and the judicious use of explosives they can keep the coastal road to the narrow coastal strip. This will shorten the route considerably and save road users much time and expense. Much progress has already been made in this direction and the Director of the 10th Road Area is confident that the bridges now under construction for the new alignment will be completed by the end of 1956. A route report on the Trabzon-Rize-HopaRussian frontier coastal road is attached to this report, as Appendix A. It describes the route as it was in late October 1955.

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The route Rize-ikizdere-ispir-Erzurum is also a national road. This is the shortest and most direct route; from the important and rapidly growing centre of Erzurum to the sea. The country through which the road passes is not very broken and is not normally closed to motor traffic by the winter snows, at least as far as the borders of the Rize vilayet. Even beyond this the road could easily be kept open by a minimum service of snow ploughs. In addition, cattle being driven to the coast for shipment to Istanbul f r o m the cattle rearing areas of the Armenian plateau can always find pastures on the way if they come by this route. In contrast to this, the transit road f r o m Erzurum to the port of Trabzon is much longer; passes through very broken country with two passes over 7000 f t high which are only kept open with great difficulty during the severe winter months; and there is no pasture land en route for cattle, hay having to be provided at great expense for the journey. There is no doubt that the completion of this route would be of great benefit both to the Rize and Erzurum vilayets and both vilayets have tried for many years to interest the Government in the project. Work was not started, however, until 1947. A route of sorts has now been completed from Rize to Erzurum and lorries and jeeps regularly do the journey in the summer months. Between ikizdere and ispir and Ispir and Tortum, however, bridges have not been completed and the road surface is very bad in places. The sections Rizeikizdere and Tortum-Erzurum are in good condition. Efforts are now being concentrated on the building of bridges and the widening of the road between ikizdere and Tortum but it may be some years before the route can be recommended for anything less delicate than a lorry or jeep. As for the vilayet roads the most important under construction at the moment are: Rize and (."aycli-Kaptan Pa§a. These roads are through broken country with steep ascents and descents and with the heavy rainfall of the Rize vilayet need much maintenance and repair to keep them open for motor traffic. Unfortunately resources are not sufficient for construction and maintenance with the result that the latter is often neglected and a vilayet road opened to traffic one year may be impassable the next. Forty seven village roads are also under construction in 1955. These are generally earth roads and can only be used by motor traffic during the summer months. All the earth moving part of the construction is done by the villagers of the area through which the road runs and they are summoned for work in accordance with a roster prepared by the Director of Public Works in the vilayet. Although this work is termed voluntary, a peasant refusing to do his share can be imprisoned and fined by the courts. Bridges are erected by contractors and road surfacing is also done in this way or by teams of paid workers employed by the Director of Public Works in the vilayet. When a village road increases in importance, the Vali, on the advice of the elected General Council of the vilayet, can upgrade it to the status of a vilayet road. Vilayet roads too are sometimes taken over as national roads and responsability for their maitenance is then transferred from the board vilayet

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authority to the Directorate of Roads in Ankara. The Government have allotted a sum of 500,000 liras this year (1955) for the construction and maintenance of vilayet and village roads in the Rize vilayet. In 1951 the allotment was only 100,000 liras, an indication of the importance attached to road construction by the present G o v e r n m e n t . For the construction and maintenance of these roads the Director of Public Works has been provided with four lorries, two compressors and one grader. There are no railways or air communications in the vilayet but the so called fast boat service from Istanbul to Hopa calls at Rize twice a week. There is no harbour at Rize, boats anchoring about V2 mile off shore. Passengers are disembarked in small boats and goods in lighters. The ancient wooden jetty is in the process of being replaced by a modern ferro-concrete structure at a cost of 400,000 liras. Foreign ships seldom if ever call at Rize, but privately owned Turkish cargo boats and kayiks in addition to the Government owned boats of the Denizcilik Bankasi, call at Rize to deliver and pick up goods.

Trade and

Agriculture

Unlike Trabzon, Samsun and Zonguldak, the port of Rize at present does little transit trade. What trade there is, is confined to the vilayet itself, surplus agricultural production being exported to other vilayets and in exchange food and clothing are imported. The people of Rize hope that when the road to Erzurum via Ikizdere and Ispir is completed transit goods to and from the Erzurum area will be drawn to their port instead of to Trabzon in view of the saving in time and distance involved. As regards agriculture, of the vilayet area of 4 4 0 0 sq. kilometres (440,000 hectares) only 40,000 hectares are cultivated, the remainder being mountain, forest and mountain pastures. In 1955, of the cultivated area 58 per cent was under arable crops, 8.5 per cent fruit plantations, 3.5 per cent hazelnuts and 30 per cent tea. The coastal region of the Rize vilayet is protected f r o m the cold north winds by the Caucasian mountains with the result that the temperature in winter seldom falls below 44° F. This combined with summer heat, makes the cultivation of tangerines, lemons and oranges possible; adequate rainfall throughout the summer months allows of the cultivation of rice without irrigation being necessary; while the summer heat, humidity, rainfall and low percentage of lime in much of the soil render the Rize vilayet an eminently suitable tea growing area. The climate of Rize is also suitable for rapid growth of the mulberry tree and it is possible to produce 2 crops of silk cocoons in the long summer season. Much larger quantities of hemp could be produced with profit and there are great possibilities in the expansion of fruit growing in this area. At present this expansion is being confined to tea and this crop has already become the mainstay of the economy of the Rize vilayet. The production of maize and hazelnuts, is being officially discouraged where tea and suitable types of fruit can be grown.

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The Tea Industry in Rize Tea growing was commenced in the Batum area some 70 years ago and the success achieved there gradually drew the attention of the Turks to the potentialities of their own eastern Black Sea coast in this direction. In 1924, a Turkish agricultural engineer was sent to Batum to buy seed and on his return to Rize opened an experimental station there to report on the suitability of Rize as a tea growing area. Tests over a period of 16 years proved that the climate and soil in Rize were quite suitable for successful tea growing and in 1930 regulations were issued defining the conditions under which tea plantations could be established on up to 30,000 doniims within 10 kilometres of Rize town. The land suggested for tea growing had first to be declared suitable by officials of the experimental station in Rize and as an encouragement to growers to start this rather uncertain experiment the Government agreed to provide them with seed, plants and fertilisers (for 5 years) free of charge. To help in covering the cost of preparing the terraces and planting them up with tea bushes approved growers were to be given an advance of 40 liras for every doniim of tea, this advance to be paid back in 5 annual instalments after picking has commenced. This original area gradually came into full production and with the Government continuing to pay high prices for the leaf, others began to clamour to have a share in this prosperous industry. To take advantage of this growing enthusiasm f o r tea the Government in 1951 decided on a further expansion of the tea growing area to 65,000 doniim and this was again increased to 105,000 doniims in 1954. The tea growing area now extended f r o m the Russian frontier as far west as Siirmene. In the autumn of 1955 the Government agreed in principle to the tea growing areas to be extended to certain areas in the Giresun and Ordu vilayets although cultivation trials in these areas have not been going long enough to obtain any reliable results. On the meagre evidence available the experts agree that the prospects for tea growing in the Ordu and Giresun vilayets are not promising. This extension of tea growing to unpromising vilayets without adequate trials is a purely political move made under pressure from influential members of Parliament f o r these two vilayets. Moreover, it is quite unnecessary for it is estimated that there are at least 400,000 doniims, four times the present targeted area of suitable land available for tea growing in the coastal area between Siirmene and the Russian frontier where the climate and soil are eminently suitable. When in full bearing at least 8,000 tons of tea could be obtained from such an area and this is nearly twice Turkey's present day consumption. From seed the tea plant takes a minimum of 5 years to come into bearing and it is twelve years before it comes to full production. Thereafter under suitable conditions it will go on bearing f o r 60 to 80 years. The establishment of a tea plantation requires both capital and patience, for it is at least 10 years before any profit can be seen from the venture. At present

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(1955) 230 kuru§ is given the grower for each kilogram of green tea leaf they bring to the collecting station and assuming that one kilo of dry tea can be produced from 4 kilos of green leaf, the leaf alone costs 9.20 liras a kilogram when converted into tea. Adding to this the costs at the factory (fuel, wages, insurance, amortisation of capital etc.) the cost of production of 1 kilogram of tea at Rize cannot be less than 13 liras. The Rize tea is mixed with Indian tea in proportion of 1 of Rize to 3 of Indian and sold to the people at T.L. 25 per kilogram. This compares to an import price for average quality Indian tea of T.L. 5 per kilogram. Under the most recent regulations for the encouragement of tea growing between Siirmene and the Russian frontier, in addition to the free provision of seed and fertilisers, a premium of 200 liras per doniim is allotted to each grower to help to cover the cost of preparing the terraces and planting the seed. Fifty liras of this premium is handed over when the project is approved, 100 liras when the terracing and planting up is finished, 25 liras a year later, and the remaining 25 liras if and when the plantation shows every promise of being productive. This premium is paid back in instalments over a period of ten years, the first instalment becoming due 5 years after work on the plantation has started. The tea growing area is administered and controlled by the head of the experimental station in Rize who has two assistants. It is divided for administrative purposes into zones with a controller in charge of 2-3 zones. Under the controllers are the tea experts who visit the growers periodically to report progress, register complaints and to give help and advice where needed. There are eight zones in the central kaza of Rize; 3 in the Hopa kaza; 1 at Meradit in the Bor§ka kaza; I in the kaza of Findikli; 3 in the Pazar kaza; 3 in that of CJaycli; 4 in the Of kaza; and 2 in the kaza of Siirmene. The total area under tea cultivation at present in the £oruh, Rize and Trabzon vilayets is 70,914 doniims of which 52,379 donums are in Rize, 8377 in the £oruh vilayet and 10,138 in that of Trabzon. With the area under tea fixed at 105,000 donums under the present programme we can say that approximately 70 per cent of it has already been realised (1955). There are at present two tea factories in production in the Rize vilayet, one just outside the town of Rize able to deal with 70 tons of green leaf a day and the other a converted fruit drying factory just outside Pazar which has a maximum capacity of 20 tons of green leaf per day. These factories naturally only operate during the growing season which is about 6-7 months of the year. Two more tea factories are nearing completion and each of them will be able to deal with maximum of 30 tons of green leaf per day. One of these factories is at Giindogdu and the other at piyeli. Further factories of similar capacity are planned at Hopa, Arhavi (or Findikli), Of and possibly Borgka but actual sites have not yet been decided upon. The two factories in operation were quite inadequate to deal with the large quantities of leaf which arrived at the height of the season this year (1955) and much of the crop was ruined due to delays in handling it and the general quality of the tea produced was low.

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Today the tea industry in Turkey provides a living f o r more than 44,000 growers with their families and 6 months employment to a further 4000 in the tea factories. The great expansion of tea growing in these vilayets in recent years has had a profound effect on the economic life of the vilayet. The annual migration of able bodied villagers in the Rize vilayet to other areas in search of work to support their families which has been a feature of life in this vilayet for many years, although not eliminated, has been considerably reduced in extent due to the increased demand for labour; the more economic use of land and the high prices received for the crop. A high proportion of tea plantations in the Rize vilayet are now at full bearing, for they were originally planted betwen 1935 and 1945, and with high prices being paid by the Government for tea, irrespective of the state of bearing of the plantation, most of the growers in this vilayet are very prosperous indeed. Tea production has been rising steadily throughout the years. In 1939 it was only 181 kilos but by 1951 it had risen to 306,000 kilos. By 1954 production had risen to 1000 tons and this year (1955) preliminary figures show a rise to 1200 tons. Unfortunately consumption of tea in Turkey has risen more than proportionately to the rise in production. Before 1950 consumption of tea in Turkey was about 700 tons, in 1952 2000 tons and by 1954 it had risen of 4200 tons. With an estimated production of 1200 tons of tea in 1955, 3000 tons will have to be imported from abroad if shortages are to be avoided. If consumption remains constant at 4200 tons, it should be possible, under the present programme of 105,000 dontims to produce enough tea to cover the demand completely within the next 10-15 years, for by that time the whole area should be in full production. Tea production in Rize is not at present an economic proposition. Indeed the costs of production are about two and a half times those in India. There, of course, tea growing is organised in plantations where everything can be run with the maximum efficiency. The Turks have deliberately turned their backs on factory production for this would mean forcing the peasants to sell their land, for few would do it willingly and taking on as workers in the factory those peasants who are agreeable, the remainder being forcibly resettled in other areas. The peasants in the Black Sea coastal areas cling to their land with great tenacity and any attempt by the Democrat Government to force them to sell even at very high prices would lose them the support of most of the villagers in this area and it is not therefore politically possible. The Turks think it possible to make the tea industry in Rize competitive in world markets even under the present system provided the prices paid to the peasants for leaf is gradually reduced as the plantations come into full bearing. Independent observers, however, doubt whether such a policy, although admirable in theory, could be applied by any Government in Turkey without losing most of their peasant following in the tea growing areas and no Government in Turkey would be prepared to face this. Be that as it may, there is no doubt that if the sums paid out in subsidies, premiums, fertilisers etc.

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to the growers and wages to the personnel of the large Government Inspection and Control Organisation, had been spent on the establishment of a number of well run tea factories on the Indian model instead of in bolstering up relatively inefficient widely dispersed peasant production, the tea industry would be on a m u c h sounder basis today. Even with first class organisation and administration it will be very difficult for the tea industry in Turkey to compete successfully with that in India and other low cost tea producing countries, but it has no hope of doing so under the present system.

Hemp From hemp the usual product is stout rope of various thicknesses and string. The thread produced from hemp grown in Rize, however, is so fine that cloth can be produced from it, in addition to rope and string. The cause of this fineness of thread is said to be the heavy rainfall and consequently cloudy condition in the Rize area, sunshine being necessary for the formation of starch which causes the fibres of the plant to harden. For many years before 1914, when Turkey was an imperial power, 200 tons of hemp thread were produced in the Rize vilayet and the cloth woven from this thread was exported to the most distant parts of the Empire. But today the production has fallen to 20 tons. It is thought that if a factory were established in Rize to make hemp thread for the village women to weave into cloth (making the thread by hand is a slow and wearisome task), the hemp cloth industry could be revived. The villagers would find it worth while to increase the area under hemp, for they could sell it at a high price to the factory and the village women of the eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets could earn good money in the winter months weaving cloth from the factory produced thread. This cloth could then be put on sale throughout Turkey. It is said that the Government looks with favour on the establishment of such a factory in Rize, but nothing is likely to materialise until the present tea expansion programme is completed.

Silk

Production

Experience has shown that the Rize climate is very suitable f o r the growth of the mulberry tree and that two crops of silk cocoons can be produced in one season. Mulberry seedlings are being distributed to the villagers interested in silk production and planting (110 trees to a doniim of land) has begun. With two crops of silk worms a year a doniim of mulberry trees can produce 18 kilograms of silk. A large number of growers are showing interest in this potentially profitable activity.

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Cereals The production of maize is discouraged in the Rize vilayet for the limited land available can usually be more profitably employed growing tea or fruit from the sale of which maize can be bought. Despite exhortations to the contrary, however, maize continues to be grown over large areas which could be more profitably used and the growers justify this on the grounds that they do not like being completely dependent on outside sources for the supply of their staple food — maize bread. Officials are hopeful that in time the villagers will realise the financial loss they suffer by growing an uneconomic crop like maize on land which could otherwise produce much more valuable crops. Wheat and barley are grown on only a very limited scale in the Rize Vilayet. Tobacco Two types of tobacco are produced in the Rize vilayet both in the Pazar kaza. There is first the kiyim tobacco which is well scented and very economical in use. This tobacco is much esteemed in Egypt. It is said that 1800-2000 cigarettes can be made from one kilogram of this type of tobacco leaf. The other type tobacco grown in the Pazar area is suitable only for cigars. Unfortunately, there is only a very limited demand for this type either in Turkey or for export, with the result that only a limited quantity is grown. These two varieties of tobacco cross pollinate one another and where grown in close proximity degenerate quickly. To prevent this the tobacco monopoly have issued instructions that only one of them is to be grown in any given area. As the kiyim scented tobacco is in great demand everywhere while cigar tobacco both inside Turkey and abroad can only be sold with difficulty, the former is gradually displacing the latter throughout the tobacco growing area of the Pazar kaza.

Rice Rice is grown in small quantities in the Pazar kaza. Potatoes Potatoes are grown in the ikizdere kaza in mountainous country which lies about 50 kilometres inland from Rize. Here the climate and soil are very suitable for this crop. At present the only outlet for this production is the town of Rize and the demand is therefore very limited, but with the completion of the road from ikizdere through Ispir to Erzurum the production of potatoes in the Ikizdere kaza is certain to be greatly stimulated.

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Fruit growing Oranges, tangerines, apples and pears are the principal fruits grown in the Rize vilayet, but grapes, plums and peaches are also grown. Hazelnuts are grown on a large scale in the kaza of Findikh which was transferred from the (Toruh to the Rize vilayet last year, most of them being sent abroad. Walnuts are also produced in some quantity. As tangerines are more resistant to frost they are gradually replacing oranges in the Rize vilayet. Pears are exported in large quantities to Trabzon and even as far afield as Erzurum. Pazar is the main centre for the production of apples, the type produced being very suitable for drying. A factory for this purpose was established some years ago in Pazar and was run for a number of years by the Istanbul Fruit Growing Co-operative'. The capacity of the factory was much greater than the fruit available and proving an uneconomic proposition it was closed down in 1948. As a temporary measure until the tea factory at Qayeli comes into operation, this fruit drying factory was turned this year (1955) into a tea factory. Working to full capacity it can produce 300 tons of tea during the season.

Animal

husbandry

In the cattle raising areas in the eastern Armenian plateau an outstanding feature of the countryside is the often extensive and well cared for pasture land in the immediate vicinity of villages which is generally used in common by the inhabitants of a village or area. There is nothing of this nature in the Rize vilayet for the available cultivable land is too restricted and therefore too valuable to be used for such purposes. Animal husbandry in the vilayet is therefore confined to individual peasants keeping a few cows to provide milk for their families and in some cases small flocks of sheep and goats. In winter the peasants feed hay maize stalks, wild vetch and Soya beans to their cattle and sheep and from the beginning of June to the end of September the animals are sent to the yayla', or summer pasture high up in the mountains. These summer pastures lie between 2000 and 3000 metres and lie along the boundary of the Rize vilayet with those of Erzurum and £oruh. The villagers are compelled to send their cattle and sheep to these yayla in the summer months for there is little pasture down below and both sheep and cattle lose condition quickly in the high humidity, the heat and the flies of the coastal areas. In 1954 there were 75,000 cattle, 22,000 sheep, 14,550 goats and 1300 horses and mules in the Rize vilayet. These animals are only just sufficient for the needs of the vilayet and few therefore are exported.

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Forestry Of the 440,000 hectares of the Rize vilayet, about 80,000 hectares are covered with forest. In the coastal region the most common tree is the alder. As we advance into the interior beech, chestnut and pine become more frequent. This large forest area is administered by a sub directorate in Rize working under the general control of the main Directorate in Trabzon. Timber from the Rize forest area is largely used in the timber factory near Iyidere which manufactures packing cases and boxes for goods produced by the Monopoly. Timber, especially chestnut, was until quite recently extensively used in the construction of boats called kayiks varying between 25 and 600 tons load carrying capacity and also in the making of wooden bridges in which the coastal roads abounded. Chestnut is used in this work owing to its resistance to decay in contact with water. Unfortunately it has been used so recklessly and so wastefully, that there is now little left to use. The chestnut tree is now being preserved by the forestry service and fresh areas are being planted. Ferro concrete bridges are gradually replacing wooden structures on the coastal road and the boat builders, being unable to obtain supplies of chestnut locally, have been compelled to get it from as far afield as Tirebolu and Artvin. It will be many years before chestnut is once again in plentiful supply in the Rize vilayet.

Education The provision of elementary schools in the villages has recently been spurred on by Government action. The budget allotment for education has been increased and Directors of Education in the vilayets have been told to concentrate all their energies on building elementary schools so that at least 85 per cent of the children at school age should be provided for by 1960. Although great enthusiasm and energy is being shown by all concerned serious difficulties are being encountered in carrying out the Government programme. Budget allocations, although perhaps adequate at the time they were decided upon, are not now sufficient for the task allotted. The vilayet authorities have naturally to compete in the open market f o r most of their building materials and shortage of supply combined with heavy demand (building activity is being encouraged by inflationary tendencies) have caused prices to soar. In addition to this even when elementary schools are established in the villages, there is the difficulty of obtaining adequate teaching staff, for the pay offered does not appear to attract recruits in sufficient numbers to satisfy the demand. At the beginning of 1955 there were 44,000 boys and girls of school age in the vilayet of whom 30,000 attended school. Of the 267 villages in the vilayet 180 or 70 per cent are provided with elementary schools. In the town the percentage is very much higher. A s for higher

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education, in addition to Rize town, there are middle schools (Orta Okul) in Findikli, Çayeli and Pazar and a new one is under construction in Ikizdere. In the town of Rize there are in addition to the Orta Okul a lycée, a boys' technical school, a girls' technical school and a school for craftsmen. Short courses of instruction in carpentry, blacksmiths' work and needlework are given to village men and women by a group of teachers who travel from village to village through the teaching year.

Hydro-electric

installation

on the Iyidere

The potentialities of the iyidere as a source of electric power have been appreciated for some time, but it was not until 1954, that money was allotted to investigate suitable sites for the barrage, chute and turbine house. As a result of this investigation it has been decided to build a barrage on the iyidere above the junction with the ikizdere (§eytan Dere on 1/200,000 ïspir) 1 kilometres above the headquarters town of ikizdere. From the barrage the water will run through a tunnel in the rock for a distance of 640 metres emerging at the junction of the ikizdere and iyidere. From here it continues in an open channel cut in the mountainside for a distance of 1800 metres where it will run down a 150 metre long chute to the turbines below. According to present estimates, this project should give about 16,000 kilowatts and cost about 12 million Liras. It will take at least 3-4 years to complete. The contract has been given to a Turkish firm working in close cooperation with a Hungarian company who will provide the turbines, together with the pylons and electric wire necessary to take the power to the place or places where it will be used. With a population of under 20,000 and no industry apart from the tea factory 2,000 kilowatts will be ample for the needs of the town of Rize for many years to come, so there will be a large surplus of electric power for use in the rather more industrial Trabzon area, where the supply is at present hopelessly inadequate.

Politics It is almost impossible to get either the Vali or any of the other officials in the Rize vilayet to talk about politics. Talking to the Democrat Party leaders one gets the idea that every thing is for the best in this best of all possible vilayets, both in the economic and political spheres. The leaders of the Halk Party on the other hand seemed to have lost all their energy and enthusiasm and avoided giving any opinion about the future of their party. The Republican National Party leaders were more alive, but their organisation hardly extends outside the town and their influence is small.

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There seems in Rize to be none of the rancour and bitterness in party relations that is so evident in the capital and in some of the large towns in other vilayets. Differences in political opinion do not extend to personal relations and on the surface at least the relations between party leaders both in the vilayet headquarters and the kaza headquarters towns were good. The continual expansion in recent years in the area under tea has created a great demand for labour throughout the tea growing areas on the eastern Black Sea coast and this has reduced the numbers of able bodied peasants forced to seek work away from home in order to support their families. This has naturally given great satisfaction to the villagers who are still loud in their praises of the Democrat Party to whom they attribute their good fortune. The villagers in these areas have another reason for satisfaction at this time. Continually increasing production of tea at prices well above anything paid for other commodities has made them prosperous beyond their wildest dreams and this too they attribute to the wisdom and prescience of the Democrat Party. Outside the prosperous tea, maize and fruit growing areas of this coastal belt which in the case of tea extends inland some 18 kilometres, the picture is entirely different. Here there is no Government subsidised prosperity with hearts kindling with gratitude towards the ruling party, but a dour struggle for existence on the fringe of the forest areas. This stolid and patient people have little or no inclination for politics and this apathy has probably greatly contributed to their neglect by successive Governments. It is doubtful however, whether anything short of removal to more fruitful and rewarding areas, which would probably be strenuously resisted, could do them any good. However, these unfortunate people form a very small part of the booming Rize vilayet and their votes if cast against the Government could hardly prevail against the mass of Government supporters in the prosperous coastal belt. To sum up we can say that the great majority of the peasants in the Rize vilayet still remain faithful to the Democrat Party and in this vilayet at least, the peasant vote is the decisive factor in winning a general election.

APPENDIX A ROUTE REPORT TRABZON - HOPA - RUSSIAN FRONTIER via RIZE, CAYELI, PAZAR and ARHAVI General Apart from two wide and lengthy deviations one between 10 kilometres east of Fmdildi and Arhavi and the other between the Peronit river and Hopa, where it runs for some distance into the interior before returning to the coast and one or two short ones the road hugs the coast throughout its length. All these deviations from the coast which wind into the interior for varying distances and cause great loss of

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time and money to motorists, are in the process of being removed and by the end of 1956 one should be able to traverse the whole length of the route without going for any length of time out of sight of the coast. Throughout the route, apart from a few narrow sections between Arhavi and Hopa, which in any case will be abandoned when the new alignment along the coast is completed, the road is wide enough to take two lines of motor traffic. The surface is metalled throughout and its condition is generally good. The construction of the new alignment of this route and its repair and maintenance is the responsibility of the 10th Road Area Directorate, whose headquarters are in Trabzon. The deployment of tracked vehicles off the road would be possible in some places between Trabzon and Rize but only to a limited extent near the coast. Soon after Rize, however, the mountains seem to rise more or less abruptly from the sea and are deeply wooded and furrowed with deep gullies formed by the numerous small streams which tumble down the mountain sides into the sea. There is thus no scope for manoeuvre off the road except in the deltas of the large rivers. There is only one small sector on the route which has a marked gradient and is rather tortuous. This is the descent from the mountains to the valley of the Sundara Dere near Hopa. The greater number of the bridges along this route are now either stone or ferro-concrete, but there are still a fair number of wooden ones. The Government plans to replace all wooden bridges on this route by ferro-concrete structures by the end of 1960. There are no ferries in place of bridges and except at river crossings where bridges are under repair no fording of rivers. When the rivers are in flood due to melting snow or continuous heavy rain in the interior, traffic along this route may be interrupted for varying periods. These interruptions are becoming less frequent as plans for road improvement come to fruition. The usual points of interruption in traffic are at rivers only partly spanned by bridges the remainder of the crossing being on the river bed; and where wooden bridges, often supported on wooden piles sunk in the bed of the stream, are washed away by the fury of the flood water. Route Starting from Taxim square in Trabzon the road runs parallel to the shore in an east south easterly direction until we arrive at the suburb of Degirmen Dere at kilometre 2. This area contains a tobacco store, a cold storage factory and a factory for manufacturing fish oil and flour. Kilometre

3

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4

Kilometre

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Here the road to Ma§ka and on to Erzurum (transit road) branches off to the right while the road to Rize carries on along this coast. Ancient stone bridge across the Degirmen Dere. It is 150 metres long and has 3 stone pillars with 2 arches. From this bridge the refuse of Trabzon is thrown into the swiftly running Degirmen Dere and carried to the sea. Here we pass on the left the quarry from which almost a million tons of stone was blasted to build the 3 breakwaters at the Trabzon port and on the right the headquarters of the 10th Road Area Directorate. Shortly after this the road widens and room for three lines of traffic. New alignment. Old alignment immediately on right.

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Beginning of Trabzon civil aerodrome on left. Compacted earth runway 1550 metres long. Runway not yet surfaced with either tarmac or concrete and is rapidly deteriorating. No hangars and no fuel. Surfacing of the runway has been put out to contract but there were no offers. As a result the Ministry of Communications have decided to do it themselves, but two years have now elapsed since the earth work was completed. Moskonak village on right of road. Passed the end of runway. New route joins old alignment and narrows to 2 lines of traffic. Up to this point crops have been maize and hazelnuts. Passing a large area on left with cucumber and melons. Near the shore is the large modern brick and tile factory. Germans in charge. Kuhla village. Immediately after leaving village the road crosses the Sana Dere. Ferro concrete bridge. 150 metres long, concrete road surface wide enough for only 1 line of traffic. Narrow pavement. Yomra village. Nahiye headquarters. Road crosses the Dirana river by a wooden bridge 130 metres long supported on wooden piles in the bed of the river. Except when it is in flood this river can be easily forded, which has to be done when the bridge is under repair. Surface of bridge is of wooden planks and it is only wide enough for 1 line of traffic. Road widened and surface improved. Small ferro-concrete bridge over stream. After this small bridge the alignment of the road changes. Instead of winding a little into the interior it keeps straight ahead and near the coast. The road has been widened and surface very good. Joined the old alignment and the road narrows to 2 lines of traffic. Arsen village. Recently promoted to a kaza headquarters from a nahiye. Tiles and bricks are made in this town which extends for quite a distance along coast. Hazelnuts and maize still the main crops. Falkoz Koy. Wooden bridge 20 metres long over small stream. The road crosses the Yanbolu river by a ferroconcrete bridge 30 metres long supported on a massive concrete pillar in b e d of stream. Concrete road surface wide enough for two lines of traffic. Kalecik village on left.

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Small stone bridge over stream. Passing Arakh headland. Arakh. Kaza headquarters town in Trabzon vilayet. Upgraded from Nahiye headquarters to kaza headquarters in 1954. Arakh Qar§i. This is the business centre as opposed to Arakh which is the administrative centre. Ferro concrete bridge 30 metres long across a river (name unknown). The road follows a new alignment staying on coast while the old road winds inland for several kilometres, crosses the Kara Dere by a long wooden bridge and then returns to the coast to join up with the new alignment. The new alignment continues along the coast crossing the river by a ferro-concrete bridge 150 metres long with a concrete surface and room for two lines of traffic. There is a narrow pavement on either side. The bridge is supported on 2 massive pillars in the bed of river. The new road stays on the coast while the old road winds inland and crosses the Humurgan Deresi by a wooden bridge. The new alignment keeps to the coast and crosses this river at Kilometre 43 by a ferro-concrete bridge 120 metres long supported on 4 pillars in the bed of stream. Ordinary metalled road surface with room for 2 lines of traffic. After crossing this bridge the road turns to the right and enters the town of Siirmene. Siirmene headquarters town of the kaza of that name. Population 3200. Main crop hazelnuts and maize but in 1952 the kaza was approved as a tea growing area up to a maximum of 5000 doniim. Of this 3000 doniim have already been completed. Siirmene kaza is the centre of the boat building industry which at one time was very prosperous. These boats called kayiks vary between 25 and 500 tons. Like the wooden bridges they are made from the chestnut tree, but wasteful use of it has almost denuded the surrounding forest of this type of tree. As a result this wood has to be brought to Siirmene from as far afield as Artvin and prices are therefore, very high. The Forestry Service have decided to preserve the remaining chestnut trees in the forest areas around Siirmene and to encourage the private planting of this valuable tree locally, but it will be many years before chestnut timber will again be available in the Siirmene area.

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47 49

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" at production here is now at a lowebb and is : likely to revive until new supplies of ^.icstnut trees are available locally. Civra Koy. Nahiye headquarters in Siirmene kaza. Beyin Evi Koy Stream here crossed by wooden bridge 50 metres long supported on 5 sets of wooden piles in bed of stream. Room for only one line of traffic. Bastimak Koy. Guleli Koy. Mahno Koy nahiye headquarters in Siirmene kaza. Road crosses stream by wooden bridge 30 metres long supported on wooden piles. Room for 1 line of traffic. Ivyan Koy. Here stream is crossed by ferroicrete bridge 50 metres long supported on 1 ar in middle of stream. Room for 2 lines of 'fic; iron railings and narrow pavement either side. Stream crossed by stone bridge about 40 metres long. Room for two lines of traffic. Alignment of the road changed at this point. Old road winds inland and crosses the Solakli Dere by a long wooden bridge returning to the coast and passing through the town of Of and joining the new alignment a kilometre beyond Of. The new alignment hugs the shore and crosses the Solakli Dere by a ferro-concrete structure 200 metres long supported on 17 iron pillars. Road surface concrete and room for 2 lines of traffic. The road by-passes Of and is wide and straight until it joins the old road at kilometre 61. Of passed on right. This is the headquarters town of the kaza of that name. The town of Of has a population of 1200 and the kaza 43,000. In 1952 authority was given by the Government for tea to be grown in the kaza up to a maximum of 5000 ddniim and by today over 3000 doniim have already been planted up. Other important crops are hazelnuts and maize. The people of this kaza are very enterprising and thrifty and when they settle in other areas, as they do in large numbers, they usually do well. They are rather fanatical in their religion and before the formation of the special schools for training Imams (Imam Hatip Okulu) large numbers were trained in the schools (medresseh) attached to the mosques in Of. Here the old and new roads join up and road narrows. Hazelnut plantations of the slopes interspersed with maize and tea.

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New alignment of road has been widened and stabilised and follows the coast closely while old road winds short distance into the interior crossing the Baltaci Dere by a wooden bridge joining the new alignment at Kilometre 65. §ehitler Koyii. New road crosses the Baltaci river here by a ferro-concrete bridge 80 metres long supported on 4 series of iron piles sunk in the river bed. Ordinary road surface but only room for 1 line of traffic. After crossing this bridge we are in the Rize vilayet. Here the alignment changes again the old road going inland and the new road continuing near the shore. Iyi Dere crossed by ferro-concrete bridge 200 metres long supported on 17 series of iron supports. Concrete road surface. Only wide enough for 1 line of traffic. No pavement. A short distance further on is the timber and box making factory belonging to the Ministry of Monopolies. Here boxes of different sizes are made for packing the different goods of the Monopoly Board. Old road returns to coast and joins the new. Road divides again, old road left inland while new road remains near the shore. Junction with old road. Road widened and stabilised. Pass the Soil and Manure Research Station on right. Enter Iyidere Koy. Nahiye headquarters in the Rize vilayet. There 3500 doniim under tea in this nahiye. Leaf sent to factory in Rize for processing. Sakat koy Dere Pazar koy. Nahiye headquarters and important tea centre. 5000 doniim of tea are grown in this nahiye the area stretching 18 kilometres inland. The Pazar Dere is crossed here by a wooden bridge 40 metres long supported on one pillar and 8 wooden piles in the bed of the stream. Wooden surface. 1 line of traffic. Uzun Kaya Koy Road crosses the Qifte Kavak Deresi by a wooden bridge 100 metres long supported on a series of 12 wooden piles sunk in bed of river. Wooden surface 1 line of traffic. Fener Koy. On the right of the road are the large buildings of the tea factory. This factory can deal with up to 70 tons of leaf per day, but in the height of the season this capacity is not enough to deal with all the leaf that comes into the factory. This year (1955) capacity in excess of

THE

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90

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tory had to be stacked in the open waiting m m the factory and much of it was ruined, len the new factory at Giindogdu (and one at yeli) are completed at end of 1955 things iuld return to normal. The season lasts about 6 nths and during this period 300 workers are employed. Costs of production high at the factory. Rize. Headquarters town of Vilayet of same name. Population of town 16,000 and of vilayet 152,000. Two reasonably good hotels in Turist Oteli and Tan Oteli and two good restaurants in §ehir Lokantasi and Park Lokantasi. No Shell agent but Sokoni Vacuum Petrol Ofis and Turk Petrol have agencies in town. Petrol in short supply in towns (October 1955). There are garages in the towns but repair work not reliable. One English language teacher in Lycée (Oct. 1955). New jetty under construction at the port. Repair depot for vehicles of Ministry of Works dept. in the vilayet. Islan Pa§a Koyii. Hayrat Koyil. The road now goes a short distance inland and crosses the wide bed of the T a j h k Deresi, first by a wooden bridge 100 metres long supported on iron and wooden piles sunk in cement blocks in the bed of the river. This is followed by a short distance on a bund then over another wooden bridge 25 metres long supported on wooden piles sunk in river bed. Width only sufficient for one line of traffic on both bridges. The new alignment, which is under construction, sticks to the coast. It crosses the wide bed of the Taglik Deresi by a ferro-concrete bridge nearly 200 metres long supported on 7 massive cement pillars sunk in the bed of the river. Concrete road surface wide enough for 2 lines of traffic. This bridge is almost complete and the new alignment should be open to traffic by the end of 1955. The factory under construction on left hand side of the road to deal with the tea production of the Giindogdu nahiye. Should be completed by the end of 1955. Maximum capacity 30 tons of leaf per day. Giindogdu Kôy. Nahiye headquarters town in central kaza of Rize. Important tea growing nahiye with 8,700 doniim under cultivation. Bôziik Kale Kôy. Balikçilar Kôy. Liman Kôy.

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Tea factory under construction on right of roads approaching £ayeli. This factory should be completed by the end of the year. It will be able to deal with up to 30 tons of leaf per day. Sabuncular Koy. Road crosses the Biiyiik Dere by a ferro-concrete bridge 70 metres long supported on 6 steel piles. Only wide enough for 1 line of traffic. Here the §airler Deresi is crossed by a ferroconcrete bridge 40 metres long supported on 3 concrete pillars in bed of stream. Concrete road surface and wide enough for 2 lines of traffic. The old alignment of the road passed through the town of £ayeli but the new alignment leaves it on the left. £ayeli. Headquarters town of the kaza of that name, in the Rize vilayet. Population of the town 6,500 and of the kaza 30,000. Tea is grown on 9,000 doniim in this kaza and is by far the most important crop. This area is in the process of rapid expansion. Ferro concrete bridge over the A§iklar Deresi 40 metres long supported on 2 concrete pillars in the bed of the stream. Concrete surface with room for 2 lines of traffic. Some ^¡2 kilometre beyond the bridge is the Biiyiik Ta§hane Koy. Ku£uk Ta§hane. Road now climbs in a series of hair pin bends and continues to follow coast high up on the mountain side. Road descends in a series of hair pin bends to the valley of the Melyat Deresi. Road crosses the Melyat Deresi by a wooden bridge 30 metre long and supported on 1 concrete pillar and 6 wooden piles, sunk in river bed. Mountain comes down steeply to the sea with the road high up on the mountain side. Descends again to the river valley. Road crosses the Kalayci Dere by a ferro-concrete bridge 40 metres long supported on concrete emplacement on each bank of the river. No supports in the bed of the river. Bridge wide enough for 2 lines of traffic. Road crosses stream by 25 metre long concrete bridge. No supports in bed of stream. Concrete road surface. Wide enough for 1 lines of traffic. After crossing the bridge road climbs up on the mountain side overlooking sea. Mountains on this stretch of road come down almost to the sea and there is never more than a narrow strip of shore.

THE

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Pazar. Headquarters town of the kaza of the same ame. Population of the town just over 2000 and f tb ; whole kaza 53,000. Main crops in the aza are tobacco and tea, with some hazelnuts and maize. At present there are only about 3000 doniim down to tea in this kaza but the area is expanding rapidly spurred on by Government encouragement in the way of provision of seed, grants of money and high prices paid for the leaf. The tobacco grown is largely that for making cigars. Apples are grown quite extensively here but the trees are old and diseased and the yield and quality of fruit low. There is a 100 metres long jetty (steel and concrete), to the west of the town to which a good road leads. It was completed in 1954. It has no lifting appliances. Here the wide bed of the Pazar Dere is crossed on two bridges. First a wooden bridge 25 metres long followed by a ferro-concrete bridge 80 metres long on 2 pillars in the bed of the stream. The wooden bridge has a road surface of wooden planks and is only wide enough for 1 line of traffic; the ferro-concrete bridge has a metalled road surface and is wide enough for 2 lines of traffic. Pass the old dried fruit factory which is now used as a tea factory. As a dried fruit factory it was not a success mainly because the growers in the area were not sufficient to allow it to be run on an economic basis. The tea factory is of temporary nature and will be closed when the new well equipped tea factories are completed and come into operation. The present improvised tea factory can deal with up to 20 tons of leaf in 24 hours. Road now running along the sea shore. Road crosses the Budasir Deresi by a ferroconcrete bridge 50 metres long on 4 steel supports. Only wide enough for 1 line of traffic. Cross wide bed of a stream first by a wooden bridge 20 metres long followed by a bund 40 metres long with last 25 metres crossed by a wooden bridge supported on wooden piles sunk in the bed of the stream. A road leads from here to the village of Eski Trabzon now called Hamidiye. A Russian jet aircraft landed here in Sept. 1955. After crossing the stream the road leaves the coast and climbs up on the mountain side high above the sea. Fruit plantations on either side of the road.

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Now beginning to descend of the valley of the Firtma Deresi. On arrival at river bank the road follows the river inland for about 1 kilometre before crossing it. Cross the wide bed of the Firtina Deresi by 2 bridges and a bund. The first is a wooden bridge 25 metres long supported on 2 sets of wooden piles sunk in the bed of the river. This is followed by a bund which runs for 200 metres up to another wooden bridge 175 metres long on 15 steel supports in the bed of the stream. The road surfaces on the bridge are of wooden planks and the width of these wooden bridges allows of only 1 line of traffic. Here the mountains retire a little from the coast enabling the road to run along a narrow strip of shore. At this point the road crosses a stream by a wooden bridge 25 metres long supported on a concrete pillar in the bed of the stream. Wide enough for only 1 line of traffic. After crossing the bridge we enter the town of Arde§en. Ardesen. Nahiye headquarters town in the kaza of Pazar. The area under tea is rapidly expanding and the hazelnut is losing ground. By the end of September 1955 nearly 3000 doniim had been planted down to tea. After leaving Ardesen the road stays on the shore. Rice is grown in this area without the necessity for irrigation owing to high rainfall, but its cultivation is not encouraged on land where tea could be profitably grown Gerekoy. Road crosses stream by wooden bridge 35 metres long supported on wooden piles sunk in bed of the stream. Roadway of wooden planks and only wide enough for 1 line of traffic. Another small wooden bridge over stream. 1 line of traffic. Small brick factory on right of road. Small wooden bridge over stream. Road still on shore which is almost 100 metres wide along this section. Small wooden bridge over stream 50 metres long on 3 wooden piles in bed of stream. Roadway of wooden planks wide enough for only one line of traffic. Mountains begin to come down to the sea again and the road climbs high up on the mountain side overlooking the sea. Begin the descent to sea level. On the shore again at Yenikoy.

THE

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R d goes inland a little to cross the Findikh Deresi by a ferro-concrete bridge 60 metres long supported on a massive concrete pillar in the centre of the stream. Concrete roadway with room for 2 lines of traffic. Findikh. Kaza headquarters town of kaza of that name. Until 1954 this kaza was in the Qoruh vilayet but for administrative reasons has been transferred to that of Rize. The population of the town is 2300 and of the kaza almost 9000. Until permission was given for tea growing in 1952 the Findikh (which was formerly called Vice) kaza concentrated almost exclusively on hazelnuts and maize with small areas of rice. Now tea is rapidly replacing both hazelnuts and maize, 3000 doniim having been planted in the 2 years the programme has been in operation. Going inland to cross the Abu Deresi. Noticed a new ferro-concrete structure being built on the coast and the new road will follow this alignment instead of going inland. Road crosses the wide bed of the Abu Deresi by a wooden bridge, 130 metres long supported on 3 concrete pillars in stream. Road surface of wooden planks with room for only one line of traffic. This long wooden bridge is followed closely by 2 small wooden bridges across stream. Road now running along shore.

The road now commences to go inland following a small stream. (The new alignment of the road which is under construction will follow the coast to Arhavi and then continue along the coast to Hopa). 177 Wooden bridge 50 metres long across stream that is being followed. It is supported on 2 sets of wooden piles in bed of stream. Wooden road surface for only 1 line of traffic. Road continues along opposite bank of stream. 179 Siimer. (old name Sumle) Koy. The road here is running through extensive hazelnut plantations. Fields of maize and rice and tea seen. 182 Derbent Koy. 184- Road winds through plantations crossing a series 188 of small streams by small wooden bridges. 190 Road crosses Arhavi Dere (called locally Kavak Deresi) at the village of Kavak. Ferro concrete bridge 50 metres long supports the 2 concrete pillars in stream. We go along the right bank of the Arhavi Dere to the sea at Arhavi.

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Just beyond the village of Kavak a partially metalled road leads off to Murgul (44 kilometres) and Borgka (63 kilometres). If the road were properly metalled and bridges strengthened it would save about 20 kilometres on the journey to Murgul from Arhavi compared to the route through Hopa and Bor§ka. 192 Maize and hazelnut plantations on either side of the road interspersed with rice and tea. 195 Arrive on the coast at Arhavi. This is the headquarters town of the kaza of that name. Formerly a nahiye headquarters it became a kaza in 1953. The town has a population of 1500 and the kaza 8000. Tea planting is quickly expanding in this kaza, 2700 donum having been planted since 1953. Here are luxuriant vegetation and wonderful scenery. Quite a good hotel here called the Sahil Palas. No petrol, no repairs. 195- From Arhavi the road goes along the coast for a 198 short distance then inland in a series of sharp bends but does not go far from the coast.

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198201 202

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Beginning to climb the mountain side in a series of sharp almost hairpin bends until one comes high up on the mountain side with a precipitous drop to the sea below. Here the mountains literally come down to the sea and there is no shore. Remain high up on mountain side above the sea. Descending with road remaining parallel to coast and sea in view. Still descending but going inland with sea no longer in view. Passing through hazelnut plantation a few kilometres inland and following stream. Beginning to climb again. Crossed stream by wooden bridges. Still climbing in series of bends with road too narrow for a car and lorry to pass. Still going inland. Sea in view again about 3 kilometres distant. Still climbing in series of bends and veering towards the sea. Road begins to descend again and going towards sea. Hopa visible for a short period on the descent. Crossed wooden bridge. Passing through hazelnut plantation with higher slopes of mountains densely wooded. Cross short wooden bridge. On side of the hill overlooking valley of the Sundara Dere near Hopa and descending.

THE

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In the valley of the Sundara Dere. Hazelnut plantations on either side of the road. Cross river by wooden bridge forty metres long supported on wooden piles sunk in the bed of the river. Surface of wooden planks and room for only 1 line of traffic. After crossing this bridge the road turns left and follows the right bank of the Sundara Deresi into Hopa. 220 Hopa. Headquarters town of the kaza of that name. The town has a population of 4400 only slightly smaller than the vilayet headquarters town of Artvin. The population of the Hopa kaza is 23,000. There is only one possible hotel in Hopa called f o r u h Palas and this is hardly to be recommended. The Murgul copper mine run a small guest house in Hopa but its use is confined to the staff of that mine. Shell, Socconi Vacuum, Petrol Ofisi and Turk Petrol all have agencies in this town, but in September 1955 Shell petrol was very difficult to obtain and heavy diesel oil was strictly rationed by the Town Council. The harbour at Hopa is quite unprotected from the violent north and north west winds and serious delays in the loading and unloading of ships are of frequent occurrence in the winter months. There is a long jetty (150 metres) here at which the copper from the Murgul mine and other merchandise are loaded into barges from which the goods are loaded on to the ships which anchor about II kilometre from the shore. Some French engineers are at present (Oct. 1955) investigating the possibility of building breakwaters here in order to form a small harbour where ships could be protected in rough weather and loading and unloading continue under all weather conditions. Their report is expected early in the New Year. Up to 1952 the only crops in the Hopa kaza were maize, hazelnuts and fruit, but since tea growing has been permitted the area planted has expanded at a rapid pace. Since 1953 3500 donum have been prepared and planted. It is expected that a tea factory will in time be built at Hopa to deal with the production in that kaza, but a final decision has not yet been made. 220 The road to the Russian frontier leaves Hopa is a north-easterly direction and begins to climb almost immediately and is soon on the mountain side high above the sea. Here again the mountains come down steeply to the sea and there is only a very narrow fringe of coast line.

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Abuslan Koyii. Behind this village is the high hill called Sultan Selim Tepesi. Sultan Selim is said to have admired this hill when he visited the area and it was named after him. Liman Koy. Here are the barracks f o r the advanced company of the frontier troops, who come under the direction of the squadron at Hopa. The commander of the advanced company was a captain. From an observation post on the headland one can look through a telescope at Batum. From Liman Koy we were escorted to the frontier at Sarp by the captain in charge of the company, who had been in the area for 2 years. Up to Liman Koy the road was moderately good but after that it gradually became worse and worse until between Kemal Pa§a and Sarp it was merely a track. Kemal Pa§a. Headquarters of the nahiye of that name in the Hopa kaza. The area under tea in this nahiye has grown from zero in early 1953 to 1600 doniim in the middle of 1955 and the pace of expansion is still growing. The climate in this area is even more suitable than Rize for tea growing and as the soil is generally of a low lime content in which the tea plant thrives, there is scope for great expansion. Road very bad. Here a small stream with waters swollen by rain and steep sides, was only crossed with difficulty by the Land Rover. An American pick-up which accompanied us as far as this was unable to cross and turned back. Sarp. This village is right on the frontier line half of it being in Turkey and half in Russia. The inhabitants on one side of the line can see their relatives on the other side, but owing to the strained relations between Turkey and Russia have not been able to speak to them for the last ten years. The frontier is patrolled here day and night by the Turks but the Russians seem to depend more on their high observation towers to control movement on the frontier. The inhabitants of Sarp on the Russian side work in the tea plantations all day and the town is practically deserted. When they return at night the Russians make whoopee on a big scale and with wireless sets at full blast keep the Turks awake to a very late hour. The Turks have nearly completed what they call a Protokol Evi a sort of barracks with a tower for observation and strong points f r o m which concentrated fire could be brought to bear on the frontier. It will also serve as a barracks for troops

THE

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actually patrolling the frontier and will be a rallying point for them in case of trouble.

T h e Vilayet of Coruh

General (,'oruh is a mountainous and sparsely populated vilayet in the north eastern corner of Turkey. To the north lies the Russian frontier and the Black Sea; to the east the vilayet of Kars; to the south Erzurum and on the west the vilayet of Rize. It has an area of 7698 sq. kilometres and a population in 1950 of 174,511. This gives a density of population of 20 persons to the square kilometre. Cultivable land forms such a small proportion of the total area of the vilayet that speaking generally the average amount of land available to the peasant is incapable, under present conditions, of providing for the needs of himself and his family even at bare subsistence level. To enable him to do even this, therefore and most peasants aim to do a little better, he is obliged to find supplementary work for several months of the year. As work of this nature is seldom available in their own villages or areas these peasants have to migrate temporarily to other areas, often far distant from their homes. This annual forced exile, which has been the feature of life in this and other Black Sea coastal areas for many years is called gurbet and the nostalgic longing of the exile for his home and friends is reflected in many of the local songs and ballads. Outside the favoured tea growing areas in the coastal belt, which comprises the Arhavi, Hopa and Borgka kazas, where this valuable cash crop has greatly diminished the necessity to do so, up to 50 and even 60 per cent of the young able bodied males in this vilayet go into forced exile every year in this way. Such a mass movement of the male population of a vilayet is bound to have widespread repercussions both on the social and economic life of the vilayet and has no doubt, been a powerful factor in conditioning the women of these eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets to the harsh code of discipline to which they are subjected throughout their lives. The authorities realise the social and economic dangers of this annual upheaval and where conditions of soil and climate are favourable make every effort to persuade the peasants of this vilayet to change over gradually from maize to tea growing in the coastal belt and from tobacco to fruit growing in the more inland areas. In this way there should be a steady increase in the income a grower can gain from his land and as the change over advances there should be a corresponding decrease in the number of peasants in the vilayet forced to supplement the income from their land by taking work in other areas. This is naturally a rather long term programme but the results to date have been very encouraging.

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This eastern Black Sea coastal vilayet is roughly enclosed between the lines Arhavi-Y usuf el i-Ardenu£-§av§at along the Russian frontier to the coast at Sarp. From Arhavi to the Russian frontier the Black Sea coast runs in an east north east direction and follows the line of the Tatos mountains of Lazistan. These mountains lie some 30-40 kilometres from the coast and contain peaks reaching to 12,000 feet. The steep northern slopes of the Tatos mountains are drained by deep cut torrent beds and are densely forested up to 7000 feet. There are two well marked regions in these eastern coastal vilayets. The coastal belt rising more or less steeply from the sea, thickly forested and rainy especially towards the east and the high inland zone. In this vilayet the high mountains of the Tatos range sharply separate the wet coast from the more arid hinterland, but further west where the altitude of the dividing mountain range is lower, the separation of types becomes less marked and the change more gradual. Most of the drainage is collected by short swift torrents cutting into the northern slopes of the high inland belt of mountains. The most important of these short rivers naming them from east to west are: Sundara Dere at Hopa; Peronit Dere 5 kilometres west of Hopa, and Arhavi Deresi (further inland called Kavak Deresi; flowing into the sea at Arhavi. The £ o r u h river, of the other hand, flows parallel to the coastline for 200 miles before cutting through the mountain range and entering the sea near Batum. Within the £oruh vilayet the chief tributaries of the C ° r u h river are the Oltu Deresi; Berta Su (with its tributary the Merehevi Deresi); and the Murgul Suyu. As one goes from west to east along the Turkish Black Sea coast the period of dry summer heat gradually diminishes and in the £oruh vilayet, the most easterly of all, all seasons are rainy seasons. Indeed the coastal belt of the (,'oruh vilayet has the highest rainfall in Turkey, the maximum registered in a year being 2.5 metres. The average annual rainfall for the whole vilayet is seldom less than 1 metre. Owing to the influence of the sea the summers are never very hot. Winters too are comparatively mild for the area is protected f r o m the cold northerly winds by the high mountains of the Caucasus. Snow falls almost every winter in January or February, but except on high ground in the interior it rarely stays on the ground for any length of time and the coastal road is seldom closed to traffic from this cause. On the high mountain ranges inland however, snow remains for 5 or 6 months, the high pass over the Yalniz Cam range between Artvin and Ardahan being under snow some years from October to the beginning of June.

The People The people who live in this secluded part of Turkey are f o r the most part Lazis and Ajars. The Lazis live in the coastal belt and the Ajars in the

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mountainous area east of the (,'oruh river between Artvin and the Russian frontier. These people are very different from the Anatolian Turks further west. They are said to be Georgians who were converted to Islam many years ago and this is probably correct for the languages spoken by all three are very similar. Both the Lazis and the Ajars are in general law abiding, theft being almost unknown amongst them. As in most of these eastern vilayets however, disputes over women and the division of summer pastures (yayla) often result in serious affrays and these end much too frequently in fatal results. Another common offence is kiz kagirma the kidnapping of young unmarried girls by the young men who are anxious to marry them but are prevented from doing so by the refusal of the girls' parents to give their consent. The kidnappings are usually carried out with the connivance and consent of the young women and when this is so there is a happy ending in the marriage of the young couple. When the kidnapping is done against the girl's wishes and this happens only on rare occasions, it is considered a very serious crime and the punishment is correspondingly severe. Vendettas of long standing were at one time a feature of the coastal area between Arhavi and Findikli, but these feuds are fast dying out. The Government has for many years sold maize cheaply to the peasants of the eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets, for maize bread has been their staple food from time immemorial and they cannot produce more than half their needs on the land available to them. The Government have long been known to favour the project of weaning these villagers of the eastern Black Sea vilayets from their excessive dependence on maize and a few years ago a decision was made to sell wheat to them at the same price as maize. To make the choice of maize more difficult than that of wheat, supplies of the latter were in more plentiful supply at the depots and many villagers were forced to take wheat simply because maize was not available when they asked for it. These tactics were not without some measure of success and many of the younger and therefore more adaptable villagers, have gradually developed a preference for wheat bread and are unlikely to return to their old allegiance. The older and more conservative peasants, however, remain faithful to maize despite the blandishments of the Government and what is perhaps worse often grow it themselves on land which could be put to better account growing tea. Maize bread has indeed through the centuries become an institution in this area and this combined with the fact that the local food — fish, a kind of purple sprouting called kara lahana and suet — go much better with maize than any other bread makes it very difficult for the villagers to abandon it. Yoghurt, butter and cheese are greatly esteemed and there are few villagers who do not keep at least one cow to provide their families with these highly prized foods.

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Communications Broken country and high rainfall combine to make road construction and maintenance in this vilayet both difficult and expensive. To make matters worse the allotment of funds for the purpose is based largely on the economic, political and strategic importance of the area and judged on these standards Coruh can hardly expect to be at the head of the queue. Nevertheless within the limitations set by inadequate funds considerable progress has been made in all fields, national, vilayet and village, during the last few years. National roads passing through the vilayet, that is roads maintained and usually constructed by the Central Government are three in number: (a) The coastal road Trabzon-Rize-Hopa-Sarp (Russian frontier) ; (b) Hopa-Bor?kaArtvin-Ardahan-Kars; (c) Borgka-Murgul. Route reports on these roads have been prepared and are attached as Appendices A, B and C. The vilayet roads are constructed and maintained by vilayet funds assisted by allotments from the Central Government, the work being supervised by the representatives of the Ministry of Works in the vilayet headquarters. The vilayet roads in (,'oruh are: (d) Artvin-Yusufeli-boundary with Erzurum vilayet ; (e) Bonjka-Maradit (on Russian frontier) ; (f) Berta bridge-Savsat. These three vilayet roads are likely to become of increasing importance to the economy of the Coruh vilayet as plans for the development of this vilayet mature. To take the road from Artvin to Yusufeli and on to the boundary with the Erzurum vilayet first. This road which continues through Tortum to Erzurum, is the most direct route from centres in the £oruh vilayet to Erzurum and was completed in 1954. Before this road was available fruit and vegetables grown in the £oruh vilayet could not be sent direct to Erzurum but had to go first along the Hopa - Artvin - Ardahan road to Kars and then via Sankami§ and Pasinler to Erzurum. This was more than twice the distance along the direct road via Artvin - Yusufeli and Tortum. Erzurum is expanding and developing rapidly and there is a great demand there for all the fruit and vegetables that can be offered at competitive prices. Such produce from the Artvin and Yusufeli kazas, for which there was formerly no outlet, can now be sent by lorry along the road and be sold in Erzurum at prices which can compete with similar produce from other areas. It is hoped that this direct route to Erzurum from the centre of the Coruh vilayet will stimulate the expansion of fruit growing, in Artvin, Ardenu? and Yusufeli kazas where the climate and soil are most suitable. The vilayet road from Borgka to Maradit and the Russian frontier has come into prominence not from any desire on the part of the Turks to increase their contact with the Russians, but because the area between Borgka and the Russian frontier and more especially around Maradit which is almost on that

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frontier, is ideal for tea growing and when the area now being planted up comes into bearing, which will be in about 3-4 years time, good road communications with Bor§ka will be essential. Work on the widening and resurfacing of the 22 kilometres long frontier road has already started and I was told by the local Director of Works that he planned to finish the j o b within the next two years. The third of these vilayet roads runs f r o m the bridge across the Merehavi Deresi near its junction with the Berta Su to Savsat and crossing the boundary into the Kars vilayet continues on to Ardahan. This is a much shorter route to Ardahan than the main road at present in use and the Vali of (iiruh told me he had suggested to his Government that if the road to Savsat following the valleys of the Merehavi and Savsat rivers was made wide enough for two lines of traffic throughout its length; the alignment along the Merehavi Dere kept to the river bank instead of climbing thousands of feet up the rocky precipitous sides of the valley; and if the long neglected extension of this road to Ardahan was resurfaced and repaired, this now unimportant vilayet road might well become part of the main road from Artvin to Ardahan, for it is not only much shorter than the present route through Tutunlu and over the 7500 f t pass in the Yalniz £ a m mountains, but also manages to avoid any really high ground on the way. There are no railways or air communications in the (,'oruh vilayet at present. Passenger boats run by the Denizcilik Bankasi call at Hopa once or twice a week depending on the state of the serviceability of the ships available and the kayiks of various sizes plying up and down the Black Sea often call at this port. Although there is no regular service, cargo boats run by Turkish private companies also call at Hopa f r o m time to time, but no foreign ship has visited this port for many years.

Trade and

Commerce

The main exports of the Qoruh vilayet at present are copper, tobacco, timber and cattle from the port of Hopa; live cattle exported across the frontier to Russia (forced sale owing to lack of winter feed due to very dry summer); and fruit and nuts to Kars along the main Artvin-Ardahan-Kars road and to Erzurum via the route Artvin-Yusufeli-Tortum-Erzurum. Tea plantations are being established in the Borgka, Arhavi and Hopa kazas up to a maximum of 15,000 doniims and factories will have to be built within the next three years, when the plantations come into bearing, to process the product. The first will be built at Arhavi and later possibly at Hopa and Bor?ka. It will be some 7 years before the new tea plantations reach maximum production and by then the Coruh vilayet should be exporting over 250 tons of this valuable product. The authorities are also planning an expansion in the areas under fruit in this vilayet and there should be no difficulty in selling the increased production in

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the rapidly expanding Erzurum area. In the cattle rearing area an effort is being made to improve the strain of cattle and this too would lead to increased exports of cattle and milk products. Development in the forest areas will be in the direction of better use of waste materials and the possibility of erecting factories to manufacture cellulose f r o m leaves and twigs is under consideration. The expansion of trade and commerce in the £oruh vilayet depends in a large degree on facilities for handling goods at the port of Hopa. This port stands on an exposed stretch of coast and ships loading and unloading cargo there are often prevented or delayed in doing so by bad weather. To make a sheltered harbour in Hopa a main breakwater about 800 metres long would be needed for protection against the violent north and north west winds and a smaller one to the south of this. This would cost at today's prices some 25 million liras. If it is necessary to dredge the harbour area some millions more would be needed. Ships would then anchor inside the harbour, unloading being done by ships derricks into barges which would be unloaded at the jetty which is in use today. With the addition of a 5-10 ton crane on the jetty, ships could be loaded and unloaded quite quickly and efficiently in all weathers and trade and commerce passing through the port could be rapidly expanded. Prosperity and expansion at Hopa would have a tonic effect throughout the vilayet. An increase in exports through the port of Hopa could come from three sources. Firstly in the shipment of cattle to Istanbul. The cattle raising areas of Gole, Kars, Pasinler and Erzurum are increasing production rapidly in response to the demands from the newly established meat combines and the meat export requirements. Cattle for export to Istanbul from these areas are either put on the train, when they arrive at their destination in very poor condition, or are driven across the mountains to Trabzon where there are good facilities for handling such cargo. If Hopa had the minimum facilities mentioned above, cattle for export from these areas would choose the route to Hopa rather than to Trabzon for this would halve the distance to be covered and greatly reduce costs. Timber could be an important second string. At present an average of only 40-50 cubic metres of timber are exported daily from the port of Hopa and this could be increased 4 fold without damage to the forest areas provided adequate replantation takes place and the Forestry Service puts an end to the depredations of the land hungry peasants living on the fringe of the forest areas. The mine at Murgul could be a third source of increased exports from the port of Hopa. The production of copper there at present is only 28 tons blister copper per day, which is almost all exported from Hopa. This copper output is only half that envisaged when the mine installations were erected but even this reduced output is only handled with great difficulty. If further equipment is bought and it is said that the Eti Bank has decided to do this, output can be increased to 50 tons. In addition to this, the new sulphuric acid plant is scheduled to come into operation in 1956 and the most conveniently placed port for exporting this increased production from

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the Murgul mine is Hopa. However, without better facilities for handling cargoes at the jetty and some came form of protection from the weather for ships, it would not be possible to handle it. Sulphuric acid and blister copper would pile up at the port and production at the mine would either have to be curtailed or that in excess of the capacity of the port of Hopa sent to Trabzon, for that is the nearest port that could handle it. This would greatly increase transport costs.

Agriculture The main field crops grown in the £oruh vilayet are maize, tea and tobacco. Hazelnuts are the most important crop in this part of the coastal belt and fruit is grown extensively in the Artvin and Yusufeli kazas. Maize: Maize bread being the staple food of the villagers maize is naturally grown almost everywhere in the (.xiruh Vilayet where conditions are suitable. However, its large scale cultivation in this vilayet is frowned upon by the agricultural authorities if the land concerned is suitable for the more valuable crops, tea or fruit. They point out that the peasant can buy maize from the Government for 20 kuru§ a kilogram which is very much cheaper than he can produce it himself and growing a crop like crop like maize is not good practice in a vilayet where cultivable land is in very short supply and must be put to the most economic use. Although many of the younger and more adaptable growers have and are taking this advice to heart, large numbers of the older and more conservative growers in the Coruh vilayet, like those in Rize, turn a deaf ear to appeals from officials for the more economic use of land. They contend that they cannot abandon maize growing altogether as the haulms form such a large proportion of their winter cattle feed and add that they are not in favour of complete dependence on outside sources for the supply of their staple food. Nevertheless, officials are hopeful that in time all growers in the vilayet will realise that the abandonment of maize and its substitution by more valuable crops wherever this is possible is in their own interest. Tobacco: Tobacco although still extensively grown in the Artvin, Ardeniig and Bor?ka kazas of the (."oruh vilayet is not looked upon with favour by the agricultural authorities and its cultivation, where fruit can be grown, is being actively discouraged. Agricultural experts contend that the price obtained for the tobacco crop does not justify the labour involved in its cultivation in the (,-oruh vilayet and that a gradual change over to fruit growing wherever the soil and climate are suitable and water supplies adequate, would be in the long term interests of the peasants. They justify this on the ground that good types of fruit, especially apples and pears, can be sold at high prices in the Kars and Erzurum areas and the return to the growers for a given area of fruit would be much higher than an equivalent area of tobacco and the labour involved would

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be very much less. The change over from tobacco to fruit is of course, a long term affair and tobacco will continue to occupy a position of some importance in the economic life of the vilayet for many years to come. Cultivation is confined chiefly to the Artvin, Borgka and Ardeniig kazas, the total area involved being about 10,000 doniims. The production in a normal year is about 700 tons. About 80 per cent of the crop is bought by the Tobacco Monopoly, the remaining 20 per cent being disposed of to private companies for export. The chief market for this tobacco is Egypt, but smaller quantities are taken by Poland, Czecho-Slovakia and France. Hazelnuts: Hazelnuts are grown extensively in the coastal areas of the Hopa and Arhavi kazas, but the soil and climate in these kazas are eminently suitable for the more valuable tea crop, the older hazelnut plantations are being ploughed up and prepared f o r tea planting. This is a process that is likely to continue at an increasing pace in the years to come for it is being actively encouraged by the agricultural authorities. Fruit and Vegetables: The soil and climate of the Artvin, Ardeniig and Yusufeli kazas are well suited for fruit growing, although little is produced at present outside the Yusufeli kaza. This is due in part to the peasants' aversion to change, but in greater measure to the fact that in most areas outside the coastal belt, where fruit growing in any case would not be economic in competition with tea or hazelnuts, fruit trees must be irrigated to give their maximum or indeed any reasonable yield at all. Any expansion in fruit growing in the Artvin, Ardcnug and Yusufeli kazas must, therefore, go hand in hand with costly irrigation works and these require time and money to complete. A rapid change over from tobacco to fruit growing is, therefore, not possible, even if economically desirable, but a slow advance in this direction, as part of a long term programme for the economic advancement of the peasants in these tobacco growing kazas, is a sound proposition. The flourishing Kars and Erzurum areas provide an expanding market for fruit and with the recent improvement in road communications between the £ o r u h vilayet and these areas and more especially the completion of the ArtvinYusufeli-Tortum-Erzurum road, fruit can now be taken there cheaply by lorry and in this way can compete on equal terms with produce f r o m other fruit growing areas. A s a first step in the encouragement of fruit growing in the Artvin, Ardeniig and Yusufeli kazas a model fruit plantation has been established near the vilayet headquarters town of Artvin. Here different varieties of fruit will be grown and their suitability for £ o r u h conditions tested. As a result of these tests the most suitable types will be selected, grafted on the usual stocks and grown in large numbers for sale cheaply to those in the vilayet who want to start fruit growing. Vegetables are grown on a large scale near Artvin and early vegetables in the valley of the C^oruh near Yusufeli. Most of the produce is sent to Erzurum and Murgul where they can be sold at high prices.

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T e a : Although tea has been grown on a commercial scale in the neighbouring vilayet of Rize since 1930 it was not until 1952 that permission was given for its cultivation in the £oruh vilayet. There are definite conditions of climate and soil for tea growing — a hot damp climate in summer, abundant rainfall throughout the spring and summer months and a soil without lime and these conditions are present in three areas in the (v"oruh vilayet. These are the coastal areas of the Hopa and Arhavi kazas and in an area in the Borfka kaza around Maradit on the Russian frontier. Permission has been given for 15,000 doniim to be planted with tea in these areas and the Government has agreed to assist in the way of provision of seed and money advances. Permission has also been given for 5000 doniim in the same area to be planted with tea without recourse to Government funds if anyone is willing to do this. Of the 15,000 doniim to be planted with Government assistance a total of 8500 doniim have been completed. Of this area 2283 doniim are in the Maradit area (in the Bonjka kaza and near the Russian frontier) 2004 doniim in the area around Hopa town, 1410 doniim in the Kemal Pasa area (half way between Hopa and the Russian frontier), and 2651 doniim in the Arhavi kaza. It can be seen from these figures that just over 50 per cent of the permitted area has now been laid down to tea and if the present rate of progress is maintained the whole area should be planted up by the end of 1957. N o plans have yet been made for the construction of a factory or factories in the £oruh vilayet to deal with the tea produced there. Some of the plantations will be coming into bearing within the next three years or so and it is thought that if a factory is built at Findikh (formerly Vice) or Arhavi this could, at least for the first few years of production, deal with all the leaf produced in the (.'oruh vilayet. As the area approaches maximum production factories may have to be established at both Hopa and Borfka. On the agricultural side the tea growing areas along the Black Sea coast are administered and controlled by the Head of the experimental station in Rize. The area under tea in the Coruh vilayet is divided into 4 districts each in charge of an official called the Bolge Memuru'. He issues seed and advances money to the growers; decides on the suitability of land for tea growing; and advises the tea growers on the care and cultivation of their plantations. The collection of the produce and its transport to the factory; payment to the growers; and the organisation and administration of the tea factory are the responsibility of the Manager of the tea factory and the officials under him. The tea factory comes directly under the control of the Ministry of Monopolies. The Government pays 235 kuru§, for each kilogram of tea bought from the producers, more than double the equivalent price paid to Indian growers. With this very high price for their product those growers whose plantations are at or near maximum production are very prosperous indeed and many of them are taking advantage of the present expansion programme to increase their stakes in the industry. Many peasants who were unable in the past to

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support themselves and their families on the land available to them can now do so with the aid of the high prices obtainable for tea. Even if they cannot, there is now no need for them to go to distant areas in search of work, for with the tea expansion programme in full swing labour is in great demand in their own villages. Wheat, Barley and Oats: Wheat, barley and oats are grown in the Savsat and Ardenii? kazas on a large scale and some is also grown in the Yusufeli kaza. With 139,000 doniim under wheat, 100,000 doniim under barley and 8000 doniim under oats, this represents almost half the 800,000 doniim of cultivable land in the vilayet. Production this year was ruined by lack of rainfall and many peasants did not harvest enough even to provide seed for next year. Drought on such a scale has not been seen in these kazas within living memory. As a result of the bad harvest there has been a big increase in the number of peasants who have had to leave their homes in search of work to support their families, the total being estimated at over 60 per cent of the able bodied males in the kazas of Yusufeli, Artvin and Ardeniig. This is said to be the highest recorded number for many years.

Animal husbandry The only really suitable area for cattle raising in the £oruh vilayet is the Savsat kaza and it is suitable for little else except wheat, barley and oats. The cattle are of a poor strain and give little milk. During the summer months man and beast retire to the yaylas or high summer pastures. This year little if any rain fell and even these high summer pastures dried out. As a result no hay could be prepared and the cattle returned to the lowlands in autumn in a very poor condition. With winter feed in short supply farmers are being compelled to dispose of large numbers of their cattle and as a result prices for all grades of cattle are very low. Russia is offering rather higher prices than those ruling locally and with an eye to a profit, some dealers have bought cattle in Savsat and driven them along the Ardahan-Qldir road to the Russian frontier for sale to Soviet officials there. Sales to the Russians, however, are no picnic. On arrival at the frontier cattle are often refused for trifling reasons and even when sales result, the preliminary negotiations are always prolonged. This involves heavy feeding costs at the frontier and these eat in to profits.

Population In 1950 the vilayet of (,'oruh had a population of 173,755 of whom 15,255 were in towns and 158,500 were in villages. Details of the population of the kaza headquarters towns and their villages are given below:

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In the country

13,875 18,758 9,300 22,080 22,750 39,361 32,376 158,500

Education As can be seen from the list under the heading Population (above) the (Joruh vilayet is divided into six kazas including the central kaza of Artvin. Of the 285 villages in the vilayet 257 are provided with elementary schools. In addition to the elementary schools there are middle schools (Orta Mekteb) in each of the kaza headquarters' towns and Artvin has the good fortune also to posses a Lycee, a boys' technical school and a girls' technical school. The villages are visited in turn by teams of instructors, men and women, who give lessons in black-smiths work and in needlework. Of the 22,310 children of school age in the vilayet 20,605 or 92 per cent go to school. This is said to be a record for the whole of Turkey.

Minerals Although the natives talk in glowing terms of the mineral wealth of their vilayet, apart f r o m the extensive mineralisation in the Murgul area, where there is a large and well equipped mine and a few deposits of manganese in the Hopa area, which are being worked in a primitive sort of way, the limited prospecting carried out in this vilayet has not shown any great concentration of mineral wealth. However, much more work is necessary before any final assessment can be made.

Murgul copper

mine

I have described the working of this mine in detail in a previous report and I propose in this one to confine my remarks to the changes in organisation and administration which have occurred since my last visit. As is well known, the machinery and installation at this mine are British and were installed by British engineers. The mine was designed for an output of 50 tons of blister copper per day but as the British engineers left before production started in 1951 they had no opportunity to find out whether this output could

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in fact be achieved in actual operations. The Turks, with advice and help from an American engineer, succeeded in stepping up production to 35 tons a day in 1953, but production is now running at only 28 tons a day. Most of this is exported to Istanbul from the port of Hopa. This low production is attributed to the non availability of spares. However that may be, the fact that installations scheduled to give an output of 50 tons blister copper per day are, under Turkish management, only producing with difficulty 28 tons per daymust be a matter of concern both to the Eti Bank and the officials running the Murgul mine. The manager of the mine, Suat £ali§lar received his e n g i n e e r i n g training in G e r m a n y and it is said that a m o n g his recommendations for increasing output at the mine was the purchase of new equipment from Germany. He told me that he was very surprised and I imagine rather annoyed although he did not say so, to hear on the wireless the day before my arrival at Murgul that the Eti Bank had signed an agreement with a British firm to supply new machinery for the mine and that this would be paid for in copper. He added that he was awaiting official confirmation of this agreement. It seems strange that the Eti Bank should make an agreement of this kind without first consulting the manager of the mine. As is well known, the copper ore usually mined contains a high proportion of sulphur and in the Murgul mine at present waste material containing sulphur flows into the river from the concentrator and other sulphur products are emitted f r o m the chimneys of the converter and reverberatory furnaces during the final refining process. Where these f u m e s come in contact with vegetation it is destroyed. The extent of devastation in any direction naturally depends on the strength and direction of the prevailing winds. In Murgul the prevailing wind is from the north and the area of greatest destruction extends for a distance of 3 kilometres in a southerly direction along the valley of the Murgul river. In a northerly direction the area affected is much less and seldom extends beyond a kilometre or so f r o m the mine installation. All whose land comes within this area of devastation are compensated, the amounts, which are exceptionally generous on British standards, being determined by a committee of 5 members from the Ministry of Interior who spend the whole of the spring and summer on this work. I am told that the compensation paid annually to the owners of such land is not far short of 2 million liras, some 20 per cent of the annual profits of the mine. The Eti Bank have f o r a long time been giving consideration to the construction of a plant to produce sulphuric acid from the waste products of the concentrator, the converter and the reverberatory furnace. This would not only put an end to the devastation in the country side surrounding the mine and large payments for compensation involved, but the sulphuric acid produced an added source of revenue. The project was put out to contract in 1953 and the contract was awarded to a French firm in 1954. The plant is now in the process of construction at Murgul. Although shortages of certain essential materials continue to delay progress it is hoped that the project will be

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completed at the latest by the end of 1956. When the plant is in operation the sulphuric acid produced will go by pipeline to Hopa. This town was at one time canvassed as a suitable place to establish a factory in which super phosphate would be made from the sulphuric acid that would be produced in the Murgul mine. Under such circumstances the acid could be sent by pipeline direct from the mine to the factory in Hopa and handling would be cut down to a minimum. This would be a great advantage for sulphuric acid is a notoriously difficult material to handle. Unfortunately the port of Hopa could not possibly deal with the large supplies of fertiliser that would be produced every day at such a factory, especially as this would be in addition to increased supplies of copper and perhaps cattle and timber. Even if the output of fertilisers could be handled efficiently at Hopa, supplies of labour and electric power in the area are quite inadequate for such a project. Trabzon has been suggested as an alternative site for this factory and with its modern port, ample electric power supplies and good reserves of labour, it is certainly a much better choice than Hopa for the purpose.

Political outlook in the Qoruh vilayet (October 1955) When I asked the Vali to give me his impressions of the political situation in his vilayet, he first of all emphasised that the people generally were not very politically minded and for the present at any rate, seemed satisfied with what is being done for them by the Government. The vilayet of C^oruh has always been overwhelmingly Democrat and he saw no signs of any weakening in that allegiance. As for political life, he said that there was none of that bitterness and bad feeling between the leaders of the parties in £oruh that was so much in evidence amongst rival politicians in the larger centres of population. The press was also much more restrained. My interviews with party leaders in the Artvin, Savsat and Yusufeli kazas confirmed the Vali's statement. (I had no opportunity to talk with party leaders in the more prosperous tea growing kazas of Hopa, Arhavi and Bor§ka, although I had little doubt that the same would apply there). I found the party leaders on the very best of terms and the rough and tumble of political activity seemed to have no place in this vilayet. Indeed, politics in this vilayet seemed to me to be a sort of family affair where differences of opinion do occur but it is not considered the thing to air them in public. All this might give the impression that all is well in this beautiful vilayet and that the peasants are as one behind the Democrat Government. Although this may be true in the flourishing tea growing kazas of Arhavi, Bor§ka and Hopa, it is unlikely to be so in the grain and cattle producing areas of the Savsat, Ardeniig and Artvin kazas. As I described in a previous paragraph the prolonged period of drought in the late spring and summer this

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year brought near ruin to the villagers in this area and this winter a much higher percentage of them than is usual were forced to take work in other areas to keep their families alive. Trials and misfortunes on this scale breed dissatisfaction and unrest amongst even the most patient and forbearing of men and this could very easily be turned into hostility to the Government. Even if no active hostility is aroused their former confidence in the ability of the Democrat Party and Government to maintain prosperity in the countryside is certain to have been seriously shaken. To sum up: We can say that the position of the Democrat Party in the Coruh vilayet today appears to be as strong as ever and with the opposition parties content to remain more or less quiescent the Democrats seem set fair to maintain their position for some time to come. However, the serious losses in cattle and grain suffered by the peasants in a number of inland vilayets has given rise to discontent much of it against the Government. This could weaken these peasants' long standing ties of loyalty and devotion to the Democrat Party. In the tea growing kazas, however, where everything appears to be going well, the Government party is likely to remain in the ascendant.

APPENDIX A HILMi iNAN(; The Vali of Qoruh (1955) Hilmi Inan§, the present Vali of £oruh is, at 38, one of the youngest career Valis in Turkey. He was appointed some 7 months ago. He was born in Istanbul in 1917 and after attending the primary, secondary and Lycee in Istanbul, in 1936 entered the special college in Istanbul for the training of high officials of the Ministry of Finance and Interior. 1940 he became Kaymakam on probation and served in this capacity in Trabzon for two years. After this he was appointed to various places as Kaymakam, amongst them the kaza of Bor§ka in his present vilayet were he stayed for 2 '/ 2 years. In 1954 he became an Inspector of Vilayets (Mulkiye miifetti§i) and early 1955 a Vali. Young, energetic and intelligent this Vali is doing his best within the means available and these are not anything like enough to develop his remote, isolated and mountainous vilayet. Having served as Kaymakam at Bor§ka he realises the immense difficulties facing him in this task but he is out to do his best in the short time available to him. He is, as all Valis appointed by the present Government must be, a firm supporter of the Democrat Government if not the Democrat Party and he does not attempt to conceal his views. He does not hesitate to say that a Vali is a political appointment by the Government of the day and he realises that if he was not enthusiastic in carrying out Government policy he would not be a Vali for very long. Asked sometime before the municipal election for his opinion on the political situation in his vilayet he was quite confident that the villagers were firm in their loyalty and attachment to the Democrat Party and that the latter had nothing to fear from the activities of the Independent candidates in the coming election. This overweening self confidence was not borne out by the results of the election.

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APPENDIX B Route Report HOPA - BORgKA - ARDAHAN - KARS General The road follows the right bank of the Sundara Deresi for about 12 kilometres and then begins to climb into the Iskartsi mountains. At kilometre 19 the top of the pass is reached and the road then descends into the valley of the (,'ale Deresi to Borfka. Apart from few narrow sections the road is wide enough for 2 lines (lorries) of traffic to pass and the surface is good, for along it come heavy lorries bringing the blister copper from the Murgul mine for export and it is vital that there should be no halt in the flow of this material from the mine. From Borcka (where the road crosses to the right bank of the £oruh river by a long steel bowstring bridge) to junction of the Qoruh with the Berta Su the road follows the right bank of the C'oruh usually high up on the mountain side, with steep and sometimes precipitous drops to the river below. It is not wide enough for two lorries to pass except at intervals of 100-200 metres where the road is widened specially for this purpose. Owing to landslides and the consequent difficulty of maintaining this section of the route it has been decided to build a new road low down on the left bank of the (,'oruh river. Work has been started on this project but lack of funds and the difficulty of this terrain prevent rapid progress. It is not possible to leave the road on this section of the route. Although Artvin can be seen from various vantage points on this tortuous route, it does not approach nearer than 4 kilometres to it. From the junction of the Merehevi Deresi and the Berta Su, the road follows closely the right bank of the Berta Su for about 14 kilometres. It then climbs high above it and gradually leaves it. Some 22 kilometres further on the road begins the ascent of the Yalniz ('am mountain reaching a height of 7000 ft before descending to the Ardahan plateau. Up to this pass movement off the road is not possible, but once on the plateau deployment can be carried out almost anywhere. From Ardahan to Kars the road traverses easier country and is wide enough for 2 lorries to pass. Deployment of vehicles would be possible almost anywhere on this section and there are no tortuous sections or steep gradients which might limit movement. Between Hopa and Borcka the route is kept open in winter by a service of snow ploughs for it is essential that there should be no hold up in the transport of copper to Hopa from the Murgul mine. Beyond Bor§ka there is little movement on this route from the end of November to the end of May. Between Borcka and Artvin heavy rains often cause landslides even in the late autumn and these effectively close the route for relatively long periods. After this winter snows close it down completely until the thaw in May. Further on the 7000 ft pass over the Yalniz (.'am mountains is closed to motor traffic by snowdrifts for nearly 6 months in normal winters and longer when the winter is severe. From Ardahan to Kars the road runs across the 6000 ft high plateau which is snowbound throughout the winter months. We can say therefore, that between middle of December and the middle of May there is little motor traffic on this route apart from the section between Hopa and Boir§ka.

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Route The road leaves Hopa in a southerly direction following closely the right bank of the Sundara Dere. Kilometre

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The coastal road to Arhavi and beyond here crosses the Sundara Deresi by a wooden bridge. The road to Bor§ka goes straight on. Route still following river but on the mountain side high above it. On the bank of river again. Road crosses a tributary of the Sundara Deresi at this point by a wooden bridge 3 metres long supported on wooden piles sunk in the bed of the stream. Surface of wooden planks and wide enough for only 1 line of traffic. After crossing the bridge we enter Zorbi5i koy. Qavu§lu Koyii. Still following right bank of Sundara Deresi, now a small stream known locally as Qavuglu Suyu. Road now commences the long climb into the tskarsti mountains still following the same stream. Still climbing but road has left stream. Road passing through forest area. Still climbing. Road narrows here 2 lorries could not pass. Dumps of stones on side of road indicated preparation for repair work. Reached top of the pass and began to descend: road still in luxuriant forest country. Can Kurtaran koyii. Cross stream by 2 small wooden bridges at £ifte Koprii Koy. Descend to the bed of a small stream. Stream has widened. Beginning of £ale Deresi. Small ferro-concrete bridge over tributary of (.'ale Deresi. Diizkoy. Small ferro-concrete bridge over tributary of £ale Dere. Road on left bank of £ a l e Deresi. Road climbs the mountain side high above the river. Small ferro-concrete bridge across tributary of (Jale Deresi. Road here crosses to the right bank of the Qale Deresi just before it enters the Qoruh, by an iron girder bridge 50 metres long with road surface of wooden planks. Room for 1 line of traffic. Confluence of Qale Deresi with (Joruh. Just beyond this point the road crosses the Qoruh by a steel bowstring bridge 113 metres long of single span. Roadway of wood over metal

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supports with room for only 1 line of traffic. This bridge is said to have the largest span in Turkey and is very vulnerable. Bor^ka. The headquarters town of the kaza of that name. The town has a population of 2500. Electric power obtained from hydroelectric installation on the river £ a l e but no piped water. The ('oruh river is joined by the Oale Deresi at Bor§ka itself; by the Bagmi Dara Suyu one kilometre up stream and by the Murgul Q&y 3 kilometres up stream. Bor9ka lies on the junction of the roads to Hopa, Russian frontier, Murgul and Artvin and it owes much of its importance to this fact. Until recently the principal crops in Borgka kaza were tobacco and maize, but since 1953 when permission was given for tea to be grown at Maradit on Russian frontier the area under tea has expanded to 2 5 0 0 dontim, outstripping in importance the other 2 crops. No suitable hotel. Agencies of Petrol Ofisi and Turk Petrol in town. After crossing the bowstring bridge across the f o r u h the road turns sharply to the right following the right bank of the f o r u h in a south easterly direction. Road here crosses the Baginidara suyu (called locally Devi§ken Suyu) by a 3 arched stone bridge 5 0 metres long. Bridge supported on 2 pillars in stream. Wide enough for only 1 line of traffic. On right bank of the (Joruh river. Passed barracks housing a company of frontier troops. The road to Murgul on opposite bank of £oruh. Junction of the f oruh and Murgul ("ay. Road to Murgul leaves (,'oruh and disappears up valley of Murgul (.'ay. Kasmet koy. ibrikli Koy. Katibhanleri Koy. Road still on the right bank of £oruh. Road now begins to climb high up above river with a steep and sometimes precipitous drop to river below. Normally not wide enough to allow 2 lorries to pass but road widens at intervals to allow of this. Erenler Koy. Road still high up on the mountains above river. The only level pi a c t in this area is the road and in some places this is used for the local harvest only a small space being allowed for the passage of vehicles.

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Road leaves its position on mountains high above the Coruh and goes inland following right bank of a small tributary. The tributary is crossed by a small stone bridge. Be§ Agil Koy Bakir koy. Near this village is the old Quartzhane or Kuvarsane copper mine which was worked by the Turks until the commencement of the Second World War, when operations were transferred to Murgul. The old over-head cables can be seen from the road. Road returns to the old position on the mountainous area high above the Qoruh. Cross tributary of (Toruh by small strong bridge. Artvin comes in to view on the side of a mountain. Still on the mountain side high above £oruh river. Starting to descend following the river. £oruh now out of sight. Road going across undulating country. Beginning to descend steeply again in a series of sharp bends. On right bank of tributary of the Qoruh called Sotibar. Still descending. Police post and inn by small suspension bridge across the Sotibar stream. Road to Ardahan crosses the bridge while the road to Artvin follows the right bank of the ("oruh for 3 kilometres to an iron bridge 30 metres long across the river. From this iron bridge it is a 5 kilometre steep climb to the centre of Artvin passing the barracks of the frontier troops on the way. Crossed small suspension bridge over Sotibar and then followed the right bank of the £oruh. Road beginning to climb high above £oruh. Road on mountainside high above junction of £oruh and Berta Su. Road now following the Berta Su high up on the mountain side. Beginning the descent to the junction of the Berta Su and the Merehevi Deresi. Cross the Merhevi Deresi by a 2 arched stone bridge 40 metres long called the Berta Bridge. This bridge is supported on 1 pillar in the middle of the river. Before crossing the bridge a road leads off on the right bank of the Merehevi Deresi to Savsat.

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After crossing the Berta Bridge the road ows the right bank of Berta Su very closely ™ a distance of 7 kilometres. Road begins to climb the mountainside high above the Berta Su and then gradually leaves the river. Cross roads. Road to the left is the main road through Tutiinlii. That on the right, a vilayet road, goes down to the Berta Su (there called Cehennem Su) at Ardenii5 and then across country to junction with main road near village of Akarsu. I took the vilayet road which had deteriorated greatly since I traversed it some 18 months before. Ardenii9 on right. This town is the headquarters of the kaza of that name and has a population only 500. The population of the kaza is ,000. T o w n occupies a very impressive position on left bank of Berta Su (here called the Cehennem Su) flowing through a ravine with precipitous sides with a ruined fort above it. Very ancient town and an Armenian centre before these people were driven out of the country. There is an annual migration of the male population who have to leave their villages in this poor kaza and obtain work elsewhere to support their families. Chief crops tobacco and cereals with some cattle raising. Agricultural authorities are trying to persuade the villagers to plant fruit trees, which will be given to them either free or at a very low price, instead of tobacco as fruit gives a better return for the labour involved. After passing Ardenti§ at Km. 121, the road leaves the river and deteriorates rapidly. From here until the junction with the main road some 15 kilometres further on this vilayet road is only fit for the jeep type of vehicle and that only with difficulty. It is advisable to keep to the main road. The main road is joined near a village called Akarsu. Konakli Koy. Here the forest area of the Yalmz ^ a m mountains begin. Still in forest and now climbing to the top of the pass (7500 ft). Now above tree level. Small village not marked on map. Reached the top of the pass and began to descend to the high Ardahan plateau (5900 ft). Birbilan Koy. Small bridge over stream. Another small bridge. Yalmz £ a m gorge to the right. Cross bridge over stream.

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Small wooden bridge. Kinzotamal Koy. Now on the plateau at 6000 ft. Cross small wooden bridge (under repair). Haskoy. Spoke to the Muhtar who told me of the losses he and his fellow villagers had suffered in this year's drought. Wheat and barley had entirely failed and the pasture had dried up. Even if it rained now (Oct. 16th) they could hope for nothing in the way of grass. With no winter keep available he was driving his cattle to Karakose where he hopes to be able to buy hay to keep his animals alive this winter (1955/56). Most of the villagers however, were selling or had sold their cattle for which they had no winter keep, but the prices obtainable were very low. The Muhtar said he and the whole village population were hoping f o r substantial aid f r o m the Government in the way of seed for next year's cereal crop and perhaps help in the disposal of their surplus cattle. Sadivan Koy. Here the road crosses a tributary of the Kur river (marked Kuru Qay on 1/200,000 Artvin map) by a wooden bridge which was under repair (Oct. 1955). It was 50 metres long and supported on wooden piles sunk in the bed of the stream. Road surface of wooden planks and only wide enough for 1 line of traffic. The bridge being under repair we had to ford the river but there was no difficulty about this. The road now crosses the Kur river itself by a wooden bridge 60 metres long supported on wooden piles sunk in the river bed. Imagine this bridge and the one across the tributary would be unable to stand up to serious floods and would be in constant need of repair. In Ardahan I was told that plans had been prepared many years ago for the replacement of these wooden bridges by ferro-concrete structures but evidently other routes were considered more important. Sindizkem. Nahiye headquarters. Road crosses stream by small wooden bridge. Konk Koyti. Two small wooden bridges across stream. The people in this village are Kurds. Road branching off to Gole shown on map here but I did not see it. £ubuklu Koyti. §ehitler Koyti. Road now near the right bank of the Kur river.

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Ardahan. The headquarters town of the kaza of t name. The town has a population of 4,800 and the whole kaza 58,000. It stands on the Kur river and importance increased by its position on the roads from Batum and Hopa and Kars and its command of the road to Ahilkelek in Russian territory. Wheat and barley are grown in the extensive Ardahan Ova or plateau but this year (1955), the prolonged drought ruined the crop. It also dried up the pasture land. Owing to shortage of winter keep many farmers have had to sell their cattle at low prices. Some of these have been driven along the road to £ildir (Zurzuna) and on to the frontier for sale to the Russians but the Turks find the Russians very hard bargainers. The cattle on this ova are a very much better type than those in the Black Sea coastal vilayets. The town has electric light from hydroelectric installation but no piped water. Shell, Socconi Vacuum and Petrol Ofisi all have agencies in the town but no petrol available (Oct. 1955). No suitable hotel but there is a guest house run by the Government which is often allotted to special visitors. The town is divided into 2 Mahalle or quarters, one called Halif Efendi remains largely in ruins although 30 years have passed since the Armenians were driven out; the other called Kutemelik is in better shape with some building activity in progress. ^";spite the numerous beggars and ruined uses it is said that Ardahan is a very tsperous area, although this year's drought 355) has brought near ruin to many farmers, ave Ardahan in an easterly direction heading • the Russian frontier, oss stream by small wooden bridge. Koad crossing and wide Ova with cluster of pine trees on the hills. Golebert Koy (marked U? Yol on 1/200,000 map Qildir). The road to (,'ildir continues due east while route to Kars turns due south. The road to Qildir appeared to me to be an earth track and I imagine it would be little used except to drive cattle to the frontier for sale to the Russians. Road still on wide Ova with pine trees in groups on the hills. Cross stream by ferro-concrete bridge. Bogaz Koy Road following stream on left. Tepe Arasi Koy. Stream still on left. Haskoy.

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Stream crossed by small wooden bridge. Beginning to climb the foothills of Kisir mountains. Wooden bridge over stream. Wooden bridge over stream. Small ferro-concrete bridge over stream. Small stone bridge over stream. Crosses stream by ferro-concrete bridge 14-20 metres long. Qilavuz Koy. Nahiye headquarters. There is a large school f o r training teachers in this village. It was once a Koy Enstitusti or village institute but it has now become an ordinary school to train elementary school teachers. Incesu Koy. Wooden bridge across stream. Camcavus Koy. Cross Kars £ a y by a steel suspension bridge 60 metres long. Road surface of wooden planks and only wide enough f o r 1 line of traffic. Stone bridge across stream. Mezra koy. Railway line on left. Iron bridge 25 metres long across water course. Outskirts of Kars. Kars. Headquarters town of vilayet of that name. The town has a population of 21,000 and the vilayet 410,000. The town lies on both banks of the Kars river, in a deep rocky gorge. An old fortress stands in the north west part of the town on a hill almost surrounded by the river. Water is piped f r o m the hills 16 kilometres south east of the town. Electric power comes from a hydroelectric installation, unfortunately insufficient for the needs of the population and in winter water in barrage is frozen by the extreme cold. Much of the town is still in ruins although 30 years have elapsed since the disturbances after the First World War. The vilayet is still a stronghold of the Halk Party and as such it is neglected by the G o v e r n m e n t . Only one d e c e n t hotel-the Cumhuriyet Oteli. Shell, Socconi Vacuum. Petrol Ofisi and Turk Petrol all have agencies in the town but the intervention of the Chief of Police was necessary before I could obtain sufficient petrol to get to Erzurum in Oct. 1955. The people are inarticulate but the opposition party leaders complain bitterly of the indifference of the Government to the

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needs of this potentially rich vilayet. While Erzurum is overwhelmed with development projects — meat combine, cement and sugar factories, ample power supplies from Tortum Falls, modern aerodrome and a new university for the eastern provinces — Kars receives no help of any kind from the present Government above that which is needed for survival.

APPENDIX C ROUTE REPORT BORfKA - MURGUL General This is a first class road throughout its length. As a National road, responsibility for its upkeep rests on the 10th Road Area Directorate but the Eti Bank who administer and control the Murgul mine make a contribution towards its repair and maintenance. The road is wide enough throughout for 2 lorries to pass, to facilitate the movement of the heavy lorries which take the output of blister copper from the Murgul mine to the port at Hopa for export. The alignment of the road is first along the f oruh river to its junction with the Murgul Su then along the left bank of the latter river to Murgul. There are no tortuous sections or steep gradients en route that might restrict movement along it. Route While the road to Artvin and beyond crosses the f o r u h by the long steep bowstring bridge, the road to Murgul continues along the left bank of that river. Kilometre

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The Murgul f a y joins the f o r u h river at this point and the road then leaves the Qoruh and follows the left bank of the Murgul f a y . The valley narrows and the road climbs up the mountain side high above the river. Road returns to the river bank at this point and passes through the village of Erenkoy. Road crosses a tributary of the Murgul f a y by a bridge with wooden superstructure supported on a massive concrete pier in the centre of the stream. Wide enough for 2 lines of small car traffic, but not lorries. Passing new houses in process of construction for key workers and their families at Murgul mine. Murgul village. To enter the mine area one must cross bridge over Murgul f a y at which security personnel stand. Nahiye headquarters. The population of this village has trebled

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since the mine came into production in 1951. No hotel in the village but there is a good guest house on the hillside, belonging to the Eti Bank.

POLITICAL REPORTS a) REACTIONS TO THE GENERAL ELECTIONS IN THE TRABZON AND OTHER EASTERN VILAYETS OF TURKEY 4 May 1950 General (1)

(2)

(3)

The passage of the new electoral law through Parliament; the nomination of the II and Il^e electoral committees which are responsible for seeing that the elections are conducted in accordance with the electoral law; and the preparation of accurate lists of voters, all in early March 1950, made it clear that the General election could not be long delayed and it came as no surprise when the date was announced as May 14th. In bad winters, communications in the mountainous eastern vilayets of Turkey are often extremely difficult even in the middle of May and in the Coruh, Kars and Giimii§hane vilayets there have been complaints by the leaders of the opposition parties of the choice of such an early date for the elections. In general, however, the opposition leaders have no complaints on this score. As for the new electoral law; this has the unqualified approval of all parties, but doubts are expressed by the opposition as to the impartial and correct application of its provisions by the party in power. Although amongst the official classes, who have something to gain or lose by a change of Government, there is keen interest in the preparations for the general election, the mass of the people, in the towns at least, are quite apathetic. The villagers, as a class, may be said to be a little more politically conscious than the townspeople in these eastern vilayets and all the parties are making an all out bid for their support. The opposition parties, however, suffer under the handicap that the mass of the electorate both in town and villages is for the most part poor and illiterate and they often find it difficult to persuade them that they can now use their vote to overthrow the party that has been in power since the formation of the Republic, without bringing down on their heads the wrath of the authorities. Voters in the mass are, indeed, not confident that the ballot will be really secret and this fear may cause quite a number of them either to refrain from voting or to cast their votes for the party in power. The Halk Party counts amongst its most enthusiastic supporters the higher officials and the most prosperous merchants and shopkeepers, most of whom are politically conscious and are likely to make every effort to record their votes. The Democrat Party, on the other hand, naturally looks more to the lower officials and the working classes for

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support, but these people, being often undernourished and overworked have little energy or inclination to listen to the blandishments of politicians. Nevertheless, the means of the Democrat Party depend on the extent to which they can arouse enthusiasm for the Democratic cause amongst these people and they are certainly making every effort to present their case effectively and to persuade their potential supporters to record their votes. If the apathy of the workers can be overcome and they can be persuaded to record their votes, it is certain that the large majority of them will vote for the Democrat Party, an access of voting strength that might turn the scales in the election. Competent observers, however think it unlikely that more than 40-50 % of them can be persuaded to record their votes and if this turns out to be correct, there is little doubt that the Halk Party will again capture the majority of the seats in these eastern vilayets of Turkey. However, none of the political parties is leaving anything to chance. The Halk Party is stressing the need for unity and the folly of changing teams in these difficult and dangerous times; the Democrat Party is concentrating on criticisms of the mistakes of the Government; while the Millet Party is launching an all out attack on both the Government and the Democratic party. None of the parties, however, seem to have a programme to put to the electorate which they propose to carry out in the event of their being returned to power as the result of the elections. This is no doubt due to the low standard of education of the mass of the electorate and the impossibility of arousing in such people enthusiasm for a long term programme. None of the leaders of the political parties here in Trabzon are prepared to prophesy on the result of the election except to say with a show of confidence that they expect their party to win. In the last election in the Trabzon vilayet all 12 seats were won by the Halk Party, but the new electoral law, which ensures, at least theoretically, the correctness of the electoral lists and the secrecy of the ballot, has, perhaps, removed many of the handicaps under which the Democrat Party worked in the last general election. Nevertheless, impartial observers think that the Halk Party will again win the majority of the seats in the Trabzon vilayet and this gives a fair indication of what is likely to happen in the majority of the eastern vilayets.

Party activities and prospects (6) Cumhuriyet Halk Party The Halk Party has been working methodically and steadily throughout the winter in Eastern Anatolia. The pattern of their organisation and propaganda being approximately the same throughout the eastern vilayets, a description of the activities of the Halk Party in

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the Trabzon vilayet will serve as an illustration for the whole area. The first îlçe congress took place towards the end of November and was given great publicity in the local party newspaper. Others followed and they too were headlined. Reports of the enthusiasm and unity demonstrated in these meetings made excellent propaganda for the Halk Party at a time when their Democrat opponents were striving desperately to resolve the dangerous internal feuds which were threatening to disrupt and destroy the party. The organisation of these congresses was left in the capable hands of the area Halk Party inspector, A h m e t Eymir, who is the member of Parliament f o r A m a s y a and who has shown that he has a distinct flair both f o r organisation and for publicity. On 22nd December, the congress of the Ilçe of Trabzon itself was held amongst scenes of great enthusiasm, followed next day by the Trabzon ili congress where, according to the local Halk Party paper, enthusiasm was even more pronounced. A speech at the Î1 congress by Faik Ahmet Barutçu, the President of the Halk Party group in the last Parliament, was reported verbatim in the party newspaper. This deputy, who ranks next in importance to Hasan Saka in the counsels of the Trabzon Halk Party stressed, as he has often done before in these gatherings, the importance of unity in the country and the need for straight thinking in the difficult time through which the world is passing. The completion of the whole range of congresses in the vilayet coincided with the commencement in Trabzon of the most severe winter in living memory. Movement was impossible through January and the early part of February. Political activity was severely curtailed. With the advent of spring came rumours of an early general election and on the 18th March, Ahmet Eymer, the Area Inspector of the Halk Party arrived in Trabzon, to organize the selection of candidates and the election campaign. There are 12 parliamentary seats for the Trabzon vilayet and each party therefore naturally puts forward 12 candidates. In the Halk Party, 8 of these candidates are, subject to approval by Ankara, chosen by the party organisation in Trabzon and the remaining four by the central executive of the party in Ankara. Final approval for the 12 candidates was obtained from Ankara on 23rd April and published the following morning in the local newspapers. The candidates chosen are given below:

Chosen by Trabzon committee : (1) Faik Ahmet Barutçu, Deputy in the last parliament & former head of the C.H.P. group there. Ex minister. (2) Hasan Saka, Former Prime Minister, about 6 4 years old. Deputy in last Parliament. (3) Mustafa Regit Tarakçioglu, Deputy in last parliament. Formerly teacher in the Lycée & Director of Education. (4) Ali Riza I§il,

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Local shopkeeper & merchant. Deputy in the last Parliament. (5) Ali Saralioglu, Deputy in the last Parliament. (6) Raif Karadeniz, Deputy in last Parliament. Vice President of the Halk Party group there. Ex minister of Customs. (7) Hamdi Orhon, Deputy in the last Parliament. (8) Cemal Re§it Eyuboglu, A new selection. Has not been a member of Parliament before. Note: Zekiye Dranaz, Temel Goksel, Mahmut M. Yarimbiyik, Sirri Day and Dan is Eyuboglu who were elected as deputies in the last parliament were not chosen as candidates this time. Chosen by Central Executive in Ankara: General Naci Altug, Recently retired from the army. Was formerly Cdr. of the Trabzon garrison. Saffet Baijtimar, A tobacco merchant with a lifetime knowledge of the tobacco trade. Tevfik Koral, Official in the Ministry of Economy. Cahit Zamangil, A high official in the Ministry of Commerce. (9) The election campaign by the Halk Party may be said to have commenced in earnest with the arrival in Trabzon on April 14th of Hasan Saka, a former Prime Minister of Turkey and the most distinguished of the local parliamentary candidates. With Hasan Saka at their head, the Halk Party parliamentary candidates for Trabzon descend en masse on the chosen centre and after some attempt at personal contact with the people, at which they are not very practised, for they have never had to do it before, speeches are delivered by various members of the party in which the achievements of the Government and the Government party, the Halk Party, are extolled and the false propaganda of their opponents exposed. (10) If the Halk Party has a programme to which they intend to adhere in the event of their being returned to power, the local parliamentary candidates certainly do not mention it and it is doubtful whether there is one in existence. Indeed the appeal of the candidates is largely personal and local. All of them without exception were born in the Trabzon vilayet and they and their families are well known to the local people. This local appeal, which is common to all parliamentary candidates for the Trabzon vilayet, is reinforced in the case of the Halk Party, by the presence, in their list of candidates, of several distinguished personalities including one ex Prime minister Hasan Saka, two ex ministers Faik Ahmet Barut?u and Raif Karadeniz and a retired Tumgeneral, Naci Altug, until quite recently Commander of the Trabzon garrison. With this formidable array of talent, working in conjunction with an enthusiastic and well organised party machine, the Halk Party enter the election battle in good heart and most observers think they will emerge from the elections with a comfortable majority not only in the Trabzon vilayet, but throughout the eastern vilayets of Turkey.

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The Democrat Party (11)

(12)

By the beginning of December 1949, the Democrat Party in Trabzon, w h i c h had split into t w o rival groups h u r l i n g insults and recriminations at one another, had reached a new low in dissension and division. It will be remembered that the President of the Trabzon Democrat Party, Kemal Attal, who had been sentenced to 9 months in prison in Erzurum and 3 months exile in Samsun f o r insulting the President of the Republic, was re-elected President while still in prison and that this precipitated a crisis in the party organisation. The Trabzon Democrats split into two groups, one acknowledging Kemal Attal's leadership, while the other group, not only dissociated themselves from his activities, but also had the temerity to expel him from the party. The release of Attal after serving his prison sentence in Erzurum and his return to Trabzon prior to serving the sentence of banishment in Samsun was the signal for demonstrations, counter demonstrations, insults and recriminations between the rival groups and these continued in ever increasing intensity despite the efforts at reconciliation by observers f r o m the Central Executive of the party in Ankara. Things came to a head on December 11th 1949, when supporters of Kemal Attal stormed a meeting held by the rival group to commemorate the death of the famous Turkish poet Namik Kemal. Disorder broke out in the building and the fracas continued later in the streets, compelling the police to intervene and arrest 4 people. This disgraceful scene galvanised the Central Executive into action and Kemal Attal was given the choice of either adopting a more conciliatory and dignified attitude or being expelled from the party. He refused to come to terms with the rival group and on 21st December, to avoid the indignity of being expelled from the party, he announced that he had resigned from the Democrat Party and transferred his allegiance, with that of his followers to the Millet Party. Attal, to the surprise of most people, had become the first President of the Millet Party in Trabzon. With the retirement of Kemal Attal from the counsels of the Trabzon Democrat Party and indeed his temporary retirement from Trabzon itself, for shortly afterwards he was taken by the police to Samsun to serve his sentence of banishment there, members of the Central Executive of the party were sent from Ankara to take over the direction of the local organisation until the election of a fresh committee, which would go all out to repair the damage done to the prestige and unity of the party in Trabzon by the long drawn out dispute between the protagonists of the rival groups into which the party had become divided. With the election of Haspi Pirselim, a 75 years old retired army colonel, as President of the party organisation in Trabzon unity appears to have been partly restored, although the colonel hardly

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appears to be an inspiring personality. Desperate attempts have and are being made to recover lost ground and to revive, as far as possible, the influence and the prestige of the party in the vilayet prior to the general election. Ocak, Bucak and Ilçe congresses have been held in the various centres of the vilayet and on March 12th 1950 the pièce de résistance the il congress was held in Trabzon in the presence of Refik Koraltan, a prominent member of the Democrat Party executive and deputy, amidst scenes of great enthusiasm. Koraltan took the opportunity during his visit to Trabzon to deliver a number of propaganda speeches in various centres in the Trabzon vilayet and also further afield. The Democrat Party's list of candidates was announced on April 24th after approval by Ankara. It includes Haspi Pirselim the aged President of the Trabzon vilayet committee and Mahmut Gologlu a young and ambitious advocate, who is President of the Trabzon Ilçe committee. The remainder of the names are quite unknown outside Trabzon Democratic circles. The last of names of candidates with their occupation is given below : Halit Aganoglu §akir §iikrii Salih Esat Mahmut Gologlu Haspi Pirselim ibrahim Cehreli Hiiseyin Çulha Osman Kuleyin Ahmet Sakasoy Kazim Üstündag Hiiseyin Avni Sagiroglu Siileyman Fehmi Kalaycioglu

(14)

BRITISH

Eskigehir Milli Egitim Müdürü Samsun Seferberlik Müdürü Hukukcu Avukat Emekli Albay Tüccar Tüccar Recber Doktor Recber Tüccar Danigtay Üyesi

There is little doubt that given f r e e d o m from internal feuds and a strong, popular and influential leader, the Democrat Party could quite easily b e c o m e the strongest party in the T r a b z o n v i l a y e t . Unfortunately, the rival leaders have, for months past, been expending their energies in mutual recrimination rather than in united efforts to defeat the opposition. Even now, with the removal of Kemal Attal, the prime cause of the dissension and division in the counsels of the party there are still signs of disunity and lack of co-operation and the party propaganda machine is very weak. In the last general election the Democrat Party were unable to obtain a single seat in the Trabzon vilayet, but the new electoral law is bound to enhance their chances of success and given enthusiasm and a united front the Democrats are almost certain to improve on those results. Some observers rate their chances as high as 6 seats out of the 12 in the Trabzon vilayet, but it would surprise most people if, after their sorry display over the last 6

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months, they succeeded in gaining more than four. In the other vilayets of the eastern Anatolia, the Democratic party is not so well organised as Trabzon and its potential followers not so numerous. However, they should gain a number of seats from the Halk Party.

National Party (15)

(16)

Until the defection of Kemal Attal from the Democrat Party and his accession to the leadership of the Trabzon National party, the latter was almost unknown locally and its influence almost negligible. Attal has worked hard and enthusiastically to bring his new party into the limelight and has not been without some success. Unfortunately, however, he cannot control his enthusiasm for the cause he espouses and has again run foul of the law, this time receiving the comparatively light sentence of 10 days' imprisonment for contemptuous remarks. He has been allowed to continue his election campaign and will serve his sentence after the 14th May. Apart f r o m Kemal Attal, the list of the National Party candidates contain no name of any consequence and even Attal has lost much of his former influence amongst the common people, by his decision, purely for personal considerations, to transfer his allegiance from the Democrat to the National party. It would be a surprise, indeed, if the National party succeeded in winning even one of the 12 seats in the Trabzon vilayet and this applies more forcibly to the other vilayets in eastern Anatolia.

b) POLITICAL PARTIES IN T R A B Z O N & T H E PRIME MINISTER'S VISIT, November 1953

General In the early afternoon of the 23rd November the Prime Minister of Turkey, Adnan Menderes accompanied by the Ministers of Monopoly, Agriculture and Roads; the deputy leader of the Meclis; thirteen deputies representing the vilayets of Çorum, Samsun, Giresun, Trabzon and Rize; the Director General of the Ziraat Bank; and a larger than usual complement of press correspondents and photographers arrived at Trabzon by boat f r o m Samsun. Great preparations had been made to welcome them both by the local Democrat Party leaders and the town council which is predominantly Democrat. Despite the rain and the cold a crowd estimated at 30,000 by the local Democrat newspapers and 7,000 by the opposition press, assembled on the quayside to greet the Prime Minister. Many thousands of Democrat Party

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supporters were brought in by lorry from their villages to Trabzon for the occasion and it is said that the welcoming crowd were also swollen by Government officials who had been given time off by the Vali for this purpose. Whether permission was given by the Vali or not and officials would hardly have the temerity to leave their offices without it, large numbers of them were on the quayside to meet the Prime Minister and the Halk Party leaders have protested against this breach of the rule that Government servants should not engage in politics. No notice was taken of this protest. The arrival of the Prime Minister's boat was the signal for all the ships in the harbour to sound their sirens and motor boats with Democrat Party officials and supporters on board went out to bring the Prime Minister and his party to the shore. A sort of triumphal arch had been erected on the quayside and the Vali and the General were waiting there to welcome their distinguished guest. After inspecting a military guard of honour provided by the Trabzon Garrison, the Prime Minister was taken by car through cheering crowds to the Town Hall. The streets were beflagged to mark the occasion and flags also flew from all Government buildings. According to the rules flags should only be flown from Government buildings on official holidays and for a visit by the President of the Republic or the Head of any Foreign State. After a short rest the Prime Minister made a speech from the balcony of the Town Hall, where according to the local Democrat Party newspapers a crowd of 20,000 had gathered. This figure is somewhat of an exaggeration, but with rain falling heavily and a cold north wind blowing it is surprising that so many people did face such inclement weather to hear a political speech even from a Prime Minister. A f t e r thanking the people for their magnificent welcome the Prime Minister turned to politics. He dwelt first on the difficult situation his Government had to face when they came to power in 1950 and contended that despite many difficult problems (chief among which he listed the establishment of democratic government in a country which had had no previous experience of it; and the problem of dealing with a bitter and disillusioned opposition eager to seize every opportunity to undermine their position) their 3 V2 years of power had been a time of tremendous achievement. After comparing this rapid advance with the snail like pace of the Halk Party during their 27 years of office he went on to deal with relations between the two major parties, his own party and the Halk Party. He deplored the fact that these relations were today a source of serious disquiet and he attributed this to the actions of a minority of disgruntled leaders of the Halk Party who were still filled with hatred and bitterness at their defeat in the 1950 election. Spurning the hand of friendship offered by the Democrat Party these elements, he said, seemed determined to sacrifice the unity of the country to their selfish ambitions. He felt it his duty to ask these people to adopt a more enlightened policy. T h e y must a b a n d o n their vicious attacks, their imputations, innuendoes and calumnies. If they did not, the Democrat Party had the power and the means to hit back and would not hesitate to do so, if they found it necessary. Here in Turkey, he concluded, we have blessings of freedom combined with stability and we are determined to preserve them.

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The Prime Minister stayed the night of 23/24 November in Trabzon as the guest of the Mayor. Early the following morning he went to Rize to address a political meeting. On his return to Trabzon he went to the headquarters of the Halk Party organisation for the vilayet to return the courtesy call made on him by the local leaders of that party. The Prime Minister made another plea here for co-operation between his party and the Halk Party. Why cannot we manage our party activities, he asked, with circumspection, moderation and patriotism? Only by doing this, he contended, could they assure a stable and prosperous democratic regime. The local Democrat press reported the Prime Minister's words were received with acclamation. Whether this is true or not and the Halk Party leaders emphatically deny it, it seems to have had little, if any, effect in lessening the tension between the parties. In the afternoon of the 24th November the Prime Minister attended the concluding stages of the annual Vilayet Congress of the Democrat Party in Trabzon and made a long speech to the assembled delegates. After giving the good news that his Government intended to increase the salaries of Government officials and that a law to this effect was being prepared for submission to the National Assembly the Prime Minister reverted to one of his favourite themes the amazing successes of the Democrat Party during their 3 1 ¡2 years in power and the almost incredible ineptitude of the Halk Party in their 28 years in office. This rather invidious comparison was surprisingly enough, followed by an appeal to the Halk Party to stop what he called, this calumny and innuendo in their attacks and if possible adopt a more friendly and co-operative attitude to the Government. Finally he dwelt on the position of the Democrat Party as the guardians of the safety, happiness and stability and prosperity of the country and again attacked what he called those elements in the opposition who worked not for the unity and progress of the country, but for their own selfish ambitions. They would not be allowed to endanger the stability of the country. There was no allusion in any of the Prime Minister's speeches to the proscribed Millet Party and he ignored a request by Kemal Attal, the President of the vilayet organisation of the party to be allowed to call on him and discuss the situation. The Prime Minister also ignored a request by the local tradesmen to interview him about the damage done to the local economy by the inability to import certain essential commodities. The most important of these commodities are tyres and tubes which, at present, are unobtainable in the shops and are being sold at fantastic prices in the black market. On the evening of the 24th November the Prime Minister boarded the S.S. Ordu for the return journey to Samsun. Bad weather made it impossible for him to land at Samsun and he was forced to go on to Istanbul. A few speeches from the Prime Minister are hardly likely to have any great effect on the political alignment in the Trabzon vilayet but his words have been carefully weighed by the local party leaders and their reaction to his

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speeches and the events associated with his visit may be of interest. A short review of the present state of the parties in Trabzon and an appraisal of their chances in the approaching general election are also given and may be of some value as an indication of the trend of political thought in these comparatively backward eastern provinces of Turkey. Democrat Party: For some reason or other the political parties of the left appear to be more prone to internal squabbles than those on the right. The Democrat Party in Trabzon is no exception to this rule. Indeed, it has a record of strife and dissension amongst its leaders which it would be hard to match. The vilayet party organisation is controlled by the vilayet committee, the members of which are elected every year at the annual congress. This committee elects one of its members as a president, again for one year. For the last 2 V2 years the President of the Trabzon vilayet committee has been a local newspaper editor, a rather uninspiring person in failing health. It is not surprising, therefore, that he soon ran up against difficulties in controlling and directing his unruly followers in general and in particular the members of the organising body, the vilayet committee. Indeed, the vilayet organisation which when he came into power had only just begun to recover from a previous long period of strife culminating in large scale defections, soon took on the same complexion again and in an attempt to restore unity and perhaps save the situation the President of the vilayet committee appealed to the Prime Minister to visit Trabzon and address the vilayet Annual Congress there. The appeal was repeated in 1952 but pressure of business prevented the Prime Minister from complying until now. His visit however, did not have the effect anticipated and the new vilayet committee elected at the Annual Congress is even more divided than the previous one. A new President has been elected, but he commands no more support than his predecessor, with the result that strife and dissension are likely to continue. Bad feeling and dissension in the higher direction of a party, even on the vilayet level, does not make for success in elections and if this were all, there is little doubt that the Democrat Party would have little chance of winning seats in the forthcoming election. Fortunately for them however, other factors are involved which more than compensate for this lack of unity and cohesion in the local Democrat Party organisation. Although prices are rising continually and this is causing considerable resentment in the towns, the villagers are screened f r o m these effects by the special treatment accorded to them by the present Democrat Party Government almost throughout their period of o f f i c e but m o r e especially during the last eighteen months to two years. Compared to people in the towns the villagers are very lightly taxed; they have guaranteed minimum prices for their wheat, corn, hazelnuts and tobacco, these minimum prices often exceeding world prices by a substantial margin; communications between the villagers and towns have and are being greatly improved; the provision of pure water supplies for the villages; health organisations have been extended to the smallest villages and a great concession in these times of

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rising prices, wheat and corn are sold to the villagers at 20 kuru§ a kilogram, although the Government buys this grain at 30 kuru§ a kilogram from the farmers. Whatever the future effects on the economy of the country, these farreaching concessions have given great satisfaction to the villagers and unless the Halk Party can produce something really good out of the hat, or the Millet Party return to the attack before the 1954 general election, it is almost certain that the major part of the village vote will be cast for the Democrat Party. As the villagers form about 80% of the electorate this is bound to be decisive in an election. In the last election in 1950, the Halk Party gained 9 seats and the Democrat Party 3 seats. This result could easily be reversed in 1954. The Halk Party: As mentioned above the Halk Party won 9 of the 12 seats in the Trabzon vilayets in the last election, the remaining three seats going to the Democrats. This victory in an area where the Democrats gained almost overwhelming victory (the Democrats captured almost all the seats in the (Joruh, Rize, Giimiishanc, Giresun and Samsun vilayets) helped the party to preserve the morale and their unity in the difficult times through which they have passed since the Democrat Party came to power. Their leaders, who include such well known figures as Hasan Saka a former Prime Minister and Faik Ahmed Barut?u a former Minister, are intelligent and experienced and they are backed by a well organised and enthusiastic party machine. If this were all, one might say that the Halk Party with the confidence born of victory in the last election; its experienced and devoted leaders; and its unity of direction and purpose would be well equipped, if not to increase its lead, at least to maintain its position in the forth-coming election. Unfortunately for them the successful wooing of the villagers by the Democrat Party Government during the last two years has given that party an almost overwhelming advantage in the struggle that lies ahead. The Democrats have naturally given great publicity to the work they have done for the villagers and contrasted it very effectively with what they call the stagnation of the Halk's long period of power. Here the Democrats have some excellent propaganda material and they are making full use of it. So much so that the large majority of the villagers seem to have already been won over to the Democrat camp. The votes of the villagers being the decisive factor in the general election here in Trabzon, the Halk Party despite their unity and efficient organisation have little hope of maintaining the position they won in the last election. There is no doubt that the Vali of Trabzon by ordering flags to be displayed on Government buildings and by allowing officials welcome the Prime Minister at the quayside during office hours infringed the regulations. It is, indeed, the Vali's duty, as far as lies in his power, to see that Government officials steer clear of politics and not encourage them to do so. As for the National flag it should only be flown on Government buildings or from the masthead of Turkish ships on official holidays and to mark the presence of the President of the Republic or the Head of a Foreign State. The local Halk Party leaders protested vigorously against this infringement of the regulations but

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without result and they recall with some bitterness, the severe condemnation and punishment, of such actions by the Democrats when it was against their interest. The Vali of Trabzon can with impunity put up flags on Government buildings to welcome the Prime Minister a purely political figure, but when the Captain of the S.S. Bakir does the same thing for ismet Inonii, he is fined and dismissed his ship. The Halk Party leaders also complain with some justification that although the Prime Minister in some of his speeches made reasoned pleas for better relationship between the parties, he accompanied these pleas in every case with veiled threats of action designed to put an end to effective opposition. Such action could easily be demanded on the grounds of danger however remote, to the stability of the country. As an example they give the recent law passed by the Meclis which they say appears to be designed to make the task of opposition impossible while ostensibly safeguarding the country against reaction. Again while the Prime Minister complained of the unbridled attacks of a section of the Halk Party and of their innuendoes, threats and hostility the keynote of the proceedings of the annual Congress of the Trabzon Democrat Party, which the Prime Minister attended was hatred of the Halk Party. To such an extent was this carried that a demand was even made for the expulsion of any Democrat Party member who had once belonged to the Halk Party. The Halk Party leaders here in Trabzon are convinced that it is their duty as an opposition to criticise and they are determined not to be put off by the Prime Minister's pleas for unity and co-operation the implementation of which could only lead to their reduced effectiveness as an opposition and the indefinite prolongation of Democrat Party rule. Accusations of unreasoned criticisms, calumny and innuendo, they say, are quite untrue. The more effective their criticism the more frequent and vehement become these accusations. As long as they were given freedom to operate effectively, they would certainly hot abandon their duties as an opposition, but rather devote all their energies towards increased effectiveness. Millet Party: The Millet Party was opened in Trabzon under the leadership of a past president of the Trabzon Democrat Party and although its influence was at a low until the autumn of 1952 the persistence, enthusiasm and energy shown by the President seemed to be paying dividends in increased membership when its activities were suddenly suspended by the Government. It is said here that given a further twelve months of freedom for propaganda the Millet Party would have made serious inroads into the following of the Democrat Party. It is difficult to substantiate a statement of this kind for there are no Gallup polls here in Turkey and it is almost impossible to get Turks to talk about their own political opinions or the trend of opinion in their areas. There are, however, two reasons why there may be some truth in it. Firstly the leaders of the Millet Party have addressed their propaganda almost exclusively to the villagers and have sought to detach them from their allegiance to the

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Democrat Party by calling attention to the ever increasing cost of living and the denial of religious freedom under a Democrat Government. The religious field, however, was the easier to exploit, for here fanaticism and reaction lie only just below the surface. The villagers are, for the most part, deeply religious and the i m a m s hold a special place in the life of the village community. Most of them look back with nostalgia to the days when the Sheria or religious law ruled their lives and religion was a power in the land. This is indeed, a fertile field for exploitation and the Millet Party by promising complete freedom of religion to the villagers if returned to power, at a time when the Democrats were heavily engaged in fighting reactionary movements, must have attracted many adherents to their cause in these backward and fanatically religious eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets. The implementation of such a policy in the area would certainly result in an upsurge of bigotry and fanaticism and no one can say where that would lead. It is not surprising therefore, that the Government looked with serious misgivings on the activities of the Millet Party and the increase of their influence amongst the villagers. The question now is, how will the adherents of the Millet Party react to loss of party rights and absence of leadership now that their party has been dissolved. No one seems to know the answer to this. The closure of the Millet Party here in Trabzon was effected in a singularly crude manner. The President of the Trabzon party has described how, on the morning of the closing down of his organisation, he was walking towards the vilayet headquarters building when he noticed that one of the party ocaks or meeting places was closed and locked. This was his first intimation that the Government had ordered the closing of all branches of the Millet Party in the country. He immediately rushed to the main headquarters in Trabzon and found the police taking down the flagstaff and locking and sealing the rooms. He protested vigorously and refused to allow them to proceed further until they produced some authority for their action. Seeing he was determined, the Chief of Police produced a dirty piece of paper as authority for this action and the work of closing and sealing the building then continued. To add to the bitterness of the local Millet Party leaders and their supporters, the local Democrat press, without waiting for the result of the trial of those accused of reaction, roundly c o n d e m n e d the whole organisation as traitors and reactionaries. What they consider this unjust and untrue condemnation of their activities has filled the Millet Party leaders here in Trabzon with bitterness and hatred and they vow vengeance on their oppressors. All in the Millet Party are confident that the trial in Ankara of those of their party accused of reaction will yield no result and that the accused will finally be discharged. This will be followed by permission for the party organisation to function, but this, it is thought, will be delayed until the Government is certain that the party will not have enough time to organise an electioneering campaign and nominate candidates. If this is so, the local leaders of the Millet Party will undoubtedly advise their members to vote for the Halk Party candidate if there is not a

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suitable independent candidate with some chance of being elected available. They realise that only by adopting this course is there any hope of dislodging the hated Democrats and for this they are even prepared to cooperate with the only slightly less hated Halk Party.

c) POLITICAL REPORT - T R A B Z O N CONSULAR AREA March 14, 1954 How far is the Democrat Party likely to lose ground in the towns? (a) Due to the restiveness of the educated classes at the dictatorial methods of the Prime Minister The educated classes in Turkey, if one means by this term those who have attended a Lycée or higher educational establishment, form a very small proportion of the town population and there are few if any of them in the villages. Those in this class who belong to the Democrat Party heartily approve of the dictatorial methods of the Prime Minister as exemplified by the law confiscating the P.R.P.'s property the amended Press Law, the National Security Law and the amended Penal Code, all of which are regarded with horror or aversion by members of this class in the opposition parties. Educated people not attached to a party are almost certain to be repelled by the Prime Minister's tactics; but their numbers and influence are generally so small that the Democrat Party's position in the towns is not likely to be affected to any great extent by their opposition. (b) Due to the rise in the cost of living The continual rise in the cost of living is, of course, the main cause of the decline of the Democrat Party's influence in the towns. The Democrat Party came to power in 1950 largely on the promise to lower the cost of living, while in fact, their period in power has seen the exact opposite happen. Unfortunately, these increases in the cost of living are rarely accompanied by equivalent increases in pay for the workers and even when increases of pay are given they lag very much behind the cost of living index. The workers in the towns, therefore, are generally much worse off today than they were when the Democrats came to power and this contrast between promise and achievement has given rise to much discontent which is certain to be reflected at the polls. When we come to discuss what effect the votes of this discontented element in the towns may have in terms of seats likely to be lost by the Democrat Party in the forthcoming election, we must distinguish between 2 classes of constituency. On the one hand, there are the largely urban constituencies like Istanbul and Ankara and to a lesser extent Izmir and on the other the predominantly rural constituencies like those in eastern Turkey, where on an average, more than 80% of the population live in the villages. In such urban constituencies the Democrat Party is almost certain to lose a

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number of seats, provided the opposition parties can agree on combined lists or at least some form of co-operation whereby the large majority of the discontented voters in the towns are persuaded to cast their votes for the P.R.P. as the only party with a chance of overcoming the Democrat Government. In the predominantly rural constituencies, however, where the town population forms only about 20 per cent of the total, the increased antiGovernment vote in the towns due to the rise in the cost of living, although possibly a large proportion of the total town vote, can be swamped by the rural vote provided a reasonable majority of the villagers can be persuaded to remain firm in their allegiance to the Democrat Party. This is a reasonable possibility for the persistent rise in the cost of living in the towns has, for a number of reasons, no comparative effect on the standard of living of the peasants. The peasants' staple food is wheat or maize bread and the Democrat Government is at hand to provide wheat and maize f o r them at prices considerably below those prevailing in the market; and the increased prices for his other needs, which are normally confined to small purchases of sugar, paraffin, tea and cloth, are more than compensated for by his comparative freedom from taxation and by the high prices he obtains for his crops. W e can say, therefore, that although under certain conditions the Democrat Party may lose considerable ground in the predominantly urban constituencies, few seats should be lost in constituencies, and these are the great majority, where the rural vote is predominant. (c) Due to the attitude of the minorities. There are no minorities in the Trabzon Consular area. Attitude of the

Peasant

(a) Are all major sections of the peasants better off under the D.P. than under the former P.R.P. Government? The answer to this, as far as the Trabzon Consular area is concerned, is an undoubted yes. This can easily be proved by a comparison of the prices obtained by the villagers for their produce now and under the P.R.P. Government. The peasants in this area can be divided into the following 5 major sections: (1) The grain producers of the interior. (2) The tea producers in the coastal belt between Hopa and Of. (3) The hazelnut producers of the coastal vilayets. (4) The tobacco growers of the coastal vilayets. (5) The dairy producer and cattle producers. (1) The grain producers In the days of P.R.P. rule all buying, selling and export of wheat and other grains was carried out by private individuals at prices which bore a definite relation to world prices of these commodities. Today, under D.P. rule

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wheat barley and maize producers (these commodities form almost 90% of the crops in the grain producing areas) are completely screened from the effects of fluctuations in world prices by the price support policy initiated by the Government. For example, wheat is selling today at about 18 kuru§ a kilogram on the world market, but the Turkish Office of Soil Products buys all the wheat offered to them by the producers at 30 kuru§ a kilogram, some 33 1/3 % above world prices. It is not surprising, therefore, that the private trader in wheat has almost disappeared off the Turkish market. The same applies to barley and maize. (2) The tea producers Before the advent to power of the D.P. Government, tea growing was confined to a comparatively small area around the tea factory at Rize and the number of growers was small, although prices paid to the growers for their leaf was quite high on world standards. Today, however, the aim is to extend the tea growing area to cover the whole of the Black Sea coastal area between the Russian frontier and Of. To persuade the growers to undertake this vast expansion, greatly increased prices are being offered to growers for their product. The extent of this increase can be gauged by the fact that the cost of production of good quality tea at the Rize factory is 13 liras a kilogram, whereas the Turkish Government buys on world market similar quality Indian tea for mixing with the Turkish product at only 5 liras a kilogram. (3) The hazelnut producers During the long period of P.R.P. rule, the hazelnut producers in the coastal belt between Hopa and Ordu were not only exposed to competition from the growing areas of Italy and Spain but also to the price fluctuations on the world market, for the hazelnut, as far as the Turks are concerned, is grown almost entirely for export. When there was a good crop, which happens once every 3 or 4 years, the resultant fall in the price on the world market sometimes deprived the producer of the greater part of the increased profit anticipated and often meant that the profit obtained from a bumper crop was little better than that from a poor crop, for the latter invariably commanded a much higher price, on the world market. During the last 2 years the D.P. Government has extended its price support policy to hazelnuts and the producer is now largely shielded from the economic effects of low prices for his product, although he can and does take full advantage of periods of high prices. (4) The tobacco growers Tobacco, like the hazelnut, is largely an export product and the producers under C.H.P. rule often suffered severely from the economic effect of low prices on the world market. Here again the D.P. Government has initiated a price support policy, the Monopoly Board, backed by the Government, in times of low world prices buying all tobacco offered to it at minimum prices depending on the quality. These minimum prices are always well above world prices in every grade of tobacco and ensure that the producer gets a reasonable return for his efforts. Any losses involved in disposing of those tobacco stocks is, of course, borne by the Government.

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(5) Dairy and cattle producers There is no price support policy for dairy products and meat, but world shortages of these commodities has forced prices up on the world market and the producers have no difficulty in disposing of all their produce at high prices. This has, of course, nothing to do with action by the D.P. Government, but the peasants are likely to give them the credit for it. (b) How f a r is the gratitude of the peasants to D.P. f o r the improvement in their lot, offset by religious considerations? The peasants on the bleak Armenian plateau and in the generally isolated villages of the Black Sea coastal vilayets are, with few exceptions, devoutly religious and the Imam hold a special place in the life of the village communities in these areas. Completely ignorant of the outside world and as a result often bigoted and fanatical, the older peasants look back with nostalgia to the days when the religious law ruled their lives and the Imams were a power in the land. This is, indeed, fertile ground for exploitation for political ends and the now defunct Millet Party leaders were quick to take advantage of the Government's absorption in the difficult and unpopular task of combating religious fanaticism with its accompanying reaction, to increase their religious propaganda in those areas. They promised that if returned to power in the coming elections, they would give the villagers complete f r e e d o m in all religious matters, which by implication means freedom to wear the turban and to be governed by the old religious law rather than by the modern penal code. These extravagant promises coming at a time when the peasants were watching with unconcealed displeasure the Government's determined efforts to stamp out all manifestation of religious fanaticism and reaction, greatly increased the influence and following of the National party in the country districts, which in these vilayets contain little less than 80 per cent of the total population. The Government saved the situation by closing down the offending National Party. Another year of this type of propaganda might have led to large scale defections by the peasants from the Democrat Party and to an upsurge of bigotry and fanaticism perhaps beyond the powers of the Government to control. Soon after the National Party was closed down the Government passed the National Security Law, which forbids on pain of large fines and long terms of imprisonment any mention of religion in political propaganda and there has naturally been no propaganda of this nature since. The result is that the effect of the National Party's religion propaganda has largely worn off and a large proportion of those drawn to the National party by such propaganda have now returned to the Democrat fold. While the National Security Law is in operation there should be no recurrence of such activities and the Democrat Party are unlikely again to have bear the odium of repressing outbreaks of religious fanaticism.

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(c) Is the vote which formerly supported the National party likely to go to the Republican National party and if not which of the other parties is likely to benefit by the religious vote? The Republican National party is merely a pale imitation of the National party, without many of the latter's enthusiastic and intelligent leaders and what is more damaging, deprived by the terms of the National Security Law of its finest weapon in these eastern vilayets, the exploitation of religion for political ends. In addition, although the Republican National Party claims to have an organisation in 42 vilayets, all this amounts to is a small Founders' Committee in that number of vilayet headquarters towns. To extend their organisation to the kaza headquarters towns and to the villages, which is the most essential part of any political organisation in the predominantly rural vilayets of eastern Turkey, the party needs both time and money, both of which are in short supply at this decisive moment immediately prior to the elections. Indeed, in the short time before the elections, the Republican National party are unlikely to be able to extend their organisation as far as the villages in more than a very small proportion of the 42 vilayets in which they claim to be represented. Without that personal contact with the all important country districts which comes from the establishment of Ocak or meeting places in the villages and in the kaza headquarter towns, little headway can be made by a political party amongst a predominantly peasant population, for the great majority of them are illiterate and cannot therefore be influenced except by the spoken word. W e can say with some certainty, therefore, that only a small proportion of the supporters of the former National Party, who were, after all, mainly peasants from the villages, are likely to be attracted to its mild imitation, the Republican National party. It is estimated that, in these eastern vilayets, the National Party at the height of its influence prior to its closure could command the votes of from 10 to 15 per cent of the electorate. Ten per cent of this total were captured f r o m the Democrats as a result of religious propaganda and now that the promises of religious freedom have been proved false, the large majority of these will return to the Democrat fold. The remaining 5 per cent are the hard fanatical core of the old National party who have been advised by their old leaders to vote for the Halk Party. A small percentage of them may join up with the new Republican National party, but the large majority will undoubtedly vote for the C.H.P. (d) What other support is the new Republican National Party likely to obtain and what are the prospects of it forming an alliance with the P.R.P.? Apart f r o m a rather small percentage of the hard core of the old National party one can see little of any other support for the new Republican National Party either amongst the peasants or in the towns. Its only hope to affect the results of the elections in any way, therefore, is to form an alliance, or at least cooperate in some way, with the P.R.P. in the choice and support of candidates, for the latter party is the only one amongst the opposition with

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any prospect of replacing the Democrat Government. The leaders of the new party are loud in their protestations both against an outright alliance with any other party and any policy of including members of their party as independent candidates in the P.R.P. lists. They think that co-operation of this kind will eventually result in the party losing its identity completely and as an alternative they suggest that a pact should be drawn up between the two parties whereby the P.R.P. agree to support some of their candidates in return for their party members supporting a proportion of the P.R.P. candidates. The P.R.P. leaders are unlikely to agree to anything of this nature. At the moment (14/3) in the Trabzon constituency all the applicants for candidature in the elections are from members of the P.R.P. organisation and the final selection of candidates for this constituency will be made from such members. This list must be sent to the headquarters of the party in Ankara who have the right to give advice on the suitability of the candidates selected in the constituency and if they wish, to suggest the removal of some name from the list and their replacement by more suitable candidates nominated by themselves. This may give the party headquarters in Ankara an opportunity to implement some arrangement with one or more of the opposition parties, but no one knows yet the form any agreement will take. If such an agreement for co-operation between the P.R.P. and the R.N.P. can be arranged, it would help to prevent opposition votes being wasted on a small political party with no chance of winning seats, instead of being concentrated for the P.R.P. the one opposition party in the country with any chance of overthrowing the Democrat Party. Effectiveness of local party

organisations

(a) How far are dissensions in the party organisation liable to affect the party's election prospects? We can say at once that dissension in the higher direction of a party, such as at ministerial level, unless it can be eradicated quickly, must prove fatal to success in an election, so we must assume that such a contingency would not arise in the higher leadership of a political party prior to the elections. The effect of dissension in the party organisation will, therefore, be discussed at vilayet and kaza level. There is no doubt that the possession of a strong united party organisation at the vilayet level and extending through the kaza headquarters towns to the Ocak or party centre in the villages, is a great asset to a political organisation in Turkey. This applies especially to constituencies in eastern Turkey where 80 per cent of the electorate live in the villages and are largely illiterate. Dissension in the leadership of this widespread organisation, if not checked prior to the election, is almost certain to have a serious effect on the chances of the party in the elections, for such dissensions tend to lower the morale of party members and to destroy confidence in the party's future. They often result, too, in partisan consideration governing the choice of candidates rather than the possession of

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suitable qualities for the work and invariably lead to these candidates being given inadequate support in the election campaign by the party organisation. However, provided the central executive in Ankara stops the rot before it has gone too far (which in the case of the Democrat Party is being effected by removing the source or sources of the dissension from any major part in the direction of the vilayet or kaza organisations and their arbitrary replacement by less quarrelsome types); the party has a sound and effective programme and has committed no major mistakes while in power, these dissensions, although admittedly a handicap, should not prove fatal to success in the elections. Prospects for other political

parties

Only three political parties are represented in any way in the Trabzon consular area, the D.P. the P.R.P. and R.N.P., and a political party like the peasant party with no organisation in the area can have no influence on the election results whatsoever. This is obvious when it is considered that 80 per cent of the population live in isolated villages and are for the most part illiterate, so that a party not possessing an organisation capable of reaching down from the party headquarters through the vilayet and kaza headquarters towns to the village centres, has no point of contact with the vast majority of the electorate in the area and therefore no opportunity of influencing their votes in the elections. Has anti-American aspect of P.R.P. attacks on oil bill attracted any support in your area? The mass of the electorate in this consular area take little interest in the attacks by the P.R.P. on the oil bill and there is no support for antiAmericanism except amongst a section of the intellectuals in the towns. Any tendency towards this will now have been quenched by the Government's willingness to revise or delete the clauses in the bill which were particularly obnoxious to the opposition. Election

atmosphere

(a) Interest or apathy of the public Outside the party leaders in the vilayet and kaza organisation and the large number of people who have put their names forward for nomination as candidates, there is little general interest amongst the people in the preparations for the election. However, the candidates have not yet been chosen and electioneering will not commence in earnest until the end of March. When the election campaign does start greater interest may be aroused but the typical Turk in a village community is hardly ever demonstrative in his politics and even at the height of the campaign excitement and enthusiasm are likely to be at a premium. At present (14/3) the electorate are decidedly apathetic.

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(b) Prospects of the elections being free As regards the prospects of the elections being free, the Parliament was prorogued on March 14 after a session heavily engaged in passing what the opposition leaders call a formidable series of bills restricting the propaganda activities and criticism of the opposition parties and it cannot now engage in any more such activities until the elections are over and the new Parliament reassembles. The P.R.P. have wisely refrained from starting their election campaign until Parliament was prorogued and f u r t h e r restrictive laws impossible before new Parliament assembles. In this matter of electoral freedom it is difficult for a non Turk to decide between the conflicting claims of the Government and the opposition parties. The Prime Minister has given a pledge that the 1954 election in Turkey will be free and impartial and has stated emphatically in Parliament that the spate of legislation immediately prior to the prorogation of the assembly did not conflict in any way with the freedom of legitimate criticism and propaganda by the opposition. The Government has, indeed, provided some concrete evidence of their desire for impartial elections by passing two amendments to the Electoral Law stipulating that lists of electors in each constituency must be submitted to all parties in time for them to be able to suggest alterations and additions and that decisions on disputed elections are to be made, not as in the past by the Assembly, but by a High Court of Electors, independent of both the Executive and the Legislative. The opposition agree that these amendments to the Electoral Law, although they do not go far enough, are a step in the right direction and they are grateful for them. They contend, however, that such concessions are nullified by the succession of laws and amendments to laws passed in the last session of Parliament prior to the elections, which they say, are designed to exert the maximum pressure on the opposition and to make it difficult if not impossible f o r them to put their party's case effectively to the electorate without risking penalties in the way of fines and imprisonment under one or other of the clauses of these restrictive laws. The true position probably lies s o m e w h e r e between these two extremes. For instance, it is very unlikely that any pressure will be put on the voters and voting arrangements are certain to be in accordance with true democratic principles. Nevertheless, these formidable series of laws passed in the last session of Parliament, which include the National Security Law and amendments to the Press Law and Penal Code, have undoubtedly weighed the scales heavily in favour of the Government party in the election campaign which lies ahead. Opposition candidates confess that section 161 of the Penal Code, even in its revised form, with its threat of automatic court proceedings on the charge of insulting one of the Heads of Government Department or officials merely on the word of two witnesses attending an election meeting, must have the effect of limiting effective criticism of Government leaders and of their policy. The amended Press Law puts the same restraints on opposition

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propaganda in the press and on the radio, while the National Security Law, perhaps quite wisely, prevents the Republican National Party f r o m imitating its predecessor's very successful but very short lived exploitation of religion for political ends. Add to this pressure on the press through the medium of official advertisements and we have a formidable list of devices to restrict effective criticism of the Government in the press, on the radio and by the opposition candidates themselves. It can be seen from the above, that despite the fair words of the Prime Minister, an opposition will in fact labour under severe handicaps in the forthcoming election campaign compared to the Government party and the election cannot, therefore, be said to be completely impartial and free as these words are understood and practised in the democratic countries of western Europe and in America. It is doubtful, however, whether elections could be made really free in Turkey in her present stage of development without endangering the stability of the regime and the Prime Minister is probably very wise not to attempt it.

SHORT BIOGRAPHY OF THE VALI OF TRABZON September 1953 Adil Cigeroglu, the present Vali of Trabzon, is a man of about 46 years of age. He went through the Turkish elementary and intermediate schools and then transferred as a boarder to the American College at Manisa. He was at Manisa at the same time as the Prime Minister Adnan Menderes. From the American school he went to what is called the Dahiliye, an establishment of University status where men are trained for the higher ranks of service in the Ministry of Interior. After obtaining his diploma there he entered the Ministry of Interior in 1933 as a Kaymakam. He served in this capacity for 13 years and in 1946 was appointed as an Inspector of Vilayet Administration. After five years as an Inspector he was appointed assistant Vali of Ankara in 1951. With the retirement of the then Vali of Trabzon in early 1953 he was appointed as Vali of Trabzon. As can be seen from the above this is his first appointment as Vali. Adil Cigeroglu is a very serious minded type and is not a good conversationalist. Always very pleasant socially and likes to speak English, of which he has a good command, whenever possible. Hard working but not very inspiring personality. Although he pretends to be completely impartial in politics he has in reality decided leanings towards the Democrats. This is not surprising when one realises that he was in school with Adnan Menderes and owes his appointment as Vali at Trabzon to the leader of that party. During the visit of the Prime Minister Adnan Menderes to Trabzon (late 1953) this Vali gave orders for flags to be flown on all public buildings, which is contrary to law, for this should only be done for a visit by the President of the Republic or Heads of Foreign States. He is said also to have given permission for officials to go to the port to welcome the Prime Minister although there is no proof of this, a large number of Government officials were actually down on the port when the Prime Minister arrived and they would hardly be likely to leave their offices without permission. This Vali would not last long if the Halk Party returned to power.

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NOTABLE POLITICAL PERSONALITIES IN TRABZON CONSULAR AREA Hasan Saka (C.H.P.) Born in Trabzon on 7th February 1886 and qualified at the Lycée in Trabzon before going on to the school for civil servants in Istanbul. On completion of the course there he won a scholarship to the School of Political Science in Paris. He stayed in Paris from 1908-12 when he returned to Turkey. Commencing as a teacher in his old school in Istanbul in 1915 he was appointed a professor in the Law School in that city. In 1919 he joined the Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture as an adviser and the next year he was elected to Parliament as a member of the C.H.P. In 1921 he became Minister of Finance and later Minister of Commerce in which capacity he attended the Lausanne Conference with ismet inönti. Hasan Saka acted for many years as President of the Assembly and Head of the C.H.P. group there and towards the end of the Second World War he became Foreign Minister. In this capacity he attended the San Francisco conference at which the Charter of the United Nations was framed. On the resignation of Recep Peker as Prime Minister in 1947 he succeeded him in that office. He held that office for 1 1/2 years. In addition to his parliamentary duties he has, when out of office, served as Professor of Economics at the Law School in Ankara. Hasan Saka is today nearing 70 but he is still active in the counsels of the P.R.P. and he has considerable influence in that party. He is popular in the Trabzon constituency and well respected and if he stands as a candidate for Parliament this time is almost certain to be re-elected. It was during his period of office as Prime Minister that the decision was made to build the harbour at Trabzon and the people in that town are grateful for this. Faik Ahmed Barutçu (C.H.P.) Born in Trabzon in 1894. After completing the Lycée in Trabzon he passed to the Law School in Istanbul where he graduated. Returning to Trabzon he practised as a lawyer in addition to editing the daily paper Istikbal (now the Halk) and acting as President of the Law Society there. In 1938 he was elected a member of Parliament for Trabzon and after serving for 7 years as a member of the Central Executive of the C.H.P. became its General secretary. In 1947 he joined the cabinet of Hasan Saka as Assistant Prime Minister. When the Government of Hasan Saka fell Faik Ahmed Barutçu was elected President of the C.H.P. group in Parliament, a position he held until the dissolution of Parliament in 1950, immediately prior to the general election. Despite his 60 years Faik Ahmed Barutçu is still a power in the C.H.P. and has made some very effective speeches for the opposition in the present parliament (prorogued 14th March 1954). Very popular in the Trabzon Constituency and if chosen as a candidate is almost certain to retain his seat in the coming election. Regit Eyuboglu

(C.H.P.)

Born in Akçaabat in 1907, the son of a Census Officer. He passed through the Lycée at Trabzon and completed his studies in Turkey in the Law School in Istanbul. Later he studied economics and law in Paris and took a doctoTate in economics there. In 1930 he entered the Ministry of Economics and soon became an Assistant Inspector and later an Inspector in that Ministry. In 1940 he became Director General of the Land Department and in 1947 a member of the Economic

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Investigation Committee and took part in international conferences in that capacity. Following this he spent some time in France, Belgium and Great Britain studying the finances of those countries. He has written several books on economics and finance. He headed the poll in the Trabzon constituency in the 1950 election. A clever and intelligent man who might become a Minister if the P.R.P. returned to power. He has made some effective criticism of democrat policy in the present parliament. Cahit Zamangil

(C.H.P.)

Born in Trabzon in 1906. Educated at the Lycée in Trabzon and in the Political Science School in Paris. Entered the Ministry of Economics and Trade in 1929 and later served for some time as Commercial Attaché in Spain. On his return to his Ministry he rose rapidly and by 1942 had reached the position of Adviser to the Minister. He was elected as a deputy in the 1950 election. Tevfik tieri (D.P.) Born in 1911 in a small village called Hem§in, situated on the Black Sea coast near Pazar. Passed through the Lycée at Trabzon and later went to the Technical University in Istanbul. Here he graduated as an engineer. Joined the Ministry of Works as an engineer and until 1938 served in Erzurum in that capacity. From 1938-43 he acted as Director of Public Works in the Vilayet of f a n a k k a l e and in 1944 was appointed head of the 13th Road Area with headquarters in Samsun. Elected as a deputy for Samsun in the 1950 elections. Appointed Minister of Communications in Adnan Menderes' first Government and in 1953 became Minister of Education. A few months later he resigned owing to a disagreement with the Prime Minister. In the same year (1953), however, he returned to favour and was appointed Assistant President of the Meclis which position he held until the Assembly was prorogued on March 12th, 1954.

d) POLITICAL REPORTS April 1954 Party manoeuvres and propaganda in the Trabzon vilayet constituency immediately prior to the issue of the official lists of candidates by party headquarters and the commencement in earnest of the election campaign, together with forecasts of the election results in each of the 13 vilayet constituencies of the Trabzon Consulate area. Party Manoeuvres and Propaganda Democrat Party: In my last report on the political situation in the Trabzon vilayet in December 1953 I described the proceedings of the vilayet Congress of the local Democrat Party held in November 1953 to coincide with the visit of the Prime Minister to the town. I pointed out that despite his presence there which it was hoped would conduce to the healing of all

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dissension and feud and ensure the election of a more unified and co-operative Vilayet committee, the same contending elements were in fact elected, again exposing the local Democratic organisation to those disruptive tendencies which had plagued it since its formation. The Prime Minister's visit was followed by that of an Inspector from the Party headquarters in Ankara, but despite his best efforts to resolve the differences among the party leaders, he had to give up in despair and return to Ankara empty handed. The party headquarters in Ankara now realised that drastic action was needed if the Trabzon organisation was to be saved from disruption and the Democrat Party given a chance to develop its potentialities prior to the election on May 2nd and in February 1954 it was decided to dissolve the elected Vilayet Committee and replace the contending elements in it by more co-operative and less self seeking types. Although this can hardly be called democratic, the Democrat Party in Trabzon has now at least an appearance of unity and is certainly better equipped to play its part in the intensive election campaign which lies ahead. Soon after the new Vilayet Committee had been appointed by Ankara, people desiring nomination as candidates in the forthcoming elections were asked to submit their names to the party organisation on or before March 14th and the final selection of candidates by representation of the party organisation in the vilayet and kazas meeting in joint session was fixed for March 21st. Sixty four people put forward their names as prospective candidates, for which privilege a sum of T.L. 200 was demanded. Of this large number only about 15 were of suitable calibre, from the point of view of education and standing, for selection as candidates. Unfortunately, however, quite a number of these unsuitable types were in a position to command a large measure of support amongst the representatives of the party organisation who, under the normal procedure, are responsible for choosing the final list of candidates f o r the election and would in all probability have been chosen. To forestall such an unwelcome dénouement the date fixed for the final selection of candidates was changed from the 21st to the 28th March and the leaders of the vilayet and kaza committees throughout the Trabzon constituency were summoned to Ankara for a conference at the party headquarters there. However, despite threats and cajolery the majority of the leaders refused to withdraw the names of those considered unsuitable as candidates, with the result that the Ankara headquarters were left with no alternative but to take the selection of candidates out of the hands of the vilayet party organisation and take on the responsibility themselves. The list of the Democrat candidates for Trabzon is no expected to be made known until the 11th April, but it is confidently anticipated here that apart from the three deputies elected in the 1950 election, it will contain few if any of the local leaders of the party who applied to the vilayet organisation for nomination. The candidates are likely to be chosen f r o m people born in the Trabzon vilayet but who have spent most of their lives and made their reputation outside this vilayet, thus avoiding the taint of connection with local Democrat Party politics. If this proves to be true, it

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will be a big blow to the local leaders of the party who have borne the heat and burden of the day in the constituency. Headquarters in Ankara seem to be convinced however, that although their solution will cause antagonism and bad feeling amongst leaders the effects of this are likely to be less serious than if in the face of the present divisions and feuds, they chose some of them and omitted others from the list. In addition they contend that the choice of good candidates is of greater importance in this election than it was in the 1950 one. At that time the mass of the electorate wanted a change from the long period of Halk Party rule and large numbers of people voted for the Democrat Party lists en bloc without paying much attention to the relative abilities of the candidates in the different party lists. This time the electors are expected to be more particular and to vote to a great extent for personalities rather than complete party lists. Nevertheless, the method of selection used by Ankara is completely contrary to party rules and is hardly one to be commended in a democratic régime. Its repercussions are almost certain to weaken the party. Although the candidates have not yet been selected and the campaign does not open officially until 12th April, groups of speakers consisting largely of local Democrat Party leaders, have been visiting kaza headquarters towns on market days and expounding the Democrat point of view to the villagers who come in their thousands on these days to sell their produce there. This concentration of their propaganda effort on the villagers is a set policy of the Democrat Party, for they realise that the peasants form at least 80% of the population in these eastern vilayets and their vote must therefore, be the decisive factor in the forthcoming elections. Fortunately for them their record, at least as far as the peasants are concerned, is indeed excellent. They point to the rapid advances in agriculture during their four years of power; to the large sums of money spent on road communications connecting the villages with one another and with the kaza headquarters towns and in the provision of pure water supplies to each village; to the provision of wheat and maize for the villagers at prices well below those prevailing in the market; and to the general betterment of the living conditions of the peasants throughout the country, contrasting these advances with what they call the stagnation in the country side during the Halk Party's long period of power. To sum up, we can say that despite the demoralising and disruptive effects of recurring feuds and dimensions in the local leadership of the Democrat Party in Trabzon and the resentment aroused by the dictator-like methods of the headquarters of the party organisation in Ankara, the party can count with certainty on the support of the majority of the villagers and as these form 80% of the total electorate the 1954 election results should show a sizeable increase in their representation compared to 1950. In the 1950 elections the Democrat Party won 3 out of the 12 seats allotted to the Trabzon vilayet constituency and the general consensus of opinion here is that, provided the Halk Party does not produce something really good in the way of propaganda during the period prior to the elections the Democrat Party are

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likely to increase their representation to 6. Much greater gains could confidently have been anticipated but for the sad record of dissension and intrigue in the counsels of the local party organisation with its attendant demoralising and disruptive effects. Halk Party: The Halk Party with its well organised and enthusiastic party machine, is well equipped to give a good account of itself in the propaganda field during the forthcoming election campaign, which starts officially on April 12th. U p to the dissolution of Parliament on March 12th, the local Halk Party leaders indulged in little if any election propaganda, (many say in fear of arousing further hostility in Government circles followed by the passage of further laws to reduce the effectiveness of the opposition), but thereafter, groups of speakers, each including a number of the Halk Party (Trabzon) deputies elected to parliament in 1950, began to visit the kaza headquarters towns and put the Halk Party's case to the villagers. Their main points of criticism up to the moment have been the trade policy of the Government with its arousal of hostility in foreign trade circles and its attendant steady rise in the cost of living; the secret depletion of the nation's reserves of gold; and the disastrous loss in value of Turkish currency in world exchange. Although these criticisms are certain to be highly effective amongst the educated minority in the towns and amongst the town population generally who are feeling the effects of the continual rise in prices, it can have little influence on the votes of the peasants. Their staple food is wheat or maize bread and the Democrat Party has already been at hand to provide wheat or maize for them at prices considerably below those prevailing on the market; and the increased prices he has to pay for his other requirements, which are largely confined to small purchases of sugar, paraffin, tea and clothing, are more than compensated for by the high prices he obtains for his produce; and his comparative freedom f r o m taxation. As for the secret depletion of the nation's reserve of gold and the fall in the value of the lira on the world exchanges, the peasant lives in the present and as long as the Government provides him with cheap wheat and maize, good prices for his commodities, pure water supplies, medical facilities and adequate road communications, he is hardly likely to worry about the long term effects of its application. The Halk Party candidates and indeed all the opposition parties' candidates are handicapped considerably in their propaganda efforts compared to the Democrat Party candidates by Article 161 of the Penal Code and the provision of the National Security Law. Unlike the Government party candidates their success or otherwise depends on effective criticism, but this is limited by the loosely worded articles of these laws. The only safe way, if they want to ensure staying the course, is for opposition candidates to read their speeches from carefully prepared scripts, but speeches that are read from a script can hardly be as effective as a vehicle of propaganda or criticism as those which give the appearance of being spontaneous.

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The Halk Party have therefore to work hard if they want to prevent serious losses in the approaching electoral struggle. They have, in Trabzon at any rate, certain advantages which may help them if not to maintain their position intact, at least to avoid overwhelming defeat. Their candidates, which include such national figures as Hasan Saka, a former Prime Minister, Faik Ahmet Barut?u a former minister, in addition to experts in many walks of life, are intelligent and experienced and their efforts will be backed by an united, efficient and enthusiastic party machine; the majority of the Muhtars or Head men of the villages in the Trabzon constituency are members of the Halk Party and their great influence in the village counsels is certain to ensure some measure of support for the Halk Party amongst the peasants even if the party propaganda fails to do so; and discontent in the towns at the continual rise in the cost of living is likely to alienate quite a large proportion of the town vote from the Democrats. All in all the Halk Party are expected to retain 6 of the 9 seats they won in the last election and if they succeed in doing this, they will have nothing to be ashamed of. Republican National Party: This party, which has not succeded in coming to any agreement with the Halk Party in the matter of combined lists or any other form of co-operation, has established some sort of organisation in the vilayet headquarters town of Trabzon, but does not appear to have penetrated as yet to the kaza headquarters' towns or the villages. Without that personal contact with the country districts which c o m e s f r o m the establishment of centres in every town and village throughout the constituency, little headway can be made by a political party amongst a predominantly peasant population, for the great majority of them are illiterate and cannot therefore be influenced except by the spoken word. In addition, prior to its closure the main success of the National Party in eastern Turkey was in the field of religious propaganda but the National Security Law has deprived its successor, the R.N.P. of this powerful aid to success in the forthcoming elections. The R.N.P. in Trabzon has already selected its 12 candidates for the election campaign, but none of them appears to be of sufficient reputation, or ability to gain any large measure of support. With a weak party organisation, a largely unknown list of candidates and few facilities for putting their case effectively to the villagers, the R.N.P. are unlikely to gain any seats in the Trabzon constituency. Independent

Candidates

Five independent candidates are standing for the Trabzon constituency, one of them being the former leader of the defunct National party here, who refused to accept nomination as a candidate f o r the newly formed R.N.P. Although some of them have a considerable following in the constituency, experience in the last election showed clearly that Independent candidates not included in either the Democrat or Halk Party lists have little chance of being elected. It would indeed, come as a great surprise if any of these 5 independent candidates were returned in the forthcoming elections.

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Forecasts of results in the 13 Constituencies of the Trabzon C. Area Name of Constituency Trabzon

No of Deputies 12

Rize

Çoruh

Representation in 1950 elections 9 Halk 3 Democrats

6 Halk 6 Democrats Gain of 3 seats for DEM.

4 Democrats

4 Democrats 1 Halk Loss of seat due to dissension in Party organisation 4 Democrat

5 Democrats

4

Forecast for 1954 elections

Kars

10

8 Halk 2 Democrat

8 Halk 2 Democrats

Erzurum

12

12 Democrats

9 Democrats 2 Halk 1 R.N.P. Both R.N.P. and Halk have efficient organisation in the Erzurum vilayet and this combined with a weak list of Democrat candidates should result in some losses to the DEM. Party in the elections

Agri

4

4 Democrats

4 Democrats

Gumiighane

5

5 Democrats

4 Democrats 1 Halk

Giresun

8

8 Democrats

8 Democrats

Ordu

9

2 Democrats 7 Halk

8 Halk 1 Democrat

12 Democrats

12 Democrats

Samsun

12

Sinope

6

6 Halk

6 Halk

Amasya

5

5 Democrats

5 Democrats

Tokat

9

9 Democrats

9 Democrats

Erzincan

5

5 Halk

5 Halk

The above forecast gives an overall increase of three in the Halk Party representation in the 13 vilayet constituencies of the Trabzon consular area and most experienced and impartial observers here agree that this figure is about right. In short, there is unlikely to be much change in the representation in either direction in the 1954 election as far as the Trabzon Consular area is concerned.

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e) G E N E R A L ELECTION 1954

Trabzon Consular Area General

Although groups of speakers from the local headquarters of the different parties were active in the constituencies sometime before, the official lists of candidates were not issued until the 16th April and the election campaign did not open officially until the 18th April 1954. The campaign was prosecuted with energy and vigour by all those who entered the lists and the criticisms of the ruling party by the opposition were bitter and sustained. As far as one can gather the series of laws passed just prior to the election which the opposition contended would limit their freedom of action generally and their freedom of effective criticism in particular, were only very rarely applied and where they were, the action was generally approved. The arrangements for the voting were admirable and the Election Committees set up in the constituencies are almost universally praised for their efficiency and impartiality. Indeed even the opposition parties are agreed that, apart from some minor incidents, the elections were conducted fairly and honestly and on that score at least they have no complaints to make. The opposition and more especially the Halk Party are more vocal in their criticisms of the Turkish electoral system, although the position of the Halk Party in this regard is weakened by the fact that it is their leaders who devised and formulated this system for the 1950 elections, when they confidently expected to be returned to power. Their criticisms have some justification. In the 1950 elections, with almost 4 4 % of the votes they gained only 68 seats in the assembly out of a total of 4 8 7 and the 1954 elections bid fair to increase this wide divergence between voting strength in the country and representation in Parliament. The Halk Party contend that the present system should be replaced by some form of proportional representation, but with two overwhelming victories to their credit under the present system, the Democrat Party are unlikely to abandon it for something which is calculated to facilitate the return to power of the opposition. Here in Trabzon the only complaint one hears and it has aroused considerable bitterness in opposition circles, is that of the attitude of the Vali immediately prior to and during the elections campaign. He is said to have made no attempt to conceal his leanings towards the Democrat Party and to have joined in their counsels and facilitated their arrangements. An open letter to the Vali from the head of the Halk Party organisation in Trabzon was published in the local paper supporting that party, in which he was accused, in particular of discussing election arrangements with the leaders of the local Democrat Party and, in general, of not maintaining that attitude of strict

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impartiality which he should know is his bounden duty to do. The Vali replied denying these accusations but he made no attempt to invoke any of the numerous laws which are designed to protect officials from serious charges of this nature and it is unlikely that the local Halk Party leaders would have had the temerity to make such charges unless they had incontrovertible proof of their authenticity. Fortunately for the Vali the Democrats won the election and his position, for the next four years at least, is assured. The results of the election are analysed in detail later in this report, each of the 14 vilayets in the consular area being taken separately. Speaking generally they showed without a shadow of doubt that the large majority of the electorate in this consular area, which of course means the peasants f o r they form 80% of the electorate desired a continuance of Democrat Party rule and were resolved to obtain it and that neither the disunity, feuds and dissensions in the local Democrat Party leadership nor the criticisms of the opposition had any effect in weakening their resolution. Of the 14 vilayets constituencies in the Trabzon consular area the Democrats obtained all the seats in eleven, the Halk Party in two and in the remaining constituency, Erzincan, the Democrats won four seats and the Halk Party one. Taking the Trabzon consular area as a whole the results show an overall gain of fifteen seats by the Democrats compared to the 1950 elections and when one considers that this party held 68 of the 99 seats available when the last parliament was dissolved and was being judged after four years of office, this increased majority is indeed a remarkable achievement. Most educated and thoughtful people in this area welcome the return to power of the Democrat Party but are sorry that this party will sit in parliament in such overwhelming strength. Although they are glad the Democrat Party has been saved the frustration and deadlocks of a very narrow majority, they are genuinely perturbed at the prospect of an opposition virtually deprived of expression, for they are only too aware of the dangers to effective democratic government inherent in such a situation, whether it arises from the freely expressed vote of the people or not.

Election

Campaign

D e m o c r a t Party: In my last report on the political situation in Trabzon I described the dissolution of the legally elected vilayet committee in Trabzon by the central headquarters of the Democrat Party in Ankara and the replacement of its members by more amenable nominees. The central headquarters followed this up by a decision to undertake the responsibility for selecting the Trabzon Democrat candidates themselves rather than leave it, as the party regulations lay down, to the local vilayet origination. The list of 12 candidates for Trabzon was issued on the 16th April and apart f r o m the 3 deputies elected in 1950 and the Vice President of the local vilayet

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organisation contained no one with any active connection with the local party organisation. This caused much ill feeling amongst those who would almost certainly have been elected as candidates if this had been left to the members of the Trabzon Party organisation. Apart from the four mentioned above, the candidates selected, although born in Trabzon had left the constituency manyyears ago and were largely unknown to the electorate. Fears were expressed that the ill feeling engendered by the high handed actions of the central executive, combined with the largely unknown and untried candidates, would seriously weaken the party in the constituency and lead to defeat at the polls. Actually the nominated vilayet committee functioned adequately and the results showed that these fears had no justification. Indeed the main feature of the election was the mass voting for whole Democrat Party lists with little if any attention paid to the relative merits of the different candidates. It was only necessary for a candidate to have his name on the Democrat Party list to be certain of election. Throughout the election campaign the main plank to the Democrat Party propaganda has been the tremendous economic development during their four years in office. They pointed with pride to the rapid advances in agriculture; to the network of passable roads which have been constructed to link the villages with one another and with their kaza headquarters towns; to the provision of pure water supplies to each and every village in the country; to the sale of wheat and maize to the peasant at reduced prises; to the high prices obtained by the peasant for his crops and the price support policy of the Government which has made this possible; to the increase in employment in the towns due to their policy of economic development; and finally to the general improvement in living conditions both in town and country since their advent to power in 1950. They contrasted this happy picture with what they called the economic stagnation in the town and country during the Halk Party's long period of power. They were content, they said, to be judged by their actions and the result showed that their performance had been weighed and found eminently satisfactory. During the election campaign period both the Prime Minister and the Opposition Leader ismet Inonu made long tours in the Trabzon consular area. The Prime Minister commenced his tour in Erzurum on the 19th April and travelling up the transit road arrived in Trabzon on the 21st April. After speaking at Rize and Trabzon he continued his journey westwards along the coast to Samsun addressing large crowds en route at Giresun and Ordu. From Samsun he went south addressing crowds at Kavak, Havza and Merzifon. At Kavak he narrowly missed the opposition leader who was coming up from A m a s y a to Samsun and Sinope. Both leaders were acclaimed by rapturous multitudes wherever they appeared, but it is generally agreed that neither these fleeting appearances by the party leaders nor the intensive and bitter campaign conducted by the party organisations had any real effect on the outcome of the election. The factor which decided the issue and gave overwhelming victory to the Democrats was undoubtedly their record of bold and far seeing measures for the economic development of the country and with or without an election campaign this factor would have been decisive.

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Halk Party: No dissensions or feuds marred the unity, efficiency and smooth working of the local Trabzon Halk Party organisation. Candidates, many of whom are nationally known figures, were chosen with the minimum of friction, enmity, or recrimination and the election campaign, backed by a well organised and efficient propaganda machine was intensive and sustained. Their criticism of the Democrat Party ranged from the question of foreign exchange to the peasant's heavy load of debt to the Government and according to the Democrats they were often expressed in language that was unnecessarily acrimonious and intemperate. They complained bitterly of their inability, partly due to their inadequate representation in Parliament but more to the obstructive attitude of the Government party, to make their voice heard in the counsels of the nation and to perform the prime functions of an opposition, effective criticism of the Government's policy and plans. Even if we are not given sufficient support to dislodge the Government, they said, we ask the voters to see to it that this time the opposition is returned in sufficient strength to maintain more efficient control of Government plans and expenditure. Besides this plea for increased representation in Parliament, the Halk Party had several criticisms of Government policy and actions, which given a more well informed, intelligent and far seeing electorate and perhaps a more temperate presentation of the facts could very well have resulted, if not in the actual overthrow of the Government party, at least in a serious weakening of its position. These criticisms have been given in detail in the Istanbul and Ankara press and I do not propose to repeat them here. Suffice it to say that up to the present and the peasants give little thought to a problematical future, neither inflation nor the trade gap, which the opposition presented in such formidable and alarming colours, has made any sizeable impact on the countryside and until it does, the predominantly peasant electorate of these eastern vilayets is unlikely to transfer its allegiance from the Democrat Party to the Halk. The complete elimination of the predominant Halk Party representation in the Trabzon vilayet constituency came as a great shock to the leaders of the local party organisation. In the 1950 elections in this vilayet they obtained over 47% of the votes compared to 45% by the Democrats. In the 1954 elections their proportion fell to 35% and that of the Democrats rose to 61%. These figures prove without any reasonable doubt that the mass of the electorate here in Trabzon and this applies to all but 2 of the 14 vilayets in this consular area, is more than satisfied with domestic and foreign policy, as well as the financial, economic and social achievements of the ruling party.

Cumhuriyet Millet Party (Republican National Party): In Trabzon this party lacked an efficient organisation extending from the vilayet centre through the various kazas headquarters towns to the ocaks or meeting places for adherents of the party in the villages and the candidates selected were largely unknown. Their criticisms of the Government party were largely those of the Halk Party but they had special features of their own. Neither their

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programme nor their criticisms seem to have appealed to the Trabzon electorate and with their candidates obtaining on an average less than 3% of the votes cast, it is not surprising that they failed to obtain a seat. The same result attended their efforts in all the other vilayet constituencies in the Trabzon consular area which they contested. This party, not having as yet attained to power, has the advantage of a clean sheet in Government administration and many people think that given energetic and intelligent leadership, a party organisation in every vilayet stretching from the centre through the kaza headquarters towns to the villages and adequate funds to maintain an efficient propaganda organisation, it might very well replace the Halk Party as the leading opposition party in the country. I n d e p e n d e n t C a n d i d a t e s : There are two kinds of independent candidates in Turkish elections, the true independent, who is completely divorced from any party organisation and the so-called independent who allows his name to be included as such in one of the party lists. With the electorate voting in overwhelming strength for the complete Democrat Party list in 61 of the 65 vilayet constituencies the latter type of independent candidate had only to have his name on the Democrat Party list in one of these 61 vilayets to be automatically elected along with the other candidates on the list. The truly independent candidate on the other hand, having no party organisation to back him, has to fund his own election expenses and can only justify his election on the grounds that energetic independent candidates of intelligence and integrity can be of inestimable value in a Parliament dominated by a large Government majority. No independent candidates were included on party lists in Trabzon but 5 truly independent candidates were optimistic enough to take the field. The appeal of such candidates in a predominantly agricultural constituency is necessarily limited by the fact that 80% or more of the electorate are peasants and largely illiterate peasants at that, who are scattered in widely spaced villages with poor communications and who cannot be influenced apart from the spoken word. A single candidate working without a party organisation can hardly hope to cover such a wide field in the limited time available for the purpose. It can be seen therefore, that independent candidates even of outstanding merit, competing as they do on equal terms with those backed by a well organised and efficient party machine, whose ramifications generally extend from the vilayet centre down to the remotest village have little chance of success. The 1954 elections in Trabzon proved no exception to this rule, the 5 independent candidates, some of them men of high standing in the vilayet, polling rather less than 1% of the total votes cast. There is no encouragement here even f o r the most optimistic and courageous of independent candidates.

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f) ANALYSIS O F RESULTS IN 14 VILAYETS COMPRISING T H E T R A B Z O N CONSULAR AREA

Trabzon This vilayet is the only one in the consular area where figures are available giving the votes cast for individual candidates in each of the 8 kazas in the constituency and where results can be analysed in detail. One thing stands out in these detailed figures, the fact that the great mass of the electorate, the peasants, voted for complete Democrat Party lists and made no attempt to evaluate the merits of the different candidates. The first 12 candidates were Democrats and the one with the lowest number of votes, 86,026, was still 30,000 votes ahead of the nearest opposition candidate, Faik Ahmet Barutgu of the Halk Party who could only muster 56,600 votes. Of the 8 kazas in the constituency only one, the small, mountainous and very poor kaza of Magka, registered a majority of voters for the Halk Party and that was very small. The central kaza of the vilayet which includes the town of Trabzon and its immediate surroundings, where one would expect the Halk Party propaganda to be most effective, showed an impressive majority in favour of the Democrat Party. This seems to indicate that the discontent in the towns due to the continual rise in the cost of living has been greatly exaggerated and that any unrest due to this cause is more than outweighed by the increased employment associated with the rapid economic development of the country under the Democratic regime. Taking the results of the vilayet as a whole, of the 168,000 eligible voters, an increase of 5,000 since the 1950 elections, 159,000 or just under 94% cast their votes. Of the votes cast 61% were for the Democrat Party, 35% for the Halk Party, 3% for the Republican National Party and the remaining 1% for the Independent candidates. All the 12 seas were captured by the Democrats. In the 1950 elections only 82% of the smaller electorate voted. Of the votes cast 47.6 per cent were for the Halk Party and 45.46 per cent for the Democrats. The Halk Party gained 9 and the Democrats 3. The complete elimination of the Halk Party representation in the Trabzon constituency, which was considered one of their strongholds, came as a great shock to the leaders of that party and was indeed a surprise to the victorious Democrats whose leaders had expected a close finish with honours about equally divided.

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g) POLITICAL REPORT T R A B Z O N A N D DISTRICT OCTOBER 1955 1st October 1955 In accordance with the decision they arrived at some months ago the Halk and Cumhuriyet Millet parties did not put up candidates in the election for the Genel Meclis (General Council) an elected committee working in each vilayet under the chairmanship of the Vali and meeting at intervals throughout the year, held in the Trabzon vilayet and elsewhere in Turkey on 25th September 1955. Final results showed that 21 members of the Democrat Party and 8 Independent candidates were elected. These independent candidates were really independent of party affiliations and not the usual type, who knowing the small chance of being elected on their own merits, get the best of both worlds by having their names included as independents in the list of candidates of a particular party, if possible the party with the best chance of collecting the votes. If elected, such candidates, although nominally independents, rarely show any independence of mind, for they are dependent on the party machine for re-election and cannot afford to flout its wishes. The election on such scale of true independent candidates is quite a phenomenon in this country and caused great consternation amongst the leaders of the Democrat Party and even the Halk Party leaders, although the) did their best to help them, were surprised at the success they achieved. The consternation of the Democrat Party was deepened by the fact that the independents only put up candidates in three kazas of the vilayet, all of which were formerly regarded as being overwhelmingly Democrat and with little preparation won 8 out of the 9 seats they contested. No independent candidate stood in the central kaza of Trabzon, the only predominantly urban kaza in the vilayet where the urban as opposed to the rural vote could be decisive and where one would expect the dissatisfactions with the continual shortage of essential materials combined with inflationary conditions to be much more pronounced than in the predominantly rural kazas. On this assumption one is tempted to speculate on what might have happened if independent candidates, with Halk and Cumhuriyet Millet Party support, had stood for every seat in the central kaza of Trabzon. The general feeling here is that the independent candidates would have swept the board. A s it was no independent candidate stood and only 13% per cent of the voters in this kaza took the trouble to go to the polls. The success attained by the independent candidates in this election must have been due in no small measure to support f r o m members of the Halk Party and the Cumhuriyet party, who had no candidates of their own for whom they could cast their votes. They were helped too by the fact that in the overwhelmingly Democrat kazas in which they stood as candidates, so few of the electorate troubled to record their votes. This lack of interest indicates that

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although the average villager is by now quite fed up with the Democrat Government economic policy with its inflationary trends and shortages of materials, the stage of mass desertion from the Democrat Party on the part of the villagers has not yet been reached. With only 13 per cent of the electorate taking the trouble to vote in these elections, the success of the independent candidates cannot be said to indicate the landslide in the support for the Democrat Party in the vilayet, but the preference shown for independent candidates by the electors who did vote, whenever such candidates were available has serious implications for the Democrat Party. The election for the Municipal councils are only six weeks ahead and many Democrats here fear that if some steps are not taken now to decrease their influence the Independent candidates backed by support from the Halk and Cumhuriyet Millet parties will carry everything before them. Indeed, I understand that the leaders of the Trabzon Democrat Party have received instructions from headquarters in Ankara to take every step within the law to counter the attractions of the independent candidates in the forthcoming elections. However, the threat to the Democrat Party f r o m independent candidates is perhaps not so great as would appear on first sight. A member of a political party cannot by law change his allegiance prior to an election in order to stand as candidate for another party or as an independent. Again the number of sound influential candidates who are prepared to run as independents and can not only command the support of a reasonable percentage of the Halk and Cumhuriyet Millet Party members but also attract a following from the D e m o c r a t Party itself, is very small indeed. Finally, many suitable independent candidates are chary of standing for election for they have no confidence in the Turkish form of democracy. If, they argue, we are elected as independents in sufficient numbers to control the municipality and select our own Mayor, our continued existence depends on the whim of the Vali. If we adopt an independent line the Vali, under the powers granted to him by law, can immediately overthrow the Mayor and appoint a Government official in his place, who will of course, do as he is told. In this way the elected members lose all control over the activities of the municipality and these conditions can continue as long as the members remain unwilling to toe the Government line. In this connection they point to the municipalities of Gumiighane and Bayburt where Halk Party members are in the majority and where the elected mayors have been replaced by nominees of the Vali. To sum up, one can say that if the Democrat Party fail to rouse greater interest in the forthcoming Municipal Election amongst their followers than they showed in the General Council elections of September 25th, which is more than probable and if a full quota of sound influential candidates capable of arousing support f r o m followers of both the Government and Opposition parties, are eligible and can be persuaded to stand as independents, which is much less probable, such candidates have a good chance of gaining a majority of the seats in most of the kazas of the Trabzon vilayet. This does not mean

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that the villagers have transferred their allegiance in any large numbers from the Democrat Party to any of the opposition parties. They are undoubtedly tired of the Democrat Party regime with its shortages and inflation and are disgusted with the Democrat members of Parliament whom they regard as sycophants and self-seekers (their increase of pay from 1000 liras to 2800 liras a month has caused more disillusionment amongst the villagers than any other single act of the present Government) but they have not yet made up their minds which way to turn. At present their dissatisfaction takes the form of a withdrawal in disgust from the political scene rather than of any mass transfer of allegiance from the Democrat Party to the opposition standards. Owing to the efforts of everyone concerned to keep it secret, the forced landing of a Russian aircraft in the sea off Ardegen is hardly known outside official circles and the editors of the local press, although they have obtained some information on the incident from travellers arriving in Trabzon from Rize and (."oruh vilayets, have been instructed not to publish it in their papers. Although I cannot vouch for the accuracy of the information on this incident available in Trabzon, it may be of interest if I described what is known of it outside official circles. It would appear that the Russian aircraft (type not known) with a crew of two (the pilot a Russian captain named Alexandero and an N.C.O. wireless operator a Russian named Vladimir) circled Arde§en once or twice and after dropping two drums in the sea during his circuits proceeded to land on the sea in 15 metres of water. There is a small landing ground at Ardegen suitable for very small Army cooperation aircraft which is used by such aircraft based on Samsun. It is thought here that the Russian pilot who arrived near the town in conditions of low cloud and rain imagined he was in Russia and was attempting a landing on the Ardegen landing ground when he undershot and landed in the sea. Be that as it may, the aircraft is said to have sunk below waves on landing and then to have come to the surface again. The two occupants were rescued by local boatmen. The Russians refused to give any information except their names and squadron and asked to see the nearest Russian consul or a member of the Embassy staff in Ankara. It would appear that the pilot of this aircraft was not seeking political asylum but that his forced landing was either due to some defect in his aircraft or errors in navigation combined with bad visibility caused him to imagine he was over Russian and not Turkish territory. The Russian pilot and his observer are said to have been taken to Ankara. On the day I received the information that this Russian plane had landed in the Rize vilayet the slow boat f r o m Istanbul, with the Russian Consul General in Istanbul on board arrived in the port. The boat returned to Istanbul the next day and it is unlikely that this Russian knew anything about the incident. On the 30th September or 1st October four Russian technical officers arrived by car in Trabzon and took rooms in the Nur Palas. They have been here ever since wandering about the town and bazaar, but have not left the town. I understand they have not yet (Oct. 3rd) been allowed to proceed

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to Arde§en to examine the wreckage of their aircraft. They are said to be very annoyed and continually phone Ankara for instructions.

Municipal Elections in Trabzon The elections to the Municipal Councils in Trabzon were held on Sunday 13th November 1955. Although a full list of Independent candidates stood for each municipality in the vilayet and there was therefore an element of competition in the election campaign, the voters remained apathetic throughout and preliminary figures indicate that in the Trabzon vilayet as a whole only 25 per cent of the people troubled to record their votes. Arrangements for voting were adequate and the day passed off without incident. Although almost everyone forecast their defeat in the municipality of Trabzon, the Democrats actually succeeded in capturing all the seats there, although by a very small margin. (4,700 Democrats, 4,510 Independents). Most observers attribute the Democrat victory in Trabzon town, albeit a very narrow one, to their lavish promises of good things to come if they were supported in these elections and more so perhaps, for Democrat promises have lost much of their effectiveness in recent years, to the veiled threat which accompanied these promises to the effect that if the people returned a majority of Independent candidates, whom they referred to as Halk Party members in disguise, the Government would probably think twice of establishing any industry in the municipal area and the Iller Bankasi (vilayet Bank) would be reluctant to give any further advances f o r new projects such as water and electricity supplies to raise the standard of living of the people of Trabzon. This p r o p a g a n d a was apparently not so e f f e c t i v e in the more rural municipalities, for the Democrats were badly defeated in all but 4 of the remaining 11 municipalities in the vilayet. The names of the municipalities with their political affiliations in the last election both Municipal and General are given on page [below] 2. Name of Municipality Trabzon Qf Starmene Çaykara Dernek Arakh Arsen Yomra Maçka Akçaabat Vakfikebir Îskefiye

Municipal Election Result Nov./1955 Victory of Democrats Independent Independent Independent Independent Democrat Democrat Independent Independent Independent Democrat Democrat

Result in last Municip. Election Democrat

Halk Halk Democrat Democrat

Majority

Result in last General Election Democrat Majority

Halk Democrat Democrat Democrat

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It can be seen from these results that the municipalities that were Halk in the last municipal elections have remained true to their Halk tradition by voting for the Independent candidates. It is surprising however, to see so many staunch Democrat rural municipalities forsaking their allegiance and voting Independent, but allowances must be made for the fact that only 25 per cent of the electorate and those probably the most intelligent and critical, voted. One cannot take these results as indicating that the Democrats would lose on this scale in a General Election. They have undoubtedly however, lost much ground in these rural areas from whence in the past their support has largely come. This could very well be exploited by an influential and inspired opposition leader. T h e f a c t that the D e m o c r a t leaders through their representatives in the vilayet are doing their best to hide these defeats from the electorate seems to show that they are seriously worried about the probable effects. The victory of the Independents in 7 of the 12 municipalities in the Trabzon vilayet is all the more remarkable in that they laboured under such serious disadvantages compared with the Democrat candidates. Whether from lack of experience or fear of arrest under one or other of the restrictive laws passed by the Democrat Government, the independent candidates held no public meetings and made no public speeches, election propaganda consisting solely of a manifesto giving their names and occupations and voicing a few mild criticisms of the conduct of Municipal affairs during their opponents' tenure of office. Such feeble propaganda efforts could hardly be expected to arouse much enthusiasm or attract much support from the apathetic Trabzon electorate. The choice of candidates too, although they were perhaps the best available, was not a happy one. Apart f r o m a few retired officials, the candidates were young merchants and lawyers whose names carried little weight and who lacked experience in public affairs. Many of these added recent affiliations with the Halk Party to their record and this lent some substance to the accusations of the Democrats that they were merely P.R.P. stooges in disguise. Whether this is true or not, the P.R.P., for obvious reasons, were unable to give them active support, and clandestine help is not an effective substitute for an efficient party organisation. To make matters worse, a short time before voting day the Vilayet Electoral Committee, which is set up to organise and control the elections in each vilayet, announced, presumably on order f r o m the Government, that in the voting booths printed voting cards, which merely lists the candidates of a certain party or group, would be confined to the Democrat Party. The voting cards for the Independent group would be blank sheets of paper on which the voter must write the names of the Independent candidates he favours. It was not permissible, as in the past elections, to erase the names or names of candidates on the printed Democrat voting cards and substitute Independent candidates for them. It was made clear that where this was done the altered card would not be considered invalid but as a vote for the complete Democrat Party list. It is estimated that in the Trabzon vilayet at least 55 per cent of the voters are unable to read or write. In such a community, if the election results are to give anything like a true reflection of

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the electorate, the authorities must not only ensure that no difficulties are put in the way of illiterates voting for the candidates or party of their choice but, more important still, that they are also given every help and assistance to do so. One of the principal means of doing this is to ensure that printed voting cards for each of the parties or groups taking part in the election should be available on request in the polling booths. As I have mentioned above, in the Trabzon municipal elections printed voting cards were only available for those voting for the Democrat Party candidates. In an effort to counteract the effects of this discriminatory policy, the Independent candidates and their supporters made it known privately, for if the Democrats had got word of it they might have declared it illegal, that those unable to write, who wanted to vote for them could obtain written voting cards if they asked for them. These were pieces of paper similar to those in the polling booths on which were written the names of the independent candidates. Those making use of these voting cards were instructed to put them in the ballot box in place of the blank sheets of paper given them in the polling booths. Many thousands of them were prepared by the independent candidates and their supporters for use in the Trabzon municipal elections and the independent candidates could not have achieved the success they did without them. Indeed, their victory might have been even more impressive had equal facilities for recording their votes been given to both sides in these elections. While handicaps and hindrances were in great measure the portion of the independent candidates in these elections, the Democrats had almost everything in their favour. They were almost all men of middle age who could point to more than four years fruitful service as councillors and were supported in their propaganda efforts by an experienced party organisation. In addition at least 7 Trabzon deputies, who had come up specially for the purpose f r o m Ankara, were at hand at all times to give any help and guidance that might be needed. With party buildings available in almost every part of the municipal areas the Democrat Party candidates had plenty of opportunities to make contact with their supporters and try to arouse them from their apathy and indifference. That they did not succeed, despite their many manifold advantages prior to voting day and the open discrimination in their favour in the polling booths, is a measure of the distrust and suspicion with which the Democrat Party is viewed at present by most of the electorate of the Trabzon vilayet. To sum up: there is no doubt that in the Trabzon vilayet and as far as I can gather from the limited information available here, in many other vilayets of the Consular area, the Democrat Party suffered defeat in the municipal elections of November 1955. Of the 12 municipalities in the Trabzon vilayet 7 were captured by the Independents despite the many handicaps under which they laboured and the municipality of Trabzon itself was only held by a very small majority. A striking feature of these elections was the defection of a large number of peasant voters in the rural municipalities of Of, Yomra, Siirmene, £aykara and Dernek where in previous Municipal and General

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elections the support of the peasants for the Democrat Party had been almost unanimous. This would seem to indicate serious dissatisfaction in the rural areas of the Trabzon vilayet with the shortages of materials and the ever increasing rise in prices resulting from the economic policy of the Democrat Government. One must not forget, however, that this assumption is based on the results of an election in which only 25 per cent, without doubt the most intelligent and critical section of the electorate, took the trouble to record their votes. Nevertheless, we can say with some justification that the Democrat Party have suffered a serious loss of prestige in the Trabzon vilayet as a result of their defeat by the Independents in the municipal elections and this is reflected in the strenuous efforts being made by the Government party to conceal the full extent of their defeat from the people in the hope that the whole affair will rapidly be forgotten.

h) RECENT POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN T H E BLACK SEA C O A S T A L A R E A S 1956 The Position of the Parties D e m o c r a t : The continual increase in the cost of living and the shortage of all kinds of goods and commodities had brought the Democrat Party to a very low level in public esteem both in the towns and more important still they had begun to lose influence even in the villages where their main voting strength lies. The application of the "Milli Koruma" or National Profit law and the propaganda drive associated with it changed all this almost in a night although the fall in prices has been almost entirely confined to cloth, building materials, property etc. and has not yet extended to food prices and the new Restriction laws prevent the Opposition from countering the Government claims. The Democrat Government has succeeded in placing the whole blame for the past rising prices and shortages on the shoulders of the trade people and speculators although their economic policy should bear quite a large share of the blame. However there is no doubt in the minds of the people that the Government has exposed the villains of the piece and the Democrat Party has taken advantage to recover a large part of the prestige they have lost since 1954. The new laws which are likely to be passed in the new session of Parliament reducing rents of houses by 35 per cent and business premises by 22 per cent and controlling prices at which land and property can be sold is likely to increase the standing of the Democrat Party in their area still further. This increase in D.P. prestige is even more in the villages where 80 per cent of the voting strength lies, than in the towns. The villagers have always occupied a very special position in the eyes of the D.P. f o r they form 80 per cent of the population and their vote must be decisive in an election.

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Since that party's advent to power they have always received special treatment. They pay practically no taxes; they can buy wheat from the Office of Soil Products at 20 kuruij and sell it to them at T.L. 35; They have always been able to sell their crop to the Government at prices much higher than those prevailing in world markets. By early 1956 rising prices in the inflationary spiral were beginning to cancel out the benefits of the high prices the villagers obtain for their crops and although the Govt did raise crop prices in line with increase in cost of living, the increases offered were not considered sufficient by the villagers. To increase the dissatisfaction in 1955 the whole of eastern Turkey was in the throes of the worst drought in living memory with cereal and fodder crops almost wiped out and the villagers forced to increase their indebtedness to the Agricultural Bank. In early 1956 the Democrat Party prestige in the villages was indeed at the lowest ebb in the villages of Eastern Turkey and the fall in prices associated with application of the National Profit Law came at a very opportune moment to rehabilitate the party in the eyes of the villagers. The New National Profit law has given even more satisfaction to the villager than to the townspeople, for the prices paid by the Govt f o r their crops has remained steady and in some cases has been increased (e.g. Sugar beet) while the prices paid by the villagers for the essential commodities they buy in the towns have fallen considerably. The advantages have naturally been part of the credit of the D.P. and the gratitude of the villagers has been further aroused by skilful propaganda from Government controlled wireless stations, while the opposition owing to the restrictions imposed on their actions by the Govt, are unable to counter these tactics. One can indeed say that the application of the National Profit Law with its attendant fall in prices has given a new lease of life to the D.P. throughout eastern Turkey and if the Government continue to produce results of this nature and the opposition continue to be muzzled, the prospects of the D.P in the villages will become unassailable. P.R.P.: A r e well organised t h r o u g h o u t eastern T u r k e y with representation stretching down from the vilayet headquarters through kaza headquarters to the villages. With broadcasting f r o m wireless stations in Turkey devoted solely to Govt, propaganda and the mass of the villagers unable to read and write and therefore only capable of being influenced to any extent by the spoken word, it is essential for an opposition party to be well represented in the villages if it is to have any chance of winning an election. A m o n g the opposition parties in eastern Turkey the P.R.P is the only one represented in the villages. The new law governing the holding of public meetings and demonstrations has of course, reduced the advantages of such representatives in the villages for political meetings and demonstrations cannot now be held without permission f r o m Valis who never under any circumstances give it to the opposition leaders. The local P.R.P. leaders will have to wait until 4 0 days before the General Election in 1958 before they can make any use of their village representatives. This does not leave them much

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time to capture the votes of the villagers who have been exposed for years to a monopoly of clever D.P. propaganda from Govt, controlled wireless stations. The increased prestige according to the D.P. from the fall in prices due to the application of the National Profit law is likely to make it even more difficult for the P.R.P. leaders to attract any large percentage of the decisive village vote in the forthcoming election. Freedom Party: This party's organisation is confined to the vilayet headquarters towns in eastern Turkey and even there it is not fully represented. The leaders in Trabzon are an unenterprising crowd and show no desire to extend their representation. However, even if they wanted to, they would find it very difficult for they are not, under the new regulations allowed to hold political meetings any where without the Vali's permission and being a Government servant he is not likely to give it to a representative of the renegade Freedom Party. Without public meetings to arouse some public interest it is not possible to extend a political organisation and the Freedom party in eastern Turkey must be content to confine its activities to the vilayet H.Q. towns where it is already established and even there the Law governing the holding of meetings and demonstrations will see to it that the activity is kept at a very low ebb. One of the Freedom Party leaders has boasted that a great national awakening is taking place and that they will succeed in their task. If a great national awakening is taking place and no signs of it are yet visible, the awakening has certainly not increased the prestige or resulted in any increase of strength for the F.P. in eastern Turkey. Republican National Party: This party despite it being of rather older vintage than the F.P. has little if any organisation in eastern Turkey outside a small number of the vilayet headquarters. Its influence is small and has little chance of being developed and increased under the new laws governing political activity in Turkey.

FINAL REPORT ON TRABZON CONSULAR AREA BY CONSUL MR. V. HARRIS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CHANGES AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL LIFE OF THE AREA DURING HIS TOUR OF DUTY The Trabzon consular area consists of 14 vilayets as shown on the map attached to this report marked appendix A. These vilayets are situated in three distinct regions which show considerable variation and present a correspondingly wide range of local problems. The first region adjoins the Black Sea and includes the vilayets of Sinop, Samsun, Ordu, Giresun, Trabzon, Rize and £oruh. They have much cooler summers than those prevailing on the Anatolian and Armenian plateaux further south. As one goes eastward the dry period of the hot summer season gets shorter until between Rize and Hopa it seldom exceeds 3 weeks to a month. The winters are mild and the rainfall varies from 700 m.m. - 1200, most of it falling in the winter months. On the bleak Armenian plateau much of which stands over 6000ft are the vilayets of Erzurum, Kars and Karakose. Here the winters are very severe but the area produces good pasture. The annual rainfall is in the region of 600700 m.m. most of it falling in the winter months. The few remaining vilayets of the consular area, Erzincan Giimu§hane, Tokat and Amasya, lie on the Anatolian plateau which here ranges between 2000 and 3000 ft. This plateau has a modified continental climate with hot dry summers and very severe winters. The limited rainfall of 250-300 m.m. is distributed between October and May. The main crops in this region are cereals and fruit. In addition to the particular local problems of these regions which will be discussed later, there are a number of subjects applicable to all three regions. These are dealt with under appropriate headings in the following paragraphs.

Vilayet

Administration

In 1949 when I arrived in Turkey and for a year or so after the Democrats came to power Valis, Chiefs of Police and Directors of Education in the Trabzon consular area were for the most part benevolent old gentlemen who had worked their way up in their respective services in the hard way and having reached the top were prepared to relax a little. After 1951, with a bustling Democrat Party in power the scene changed. The benevolent old gentlemen disappeared and younger men took their place. After 1954 the pace

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quickened and by 1956 when I left Turkey of the 14 vilayets in the consular area only two had Valis over 47 years of age and six of them were under 35 and had less than one year's service as Valis. The Chiefs of Police are even younger and it is rare to come across one over 30 years old. Directors of Education as one would expect, are rather older than the Chiefs of Police, but here again one rarely meets one over 45 years old. The Democrat leaders evolved this policy as a result of experience. Valis and other officials who were over 50 when the Democrats came to power had spent long years as officials under the old regime and showed little enthusiasm in carrying out the orders of their new masters. They were often not tactful enough in their dealings with the new Democrat Deputies and some even had the temerity to oppose their wishes. On recall to Ankara those over 60 were immediately retired, while the rather younger ones were given unimportant appointments. By 1956 all those over 50 with more than 30 years service had been compulsorily retired. The almost complete elimination of those Valis who were too old or too obstinate to adjust themselves to the new regime and their replacement by energetic and comparatively young men who owed their appointment solely to the Democrat Party has been a great help to that party in applying the restrictive measures which have been such a feature of recent years and which have resulted in the almost complete cessation of political activities in these eastern vilayets. I found in private conversation, however, that not a few of these young men were rather disturbed at having to apply the latest restrictions on political activity especially when the action involved, as it often did, up and coming leaders of one or other of the opposition parties who were friends of theirs from school or college days. I happened to be in Rize when about 5 leaders of the Freedom Party arrived there during a political tour of the Black Sea Coastal vilayets. The Vali told me that he was forced under the regulations to forbid them making speeches even to the members of their party in the party building. The Vali of Rize who is only 38 said he thought he could justify these restrictive measures at present because the country was passing through a difficult period economically and unity was essential to overcome their difficulties. He added that he did not enjoy the task of applying them, especially against friends of his and he hoped they would not remain a permanent feature of the political scene. The life of a Vali is not an enviable one. It is sure to be arduous and troubled and its duration is always uncertain. There were six changes of Vali during my seven and a half years in Trabzon and there are other vilayets in the consular area, in particular the problem vilayets of Kars and Sinop, where the people will persist in voting overwhelmingly for the Halk Party, in which the turn over is even greater than this. Of the six former Trabzon Valis two are dead and the remainder have been compulsorily retired. The appointment is a political one and a great deal of the Vali's time is taken up in placating the deputies or leaders of the Democrat Party who are a millstone around his neck.

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Add to all this the administrative duties in which every minor detail of administration has to be discussed and approved by him and where decentralisation is severely frowned on and one can see that the Vali's lot is not a happy one. One needs to be very young and very diplomatic to survive in office for any length of time. It is to be hoped that when these young reliable Valis have settled down, an end will be called to the frequent changes of the past, for such changes not only lower the morale of the Valis themselves but are harmful to the Vilayet administration as a whole.

Political

Discrimination

The Trabzon consular area has the distinction of containing 2 of the 3 vilayets who refused to vote overwhelmingly for the Democrat Party in the last election. The vilayets are Kars and Sinop and they both returned a full complement of Halk Party deputies to Parliament. They have paid dearly for their temerity and obstinacy. One can understand these vilayets remaining true to the Halk Party in 1950 election for no one at that time could foresee the decisive victory of the Democrats, but it is hard to see why they remained faithful in 1954 when all the other vilayets with pro Halk tendencies in 1950 abandoned that party in 1954. In both vilayets the population is predominantly peasant and the Democrat Party during the first four years of power certainly greatly improved the lot of the peasant. The neglect of the Kars and Sinop vilayets stands out all the more in that their treatment is in such contrast to the special favour shown to their neighbours Erzurum and Samsun. While Kars is studiously ignored in the Government plans for the development of local industries, Erzurum is overwhelmed with projects, from cement and sugar to meat and scholarship. A visit to the two towns brings out the contrast very sharply. Kars with its ruined shells of buildings, a survival of fighting in the First World War, its almost complete lack of building activity and its atrocious roads has an air of decay about it which contrasts strangely with the stir and bustle of the Erzurum scene, where building construction is in full swing everywhere, land values are soaring and the people flourishing. This of course only applies to the towns of Erzurum and Kars and there does not appear to be any discrimination in the treatment of the peasant in the two vilayets. Indeed, large sums are being spent at present in the Igdir plains in the Kars vilayet to construct the irrigation system for the Serdarabad dam, from which, under the recent agreement with Soviet Russia, the Turks will be able to draw their quota of irrigation water from the Aras river. In addition a Government farm is being developed in the tongue of land at the meeting place of the TurkoRussian and Turko-Persian frontiers. These projects however, were put in full swing after the 1954 election and would not be without their effect in the forthcoming election.

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The same applies to Sinop and Samsun. While the town of Sinop is in decay, Samsun is being specially favoured. Building activity is in full swing and real estate is booming; a first class harbour with modern equipment and storage facilities is being constructed; work on a modern aerodrome near the military barracks on the hillside has commenced; and the wide boulevards and spacious hotels testify to its wealth and prosperity. Here again this neglect and discrimination does not extend to the country side and the rice cultivators around Boyabat have cause to be very grateful to the Government for their anti malarial work, their grants and subsidies for water supplies and the advice and help of the Agricultural Advisory Staff. Here again this aid to the peasants has been stepped up since 1954, it may be with an eye on the approaching general election. However this may be, in both Kars and Sinop the Democrat Party leaders are making full use of this help to the peasants — in their propaganda and promise them a lot more if they will only vote for them in 1958. They point to the futility of voting for opposing parties which can clearly bring them no benefit in the struggle for prosperity and progress. There is little doubt that this propaganda is taking effect amongst the peasants and if the Democrat Party can continue to provide the money to propitiate the peasants and it must be a great strain on the resources of the country, the next general election in Kars and Sinop may see a rousing victory for their cause.

Religious reaction and Education The peasants of eastern Turkey and especially those in the mountainous coastal vilayets of the eastern Black Sea zone, are inclined to fanaticism in their religion. This fanaticism is kept alive and fostered by the local imams who are in great measure relics of the last days of the Ottoman Empire or have been trained in the Medresseh or schools attached to the mosques by such types. These imams long for a return to the good old days when the lives of the villagers were ruled by the Sheria or religious law and they themselves were real powers in the land. The influence of these Imams is in direct proportion to the ignorance of the peasants and their remoteness from the more enlightened centres of population. It is not surprising therefore that the remote vilayets of the Trabzon consular area are fertile breeding grounds for reactionary tendencies. As long as ignorance and bigotry remain in these remote rural areas, the Government of the day cannot feel secure, for discontent can easily be aroused by skilful propaganda in an ignorant and bigoted peasantry. There is indeed no greater threat to a Government than an alliance between a discontented and backward peasantry and a discontented intelligentsia, who usually act in the guise of opposition party leaders. This is well illustrated by the now defunct Millet Party's political campaign in the villages in 1952. At

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that time the Government had to deal very severely with outbreaks of religious reaction in various parts of the country and a large number of peasants in these eastern vilayets became restive under what they considered as attacks on their religion by the Government. The local leaders of the Millet Party exploited this situation to advance their cause in the villages and they had achieved a great measure of success before the Government took the drastic course of closing down the whole organisation. Further legislation was later passed forbidding the exploitation of religion for political ends, but until bigotry and ignorance are eliminated in the remoter rural areas the threat to stable Government, however latent, remains. After this experience the Government realised that the leisurely pace they were pursuing in the establishment of elementary schools in the villages was not good enough and in 1954 a new law was passed giving greatly increased grants for this purpose. The idea is to provide 80 per cent of the villages with elementary schools by 1960. In this program the education authorities are being handicapped by shortage of money and materials but the greatest handicap of all is likely to be the chronic shortage of trained teachers. This has been a problem for many years but the present massive expansion programme in school construction has of course greatly accentuated it. Generally speaking life in the villages of eastern Turkey is not a pleasant one for anyone accustomed to the amenities of town life and it is difficult to persuade teachers of this class to leave their towns and take up an appointment in a village. In the past this difficulty have been partly overcome by the establishment of village institutes where boys and girls from the villages are trained as teachers and then return to work in their own or neighbouring villages. These are not now adequate to meet the needs of the situation and the number of these institutes is being increased as quickly as possible. The pay and conditions of service of teachers both in the villages and the towns are not attractive and the authorities are finding some difficulty in filling both the village Institutes and the teachers training colleges, for in a time of rapid economic development there is much competition f r o m other professions where the pay and conditions of service are more attractive. However the vilayet education authorities are working with energy and enthusiasm and it will not be their fault if the programme is not completed in time. In the attack on intolerance and bigotry in the rural areas the Government plan to replace the present imams gradually by a new type some of whom commenced training in what are called imam Hatip Okulu or school for the training of imams in 1953. There are three of these schools in the Trabzon consular area, in Trabzon, Tokat and Erzurum and I was told that the programme calls for four by 1958. The trainees are chosen from boys who express a desire to follow a religious calling and who have successfully completed the course at an Orta Okulu or intermediate school. The course of instruction lasts for seven years, two years longer than that in the lycée. The extra years are spent in studying the Koran and the Arabic language and script.

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Apart from the religious instructors all the teachers in these new schools are ex lycée instructors and their function is to see that the trainees get a sound general education. The aim I was told, is to produce a type of Imam who is first and foremost a good Turk. He must be reasonably well educated and his religious outlook must be free from any trace of bigotry or fanaticism. With a seven year course the first Imams from these new type religious schools, which will eventually replace the old type Medresseh attached to the mosques, will be taking up their duties in the villages sometime in 1960. They will be regarded as full time civil servants with pay and conditions of service in line with teachers of the same educational attainments. If ignorance, bigotry and intolerance can be eradicated in this way from the villages of eastern Turkey a great step will have been taken towards eradicating reactionary tendencies in the area and the threat to stable government in Turkey will be correspondingly reduced. T h e present Government in Turkey seem determined to do their best to attain the aim.

Mineral development

in the consular

area

Although Turks generally talk very grandly of the mineral wealth of the eastern vilayets and teams of geologists have spent some time in the area no mineral discovery of any importance has been announced. Silver and lead mines have been worked for many generations in the Gumti§hane area but there does not appear to be any scope for large scale development there. Manganese mines are worked in two places along the Black Sea coast between Rize and Hopa and also in the Zigana mountains, but the equipment is primitive and the amount produced small. There is an antimony mine just outside the town of Turhal and I am told it is quite well equipped. Unfortunately costs in Turkey are high and antimony ore can only be sold at a profit when prices of the metal are high on world markets. There is also a chrome mine near Ortova in the Tokat vilayet where the deposits of chromite are said to be rich. The site however, is some distance from the railway and good road communications and has no modern equipment. Production is therefore limited to about 5000 tons of chromite per year which is all sent to Istanbul for sale. It is not known whether the grade of ore and the available reserves at this mine would justify the Government either taking it over or in providing the necessary funds to enable the present owners to buy equipment to run it efficiently and at full capacity. Apart from the Murgul copper mine which will be discussed in the following paragraph there are not, as far as I know, any other mines of commercial importance being developed or worked in the Trabzon Consular area.

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I have described the Murgul copper mine in detail and discussed the problems associated with its development in several reports so I will not cover that ground again. However, there are two recent developments which are interesting and worth describing. As is well known, the machinery and other installations at the Murgul copper mine are British and were installed by British engineers. These installations were designed for an output of 50 tons of blister copper per day, but as the British engineers left soon after production started they had no opportunity to test whether in fact, this output could be achieved in actual operation. However that may be, the maximum daily output which has been achieved at the mine is 35 tons of blister copper and when I visited the mine in 1955 production was in the region of 28 tons. I understand that since then production has decreased again to about 23 tons. The mine has now been in operation for about five years and partly from age and partly from lack of spares and perhaps inadequate maintenance, the machinery cannot be worked to full capacity. The Eti Bank which controls the operations of this and other mining concerns in Turkey, came to a tentative agreement with a British firm in 1955 for the supply of new machinery to supplant that in operation, especially excavating machinery and aerial roping replacements, payments to be made in blister copper. However the agreement finally fell through and the mine output has continued to deteriorate. An attempt is now being made to obtain German equipment but up to my leaving Turkey in November 1956 I could obtain no confirmation of any binding agreement having been signed. The other development concerns the new sulphuric acid factory. When I visited the mine in late 1955 the completion of the factory was being held up then by shortages of essential materials. It was completed, however, towards the end of 1956 and the French engineers who were in charge of the project left. Unfortunately the Government has been unable to come to an agreement with any firm to supply the tankers which would carry the daily sulphuric acid production to the port of Hopa for export. The complete sulphuric acid plant which has cost many thousands of liras to erect, therefore, remains idle, while sulphur fumes continue to devastate the vegetation of the surrounding country side and the Eti Bank continues to pay out its annual 2 millions liras as compensation to the peasants whose land has been affected. Several laws have been passed in recent years facilitating the small scale development of mining resources, more especially where the proved reserves are insufficient for large scale mining by the Eti Bank. A s a result many concessions have been taken over by hopeful local enthusiasts. Many of the concessions in the Giimti§hane area have been worked at intervals f o r centuries. Bad communications and primitive equipment however, keep costs of production high and with few exceptions prices paid for ore in Istanbul were not sufficient to cover cost of production. Apart from a few manganese mines which still continue to operate at a profit, most of the concessions granted have been abandoned.

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There were Armenian communities spread over large areas and in many towns on the Armenian plateau up to the outbreak of the First World War. Today there are virtually no Armenians left in this area. Those that were not liquidated have either fled to other countries or have settled in the large towns. The Turks are determined that none of them shall return to eastern Turkey. The Greeks have also been eliminated from the area but not in such a ruthless manner as the Armenians, although in the exchange of population with Greece, the unfortunate Greeks of the Black Sea littoral, who almost dominated the commercial life of the community, were unable to take with them more than a fraction of their wealth. The once flourishing Greek communities of the Black Sea coast have already been forgotten. With their departure the biggest stumbling block to the establishment of a homogeneous population in eastern Turkey has been removed. The only minorities now left in the consular area are the Ajars, the Lazis and the Kurds. The aim of the Turks is to assimilate these three minorities as quickly and as efficiently as possible and in this way establish a homogeneous population in eastern Turkey. In the case of the Ajars and the Lazis this process of assimilation is almost complete and the once proud, roving independent Kurd is well on the way to the same fate. Ajars: The Ajars are a Caucasian people very much akin to the Lazis and the Georgians and they speak a dialect which closely resembles both the Lazis and the Georgians. They are said to be descendants of Georgians who were forcibly converted to Islam by the Turks and this is probably true. The Ajars occupy the mountainous country east of the £ o r u h river between Artvin and the Russian frontier, with the greatest concentration in the kaza of Bonjka. Russia acquired this area known as Ajaristan by the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and it did not return to Turkey until 1921. During the period of Russian occupation there were a large number of Armenians in the area, especially in the village of Artvin, which catered especially for the wealthy Russians of Batum who used it as a summer resort. This brought work and money to the area. The Ajar peasants found winter work in the nearby Batum area and returned to their villages in the summer time with the money they were able to save from their wages. There was also a flourishing trade between Ajaristan and other parts of Russia. During and after the First World War Ajaristan became a battle ground first between the Russians and the Turks and later between the Armenians and the Turks. By 1921 the Armenians had either been killed or expelled and the Turks established their administration in the area. Years of war had devastated the countryside and the economic plight of the Ajars was desperate indeed. They had become Turks but most of them knew no Turkish. Being domiciled in Turkey they now had to cross the frontier to get to their winter work areas in Russia and this was forbidden both

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by the Turks and by the Russian communists who had by this time taken over the Caucasus. T o obtain alternative work in Turkey involved travelling distances into areas strange to them and the pay was not so attractive as in Russia. Trade with Russia continued but on a greatly reduced scale but even this came to an end with the outbreak of the Second World War and there has been little movement of trade and none of personnel across the border since. The Ajars have always been a poor community f o r they live in a mountainous region on the fringes of the forest areas where animal husbandry and tobacco growing give a poor return for the effort involved. The loss of both employment in Russia and trade with that country was therefore a severe blow and aroused much resentment and anger in the country. This was of necessity kept underground for the Turks can be ruthless in their dealing with minorities. Most of the Ajars longed secretly for a quick return of the area to Russia for they felt that under the Turks their economic conditions would not improve. In 1950, however, the Murgul copper mine came into production and the Ajars found employment on their doorstep with good wages and conditions of service. In the near future, if plans materialise, the production of copper will be increased considerably and sulphuric acid will also be produced as a byproduct. This will give further employment to the fortunate Ajars. To make their prospects rosier still the Government have recently give permission for 10,000 hectares of tea to be planted in the area around Maradit on the Russian frontier, where the soil and climate are eminently suitable for this crop. These tea plantations will replace wherever possible the tobacco at present grown in this area, which does not give an adequate return for the time and labour involved in growing it. Tea on the other hand is a very valuable crop, the Government paying out large sums in subsidies and grants to prepare the terraces and when the plants come into production paying high prices for the leaf. In addition factories will have to be constructed to process the leaf bringing further employment to the fortunate Ajar peasants. With these bright prospects ahead the majority of the Ajars are loud in their praises of the Government and separatist talk is no longer heard amongst them. If not a happy community, for the typical Ajar is a surly individual, they are a contented one and the younger generation at any rate show an increasing desire to be regarded as Turks and for their minority status as Ajars to be forgotten. Provided the economic prospects continue to develop favourably this tendency is certain to gather momentum as time goes on. The Lazis: Like the Ajars the Lazis are of Caucasian origin and speak a language which resembles Georgian. They, like the Ajars, are probably Georgians who were forcibly converted to Islam by the Turks. They inhabit the Black Sea littoral between Of and the Russian frontier. The Lazis are a very intelligent people. Before the First World War thousands of them went to Batum and surrounding areas to work in business and in agriculture and most of the fruit and vegetables of the old Lazistan

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coastal belt was exported there also. Many of them became wealthy and settled there. When the Communists came down and took over the Caucasus the Lazis lost all their property and the majority returned to Turkey. A few, however, remained and became communist by indoctrination. In 1948 when the Russians started sending spies across the frontier among those captured by the Turks were a number of these indoctrinated Lazi communists. The Turks have always doubted the reliability of the Laz and these incidents naturally increased their suspicions. Movements of Lazis into Russia in search of work naturally ceased after the Communists took over but the vegetable, fruit and other produce of the littoral continued to be exported to Batum. The Second World War put an end also to trade relations and the Lazis were deprived of both trade and employment outside Turkey. Outlets and opportunities in Turkey were nothing like so numerous and profitable or so varied as Russia provided with the result that the Lazis were much worse off than formerly. This caused a great deal of hidden resentment and anger in the Lazi community. In 1951 the Government decided to expand the area under tea in the Rize vilayet f r o m 30,000 hectares to 65,000 hectares. When this was completed in 1954 a further expansion to 105,000 by 1958 was decided on. Under this plan the area where tea could be grown was extended eastward to the Russian frontier and westwards to Siirmene. This expansion in the area under tea with its accompanying Government grants and subsidies to growers and high prices paid for the leaf has brought great prosperity to the Laz peasants. It has also created a great demand for labour throughout the large tea growing area. This in turn has reduced the numbers of able bodied men forced to seek work away from home in order to support their families. Factories to process the leaf are also being rapidly built to meet the needs of the expansion programme and these also in due course will provide further employment for the Laz peasant. All these developments have naturally given great satisfaction to the Laz peasants who are loud in their praises of the present Government and their resentment over the loss of trade and employment in Russia has disappeared. They have indeed become in recent years a happy, contented and prosperous community and their future prospects look bright. Although they still speak their Laz dialect in the home the younger educated element in the Laz community, as in the mountainous Ajar country, are not anxious to admit to strangers that they are Laz. They prefer to be considered as Turks and for their minority status to be forgotten. With elementary schools being rapidly established in the villages the new generation of Laz are likely to be speedily assimilated. The Kurds: The majority of Kurds in the Trabzon consular area live in the Erzincan, Erzurum and Karakose vilayets, although there are a f e w communities in the Kars vilayet also. The official Turkish line and it is faithfully followed by all officials, is that there are no Kurds in Turkey. They

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claim that those we call Kurds are in reality of the Turkish race who by long centuries of neglect by the central Government have degenerated to such an extent that they have adopted Kurdish habits and customs and speak a debased form of Kurdish. Be that as it may, even today the majority of these people speak very little Turkish and can be easily distinguished as a different race from that of the Turks. After the Kurdish rebellion was quashed, the hereditary tribal leaders were either shot or deported to other areas and the tribesmen settled as farmers and cultivators in villages. With this forced abandonment of the tribal nomadic life, the once proud arrogant, migratory, raiding Kurds seem to have become quiet hard working and law abiding citizens and farmers. The ones I came across seemed to have a hang-dog look about them which is rather depressing to observe. Nevertheless, the Kurdish villages I have visited appeared to be prosperous. Although Turkish officials can hardly be said to like them they agree that the Kurds have settled down very well in their new life which has been forced upon them. Officials insist that there are no more nomadic Kurds in Turkey. The only nomads that are allowed are called the (Tingene or gypsies who are often thought to be Kurds. With the Laz and the Ajars almost assimilated into the Turkish community the Turks are pressing on with the task of assimilating the Kurds. Schools are being rapidly established in the Kurdish villages and no differentiation is made between Kurdish and Turkish peasant in the matter of Government grants, credit from the banks, distribution of seed and prices paid by the Office of Soil Products for cereals. The settled Kurds are indeed much more prosperous today than they have ever been as nomads. Some of the older generation may look back with nostalgia to the good old days of the nomadic life with their tribal chieftains, but the younger generation who go through the village schools are more Turkish than Kurdish in their outlook. All the educational and other officials I have met in the vilayets where Kurds are numerous seem confident that with the provision of elementary schools in all the Kurdish villages, which is being actively organised and the enforcement of compulsory attendance at school for all those of school age, the rising generation of Kurds will not only become more prosperous but also good Turks as well. The Vali of Karakose thought it might take 25 years to assimilate the Kurdish minority into the Turkish community but they would persevere he said, until they attained that aim.

BLACK SEA C O A S T A L VILAYETS OF TRABZON C O N S U L A R AREA These are Sinop, Samsun, Ordu, Giresun, Trabzon, Rize and (,'oruh. Along this length of coast the depth of the flat coastal strip varies between 5 and 3000 metres the remaining cultivable land being of varying slope and, even in the less mountainous vilayets of Samsun and Sinop not exceeding a

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quarter of the total land surface. Despite this shortage of cultivable land these vilayets, especially the 5 vilayets east of Samsun, are greatly over populated. £oruh has 42 persons to the square kilometre, Rize 49, Trabzon 90, Giresun 44 and Ordu 72, a very high incidence of population when one considers that three quarters of the land surface is unsuitable for cultivation and the whole population is almost entirely dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. This can be appreciated when one compares these densities of population with 8 persons per square kilometre in Van, 11 in A g n and 15 in Erzurum, in all of which the land available for cropping is very much greater than in these coastal vilayets. To get the maximum yield from the land you need a certain number of hands and no more. In the over populated vilayets of the eastern Black Sea zone the number engaged in agriculture is well above this limit and there are no local industries to which the surplus labour can turn for a livelihood. The result is that farms are small and tend to become smaller as population grows, as it is doing very rapidly at present in Turkey. This tendency is further increased by Mohammedan law which decrees that on the death of the head of a family his land must be equally divided amongst his dependents. This is well illustrated in these Black Sea coastal Vilayets. Of the families living there 4 0 % have less than 3 acres of cultivable land and are unable under the present system of agriculture to support themselves and their families. To supplement the income available f r o m their land the male members of such families are forced to leave their homes every year and work for varying periods in other areas for there are no local industries that can absorb them. This annual migration in search of work, which overpopulation forces on large numbers of the male population of these vilayets is no recent problem, but it is only since the Democrats came into power that any attempt has been made to tackle it. The Government have not the resources to resettle these families in areas where land is more plentiful, even if the latter were agreeable and the solution lies in better farming practices to increase output from the available land; the creation of local industries wherever possible; and the development of communications. These developments are discussed in the following paragraphs of Communications, Local Industries and Agriculture.

Communications Road: The solution of the problem of increasing the production and output of the villagers and in this way raising their standard of living and increasing their purchasing power, depends a great deal on communications and especially on roads. Roads must be provided to bring the villagers and their products into closer contact with one another and with the towns. Since the Democrats came into power in 1950 great progress has been made in this direction.

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When I arrived in Trabzon in 1949 movement by road in winter months, even on the main Trabzon-Erzurum-Tabriz highway was not undertaken lightly. The Erzurum-Persian-frontier road passes over the Zigana and Kop mountains which were liable to be closed by snow for long periods for there was no organisation of snow ploughs; the wooden bridges on the coastal roads were frequently washed away and the section of the road over the mountainous Ko$ Boynuzu peninsula just west of Ordu was impassable throughout the winter months; while the roads running into the interior from Samsun and Hopa were not properly constructed and unsafe in winter, even if there had been a service of snowploughs to keep them open. Since 1950 the position has been transformed. The highway from Trabzon through Erzurum and Karakose to the Persian frontier has been widened, new bridges constructed and an efficient service of snow ploughs ensures that it is kept open throughout the winter. The coastal road from the border between the Sinop and Samsun vilayets (the Sinop vilayet voted for the Halk Party in the last election and the roads in that vilayet are somewhat neglected) and the town of Hopa is being widened throughout; wooden bridges are being replaced by ferroconcrete structures; the alignment altered to avoid the frequent and, with modern technique, unnecessary incursions into the interior to avoid natural obstacles on the coast; and a completely new road has been constructed around the coast of the K 0 5 Boynuzu peninsula avoiding the steep and in winter dangerous ascents and descents of the interior. The highway south f r o m Samsun to A n k a r a has been almost completely reconstructed and the alignment altered and efficient service of snow ploughs keeping the road over the high mountains at Kavak open throughout the winter. It is not on the main highways however that the greatest progress has been made. Since 1950 the aim has been to construct as wide a network as possible of rough but adequate roads and not, as in the past, to concentrate on a few roads. The coastal road has been extended from Sinop to Ayancik; vilayet roads into the interior from the coast at Sinop, Unye, Ordu, Giresun, Rize, Of and Hopa which eight years ago were little better than glorified tracks, have been widened and metalled, thus enabling the products of the interior to be brought quickly and cheaply to the ports and vice versa; and village roads have been constructed connecting the villages with one another and with their kaza headquarters town. In organisation also great progress has been made. Soon after the Democrats came into power in 1950 and under the impetus of American aid, the Directorate of Roads in the Ministry of Communications was greatly expanded and 5 year and 10 year plans of road construction formulated. The unwieldy organisation of the Dogu Yollari (eastern roads) which, with inadequate f u n d s and equipment, was responsible for the construction and maintenance of practically all the main roads in eastern Turkey outside the towns was abolished and replaced by a much more efficient set up. The road system in Turkey was classified under three headings, national roads, vilayet

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roads and village roads. The national roads connecting the main centres of population became the responsibility of the Ministry of Communications through the Directorate of Roads. To carry out the 5-10 year proposals of new road construction and the necessary maintenance of all national roads, the country was divided into areas, each area being given sufficient personnel and equipment f o r the purpose. The vilayet and village roads remained the responsibility of the vilayet authorities but with very much increased grants from the central Government. Indeed, since 1950 the annual grants from the Central Government have been more than quadrupled in many vilayets. The village roads, as their name implies, connect the villages with one another. They are generally earth or partially stabilised and can only be used during the summer months. The earth moving part of the constructional work of these roads is done by the villagers of the area through which the road passes. The old system under which the villagers were compelled to work in this way on the roads instead of paying road tax has been abolished and a so-called voluntary system has been adopted. The peasants are now only asked to work on roads which actually pass through the area in which they live and as these roads open up the area and benefit them economically the vast majority of the villagers are eager to take their part in this unpaid work on roads. Nevertheless voluntary is hardly the right word to apply to it for the courts have the power to fine or imprison any villager who has the temerity to refuse to do his share. The construction of bridges and any surfacing that may be required on these village roads are done by paid employees of the vilayet Directorate of Public Works or by contractors employed by that Directorate. As village roads increase in importance the Vali, on the advice of the elected General Council of the vilayet can upgrade them to vilayet roads. They are then usually widened and properly surfaced by the vilayet Directorate of Public Works. The vilayet roads too are sometimes taken over by the Road Directorate as national roads and their repair and maintenance then becomes the responsibility of the Central Authority. With the increased money grants from the Central Government and larger allocations of transport and earth moving equipment to the vilayet a comprehensive network of vilayet and village roads have been constructed in the last seven years. Indeed if there is no slackening off in the present tempo of road construction a few years should see the great majority of villages in these coastal vilayets within easy distance of one or other of these village roads. It is unfortunate that these village and vilayet roads for the most part pass through mountainous and broken country with frequent steep ascents and descents. Not being surfaced adequately, the winter rains and snow and ice take a heavy toll of damage and much repair and maintenance are necessary to keep them serviceable. As resources at this stage of the operations are seldom sufficient f o r construction and maintenance the latter has usually to be neglected, with the result that village roads opened to traffic one year may become unserviceable by the next.

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Despite this serious drawback the recently constructed village and vilayet roads in these coastal vilayets in conjunction with the great improvement in the standard of the national roads have been a major factor in raising the standard of living of the peasants of the Black Sea Coastal vilayets. Rail C o m m u n i c a t i o n s : There are no rail communications in the Sinop, Ordu, Giresun, Trabzon, Rize, £ o r u h , Giimii§hane or Karakose vilayets, but the Sivas-Russian frontier line passes through the Erzincan, Kars and Erzurum vilayets and the Sivas-Samsun line passes through the TokatAmasya and Samsun vilayets. The Sivas-Russian frontier line was built in three different gauges: (a) The section in broad gauge from the frontier to Sankami§, which was built by the Russians when Kars was a province of the Russian empire. The intention is to convert this length of line into standard gauge but work has not yet started. (b) That in narrow gauge which until a few years ago ran f r o m Erzurum to Sarikami§. Work has been proceeding for many years on the replacement of the narrow gauge line by standard gauge, but progress has been slow. The standard gauge is now in operation as far as Horasan but the earth work, culverts and bridges have been completed for 10 miles beyond this. However, the rate of progress seems to be slowing down and it will be several years before the standard gauge replaces the narrow one all the way to Sankami§. (c) That in standard gauge from Sivas to Erzurum. The Sivas-Samsun line was built in the early days of Atatiirk regime. It carries the produce of the hinterland to the port of Samsun. This port is being enlarged and equipped to handle the increased traffic expected as economic development progresses.

Development

of Turkish Eastern Black Sea Ports

The rapidly developing Turkish economy calls for greatly improved facilities in the eastern Black Sea ports, for the bottle neck at these ports has proved a serious handicap in recent years. In November 1953 Parliament passed a law authorising the expenditure of twenty four million lira on harbour development. The eastern Black Sea zone was allotted funds for work at Samsun, Ordu, Giresun, Rize, Pazar and Hopa. Samsun Port: The biggest of these projects is at Samsun, where a harbour will be constructed at a cost of 70 million liras or more. The scheme includes a graded breakwater on the bad weather side (north-west) about 1500 metres long and on the lee side (east) an ungraded break-water over 2300 metres long. The quay will be 800 metres long. When the work is complete in 1960 the port should be able to handle 800,000 tons of merchandise annually of which half is expected to be grain and about twelve and a half per cent coal.

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The work is proceeding according to plan and by November 1956 600700 metres of the main graded breakwater had been completed and work on the long lee breakwater had been commenced. The German engineer controlling the work, which is being carried out by the Turkish R.A.R. Company in conjunction with two German firms, is confident that the breakwater and the quay will be finished by late 1960 or the beginning of 1961. Ordu: At the port of Ordu a three million lira ferro-concrete jetty has been completed and is in use. This was built to replace the comparatively modern small ferro-concrete passenger jetty and the ancient wooden structure used as a goods jetty, which are situated in the centre of the town. The new jetty stands about 1 kilometre north west of the town. Although it is already in use the old passenger and goods jetties do not yet seem to have been abandoned. This is probably because the road from the new jetty into the town along the shore has not yet been completed. The new jetty is supported on concrete piles and runs for the first 170 metres in a north easterly direction. For the remainder of its length its direction is due north. The surface of the jetty is concreted throughout its length. There are no lifting appliances at present. Boats up to 6000 tons can come alongside in calm weather and are unloaded on the jetty with ships' winches. In rough weather ships anchor out in the bay and are unloaded by lighter. There is a plan to build a breakwater about 300 metres long to the north of the jetty to protect it from the violent north west winds and allow ships to come alongside this jetty in all but gale and tempest. This breakwater would cost about a million liras. Giresun: At Giresun work is in progress on the construction of what is called a refuge harbour at the cost of 20 million liras. There will be two breakwaters. The shore shelves steeply at Giresun so that dredging inside the harbour will not be necessary. Ships will be unloaded by lighter as at present and the lighters unloaded at the quayside. V a k f i k e b i r : A ferro-concrete jetty about 100 metres long is being built to replace the present ancient wooden structure. T r a b z o n : A 10,000 ton silo was almost complete by the end of 1956. The temporary metal storage sheds for cereals which were erected some four years ago will be dismantled and sent to another port when the new silo comes into operation. Rize: A new ferro-concrete jetty is being constructed to replace the old wooden structure. It should be completed in 1957. P a z a r : Here again a ferro-concrete jetty is in the process of construction. It was almost complete by the end of 1956. H o p a : The present jetty in Hopa is being extended to cope with the projected increased production of copper f r o m the Murgul mine and the sulphuric acid which will be produced when tankers are available to bring it to the port. There is much talk of a refuge harbour being built here, but nothing has yet materialised. This would necessitate the construction of t w o breakwaters at least 1000 metres long and would cost something around 21 million liras.

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Agriculture It is agreed by most people today that the greatest contributory cause of the overwhelming defeat of the Halk Party in the General Election of 1950 was their long standing neglect of the interests of the agricultural community in their pursuit of industrial advancement. This is perhaps all the more surprising when one considers that agriculture in Turkey provides a living for over 75% of the population and to antagonise it in this way could only result in losing the support of by far the largest section of the community. The Democrats have wisely taken this lesson to heart and since their accession to power have devoted the greater part of their energies to agricultural development. As I have mentioned before, the main problem of the Black Sea coastal vilayets in the Trabzon consular area is over population. There is consequently insufficient cultivable land available to provide a living for the population and a large proportion of the male peasants have to leave their homes for varying periods every year in search of work to supplement the income obtainable from their land. In addition to this evil, over-population invariably leads to over cropping and this in turn to decreased fertility. The ideal solution of this problem of over population with its attendant evils is probably the resettlement of those unable to obtain a reasonable livelihood from the land available to them in under populated regions of the Anatolian and Armenian plateaux, but the Government have not the resources to do this. As far as agriculture is concerned the solution of the problem lies in increasing the productivity of the land available by the choice whenever possible of more profitable crops; the opening up by drainage and clearance of more land for cultivation; and to help the peasants to effect these improvements by increased Government grants and borrowing facilities from the banks. The change over to more profitable crops is bound to be a lengthy process not only because the Turkish farmer is rather set in his ways, but also because the change over involves much prior capital expenditure for the most part by the Government and there are many prior commitments in the way. The main field crops in these coastal vilayets are maize and tobacco. Tea and hazelnuts are extensively grown and citrus fruits are grown in favoured localities in the Rize and (_'oruh vilayets. Maize: The land available for cultivation in these coastal vilayets and especially in those east of the Samsun vilayet is very limited and it is therefore all the more essential to make the most economic use of it. Maize bread has from time immemorial been the staple food of the villagers in these vilayets and most families have in the past tried to provide as much as possible of their needs from their own land. Where the land and climate is suitable for tea or fruit growing, both of which are very much more profitable, it is obviously bad economics to continue growing maize. To bring this home to the villagers the Government sell them as much maize (or in recent years,

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wheat, for they want to wean them from maize to wheat bread) as they require for their needs at 20 kuru§ a kilogram which is much cheaper than they can produce it themselves. In place of maize they are encouraged where soil and climate are suitable and in case of fruit where irrigation water is available, to change over to tea and fruit. H a z e l n u t s : In a good year between 60,000 and 80,000 tons of hazelnuts are produced in the five eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets stretching from Ordu to the Russian frontier. In two of these vilayets, Ordu and Giresun, hazelnuts are the source of livelihood of over 80 per cent of the peasants. Complete dependence on a single crop especially one so unpredictable as the hazelnut has many grave disadvantages. The main disadvantage is, of course, that when the crop fails, as it does every two or three years, there is great poverty and distress for there is no other crop that might help in mitigating the effect. Even heavy crops have their disadvantages especially if they occur in years when the crop in Italy or Spain is also heavy. Under such conditions prices fall heavily and this is disastrous for a high cost producing country like Turkey. The price support policy of the Government, however, has softened the impact on the growers of any disastrous fall in world prices. Under this scheme the Government fixes a minimum price at which they will buy all hazelnuts offered to them by the growers. This minimum price has in recent years been comparatively generous and has allowed of a fair profit being made by the growers when to sell on world markets would have entailed severe losses. The losses involved, which cannot be light are borne by the Government and the money is presumably obtained from the tax payers. To lessen this dependence on a single crop the authorities in these vilayets have been experimenting for some years with tea growing in suitable areas but the consensus of opinion amongst experts seem to be that results so far have not been very encouraging. Despite the unfavourable prospects Democrat deputies f r o m these vilayets in order to enhance their prestige amongst the villagers, have succeeded in persuading the Government to allow the peasants in certain areas to start tea growing. As the tea plant takes four years to reach the productive stage and twelve years to give m a x i m u m production, it will be some time before final judgement can be pronounced. By that time many present deputies may no longer be interested. The hazelnuts grown on the Black Sea coast contain more oil than those grown in France or Italy and usually command a slight premium. This year (1956) there has been a bumper crop not only in Turkey but in Spain and France as well, with the result that prices on world markets have fallen heavily. With Turkish support price much above world prices the growers have sold all their production to the Government who have to dispose of it at the best price possible. Up to the time I left Trabzon at the end of November 1956 the Government had sold practically nothing of their huge stocks of the 1956 crop because the price they demanded was so much above world prices that buyers had no alternative but to take Italian or Spanish nuts. The chances

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of disposing of this large 1956 crop during 1957 selling season seem remote even if the Government now agree to sell at realistic prices, for the demand is circumscribed and much of it has already been filled by the realistic Spaniards and Italians. To carry the crop over to next year will be a great strain on the storage capacity and there are certain to be serious losses from that cause. The dealers in hazelnuts who see their export market drying up as a result of the Government policy seem dumbfounded and can only hope that the policy is the result of information not available to them. With their livelihood entirely dependent on the hazelnut tree one would imagine that the growers would make every effort to ensure maximum and regular cropping, but despite the exhortations and threats of the vilayet agricultural officials, pruning, cultivation manuring and insect control, the essentials of good and regular cropping, continue to be neglected. The Government hope that the exhortations of their officials will in time convince the growers that it is only by attention to these details that they will be able to cut crop failures down to a minimum and save themselves and their families much hardship and distress. Several teams of agriculturists have arrived in the vilayets of Giresun and Ordu to carry out a survey of the available cultivable land and assess the possibilities of growing alternative crops to the hazelnut. The alternative crops suggested by the Ministry of Agriculture are tea, olives and fruit, but apart from a few tea plantations, which are not very hopefully regarded by the experts, nothing has materialised. To change over f r o m the established hazelnut to olives or fruit would take much time and capital. There are few growers who would be prepared to take the risk without heavy Government backing and this appears to be reserved for tea growing. Tea: Unlike hazelnuts, the Turks grow tea purely for their own use. With the raised standard of living and higher purchasing power of the peasants, the consumption of tea in Turkey has grown steadily. Before the advent to power of the Democrats, the consumption of tea in Turkey was 800 tons but in 1954 it had risen to over 4000 tons and is still rising. Tea production in Turkey has also risen rapidly since 1950. In that year it was 306 tons but by 1954 it had quadrupled and in 1956 provisional figures showed that production had increased to 1700 tons. With the new tea factories coming into use and fresh areas into production, it is confidently predicted that the output in 1957 will be over 2000 tons. Since the Democrats came to power in 1950, the expansion in the area under tea has been very rapid. From 30,000 hectares or donum (1 hectare = two and a half acres) in 1951 it had grown to 71,000 hectares by the end of 1955. Under the present programme the area under tea is to be increased to 10.5,000 hectares (262,500 acres) by 1960. Provided these present liberal Government grants and subsidies to new growers are continued and leaf prices are not reduced, there is little doubt that the target will be reached on time.

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As I have mentioned previously, the tea produced in 1956 was 1700 tons, but as consumption in 1957 is expected to exceed 4500 tons, at least 2800 tons will have to be imported if the demand is to be satisfied. It is a moot point whether the Government will be able to do this in 1957 for shortage of foreign exchange is becoming critical. However they are certain to do their best to meet the demand; for although tea was considered something of a luxury by the peasants only a few years ago, they would look with extreme disfavour today on any Government which attempted to limit their supplies of what has now become a necessity. The Government are looking forward to the day when Turkey will be self sufficient as far as tea supplies are concerned, but even if the target of 105,000 hectares under tea by 1960 is realised; the factories are made available as needed; and the tea consumption remains static at 4200 tons, the production of this amount could not be realised before 1965. In the meantime they will have to continue buying Indian tea at 5 liras a kilogram mixing it with Black Sea coastal production at 13 liras a kilogram and selling the mixture at 25 liras a kilogram. This appears to be a high price for a country to pay for producing its own tea but the Turks generally seem to consider it worth while. It costs two and a half times as much to produce a kilogram of tea in the factory at Rize as it does in an efficient tea plantation in India. In India of course, tea growing is organised in separate plantations where everything can be run with the maximum efficiency and costs are accordingly kept down to the minimum. The Turks however, have deliberately turned their backs on the Indian model, although most of their experts have visited the plantations there and are full of praise for their efficiency. Such methods, they say, cannot be adopted in the Black Sea coastal areas, for the peasants in these areas cling to their land with fanatical tenacity and few would sell unless compelled to do so. It would be political suicide for a Government to antagonise the peasants in this way, for they form over 80 per cent of the population and their vote is decisive, in any election. The Government have therefore, been forced to choose the relatively inefficient widely dispersed high cost peasant production, with its subsidies to new growers, its grants for manures and plants and its army of controllers. It is possible though rather doubtful, that their system could be made competitive with that of low cost tea producing countries like India provided the prices paid for the leaf were gradually reduced as the plantations reached full production. However, this again would seriously antagonise the growers and is not likely to be applied by a D e m o c r a t Government in Turkey. It is evident therefore, that tea production in Turkey will continue of necessity to be heavily subsidised by the Government. High cost production in this case, however, can perhaps be justified on two grounds. If everything goes according to plan it is possible by 1965 or a little later for Turkey to produce enough tea to become self supporting and thus save the large sums in foreign exchange at present spent on imports from India. In addition even

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today the tea industry provides a living for over 50,000 growers and their families together with many thousands of employees in the factories. By 1960 these numbers will be greatly increased. Indeed, it is estimated that by 1965 over half a million people will be dependent on the tea industry in these coastal vilayets. This has and will continue to raise the general standard of living in these vilayets; the long standing need for able bodied male peasants to leave the vilayets in search of work has already been greatly reduced in these tea growing areas and this trend is almost certain to continue; and the increased purchasing power of the peasants could stimulate and encourage small scale local industrial development. If all these aims are realised in part or in full and there appears to be a good possibility that they may, the heavy expenditure involved in fostering and developing this large scale high cost tea industry in the eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets may yet prove worth while. Tobacco: Tobacco is grown in the Sinop, Samsun, Trabzon, Rize and (,'oruh vilayets with the main concentration in Samsun and Trabzon. The vilayet of Samsun produces on an average about 7 million kilos, the best growing areas being situated around Bafra, Alagam and Samsun. Tobacco produced in these areas is highly esteemed in world markets and there is a steady demand for it especially from America. Tobacco growing in the Trabzon vilayet is not on such a large scale but about three and a half million kilos are produced. The main growing areas are around Ak^aabat and Trabzon. The type of tobacco grown in Trabzon is not of a high quality, but it is normally readily exported to Egypt. It does not command such a high price as the Samsun tobacco but experiments with better types of tobacco have not given good results in the area. In the Sinop vilayet only about 250,000 kilos of inferior tobacco are produced mainly in the Gerze area. The production of the Rize Vilayet is concentrated in the kaza of Pazar and amounts to only 70,000 kilos while that in the Qoruh vilayet although more widely distributed, amounts to no more than 300,000 kilos. The tobacco grown in the Pazar kaza of Rize vilayet is mainly for cigars and there is little demand either internally or on foreign markets for such tobacco. The leaf grown in the (,'oruh vilayet is of low quality and most of it is sold to Egypt or taken by the Tobacco Monopoly at a low price. The result is that the income accruing to the grower does not justify the labour involved in cultivating the crop. The Government now realise that if they want a prosperous tobacco industry they must concentrate on quality rather than quantity. To do this they must gradually restrict tobacco growing to those areas where soil and climate are eminently suitable; must conduct comprehensive experiments to choose the best type for each of the selected growing areas and distribute the seed to the growers; and must insist on good cultivation and adequate manuring. On the basis of restricting tobacco growing to those areas eminently suitable for it the Government are of the opinion that in the eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets it should be restricted to selected areas in the Samsun and Trabzon vilayets. In other areas where tobacco is grown there should be a gradual

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change over to other more suitable crops. In the Sinop vilayet rice and fruit are suggested either of which if done scientifically would bring a better return to the grower at much less cost in time and energy. In the Pazar area much of the land under tobacco could be turned over to tea growing and the remainder gradually to fruit. In the (,'oruh vilayet tobacco is grown in the Artvin, Borgka and Murgul areas where good fruit could be grown provided irrigation water were available. A fruit research station has recently been established in Artvin where good types of fruit trees, mainly apple, pears and peaches, will be propagated and distributed to prospective fruit growers at a very low price. Fruit cannot be grown in the present tobacco growing areas without adequate water for irrigation and agricultural experts are investigating small scale projects which might provide the water. However, this is a long term project and no quick results can be expected. Rice: T w o types of rice are cultivated in the eastern Black Sea Coastal vilayets. In the Samsun and Sinop vilayets irrigated rice is grown and in the Rize and £ o r u h vilayets where rainfall is very high, rice is grown without irrigation. The non irrigated rice however is only grown on a very small scale to meet local needs and has no economic significance. In the vilayet of Sinop irrigated rice is grown extensively in the kazas of Boyabat and Gerze and along the Terme and Meli§ rivers in the Samsun vilayet. Until comparatively recently malaria in all its forms took a heavy toll of the population of these rice growing areas. So much so that in 1928 rice growing was forbidden in the Terme kaza and 42 villages declared malaria infested areas. The main effort was now directed against eliminating the breeding ground of the mosquito. Where stagnant water could not be drained it was liberally sprayed with D.D.T. The beds of the Terme and Meli§ rivers were cleaned out to prevent the annual flooding of the surrounding country side. All those afflicted with chronic malaria were given modern treatment with quinine and as far as possible cured. It was not until 1951 that that area was sufficiently clear of malaria to start rice growing again. Strict measures are taken by the medical authorities to prevent the recurrence of malaria in these rice growing areas. Rice is a very valuable crop and the Government is making every effort to expand production in other suitable areas in these two vilayets. The chief limitation to expansion at present is availability of water supplies f o r irrigation, but these could be increased if suitable steps were taken. These, however, would cost a great deal of money and this is not at present available. Nevertheless the Government, the agricultural officials and the medical services can congratulate themselves on eradicating malaria in these areas where it was endemic, on starting rice production again and on expanding production so efficiently and so rapidly. Today the population of these rice growing areas are almost free f r o m malaria and they have never been so prosperous.

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Establishment of local industries As we have seen much progress has been made in the development of agriculture and in the development of good road communications and port facilities in these eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets. The development of communications is of course, not the whole of the Government plan to increase the prosperity of the area, there remains the part of the plan which specifies the establishment wherever possible of small scale industries to absorb the surplus labour. One must admit that in this the Government have been singularly unsuccessful. The local industries that have been suggested for this area are the production of cement, fertilisers, tiles, bricks, leather, commercial alcohol, starch, canned fruit, canned fish, fish meal, fish oil and contralite which can be made from waste forest products. All these can be manufactured from materials which could be found locally. Given the capital, hydro-electric power could be provided locally to run these small scale factories. Capital is indeed the crux of the problem. The Government have made it clear that while they are ready to formulate plans and give the necessary technical advice, the capital for these projects must for the most part be provided by the local people themselves. Unfortunately there are few people with capital in the area and those who do possess it are not prepared to risk it in doubtful ventures of this kind. The result is that apart from a large brick and tile factory and a flour mill at Trabzon, no local industries have been established in the area by private enterprise. As for the provision of hydroelectric power, plans to harness the Degirmen Dere which flows in to the sea at Trabzon and the Iyi Dere which reaches the sea a few miles west of Rize have been prepared by experts but neither of those sources of power are likely to be available for some years. When I was touring in this area in 1952 officials spoke with pride of the plan to build these local industries and seemed to have no doubt that the people would rush to invest their money in the numerous projects which were suggested to them. When I came again in 1954 immediately prior to the General Election the brave new world of local industries had been forgotten and the cry was for water supplies and other amenities to the villages and the provision of electricity to kaza headquarters towns. When I came finally in 1956 to say good-bye to the Valis and their officials on the closing down of the Consulate, I asked if they had any special problems or difficulties at the present time. They all agreed that everything was going splendidly and problems and difficulties were non existent. The plan for the provision of local industries had been shelved and forgotten perhaps to be resurrected and suitably amended when a new Government eager to show its paces comes to power.

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The Armenian Plateau vilayets of Kars, Erzurum and Karakose Very special permission must be obtained before one can visit these vilayets for Erzurum is the centre of a military area and Kars and Karakose are frontier vilayets where the movement of foreigners is suspect. It is impossible to obtain information of any kind from officials and questions even on education, agriculture, trade and commerce are severely frowned on by the Valis. However, the problems of these areas are mainly agricultural and sufficient information is available to consider them briefly. I have dealt with the problems of the Kurds previously under the more general heading of minorities. With the elimination of the Armenians there are no other minorities left in these vilayets. Most of the Armenian plateau stands at a height of almost 6000ft and these three vilayets cover the greater part of it. The Kars vilayet, however, contains the plain of Igdir which borders the Aras river just before it enters Russian territory. Here the climate and crops differ greatly from those of the high plateau.

Animal

Husbandry

The expansion in the acreage of cereal cultivation in recent years and the opening this season (1956) of the new sugar beet factory at Erzurum, which takes beet from as far afield as Bayburt and Karakose, has resulted in much grazing land coming under the plough, some for the first time. This has greatly increased the pressure on the remaining pastures, which in this area were already overgrazed. Fortunately water supplies are more abundant on the Armenian plateau than on the Anatolian plateau where the expansion in cereal production has been much greater. Nevertheless, however good the pastures are overgrazing invariably results in serious depletion of the fertility of the soil. In addition to insufficient pasture land being available for the stock held, management is often unsatisfactory. Animals are allowed to remain on an area long after they should have moved on to another pasture, a common cause of undernourishment and excess of internal parasites. The dominant species of grass in the available pasture too are often of poor quality as regards nutriment, the better specimens having been eliminated by overgrazing. There is, however, an awakening interest in the need for research both in pasture management and on their improvement by the introduction of the better species of grass. A plant nursery has been established near Erzurum to examine among other things the possibilities of selected local species in pasture improvement; rotational grazing experiments are being carried out in farm schools and reseeding experiments are being tried out on various state farms. The projected University at Erzurum will have a very large farm attached to it at which it is proposed to conduct investigation into all the aspects of pasture improvement.

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Irrigated and non irrigated forage crops such as sainfoin are also being developed in many areas. Encouragement is being given by the Government to village co-operative cultivation. Generally the village provides the land and labour, the Government provides machinery, seed and fertilisers and the produce is divided amongst the villagers in proportion to the livestock each possesses. In addition certain pilot farmers are selected and assisted in the cultivation of these crops in the hope that other farmers will follow. Lack of seed is limiting expansion in this direction and if the production of seed under Government auspices were given high priority, it would contribute greatly to the development of rotational farming and consequently to a better supply of forage. Livestock I m p r o v e m e n t : The feeding regime in Turkey is that of relative abundance in spring and early summer followed by near starvation for the rest of the year. A s is usual under such conditions, the Turkish farmers seem to carry the maximum number of livestock that can remain alive. The type of feeding naturally dictates the type, quality and productive capacity of the animals carried and it is not surprising therefore that the production per head is extremely low. Improvement will only be possible when the farmer realises that the provision of adequate nutrition for his stock throughout the year can also enable him to raise his own standard of living. However, with the assistance of the State and stud farms the beginning of a sound livestock programme is emerging. The widespread ploughing up of land previously available for grazing as well as the dictates of economics and social progress makes the development of more intensive livestock husbandry in this area essential. This will not be possible unless animals can be better fed. Cultivation of more arable forage, improved strain of grass and improved methods of conservation, will decrease the pressure on grazings which can then be properly controlled and managed. This will also help to check water erosion which of course still further depletes the land available to livestock. If these suggestions were carried out, the all round improvement will allow more productive animals to be kept. Until it can be achieved the capacity of the livestock must be limited by their environment and there is little incentive to plan measures for stock improvement.

Cereal

Production

Expansion in agricultural production in these vilayets has been based largely on rapid mechanisation, which has been greatly facilitated by medium term credits (4 to 6 years) from the Agricultural Bank. This great influx of tractors to an agricultural community with no experience of their use and no reserve of mechanical skill to keep them serviceable was bound to create many difficulties and it is a tribute to the Turks that despite these disadvantages they

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have been able to make such spectacular increases in production. With the establishment of centres f o r training agricultural technicians, however, maintenance difficulties should be largely overcome. The expansion on the Armenian plateau has naturally been concentrated on cereal production for cereals can be handled mechanically, give a quick turnover and are suited to the climate of the area. Since 1951 there has been a 10 per cent increase in the area under cereals and the average yield also rose rapidly until 1954 when the drought in that year reversed the trend. There was little improvement in yield in 1955 and 1956. Research on suitable types of seeds for the high Armenian plateau is done in Ankara. The emphasis is naturally on resistance to drought, cold and disease. Improved strains of wheat and barley are propagated at an agricultural station near Erzurum and the seed is distributed at a low price to the farmers who ask for it. The introduction and widespread use of chemical seed dressing has been of great value in the control of bunt and other seed-borne cereal diseases. Production of cereals has been greatly stimulated by guaranteed minimum prices and by greatly increased credits extended by Agricultural Bank. The Office of Soil Products' purchase of cereals rose from 330,000 tons in 1951 to over 1,200,000 in 1953 when a bumper harvest was obtained. Indeed, with the world price of wheat at 19 kuru§ a kilogram and the price paid by the Government for good quality wheat fixed at 35 kuru§, the Office of Soil Products will almost certainly continue to be the sole buyer in Turkey. One problem which has arisen f r o m this rapid increase in cereal production is that of storage capacity, for the storage facilities available in 1951 were never intended to cope with such quantities. A s a result losses through spoilage were heavy. A 10,000 ton silo and a large number of light metal silos holding a moderate quantity of seed have been erected at Trabzon and most of the cereal production in these vilayets over and above local needs are taken to Trabzon by lorry and stored there until distributed locally or exported. Cereal cultivation in these vilayets is largely monocultural and based on a simple cereal fallow rotation. This system is common in the near east but in certain countries great efforts are being made to modify it to include s o m e f o r a g e crops. M a n y Turkish scientists too believe that cereal monoculture is undesirable and that the fallow is an anachronism in the light of advances in farming technique. Efforts are being made in this direction but there are many difficulties. The cereal fallow rotation has always proved well suited to peasant agriculture where moisture is limited. The sowing season is short and critical under such conditions and the farmers using draught animals and primitive tools, which f o r m s the majority in these vilayets, cannot plough all the land available to them in the time available. In addition fallow is a potent means of ridding the land of weeds, although many peasants destroy this argument by taking a crop of weeds from their fallow usually after

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they have seeded. Shortage of fertilisers to replace the recuperative value of fallow is also a difficulty. With further advance in mechanisation, the more liberal use of fertilisers and the introduction of the new selective weed-killers to control weed in cereals, it may be possible to advance more quickly towards a more productive system than the present day cereal fallow rotation. Industrial crops: With the completion of the sugar beet factory in Erzuirum in May 1956, the stage was set for sugar beet cultivation in areas of these vilayets not too distant from the factory. Centres of collections have been established as far east as Diyadin almost 240 kilometres from Erzurum, so I was informed by the Vali of Karakose. The area also includes Sarikami§ and Bayburt. The cost of bringing the sugar beet from these collecting centres to the factory devolves on the latter. It is difficult to see how the factory can make a profit when it has to pay high prices for and stand the expense of bringing the raw material by lorry from such widely dispersed areas. Officials counter this by saying that profit is not the motive in establishing these factories, but the encouragement of peasant agriculture. Profit, they say, will come later. The sugar beet factory serves as the centre for seed production, research and advisory work concerning the crop. Foundation seed is imported and multiplied on the sugar factory farm and distributed to the farmers. The rotation is laid down by the factor}', in general a four year one with cereals and fallow and strictly enforced on contracting farmers. Nevertheless, in these areas the yields are said to be low compared to those in lower lying areas on the Anatolian plateau where the season is longer. The beet pulp which is produced as a by-product of the manufacture of sugar from beet, is sold to the producer in proportion to the amount of beet they sell to the factory. The pulp can be made the basis of a good ration for fattening animals, but many growers are ignorant of this and do no take up their ration.

The Igdir Plain The Igdir Plain takes its name f r o m the town of Igdir which stands about 18 kilometres south of the river Aras and some 25 kilometres from the Russian frontier. The plain is an extensive one stretching south from the Aras river to the foothills of Mount Ararat. As one travels south from Kars, which stands at over 6000ft there is a gradual descent to the valley of the Aras river at Kagizman and then a further descent along this river to the plain of Igdir, which lies at only 2000ft above sea level. The climate on the Igdir plain is entirely different f r o m that on the high plateau and in place of cereals and animal husbandry we have cotton, rice and fruit. The northern boundary to the Igdir plain is the Aras river which here forms the boundary between Turkey and Russia, the continuation of this plain in Russia being called the

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Serdarabad plain. It was not long before the Communists began to realise the potentialities of the plain on their side of the frontier, provided adequate water for irrigation was provided. In 1927 they suggested that they should build a barrage on the Aras river some 750 metres upstream from the Kara Kale bridge which lies about 10 kilometres north west of Igdir town. The cost of construction was to be borne by the Russian Government, the latter granting to the Turks the right to draw off, by means of a canal to be constructed later, up to 50 per cent of the available water to irrigate the plain on their side of the frontier. The Turks for their part agreed to share the construction charges of the barrage in proportion to the amount of water used. The Russians also undertook to reserve sufficient water for the existing Turkish irrigation system until Turkey was in a position to take advantage of the new dam. This was indeed a very important qualification for although the Serdarabad dam was finished in 1930 the Turks have not yet (1956) made any use or it. The Turks put this down to the intransigence of the Russians, but there is little doubt that the main cause at that time was the failure of the Turks to build an adequate system of irrigation channels on their side of the river. Indeed at that time the Turkish Government, under the influence of the military, were averse to spending large sums of money on any projects in the frontier zones with Russia on the grounds that it would be quickly overrun in the event of hostilities with that country. Besides, no one in Turkey at that time realised the possibilities latent in this fertile plain and the irrigation system in use then and indeed in use today, was considered sufficient. It was only when the Turks saw the transformation of the once neglected and underdeveloped Serdarabad plain into one of the most prosperous agricultural areas in the Soviet Union, with abundant crops of rice and cotton, that they realised the extent for their folly. The Turks now offered to pay their share of the construction expenses of the dam, but the 2nd World War intervened before agreement could be reached. After the War tension with Russia over the latter's demand for the cession of territory in eastern Turkey put a stop to further negotiations. It was not until the death of Stalin that negotiations were resumed and agreement reached with Russia on the amount of money to be paid by Turkey for the use of the barrage. This is of course merely the beginning. An efficient system of irrigation ditches must be prepared, for the present system is quite inadequate to deal with the volume of water from the barrages; a regulator has to be constructed; and the maximum use made of the available water. There is likely to be a great expansion in the production of cotton, rice and fruit on the Igdir plain when the new irrigation system is complete. When I visited Igdir in 1956 I saw that great progress had been made. The regulator had been completed and ditches were being dug with mechanical excavators. The work has now been in progress for several years and it should be completed in the near future.

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Before this agreement was arrived at with the Russians the Turks undertook an intensive search for alternative sources of water to the Serdarabad dam. The main endeavour was in the field of artesian water supplies. Equipment for digging such wells has been in the area for some years and a number of wells have been discovered. I understand that the Turks are continuing this work despite the agreement with the Russians over the use of the Serdarabad Dam. Another project in this area is the development of the tongue of land formed at the meeting place of the frontiers with Russia and Persia. I had no opportunity of visiting this area but I understood that roads were being constructed and the area would be developed as a Government farm where cotton, rice and fruit would be grown extensively. I have no information as to the progress made.

Establishment

of Local

Industries

When the Democrat Government first came to power in 1950 one of the main planks in their programme was the gradual abandonment of State participation in industry and its replacement by private enterprise. In these three eastern vilayets, as in the eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets, private capital has not been forthcoming in the amounts expected. Instead of being able to hand over industries to private enterprise the Government has found it necessary to pay for and direct practically all the new industries that have been established in this area. Erzurum has been selected as the site for all these new industries, as well as m a n y other projects. This may be justified in the fact that industrialisation needs power and that will shortly be available in abundance from the hydroelectric installation now nearing completion at the Tortum Falls. Nevertheless it has aroused great bitterness in the neighbouring vilayet of Kars, which claims that as they are paid for by the Government, Kars should have its share of these projects and not be treated as a poor relation of Erzurum. In an area where private capital investment is, practically, non existent and the Government has to sponsor and pay for all industrial and other development, the neglected vilayets seem doomed to economic stagnation and decay. The people of Kars put their neglect down to political discrimination due to the fact that they have always remained faithful to the Republican Party and there is much evidence to confirm this. Under the influence of these Government sponsored projects in Erzurum there is much feverish building activity and land value has risen enormously. The population is also increasing very rapidly. In the recent census it was 70,000 and is expected to exceed 100,000 in the next ten years. Hydro electric power f r o m the Tortum Falls which the Prime Minister has promised to reserve solely for Erzurum, in order to foster its industrial

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potential to the full, will be available in 1957. A meat combine has been in operation some time and is of great economic importance to the area. A sugar factory of medium capacity was completed in early 1956 and is now in production. A cement factory to provide the needs of these eastern vilayets is nearing completion; a good civil airport with concrete runways is also well on the way to completion; and to complete the picture of prospective well being, Erzurum has been chosen as the site for the eastern university which with its farm will cover a very large area. All these are in addition to being the centre of a large military area and all the economic benefits that go with this. Standing at the junction of the two great highways to Persia from iskenderun and Trabzon and many other less important roads as well, Erzurum is ideally situated to take the maximum advantage of the Government favours so liberally bestowed upon her.

The Anatolian Plateau vilayets of Giimii§hane, Erzincan, Tokat & Amasya The main field crops in these vilayets are cereals, sugar beet, tobacco and opium while fruit is grown extensively where irrigation water is available. Sugar beet is at present processed in two factories in the area, one at Turhal which has been in operation for many years and one near Amasya which was only completed two years ago. In Erzincan there is a large cotton spinning factory and a sugar factory is nearing completion just outside the town. All these were promoted and paid for by the Government without any participation from private interest. Apart from a few tobacco manipulation centres in the tobacco growing districts of the Tokat vilayet, there are no other local industries in the area. Apart f r o m fruit which will be considered later the agricultural problems of these four vilayets are generally similar to those of Erzurum, Kars and Karakose. The ploughing up of pasture land to make way for cereal production has been on a much larger scale in these vilayets than in those on the Armenian plateau. The pressure on the remaining pastures is therefore very much greater. The stock carried has, of course, been reduced, but they are still too numerous. Pastures on the Anatolian Plateau are ordinarily very poor so this continued over grazing is likely to result in a serious depletion of the fertility of the soil. There is urgent need on this plateau for increased fodder crops, the introduction into pastures of better strain of grass and far more attention to be paid to grazing management. There are signs that these points are being taken up by the agricultural authorities.

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Fruit Fruit growing is practised on a commercial scale in all four of these vilayets, but it is not of great importance in the Erzincan vilayet. In all four vilayets irrigation is essential and availability of water appears to be the main limitation. In the Glimiijhane vilayet commercial fruit growing is confined to the valley of the Har§it river and especially in the neighbourhood of the town of Giimtighane. The available water is ample for present needs but the system does not allow of any expansion. For the most part the fruit trees are large and very old and disease ridden and they should have been grubbed up long since and good modern varieties substituted. Although urged on by the agricultural experts, the growers either from lack of capital or fear of change, stick to their ancient specimens with their low yields and poor quality fruit. The trees are much too large for spraying with the equipment available and little attempt is therefore made to control insect pests. The best specimens of fruit are boxed and sent to the large towns where a good price is obtained for them. By gradually replanting with a good stock which is available to them at a low price from the agricultural authorities and with modern methods of cultivation and pruning, these fruit plantations could produce a good living for the growers. At present they are for the most part a liability rather than an asset. The main varieties of fruit grown are apples, pears and apricots, but mulberries and plums are also grown in smaller quantities. Fruit growing in the Tokat vilayet is mainly confined to the central kazas. Just outside Tokat on the Turhal road lies the 250 acre Government fruit farm which not only produces good quality apples, pears, peaches, cherries and grapes as an example to local growers, but also raises annually about 100,000 young fruit trees, the large majority being apple trees. These are distributed to growers not only in Tokat but in a wide area outside. The prices charged are well below the cost of production. Expansion in the areas under fruit in this vilayet has been rapid in recent years but lack of water for irrigation is slowing down progress. A dam and regulator have been suggested on the Ye§il Irmak at a place called Almu§ some 50-60 ms above Tokat, but the project has been shelved for the time being. This dam could not only provide irrigation water and electric power but also prevent the annual floods which so often do great damage to fruit plantations and other property in the Amasya area. With ample irrigation water available, a great filip would be given to the expansion both of agricultural crops and of fruit in the Tokat vilayet. The most famous fruit growing area in these vilayets is of course Amasya. The Ye§il Irmak passes right through the ancient town of Amasya and the Tersakan river joins the Ye§il Irmak 6 kilometres north of that town. These gardens and vineyards extend for 25 kilometres on both banks of the Yesil Irmak north and south of Amasya town and for about 12 kilometres on

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both banks of the Tersakan river from its junction with the Ye§il Irmak. These gardens which occupy an area of 6500 acres are much more extensive than their counterpart in Giimii§hane. The fruit plantations rarely extend more than 100 to 200 metres from the river but the vineyards in places extend much further than this. These gardens and vineyards must, of course, be irrigated during the summer months and the water is taken from the river by a system of bunds and water wheels. These are spaced at intervals on both sides of the river and each wheel provides sufficient water for a definite area of fruit. The wheels operate during the summer and early autumn months. For them to function efficiently they must have a good depth of water in which to work and this can only be assured in the summer months when the water level is low by building a bund or dam downstream of each water wheel. These dams, unfortunately, not only hold up the water but the silt brought down by the river as well and in the course of years of this practice the bed of the river has risen considerably. In times of flood, therefore, the water level quickly rises above the banks of the river and floods the country side with its plantations and houses. Much damage has been done in this way to life and property and much thought has been given to the problem of preventing such flooding. The best solution would be the building of a large sized barrage up stream of Tokat, but the money is not available to do this at present. There remains the elimination of these water wheels and the deepening of the river bed, where the dams have caused the level to rise. Before the water wheels can be dispensed, with however, an alternative source of power to provide the irrigation water must be found. This has been provided by an hydroelectric station situated some 50 kilometres from Amasya on the road to Ta§ova. This station was completed some two years ago and has an output of 1000 kilowatts. The idea was to use this power both to supplement that obtained for lighting the town from the ancient diesel engine in Amasya and to run the electric pumps which were to replace the water wheels and pump irrigation water up to tanks in the hillside. The ancient diesel engines in Amasya have been reinforced by this new source of power, but the electric pumps with their storage tanks in the hillside have not materialised. When I passed along the river in late 1956 the water wheels still revolved majestically in the deep water provided by the small dams and the silt continued to pile up. No expansion in fruit growing is probable in this area until the water wheels have been replaced by electric pumps with the necessary storage tanks. The provision of these needs foreign exchange which is in short supply in Turkey at present. With expansion not yet possible officials are devoting all their energies to the improvement of existing plantations. In the past these have been allowed to develop haphazardly and it was not until the formation in 1946 of the Technical Services for Agriculture that any thought was given to cultivation, pruning, pest control, planting distances for maximum cropping, manuring and choice of varieties to suit soil and climate. Trees in the present

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plantations are in the main very ancient and too big for efficient pest control with the equipment available to the local Technical Service. With ancient trees planted much too close together and no effective spraying against insect pests it is not surprising that both quality and yield of fruit are low. The Technical Services now insist that any new fruit tree planting should be done in accordance with the latest technical principles and that the varieties used should be suitable for the area. Apples, pears, quince and grapes are the principal fruit grown in the area, but cherries, apricots, plums and peaches are also cultivated in smaller quantities. In 1955, which was a good year, 1200 tons of apples, 4000 tons of grapes, 800 tons of pears, 750 tons of quince were produced in the plantations around Amasya. Given modern varieties, good cultivation and pest control the yield of fruit from this extensive area could be greatly increased but expansion in this area under fruit will only be possible when foreign exchange is available to buy the electric pumps that are to replace the ancient water wheels now in use.

Tobacco Of these four vilayets only Tokat and Amasya produce tobacco, the main areas being around Niksar, Erbaa and Ta§ova. In the Erbaa and Ta§ova areas tobacco is grown in rotation with wheat and fallow, unlike Trabzon and Samsun where it is grown year after year in the same ground. In a normal season two and a half million kilograms of tobacco are produced in these areas. The tobacco grown has a good colour and is not scented. It burns well and for this reason although it is not of high quality it is in great demand for tobacco mixtures. The Niksar tobacco is of better quality than that grown in the Erbaa and Ta§ova areas but shortage of suitable land limits its production to about half a million kilograms. An expansion of tobacco growing would be possible if the Niksar Plain, which at present is marshy ground, were drained properly.

Political and Economic General As we have seen in the preceding report, helped greatly by generous foreign aid, but very little by private capital, progress in agriculture and to a lesser extent in industry has been very rapid throughout eastern Turkey in recent years. The Democrat Government naturally takes most of the credit for these spectacular a d v a n c e s , but the main spring of this e c o n o m i c transformation is undoubtedly the United States' financial and technical aid.

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However, on the basis of their economic achievements the Democrat Government was returned to power with such a crushing majority in 1954 that their rivals were virtually eliminated as an effective Parliamentary opposition. This progress in the industrial and agricultural fields has not been achieved without serious economic difficulties, which have been caused by the inflationary effects of this policy of expansion. If the tempo of development is to be maintained and a reasonable standard of living upheld for the people, there appears to be no escape in a rapidly developing country f r o m a constantly expanding demand for imports. When it is set, as in Turkey, against a relatively inelastic exchange of income from exports, inflation and a deficit in the balance of payments must result. Inflation and balance of payments deficits are indeed the twin curses of a rapidly developing country. The Government can control this malaise to a greater or lesser degree by abandoning some of the inflationary policies which the opposition say she is following and which she hotly denies. Unfortunately these policies, which include amongst other things subsidies to support agricultural prices; liberal bank credits, both medium and long term to the peasants; and the building of barrages, cement and sugar factories causing imports of machinery and other industrial materials beyond the economic capacity of the country, form the basis of the development programme and none can be abandoned or even seriously curtailed, without causing the fall of the Government or seriously diminishing its prestige. If funds allow, therefore, no decrease in the tempo of agricultural and industrial development is likely until after the General Election in 1958. If it is not possible to cure or control the inflationary pressures by abandoning some of the policies pursued by the Government, there only remains the classical approach by way of controls. This is the path chosen by the Democrat Government. There are import controls, rigorous internal price controls, export licences, foreign credits to finance imports and extended payment for imports. Internal price control is effected by the Milli Korunma Kanunu or National Defence Law which came into operation in early 1956. Profit limits are specified for each commodity and woe betide the wholesaler or retailer who attempts to exceed them. For most commodities produced in the country, apart f r o m food, the new law has succeeded in holding prices steady, although sizeable reductions in price have been few. Unfortunately for Turkey, although this law can prevent importers and others f r o m making excessive profits, it cannot lessen the shortages of essential commodities which in the past were imported but owing to lack of foreign exchange cannot now be obtained. Most of the people in the towns are, of course, more concerned with food prices than with anything else, but the National Defence Law has not succeeded in lowering the prices of these. A large number of Town Councils in eastern Turkey did try to fix the maximum prices to be paid to the peasants for the fruit, vegetables, butter, eggs and cheese they bring for sale in the

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markets, but the attempt was soon abandoned. It was found that the prices of fruit and vegetables were controlled quite as well by the law of supply and demand, while in the case of butter, eggs and cheese attempts at price control were defeated by the peasants refusing to bring their produce to market. This was another in the long series of victories for the peasants in their relations with the authorities. It is much too dangerous a procedure to antagonise the mass voting strength of the villagers. Butter cheese and eggs are once more available in the markets but at the prices the peasants are prepared to sell. Real discontent with the chronic inflation in Turkey with its high prices and recurring shortages of essential commodities seems to be most widespread amongst the urban middle classes, who see their standard of living undermined by the inflationary policies pursued by the Government. The peasants are not affected to anything like the same extent by inflation, for they seldom buy anything outside the necessities such as clothing, sugar, tea, coffee and paraffin in the towns and the prices of most of these are controlled by the Government. The villagers however, demand very high prices for the butter, cheese and eggs they sell in the markets and these prices more than compensate them for any extra they pay for their own purchases. The peasants too are treated with special favour by the Government. They are able to buy the staple commodities, wheat and maize f r o m the Government at half the price they are sold in the towns; the prices of their hazelnuts, tobacco and cereals are supported by large subsidies which shield them from the effects of fluctuation in the price of these commodities on world markets; the prices paid by the Monopoly to the growers for their tea is almost twice that paid in India; they pay no Government taxes and the incidence of local taxes is very light; millions of liras are being spent to bring pure drinking water to all their villages; and large allotments are made by the Government for building roads joining the villages together and to their kaza headquarter towns. In face of this it is not surprising that the peasants as a class are devoted to the ruling party and only some major change of policy by the Government with a seriously adverse effect on their interests could shake their allegiance. The National Defence Law not only controls the prices of commodities but the activities of politicians as well. To justify these restrictions the Government accuse the opposition of deliberately contributing to present difficulties and shortages by their criticisms and in this way collaborating with the internal and external enemies of the country. These criticisms, they state also produce a bad impression about Turkey abroad. Whether these accusations are true or not, the National Defence Law restricts assemblies and meetings to such an extent that the opposition is effectively prevented from influencing the electorate to any appreciable extent by these means. Whether deliberately or not these regulations governing political meetings and assemblies are very loosely worded and varying interpretations are put on them f r o m time to time by different officials. The main points, however, seem to be that no political meeting or assembly can take place

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without the authority of the Vali acting as representative of the Government. Provided adequate notice is given permission is practically always given for the usual annual congresses held by the parties first in the villages then in the kaza headquarter towns and finally in the vilayet headquarters. Only one congress is allowed in each centre per year and requests for special congresses are not considered. Permission is never given by the Vali for ordinary public political meetings such as on the occasions of a visiting opposition party leader. These congresses must be held behind closed doors and windows in the Party building and the blinds must be drawn. Care must be taken to ensure that the noise of clapping or other demonstrations are not heard outside the building. Although this is perhaps not in the regulations, security police are detailed to attend these congresses and notes are taken of the proceedings. These are sometimes used to initiate court proceedings against speakers who do not choose their words carefully. It can be seen therefore, that an opposition party leader visiting these eastern vilayets could do very little except talk in the party building with the local leaders of his party's organisation and would have no chance of influencing the electorate to any appreciable extent. The opposition parties and the opposition press naturally try to get the utmost propaganda value out of these restrictions of civil liberties and detailed reports on the tours of opposition leaders in eastern Turkey are given in the Istanbul papers. These papers, however are little read outside the towns and then only by the higher officials and the urban middle classes generally, who have very little voting strength. Even if the papers reached the villages only 40 per cent of the villagers could read them. In any case, catchwords and phrases like civil liberties, freedom of the press, political freedom etc., mean nothing to the villager and experience has shown that the Government can afford to disregard such complaints as long as it enjoys the support of the peasants. Many Halk Party supporters in eastern Turkey appear to think that Turkey is gradually returning to a one party system again but there is certainly no need f o r the Government to contemplate such a policy at present. The peasants who form the bulk of the voters have never been better off and a contented peasantry is not a fertile ground f o r opposition propaganda. The opposition is effectively muzzled up to 14 days before the general election when the propaganda campaign is allowed to begin. Fourteen days even with a very efficient and effective policy is a short time f o r the opposition to influence the electorate decisively in their favour. While the opposition leaders are prevented by law from addressing public meetings of any kind the Prime Minister and his colleagues are free to address as many as they like, for no Vali would dare to refuse them permission. In addition they have for their sole use the State R a d i o Service, the most p o w e r f u l instrument of all in influencing the decisive peasant vote. There is another potent reason why the Democrats are unlikely to countenance a return to the one party system. This

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is the attitude of the peasants. These men like the multi party system for under it they have been treated with much greater consideration and respect and they undoubtedly enjoy the power, once every four years, to throw out any administration that does not come up to the standard they expect. Democrat Party: The Democrat Party leaders in the Trabzon Consular area, almost without exception, are quietly confident in their ability to win another resounding victory f o r their party in the 1958 elections; this confidence seems to be justified. As I have mentioned before, the peasants who f o r m almost 85 per cent of the electorate in eastern Turkey, are prosperous and contented and have little if any interest in the defence of civil liberties, the formation of a second chamber, the independence of the Judiciary and other, to the peasant, equally unimportant ideas, which seem to occupy such a large proportion of the propaganda put out by the opposition. The loss of the right to hold public political meetings is not felt by the Democrat Party leaders in the vilayets to anything like the extent it impinges on those of the opposition, for there appears to be no restriction on the holding of public meetings by the Prime Minister and his colleagues and their party has the sole use of the State Radio the most effective propaganda medium for influencing the largely illiterate peasant vote. With or without propaganda, as long as the Democrats control the necessary funds to maintain the tempo of agricultural development and the numerous subsidies, grants and favours given to the peasants, the latter will almost certainly support them in the elections. If this happens the Democrat Party is assured of success. Republican People's Party: The Republican People's Party leaders in these eastern vilayets are silent and dispirited. With the present restrictions on public meeting and assemblies, they are unable to influence the electorate either in the towns or the villages. The local papers which support them are similarly tied by the restrictive Press law, with the result that political activities of all kinds have ceased. This complete lull in political activities in the vilayets, (apart of course from the annual congresses in the villages, kaza headquarter towns and vilayet headquarter towns, which are all very tame affairs and held behind closed doors and windows), will last until about 14 days before the elections are scheduled to take place. Fourteen days could be sufficient to sway the electorate decisively provided the programme of the party is sufficiently attractive to the majority of the voters, which means in this area, the peasants. But the Halk Party's propaganda, as I have said before, consists largely of complaints about the loss of civil liberties and pleas f o r proportional representation and other constitutional reforms none of which is intelligible or of interest to the peasants. It was thought by many that the visit of Kasim Gtilek to the eastern Black Sea coastal vilayets would arouse the local Halk Party supporters from their lethargy and sway the peasant vote in their favour. As it turned out the

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tour was particularly ineffective and indeed it could not have been otherwise in face of the restrictive regulations in the National Defence Law. Tours of this nature can now have little influence on mass political opinion in the areas visited unless freedom to address large crowds at the maximum number of well placed centres is allowed. Giilek was only allowed to talk with local party leaders in the party buildings and was taken to the police station in Rize on a charge of Govde Gosterisi or demonstrations with the body when he overindulged in smiles and handshakings on the streets of that town. The Halk Party succeeded in holding the two vilayets Kars and Sinop in the landslide of 1954, but the leaders of the party there are seriously worried about their prospects there in the 1958 elections. The Democrat Government has deliberately neglected both the agricultural and industrial development of these vilayets while piling favours on the neighbouring vilayets, some say in an attempt to influence the peasants in these unfortunate vilayets to think again. This policy has not been without its effect and the Democrat Party leaders in both Kars and Sinop are doing their best to hurry this rethinking process along. They contrast the happy lot of the neighbouring vilayet which voted for the Democrat Party with the stagnation in their own and suggest that similar progress could be theirs if they would but vote for the Democrats. Although the line taken on the State Radio is not quite as crude as this, propaganda in the programme called 'Village How' — but this may not be correct — "Koy Nasil" is directed at criticising the lack of momentum in agricultural development during the Halk Party regime and eulogising the phenomenal progress since the Democrats came to power. There was a quiet air of confidence about the Democrat leaders in Kars when I visited the town in late 1956 while the Halk Party leaders seemed frustrated and dispirited. 1 was unable to visit Sinop as the main road f r o m Ala§am on the SamsunSinop frontier to Gerze in the Sinop vilayet was impassable f r o m mud, although the continuation of this road in the Samsun vilayet was in very good condition. I was told however, that in Sinop as in Kars the local Democrat Party leaders are full of confidence in their ability to oust the Halk Party in the next elections. Their optimism may well be confirmed when the test comes in 1958. Freedom Party: This party has made little impact on the voters in the vilayets of the Trabzon Consular area, despite the great national awakening that the leaders in Ankara talk about. Lack of direction and more important still lack of funds prevent this party from pushing its organisation outside the vilayet headquarters towns. This will be a severe disadvantage to them in the 14 day election campaign prior to the elections, especially as they have turned down co-operation with the Halk Party and cannot use their organisation in the villages and kaza headquarter towns. A f e w rather young representatives f r o m this party carried out a propaganda tour in eastern Turkey towards the end of 1956 but it was more of a fiasco than those of the leaders of the two other opposition parties. It is not likely to be repeated while the regulations controlling the holding of political meetings are in force.

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Republican National Party: This party is better organised and has more followers than the Freedom Party in these eastern vilayets. Like the other opposition parties its activities are severely restricted by the new regulations but even in normal times it has never been able to make much impression on the voters of this area since propaganda on religious matters for political ends was forbidden. Like the Freedom Party on present form at least, this party can have little influence on the results of the election in eastern Turkey. The leader of this party, Boliikbagi, also made a propaganda tour in the Black Sea coastal vilayets of this consular area, but he was unable to speak to the electorate and but for his Parliamentary immunity he like Giilek might have been arrested under the National Defence Law. The tour was of necessity ineffective and no increase in the support for his party resulted.

Conclusion To sum up: The Democrat Party still has the support of the mass of the peasant voters in all the vilayets of the Trabzon consular area except perhaps Kars and Sinop where the Halk Party is strongly entrenched. However, with the Halk Party effectively muzzled and the State Radio at their disposal, the Democrats are making a full out effort to gain the allegiance of the peasants of these neglected vilayets. They may well be successful.

ANNEX British Consulate Trabzon 3rd October 1952

As you advised me in your letter 9048/20/52 G of the 27th May 1952 I approached the vilayet authorities in Trabzon towards the end of July to see if a change could be induced in their attitude towards my being granted a driving licence. I pointed out to the Acting Vali, for the Vali himself was in Istanbul undergoing an operation, that although the Government doctors from the hospital had found my blood pressure as high as 18 and a 'komosyo' (whatever this means) condition behind the retina of both eyes which might cause a black out at any moment, one of the most prominent eye specialists in Turkey had examined my eyes and declared them to be free from any organic trouble apart from the beginning of pressure, only 13, which is slightly below normal even for a young man. I showed him the reports from the two specialists and he asked me to apply in writing for a fresh examination in some other centre. My letter, together with a copy of the report of the Government doctors and the original reports of the private specialists was sent to the acting Vali on August 3rd, 1952. A copy of this letter is attached at Appendix A. I imagine the Acting Vali's courage must have failed him, for he put my letter in the pending file for the attention of the Vali on his return. The Vali returned to duty towards the end of August, and on the 10th September, five weeks after the letter had been delivered he sent his reply. A copy of this is attached at Appendix B. It will be noticed that although I sent a personal letter addressed to the acting Vali by name, he replied through the police and addressed it not to me, but to the British Consulate. In addition, in accordance with his usual custom the Vali has not answered the question that I posed, namely, can I now be given an official medical examination in another centre such as Samsun or Erzurum. If I were to return to the attack with another letter (this Vali insists on everything I want being put into writing although he is not so eager to do this himself), another month or so will elapse before I can hope for a reply and by that time (D.V.) I shall be on leave in the United Kingdom. I have therefore decided very reluctantly to give up the idea of obtaining a driving licence in Trabzon as long as the present Vali is in office and to obtain an international license instead while I am on leave. I understand such a license is valid for one year from the date of entry into Turkey, but I should be grateful if you would confirm this for me and also let me know whether such a license is valid in Turkey in face of a ruling by a panel of Government doctors in Trabzon that I am unfit to drive a car. I do not

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want to fall into the clutches of this Vali of Trabzon for infringing the driving license regulations. As far as I know I have done nothing to arouse animosity or bad feeling in this Vali of Trabzon or any other Vali, and it is possible that he also is not motivated by feelings of hostility towards me personally. Like others of his age group (47) however, the fact that he has never been outside Turkey and can speak no foreign language has given him an inferiority complex vis a vis foreigners and this expresses itself in boorishness, abuse of authority, and petty tyrannies, and the further this type of Vali is from the centre of authority in Ankara the more his talents in this direction are extended. It may be of interest as showing the wide powers possessed by Valis if they choose to help rather than to hinder foreigners to recount my experience during a recent tour in the Erzurum and Kars vilayets, and it will also illustrate the difference between the reception accorded to such representatives by the younger type of Vali, who has spent some time in Europe and America and can speak French or English, and the insular phobia afflicted type I have mentioned above. As soon as possible after my arrival in Erzurum I went to the vilayet to call on the Vali. On such occasions I am usually conducted direct to the Vali, but in Erzurum it was not done that way. Instead I was shown into a large waiting room where I waited patiently for 45 minutes, while the big man dealt with a series of officials. By this time even my patience had become exhausted and I walked out of the waiting room and down the steps towards the exit. Just as I was about to leave the building the doorkeeper came rushing after me and intimated that the Vali was now able to see me. The Vali was a heavily built man of 47 full of his own importance and evidently out to show me how big a man he really was. After I had been talking to him about three minutes the Chief of Staff of 2nd Army, Tiim General Ragip Gumiigpala came in, and from then on the Vali tried his best of keep me out of the conversation. I had met the General on several occasions during my visit to Erzurum with Sir Noel Charles in 1951, and we had a further bond of common interest in the fact that we were instructors together in the Turkish War Academy in 1941. The General was very interested in my tour and when I told him I had been refused permission to go from Kars to Dogubayazit via Igdir he was quite surprised and said that as far as he knew there was no military reason for this refusal. The Vali was not at all pleased at that and realising that no benefit could accrue to me from my prolonging the conversation with the Vali I decided to retire discreetly from the scene. Before rising to go however, I told the Vali that as a Consul I was very interested in all economic, social, agricultural, and political developments in the vilayets in my consular area, and it would have given me great pleasure to discuss with him present and projected developments in these spheres in his vilayet. He, however, like all other Valis in important vilayets, was a busy man and I realised that he really had not the time to devote to a discussion of such subjects with me. A s an alternative, it would help me greatly if he would give

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permission to have a short talk with some of the heads of his department, more specially the Directors of Education, Public Works and Agriculture. I have always been given permission without hesitation by the other Valis I have visited and I was therefore surprised when this Vali said it was not right or proper for a foreign representative to talk to his heads of departments, and that I could get any information about such matters from my Embassy, who were in constant touch with the Ministry of Interior. He indicated that his attitude was not dictated in any way by the fact that Erzurum was a military area. In reply to this bombshell I pointed out that my consular area extended over 13 vilayets one of which was Erzurum, and as consul I was legitimately interested in all economic, social and political developments in that area. It was I who must keep the British Embassy up to date in such matters not the reverse. If this were not so, Governments would hardly go to the expense and trouble of establishing Consulates outside the capital. I added that I had never before experienced any difficulty in calling on officials in the other vilayets and, indeed many of them were great friends of mine. If the General had not been there with him, I might have told the Vali that Turkish and other Consuls in the United Kingdom are given every possible facility to obtain such information and that their task was made easier by the extensive series of publications on these subjects which were available. As it was, I could see no possible advantage in prolonging the discussion any further, and I left without further ado. I spent the rest of my stay in Erzurum taking coffee in the garden of the hotel and visiting the heads of the American Combat Teams who gave me a great welcome. Perhaps to offset the uncooperative attitude of the Vali, General Giimugpala arranged for me to be accompanied during the rest of my tour by a young Air Force officer who was acting as a parachute instructor in the 2nd Army. He was a very intelligent young man and his presence helped me greatly in my contacts with both military and civilian officials. I had intended staying a few days in Erzurum interviewing Government officials and prominent figures in the press and politics, but the Vali's unfriendly attitude caused me to change my mind and leave for Kars the following morning. Despite the fact that I arrived in Kars rather late in the evening, the Vali of Kars sent the Chief of Police to see that I was properly fixed up in the hotel and the next day insisted that I came to stay with him as his guest. This was the first of his many kindnesses. He found time to talk with me at length on the problems of his vilayet and had no objection whatsoever on my discussing economic and other matters with his heads of departments. He also allowed me to go from Kars to Dogubayazit via Kagizman, Tuzluca and Igdir, although I told him that my permission for the tour, signed by the Vali of Trabzon expressly stated that my route to Dogubayazit should be via Horasan and Karakdse. The Kars vilayet, he said had long since ceased to be a military or forbidden area, and he could therefore, see no reason why I should not go to Dogubayazit via Igdir. He would telephone the Kaymakams at Kagizman,

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Tuzluca and Igdir and give them details of my movements. I took the opportunity of calling on these Kaymakams on my way through and they were very appreciative of the interest I showed in their development plans. The almost incredible contrast in the behaviour of the Valis of these neighbouring vilayets forces one to the conclusion that, in these eastern vilayets at least, the attitude of Valis to foreign representatives, whether of friendly or unfriendly countries, is not dictated to any extent by the central authority in Ankara but is left in a large degree to the discretion of the Valis themselves. If this is so, one is prompted to ask whether it would not be possible by action in Ankara or elsewhere to persuade or compel the small minority of obstructive and arrogant Valis to change their attitude towards the representatives of friendly and allied powers, or better still to persuade the Turkish Government to accept a Charter of Rights for British consuls in Turkey with reciprocal rights, if not already given, for Turkish consuls in the United Kingdom. Help and encouragement rather than obstruction to the movements of the consuls in their consular areas by all Valis; freedom to discuss economic, social and political developments in the vilayets with officials and others without obstruction from the Valis; and reasonably prompt replies by Valis to applications and other correspondence addressed to them by Consuls, might form the basis of such a charter, and other articles could be added if it became necessary or expedient to do so. Such a charter would certainly make it easier for Consuls with a number of difficult Valis in their consular area and is almost essential for one who, like myself, finds a perfect pattern of that type ensconced in his home vilayet. Yours ever Vorley Harris

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I am afraid Mr. Vorley Harris has gone a little too far in his conversation with the Vali of Erzurum. I wonder what the Vali thought of the statement that "as Consul I was legitimately interested in all economic, social and political developments in that area". That is certainly not the Turkish idea of a Consul's functions; and one cannot help wondering whether Mr. Harris has not brought on himself some of the suspicion which apparently attaches to him in those vilayets in which the Vali is rather old fashioned. Anyhow, the Vali of Trabzon has again refused Mr. Harris's application for a second medical board in order that he may get a driving licence; and his refusal is expressed in a particularly boorish manner. However, since Mr. Harris is going on leave soon I do not think we should do anything about it at the moment. It would clearly be dangerous for

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Mr. Harris to try to drive around Trabzon on an international driving licence, whether such a licence is valid for a year in Turkey or not. The best thing seems to be to wait till all this has cooled down (at the same time advising Mr. Harris to go easy on his lectures to Valis) and apply for a driving licence for him through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs here, if necessary telling them the whole story. We can speak to Mr. Harris in this sense when he comes here on his way to the U.K. I am afraid Mr. Harris is off the rails in his last paragraph. I cannot see the Turks signing a "charter of rights for British Consuls in Turkey", especially one that provides for freedom "to discuss economic, social and political developments, etc., etc." I was interested to see that the Chief of Staff of the Second Army told Mr. Harris that there was no military reason for the authorities' refusal for permission for him to travel in certain areas of the east. I have always believed, with some evidence, that it is the Ministry of the Interior, not the Turkish Army, that is obstructive in matters of that kind. (G.G. Arthur) 8th October 1952

Consular Building

Consular Building viewed from Taksim Park, Trabzon

View from consular garden before construction of port

View from consular garden after construction of port

Photograph of Taksim Park, Trabzon late 1950s

Painting by Abil Giincr of same scene

Drawings of Mrs. Mary Harris

Carpet seller

Black Sea villagers

Simit seller — Sinan the famous architect

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