The Annals of King T’aejo: Founder of Korea’s Chosŏn Dynasty 9780674419797

Citation preview

t h e a n n a l s of k i ng t ’a e jo

The Annals of King T’aejo Founder of Korea’s Chosŏn Dynasty

t r a nsl at e d a n d a n no tat e d by

Choi Byonghyon

h a rva r d u n i v e r s i t y pr e s s

Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England • 2014

Copyright © 2014 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data T’aejo sillok. English. The annals of King T’aejo: Founder of Korea’s Choson Dynasty / translated and annotated by Choi Byonghyon.    pages cm   Includes bibliographical references and index.   ISBN 978-0-674-28130-1   1. T’aejo, King of Korea, 1335-1408.  2. Korea—History—Choson dynasty, 1392–1910.  I. Choi, Byonghyon, 1950– translator, annotator.  II. Title. DS913.15.T33813  2014 951.9’02—dc23 2013040219

Contents Note on Translation   ix Acknowledgments   xi Translator’s Introduction   xiii

General Introduction   1 First Year of Reign (1392) Book I   101 Book II   166 Second Year of Reign (1393) Book III   234 Book IV   282 Third Year of Reign (1394) Book V   335 Book VI   398 Fourth Year of Reign (1395) Book VII   462 Book VIII   505

Contents

vi

Fifth Year of Reign (1396) Book IX   560 Book X   593 Sixth Year of Reign (1397) Book XI   630 Book XII   688 Seventh Year of Reign (1398) Book XIII   730 Book XIV   775 Book XV   856 Glossary of Terms   899 Glossary of People and Places   953 Bibliography   991 Index   995

Late Koryŏ and Early Chosŏn Korea

Note on Translation The English translation of the entire Annals of King T’aejo (T’aejo Sillok) has never been attempted until now. My decision to travel down this untrodden path was fueled by my desire to make this vital source of premodern Korean history accessible to general readers throughout the world. The source text, written in Classical Chinese, was translated into Korean han’gŭl over several decades by a team of scholars in both South Korea and North Korea; for my English translation, I consulted these two han’gŭl translations in addition to the source text, which is known as the T’aebaek Mountain Repository Edition. The North Korean version is easy to read, yet hard to understand, since some words and names are not accompanied by Classical Chinese in the source text. The translation in the South Korean version, by contrast, is often too literal and reads more like a preliminary translation. Notwithstanding, the South Korean version of the Sillok text was digitized and, since 1999, made available online by the National Institute of Korean History, together with the original source text in Classical Chinese (both of which helped me immensely in my translation endeavors). Nevertheless, the problem of an inadequate han’gŭl translation still remained, which is why the Institute for the Translation of Korean Classics decided to launch a massive project to retranslate the entire Sillok into han’gŭl. Unfortunately, I was unable to reap any benefits from the project, as my English translation began during its very early stages. What I sought to gain from the new translation, however, was the information in the footnotes about the numerous historical figures and official titles that the existing han’gŭl translations failed to provide.



ix

x

Note on Translation

In my translation, I chose to use the McCune-Reischauer system to romanize Korean words, which I feel is more accurate and convenient, especially once readers become accustomed to it. Due to the many details in the Annals, I at first decided to provide titles for each entry to help readers, but these often appeared redundant, so I removed them all at the last moment. One of the most difficult challenges I encountered in my endeavor was the translation of official titles and agency names. I consulted a number of previous works to solve the problem, and I feel deeply indebted to many distinguished scholars, including Charles O Hucker, James Palais, Edward W. Wagner, Donald Baker, Edward J. (Ned) Shultz, and John B. Duncun. How­ ever, the administrative terminology or governmental nomenclature during late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn were so diverse and complicated that I was compelled to produce the translation on my own or revise the ones created by others, constantly consulting the Monograph on Official Posts (Paekkwan chi) and the National Code (Kyŏngguk taejŏn). As for the footnotes, I mainly consulted the History of Koryŏ (Koryŏsa) and the Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (Han’guk minjok munhwa tae paekkwa sajŏn) for historical personages, and the Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea (Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam) for place names, and I feel my annotation based on these sources are not as sufficient as I want them to be. I find the biographical annotation on the Jurchen and Japanese persons, not to mention their names, is even less satisfactory because I was unable to find reliable scholarly information on them due to the constraint of time in which I had to work. The map of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn that I provided may appear somewhat controversial because the northern borders during this period were not firmly settled as those shown in the map. However, I decided to take a risk in order to help clarify for readers their understanding of the geography and locations, which are essential to the understanding of the text. Finally, the Annals of King T’aejo is only the beginning of The Annals of the Chosŏn Dynasty, which consists of a total of 1,893 volumes. Throughout my translation process, Walt Whitman reminded me, ever so poetically, of the fact that “I myself but write one or two indicative words for the future.” So it is up to others in the days ahead to continue this important work of translation.

Acknowledgments The task of translating a text of the magnitude of The Annals of King T’aejo could not be carried out without the assistance of others. From the start of my adventurous endeavors, I have been indebted to many people, including Dr. Dae Soon Lee, former president of Honam University, who has consistently encouraged and helped me in my efforts to globalize premodern Korean classics through English translation. Professor Kim Byungguk of Korea University, former president of the Korea Foundation, was instrumental to my project, not only inspiring me to take on this challenging task, but also providing me financial support from the Korea Foundation, which he led at the time. Further, he encouraged me to publish my work through Harvard University Press, introducing me to Kathleen McDermott, executive editor for history. I am also grateful to Professor Donald Baker of the University of British Columbia and his assistant Song Jiyeon for their advice and assistance in my work, especially the translation of various official titles. Then I owe my deepest gratitude to Professor Timothy Atkinson of Seoul University of Foreign Studies, who proofread my entire work in a very limited time. In romanizing Japanese names and titles, I was assisted by my colleagues at Honam University, Professor Chŏng Hajun and Kim T’aegi, as well as Professor Kim Kyŏngho of Mejiro University in Japan and Professor Yi Chŏngnim, a Chinese studies scholar whom I often consulted regarding classical Chinese texts. In addition, I owe my gratitude to the authorities of the National Institute of Korean History, including President Yi Tae Jin and Ms. Pak Hannam, for inviting me to their institute and sharing their interest in the translation of The Annals of the Chosŏn Dynasty, introducing scholars, and providing me with necessary information and



xi

xii

Acknowledgments

books. I also want to extend my gratitude to the scholars of the Institute for the Translation of Korean Classics, including Dr. Sŏ Chŏngmun and Dr. Kim Nakch’ŏl, who kindly answered my queries regarding the names of places and people in the text. The Royal Portrait Museum gave permission to use the royal portrait of King T’aejo for the book jacket, for which I am grateful. In the last phase of my endeavors, I was lucky to meet Professor Emeritus Gari Ledyard of Columbia University. We reviewed together the glossary and place names in my manuscript at Kent Hall and enjoyed and exchanged views on various aspects of Korean studies. I especially appreciate how he made more than a dozen trips from Hartsdale to see me at Columbia, and his encouragement greatly boosted my morale at a critical juncture of this project. I am also grateful to Professor Ned Shultz of the University of Hawaii for providing me with valuable advice in relation to the introduction and arrangement of entries in my book. Let me also acknowledge my profound gratitude to Kathleen McDermott of Harvard University Press for her keen interest in premodern Korean history; and to Katie Ostler, who guided the book through copyediting and typesetting. I am also grateful to Honam University for granting me a half-year sabbatical leave to finalize my work. I am also keenly mindful of the librarians at Honam, including No Sanghwi and Paek Sinsuk, and my students Kim Chunui and Cho Pŏmsin, who were indispensable in my search for books and materials and in solving computer problems over the years. Next, I wish to acknowledge my old friends, including the Kunik Lees in New Jersey and the Chunsiks in Philadelphia. My sister Byongnim in Connecticut, my younger daughter, Sunny, in New York, and my older daughter, Yoon Sung, in Los Angeles all generously accommodated me and my wife for nearly three months as I wrapped up my work. Yoon Sung, in particular, proofread some portions of my work. I also thank my beloved wife, Inyoung, who has supported me along the way. Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the authorities of the Korea Foundation for their generous support of this unique project, and I am hopeful that their vision and efforts will continue to inspire and generate public interest and lead to the translation of the entire corpus of Sillok texts.

Translator’s Introduction The Veritable Records of the Chosŏn Dynasty (Chosŏn wangjo sillok 朝鮮 王朝實錄) is a historical record that routinely documents the significant events and developments that occurred during the first 472 years of the Chosŏn period in Korea. The record begins with the reign of the first monarch, T’aejo, from 1392 and continues through the reign of the twenty-fifth monarch, Ch’ŏlchong, which ended in 1863. There exists additional annals of the last two kings of Chosŏn, Kojong and Sunjong, but compiled during the Japanese colonial rule, they are generally not recognized as official canon of the dynastic annals of Chosŏn. The entries are chronologically ordered by year, lunar month, and day. The Classical Chinese text encompasses some sixty-four million characters, covering such diverse areas as politics, diplomacy, military actions, government systems, the economy, laws, communication, religion, astronomy, arts, crafts, and customs. Such a wealth of detail is a valuable primary resource for understanding the lives of people in Chosŏn, from the kings on down to the commoners. The Chosŏn annals are Korea’s longest single dynastic record, and the content is not only voluminous but reliable. As this is the official history, great pains were taken to maintain the integrity of the data. In the Confucian tradition, compiling the annals of the former kings was an important means for conveying the intentions and accomplishments of the ancestors as object lessons for succeeding generations. A very strict compilation process was carried out to ensure the impartiality and objectivity of the annals, which are literally called “veritable records” (sillok). Therefore, the annals ­covering any given king’s reign were compiled postmortem, and multiple copies were then safeguarded in special repositories called historical archives (sago).



xiii

xiv

Translator’s Introduction

Once a king died and a new one had ascended to the throne, an ad hoc Annals Compilation Bureau (Sillokch’ŏng) was established and the work began on compiling the official annals of the previous reign. The primary materials for the annals came from two main sources: the historiographers’ daily records or drafts (sach’o) and the records of administration (sijŏnggi). The historiographers or chroniclers (sagwan), with legal injunctions guaranteeing independence, were officials appointed specifically to remain in the king’s presence and record faithfully, on a daily basis, the details of his audiences with others, the contents of memorials delivered to him, and his assessments of other persons. The administrative records were a summary of the documents (such as memorials to the throne, royal answers to them, royal decrees and pronouncements, administrative reports, and the appointments and dismissals of officials) produced by the various government offices. The historiographers were allowed to witness every royal audience as well as every private meeting between the king and top officials. The discussions at court were in Korean, but they wrote their summaries of them in literary Chinese. They recorded every word that was uttered and were strictly forbidden to divulge any of the contents of their daily drafts. Even the king was not allowed to view their records with impunity. Another important source for the Veritable Records was the Records of the Royal Secretariat (Sŭngjŏngwŏn ilgi). Since the Royal Secretariat was the agency responsible for taking royal orders and managing the king’s daily schedule, two recorders of the Royal Secretariat also attended all the public activities of the king and recorded them. Unlike the records prepared by the historiographers, their records offered a closer view of the workings of the royal court, and besides, they were open to viewing by the king and other officials. Once these history drafts were submitted to the Bureau of State Records, not a word in them was supposed to be revised under any circumstances. According to a law established in 1449, the thirty-first year of King Sejong’s reign, any historiographer who sneaked into the Bureau of State Records and altered or removed words, even if they belonged to his own draft history, was supposed to be put to death. One who divulged the content of his drafts was also to be punished by death. Furthermore, one who knowingly failed to report to the authorities about a crime of a colleague related to this prohibition was also subject to a punishment lighter than capital punishment by one degree (i.e., long-term banishment). Anyone who was punished

Translator’s Introduction

for revising his draft history was excluded from grand amnesties and could never be employed again in public service. This law was actually enforced in 1469 during the reign of Yejong. When King Sejo passed away and the Annals Compilation Bureau was established, a historiographer named Min Su secretly removed a couple of words in his draft history at the Bureau of State Records because he became worried about his criticism of Yang Sŏngji, who became the chief supervisor of the Annals Compilation Bureau. What he did was soon discovered, and in the process of investigation, a few more officials were also found to be involved in the case. Consequently, they were either put to death or made slaves after being flogged severely. Such strict laws and regulations lent great credibility to the records of ­historians. As the drafts of the history acquired the status of a forbidden book, both the king and high officials became anxious to know what was in them. Especially after discovering that historiographer Yi Haeng had written down in his draft that the current monarch had unjustly killed King U and his son Ch’ang, T’aejo was outraged because he knew it was politically biased and thereafter became even keener on examining the history drafts. Despite the protests of his ministers, citing the precedent set by Emperor Taizong of Tang China, T’aejo ordered that the drafts of the history since the time of his enthronement be brought to him, and he read them. Even the sage king Sejong was strongly tempted, but eventually restrained himself from reading the annals of his father, King T’aejong. That King T’aejo read the drafts of the history, however, could be possible only because the new dynasty was still young and in the making, and he believed that the truth of the draft directly concerned the legitimacy of his rule, which was an extremely sensitive matter to him. Thereafter, no Chosŏn ruler, except the tyrannical Yŏnsan’gun (who was eventually deposed), attempted to read the draft history. However, he read only the controversial parts of it and as a result ordered the First Literati Purge of 1498. The temptation of breaking taboo of reading or revising historical drafts or records mentioned here is much less egregious compared to that committed by Emperor Yongle of Ming China. Usurping the throne from his nephew, he ordered twice the revision of the Taizu Shilu (Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu), particularly the records that concerned his nephew Zianwen Emperor, to justify his claims to legitimate succession. Interestingly enough, in the case of Chosŏn Korea, the attempts to revise the historical records were mostly initiated not by the kings but their subjects, who were

xv

xvi

Translator’s Introduction

engaged in factional fights. The Westerners (Sŏin) revised the Annals of King Sŏnjo after they seized power, because they believed the Northerners (Pugin) had deliberately and unfairly portrayed their faction and its leaders. They also revised the Annals of King Hyŏnjong, this time quite extensively, contending that the Southerners responsible for the compilation were too hasty and biased in carrying out that task. Sukchong’s reign (1674–1720) was dominated by rampant factionalism and, as a result, the completion of the Annals of King Sukchong took as many as seven years, though it was normally supposed to be finished two or three years after the death of the king, and during that period, the Old Doctrine faction (Noron) that led the compilation lost power before the annals went into print. Its rival, the Young Doctrine faction (Soron), once it was in power, wanted to alter what the Noron historiographers had written, and as the compilers found the task vir­­ tu­­ally impossible, they decided to attach additions and corrections (pogwŏl chŏngo) at the end of each kwŏn, or fascicle. The compilation of the Annals of King Kyŏngjong was carried out by the members of the Young Doctrine faction that seized power through the Literati Purge of 1721 (Sinim sahwa). When King Kyŏngjong, who supported this faction, died early and was succeeded by King Yŏngjo, the Old Doctrine faction that came into power with him revised the records, especially the historical accounts critical to the royal succession of King Yŏngjo. Despite these conflicts over the historical accounts, however, the original annals were still preserved together with their revised editions, deferring their judgment to posterity, and this overriding concern for the principle of impartiality is remarkable in attesting to the integrity and reliability of the Veritable Records. Furthermore, the instances of revision are very limited, considering the long history of the compilation of these annals. The king may have sometimes threatened the historiographers, but they recognized their key role as protectors of the truth and would normally perform their duties without any compromise. The full-time historiographers numbered eight officials, who belonged to the Office of Royal Decrees, and were thus referred to as the “Eight Diarists.” Their rank in the government hierarchy was not that high, but their qualifications were impeccable. Besides, being young, they were fearless and uncompromising. It was a great honor for officials to become historiographers, because these were the scholars who successfully passed through an extremely difficult selection process. They were not only required to have a mastery of the Chinese classics and history but also to command exceptional writing skills. Furthermore,

Translator’s Introduction

their family and educational backgrounds were scrutinized to prevent their engaging in any factional strife and to ensure that they were free of bias. Obviously, finding men free of factional bias was not always successful; how­ ­ever, this rigorous selection process testifies to the emphasis placed upon the role of historiographers and the integrity of the annals they produced. The vigilance of the devoted historiographers naturally affected how the king and his ministers conducted themselves, and thus functioned as an institutional constraint that limited the abuse of power. It was generally believed that Heaven and history were what kings feared above anything else. They feared Heaven because they attained the throne thanks to the Mandate of Heaven. However, it turned out that the kings feared history far more than Heaven, because it was history, not abstract Heaven, that actually judged their lives posthumously. Even tyrant Yŏnsan’gun said, “The only thing I am afraid of is historical records.” Officials who held power were no less afraid of historical records; they actually feared them much more than impeachment or exile, because a reprehensible deed recorded in the annals could be handed down to posterity forever, bringing irreparable harm to future generations of the perpetrator’s family. The annals passed through three editing stages prior to completion. The first was to collect and organize the drafts of daily accounts called sach’o, made by historiographers. Though most of the history drafts were deposited in the Bureau of State Records (Ch’unch’ugwan) as soon as they were completed, there were also drafts, called kajang sach’o, that historiographers privately kept at home. Draft histories such as these naturally concerned extremely sensitive matters, either politically or personally, and the reason the historiographers were allowed to keep them at their homes was to protect the confidentiality of the records from any outside threats or interventions. Records show that historiographers were often fearful and reluctant to submit them, but they (or their descendants, when historiographers passed away) had no choice but to comply with the law unless they were prepared to risk severe punishment. In addition to these privately kept sach’o, the administrative records, or sijŏnggi, prepared by the officials of various departments had to be secured and organized. From the standpoint of the compilers, these administrative records greatly expanded the general perspective of the historical accounts and reinforced or rectified the observations and opinions presented in the primary history drafts, not to mention adding diversity to the source-material content. Those who produced the records were the officials who concurrently served as historiographers in

xvii

xviii

Translator’s Introduction

their respective offices and departments, such as the State Council, Six Ministries, Royal Secretariat, Office of Diplomatic Correspondence, Office of the Inspector-General, Office of the Censor-General, Office of the Royal Family Records, Office of Special Counselors, Royal Lecture Office, and Border Defense Council, and this indicates that virtually all the major government offices during the Chosŏn dynasty were either directly or indirectly engaged in producing historical records. The Bureau of State Records regularly collected these materials and printed them every three years under the title Diaries of the Bureau of State Records (Ch’unch’ugwan ilgi), and they were regarded as essential to making the veritable records of the individual kings. This was evidenced by the problems with compiling the Annals of Prince Kwanghae, which took eleven years to complete. Because the Bureau of State Records, which preserved all the history drafts including administrative records related to Kwanghae’s reign, was destroyed by fire during the rebellion of Yi Kwal in 1624, the Annals Compilation Bureau had to collect the administrative records once again from various government offices or other sources in order to compile the annals. Once the basic materials were all collected, the second stage was to sort them out after review. This task was normally performed by mid-ranking officials who were all respected scholars. During this process, the preliminary draft of the veritable records was made, and at the final stage, which was supervised by one of the highest-ranking officials, the draft was closely examined and reedited to maintain the consistency of its style and the format of the text. This final version was called chŏngch’o, which means “authorized draft.” However, there was another stage required to finalize the compilation of the annals, and that was to wash the writing off the paper used in the first and second handwritten versions to prevent the unauthorized spread of sensitive information. This was carried out on manuscripts at Segŏmjŏng, a pavilion immediately north of the capital. The historiographers and officials who participated in the compilation of annals were all invited to a ceremony in which they watched their manuscripts being washed away in the flowing water, and afterwards, the government held a banquet for them to express appreciation for their hard work and to celebrate the completion of the new annals project. Four or five sets of the finalized annals were printed with moveable type starting in the mid-fifteenth century. Each set was then stored in a different

Translator’s Introduction

history repository. There were four of these archives around the kingdom in early Chosŏn, but three were destroyed during the Imjin War with Japan (which invaded the Korean Peninsula twice between 1592 and 1598). Only the records at Chŏnju were spared. After the war, the contents at the Chŏnju repository were reproduced, and a total of five sets were then stored at five different locations. The annals, which consist of a total of 1,893 volumes, have been designated as the 151st national treasure of Korea and are on UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register.

The Annals of King T’aejo The Annals of King T’aejo, whose original title was the Annals of the Grand Progenitor, the Strong and Dedicated Great King (T’aejo kanghŏn taewang sillok), was compiled in 1409, a year after the death of T’aejo, and completed in 1413 during the reign of King T’aejong. Song P’o, copyist (kisagwan) of the Bureau of State Records, and some other officials argued against the idea, saying that an annals compilation project was premature because most of the officials who served in the reign of T’aejo were still alive. Notwith­ standing, King T’aejong made his decision and ordered that all the history drafts—including ones kept privately by historiographers—up to the second year of King Chŏngjong’s reign be submitted by the deadlines he set. Then he commanded Ha Yun and others to start working on the project, and four years later the Annals of King T’aejo was completed in three books that contain a total of fifteen fascicles. The Annals of King T’aejo starts with ch’ongso, the general introduction of T’aejo’s genealogy and his career up until the day he ascended the throne. The general introduction in the Annals of T’aejo is much longer and more detailed than those found in the annals of subsequent rulers. It describes how T’aejo descended from an illustrious ancestry that could be traced all the way back to the ancient Silla Kingdom period. However, his four immediate paternal ancestors were minor officials who served in the late Yuan and Koryŏ governments. Yi Ansa (later Mokcho), T’aejo’s great-greatgrandfather, established himself as a local official in the Yuan dynasty, and both his son and grandson Haengni (later Ikcho) and Ch’un (later Tojo) inherited his office. His great-grandson Chach’un (later Hwanjo) also served as chiliarch in Ssangsŏng Commandery (modern Yŏnghŭng, North Korea), which was under direct Yuan dominion.

xix

xx

Translator’s Introduction

Toward the end of the Yuan dynasty, the Yuan government practiced institutionalized ethnic discrimination against Korean residents, which compelled Yi Chach’un and his adherents to volunteer to assist King Kongmin of Koryŏ, who had recently adopted an anti-Yuan, pro-Ming foreign policy. He had an audience with King Kongmin in 1355, and the following year, he and his son Sŏnggye (later T’aejo) led the military campaign against those who were perceived to be traitors of Koryŏ, such as Ki Ch’ŏl, the elder brother of Empress Ki of Yuan, as well as Korean officials of Ssangsŏng Commandery, which was under Yuan control. Ultimately, they took the Northeast Region, including Ssangsŏng Commandery, away from the Yuan and returned it to Koryŏ. Thanks to his outstanding contributions, Chach’un became the military commander of the Northeast Region and served until he died of illness four years later, laying the foundation needed for his son Sŏnggye to rise through the ranks. Yi Sŏnggye (T’aejo) was born in 1335 in Hwaryŏng Prefecture (Yŏnghŭng), modern South Hamgyŏng Province, to Chach’un and Lady Ch’oe, the daughter of Ch’oe Han’gi, posthumous chancellor and Lord of Yŏnghŭng. The mid-fourteenth century, in which T’aejo started his career, was a turbulent period of geopolitical transition in northeast Asia. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty declined rapidly, while the Ming dynasty, led by the ethnic Han Chinese Zhu Yuanzhang, emerged as a new empire to replace the Yuan. An almost-parallel situation took place in Korea. King Kongmin died abruptly, leaving no heir to succeed him, and his successors, with doubtful claims to the throne, failed to govern the country properly. The domestic situation deteriorated sharply, with rampant abuse of power by high officials and repeated incursions by Red Turban bandits and Japanese marauders. The officials and the general population increasingly looked for a new ruler who could save the country. Under the circumstances, T’aejo, a popular general who had never lost a battle, happened to be the right person at the right time. T’aejo’s first military campaign, which he fought alongside his father, Chach’un, led to the capture of Ssangsŏng Commandery from Yuan in 1356, and he was victorious in every engagement that he undertook thereafter. In 1362, Nahachu, commander of the Yuan army, invaded Hongwŏn with tens of thousands of troops, and T’aejo won fame by crushing the invaders with far fewer soldiers. He was only twenty-seven years old at the time. Though Koryŏ by this time was free of the Mongol yoke, Mongol forces still occupied the northern area with large garrisons of troops. In 1369 and 1370, by

Translator’s Introduction

order of King Kongmin, T’aejo attacked and seized the Tongnyŏng Administration in P’yŏngan Province, which was under Yuan control. Japanese pirates raided the Korean coasts so frequently in the fourteenth century that they threatened the very foundation of the state. In 1376, T’aejo turned his army south and suppressed Japanese marauders who had seized Kongju, Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, and threatened Kaegyŏng. In 1377 and 1380, Japanese forces again invaded the southern part of the country en masse, and T’aejo defeated them decisively. Meanwhile, T’aejo had to contend with Mongol remnants, Red Turbans and Jurchens on the northern frontier. Each time he won a battle and lifted the country out of crisis, he got promoted, rising to the position of vice chancellor (su munha sijung) by 1388. In 1388, however, the Ming sent an envoy to Koryŏ and demanded the return of a significant portion of Koryŏ’s northern territory that previously had been under Yuan control. The Koryŏ court at that time was divided into two factions: one led by General Ch’oe Yŏng, who advocated a pro-Yuan policy, and the other led by General Yi Sŏnggye (T’aejo), who favored an alliance with the Ming. Riding on the prevailing anti-Ming sentiment, Gen­ eral Ch’oe argued for an invasion of the Liaodong Peninsula, and King U agreed. Though T’aejo was opposed to the invasion, he was chosen to lead the military campaign as the commander of the Right Army. When he arrived at Wihwado, an island in the Yalu River that serves as a border between the Korean Peninsula and China, he encountered unusually heavy seasonal rain. Unable to cross the flooded river with his large army, he appealed for the court’s permission to break off the campaign, but his request was quickly rejected. This prompted him to turn his army southward and head for the capital, a move that altered the course of Korean history. His bold decision not to cross the river can be compared to Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon, because both were considered acts of insurrection. T’aejo advanced to the capital, and his army easily suppressed the forces loyal to General Ch’oe and the king. He finished his military revolt by sending Ch’oe into exile and forcibly dethroning King U. Then he set up Ch’ang as a new monarch, but T’aejo’s followers, who were reform-minded scholars and generals, also had Ch’ang deposed the following year, contending that Ch’ang, like the former King U, his father, was not a member of the royal Wang clan and that therefore “they should abolish the false to establish the true.” Consequently, they enthroned Wang Yo, a seventh-­ generation descendant of King Sinjong (r. 1197–1204), who was to become

xxi

xxii

Translator’s Introduction

King Kongyang. Upon ascending the throne, King Kongyang ordered the execution of former Kings U and Ch’ang, but King Kongyang himself soon suffered the same fate as his predecessors after Chŏng Mongju, a respected scholar and outstanding minister faithful to him, was murdered by Yi Pangwŏn (later King T’aejong). The ch’ongsŏ, the general introduction of the Annals of King T’aejo, ends with the death of Chŏng Mongju and King Kongyang’s abdication of the throne. T’aejo ascended the throne at Such’ang Palace on the seventeenth day of the seventh lunar month in 1392 as all of officialdom acclaimed him the new ruler of Korea. The following day, the historiographer recorded, much awaited-rain came after a long drought. At the beginning, T’aejo announced that he would continue to use the rites and laws of Koryŏ, including its country name. As the new dynasty gradually became settled, however, he began to make changes at the request of Chŏng Tojŏn, Cho Chun, and other influential ministers. Thus, he renamed his country Chosŏn after obtaining approval from the Ming court. He also decided to relocate the capital and dispatched officials to search for the right place. Consequently, he chose Hanyang (Seoul) as the new capital, at the recommendation of Royal Pre­ ceptor Muhak and Chŏng Tojŏn and moved to Hanyang in 1394 even though the royal palaces were still under construction. He also hastened to establish laws befitting the new dynasty and commanded Chŏng Tojŏn to present him with the Administrative Code of Chosŏn (Chosŏn kyŏnggukchŏn). He advocated Confucianism as the new state ideology, while distancing the state from Buddhism and Korea’s folk religions, and established the National Academy in Hanyang and local schools in the provinces. The Sillok tells us that all the measures and initiatives that T’aejo implemented were deemed proper and necessary for the newly founded dynasty, except for his designation of his successor. On the twentieth of the eighth month, approximately a month after he took the throne, he abruptly appointed his youngest son, Pangsŏk, as his rightful heir, a decision that led to dire consequences. T’aejo had two wives, Queen Sinŭi (Lady Han) and Queen Sindŏk (Lady Kang), and fathered six sons and two daughters from the former and two sons and one daughter from the latter. The sons born of his first wife, Queen Sinŭi, especially Pangwŏn (Prince Chŏngan), greatly contributed to his rising to power and enthronement. However, it was widely known that T’aejo was more attached to his second wife, who assisted him throughout all his ordeals until he attained the throne. According to the

Translator’s Introduction

records, merit subjects Pae Kŭngnyŏm, Cho Chun, and Chŏng Tojŏn urged the king to decide his heir according to the principle of primogeniture and on the basis of contributions made to the establishment of the new dynasty. T’aejo, however, mindful of his beloved Queen Sindŏk, first chose her firstborn, Pangbŏn, as his heir. The ministers expressed their reservations about his choice because of Pangbŏn’s unruly conduct, and T’aejo responded by appointing his youngest son, Pangsŏk, as crown prince. The historiographer makes a comment that there were no ministers who opposed the king’s final decision by arguing that the heir must be chosen based on primogeniture and the contributions of the candidate. This was an example of the so-called “conveying deeper meaning through sublime and ambiguous writing” (Chunqiu bifa), a technique traditionally employed by conscientious histo­ riographers. The historiographer avoided making any straightforward judgment in his comment and yet made it clear that both the king and his ministers failed to make the proper decision. The seeds of trouble sown early in the first year of T’aejo’s reign bore ominous fruit in 1398, six years later. By that time, Queen Sindŏk had already been dead for two years and T’aejo suffered from illness. The Sillok tells us that, taking advantage of the situation, Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn led some of the merit subjects in an attempt to eliminate the ambitious princes born of Queen Sinŭi, including Prince Chŏngan (Pangwŏn), who could challenge the seventeen-year-old crown prince (Pangsŏk), whom they supported for the throne. However, Prince Chŏngan learned of their conspiracy in advance and, together with his full brothers, struck down Chŏng Tojŏn and his clique by surprise. A little later, he killed his two half-brothers, Pangsŏk and Pangbŏn, and induced his elder brother, Prince Yŏngan (Panggwa), to become the legitimate heir of the throne. This incident is known in history as the First Strife of Princes and is presented in the Sillok. Ten days after the First Strife of Princes broke out, T’aejo, who was now seriously ill and deeply disillusioned, voluntarily abdicated the throne in favor of his son Prince Yŏngan (later King Chŏngjong). However, his ordeal did not stop there. Two years later, a second round of fratricidal strife took place. We are told by the Sillok that the fourth son, Prince Hoean (Panggan), was spurred on by a disgruntled general named Pak P’o to raise an army to attack his younger brother, Prince Chŏngan (Pangwŏn), who wielded the power behind King Chŏngjong. However, Panggan was no match for the

xxiii

xxiv

Translator’s Introduction

powerful Pangwŏn, and his crushing defeat only hastened the voluntary abdication of Chŏngjong in favor of Pangwŏn, who was to become King T’aejong. These crises in early dynastic succession caused some anomalies in the format of the Chosŏn annals. Though T’aejo abdicated on the fifth day of the ninth month in 1398, The Annals of King T’aejo carries the records of events until the end of the year. Likewise, though King Chŏngjong’s abdication took place on the eleventh day of the eleventh month in 1400, The Annals of King Chŏngjong also includes the ascension of King T’aejong, showing some discrepancy between the title of the annals and their ­contents. The Annals of King T’aejo is often compared to a sort of time capsule or black box that well preserves the historical record of medieval Korea and its neighboring countries in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries. The text provides us with firsthand accounts of how the Chosŏn dynasty, which preceded modern Korea, came to be; who the people bringing about such a dynastic change were; what the domestic and foreign circumstances surrounding them were; what the ideology and the vision that inspired the leaders of the new dynasty were; how Seoul became the capital of Korea; and so forth. It also provides us a look at such major historical figures as King T’aejo, Chŏng Mongju, Chŏng Tojŏn, Cho Chun, Yi Pangwŏn, monk Muak, and the members of the royal Wang clan. The paths they chose, and their successes or failures, are themselves a drama and a cause for readers to reflect upon the nature of loyalty, ambition, civil service, monarchy, law, government, and many other issues besides. Since The Annals of King T’aejo is an official history, one may not find in it the elegance of style and organization that attends renowned histories penned by private authors. Nevertheless, official histories by nature provide as many facts and as much information as possible. King Sejo said, “Though the historical records of our country are less sophisticated than those of China, what is important is not to make the mistake of leaving things out. The crudeness of the records is not necessarily a problem to worry about.” The king’s remarks, however, should not be taken at face value. Though the Veritable Records produced by Chosŏn may be not as sophisticated as those of China, to emulate such sophistication was not the original aim of Korean historiographers and compilers. As a matter of fact, a history such as the Veritable Records should be considered as a unique genre, distinguished from such traditional histories as the Spring and Autumn Annals or Records

Translator’s Introduction

of a Grand Historian, because the style and form dictated by its defined aim is clearly manifest in the very name Sillok, or Veritable Records. According to the “Basic Paekche Annals” of the History of Three Kingdoms (Samguk Sagi), Koreans who built the royal palaces made sure that their palaces should look plain but not shabby, and magnificent but not extravagant. One finds that this aesthetic vision or principle runs through the diverse Korean monuments and artifacts as well as paintings and literature. The Annals of King T’aejo in its style and substance exemplifies that vision.

xxv

t h e a n n a l s of k i ng t ’a e jo

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ) Grand Progenitor, Strong, Dedicated, Humane, Destiny-Opening, Holy, Cul­ ­tivated, and Divinely Martial Great King (T’aejo kanghŏn chiin kyeun sŏngmun sinmu taewang):1 His family name is Yi, and his personal name Tan, and his courtesy name Kunjin. His former name [before he ascended the throne] is Sŏnggye, and his pen name Songhŏn. He came from the illustrious Yi lineage of Chŏnju.Yi Han, who served as minister of works (sagong) in the kingdom of Silla, married a daughter of Prefect (kunyun) Kim Ŭnŭi, a tenth-generation descendant of King T’aejong2 and sired Chancellor (sijung) Chayŏn. The chancellor sired Chief Administrator (pogya) Ch’ŏnsang, who in turn sired Kwanghŭi, official of the head rank six (agan). Kwanghŭi was the father of Ipchŏn, minister of education (sado) and prime minister plenipotentiary (samjung taegwang), who, in turn, begot Kŭnghyu. Kŭnghyu was the father of Yŏmsun, who begot Sŭngsak. Sŭngsak was the father of Ch’unggyŏng, who, in turn, begot Kyŏngyŏng. Kyŏngyŏng was the father of Ch’ungmin, the father of Hwa. Hwa then begot Chinyu, who was the father of Kungjin. Kungjin was the father of General-in-Chief (tae changgun) Yongbu. The general-in-chief was the father of Supervisor of Palace Attendants (naesi chipchu) In.3 The director of palace attendants married the 1. This is the full posthumous name of T’aejo, the founder king of the Chosŏn dynasty. This name being long, he is normally referred to by his temple name, T’aejo, which means “grand progenitor” or “grand ancestor.” 2. Muyŏl Wang (654–661), the 29th king of Silla. 3. Yi In is the younger brother of Yi Ŭibang, a military general who led the military revolt together with Chŏng Chungbu and Yi Ko in 1170, the 24th year of Ŭijong’s reign. Due



1

2

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

daughter of Chancellor Mun Kŭkkyŏm and became the father of General Yangmu. The general, in turn, married the daughter of General Yi Kangje. Ansa was born of that union, and he is Mokcho [the fourth-generation ancestor of dynasty founder T’aejo]. Being a man of a great personality marked with valor and magnanimity, Mokcho had an ambition to rule the world. At first, he lived in Chŏnju,4 and he was known to be more distinguished than others in courage and wisdom despite the fact that he was little over twenty years old at that time. Then he fell into a trouble with the special commissioner for the mountain fortress (sansŏng pyŏlgam) who came down to stay at the official guesthouse of the district. He had an argument with the latter over the matter involving a female entertainer (kisaeng),5 and due to this incident, his relationship with the local magistrate went sour and deteriorated. Consulting with the surveillance commissioner (allyŏmsa), the magistrate tried to arrest him after making a report to the court. Having heard of his impending arrest, he immediately moved to the district of Samch’ŏk6 in Kangnŭng Province (Kangwŏn Province). Many people followed him to the new place, and they numbered 170 households or more. Earlier, he built 15 ships to repulse the attack of Japanese marauders [who often invaded the seacoast]. A little later, Grand Prince (dawang) Yeku of the Yuan dynasty invaded a number of districts,7 but Mokcho managed to

to this revolt, political power was passed from civil officials into the hands of the military. (Ki-baik, Lee, 140) 4. Yi Ansa (Mokcho) was the grandson of Yi In, the younger brother of Yi Ŭibang, One of the military generals who led the military revolt in 1170. When Yi Ŭibang was murdered in 1174, Yi In moved down to Chŏnju with his family. As a result, Chŏnju became the family seat of the Yi clan. 5. Kisaeng refers to trained female entertainers who are similar to the Japanese geishas. 6. Samch’ŏk was a place where Mokcho’s maternal family lived, but being located on the seacoast, it was vulnerable to the attack by Japanese marauders. His decision to move to Samch’ŏk indicates how desperate he was at that time. 7. The Mongol army led by Sartaq launched its first invasion of Koryŏ in 1231, and war and peace alternated over the next three decades. Prior to the campaign of Yeku of the Yuan, Koryŏ had moved its capital from Songdo (Kaesŏng) to Kanghwa Island which was close across the water. In 1251, the Mongke Khan of Yuan who had just ascended to throne sent envoys to Korea and demanded that King Kojong come to see him in person and move the capital from Kanghwa back to Songdo. Koryŏ refused to comply with the Yuan order, saying that the king was too old to travel. Koryŏ also postponed moving the capital as long as possible. Extremely displeased by the responses from Koryŏ, Mongke Khan ordered Prince Yeku to lead another military campaign against Koryŏ in July 1253.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

escape from the crisis by taking Tut’a Mountain Fortress8 for his defense. Then it happened that the mountain fortress supervisor whom he had trouble with earlier was newly appointed as the surveillance commissioner of the district in which Mokcho resided and was about to arrive soon. So he was compelled to relocate once more or face retaliation from the new surveillance commissioner. Thus, he took his family and crossed the sea to arrive at Ŭiju (namely Tŏgwŏn)9 in the Northeast Region [Hamgyŏng Province]. He was joined by the 170-plus households that initially had followed him, as well as many other people from the Northeast Region because they greatly admired him. Then the government of Koryŏ appointed Mokcho military commander of Ŭiju and had him defend the highlands against the Yuan army. At that time, the northern part of Ssangsŏng (namely Yŏnghŭng)10 belonged to the Kaiyuan Route (lu),11 and Grand Prince Sanji12 of the Yuan dynasty established his camp in Ssangsŏng in order to capture the northern region above Ch’ŏllyŏng.13 So he twice sent men to talk with Mokcho and persuade him to surrender. Mokcho finally surrendered to him, reluctantly leading his people, including Kim Pono and over one thousand households. Prior to this incident, the people of P’yŏngyang heard of Mokcho’s favorable reputation, and many of them decided to follow him. So they also joined Mokcho at the time of the latter’s surrender [to the Yuan forces].14 Extremely pleased, Sanji treated Mokcho with great courtesy and generosity. He entertained Mokcho holding a grand banquet in which they enjoyed drinks. When the banquet came to an end, Sanji personally took a jade chalice and held it against Mokcho’s chest. He said, “How can your people know the 8. Located about 50 li due west of Samch’ŏk in Kangwŏn Province. 9. Ŭiju here should not be confused with another Ŭiju in North P’yŏngan Province. Tŏgwŏn County that belonged to Yŏnghae Strategic Prefecture in South Hamgyŏng Province. 10. Located in South Hamgyŏng Province. 11. The route [lu] was a territorial-administrative region during Yuan times. The Kaiyuan Route was located in Jilin and Liaoning Provinces. 12. A Mongol general also called Yegu. 13. A mountain pass located between Anbyŏn in South Hamgyŏng Province and Hoeyang County in Kangwŏn Province. 14. In 1254, Mongol General Jarlairtai launched the sixth and final military campaign against Koryŏ and devastated the entire country. According to the Annotated Account of Korean History (Tongsa kangmok) by An Chŏngbok, the Mongol army took 206,800 captives and the corpses were too many to be counted. Under these circumstances, it appears that Mokcho had little choice but to surrender to the Yuan authorities.

3

4

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

great friendship between us? This jade chalice is just a small token of my warm affection for you.” Then they pledged not to forget each other. Mokcho, in return, gave a daughter of his kinsman to Sanji and made her his wife. He reached Siri (namely Isŏng)15 over land and by sea, but a chiliarch (qianhu)16 blocked his way. When Mokcho explained that he intended to defect to the Yuan forces, the chiliarch treated him with generosity and words of comfort, holding a banquet in his honor. Mokcho returned the favor with oxen and horses. Mokcho finally arrived in Aldong17 of Namgyŏng,18 his final destination, which belonged to the Kaiyuan Route.19 The time was the second year (1254) of Baoyou of Song Lizong20 and the fourth year of Xianzong21 of the Yuan dynasty and forty-first year of King Kojong22 of Koryŏ. In the following Ŭlmyo year (1255), Sanji made a report to the emperor of Yuan with regard to Mokcho. As a result, the Yuan government established a chiliarchy (qinanhusuo) in Aldong and, bestowing a golden tally, appointed Mokcho as the chief chiliarch of five chiliarchies in Namgyŏng and other areas and concurrently Mongol overseer (daluhuachi).23 Since Aldong was located over 90 li southeast of Namgyŏng, it is 30 li east of the present Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture. Over 120 li northwest of Aldong lay Tumun Ward (Tumunsŏng), and over 120 li west of Aldong was Aldong Saori. Saori means “post station” (ch’am) in the Jurchen language. It was so named because the post station was in the administrative domain of Aldong. A large earthen fortress was on the plain (of Aldong), and a similar one was 15. Siri is an old name of Isŏng, located in South Hamgyŏng Province. It is close to Tanch’ŏn and Pukch’ŏng. 16. Literally, qianhu means a military commander of 1,000 men, but Hucker translates it as battalion commander. 17. A district 30 li east of Kyŏnghŭng. According to the Augmented General Overview of Korean Administrative Geography (Sinjŭng tongguk yŏji sŭngnam), it was a place belonging to Kyŏnghŭng Strategic Prefecture. 18. Namgyŏng is a town not very far from Kyŏnghŭng in North Hamgyŏng Province. 19. It is one of the territorial-administrative regions in Yuan times, located in modern Jilin Province and southern Liaoning Province. 20. Baoyou is one of the regnal name of Emperor Lizong (1253–1258) of the Song dynasty. 21. Xianzong (1251–1259) is the fifth emperor of the Yuan dynasty. 22. Kojong (1213–1259) is the 23rd king of the Koryŏ dynasty. Mongol invasions took place during his reign. 23. When the conquest of China was completed, the Yuan government established a post called “Mongol overseer” (daluhuachi) in order to control and supervise the local Chinese officials who submitted themselves to the Yuan authorities. (Hucker, 67)

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

in the field of Namgyŏng. A great stone fortress also stood some 7 or 8 li north of Aldong. The people governed by Mokcho lived in all of these places. Though Mokcho settled down in Aldong, he didn’t really have a permanent residence because he often had to travel to inspect other districts in his charge. There was an island called Chagora off the coast southeast of Aldong. It lay parallel to the land toward the North. Mokcho created a pasture for cattle and horses by building a stone enclosure there. In the eighth year (1258) of Xianzong [of the Yuan dynasty], by the order of Sanji, Mokcho became the commander of eight captains (baihu)— including Li Chun (Yi Ch’un),24 Wen Dachun, Zhao Ao, Lŭ Geer, Zhuo Qing, Shang Zai, Guang Yi, and Zhang Ge—and concurrently served as chief company commander (gucha baihu). In the sixth month of the second year (1261) of Zhongtong,25 Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty, the Department of State Affairs (Shangshusheng) sent down an official copper seal that was to be used in the battalion of Aldong. In the fifth month of the first year (1264) of Zhiyuan,26 by order of the emperor, Mokcho served as chiliarch at Aldong. When he passed away in the twelfth month of the eleventh year of Zhiyuan (1274), he was buried at a place 5 li south of Kongju (namely Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture).27 Later, the tomb was moved to Taldandong28 of Ŭihŭng District in Hamŭng Prefecture. This is Tŏngnŭng, the royal tomb of Mokcho. Mokcho’s wife Lady Yi, who is referred to by her title Consort Hyo (Hyobi), was not from the same Yi clan that her husband belonged to. She was the daughter of Yi Kongsuk, the administrator (changsa) of the Thousand Bull Division (Ch’ŏnuwi).29 She gave birth to Yi Haengni, who 24. According to the Annals of King T’aejo, Yi Ch’un is the original name of T’aejo’s grandfather Tojo himself. Tojo probably served as company commander under his grandfather Mokcho. 25. The first-reign name of Emperor Shizu (1260–1294) of the Yuan dynasty. 26. The second regnal name of Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty. 27. Kongju is an old name of Kyŏnghŭng, located at the northern tip of North Hamgyŏng Province. 28. Also called Taldaldong. 29. The military forces of Koryŏ during the reign of King Sŏngjong (981–997) mainly consisted of the Two Guards and Six Divisions. They functioned as the nation’s combat forces defending the capital as well as the frontiers. They also served as royal guards and police forces in the capital. The Thousand Bull Division, however, was mainly in charge of state ceremonies. (Ki-baik Lee, 117)

5

6

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

was to become Ikcho. In the third month of the twelfth year (1275) of Zhiyuan, he inherited the office of his father. In the eighteenth year (1281) of his reign, as Emperor Shizu set out to conquer Japan, numerous warships were gathered at Happ’o.30 Receiving the official order from the superior office, Ikcho raised an army under his command and joined the military expedition along with Mongol commanders, including Datashi,31 the battalion commander of Samsal32 in the domain of the Ssangsŏng Commandery.33 Thus he had an opportunity to have several audiences with King Ch’ungnyŏl34 of Koryŏ. Whenever he saw the king, Ikcho apologized with utmost courtesy. He said, “The reason my late father ran away to the north was to escape from the mouth of a ferocious tiger; he never intended to betray Your Majesty. I beseech you to forgive him.” The king replied, “Having descended from a family of scholar-officials, how could you possibly have forgotten your roots? Your good manners and conduct bear witness to your sincerity.” At first, when Mokcho occasionally visited Hyŏnsŏng, a number of chiliarchs and Mongol overseers wanted to associate with him, so he made friends with them. They treated him with courtesy and hospitality, always slaughtering their cattle and holding a banquet in his honor over several days. Mokcho also provided them with the same kind of hospitality whenever

30. This refers to the port town located 10 li west of Ch’angwŏn Strategic Prefecture. The Mongol invasions of Japan took place in 1274 and 1281. The Mongols turned Happ’o into the Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters (Chŏngdong Haengsŏng) in 1280 and started building warships in Happ’o. After subjugating Korea, Kublai Khan tried to conquer the Japanese islands with a massive army, but failed in his attempts as his navies perished on the sea due to the seasonal typhoons that the Japanese call kamikaze. 31. He is presumed to be a Mongol general, but the details of his life and career are unknown. 32. An old name for modern Pukch’ŏng of South Hamgyŏng Province. 33. Located in Yŏnghŭng, South Hamgyŏng Province, it was one of the administrative districts established by Yuan in order to govern Koryŏ in the middle of the 13th century; it remained under the Yuan dominion until King Kongmin recovered it by force in 1356. (Ki-baik Lee, 157) 34. King Ch’ungnyŏl (1274–1308) was the 25th king of the Koryŏ dynasty. This meeting with King Ch’ungnyŏl was significant in the sense that Ikcho could reestablish his relations with the royal court and later his grandson Yi Chach’un (Hwanjo) actively responded to the call of King Kongmin to attack the Yuan Commandery at Ssangsŏng, Hamgyŏng Province. King Kongmin in his late years wanted to recover Koryŏ’s lost territory from Yuan as the latter’s power declined due to the rise of Ming China.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

they visited him in Aldong. The friendly relationship continued even after Ikcho succeeded Mokcho. As Ikcho’s authority and dignity grew strong, the subordinates of various chiliarchs increasingly wanted to follow Ikcho. Because of this, several [Jurchen] chiliarchs conspired to remove Ikcho. They said, “Since Yi [Ikcho] is not a member of our people, and his growing power will no doubt be a threat to all of us in days ahead, why don’t we get rid of him and divide his property among us with the help of from the people residing deeply hidden somewhere?”35 Then they said to Ikcho, “We plan to hunt in the north, so we request that our meeting be suspended for twenty days.” Ikcho granted their request. However, they did not return even though the fixed date had passed. Therefore, Ikcho decided to personally visit Hyŏnsŏng to find them, but he found no one there except women and elderly and weak men. He asked a woman [about the people he was looking for] and she replied, “I guess they are greedily trying to catch as much wild game as they can, so they have not returned yet.” On the way home, Ikcho came across an old woman who carried a water jar on her head and a brass bowl in her hand. Being thirsty, Ikcho wanted to get some water from her. The old woman first cleaned the bowl and then presented him with water. She said, “Don’t you know what is going on? The people you look for did not go hunting but they went off to recruit soldiers who can help them in their fight against you. They are now supposed to be back in three days, and I don’t dare hide this from you because I admire the dignity and virtue of your honor.” Ikcho hurriedly returned home and ordered all his people, including his family, to leave their place of residence. He had them put everything they had on boats and sail down the Tumen River until they arrived at Chŏkto Island,36 which he designated as their meeting place. Ikcho, meanwhile, crossed the Kayangt’an Rapids, taking his wife, Lady Son, with him. As he looked down at Aldong after climbing a hill, he saw it filled with enemy soldiers, and the vanguard which appeared to be over three hundred soldiers 35. Initially, support from Yuan authorities enabled Yi Haengni and his father Yi Ansa with his Korean followers to settle down in Aldong, which was originally Jurchen territory. However, as the power and influence of the Yuan government declined throughout the region, the Jurchens began to think about driving the Koreans from their lands. It appears that their first target was Yi Haengni, the leader of the Korean people (Sanggak Lee, 25). “The people residing deeply hidden somewhere” seem to refer to the Jurchens who lived scattered in the region. 36. Located 40 li south of Kyŏnghŭng Strategic Prefecture.

7

8

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

were already quite near him. Ikcho and his wife Lady Son galloped to the northern hill on Chŏkto Island, but they could not cross the water, which was almost 600 paces wide and of unfathomable depth. Besides, a boat that was supposed to be ready was nowhere to be seen. All of a sudden, the tide receded dramatically, making the water shallow enough to ford. Thus Ikcho and his wife, riding a white horse, were able to cross the water and their subordinates quickly followed them. When they finally crossed the water, the enemy arrived but they were unable to advance because the tide rose fast again. The people in the north still remember the incident, saying, “That was the help from Heaven, not the strength of men.” Ikcho made dugouts to live in. His camp can still be seen there today. The people of Aldong later learned of his whereabouts and joined him. They were so numerous that they looked like a band of merchants. They initially resided on islands for a long time. Then, they felled trees on Chikto, Ch’udo, and Ch’odo as well as other islands, using the timber to build ten boats. In the twenty-seventh year (1290) of Zhiyuan, they crossed the river again and returned to Ŭiju. As they settled down there, the people of Kongju [Kyŏnghŭng] all came to join Ikcho. The land where Ikcho and his people used to reside is still called Chŏkchŏn, because it was once occupied by the former residents of Chŏkto Island. Lady Son gave birth to two sons. The first one was Kyusu, and the second, Pok. After she passed away, Ikcho married Lady Ch’oe, posthumously referred to as Consort Chŏng (Chŏngbi), who was the daughter of Ch’oe Kiyŏl, the community head of Tŭngju. Ikcho finally settled down in Hyŏpch’on Village in Tŭngju (namely Anbyŏn),37 cultivating the state-owned fields granted to soldiers (yŏngŏpchŏn). He also had the people of thirty households settle down 15 li west of Tŭngju, so the area occupied by those people was later called the land of thirty households (samsipho p’yŏng). After several years of marriage, he [Ikcho] was unable to have a son. So he and his wife Lady Ch’oe prayed at Kwanŭm Cave on Naksan Mountain. He had a dream in which a man dressed in monk’s robe appeared and said, “Most certainly you will have a precious son, and you should call him Sŏllae.” Shortly thereafter, Lady Ch’oe indeed became pregnant and gave birth to a son in Ŭiju. They named him Sŏllae, who is Tojo. Kwanŭm Cave is now 37. Tŭngju is an old name of Anbyŏn, which is located below Wŏnsan in South Hamgyŏng Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

located in Yangyang, Kangwŏn Province. At that time, Ikcho often traveled to Anbyŏn as well as Hwaju and Hamju.38 In the tenth month of the fourth year (1300) of Dade, Emperor Chengzong [of Yuan] appointed Ikcho gentleman for managing affairs (sŭngsarang)39 and by royal decree assigned him to the post of Mongol overseer with responsibility for the soldiers and civilians of the Koryŏ garrison in Ssangsŏng and other areas. On the tenth of the ninth month of a certain year, Ikcho passed away. He was buried in Puktong of Pongnyong Post Station in the district of Sŏgok of Anbyŏn Prefecture.40 This tomb was named Chirŭng. Tojo’s personal name is Ch’un, and his childhood name Sŏllae. His Mongol name is Boyantiemuer. By royal decree, he inherited his father’s office upon his death. His consort was Lady Pak, honorifically referred to as Consort Kyŏng. She was the daughter of Pak Kwang, company commander of Aldong and posthumously chancellor (munha sijung). He had two sons from her. The first is Chahŭng whose Mongol name is Tasibuhua, and the second Hwanjo, who is the direct ancestor of our royal family. After Lady Pak passed away, Tojo moved to Hwaju and was remarried to Lady Cho, who was the daughter of the area commander-in-chief (ch’onggwan) of Ssangsŏng Commandery (Ssangsŏng ch’onggwanbu). He had two sons and three daughters from her, and his first son was Wanzhebuhua, and the second son Nahai.41 The fields of Hamju were flat, wide and fertile, so many people naturally migrated south from Aldong to the region. Ikcho relocated people from Aldong to various places in the Hamju area, including Kwiju, Ch’ogodae, Wanggŏsan, Unch’ŏn, Songdu, Toryŏnp’o, and Ajŏngnangi. Therefore, Hamju was known as the land of the Aldong Irŏn (in Jurchen they call people irŏn). Around this time, Tojo controlled all the territory north of Anbyŏn. Nevertheless, he decided to relocate to Hamju because he wanted to be closer to the people who had moved southward. Moreover, raising livestock there was easy. 38. Hwaju is an old name for Yŏnghŭng; Hamju is an old name for Hamhŭng in South Hamgyŏng Province. 39. Sŭngsarang or gentleman for managing affairs was a prestige title for officials (7a) in Yuan. (Hucker, 128) 40. Located in South Hamgyŏng Province, its name was changed to Tŭngju in early Koryŏ. Sŏgok is located 35 li west of Anbyŏn. 41. Wanzhebuhua and Nahai are both Mongol names.

9

10

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Tojo had an audience with King Ch’ungsuk.42 The king bestowed many gifts on him, aiming to encourage his loyalty. A man appeared to Tojo in a dream and said: “I am a white dragon. I am now at a certain location, and a black dragon is trying to seize it. Please come help me.” When Tojo woke up, he did not pay much attention to what he had dreamt. Then the white dragon appeared in his dream again and said earnestly, “Why did you disregard what I told you?” Then it mentioned a specific date for taking action. Now thinking that the dream was indeed strange, Tojo went to the designated place, armed with bow and arrows. He arrived at a pond shrouded in dark clouds and mist and finally found the white dragon engaged in mortal combat with its antagonist. Tojo shot an arrow at the black dragon and killed it, and it sank into the pond. Later, Tojo had another dream in which the white dragon appeared and expressed its gratitude for saving him. Then it prophesied: “You will have much to celebrate in the future, thanks to your offspring.” Sometime earlier, when Tojo was in the yard of his office, a pair of magpies sat in a large tree. Tojo prepared to shoot the birds which were nearly a hundred paces away, and his subordinate soldiers all said, “There is no way he can hit the mark.” Nevertheless, Tojo shot them, and they both fell to the ground. Then a large snake appeared out of nowhere and carried them in its mouth to another tree without swallowing them. People thought it strange and praised Tojo. In the second year (1334) of Emperor Shun [of Yuan],43 Tojo suffered some paralysis, so he wanted to have [his first son] Tasibuhua inherit his office. However, Lady Cho [his second wife] requested that Tojo allow her own son Wanzhebuhua to inherit his office, instead. Later, in the Chŏngch’uk year (1337) of Zhiyuan, the Secretariat (Zhongshusheng) of Yuan sent an official and tried to repatriate the former residents of Aldong, who had relocated to Hamju in the Kyŏngin year (1290). Tojo, however, explained their situation through a report submitted to the Secretariat, so he prevented the former residents of Aldong from having to return to their old place of residence. 42. King Ch’ungsuk (1313–1330; 1332–1339): the 27th king of Koryŏ. 43. Emperor Huizong (1320–1370) of Yuan. He is considered the last emperor of the Mongol Empire. During the last years of his reign, Mongols lost effective control over China to the Ming dynasty.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

On the twenty-fourth day of the seventh month of the second year (1342) of Zhizheng,44 Tojo passed away. He was buried in Unch’ŏndong of Yean Distrct in Hamhŭng Prefecture, and his tomb was named Ŭirŭng. Tasibuhua made an official report [on the death of his father] by dispatching his subordinate to the Kaiyuan Route, [one of the regional governments]. Reviewing the report, the authorities of the Kaiyuan Route allowed Tasibuhua to inherit his father’s office because he was the eldest son from Tojo’s first wife. In the ninth month of that year, however, Tasibuhua also died, but Tojo’s son Yaozhu (Kyoju) was still too young to inherit his office. Aware that his mother was related to the royal family of Koryŏ, and that he and his elder brother Wanzhebuhua currently held special titles granted to the members of the Koryŏ royal family, and trusting his family connection to the Mongol overseer, Nahai [who was born of Lady Cho, Tojo’s second wife], presumed to steal the royal decree and official seal during the mourning period for his father. The people of the district, whether they were soldiers or civilians, became angry and said, “Since Lady Cho is not the legal wife, how can her son Nahai inherit the office from his father?” Hwanjo said to Lady Pak, the wife of Tasibuhua, [who was now a widow], “Why don’t you visit the Kaiyuan Route in person and report to the authorities on what has happened?” Lady Pak was the daughter of Tŭkhyŏn, a man from Anbyŏn. Hwanjo accompanied Lady Pak along with Yaozhu on her way to the Kaiyuan Route and appealed to the authorities who in return made an official report to the emperor. In the first month of the third year (1343) of Zhizheng, the Yuan court decreed that Lady Cho was not [Tojo’s] legal wife and that Hwanjo should temporarily take charge of his father’s office until Yaozhu, who was too young at the moment, became old enough to assume that office. Then it dispatched a royal messenger to execute Nahai. Upon hearing the news about his punishment, Nahai ran away with the royal decree and seal and hid in Ch’ain Monastery. However, he was arrested and finally executed. Wanzhebuhua is the father of Yi Chi, who served as director of the Royal House Administration (yŏngdollyŏng). Hwanjo’s personal name is Chach’un, and his Mongol name Wulusibuhua. From childhood he looked different from ordinary children. As he grew up, he showed a talent for horsemanship and archery. When he inherited the

44. Zhizheng (1341–1368) is one of the reign names of Emperor Huizong of Yuan.

11

12

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

office from his father, soldiers were eager to follow him. When Yaozhu came of age, Hwanjo decided to concede to Yaozhu the office he held, but the latter declined it. Later, accompanying Hwanjo, Yaozhu had an audience with King Kongmin, and the king assigned Yaozhu to the Palace Guards (Yuduochi). He rose to the rank of chief of the Armory of Palace Guards (Chungsun kun’giyun). In the fifteenth year (1355) of Zhizheng, Hwanjo had an audience with King Kongmin, and the king said, “Your grandfather was loyal to our royal family deep in his heart even though he didn’t directly work for us.45 So my late grandfather favored him and commended his loyalty. If you follow the example of your grandfather, I will make you quite successful in time.” The land of Ssangsŏng [Yŏnghŭng, Hamgyŏng Province] was fertile, and the local officials seldom harassed the people. As a result, the poor people from the east and south moved into Ssangsŏng in large numbers. When King Kongmin reported this to the Yuan government, both the Secretariat [of Yuan] and Liaoyang Province sent officials, and King Kongmin also dispatched Yi Susan, the director (nangjung) of the Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters (Chŏngdongsŏng)46 so that they could get together and conduct a survey of the newly arrived people as well as existing residents. The survey was called the “Census Jointly Conducted by Three Provinces” (Samsŏng chogamhogye). Later, the people began to abandon Ssangsŏng due to the disarray of its administration. When this happened, King Kongmin dispatched Hwanjo to pacify the disaffected people, and the people’s lives were settled as a result of Hwanjo’s efforts. The following year (1356), Hwanjo returned to the capital and saw the king, and the latter said, “What a good job you did in pacifying those unruly fierce people! It surely wasn’t easy.” At that time, the clan of Empress Ki [empress of Yuan] acted tyrannically, relying on the power of empress. Grand Minister of Education Ki Ch’ŏl, the elder brother of Empress Ki, secretly formed a clique with the Koryŏ officials of the Yuan Commandery at Ssangsŏng, including Cho Sosaeng and T’ak Togyŏng, and conspired to commit treason. 45. The source text says, “Even though he stayed outside.” Staying outside indicates “not employed by the government of Koryŏ.” Then it implies that the grandfather actually worked for the Mongols. 46. In 1280, it was first established by the Mongols in Korea in order to prosecute the second campaign against Japan, but it continued to exist even after the Mongols abandoned their plan of subjugating Japan. (Ki-baik Lee, 157)

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

The king [Kongmin] said to Hwanjo, “I want you to go back to your post right away and pacify our people. If anything happens, you follow my orders.” In the fifth month of the same year, after suppressing Ki Ch’ŏl, the king ordered Yu Inu, the deputy director (pusa) of the Security Council (Milchiksa), to lead an army to subjugate Ssangsŏng. Inu and others arrived in Tŭngju but hesitated to advance further, staying more than 200 li away from Ssangsŏng. When the king heard of it, he appointed Hwanjo acting district defender (si sobuyun), bestowing on him a purple golden pouch decorated with figures of fish (chagŭm ŏdae)47 and also elevated his rank to grand master for central appearance [rank 3b]. Then he dispatched Chŏng Sin’gye, assistant military commandant (pyŏngma p’an’gwan), to Hwanjo with his royal decree and ordered him to join the main forces against the rebels. Upon receiving the royal order, Hwanjo immediately took action and marched secretly until he joined the forces of Yu Inu. As the combined forces [led by Hwanjo] attacked and captured Ssansŏng, the rebel leaders, including Sosaeng and Togyŏng, ran away at night, abandoning their wives and children. As a result, Koryŏ was finally able to recover many fortresses such as Hwaju, Tŭngju, Chŏngju,48 Changju,49 Yeju,50 Koju,51 Munju,52 Ŭiju, Sŏndŏkchin,53 Wŏnhŭngjin54, Yŏnginjin,55 Yodŏkchin,56 Chŏngbyŏnjin,57 and so on, as well as the territories north of Hamju, such as Hamnan,58 Honghŏn,59 and Samsal. These territories were seized by Yuan during the 47. This pouch, a symbol of royal favor and recognition, was designed to be decoratively attached to the belt of the ceremonial court dress of officials. 48. An old name of Chŏngp’yŏng in South Hamgyŏng Province. 49. An old name of Changgok in South Hamgyŏng Province. 50. An old name of Yewŏn; located 45 li south of Chŏngp’yŏng in South Hamgyŏng province. 51. An old name of Kowŏn county in Hamgyŏng Province. 52. An old name of Munch’ŏn in South Hamgyŏng Province. 53. A subdistrict in Chŏngp’yŏng in South Hamgyŏng Province. 54. A subdistrict of Chŏngp’yŏng in South Hamgyŏng Province. 55. A subdistrict of Tŏgwŏn in South Hamgyŏng Province. Its original name was Hop’o. 56. Located 120 li west of Yŏnghŭng, South Hamgyŏng Province. Its original name was Hyŏndŏkchin. 57. Located 60 li east of Yŏnghŭng, South Hamgyŏng Province. 58. According to the General Overview of Korean Administrative Geography, Hamnan indicates Ssangsŏng or Yŏnghŭng. (vol. VI, 159). 59. An old name for Hongwŏn in South Hamgyŏng Province.

13

14

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

reign of King Kojong,60 and it took ninety-nine years to recover them all. The king promoted Hwanjo to grand master for central appearance [rank 3b] and appointed him minister of the Bureau of Prisons (sabokkyŏng). In addition, he bestowed on him a house in the capital and had him reside in it thereafter. At that time, Japanese marauders invaded Yanggwang Province,61 and the government reinforced the security of the capital city. Serving as the director of the Directorate for Armaments (Kun’gigam), Hwanjo became the military commander (pyŏngmasa) of Sŏgang. Thereafter, he was promoted twice in rapid succession, to grand master for transmitting discussions (t’ongŭi taebu; rank 3b) and then to grand master for following righteousness (Chŏngsun taebu; rank 3a), and also appointed supreme general (sang changgun) of the Thousand Bull Guard (Ch’ŏnuwi).62 In the spring of the twenty-first year (1361) of Zhizheng, Hwanjo, who was grand master for glorious happiness (yŏngnok taebu; rank 2b) and director of the Directorate for Palace Buildings (p’an Changjakkam sa) at the time, was newly appointed myriarch (manho) of Sakbang Province63 and concurrently military commander of the border region. The Censorate (Ŏsadae), however, was opposed to his appointment and in a memorial submitted to the king stated: “Yi [Hwanjo] is originally a man of the Northeast Border and also chiliarchHall of that region. Therefore, it is not advisable to appoint him the military commander of the border and have him defend the region.” The king, however, refused to take the advice; furthermore, he held a banquet for Hwanjo at Holjŏkch’ŏng Hall [in the royal palace] and entertained him very generously. The officials of the Chancellery (Munhasŏng) and the Security Council (Chungch’uwŏn)64 also treated him with respect and saw him off outside Hoebin Gate.65 After he had already departed, the government promoted him to minister of Revenue (hobu sangsŏ). Not long after he arrived at the northern border, Hwanjo submitted an urgent report 60. Kojong (1213–1259) is the 23rd king of Koryŏ. 61. An old name for Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 62. One of the six military divisions established in early Koryŏ. The Thousand Bull Guard, however, was mainly charged with state ceremonies. (Ki-baik, Lee, 117) 63. An old name for Kangwŏn Provinces. 64. The officials of the Chancellery are called chaesin, and those of the Security Council, ch’usin. 65. One of many palace gates in Kaesŏng, the capital of Koryŏ. It was located in the south wall.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

to the court, which stated, “Our people who had crossed the border all returned home, following the orders they received.” On the Kyŏngsul day66 of the fourth month [of the same year], Hwanjo passed away due to illness. He was forty-six years old. He was buried in Kwijudong of Sinp’yŏngbu in Hamhŭng Prefecture, and his tomb named Chŏngnŭng. King Kongmin was saddened to hear the news of his death. He expressed his condolences by sending his royal messenger and also provided financial assistance so that his funeral would be appropriate to his rank. The officials in the government were all surprised and said, “There is now no one in the Northeast Region who can take his place.” Hwanjo’s consort was Lady Ch’oe, honorifically referred to as Consort Ŭi. She was the daughter of Ch’oe Han’gi, Great Lord of Yŏnghŭng, who was posthumously appointed Chancellor and Duke Chŏnghyo. In the first year of Zhiyuan, and on the eleventh day of the tenth month of the fourth year (1335) of King Ch’ungsuk of Koryŏ, she gave birth to T’aejo at home in Hwaryŏng Prefecture [later Yŏnghŭng Prefecture]. People could tell he was intelligent as soon as he was born. He had an impos­­ing face like that of a king, as majestic and divine as a dragon. His wisdom and courage surpassed everyone. As he spent his early years between Hwaryŏng and Hamju, the people in the north engaged in trad­ ­ing hawks often said, “I wish I could catch a hawk as outstanding as Yi Sŏnggye is.” When T’aejo was young, Lady Kim, Princess-Ordinary (ongju) Chŏngan, saw five magpies sitting on the corner of the fence. She asked T’aejo to shoot them with his bow. With just a single arrow, T’aejo shot down all five magpies, hitting their heads. Amazed at what she had witnessed, she told T’aejo not to disclose his feat. Lady Kim was Hwanjo’s concubine who came from a family of lower social status and later became the mother of Yi Hwa, Prince Ŭian [T’aejo’s stepbrother]. On a hot summer day when T’aejo sat down near the stream after taking a bath, he saw a marten that had suddenly jumped out of a large thicket. Quickly drawing out an arrow, he shot the marten straightway and it fell dead. Then another marten darted out, and he again shot that one with an iron arrow. Martens kept flying out one after another, and he continued to shoot them down as many as twenty times altogether, without missing a single one. Such was his divine archery skill.

66. It is not clear which day of the month it indicates. It could be the 30th day.

15

16

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

When T’aejo was young, he climbed up a mountain to hunt down a wild boar. As he was about to shoot an arrow at it, he suddenly found himself at the edge of a bottomless cliff. He quickly jumped off his horse, just before both the horse and boar fell off the cliff. Another time someone told him that there was a huge tiger in the thicket. Grabbing his bow and arrow, and putting an arrow in his belt, he began to climb the hill behind it. At the same time, he had the people below chase the tiger up to the mountain. Then he suddenly found a tiger quite close to him. He immediately escaped from it by riding away on horseback, but the tiger chased him furiously and jumped on the back of his horse. T’aejo pushed the tiger off his horse with his right hand. The tiger fell to the ground, but struggled to get back up, raising its head and looking at him. T’aejo turned his horse around and shot the tiger dead. Yi Talch’ung,67 provincial military commissioner (tosunmunsa)68 of the Northeast Region, arrived in Anbyŏn Prefecture during the inspection tour of his district, and it happened that one of his officers accused T’aejo of some offense. Talch’ung summoned T’aejo, but upon seeing him, Talch’ung, without even realizing what he was doing, ran down the steps to greet T’aejo and then entertained him with wine. He then advised his officer to be careful not to try to compete with T’aejo. Hwanjo visited Talch’ung and expressed his gratitude for the generous hospitality provided to his son. When Talch’ung was summoned back to the royal court, Hwanjo held a farewell banquet for him and saw him off in the field with his son T’aejo standing behind. Hwanjo offered wine to Talch’ung after pouring it into a cup, and Talch’ung drank it while standing. When T’aejo offered wine to him, however, Talch’ung knelt down on his knees to receive it. Thinking that it was strange, Hwanjo asked the reason, and Tal’chung replied, “Your son is really an extraordinary person. I presume that even you can hardly match his talent. The one who can make your family famous and prosperous certainly will be that son of yours.” Then he asked T’aejo to remember his descendants in the future. At that moment, seven roe deer were seen standing on the hill on the opposite side of the field. Talch’ung said, “How can we kill one of them and 67. Yi Talch’ung (?–1385): an official of late Koryŏ during the reign of King Kongmin. He served as libationer of the National Academy, inspector-general, and concurrently minster of taxation and provincial military commander of the Northeast Region. Talented in literature, his two poems are included in the Anthology of Korean Literature (Tongmunsŏn). 68. The title of tosunmunsa was changed to tochŏlchesa (provincial military commissioner) during the first year (1389) of King Kongyang’s reign. (Yongun Pak, 690)

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

make a good dish for dinner?” So Hwanjo ordered T’aejo to shoot a deer taking some of his soldiers with him. T’aejo had the soldiers chase the deer on the mountain and flush them out. The startled deer immediately ran down the slope. With five arrows, T’aejo downed five roe deer. As he was ready to shoot another, he came across a large pond in front of him. Incidentally, [the weather being cold] the pond was frozen, so T’aejo rode across it on horseback, still chasing the running deer. He finally shot it down, too, but then ran out of arrows. Something like this also happened when T’aejo was hunting in Sansu of Kangŭm District.69 Discovering a herd of five roe deer, he chased them and killed them all with just five arrows. This is not particularly surprising because he used to shoot three or four roe deer in a row, and instances such as this one are too numerous to be recorded. When he saw a pheasant hiding in the grass, he always startled it so that it would fly up several feet into the air. Then he would look up at it and shoot it down without fail. T’aejo enjoyed using large whistling arrows (taech’omyŏngjŏk). The shaft of such an arrow was made of bush clover, and arrow feathers from cranes’ feathers, which were broad and long. The nock was made from reindeer horn, and it was as big as a pear. The arrow shaft was so heavy and long that it looked different from ordinary ones, and the power of the bow was also twice as strong as regular bows. When he was young, he often hunted together with his father. One day Hwanjo drew out one of the arrows that belonged to T’aejo and examine it. He said, “An arrow such as this is no good for a man to use.” As he threw the arrow to the ground, T’aejo picked it up and put it back into his quiver. At that moment, a roe deer jumped out, and T’aejo ran to shoot it down with an arrow. Then another roe deer darted out, and T’aejo did the same. The roe deer continued to appear as many as seven times altogether, and T’aejo shot them all down. Hwanjo was quite pleased and laughed. T’aejo went out hunting with his father Hwanjo.Whenever he saw wild animals, he chased after them on horseback over icy slopes. His arrows always hit their target. Not a single animal managed to escape him. Watching his incredible archery skill, Jurchens were greatly surprised and said to him, “No one in the world will match your skill.” Once a large leopard hiding in the reeds suddenly jumped out to attack T’aejo when he was in the field. In such a life-threatening situation, T’aejo’s 69. A district in Hawnghae Province. Sansu is located 12 li east of the district of Kangŭm.

17

18

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

only recourse was to turn around immediately and flee on horseback over a frozen pond. The ice at that time was not solid enough even for a man to walk on it; nevertheless, he crossed it on horseback. As the hooves of his horse hit the ice, the ice cracked and water shot up, but he managed to keep ahead of the breaking ice without falling into the water. In the fifth year (1356) of King Kongmin of Koryŏ (the sixteenth year of Zhizheng), T’aejo became an official for the first time, at the young age of twenty-two. According to Koryŏ’s customs, during the Tano festival70 every year, some young military officers and the sons of officials were selected to play a ball game on horseback (kyŏkku). They turned a large downtown road into a playing field, placing a goal gate in the middle. Then they set up a royal tent decorated with the paintings of dragons and phoenixes, and the king held a banquet for high officials and noble ladies. The king watched the game from the tent along with his officials while entertaining girls danced to music. The ladies, wearing their best silks, watched the game from tents along a side road. A huge crowd of spectators gathered to watch this spectacle. The dress and equipment of the players was so luxurious that the cost of a saddle alone equaled that of the properties of ten ordinary households. The players were divided into two groups, each standing on one side. Then a female entertainer before the king sang, holding a ball in her hand: The field rings with the flutes and drums And the balls fly high in the air. Long poles with strings and red nets Scoop up the balls and lift them into the air. Stepping to and fro according to the rhythm of the song, the entertaining girl threw a ball out into the middle of the playing field. The players on both sides immediately rushed forward on horseback to hit the ball, vying against each other, and the one who hit the ball first was allowed to continue to hit the ball while his competitors withdrew and awaited their turn. The way to play the game is as follows: a player on horseback runs across the playing field, hitting a leather ball stuffed with feathers with a mallet whose head looks like a rice ladle. Hitting the ball with the inside of the 70. A Korean traditional holiday that falls on the fifth day of the fifth month of the lunar calendar.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

paddle is called paeji, and hitting the ball with the backside of the ladle, chipi. After he has hit the ball back and forth three times, he then races on horseback down the field without letting the ball get away. When he pursues the rolling ball, he at first holds his mallet crosswise, parallel to the horse’s ears, and this is called pii. The next posture is to raise his hand high and aim the mallet right at the ball. This technique is called suyang. Very few players are able to strike the ball into the goal. Those who succeed in sending their balls close to the goal are only two to three out of ten, and many are those who give up in the middle of the game. If a player strikes the ball through the goal, he and his teammates all dismount their horses and advance toward the royal tent. Then they express their gratitude, bowing twice to the king. T’aejo was one of those selected as a player. While he was striking the ball, his horse ran so fast that when he was hitting the ball toward the goal, the ball unexpectedly hit a rock and bounced back, passing through the four legs of his horse. T’aejo instantly twisted his body backward and sideways and then, reaching through his horse’s tail, got the ball to reverse direction and come out through his horse’s two front legs. When he hit it again, the ball passed through the goal. The technique he used was called pangmi in his day. On another occasion when he was rushing the ball toward the goal, it hit a pole and veered off to the left. Then T’aejo quickly pulled his foot out from the right stirrup and, turning himself around on his horse, he sent the ball right down the middle of the field. When he struck it again, it went right through the goal. This technique was called hoengbang in his day. Everyone in the country was amazed to see his great skill and said that such a talent was unprecedented. In the ninth month of the tenth year (1361) of King Kongmin, Pakŭi, myriarch of the Tongnogang [Kanggye],71 rose in rebellion, killing Chiliarchs Im Chabu and Kim Ch’ŏllyong. The government ordered Minister of Punishments Kim Chin to suppress the rebels, but Chin failed in his mission. At that time, T’aejo’s rank rose to grand master for transmitting discussions (t’ongŭi taebu), and he served concurrently as supreme general of the Capital Patrol (Kŭmowi) and as senior myriarch (sang manho) of the Northeast Region. The king ordered him to join Chin in suppressing the revels. As T’aejo arrived at the troubled region, leading 1,500 soldiers under his command, Pakŭi and the members of his clique had already fled to Kanggye. T’aejo pursued them and finally captured and executed them all.

71. An old name of Kanggye Strategic Prefecture in North P’yŏngan Province.

19

20

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

In winter, Pan Cheng, Sha Liu, Guan Xiansheng, Zhu Yuanshuai, Po Toupan, and other Red Turban leaders, who falsely claimed title to manager of governmental affairs (pingzhangshi), invaded the northwest border of Korea, crossing the Yalu River with an army two hundred thousand strong. In a letter dispatched to Korea, they demanded: “We are now advancing toward the east with a force of 1.1 million soldiers. Come out quickly to welcome our army and surrender to us.” Beheading a hundred enemy soldiers, including their chief, T’aejo captured an enemy soldier alive and presented the captive to the king. In the eleventh month, King Kongmin fled to the south to take refuge, and the enemy captured the capital [Kaegyŏng]. In the first month of the eleventh year (1362) of King Kongmin, nine generals, including State Councilor (ch’amji chŏngsa) An U, recaptured the capital [Kaegyŏng, modern Kaesŏng], leading an army of two hundred thousand troops. They beheaded enemy leaders, including Sha Liu and Guan Xiansheng, and the number of other enemy soldiers that they beheaded exceeded a hundred thousand altogether. At that time, T’aejo led the attack on the East Gate, rallying two thousand soldiers under his command. As he fought against the enemy at the forefront of the battle and finally won, his fame spread among the people. At first, his attack against the enemy in the fortress was met with strong resistance. Though under siege, they reinforced their defense and did not allow their opponents to advance. In the meantime, the sun set, and it grew dark. So the forces from various divisions laid siege to the enemy and started pressing them. T’aejo stayed at one of the houses on the roadside and saw the enemy at midnight trying to break through the siege and escape. He pursued the enemy on horseback until he reached the East Gate. Our soldiers and the enemy were all entangled by this time and fought one another while running toward the gate to get away outside. An enemy soldier with a spear tried to stab T’aejo in the right ear from behind. T’aejo at that moment used his sword to cut down seven or eight of the enemy in front of him and, whipping his horse, jumped over the wall on horseback. Nevertheless, the horse did not fall down, and the people around him marveled at what they saw. In the second month [of the eleventh year of King Kongmin], Cho Sosaeng72 [of Koryŏ] lured Nahachu,73 the grand councilor of the Branch 72. An official of Koryŏ who acted as a traitor at the end of the Mongol’s dominion over Koryŏ. 73. A warlord of the Manchu region at the end of the Yuan dynasty and in the early Ming dynasty.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

Secretariat (Xingsheng) of Shenyang, to invade the lands of Samsal [Pukch’ŏng] and Holmyŏn [Hongwŏn]. Commander-in-Chief (to chihwisa) Chŏng Hwi engaged Nahachu’s army several times and suffered a number of great defeats in succession. So he requested that the government send T’aejo to help him in battle against Nahachu, and the government, at last, appointed T’aejo provincial military commander of the Northeast Region, with orders to join Commander-in-Chief Chŏng Hwi. In the seventh month [of the eleventh year of King Kongmin], Nahachu led tens of thousands of troops and established his base camp at Taldandong in Hongwŏn. He was joined by Cho Sosaeng and T’ak Togyŏng, [his coconspirators from Koryŏ]. He also ordered Nayantiemuer, myriarch of Hala, and various commanders including Boyanfuxia, to start out first, leading an advance party numbering over a thousand. T’aejo met the advance party of enemy soldiers at Wŏnp’yŏng74 of Tŏksandong75 and routed them, and then pursued them over the mountain passes, Hamgwallyŏng and Ch’ayuryŏng,76 killing virtually all of them. He also collected countless weapons and pieces of armor dropped by the enemy. On that day, T’aejo withdrew his troops to a valley called Tapsanggok and made his camp there. This move made Nahachu very angry, so he [purposely] set up his camp at Tŏksandong, [the place where he lost his first battle with T’aejo]. T’aejo launched a surprise attack during the night, and Nahachu’s army was forced to return to Taldandong [in Hongwŏn] in defeat. Then T’aejo encamped at Saŭmdong.77 T’aejo sent scouts to the Ch’ayuryŏng Mountain Pass, and they saw that many of the enemy soldiers had been sent out to gather firewood. After hearing the scout’s reports, T’aejo said, “The art of warfare prescribes that one attack the enemy at their weakest point.” He ordered his soldiers to capture or behead all the wood gatherers. He also led a seasoned cavalry force of six hundred over Ch’ayuryŏng. When he arrived at the foot of the mountain pass, the enemy belatedly realized the situation and tried to fight back. Accompanied by over ten cavalry soldiers, T’aejo attacked the enemy and killed one of their officers. When T’aejo first arrived at the scene of the battle and asked why several commanders of his forces had repeatedly suffered defeat, they replied:

74. Located 90 li north of Hamhŭng Prefecture. 75. Located 40 li east of Hamhŭng Prefecture. 76. Mountain passes located north of Hamhŭng, South Hamgyŏng Province. 77. Located 25 li north of Hamhŭng.

21

22

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Every time the battle became intense, an enemy general clad with iron armor decorated with red ox-tails suddenly jumped out, brandishing a spear, and our soldiers were too afraid to fight him.” T’aejo decided to deal with the man alone, searching him out among the enemy, and pretended to run away as the man fiercely rushed out to attack with his spear. T’aejo, on horseback, quickly moved his body under the belly of the horse, and his opponent, in his attack, lost balance and fell down to the ground with his spear. Immediately springing back into the saddle, T’aejo shot the man with an arrow. With their champion dead, the enemy troops were thrown into disarray and ran away. T’aejo pursued them as far as their base camp but stopped as the sun went down. Nahachu’s wife said to her husband, “It has been a long time since you traveled the world, but you have not met such a formidable foe yet, have you? You had better avoid meeting him again and return home quickly.” Nahachu, however, did not listen to her. A few days later, T’aejo crossed over Hamgwallyŏng Mountain Pass78 and arrived at Taldandong, and Nahachu also established a camp at a place nearby, in a location that appeared impressive. Nachachu came out in front of his camp with ten cavalry soldiers at his side, so T’aejo went out to meet him, leading an equal number of cavalrymen, which appeared impressive. Confronting T’aejo, Nahachu spoke first, “When I first started this campaign, I only pursued men such as Sha Liu, Guan Xiansheng, and Pan Cheng, with no intention of invading your country’s territory. Now, I have already lost repeated battles, losing over ten thousand soldiers and a number of officers. Consequently, I have become desperate and I want to stop fighting with you if you agree. And I am willing to do whatever you say.” But the enemy forces, as T’aejo observed, still looked quite powerful, so T’aejo suspected that his opponent was trying to deceive him. Seeing that a general was standing right next to Nahachu, T’aejo shot him down. Then he shot the horse that Nahachu was riding. When Nahachu changed his horse, T’aejo shot it down again. Then the battle broke out and continued for a long time without a clear victor. T’aejo finally had a chance to capture Nahachu, and the latter, still running away, said to T’aejo, “General Yi, please stop! Why do we have to fight like this?” Then he turned around to escape, and T’aejo shot his horse down once again. At that moment, an officer nearby

78. Located 70 li east of Hamhŭng.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

dismounted from his horse and gave it to Nahachu so that the latter could escape. Thus Nahachu managed to stay alive. As it became dark again, T’aejo withdrew to his camp, but he remained with the rear guard, protecting his troops from the pursuit of the enemy. The roads of the mountain pass were tortuously winding and crisscrossed in many places. A eunuch named Yi P’arasil, who was walking behind at the back of the column, cried out desperately to those ahead of him, “General, save me! General, please help me.” As T’aejo looked down, two enemy generals clad in silver armor were about to run Yi through with their spears. Turning around on his horse, T’aejo shot both generals and killed twenty more enemy soldiers in short order. Then he ordered his troops to turn back around and attack their pursuers. One of the enemy tried to attack T’aejo with a spear. Twisting his back quickly and letting his upper body fall down, he struck the soldier under the armpit with an arrow and remounted. Another shot an arrow at T’aejo, who instantly stood up on his horse and let the arrow pass between his legs. Then T’aejo shot the enemy solider in the knee. On another day, T’aejo ran into an enemy general in the middle of a stream. His opponent was completely covered with armor and wore a helmet secured by a chinstrap, making it difficult for T’aejo to shoot him down with his arrow. So his shot his horse to make it jump in the air. His adversary tried to rein in the horse with all his strength, and at that moment T’aejo found the enemy’s mouth opened momentarily. T’aejo did not miss the opportunity, and his arrow hit the man’s mouth exactly. Because T’aejo had already killed three people in a row, the enemy forces were thrown into disarray and began to flee. T’aejo had his cavalry pursue them. In their panic, the enemy soldiers trampled one another, and many died or were captured. T’aejo returned to Chŏngju and rested his troops there for several days. T’aejo first set up ambushes at strategic points. Next, he divided his troops into three units. He assigned the Left Army to Sŏnggot, the Right Army to Toryŏnp’o, and the Middle Army to Songdu. Leading the Middle Army in person, T’aejo encountered Nahachu on the plain of Hamhŭng. T’aejo charged the enemy single-handed on horseback, in order to test them. Seeing three enemy warriors galloping towards him simultaneously, he pretended to run away in a hurry, pulling on the reins while whipping his horse. As T’aejo suddenly appeared to confront them, the horses of his pursuers, being excited, passed by him and couldn’t stop. T’aejo shot arrows at them from

23

24

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

behind, and they all fell to the ground at the sound of flying arrows. He continued to lure the enemy out until he reached the place where an ambush was waiting. Our soldiers who were in hiding came out all at once from all directions and crushed the enemy completely. Realizing that he was unable to contend against [T’aejo’s army], Nahachu gathered his scattered forces and fled. T’aejo presented to the king the trophies that he had collected, including tablets and seals made of silver and copper, respectively, as well as innumerable other spoils. Thereafter, order was finally restored in the Northeast Region. Later, Nahachu sent a man who sued for peace, presenting a horse to our king and a drum and a fine horse to T’aejo, which were signs of respect for them. Nahachu’s sister, staying with his brother in the garrison, deeply admired T’aejo’s extraordinary martial prowess. She said, “No one can surpass him in the world.” Earlier, when Hwanjo met with Nahachu on his way to the Yuan court, he praised T’aejo’s talent. After his defeat, Nahachu said, “Years ago Yi [Chach’un] said he had a talented son. Indeed, he did not lie.” In the ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, in the winter of the Pyŏngjin year (1376), Sin U [King U] sent Hwang Sukkyŏng, magistrate of Kaesŏng, to Nahachu to request friendly relations. Nahachu said, “I originally had no intention to fight against Koryŏ, but King Boyantiemuer [King Kongmin] sent General Yi [Sŏnggye] to fight against me, and I barely escaped death. How is General Yi doing? Though he is young, he is incredible in commanding his army. He is a real genius. I believe he will become a man of great responsibilities in your country in the days ahead.” In the thirteenth year (1364) of King Kongmin, many members of Ki clan were put to death, and this incurred the antipathy of Empress Ki against the king. At that time, Ch’oe Yu of Koryŏ stayed in Yuan, serving as associate director (jiangzuo tongzhi) of the Palace Building Directorate. Associating with a gang of wicked people, Ch’oe Yu slandered King Kongmin and allured the empress to depose him and replace him with Prince Tŏkhŭng, whose Mongol name was Tasitiemuer. As a result, in the first month, the Mongol army stationed in Liaoyang Province crossed the Yalu River to invade Koryŏ. King Kongmin sent An Ugyŏng, assistant chancellor (ch’ansŏngsa), and others to the frontier to stop the invading army, but An suffered a defeat and withdrew to Anju. Then the king ordered Assistant Chancellor Ch’oe Yŏng to go to Anju, taking seasoned troops with him, and command the entire

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

military operation. At the same time, the king ordered T’aejo to take a ­thousand crack cavalry troops of the Northeast Border and join the forces in Anju. Yi Kwisu, deputy commissioner of the Security Council (milchik pusa),79 Chi Yongsu, administrative commissioner of the Security Council (chi Milchiksa sa), Na Se, minister of Revenue (p’andop’ansŏ), and An Ugyŏng [assistant chancellor] took the command of the Left Army; Yi Sun, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng, U Che, left director of the State Finance Commission (samsa chwa sa), Pak Ch’un, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, and T’aejo took the command of the Right Army; and Ch’oe Yŏng became the commander of the Middle Army and arrived at Chŏngju. Looking at the commanders who withdrew after suffering defeats, T’aejo criticized their cowardice and lack of will to fight. The commanders resented his criticism and tried to avoid him. At that time, the enemy had already established their camp at Talch’ŏn, in the district of Suju. The commanders said, “We want you to take charge of the battle tomorrow by yourself.” Knowing that the generals tried to shun him, T’aejo was a little worried. The following day, the enemy advanced in three divisions. Having old generals take charge of both the left and right sides, T’aejo led the troops in the middle. Then he ordered each of his divisions to launch full-scale attacks against their respective enemy counterparts. T’aejo’s horse fell in the mud, and it seemed that he was momentarily in danger. However, his horse jumped out of the mire with great force, and the people who saw him were all surprised. T’aejo shot and killed two or three enemy generals and ended up defeating the enemy decisively. As he looked around, he saw his two old generals brandishing their swords wildly, but the enemy had already run away and there was nothing left but thick dust in the air. At first, Kim Panggwae, whose Mongol name was Daluhuachi, lived in Samhaeyang (Kilchu).80 He married the daughter of Tojo [grandfather of T’aejo] and had two sons with her, Samsŏn and Samgae. So his sons became T’aejo’s maternal cousins. Born and raised in the land of the Jurchen, they were unusually muscular and good at horse-riding and archery. Banding with bad youths, they wandered about as they pleased on the northern 79. The Security Council (Chungch’uwŏn) was once called Milchiksa or Ch’umirwŏn, which placed more emphasis on the secretarial function. 80. Also called Haeyang or Kilsŏng.

25

26

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

border, but they were afraid of T’aejo and tried to restrain themselves from behaving recklessly. Since T’aejo was born and grew up in Hamju, like his ancestors before him, the reputation and power of his family had already been well established among the people. So the residents regarded T’aejo as their parent, and the people of Jurchen were also afraid of his power, while admiring his authority. Then Samsŏn and Samgae happened to hear that T’aejo had left for the Northwest Border to carry out a mission. So they raised a Jurchen army and captured Hamju [of Koryŏ]. Chŏn Ido and Yi Hŭi, the military commanders in charge of defending Hamju, ran away, abandoning their men, while Commander-in-Chief Han Pangsin and Provincial Military Commander Kim Kwi advanced their troops as far as Hwaju (Yŏnghŭng). However, they were also defeated and withdrew to Ch’ŏlkwan (Ch’ŏllyŏng). So the regions north of Hwaju were all occupied by the enemy. As the royal armies suffered repeated defeats, the generals and soldiers were extremely demoralized, and they simply waited day and night for T’aejo to return. In the second month, T’aejo arrived at Ch’ŏlkwan with his army from the Northwest Border. The people were overjoyed, and the morale of the commanders and soldiers was greatly lifted. Carrying out a coordinated operation with the commanders Han Pangsin and Kim Kwi, he advanced to attack the enemy in three prongs and won a great victory. As he recaptured Hwaju and Hamju, the towns that had fallen into the enemy’s hands, Samsŏn and Samgae fled back to their land and never returned [to Koryŏ]. The king promoted T’aejo to assistant royal secretary, raising his rank to grand master for service and assistance (pongik taebu). Furthermore, the king bestowed upon him a prestigious title, “Extremely-Sincere, Brilliantly-Faithful, and Respectfully-Assisting Merit Subject” (Tansŏng yangchŏl iktae kongsin), as well as a golden belt. These gifts were tokens of his increased trust in and reliance on T’aejo. Zhao Wu was originally a Yuan general. As the Yuan dynasty declined, Zhao captured Kongju, leading the troops under his command. T’aejo said to his subordinates, “This man [Zhao] will cause disturbances eventually, so he should be kept under control.” Then he raised his army and attacked Zhao. However, admiring his courage and fighting skills, T’aejo only shot a few dozen kodori arrows at him, thereby sparing his life. Zhao Wu finally dismounted his horse and paid his respects to T’aejo. Deeply impressed by T’aejo’s magnanimity and admiring his great character, Zhao volunteered to serve T’aejo to the end of his life. He did not even

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

mind doing the tasks normally assigned to low-ranking soldiers, [such as gathering firewood or cooking], and eventually rose to the post of minister of works (kongjo chŏnsŏ). The eighteenth year (1369) of King Kongmin (the second year of the reign of Hongwu).81 Earlier, Ki Saiyintiermuer, the son of Ki Ch’ŏl, became manager of governmental affairs after serving in the Yuan government. As the Yuan collapsed, however, together with Assistant Chancellor (pingzhang) Kim Paegan, who was in charge of Liaoyang and Shenyang, he captured the Tongnyŏng Administration (Tongnyŏngbu),82 rounding up the wandering people of Yuan. He did this because he deeply resented that his father had been executed and wanted to avenge the death of his father by invading Koryŏ’s northern border. The king [Kongmin], who had already decided to serve the Ming dynasty, wanted to recapture the Tongnyŏng Administration and at the same time sever the relationship with the Northern Yuan.83 So, in the twelfth month of the same year, the king appointed T’aejo military commander of the Northeast Region, and Chi Yongsu and Yang Paegyŏn military commanders of the Northwest Region. In the first month of the nineteenth year (1370) of King Kongmin, T’aejo left the Northeast Region, leading five thousand cavalry-men and ten thousand infantry soldiers. Crossing over Hwangch’oryŏng Mountain Pass,84 he marched more than 600 li until he reached Sŏlhallyŏng Mountain Pass,85 81. The regnal name of Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398), the founder of the Ming dynasty. 82. During the Mongol dominion over Koryŏ, sizable portions of Koryŏ territory were placed under direct Yuan control. Tongnyŏng Administration, established in the Western Cap­ ital (Sŏgyŏng; modern P’yŏngyang), was one of them, along with the Ssangsŏng Commandery, established in modern Yŏnghung, and the T’amna Commandery, established on Cheju Island (Ki-baik Lee, 157). However, Tongnyŏng Administration here refers to the one that was established later in Liaodong, China. In the 10th year (1269) of Wŏnjong of Koryŏ, Ch’oe T’an rose in rebellion against the government and surrendered to the Yuan, turning over 54 towns, including the Western Capital in the Northern Border Region (Pukkye), as well as 6 towns in Sŏhae Province. The following year, Emperor Shizu of Yuan established Tongnyŏng Admin­is­ tration in the Western Capital and appointed Ch’oe T’an area commander-in-chief (ch’onggwan). Then the Koryŏ territory above Chabiryŏng Mountain Pass was incorporated into the Yuan territory. Later, in the 16th year (1290) of King Ch’ungnyŏl, the Tongnyŏng Administration in the Western Capital was abolished at the request of the king, and the headquarters of Tongnyŏng Administration was moved to Liaodong. 83. It refers to the remnants of the Yuan dynasty that continued to rule Mongolia after their expulsion from China in 1368. 84. Located in Hamju, South Hamgyŏng Province. 85. Located in Kanggye, North P’yŏnan Province.

27

28

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and, then, marching another 700 li, he crossed the Yalu River. That day, a strong purple energy was quite visible in the northern sky of the capital, and its shadows extended all the way to the south. The officials of the Directorate of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory (Sŏungwan), in their report to the king, said, “This portends a valiant general.” Pleased with the report, the king replied, “The sign must have to do with Yi [Sŏnggye], whom I sent to the north.” At that time, Yi Wulutiermuer, the associate administrator (tongzhi) of Tongnyŏng Administration, heard that T’aejo was on his way [to China] with his army, so he moved to Ura Mountain Fortress [in Kapsan] and tried to stop T’aejo’s advance by blocking the main road. As T’aejo arrived at Yedun Village, Yi Wŏn’gyŏng (Wulutiermuer in Mongolian) attempted to mount a challenge but soon gave up. Taking off his armor and kowtowing twice, he said, “My ancestors were originally Koreans. So, let me be your servant.” Then he surrendered to T’aejo, bring­ ­ing three hundred households with him. However, Administrator Ko Anwi, who was Wŏngyŏng’s superior, refused to surrender, staying inside the fortress walls. Consequently, T’aejo’s troops laid siege to him. T’aejo, however, had no bows and arrows with him at the moment, so his subordinates brought him the bow and arrows that he needed. T’aejo aimed at Anwi’s face and shot seventy times, with each arrow hitting the target. The spectacle demoralized the people inside the walls and threw Anwi into a panic so that he ran away in the night, abandoning his wife and children. The following day, some twenty enemy leaders surrendered their people to T’aejo, and many other fortresses also joined them after the news reached them. Thus, T’aejo managed to win over another ten thousand households to his side. He then returned to their original owners over two thousand oxen and several hundred horses that he had captured during battle, and this gesture impressed the people in the Northern Region so much that they gathered to follow T’aejo like crowds in a marketplace. So the territories extending to Hwangsŏng [in Kanggye] in the east, the Tongnyŏng Administration in the north, the sea to the west, and the Yalu River in the south, were finally brought under control. Hwangsŏng was originally the imperial capital of Jurchen rulers. Bai Zhu, vice commissioner of military affairs (shumifushi) of the Yuan dynasty, as well as the officials of the Tongnyŏng Administration, including Yi Wŏn’gyŏng, Yi Paegan, Yi Changsu, Yi Ch’ŏnu, Hyŏn Tasa, Kim A, and

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

No Chŏng, surrendered themselves along with over three households under their control, and T’aejo presented them to the king. When T’aejo entered Ura [Mountain Fortress],86 he heard the sound of a man crying aloud inside the fallen walls. He ordered an officer to find out what was going on and discovered a half-naked man who sobbed as he said, “I am the one named Bai Zhu, who passed the civil service examination with the highest honor in the Yuan government. Yi Inbok of your country is the same age as me.” Upon hearing that Bai Zhu was the principal graduate (changwon) of the Yuan, T’aejo took off his coat and made him put it on. Then he provided him with a horse and brought him back to court with him. The king bestowed the Korean name Han Pok upon Bai Zhu, who served T’aejo very diligently. In the eighth month [of the nineteenth year (1370) of King Kongmin], the king ordered T’aejo to go out and attack the Tongnyŏng Administration, together with Chi Yongsu, the military commander of the Northwest Region, and his deputy Yang Paegyŏn. In the twelfth month [of the nineteenth year (1370) of King Kongmin], T’aejo arrived in Ŭiju, leading a royal army of a thousand six hundred troops. He crossed the Yalu River by making a floating bridge, and the whole operation took him three days. Then he arrived at Luojiang Tower, which was two days’s journey from the fortress of Liao, [T’aejo’s destination]. Leaving the main supplies behind [at Luojiang Tower], T’aejo ordered his troops to move on, taking only seven day’s supplies with them. He also ordered Hong In’gye, Ch’oe Kongch’ŏl, and other officers to launch attacks, while he led a crack cavalry force of just three thousand cavalry. Observing that our forces were small, the enemy held us in contempt. A little later, however, the main body of our forces arrived, and the people inside the fortress were awed by the large number of our troops. Only one of the enemy commanders, named Chu Ming, proud of his bravery, was eager to resist. T’aejo sent Yi Wŏn’gyŏng to persuade Ming to surrender: “We really have no problem killing you, but our general wants to save you for his own purposes. Why don’t you surrender yourself quickly?” As Ming refused to listen, Wŏn’gyŏng said again, “It seems that you don’t know anything about our general. He is so talented [in archery] that he will 86. There are two places under the name Ura. One is located in Kapsan in North P’yŏnan Province, and the other in Hoeryŏng in North Hamgyŏng Province.

29

30

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

be able to shoot you to death with only one arrow.” However, Ming would not take heed of the warning. T’aejo at last discharged an arrow at Ming, but only to shoot the helmet off his head. Then he dispatched Wŏn’gyŏng one more time and tried to persuade Ming to give up. Ming continued to reject the warning. So T’aejo shot him in the leg, and Ming ran away. But he returned to fight shortly, despite being wounded in the leg by an arrow. T’aejo again tried to persuade Ming through Wŏn’gyŏng, but with an ultimatum this time. He said, “I will shoot you in the face unless you surrender right away.” Chu Ming finally dismounted from his horse and surrendered, bowing down with his face to the ground. A man on the enemy side climbed up to the top of the fortress wall and shouted, “Our group of people all wanted to surrender when we heard that your great army was on the way to the fortress here, but the officials forced us to fight against you. Therefore, if you try harder, you will be able to capture the fortress.” The fortress was very high and steep, and the arrows, mixed with tim­­ bers and stones, rained down upon the heads of our troops. Despite the dangers they were exposed to, our infantry advanced to reach the bottom of the wall and finally captured the fortress after redoubling the assaults. In the meantime, [Ki] Saiyintiermuer ran away, but our troops captured Paegan.87 Then our forces withdrew to the east of the fortress and placed public notices in places where Nahachu and Yeshanbuhua were potentially hiding: “Ki Saiyintiermuer was originally a low-ranking official of our country. He endeared himself to the court of the Yuan and enjoyed special favors from the emperor until he rose to the highest rank. He is, therefore, supposed to be loyal to the Yuan, sharing its joys and sorrows. Especially under the circumstances in which the emperor left his palace to take refuge, he should have escorted the emperor and stayed with him even if he could have put himself in danger. Nevertheless, abandoning the emperor and forgetting all the favors that he received from him, he fled to the Tongnyŏng Administration. Furthermore, he secretly plotted treason against his motherland out of a personal grudge. “Last year, the government [of Koryŏ] sent troops to arrest him but failed to capture him because he managed to escape. Besides, he fled to the

87. Kim Paegan, the assistant chancellor, who was in charge of Liaoyang and Shenyang.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

Tongnyŏng Administration, instead of the royal palace where the emperor stayed, and even worse, conspired with Assistant Chancellor Kim Paegan and others in order to invade his fatherland after mobilizing troops and horses at places such as Songfuli, Fatuhe, and Ashangjie. The crimes he committed, therefore, cannot be forgiven, and the man should be brought to justice. This is the reason this righteous army was raised. However, Saiyintiermuer, Kim Paegan, and others chose to resist to the end, getting the local residents to join through incentives or intimidation. As a result, our vanguard captured Kim Paegan as well as the enemy leaders, big and small, including Mongol overseers and regional commanders-in-chief (daduzongguan) such as Halabodou and Dezuobuhuagao. Our troops have already captured or executed them all, except for Saiyintiermuer, who has escaped and is now on the run. All the forts and garrisons that the suspect tries to contact should arrest him immediately and report to us as fast as they can. Anyone who tries to harbor the suspect and fails to report him will face severe punishments similar to those meted out previously in the Tongnyŏng Administration.” Then they posted additional public notices in places such as Jinzhou and Fuzhou. “Our country was concurrently founded with the kingdom of Yao, and King Wu of the Zhou dynasty enfeoffed Jizi in Chosŏn with the lands that extended west to the Liao River, and our people have possessed the lands from generation to generation. When Yuan reunified China, the Yuan princess [married to the king of Koryŏ] was enfeoffed with the lands of Liaodong and Shenyang, which resulted in the creation of a new provincial administrative headquarters right here. “At the end of Yuan, the government was thrown into crisis, and the emperor was forced to abandon his palace and take refuge outside. Nevertheless, the leaders and officials of Liaodong and Shenyang pretended to be ignorant of the crisis; furthermore, they disregarded the proprieties with regard to our country. Conspiring with Saiyintiermuer, the notorious traitor of our country, they harassed our own people. So they cannot escape the punishment for their treasonous activities. “Hence, we decided to raise a righteous army to bring these people to justice. Saiyintiermuer and his gang are still defiant, hiding out in the fortress of the Tongnyŏng Administration. Our vanguard will spare none of them, capturing or killing them without mercy, and in the course of this action, the people will die, whether they be innocent or not. What good is your regret after both the jades and stones are burnt up?

31

32

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“The people residing in our territory, which is east of the Liao River, and their leaders, big or small, should hurry to report to us if they want to enjoy position and rank in our government. If they fail to do so, they will face severe punishments similar to those administered before in East Capital (Dongjing).” The following day, T’aejo’s army set up a camp 10 li east of the fortress. In the evening, a red glow covered the camp, and it was so strong that it looked like fire. An official responsible for astrology (ilgwan) said, “Since a strange energy hovers upon our military camp, it will bring great luck if we move it to another place.” Taking the advice, T’aejo ordered the troops to camp out in the field and also build toilets and stables at the same time. Secretly chasing after T’aejo’s army for two days, Nahachu said, “Since they built toilets and stables [in the field], their troops must be well prepared. It is impossible to attack them.” Then he returned [to his camp]. At that time, some Chinese said, “No country can beat Koryŏ when it comes to capturing fortresses without fail.” In the seventh month of the twentieth year (1371) of King Kongmin, the king appointed T’aejo administrative grand councilor of the Chancellery, and Yi Saek88 Chancellery scholar. The king said to some of the ministers close to him, “Yi Saek is a civil official, and Yi Sŏnggye a military official, and I had them appointed to the Chancellery on the same day. What do the officials in the court say about that?” The reason the king asked the question was because he was proud of the appointment he had made. Sometime earlier, when Hwanjo passed away, T’aejo brought Lady Kim, Princess-Ordinary Chŏngan, to his house in the capital and served her with the utmost propriety. Whenever he visited her, he knelt down below the 88. Yi Saek (1328–1396): a renowned scholar-official of late Koryŏ. Better known by his pen name Mogŭn, he studied Neo-Confucianism under Grand Councilor Yi Chehyŏn and became a major proponent of Neo-Confucianism as a new state ideology. Having passed civil service examinations both in Yuan and Koryŏ, he served as a high official in various departments, including as minister of personnel, and of education, advocating reforms in the educational system and civil service examinations as well as abolishing the Personnel Authority (Chŏngbang) established by Ch’oe Ch’unghŏn. However, he was opposed to the military action taken by Yi Sŏnggye, who was opposed to undertaking the military expedition against Ming China from the start and finally brought his army back from Wihwa Island in the mouth of the Yalu. He was also opposed to the private land reform advocated by Yi Sŏnggye and his followers, who took control of the state in a nearly bloodless coup. As a result, Yi Saek was exiled to Changhŭng, a remote sea town in South Chŏlla Province and died a couple of years after his release. He was given a posthumous title, Munjŏng.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

stone steps. Since King Kongmin had great respect for T’aejo, he treated [his stepbrother] Yi Hwa, the son of Lady Kim, with special favors. He made Yi Hwa always attend him in the palace and often held banquets to entertain his mother, with food as well as music provided by the training school for entertaining girls (kyobang). Feeling honored to receive such favors from the king, T’aejo lavished the performers with gifts. He also always lived with Yi Hwa and another stepbrother, Wŏn’gye, who was older than him. His brotherly love for them was so great that T’aejo burned the slave documents related to their mother. In the sixth month of the twenty-first year (1372) of King Kongmin, Japanese marauders invaded the Northeast Region. In response, the king appointed T’aejo the magistrate of Hwaryŏng [Yŏnghŭng] and made him military commander to repulse the enemy. Chu Ming, the former military commander of the fortress of Liao, was old by that time; nevertheless, he followed T’aejo on his trip to his new post. He arrived in Hwaryŏng, and one day he joined T’aejo in hunting. The hunting area was steep, rugged, and even slippery due to ice. T’aejo, however, galloped over the steep hill on horseback to kill four or five bears with a single arrow each time. Deeply impressed by what he witnessed, Chu Ming could not help admiring T’aejo. He said, “I have met numerous people in my life, but none of them will be able to outperform you.” Sometime earlier, when T’aejo was hunting on Mt. Chop’o in the Hongwŏn area, a herd of three roe deer suddenly appeared. Racing on horseback, T’aejo dropped the first one. As the remaining two ran away, he shot another arrow, and this time it passed through the bodies of both deer and ended up stuck in the tree. When Yi Wŏn’gyŏng came back after pulling out the arrow, T’aejo asked, “Why were you so slow in retrieving the arrow?” Wŏn’gyŏng replied, “Your arrow was embedded deeply in the tree; it took me a while to pull it out.” Laughing aloud, T’aejo rejoined, “Even if there had been three roe deer, my arrow would have been strong enough to penetrate all of them at once.” Sometime earlier, T’aejo invited many of his close friends to a banquet and started shooting arrows at a target. A hundred paces away stood a pear tree loaded with dozens of pears. The guests asked T’aejo to knock the pears down, so he shot an arrow and all of them fell to the ground. He served the pears to his guests, and they congratulated T’aejo, raising their cups and expressing their admiration for his shooting.

33

34

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

T’aejo was pursuing a deer together with Yi Turan when he suddenly came upon a fallen tree that blocked his passage. The deer darted under the tree, and Turan wheeled his horse around. T’aejo, however, jumped over the tree while his horse ran under the tree, and in a split second he landed on the back of his horse to pursue the deer. Then he managed to shoot the deer, and Turan was deeply impressed. He said, “You are absolutely a genius, having no match among men.” King Kongmin had his high officials display their archery skills in his presence. T’aejo was among them, and his shots never missed the target, prompting the king to remark admiringly, “There is only one person shining bright above everyone else in today’s archery contest, and that is Yi [T’aejo’s surname].” Hwang Sang, vice grand councilor, once served in the Yuan court and gained a reputation for his archery skill. So it happened that Emperor Shun of Yuan personally inspected his bow and was unable to draw its string. T’aejo had a gathering with his colleagues at a place called Tŏkdam and took part in an archery contest. Although the target was set up 150 paces away, T’aejo never failed to hit the mark. As it was already noon when Hwang Sang arrived, many high officials urged T’aejo to compete with Hwang Sang alone to find out who was the better archer. So the two shot hundreds of arrows. Hwang Sang hit the target fifty times in a row, and after that, his shots began to be less accurate. T’aejo’s, however, never missed the target. When the king heard of it, he said, “Yi [T’aejo] is indeed an extraordinary man.” Another incident also occurred sometime earlier. The king ordered that ten silver mirrors be set up at the distance of 80 paces and ordered his high officials to shoot arrows at them. He promised to give the mirrors to the one who hit them [all?]. T’aejo hit each of the ten targets ten times, and the king praised him. T’aejo always conducted himself with humility and disliked lording it over the people. So, when he had to compete, he displayed his skills while carefully observing the performance of his opponents and made sure that his skill in archery was just slightly better than that of the others. Even if the people were eager to see his skill and pressured him to perform, he would win the competition only narrowly. In the ninth month of the first year (1374) of Sin U (the eighth year of the reign of Hongwu), Japanese pirate ships were gathered in large numbers

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

near Tŏkchŏk89 and Chayŏn Islands.90 [King] U91 mobilized an army from various provinces and ordered T’aejo and Ch’oe Yŏng, director of the State Finance Commission (p’an Samsa sa), to command this army and establish a defense against the enemy attack, demonstrating the power of our armed forces at the East and West Rivers.92 In the tenth month [of the first year of King U], T’aejo caught a tiger on a hunt and presented it to King U. The king bestowed robes upon him, with the following admonition: “To capture terrible beasts involves great risk. I want you to be more cautious in the future.” Much earlier, when Hwanjo passed away, Yi Ch’ŏn’gye [Yaozhu] secretly tried to distance himself from T’aejo because he believed he was a rightful heir [of his Yi clan]. Then it happened that someone complained that one of T’aejo’s slaves had brought suit against a commoner (with higher status). Taking this opportunity, Ch’ŏn’gye and his sister, who was the wife of Kangu, conspired with the slave who had taken legal action, seeking to cause trouble for T’aejo, without success. However, T’aejo did not take the matter to heart and acted as if nothing had happened. In the summer of the Pyŏngjin year it happened that someone stole the wife of a man who worked for Ch’ŏn’gye. Infuriated, Ch’ŏn’gye killed the man and was eventually imprisoned. Ch’ŏn’gye was now unable to escape punishment, especially because a high official in command wanted him to be put to death because Ch’ŏn’gye had insulted him some years earlier. T’aejo tried his best to save Ch’ŏn’gye’s life, with no success. He was very saddened by the tragedy and took care of Ch’ŏn’gye’s surviving children. He raised them until they became adults and married. He also took care of his sister, the wife of Kangu, because her family was very poor. So he provided her with many slaves to improve her way of life. After the new dynasty was founded, the sons of Ch’ŏn’gye were all appointed to high-level government posts. 89. Located in Namyang, Kyŏnggi Province. 90. Located in Inch’ŏn Strategic Prefecture. 91. King U (1374–1388) is the 32nd king of Koryŏ. Although suspected of being born to a slave woman and the monk Sin Ton, King U succeeded King Kongmin at the age of eleven with the backing of high official Yi Inim, who later wielded predominant power. His controversial birth and misguided pro-Yuan policy provided the pretext to justify the regime change in favor of the new Chosŏn dynasty. 92. The East River (Tonggang) is located 15 li east of Imjin District, and the West River (Sŏgang; modern Map’o area) to the west of Hanyang (Seoul).

35

36

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Ch’ŏn’gye was none other than Yaozhu [the grandson of Tojo, the founder of T’aejo’s royal family]. In the third month of the third year (1377) of King U, Japanese marauders invaded the Kanghwa Prefecture, throwing the capital into turmoil. The king ordered eleven marshals, including T’aejo and Hwang Sang, Lord of Ŭich’ang, to go down to the West River and demonstrate the majesty of our military power. In the fifth month [of the third year of King U], U Innyŏl, the military commander of Kyŏngsang Province sent an urgent dispatch: “Our scouts report that many Japanese ships are moving to our shore, covering the sea stretching from Tsushima. They are so numerous that their masts can almost touch one another. Please send us a general who can help us fight.” Since Japanese marauders at that time could show up anywhere in the country, the king ordered T’aejo to go out and repulse them. Though T’aejo and his troops marched at full speed, it took time for them to get to the besieged area, and the people who waited for them were in terror. Under the circumstances, the urgent reports dispatched by Inyŏl kept coming in. T’aejo redoubled his speed day and night and finally reached the base of Mt. Chiri, where the enemy forces were massed. T’aejo faced the enemy from a distance of about two hundred paces. One of the enemy soldiers tried to insult him, baring his buttocks and slapping it. Since it was a sign that the enemy was not afraid [of our forces], T’aejo quickly shot an arrow that killed the man, shocking the enemy and badly shaking their morale. He immediately attacked the Japanese invaders and crushed them. The enemy scrambled up the steep mountain and got stuck on a cliff. Unable to retreat any further, the enemy confronted T’aejo’s troops squarely, holding out their swords and spears, which looked like the spines on the back of hedgehogs. So our government troops could not climb any further. T’aejo ordered his officers to advance, leading the soldiers, but they returned and reported, “The rocks are too tall and steep for our horses to climb up.” T’aejo reproached them and this time ordered his eldest son [later King Chŏngjong] to lead the assault on the Japanese, providing him with brave soldiers. His son also called off his advance and returned to report basically what the other officers had already said. T’aejo said, “Let me find out personally if that is true.” A moment later, he also said to his troops, “If my horse climbs up first, make sure that you follow after me right away.” Whipping the horse, he galloped up the rise to

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

survey the terrain. As he beat his horse with the back of his sword, the metal shone brightly since the sun was high in the sky. Surprised by the flash, the horse jumped over the rocks, and the troops immediately followed his lead, pushing and pulling themselves up. Their daring assaults caused most of the enemy soldiers to fall to their deaths off the cliff. Since T’aejo had already won over the hearts of the people, and since his officers and soldiers, being well trained, always won the battles, the local districts waited for him like the rain during the drought and admired him like a rainbow in the sky. In the eighth month [of the third year of King U], Japanese marauders invaded various towns in Sŏhae Province [Hwanghae Province], such as Sinju,93 Munhwa, Anak and Pongju.94 Our military commanders, who included Yang Paegik, vice grand councilor; Na Se, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng; Pak Poro, assistant director of the Chancellery; Sim Tŏkbu,95 provincial military commissioner; and others were all defeated and requested additional military commanders who could assist their war effort to repulse the enemy. In response, King U dispatched T’aejo, along with the Assistant Grand Council­ ­ors of the Chancellery (munha p’yŏngni) Im Kyŏnmi and Pyŏn Annyŏl,96 and Deputy Directors of the Security Council Yu Mansu and Hong Ching. How­ ­ever, Anyŏl and Kyŏnmi ran away after losing their engagements at Haeju. Before he departed for the scene of the battle, T’aejo wanted to find out his fortune by shooting a helmet from a distance of a few hundred paces. He shot arrows three times, and they all hit the target. He said, “I think I can tell now what is going to happen today.” The battles with the enemy took place at a pavilion east of Haeju, and when the fighting became intense, T’aejo suddenly ran into a little swamp. 93. An old name of Sinch’ŏn, Hwanghae province. 94. Pongsan, Hwanghae Province. 95. Sim Tŏkbu (1328–1401): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as commissioner of the Three Finance Commission and left chancellor. As the supreme commander of the Northeast Region, he made contributions, along with T’aejo, towards repulsing the Japanese invaders. When the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, he was appointed a member of the dynasty-founding merit subjects and enfeoffed with the title of Lord of Ch’ŏngsŏng. 96. Pyŏn Annyŏl (?–1390): a military official of late Koryŏ. He was born in Shenyang, China, and entered Koryŏ, following King Kongmin. He settled down in Wŏnju, which became his new clan seat. He made contributions towards repulsing Red Turban bandits and Japanese marauders and rose to the rank of grand councilor and commissioner of the State Finance Commission. Involved in the conspiracy to remove T’aejo and restore King U, he was exiled and executed.

37

38

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

His horse successfully jumped over it, but the soldiers who followed him could not. T’aejo escaped the crisis by shooting big arrows with feathers (taeujŏn) at the pursuing enemy. He shot arrows seventeen times and killed the same number of enemy soldiers. The tide of battle having turned to his advantage, T’aejo finally crushed the enemy decisively. In this battle, T’aejo started with twenty big arrows with feathers, and when the battle was over, he found that three of them were still left. To his aides he said, “Shooting the enemy today, I only aimed at their left eyes.” When his aides went out to examine the dead soldiers, they found his word to be true. In the meantime, the remaining enemy troops took refuge in a rugged area and built a wall of brushwood to reinforce their perimeter. Dismounting from his horse, T’aejo sat on a chair and ordered a banquet with music to be held for his soldiers. A monk named Sinjo offered wine and meat to T’aejo. [A little later], T’aejo ordered his soldiers to set fire to the wall of brushwood constructed by the enemy, and the place was soon filled with smoke and fire. The enemy, now in trouble, tried to fight back with all their strength. An arrow from the enemy hit a wine bottle in front of T’aejo, but T’aejo did not move at all, sitting relaxed in his chair. T’aejo ordered his officers, including Kim Sahun, No Hyŏnsu, and Yi Manjung, to attack the enemy, and they killed virtually all of them. From that time, whenever the Japanese raided and captured our people, they would always ask, “Where is your commander Yi now?” They would not dare approach T’aejo’s army and invaded only after they confirmed that T’aejo was nowhere near them. One day U Innyŏl visited T’aejo at his private home and sat with him in the western hall face-to-face. The visitor and host saw three mice running away along the eaves of the roof, so T’aejo called his young servant and told him to bring a bow and three small kodori arrows. While they were waiting for the bow and arrows, one of the mice came back and passed across the eaves again. T’aejo said, “I will just shoot it without hurting it.” When he finally shot an arrow at the mouse, it fell down to the ground but ran away without being hurt. He then did the same with the remaining two mice. In the fourth month of the fourth year (1378) of King U, numerous Japanese enemy ships were gathered at Ch’angnyang97 and sailed to

97. A place in Kanghwa island.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

Sŭngch’ŏn Prefecture (Kanghwa),98 and the Japanese openly declared that they would capture our capital [Kaesŏng] in no time. Their threat threw the whole country into turmoil and threw the people into a panic. The government deployed the guard units in front of the royal palace and waited for the enemy to show up, unnerving the people in the capital. The government ordered villager militia units to keep watch on the enemy from the top of the fortress and the regular units to go out to the East and West Rivers to establish battle camps. Ch’oe Yŏng, director of the State Finance Commission, was dispatched to command various divisions, establishing his headquarters in Haep’ung County,99 and Assistant Chancellor Yang Paegyŏn was made his deputy. Ascertaining this information, the enemy thought that they had a good chance of attacking our capital if they could only crush Yŏng’s army. So they passed by many of our military camps without engaging, heading directly toward Haep’ung, where Yŏng’s main army was stationed. Ch’oe Yŏng said, “The survival of our nation now depends on this one battle.” Then he immediately advanced towards the enemy with the deputy commander, Paegyŏn. Yŏng, however, was defeated and pursued by the enemy. At that moment, T’aejo came to his rescue with his fast cavalry and, joining Paegyŏn’s army, crushed the enemy. Yŏng, who had run away, saw the enemy crumbling and at once turned around, leading his forces to attack the enemy on one flank. As a result, the enemy was almost annihilated, and those who survived fled at night. In the eighth month [of the fourth year of King U], a tiger came down into the capital and harmed many people as well as animals. T’aejo shot and killed it. In the eighth month of the sixth year (1380) of King U, the Japanese massed some five hundred ships at Chinp’o [Kunsan] and invaded our three southern provinces.100 They slaughtered and burned the districts along the seacoast, killing or capturing countless numbers of our people and devastating their villages and towns. Corpses were strewn everywhere, including in fields and on mountains, and the grain they spilled on the ground while transporting it to their ships at the harbor was piled as high as a foot. The 98. Sŭngch’ŏn is an old name of Kanghwa Island in Kyŏnggi Province. 99. P’ungdŏk in Kyŏnggi Province. It is very close to Kaesŏng. 100. They refer to Ch’ungch’ŏng, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces.

39

40

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

enemy also ruthlessly cut down young children, causing their corpses to form mountains, and all the areas the invaders had passed through were awash in blood. They even slaughtered two- or three-year-old girls [as human sacrifices]. They first shaved the hair of the victims, slit open their stomachs, and removed the entrails. Then they filled their stomachs with rice and wine and presented the bodies as a sacrifice to Heaven. This campaign left the coastal towns of the three southern provinces desolate and empty. The scale of the devastation was the greatest of any Japanese invasion. King U appointed T’aejo supreme mobile inspector (to sunch’alsa) of the three provinces Yanggwang, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang—with orders to subdue the Japanese enemy. Then he made Assistant Chancellor Pyŏn Annyŏl supreme commander (to ch’ech’alsa)101 and T’aejo’s deputy commander. The king also appointed officials of various departments as military commanders and ordered them to assist T’aejo as his aides. They were: Wang Pongmyŏng and U Innyŏl, assistant chancellors; To Kilbu, deputy commissioner (usa); Pak Imjong, administrative grand councilor of the Chancellery; Hong In’gye, assistant consultative discussant; Im Sŏngmi, deputy commissioner of the Security Council; and Yi W’ŏn’gye, Lord of Ch’ŏksan. When the marching army arrived in Changdan, a white rainbow hung across the sun. A fortuneteller said, “This is a good sign for us, indicating our victory.” The Japanese invaders went into Sangju102 and feasted for six days, and burned government warehouses. Then they passed by Kyŏngsanbu (Sŏngju)103 and encamped at Sagŭnnae Post Station. Nine military commanders of our army, including Pae Kŭngnyŏm, the supreme commander of three provinces (samdo wonsu), were defeated, and Pak Sugyŏng and Pae Ŏn were among those killed in battle. A total of five hundred soldiers died. The power of the enemy forces grew each day, enabling them to capture Hamyang Fortress and head for Namwon. Then they burned the district of Unbong and established their camp at Inwŏl Post Station, boasting that they would feed their horses at Kŭmsŏng Fortress near Kwangju and advance north. The people across the country were gripped with fear after hearing what the Japanese said. 101. Supreme commander of the Office of the Commander (To ch’ech’alsabu, or To ch’ebu). See Palais, p. 1186. 102. A city in North Kyŏngsang Province. 103. Modern Sŏngju in North Kyŏngsang Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

Surveying the corpse-strewn landscape, T’aejo was so saddened he could hardly eat or sleep. Arriving in Namwon with his aides, Anyeol and others, he was only 120 li away from the enemy. Our military commanders, including Pae Kŭngnyŏm, were glad to see T’aejo arrive, and all went out to meet him on the road. T’aejo planned to fight the following day after resting the horses. His aides, however, tried to persuade him to take a little more time. They said, “Since the enemy is now occupying a rugged, easily defensible position, it would be better for us to wait until they come out.” T’aejo replied indignantly, “When I raised my army, I was worried that I might have difficulty finding my enemy. Having now found where they are, how can I just sit here doing nothing?” Then he immediately reorganized various units for the impending battle. The following morning he led his troops to the east after renewing his pledge to fight. As he crossed Unbong, the distance from the enemy was no more than a few dozen li. Arriving northwest of Mt. Hwangsan,104 he climbed a peak called Chŏngsan and surveyed the terrain. Discovering a shortcut over rough terrain that branched off to the east from the main road, T’aejo said, “I am sure that the enemy will certainly take that road and attack us from behind. We must hurry.” After speaking, he immediately took the lead. Other commanders marched on upon the flat road. However, finding the power of the enemy forces too strong to deal with, they withdrew without engaging in battle. The sun had already set. By this time, T’aejo was deep in enemy-held territory, and as he expected, the seasoned enemy forces launched an ambush on T’aejo. T’aejo quickly shot down the enemy, using twenty big arrows with feathers and fifty smaller willow-leaf arrows called yuyŏpchŏn. None of them missed their mark, each striking an enemy soldier in the face. They all dropped dead with the sound of the trembling bowstring. T’aejo encountered the enemy at very close quarters three times and fought with all his strength until he saw them fall. The battleground was also so wet and muddy that the soldiers from both sides were mired on the ground. However, the enemy soldiers were the ones unable to escape; none of our soldiers were hurt. As the situation unfolded, the enemy troops tried to take advantage of the rugged mountain terrain to defend themselves. So T’aejo deployed his 104. Located 16 li east of Unbong District.

41

42

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

troops at various strategic points and ordered his officers, including Yi Taejung, U Sinch’ung, Yi Tŭkhwan, Yi Ch’ŏn’gi, Wŏn Yŏngsu, O Il, Sŏ Ŏn, Chin Chunggi, Sŏ Kŭmgwang, Chu Wŏnŭi, Yun Sangjun, and An Sŭngjun, to search out enemy soldiers. T’aejo, meanwhile, launched a direct assault. The enemy invaders fought back with all their strength, and our soldiers could not advance any further, so they returned to camp. T’aejo shouted to his troops, “Hold the reins tight so that your horses will not slip and fall.” A little later, he ordered a soldier to blow the conch shell to muster the troops. When they were ready for battle, he had his soldiers crawl up the cliff like ants until they reached the enemy camp. An enemy general suddenly jumped out to attack T’aejo from behind, and T’aejo’s life was in danger. His aide Yi Turan galloped his horse toward T’aejo, shouting aloud, “Sir, watch out. Look around, please!” Seeing that T’aejo was still unaware of the danger, Yi then shot and killed the attacker with his arrow. T’aejo’s horse fell in the enemy attack, so he jumped on a new one, but it was also shot, and he mounted yet another one. He was shot in his left leg by an arrow, but he immediately pulled it out and continued to fight, urging his troops on. His soldiers were completely unaware that their commander T’aejo had been wounded by an arrow. The enemy surrounded T’aejo thick and fast. T’aejo and a couple of cavalry troops broke through the enemy line, but his adversaries attacked him in the front, blocking his way. T’aejo shot eight of them dead, and no one else dared come forward to confront him. Pointing to heaven, T’aejo made a pledge, while saying to those around him, “I want anyone who is afraid to die to withdraw now because I intend to die here while fighting the enemy.” Deeply moved by his words, his generals and soldiers redoubled their courage and fought to the death. The enemy soldiers just stood and watched without moving, as if they were planted in the ground like trees. At that moment, an enemy general appeared who looked only fifteen or sixteen years old. He was very handsome and matchlessly courageous. He brandished his spear fiercely, riding a white horse, and no one dared to challenge him. Our soldiers tripped over one another to get out of his way, calling the enemy general Agibaldo.105 Regretting that he had to kill such a brilliant and courageous warrior, T’aejo ordered Turan to capture him alive. Turan said, “If you want to take 105. The combination of the Korean word for child and the Korean version of a Mongol word for brave warrior and military leader or young general.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

him alive, he will certainly harm the lives of our soldiers.” Since Agibaldo wore armor and a helmet that securely covered his neck and face, he had hardly any spot that was vulnerable to arrows. T’aejo said to Turan, “I will first take his helmet off by shooting the piece mounted on top. Then you shoot at his face immediately.” Speaking thus, T’aejo galloped his horse and accurately shot the piece on the helmet. His shot broke the helmet strap, and the helmet tilted to the side. The enemy leader quickly tried to straighten his helmet, but T’aejo immediately shot another arrow at the piece on top of his helmet and made it fall to the ground. Taking this opportunity, Turan was able to shoot and kill him. Their champion dead, the invaders were quite demoralized. T’aejo took the lead in crushing the enemy forces, who fell and were badly shaken. Their veteran comrades who had fought in the vanguard were all killed. The enemy soldiers began to wail, and they sounded like ten thousand oxen bellowing together. They ran up the mountain, abandoning their horses. Our army chased after them up the mountain, beating drums and shouting and yelling. The sound of their cheers and excitement shook the earth, and the enemies were utterly vanquished. The mountain streams ran red with enemy blood for a week. Unable to drink the water immediately, our soldiers put it into containers and let it settle for hours before finally quenching their thirst. Victorious, our army took over sixteen hundred horses, and the number of the enemy weapons was too great to count. At first, the enemy forces outnumbered us ten to one, but in the end only seventy or so survived and fled into Mt. Chiri. T’aejo said, “Almost all the brave enemy fighters were killed. There is no country under heaven that annihilates its enemies completely.” Speaking thus, T’aejo no longer pursued the remaining Japanese [who had fled into the mountains]. Then he laughed and said to the generals around him, “When you attack your enemies, you should act like that.” His generals were all impressed and admired him. Returning to his military camp, he let the military band play music noisily and the soldiers enjoy themselves with a mask dance. Our soldiers cheered and presented decapitated enemy heads, which made a mountainous pile. Some generals pleaded for their lives, bowing their heads to the ground until they bled because they were afraid of being punished for evading the fighting at the initial stage of the battle. T’aejo replied, “Your crime and punishment are up to the government.”

43

44

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

At that time, a man who had been held captive in the enemy camp returned and said, “Observing that the military camp established by T’aejo was in good order, Agibaldo said to his men, ‘The army that we are faced with this time is not like the ones we used to deal with. The generals of our opponent look much more confident. You have to be extra careful in today’s battle.’ ” At first, Agibaldo was known to be reluctant to leave his island to lead the military expedition to our land; however, he finally made up his mind as his loyal officers and ardent followers continued to plead with him every time they saw him, kneeling before him and blocking his way. As the military campaign ended, T’aejo’s officers wanted to replace all the existing tent poles with bamboo poles. T’aejo said, “It may be much easier to transport the bamboo poles since they are lighter than ordinary wooden poles. However, bamboo is a product cultivated by the people and therefore does not belong to us. It will be sufficient for us if we can return home without losing what we brought with us.” Wherever he went, T’aejo never allowed his troops to touch anything belonging to the people. Chu Ming was always choked with emotion and shed tears of gratitude whenever he looked at the arrow wounds on his body, because T’aejo saved his life at the battle of Wuluo Fortress despite his being a prisoner. So he served T’aejo without leaving his side to the end of his life. In this battle, he rendered distinguished service, running ahead of T’aejo’s horses, and people at that time praised him. When T’aejo returned triumphantly with his army, Ch’oe Yŏng, director of the State Finance Commission, waited for him along with all the government officials in front of Ch’ŏnsu Monastery in the eastern suburb of the capital, preparing entertainment and colorful decorations. Upon seeing from a distance the officials waiting, T’aejo quickly dismounted from his horse and walked quickly to them. He bowed twice to Yŏng, and the latter responded in the same way. Yŏng stepped forward and said tearfully, holding T’aejo’s hands, “Who except you can accomplish such a great thing?” T’aejo thanked him, bowing his head more deeply. He said, “I only followed your instructions and was lucky to win. I don’t deserve such praise. The enemy is now suppressed. If they come back again, however, I will continue to take responsibility.” Yŏng said, “My dear general, you saved the country once more by winning this single battle. The state can rely on nobody but you.” T’aejo declined to accept the praise. [King] U bestowed 50 taels of gold upon T’aejo, but the latter declined it, saying, “It is my duty as a general to kill the enemy. How do I dare accept it?”

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

Yi Saek, Lord of Hansan, composed a complimentary poem to praise T’aejo. Since you cut down the enemy forces as if they were rotten trees, All the joy running through the country is due to you. Your loyalty reaches the sky, sweeping away the thick mist And your majesty is so great that the wind on the sea is hushed. At the splendid banquet held at Chumuyan,106 your martial prowess is sung, And the portraits of merit subjects are hung in the great hall of Lingliange.107 Lying in bed due to being sick, I couldn’t join the people welcoming the hero. The best I can do is to make this poem to praise your great ­achievements. Kim Kuyong, former left director of the State Finance Commission, responded to the poem as follows: Striking down the brunt of the enemy’s attack like lightning, Everyone felt your strength and leadership. The august mist spread to push away the poisonous vapors And the frosty wind helped to add power to your authority. The island barbarians turned pale when they saw your majestic army And neighboring countries held their breath and trembled. Everyone in the court stands in line to praise you, and that’s because You have rendered service to the country, which will last forever. Kwŏn Kŭn, libationer (cheju) of the National Academy, also joined these poets. The hearts and virtues of the three thousand108 are all alike, But the military discipline you brought is solely your achievement. 106. One of the halls that enshrined the portraits of meritorious subjects, which was established by Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty. 107. A famous hall in which Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty ordered to have the portraits of 24 dynasty-founding merit subjects established. The merit subjects or meritorious ministers are a generic designation of outstanding civil officials and military officials who rendered a great service to the establishment of the new dynasty or restoration of the country. 108. They may refer to the three thousand officials of the Zhou dynasty during the reign of King Wu.

45

46

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Your loyalty beats the sun in its brightness, And your bravery that cut down the enemy raises the wind. The red bow in your hand shines with glory, And the arrows with white feathers look fiercely intimidating. Once you returned triumphantly, the state regained its peace. When you mounted your horse, we knew this would happen. At the end of Koryŏ, the government lacked enlisted soldiers and let some military commanders recruit their own troops locally and command them under a system called p’aegi.109 Generals Ch’oe Yŏng, Pyŏn Annyŏl, Chi Yongsu, U Innyŏl, and others often mistreated their officers and men when they were not satisfied with their performance. They not only cursed them but also whipped them, and sometimes even tortured them to death. Such mistreatment caused deep resentment among the soldiers under their ­command. T’aejo’s character was strict and reserved. When he sat down, he always closed his eyes so that he appeared authoritative and intimidating. However, when he met with the people, he looked kind and benevolent, mixing with them easily. For that reason, people were eager to follow him, though they feared him. T’aejo was the only commanding general who treated his soldiers with respect and dignity. So the officers and soldiers led by other generals wanted to serve under his command. In the seventh month of the eighth year (1382) of King U, the king appointed T’aejo the commander-in-chief of the Northeast Region. At that time, a Jurchen named Hubadu seized some residents of the Northeast Region and took them away to his land. Since T’aejo’s family had governed the Northeast for generations, enjoying the support of the people, the government sent him to comfort and soothe the people who had suffered from the incursions. Earl of Hansan [Yi Saek] saw him off by composing a poem. Since Songhŏn110 outshines his colleagues by his daring spirit, He alone is entrusted with the great wall of ten thousand li. How busy he has been repulsing the enemies! When he returns, we will enjoy spring-like days of peace together.

109. It also means a list of soldiers in private armies. 110. T’aejo’s pen name.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

Since the survival of the state is now at stake, May you spearhead attacks like a god of war! Since we have served two kings together, nurturing our friendship, Let me see you off by composing these few words. In the eight month of the ninth year (1383) of Sin U, Hubadu invaded Tanju (Tanch’ŏn)111 once again. Jintongbuhua,112 vice myriarch [of Tanju], was in collusion with the enemy and pretended to have been captured by them, taking all his properties with him. Yuk Yŏ, senior myriarch [of Tanju]; Hwang his Hŭisŏk, senior myriarch of Ch’ŏngju; and others fought against the invaders, but they were all defeated. At that time, Yi Turan was in mourning for his mother and stayed in Ch’ŏngju. T’aejo summoned Turan through a messenger. In his message to Turan, T’aejo said, “When state affairs are urgent, you cannot stay home wear­ ­ing mourning clothes. I want you to change your clothes and follow me.” Turan took off his mourning clothes and spoke to Heaven, bowing and cry­ ­ing. Then he immediately followed T’aejo, carrying his bows and arrows. T’aejo’s army ran into Hubadu’s in the plain of Kilchu, and Turan spearheaded the attack against Hubadu. Turan, however, was utterly routed and retreated. When T’aejo arrived on the scene a little later, Hubadu was waiting for him astride a black mare. He wore three layers of heavy armor and a mantle of red fur. Underrating T’aejo and his ability, he first galloped toward T’aejo, brandishing his sword and leaving his troops behind. T’aejo also galloped up on horseback toward his opponent. They struck at each other, but their swords only flashed in the air as they missed their targets. Before Hubadu remounted, T’aejo, who was on horseback, wheeled around and shot him in the back with an arrow. But the armor worn by Hubadu was too thick to penetrate. So T’aejo shot his horse with an arrow, and as his horse fell down, Hubadu also fell to the ground. The moment T’aejo tried to shoot another arrow at him, a number of Hubadu’s soldiers rushed to his rescue and carried him away. By that time, T’aejo’s soldiers had also arrived. Leading his troops, T’aejo struck down the fleeing enemy, and Hubadu barely escaped. After the military campaign was over, T’aejo submitted to the king a proposal to secure our borders:

111. Located in South Hamgyŏng Province. 112. A Jurchen chief who invaded Chosŏn.

47

48

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Our Northern Border [Hamgil Province] is strategically important for our security because it adjoins the borders of Jurchens and Tartars as well as Liaodong and Shenyang. Therefore, even in time of peace, we must store military provisions and train soldiers to prepare for unexpected conflicts with our neighbors in the north. Right now, the residents of the Northern Border are increasingly on good terms with those people on the other side, through trade or sometimes marriage. That is why the relatives on the other side lure our people or help the enemy when they invade our country. “Without lips the teeth become cold. Our problems are not limited to the Northeast Region. The outcome of battle largely depends on the advantages or disadvantages provided by the terrain held. The enemy strongholds are extremely close to the borders of our Northwest Region. Nevertheless, we pay little attention to our borders. “As a result, the enemy on the other side entices our people who live in places such as Oŭpch’o, Kapchu [Kapsan],113 and Haeyang [Kilchu],114 by offering them opportunities for making profits, or as has happened recently, they invade Tanju, the old place of Tongno’ol115 of and seize both men and animals and take them away. This indicates that they have known the vulnerabilities of our territory for a long time. “Since I was appointed to take charge of this region, I cannot just sit idly by and watch what is happening. So I made plans to reinforce our security and I submit them to Your Majesty. “1. One way of repulsing the invaders is to train soldiers and use them right at the moment of crisis. Nevertheless, we let our soldiers, mostly untrained, remain scattered all over and mobilize them only when the enemy invades. Thus, by the time they are called up to fight the invading forces, the enemy has plundered our territory and left. Even if our soldiers try to pursue the bandits, their chances of capturing them are extremely uncertain because they lack military training. They do not know how to follow the orders conveyed through banners and drums, not to mention how to fight effectively 113. An old name of Kapsan in South Hamgyŏng Province. 114. An old name of Kilchu in North Hamgyŏng Province. 115. Tanju (later Tanch’ŏn) was called Tongno’ol during the Koryŏ period. It used to be a Jurchen territory for many years until Yun Kwan drove out Jurchens in 1107 and named the place as Pokchu. Later, Mongols invaded Koryŏ and during its occupancy gave the place a new Mongol name, Tongno’ol In late Koryŏ, King Kongmin captured the old territory, and his successor King U changed the place name to Tanju. Then, the name was again changed to Tanch’ŏn during the reign of T’aejong, the third king of Chosŏn.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

with weapons. From now on, we should train our soldiers more systematically, enforcing strict discipline on them and establishing a clear chain of command, so that we may not lose the opportunities to stop and punish our enemies. “1. The lives of soldiers depend on military provisions. Even a million men under arms can only function as such for one day if they have one day’s provision; likewise, they can only function as such for one month when they have a month’s provision. “Though the military provisions for this province [Hamgil]116 used to be provided by the grain produced by Kyŏngsang, Kangnŭng, and Kyoju Provinces,117 they are now supplied with the grain taxes collected in the local province. However, the grain supply produced locally, by the government and individual farmers, has run out because of recent floods and droughts. Furthermore, monks and others without regular work manage to obtain certain documents from men of power under the pretext of having Buddhist services and make requests to the local authorities that they be allowed to lend grain to the common people at high interest. So they lend a bushel of grain and a yard of cloth and collect more than ten times the amount they lend. This usurious practice is called pandong. The people who fail to pay their debts are harassed and persecuted until they are starved and ragged. “Much worse, a group of people dispatched from various government agencies and local army units force the people to entertain them with food and wine, plunging the already-poor people into further desperation. Consequently, eight or nine out of ten people abandon their homes and wander around the country. So we have no sources for military provision procurement. Therefore, I urge Your Majesty to prohibit all these abuses and make the lives of people more comfortable. “Furthermore, the districts in this province are located between mountains and the sea. Hence their fields are narrow, and the quality of their soil is barren. Their land taxes, however, are not based on the size of the arable land but on the size of household. Hwaryŏng is the largest and most fertile farming district in our province, but most of its lands are exempted from 116. Hamgil is an old name of Hamgyŏng Province. 117. Kyoju Province refers to Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. At the end of Koryŏ, Yanggwang Ch’ungch’ŏng chudo was divided, and one of them, with the addition of P’yŏngch’ang County, was named Kyoju Province. (Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam, vol. II, 420.

49

50

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

taxes because they were granted to officials as stipends. Since the taxes levied on the people are not even, and the military provisions insufficient, the farmland of all the districts in this province, including Hwaryŏng, should be taxed based on field size, and that will bring benefits to both individuals and the local government. “1. It is hard to ensure security during a crisis if soldiers and the people have no organization to belong to. For that reason, the former king [Kongmin] issued a royal decree in the Pyŏngsin year (1356). In the decree, he instructed that three families (ka) constitute one household (ho), and that the individual households be organized into groups of one hundred (paekho), which will form a military unit in case of emergency. The head of a hundred households, in turn, is to be assigned to the provincial military division, and he puts three families on duty during peacetime, mobilizes all the households under his command during a crisis, and musters all adult males in addition to the hundred households during emergencies. That was really a good law. In recent years, however, it was abolished, and no units remain for the people to belong to. As a result, mobilizing troops in a crisis is difficult because the people are scattered, or they run away to hide in the mountains. Recent droughts and floods have put the people under even more stress. Our enemies take this opportunity to entice our people with money and grain or secretly cross the border and take the people away after plundering their villages. Poor people on the borders are inconsistent in their actions. Besides, their loyalties are mixed, and they pursue their own interests by watching both sides. Thus, it is hard to hold them under control. “So I beseech Your Majesty to reinstate the royal decree of the Pyŏngsin year and reestablish the military recruiting system based on households so that people can have a sense of belonging. “1. The welfare of the people depends on the magistrate, and courage or cowardice on the commanding general. Those who now serve as local magistrates gained their positions through their alliance with the powerful families. Hence, they are negligent in their duty. The soldiers are ill provided with what they need, and the people experience hardship in maintaining their livelihoods. The number of households decreases, and the state warehouses are empty. Therefore, I sincerely request that Your Majesty send men of integrity and diligence as local magistrates and let them govern the people with benevolence. Let them take care of widows, widowers, and others left alone. I also request that Your Majesty select outstanding generals and let them train troops to defend the country.”

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

*   *   * In the ninth month [of the ninth year of King U], T’aejo returned from the Northeast Region. When he passed by Anbyŏn on his way [to Kaegyŏng], he found a couple of pigeons perching on a mulberry tree in the middle of a field. T’aejo shot one arrow and felled both birds at the same time. Two men, named Han Ch’ung and Kim Inch’an, saw T’aejo shoot the birds while weeding their fields near the road. Expressing their admiration for T’aejo’s superb shooting, they said, “What excellent archery skill you have, young bachelor (toryŏng)!” Laughing, T’aejo replied, “I have already passed the age of a young bachelor.” Then he told them to take the pigeons with them. As the two men offered a meal of millet, T’aejo took it, appreciating their sincerity. They followed T’aejo without delay and eventually became dynasty-founding merit subjects. T’aejo was so magnanimous and virtuous by nature that he was keen to save the world and valued human life. Because he was endowed with these qualities, the more contributions he made to the country, the more humble he became. He also had always had great respect for Confucian teachings and was thus dissatisfied with his family legacy, which had produced no Confucian scholars. For this reason, he made His Majesty [King T’aejong] exert himself more to studying the Confucian classics. His Majesty duly obeyed T’aejo’s instruction and never neglected his studies, prompting T’aejo once to say, “You will be the only one [among my sons] who will fulfill my wish.” Whenever Consort Kang heard His Majesty reading a book, she lamented, “Why was he not born from me?” That year, His Majesty passed the civil service examination. T’aejo was moved to tears at the news and went into the royal palace to bow down to the ground. When His Majesty was later appointed deputy director (chehak) of the Office of Special Counselors, T’aejo was so pleased that he let the royal messenger read the letter of appointment several times. Whenever T’aejo held a banquet with invited guests, he let His Majesty compose a poem in response to the poems of his guests and said, “You certainly contributed to the success of our meeting.” Though His Majesty could achieve his royal greatness by virtue of his talent, it was actually T’aejo’s relentless recommendation of learning that enabled His Majesty to reach his goal. In the eleventh year (1384) of Sin U, T’aejo joined the king on a hunt. When the artisans presented newly made arrows, T’aejo ordered some round papers to be placed randomly on a stack of straw, and he hit them all with

51

52

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

arrows. Then he said to his attendants, “I will shoot at the spine when I hunt animals today.” He usually shot animals on the right shoulder blade, but that day, he chose to shoot them in the spine. He killed as many as forty deer, and his arrows hit the spine each time. Those who watched his marvelous archery skill could not help admiring him. Ordinary hunters shot the right side when the animal was on the left, and the left side when the animal was on the right. T’aejo, however, did not shoot right away and ran after the animal to shoot at the spot that he wanted to. He galloped his horse to catch up with the animal and chased it so that it could run on his left side. Then he shot an arrow at the animal and accurately hit its shoulder blade on the right. So the people in his time said, “When General Yi hunts animals, he always hits them on the right side.” It happened earlier that U in his royal palace ordered military officials to test out their archery skills. The target was a bowl-sized yellow paper with a silver mark only a couple of inches in diameter placed in the middle. It was set up fifty paces away, and T’aejo hit the silver mark every time he shot. King U enjoyed the demonstration so much that he watched until nightfall, having torches lit. He bestowed three good horses on T’aejo as a reward. Yi Turan said to T’aejo, “It is not advisable to show such marvelous talent to the people too much.” When T’aejo went on a hunt in Changdan,118 he sped up a hill on a red horse with white spots on its nose and on each foot. As he gazed from atop a cliff, he spotted a couple of roe deer running down toward his left. He immediately chased them, and the faces of his companions paled. T’aejo shot the first deer and then stopped his horse just a few paces from the cliff’s edge. Everyone was surprised and admired T’aejo’s incredible feat. Laughing, T’aejo said to those around him, “No one but me could stop a horse like that.” The friendship between T’aejo and Ch’oe Yŏng was very strong. As T’aejo’s authority and reputation grew, some people slandered him in the presence of [King] U. Indignant against such accusations, Yŏng said, “Lord Yi is a cornerstone of our state. If the state is in danger, whom can you ask to deal with it?” Every time Ch’oe Yŏng held banquets for his guests, he would say to T’aejo, “I will prepare the noodle dishes, and you take charge of the meat dishes.” T’aejo replied, “No problem.” One day T’aejo went out hunting to

118. A district in Kyŏnggi Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

keep his word to Yŏng, leading the soldiers under his command. He happened to see a roe deer running down a hill, but the hill was so rugged that his soldiers were unable to chase it. So they took a roundabout way and assembled at the foot of the mountain. Then, all of a sudden, they heard the whistling sound of a flying arrow over their heads. As they looked up, they saw T’aejo running down like lightning on horseback. T’aejo and the roe deer were still quite far apart, yet he hit and killed it. T’aejo pulled up his horse and laughingly said, “This one is no bigger than the fist of a child.” Hyŏn Kwimyŏng, who was a subordinate of Yŏng, was among the soldiers and saw what had happened. As he reported the story to Yŏng, the latter was surprised by it and kept praising T’aejo for a good while. This happened earlier when T’aejo went out hunting in the suburbs of Songdo [Kaegyŏng]. Upon seeing a pheasant lying on the ground, he ordered his men to scare it into the air. As the bird took off, he shot it down using a kodori arrow [which was designed to shoot birds]. On that day, Wang Pongmyŏng and a royal family member happened to be T’aejo, watching him from behind. Witnessing his feat, the two men dismounted their horses and congratulated T’aejo, bowing their heads. Pongmyŏng asked for the arrow that T’aejo had used, so T’aejo gave it to him and said, laughing, “There is nothing special about the arrow. It all depends on the one who uses it.” T’aejo used to make wooden balls, which were as big as pears. He had his man throw them up in the air from a distance of 50 or 60 paces and hit them with kodori arrows without ever missing. In the ninth month, the Ming envoys Zhang Pu and Zhou Zhuo arrived at the borders and enquired after the health of T’aejo and Yi Saek. At that time, the reputation of T’aejo and Ch’oe Yŏng was well established, and [the government] was reluctant to have the Chinese officials meet with them. So T’aejo and Yŏng were ordered to stay away from the royal palace, and Yŏng encamped in the suburbs of the capital. At that time, a Japanese fleet of 150 ships invaded places, including Hamju, Hongwŏn, Pukch’ŏng, and Hamnan [Yŏnghŭng],119 and either killed or abducted our people until those places became abandoned. Sim Tŏkbu, assistant chancellor; Hong Ching, administrative commissioner of the Secur­ ­ity Council; An Chu, deputy director of the Security Council; Hwang Hŭisŏk, senior myriarch of Ch’ ŏngju; Chŏng Sŭngga, great military protector (tae 119. These are the districts in South Hamgyŏng Province, all located along the coast of the East Sea. Hamnan indicates Ssangsŏng or Yŏnghŭng.

53

54

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

hogun);120 and others led our army and fought with the Japanese enemy at a place north of Taemullyŏng Mountain Pass121 of Hongwŏn. All of them were defeated and fled. Tŏkbu alone ran into the enemy line but fell off his horse after being hit by a spear. As the enemy tried to attack him once more, a subordinate named Liuhelangha came to his rescue quickly, killing three enemy soldiers. Liuhelangha took a horse from the enemy and gave it to Tŏkbu, and the two barely escaped the invaders after killing those who blocked their way. Thus, our army led by Tŏkbu also suffered an overwhelming defeat, and the enemy’s morale rose sharply. T’aejo volunteered to fight against the Japanese invaders and arrived at the district office in Hamju. In the military camp where the commanders were gathered, there was a pine tree, which stood 70 paces away from them. T’aejo called his officer and said, “I am going to shoot arrows at the certain cones of certain branches of that pine tree. I want you to watch me.” Then he shot willow leaf arrows at the target. When he shot arrows seven times and hit the targets seven times, the soldiers who watched his performance broke into cheers and chants, stomping their feet. The following day, T’aejo moved to T’oadong and made his troops lay in ambush on both sides of a valley. The enemy soldiers, who occupied the high ground in the east and west mountains of T’oadong, were surprised to hear the sound of the conch from a distance. They said, “That must be a signal from Yi’s army.” T’aejo marched slowly into the area, leading a cavalry force of 100, including Yi Turan, senior military protector (sang hogun); Ko Yŏ, executive captain (sanwŏn); Cho Yŏnggyu, director of Office for Palace Ceremony and Sacrifice Supplies (pan Wiwisi sa); as well as the officers An Chonggŏm, Han Nahae, Kim Ch’ŏn, Ch’oe Kyŏng, Yi Hyŏn’gyŏng, Ha Sŏkchu, Yi Yu, Chŏn Se, Han Sau, and Yi Togyŏng. Watching our army pass them by at a slow pace, the enemy forces did not dare attack because they were unable to figure out the intention of their adversary. Instead, the troops on the eastern side moved to join the ones on the west. T’aejo went up the mountain to the east, which the occupying Japanese had just left. Sitting on a chair, he ordered his 120. A military official of rank 3b who belonged to the Five Commands (Owi). During the Koryŏ period, tae hogun was called general-in-chief (tae changgun) and served as one of the vice commanders of Two Armies and Six Commands. After Chosŭn dynasty was established, he served as vice commander of Ten Commands with a changed title, towi ch’ŏmsa. However, during the reign of King T’aejong, the title was changed again into tae hogun and fixed permanently thereafter. (Yŏkchu kyŏngguk taejon, p547) 121. Located 30 li east of Hongwŏn.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

troops to rest their horses, removing their saddles. When he was about to mount his horse shortly thereafter, T’aejo spotted a dry tree stump 100 paces away from him. He shot three arrows at it and hit the mark each time, causing the onlooking enemy soldiers to stare at each other in amazement. T’aejo ordered an interpreter among his soldiers to speak aloud to the Japanese camp: “Our commander-in-chief is now Myriarch Yi. You had better surrender yourselves quickly. Otherwise, it will be too late for regrets.” The enemy commander replied, “We will follow your orders.” However, discussing the matter with his subordinates, the Japanese commander could not make his decision right away. Mounting his horse, T’aejo said, “Since the enemy position has loosened up, it is the right time to attack.” Then he ordered Turan, Ko Yŏ, Yŏnggyu, and others to draw out the enemy. As the vanguard of several hundred enemy soldiers ran after them, T’aejo pretended that he was also pursued by them, staying deliberately at the rear of his troops. When he finally arrived at the site of the ambush he had set up, he and his troops abruptly turned around, and he personally killed over twenty enemy soldiers. Turan, Chonggŏm, and others quickly joined T’aejo in attacking the enemy, and our soldiers who were hiding also jumped out and ambushed them. Leading his troops, T’aejo spearheaded the attacks single-handedly. Breaking through the enemy line on horseback, and running back and forth several times, he caused havoc and destruction in the enemy camp. The enemy soldiers he personally killed were countless. When he shot arrows, they penetrated heavy armor and sometimes passed through both men and horses. As the enemy collapsed and fled in every direction, the morale of our army was overwhelming, their shouts shaking heaven and earth. They made sure that none of the invaders escaped, and consequently enemy corpses filled the plain as well as the streams. A Jurchen army also joined in this fight, and its soldiers, carried away by victory, killed the Japanese enemies ruthlessly. [Watching the atrocities committed by them], T’aejo took compassion on the enemy and gave his orders: “We should have pity on enemy soldiers driven into a corner. Try to capture them, instead of killing them.” The remaining enemy forces fled to Mt. Ch’ŏnbul,122 but they were all captured. [King] U bestowed on T’aejo 50 taels of silver, a roll of fabric that was long enough to make five dresses, and a horse with saddle, as well as an honorable title ten characters long that read “Merit Subject Who Subjugated Distant Regions.” 122. Located 90 li northwest of Hamhŭng.

55

56

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

In the first month of the fourteenth year (1388) of Sin U, Chancellor Yi Inim seized power. And his clique, including Im Kyŏnmi, chief director of the State Finance Commission; Yŏm Hŭngbang, left director of the State Finance Commission; and To Kilbu, assistant chancellor, each took over a key government post. They practiced trafficking in government positions and seized land from the people. As their avarice and tyranny grew worse, both public revenue and private wealth dried up. Outraged by these abuses, T’aejo and Ch’oe Yŏng worked together to persuade [King] U and eventually eliminated the whole gang of evildoers. The people across the country were overjoyed to hear the news, and they danced and sang in the streets. Having executed Kyŏnmi and others, the king appointed T’aejo vice chancellor (su munha sijung). In the second month [of the fourteenth year of King U], T’aejo and Ch’oe Yŏng sat together at the office of the Personnel Authority (Chŏngbang) and tried to drive out the people who became officials on the recommendation of Im Kyŏnmi and Yŏm Hŭngbang. T’aejo, however, said to Ch’oe Yŏng, “Im Kyŏnmi and Yŏm Hŭngbang have been in power for a long time, and therefore many people became officials through their recommendations. What is needed now is only to find out if they are qualified for their jobs, not to accuse them of the way in which they became officials, which is already a thing of the past.” Yŏng would not listen to him. When Ch’oe Yŏng tried to behead Sŏ Sin, the former magistrate of Wŏnju, because he was found to be the brother-in-law of Yi Sŏngnim, who was to be executed, T’aejo sent a man to Yŏng with a message and asked him to stop executing people. T’aejo said, “Since the chief of the gang, including his families and his wicked followers, were already put to death, there should be no more executions from now on; tolerance and generosity should be shown, instead.” Yŏng again refused to listen to him. T’aejo always had great respect for Confucianism. Whenever he took a break after throwing spears in his military camp, he called for Confucian scholars such as Yu Kyŏng and others to discuss classical texts. He particularly enjoyed reading the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning (Daxue yanyi) by Zhen Dexiu,123 so he read it until late at night, developing a dream of changing the world.

123. Zhen Dexiu (1178–1235), also known as Xishan Xiansheng, is a Confucian scholar and philosopher during the Southern Song period.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

At first, the Ming emperor said, “Since the northern, eastern, and western territories above Ch’ŏllyŏng Mountain Pass were originally the domain of the Kaiyuan Route, the Chinese, Jurchens, Tartars, and Koreans who reside in the region should be under the jurisdiction of Liaodong.” Ch’oe Yŏng convened an emergency meeting in which all officials participated and everyone in the meeting said, “We cannot concede those territories to Ming.” [King] U and Yŏng met secretly and decided to invade Liaodong. Yi Chasong, Great Lord of Kongsan, visited Yŏng at his private house and strongly urged him not to go forward with the invasion plan. Yŏng accused Chasong of joining Im Kyŏnmi’s faction and exiled him to Chŏlla Province after having him beaten with a heavy stick. Ch’oe subsequently had Yi killed. U received a report submitted by the chief pacification commissioner of the Northwest Region, which read, “The [Chinese] army in Liaodong has arrived in Kanggye and plans to establish a guard unit (wei) for Ch’ŏllyŏng.” Shedding tears, U said, “This happened because you officials did not take seriously my idea of attacking Liaodong.” The Ming government dispatched Wang Deming, a captain in the Liaodong military forces, to Koryŏ to announce the establishment of a Chinese guard unit at Ch’ŏllyŏng. In the third month, U and Ch’oe Yŏng alone decided on the military expedition against Liaodong; nevertheless, they did not dare to announce it publicly. The king traveled to Haeju under the pretext of going hunting. In fourth month, [King U] stayed in Pongju [Pongsan]. He said to T’aejo, “I intend to attack Liaodong. I trust you will do your best [to make a success of this expedition].” T’aejo replied, “There are four problems in raising an army at the present time. First, it is not advisable for a small country to challenge a large country. Second, it is also not a good idea to mobilize an army during the summer. Third, the Japanese will try to take advantage of the situation during our military campaign as we send our army to a far-off land. Fourth, since it is the rainy season now, the glue put on the bows will be loosened, and the soldiers will be exposed to epidemic disease.” King U thought his words reasonable. After the meeting with the king, T’aejo said to Ch’oe Yŏng, “I want you to say the same things to the king when you see him tomorrow.” Yŏng replied, “Fine.” However, Yŏng visited the king at night and said, “I beg you not to listen to anyone [with a different point of view].” The following day, U said to T’aejo, “Since I have already raised an army, it is impossible to stop this campaign.” T’aejo said, “If Your Majesty really

57

58

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

wants to go ahead and make a success of this expedition, have your royal carriage stay in Sŏgyŏng [modern P’yŏngyang] and wait until the autumn. By that time, the fields will be covered with rice and accordingly military provisions will be fully secured. Then our army will be able to march forward, beating the drum. This is not the right time for us to carry out a military expedition. Even if we capture one of the fortresses in Liaodong, the rainy season will start soon and our army will be trapped in the rain. If it happens that our army has to stay at a place for a long time and military provisions run out, there will be nothing but disaster.” U said, “Didn’t you see what happened to Yi Chasong?” T’aejo replied, “He left an honorable name behind though he had to die. What good are men like me who are still alive but have failed in their duties?” U did not listen to him. Returning to his home, T’aejo shed tears. When his men asked why he looked so sad, he replied, “The catastrophe for the people has now begun.” Staying in P’yŏngyang, U mobilized troops from various provinces and built a floating bridge on the Yalu River. He also recruited monks and made them into soldiers. Then he appointed Ch’oe Yŏng commander-in-chief of eight provinces (p’aldo tot’ongsa), Lord of Ch’angsŏng Cho Minsu commander-inchief of the Left Army (chwagun tot’ongsa), and T’aejo commander-in-chief of the Right Army (ugun tot’ongsa). The number of troops, when the Left and Right Armies were combined, was actually fifty thousand or so, but they inflated the figure and advertised that it was a hundred thousand. When the army was finally ready to depart, U did not awake from sleep until noon because of the drink he had had the previous night. So the commanders were unable to take leave of the king. Sobering up after a little while, the king went out to have a boat ride at a lake called Sŏkp’o124 and returned to the palace in the evening. He called the commanders for a farewell drink. When the armies were about to leave P’yŏngyang, Ch’oe Yŏng said to U, “Our large army is now on the march. If there is a delay of ten days or a month, there is little chance that our expedition will succeed. Therefore, I would like to request that Your Majesty allow me to join the army and make sure that it does not delay.” U replied, “If you go, whom should I discuss the affairs of state with?” As Yŏng continued to request to go, U replied, “Let me go with you, then.” 124. Located 11 li west of P’yŏngyang.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

A man who came from Isŏng125 said, “These days the fortress of Liaodong is almost empty because its troops left to subjugate barbarians that are far distant. Only a commander stays inside, watching the fortress. If your large army arrives there, it can capture the fortress without fighting.” Extremely pleased with the information, Yŏng rewarded the man with many gifts. U prohibited the use of the regal name “Hongwu”126 and ordered our people to wear the clothes of Mongolia again. He always went out to Pubyŏngnu Pavilion on the Taedong River and had Chinese barbarian music played. Personally playing the barbarian pipe and making the entertainers display all their skill, he enjoyed outings so much that he forgot to return to his palace. Yŏng also went to see the king every day, leading his troops, and joined the king in debauchery, playing the pipe, drinking, and womanizing. Even worse, he killed people recklessly. As this happened and grew worse, people began to complain. U sent his royal messenger to various generals and distributed gold and silver wine cups to them. In the fifth month, our army crossed the Yalu River to arrive at Wihwa Island [which is located in the middle of the river], but the number of deserters grew to the point that they practically lined the roads. Nothing could dissuade them from running away, even though U had ordered that desertion was punishable by beheading. The commanders of both the Left and Right Armies submitted a memorial to the king: “Though we crossed the Yalu River by raft, we are still facing with large rapids. The heavy rain has flooded the river, and hundreds of soldiers drowned while crossing. The next rapids that we are to go across are even deeper and more dangerous. Unable to negotiate it, we decided to wait a while and are now simply using up our provisions. Many more great rivers await us before we reach Liaodong, and we expect to have great difficulties in the days ahead. “A few days ago we submitted a detailed report on the difficulties we are going through, but we have not received any instructions from you yet, and we are very much concerned. Fully aware that it is disloyal not to report what needs to be reported, how can we hide what is in our minds even if it costs us our lives? “The best way for a small country to survive is by serving the great (sadae). Since the unification of three kingdoms, our country has served the 125. An earthen fortress in Chasan County of North P’yŏngan Province. It is located 30 li south of the county. 126. The regnal name of Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398), the founder of the Ming dynasty.

59

60

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

suzerain state. King Kongmin served Ming sincerely from the second year of the Hongwu reign. In his memorial to the Ming emperor, he vowed to be his subject for all time, and he was truly sincere in making this pledge. “Honoring the promise by the former king [Kongmin], Your Majesty has also sent tribute to the Ming every year as instructed. As a result, the Ming government bestowed the posthumous title of Hyŏllŭng on King Kongmin and issued a decree authorizing the enthronement of Your Majesty. This was good for our country, and your excellent virtue well deserves such ­fortune. “It was a good idea to dispatch Pak Ŭijung, academician of the Security Council, with a memorial [to the Ming emperor] when you heard that Commander Liu [of the Ming army] was on his way with his troops to establish a guard unit at Ch’ŏllyŏng. However, it is not good for the country and its people to carry out a military expedition against the powerful country [China], and without even waiting for a reply from the emperor. “Furthermore, in the hot and humid weather during a rainy season such as this one, bows are loosened, armor heavy, and soldiers and horses easily exhausted. Under the circumstances, there is no guarantee that we will win even if we keep pushing ourselves to reach the strong fortress of our adversary. It is doubtful that we can capture the fortress even if we launch attacks. Besides, if it happens that military provisions fail to be provided, what can you do? Therefore, we beseech Your Majesty to give a special order to stop your army from engaging in any further military campaign. Then the people will be truly happy and gratified.” U, however, ignored T’aejo’s request and sent a eunuch named Kim Wan to put more pressure on the army to advance quickly. The commanders of the Left and Right Armies detained Kim Wan and at the same time made a request to Ch’oe Yŏng through their messenger that he allow them to withdraw as soon as possible. Nevertheless, Yŏng paid little heed. The soldiers became agitated in the military camp as a rumor spread that T’aejo had left for the Northeast Region at the head of his own army. Not knowing what to do, Cho Minsu [the commander of the Left Army] galloped alone to T’aejo and asked, sobbing, “If you leave, what should we do?” T’aejo replied, “What makes you think I would leave? Stop saying that.” After a few moments, T’aejo spoke to the generals: “If we invade the borders of China and incur the wrath of the Son of Heaven [Chinese emperor], we will immediately bring about catastrophe to our country as well as our people. Based on reason and common sense, I tried to persuade

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

the government to withdraw from this military campaign before it was too late, but the king does not realize the magnitude of what he is doing, and Ch’oe Yŏng, old and senile, pays no attention to my plea. Would you join me in seeing and persuading the king, personally explaining the potential problems with our military action, and finally removing the wicked people surrounding the king and bringing peace to people’s lives?” The generals replied, “The security of our nation and people solely depends on you. How can we dare not follow your orders?” Thereupon the armies led by T’aejo turned around [abandoning further military campaign, and started marching back]. When he arrived at the Yalu River, T’aejo stood on top of the hill, riding a white horse and carrying a red bow with white feather arrows. He watched his troops crossing the river and waited until they had finished crossing. Looking up at their commander, soldiers said to each other, “There has been no man like him, and there will be no man like him hereafter.” At that time, the water did not rise despite several days of rain, but as soon as the troops finished crossing, the river overflowed and the island was submerged. People thought it strange. A children’s song said, “A man with the characters “tree” [木] and “son” [子] in his name will take over the country.” This song was popular not only among children but also among the adults, including civilians and soldiers, regardless of age. Upon hearing the news of our returning army, Transport Commis­­ sioner (chojŏnsa) Ch’oe Yugyŏng rushed to report it to [King] U. That night, the former king [Chŏngjong, the second son of T’aejo], together with his elder brother Pangu and Hwasang, the son of Yi Turan, escaped Sŏngju [Sŏngch’ŏn],127 where U was staying, to join the returning army led by T’aejo. (However, U did not know about that until the noon of the following day.) They ran into the local magistrates on the road, who were traveling to provide the king with royal supplies. They seized the magistrates’ horses and made their escape. When U finally learned that the army was marching back and had arrived in Anju, he returned to the royal palace [in Kaegyŏng] at great speed. When many generals of the returning army requested T’aejo that they be allowed to pursue the king quckly, T’aejo replied, “If you do that, you will inevitably have to fight with them, producing many casualties.” Then he repeatedly warned them, “If any of you dare to harm the royal carriage [the

127. Located in South P’yŏngan Province.

61

62

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

king], I will never forgive you. If you touch any property belonging to people, even a cucumber in their fields, I will punish you according to law.” T’aejo also purposely delayed the march of his army, hunting along the way. On the road that stretched several hundred li from Sŏgyŏng [P’yŏngyang] to the capital, the officials and people (who used to follow King U), as well as the residents of local districts, all came out to greet T’aejo, offering wine and other drink, and their lines were endless. The residents of the Northeast Region and even the Jurchens who had not participated in the military campaign from the beginning also vied with one another to see T’aejo, and their numbers amounted to a thousand or more. King U ran away into his royal garden. With the intent to stop [T’aejo’s army], Ch’oe Yŏng ordered all officials to take up arms and guard the king. At the same time, he blockaded the entrances and roads, gathering vehicles. On the first day of the sixth month, T’aejo established his camp at the foot of Sandaeam outside Sungin Gate. He ordered Yu Mansu and the Left Army to attack Sungin Gate and Sŏnŭi Gate respectively, which were both defended by Ch’oe Yŏng. As T’aejo sent Mansu, he said to his aides, “Since his eyes are large but have no luster, Mansu is a man with no guts. He will be defeated in this battle most certainly and driven away.” T’aejo’s prediction turned out to be true. Mansu indeed was defeated, and he returned. At that time, T’aejo put the horses out in the field to graze. When his aides told him about Mansu’s return, T’aejo did not respond, lying in his tent. When his aides repeated their report several times, T’aejo got up slowly and had his meal. Then he ordered his servant to saddle his horse and prepare his troops for battle. Before he started, he happened to see a small pine tree about a hundred paces away. Having decided to read his fortune for the day by shooting an arrow and at the same time bring his troops together, he finally shot an arrow at the tree. The single arrow that he shot sharply broke the trunk of the pine tree. He said, “What more can I ask for?” His officers and troops congratulated him. Yi Ŏn, military commissioner (chinmu), went forward and knelt down before him. He said, “As long as Your Honor leads us, we will be with you wherever you go.” T’aejo entered through Sungin Gate, having his Left and Right Armies advance separately to launch coordinated attacks on their opponents from both the front and rear. The men and women in the capital all came out to hail T’aejo’s army, offering wine and other drinks. The soldiers cleared the

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

way by removing vehicles piled on the roads. The elderly and the young climbed the hill to watch the army, shouting and jumping for joy. Cho Minsu’s army had a large black banner, and T’aejo’s a large yellow banner. Minsu’s black banner reached Yŏngŭisŏ Bridge, but his army suffered defeat by Ch’oe Yŏng’s army. A little later, however, the yellow banner of T’aejo’s army appeared on top of South Mountain after crossing Sŏnjuk Bridge. An So, a general under Ch’oe Yŏng’s command, initially captured South Mountain with his veteran soldiers. However, he fled the moment he saw T’aejo’s yellow banner. T’aejo’s army finally climbed the hill north of Ambang Monastery and briefly sounded the conch shell. A trumpet was the normal instrument used when armies announced their arrival in those days, but T’aejo always had the conch used for his troops. The capital residents knew by the distinctive sound of the conch that it was T’aejo’s army. T’aejo’s troops quickly and utterly surrounded the royal garden. King U, Consort Yŏng, and Ch’oe Yŏng were in Octagon Hall (P’algakchŏn), and three or four officers including Kwak Ch’ungbo went into the Hall and searched out Yŏng. As U bade farewell, sobbing and holding the hands of Yŏng, the latter bowed down to the king twice and finally came out, following Ch’ungbo. T’aejo said to Yŏng, “It was not my intention to bring about this disturbance. It was inevitable because you not only acted against a great cause but also threw the country and the people into crises and troubles until their complaints and resentment reached Heaven. Farewell, farewell.” They both cried, looking at each other. In the end, T’aejo banished Yŏng to the district of Kobong [Koyang].128 Much earlier, Chancellor Yi Inim said, “Yi [Yi Sŏnggye], director of the State Finance Commission will become the king.” Though Yŏng was angry when he heard those words, he did not dare mention them. Now he lamented, “Inim’s words, indeed, have turned out to be true.” Two commanders-in-chief and thirty-six commanders went to the royal palace and expressed their gratitude by bowing to the king. Yi Saek, Lord of Hansan, called upon T’aejo with retired ministers and grand councilors of the Chancellery and the Security Council. T’aejo spoke with Saek for some time and gave orders for withdrawing his troops from the royal palace. 128. Located in Koyang County, Kyŏnggi Province.

63

64

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Sometime earlier, when T’aejo lived in his private house, a children’s song had been circulating among the village people: Outside the Western Capital there is a fire; Outside Anju Fortress there is smoke and light. Between the two places, General Yi travels back and forth. One wishes he could save the people. Not long after, T’aejo turned around at Wihwa Island and marched back with his army. U Appointed Cho Minsu left chancellor (chwa sijung) and T’aejo right chancellor (u sijung). Yun Sojong, the vice director (pu ryŏng) of the Court of Palace Document Office (Chŏn’gyosi), requested an interview through Chŏng Chi and presented the Biography of Huo Guang (Huo Guang Chuan) to T’aejo. T’aejo let Cho Inok read the book for him and listened. [After the reading], Inok strongly proposed that a new king be chosen from among the members of the royal Wang clan. Wearing armor and taking eighty eunuchs with him, U rushed at night to the houses of T’aejo, Cho Minsu, and Pyŏn Annyŏl, in order to kill them. However, he returned without success because T’aejo and others had stayed in the military camp established outside the royal palace. U abdicated the throne and stayed in Kanghwa. T’aejo wanted to choose the next king from among the members of the royal Wang clan. Cho Minsu, however, wanted to choose Ch’ang, the son of U, because he was related by marriage to Yi Im, U’s father-in-law. T’aejo consulted Yi Saek and finally placed Ch’ang on the throne. At the time [when T’aejo stopped his military expedition and marched back with his army], Consort Sinŭi was at her private estate in Chaebyŏktong, and Consort Kang in her private estate in Ch’ŏlhyŏn, which were both in P’och’ŏn.129 His Majesty [King T’aejong] at that time served as the section chief (chŏngnang) of the Board of Personnel and stayed in Kaegyŏng. Upon hearing that a disturbance had broken out, he ran directly to P’och’ŏn without stopping at home. When he arrived [at the home of his mother and stepmother, namely Queen Sinŭi and Consort Kang], the stewards and servants responsible for household affairs had already run away. His Majesty,

129. Located in Kyŏnggi Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

escorting the two women, left for the Northeast Region. Whenever they mounted or dismounted their horses, he helped them by holding their arms and served the foods that he carried with him under his coat. Princess Kyŏngsin, Princess Kyŏnsŏn, Prince Muan, and Prince Sodo were all very young but joined the entourage. T’aejo lifted them up onto their horses and personally led their horses when they passed over rough roads or through areas of deep water. The roads being rugged and the provisions running out, he sometimes had to ask for food from private homes along the roadside. When he passed through Ch’ŏrwŏn Pass [Ch’ŏrwŏn’gwan],130 His Majesty heard that the authorities were reportedly looking to arrest him. So he had to travel only at night and slept in the fields instead of staying at private homes. Only when he arrived at Han Ch’ung’s house in Ich’ŏn131 was he able to mobilize over a hundred men from nearby villages and organize a unit to prepare for trouble. His Majesty said, “Since Ch’oe Yŏng is a man who is incapable of fully understanding the situation, he will not be able to pursue me. Even if he comes, I will not be afraid.” He stayed there for seven days and returned home after he heard that the situation [in the capital] had ­settled down. Ch’oe Yŏng at first tried to give orders for the arrest of the families of the generals who undertook the military expedition [against Liaodong], but the situation developed so fast that he was indeed unable to carry out his plan. [King] Ch’ang appointed T’aejo the commander-in-chief (tot’ongsa) of the Northeast Region [Sakbang-Kangnŭng Province]132 and bestowed on him the title of merit subject that means “the merit subject who, being loyal, diligent, outstanding and majestic in constancy and solidarity, brought peace and security to the state” (Ch’unghun yangjŏl sŏnwi tongdŏk ansa kongsin). Though T’aejo declined his appointment on the grounds of poor health, the king did not grant his request. Ch’ang issued a royal decree [concerning T’aejo’s service to the country], and its main points were as follows: “Acting Chancellor Yi [Sŏnggye] is talented both in terms of learning and military strategies, and has the qualities befitting a high minister. He joined the ranks of the state councilors when he served in the court and served as the commander-in-chief when he went out [to defend the country]. 130. Located in the northwest of Kangwŏn Province. 131. A district located near Chŏlwŏn in Kangwŏn Province. 132. Another name for the Northeast Region or Hamgyŏng Province.

65

66

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Over the past thirty years since he became a military commander in the Kihae year (1359), he fought numerous battles but never lost. One of the major battles was the invasion of the Red Turban bandits in the Sinch’uk year (1361), in which the king was forced to abandon the capital and flee. Chancellor Yi annihilated the wicked bandits and restored the capital, assisting Grand Councilor Ch’oe Yŏng. When Mongolian Nahachu invaded our northeastern border, our military commanders were all defeated and ran away. As the invading army suddenly arrived at the borders of Koju,133 seizing a chance for victory, Chancellor Yi marched his troops day and night and finally repulsed the enemy. In the Kyemyo year (1363), Prince Tŏkhŭng,134 the nothos, raised an army and invaded our western borders. Chancellor Yi overcame the force of the rebel army, leading light cavalry troops. In the Chŏngsa year (1377), Japanese marauders invaded Haeju. Many of our military commanders were defeated and ran away, but Chancellor Yi alone held fast, leading the attacks against the invaders until they were crushed. In the Kyŏngsin year (1380), Japanese marauders landed at Chinp’o135 and rampantly burned and plundered our districts and villages, killing men and women, frequenting the borders of Yanggwang, Kyŏngsang, and Chŏlla Provinces. Consequently, the three provinces were thrown into turmoil, and military commanders including Pae Ŏn and Pak Sugyŏng were defeated and killed in battle. In these circumstances, Chancellor Yi devised a winning plan. Leading his troops and risking his life, he completely crushed the enemy forces at Inwŏl Post Station136 after a hard battle. As a result, the lives of the people were saved. When he marched his army, he gave orders to observe the rules of discipline strictly so that none of his troops would damage in the least the properties of the people. Hence, the people were afraid of his authority and admired his virtue. Can the famous generals of olden days be better than he? Although his achievements and services to the 133. An old name of Kowŏn in South Hamgyŏng province. 134. The third son of King Ch’ungsŏn, Koryŏ’s 26th king. In 1351 when King Kongmin ascended the throne, he went over to the Yuan dynasty and became designated as the king of Koryŏ, flattering Emperor Shun, the 11th and last emperor of the Yuan dynasty (1260–1368) and with the support from Empress Ki, the second wife of the emperor who was originally Korean. In 1363, he invaded Koryŏ leading the 10,000 Mongol army stationed in Liaoyang. Though he capured Ŭiju, North P’yŏngan province, in the first month of the year, the army he led was soon defeated by the Koryŏ army led by Ch’oe Yŏng and Yi Sŏnggye and returned to Yuan. Thereafter, he never attempted to invade Koryŏ. 135. Located south of modern Sŏch’ŏn county, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 136. Located in Namwŏn, North Chŏlla Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

country are great, he is only anxious to withdraw without boasting of them, and for that reason, the people of the state depend on him even more.” In the eighth month, King Ch’ang made T’aejo commander of all the armies, both in the capital and local provinces In the tenth month, T’aejo was appointed, concurrently, the director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals (Sangsŏsa). After the death of King Kongmin, the Ming emperor demanded that Koryŏ send high officials in active service to pay tribute to him, but all the officials were afraid, and none dared to go on the mission. Chancellor Yi Saek requested that King Ch’ang visit Ming China and personally see the emperor, and he also volunteered to take a trip to the Ming court in order to secure the title of regent (kamguk) for the king. King Ch’ang dispatched Saek and Yi Sungin, senior secretary (ch’ŏmsŏ) of the Security Council, to the Ming court to pay tribute to the emperor during the celebration of the lunar new year and also had them submit a request that the emperor grant him the title of regent. T’aejo praised Saek, saying, “This old man is a man of high spirit.” Saek was worried that there might be some disturbance during his absence, because T’aejo’s authority and reputation were growing fast and the attention of the whole country was on him. So he asked T’aejo to allow him to take one of his sons along on his diplomatic mission. Therefore, T’aejo told His Majesty [his fifth son Pangwŏn and later T’aejong] to join Saek as his secretary (sŏjanggwan). On his way to the Ming court, Saek met a Chinese official at an inn. The latter said, “Though Ch’oe Yŏng had a hundred thousand troops under his command, Yi [Sŏnggye] disposed of him as easily as catching a fly.137 How can your people repay him for the boundless benefits he has brought to them?” When Saek arrived in the capital of Ming, the emperor, having heard of his reputation, asked him quietly, “Since you served as Hanlin academician 137. The statement refers to the military contest between Ch’oe Yŏng and Yi Sŏnggye. The former, with the support of King U, made the latter carry out a military campaign against Ming China in 1388. Though he was reluctant and remonstrated about the potential problems of the military action, Yi eventually had to obey the order. When Yi arrived at Wihwa island near the Chinese border, however, he encountered various problems, including bad weather. Thus, he finally decided to march back home with his troops, which was an act of rebellion. Consequently, he confronted the Ch’oe’s army at the capital, which was called upon to suppress the rebel forces and defend the king and the capital. However, Yi defeated Ch’oe’s army decisively and removed from power Ch’oe as well as King U permanently.

67

68

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

in the Yuan court, I suppose you can speak Chinese.” Saek quickly replied in Chinese, “I request that [our king] be allowed to pay tribute to you.” Unable to understand Saek’s words, the emperor asked, “What did you say?” Then an official from the Ministry of Rites explained on Saek’s behalf. Since Saek visited the Chinese court after a long absence, his Chinese naturally would be awkward and inarticulate. The emperor said laughingly, “Your Chinese sounds like that of Nahachu.”138 On his way back, he boarded a ship in Bohai. His ship left with two other passenger vessels, but the other two went down in a violent storm when they arrived at Banyang Mountain. The ship that His Majesty [Yi Pangwŏn, secretary at that time] boarded was also in a great danger, and the situation seemed almost hopeless. The people became quite afraid, but His Majesty looked calm and composed. The ship finally arrived safely at its destination. After he returned to the court, Saek said to the people, “The current emperor [of Ming] lacks backbone. I expected that he would ask certain questions, but he never did; instead, he asked only the things I least expected.” At that time, the people laughed at him: “How can a worldly scholar understand the thoughts of a great sage?” It was the first year (1389) of the reign of King Kongyang (the 22nd year of the Hongwu reign). At that time, the land administration was in serious disarray. As men in power seized land from the people and occupied both the mountains and the fields, the sufferings of the people grew worse day after day, and everyone complained about it. T’aejo discussed the matter with Inspector-General Cho Chun and abolished private landholdings so that people’s livelihoods could be improved. Consequently, the whole country was overjoyed, and the hearts of the people turned to him further. Previously, Wang Hwan, a royal family member with the title Prince Yŏnghŭng, returned home after being held hostage in Japan for several decades. Many were suspicious of him. Yi Sungin questioned the prince’s true identity, was charged with making false accusations, and ran away. The 138. He is originally a Mongolian official who governed Liaoyang, a northeastern province in China. He at first fought with the Ming army with a vision to revive the declining Yuan dynasty. In 1387, however, he surrendered to the Ming forces with his army of about 200,000, suffering in the midst of a famine and persuaded by Ming diplomacy.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

jailor arrested his son, Ch’ayak, and interrogated him, whipping him on the back until he bled. T’aejo happened to be passing through a place called Ihyŏn at that time. The jailor hid Ch’ayak in a house near the road, but the latter pleaded in a loud voice, “Please help me, Your Honor.” Surprised by the appeal for help, T’aejo summoned the jailor. He said, “How can you force a son to tell you the whereabouts of his father?” Then he immediately ordered his release and made one of his servants take Ch’ayak home. Later, T’aejo, joined by Chancellor Yi Im, spoke to the king: “Since Your Majesty ascended the throne very recently, it is advisable for you to show benevolence in your rule. We beg you to forgive Ch’ayak and others. Besides, Sungin has taught the kings through his royal lectures for a long time. Please let him continue to serve in the court.” As a result, Sungin was able to finally come out from hiding. [King] Ch’ang ordered T’aejo to carry a sword and wear his shoes when he entered the royal palace to see him. The king also allowed T’aejo to forego the ritual announcement of his name before having an audience with him. [Along with these special privileges], the king bestowed on T’aejo 50 taels of silver, 10 p’il of silk, and a horse, and issued a royal decree on his outstanding services. In the eleventh month, Kim Chŏ secretly had an audience with [King] U in Hwangnyŏbu [modern Yŏju in Kyŏnggi Province], and U said, sobbing, “Since you gave favors to Kwak Ch’ungbo before, I want you to plan with him the removal of Yi [Sŏnggye]. Then my wish will be fulfilled.” Chŏ visited Ch’ungbo and revealed his plan, and Ch’ungbo pretended to go along. However, immediately afterward he ran to T’aejo and informed him of Chŏ’s plot. T’aejo decided to arrest Chŏ and Chŏng Tŭkhu, [another conspirator who joined Chŏ], who secretly stole into T’aejo’s residential compound at night. When Tŭkhu was captured by T’aejo’s guards, he committed suicide by stabbing himself in the neck. T’aejo had Chŏ locked up in the Capital Constabulary Prison (Sungunok), and the ensuing investigation revealed that Pyŏn Annyŏl and others were also involved in the conspiracy. The Censorate requested that Annyŏl be put to death. Though T’aejo tried to have him spared, [King] Ch’ang would not listen. Our envoy Yun Sŭngsun and his entourage returned from their mission to the Ming court. They had gone to China to request that [King Ch’ang] be allowed to personally pay tribute to the Ming emperor. Receiving the orders

69

70

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

from the emperor, however, the Ministry of Rites (Libu) sent a letter of reprimand to the Privy Council of Koryŏ for choosing someone outside the royal family as the royal successor. In the letter, the emperor made it clear that our king would not be allowed to personally visit him to pay tribute. T’aejo called a meeting at Hŭngguk Monastery to discuss this matter with the high officials from the Chancellery and various other departments. Those who attended included Sim Tŏkbu, director of the State Finance Commission; Chi Yonggi and Chŏng Mongju, assistant chancellors; Sŏl Changsu, Chancellery scholar; Sŏng Sŏngnin, assistant grand councilor; Cho Chun, administrative grand councilor of the Chancellery; Pak Wi, magistrate of Chadŏk Special District (Chadŏkbu); and Chŏng Tojŏn, deputy director of the Security Council. The meeting was held under tight security provided by T’aejo, and the participants agreed as follows: “Since U and Ch’ang are not originally part of the royal Wang clan, they are not qualified to become king. Besides, since we now have orders from the emperor to rectify this problem, we must depose the false kings and establish a true king. Prince Chŏngch’ang [Wang] Yo is a seventh-generation descendant of King Sinjong, and he is the closest to the royal line that we can find. Therefore, he should be made the new king.” The officials went to see Consort Dowager Chŏng, the widow of King Kongmin and, in accordance with her instruction, exiled U and Ch’ang to Kangnŭng and Kanghwa, respectively. They deprived Ch’ang of his title and demoted him to commoner status. Then they invited Yo and enthroned him the new king. He is King Kongyang. T’aejo was chasing a deer on Mt. Hwajang in Imgang District139 when he suddenly came upon a cliff that was so high and rugged that continuing further was almost impossible. As the deer began to escape down the cliff, T’aejo whipped his horse in pursuit. He threaded his way through trees and rocks until he finally reached the bottom. His horse stumbled and was unable to get up, but T’aejo killed the deer immediately. When T’aejo was in Hamju, he saw two giant bulls fighting. People tried to stop the fight, without success. One man took off his jacket and threw it at the fighting bulls, and another lit a fire and hurled it at them. When these tactics failed, they were at a loss, until T’aejo held the bulls apart with his two hands, preventing them from fighting any further.

139. Located 40 li in the north of Changdan, Kyŏnggi Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

T’aejo was crossing Hakp’o Bridge in Anbyŏn,140 on his way to see Ch’ongsŏkchŏng Pavilion in T’ongch’ŏn,141 when his horse misstepped and stumbled from the bridge. T’aejo alertly leapt from the horse onto the bridge, grabbed its ear and mane with his hands, and held it suspended in the air. He ordered his attendant to draw his [T’aejo’s] sword and cut the rope attached to the saddle. Then he released the horse, and it fell into the water. Having been submerged in the water momentarily, the horse came up to the surface and swam out. Kongyang appointed T’aejo chancellor, but T’aejo declined his appointment. So the king appointed T’aejo as acting chancellor, and Sim Tŏkbu as chancellor. In the twelfth month, Yun Hoejong, vice director of the Court of Royal Entertainment (Sajae puryŏng), submitted a memorial requesting that former kings U and Ch’ang be put to death. Kongyang asked each of his ministers his opinion, but they all kept silent. T’aejo alone spoke: “This is not a matter that can be decided easily. We already reported to the [Chinese] court that we had exiled them to Kangnŭng, and we cannot suddenly change that detail now. Besides, why should you worry when we are with you, even if U attempts to raise a disturbance? Kongyang replied, “U killed many innocent people, so it is proper that he should be punished for what he did.” He finally gave the order to have him executed. Kongyang issued a royal decree, and here is the summary: “As King Kongmin unfortunately passed away without an heir, Yi Inim placed Sin U on the throne to seize power, falsely changing his surname from Sin to Wang. When U, being mad and reckless, tried to invade Liaoyang [Liaodong], Chancellor Yi [Sŏnggye] and others persuaded their troops to turn around and march back, arguing that the military expedition [against China] would bring disaster to the country. Later, people wanted to choose the new king from among the members of the royal Wang clan. Cho Minsu, however, prevailed on the people to choose Ch’ang, the son of U, as the new king because he was a blood relative of Yi Inim. As a result, sixteen years have passed since the sacrifices to the royal Wang clan were last offered. “Chancellor Yi, in his loyalty and patriotism, joined Sim Tŏkbu, Chŏng Mongju, and others to devise a plan to save the country. Upholding the 140. A strategic prefecture located in South Hamgyŏng Province. 141. Located in Kangwŏn Province.

71

72

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

orders above from the Son of Heaven [the Ming emperor], consulting with various groups in leadership positions such as royal family members, retired elder statesmen, and civil and military officials, and, finally, following the orders of Consort Dowager Chŏng of King Kongmin, Chancellor Yi deposed U and Ch’ang, the father and son, and had me succeed the royal Wang clan because I am the surviving royal family member who is the closest to the royal line. “Although I, lacking in virtue and talent, hardly deserve this grave responsibility, Chancellor Yi set the names straight142 and restored the royal family. His great services to the country, therefore, are no less than those of [Koryŏ] dynasty-founding merit subjects of T’aejo [Wang Kŏn]. His services are indeed too outstanding to be forgotten until the mountains fall and the rivers run dry. “So I will have his portrait hung on the wall, confer titles of nobility on his parents and wife, grant ŭm privilege143 on his children, and make clemency reach down as far as the tenth generation of his descendants.” After reporting to the temple where the portrait of the founder king was enshrined, Kongyang conferred the title of merit subject on nine officials. The title he bestowed on T’aejo was “Merit Subject Who Suppressed Distur­ bances, Demonstrating Utmost Loyalty, Rendered a Great Service to Restor­ ­ing Peace in the State, and Carried Out His Duties Based on Principle,” and the peerage title given to him simultaneously was Lord Hwaryŏng. The fief (sigŭp) he received was one thousand households, and the number of households from which he could collect taxes (siksilbong) was three hundred households. In addition, he received 200 kyŏl144 of land and twenty slaves. The certificate of his title and stipend was made in accordance with the example of dynasty-founding merit subject Pae Hyŏn’gyŏng. Hence, T’aejo 142. Setting the name straight or the rectification of names is a Confucian idea introduced in the Analects: “If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success.” (Book XIII, chapter 3, translated by James Legge, 263-64). King U and his son Ch’ang pretended to have derived from the royal Wang family, but U was suspected of being the son of Monk Sin Ton. That indicates that the family name of U and Ch’ang was actually Sin, not Wang. Therefore, to remove them from the throne and restore the Wang family was to set the names straight. 143. It is the protection privilege that allowed higher-ranking officials to have their children, grandchildren, or other relatives appointed to posts in the central government. 144. A constant measure of crop yield produced by an area that varied from 2.2 acre to 9.0 acres depending on the fertility of the land. (Palais, 1169)

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

was called “Restoration Merit Subject” (Chunghŭng kongsin); his parents and wife were granted titles of nobility; his descendants were exempted from having to take the civil service examinations; his direct descendants were promoted by four ranks; and his nephews and nieces were promoted by three ranks if they had no sons. Furthermore, the titles of his descendants on the official record were supposed to be written as “the so-and-so generation descendants of the restoration merit subject,” and the privilege of pardon [when convicted of a crime] will be granted to all of his descendants permanently. In addition, he will be granted seven functionaries (kusa) and ten private soldiers (chinbaep’aryŏng),145 with the privilege of direct appointment (ipsa). In the first month of the second year (1390) of King Kongyang, the king established the Royal Lectures (kyŏngyŏn) and appointed T’aejo its director. He also made T’aejo commander of the armies of eight provinces, and T’aejo established a command headquarters, ordered his troops to guard it in shifts, and permitted the Quartermaster Bureau (Kunjagam) to pay their salaries. In the third month, T’aejo resigns due to illness. In the fourth month, King Kongyang sent a eunuch to inquire after T’aejo’s health and require him to return to the court. He issued a royal decree commending the merit subject’s [T’aejo’s] great services to the country, bestowed a horse raised in the royal stable, along with 50 taels of white gold, 5 p’il each of fine silk and regular myŏngju silk, and a golden belt, and held a banquet in the palace in his honor. The royal decree the king issued was as follows: “Ah! The state needs an outstanding talent in order to deal with the national crisis, and the one who renders an everlasting service to the state is entitled to receive unlimited rewards. Our grand preceptor [taesa; Pae Hyŏn’gyŏng] assisted T’aejo [Wang Kŏn] to achieve the unification of the three kingdoms, and it has been almost five hundred years since he was enthroned in the Royal Shrine (t’aesil) of T’aejo. “Previously, Yi Inim secretly persuaded Hyŏllŭng [King Kongmin] to build the Royal Ancestral Shrine and became chancellor. However, he abused his power so that the king had to bear the burden of complaints, which eventually led to his death in the Kabin year (1374), and the king passed away without an heir to succeed him. Inim schemed his way into 145. It refers to private soldiers provided by the government to royalties, merit subjects, and high officials.

73

74

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

governing the state, as Lü Buwei146 did with the state of Qin. Then he put U, the son of the wicked monk Sin Ton,147 on the throne, deceiving the people that he was born to King Kongmin and one of his concubines. “The consort dowager of King Kongmin was opposed to the enthronement of Sin U, and state councilor Yi Susan requested that the new king be chosen from among the royal Wang clan. Nevertheless, Inim refused to listen to them. The people across the country were disheartened, and the thick yellow fog all around concealed the sun completely. When U presided over the funeral [of King Kongmin], a rainbow circled the sun; when he carried out the winter sacrifice (chŭngje) to the royal ancestors, the owls cried in the shrine, lightning flashed, and the earth was shaken; when he performed the sacrifice upon the anniversary of the death of Ŭirŭng [King Ch’ungsuk], strong winds began to blow with heavy rains as well as thunder, lightning, and hail; and when he ascended the throne, the wind toppled the pine trees and blew away the pine cones in the Royal Ancestral Shrine and the royal tomb, destroying the eagle-shaped gargoyle in the shrine hall. Further, the gate of the Royal Ancestral Temple was knocked down, and fire broke out at the palace storehouse. These happened because the ghosts of the royal family tried to prevent U from succeeding them, by demonstrating their dignity. “When they killed Panya, U’s mother, in order to keep the secret of U’s origin, the new gate of Sap’yŏng collapsed by itself. They buried the dry bones of someone else, pretending that they belong to U’s mother, and when they did, the tent in which the coffin of U’s mother was laid caught fire twice a day. All these strange things were the signs shown by Heaven, indicating that U was indisputably the son of Panya. 146. Lü Buwei (291?–235): a merchant during the Warring States period who schemed his way into governing the state of Qin. 147. Sin Ton (?–1371): a monk of late Koryŏ during the reign of King Kongmin. Though he was born of a female servant of a Buddhist temple, he enjoyed the favor of King Kongmin and rose to the position of national preceptor and prime minister plenipotentiary. With the firm support of King Kongmin who wanted to suppress powerful families, he implemented various reforms, including land and slaves. He established a special agency called the Directorate for Reclassification of Farmland and Farming Population and returned the lands and slaves seized by the powerful families to their original owners. Further, he attempted to move the national capital to P’yŏngyang. On the other hand, his adversaries criticized him for being arrogant, corrupt and lascivious, often indiscriminately seizing women from others. What was apparent, however, was that in the process of carrying out these reforms, he incurred the resentment and hostility of powerful families, and it led to his downfall and death.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

“Despite the fact that U was on the throne for two years, no one knew who his mother was. State Councilor Kim Songmyŏng148 once said, “Though it is possible that people do not know who their fathers are, I have never heard of those who do not know who their mothers are.” He almost got himself killed due to his remark but was able to save his life because the Queen Dowager, the mother of King Kongmin, intervened on his behalf. Kim Yu149 was killed upon returning to the court after he said to the [Chinese] emperor that U was not a member of the royal Wang clan. Afterwards, people became so afraid that they kept silent [about U’s origin]. “U’s wife is the niece of Yi Inim, and she gave birth to Ch’ang. So the chances for the restoration of the royal Wang clan became even more remote. Inim took charge of state affairs for fifteen years, committing all sorts of tyranny and abuse of power and causing damage to the people. Furthermore, U was so reckless that he attempted to invade Liaodong China, mobiliz­ ­ing numerous people throughout the country, and he almost caused them all to die. “You [T’aejo] and your deputy Cho Minsu persuaded the generals under your command to stop the military expedition while crossing the Yalu River and had them march back, arguing that the future of the country depended on their withdrawal from the war. Your brave decision saved innocent people from massive destruction, and the state could continue to exist only because of you. “You are the bravest among all the army commanders and hold a higher rank than anyone else at court, but you are not conceited about your honor 148. An official of late Koryŏ who served as inspector-general and assistant grand councilor. He was known to be very straightforward in his remarks about the right and wrong, often alienating people around him. His remark about Panya, King U’s mother, was condemned by Yi Inim, one who was in power and deeply resentful of his daring criticism and audacity. Consequently, he was sentenced to death; however, due to the intervention of Queen Dowger, King Kongmin’s mother, his sentence was commuted from death to exile. He died in exile. 149. Kim Yu was a high official during the reign of King Kongmin. He rendered a service in repulsing the Red Turban bandits and suppressing a disturbance at Hŭngwang Monastery. After the death of King Kongmin, he visited Ming China as an envoy. According to the History of Koryŏ, the Ming emperor, being suspicious that King Kongmin was assassinated by treachery, demanded that he reveal the identity of the traitor who killed the king. Unable to endure torture, Kim Yu told that Yi Inim was behind the death of the king. Nevertheless, he did not reveal the identity of King U. After he returned to Koryŏ, Yi Inim learned about what happened in China through a secret report from a member of the diplomatic mission, who overheard the conversation between the Chinese emperor and Kim Yu. As a result, Yi Inim took revenge on him by sending him into exile and thus leading to his eventual death.

75

76

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and position. You liked to read the Outline and Digest of the General Mirror (Tongjian gangmu)150 and the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning151 and admired heroes such as Marquis of Liu [Zhang Liang],152 Marquis Jiang [Zhou Bo],153 Marquis Wu [Zhuge Liang],154 and Duke Liang [Di Renjie].155 Impressed by the loyalty shown by these great men, you discussed the restoration of the royal Wang clan when you had your armies march back. “Minsu agreed with you at first, but when he returned home, he joined Yi Inim and Yi Im, to whom he was related by kinship, and placed Ch’ang on the throne against your will. Consequently, a great opportunity for restoring the royal Wang clan was lost. “However, you continued to serve in the government with great patience and admonished Minsu on the basis of what is right. You also established discipline and principled behavior among the officials by carefully selecting inspectors and censors. As a result, the Office of the Inspector-General and the Office of the Censor-General indicted Minsu for his avarice and abuse of power and finally drove him out. “You anxiously awaited the morning whenever ideas came to you during the night and always thirsted to find men of talent and wisdom. You hated evil as if it were your enemy. If you found anything good for the people, you tried to bring it about no matter how small it might be. If you found anything bad for the people, you tried to eliminate it however trivial it might be. You tried to create an environment in which everyone could express one’s opinion freely so that the troubles of the people could be conveyed to the officials above. You recommended men of talent to the government so that there could be equal opportunities for everyone. “The evil practice of buying or selling public office or releasing convicts after taking bribes disappeared in a day. Moreover, no wise man in the 150. Zhu Xi’s book that condensed the Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government (Zizhi tongjian), the Chinese history written by Sima Guang, to interpret history from the viewpoint of Confucianism. 151. A book by Zhen Daxiu (1178–1235), which explains about the practical adaptation of the Great Learning to real life, self-cultivation, and the regulation of one’s family. 152. A famous strategist and statesman who contributed to the founding of the Han dynasty. 153. One of the loyal ministers trusted by Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty. 154. A chancellor of the state of Shu, also referred to by his courtesy name, Kongming, who was reputed as the greatest military strategist of all time. He was so famous that his name became synonymous with strategy and intelligence. 155. An official of the Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian’s Zhou dynasty. Trusted by Empress Wu, he succeeded in moderating her ruthless rule from becoming tyrannous and achieved greater efficiency and honesty for her government.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

countryside was overlooked by the government, and at court no one rose to a high rank by accident. The government dispatched officials to the local districts to inspect the irregularities and abuse of power so that provincial military commanders would not dare to leave invaders alone, and magistrates would not dare to harass the people. You also rejected the wicked counsel of schemers, while rescuing people in trouble and strengthening their livelihoods by reforming private landholding in the various provinces. You made new laws that provided the officials in the court with the lands near the capital, giving them preferential treatment and at the same time strengthening security for the king. This indicates that your policy of awards and punishments was not motivated by your personal interest. Everyone knows well that your heart is sincere, and your ways are straight. So there is nothing in what you have done that is not related to the restoration of the royal family. “In the winter of the Kisa year (1389), Yun Sŭngsun, our envoy to Ming China who Ch’ang had sent, came back with a letter from the Ministry of Rites with imperial instructions. The letter read as follows: “The royal line of Koryŏ was severed, and the throne was taken by a man who is not a member of the royal Wang clan, which is obviously not a good custom handed down from old in the country. If wise and talented officials serve in your government and carry out their duties properly, why should I be concerned even if you do not pay tribute to me for many generations, and why should I worry even if you choose to pay tribute every year? It is not necessary henceforth that the young child [the king] visit our capital.” “The reason the emperor sent a letter such as this one was that King Kongmin paid tribute to him earlier than anyone else when he was still engaged in a power struggle in China and thereby rendered great service to the foundation of the Ming dynasty by letting the fact be known to the world that the Ming had the Mandate of Heaven to become a new leader in China. Therefore, the sacred Son of Heaven felt sorry that the sacrifices to the royal Wang clan of Koryŏ were disrupted and wished that there could be subjects, loyal to the royal family, who would rise and restore the severed royal line. “However, Inim, who is Ch’ang’s maternal grandfather, hid the emperor’s letter while serving as chancellor, and this was only one of the countless crimes he committed. So the problem of enthroning the Sin clan was imminent, and the fate of the royal Wang clan became that of a fish in the cauldron gasping for breath. When you [T’aejo] sought the ways to rectify the situation according to principles of justice and risked your life to restore the

77

78

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

royal Wang clan for future generations, eight generals and leaders, including Sim Tŏkbu, Chŏng Monju, Chi Yonggi, Sŏl Changsu, Sŏng Sŏngnin, Cho Chun, Pak Wi, and Chŏng Tojŏn, joined you in your efforts. “On the fifteenth day of the eleventh month, you proclaimed the imperial decree in the yard of the consort dowager’s palace, ushered me out from my quarters, and had me succeed Hyŏllŭng [King Kongmin]. Thus, in a day you finally removed the Sin clan, which had been on the throne for sixteen years, and no blood was spilled. All the people related to the Sin clan, including relatives and followers who were deeply rooted throughout the whole country, were shocked and scared to see what had occurred before their eyes, but they pretended to accept the new order. As they concealed their surprise and fear, the state seemed as peaceful as a cloudless spring day. “Since you were instrumental in rejoining the severed royal line that had lasted for thirty-one generations and thereby opened an everlasting way to the great future of the country, the service that you rendered to the country is no less than that of Marquis of Jiang [Zhou Bo] or the five kings.156 “You have been loyal to the king, and your loyalty derives from your family tradition, which is best represented in your person. Being endowed with both learning and military arts, you are qualified to assist the king; disregarding the personal affairs before the national crisis, you are a minister who can save the country; and born with special talents provided by Heaven and your ancestors, the safety and danger of the country became your responsibility. “After you gained confidence from King Kongmin, you recaptured the two capitals157 after repulsing Red Turbans and removed the son of a monk from the throne and restored the royal house. You also drove Nahachu back to the desert, demonstrating your power and dignity, and defended the West Sea158 by defeating the Japanese invaders, making them tremble in fear as you defeated them decisively at Inwŏl Post Station.159 “Never forgetting the confidence that King Kongmin had in you, you lamented that the sacrifices for the royal house had to cease and swore to Heaven that you would grab the sun before it went down. Your sincerity 156. Five kings refer to the high officials of the Tang dynasty during the reign of Wu Zetian who played a major role in overthrowing Wu Zetian and restored Emperor Zhongzong in 705. They were Zhang Jianzhi, Jing Hui, Huan Yanfan, Yuan Shuji, and Cui Xuanhui. 157. Kaesŏng (Kaegyŏng) and P’yŏngyang (Sŏgyŏng). 158. Also called Yellow Sea. 159. Located in Unbong, North Chŏlla Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

reached Heaven, and your loyalty moved the spirits of my royal ancestors. The justice and fairness you showed in carrying out your duties won the attention of the country, and your incomparable benevolence gained the hearts of the people. When Heaven and people try to help together, things are easily accomplished. That was the reason the restoration of the royal house could be accomplished without much difficulty. You were also finally able to repay King Kongmin for his favors. “In olden days, the Duke of Zhou was enfeoffed with the dukedom of the east for his service to the country. Likewise, I intend to reward you for your loyalty by investing you and your children with the land and titles as well as the privilege of pardon for generations. I will also have your portrait hung, and the inscriptions of your service carved into the wall. I have reported this to the Royal Ancestral Shrine in the presence of my heir apparent. “Ah! This reward is too little to repay for your outstanding service! You saved the people, revived the royal house, and rescued our country. How can I possibly repay you for such great service? “You are the restoration merit subject whose reputation is equal to that of Grand Preceptor Pae [Hyŏn’gyŏng], but your responsibility is much heavier than that of A Heng [Yi Yin]160 of Shang. If you build the structures and rules of the government that can be a model for the generations to come, and assist me by finding talented people and reinvigorating our government so that the state can be preserved, you will be honored forever through the sacrifices of the people, and I may be able to share some of your honor, though I hardly deserve it. “If your children emulate you in their loyalty and integrity and assist my successors sharing happiness with the state, what could be better than that?” The king also proclaimed his royal decree to commend T’aejo for having his army march back and bestowed 100 kyŏl of farmland upon him. In the fifth month, Wang Pang, Lord of Sunan, and Cho Pan, associate com­­missioner of the Security Council (tongji Milchiksa sa), returned from their trip to China and reported as follows: “The Ministry of Rites [of Ming China] said, ‘Two people from your country visited our court. One was Lord of P’ap’yŏng and the other commandant (chungnangjang) Yi Ch’o. They appealed to the emperor, saying, ‘Chancellor Yi [Sŏnggye] of Koryŏ placed Wang Yo [King Kongyang] on 160. A minister of the early Shang dynasty who helped Tang of Shang, the founder of the Shang dynasty, to overthrow King Jie of Xia.

79

80

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the throne. However, he is not a member of the royal Wang family but his in-law. Conspiring with Yi [Sŏnggye], Yo plans to raise armies to invade the suzerain state [China]. As Grand Councilor Yi Saek and others are opposed to his plan, Wang Yo intends to kill Yi Saek, Cho Minsu, Yi Im, Pyŏn Annyŏl, Kwŏn Chunghwa, Chang Ha, Yi Sungin, Kwŏn Kŭn, Yi Chonghak, and Yi Kwisaeng. He also intends to exile officials such as U Hyŏnbo,161 U Innyŏl, Chŏngji, Kim Chongyŏn, Yun Yurin, Hong In’gye, Chin Ŭlsŏ, Kyŏng Po, Yi Inmin, and others to distant places. The condemned officials secretly sent us to report their situation to the Son of Heaven [emperor of Ming China] and make a request that the emperor send his imperial army to Koryŏ so that it can subjugate the situation.’ “Thus saying, the official from the Ministry of Rites presented the document drafted by Yun I and Yi Ch’o in which the names of Yi Saek, Cho Minsu, and others were written. “Confronting Yun I and others, Cho Pan said, ‘Our country has served the suzerain state [China] sincerely. How can it be possible?’ Then he asked Yun I, ‘Since you reached the rank of lord, you will know who I am.’ Yun I was surprised and turned pale.” As a result, the king ordered U Hyŏnbo, Kwŏn Chunghwa, Kyŏng Po, Chang Ha, Hong In’gye, Yun Yurin, Ch’oe Kongch’ŏl, and others imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison, and Yi Saek, Yi Im, U Innyŏl, Yi Inmin, Chŏng Chi, Yi Sungin, Kwŏn Kŭn, Yi Chonghak, Yi Kwisaeng, and others in a prison in Ch’ŏngju, to be interrogated. In the sixth month, a flood broke out in Ch’ŏngju. King Kongyang summoned T’aejo and Sim Tŏkbu and discussed the acquittal of the offenders and dispatched Cho On to Ch’ŏngju with the royal decree. The decree was as follows: “If the crimes committed by Yun I and others are true, those who instigated them in the background committed treason. So I ordered the responsible offices to investigate the matter. Yun Yurin, a relative of Yun I, knew he was guilty and chose to die through starvation. Ch’oe Kongch’ŏl,162 161. U Hyŏnbo (1333–1400): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, vice grand councilor, and left chancellor. Being related to King Kongyang through marriage, he was invested with the title of Great Lord of Tanyang as soon as King Kongyang ascended the throne. During the Second Rebellion of Princes in 1400, he helped Prince Chŏngan (Pangwŏn) and became King T’aejong’s merit subject. 162. Ch’oe Kongch’ŏl (?–1390): a military official of late Koryŏ. He served as supreme commander of Kangnŭng Province and made contributions towards repulsing the Japanese marauders. Involved in the incident of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, he was executed.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

who had conspired with Yurin, confessed his crime. Kim Chongyŏn,163 another conspirator, is now on the run from the authorities. The crimes of the remaining offenders involved in this case, however, are not quite clear. If they are tortured further during interrogation, I fear a serious mistake could be made. Let everyone, except those who already confessed their crimes, be exiled to different places.” In the eleventh month, T’aejo rendered his resignation to the king because of the incident of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, but the king appointed T’aejo as chief director of the State Finance Commission. Kim Chongyŏn went to Sŏgyŏng [P’yŏngyang] and conspired with Chiliarch Yun Kwit’aek and Construction Director Cho Yu, who was under the command of Tŏkbu, to kill T’aejo. Being afraid that the conspiracy would be revealed, Kwit’aek secretly visited T’aejo and informed him of the plot. “Chongyŏn is plotting against you together with Chancellor Sim [Tŏkbu], Chi Yonggi, and others. Cho Yu also said, ‘I heard that Chancellor Sim is going to raise an army conspiring with military commissioner Cho Ŏn, Yu, and others. That certainly does not sound good for you.’ ” When T’aejo secretly told Tŏkbu about what he had heard, Tŏkbu threw Yu into jail. T’aejo said to the king, “Tŏkbu and I have served together in the government, and there is no jealousy or suspicion between us. Therefore, I beg you not to have Cho Yu interrogated and to help us [T’aejo and Tŏkbu] continue our friendship.” King Kongyang intended to release those involved in the case, but the Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial requesting it be inves­­ tigated. As a result, Yu was put to death by hanging, while Tŏkbu, Yonggi, Cho Ŏn, and others were banished to distant parts of the country. In accordance with the request from the Office of the Inspector-General, King Kongyang ordered a number of military commanders to surrender their official seals and stamps. In the twelfth month, the king again appointed T’aejo chancellor as well as commander-in-chief of all the armies. T’aejo declined his appointment, submitting a letter to the king: “It is appropriate for His Majesty to bestow rank and position on his subjects according to their merits, and the subjects should not show off their services before His Majesty even when they have 163. Kim Chongyŏn (?–1390): a military official of late Koryŏ. He served as military commander of Chŏlla Province. Involved in the incident of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, he was arrested and ran away to P’yŏngyang to hide in the house of former director Kwŏng Ch’ung. There he conspired with others to assassinate T’aejo. Betrayed by one of the conspirators, he was arrested and died during the interrogation.

81

82

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

gained His Majesty’s favor. If a subject acts recklessly, seeking only riches and glory, he can bring about misfortune and resentment from others. Duke Zhao,164 therefore, was worried when everything went too well for him while serving in the government, and Cai Ze165 said that one must retire from his office once his mission is accomplished. Furthermore, the post of chancellor in our country, in fact, corresponds to that of minister of state (zongzai) during the Zhou dynasty. It is difficult to rule the country properly, but it is even more difficult to harmonize yin and yang. “Reflecting on myself, I am small-minded and deficient in learning. Much worse, I had to serve a king who was not a member of the royal house and yet dared to invade China. Consequently, both men and the spirits were so outraged that the state was greatly imperiled. So I at last turned our armies around and with the support of fellow commanders stopped our military campaign and marched back. As I upheld the command of the Son of Heaven, the clique166 that had usurped the throne through deception, fell into ruin by itself, and the royal Wang house could then be restored. “This happened through the intervention of the royal ancestors, not because of my efforts. Nevertheless, I was rewarded with special favors from Your Majesty, including lands and titles as well as the power to take charge of state affairs. However, I have failed to give you any help in ruling the state and therefore, have been constantly concerned about my inability to carry out my job. “This spring Yun I and Yi Ch’o secretly traveled to China and nearly put our country in grave danger by deceiving the Son of Heaven and requesting that he dispatch his prince to Korea at the head of his imperial army. Kim Chongyŏn, who had masterminded the treachery, fled in fear. This incident is a grave matter related to the security of the royal house, not to the security or personal interest of your servant. “In these circumstances, some people deliberately sheltered and released the suspects, having contact with them to plot against the government. This conspiracy probably has to do with the grace and benefits Your Majesty bestowed on me, to a certain extent, and I feel extremely sorry and nervous whenever I come to think of it. 164. A state councilor of the Zhou dynasty. 165. A grand minister of the state of Qin during the Warring States period. 166. It refers to King U and King Ch’ang, who were suspected of being sired by monk Sin Ton.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

“I was quite relieved when I was allowed to resign from the office of right chancellor not too long ago, but this time, I was promoted to chancellor [senior to left and right chancellors]. Having received Your Majesty’s decree, I am more nervous than ever and hardly know what to do. “Furthermore, the state affairs, formerly in disarray, are now in proper order, and the government is starting out anew. How can one assist the king in ruling the state unless he has outstanding talent, and how can one pacify the people unless he has great virtue? I entreat Your Majesty to accept my sincerity and release me from the heavy burden of responsibility. Then I may be able to make way for men of virtue and free myself from the accusations that I failed in my duties. I would be grateful if Your Majesty would let me live out my days at home, praying for Your Majesty’s good health.” The king did not allow his request and replied as follows: “A man of talent is needed to subdue disturbances and straighten out the affairs of state, and a state councilor who works on behalf of the king is required to discuss the Way (Dao)167 and rule the state. Therefore, to find or lose such a person is a grave matter related to the security and danger of the state. “Your will is stronger than the wind or frost, and your personality more splendid than the Three Lights (samgwang),168 or the Five Sacred Mountains (Wuyue).169 You have rendered great services to the royal house from long ago and brought benefits to the people up until now. You drove Nahachu away to a distant corner of the north and annihilated the Japanese enemies all over the country. “After the former king [King Kongmin] passed away, the ones who were not the members of the royal family stole the throne. They indulged in hunting and womanizing and committed atrocities, killing innocent people. They even raised armies to invade China. “Clarifying what is right and wrong and upholding the principle of justice, you made your army turn around and march back, and with the support of royal family members and officials drove out the false kings. Then you reinforced the foundation of the state and restored the royal Wang house by 167. The Chinese term, Dao, is hard to define. It can be translated as way, path, principle, and so forth. When the state councilor discusses the way and rule the state, it signifies that he either simply discusses the strategies of governing the state or governs the state by discussing the right path of governing the state. 168. The sun, moon and stars. 169. Wuyue is also variously translated as the Five Great Mountains, Five Great Peaks, and Five Holy Mountains.

83

84

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

placing me on the throne. If one discusses your service, one finds it unsurpassed throughout history. “You are to serve our royal house until all your descendants enjoy the benefits, generation after generation. Nevertheless, who could imagine that wicked people would secretly conspire to produce an evil plot? “This is, in fact, my own mistake, not yours. So I reprimanded myself seriously and at the same time was about to bring the suspects to justice. Under these circumstances, you abruptly submitted your resignation. Though you may have thought about it seriously, it was certainly not what I expected from you. “Since the king and his subjects are one body, how can I forget [your great service] even if the tall mountains become flat and the wide rivers become dry? Do not decline the offer I have made, and return to work as soon as possible.” In the first month of the Sinmi year (1391), the third year of King Kongyang, the king reorganized the Five Armies (Ogun) into Three Armies (Samgun) and a Headquarters Command (Toch’ongjebu), which took control of both central and local armies, and appointed T’aejo commander-in-chief (toch’ongjesa). In the third month, T’aejo requested his resignation by submitting a memorial to the king: “Your Servant is a very mediocre person and yet arose to the position of commanding general and chancellor because of special treatment from the government. However, Your Servant has accomplished nothing and failed to assist you in ruling the state. Therefore, Your Servant feels that he must step aside so that a man of ability can be found, and His Majesty can rule the state with benevolence. That was the reason Your Servant rendered his resignation twice, but Your Servant has failed so far to gain Your Majesty’s permission, and he is now more worried than ever. As Your Servant reflects on this matter, the states are different in their sizes, and the nature of the affairs of state in former times is not same as it is today, but there is no change in the fact that His Majesty and the subjects have difficulty in seeing each other. “Emperor Gaozu of Han,170 the dynasty founder, was good at employ­ ­ing men of talent, but when it came to treating his merit subjects, men of intelligence were disappointed in him. Emperor Guangwu of Han,171 the

170. Also called Emperor Gao, he founded the Han dynasty and ruled from 256 bc to 195 bc. 171. The founder of the Later Han or Eastern Han. He reunified the whole of China in 36 ad.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

dynastic restorer, on the other hand, not only rescued the dynasty [from turmoil and disintegration] but also treated his merit subjects so well until the end of their lives that posterity praised him. “To speak of the merit subjects at that time, the fates of Han Xin172 and Zhou Bo173 were not as good as that of Zhang Liang,174 who preserved his life by retiring from state affairs early. Kou Xun and Deng Yu175 cannot match the example of Yan Ziling,176 who declined public life in favor of honorable reclusion. Though ignorant, Your Servant desires to emulate Zhang Liang and Yan Ziling. So Your Servant requests that Your Majesty act as Emperor Guangwu did. “In the sixth month of the Pyŏngsin year (1356), receiving orders from King Kongmin, Your Servant joined his late father, Yi Ansa, in restoring our old territory by capturing Ssangsŏng Commandery, and using our remaining strength, we expanded the territory up to Ch’ŏngju [Pukch’ŏng]177 and established our villages as well as peace in the border region. The cessation of troubles in the east pleased King Kongmin, who granted the title ‘Grand Master for Glorious Happiness’ (Yŏngnok taebu) to my father, and in addition, he appointed him director of the Directorate for Palace Maintenance and concurrently garrison commander of Sakbang Province. He also promoted me, extraordinarily, to the position of steward-bulwark of state (chaebo), skipping ranks even before Your Servant reached the age of thirty. However, my failure to contribute thereafter had me constantly worried. “In the Mujin year (1388), the one with a false family name [King U] raised an army to invade China, but no one dared to remonstrate with him, and the country was on the brink of ruin. Your Servant was the first to point 172. A famous military general who served Emperor Gaozu. Despite his great contributions to the founding of the Han dynasty, he roused the Gaozu’s suspicions and was eventually executed. 173. He was instrumental in Emperor Wen becoming emperor but was falsely accused of treason. 174. Also known by his courtesy name Zhang Zifang, he was a strategist and statesman in the early Han. He played a major role in defeating Xiang Yu, the rival of Gaozu, but, foreseeing trouble, he opted for early retirement soon after the Han was established and consequently was able to preserve his life. 175. Famous generals who served Emperor Guangwu during the power struggle with Emperor Gengshi. 176. A friend of Emperor Guangwu. He first met Liu Xiu, later Emperor Guangwu, at the state academy in Changan. Emperor Guangwu summoned him to serve in his government, but the latter ran away to live in retirement. 177. Ch’ŏngju here indicates Pukch’ŏng in South Hamgyŏng Province.

85

86

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

out the problem of the military expedition and had our armies march back, and as a result, Your Servant was able to restore peace in the country. Nevertheless, people said that I took the liberty of leading the army as Your Servant pleased. “In the Kisa year (1389), Your Servant removed the one with a false family name [King U], following the decree of the Son of Heaven, and restored the true family name [the royal Wang family]. However, people said that Your Servant tried to seize power. Becoming the commander-inchief, Your Servant has commanded the entire army, training troops, suppressing wicked rebels, and repulsing foreign enemies. Notwithstanding, people said that Your Servant wasted military supplies. Since controversies such as these never end, Your Servant can hardly make any more excuses. “Your Servant has three misfortunes. First, people are jealous of me because Your Servant enjoys excessive rewards compared to the small service he has rendered. Second, Your Servant holds a high position thanks to favor from His Majesty despite his trivial contributions in restoring the royal house and repulsing foreign enemies. Third, when merits and demerits cannot be concealed from the eyes of people, Your Servant is foolish enough to continue to hold onto his job, not knowing when to retire. Yi Yin said, ‘It is not advisable for a subject to stay long in his office simply because he is favored by the king or the position is profitable to him.’ Cai Ze said, ‘One who has successfully accomplished his mission must leave, just as the seasons give way to one another.’ That is the law of nature. “Your Servant cannot allow himself to block the chances of men of talent who want to serve in the government. It is his sincere wish to return to the countryside and live out his days there. Your Servant begs you to grant his wish so that not only Emperor Guangwu would be credited for having his merit subjects preserve their lives and honor. The king refused his request, replying, “The presence of grand minister (taesin) is related to the rise and fall of the state as well as the well-being of the people. Since his responsibility is as important as this, the decision on his retirement cannot be made lightly. Thus, one can observe that the Duke of Zhao is anxious to retire, whereas the Duke of Zhou is eager to serve the king. “Born with the energy unique to our land, you are the foremost minister of state sustaining the state. Since you have ignored your personal affairs for the sake of the state, your loyalty pierces the sun, and since you proved

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

steadfast and faithful, relying on the principle of justice, the service that you have rendered the state is great enough to support the sky. “From the days of the former king on down to my reign, you have worked so hard that you have brought peace to the state. In the Mujin year, you stopped the military campaign against China, and in the Kisa year, you established a plan for suppressing the disturbance. As a result, the state could survive the crisis, and the people were rejuvenated. “Furthermore, you trained armies for the defense of the state, which was a right thing to do. Why should you worry about what others say? It is appropriate for you to be cautious while in high positions, but whom should I rely on in order to discuss the affairs of state? “Ah! Emperor Guangwu did not force Yan Ziling to serve him out of respect for his integrity, and the Han remained at peace without the Marquis of Liu [Zhang Liang]. However, the situations and affairs in antiquity were not the same as those in the present. I want you to hold unto your post and carry out your duties according to my wishes.” In the sixth month, the Censorate submitted a memorial to the king: “The crime committed by U Hyŏnbo is the same as that of Yi Saek. Since Saek was already dismissed, both of them should be banished to a remote region.” Though the memorial was submitted as many as three times, it was pending, with no answers. At that time, His Majesty [King T’aejong] served as third royal secretary (u taeŏn), and [King] Kongyang sent him to the house of T’aejo to persuade the Censorate. T’aejo lamented, saying, “Does His Majesty believe that I am behind the Censorate?” Then he immediately submitted a memorial to the king with the intention to resign: “If the state is to be governed well, the ruler would be wise to find men of ability for his ministers, and if the most powerful position is to be filled properly, there must be officials who are willing to concede their places to men of wisdom. If one only seeks wealth and honor and loses the sense of justice, one naturally disgraces one’s virtue. “My ability is small, whereas my responsibility is large, and therefore, people complain whatever Your Servant does. Your Servant is not like Guan Zhong,178 who fulfilled his duties on his own with has support from his lord, 178. A statesman of the state of Qi during the Spring and Autumn periods of Chinese history. With the trust and support of Duke Huan of Qi, he instituted various reforms and succeeded in making the state of Qi the leader of the vassal alliance.

87

88

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

but Your Servant is afraid that may be what Zeng Xi tried to avoid.179 So Your Servant has submitted memorials repeatedly, at the risk of annoying Your Majesty. One day in the third month, I was appointed chancellor, and the more Your Majesty bestowed favors upon me, the more Your Servant feared the public opinion of the righteous. Whenever Your Servant received your replies rejecting his request, his fear and shame deepened. He was afraid about being accused of vacating his post for a long time. Furthermore, his health has been poor for years, and occupying a high position has caused his condition to worsen severely. I must be wary of the excessive honors and blessings I have enjoyed. Myriad things are created and destroyed because there are four seasons that constantly change in an orderly fashion. “I earnestly beseech you to generously take pity on my difficult situation and grant my resignation. Then I will be able to recuperate in a quiet place and at the same time preserve my contribution to the restoration of the dynasty for days to come. Keeping within my proper sphere with peace of mind, I pray always for your health and long life.” The king sent his royal message through Second Royal Secretary (chwa taeŏn) Yi Ch’ŏm and replied to T’aejo’s request as follows: “Your request is a grave matter that concerns the security of the nation, and therefore it cannot be treated lightly. Why do you persist in your concern over having excessive honors and blessings and withdrawing yourself from the affairs of state? “Born with the energy unique to our land, you are a man of extraordinary talents. With radiant loyalty like the sun and moon, you stopped the misguided military campaign against China and brought peace to the state. Since you acted upon the principle of justice and made plans with full justification, both men and spirits were pleased. “Your assistance is needed more than ever, especially at a time when the state is revived and everything starts anew. With your assistance, I intend to usher in a new age of peace and prosperity, but you are only anxious to withdraw, making excuses. What is the reason? “If anyone criticizes you, explain your actions. If you are sick, get ­medical treatment. It is not really necessary for you to resign and live in seclusion in 179. He is presumed to be the grandson of Zengzi or Master Zeng, a philosopher and disciple of Confucius. According to what is said here, T’aejo prefers to emulate the attitude of Zeng Xi, who was less ambitious than Guan Zhong.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

order to have the life that you want. Since you already declined three times, I want you to calm down a little.” T’aejo replied to the king again: “Why should I decline my post if you allow me to do only what I can do, such as discussing national crises or repulsing the enemy from our borders? However, the responsibility I have to bear at the moment is so heavy that I can hardly manage it. Furthermore, I am suffering from illness. I only desire to recuperate through medical treatment.” Kongyang refused to grant T’aejo’s request and forced him to arise and report to duty, but T’aejo remained at home, avoiding his post. He submitted another memorial to the king: “I have become the target of jealousy across the whole country because in the Mujin year I stopped the military expedition against China “I have become the target of jealousy across the whole country because in the Mujin year I stopped the military expedition against China with justification and restored the royal house after driving out the falsely named one [King U]. When Ch’ang was established [as a new king] and people discussed bringing U in, evidence appeared clearly showing that Yun I and Yi Ch’o had conspired together. So the Censorate submitted a memorial on their own, requesting the king to punish the conspirators. How can I be, then, accused of instigating the Censorate? “Your Majesty now orders me to persuade the censors, but your order implies a suspicion that I instigated them. Lacking talent, I am incapable of discharging the great responsibility placed upon me. So I beseech you to find a man of talent to replace me.” After reading the memorial, Kongyang said to His Majesty [King T’aejong]: “I am surprised by what the chancellor has said in his memorial. He was the sole reason I could presume to ascend the throne, with my lack of ability. I have trusted the chancellor like my own father. Why does he try to abandon me? “As for Yun I and Yi Ch’o’s alleged co-conspirators in installing Ch’ang on the throne and bringing U in, I issued a special pardon last year because the evidence of their involvement proved to be unclear. The chancellor also found no problem with my decision. “The Censorate now requests me to punish the offenses that took place prior to my pardon. Therefore, I had you report the matter to the chancellor, hoping that he could persuade the Censorate [to withdraw their request]. What did you say to the chancellor, and why is he so resolute in his determination to resign? If the chancellor resigns, how can I have peace while I am on the throne?”

89

90

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Shedding tears, the king swore an oath to Heaven, and he was quite sincere in his words. Then he told His Majesty [T’aejong] to visit his father T’aejo and persuade him to report to duty. T’aejo, however, never followed his order. Kongyang also instructed the Censorate: “The charges against U Hyŏnbo are ambiguous, and besides, he was already pardoned by the general amnesty. Therefore, do not ask me to punish him any further for his offense.” Then he sent Hwang Un’gi, shield manager of the Royal Guard (sasun) and summoned T’aejo. T’aejo, however, was unable to see the king due to his illness. Un’gi attempted to compel T’aejo to accompany him, prompting T’aejo to send a man to the king with his message: “Being sick and lying in bed, it is difficult for me to see you, but Un’gi is now forcing me to go. I do not know what to do. I am afraid and feel extremely sorry.” The king was indignant and ordered Un’gi taken to the Capital Constabulary Prison. Meeting with Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, Cho Inok, and others, T’aejo said, “With your support I have done my best to help the royal house, yet the slander against me never ceases. I am afraid that we may not be able to endure this. So I have decided to return to the East [Northeast Region]180 to avoid potential disasters.” Then he ordered the members of his household to get ready to move. When he was about to leave, Chŏng Tojŏn said, “The future of the country and people depends on you alone. How can you then make a decision so easily? I believe your decision to leave is no better than to stay in the royal court. If you select men of benevolence and establish rules and discipline by removing wicked people, the slander against you will automatically disappear. If you withdraw yourself to a remote corner of the country, on the other hand, the slander against you will spin out of control and bring calamity upon you.” T’aejo replied, “When Zhang Zifang [Zhang Liang] in ancient times said he would follow Chisongzi,181 Emperor Gaozu did not punish him. Since I have no ambition whatsoever, how can the king punish me?” The discussion continued to go nowhere, so [T’aejo’s] retainer Kim Chigyŏng went into the house and spoke to Consort Kang: “Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn and others recommend that our lord return to the East, and I 180. It refers to North Hamgyŏng Province, where T’aejo’s family seat was located. 181. A Taoist immortal.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

am afraid that something is wrong. Why don’t we remove those few people?” Believing his words, Consort Kang went directly to His Majesty [King T’aejong] and said, “Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others cannot be trusted at all.” His Majesty replied, “My father is so fed up with the slander against him that he wants to retire, and they have come to dissuade him for his own good.” Then he reproached Chigyŏng, saying, “These few people have gone through good and bad times together with my father. Stop talking about them any further.” In the seventh month, Kongyang visited T’aejo at his private residence, providing a feast and entertainment. He enjoyed himself until late at night and returned to the palace. T’aejo entertained [King] Kongyang together with Consort Kang. As they stepped forward to present a cup of wine, Kongyang bestowed on T’aejo a ceremonial robe, a hat, the finest-quality hat string, and a horse equipped with a saddle. T’aejo tried on the robe on the spot and expressed his gratitude by bowing to the ground. As the night grew late, Yu Mansu closed the palace gate. His Majesty [King T’aejong] secretly informed T’aejo of the closed gate and requested him to go home. Then he had the keeper of the palace keys (kŭmjik) open the gate at T’aejo’s order and returned home, escorting T’aejo safely. T’aejo, on horseback, looked around and said to His Majesty, “This hat string is a precious article. I will give this to you in the future.” The following day, the king [Kongyang] was so upset that he had the keeper of the palace keys locked up in prison. T’aejo went into the royal palace and apologized to the king. He said, “Being intoxicated and unable to drink any further, I made the keeper of the palace keys open the gate [so that I could go home].” Then the king ordered the keeper of the palace keys released from prison. In the ninth month, the king appointed T’aejo chief grand councilor of the Chancellery (p’an munhabu sa). In the eleventh month, Yi Saek, who had been in exile, returned to court on the order of the king. T’aejo was pleased to have Saek visit him at his private residence and be seated at the head of the table. Then he knelt to offer wine to his guest. As Saek accepted the wine unreservedly, the people around considered his manners inappropriate. However, both the host and the guest thoroughly enjoyed their visit together.

91

92

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

In the twelfth month, the king additionally bestowed the title of Ansa Merit Subject182 on T’aejo. Wolianghe and Woduoli183 quarreled over who should take the highest seat during meetings at court. Woduoli said, “We are not here to argue over the head seat. In the olden days, Chancellor Yun Kwan184 subdued our district and set up a stone monument in which ‘Koryŏ Territory’ was engraved. All our people living within the boundary of that territory have admired the authority and faithfulness of the commander-in-chief” [chegunsa; T’aejo]. Then they stopped quarreling. Knowing that Wolianghe and Woduoli were sincere in submitting themselves to him, T’aejo invited them to his private residence and entertained them. In the first month of the fourth year (1392) of King Kongyang, a member of the Censorate requested the king to punish Yi Yŏm, deputy commissioner of the Security Council by death for being drunk in the presence of the king and behaving respectfully. T’aejo said to the king, “Though Yŏm is undeniably guilty as charged, his wild words were uttered out of foolish stubbornness. I beg you to forgive him.” Finally, he was beaten with a heavy paddle as punishment and sent into exile. As T’aejo has rendered a great service to the country and gained the hearts of the people, Kongyang tried to avoid T’aejo. The powerful noble families also slandered T’aejo in various ways because they resented him for abolishing their private landholdings and knew that Kongyang also was shunning him. The followers of U and Ch’ang, who established kinship ties with the royal house, accused T’aejo day and night. Kongyang, however, believed the accusations brought by those people and conspired secretly with ministers close to him to have T’aejo removed. T’aejo’s followers were outraged by the king’s conduct. They drafted a memorial to the king to clear the false charges against T’aejo but waited for the right opportunity to submit it. In the meantime, Pyŏn Chungnyang,185 the son-in-law of T’aejo’s stepbrother, had closely followed the development of the conflict between 182. The title means “the merit subject who brought peace and security to the state.” 183. They are presumably the chiefs of Jurchen tribes in modern Northern Hamgyŏng Province and some parts of the Chinese territory across the Tumen River. 184. Yun Kwan (?–1111) is an official of Koryŏ who served as chancellor during the reign of King Yejong (1105–1122). He was famous for subjugating the Jurchens in the northern territory and establishing the Nine Forts there in 1107. 185. Pyŏn Chungnyang (1345–1398): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son-in-law of Yi Wŏn’gye, T’aejo’s stepbrother, and a disciple of Chŏng Mongju. Although he

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

the two sides. He was afraid that he would be harmed by the conflict after he had learned that Kongyang extremely disliked T’aejo. He originally associated with Lord of Ikch’ŏn Wang Chip,186 King Kongyang’s sonin-law, forming a circle that only men of same age could join. So he, being afraid at that time, told Chip about the memorial that T’aejo’s aides were planning to submit to the king. Thus, Kongyang came to learn about the memorial. He asked T’aejo, “I heard that your subordinates are now drafting a memorial requesting me to punish U Hyŏnbo and others. Do you also know anything about it?” Greatly surprised, T’aejo denied any knowledge of the matter. Upon returning home, he summoned his subordinates and ordered them to stop what they were doing after learning the truth for the first time. In the third month, Crown Prince Sŏk187 returned from his trip to the Chinese court. T’aejo traveled out to Hwangju to greet him, and on his way back, he went hunting at Haeju. When he was about leave his house, a shaman named Pang’ol said to Consort Kang, “His Lordship’s trip this time, figuratively speaking, is like the situation of a man who climbed to the top of a 100-foot-high pavilion, suddenly lost his footing and fell to the ground only to survive miraculously as the people on the ground caught him at the critical moment.” Consort Kang was very worried to hear what the shaman said. T’aejo was pursuing game during his hunt when his horse stumbled into a mire, throwing him off. Injured, he returned home in a sedan chair. King Kongyang kept sending eunuchs to his house to inquire after his ­condition. Chŏng Mongju had been feeling very uneasy as T’aejo’s reputation grew day by day and the hearts of the people turned toward him. So he was pleased to hear that T’aejo had fallen from his horse. He decided to take advantage of this opportunity to remove T’aejo and encouraged some members of the Censorate to follow his plan, saying, “To remove him, we must get rid of Cho Chun and his other aides.” Therefore, he submitted a memorial to the king, accusing Left Director of the State Finance Commission Cho Chun, former Chancellery Scholar Chŏng Tojŏn, former Deputy Director of the Security Council Nam Ŭn, rose to the rank of fifth royal secretary and right cavalier attendant-in-ordinary, he was executed in 1398 for joining the clique of Chŏng Tojŏn during the First Strife of Princes. 186. Chip can be pronounced as Chŭp. 187. Also called Prince Chŏngsŏng, he was the eldest son of King Kongyang and designated as heir apparent in 1389. In the same year, he visited the Ming capital with Chancellor Sim Tŏkbu and others and had an audience with the Chinese emperor.

93

94

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

former Minister [of War] Yun Sojong, former Chief of the Bureau of Slave Administration Nam Chae,188 and Magistrate of Ch’ŏngju Cho Pak.189 Kongyang ordered the Privy Council (Todang)190 to discuss the memorial. Instigating support for impeachment behind the scenes, Mongju sent the six officials, including Cho Chun, into exile. He also sent his followers Kim Kwiryŏn,191 Yi Pan,192 and others, separately, to the places where Cho Chun, Chŏng Tojŏn, and Nam Ŭn were exiled, with the intention of killing them during interrogation. At the time when Kim Kwiryŏn and the others left on their mission, His Majesty [King T’aejong] was in mourning for his mother, living in a thatched hut beside her tomb in Sokch’on Village. When Yi Che193 came to see him with tea and fruits, His Majesty said, “Mongju will certainly not act in the best interest of our family. He must be eliminated first.” Che agreed with him. His Majesty ran to T’aejo who happened to be staying at Pyŏngnando.194 He said, “Mongju will certainly try to destroy our family.” T’aejo said nothing. His Majesty said again, “You must return to the capital [Kaegŏng] right away [unless you want to risk grave danger].” As he failed to obtain his 188. Nam Chae (1351–1419): an official of late Koryŏ and a dynasty-founding merit subject of Chosŏn. He was a disciple of Yi Saek and the great-great-grandfather of General Nam I. With his brother Nam Ŭn, he made great contributions to the founding of the Chosŏn dynasty and served as chief state councilor during the reign of King T’aejong. 189. Cho Pak (1356–1408) impeached Yi Saek and Cho Minsu for enthroning King U and King Ch’ang, who were suspected of being sired by monk Sin Ton. When the Chosŏn dynasty was newly founded, he was appointed minister of rites and granted the title of “DynastyFounding Merit Subject First Class” as well as Lord of P’yŏngwŏn. Later, he served as inspectorgeneral and governor of Chŏlla Province. 190. Also called Top’yŏngŭisa, Todang is the highest deliberative council for the affairs of state and consists of the grand councilors of the Chancellery, the directors of the Security Council, and the commissioners of the State Finance Commission. 191. Unknown. 192. An official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as third censor and vice section chief of the Board of Punishments. 193. Yi Che (?–1398): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the great-grandson of Yi Chonyon, a famous scholar-official and poet, and the son of Yi Inip, the younger brother of Yi Inim, chancellor during the reign of King U, who took control of the government and abused his power. Having married Princess Kyŏngsun, the third daughter of T’aejo, he joined the revolution led by T’aejo. He participated in the attempt to remove Chŏng Mongju and contributed to T’aejo’s enthronement. However, he was killed along with Chŏng Tojŏn in the first power struggle among the princes in 1398. 194. A port town at the mouth of the Yesŏng River in Hwanghae Province.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

permission, His Majesty importuned T’aejo more strongly. T’aejo finally decided to leave at night, despite his illness, and His Majesty helped him until he arrived home safely. When His Majesty [T’aejong] became second royal secretary (taeŏn), Yi Sŏngjung,195 academician of the Security Council (Milchik chehak), the younger brother of Yi Talch’ung, sent his son Hyu to His Majesty and presented a precious sword decorated with gold, which was an heirloom of his family. His Majesty and his consort accepted the sword while sitting in their room. The consort said, laughing, “What is the meaning behind this gift?” The following day, His Majesty visited Sŏngjung at his house to express his gratitude for the gift. Then he asked, “Why did you send such a sword to a Confucian scholar such as myself?” Sŏngjung replied, “I sent it to you because I believed that it could be better used by you; such a sword is not intended to be used by a man such as myself.” Chŏng Mongju instigated the members of the Censorate to submit a joint petition to the king, requesting that Cho Chun, Chŏng Tojŏn, and others be executed. When this happened, T’aejo sent his son [Panggwa; later King Chŏngjŏng], his brother Yi Hwa’s son-in-law Yi Che, and his aides Hwang Hŭisŏk, Cho Kyu, and others to the court to see the king on his behalf. They said, “The Censorate now contends that at the meeting in which Your Majesty was selected as the new king, [Cho] Chun tried to promote some other person, but Your Servant [T’aejo] blocked his attempt. This is not true. Who is the one Chun tried to promote, and who is the one who claims to have heard me talk about blocking his attempt? I beseech you to summon Chun and others, as well as the members of the Censorate, and let them defend themselves in your presence.” Though they repeated this request several more times, Kongyang refused to listen to them. In the meantime, the slanders and accusations made by petty-minded people increasingly grew worse so that disaster could strike at any time. His Majesty [T’aejong] asked T’aejo’s permission to kill Mongju, but T’aejo did not allow him to. His Majesty went out to meet with the former king [King Chŏngjong], Yi Hwa, and Yi Che, and went in to see T’aejo again. He said, “They say that Mongju will send his men to interrogate Chŏng 195. Yi Sŏngjung (1330–1411): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as commissioner of fortress construction in 1396; however, he was briefly imprisoned for failing to construct a fortress safely. He became a minor merit subject and grand master for illustrious government.

95

96

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Tojŏn, and that is a ruse to implicate us in this case. The situation has become very urgent. What would you do?” T’aejo replied, “Since life and death depend on the will of Heaven, I have no choice but to accept what is given to me.” Then he told His Majesty to go back quickly to his thatched hut and finish the rites of mourning for his mother. His Majesty requested T’aejo to allow him to stay and look after him, but T’aejo persistently refused his request. Feeling helpless, His Majesty went back to his old house in Sunggyori and, being worried and cautious, could not decide what to do, while sitting in the reception room. A little later, he heard someone knocking at the gate. He hurried out to find Chŏng T’ak, chief of the Prosperity Expansion Warehouse (Kwanghŭngch’ang). Chŏng T’ak asserted, “The interests of the people can be decided at any moment. When the scheming of petty-minded people becomes as egregious as this, how can you leave? Are kings and feudal lords and generals and state councilors any different in their origins?” His Majesty immediately returned to T’aejo’s residence and discussed the matter with the former king, Yi Hwa, and Yi Che. When they decided to make Yi Turan kill Mongju, Turan said, “How can I dare do things that His Lordship does not know about?” His Majesty replied, “Though my father does not allow me, I have no choice but to remove him. I will take full responsibility.” Then His Majesty called his subordinate named Cho Yŏnggyu. He said, “Everyone knows that our Yi family rendered great service to the royal family, but we are now falsely accused by petty people. If we are to die without having a chance to defend ourselves, those petty people will certainly bring disgrace to our family name. Then how can our posterity know the truth? I have many people around me, but why is it so hard to find a man who will work for our Yi family?” Yŏnggyu replied resolutely, “I will do whatever you want me to do.” His Majesty ordered Yŏnggyu, Cho Yŏngmu, Ko Ryŏ, Yi Pu, and others to run to the Privy Council and slay Chŏng Mongju. Pyŏn Chungnyang alerted Mongju of the plan, prompting Mongju to visit T’aejo at his private residence under the pretext of inquiring after his health. The true intention of his visit was to ascertain the situation. T’aejo treated him as usual. Yi Hwa said to His Majesty, “This is the right time to act if you want to kill him.” After the decision was made, Hwa said to His Majesty, “What will you do if our action incurs the wrath of His Lordship?” The plan seemed to be momentarily put on hold, when His Majesty said, “No matter what

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

happens, this opportunity should not be lost. If His Lordship becomes indignant, I will explain and justify the reasons behind our actions.” So it was agreed that they would move against Mongju while the latter was on the road. His Majesty ordered Yŏnggyu to go to the former king’s residence to find a sword and then to the village where Mongju lived. He told him to wait for Mongju at the entrance of the village. A few people, including Ko Ryŏ and Yi Pu, joined Yŏnggyu. Mongju dropped by his house and came out soon. His Majesty was worried to the point that he left his house to oversee the operation personally. As he went out of the gate of his residence, he came across his subordinate’s horse already saddled and ready to go. He jumped on the horse and galloped to the residence of the former king. He asked if Mongju had passed by, and they replied that he had not. His Majesty returned to his place after leaving detailed instructions, again, on the actions to be taken. It so happened that Yu Wŏn, former Chief Magistrate of Kaesŏng Magistracy had died, and Mongju, on his way home, dropped by the house of the bereaved family to pay his respects. So Mongju’s arrival at home was a little delayed, giving Yŏnggyu and his companions ample time to secure weapons and prepare for their attack on Mongju. As Mongju appeared, Yŏnggyu rushed at him but failed to strike. Fending him off, Mongju whipped his horse and galloped off. Yŏnggyu pursued him and struck Mongju’s horse on the head. As the horse stumbled, it pitched Mongju to the ground. Mongju got up and started running, but Ko Yŏ and others caught up to him and finally killed him. Yŏngmu went back to His Majesty and reported the result, and His Majesty in turn went in to tell T’aejo. When he heard what had happened, T’aejo became furious and struggled to rise from his sick bed. He said to His Majesty, “Our family has always been known for loyalty and filiality. Since you have killed a high official recklessly, will the people across the country believe that I am not behind it? Parents want to teach their children the classics because they want them to be loyal and filial [to their king and parents]. Since you dare to disrespect your parent, I feel like poisoning myself.” His Majesty replied, “Mongju and his clique tried to destroy our family. How can we just sit and wait for disaster? I believed I could be more filial to you by doing that.” Nevertheless, T’aejo was so furious that even Consort Kang dared not say anything to him. So His Majesty said to her, “Mother, why do you just

97

98

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

watch and not defend me?” Then her facial expression changed, and she said to T’aejo, “You have always prided yourself in being general-in-chief. What makes you so surprised and afraid?” His Majesty said he would get his people together to prepare for any mishap. He immediately called Chang Sagil196 and others and made them guard the residence of T’aejo, mobilizing the soldiers under their command. The following day, T’aejo was compelled to call Hwang Hŭisŏk and reluctantly inform him, “Mongju and his cohorts have been executed for conspiring with the criminals and prodding the Censorate to accuse innocent, loyal people secretly. I must have Cho Chun, Nam Ŭn, and others, who were falsely accused, called back to defend themselves before the Censorate. You go and take my message to the king.” Both doubtful and afraid, Hŭisŏk just respectfully watched T’aejo, without a word. Yi Che, who was standing next to him, reproached him severely, prompting Hŭisŏk to enter the palace and convey T’aejo’s message to the king. Kongyang said, “I cannot allow the Censorate to be confronted by the accused. I will have the members of the Censorate involved in this incident driven out to the province. Therefore, I want you to refrain from discussing the matter any further.” At that time, T’aejo’s health, due to his anger, deteriorated so seriously that he could hardly speak. His Majesty [Pangwŏn, later King T’aejong] said, “The situation has become critical.” Then he secretly sent Yi Chabun197 to inform Cho Chun and Nam Ŭn of the current situation as well as his intention to bring them back [from exile]. Also discussing the matter with the former king [Panggwa, later King Chŏngjong], Yi Hwa, Yi Che, and others, His Majesty had the former king go and talk with King Kongyang. He said, “If you do not want to interrogate and punish the Mongju clique, we request that you punish us.” Kongyang reluctantly ordered that the censors be confined in the Capital Constabulary Prison and said, “Since they are to be banished, it is not ­necessary to interrogate them.” However, a little later, he ordered Pae Kŭngnyŏm, director of the State Finance Commission; Kim Chu, assistant 196. Chang Sagil (?–1418): a military official of early Chosŏn. He served as deputy directors of the Security Council and assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery. He joined T’aejo in the military campaign against Liaodong and repulsed Japanese invaders on many occasions. He became the dynasty-founding merit subject first class for his role in enthroning T’aejo. 197. A military general of the late Koryŏ. Little is known about him except that he served as a member of the royal guards.

General Introduction (Ch’ongsŏ)

grand councilor of the Chancellery; Kim Sahyŏng, commissioner of the Capital Constabulary (Sun’gun chejo); and others to interrogate the members of the Censorate. Kim Chinyang, left policy maker (chwa sangsi), confessed: “Chŏng Mongju, Yi Saek, and U Hyŏnbo sent Yi Sungin, Yi Chonghak, and Cho Ho to tell us, ‘Since Chief Grand Councilor Chancellor Yi [Sŏnggye], who has taken advantage of his contributions to abuse his power, is now seriously injured after falling from his horse, we must remove Yi’s aides Cho Chun and others first before we finally strike down Yi ­himself.” As a result, Yi Sungin, Yi Chonghak, and Cho Ho were sent to the Capital Constabulary Prison, and a little later, Left Policy Maker Kim Chinyang, Right Policy Maker (u sangsi) Yi Hwak, Right Grand Master of Remonstrance (u kanŭi) Yi Nae, Left Third Censor (chwa hŏnnap) Yi Kam, Right Third Censor (u hŏnnap) Kwŏn Hong, Second Inspector (chibŭi) Chŏng Hŭi, Third Inspectors (changnyŏng) Kim Myo and Sŏ Kyŏn, Fourth Inspectors (chip’yŏng) Yi Chak and Yi Shin, Yi Sungin, and Yi Chonghak were all banished to remote districts. An official in charge of prosecuting the offenders said to T’aejo, “The crime committed by Kim Chinyang requires the punishment of beheading.” T’aejo replied, “I have disliked killing people for a long time. Chinyang and others were only instigated by Mongju. How can I punish them recklessly?” Then the official said, “If so, he should be beaten severely with a heavy paddle.” T’aejo said, “Since I have already forgiven the offenders, is beating him with a heavy paddle necessary?” Consequently, Chinyang and others managed to avoid being put to death. The king summoned Cho Chun and others back to the court and appointed T’aejo chancellor. Though T’aejo resigned, the king did not accept his resignation. In the sixth month, Kongyang visited T’aejo at his private residence and inquired after his health. When T’aejo [in the middle of his military campaign against China] turned his army around at Wihwa Island to march back home, Nam Ŭn secretly met with Cho Inok and others and decided to recommend that T’aejo be declared ruler of Korea. After returning to the capital, he told His Majesty [T’aejong] about the decision that he and others had made. His Majesty warned, “Since it is a matter of grave importance, you must be extremely careful.” At that time, many people vied with one another to be first to recommend T’aejo to the throne, and someone at a large assembly openly said, “Since

99

100

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the will of Heaven and the hearts of the people are already fixed on a person, why don’t we quickly ask him to ascend the throne?” Realizing that the right moment had finally arrived, His Majesty [Pangwŏn; later T’aejong] discussed the matter with Nam Ŭn, and Nam Ŭn met secretly with fifty-two people, including Cho Chun, Chŏng Tojŏn, and Cho Pak, with whom he had connected and found favorable to his cause. However, he did not dare report it to T’aejo for fear of T’aejo’s wrath. His Majesty went in and asked Consort Kang to deliver the message to T’aejo, but even she dared not report it. So His Majesty said to Nam Ŭn and others, “You should proceed to urge him [T’aejo] to ascend the throne, while preparing for the ceremony with a display of dignity.” At first, Kongyang discreetly called His Majesty and Second Assistant Master (saye) Cho Yong198 and said, “Since I intend to make a pact with Chancellor Yi, I want you to take my message to him and bring back the draft of the agreement after consulting with the chancellor.” He also added, “You will be able to find some precedents [on drafting a pact].” Yong replied, “The so-called pact is not really valuable; it is something despised by sages. Though alliances were formerly made between warring states, no pacts were made between a ruler and his subject.” Notwithstanding, Kongyang said, “Just bring me the draft.” As Yong and His Majesty conveyed the king’s instructions to T’aejo, T’aejo said, “What can I say? Go ahead and draft a pact as the king instructed.” Yong withdrew and made a draft as follows: “If it were not for you, how could I have become what I am now? The Heavenly Deity above and the Earthly Deity around us are our witnesses. Our descendants must neither harm nor retaliate against one another. If you should abandon me, this pact will attest to your pledge.” As Cho Yong presented the draft to King Kongyang, the king said, “Fine.” Cho Yong at that time was also in charge of compiling historical records. He wrote, “The king failed to repay the chancellor [T’aejo] for enthroning him as king; not only that, he even tried to harm the chancellor. He has lost the Mandate of Heaven and the hearts of the people. The pact he made, which sounds pathetic and lame, has become useless.” 198. Cho Yong (?–1424): a scholar-official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as director of the Office of Royal Decrees, headmaster of the National Academy, and fifth state councilor. When he was fourth inspector, he impeached U Hyŏnbo, Kwŏn Chunghwa, and others, who remained unpunished despite being implicated in the incident of Yun I and Yi Ch’o.

Book I

First Year of Reign (1392) 7th Month 17th Day (Pyŏngsin)

T’aejo ascended the throne at Such’ang Palace. Earlier, on the twelfth day of this month, King Kongyang [of Koryŏ] intended to visit T’aejo at his private residence and strike an alliance with him, while having some drinks together. The bearers of ceremonial weapons and instruments had already lined up (for the royal procession), but at that time, Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm and other officials spoke to the queen dowager [of King Kongmin]:1 “The present king is benighted. He has lost the Way of a monarch, and the hearts and minds of the people have already left him. He is unable either to preside over the Altars of Earth and Grain or to rule living souls (i.e., the people). Hence, we request that he be deposed.” Thereupon, they received the queen dowager’s letter of instruction, while the decision to depose King Kongyang had already been made. Nam Ŭn and Chŏng Hŭigye, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, with the instructions in hand, ran to Sichwagung, the royal quarters of the king in Pukch’ŏndong. After they arrived, they publicly announced the message. King Kongyang prostrated himself to the ground and, hearing the announcement, said, “Originally I did not wish to become king, but various ministers impelled me to do so. By nature, I am not clever and am slow to understand how things work. How could I help going against the feelings of



1. The senior wife of King Kongmin.

101

102

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

my subjects?” Then he shed a few teardrops. Consequently, he abdicated and departed for Wŏnju. Various officials reverently carried the royal seal and placed it in the hall of the queen dowager. They then proceeded to their respective posts to carry out their duties, receive their orders, and make decisions accordingly. On the thirteenth day (Imjin). The queen dowager appointed T’aejo overseer of personnel and state affairs (kamnok kuksa) by announcing a royal decree. On the sixteenth day (Ŭlmi). Pae Kŭngnyŏm, Cho Chun, and Chŏng Tojŏn, along with Kim Sahyŏng, Yi Che, Yi Hwa, Chŏng Hŭigye, Yi Chiran, Nam Ŭn, Chang Sagil, Chŏng Ch’ong, Kim Inch’an, Cho Inok, Nam Chae, Cho Pak, O Mongŭl, Chŏng T’ak, Yun Ho, Yi Mindo, Cho Kyŏn, Pak P’o, Cho Yŏnggyu, Cho Pan, Cho On, Cho Ki, Hong Kilmin, Yu Kyŏng, Chŏng Yongsu, Chang Tam, An Kyŏnggong, Kim Kyun, Yu Wŏnjŏng, Yi Chik, Yi Kŭn, O Sach’ung, Yi Sŏ, Cho Yŏngmu, Yi Paegyu, Yi Pu, Kim No, Son Hŭngjong, Sim Hyosaeng, Ko Yŏ, Chang Chihwa, Ham Purim, Han Sanggyŏng, Hwang Kŏjŏng, Im Ŏnch’ung, Chang Sajŏng, Min Yŏik, other major and minor officials, hallyang,2 and retired elder statesmen (kiro) solemnly carried the state seal with them as they proceeded to T’aejo’s estate. People filled the village lanes to watch the procession. Inspector-General Min Kae alone was not pleased, and his displeasure showed on his face. With his head inclined to one side, he said nothing. Nam Ŭn wanted to strike him dead, but His Majesty [T’aejong] said, “It would not be in accord with righteousness if you killed him,” and labored to dissuade him [from doing so]. On the same day, various wives of T’aejo’s kinsmen happened to be visiting T’aejo and Consort Kang, and the latter were about to serve them with a simple meal of rice and water. The ladies, however, became frightened [by the sight of the approaching throng] and scattered through the north gate. T’aejo closed the gate and would not receive any visitors. Toward evening, Pae Kŭngnyŏm and others pushed open the gate and entered the inner yard. As they placed a royal seal on the floor of the large hall, T’aejo became alarmed and immediately lost his composure. He held onto Yi Ch’ŏnu and barely managed to walk out the door of his sleeping chamber. The hundred officials [i.e., all, the various] assembled 2. “Locally based former central officials and provincially domiciled children of central officials.” (Duncan, p. 147)

Book I

in rows and bowed to him. They beat drums and shouted, “Long live the king!” T’aejo appeared to be extremely alarmed and acted as if he could not accept [their request] on his own. Kŭngnyŏm and others spoke in unison, urging him to ascend the throne: “The reason the state has a ruler is only to serve the Gods of Earth and Grain above and secure the people’s livelihood below. It has been almost five hundred years since T’aejo [Wang Kŏn] founded Koryŏ, and when it came down to King Kongmin, he suddenly died without a successor. At that time, influential ministers wielded their power with abandon, wishing to strengthen their position and self-interest. Thus, deceiving the people, they set up U, the son of a treacherous monk, Sin Ton, on the throne and had him succeed King Kongmin. So it happened that U occupied the throne for fifteen years. This means that the royal lineage of the Wang clan was already severed. “U became violent and tyrannical, slaughtering innocent people, and finally raised an army to attack Liaodong. Only you, Lord, took the lead in advocating the Great Cause, saying that it was impossible to violate the territory of the Son of Heaven, and turned your army around to march back home. Now, U came to realize his mistake and, terrified and confused, resigned his throne. When this happened, Yi Saek, Cho Minsu, and others plotted with Yi Im, the father-in-law of King U, and placed Ch’ang, King U’s son, on the throne. The Wang clan’s [legitimate] line of succession became disrupted for a second time. “This was when Heaven mandated the throne to you, but, being humble and concessive, you would not take the throne and instead let Lord Chŏngch’ang [later King Kongyang] temporarily assume control of state affairs, serving the Gods of Earth and Grain and stabilizing the livelihood of the people. “The wrongdoings that Sin U committed in the past were well known, but his clique, including Yi Saek and U Hyŏnbo, persisted in their delusion and plotted to reinstall him on the throne. This treachery being exposed, they attempted to evade punishment for their crime by secretly dispatching cohorts, such as Yun I and Yi Ch’o, to China and falsely accused the current government of Koryŏ of already rebelling against the Ming. They pleaded with the emperor for an intervention by having his close relatives mobilize the imperial army to wipe their native land clean. If this plan had actually been carried out, the Altars of Earth and Grain would have been ruined, and

103

104

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

our people would have perished. If things such as this can be allowed, what are the things that cannot be allowed? “The censors and inspectors alternately submitted memorials [to the king], requesting that Yi Saek, U Hyŏnbo, and others, who betrayed their country and brought calamity to the people, be punished for their crimes. Though they submitted their memorials several dozen times, Lord Chŏngch’ang [King Kongyang], because of his ties with his in-laws, protected the perpetrators who perverted the law. Furthermore, he had the remonstrating officials beaten and driven out. As a result, that wicked clique spread its ranks throughout the capital and outlying areas, and its members grew increasingly less afraid of the law. “Kim Chongyŏn, while on the run, plotted an uprising and formed a clique. Kim Chobu and others devised a plan for responding to the uprising from the inside. Calamity and anarchy broke out daily without pause. Nevertheless, Lord Chŏngch’ang failed to produce measures to save the country as well as the people in the future. Instead, he was only intent on dispensing private favors to gain the people’s esteem. If anyone violated the law, he invariably pardoned him and appointed him to a government post. Thus, as the Classic of Documents (Shujing) says, he became “the lord of all the vagabonds under heaven, who collect about him as fish in the deep and beasts in the prairie.”3 “You were the one who played a crucial role in enthroning him, and, for the Great Cause, turned your army around to march back home and saved the people. Nevertheless, he [King Kongyang] only heeded the slander by the womenfolk and eunuchs around him and constantly tried to ensnare you in a deadly trap. At the same time, he made men of integrity suffer for being reluctant to flatter him. Consequently, the slanderers and flatterers thrived, while the people who were good and loyal to him became alienated and disappointed. As administration and law were disarrayed to the degree of confusion, the people did not know how to conduct themselves. “Heaven on high sent him warnings and reprimands, repeatedly altering the signs of constellations and revealing many other inauspicious omens. Lord Chŏngch’ang finally realized that he had lost the Way of the ruler, and the people’s hearts had already left him. Now that he was incapable of 3. Quoted from the speech made by King Wu after he defeated tyrant Zhou of Shang. King Zhou here is referred to as “lord of all the vagabonds.” Shu Ching: Book of History translated by Clae Waltham, p. 122.

Book I

r­ ul­­ing the country and the people, he withdrew and proceeded to his private home. “Carrying out administrative and military affairs is extremely complicated and important, and therefore not a single day should be allowed to pass without a person in command. It is appropriate that you ascend the throne and thereby fulfill the wishes of the spirits and the people.” T’aejo, however, adamantly refused the request, saying, “From antiquity, emperors and kings did not arise unless they had the Mandate of Heaven. Knowing that I lack [the requisite] moral strength, how can I assume the task?” As he did not comply with their request, the high- and low-ranking officials, the hallyang, and the retired elder statesmen gathered around T’aejo, blocking his way, and would not withdraw. They exhorted him, with even greater fervor, to take the offer. That day, T’aejo had no choice but to proceed to Such’anggung, where a hundred officials stood in their ranks to greet him on the west side of the palace gate. T’aejo dismounted his horse, walked into the palace, and ascended the throne. However, he received the felicitations of his ministers while standing in front of the pillars, instead of seated on the throne. He ordered the officials above the rank of ministers of the Six Ministries to come up to the upper hall and said, “Even when I became chancellor, I harbored apprehension and constantly worried that I would be unable to fulfill my duties. How could I have imagined that I would see the events of this day? Should I have been in good health, I could have run away on horseback. However, just now, I suffer from ailing hands and feet to such a degree that I am unable to move my body freely. I want you to assist me, all working together to help me overcome my deficiencies in virtue and ability.” Thereupon, he ordered all the high- and low-ranking officials, who had served in the previous Koryŏ dynasty both in the capital and the provinces, to carry on with their regular duties as before. Then he returned to his own residence. Sometime before T’aejo rose to the throne, he had a dream in which a divine man descended from Heaven and gave him a golden ruler, saying, “Chancellor Kyŏng Pokhŭng,4 though he is upright, is already old, and 4. Kyŏng Pokhŭng (?–1380): an official of late Koryŏ who served as chancellor during the reign of King Kongmin.

105

106

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Commander-in-chief Ch’oe Yŏng, though he is upright, is a little too stubborn. If not you, who is there who can take this golden ruler and straighten state affairs?” Thereafter, a man visited T’aejo at his private residence and presented him with a mysterious book, saying, “I got this from inside a boulder on Mt. Chiri.” The text read: “A man whose name is comprised of the characters 木 and 子5 will descend to the earth riding a pig and restore the territories of the Three Han [Korea].” The text went on to include words such as 非衣, 走 肖, and 三奠三邑.6 T’aejo wanted to see the man who brought the book, but the man had already disappeared when he looked for him by sending his servant after him. A book of divination kept in the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory contained certain sayings such as “One who sets up a tree begets a son” (kŏnmok tŭkcha)7 or “The Wang clan is finished, while the Yi clan rises.” They remained hidden and were not disclosed until the last years of Koryŏ, but now they have been shown to the world. In addition, there was the phrase “early brightness” (chomyŏng). People were unable to comprehend its meaning until the [new] dynasty was called Chosŏn. Only then did they realize that “early brightness” meant Chosŏn [morning freshness]. In the district of Ŭiju, there was a great tree that remained withered and decayed for a number of years. However, one year before the founding of the [new] dynasty, its branches began to sprout and then became covered completely with foliage. At that time people took it as a sign of the founding of a new dynasty. This also happened when T’aejo was out of public view at his private home [meaning “before he rose to the throne”]. One day T’aejo paid a visit to Chancellor Kyŏng Pokhŭng at his private residence, and the chancellor treated him with great respect and hospitality, even introducing his wife to him. He asked T’aejo to look after his children, saying, “My foolish children will be under your care in the days ahead, and when that happens, 5. The Chinese characters 木子, meaning tree and son, respectively, indicate T’aejo’s family name (Yi) when they are put together. 6. 非衣, 走肖, 三奠三邑: These Chinese characters, when combined together, indicate three family names—裵 (Pae), 趙 (Cho), and 鄭 (Chŏng)—which belong to three dynasty­­founding merit subjects. 7. The phrase “kŏnmok tŭkcha” is an interpretation of the Chinese character Yi, which is T’aejo’s family name.

Book I

please do not forget them.” Whenever the chancellor met with T’aejo, he treated T’aejo with utmost courtesy. When T’aejo had to go out to fight against the enemy, he said, “Since the future of this country is in your hands, please spare no efforts to save the country and make great achievements.” A man named Hyejing, who could see the future in people’s faces, once said to his close friend quietly, “I have read the faces of people all these years but have never seen a face like that of Yi [Sŏnggye].” His friend replied, “Even if he were born under a lucky star, he cannot rise above minister of state, can he?” Then Hyejing said, “I am now talking about something much higher than the minister of state. What I found in him was the destiny of a monarch. He will certainly replace the Wang clan.” Before His Majesty [T’aejong] ascended the throne, it happened that the three armies went hunting in the region of the new capital [Hanyang], and he also joined them. When a roe deer suddenly jumped out, T’aejo ran after it and shot it down with a single arrow. Ten or so members of the royal Wang family were standing on top of the hill and were surprised to see what happened before their eyes. Looking at one another, they said, “People are saying that a man from the Yi clan will be the king. He could be the one, couldn’t he?” This also happened when the former king [Chŏngjong] was still out of public view, staying at his private house. He paid a visit to Chancellor Yi Inim at his home. After the former king left, Yi Inim said to the people, “This country certainly will be taken over by the Yi clan.” 18th Day (Chŏngyu)

It rained. Previously, there had been a long drought. When it rained after the king ascended the throne, the people were quite delighted. The Privy Council and the officials of both high and low ranks, as well as hallyang and retired elder statesmen, requested that the king have Cho Pan, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, dispatched to the Ming Capital and report to the Ministry of Rites [on his inauguration as the new king] as follows: “King Kongmin of our small kingdom passed away without an heir, and powerful ministers led by Yi Inim enthroned Sin U, the son of traitor Sin Ton. Being tyrannical and arrogant, U killed many innocent people and then raised armies to invade Liaodong, China. Yi [Sŏnggye], the commander-in-chief

107

108

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of the Right Army at that time, turned his army around, for the good cause that it is wrong for our small state to violate the territory of the suzer­ ­ain state. “Due to this incident, U finally realized that he made a grave mistake and hurriedly abdicated his throne in favor of his son Ch’ang, but the people, on the orders of Consort Dowager An, the widow of King Kongmin, installed Great Lord Chŏngch’ang Wang Yo, a member of the royal Wang family, on the throne temporarily [provisionally]. “Over the last four years on the throne, being confused and deranged, Yo has failed to observe the law, rejecting honest and loyal subjects while endearing himself to those who practiced defamation and flattery. Unable to distinguish between right and wrong, he slandered meritorious subjects and worshipped Buddha and spirits. Further, he made the lives of people miserable by recklessly ordering construction works and squandering the national treasury. “His son Sŏk8 was also so foolish and ignorant that he led a dissolute life by drinking and womanizing. Furthermore, he tried to harm honest people by gathering petty people around him. “His followers, including Chŏng Mongju, also contrived a cunning plan to cause trouble. They slandered meritorious subjects, including Yi [Sŏnggye], Cho Chun, Chŏng Tojŏn, and Nam Ŭn to Yo, who was installed to assume the affairs of state temporarily, so that they could induce Yo to have responsible offices impeach them. Outraged by their treachery, the people killed Mongju and his cohorts. Nevertheless, Yo, who was enthroned temporarily, continued to be unrepentant and tried to kill many innocent people. People across the country fell into a panic as they faced uncertain dangers and harm. They finally reached consensus that this lawless situation must not be allowed to continue. As a result, on the twelfth day of the seventh month of the twenty-fifth year (1392) of the reign of Hongwu, they succeeded in obtaining an order from Consort Dowager An of King Kongmin and made Yo retire to his private residence. “The kingship that takes charge of military and civil affairs should not be vacant even one day, but the right person for the kingship cannot be found in the royal Wang family. Only Chancellor Yi [Sŏnggye] has gained the hearts of the people by bringing benefits to them and rendering services to the country over the years. 8. He was the only son of King Kongyang born of Queen Sun. King Kongyang designated him crown prince upon his inauguration.

Book I

“So the officials of high and low ranks, as well as hallyang, retired elder statesmen, soldiers, and common people, are all anxious to have him as their king, and therefore they decided to send Cho Pan, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, to the Ming court and make a report on the current situation. We sincerely hope that the emperor kindly takes our wishes into consideration and makes the lives of our people comfortable.” The Righteousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards (Ŭihŭng ch’ingunwi)9 was established, and the Chief Military Command Headquarters (Toch’ong chungoe chegunsa pu)10 was abolished. The king ordered the various officials (paekkwan) to make detailed reports on the strength and weakness of the government system related to the preced­ ­ing dynasty [Koryŏ], including decrees and laws as well as their ­history. The king made his kindred and high officials divide and assume command over the armies in the various provinces. 20th Day (Kihae)

The king ordered Chŏng Tojŏn, former Chancellery scholar, to join the Privy Council and concurrently supervise the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals (Sangsŏsa). Inspector-General Min Kae and others requested that the Wang clan of Koryŏ be relocated to local districts. The king replied, “Prince Sunhŭng Wang Sŭng and his son Kang rendered service to the country, and I intend to have Prince Chŏngyang Wang U and his sons Cho and Kwan perform sacrifices to their ancestors in the future. Hence, they should be made an exception in your discussion. However, as for the rest of the Wang clan, divide them into two groups and relocate them on Kanghwa and Kŏje Islands, respectively. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king. “We humbly believe that Your Majesty rose against the old regime and for the 9. After his inauguration, T’aejo turned his private army into royal guards who were mostly comprised of the solders from the Northeast Region, his hometown and power base, appointing members of the royal family as their commander. 10. It was established by T’aejo in 1388 after his army’s marching back from Wihwa Island in order to consolidate his military power.

109

110

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

first time ascended the throne to comply with the will of Heaven. The Classic of Documents said, ‘The Lord on High [dwelling in] the great heavens has changed his decree respecting his great son and the great dynasty of Yin. Our king has received that decree. Unbounded is the happiness connected with it, and unbounded is the anxiety: Oh! How can he be other than reverent?’11 “So-called reverence is central to the mind, serving as the foundation of all things. Therefore, one needs it all the time, whether one worships and performs the sacrifices to the Lord on High, which is a great priority, or one follows a daily routine such as rising, sleeping, eating and resting, which is of relatively less priority. “King Tang and King Wu of Zhou were able to prosper because they respected the will of Heaven and conducted themselves cautiously day and night. King Jie of Xia and King Zhou of Shang,12 on the other hand, brought themselves to ruin because they failed to practice reverence, only disregarding virtue and displaying power. “If you look back on history, suppression and rebellion and the rise and fall [of states] are all related to that. The so-called “reverence” alone is the beginning of the king’s good reign. Now is the start of your reign, when Your Majesty has risen to the throne. Establishing a sound government and leaving a good legacy for posterity depend on this day, and the blessings and curses on your dynasty, as well as the duration of your kingdom ordained by Heaven, also depend on this day. “If Your Majesty always comports yourself reverently as if in the presence of the Lord on High, and is constantly mindful that you are under his scrutiny, and takes care not to lapse into depraved thought in conducting your affairs, your reverence will impress Him and your kingdom will prosper. Since the matters of priority that need to be done are recorded in detail and are illustrated for your perusal, we request that you accept and execute them so that your achievements can serve as a model for all ages. “First is to establish order and discipline [among officialdom]. The one who rules well is more concerned about the lack of order and discipline than 11. This address was made by Shi, Duke of Zhao (or Shao), to King Cheng. Shi is presumed to be one of King Wen’s ten sons. He made great contributions to founding the new Zhou dynasty and became grand guardian of King Cheng who was still young. “Announcement of the Duke of Shao, ” Shu Ching, Book of History, p162-3. Translation is slightly revised. 12. King Jie is the last ruler of the Xie dynasty, and King Zhou the last ruler of the Shang dynasty. They are both traditionally regarded as tyrant and oppressor.

Book I

security. When the Zhou dynasty declined in antiquity, feudal lords rose from everywhere to challenge it recklessly. However, the dynasty managed to endure many more generations because order and discipline were maintained. We would like to ask Your Majesty to take the rise and fall of past kingdoms as your model and establish discipline and order that can be handed down to your posterity for ten thousand generations. “Second is to clearly distinguish between rewards and punishments. To mete out reward and punishment is a great prerogative of the king. If the king fails to reward those who have rendered service to the country or fails to punish those who have committed crimes, the state cannot be ruled properly even if he is a sage ruler such as Yao or Shun. In administering reward and punishment, the king must not allow his personal feelings to intervene, just as Heaven and Earth both give life to and destroy all things impartially. “Third is to keep good people close by and distance oneself from petty people. These two groups of people indeed need to be distinguished. The ones you must associate with are those who act according to their convictions, using the right words and being rational. Being loyal to the king, they serve the king with devotion, and even when they are dismissed they think about ways to correct the king’s shortcomings. Being just and fair, they tend to forget their self-interest and only consider the public good. The ones you must shun are those who use cunning and flattery to seize power or abuse power. They steal the contributions made by others or try to endear themselves to anyone if they can benefit from it, regardless of what others say. It is difficult to find men of worth, but it is easy to alienate them; it requires little effort to be friendly with petty people, but it is hard to separate from them. “Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty brought prosperity in the Kaiyuan period13 by employing wise retainers such as Yao Chong and Song Jing14 but brought about the Tianbao Rebellion15 when he called in Yang Guozhong16 and Li Linfu.17 This shows that the rise and fall of the state 13. The reign name of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty (713–741). 14. Both Yao Chong (650–721) and Song Jing (663–737) served as chancellors during the reign of Xuanzong. 15. Tianbao Rebellion refers to the An Lushan Rebellion (also called Ansi Rebellion), which took place in the reign of Xuanzong, from 755 to 763. 16. Being the cousin of Yang Yuhan (better known as Yang Guifei), the beloved consort of Emperor Xuanzong, he served as chancellor in the later years of Xuanzong. 17. Serving as chancellor for eighteen long years, he misled Xuanzong by flattery and cutting off the access of other officials to the emperor for his self-interest.

111

112

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

depend on whom the ruler chooses to employ and discard. How, then, can you not be careful? “The Classic of Documents says, ‘In your employment of men of worth, have no second thoughts; in casting out wicked men, do not doubt your decision.’18 If Your Majesty believes a person is worthy, we wish you to employ him, even if he has made mistakes. If the person is cunning, however, we wish you to reject him, even if he has rendered service. “Fourth is to accept remonstrances from your subjects. According to a classic,19 ‘When a Son of Heaven has seven subjects who will dispute him, even though he has no virtue he will not lose his empire. When a duke has five subjects who will dispute him, even though he is not benevolent he will not lose his state.’ This is the maxim for all ages. “The reason that officials make remonstrances is not to promote their own interests but the interests of the state. The authority of the king is like thunder, and his power like hundreds of thousands of heavy weights. How can it be easy for a subject to speak out without being afraid of such awesome authority and power? Fortune and misfortune depend on whether one follows words of advice, and profit and loss depend on whether one carries something out. Therefore, the king should always keep the way open for words of remonstrance to reach him and be ready to accept them with a benevolent countenance. “Even if their remonstrances are accepted and their positions are raised thanks to them, officials are always afraid and fail to express themselves as much as they would like to. In these circumstances, if you display your authority and overwhelm them with your power, honest words, efficacious like good medicine, will be lost on the way, and the misfortunes caused by the king’s blindness to the truth will strike suddenly. “The Classic of Documents says, “Do not refuse to listen to remonstrance.” It also says, “The monarch who takes advice becomes wise.” We hope that Your Majesty keeps these sayings in mind. “Fifth is to prevent slander. Emperor Shun said, “I abominate slanderous speakers and destroyers of the right ways who agitate and alarm my people.”20 Slanderous words are powerful enough to make people blind.

18. “The Counsels of Great Yü,” Shu King: Book of History, translated by Clae Waltham, p. 20. The translation is partially revised. 19. This is a reference to Bai Hu Tong (Symposium in the White Tiger Hall) by Ban Gu (32–92), vol. 4, “Remonstrance.” 20. “The Cannon of Shun,” Shu King: Book of History, translated by Clae Waltham, p. 17.

Book I

Thus, even a sage king such as Shun had to worry about them, which means they are extremely dangerous. Those who slander and flatter generally ensnare others by any means available, until they impair the judgment of the king. If they make requests with sweet and humble words, the king might grant them; when their words melt into his ears earnestly, he might lend them his ears. Then, his way of promoting or dismissing, or rewarding and punishing, officials may lose the proper degree of balance and eventually bring about danger and ruin to the state. “The Book of Odes says, ‘The sovereign should be careful about slander because it can be the seed of troubles.’ If you watchfully observe cunning people, none of their evils will be hidden from your eyes and slandering will ultimately cease. “Sixth is to watch out for indolence and greed. The Classic of Documents says, ‘Let not the Son of Heaven set the example of indolence or dissoluteness to the rulers of states.’21 How can there be only one or two things that hurt your virtue? Such pleasures as leading a life of ease and comfort, furnishing the royal palace luxuriously, eating the choicest foods, enjoying the attendance of the queen and royal concubines and ladies, and such pastimes as hunting, and raising dogs and horses or flowers can injure human nature and cause a man to become dissolute. Therefore, one cannot help being careful. Further­ more, the Mandate of Heaven is so inconstant that it helps only the virtuous. Thus, one cannot afford neglecting things, no matter how trivial they may be, or feel relaxed even a moment, unless one is ready to allow himself to slide into a life of indolence and greed, which is dreadful because Heaven is looking down. Hence, one cannot help being afraid and careful. “Seventh is to respect frugality and simplicity. Making his royal palace more modest and wearing plain-looking clothes was King Yü’s great virtue. Saving a small sum of money and dressing in crude silk were exemplary acts by Emperor Wen of Han. Despite occupying the highest seat on the earth as the Son of Heaven and possessing the wealth of the whole world, they led frugal and simple lives. Our land, on the other hand, being situated between mountains and seas, has a relatively small population and accordingly limited revenues. How, then, can the ruler of this land be reckless in his spending without considering the income and expenditures? “When natural disasters took place during the former dynasty, however small they were, the rulers only exerted themselves in praying and serving 21. “The Counsels of Kao Yao,” Shu King: Book of History, translated by Clae Waltham, p. 28.

113

114

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Buddha and the spirits instead of dreading and repenting their mistakes. The money they spent on those activities was beyond calculation, and Your Majesty already knows this too well. We would like to request you, from this day forward, to emulate King Yü of Xia and Emperor Wen of Han in their virtuous conduct of frugality (which extended to their official dress, trappings, entertainment and rewards) and eliminate all nonessential expenditures for worshipping Buddha and the spirits. If you hold events and perform ceremonies without self-indulgence and luxury, people will notice and be impressed by it, so they will be eager to follow your example. “Eighth is to keep away from eunuchs. Eunuchs have long been a source of trouble. Zhao Gao22 of the Qin dynasty, Hong Gong and Shi Xian23 of the Han dynasty, and Li Fuguo24 and Chou Shiliang25 of the Tang dynasty are among the worst examples. At the end of the previous dynasty [Koryŏ], more than a few seized power as eunuchs. They are generally intelligent, eloquent, and good at pleasing others as they try to read the minds of their superiors. Therefore, the king often falls into their trickery and either loses his power or runs into trouble while he is unaware of the danger. Cases such as these are almost endless, and this is truly lamentable. “From this day forward, we request that you choose decent and discreet eunuchs from the group and let them carry out their original duties—that is, to control the access of people to the palace and keep it clean (soje), without being assigned to any other extra duties. As for those who are old and cunning, and avaricious and shameless, we ask you to send them all away to the countryside so that they cannot tarnish the image of your new benevolent rule. “Ninth is to eliminate Buddhist priests and nuns. The so-called Buddhism is a religion that originated in a barbarian country and first entered the Han dynasty during the years of Yongping26 and was finally transmitted to our 22. Chief eunuch at the end of the Qin dynasty who, along with Li Si, played an instrumental role in the downfall of the dynasty. 23. Hong Gong and Shi Xian served as imperial secretary and chief eunuch, respectively, during the reign of Emperor Yuan (75 bc –35 bc). 24. A powerful eunuch of the Tang dynasty during the reign of Emperor Suzong and his successor Emperor Daizong. Involved in constant power struggles, he served as minister of war and chancellor but was eventually assassinated by Daizong, whom he had helped to enthrone. 25. Chief eunuch during the reign of Emperor Wuzong (814–846). He was famous for promoting Taoism while persecuting Buddhism. 26. The reign name of Emperor Ming (58 ad –75 ad) of the Han dynasty.

Book I

country. This religion now thrives to the extent that temples stand tall everywhere, and the country is filled with those who have shaved heads and wear monk’s robes. “Since Buddhism originally taught “obtaining a pure mind and restraining desires” (ch’ŏngjŏng kwayok), what its believers should do is retire into remote mountains and cultivate their minds, eating nothing but vegetables and drinking nothing but water. Notwithstanding, they choose to live among the common people and confuse the scholars with sophisticated words and reasoning, or scare ignorant people, saying that the evils and sins committed in the present world will be punished after death. Meanwhile, they have led the people into a snare and made them corrupt enough to forget to return to what they used to be. They themselves amass fortunes and enjoy womanizing, riding fat horses, and wearing light robes. Their immoralities know no limits, undermining the state and making the people sick, and no problem is more serious than they. Let them all be gathered, and evaluate their learning and virtue. If they are learned and virtuous, allow them to pursue their own ways. As for the rest, make them grow their hair and return to their old ways of living. “Tenth is to tighten the control of access to the royal palace. The purpose of building the royal palace and its gate is to elevate the king’s majesty and demarcate clearly between the inside and the outside of the royal palace. Though Your Majesty rose to the throne with the help of Heaven and inaugurated a new dynasty, your old friends and relatives frequent the palace, and the guards at the gate dare not prevent their entry. “As a result, we are concerned that requests for special favors can proliferate and slanderous words find their ways, estranging one from another and bringing disorder in state affairs and the administration of justice. Therefore, we request that you strictly order the gate guards to prevent people, especially those who have no official duties, such as female visitors and shaman sorceresses, from entering the royal gate. “We believe that since trust [one’s word] (sin) is a priceless treasure (taebo) of the king, the state is preserved by the people, and the people by reliability. For this reason, the sage ruler would rather give up his army and provision than his trust. The meaning of this precept is profound. “Unless the king displays trust [keeps his word] in establishing discipline and order and administering rewards and punishments, discipline and order will be in disarray and rewards and punishments will be distributed unfairly. Unless he demonstrates trust [keeps his word] in having good people close

115

116

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

to him and rejecting petty people, he will facilitate his estrangement from good people and become close to the petty people. Unless he shows trusts [keeps his word] in accepting remonstrance and rejecting slander, sincere advice will sometimes sound offensive and slanderous words can be accepted. Unless he shows trust [keeps his word] in refraining from indolence and dissoluteness or practicing frugality and simplicity, he will be unable to eventually overcome the deep-seated desires and succumb to the temptation of wicked and flattering words. Unless he shows trust [keeps his word] in keeping away from eunuchs and removing Buddhist monks and nuns, those who were kept away will come back and those who were eliminated can revive. Unless he shows trust [keeps his word] in restricting access to the royal palace, the people who try to enter the gate using their connections to those who work inside will never disappear. “We beseech Your Majesty to firmly keep your word like iron or stone and execute the decrees you proclaimed without fail, just like the four seasons that never fail to perform their mission. If you do not neglect the heavenly mandate from above and betray the aspiration of your subjects and people from down below who raised you as their sovereign and thereby opened up the million years of peace and prosperity, it will be extremely fortunate.” The king replied, “Rejecting eunuchs and eliminating Buddhist priests and nuns cannot be done immediately because we are in the early stages of the new dynasty. As for the remaining proposals, however, I will have them all implemented. 26th Day (Ŭlsa)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial: “When Assistant Chancellor Kim Chu served as inspector-general in the previous dynasty [Koryŏ], he strongly argued that those including Yi Saek, U Hyŏnbo should be punished for their offenses. However, he changed his words later and said that they were innocent when the meeting was actually held to discuss the matter. He also accused Lord of Ponghwa Chŏng Tojŏn of causing trouble by submitting a memorial that he found to be inappropriate and repeatedly insisted that Tojŏn be punished. Since his way of following the current trend27 is so extreme, we request that you end his appointment and banish him to a remote region.” In response, the king only ordered Chu to be removed from his office.

27. Prevailing opinions among the officials at the court.

Book I

117

*   *   * The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Wang Kang28 for causing harm to the people when he formerly served as the supreme commander (ch’ech’alsa) of three provinces.29 28th Day (Chŏngmi)

T’aejo moved his family to the private residence of Assistant Chancellor Yun Ho.30 T’aejo dedicated eulogistic posthumous titles to his ancestors four generations back. His great-great-grandfather was named as King Mok [Mokwang]31 and his wife Lady Yi, Consort Hyo [Hyobi];32 his great-grandfather, King Ik [Ikwang]33 and his wife Lady Ch’oe, Consort Chŏng [Chŏngbi];34 his 28. An official of late Koryŏ. Passing the civil service examination during the reign of King Kongmin, he served in various offices, including chancellor of the National Academy; military commissioner of the Northwest Region; supreme commander of Yanggwang, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces; and concurrently salt and iron monopoly commissioner. He was known to have rendered great service in transporting tribute taxes and contributed to the increase of national revenue by effectively managing the salt and iron supplies. However, with the end of the Koryŏ dynasty, he was exiled to Kŏje Island and later Kongju and finally executed in 1394 when many of the royal Wang clan were put to death. 29. Ch’ech’alsa is a temporary post designed to supervise the military affairs during emergency situations. 30. An official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. When he served as deputy director (p’ansa), he composed a poem after losing a ko game to King Kongmin. The king was displeased by his poem and kept aloof from him, later sending him away as provincial military commissioner (to sunmunsa) of Yanggwang Province. In 1375, he was implicated in the impeachment of Chancellor Yi Inim and exiled. In 1381, he repulsed the Japanese marauders while serving as magistrate of Kyerim. In 1385, he visited Ming China as tribute envoy, and in 1388 he served as an aide to Yi Sŏnggye when the latter led the military campaign against Liaodong, China. In 1390, he was appointed merit subject for stopping the military campaign against China and enthroning King Kongyang, and became vice grand councilor in 1392. With the founding of the Chosŏn dynasty, he became merit subject second class and received the title of Lord of P’ap’yŏng. Then he served as director of the State Finance Commission and visited Ming China to celebrate the imperial birthday but died while traveling. 31. The Chinese character 穆 (“Mok”), literally “harmony,” signifies spreading virtues by establishing justice. (Narratives of Yŏllŏsil) 32. Also called Queen Hyogong, she was the daughter of Yi Kongsuk, who served as administrator (changsa) of the Thousand Bull Division. (Ibid) 33. The Chinese character 翼 (“Ik”), literally “bird’s wing,” signifies that a person with that name is a man of profound and far-reaching thought. (Ibid) 34. Her clan seat was Dengzhou, and she was the daughter of Ch’oe Kiyŏl, household chief (hojang), the main clerk of a district magistrate. (Ibid)

118

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

grandfather, King To [Towang]35 and his wife Lady Pak, Consort Kyŏng [Kyŏngbi];36 his father, King Hwan [Hwanwang]37 and his wife Lady Ch’oe, Consort Ŭi [Ŭibi].38 The king announced his royal decree to all the officials of high and low ranks, the hallyang officials, the retired elder statesmen, and the servicemen and civilians who serve both in the capital and the provinces: “The king proclaims this decree: The reason that Heaven created people and set up the king above them is to have him cultivate them so that they can live in harmony and govern them so that they can lead comfortable lives, helping one another. So the attitude of the people towards their king, as well as the Mandate of Heaven, depends on how well the king performs his duties, and this is quite natural. “On the sixteenth day of the seventh month in the twenty-fifth year [1392] of the reign of Hongwu, the Privy Council and the officials of high and low ranks requested that I ascend to the throne, saying in one voice: ‘When King Kongmin passed away without leaving an heir, Sin U took advantage of the opportunity and stole the throne. However, he was compelled to abdicate after committing crimes, but his son Ch’ang succeeded him, which indicates that the line of succession of the royal Wang clan was severed once again. Fortunately, with the support of military commanders, Great Lord Chŏngch’ang [King Kongyang] was empowered to take charge of state affairs temporarily, but being foolish, he acted lawlessly. As the hearts of the people turned against him and even his relatives deserted him, he was unable to preserve the Royal Ancestral Shrine and the Altars of Earth and Grain. Since Heaven abandoned him, who could be able to restore him? The rule of the state is destined to return to the one who possesses virtue, and the throne cannot remain vacant for long. Since Your Lordship has earned the hearts of the people across the country due to your outstanding 35. The Chinese character 度 (“To”), literally “law” or “institution,” signifies the mental capacity to create righteousness. (Ibid) 36. Also called Queen Kyŏngsun, she was the daughter of Pak Kwang, who served as battalion commander in the Yuan dynasty and became Great Lord of Anbyŏn in the Chosŏn dynasty. (Ibid) 37. The Chinese character 桓 (“Hwan”), literally “signpost,” signifies expanding the territory and subjugating remote lands. (Ibid) 38. Also called Queen Ŭihye, she was the daughter of Ch’oe Han’gi, who served as chiliarch in the Yuan Dynasty. Her clan seat was Yŏnghŭng.

Book I

contributions and virtue, you should restore the damaged authority and dignity of the throne and relieve the people’s worries.’ “Being unworthy and lacking in virtue, I worried that I would be unable to take my responsibility and declined your requests a few times. However, you all persisted, saying, ‘Since the hearts of the people are like this, it is not hard to know the will of Heaven. You cannot resist the people and disobey the command of Heaven.’ So I had no choice but to accede to your request and reluctantly rose to the throne. “We will continue to use Koryŏ for our dynastic name, and the rites and ceremonies, as well as customs and laws, shall be carried out according to the precedents established by the former dynasty. Since our dynasty is newly founded, it is necessary to announce the gracious and generous measures that will benefit the people, and their details will be illustrated below. “Ah, ah! Lacking in virtue and being ignorant, I do not know how to deal with the present situation, but with your help I intend to change the government for the better. I want you all to feel the same and share my sincerity. “1. It is ancient custom that the Son of Heaven establish seven generations of his ancestors in his shrine, while vassal lords only enshrine five generations of ancestors in their shrine. The ancestral temple is on the left [i.e., east side of the palace], and the altar of earth and grain on the right [i.e., west side]. In the former dynasty [Koryŏ], the order of setting up spirit tablets (somok)39 and the way of building the shrines (tangch’im)40 failed to meet the way prescribed by the classics. Furthermore, though they had the ancestral temple established outside the walls [of the royal palace] and the Altars of Earth and Grain on the right of the palace, the way they arranged this was clearly not in accordance with ancient custom. The Board of Rites shall look closely into this matter and make more appropriate regulations. “1. Provide Wang U, the descendant of the Wang clan, with Majŏn County in Kyŏnggi Province and, enfeoffing him as Lord of Kwiŭi, let him perform 39. Somok, 昭穆, refers to the order in which the ancestral spirit tablets are arranged in bays, which is originally found in the Book of Rites. The tablets on the left are called so, 昭, and the ones on the right mok, 穆. On the left should be the second, fourth, and sixth generations of ancestors preceding the reigning monarch or the one who offers sacrifice; on the right, the third, fifth, and seventh generations of ancestors. At the front, right in the middle, the spirit tablet of the grand ancestor (T’aejo) is placed. See The Li Ki translated by James Legge, pp. 224–5. 40. Tangch’im, 堂寢, according to James Legge, is a comparatively dark compartment at the back of each bay. See Li Ki translated by James Legge, p. 224.

119

120

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

ancestral rites at the shrine of the Wang clan. As for the rest of the clan members, let them live wherever they find convenient outside the capital. In addition, let their wives and children and servants live together as they used to, and make sure that the local governments concerned take good care of them so that they can live safely. “1. Both civil and military examinations for public service are essential, because we need more men of talent for the state. We shall nurture them by establishing the national academy in the capital and provincial schools in the local districts, increasing their number and encouraging them to devote themselves to their studies. “1. The civil service examinations, originally intended to find talented people who are capable of serving the country, have degenerated to such a degree that, rather than being fair and impartial, success or failure in them is determined by private connections and favoritism, which is quite contrary to their original purpose. From now forth, the Civil Service Examination Office of the National Academy (Sŏnggyungwan Chŏngnokso) and surveillance commissioners (allyŏmsa) of local provinces shall select candidates who are learned in the classics and exemplary in their conduct, and submit their names along with their ages, family seats, the history of their immediate ancestors for three generations, and the list of classics they have mastered. Then the Reviewing Office (Chang’iso) of the National Academy shall test the candidates’ knowledge of such texts as the Four Books (Sasŏ),41 the Five Classics (Ogyŏng),42 and Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government (Tongjian)43 and grade their ability according to the number of texts they have mastered the depth of their understanding and so forth. “This is the first stage of the examination process, and those who pass the first stage will be turned over to the Board of Rites, which will test their ability by having them compose documentary prose (p’yo), memorials, and old-style rhyme prose (kobu). This is the second stage of the examination process. The final stage will be the composition of essays on policy (ch’aengmun). The thirty-three candidates who pass the final third stage will be sent to the Board of Personnel, and the Board of Personnel will 41. The Analects, the Mencius, the Great Learning and the Doctrine of Mean. 42. The Classic of Poetry, the Classic of Documents (Book of Documents), the Book of Rites, and the Classic of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. 43. A Chinese history compiled by Smima Guang (1019―1086), a scholar-official of the Song dynasty. Written in the form of chronicle, it covers the history from the Warring States to the Five Dynasties, which spans almost 1,400 years.

Book I

employ them according to their talents. The examination administered by the Directorate of Education (Kamsi) will be abolished. “The Military Training Agency (Hullyŏn’gwan), which is in charge of the instruction of military arts, shall teach the seven military classics (mugyŏng ch’ilsŏ),44 as well as archery and horsemanship, to selected candidates and grade their command of military classics and mastery of the required skills. When the evaluation process is completed, thirty-three candidates are selected as passers, just as with the civil service examination, and provided with certificates. At the same time, the list of the passers’ names will be sent to the Board of War so that they can be assigned to appropriate posts. “1. Since the coming-of-age, wedding, funeral, and ancestral memorial ceremonies are important institutions of the state, the Board of Rites shall set forth the exemplary ceremonial observances by looking into the applicable classics and studying the precedents ancient and recent and thereby promote humanity and rectify the customs. “1. Since local magistrates are close to the people, they shall be chosen very carefully. I will order the Privy Council, the Censorate, and the Six Ministries (Yukcho)45 to recommend men of ability and have those who are recommended serve as magistrates for a term of thirty months. If they prove to be outstanding in their performance, they will be chosen to continue in their employment; however, if their performance turns out to be disappointing, those who recommended them will be held responsible. “1. Since loyal subjects, filial sons, men of principle, and virtuous women are related to the promotion of good customs, they shall be commended and encouraged. The authorities concerned shall pay a visit to those people and recommend them to the government so that they can be honored or appointed to official posts, and a gate shall be erected in their honor at the entrance of their villages. “1. Widows, widowers, orphans, and old people with no children shall be given the first priority for government assistance. The authorities concerned 44. This refers to the seven important military texts of ancient China: The Art of War by Sunzi (Sunzi bingfa); The Methods of Sima (Sima Fa); Six Secret Teachings by Jiang Ziya (Taigong); Wuzi by Wu Qi; Wei Liaozi; Three Strategies of Huang Shigong (Huang Shigong Sanlue); and Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong (Tang Taizong Li Weigong Wendui). 45. The six administrative departments or boards, which consist of Personnel, Taxation, Rites, Military Affairs, Punishments, and Public Works.

121

122

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

shall provide relief to poor and starving people, reducing their corvée obligations. “1. The system that requires rotating clerks (kiin), support staff (maksa), and selected soldiers (sŏn’gun), who were all recruited from the local districts, to serve in the capital,46 carried out its function properly when it was originally established, but over time it degenerated and became abusive. They are forced to work like slaves, so they feel a great deal of resentment and complaint. Hence, this system must be abolished. “1. It is necessary and proper for the state to spend money and grain to carry out its functions. Various state granaries, including those in Ŭisŏng and Tŏkch’ŏn,47 and the agencies in charge of royal families, shall have the accounting of their revenue and expenditure supervised by the State Financial Commission and also inspected by the Office of the InspectorGeneral, as is the case of the P’ungjŏ and Kwanghŭng Granaries.48 “1. The purpose of establishing post stations and guesthouses is to facilitate the transmission of government orders, but these days the people who travel for such purposes have increased so drastically that the posts cannot be maintained properly. The situation is truly deplorable. Henceforth, except those who travel on the orders of the king or on official business and are provided with travel expenses, anyone who travels for private purposes shall not be supplied with facilities and amenities regardless of his rank. If this order is violated, both providers and recipients will be punished together. “1. Since the seamen on battleships are risking their lives and struggling to repulse the enemy, they need to be taken care of. The districts concerned shall exempt them from corvée labor and increase the number of support taxpayers (choho or pongjok) so that they can board the ship in rotation and provide relief to the duty soldiers. If they [duty soldiers or seamen] catch fish or produce salt, they shall be allowed to keep the profits made from their work; the government shall not seize them. 46. Kiin, according to James Palais, refers to the “rotating clerks from local districts responsible for wood and fuel supplies to capital bureaus” (p. 1166). They were originally the sons of local officials whom the central government used as advisors for local affairs, but they were actually hostages held for political purposes. Maksa were support staff in government offices. Sŏn’gun, according to Palais, refers to “selected soldiers, provided with land grants” (p. 1183). But it is also possible that the term refers to the office in charge of recruiting soldiers during the Koryŏ period. 47. Located in North Kyŏngsang Province and South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, respectively. 48. Located in Hanyang (Seoul).

Book I

“1. The purpose of establishing the household cloth tax (hop’o) was to reduce miscellaneous taxes. However, at the end of the Koryŏ dynasty, the household cloth tax was levied without eliminating miscellaneous taxes, and the people suffered greatly. Henceforth, there will be no household tax. The salt produced in all provinces shall be sold to the people by the salt commissioner, under the supervision of the surveillance commissioner, and the profits made from it shall be used to replenish the state treasury. “1. The state-run military farms (tunjŏn) cause damage to the people. They shall be all abolished, except the one in Ŭmjuk.49 “1. At the end of the former dynasty [Koryŏ], the criminal code was not applied consistently. The Board of Punishments, the Capital Constabulary (Sun’gunbu),50 and the Street Jailhouse (Kaguso) executed criminal punishment in their own ways, so that their judgments often turned out to be inappropriate. From this time forward, the Board of Punishments shall take charge of implementing the criminal code and assume responsibility for court hearings and interrogations, and the Palace Guards’ duties shall be limited to patrolling, arresting, and suppressing disturbances. Once a judgment is handed down by the Board of Punishments, even those who committed minor offenses for which the penalty is only a lashing are deprived of their appointment and dismissed from office, causing even their descendants to suffer shame and disgrace. However, this is far from the intention of the sage kings of antiquity who made the laws. Henceforth, the officials in charge of criminal laws, both in the capital and in local districts, shall make their judgments on all public and private crimes only according to The Great Ming Code (Da Minglü).51 They can deprive the offenders of their official appointment only when they can find the corresponding statutes in the penal code, and likewise, they can confiscate only the properties 49. A small district in Kyŏnggi Province. 50. Originally established as a government agency in charge of public order and security similar to police forces in the capital city during late Koryŏ, it gradually expanded its operation and turned into the courts handling litigation on lands and slaves. It also became part of the Elite Palace Guard (Kŭmgun), whose mission was to guard the royal palace. As a result, it was also used for political purposes during the Mongol occupation and the internal power struggles among Koryŏ officials, including Ch’oe Yŏng and Yi Sŏnggye. Then it eventually became the “Office for the Deliberation of Forbidden Affairs” (ŭigŭmbu), the state tribunal, early in the Chosŏn dynasty. 51. The code of law of Ming China compiled by Liu Weiqian on the orders of Emperor Taizu (Zhu Yaunzhang). The text continued to be revised until it was finally completed in 1397. The Great Ming Code referred to here is the version published in 1389.

123

124

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

that are specified in the law as subject to confiscation. Such matters as reinstating an official despite his criminal record or dismissing him after forgiving his crime shall also be decided based solely on The Great Ming Code. Do not repeat the mistakes of the past, and jails such as the kaguso52 shall be abolished. “1. The laws of land administration shall follow those of the former dynasty [Koryŏ]. If there is anything that needs to be removed or added, the official in charge shall report it to higher authorities for approval before he executes it. “1. Transporting tribute taxes by ship causes damage to the people of Kyŏngsang Province, so the practice shall be abolished. “1. The office concerned submitted a memorial, saying, ‘Fifty-six people, including U Hyŏnbo, Yi Saek, and Sŏl Changsu, started trouble at the end of the former dynasty by forming a clique and conspiring to raise a rebellion. Therefore, they shall be duly punished and made examples to warn future generations.’ However, I feel sorry for them and intend to preserve their lives. “In the case of U Hyŏnbo, Yi Saek, Sŏl Changsu, and others, withdraw the letters of appointment from them, change them to commoner status, and banish them to coastal regions with no hope of getting an official post for the rest of their lives. As for U Hongsu,53 Kang Hoebaek,54 Yi Sungin, Cho Ho,55 Kim Chinyang,56 Yi Hwak,57 Yi Chonghak,58 U 52. Literally “a place at the intersection,” it was a prison during the Koryŏ dynasty. According to the History of Koryŏ, it was first established in 1076 during the reign of King Munjong. Though it was primarily a place to detain prisoners, it also functioned as the criminal court. 53. U Hongsu (1355–1392): an official of late Koryŏ and the eldest son of U Hyŏnbo, Earl of Tanyang. He served as inspector-general and associate royal secretary. He was arrested after Chŏng Mongju was killed, for joining the latter in a conspiracy. He was exiled to Sunch’ŏn, South Chŏlla Province, and beaten to death by a man sent by Chŏng Tojŏn, who sought to settle a personal grudge against him and his family. 54. Kang Hoebaek (1357–1402): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. His courtesy name was Paekbo, and his pen name T’ongjŏng. He served as chief royal secretary, assistant grand councilor, and inspector-general. He joined censor Kim Chinyang and others, who were instigated by Chŏng Mongju to impeach Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn. After Chŏng Mongju was killed, he was exiled to Chinyang. 55. Cho Ho (?–1410): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. In 1383, when he served as director, he had a fight with a eunuch and was exiled after being flogged. He was recalled to serve as royal secretary in 1389, during the reign of King Kongyang, but became involved in the conspiracy of Kim Chŏ and was exiled again. Thereafter, he was exiled a couple more times and eventually died in the prison. 56. Kim Chinyang (?–1392): an official of late Koryŏ. He served as right cavalier attendantin-ordinary, left cavalier attendant-in-ordinary, and surveillance commissioner of Sŏhae Province. In 1391, when he became left cavalier attendant-in-ordinary, he impeached the followers of Yi

Book I

Hongdŭk,59 and others, withdraw their letters of appointment and ban­ ­ish them to remote regions after administering 100 strokes of flogging with a heavy paddle. With respect to Ch’oe Ŭlŭi,60 Pak Hŭngt’aek,61 Kim I,62 Yi Nae,63 Kim Myo,64 Yi Chongsŏn,65 U Honggang,66 Sŏ Sŏnggye—including Cho Chun, Chŏng Tojŏn, and Nam ŭn—for causing a disturbance and sent them into exile. Then, conspiring with Chŏng Mongju, he further attempted to eliminate them all when Yi Sŏnggye fell from his horse and was injured. After Chŏng Mongju was killed, he was arrested and interrogated. He confessed that, instigated by Chŏng Mongju, he had impeached the followers of Yi Sŏnggye. He was severely beaten and banished, and died in exile. 57. Yi Hwak (?–1392): an official of late Koryŏ. In 1392, together with Kim Chinyang and others, he impeached Cho Chun, Chŏng Tojŏn, and others for causing disturbances. When Chancellor Chŏng Mongju was killed, he was accused of being a member of Chŏng Mongju’s clique and was beaten to death. 58. Yi Chonghak (1361–1392): an official of late Koryŏ. He was the grandson of Yi Kok and the second son of Yi Saek. He served as third royal secretary and associate examination administrator. In 1390, he was involved (along with his father, Yi Saek) in the conspiracy case of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, and was imprisoned in Ch’ŏngju (his father also). He was released from prison because of a flood; however, he was impeached again after Chŏng Mongju was assassinated by the followers of Yi Sŏnggye and was exiled to Hamch’ang. Chŏng Tojŏn unsuccessfully tried to kill him by sending his man, Son Hŭngjong. He was eventually killed on his way to another place of exile. 59. U Hongdŭk (?–1392): the son of U Hyŏnbo, Earl of Tanyang. He served as second inspector. Implicated in the conspiracy of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, he was exiled to Kanghwa Island and beaten to death. 60. Ch’oe ŭlŭi (?–1392): an official of late Koryŏ who served as third inspector. Though he became royal secretary in the early years of King Kongyang, he was exiled to Kyŏngsang Province after Chŏng Mongju was assassinated by the followers of Yi Sŏnggye, and beaten to death at the place of his exile. 61. Pak Hŭngt’aek: unknown except that he served as royal secretary and director. 62. Unknown. 63. Yi Nae (1362–1416): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as censorin-chief and minister of works. In 1392, when Chŏng Mongju was assassinated by the followers of Yi Sŏnggye, he was accused of being a member of Chŏng’s clique and exiled to Kyerim (modern Kyŏngju) briefly. However, in 1400, he made contributions to suppressing the rebellion of Prince Panggan and became King Chŏngjong’s merit subject. As a result, he was invested with the title of Lord of Kyerim and promoted to inspector-general and director of the Office of Royal Decrees via censor-in-chief and minister of works. 64. Unknown. 65. Unknown. 66. U Honggang (1357–1423): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son of U Hyŏnbo, Earl of Tanyang. He initially entered the public service on the basis of his father’s fame but soon passed the civil service examination. He served as surveillance commissioner of Kangwŏn Province, section chief of the Board of Personnel, and second assistant master of the National Academy. In 1392, when the Chosŏn dynasty was founded and Chŏng Tojŏn and others, who were now in power, tried to eliminate the officials of the previous dynasty, he was exiled briefly after being beaten with a stick. However, in 1401, thanks to the contributions that his family made to suppressing the rebellion of Prince Panggan, he was

125

126

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Kyŏn,67 U Hongmyŏng,68 Kim Ch’ŏm,69 Hŏ Ŭng,70 Yu Hyang,71 Yi Chak,72 Yi Sin,73 An Nosaeng,74 Kwŏn Hong,75 Ch’oe Ham,76 Yi appointed censor-in-chief, director of the Comprehensive Rites Office, and magistrate of Ch’ungju, successively. Later, he also served as magistrate of Hansŏng (Seoul) and governor of Kangwŏn Province. 67. Sŏ Kyŏn (?) passed the civil service examination in 1369 during the reign of King Kongmin, and in 1391, he served as fourth inspector during the reign of King Kongyang. He impeached the followers of Yi Sŏnggye, including Chŏng Tojŏn, along with other censors, and after Chŏng Mongju was assassinated, he was sent into exile together with Kim Chinyang. 68. U Hongmyŏng (?–1932): an official of late Koryŏ. He was the son of U Hyŏnbo, Earl of Tanyang. He served as assistant section chief of the Board of Personnel and section chief of the Board of Rites. In 1390, implicated in the conspiracy of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, he was exiled together with his father and two brothers, Hongbu and Hongdŭk. He was released soon thereafter; however, in 1392, when the Chosŏn dynasty was founded and the punishments for the old officials of Koryŏ who used to be critical of the new king were discussed, he was exiled to Chŏlla Province and beaten to death shortly afterwards. 69. Kim Ch’ŏm (1354–1418): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as right censor, minister of rites, vice director of the Office of Royal Decrees, and inspector general. In 1392, he was briefly exiled for joining the conspiracy led by Chŏng Mongju. Learned in Daoism, he tried to promote it, enjoying support from King T’aejong. 70. Hŏ ŭng (?–1411): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son of Hŏ Kyo, magistrate of Kaesŏng. He served as right cavalier attendant-in-ordinary and impeached Chancellor Yi Inim and his followers. When he served as inspector-general during the reign of T’aejong, he repeatedly made strong requests to suppress Buddhism, risking the displeasure of the king. 71. Unknown. 72. There is a very little known about him except that he served as magistrate of Tanyang in 1415, during the reign of King T’aejong. When he served as censor, he joined others in impeaching Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn and, because of this, was exiled. 73. Yi Sin (?): an official of late Koryŏ. In 1391, when he served as fourth inspector, he joined the censors in impeaching Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn. After Chŏng Mongju (who was his leader) was assassinated, he was exiled. 74. An Nosaeng (?) passed the civil service examination in 1376 and started his career as vice supervisor of the Quartermaster Bureau. Being a man of integrity, he was very strict in cracking down on smuggling and illegal trading with the Mongols. When he served as vice minister of war, Chŏng Mongju was assassinated by the followers of Yi Sŏnggye, and he was accused of being a member of Chŏng’s clique and exiled to Kyŏngsang Province. After the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, however, he became left grand master of remonstrance, deputy director of the Hall of Worthies, and third minister of rites, among other posts. 75. Kwŏn Hong (1360–1446): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as director of the Royal House Administration, minister of rites, and magistrate of Hansŏng (modern Seoul). He joined the censors in impeaching Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn and was exiled later. His daughter became a concubine of King T’aejong, and he received the title of Lord of Yŏngga. 76. There is very little known about him except that he served as left grand master of remonstrance during the reign of King T’aejong.

Book I

Kam,77 Ch’oe Kwan,78 Yi Sayŏng,79 Yu Ki,80 Yi Ch’ŏm,81 U Hongbu,82 Kang Yŏ,83 Kim Yunsu,84 and others, withdraw the letters of appointment from them and banish them to remote regions after administering 70 strokes of flogging with a heavy paddle. 77. He was serving as left third censor when he jointly impeached Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn, and was exiled because of it. 78. Ch’oe Kwan (?–1424): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Passing the civil service examination during the reign of King U, he served as section chief of rites, director of the Office of Guest Affairs, third minister of the Board of Personnel, and magistrate of Hansŏng. 79. There is very little known about him except that he served as surveillance commissioner and minister of the Board of Punishments. 80. Yu Ki (?–1410): an official of early Chosŏn. His grandfather was Yu Suk, director of the Office of the Royal Decrees. He served as royal secretary and governor of Chŏlla Province. In 1409, he was involved in the imprisonment case of brothers Min Mugu and Min Muji, King T’aejong’s brothers-in-law, and exiled to Haenam, South Chŏlla Province. He was executed in the place of his exile. 81. Yi Ch’ŏm (1345–1405): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. His courtesy name was Chungsuk, and his pen name Ssangmaedang. In 1368, he passed the civil service examination, and in 1375 impeached the powerful Chancellor Yi Inim when he served as third censor. Because of this, he was exiled for ten years. In 1391, he became chief royal secretary during the reign of King Kongyang, but was exiled again for impeaching Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn, the followers of Yi Sŏnggye. After the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, he served as minister of personnel and associate academician of the Privy Council. In 1402, he became state councilor and visited the Ming court as an envoy to congratulate the emperor of China on his inauguration. During his visit, he made a request to the emperor to revise the document that authorized the inauguration of the then-present king of Chosŏn and grant a new royal seal for him. After his return from China, he was promoted to director of the Office of Royal Decrees and, concurrently, to inspector-general. 82. U Hongbu (?–1414): a son of U Hyŏnbo. While serving as deputy director of the Palace Medical Office, he was briefly exiled with his father and brothers. In 1400, the second year of King Chŏngjong’s reign, he accidentally listened to the conversation between Yi Rae and his father, who were relatives of Prince Hoean, and learned that Prince Hoean was planning to seize power. He passed the secret information to Prince Chŏngan and thereby made contributions towards the successful suppression of the rebellion. As a result, he was appointed vice magistrate of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy (Kaesŏng yuhusa). 83. Unknown. 84. Unknown. 85. Kim Namdŭk (?): an official of late Koryŏ. He served as magistrate of Sangju, magistrate of Kaesŏng, governor of Sŏhae Province, and assistant administrator of the Chancellery. 86. Kang Si (1339–1400): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served in numerous posts, including left director of the State Finance Commission, director of the Weapons Bureau, and the surveillance of Kangnŭng Province, until he rose to assistant grand councilor during the reign of King Chŏngjong. His posthumous title was Kongmok. 87. Yi ŭljin (?): a military official of late Koryŏ. He served as military commander of Ch’ungju and Tanyang as well as Kangnŭng. On many occasions, he repulsed Japanese invaders and, following Yi Sŏnggye, joined the military campaign against Liaodong, China.

127

128

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“As for Kim Namdŭk,85 Kang Si,86 Yi Ŭljin,87 Yu Chŏnghyŏn,88 Chŏng U,89 Chŏng Kwa,90 Chŏng To,91 Kang Inbo,92 An Chun,93 Yi Tang,94 Yi Sil,95 and others, withdraw the letters of appointment from them and drive them away to remote places. “Regarding Sŏng Sŏngnin,96 Yi Yungoeng,97 Yu Hyeson,98 An Wŏn,99 Kang Hoejung,100 Sin Yun P’il,101 Sŏng Sŏgyong,102 Chŏn Oryun,103 Chŏng Hŭi,104 and others, banish them to their hometowns. In 1389, involved in the conspiracy led by Kim Chŏ to kill Yi Sŏnggye, he was exiled with other conspirators. 88. Yu Chŏnghyŏn (1355–1426): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. His clan seat was Munhwa. His courtesy name was Yŏmyŏng, and his pen name Wŏljŏng. He served in numerous posts, including minister of war, minister of personnel, and inspector-general, until he became chief state councilor. He was granted the title of Chŏngsuk posthumously. 89. Little is known except that he once served as minister. 90. Unknown. 91. The younger brother of Chŏng Mongju. Assisting his brother, he attempted to eliminate Yi Sŏnggye, without success. 92. Unknown. 93. He served as magistrate of Namyang, chamberlain of the Office of Royal Sacrifices, and supreme commander of Chŏlla, Ch’unch’ŏng, and Kyŏngsang Provinces. After Chŏng Mongju was assassinated, he was exiled to Ŭiryŏng and later Yech’ŏn. He died soon thereafter in the place of his exile. 94. Unknown. 95. Unknown. 96. Sŏng Sŏngnin (1338–1423): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. His courtesy name was Chasu, and his pen name Tokkok. He served in numerous posts until he became chief state councilor in 1405, during the reign of King T’aejong. He was granted the title of Mun’gyŏng posthumously. 97. Unknown. 98. Little is known about him except that he served as royal secretary and assistant administrator of the Chancellery. 99. An Wŏn (1346–1411): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as governor of Kyŏngsang Province, inspector-general, magistrate of Hansŏng, and magistrate of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy. With the support of the king, he impeached Min Mugu and Min Mugil, King T’aejong’s brothers-in-law, and had them exiled. 100. Kang Hoejung (?): an official of early Chosŏn. In his early career, he supervised the construction of the fortress in the capital and served as provincial military commissioner of Hamgil Province, associate commander of the Left Army, governor of Kyŏnggi Province and concurrently as vice magistrate of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy, and governor of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 101. Unknown. 102. Sŏng Sŏgyong (?–1403): a son of Sŏng Yŏwan, Great Lord of Ch’angsŏng, and the brother of Chief State Councilor Sŏng Sŏngnin. Appointed a minor merit subject by T’aejo, he served as inspector-general and magistrate of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy. 103. Chŏn Oryun (?): an official of late Koryŏ. Passing the civil service examination during the reign of King Kongmin, he served as right cavalier attendant-in-ordinary during the reign

Book I

“The ones who committed crimes before the twenty-eighth of the seventh month of the twenty-fifth year (1392) of the reign of Hongwu, regardless of whether their crimes were discovered, shall be all pardoned except those who committed crimes subject to the death penalty.” This royal decree was drafted by Chŏng Tojŏn. Because Tojŏn had harbored personal resentment against U Hyŏnbo for many years, he had tried every possible means to ruin his family, without much success. Around this time, after making an extensive list of proposals, he finally found a chance to destroy him by including his name on the list of ten people who were to be punished by death. The king ordered Royal Secretary An Kyŏnggong to read the royal decree. While listening to it, he was surprised and said, “How can the crimes of these people deserve the death penalty? I will not allow any further discussion on it.” Tojŏn and others again requested that the king punish them by lowering the grade of their crimes. The king replied, “Even if the crimes of the Count of Hansan [Yi Saek], U Hyŏnbo, and Sŏl Changsu are reduced to the lower grade, they shall not be punished physically. Do not bring this matter up anymore.” Tojŏn and others again requested that the king physically punish the remaining people. This time the king did not disallow their idea because he believed that those who suffered the penalty of being beaten with a heavy paddle would not die. The official ranks for all civil and military officials became established as follows. The civil officials (tongban): Rank 1a: specially appointed bulwark grand master for splendid happiness (t’ŭkchin poguk sungnok taebu) and bulwark grand master for state affairs (poguk sungjŏng taebu). Rank 1b: grand master for splendid happiness (sungnok taebu) and grand master for state affairs (sungjŏng taebu). Rank 2a: grand master for illustrious government (chŏnghŏn taebu) and grand master for assisting toward fundamental laws (chahŏn taebu). Rank 2b: grand master for supporting tranquility (kajŏng taebu) and grand master for supporting probity (kasŏn taebu). Rank 3a: grand master for government overall (t’ongjŏng taebu) and grand master for

of King Kongyang and rose to minister of punishments. Working together with Chŏng Mongju and Yi Saek, he tried to stabilize state affairs in crisis. After Koryŏ collapsed, he retired to Tumundong, where the old officials loyal to Koryŏ lived. 104. Chŏng Hŭi (?): a disciple of Chŏng Mongju. He served as second and third inspector. He impeached Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn and was exiled.

129

130

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

moral instruction overall (t’onghun taebu). Rank 3b: grand master of forthrightness for the court (chungjik taebu) and grand master of moral instruction for the court (chunghun taebu). Rank 4a: grand master for governance service (pongjŏng taebu) and grand master for government ranks (pongnyŏl taebu). Rank 4b: grand master for closing court (chosan taebu) and grand master for court service (chobong taebu). Rank 5a: gentleman for transmitting virtue (t’ongdŏngnang) and gentleman for transmitting goodness (t’ongsŏllang). Rank 5b: gentleman for rendering forthright service (pongjingnang) and gentleman for rendering moral instruction (ponghullang). Rank 6a: gentleman for counsel (sŭngŭirang) and gentleman for moral instruction (sŭnghullang). Rank 6b: gentleman for proclaiming edicts (sŏn’gyorang) and gentleman for proclaiming responsibilities (sŏnmurang). Rank 7a: gentleman for carrying out meritorious works (mugongrang). Rank 7b: gentleman for guiding meritorious works (kyegongrang). Rank 8a: gentleman for transmitting instructions (t’ongsarang). Rank 8b: gentleman for receiving instructions (sŭngsarang). Rank 9a: gentleman for escort service (chongsarang). Rank 9b: gentleman for ceremonial service (changsarang). The Privy Council (Top’yŏngŭisa sa)105 will have 2 directors (p’ansa). They will be the chief ministers to the throne. It also will have 11 associate directors (tong p’ansa) who are above rank 2a and concurrently serve in the Chancellery and Finance Commission. There will be 1 commissioner (sa), and he will be the chief of the Security Council (p’an chungch’uwŏn sa). He will be assisted by 15 associate commissioners (pusa) whose ranks will be between that of the commissioners and that of the academicians (haksa) in the Security Council. The Administrative Office (Kyŏngnyŏksa), run concurrently by officials who belong to other departments, will be staffed by 1 chief administrator (kyŏngnyŏk), 1 inspector (tosa), 6 chief clerks of the Six Bureaus (Yukbang 105. Originally established in early Koryŏ under the title of Topyŏngmasa, it started as a temporary council mainly for dealing with the military affairs of the two circuits in the northern region of the country. Its members consisted of the commissioners of the Secretariat-Chancellery and the directors of the Security Council. Later, approximately after mid-Koryŏ, the council expanded its function to include not only military matters but also other affairs of state, including providing relief to the people, and changed its name to Todang. In 1279, in the fifth year of King Ch’ungnyŏl’s reign, Todang was named To p’yŏngŭisa, and its function as well as its membership were further expanded. The directors of the State Finance Commission were allowed to join the council, and its members increased to between seventy and eighty. The newly established Chosŏn inherited the system with little change. It continued to exist until it was replaced by the State Council (Uijŏngbu) in 1400, during the reign of King Chŏngjong.

Book I

noksa), and 6 clerks (chŏlli). Those clerks have to leave their posts at the Administrative Office when they reach rank 7. Regular civil servants will receive a stipend. The rest will be treated as interns. The Office for Institutional Investigation (kŏmsang choryesa) will be staffed with 2 legal secretaries (kŏmsang) who also perform other duties concurrently, and 3 record keepers (noksa) who concurrently work in the Three Offices (Samgwan).106 The Chancellery (Munhabu) will be run by grand councilors (chaesin) who will be in charge of various state affairs. One of its departments, the Office of Remonstrance (Nangsa), will be responsible for rebuking and rectifying deviant behavior, for vetting official appointments, and for transmitting the edicts and other royal messages to those below as well as conveying messages from those below to the throne. The Chancellery will be staffed with 1 chancellor (yŏngbusa), 1 left chancellor (chwa sijung), and 1 right chancellor (u sijung). They will be rank 1a. They will be assisted by 2 assistant chancellors (sirang ch’ansŏngsa), who hold rank 1b. It will be further staffed with 4 assistant grand councilors (ch’amch’an pusa), 1 administrative grand councilor (chi pusa), 1 Chancellery scholar (chŏngdang munhak), and 2 assistant consultive councilors (sangŭi pusa). This second group of grand councilors will hold rank 2a. Below them will be junior councilors and officials: 1 left policy advisor (chwa san’gi sangsi) and 1 right policy advisor (u san’gi sangsi), both of 3a rank; 1 left grand master of remonstrance (chwa kanŭi taebu) and 1 right grand master of remonstrance (u kanŭi taebu); and 1 auxiliary remonstrator (chingmunha). This third group of officials holds rank 3b. The remaining staff members will be: 1 drafter (naesa sain) who holds rank 4a; 1 remonstrating censor (kigŏju), 1 left rectifier of omissions (chwa pogwŏl) and 1 right rectifier of omissions (u pogwŏl) who hold senior rank 5a; 1 left reminder (chwa sŭbyu) and 1 right reminder (u sŭbyu) who hold rank 6a; 1 recorder (chusŏ) and 1 auditor (tosa) who both will hold rank 7a; and 6 administrative aides (yŏlli). The aides have to leave their posts at the Chancellery when they reach rank 7. Regular civil servants will receive a stipend. The rest will be treated as interns. The State Finance Commission (Samsa) will be responsible for paying officials’ stipends and other government spending. It will be staffed with 1 106. Office of Royal Decrees (Yemun’gwan), National Academy (Sŏnggyungwan), and Bureau of State Records (Ch’unch’ugwan).

131

132

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

chief director (yŏngsa) who holds rank 1a; 1 director (p’ansa) who holds rank 1b; 1 left director (chwa pogya) and 1 right director (u pogya) who hold rank 2a; 1 left aide (chwa sŭng) and 1 right aide (u sŭng) who hold rank 3b; 1 left advisor (chwa chaŭi) and 1 right advisor (u chaŭi) who hold rank 4a; 1 left scribe (chwa changsa) and 1 right scribe (u changsa) who hold rank 5a; 2 auditors (tosa) who hold rank 7a; and 6 administrative aides (yŏlli). Those clerks have to leave their posts at the State Finance Commission when they reach rank 7. Regular civil servants will receive a stipend. The rest will be treated as interns. The Office of Royal Decrees and State Records (Yemun ch’unch’ugwan) will be responsible for discussing and composing the royal decrees issued in the name of the king and compiling the official records of the state. It will be headed by 1 director (kamgwansa) who will concurrently serve as a chief minister, at the least. The other members of the office will be: 2 grand academicians (t’aehaksa) who hold rank 2a; 2 administrative directors (chi kwansa) who will concurrently serve as chahŏn taebu, grand master for assisting illustrious government, or above [rank 2a]; 2 academicians (haksa) who hold rank 2b; 2 associate administrative directors who concurrently will fill the post of kasŏn taebu, grand master for supporting probity (rank 2b); 2 primary editors (ch’ung p’yŏnsugwan) and 2 supportive editors (kyŏm p’yŏnsugwan) who are above rank 4; 1 document drafter (ŭnggyo) who is concurrently assigned to another post of rank 5; 2 diarists (kongbonggwan) who hold rank 7a; 2 copyists (such’an’gwan) who hold rank 8a; 4 auxiliaries (chikkwan) who hold rank 9a; and 4 clerks (sŏri). The clerks are required to retire at rank 8. The Security Council (Chungch’uwŏn) will be responsible for official communications, confidential information regarding military matters, safeguarding the palace, the appointment of military officials, and so forth. It will be staffed with 1 commissioner (p’ansa) who holds rank 2a; 1 deputy commissioner (sa), 2 administrative commissioners (chisa), 4 associate commissioners (tong chisa), 1 senior secretary (ch’ŏmsŏ), 6 assistant directors (pusa), 1 academician, and 3 discussants (sangŭiwŏn sa) who all hold rank 2b; 1 chief royal secretary (tosŭng ji), 1 second royal secretary (chwa sŭngji), 1 third royal secretary (u sŭngji), 1 fourth royal secretary (chwa pu sŭngji), and 1 fifth royal secretary (u pu sŭngji) who hold rank 3a; 2 chief clerks (tanghugwan) who hold rank 7a; and 6 administrative clerks. Those administrative clerks have to leave their posts at the Security Council when they reach rank 7. Regular civil servants will receive a stipend. The rest will be treated as interns.

Book I

The Office of the Royal Lectures (Kyŏngyŏn) will be staffed with people who concurrently hold other posts. It is responsible for presenting lectures on the classics and histories [to the king], and it is staffed with 1 director (yŏngsa) who concurrently holds the post of a chief minister or higher; 2 deputy directors (chisa) who hold rank 2a; 2 associate directors who hold rank 2b; 5 participants (ch’amch’an’gwan) who hold rank 3a; 4 readers (kangdokkwan) who hold rank 3b; and 2 commentators (kŏmt’ogwan) who hold senior rank 4a and [unspecified number of] deputy commentators (pu kŏmt’ogwan) who hold rank 5a. There are also some clerks, who will be required to leave their posts at the Office of Royal Lectures at rank 7. Crown Prince Tutorial Office (Seja Sigangwŏn) will be staffed by people who hold other posts concurrently. It will be responsible for both lectures to, and the security of, the crown prince and will be staffed with 1 director (chwa sa) and 1 deputy director (u sa) who hold rank 2a; 1 first mentor (chwa pin’gaek) and 1 second mentor (u pin’gaek) who hold rank 2b; 1 first tutor (chwa podŏk) and 1 second tutor (u podŏk) who hold rank 3b; 1 third tutor (chwa p’ilsŏn) and 1 fourth tutor (u p’ilsŏn) who hold rank 4a; 1 first instructor (chwa munhak) and 1 second instructor (u munhak) who hold rank 5a; 1 first librarian (chwa sagyŏng) and 1 second librarian (u sagyŏng) who hold rank 6a; 1 first proofreader (chwa chŏngja) and 1 second proofreader (u chŏngja) who hold rank 7a; and 1 first attendant (chwa sijik) and 1 second attendant (u sijik) who hold rank 8a. There are also four clerks, who will be required to retire at rank 8. The Office of the Inspector-General (Sahŏnbu) will be responsible for deliberating the appropriateness or inappropriateness of government decisions, for rectifying manners, and impeaching or commending officials after examining their conduct or the performance of their duties. It will be staffed with 1 inspector-general (taesahŏn) who holds rank 2a; 1 second inspector (chungsŭng) and 1 concurrent second inspector (kyŏm chunsŭng) who hold rank 3b; 2 third inspectors (sisa) who hold rank 4a, 2 fourth inspectors (chapdan) who hold rank 5a; and 20 bailiffs (kamch’al) who hold rank 6a. There are also six clerks. Those clerks will have to leave their posts at the Office of the Inspector-General at rank 7. Regular civil servants will receive a stipend. The rest will be treated as interns. Kaesŏng Magistracy (Kaesŏngbu) will be in charge of all the affairs concerning the lands, households, agriculture, sericulture, schools, litigations, etc., in the Kyŏnggi region. It will be staffed with 2 chief magistrates (p’ansa) who hold rank 2a; 2 second magistrates (p’anyun) who hold rank 2b; 2 deputy magistrates (soyun) who hold rank 4a; 2 chief clerks (p’an’gwan)

133

134

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

who hold rank 5a; and 2 bailiffs (ch’amgun) who hold rank 7a. There are also six clerks (yŏngsa), who will be required to retire at rank 8. Regular civil servants will receive a stipend. The rest will be treated as interns. The Board of Personnel (Ijo) will be responsible for such matters as nominating, evaluating, and recommending for promotion officials of all ranks. It will be staffed with 2 chief secretaries (chŏnsŏ) who hold rank 3a; 2 court gentlemen for consultation (ŭirang) who hold rank 4a; 1 section chief (chŏngnang) and 1 personnel evaluation section chief (kogong chŏngnang) who hold rank 5a; 1 assistant section chief (chwarang) and 1 assistant section chief for personnel evaluation (kogong chwarang) who hold rank rank 6a; and 2 administrative aides (chusa) who hold rank 7a. There are also six clerks (yŏngsa), who will be required to retire at rank 8. Regular civil servants will receive a stipend. The rest will be treated as interns. The Board of War (Pyŏngjo) will be responsible for such matters as selecting military officers, managing military records, and running post stations. It will be staffed by 2 chief secretaries (chŏnsŏ) who hold rank 3a; 2 court gentlemen for consultation (ŭirang) who hold rank 4a; 2 bureau section chiefs (chŏngnang) who hold rank 5a; 2 assistant bureau section chiefs (chwarang) who hold rank 6a; and 2 administrative aides (chusa) who hold rank 7a. The Board of Taxation (Hojo) will be responsible for such matters as the maintenance of land and population records, as well as tax collection and management. The Board of Punishments (Hyŏngjo) will be responsible for dealing with such matters as floods and fires, adultery, theft, homicide, and litigations. The Board of Rites (Yejo) will be responsible for such matters as conducting state rituals, entertaining foreign guests, arranging audiences with the king, conducting civil service examinations, dealing with the matters related to Buddhism and Taoism, and managing the tribute [sent to Ming China]. The Board of Works (Kongjo) will be responsible for such matters as artisans and craftsmen and the things they are supposed to produce. The administrative structure of these boards, from chief secretaries down to the clerks, is the same as in the Board of War. The Criminal Administration Bureau (Togwan) in the Board of Punishments will be responsible for matters related to slaves and the like. It will be staffed with 1 director (chisa) who holds another post concurrently and is rank 3b; 2 court gentlemen for consultation (ŭirang) who hold rank 4a; 2 bureau section chiefs (chŏngnang) who hold rank 5a; 2 assistant bureau section chiefs (chwarang) who hold rank 6a; and 2 administrative aides

Book I

(chusa) who hold rank 7a. There are also six clerks (yŏngsa), who will be required to retire at rank 8. The Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals (Sangsŏsa)107 will be staffed with officials who concurrently hold other posts. It will be in charge of the royal seal and various royal tallies and seals as well as appointment of officials. Its members are comprised of 4 court gentlemen (p’ansa) and 1 special capital city magistrate (puyun) who hold rank 3b; 1 assistant special capital city magistrate (soyun) who holds rank 4a; 2 aides (sŭng) who hold rank 5a; 2 assistant magistrates (chubu) who hold rank 6a; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7a; and 2 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 8a. There are also six clerks (sŏri), who will be required to retire at rank 9. The National Academy (Sŏnggyungwan) will be responsible for schools and academic training, and it will be staffed with 1 chancellor (taesasŏng) who holds rank 3a; 1 ritual master (chwaeju) who holds rank 3b; 2 music masters (akchŏng) who hold rank 4a; 1 lecturer (chikkang) who holds rank 5a; 1 librarian (chŏnbu) who holds rank 5b; 2 erudites (paksa) who hold rank 7a; 2 first proctors (sunyu paksa) who hold rank 7b; 2 second proctors (chindŏk paksa) who hold rank 8a; 2 instructors second class (hakchŏng) and 2 instructors third class (hangnok) who hold rank 9a; and 2 registrars (chikhak) and 4 instructors (hagyu) who hold rank 9b. There are also two clerks (sŏri), who will be required to retire at rank 9. The Palace Chambers Office (Kangmun)108 will be responsible for morning audiences (chohoe) and associated rites and ceremonies (ŭirye). It will be staffed with 1 director (p’ansa) and 1 director who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm p’ansa), both holding rank 3a; 2 administrative directors (chisa) of rank 3b who hold other posts concurrently; 2 commissioners for presentations (injinsa) and 2 commissioners for presentations who hold another post concurrently (kyŏm injinsa), all holding rank 4a; 2 vice commissioners for presentations (injin pusa) who hold rank 5a; 2 secretarial receptionists (t’ongch’an sain), 10 court gentlemen for ceremonials (pongnyerang), and 10 court gentlemen for ceremonials who hold other posts concurrently (kyŏm pongnyerang), who all hold rank 6b. There are also two clerks (yŏngsa), who will be required to retire at rank 9. 107. According to the “Monograph on Official Posts” in the History of Koryŏ, Sangsŏsa is the successor of the Personnel Authority (Chŏngbang) created by Ch’oe U in 1,225 in order to handle official appointments. 108. Also called Hammun.

135

136

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The Office of Ancestral Rites (Pongsangsi) is responsible for such things as the Royal Ancestral Shrine and sacrificial rites. It is staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 ministers (kyŏng) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice ministers (sogyŏng) who hold rank 4a; 1 aide (sŭng) who holds rank 5b; 2 erudites (paksa) who hold rank 6a; 2 chief musicians (Hyŏmnyullang) and 2 orators (taech’uk) who hold rank 7a; and 2 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 9a. There are also two clerks (yŏngsa), who will be required to retire at rank 9. The Palace Directorate (Chŏnjungsi) will be responsible for such matters as keeping the genealogical records of the royal family and supervising and provisioning the royal household. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; two ministers (kyŏng) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice ministers (sogyŏng) who hold rank 4b; 1 aide (sŭng) who holds rank 5b; and 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b. The Military Training Agency (Hullyŏn’gwan) will be responsible for mil­itary training, including such matters as teaching the content of books on military science and teaching how to position troops for battle. Its staff members normally will hold other posts concurrently. It will be staffed with 1 commissioner (sa) who holds rank 3a; 2 military counselors (kunja chwaeju) who hold rank 3b; 4 adjutants (sama) who hold rank 4b; 4 rectifiers (sajik) who hold rank 5b, one of them serving full time with this agency; 4 assistant rectifiers (pu sajik) who hold rank 6b, one of them serving full time with this agency; 4 bailiffs (ch’amgun) who hold rank 7b; and 6 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 8a. The Royal Stable Court (Saboksi) will be responsible for maintaining horses and carriages as well as stables and pastures. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 ministers (kyŏng) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice ministers (sogyŏng) who hold rank 4b; 1 controller (chubu) and 1 con­ ­troller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), both holding rank 6b; and 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b. The Bureau of Cultivation (Sanongsi) will be responsible for such matters as maintaining the registers of royal lands, collecting the levies on those lands, and providing the wine and sacrificial animals needed for royal sacrifices. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 ministers (kyŏng) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice ministers (sogyŏng) who hold rank 4b; 1 assistant director (sŭng) and 1 assistant director who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm sŭng), both holding rank 5a; 2 controllers (chubu) and 1 controller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), all holding rank 6b; and 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b.

Book I

The Office of the Royal Household (Naebusi) will be responsible for such matters as maintaining the palace treasury and related financial matters as well as managing the royal wardrobe, bedding, lamps, and other necessities of the royal household. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 chief ministers (kyŏng) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice ministers (sogyŏng) who hold rank 4b; 1 controller (chubu) and 1 controller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), both holding rank 6b; and 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b. The Office of Guest Affairs (Yebinsi) will be responsible for such matters as entertaining important guests from foreign lands and honoring them with state banquets. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 chief ministers (kyŏng) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice ministers (sogyŏng) who hold rank 4b; 1 assistant director (sŭng) and 1 assistant director who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm sŭng), both holding rank 5a; 2 controllers (chubu) and 1 controller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), all holding rank 6b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b; and 2 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 8a. The Publications Office (Kyosŏgam) will be responsible for matters such as books and documents as well as ritual texts and written invocations. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 supervisors (kam) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice supervisors (sogam) who hold rank 4b; 1 assistant director (sŭng) who holds rank 5a; 2 gentlemen (rang) who hold rank 7a; 2 editorial directors (chŏjangnang) who hold rank 8a; 2 proofreaders (kyogam) who hold rank 9a; and 2 proofreaders (chŏngja) who hold rank 9b. The Directorate for Palace Maintenance (Sŏn’gonggam) will be responsible for such matters as securing timber, constructing or repairing buildings, and providing firewood and charcoal. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 supervisors (kam) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice supervisors (sogam) who hold rank 4b; 1 assistant director (sŭng) and 1 assistant director who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm sŭng), both holding rank 5a; 2 controllers (chubu) and 1 controller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), both holding rank 6b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b; and 2 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 8a. The Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources (Sajaegam) will be responsible for managing fishponds and mountains wetlands. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 supervisors (kam) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice supervisors (sogam) who hold rank 4b; 2 controllers

137

138

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

(chubu) and 1 controller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), both holding rank 6b; and 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b. The Quartermaster Bureau (Kunjagam) will be responsible for the provisions of troops. It will be staffed with 2 quartermasters (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 supervisors (kam) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice supervisors (sogam) who hold rank 4b; 1 assistant director (sŭng) and 1 assistant director who holds another post concurrently (kyŏmsŭng), both holding rank 5b; 3 controllers (chubu) and 1 controller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), both holding rank 6b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b; and 2 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 8a. The Weapons Directorate (Kun’gigam) will be responsible for such things as weapons, banners, soldiers’ gear, and other military equipment. The Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation (Sasugam) will be responsible for such matters as constructing and repairing warships and the transportation of military provisions. The organizational structure of these directorates, from directors down to record keepers, follows the example of the Quartermaster Bureau. The Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory (Sŏungwan) will be responsible for such matters as interpreting astronomical phenomena and omens, preparing the annual state calendar, and choosing auspicious days. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 supervisors (chŏng) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice supervisors (pu chŏng) who hold rank 4b; 2 aides (sŭng) and 2 aides who concurrently hold other posts (kyŏm sŭng), all holding rank 5b; 2 controllers (chubu) and 1 controller who holds another post concurrently (kyŏm chubu), both holding rank 6b; 4 water-clock keepers (changnu) who hold rank 7b; 4 astrologers (siil) who hold rank 8a; 4 managers of the calendar (saryŏk) who hold rank 8b; 4 astronomical observers (kamhu) who hold rank 9a; and 4 timekeepers (sasin) who hold rank 9b. The Palace Medical Office (Chŏnŭigam) will be responsible for diagnosing medical problems and preparing medicines. It will be staffed with 2 directors (p’ansa) who hold rank 3a; 2 supervisors (kam) who hold rank 3b; 2 vice supervisors (sogam) who hold rank 4b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) and 2 assistant directors who hold other posts concurrently (kyŏm sŭng), all holding rank 5b; 2 controllers (chubu) and 2 controllers who hold other posts concurrently (kyŏm chubu), all holding rank 6b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b; 2 erudites (paksa) who hold rank 8b; 4 medicine examiners (kŏmyak) who hold rank 9a; and 2 instructors (chogyo) who

Book I

hold rank 9b. The status of the clerks (yŏngsa) belonging to the above directorates follows the example of the Office of Royal Sacrifices. The Administrative Office of the Queen (Kyŏnghŭngbu) will be responsible for managing the personnel in the service of the queen. It will be staffed with 1 director of the Left Office (chwa sayun) and 1 director of the Right Office (u sayun) who hold rank 3a; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 7a; and 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8a. The four clerks (sŏri) are required to retire at rank 8. The Foods Office (Sasŏnsŏ) will be responsible for the foods served at the royal banquets. It will be staffed with 1 director (yŏng) who holds rank 5b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 6b; and 2 dieticians (sigŭi) who hold rank 9a. There will be 2 staff foremen [sari], who will be treated as temporary workers. When their terms are up, they will have to leave these posts. The Wine Office (Saonsŏ) will be responsible for wine and spirits. It will be staffed with 1 director (yŏng) who holds rank 5b; 1 assistant director (sŭng) who holds rank 6b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b; and 2 deputy superintendents (pu chikchang) who hold rank 8a. The Palace Granary (Yomulgo) will be responsible for collecting and disbursing grain for the palace. It will be staffed with 1 commissioner (sa) who holds rank 5b; 1 vice commissioner (pusa) who holds rank 6b; and 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8a. The Storehouse of Righteous Abundance (Ŭiyŏnggo) will be responsible for supplying such things as oil, honey, fruit, seaweed, and mushrooms to the royal palace. It will be staffed with 1 commissioner (sa) who holds rank 5b; 2 vice commissioners (pu sa) who hold rank 6b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b; and 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8a. The Long-Term Prosperity Warehouse (Changhŭnggo) will be responsible for supplying such things as bolts of cloth, papers, and mats. It will be staffed with 1 commissioner (sa) who holds rank 5b; 1 vice commissioner (pu sa) who holds rank 6b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 7b; and 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8a. The Surplus Storage Warehouse (P’ungjŏch’ang) will be responsible for collecting and disbursing the resources needed for government expenses. It will be staffed with 1 commissioner (sa) who holds rank 5b; 2 vice commissioners (pu sa) who hold rank 6b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 6b; and 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8a.

139

140

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The Prosperity Expansion Warehouse (Kwanghŭngch’ang) will be responsible for payment of official stipends. Its organizational personnel structure, from commissioner to controller, follows the example of the Surplus Storage Warehouse. The Office of Royal Procurement (Cheyonggo) will be responsible for supplying such things as silk, hemp, and ramie cloth. It will be staffed with 1 commissioner (sa) who holds rank 5b; 2 vice commissioners (pusa) who hold rank 6b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 7b; 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8a; and 2 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 9b. The Directorate for Leather and Fur Products (Haejŏngo) will be responsible for leather and fur goods and fabrics. It will be staffed with 2 commissioners (sa) who hold rank 5a; 1 vice commissioner who holds rank 6b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 7b; 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8b; and 2 record keepers (noksa) who hold rank 9b. The Bureau of the Capital City Markets (Kyŏngsisŏ) will be responsible for such matters as regulating prices, preventing cheating, controlling thievery, and collecting merchant taxes. It will be staffed with 1 director (yŏng) who holds rank 5b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 6b; and 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8b. The Bureau of Bamboo Crafts (Kongjosŏ) will be responsible for the manufacture of bamboo goods [for use in the palace and agencies of the central government], and it will be staffed with 1 director (yŏng) who holds rank 6b and 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 7b. The Eastern Bureau (Tongbu) will be responsible for the registration of households and the mobilization of the people under its jurisdiction. It will be staffed with 1 director (yŏng) who holds rank 6b and 2 record keepers who are temporary workers. When their terms are up, they will have to leave these posts. The organizational structures of the Southern, Western, Northern, and Central Wards will all follow the example of the Eastern Ward. The employment of staff foremen (sari), from the Wine Office (Saonsŏ) to the Five Wards, all follows the example of the Foods Office (Sasŏnsŏ). These offices and agencies [in the capital] all have functionaries serving as interns in addition to the fixed number of regular staff members. The Righteous Salt Storehouse (Ŭiyŏmch’ang) will be responsible for salt taxes. It will be staffed with 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 7b; 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8b; 4 chief clerks (p’an’gwan) who will be treated as temporary workers who have to leave their posts when their terms are up; and 2 staff foremen (sari).

Book I

The Archives (Kagakko) will be responsible for collecting and keeping official papers and records. It will be staffed with 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 7b; 2 controllers (chubu) who hold rank 8b; 2 superintendents (chikchang) who hold rank 9b; and 2 staff foremen (sari) [whose rank is not specified]. The Bureau of Dyeing (Toyŏmsŏ) will be responsible for supervising the dyeing of textiles. It will be staffed with 2 directors (yŏng) who hold rank 8a; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 9a; and 2 staff foremen (sari) [whose rank is not specified]. The Bureau of Prisons (Chŏn’oksŏ) will be responsible for those imprisoned. It will be staffed with 2 directors (yŏng) who hold rank 7b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 8b; and 2 staff foremen (sari) [whose rank is not specified]. The Office for the Royal Grange (Chŏn’gusŏ) will be responsible for man­­ aging and raising livestock. It will be staffed with 1 director (yŏng) who holds rank 7b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 8b; and 2 staff foremen (sari) [whose rank is not specified]. The Publications Office (Sŏjŏkwŏn) will be responsible for printing books. It will be staffed with 1 director (yŏng) who holds rank 7b; 2 assistant directors (sŭng) who hold rank 8b; and 2 staff foremen (sari) [whose rank is not specified]. The Such’ang Palace Management Office (Such’anggung Chegŏsa) will be responsible for maintaining that royal palace and everything associated with it. It will be staffed with 4 overseers (chegong) who hold rank 7b; 4 rec­ ­tifiers (sajik) who hold rank 8a; and 4 custodians (sayŏn) who hold rank 9a. In addition, there are 2 legal erudites (yulhak paksa) who hold rank 9b; 2 erudites of mathematics (sanhak paksa) who hold rank 9b; 2 chief clerks (p’an’gwan) of T’aech’ŏng Shrine109 who are of rank 9b and will be treated as temporary workers who have to leave their posts when their terms are up; 2 record keepers (noksa) of the Privy Council; 6 record keepers of the Directorate of Ceremonial Propriety (Singmok togam); 4 record keepers of the Capital Army (Chunggun); 4 record keepers of the Left Army; and 4 record keepers of the Right Army. There will also be 2 chief clerks (p’an’gwan) from the Provisions Office for the Students of the National University (Yanghyŏn’go); 4 chief clerks from the Office of Benefitting the People (Hyemin’guk); 1 vice commissioner (pu 109. It refers to a shrine where the gods of war are enshrined. Sacrifices were held at the shrine before military expeditions started.

141

142

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

sa) and 2 record keepers (noksa) from the East and West Infirmary (Tongsŏdaebiwŏn); 2 sentinels (chik) for the National Altar to the Gods of Soil and Grain; 1 sentinel for the Eastern Kiln (Tongyo), 1 sentinel for the Western Kiln (Sŏyo); and 1 steward (kamjik) for each of the following districts: Kangŭm, Ŭnch’ŏn, Kaesŏng, and Kwangjumok. The military officials (Sŏban) will have the following titles: Rank 3a: assault-resisting general (chŏlch’ung changgun) and courageous daring general (kwaŭi changgun). Rank 3b: general for safeguarding righteousness (poŭi changgun) and general for safeguarding accomplishments (pogong changgun). Rank 4a: stately courageous general (wiyong changgun) and stately steadfast general (wiŭi changgun). Rank 4b: manifestly loyal general (sŏnjŏl changgun) and manifestly shrewd general (sŏllyak changgun). Rank 5a: loyally brave commandant (ch’ungŭi kyowi) and manifestly brave commandant (hyŏnŭi kyowi). Rank 5b: splendidly faithful commandant (hyŏnsin kyowi) and manifestly faithful commandant (ch’angsin kyowi). Rank 6a: ardently brave commandant (tonnyong kyowi) and aggressively brave commandant (chinnyong kyowi). Rank 6b: commandant for upholding righteous­ ness (sŭngŭi kyowi) and commandant for cultivating righteousness (suŭi kyowi). Rank 7a: ardently brave vice commandant (tonnyong puwi). Junior rank 7: aggressively brave vice commandant (chinnyong puwi). Rank 8a: vice commandant for upholding righteousness (sŭngŭi puwi). Rank 8b: vice commandant for cultivating righteousness (suŭi puwi). Each of the Righteousness Flourishing Capital Guard Commands (Ŭihŭng ch’in’gunwi), all ten royal guard units (wi)—including the Left Guard (Chwawi), Right Guard (Uwi), Soaring Falcon Guard (Ŭngyangwi), Internal Security Guard (Kŭmowi), Left and Right Guard (Chwauwi), Divine Tiger Guard (Sinhowi), Elite Striking Guard (Hŭngwiwi), Ready Patrol Guard (Pisunwi), Thousand Bull Guard (Ch’ŏnuwi), and Palace Gate Guard (Kammunwi)—will have 1 supreme general (sang changgun) of rank 3a and 2 generals-in-chief of rank 3b as their commanders and deputy commanders. Each of the eight regional commands will have 2 generals of rank 4a, and each of their regiments, divided into left and right regiments (chwaryŏng and uryŏng), will be separately led by 1 commandant (chung nangjang) who holds rank 5; 2 vice commandants (nangjang) who hold rank 6; 3 subcolonels (pyŏlchang) who hold rank 7; 4 executive captains (sanwŏn) who hold rank 8; 20 captains (wi) who hold rank 9a; and 40 lieutenants (chŏng) who hold rank 9b. Every regional command will furthermore be divided into various subcommands, such as middle, left, right, front, and rear subcommands, and

Book I

each subcommand will be led by 1 general of rank 4b, 3 commandants of rank 5a, 6 vice commandants of rank 6, 6 subcolonels of rank 7, 8 executive captains of rank 8, 20 captains of rank 9a, and 40 lieutenants of rank 9b. In addition to the civil and military officials, the Directorate of Palace Attendants (Naesibu) will be established to provide eunuch staff for the palace. There will also be an Office for Palace Administration (Aekchŏngsŏ), also staffed by eunuchs, and a Music Bureau (Chŏnaksŏ) and a Music Office (Aaksŏ) to provide musicians. The ranks and titles of these officials will be different so as to reflect their duties and avoid any confusion. The king instructed the Chancellery to appoint officials as follows: Hong Yŏngt’ong is to be appointed as chief grand councilor of the Chancellery; An Chongwŏn as chief director of the State Finance Commission; Pae Kŭngnyŏm as enthronement-assisting merit subject (iktae pojo kongsin), left chancellor, and Count of Sŏngsan; Cho Chun as mandate-assisting dynasty-founding merit subject (chwamyŏng kaeguk kongsin), right chancellor, and Count of P’yŏngyang; his stepbrother Yi Hwa as assisting dynasty-founding merit subject, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery, chief commander of the Righteousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards, and Count of Ŭian; Yun Ho as director of the State Finance Commission; Kim Sahyŏng as ­mandate-assisting merit subject (chwamyŏng kongsin), assistant chancellor, direc­tor of the Eight Guards (p’an p’alwi sa), and Lord of Sangnak; Chŏng Tojŏn as mandate-assisting merit subject, assistant chancellor, commander of the Righ­­teousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards, and Lord of Ponghwa; Chŏng Hŭigye as mandate-assisting merit subject, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, supreme general of the Eight Guards, and Lord of Kyerim; Yi Chiran as dynasty-contributing merit subject (pojo kongsin), assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, commander of the Righteousness Flourish­ ­­­ing King’s Personal Guards, and Lord of Ch’ŏnghae; Nam Ŭn as mandate-­ assisting merit subject, commissioner of the Security Council, associate com­missioner (tongji chŏlchesa) of the Righteousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards, and Lord of Ŭiryŏng; Kim Inch’an as dynasty-contributing merit subject, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, associate commander of the Righteousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards, and Lord of Ikhwa; Chang Sagil as dynasty-contributing merit subject, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, associate commander of the Righ­ teousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards, and Lord of Hwaryŏng; Chŏng Ch’ong as dynasty-contributing merit subject, senior secretary of the Security

143

144

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Council, and Lord of Sŏwŏn; Cho Ki as dynasty-contributing merit subject, associate commissioner of the Security Council, associate commander of the Righ­teousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards, and Lord of Ŭnch’ŏn; Cho Inok as dynasty-contributing merit subject, assistant director of the Security Council, and Lord of Yongsŏng; Hwang Hŭisŏk as discussant of the Secu­ rity Council; Nam Chae as mandate-assisting merit subject, academician of the Security Council, concurrent inspector-general, and Lord of Ŭisŏng. 30th Day (Kiyu)

The Privy Council requested that the people mentioned in the royal decree on the previous day be separately sent to remote islands, including Murŭng,110 Ch’uja,111 and Cheju. The king replied, “In my royal decree, I already said that I felt sorry for them. If I banish them now to various islands, I will lose credibility. Furthermore, if they are sent to deserted islands, how can they obtain their food and clothing? It is certain that they will die of cold and starvation. Even if they are allowed to stay in the areas near the capital, how can they conspire against the government?” Then he ordered them sent to various inland districts for exile. As a result, U Hyŏnbo was exiled to Haeyang,112 Yi Saek to Changhŭng, Sŏl Changsu to Changgi,113 and the rest to various coastal villages separately. Officials were also dispatched to those places to carry out corporal punishment on exiles, including U Hongsu, according to the grade of the sentences for their crimes. Thus, General Kim No was sent to Yanggwang Province; General Son Hŭngjong to Kyŏngsang Province; Hwang Kŏjŏng, acting director of the Directorate for Armaments, to Chŏlla Province; Chang Tam, acting quartermaster of the Quartermaster Bureau, to Sŏhae Province and the Northwest Region; and Chŏn I, chief minister of the Office of Guest Affairs, to Kyojugangnŭng Province. When the royal decree was first proclaimed, Chŏng Tojŏn tried to have Saek banished to Chayŏn Island.114 So he ordered Hŏ Chu,115 inspecting commissioner (kyejŏngsa) of Kyŏnggi Province, to take Saek under escort. 110. An old name of Ullŭng Island on the East Sea. 111. A small island in the South Sea of Korea, located close to Cheju Island. 112. Kwangju in South Chŏlla Province. 113. A coastal town in North Kyŏngsang Province. 114. Modern Yŏngjongdo Island, where Inch’ŏn International Airport is located. 115. Hŏ Chu (1359–1440): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as third inspector, governor of Chŏlla Province, third minister of punishments, magistrate of Hansŏng, and magistrate of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy.

Book I

Chu felt sorry for Saek because his place of exile was a deserted island. When Chu asked Tojŏn what he should do, the latter replied, “Sending him to that island means throwing him into the sea.” A little later, the king ordered Saek exiled to Changhŭng, so Tojŏn failed to accomplish his plan. Kim Inch’an, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, died. The king suspended the morning audiences for three days, posthumously promoted him to assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and ordered the responsible office to bury him with propriety. Inch’an’s clan seat was Yanggŭn,116 and he was talented in military affairs. From the days before the king ascended the throne, he made contributions to escorting the king, and when the new dynasty was founded, he participated in the efforts to enthrone the king. He had no sons.

8th Month 1st Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king held the morning audience while standing. 2nd Day (Sinhae)

The Merit Recommendation Office (Kongsin Togam)117 was established. The king ordered each member of the Censorate and the Six Boards to recommend three learned and virtuous officials (hyŏllyang) whose ranks ranges between rank 4 and rank 6 and not currently assigned to any official duty. The law for hiring public officials is made. There are seven ways for the people to enter the public service, and they are: “protected appointment” (ŭmjik), “erudite examination” (munkwa), “examinations for local functionaries” (igwa), “examination for interpreters” (yŏkkwa), “examination for geo­ ­mancers” (ŭmyanggwa), “examination for medical practitioners” (ŭigwa), and “military examinations” (mukwa). The first six areas are supervised by the Board of Personnel (Ijo), and the last by the Board of War (Pyŏngjo). 116. A county in Kyŏnggi Province. 117. It was first established by T’aejo right after the Chosŏn dynasty was founded in 1392, with the purpose of rewarding the 44 officials who had supported him during his struggle for the throne. It was a provisional office headed by 1 commissioner, 2 vice commissioners, 2 chief clerks, 2 record keepers, and 2 vice record keepers.

145

146

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Successful candidates must present detailed personal documents concerning the three generations of their immediate ancestry, as they did in the former dynasty [Koryŏ], and their documents must be approved by the Censorate. Those who fail to pass any of these seven examination types shall not be officially employed. Whenever the government recruits officials, the department concerned must examine closely the personal documents of the candidates and finally allow them to proceed to comply with the procedure for the approval of the Censorate. The rules for evaluating local magistrates were established. The term of the magistrates of small or large local districts is basically thirty months. When their term expires, they are to be replaced by successors who are of a similar rank or transferred to other posts with promotion. They are to receive the government stipend based on the number of months they have served. If they are found to be avaricious, cruel, and violent, or incompetent and weak, or lazy and foolish, and thereby appear to be incapable of discharging their duties properly, the provincial governor makes an investigation and dismisses them. Then he selects men of integrity and talent among the unemployed sons of former central officials (hallyang) and lets them carry out the duties of the magistrate on a temporary basis, reporting their names to the king. If he finds that their job performance is outstanding, he recommends them to the government so that they can be officially hired. The Supreme Council requested the abolition of the Directorate for the Tripitaka (Taejang togam).118 5th Day (Kabin)

The Privy Council requested the abolition of the Festival of Eight Vows (P’algwanhoe) and the Lotus Lantern Festival (Yŏndŭnghoe).119

118. A temporary agency established during Koryŏ in order to produce Tripitaka Koreana, or “Eighty-Thousand Tripitaka.” 119. P’algwanhoe and Yŏndŭnghoe were the largest Buddhist festivals observed on the fifteenth of the eleventh month and on the fifteenth of the first month, respectively. Combined with indigenous practices, the king and his subjects entreated the various Buddhas and the spirits of Heaven and Earth to bring peace to the nation (Ki-baik Lee, pp. 132–3). The request of the Supreme Council to abolish these Buddhist festivals reflects the shift from Buddhism to Neo-Confucianism as the national ideology of the Chosŏn dynasty.

Book I

7th Day (Pyŏngjin)

Lady Kang was made royal consort and invested with the title of Consort Hyŏn [Hyŏnbi].120 Princes were enfeoffed with new titles. Pangu121 was named Prince Chinan; Panggwa [the old honorable name of the former king],122 Prince Yŏngan, military commissioner of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards; Pangŭi,123 Prince Igan; Panggan,124 Prince Hoean; Pangwŏn [the honorable name of the current king], Prince Chŏngan; the nothos Pangbŏn,125 Prince Muan and military commissioner of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards; the king’s son-in-law Yi Che, Prince Hŭng’an and military commissioner of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards; and Yang’u, the son of the king’s stepbrother Wŏn’gye, Prince Yŏng’an. Wang Yo [King Kongyang] was made Prince Kongyang and sent to Kansŏng County;126 and his brother U, Lord of Kwiŭi, sent to Majŏn County,127 so that he could continue to hold the ancestral rites of the Wang clan; and Lady An, the queen dowager [of King Kongmin] of the previous dynasty, enfeoffed with a title of Ŭihwa Palace Lady An.

120. Consort Hyŏn, the new title accorded to Lady Kang, is her courtesy name. Her official title, which was conferred later, is Queen Sindŏk. 121. The eldest son of King T’aejo and Queen Sinŭi. He is the ancestor of the Chŏnju Yi clan. 122. King Chŏngjong (1399–1400), the second king of the Chosŏn dynasty. He ascended the throne when his father, King T’aejo, abdicated in 1398. The abdication took place after T’aejo’s fifth son, Prince Chŏngan (Pangwŏn)—in a power struggle—eliminated his stepbrother Pangsŏk, whom T’aejo had set up as heir apparent. Though Chŏngjong became the king with the support of his powerful brother Prince Chŏngan, he conceded his throne to the latter in less than two years. 123. The third son of King T’aejo and Queen Sinŭi. He supported his younger brother, Prince Chŏngan, throughout the power struggles among the princes, assisting him in eliminating the clique of Chŏng Tojŏn. 124. The fourth son of King T’aejo and Queen Sinŭi. 125. The seventh son of King T’aejo and Queen Sindŏk, the second wife of T’aejo. The rea­ ­son that he was presented as a nothos (sŏja) was because he was born of T’aejo’s second wife. 126. Modern Kosŏng, a district in Kangwŏn Province. 127. Modern Yŏnch’ŏn County in the northern part of Kyŏnggi Province, where the Royal Ancestral Shrine of seven Koryŏ kings, including Wang Kŏn, the founder king, was located.

147

148

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Chŏnju128 was elevated in status to Wansan Prefecture (pu)129 and Yu Ku130 appointed its magistrate. The king ordered that the magistrates, Confucian instructors, and post-station clerks remain at their posts and be officially reappointed. 8th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king sent His Majesty of the present time [King T’aejong] to the North­ ­east Region to perform the ancestral rites for the previous four generations of his royal ancestors, report to them on his [T’aejo’s] ascension to the throne, and dedicate honorific titles at each of their tombs. He named the tomb of his father Chŏngnŭng, that of his mother Hwarŭng, that of his grandfather Ŭirŭng, that of his grandmother Sullŭng, that of his great-grandfather Chirŭng, that of his great-grandmother Sungnŭng, that of his great-greatgrandfather Tŏngnŭng, and that of his great-great-grandmother Annŭng. The king ordered that the shrine of the founder king of Koryŏ be moved to Majŏn County and that the seasonal ancestral rites for him be performed.131 The king dispatched Ham Purim, deputy magistrate of Kaesŏng, to Kyŏngsang, Chŏlla, and Yanggwang Provinces to evaluate the performance of local magistrates and observe the conditions of the people. The king ordered Min Che,132 grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, to perform sacrificial rites at the National Shrine of Confucius (Munmyo). 128. Chŏnju is the family seat of King T’aejo. 129. It is the second-largest unit in the local government. 130. Yu Ku (1335–1398): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Serving as second royal secretary, director of the Office of Royal Decrees, and governor of Yanggwang Province, he supported T’aejo and made contributions towards enthroning him, and finally rose to the position of assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery. 131. T’aejo ordered Wang U, the brother of King Kongyang, to build the ancestral shrine for the kings of the Koryŏ Wang clan, granting the lands of Majŏn County for that purpose. The construction of the shrine was finished in 1399, the first year of King Chŏngjong. 132. Min Che (1339–1408): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the fatherin-law of King T’aejong. He also served as minister of rites.

Book I

9th Day (Muo)

The king ordered the Court of Royal Sacrifices to make the spirit tablets (sinju) of his ancestors of four generations preceding him. Ch’oe Yŏngji, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, is dispatched to pacify the Northwest Region. 11th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king held the morning audience while sitting on the throne. Since ascending the throne, he had presided over the meeting while standing, to show his humility. However, on this day, his ministers prostrated themselves on the ground and beseeched the king to hold the morning audience while sitting on the throne, and he finally did. Cho Pak, minister of rites, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “Respectfully surveying the ritual worship throughout history, it has been performed at the Royal Ancestral Shrine, the plot of land for the ruler’s ceremonial cultivation (chŏkchŏn), the altars of gods of earth and grain and of mountains and rivers, the shrines of village guardian deities, and the shrines of Confucius so that they are finally established for the state. Now, since we organized and recorded them as below in a way similar to the proceedings of government in each month (wŏllyŏng), we request that you order the responsible office to carry this out at the appropriate time. “The ritual sacrifice called wŏn’gu133 should be abolished because it is supposed to be performed only by the Son of Heaven [Chinese emperor]. Those among the shrines of various spirits and altars of guardian deities across the land in which sacrifices have been carried out by the state should carry signs that say, ‘Guardian Deity of So-and-So County of the So-and-So Province,’ and the magistrate of the district should sacrifice to the spirits every spring and autumn. As to the rites related to sacrificial food, vessels, and wine, they should emulate the ways of the Chinese court. The Hundred Seat Dharma Assembly (paekkochwa)134 held in spring and autumn, the 133. A ritual performed annually by the Chinese emperor on the day of the winter ­solstice. 134. Literally, “a hundred high seats,” paekkochwa refers to the large Dharma assembly, to which were invited as many as a hundred of the most eminent monks. It was held to ward off calamities and continued over a hundred days. According to the History of Three Kingdoms,

149

150

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Seven Sacred Sites (Ch’ilso) attended by the king in person, and the sacrifices to the constellations held at various temples and shrines were originally established by the kings of the previous dynasty for their personal reasons. They still remain because succeeding generations have failed to abolish them. Should we then continue to preserve those abusive practices and make them into a permanent law at a time when we have established a new dynasty with the Mandate of Heaven? We request that they all be abolished. “Since Tan’gun135 is the king who first received the Mandate of Heaven in the eastern kingdom and Kija136 is the king who first brought enlightenment to our people, sacrifices to them should be carried out by P’yŏngyang Prefecture at the appropriate time.The kings of the previous dynasty, including Hyejong, Hyŏnjong, Ch’unggyŏng, and Ch’ungnyŏl,137 ruled the people with benevolence. We request that you order their spirit tablets to be moved to the shrine of King T’aejo in Majŏn County so that they can join their ancestral progenitor and receive the sacrifices together from the people.” The king handed down an instruction to the Privy Council, stating, “Look into the origin of the Hundred Seat Dharma Assembly and the Seven Sacred Sites and submit a report to me.” 12th Day (Sinyu)

Cho Pak and others submitted another memorial to the king: “King Sŏngjong of the previous dynasty admired the Middle Kingdom [China] so much that he developed our culture likewise and brought benefits to the people, and the paekkochwa meeting was first held at Hwangnyong Monastery in 613, during the reign of King Chinp’yŏng, and Master Wŏngwang was invited to give a sermon. It became fully established in the Koryŏ dynasty, which adopted Buddhism as its state religion, but it began to decline at the end of the dynasty. 135. The legendary founder of the first Korean kingdom, Old Chosŏn. He was born between Hwanung, the son of the celestial emperor Hwanin and Ungnyŏ, a bear transformed into a woman. He established his kingdom near modern P’yŏngyang in 2,333 BCE. 136. His Chinese name is Jizi. According to ancient records, he is a parental uncle of the tyrannical King Zhou of Shang. He was imprisoned at the time when the Shang dynasty ended. Released from the prison by King Wu, with his followers, he traveled to the east, presumably the modern Korean peninsula and established a kingdom called Kija Chosŏn. But scholars differ on the exact location of his kingdom. 137. Hyejong (943–945), Hyŏnjong (1009–1031), Ch’unggyŏng (1313–1330; 1332–1339), and Ch’ungnyŏl (1274–1308) were the 2nd, 8th, 27th, and 25th Koryŏ rulers, respectively.

Book I

King Munjong carried himself carefully and settled the lives of the people by continuing the good works of his predecessors. King Kongmin revived the country by annihilating the Red Turban bandits no less than twice and secured peace by serving the suzerain state [China] well. Hence, all of them made contributions to the country. We request you to have them installed in the Shrine of King T’aejo in Majŏn County in order that they can also be eligible for ancestor worship.” The king granted the request. 13th Day (Imsul)

The statue of King T’aejo of the previous dynasty was moved to Majŏn County. The king ordered the Privy Council to move the nation’s capital to Hanyang.138 15th Day (Kapcha)

Wuliangha139 paid a visit. The king sent down Yi Yŏm, right director of the State Finance Commission, to Hanyang Prefecture to repair the palaces. 18th Day (Chŏngmyo)

King of Chūzan of the Ryukyu Kingdom sends an envoy to attend the morning audience. 19th Day (Mujin)

Inspector-General Nam Chae submitted a memorial to the king: “The ruler’s movement and conduct are visible to all his people and imitated by posterity. Therefore, we believe that the ruler who founds a new dynasty cannot help but be more careful in his royal bearing. According to the royal orders conveyed by Chief Royal Secretary An Kyŏnggong on the sixteenth day of this 138. Modern Seoul. 139. Wuliangha refers to either a chief or representative of a Jurchen tribe who lived in the region of Tumen and Yalu Rivers and the north of Hamgyŏng province, as well as in southern Manchuria.

151

152

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

month, no one except the members of the Flourishing Righ­teousness Royal Guards, not to mention the royal guards of various security divisions (sŏngjung aema), is permitted to escort you when you travel to the hot springs. If Your Majesty always prefers to have simplicity and thus finds it too inconvenient to bring many people with you, we request that you allow at least one member each from the Council of Generals (Chungbang)140 and the Comprehensive Rites Office (T’ongnyemun),141 respectively, as well as a historiographer, to attend you during the royal trip so that your successors may not have excuses for their thoughtless behavior.” The king followed the advice. The merit subjects, including Pae Kŭngnyŏm and Cho Chun, held a banquet for the king, and their wives did so for the queen separately. The Office of Remonstrance and others submitted a memorial to the king: “Yi Insu, discussant of the Central Council, has neither talent nor virtue and knows only how to cook. At the time when the new dynasty started, he was extremely fortunate that he managed to become a member of the Central Council. Since the scholars are disappointed to learn of him, we urge you to dismiss him from office and never call him back.” The king called Yu Tumyŏng,142 chief remonstrator (changmu nangsa), and asked, “Who brought up this matter?” Tumyŏng replied, “I did because I was an officer in charge.” The king said, “Insu may be incompetent, but I neither entrusted him with military power nor the power to handle government affairs. I just had him take charge of the Royal Cuisine Office and at this time only attend me during my trip to the hot springs. Never make such a request again.” 20th Day (Kisa)

Yi Pangsŏk, the young illegitimate son [of the king’s second queen] was chosen as heir apparent. Earlier, the merit subjects, including Pae Kŭngnyŏm, 140. A supreme military council established during the Koryŏ period in order to discuss the military matters; it was a counterpart to the Privy Council (Todang) run by civil officials. (Lee Ki-baek, p.117) 141. Also called Kangmun or Hammun, it was the office of ceremonies and rites, and its responsibilities included the rites of the morning audience, the sacrifices to the Royal Ancestral Shrine, and the receiving of envoys. 142. An official of early Chosŏn. He also served as supervisor of the Publications Office, magistrate of Miryang, second inspector, and right grand master of remonstrance.

Book I

Cho Chun, and Chŏng Tojŏn, requested the king to establish the heir apparent.143 Though they wanted the king to make his choice based on age and ability, they found that the king had Pangbŏn, [the first son from Lady Kang],144 in mind because of his love for her. However, those merit subjects believed that Pangbŏn, being reckless and often out of control, was quite unacceptable, so they privately said, “His younger brother would be a little better if the king really wants to make the son of Lady Kang heir apparent.” Around that time, the king asked them, “Who would be the best candidate for heir apparent?” But there was no one who said that the heir apparent should be chosen based on primogeniture and the contributions he had made. Kŭngnyŏm said, “Your youngest son can be the one.” The king finally made his decision and chose the crown prince. The king gave instructions with regard to determining the grades of the dynasty-founding merit subjects: “King Kongmin of the former dynasty 143. King T’aejo had six sons from his first wife, Queen Sinŭi (Lady Han), and two sons from his second wife, Queen Sindŏk (Lady Kang). Once the new dynasty was established, choosing the crown prince emerged as an important political issue because the future of many people depended on it. When T’aejo initially asked his ministers for their opinion on the matter, Pae Kŭngnyŏm was known to have replied, “When the state is in peace, the choice should be made based on the rule of primogeniture, and when the state is in disarray, both age and contribution should be taken into consideration in making the choice.” Pae replied this way because he had Prince Chŏngan (Yi Pangwŏn), the fifth son of T’aejo, in mind. However, T’aejo revealed his intention of choosing a crown prince from the sons from his second wife, Lady Kang. T’aejo’s intention turned out to be firm and clear, so his ministers suggested that his youngest son, Pangsŏk, be crown prince rather than Pangbŏn, who was disreputable in his conduct. When the youngest son from the second queen was chosen as crown prince, Yi Pangwŏn (future King T’aejong) and his brothers were outraged. The eldest prince, Yi Pangu, was thirty-six years old, and Yi Pangwŏn was twenty-six. Though Yi Pangwŏn, being intelligent and ambitious, made more contributions than anyone else among the princes towards enthroning his father, he was poorly rewarded because of Lady Kang, who believed him to be too dangerous for her future if his power were not held in check, and many merit subjects who joined Lady Kang, including Chŏng Tojŏn. Then it happened that Lady Kang died in 1396, and Chŏng Tojŏn and his followers reinforced their vigilance against Yi Pangwŏn. Around that time, T’aejo became sick and the pressure from the merit subjects intensified. As a result, Yi Pangwŏn decided to remove Chŏng Tojŏn as well as his stepbrothers born of Lady Kang; and with the help of Ha Yun, who masterminded the attack, he successfully eliminated his opponents in 1398. As a result, T’aejo abdicated the throne and Yi Pangwŏn seized power, making his older brother Panggwa succeed his father temporarily. This historical development is called the First Strife of Princes. 144. “Lady Kang” here refers to Consort Kang, or Queen Sindŏk. Her titles in the source text are used interchangeably.

153

154

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

passed away without an heir, and Sin U, the son of the wicked monk Sin Ton, usurped the throne. U was dissolute and tyrannical, killing people as he pleased. In the Mujin year (1388), he recklessly raised an army to invade China, a nation stronger than us, and many generals, for good reason, refused to follow his orders and marched back. U finally admitted his mistake and abdicated from the throne in favor of his son Ch’ang. “Thus it happened that the royal line of the Wang clan was severed for sixteen years. Under the circumstances, Wang Yo, Great Lord Chŏngch’ang, was selected among the members of the royal family to rule the state temporarily. However, he also turned out to be so ignorant and confused that he failed to do his duty to the king. Forgetful of the grand design for the country and blinded by petty interests, he considered his interests first, while neglecting those who were loyal to him. The land administration was thrown into disarray and the national treasury emptied to pay for the profligate lifestyles of his children and sons-in-law. He not only shunned men of integrity but also tried to harm them by falsely accusing them. On the other hand, he bestowed favors on sycophants, always employing and promoting them. There were no rules in the way he dispensed rewards and punishments, and being so extravagant in his spending, he caused damage to the people. Only listening to women and eunuchs, he expelled those who spoke out. As the people complained and the gods became indignant, strange things often took place and inauspicious omens occurred without end. “Pae Kŭngnyŏm, left chancellor; Cho Chun, right chancellor; Kim Sahyŏng, Chŏng Tojŏn, Yi Che, Lord of Hŭngan, Yi Hwa, Count of Ŭian, assistant chancellors; Chŏng Hŭigye and Yi Chiran, assistant grand councilors of the Chancellery; Nam Ŭn, commissioner of the Security Council; Chang Sagil, administrative commissioner of the Security Council; Chŏng Ch’ong, senior secretary of the Security Council; Cho Inok, assistant director of the Security Council; Nam Chae, academician of the Security Council; Cho Pak, minister of rites; O Mong’ŭl and Chŏng T’ak, generals-in-chief; and others understood the changes in the will of Heaven and the hearts of the people. So they stood up for the sake of the people and state and recommended me to the throne, and they and I were able to make great achievements together. The great contributions they made cannot be forgotten until the Yellow River becomes dry and the great Mount Tai is leveled.145 145. The source text literally reads: “The Yellow River shrinks like a belt and Mount Tai like a flint stone.”

Book I

“Yun Ho, director of the State Finance Commission; Yi Mindo, minister of works; Pak P’o, general-in-chief; Cho Yŏnggyu, minister of rites; Cho Pan, administrative commissioner of the Security Council; Cho On, chief magistrate of P’yŏngyang; Cho Ki, associate commissioner of the Security Council; Hong Kilmin, fourth royal secretary; Yu Kyŏng, chancellor of the National Academy; Chŏng Yongsu, director of the Royal Stable Court; Chang Tam, quartermaster of the Quartermaster Bureau; and others participated in the meeting to recommend that I be elevated to the throne and, therefore, made great contributions. “An Kyŏnggong, chief royal secretary; Kim Kyun, assistant director of the Security Council; Yu Wŏnjŏng, former chief magistrate of Hanyang; Yi Chik, former chief royal secretary (chisinsa); Yi Kŭn, second royal secretary; O Sach’ung, minister of works; Yi Sŏ, minister of punishments; Cho Yŏngmu, director of the Palace Directorate; Yi Paegyu, former minister of rites; Yi Pu, chamberlain of the Court of Royal Sacrifices; Kim No and Son Hŭngjong, supreme generals; Sim Hyosaeng, second inspector of the Office of the Inspec­ ­tor General; Ko Yŏ, director of the Palace Medical Office; Chang Chihwa, supervisor of the Publications Office; Ham Purim, assistant magistrate of the Kaesŏng Magistracy; and others have supported me since the time when the administration of the former dynasty was in disarray, and their loyalty has remained unshaken until now. So they deserve commendation. “The people named above should be given the titles of merit subjects according to their contributions, and the awarding ceremonies should be organized and held by the office concerned. “Unfortunately, Kim Inch’an, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, has died. He joined Pae Kŭngnyŏm and others from the beginning when they pledged to bring about changes in the government by recommending that I be elevated to the throne. So his contributions are great. Let him be rewarded according to the grade granted to Kŭngnyŏm.” The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “In our humble opinion, the right way to govern the state would be to never forget that danger exists even in times of peace and that disarray occurs even when the government is in good order. With magnanimous generosity and courage, and obeying the will of Heaven and gaining the hearts of the people, Your Majesty suddenly became the lord of the eastern kingdom [Korea], and the people across the country are peacefully engaged in their livelihoods. However, if Your Majesty fails to look ahead because the state

155

156

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

is stabilized and well governed, what would happen to the grand plan Your Majesty has made and intends to leave to posterity? We believe that, being kind and generous by nature, Your Majesty enjoys saving the lives of the people and forgiving the people of their crimes. Your Majesty’s grace and virtue are without limit, like the great Heaven. “However, over the past five hundred years, the royal family members of the Wang clan and other powerful families have acquired vast numbers of slaves, sometimes reaching over a thousand. These slaves are now scattered all over, often visiting their lords who are exiled and taking messages back and forth as they frequent the capital. Though the state is secure at the moment, the people who complain will increase as the time of peace continues. If those slaves happen to rise to action, our worries will not be small. “In the previous dynasty, the residents of the villages known as yŏkcha, chinch’ŏk, and pugok146 in the five circuits and two border regions (odo yanggye)147 were originally the people who rebelled against T’aejo, the founder of the Koryŏ dynasty. So they were confined to those isolated districts to perform menial labor. Your sacred virtue being too generous, you allowed even those who committed crimes against you to be exonerated from menial labor. However, they should not be allowed to keep slaves as they did formerly. We urge that Your Majesty allow them to keep only an adequate number of slaves, and that the remaining slaves be handed over to the government office.” The king ordered that the royal family members of the Koryŏ Wang clan and the high officials of the Two Departments (Yangbu)148 be provided with twenty slaves each, and those below them in rank with ten slaves each, and that the rest of the slaves be handed over to the government. 21th Day (Kyŏngo)

When the king traveled to the hot springs in P’yŏngju,149 one member each of the Censorate, the Council of Generals, the Comprehensive Rites Agency, 146. These are the names signifying the districts where the low-caste laborers resided. 147. These are the administrative divisions in the early Koryŏ period. The five circuits (to) were: Yanggwang, Kyŏngsang, Chŏlla, Kyoju, and Sŏhae. The two border regions (kye) were: the Northern (or Western) Border Region (Pukkye or Sŏgye) and the Eastern Border Region (Tonggye). See Ki-Baik Lee, p. 114. 148. “Two Departments” collectively refers to the officials of the Secretariat-Chancellery and the Security Council. (Duncan, p. 26) 149. An old name of P’yŏngsan in Hwanghae Province.

Book I

and the Bureau of State Records (Sagwan),150 as well as the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards, escorted him, and the Security Guards of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office saw him off outside Sŏnŭimun Gate.151 22nd Day (Sinmi)

The king stayed in Kit’an.152 The king ordered Cho Ki,153 associate commissioner of the Security Council, to select two military officers and let them take charge of crossing the river. If anyone among the soldiers vied with one another to cross the river first, causing disturbance, he instructed Ki to punish their supervising officers first. When the royal carriage stayed in the valley of Mt. Ch’ŏnsin,154 the king found a couple of furrows of field crops grazed and damaged by the horses of his entourage. So he ordered Cho Ki to find the owners of those horses and to have them pay for the damage to the farmers.155 Then he proclaimed, “From now on, if anyone lets his animals run through crops in the field, I will not forgive him, even if he is my son or brother.” 23rd Day (Imsin)

The royal carriage of the king arrived at the hot springs. Son Hŭngjong, Hwang Kŏjŏng, Kim No, and others returned to the royal court from their exile. However, eight officials, including Yi Chonghak and Ch’oe Ŭlŭi exiled to Kyŏngsang Province; U Hongsu, Yi Sungin, Kim Chinyang, and U Hongmyŏng exiled to Chŏlla Province; Yi Hwak exiled to Yangkwang Province; and U Hongdŭk exiled to Kangwon Province, all died. Upon hearing the report, the king was indignant. The king asked, “Since those who were sentenced to less than 100 strokes with a heavy paddle are all dead, what really happened?” 150. Sagwan actually means either historiographer or historiography institute, but here it seems to refer to the Bureau of State Records. 151. The main gate of Kaegyŏng, the capital of Koryŏ, which leads to the northwest. 152. Located 45 li north of P’yŏngsan of Hwanghae province. The water of Kit’an originates from Mt. Sŏngbul and flows to the south until it reaches the sea around Haeju. 153. An ardent supporter of T’aejo and merit subject, but details on his life and career are unknown. 154. A mountain in Kangŭm in North Hwanghae Province. 155. According to the source text, T’aejo ordered Cho Ki to collect cloth from the owners of the horses and give it to the farmers for their damaged field crops.

157

158

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Sungin’s family seat is Sŏngju, his courtesy name Chaan, his pen name Toŭn, and his father Yi Wŏn’gu, Lord of Sŏngsan. In the Kyŏngja year (1360) of Koryŏ, he succeeded in the National University examination (Sŏnggyunsi) at the age of fourteen, and in the Imin year (1362), he passed the regular civil service examination with the second honor in the pyŏng division.156 He was appointed compiler (such’an) of the Office of Royal Decrees and promoted in rank to be vice section chief of the Board of Personnel after serving in some other departments. In the Sinhae year (1371) of the reign of Hongwu, the Ming court ordered the Chosŏn government to send nominees for office (kongsa).157 Duke Munch’ung Yi Inbok and Duke Munjŏng Yi Saek158 supervised the examination and selected Sungin as the candidate with the highest score, but King Kongmin cherished him so much that he did not send him to China. A little later, he appointed Sungin as the lecturer (chikkang) of the National University and fourth royal counselor of the Office of Royal Decrees and promoted him again to section chief of the Board of Personnel. At that time Kim Sŭngdŭk159 falsely accused Pak Sangch’ung160 and others. When he slandered them to Chi Yun,161 the accused were exiled to 156. In the case of the regular civil service examination, the successful candidates were divided into three categories: kap, ŭl, and, pyŏng, which mean first, second, and third, respectively. 157. “A general reference to men of virtue and talent recommended to the ruler by regional or local authorities, as if in tribute, to be considered for appointment as officials.” (Hucker, p. 295) 158. “Duke” (kong) here indicates a posthumous title. 159. An official of late Koryŏ. He served as second inspector and fifth royal secretary during the reign of King U. He was notorious for committing all sorts of abuses to seize power. Though he became a member of Yi Inim’s clique, he was exiled with Chi Yun as a result of the conflict between Yi Inim and Chu Yun. 160. Pak Sangch’ung (1332–1375): a scholar official of late Koryŏ. He passed the civil service examination during the reign of King Kongmin and served as section chief of the Board of Rites and director of the court of Royal Ceremonies and Sacrifices. He opposed Yi Inim’s pro-Yuan policy, advocating pro-Ming policy along with Chŏng Monju, Chŏng Tojŏn, and Im Pak. In 1375, he was accused of being involved in the conspiracy to remove Chi Yun and Yi Inim, the advocates of pro-Yuan policy, and died on the way to the place of his exile. 161. Chi Yun (?–1377): a military official of late Koryŏ. He served as military commander of the Northwest Region, assistant grand councilor, and minister of revenue. Allying himself with Yi Inim, the man in power at that time, he suppressed the advocates of pro-Ming policy, including Im Pak, Chŏng Tojŏn, and Pak Sangch’ung. However, he had a conflict with Yi Inim

Book I

the district of Taegu,162 and Sungin was among them. However, he was called back to the royal court as assistant master (sasŏng) of the National University. In the Sinyu year (1380), his mother passed away, and in the Imsul year (1382), he was ordered to serve in the government despite still being in mourning. Thus, he supervised the National University examination as senior military protector of the Left and Right Guard. He did not decline this job opportunity because it happened a year after his mother passed away, and his father was still alive. However, people thought it inappropriate. After­­ wards, he served as minister of personnel (chŏlli p’ansŏ) and was promoted in rank to be academician of the Security Council (milchik chehak).163 In the Pyŏngin year (1386), he visited the Chinese court as New Year embassy (hajŏngsa), and in the spring of the Mujin year (1388), he was exiled to T’ongju164 due to the slander of Chŏng Sŭngga,165 a man who worked for Ch’oe Yŏng as an advisor. But when Yŏng was driven out, he was recalled to the royal court to serve as administrative commissioner of the Security Council. In the winter of the same year, Left Chancellor Yi Saek visited the Chinese court and made Yi Sungin his deputy in his diplomatic mission. In the autumn of the Kisa year (1389), a man came from Japan and presented himself as Lord of Yŏnghŭng. Because he was related to the man’s family by marriage, Sungin knew him well and exposed his true identity; in the process, however, Sungin was exiled to Sŏngju. In the summer of the Kyŏngo year (1390), he became implicated in the incident of Yun I and Yi Ch’o166 and was imprisoned in Ch’ŏngju but was

over the matter of dispatching his son Ikgyŏm as the commander of the expedition forces against Japanese invaders and attempted to eliminate Yi Inim and Ch’oe Yŏng. When his conspiracy was discovered, he was executed with his family and clique. 162. Located in North Kyŏngsang province. 163. The rank of both minister of personnel and academician of the Security Council is actually 3a. 164. Sŏnch’ŏn, North P’yŏngan Province. 165. Chŏng Sŭngga (?–1388): a military official of late Koryŏ. He served as senior military protector of the Soaring Falcon Guard. Though he participated in the military campaign against Liaodong, China, he was reluctant to join Yi Sŏnggye, who turned his army around to march back home. As Yi’s army took the capital, he ran away but was captured and executed. 166. Yun I and Yi Ch’o made a false report to the Ming government regarding the enthronement of King Kongyang and in consequence many officials were interrogated and imprisoned.

159

160

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

released due to the outbreak of severe floods and returned to Ch’ungju. In the spring of the Imsin year (1392), he was appointed administrative commissioner of the Security Council again, but in the summer of the same year was exiled to Sunch’ŏn.167 This time Hwang Kŏjŏng came down to Naju to punish him physically. As Hwang beat Sungin on the back with a heavy paddle, Sungin finally died in Namp’yŏng. He was only forty-six years old. He had four sons, and they were Ch’ajŏm, Ch’ayak, Ch’agŏn, and Ch’asam. Sungin surpassed others in intelligence. He could devote a text to memory with just one reading. Before he reached the age of twenty, his poems and prose works received the praise of the people. Having read many books, he was learned, especially in the study of Neo-Confucianism. Starting from royal lecturer of the National University until he rose to the position of minister, he concurrently took charge of drafting official documents, and after Yi Saek became sick, all the diplomatic documents sent to China were written by his hand. Emperor Gao [of Ming China]168 praised them, saying, “The way memorials [sent by Korea] are written is quite appropriate in details and expressions.” Earlier, Yi Saek also said, “In our country we have had quite a few good writers, but no one could surpass Chaan [Yi Sungin].” Our current king, His Majesty [T’aejong], ordered Duke Munch’ung169 Kwŏn Kŭn to compose the preface to Sungin’s posthumous works so that they could be circulated. At first, Sungin made friends with with Chŏng Tojŏn, and their friendship lasted for many years. Later, Tojŏn became close to Cho Chun and learned that the latter disliked Sungin. So he slandered Sungin and eventually killed him. Chonghak is the second son of Yi Saek, Count of Hansan, and his courtesy name is Chungmun. He was a man of intelligence and magnanimity by nature. In the Kabin year (1374), he passed the National University examination at the age of fourteen, and in the Pyŏngjin year, during the reign of the false king [King U], he passed the licentiate examination and became the supervisor of Changhŭng Granary and eventually rose to chief royal sec­­ retary after serving in various offices. In the Mujin year (1388), he ­supervised 167. Located near Naju, South Chŏlla Province. 168. Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder and first emperor of the Ming dynasty. 169. Munch’ung is the posthumous title of Kwŏn Kŭn.

Book I

the National University examination and was promoted in rank to be chief royal secretary, and in the Kisa year (1389), appointed concurrent examination administrator (chigonggŏ). Since at that time, Yi Saek was in charge of state affairs, and his son Chonghak was selected to supervise the civil service examination every year, prompting some to criticize them. When King Kongyang ascended the throne, Yi Saek was impeached, and his son Chonghak dismissed. In the Kyŏngo year (1390), the conspiracy of Yun I and Yi Ch’o was discovered, and both father and son [Yi Saek and Yi Chonghak] were arrested and imprisoned in Ch’ŏngju, but they were pardoned and released together in the wake of severe floods. In the Imsin year (1392), Chonghak was exiled to Hamch’ang170 again. This time, when Son Hŭngjong171 came down to Kyerim172 to harm Chonghak by punishing him physically, his disciple Kim Yŏji, who passed the civil service examination when Chonghak served as supervisor of the examination and served then as local magistrate of the district concerned, secretly ordered the official in charge not to administer any physical punishment unauthorized by the law. As a result, Chonghak was able to save his life and was transferred to the district of Changsa,173 another place of exile for him. However, Son Hŭngjong sent his man to follow Chonghak and strangled him at night at Much’on Post Station.174 His age was thirty-two at the time of his death. He was survived by six sons: Sugya, Sukhyu, Suktang, Sungmyo, Sukbok, and Sukch’i. Hong Su is the eldest son of U Hyŏnbo, Earl of Tanyang. He passed the licentiate examination in the Chŏngsa year (1377) and was appointed vice commandant and concurrently erudite of the National University and finally rose to inspector-general after serving in various posts, including chief royal secretary, and in the Kisa year (1389), senior secretary of the Security Council. In the summer of the Imsin year (1392), he was exiled to Sunch’ŏn but died after being beaten with a heavy paddle on the back by Hwang Kŏjŏng 170. Located near Sangju in North Kyŏngsang Province. 171. A military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Participating in the efforts to enthrone T’aejo, he became a dynasty-founding merit subject third class. He was notorious for drowning the members of the royal Wang clan in the sea near Kŏje Island. In 1409, he was implicated in the treason led by his younger brother Hyojong and exiled to Sinŭn, Hwanghae Province. At that time, he was also charged with unfairly executing Yi Chonghak and Yi Sungin and was therefore made a commoner, with all his properties confiscated. 172. Modern Kyŏngju. 173. Located in Kŏch’ang in North Chŏlla Province. 174. Located in Kŏch’ang in South Kyŏngsang Province.

161

162

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and others. He was then thirty-nine years old. He was survived by four sons: Sŏngbŏm, Sŭngbŏm, Hŭngbŏm, and Hŭibŏm. Earlier, when a relative of Hyŏnbo named Kim Chin lived as a monk, he committed adultery with the wife of his slave, named Sui, and had a daughter by her. Though his relatives said that she was the daughter of Sui, Kim Chin believed that she was his own daughter and secretly loved and protected her. Later, he returned to the secular world, abandoning the life of a monk. Then he drove out his slave, Sui, after taking away his wife. He also married off his daughter to a scholar named U Yŏn, providing him with slaves, houses, and land. U Yŏn had a daughter from his wife and married her off to Chŏng Un’gyŏng, a tribute student of the National University. Un’gyŏng rose to minister of the Board of Punishments after serving in various offices. He had three sons, and the eldest one was none other than Chŏng Tojŏn. When Tojŏn first entered into public service, U Hyŏnbo’s sons and brothers all held Tojŏn in contempt. Whenever he was newly appointed or transferred to other departments, he had a hard time because the Censorate office delayed signing the document he needed. Believing that it happened due to the intervention of Hyŏnbo’s family, Tojŏn was upset and resented them deeply. After Prince Kongyang ascended the throne, he took U Sŏngbŏm, the son of U Hongsu, as his son-in-law, and it made Tojŏn more nervous because he was worried that Sŏngbŏm and others would use their power to expose his life history. So Tojŏn left no stone unturned in order to slander Hyŏnbo’s family. When the new dynasty started, he killed Sŏngbŏm by making a false accusation, and even tried to kill Hyŏnbo and his sons by implicating them in crimes. Furthermore, having learned that Cho Chun was on bad terms with Yi Saek and Yi Sungin, he tried to frame them together with Yi Chonghak. Tojŏn drafted the first royal decree after the king [T’aejo] ascended to the throne. He listed a series of measures that would help the people and at the end of the decree discussed the crimes of over ten people so that they could be put to death. The king ordered chief royal secretary An Kyŏnggong to read the draft of the royal decree and was very surprised while listening to it. He said, “Haven’t I already said that I would be generous and forgive the people of their crimes? How can I punish them like that? Stop discussing their crimes any further.” As Tojŏn and others requested the king to punish them by lowering the

Book I

grade of their crimes, the king replied, “U Hyŏnbo, Yi Saek, and Sŏl Changsu should not be touched even after their crimes are reduced to the lower grades.” So Tojŏn and others requested the king to physically punish the rest of the people according to their crimes. Believing that physical punishment by flogging would not endanger their lives, the king reluctantly granted the request. Tojŏn, along with Nam Ŭn, said to Hwang Kŏjŏng and others, “Those who are sentenced to 100 strokes of beating with a heavy paddle should not be allowed to live.” Kŏjŏng and others killed the three U Hongsu brothers and another five people, including Yi Sungin, by beating them with a heavy paddle. When they returned to the court, they reported to the king that those people had died of being sick after their physical punishment. Thus, Tojŏn settled his private grudge against his enemies, deceiving the king. The king did not know it at first, but finally realized the truth of the matter when he heard that they were all dead. He was deeply sorrowful and lamented over the loss of talented people. In the autumn of 1411, His Majesty [King T’aejong] retroactively punished Hwang Kŏjŏng and Son Hŭngjong for their cruel and reckless killing and thus satisfied the bitterness and anger of those who got killed unjustly. 25th Day (Kapsul)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “Previously, we requested that royalty and the powerful families of the previous dynasty be allowed to keep an appropriate number of their slaves, and that the rest of their slaves be reverted to the government. We have now heard that Your Majesty had ordered that the slaves of the wives’ family of royalty who committed crimes should not be mentioned. We sincerely believe that there should be no differentiation between the slaves of royalty and the slaves of their wives’ families. We urge you to have them all handed over to the government.” The king granted the request. 26th Day (Ŭlhae)

Wang Kyŏk, Lord Yŏngbok, the tribute emissary of the previous dynasty; Kwon Chunghwa, assistant grand councilor; and others returned to court from their trip to the Ming capital. They reported, “The imperial crown prince [of Ming] passed away on the twenty-fifth of the fourth month, and the emperor made his grandson Yun Wen succeed his father.”

163

164

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

27th Day (Pyŏngja)

Chŏng Chawi, director of the Office of Guest Affairs returned after delivering 1,000 tribute horses to the authorities of Liaodong, China. 28th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

When the king stayed in P’yŏngju, he performed the mourning rites for the Chinese crown prince, leading various officials who were with him in his temporary quarters. All the government agencies in the capital also performed the mourning rituals on this day. Kwŏn Chunghwa brought with him the rules for mourning prepared by the Ministry of Rites (Libu) for the Korean government, which were as follows: “1. The mourning dress should be made of hemp cloth. The fabric of the hood should be coarse and the hood worn on top of a cap. The girdle, also made of hemp, should be worn loosely so that it can hang down on the backside. The mourning headpiece made of coarse hemp can be taken off after one hundred days. “2. For thirteen days, music cannot be played; for three days, slaughtering is prohibited; for one month, no weddings can take place; and for thirteen days, no ancestral rites, whether they be large or small, can be performed.” 29th Day (Muin)

The government sent Cho Im,175 former deputy commissioner of the Security Council, to the Chinese capital on a mission to submit a memorial. “Your subject So-and-So, provisional ruler of Koryŏ, submits this memorial. In our country, King Kongmin passed away without leaving an heir, and U, the son of Sin Ton, usurped the throne for fifteen years, deceiving the people. Furthermore, in the Mujin year (1388) he recklessly raised an army to invade Liaodong [China] and ordered me to lead the army across the Yalu River. However, believing that it was not right for a small state such as ours to violate the territory of the suzerain state, I persuaded my fellow commanders in the Great Cause to march back home immediately. “U, at last, realized that he had made a mistake and let his son Ch’ang succeed him. However, Ch’ang was also too foolish and weak to rule the

175. The name Cho Im can be read as “Cho Rim.”

Book I

state. Finally, following the orders of Queen Dowager An, the widow of King Kongmin, the people made Wang Yo, Great Lord Chŏngch’ang, assume control of the state’s affairs. However, he was also so ignorant and tyrannical that he threw the law and administration into disarray. He only enjoyed associating with the slanderers and flatterers and kept away from those who were upright and loyal to him. “The officials as well as the people were frustrated and resentful, but they did not know what to do. Deliberating over the cause of the problems, Queen Dowager An intervened and made Yo retire to his private house. “As a result, all the officials of high and low rank alike, the unemployed sons of civil and military officials, retired officials, soldiers, and civilians recommended me to assume control of the state’s affairs and the army, saying that the throne that is in charge of administration and military affairs as a whole cannot be left untended even a day. “Lacking talent and virtue from the beginning, I declined their request repeatedly but could not prevail against them. I am now so scared and at a loss that I do not know how to carry myself. “Your Imperial Majesty, with your infinite magnanimity and divine wisdom, will understand that I had no choice but to accept the wishes of the majority of the people and how reluctant I was in accepting them. I beseech you to grant your recognition of me so that the people can find peace in their hearts.”

165

Book II

First Year of Reign (1392) 9th Month 1st Day (Kimyo)

The king sent Yi Kŏin, left director of the State Finance Commission, to the Chinese court and expressed his condolences to the emperor: “Our envoy Kwŏn Chunghwa and others returned from their trip to the capital [Nanjing],1 and I learned from them that Your Imperial Majesty was grieving the death of your beloved son. Though the love and affection between father and son are limitless, our life-span is already set by Heaven; it is futile to resist what was predetermined. I sincerely beg you to consider the people of the world who rely on you and to restrain your sorrows according to the rules of mourning rites.” Then the king ordered his envoy to take two white silver ingots (ding), one hundred bolts of black hemp cloth, and one hundred bolts of ramie cloth to China and offer sacrifices to the memorial altar of the crown prince. 3rd Day (Sinsa)

Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm, Cho Chun, and others came up to the hot spring and spoke to the king: “We have observed that those who escort the king seize the private houses of the people for their own use because the 1. The capital here is presumed to be Nanjing, because Beijing was established as the capital of Ming China by the Yongle emperor in 1421.



166

Book II

c­ onstruction of the royal palaces and the walls in Hanyang [Seoul] remains incomplete. The weather is getting cold, and the people have no homes to return to. So we would like to request that you move the nation’s capital after building the palaces and walls and establishing government offices and agencies in their respective places.” The king granted the request. The king had Yi Pu, former general, and Hŏ Hae, vice minister of the Court of Royal Sacrifices, imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison. The king had Prince Yŏngbok Wang Kyŏk exiled to Hwaryŏng Prefecture.2 4th Day (Imo)

Mars approached the constellation of Alhena on the eastside. 5th Day (Kyemi)

The moon concealed the Constellation of the Heart (Simsŏng). 8th Day (Pyŏngsul)

As the king returned from his trip to the hot springs, the crown prince and officials greeted him at Sŏnŭimun Gate. 11th Day (Kich’uk)

The king held the morning audience, in which the emissaries from the Ryukyu Kingdom3 and Wuliangha4 attended. The emissaries from the Ryukyu Kingdom stood below the rank 5 of the Eastern File,5 those from Wuliangha below the rank 4 of the Western File,6 and their attendants below the officials of rank 6. The emissaries from the Ryukyu Kingdom presented their local products. 2. Hwaryŏng is an old name of Yŏnghŭng, a town in South Hamgyŏng Province where Tojo and Hwanjo resided, and T’aejo was born. (Sinchŭng Tongguk Yŏjisŭngnam, VI. p. 169) 3. Presently Okinawa, in Japan, the Ryukyu was an independent kingdom until the 19th century. 4. One of the aboriginal Jurchen tribes who lived in northern Hamgyŏng Province and southern Manchuria. 5. A generic term referring to civil officials. 6. A generic term referring to military officials.

167

168

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The king dispatched surveillance commissioners to various provinces. He spoke to Yi Munhwa, left grand master of remonstrance, and Yi Ko, left aide of the State Finance Commission, who were dispatched to Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces, respectively: “Despite being unworthy, I ascended to the throne rather reluctantly, owing to the support from officials and people. That is the reason I am more mindful of what I am doing all the time. I need to rely on the officials both in the central and local governments in order to discharge my duties properly and bring benefits to the people. Furthermore, since the Kyŏnggi area is close to the royal palace, it should be given greater priority in bestowing benefits upon the people. So I decided to send you to observe the sufferings of the people and thus help me discharge my duties. “I believe that rewards and punishments are intended to encourage those who rendered service and chastise those who committed wrongdoings. Anyone who governs the people or commands the troops should be rewarded regardless of his rank if he wins a war through encouraging his troops, raises benefits for the country while removing abuses, or makes the lives of people safe and comfortable. You shall make an official report on such people. “On the other hand, anyone who, being scared, avoids fighting the enemy or, being cunning and avaricious, harasses the people or, being reckless, violates the laws must be punished. If you find such a person among the officials of senior rank 2 and above, hold him in custody first and make a report. If he is a junior rank 2 or lower, punish him directly according to your judgment. If you find any measure that you believe to be beneficial for the people, carry it out, taking the circumstances into consideration, and thereby assist me in managing the affairs of state in a new way.” The king also spoke to Cho Pak, minister of rites, Sim Hyosaeng, second inspector of the Office of the Inspector-General, Kim Hŭisŏn, minister of taxation. Chŏng T’ak, general and concurrent auxiliary remonstrator, and Chŏng Tang, chief minister of the Bureau of Cultivation, whom he dispatched to Yanggwang, Kyŏngsang, Kyoju-Kangnŭng (Kangwŏn),7 and Sŏhae Provinces, respectively: 7. The name of Kangwŏn Province was changed a number of times during the Koryŏ period. During the reign of King Kongmin, it was called Kangnŭng-do, Kangnŭng-Sakbang-do, and Kangnŭng-do again. During the reign of King U, the name was changed again into Kyoju-

Book II

“Being a man with no virtue, I was unable to resist the general opinion of the people and ascended the throne reluctantly. Thus, I am so nervous and worried that I feel like I am falling into water. Nevertheless, I am hopeful that the officials of both the central and local governments will make up for the lack of my ability and assist me in discharging my duty so as to govern the nation well. “Since a general is in command of troops, myriad lives depend on him, and since a local magistrate governs the people, the fortune of a district depends on him. How can you establish rules and order and make accomplishments unless you encourage or discourage the people through rewards or punishments? If there is any official of high or low rank who is in charge of either soldiers or people and wins a battle by devising an outstanding strategy, repulses a powerful enemy by fighting hard, or makes the lives of people comfortable by governing the district well and handling the lawsuits justly, write down his name and report to me. I will employ him, bypassing the regular system of ranks. “Anyone who breaks military discipline or runs away when he sees the enemy or willfully neglects his duty for personal gain or acts recklessly while having no respect for his office must be punished. If he is senior rank 2 or above, hold him in custody and make a report. If he is junior rank 2 or below, punish him directly, using your judgment, so that the people may know that I am determined to reward without fail those who render service to the state and punish without fail those who violate the law. Besides, as for the measures designed to help the people, you look into the precedents and implement them as best you can. 14th Day (Imjin)

The Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, in a memorial to the king, proposed three things: “1. Whenever you carry out state affairs or have an audience with officials in the palace throne hall, please allow historiographers to sit on the left and right and take notes regardless of whether the matters are large or small. Kangnŭng-do, incorporating P’yŏngch’ang County which was under the jurisdiction of Ch’ungju in modern North Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. (Sinjŭng Tongguk yŏjisŭngnam. V, p.477)

169

170

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“1. We request that you have those who are concurrently serving the office below the rank of compiler also record what they have heard and send their notes to our office.8 “1. Please allow our office to officially request all the large and small government agencies, both in the capital and local districts, to send to our office information that is related to important state affairs or the names of those who deserve to be praised or admonished. Also, please make it a permanent rule that the Privy Council and the Office for Legislating Laws and Regula­ tions send us their new regulations and ordinances on a monthly basis so that they can serve as references for the compilation of the history.” The king granted all the requests. 16th Day (Kabo)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “From antiquity, the kings were established by the Mandate of Heaven, not by their worldly background. One can find that out if he reads various histories. Now, Your Majesty, with generosity and magnanimity, received the Mandate of Heaven at the time when the royal house of the Wang clan entered their twilight years, and a host of subjects also recommended that you assume the throne. As a result, those who were part of the confederates of the previous dynasty, and therefore supposed to perish with their families, were all generously pardoned and their lives were spared. Yi Pu and Hŏ Hae are now forgetful about the great royal favor that saved their lives and instead instigate the hearts of the people with their wicked words. The Censorate officials, along with the officers from the Capital Constabulary Prison, should interrogate them and bring them to justice.” The king said with a laugh: “There is no need to say that the establishment of the kings has little to do with their background. The current emperor of Ming used to be an ordinary person but has gained the empire. Why should I bother myself by the remarks of such people concerning my background? Furthermore, since those words were accidentally spoken in their inner room with their wives and concubines, what more is there to interrogate?” Then the king had Yi Pu banished to the provinces and Hŏ Hae discharged from office.

8. The Office of Royal Decrees and State Records.

Book II

Inspectors submitted a memorial to the king once again: “In ancient times, during the reign of Taizong of Tang, those who spoke evil words because of mental disease were also indicted by the censors. Pu and Hae presently have no such problems and yet dared to spread wicked words and deluded the people. Therefore, it is impossible to allow them to stay in the capital.” So the king additionally ordered to have Hŏ Hae banished. The Directorate for Merit Subjects submitted a memorial to the king: “Sixteen people, including Left Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm and Right Chan­ cellor Cho Chun, clearly understood where the will of Heaven and hearts of the people were. So they raised you up to the throne after having discussions and deliberations and finally succeeded in devising ways to accomplish their goal. “Their success, of course, largely owed to your distinguished virtue and contributions, which moved Heaven and pleased the people; however, it also happened because they were outstanding in their loyalty and commitment for the great cause. Their contributions, as you have already stated in your royal decree, cannot be forgotten until tall mountains become flat and great rivers go dry. “They should be awarded with the title of dynasty-founding merit subject first class, their portraits hung in the newly built pavilion in the court, and their contributions engraved in a memorial stone. In addition, titles of nobility and grants of lands should be conferred on them. “The titles of nobility should also be conferred on their parents and wives by skipping three ranks, and their sons in a direct line of descent awarded with protected privilege (ŭm) by skipping three ranks, and in the case of those without sons, their nephews and sons-in-law awarded the same privilege by skipping two ranks. “They should all be provided with certain amounts of land and certain numbers of slaves, seven domestic servants (kusa),9 and ten private soldiers (chinbaep’aryŏng),10 as well as the privilege of direct appointment after passing the civil service examination. 9. Kusa refers to domestic servants provided by the government to royal family members, merit subjects, and high officials. 10. It refers to private soldiers provided by the government to royalty, merit subjects, and high officials.

171

172

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Furthermore, the rightful heirs of their families should receive stipends from the government from generation to generation, and their names should be written in the official records prefaced with the title ‘descendant of merit subject first class.’ Even if they happen to commit crimes, they should be forgiven and no punishment ever administered. “Eleven people, including Yun Ho, deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, participated in the meetings of merit subjects in order to enthrone Your Majesty, and therefore their contributions are also great, as you mentioned in your royal decree. They should be awarded with the title of merit subject second class, their portraits hung in the newly built pavilion in the court, and their contributions recorded in memorial stones. “Their parents and wives should be awarded the title of nobility, skipping two ranks, and their sons in a direct line of descent awarded protected privilege by skipping two ranks, and in the case of those without sons, their nephews and sons-in-law the same privilege by skipping one rank. “They should be all provided with certain amounts of land and certain numbers of slaves, including five domestic servants and eight private soldiers, as well as the privilege of direct appointment after passing the civil service examination. “Furthermore, the rightful heirs of their families should receive stipends from the government from generation to generation, and their names should be written in the official records prefaced with the title ‘descendant of merit subject first class.’ Even if it happens that they commit crimes, they should be forgiven and no punishment ever administered. “Sixteen people, including Chief Royal Secretary An Kyŏnggong, have supported Your Majesty and proved to be steadfast in their faith in you ever since the administration of the former dynasty was in disarray. Their contributions, therefore, are no less important, as you have said in your royal decree. They should be awarded with the title of merit subject third class, their portraits hung in the newly built pavilion in the court, and their contributions recorded in memorial stones. “Their parents and wives should be awarded with the title of nobility, skipping one rank, and their sons in a direct line of descent should be awarded protected privilege by skipping one rank, and in the case of those without sons, their nephews and sons-in-law should be employed after entering their names on the list. “They should all be provided with certain amounts of land and certain numbers of slaves, including three domestic servants and six private ­soldiers,

Book II

as well as the privilege of direct appointment after passing the civil service examination. “Furthermore, the rightful heirs of their families should receive stipends from the government from generation to generation, and their names should be written in the official records prefaced with the title ‘descendant of merit subject first class.’ Even if they happen to commit crimes, they should be forgiven and no punishment ever administered. “Kim Inch’an, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, though he passed away, actively joined Pae Kŭngnyŏm and others in their efforts to have Your Majesty sit on the throne. His contributions, therefore, fully deserve to be recognized, as you mentioned in your royal decree. He should be awarded with the title of merit subject first class, and as for the rewards and privileges granted him, they should be exactly like those of Pae Kŭngnyŏm.” The king granted the request and ordered that Pae Kŭngnyŏm and Cho Chun be awarded, separately, with a fief of one thousand households, tax villages of three hundred households from which taxes can be collected (siksilbong), 220 kyŏl of land, and thirty slaves; Kim Sahyŏng, Chŏng Tojŏn, and Nam Ŭn, 200 kyŏl of land and twenty-five slaves; Yi Che, Yi Hwa, Chŏng Hŭigye, Yi Chiran, Chang Sagil, Cho Inok, Nam Chae, Cho Pak, and Chŏng T’ak, 170 kyŏl of land and twenty slaves; Chŏng Ch’ong, O Mong’ŭl, and Kim Inch’an, 150 kyŏl of land and fifteen slaves; the merit subjects second class, 100 kyŏl of land and ten slaves; and the merit subjects third class, 70 kyŏl of land and seven slaves. 18th Day (Pyŏngsin)

The moon intruded on the Pleiades. The king led all the officials to Such’ang Palace and performed the ceremony celebrating the birthday of the [Chinese] emperor and afterwards held a banquet for the officials. 19th Day (Chŏngyu)

Hwang Hŭisŏk, discussant of the Security Council, arrived. Hŭisŏk was bereaved of his father before the enthronement of the king. At this time, dressed in a mourning garment, he had an audience with the king. 20th Day (Musul)

The moon approached the star Capella.

173

174

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * As it was the anniversary of the king’s great-grandmother, the king had the morning audience suspended for the day. 21st Day (Kihae)

After the morning audience at the court, the king ordered Yu Kyŏng, chancellor of the National Academy, to present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning (Taehak yŏnŭi). The king held a banquet for merit subjects in the Royal Council Hall (p’yŏnjŏn) and conferred on them the certificates of merit subject as well as the documents for entitlement to a stipend, belts decorated with gold and silver, and the fabric for making the outer pieces and inner linings of robes as appropriate. He specially bestowed upon Chancellors Pae Kŭngnyŏm and Cho Chun, separately, a kojŏngnip hat11 with a string of jade beads and an okchŏngja decoration attached to the top of the hat. On this day, he bestowed the family name upon his his son-in-law Yi Che, Lord of Hŭngan. He allowed him to use the same family name as that of the royal house.12 The inspector-general submitted a memorial to the king: “Since we are presumptuously occupying the Office of the Inspector-General despite being ignorant and unworthy, how can we keep silent and betray your good wishes to rule the state well? So we have made a list of proposals for your review. We fear that they may appear narrow-minded, but we wish you could adopt them if you find them to be useful. “1. Since the Northwest Region serves as the protective barrier for the whole nation, we established ten wings (units) in P’yŏngyang, another 11. According to the History of Koryŏ, it is an official cap worn by military officials of ranks 5 to 6. 12. He is the son of Royal Secretary Yi Inip and nephew of Chancellor Yi Inim, who enthroned King U. Inip tried to distance himself from his elder brother, Inim, who was notorious for abusing power, and eventually retired early to Sŏngju, his hometown. Since Yi Che belonged to the Sŏngju Yi clan, T’aejo at this time made him a member of the Chŏnju Yi clan, to which he himself belonged. Sŏngju was once called Hŭngan Strategic Prefecture during the reign of King Ch’ungnyŏl of Koryŏ.

Book II

ten wings in Anju, and four wings in Ŭiju, and assigned battalion commanders to each of them so that they could carry out military training and prepare weapons for potential crisis. If the country is at peace, they engage in farming, and if the country is at war, they are supposed to go out to fight. “However, those who serve as battalion commanders these days are selected so poorly that most of them are avaricious and neglectful of their duties. They use soldiers for their farming as if they were their slaves and take their daughters from them by force. As a result, military households escape across the national frontier. Hence, we would like to request that you select men of integrity talented in martial arts and let them train soldiers and prepare weapons after making them battalion commanders. If there is any battalion commander who acts lawlessly as his predecessors did, please let the local magistrate report to the governor so that he can be strictly chastised for his wrongdoing. “1. At the end of the former dynasty, the government ordered each province to refine iron to produce military weapons, and many years have passed since then. Thereafter, we heard that the iron produced in the Northwest Region had doubled in its amount, but the production of military weapons had not increased. “We would like to request that you order the Privy Council to send ­official letters to provincial military commissioners and have them report every month and every season on the production of iron and the number of military weapons, rewarding or punishing them according to their ­performance. “1. In ancient times, married women were not supposed to visit their ­parents’ home once their parents passed away, and the custom was ob­­ served strictly. At the end of the former dynasty, however, the custom degenerated so much that the wives of the literati began to frequent the houses of powerful families without shame, and men of discernment are ashamed of it. “We would like to request you to rectify the current custom by prohibiting the wives of civil and military officials henceforth from visiting people freely except their parents, brothers and sisters, paternal uncles and aunts, and maternal uncles and aunts. “1. After the Three Dynasties [Xia, Yin, and Zhou] the ways of conduct taught by the sages deteriorated. After Qin Shi Huang ordered the burning of books, the hearts of the people worsened further.

175

176

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Buddhism was first introduced during the reign of Emperor Ming13 of the Han dynasty. King Ying14 of the State of Chu was the first ruler who was enthusiastic about Buddhism, but he was assassinated at Danyang,15 and Emperor Wu16 of the Liang dynasty was a fervent believer of Buddhism, but he could not escape dying of starvation in Taicheng.17 Since Fotucheng18 failed to save the State of Zhao, and Jiumoluoshi19 the State of Jin, and Zhikong20 the Yuan dynasty, we have never heard that the kings devoted to Buddhism throughout history were rewarded for their faith. Turning to our eastern kingdom [Korea], Silla was carried away until it exhausted its national resources. The pagodas and temples filled the towns and villages, 13. The emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty, who reigned from 58 ad to 75 ad. He dreamt that he saw a golden man, whom his minister interpreted as Buddha in India. 14. Liu Ying, one of the sons of Emperor Guangwu (25–58 ad). According to the History of Later Han, he was deeply interested in Daoism and at the same time observed fasting and performed sacrifices to the Buddha. However, he was suspected of being disloyal to the central government, and Emperor Ming had him deposed and transferred to Danyang. In 71 ad, shortly after his arrival at Danyang, he committed suicide. 15. The capital of the State of Chu. 16. Emperor Wu (464–549 AD) was the founder of the Liang dynasty. Though his reign was remarkably stable and prosperous, he was betrayed by his general, named Hou Jing, at the end of his reign. He was placed under house arrest and is presumed to have been starved to death. During his reign, he received Buddhism and used the Buddhist precepts in running the government, which earned him the nickname “Emperor Bodhisattva.” 17. The capital of Liang (modern Nanjing), where the royal palace was located. 18. A famous Chinese monk during the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians. After studying Buddhism in India, he devoted himself to propagating Buddhism among the people in the “barbarian” states of northern China, often performing magic and miracles for the sake of proselytizing the common people. He served as the advisor of Shi Le, the king of Later Zhao, and built numerous temples, producing many famous disciples, including monk Dao An of the Eastern Jin dynasty. 19. An Indian monk whose original name was Kumarajiva (344–413 AD). In 384, he became a captive of Lu Guang, a general of Fu Gian, who invaded his hometown of Kucha. Thereafter, he lived in China and preached Buddhism, translating many Buddhist scriptures from Sanscrit to Chinese. Many accomplished Chinese scholar monks, including Dao An, became his disciples, and they numbered as many as three thousand. He died in Chang’an, China at the age of seventy. 20. Dhyānabhadra (1289–1364 ad), a Buddhist monk from northeast India. At the age of nineteen, he left his native state of Magadha, Sri Lanka, then part of India, and journeyed to the east until he arrived in Dudu (Beijing), the capital of Yuan China. Known as “the last light of Indian Buddhism” in East Asia, he taught the precept of “(neither arising nor) non-arising,” preaching that the realization of awakening can be available to the laity as well as to monks. He was especially attracted to the marginalized people in Yuan society, including the members of the Koryŏ expatriate community in the Yuan capital. (Ronald James Dziwenka, p. 12)

Book II

and the country eventually fell into ruin. King Ŭijong21 of Koryŏ served meals to thirty thousand monks every year and visited Buddhist temples more than ten times a month, but he was eventually murdered at a pond. King Kongmin also held the Dharma assembly for the worship of Manjusri (Munsu pŏphoe) and made Pohŏ and Naong22 his national preceptors (kuksa). Though small relics were found among the cremated remains of those monks, they could not save the country from ruin. These instances clearly show that the Buddhist’s view of cause and effect is not quite ­reliable. “If Your Majesty believes in the Buddhist doctrine of purifying the mind by removing craving, you should try to emulate the teaching of the sage kings who emphasized inaction in silence and reverence. If you admire the Buddhist injunction against killing, you had better think of the benevolent sage kings who liked to save the lives of people. If you are mindful of the laws of karma, the natural laws of causation, you should make it a rule to reward the good and punish the evil. When the crimes appear doubtful, you should punish them lightly, and when the contributions look doubtful, reward them generously. If you put all these things into practice, not only will the people benefit from them, but also the spirits in heaven and earth will assist you secretly. “1. One who cultivates the land should remove weeds, and one who builds a house should harden the ground. The one who governs the state, therefore, should solidify the foundation of the state by removing the seeds of trouble in advance.

21. The 18th king of Koryŏ, who reigned from 1146 to 1170. He was deposed by military generals led by Chŏng Chungbu and Yi Ŭibang in 1170 and exiled to Kŏje Island. Three years later, he was murdered in Kyerim (Kyŏngju) when the attempts of his followers to restore him to the throne failed. 22. The renowned monks of late Koryŏ. Pohŏ (1301–1382 AD), commonly called Pou, his Buddhist name, was ordained at the age of thirteen and had his first awakening six years later. He visited China in 1346 and studied Chan Buddhism for two years under the master Shi Wu Jingkong (1270–1352), the patriarch of the Linji Chan school. Shi Wu certified Pou’s awakening and sent him back to spread the Linji (in Korea, Imje) teachings. In 1356, King Kongmin appointed Pou as his royal preceptor, and, using the support of the king, Pou tried to unify the various schools of the meditation sects into a single organization and made great contributions to the development of the Sŏn tradition in Korean Buddhism. Naong (1320–1370 AD), also called Naong Hyegŭn, his Buddhist name, was a contemporary of master Pou. Despite the fact that the Imje teaching generally had a tendency to be antischolarly in nature, he showed an unusual interest in studying scriptures, as well as Neo-Confucianism and Daoism.

177

178

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Last time, you had the descendants of the Koryŏ royal family live on Kanghwa and Kŏje Islands after dividing them into two groups; however, some of them still live mixed with the people on lands. If they are reckless enough to raise disturbances under the pretext of restoring the royal Wang clan, this present situation can be worrisome for the security of the nation. We request you to relocate all of them to the two islands and prevent potential problems from occurring in the future. “1. To live a life of frugality is essential for the ruler who wants to govern well. Emperor Yao covered his roof with grass and made the steps with earth. Emperor Yu of the Xia Dynasty ate coarse foods and wore shabby clothes. If the rulers of the world emulate the exemplary ways of those two emperors, Yao and Yu, why should you worry that the state is not governed well? “We request that you order the offices and agencies responsible for all state granaries to calculate exactly how much money and grain are expended annually and at the same time how much of this they can save during the same period. Since gold and silver are not produced in our country, you should not allow those resources to be wasted recklessly. “The duties of eunuchs (chunggwan) are to guard the gates and clean the palace. However, history shows well the seriousness of the troubles they have made. Some of them, good at flattery, mislead the king or confuse his judgment so that they eventually bring ruin to the country, and cases like these are too many to record. “Since Your Majesty was endowed with courage and wisdom, talented in ordering the world and also learned in history, you will surely know well how to control the eunuchs. Unless you establish the laws to regulate their abuses from the beginning, unexpected troubles may occur in the future. So we would like to ask you to select those who are honest and diligent among the eunuchs and let them guard the gates or clean the palace, after dividing them into two groups that each consists of fifteen people. As for the old and cunning ones, prohibit them from attending you by driving them all out of the palace precincts. “1. To keep exemplary persons (kunja) close and avoid petty persons (soin) is the king’s great virtue. If you have exemplary persons close to you, you can always hear good and honest words and lofty moral views. Furthermore, influenced by them, you will become wiser day by day. On the other hand, if you associate with petty men, you will become susceptible to base and sugary requests for personal favor or certain unexpected,

Book II

cunning slander; and consequently you will become ignorant of what goes on. So your attitude toward these two groups of people can make your country strong or bring it to ruin. Hence, we wish that Your Majesty would invite honest and wise officials and discuss the affairs of state with them every day, while staying away from petty people and women. “1. In olden times the personnel working in the palace had quotas limiting their number. At the end of the Koryŏ dynasty, however, no such limits existed, so that a considerable amount of money had to be paid for their wages, and the problem still remains unresolved. Hence, we would like to ask you to reduce the number of working personnel appropriately and save the expenses by letting excess personnel return to farming. “1. The spirits reward good people with blessings and punish evil people by sending disasters, and it is their way of dealing with people. If people offer sacrifices without cultivating their virtues, what good is it, even if they offer sacrifices to the spirits? “In ancient times the Son of Heaven sacrificed to Heaven and Earth; feudal lords to mountains and rivers; grandees to five spirits in charge of kitchens, gates, roads, etc.; and scholars and commoners to their fathers and grandfathers. So they sacrificed only to those that deserved their sacrifices. However, how can they, without doing good deeds, expect blessings from the spirits only by offering sacrifices to them? “Hence, we request that only the sacrifices recommended by the books of rites23 be offered, while all other improper sacrifices be prohibited, and this injunction made into law so that those who violate it can be strictly punished. “According to the regulations of the Palace Treasury (Naet’anggo), the king gave his orders to a palace eunuch (naealja) whenever he had the need to spend money, and the palace eunuch passed the orders to a royal secretary. Then, the royal secretary spoke to the king and carried out his orders after obtaining his written permission. At the end of the former dynasty, however, palace eunuchs issued royal orders directly without notifying royal secretaries. How can you expect conspiracy and abuse not to take place? From this day forward, we request that you send your orders directly through the royal secretary to the Privy Council whenever there is a need to spend money and not to repeat the mistakes of the past. 23. “Books of rites” here may refer to Liji, Book of Rites, or Rites of Zhou (Zhouli), or many other books related to rituals and ceremonies.

179

180

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Since military affairs are an important priority of the government, the office that seizes control of the army and the office that commands the army have existed separately. Military commissioners of various provinces these days directly dispatch official notices to local governments and recruit navy soldiers, army soldiers, and miscellaneous labor forces to meet their needs and send them to Hanyang. If the Japanese suddenly invade the coast, who will fight them? “Hence, we request that the military commissioners of various provinces be allowed to recruit soldiers after reporting to the Privy Council and obtain­ ­ing royal permission. The current practice of recruiting soldiers should be strictly prohibited, and if anyone violates this injunction, please let the Office of the Inspector-General conduct investigations concerning it.” The king held a banquet for the wives of dynasty-founding merit subjects in the quarters of Consort Hyŏn.24 23rd Day (Sinch’uk)

The king had the morning audience suspended because it was the anniversary of [his former wife] Consort Chŏl’s death.25 24th Day (Imin)

Pae Kŭngnyŏm, Cho Chun, and others, officials of the Privy Council, made twenty-two proposals in a memorial to the king. “1. School is the foundation of enlightening the people, and agriculture and sericulture are the source of food and clothing. We should foster men of talent by building schools and promote the livelihood of the people. “1. In evaluating the job performance of magistrates, such things as how well they managed the land and how much the resident population increased should be given foremost priority. “1. When a magistrate is replaced by a new one, laxity of discipline can take place in his performance. From now on, the magistrate should be required to depart for the place of his appointment after completing the transfer of duties. 24. T’aejo’s second wife, Queen Sindŏk. 25. Queen Sinŭi (1337–1391 AD): T’aejo’s first wife and the mother of five princes, including Yi Pangwŏn (later King T’aejong).

Book II

“1. Provisions and post-horses specified by the law should be provided to royal messengers as well as civil and military officials below rank 2, and the amount and number fixed by the law should serve as reference for all cases. “1. Each province should be required to recommend people learned in the classics, exemplary in conduct, and experienced in world affairs, and therefore capable of achievements; also people good at literature and calligraphy, and therefore capable of drafting official documents; also people well versed in law, accounting, and administration, and therefore capable of governing the people; also people knowledgeable in military strategies and courageous, and therefore capable of commanding the army; also people who are outstanding in archery, horsemanship, pole weapons, and slings, and therefore capable of taking charge of military affairs; and also people learned in any of the following, such as astronomy, geography, divination, medicine, and so forth. Investigations should be made of these people, and if they are found to have a talent in any of the aforementioned areas, the office concerned should make a visit to the individuals and send them to the court so that they can be employed for public service. If anyone among the ­commoners is exemplary in filial piety and brotherly love and diligent in farming, his taxes should be reduced so that the good custom can be ­preserved. “1. An able-bodied male aged sixteen to sixty is required to fulfill his labor duty. If a household has more than ten men, it is registered as large; if more than five men, medium; and if less than four men, small. When there is a need for labor service, the large household sends one man. However, in the cases of the medium and small households, two medium households send one man and three small households one man, which is fair. If there are vagrants, arrangements should be made for them to live together with their families after making investigations on the reason for their vagrancy. “1. The Righteous Granary (ŭich’ang) was originally established in order to save the poor people. At the beginning of the farming season, provision and seed should always be provided to the poor people first, measuring the exact amount. After the harvest, the grain distributed to the people should be collected, but it should not exceed the amount of the loaned grain. The grain distributed and collected should be reported to the State Finance Commission in the last month of the year, and the magistrates who do not use the proper measurement in distributing grain, or distribute to affluent people, should be punished.

181

182

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“1. Those among local yamen clerks of various provinces, including the ones who served in the present dynasty and whose rank is below grand master for transmission [rank 3a] or the ones who served in the former dynasty and whose rank is above grand master for service and assistance [rank 2b], should be ordered to return to the districts they originally belonged to, except the ones who passed the civil service examinations or rendered a great service to the state. “1. The district magistrates should go out now and then to inspect the crops of their districts and in the autumn make a detailed report to the governor about crop damage so that taxes can be reduced. “1. Every post station should post the number of horses on the outside wall after dividing them into three grades. If there is a royal messenger, horses should be provided to him after checking out the appropriate papers issued by the authorities. However, except for governors and military commissioners, horses should not be provided irresponsibly even if they are traveling on a royal mission. “1. The local governments, including provinces, counties, and districts, should report to the governor on their investigations of prisoners and finally hand down rulings according to law. The crimes subject to the death penalty should be reported to the Privy Council and dealt with after obtaining permission from the king. “1. The sacrifices to Confucius and the guardian deities of local districts should be performed by the governors and magistrates according to the season, preparing clean and abundant food for offerings. Officials of all ranks should offer sacrifices to their ancestors in their family shrines, and the commoners in the rooms of their houses, and all other obscene sacrifices are strictly prohibited. “1. The post-station guesthouse should provide meals to no one but royal messengers, and even if they are royal messengers and magistrates, they should not be allowed to have drinking parties or hunting games. “1. The one who plays the role of chief mourner should stay home and offer sacrifices to the dead day and night when the corpse remains in the house. “1. Every province and district should build or repair inns for travelers, taking distance into consideration. “1. Since entertainers and acrobats are not engaged in agriculture, wandering from place to place, they steal or slaughter cows and horses when they are cold and hungry. The districts in which these people stay should

Book II

register them on the record and settle them down by providing them lands and punish those who disobey the orders. “1. Powerful families in the provinces secretly seize people of good status to make them their personal servants. We request to have those people searched out vigorously so that they can be registered for labor service. “1. One who wants to become a monk should be required to present to the government 100 bolts of osŭngp’o fabric26 if he is a man of yangban status;27 150 bolts of osŭngp’o if he is a commoner; and 200 bolts of osŭngp’o if he is a man of base status. After collecting osŭngp’o fabric from them, the district they belong to should issue certificates authorizing them to become monks. Those who enter the Buddhist priesthood without permission should be strictly punished. “1. When the government or an individual makes a loan to the people, the law prohibits the lender to charge any interest on interest. Nevertheless, ignorant people charge interest on interest, and this is very wrong. From this day forward, it should not be allowed that the amount of interest exceed the principal of the loan, regardless of the length of the loan. “1. The Buddhist monks build temples or print books on Buddhism in collusion with officials, both in the central and local governments, and even worse, make the government pay for their expenses, causing harm to the people. From this day forward, such practices should be strictly banned. “1. The military weapons for land or sea battles should always be maintained properly for potential enemy attack. “1. Royal guards and navy soldiers should be divided into two groups and made to serve on a rotation basis.” The king granted the proposals as they are. 26th Day (Kapchin)

The king played kyŏkku in the inner court of the palace. Pae Kŭngnyŏm, left chancellor, Cho Chun, right chancellor, Kim Sahyŏng, vice grand councilor of the Chancellery, Nam Ŭn, commissioner of the 26. Osŭngpo, literally “five-thread fabric,” was one of fine-quality fabrics used to pay taxes. 27. Literally, “two orders” of officialdom who served in the bureaucracy, the term yangban used to broadly designate the status group in Chosŏn society privileged to occupy civil and military posts in the bureaucracy. (Ki-baik Lee, p.173)

183

184

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Security Council, and others, spoke to the king: “The princes and various members of the royal family cannot be without proper attire and carriages and an adequate number of grooms and attendants, not to mention expenditure befitting their status. We urge you to bestow more lands upon them in addition to their rank lands.” The king quietly talked about the days when he was out of public view, staying at home. He said, “Provided with 100 kyŏl of rank land, they [the princes] will not suffer hunger and cold. If I give them extra lands, people will certainly say that I give my sons preferential treatment. Furthermore, the lands in Kyŏnggi Province are limited in their amount. How can I give them out recklessly? If you really want to give them more lands, I will have merit subjects provided with lands first, and, based on that principle, the princes also provided with lands. To provide lands to the princes alone cannot be possible.” Nam Ŭn said, “Various merit subjects have already received extra lands in addition to their rank lands. How can it be impossible to provide the princes with more lands?” Then the king looked at Nam Ŭn and said, “Are you saying that I should also give lands to my sons because I bestowed lands on the merit subjects?” A little later, the king quietly said, “In olden days when I was a subject, I was also bestowed with lands. The lands were mostly barren and useless, but I did not mind. Now, the merit land (kongsinjŏn) issued to merit subjects must be selected from fertile lands.” 27th Day (Ŭlsa)

Sitting in the Council Hall, the king called Yu Kyŏng, chancellor of the National Academy, and ordered him to come forward and present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning. The king sent his order to the Privy Council: “At the beginning when the dynasty was founded, the following officials also made contributions, and they were Supreme General Cho Kyŏn,28 Third Royal Secretary Han 28. Cho Kyŏn (1351–1425 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. In his early years, he became a monk and returned to secular life at the age of thirty. After passing the civil service examination, he served as surveillance commissioner and, participating in enthroning T’aejo, became supreme general and dynasty-founding merit subject.

Book II

Sanggyŏng,29 Director of the Directorate for Palace Maintenance Im Ŏnch’ung,30 Director of the Directorate for Armaments Hwang Kŏjŏng, Supreme Generals Chang Sajŏng31 and Han Ch’ung,32 and Third Minister of the Board of War Min Yŏik.33 Cho Kyŏn shall be granted a title of merit subject and rewarded appropriately based on the precedent made for Yu Ho, and the rest of the officials based on the precedent made for An Kyŏnggong, so that all the officials included in this decree can be rewarded and honored as dynasty-founding merit subjects. 28th Day (Pyŏngo)

The dynasty-founding merit subjects and the royal princes had a meeting in Wangryundong34 and made a pledge to each other. The pledge they made read as follows: “Left Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm and others dare to make an announcement manifestly to Heaven and Earth and all the spirits, including Mt. Songak and the guardian deities. We respectfully believe that Our Majesty responded to the will of Heaven and followed the hearts of the people until he received the Mandate of Heaven, and we subjects cooperated in solidarity and finally achieved a great goal together. “Having already worked together and become one body, there is no better fortune than this. However, men of antiquity warned that there are many who start well but few who finish well. All of us who have worked together 29. Han Sanggyŏng (1360–1424 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He passed the civil service examination in 1382 and joined others in enthroning T’aejo. Thereafter, he served in numerous posts until he became chief state councilor. He was granted the posthumous title of Mun’gan. 30. There is little information on him except that he was one of the members who recommended T’aejo to the throne on the 17th day of the 7th month in 1392 at Such’ang Palace and became a dynasty-founding merit subject. 31. Chang Sajŏng (?): a military official of early Chosŏn. In 1392, he joined others in enthroning T’aejo, with his elder brother Chang Sagil, then associate royal secretary, and became a dynasty-founding merit subject. In 1398, when the First Strife of Princes took place, he assisted Prince Chŏngan (Yi Pangwŏn) in suppressing it and became a member of T’aejong’s merit subjects. However, he got himself into trouble by killing innocent people when drunk and seizing the concubine of Prince Panggan, who was then in exile; therefore, he was impeached and exiled. 32. Han Ch’ung (?): not much information is available about him except that he became a dynasty-founding merit subject at the beginning of T’aejo’s reign. 33. Min Yŏik (1360–1431AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served in numerous posts, including those of chief royal secretary and minister of works. 34. A place in Kaesŏng.

185

186

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

must serve the king with sincerity and associate with one another with trust. “We should neither harm one another for wealth and honor, nor avoid one another for self-interests, nor act upon listening to slander, nor become suspicious because of trivial mistakes in words and facial expressions, nor pretend to be pleased while hating behind the back, nor feign to be in harmony while secretly alienating the other. When one of us makes a mistake, we should correct it. When we have doubts, we should ask. If we are sick, we should help each other. If we have a problem, we should save each other. We will keep this pledge for generations, down to our descendants. If it happens that we break this pledge, the gods will punish us.” The children, brothers, and sons-in-law of the merit subjects had a meeting in Wangryundong, forming the mutual assistance association for loyalty and filial piety (ch’unghyogye). 30th Day (Musin)

There was thunder and lightning. The king called the officials of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory and asked their opinions regarding the new building site for the Royal Ancestral Shrine. One of them replied, “It is hard to find a good place for it inside the palace. The old site of the Royal Ancestral Shrine of the former dynasty would be the best choice.” The king said, “What can we make out of the old site of the ruined dynasty [Koryŏ]?” Nam Ŭn, director of the Security Council, said, “Why don’t you take down the old palaces over there, dig out the old ground, and build a new Royal Ancestral Shrine on top of it?” The king replied, “Do not rush to cut down the pines yet in the place where the Royal Ancestral Shrine of the former dynasty is.”

10th Month 1st Day (Kiyu)

There was heavy rain with thunder. Chancellor Cho Chun spoke to the king. “According to the reports, this year’s crop is bad. The government should reduce taxes. However, if we

Book II

only send down orders and fail to supervise their implementation, cunning yamen clerks will try to exploit the opportunity for their interest and people will draw no benefits from them. We request you to specially send your royal messengers and let them make sure that your orders are carried out properly.” The king replied, “If the crop this year is not good, taxes should be reduced more for Kangnŭng and Sakbang Provinces,35 because they mostly have dry fields and few rice paddies.” 2nd Day (Kyŏngsul)

Yu Kyŏng, chancellor of the National Academy, lectured on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning before the king. 3rd Day (Sinhae)

The Censorate submitted a joint petition to the king: “It has been long since Your Majesty, upon ascending to the throne, divided the merit subjects into three grades, awarding them with rewards and certificates. However, you ordered seven officials, including Third Royal Secretary Han Sanggyŏng, newly added to the existing merit subjects, and we have some doubts about your instruction. If you include on the list those who made such small ­contributions, those who have attended upon you for many years and yet were excluded from the list will all be disappointed. Hence, we request to have your orders repealed with regard to adding the new merit subjects. Furthermore, upon hearing that Chŏng Mongju died, Min Yŏik, third ­minister (ŭirang) of the Board of War, was known to have said, “A man who should not die has died.” This clearly indicates that he sided with Chŏng Mongju. Therefore, he should not be included on the list of merit subjects.” The king said to Nam Ŭn: “As far as merit subjects are concerned, only you and I know. What does the Censorate know about them? Besides, on the day that Mongju died, Min Yŏik discussed the matter with Son Hŭngjong and hurriedly sent dispatches to various provinces, and as a result, he could save both you and Cho Chun from danger. His contributions were not small at all. Under such circumstances, how could he have said, ‘A man who should not die has died’? Granted that he actually said that, can he be blamed

35. An old name of Kangwŏn Province.

187

188

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

for those words under the circumstances in which an official killed another recklessly without the permission of the king? “Furthermore, after Mongju died, military officers from various departments submitted a joint petition to punish Mongju and his clique for the future of the country. Those who signed the petition at that critical moment can be regarded as my supporters and deserve to be commended. This is the reason I want to award them with a title of merit subject. How can the Censorate continue to oppose it?” Then, the king instructed the Censorate, saying, “Do not mention this matter any longer.” 4th Day (Imja)

There was rain with thunder. 5th Day (Kyechíuk)

Sitting in the Council Hall, the king ordered Yu Kyŏng, chancellor of the National University, to present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning. 6th Day (Kabin)

The king said to Cho Chun, Nam Ŭn, and others: “When I deposed the false king [King Ch’ang] and established King Kongyang in order to restore the royal Wang clan, the officers under my command protected me and also made similar contributions when I ascended the throne. For this reason, I had each of them promoted by one rank. The Censorate, however, has not signed their letters of appointment. What is the reason?” 9th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king bestowed the titles of dynasty-founding subjects as follows: the first class to be called “mandate-assisting dynasty-founding merit subject” (chwamyŏng kaeguk kongsin); the second, “cooperating and supporting dynasty-founding merit subject” (hyŏpch’an kaeguk kongsin); and the third, “assisting and sustaining dynasty-founding merit subject” (iktae kaeguk kongsin). *   *   *

Book II

The king appointed Yu Wŏnjŏng36 as assistant director of the Security Council (Chungch’uwŏn pusa) and Pak Ŭijung37 as academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, ordered the officials of the Censorate transferred to other departments, and finally invited Chach’o38 as royal preceptor (wangsa). The king instructed the Privy Council as follows: “Yu Mansu, former assistant grand councilor (p’yŏngni) of the Chancellery; Ch’oe Yŏngji, assistant grand councilor (ch’amch’an) of the Chancellery; Ch’oe Tan, former magistrate of Chahye Special District; Kim Ipgyŏn, assistant grand councilor (ch’amji) of the Chancellery; Cho Rim, former deputy commissioner of the Security Council; Yun Sadŏk, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng Prefecture; Hwang Hŭisŏk, discussant of the Security Council; An Chu and To Hŭng, former administrative commissioners of the Security of Council; Yuk Yŏ, former military commander of Yanggwang Province; Chŏng Yo, former assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery; Yi Pin, former magistrate of Hanyang; Yi Sŭngwŏn, former magistrate of Anju; Ch’oe Unhae, former military commander of Kwangju39 and other areas; Yi Mu and Kim Suik, former associate commissioners of the Security of Council; Ku Sŏngno, former magistrate of Kaesŏng; Yi Insu, discussant of the Security Council; Chŏng Chagyu, former deputy director of the Security Council; Kwŏn Hwa, former military commander of Kwangju40 and other areas; Wang Sŭnggwi, 36. Yu Wŏnjŏng (?–1399 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as second royal secretary. In 1391, he visited Ming China as envoy on a mission to pay respects upon the death of Prince Lu and became magistrate of Hanyang after his return. However, he was impeached and exiled for conducting private trading during his visit to China. The following year, he joined others in recommending T’aejo to the throne and became a merit subject. Later, he served as governor of Sŏhae Province and was invested with the title of Lord of Sŏsŏng. 37. Pak Ŭijung (1337–1403 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. His clan seat was Miryang and his courtesy name Chahŏ. After passing the civil service examination in 1362 with the highest honor, he served as third censor, third royal secretary, and chancellor of the National University. In 1388, he visited Ming China on a mission to prevent the Chinese govern­ ment from seizing the Korean territory north of Ch’ŏllyŏng. During the reign of King Kongyang, the Astronomical and Meteorogical Observatory proposed moving the nation’s capital to Hanyang (Seoul), arguing that the fortunes of the old capital, Kaesŏng, had diminished, and he expressed his opposition, contending that the idea was unreasonable and groundless. 38. Better known as Master Muhak, his Buddhist name, and one of the most trusted advisors, he helped T’aejo choose Hanyang (Seoul) as the capital of the Chosŏn dynasty. 39. Located in Kyŏnggi Province. 40. Located in Kyŏnggi Province.

189

190

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

former military commander of Ch’ŏngju; Kwak Ch’ungbo, discussant of the Security Council; Chin Ŭlsŏ, former military commander of Chŏnju; Yi Ŭi, assistant director of the Security Council; Yi Ok, former military commander of Kangnŭng; Kim Ŭlgwi, former deputy director of the Security Council; and others served under my command for a long time when I was a general, working hard to defend the country without avoiding whatever difficulties they were faced with. So the contributions they made deserve consideration. “Besides, when Chŏng Mongju and others seized power and secretly induced the censors to bring charges against me and get me in trouble, they immediately protested by submitting a memorial to the king and urged him to punish Mongju and his clique. As a result, their conspiracy collapsed, and we are here today. So the loyalty that these people showed deserves to be praised. Each of these officials should be awarded the title of minor merit subject. Pak Yŏngch’ung, associate commissioner of the Security Council, went out to serve as the magistrate of Hanyang, and Supreme General Yun Panggyŏng was in mourning for his mother at that time. Therefore, they were not able to participate in making a protest and submitting a memorial, but they had been with me all along, and I cannot forget their contributions in the past. Hence, they shall be also awarded with the title of minor merit subject just the same as above, and the responsible office shall discuss the matter and carry out the award ceremony.” The Directorate for the Construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine (T’aemyo chosŏng togam) was established. The king ordered the Board of Personnel to posthumously promote the father and mother of merit subject Pae Kŭngnyŏm. The king sent his royal instruction to the Privy Council: “Two hundred thirteen officials, including Ch’oe Yunsu, assistant military commander of the Righteousness Flourishing Capital Guard Commands, and Hwang Pogae, magistrate of Chŏngju Strategic Prefecture (tohobu), also worked hard in the capital or diligently served in the provinces for many years, and I appreciate their contributions greatly. When the wicked people formed a clique and the situation became unpredictable, they rose up in righteousness and requested that the conspirators be seized and punished according to law. Therefore, the efforts and contributions made by those officials fully

Book II

deserve to be rewarded. The responsible office shall carry out the ceremony of conferring the title of merit subject along with the rewards as appropriate.” 10th Day (Muo)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. Yu Yang,41 minister of personnel, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “The law of making a record of civil and military officials, being old, was abolished in recent years. Since the dynasty is newly established, the law should be revived.” The king granted his approval. 11th Day (Kimi)

It was the king’s birthday. The king received felicitations from all the officials and pardoned the prisoners except those who were subject to capital punishment and banishment. Then he gave instructions to the Privy Council on four things: “1. Since men were created with the spirits of Heaven and Earth that nurture all creatures, the way of governing them likewise should adapt itself to the same spirits that are always in sympathy with them. When Emperor Gaozu of Han founded a new dynasty and bestowed honors on the officials who helped him, he included Yong Chi42 on the list and thereby was able to allay the doubts of the people and stabilize his regime. I believe he did the right thing. 41. Yu Yang (?): an official of early Chosŏn. He also served as assistant director of the Security Council and magistrate of Kyerim. 42. According to the “House of Marquis Liu” (“Liuhou Shijia”) in the Records of the Grand Historian, after more than a score of Liu Bang’s followers were rewarded for their contributions, a dispute arose among the rest of his followers who were left out from receiving rewards. Liu Bang was dismayed to learn that there were signs of treason among his generals. Zhang Liang, his trusted counselor, explained the reason the generals were agitated: “They are saying that there is insufficient land in the realms for all of them to be enfeoffed. Many are worried that you would execute them for their past offenses against you.” Then Zhang Liang asked, “Who is the person that everyone knows you hate the most?” Liu Bang replied, “Yong Chi, an old acquaintance. He put me in desperate and humiliating situations many times. I would have liked to kill him but could not bear to do so because he did score numerous merits for me.” Zhang Liang replied, “Bid him first to send a message to the rest. When they witness him rewarded, their concerns will be put to rest.” Consequently, Liu Bang hosted a banquet and enfeoffed Yong Chi as Marquis of Shifang and ordered the prime minister and imperial

191

192

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Can you say that the officials of the former dynasty who were exiled had all committed unpardonable crimes? Now I intend to relieve their bitterness and resentment by sending those who committed serious crimes into exile, but to any place outside of the capital that they choose, and also those who committed lesser crimes to any place they choose, whether it be the capital or local districts. A distinction should be made between those who belong to the royal family of the former dynasty and those who do not. I want you to submit a report on it. “1. From the officials of the Privy Council and the Censorate internally, and from military commissioners and surveillance commissioners down to the local magistrates externally, everyone should constantly take care of the people, and that leads to governing the people benevolently. “At a time when the dynasty is newly founded and the laws are not fully prepared, how can you suddenly straighten out a custom by using trivial matters? At a time when we try to start afresh by correcting the mistakes in the past, how can you continue to blame what has already happened? “Confucius said, ‘If one does not keep the former wickedness of men in mind, the resentments directed towards them are few.’43 He also said, ‘He with whom neither soaking slander nor startling statements are successful may be called far-seeing.’44 Accusations brought against others and serious matters such as treason will be accepted if they are personally brought by the parties concerned, but accusations based on rumors should be rejected because they can be the main causes of troubles, and those who violate this injunction will be punished. “If anyone—starting from the sons of the royal families to high- and lowranking officials, scholars, and commoners—commits crimes, he will be strictly punished, with no exception. “1. When the sage kings in olden days governed the people, they gave special priorities to looking after the poor people, including widows, widow­ ­ers, orphans, and the childless elderly. Whenever there is a need to mobilize censor to expedite the process of rewarding the others. Then those who were unsettled said to themselves, “If Yong Chi got to be a marquis, I have no worries.” 43. Confucius made this remark when he spoke of Bo Yi and Shu Qi, the famous recluses who chose to starve to death rather than join the new regime of King Wu, who rose against the Shang dynasty. According to the Analects, he said, “Bo Yi and Shu Qi did not keep the former wickedness of men in mind, and hence the resentments directed towards them were few.” (Gongye Chang, Book V, chap. xxii; Legge, p. 181) 44. Analects, Yan Yuan, Chap VI. (Legge, p. 253)

Book II

the people for public works, those poor people are the ones who are recruited first, and I feel very sorry for them. They should be exempt from labor service, and if those who supervise public works ignore my instruction, the office concerned will investigate and punish them. “1. The Classic of Documents says, ‘In cases of doubtful crimes, you deal with them lightly.’45 It also says, ‘Punishments do not extend to [the criminal’s] heirs.’46 The official slaves and private slaves who originally belonged to those who were executed from the first month of the Mujin year (1388) to the end of the former dynasty should be returned to their wives and sons so that they can sustain their livelihoods. Make investigations on the gravity of their crimes and report to me.” The king returned to the temporary palace (sichwaso) and served meals to two hundred monks. He invited Chach’o, royal preceptor, to give a sermon about Zen Buddhism, and Consort Hyŏn47 listened to it, sitting behind the screen. As the sermon turned out to be inept and unintelligible, some of the monks lamented over it. 12th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king allowed thirty officials, including U Hyŏnbo, Yi Saek, and Sŏl Changsu, to live in places outside the capital, and another thirty officials, including Yi Ch’ŏm and Hŏ Ŭng, both in the capital and outside the capital, according to their own choice. The General Directorate for Determining Taxes (Kongbu sangjŏngdogam) submitted a memorial to the king: “We respectfully believe that Your Majesty ascended the throne according to the will of Heaven and the wishes of the people. Right after you were inaugurated, you ordered us to review the tax records made in the previous dynasty and find out the exact amount of the current annual tax revenues and expense budget to reduce unnecessary expenses and eliminate old abuses, and you made this way of appropriating the budget into a permanent law. This is indeed a blessing for the people. 45. In “The Counsels of the Great Yu,” the Classic of Documents, Gao Yao, who was in charge of justice for many years, speaks to Emperor Shun on the right way of administering justice to the people. (Legge, p. 49) 46. Ibid. 47. Queen Sindŏk, or Lady Kang, T’aejo’s second wife.

193

194

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“We have heard that a ruler who wants to preserve the state must love the people first and in order to love the people must practice frugality first. To respect frugality and remove extravagance is a sure way to save property, and to reduce taxes and rectify abusive laws is a sure way to love the people. “The sage rules in olden days determined the amount of tributes after calculating the production of the land and, after calculating the tributes that were paid, decided the extent of their expenditure. Since this is an unalterable principle, one who is in charge of the state must pay attention to it, especially at the beginning when the dynasty is founded. “King T’aejo, the founder of the previous dynasty, rose up against the tyrannous extravagance of T’aebong48 and established the precedent of saving goods and practicing frugality. However, it lasted no more than two generations, and, starting from King Kwangjong,49 luxury and extravagance reached their worst level, so that the king’s annual expenditure for maintaining the royal palace and foods and clothes equaled ten years’ annual expenditure of the founder king T’aejo. This is an example of a law made to promote frugality actually producing abuses of avarice to the contrary. “Towards the end of the dynasty, the avarice grew much worse, and the government levied more taxes by changing laws. However, the taxes collected that way were wasted on public works or the services to Buddha. As the public treasury became empty, and the government had no money to spend, more extra taxes were levied and extorted until the people starved and dispersed, and the dynasty fell. At a time when we try to reform the government, we must straighten out those abuses. “Having examined the old records of lands, we decided the grades of tribute taxes, but we made it our rule to reduce their amount compared to 48. T’aebong is another name of the Later Koguryŏ, founded by Kungye in 901. Originally a Silla prince, Kungye at first became a monk but eventually succeeded in seizing power as Silla became caught up in political turmoil. 49. Kwangjong (949–975 AD): the fourth king of Koryŏ. Soon after he ascended the throne, he enacted a series of reforms, including the Slave Review Act, the Stipend Land Law, and changes in the civil service examination, adopting the proposal of the Chinese scholar Shuang Chi in 958. These reforms were intended to undermine the strength of old military officials who had contributed to the founding of the Koryŏ dynasty, assisting his father and founder king T’aejo. As expected, the discontent of old civil and military officials became formidable, and he reacted to it with a merciless purge. His extravagance mentioned here perhaps had to do with his efforts to enlist the support of Buddhist monks and common people in order to counter the complaints of those officials.

Book II

what was previously levied. As for the seasonal products that cannot be included among regular tribute goods, we separated them from others and called them special tributes (pyŏlgong). Tangerines and citrons are one example. “Collecting from above is called pu (賦), and presenting from below kong (貢). Neither collecting nor presenting should be made too excessive, and this was the intention of sage rulers who made the law of taxes. Normally, cunning subjects tend to advocate heavy taxes and thereby aggravate the avarice of their sovereign; however, the latter, who is ignorant of their intention, simply believes that those taxes are good for the country, without realizing that they can bring harm to the state in the end. So it is most important that the sovereign distinguish between good and bad in advance. “The Book of Changes says, “By practicing frugality through the law, the ruler neither brings damage to the property nor causes harm to the people.” If he is thrifty in spending, he will have enough even if he collects less in taxes. If he is wasteful in spending, he will run short, even if he collects more taxes. We respectfully believe that Your Majesty should continue to be frugal and thrifty for the love of your people so that your posterity will try to emulate you throughout ten thousand generations. “Now, together with this memorial, we present to you the amount of tribute taxes in detail, which we have decided and made it into a book, and we request that this be proclaimed both in the capital and the provinces and made into a permanent law.” 13th Day (Sinyu)

The king ordered Cho Chun, right chancellor, Chŏng Tojŏn, vice grand councilor, Chŏng Ch’ong, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees, Pak Ŭijung, and Yun Sojong, minister of the Board of War, to compile the history of the former dynasty.50 The king inspected the Righteousness Flourishing Capital Guard Commands. The king gave orders to tear down the Royal Ancestral Shrine of the former dynasty and build a new one on the same site. 50. This project of compiling the History of Koryŏ was initially completed in 1395, but it had to be revised and expanded continuously until the final version was published in 1451, the first year of King Munjong.

195

196

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

17th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The king ordered Prince Chinan Pangu to sacrifice to the royal ancestors of the four previous generations and install their spirit tablets in the shrine of Hyosagwan51 temporarily. 18th Day (Pyŏngin)

The king ordered Hwang Hŭisŏk recalled to service despite the fact that he was in mourning. 19th Day (Chŏngmyo)

There was thunder. Kura Tadayoshi, governor of Chikushu Province of Japan, sent monks named Kuranushi and Soujun and, returning our Korean captives whom he detained, requested the establishment of diplomatic relations with Korea. 21st Day (Kisa)

Passing through the North Gate, the king went out to inspect the Royal Ancestral Shrine that was under construction. 22nd Day (Kyŏngo)

Cho Pan, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, returned from Nanjing. The king went out to greet him outside Sŏnŭimun Gate,52 leading all the officials. Cho Pan delivered a letter from the Ministry of Rites [of Ming China]: “The Ministry of Rites writes to the Privy Council of Koryŏ. On the twelfth of the ninth month, the twenty-fifth year of Emperor Hongwu’s reign, Zhang Zhi, right vice minister (youshilang) of our ministry and others visited Huagai Grand Hall53 to submit your letter and received sacred 51. It refers to the shrine where the portrait of T’aejo, the founder king of Koryŏ, was enshrined. It was built in the precinct of Pongŭn Monastery in Kaegyŏng during the reign of King Kwangjong in 951. 52. The main gate of Kaegyŏng, the capital of Koryŏ. 53. One of the grand halls in the imperial palace in Nanjing, where the officials received imperial edicts.

Book II

instructions from the emperor, which read as follows: ‘Those who rule the people in the world, whether their kingdoms be large or small, are numerous. How can it be then accidental that they rise and decline? It has been many years since in Korea Wang was finished, and now Yi has definitely replaced him after years of maneuvering. This situation is not different from Wang’s when he took over the country a long time ago. How can you say then that it happened due to Wang’s outstanding talents in olden days and Yi’s good strategies at the present time? It is impossible unless the Lord on High willed it that way. The officials and the people of Korea have already begun to follow Yi and are doing fine without having the disasters of war, and this is the will of the Emperor Above. However, if they defend their land well and stay away from acting cunningly, they will enjoy more blessings. You officials of the Ministry of Rites shall take my message to Korea.’ Since this is the sacred instruction given by the emperor, we respectfully deliver it to you.” The king returned to his temporary palace. All officials bowed down to the ground and congratulated the king. 25th Day (Kyeyu)

The government revised the rules concerning the letter of appointment (kosin). It required the officials from rank 1 to rank 4 to receive letters of appointment from the king, which are called kwan’gyo, and the officials from rank 5 to rank 9 letters from the Chancellery, which are called kyoch’ŏp. The king sent assistant chancellor Chŏng Tojŏn to Nanjing to express his gratitude to the emperor, with a gift of sixty tribute horses. The memorial submitted to the emperor read as follows: “Cho Pan, an envoy of our small kingdom, returned from Nanjing with a letter from the Ministry of Rites, which carried the sacred instruction of Your Imperial Majesty, and I, along with my people, was deeply moved to read it because I found your kind admonitions for our kingdom quite overwhelming, and in addition to my personal gratitude, my whole kingdom feels very much honored. “I tend to believe that there is a certain reason behind the rise and fall of a dynasty. In the case of our state, it has already been many years since the Wang family was finished when King Kongmin passed away without an heir, and the disasters and sufferings of the people have increased day by day.

197

198

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“U already sowed a seed of trouble by ordering an attack against Liaodong, and Yo [King Kongyang] also conspired to invade China. They failed in their attempts as the pressure from Your Highness mounted and the support from their people eroded. How can I then be credited for what happened? Further, how could I ever imagine that you would understand the situation here so clearly and immediately send your noble instructions through our envoy after hearing his report? Engraving them on my heart, I will never forget them. The debt of gratitude I owe you is too great to be repaid in my lifetime. Though sitting deep in your imperial palace, you see the world thousands of miles away and thereby embrace barbaric lands, as the Book of Changes teaches; you also put what is said in the Book of Rites into practice by making the people in distant lands comfortable and thus allowing an unworthy person such as myself to rule over the enfeoffed territory. So I pledge to be loyal to you forever, sending tributes along with the messages of gratitude and felicitation.” 28th Day (Pyŏngja)

His Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan] presented the king with the drawings of mountains, which showed various ancestral tombs of the royal family as follows: Chŏngnŭng, Hwarŭng, Ŭirŭng, and Sullŭng in Hamju [Hamhŭng]; Chirŭng in Anbyŏn; Sungnŭng in Munju [Munch’ŏn]; and Tŏngnŭng and Allŭng in Kongju [Kyŏngwŏn].54 The government assigned two grave keepers and several households to each of these royal tombs and built the shrines for them as well.

11th Month 1st Day (Muin)

The king held the morning audience and afterwards held a banquet in honor of Cho Pan. 54. Chŏngnŭng is the tomb of Hwanjo, the father of King T’aejo; Hwarŭng, the tomb of Hwanjo’s wife, Consort Ŭi; Ŭirŭng, the tomb of Tojo, the grandfather of King T’aejo; Sullŭng, the tomb of Tojo’s wife, Consort Kyŏng; Chirŭng, the tomb of Ikcho, great-grandfather of King T’aejo; Sullnŭng, the tomb of Ikcho’s wife, Consort Chŏng; Tŏngnŭng, the tomb of Mokcho, the great-great-grandfather of King T’aejo; Allŭng, the tomb of Mokcho’s wife, Consort Hyo.

Book II

199

*   *   * The Board of Rites spoke to the king: “The Daoist constellation rites (ch’oje)55 has its virtue in simplicity and solemnity and therefore should be performed with devotion and deference. However, in the preceding dynasty, there were many Daoist temples scattered around the country, and thus they failed to produce desired effects. We request that all the Daoist temples, including the Temple of Original Happiness (Pogwŏn’gung),56 the Sanctuary of Godly Investigation (Sin’gyŏkchŏn), the Hall of the Nine Luminaries (Kuyodang), the Bureau of Burning Money (Sojŏnsaek), the Temple of Clarity (T’aech’ŏnggwan), and the Sanctuary of Purification and Obeisance to the Constellations (Ch’ŏnggye Paesŏngso), and so forth, all be abolished, except only one, the Doaist Temple of Brilliant Rectification (Sogyŏkchŏn).57 The king followed the opinion. 2nd Day (Kimyo)

The king appointed Hwang Hŭisŏk chief military commissioner (to chinmu) of the Righteousness Flourishing Capital Guard Commands, and Cho Ki senior commissioner (sang chinmu). 3rd Day (Kyŏngjin)

There was a ring around the sun.

55. Daoism was first introduced to Koguryŏ, but the Daoist worship of constellations actually began in the Koryŏ period. According to the History of Korean Daoism by Yi Nŭnghwa, “Under King Yejong (1105–1122), Song Daoism was introduced and the image of the Celestial Deity (Ch’ŏnjonsang) was installed in an offering to the Moon on an altar in the Okch’ok Pavilion. At the time, Daoist priests were assigned to reside in the Temple of Original Happiness. Thereafter, various Daoist liturgical terms and ceremonial activities appeared, including sacrificial offerings to the Great One, the Birth Star, the Northern Dipper, the Aspiration to Longevity as well as the Three Primes.” (Trans. by unknown translator) 56. It was constructed during the reign of King Yejong (1105–1122 AD) at the instance of a Daoist expert named Yi Chungyak. 57. During the Chosŏn dynasty, the name was changed from Sogyŏkchŏn to Sogyŏksŏ, which implied a downgrading of the temple’s status. The temple was eventually abolished sometime during the reign of King Chungjong (1506–1544 AD) due to objections made by the Confucian literati.

200

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

4th Day (Sinsa)

The mother of Lady An of Ŭihwa Palace held a banquet to entertain the king. 6th Day (Kyemi)

The king decided on the posthumous titles of his ancestors of the four previous generations and presented them. The document of investure regarding his great-great-grandfather and great-great-grandmother read as follows: “Turning a family into a nation actually is due to the contributions made by my ancestors, which they accumulated over many generations. Hence, I intend to perform a ceremony to show my respects to the royal ancestors, presenting posthumous titles by changing their names. “I respectfully believe that the great-great-grandfather was by nature benevolent and filial and possessed a virtue that was warm and distinguished. He laid the foundation for establishing a dynasty by making a long-lasting plan and admonishing posterity. He strove not to be idle and conducted himself with caution so that he could continue in the favor of Heaven. He manifested his contributions throughout the nation and made his offspring flourish down through generations. “I respectfully believe that the great-great-grandmother was so benevolent, harmonious, gracious, chaste, and dignified that she resembled Jian Di,58 who swallowed an auspicious egg and gave birth to the ancestors of the Shang dynasty, and that her fetal education could equal that of Tairen,59 the mother of King Wen of the Zhou dynasty. Our dynasty can extend its fortune infinitely because she provided us with a great beginning. “I presumptuously assumed a great responsibility and founded a nation thanks to the assistance of my ancestors. With sincere and humble gratitude I hereby present you with eulogistic titles. “I respectfully decided on the posthumous titles for the great-greatgrandfather and great-great-grandmother as King Mok and Consort Hyo, respectively. I hope that you will be gracious in accepting them and bestowing on us prosperity and happiness. 58. The mother of Xie, the predynastic founder of the Shang dynasty. In the Yen Ben Zhi chapter of the Records of Grand Historian (Shiji), she was impregnated by a blackbird. 59. The mother of King Wen of the Zhou dynasty, famous for her knowledge about carrying a child. When she was pregnant, she neither cast her eyes on impure sights nor listened to seductive music.

Book II

201

*   *   * The document of investiture regarding his great-grandfather and greatgrandmother read as follows: “Turning a family into a nation actually is due to the contributions made by my ancestors, which they accumulated over many generations. Revering the ancestors and respecting the main line of genealogy, I carry out this ceremony of changing their names into eulogistic titles. “I respectfully believe that the great-grandfather was loyal and filial, as well as frugal and industrious. Since he always cared about the people, the benefits he brought to them were boundless, and the virtue that he handed down to posterity will be everlasting. “With deference, I think that the great-grandmother was by nature quiet and devoted, and chaste and dignified in her conduct. Being always reverential and wary, she became an ideal spouse for a man of virtue, and neither complaining nor causing trouble, she exemplified the graceful model for all wives. “Fortunately, assisted by my ancestors, I was able to establish a shining foundation for a new dynasty, and I am afraid that it would be too difficult to pay back all that I am grateful for. Presenting eulogistic titles for them, I intend to twice make their virtue shine. “I respectfully decided on the posthumous titles for the great-grandfather and great-grandmother as King Ik and Consort Chŏng, respectively. I hope that you will be gracious in heeding our sincerity and granting us abundant blessings. The document of investiture regarding his grandfather and grandmother read as follows: “In paying tribute to the contributions and virtue of the ancestors, nothing is greater than honoring them in showing filial piety, and the first step to take is to change their names into eulogistic titles appropriate for their royal status. I make so bold as to present you with special titles in accordance with old precedents. “I respectfully believe that the grandfather was gentle and polite, and yet strong and brave. Laying the foundation for a new dynasty, he caused us to enjoy the happiness today, and bequeathing the vision to posterity, he opened a chapter of history lasting a thousand years. “With deference, I think that the grandmother was both diligent and frugal in carrying herself, and that her virtue was equipped with dignity

202

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and harmony. After her marriage, she strictly managed her domestic affairs and left a good legacy for posterity by leading an exemplary life of a matrimonial partner. “Despite lacking in virtue and ability, I presumptuously rose to the throne. Though it was the popular support that raised me to the throne, I believe that it was actually possible due to your assistance. I respectfully decided on the post­­humous titles for the grandfather and grandmother as King To and Con­ sort Kyŏng, respectively. I humbly beg you to accept these titles and, sitting on high, to look after your offspring and bring peace to the state forever. The document of investiture regarding his father and mother read as follows: “In establishing a new dynasty and preserving the legacy of the family, nothing is more urgent to be filial than presenting posthumous titles to the royal ancestors, and since they reveal their virtues and achievements, one must be extremely careful in presenting them. “I respectfully believe the father was by nature thoughtful and wise, and his stature striking and distinguished. Winning the battles both far and near, he worked hard to serve the country and helped pave the way for posterity to build a nation, ever increasing their fortune. “With deference, I think the mother was virtuous and gentle. Taking the middle path in her conduct and managing domestic affairs, she established family tradition. Her virtue reached down to her subordinates so that she resembled the curved tree with drooping branches (jiumu),60 which are grateful to the supporting trunk. “Since I was fortunate to establish a new dynasty, inheriting the achievements made over generations, I must perform a ceremony of changing ancestral names into eulogistic titles and thereby express my gratitude to the root of my being. So, choosing an auspicious day, I praise your resplendent virtues. I respectfully decided on the posthumous titles for the father and mother as King Hwan and Consort Ŭi, respectively. Look down on us and grant us endless prosperity.” The king bestowed dynasty-founding merit subjects with the documents certifying their rank and status (kyosŏ), and princesses and ladies of the 60. It refers to the tree in the poem titled “Jiumu.” See the “Odes of Zhou and the South, Lessons from the States,” Classic of Poetry. The tree in the poem is covered with branches and is depicted as happy; her virtue is like the trunk of the tree.

Book II

house with seals. The merit subjects and others entertained the king by holding a banquet. The royal decree bestowed upon Yi Mindo, minister of works, was drafted by Yi Munhwa, grand master of remonstrance, and it stated that Mindo was also good at divination and medicine. Mindo spoke to the king about it, saying, “Though the decree states that my contributions are too numerous to be recorded, it mentions the [trivial] things such as these, which I believe to be no less than disrespect for me.” The king ordered the document revised. 8th Day (Ŭlyu)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace and dispatched No Sung,61 administrative commissioner of the Security Council, and Cho Inok, assistant director of the Security Council, to the Ming capital to commemorate the New Year and the investiture of the eldest grandson as heir apparent. 9th Day (Pyŏngsul)

There was thunder. The king played kyŏkku, a ball game on horseback in the inner yard of the palace. Yu Mansu, Chŏng Hŭigye, and others joined him to play the game. Censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king: “We believe so-called public opinion (kongnon) is the vitality of all states. Since remonstrance is the root of public opinion, and flattery a worm that eats the root of public opinion, one who rules the state should nourish the root and remove the worms that hurt the root. Then good counsel will arrive every day, and sugary flattery and vulgar words will be heard no more. “In olden days, Yu the Great, in the time of Emperor Shun, said, “Accordance with right leads to good fortune.”62 Then he admonished the 61. No Sung (1337–1414 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Passing the civil service examination in 1365, he served in various important posts, including those of censor, inspector-general, and royal secretary. In 1389, when he was governor of Chŏlla Province, he established granaries named Tŭksŏngch’ang and Yŏngsanch’ang in Yŏngan (modern Iksan) and Yŏngsan (modern Naju), respectively. Later, he served as magistrate of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy and governor of Left Kyŏnggi Province. 62. Shu Ching: Book of History. Clae Waltham, p. 20.

203

204

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

emperor, saying, “Do not find your enjoyment in idleness.”63 Zhong Hui, in the reign of Cheng Tang,64 earnestly urged the king to listen to the remonstrances from his subjects and said, “He who uses his own views becomes smaller than he was.”65 Notice that these admonishments were all directed to outstanding rulers for fear that they would make a mistake. Therefore, public opinion should not be absent from the state even a day. “It may appear that there is nothing much to be said, since an outstanding ruler and worthy officials now work together, and all the laws and ordinances for good government are well in order. However, the reason we earnestly request you to give your ears to what we have to say is that we want to see that you are broad-minded enough to accept counsel displeasing to you and to avoid growing complacent by making yourself humble. “If Your Majesty keeps the door open for those who come to offer their counsel, listens to them, and treats them with trust, nothing will be hidden from you. Then you will be able to see the situation of the people more clearly, and the vitality of the state will be well preserved.” The king said, “Anything that concerns important state affairs must be all reported.” The government dispatched Yi Ŭlsu, director of the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources, to Liaodong, China, on a mission to deliver one thousand horses to the Chinese authorities. Ch’oe Yuryŏn, military commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province, sent three Chinese men, including one named Li Shun, to the capital [Kaegyŏng]; they were natives of Leqing District of Wenzhou Prefecture. Li Shun and others were captured by the Japanese and taken to an island in the middle of the sea. However, they escaped by a small boat that they stole from the Japanese and arrived in Happ’o.66 So our military commander, Yuryŏn, sent them to Seoul. The king bestowed clothes and provisions upon them and ordered Yi Ŭlsu to take them to the Ming capital.

63. Ibid. 64. The founder of the Shang dynasty. He is also known as Tang the Martial (Wu Tang) or the Martial King (Wu Wang). Zhong Hui is one of his royal advisors who assisted him in founding the Shang dynasty. 65. Shu Ching: Book of History. Clae Waltham, p. 71. 66. An old name for modern Masan or Ch’angwŏn, South Kyŏngsang Province.

Book II

10th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king returned to the temporary palace. The king ordered the royal garden repaired. 11th Day (Muja)

The king held the morning audience. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “Paek Ch’ŏnu, supervisor (kammu) of Ssangbu,67 being illiterate, is incapable of discharging his official duties. Upon discovering that, Surveillance Commissioner Cho Pak drove him out. Hence, we make a request to have Kim Chi, vice minister of the Board of Rites, fired for making an inappropriate recommendation, in order to prevent the same mistake from recurring in the future.” The king granted the request. 12th Day (Kichíuk)

The moon intruded on the Pleiades. As censorial offices requested the king to hold a royal lecture every day, the king said, “My beard and whiskers already became white; should I need to attend a lecture, gathering Confucian scholars?” An Kyŏnggong, chief royal secretary, replied, “The intention of the remonstrators is not just to make Your Majesty read the classics; it is for you to keep men of integrity close so that you can benefit from their good counsel.” The king said, “Even though I do not attend royal lectures, I often invite Yu Kyŏng to my royal quarters to present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning. 14th Day (Sinmyo)

The Office of Censor-General submitted a memorial to the king: “The other day we spoke about the importance of listening to remonstrances, and you graciously recognized it. Even though we are deficient in insight and talent, how dare we request you to listen to any ambiguous words? 67. A district that belonged to Suwŏn Prefecture in Kyŏnggi province. When a district was very small, the government dispatched a supervisor called kammu to govern it.

205

206

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“As you know, the ruler’s mind is the foundation of governance. If his mind is straight, everything will become straight, and if it is not, it will be susceptible to all kinds of greed. Therefore, the ruler cannot afford to neglect the study of nourishing and examining his own mind. Emperor Shun’s fear combined with prudence and the attitude of King Tang [of Shang] and King Wen [of Zhou], marked by extreme anxiety and cautiousness, are the real source of the peace and well-being of the world. If the ruler, on the other hand, finds flattery more palatable to his tastes, people such as Kong Guang and Zhang Yu68 will appear, and consequently he will let himself grow slack. If he adores Daoist hermits, people such as Wen Cheng and Wu Li69 will appear, and consequently he will grow dissolute in his thinking day by day. If this is true, he who rules over the people cannot help thinking about cultivating his mind. “The ancient scholar Zhen Dexiu wrote the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning and presented it to the emperor during the royal lecture. The book starts with the ways of the ruler who governs the people and the state, and next addresses self-cultivation through studies, which the author believes to be central for the accomplished ruler, but all these things originally start from the ruler’s body and mind. This is the main idea of the book. “The book first discusses the ways of a king, of recognizing men of talent, of scrutinizing the affairs of state for making priorities, and of inspecting the real situation of the people, which all have to do with ‘extending knowledge to the utmost through the investigation of things’ (kyŏngmul ch’iji). “Next, the book talks about being respectful and reverent, while admonishing against indulging in pleasure, which are related to being sincere in thoughts and the rectification of hearts (sŏngŭi chŏngsim). “Next, the book focuses on discretion in words and action and carry­ ­ing this out in accordance with propriety, which concerns the way of self-­ cultivation (susin). “Next, the book discusses the ruler’s way of managing his affairs, including the love for his spouse, regulating his royal family, establishing his heir, and admonishing his relatives, which have to do with regulating his family prior to making the state well ordered. “What follow next are little subjects. The book places the admonitions of the sages in the front and then the details of the things, old and new, that the ruler should know and put into practice.

68. The officials of Han during the reign of Emperor Cheng. 69. Daoist hermits of Han during the reign of Emperor Wu.

Book II

“We are well aware that Your Majesty liked reading classics and histories in the days when you were not enthroned, and have devoted yourself more to your studies after you ascended the throne. So you must be quite knowledgeable in the studies that teach you the laws behind human affairs and the ways of cultivating yourself and ruling the people. Since we are ignorant, how dare we discuss anything with you? “However, we have never heard that you attend the royal lectures, despite the fact that you had them established. You may believe that every place in your royal palaces, including great gardens, are good for your learning, and if so, you may think that it is not really necessary for you to apply yourself to certain rules and attend the royal lectures every day in order to cultivate yourself. “In our humble opinion, the study of the ruler should be more than reciting and explaining the meaning of the text. The reason he attends the royal lectures every day and asks questions is, first, to cultivate his virtue by meeting with good officials; second, not to be neglectful of his duties by reducing the time spent with eunuchs and royal concubines. Furthermore, he sets an example as the ruler who founded the dynasty. If Your Majesty ignores the royal lectures, your descendants will take your example as their excuse and neglect their studies. Then how can it be a trivial matter? “So we would like to urge Your Majesty to attend the royal lectures every day and listen to the lectures on the Great Learning (Taehak). Studying the principles of ‘extending knowledge to the utmost through the investigation of things’ and ‘being sincere in thoughts and the rectification of hearts,’ you can produce the effects of regulating your families and making your state well ordered.” The king granted the request. 15th Day (Imjin)

The moon made a close approach to Mars. Opening the Palace Treasury, the king served rice to the monks at Kwanŭmgul.70 16th Day (Kyesa)

There was thunder.



70. A grotto and hermitage located above Pagyŏn Waterfall in Kaesŏng.

207

208

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

17th Day (Kabo)

The Privy Council spoke to the king: “We have reviewed the memorial of Yi Mindo, minister of the Board of Works, as you instructed. We found the discussion of currents affairs presented in the memorial appropriate, and therefore we selected main points in it for your final decision and implementation. “First, the memorial said, ‘Men of talent and virtue must be employed and incompetent government agencies regulated.’ We believe it made a good point. Men of talent and virtue are the foundation of the state. The success or failure of administration depends on whether or not these are employed. Martial Marquis Zhuge [Zhuge Liang] admonished Hou Zhu,71 ‘The Former Han prospered because its rulers employed wise officials and kept themselves away from petty people. The Later Han, on the other hand, declined because its rulers associated with petty people, while alienating worthy officials.’ These are the words that you should keep in mind forever. At the end of the former dynasty, you witnessed how the state fell into ruin when it endeared itself to petty people while rejecting loyal and upright officials. Since lessons to be learned are close to you, you have to be careful not to repeat them. “The Classic of Documents says, ‘Let not his various officers obstruct their places. The work is Heaven’s; men must act for it!’72 If men of virtue are employed, everything in the affairs of state will be well ordered; if the petty people are employed, however, the consequence will be quite the opposite. So how can you not be careful? “Second, the memorial says, ‘Flattering officials should be kept away, and their slandering rooted out,’ and we believe the point was well made. Since flatterers are good at pleasing the ruler, they in his eyes may appear loyal to him. Mistaking their flattery for loyalty, the ruler follows their advice on all matters, and, as a result, it happens that right and wrong are reversed and faithful subjects are falsely accused. We earnestly urge you, when you employ people, to distinguish between those who are loyal and those who are cunning, without allowing them to be mixed together. Generally speaking, those who are loyal speak out what they believe to be 71. The last emperor of the State of Shu. During his reign, he surrendered to the State of Wei in 263. 72. Kao Yao’s counsel to Emperor Shun. Shu Ching: Book of History. Clae Waltham, p. 28.

Book II

right even if their words offend the ruler; those who are cunning, on the other hand, only try to please the ruler no matter what happens. If you believe a person to be loyal and reliable, hire him; if you believe him to be cunning, do not hesitate to reject him. “Third, the memorial says, ‘It is important to establish the Royal Ancestral Shrine and prohibit lewd sacrifices (ŭmsa).73 In the previous dynasty, the lewd sacrifices spread so widely that people offered sacrifices to the same god in many different places or repeatedly offered several sacrifices in a day. As a result, rites and rituals became corrupt and fell into disorder, driving the country into ruin.’ We fully agree with the statement. Our dynasty is newly founded in accordance with the will of Heaven, and therefore we cannot allow ourselves to repeat the same mistakes of the previous dynasty. So we request that you give orders to the Board of Rites and make appropriate rules and regulations to solve this problem. “Fourth, the memorial says, ‘The practice of paying penalty for crime with linen and silk [along with physical punishment] must be stopped.’ We believe it makes sense. The Classic of Documents says, ‘Crime penalty can be paid with money.’ It means that, starting from capital punishment down to the corporal punishment of beating with light or heavy sticks, all the pen­ alties that deserve sympathy in the eyes of the law or humanity can be paid off with money. For that reason, the previous dynasty allowed such a practice of collecting linen and silk to pay the penalties for crime; however, it happened at the end of its decline that offenders were required to pay for their penalty in addition to serving their sentences, which was quite against the intention of the law that allowed extenuating circumstances. From this day forward, we request you to give orders to both central and local government and prohibit them from administering punishment and collecting linen and silk for penalty concurrently. “Fifth, the memorial says, ‘It should be prohibited that those who failed to pay their debt be made into slaves.’ We fully agree with the statement. In our government, the law with regard to the social status of commoners and slaves is very strict. Then it is quite against reason to make a person of good status into a slave permanently just for his failure to pay his debt. From this day forward, when it happens that a person [who has become a slave] fails to pay off his debt, the government authorities should compare the principal 73. “It is a pejorative term for Buddhist, animist, and other non-Confucian rituals conducted in rural villages.” (Palais, p. 1189)

209

210

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of his debt and the wages that he should be paid. If they find that he has paid off his debt, they should order the creditor to release him from slavery. They should also prohibit the creditor from recklessly holding a person as his slave for the interest on the principal loan. Make your royal decree into law that regulates the problems of unjust slavery, and if there is anyone who violates it, punish him for the charges of forcing a man of good status into slavery.” The king said, “As for the matter concerning the lewd sacrifices, send it to the Board of Rites to make rules for regulating it in detail and report to me.” 18th Day (Ŭlmi)

The king visited Such’ang Palace and held a ceremony to commemorate the birthday of the eldest grandson of the Chinese emperor. 19th Day (Pyŏngsin)

There was a ring around the sun. The king instructed: “Hwang Hŭisŏk, discussant of the Security Council, made contributions to protecting me against dangers in the days when I was out of public view. In the previous dynasty, when Chŏng Mongju and others seized power and secretly instigated censors, conspiring to remove loyal subjects, I had an accident and fell off my horse, unable to rise. So I was vulnerable to attack from the cunning people at any moment. Hŭisŏk, in this situation, trained his soldiers to protect me and prevented the wicked people from carrying out their conspiracy. His contributions, therefore, are great. When Left Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm and others recommended that I be elevated to the throne, Hŭisŏk was unable to attend the meeting because his mother had died. However, if he had not protected me previously, how could I stand here today? I have recently appointed him as minor merit subject but feel very inadequate in repaying my gratitude to him. So I intend to raise his status from minor merit subject to dynasty-founding merit subject second class, based on the example of merit subject Yun Ho. 21st Day (Musul)

The king held the morning audience.

Book II

24th Day (Sinchíuk)

Left Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm resigned because of illness. 25th Day (Imin)

The king ordered Yu Kyŏng, chancellor of the National University, and Yu Kwan, drafter of the Chancellery, to present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning every day by taking turns. The Privy Council requested to eliminate abuses in relation to the initia­­tion ceremony of the officials newly appointed to various departments, including the Investigation Section (Kamch’albang),74 the Comprehensive Rites Agency (Pongnyewŏn),75 the Three Offices (Samgwan),76 the Three Directorates (Samdogam),77 the Directorate of Palace Attendants, and the Tea Bureau (Tabang).78 26th Day (Kyemyo)

Left Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm, Lord of Sŏngsan, expired. The king suspended the morning audience for three days, refrained from eating meat for seven days, and ordered the responsible office to give him a burial in accordance with propriety and honor. Kŭngnyŏm is a native of Kyŏngsan79 and the son of Pae Hyŏnbo, vice minister of the Court for the Palace Garrison (wiwi sogyŏng). His character being upright and prudent, he led a life of diligence and frugality. He served as magistrate of Chinju,80 of Sangju, and later of Kyerim and of Hwaryŏng, and he governed with benevolence wherever he served. When he served as military commander of Happ’o, he built a fortress and dug a moat, gathering 74. It is the bureau of the Office of Inspector-General. 75. Originally named T’ongnyewŏn and established in 1392, it took charge of state rituals and ceremonies. 76. Office of Royal Decrees (Yemun’gwan), National Academy (Sŏnggyun’gwan), and Bureau of State Records (Ch’unch’ugwan). 77. Tripitaka Directorate (Taejang togam), Directorate for Merit Subjects, General Directorate for Determining Taxes (Kongbu sangjŏng togam). 78. A section in charge of provisioning tea and tea ceremonies, attached to the Directorate of Palace Attendants. 79. Also called Sŏngsan, a city in the south of North Kyŏngsang Province. 80. A city in South Kyŏngsang Province.

211

212

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

scattered people. Though he was good at defending against the enemy, winning battles or attacking the enemy was not his strength. At the end of the previous dynasty, he turned his heart to the king, and, cooperating with Cho Chun and others, recommended that the king be elevated to the throne and finally became chancellor. However, lacking education and ability, he was unable to make proposals to the king. In the discussion of choosing the crown prince, he was only anxious to please the king. Thus, he asked the king to set up his younger son as crown prince. As he took credit for it, intelligent people felt sorry for him. When he died, his age was sixty-eight. His posthumous title is Chŏngjŏl, and he had no sons. 27th Day (Kapchin)

When Cho Im, former deputy commissioner of the Security Council, who had visited China as envoy to the Imperial Throne (kyep’umsa), returned from Nanjing, the king went out to Sŏgyo81 to greet him, leading all officials. Im presented the king with a letter from the Ministry of Rites of China, and this is what the letter said: “The Ministry of Rites sends this letter to the provisional ruler (kwŏnji kuksa) of Koryŏ. On the eleventh of the tenth month, the twenty-fifth year of Emperor Hongwu’s reign, Zhang Zhi, right vice minister of our Ministry, and others took the letter brought by the envoy of Koryŏ to Xijiao Gate of the Imperial Palace and submitted it [to the emperor] early in the morning and received his imperial instruction with regard to it. “The imperial instruction was as follows: ‘Earlier, Koryŏ sent its envoy to report about the current situation. As I read the present letter brought to me now, I find it not much different from the last one. China being constant and exemplary, sage kings throughout history have ruled and preserved it from generation to generation with little changes. As Korea is separated from China by mountains and seas, Heaven created an independent kingdom of Koryŏ, and therefore it is outside our domain. The Ministry of Rites, in a reply to the letter from Koryŏ, should state, “You are free to do whatever it is necessary to enlighten your people. If you can follow the will of Heaven and bring your Korean people together in peace without causing trouble at our border, you will see our envoys coming to visit you, and that will be good for your country. Upon receiving this letter, I want you to hurry to make a report to me about the new country name that you have chosen.”’

81. Literally western suburbs, it refers to the areas outside Ojŏngmun Gate in Kaesŏng.

Book II

Our Ministry of Rites now sends you the imperial instruction after making a summary.” Cho Im, who had been to China, also conveyed the imperial instruction of the Chinese emperor, which was made orally, and its message was mainly as follows: “Though I ordered the Ministry of Rites to draft a reply that is to be sent to your country, I want you to explain to your king in detail when you return home. Formerly, in the time of Han, Tang, and Song dynasties, we dispatched our officials to defend your country, but those who were dispatched often indulged in wine and women so that they harmed your people, and some of them got killed because of their immoralities. Thus, they were not of any help to either side. That is the reason I forbade our officials from visiting your country. When King Kongmin died, your government said that he left an heir and requested that his son be allowed to succeed his father as a king. Later, you came to us and denied that the new king was a rightful heir. Then you requested that Wang Yo [King Kongyang] be established as a king, claiming that he truly belonged to the royal Wang family, but you drove him out. Then you sent us your men two or three times, and I understood that your king was requesting me to recognize him as a new king. I have no intention of raising questions about it because the matter solely concerns him. My only wish is that he make the livelihood of the people comfortable and allow that the people on both sides freely visit each other.” On this day all officials stood to congratulate the king one after another. The king ordered all officials, including retired ones, to gather at the Privy Council (Todang) and discuss the new name of the country. The government dispatched Kwŏn Chunghwa, assistant grand councilor, to Yanggwang, Kyŏngsang, and Chŏlla Provinces to search out the land for burying the king’s umbilical cord and placenta. 29th Day (Pyŏngo)

Han Sangjil,82 academician of the Office of Royal Decrees, was dispatched to Nanjing, China, on a mission to finalize the name of the country as either 82. Han Sangjil (?–1400 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He is the grandfather of Han Myŏnghoe, Great Lord Sangdang, who played a crucial role in enthroning Sejo. He also served as assistant grand councilor, minister of punishments, and director of the Office

213

214

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Chosŏn or Hwaryŏng. The memorial [presented to the emperor] was as ­follows: “Cho Im, an official of your vassal state, returned from the imperial capital bringing the letter from the Ministry of Rites with him, which included the instruction of Your Imperial Majesty. In the letter you said, ‘If you can follow the will of Heaven and bring your Korean people together in peace without causing trouble at our border, you will see our envoys coming to visit you, and that will be good for your country. Upon receiving this letter, I want you to hurry to make a report to me about the new country name that you have chosen.’ “What happened in our small kingdom was that Yo, who was a member of the royal Wang family, was so ignorant and reckless that he finally brought himself to ruin on his own. Then all the officials and people of our country entrusted me with the affairs of state for the time being, and I was extremely surprised and did not know what to do. Under these circumstances, Your Majesty allowed me to rule my country and even asked about the new name of the country that needed to be chosen soon. Our people and I, therefore, are extremely grateful to you. “I believe that founding a dynasty and making a new name for it cannot be decided by myself alone. Since we present you with two potential country names, Chosŏn and Hwaryŏng, for your consideration, we want you to choose one of them and let us know.” At first, the king decided to send an envoy but had difficulty finding the right person. Then Han Sangjil volunteered to undertake the mission, saying, “Though I lack the ability to carry out the mission, how dare I disregard your order and decline an opportunity to prove my allegiance to you?” The king was pleased. This month pear trees bloomed.

12th Month 1st Day (Chŏngmi)

The king issued a royal decree: “Sacrifices should be offered to the eight royal tombs in the Northeast Region. In every first month of the four ­seasons, of Royal Decrees. He is better known for visiting the Ming court and receiving the new name for the Chosŏn dynasty from the Ming emperor.

Book II

let the members of the royal family and high officials be dispatched to perform the sacrifices, and on the first and fifteenth day of the lunar month and regular holidays, the provincial military commissioner should carry out the sacrifices.” Cho Chun, right chancellor, Nam Ŭn, director of the Security Council, Yi Kŭn,83 second royal secretary, and others went in to see the king. The king gave following orders: “Lately, natural disasters have taken place very often, and there must be a reason behind them, which I fear to believe are the reprimands of Heaven. Sometime in the Mujin year (1388),84 many people were executed and their properties and slaves seized and reverted to the government. Consequently, their wives, concubines, and children suffered isolation and led a life of miserable poverty, and their grievance and resentment must have grown day by day. I am afraid that the reprimands of Heaven have to do with that. Except those who belong to the royal family of Koryŏ or who have committed treason, those indicted that year with their properties confiscated until the day I ascended the throne should all be pardoned and their properties and slaves returned to their wives and sons so that they can continue their livelihoods.” 2nd Day (Musin)

The king personally paid a visit to the coffin hall of Pae Kŭngnyŏm and ordered Kim Sahyŏng, vice grand councilor, to offer a sacrifice to him. Deeply mourning the death of Kŭngnyŏm, the king called those who were in charge of the funeral and expressed his condolences. Since Kŭngnyŏm had no son, An Sun, the grandson of his sister, presided over the funeral.

83. Yi Kŭn (? –1398 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as inspector general, minister of personnel, and director of the Security Council. However, he was killed during the First Strife of Princes in 1398. 84. According to the History of Koryŏ, the Mujin year started with the execution or exile of high officials who long abused power, and among those who were executed were Im Kyŏnmi, To Kilbu, Yi Sŏngnim, etc. The same year, it also happened that King U ordered the military campaign against Liaodong, China, and T’aejo, at Wiwha Island in the Yalu River, turned his army around to march back home.

215

216

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

6th Day (Imja)

Having heard that Cho Pak, surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province, and Sim Hyosaeng,85 surveillance commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province, prohibited people observing mourning from visiting Buddhist temples to offer sacrifices to Buddha, the king said, “Though Yi Saek became a great Confucian scholar, he worshiped Buddha. What kind of books did these people read to dislike Buddha so much?” 12th Day (Muo)

The moon approached the Pleiades. The Privy Council proposed to the king that, starting from the New Year, officials be required to wear formal uniforms similar to those of the Chinese in the Ming court. The king ordered the Board of Rites to study the idea. The Board of Rites reported to the king as follows: “It is decided that officials of rank 1 should wear a red robe with a belt made of water buffalo horn; officials of rank 2 to 3, a red robe with a golden belt of flowery design; and officials of rank 3 to 4, a blue robe with a leather belt decorated with black horn. The scepters for these officials are all made of ivory. Officials of rank 5 to 6 should wear a blue robe with a leather belt decorated with black horn and hold a scepter made of wood. Officials below rank 7 all wear green robes, and their belts and scepters are the same as those of the officials of ranks 5 to 6. The longneck shoes worn by all officials are black. 13th Day (Kimi)

The king appointed Cho Chun as left chancellor, Kim Sahyŏng as right chancellor and Earl of Sangnak, granting them, respectively, a fief of one thousand households with three hundred tax villages from which taxes can be collected. He also appointed Kwŏn Chunghwa as grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records; Chŏng Tojŏn and Ch’oe

85. Sim Hyosaeng (1349–1398 AD): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Passing the civil service examination in 1383, he served as fourth inspector, assistant director of the Security Council, general-in-chief, and minister of personnel. He was the father-in-law of Prince Pangsŏk and joined the clique of Chŏng Tojŏn and Namŭn during the First Strife of Princes in 1398 and was executed in the same year.

Book II

Yŏngji as assistant chancellors; U Innyŏl and Yu Mansu as chief magistrates of Kaesŏng Magistracy; Chŏng Hŭigye as director of the Eight Guards; and Cho Im as deputy commissioner of the Security Council. Earlier, only the officials above rank 2 among the officials of the Chan­ cellery, the State Finance Commission, and the Security Council could serve in the Privy Council concurrently. This day, however, the discussants of the Chancellery and the Security Council, grand academicians and academicians of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, and the chief magistrate and vice magistrate of Kaesŏng Magistracy were also allowed to join the Privy Council concurrently. Furthermore, the king appointed No Cho as supreme general and No Kwan as general-in-chief. They were the two sons of [former king] Wang U, but ordered to adopt the family name of their mother. No Cho was Prince Chŏnggang of the previous dynasty. 16th Day (Imsul)

Left Chancellor Cho Chun declined to accept the fief of P’yŏngyang and the post of commander-in-chief of Kyŏnggi Province by submitting a memorial, which read: “According to what I have heard, Yi Yin86 believed that it is not advisable for one who successfully accomplished his task and thereafter received royal favors and enjoyed the benefits to continue to stay in his position for too long. Because he was cautious in thought and conduct in this way, he could make his monarch benevolent like Tang Yao and Yu Shun. Xiao He,87 on the other hand, failed to retire despite the fact that he had reached the summit of power and, consequently, brought disgrace on himself and made Emperor Gaozu of Han unable to preserve the lives of his merit subjects.88 “Having established a dynasty according to the will of Heaven, Your Majesty granted me a fief which I do not deserve and entrusted me with military power over Kyŏnggi Province, which is beyond my ability. It is as if a mosquito carries a great mountain on its shoulder. Being endowed too 86. A minister of the early Shang dynasty who assisted King Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty, to defeat King Jie of Xia. 87. A chancellor in the early Han dynasty. He is known as one of the Three Heroes of the early Han dynasty along with Han Xin and Zhang Liang. 88. When the relationship between Emperor Gaozu and his general Han Xin became strained, Xiao He lured Han Xin into a trap and had him killed.

217

218

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

much privilege and power, I am afraid that I will certainly fall apart. Since I received your order, I have been unable to sleep soundly or enjoy food as I had before. Therefore, I sincerely submit to you the way I feel about your favors, with the hope that you will withdraw them from me. “As I look back, I started my career by serving under King Kongmin but fell into misfortune in the middle of my journey and decided to retire and finish my life reading books. When Your Majesty was out of the public view, staying at your private home, you met me once and treated me as if I were your old friend, and I believe it was Heaven that arranged our meeting. “In the first month of the Mujin year (1388), Your Majesty, together with General Ch’oe Yŏng, eliminated a host of wicked people who had harassed and harmed common people for fifteen years and impressed the people with your virtue. Ch’oe Yŏng, being ignorant, conspired with the false king to invade Liaodong, China, ordering our army to cross the Yalu River. Your Majesty, however, turned your army around and marched back, citing the principle of great justice, and prevented the people of the Three Han [Korea] from perishing by a cruel death. This indicates that you made contributions to saving the country. “Your Majesty around that time employed me as inspector-general. So I reported to you everything I knew, and there was nothing that Your Majesty refused to listen to. You straightened the discipline in disarray, proclaimed justice for all, and employed men of outstanding ability. You rejected cunning men to prevent them from harming people and strengthened the ties with the suzerain state [China]. You also drove out the false king and restored the Wang clan once again, and the Son of Heaven was pleased about it and sent you an envoy to acknowledge your good work. This indicated that your contributions were great enough to restore the peace of the state, and it was known to the world. “At first, when Your Majesty recommended me to assume the post of inspector-general, you resolutely announced to the gods and spirits above the heavens your will to make a world ruled by peace for thousands of generations. Rejecting the accusations from wicked gangs and risking the wrath of powerful families, you abolished the old abuses of the private landholding system, saved the people from their misery, and increased military provisions in a difficult time. In addition, you displayed military strength by constructing castle ships and building fortifications and, as a result, reopened the sea routes and put an end overnight to the Japanese invasions that made our people suffer for forty years.

Book II

“You established rank lands89 in Kyŏnggi Province and decided in favor of the literati. You raised troops by establishing a military colony in each county and provided lands to local clerks and ferry workers. Now, the lands were administered by fixed statutes, and the country governed by wellmade laws. As everyone had boundaries of one’s own, one neither invaded nor dispossessed another of property. As the abuses of monopolizing lands disappeared, numerous people were able to gain lands for cultivation and abode. As taxes and corvée labor were reduced, widows and widowers no longer had to worry about their clothing and food. With the generous increase of stipend, the avarice of officials decreased. With the public warehouses filled with goods and grain, the government expenditure became sufficient. “Your Majesty, along with me, became outraged watching avaricious officials exploiting the people and incompetent commanders nurturing foreign enemies. So you asked the government to appoint grand councilors to the task of patrolling various provinces, with the power to either dismiss or promote local officials. As the discipline of border garrisons was restored, the worries about our troops finally stopped, for they now held together with courage to fight; and as the law was more strictly enforced in the prefectures and counties, the custom of rapacious exploitation also ceased. To prevent district magistrates from being selected among local clerks, you raised their official rank and carefully employed the candidates from those who were recommended and guaranteed by the Censorate and Six Ministries. The sound of worries and lamentations began to disappear from villages, and the vagrant people who had abandoned their hometowns had the joy of settling down. “Searching for the yamen clerks who either ran away or hid themselves changing their career, you let them return to their old jobs at home. Rejecting powerful local families and cunning people who harassed the residents, you levied taxes and labor service on the households, which were hidden and unregistered. Then you installed a magistrate in each district and stationmaster in each post station, so that empty places turned into towns and villages, and barren lands with bush and grass became paddies and farm fields 89. The stipend land allocated to the members of the official class in accordance with the rank level each had attained. The rank land was limited only to the Kyŏnggi region around the capital. “The reform of private landholding signified the destruction of the old economic order and the establishment of a new one by the rising literati class.” (Lee Ki-baik, p. 164)

219

220

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

producing rice and millet. You prevented useless officials from wasting state stipends; favorite retainers from betraying the trust of the king; artisans, merchants, and servants from presumptuously holding public posts; the idle monks, who only consume food without working, from occupying large lands; men with no contributions from being invested with titles of nobility; and their young and incompetent children from being employed. As you eliminated all these problems with new laws, the door of fortune by chance was closed, and the road leading to men in power blocked. The purpose of having the people sacrifice to their ancestors by establishing their family shrines was to make them virtuous, and expanding academies and installing education officers (kyosu) was to clarify the rules of proper conduct. The civilized society and the military power that you brought about are already accomplished and so well known far way that Japanese bandits pay a visit to participate in the morning audience, presenting precious gifts, and the Ryukyu Kingdom and the southern barbarians (Namman)90 also come to visit to pay tributes, employing interpreters. “Despite the fact that you revived the country that had been ruined during the sixteen-year reign of the Wang clan [King U], the Wang clan, being ignorant and confused, envied and hated you. Having the treasonous gang, the followers of the false king Sin, as well as those who were deprived of their lands and posts, deployed on his left and right sides like fish scales, he [King Kongyang] began to spread rumors against you. They particularly slandered by saying that Your Majesty abused your power, and accused us, your subjects, of forming a clique. Furthermore, they conspired to remove Your Majesty in whatever way they could find, and their conspiracy grew worse and unpredictable. “In the third month of this year, when the crown prince [Wang Sŏk, the son of King Kongyang] returned from his trip to China, Your Majesty traveled as many as several hundred li to the west from the capital to welcome him back. On your way, you went hunting to entertain the prince with the game you would catch, but unfortunately you fell off your horse and lay on a bed in a grass-roof cottage in the country. “The wicked official Chŏng Mongju, who rose in rank with your support and protection, became minister of state (ch’ongjae) and seized power. 90. Namman originally referred to the aboriginal tribes who lived in southwestern China; however, here it indicates the countries in Southeast Asia, including Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand.

Book II

However, flattering the king and instigating the Censorate, he accused me, as well as Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn, of being right-hand men of Your Majesty and sought a chance first to entrap me and then others in the violation of laws and planned to remove you later. Your Majesty, in spite of being seriously ill, returned home by employing a carriage that was twice as fast as usual. On the fourth day of the fourth lunar month, the people across the country were outraged, and Chŏng Mongju was put to death. Your Majesty, however, was so generous that you killed none of his cunning clique who were still alive. Though ill and lying in bed in your home and refusing to see guests and visitors, you hoped that the member of the Wang clan [King Kongyang] could realize the gravity of the matter and wisely exercise his power to give punishment and reward. Nevertheless, the member of the Wang clan was still too ignorant to realize it, and the wicked gang kept acting more recklessly until the catastrophe was suddenly before your eyes. “Finally, on the twelfth day of the seventh lunar month, Heaven became indignant, and the people were disaffected toward the old regime. Con­ sequently, people across the country suddenly recommended that Your Majesty be acclaimed as the ruler of the country. Since the hearts of the people and the Mandate of Heaven reached such a point of seriousness, what could Your Majesty do, even if you possessed the loyalty of Zizang91 of the State of Cao? “Your Majesty, after your inauguration, enfeoffed the member of the Wang clan [King Kongyang; Wang Yo] as Lord of Kansŏng in Kangnŭng,92 which reminds one of Cheng Tang93 of Shang, who sent King Jie94 into exile to Nanchao.95 You also enfeoffed the biological younger brother [Wang U] of the member of the Wang clan as the Lord of Majŏn County in Kyŏnggi Province so that he could sacrifice to T’aejo, the founder king of Koryŏ, and King Kongmin, and this was equivalent to the event in which King Wu of Zhou enfeoffed Weizi96 with the territory of Song. You also allowed various 91. Xiahou Dun, a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Han dynasty period. He was one of the most trusted generals of Cao Cao. 92. Modern Kosŏng County in Kangwŏn Province. 93. The first ruling king of the Shang dynasty who overthrew Jie, the tyrant king of the Xia dynasty. 94. The 17th and last ruler of the Xia dynasty. 95. Modern Shouxian, Anhui Province, China. 96. The older half brother of King Zhou, the last tyrant king of the Shang dynasty. Weizi often remonstrated about the misrule of his brother and finally left his court. After conquering

221

222

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

members of the Wang clan to live on Kanghwa and Kŏje Islands, providing them with provisions, and that kind of generosity is unprecedented since the days of Han and Wei among the rulers who founded new dynasties. “If Your Majesty had an ambition to steal the kingdom from the beginning, how could you discuss the ways of restoring the Wang clan, risking your life when you decided to turn your army around and march back home at the Yalu River? In the winter of the Kisa year [1389] when the imperial edict97 arrived, how could you be willing to establish the legitimate heir among the royal family so that he could restore the royal Wang clan? What made you anxious to set up early a young prince who had just had a capping ceremony and solidify the foundation of the state? What made you hold royal lectures and present to the king the Essentials of the Government of the Zhenguan Period 98 and let renowned scholars give lectures on it every morning and evening? Why did you organize discussion meetings, inviting many scholars to the eastern hall of the crown prince, presenting the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning, and letting them give lectures on the ways of daily governing the state? How many times did you ask for permissions to resign as chancellor and retire to your home for rest after distributing all your houses and lands to your sons and sons-in-law? In the autumn of the previous year, how could you eagerly suggest that the crown prince pay a visit to China and have an audience with the emperor? “The utmost loyalty and sincerity of Your Majesty toward the Wang clan were what Heaven looked down upon, and the whole kingdom knows about it. Nevertheless, the member of the Wang clan, still bewildered and persuaded by the clique of slanderers, was unable to treat you properly, unlike King Zhao of Yan or King Xiang of Qi,99 who with courtesy and honor

the Shang dynasty, King Wu of Zhou spared the life of Weizi and let him rule the land of Song. 97. King Ch’ang, son of King U, ascended the throne when his father was deposed after Yi Sŏnggye (T’aejo) marched back home with his army from Wihwa Island. In the 9th month of 1389, he intended to pay a visit to the Ming court to obtain recognition as the new king of Koryŏ, but his mother, Lady Yi, dissuaded him from making the trip for the reason that he was too young. A little later in the same month, an imperial letter from the Ming China arrived. In his letter, the emperor strongly criticized the chaotic situation of Koryŏ regarding the succession to the throne and expressed his reservation concerning the visit of King Ch’ang. Consequently, King Ch’ang could not pay a visit to the Ming court to see the emperor. 98. A book of statecraft from the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty (618–917) compiled by Wu Jing, who worked in the Historiographic Institute (Guoshiguan). 99. The States of Yan and Qi during the Warring States period were main enemies. Taking advantage of the succession crisis within Yan, Qi invaded and practically conquered the whole

Book II

treated their subjects like Yue Yi100 and Tian Dan,101 respectively. And even worse, he turned his merit subjects into the meat on a cutting board. This was evidence that Heaven was tired of the member of the Wang clan for his misrule and aided Your Majesty to accomplish your great design for a new dynasty. “Being diligent in the affairs of state and frugal in domestic affairs, Yu of Xia could inherit the seat of Yu Shun. Listening to remonstrances with tolerance and never hesitating to correct his mistakes, Tang of Shang replaced the Xia dynasty. Overthrowing Shang and pacifying the world, King Wu could establish the Zhou dynasty. Keeping wise councilors close and alienating petty people, the Former Han achieved prosperity. Associating with petty people and alienating wise councilors, the Later Han declined and collapsed. “Now Heaven has already made Your Majesty rule the Three Han [Korea], serving the people as their parent. We, therefore, request that Your Majesty emulate the benevolent rule of the three sage kings, admonishing yourself against the gains and losses of the Former and Later Han dynasties. It would be extremely fortunate if you would always keep that in mind and act cautiously in whatever you do, setting an example for your sacred posterity for a hundred thousand generations. “I think to myself quietly, since Your Majesty founded a new dynasty with the Mandate of Heaven, how I could make contributions to it, however little they may be. Your Majesty bestowed your favors on your foolish subject too excessively, appointing me to the high position of chancellor as well as tutor of the crown prince, which are grave responsibilities. You also had my small contributions recorded and placed my name on top of the dynastyfounding merit subject list, bestowing upon me lands and slaves. Despite the fact that the rewards I received were already too extreme, you added to them a fief of one thousand households, with tax villages of three hundred

territory of Yan. However, due to the misconduct of Qi troops during the conquest, a revolt took place and it eventually led to Yan recovering its territory. Thereafter, Zhao became the new king of Yan and successfully invaded and conquered Qi with the help of his brilliant general Yu Yi. 100. Also known as Lord Guojun, Yu Yi was an official of the state of Yan during the Warring States period. With the support and trust of King Zhao of Yan, and making alliances with neighboring states (including Zhao, Wei, Chu, Han, and Qin), he defeated the powerful Qi forces and seized as many as seventy towns in 284 bc. 101. A general of Qi, well known for a spectacular military tactic called “Fire Cattle Columns,” who recovered lost territory in battles with Yan forces.

223

224

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

households from which taxes can be collected, as well as the post of ­commander-in-chief of Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces. How can I deal with all these royal favors? I sincerely beg you to withdraw your favors from me, dividing the two responsibilities imposed upon the person of this foolish subject, and allow me to fulfill my wish to live in peace though poor, which I hope is my destiny, so that I can continue to serve you in the days to come. “In olden days, Tang of Shang became the king by employing Yi Yin as chancellor, and Gaozu of Han became the emperor by inviting Zhang Liang as his teacher and advisor. However, Yi Yin wanted to retire to his home, and Zhang Liang wanted to depart with Master Red Pine (Chisongzi), a Daoist immortal.102 The reason they wanted to leave their sovereigns was not that they were mistreated by the states of Shang or Han; they were worried that they would be criticized for coveting power and thereby damage the sacred reputation of virtuous rulers such as Cheng Tang and Gaozu of Han. “My life after the fourth day of the fourth lunar month103 is actually a gift from you. My relationship to Your Majesty is not merely the relationship between sovereign and subject; I owe you the love and grace of parents, which are boundless as the sky. Since there is no reason for me to request my resignation, how dare I think about retiring and resting as Yi Yin and Zhang Liang did? I only want to imitate the two sages’ minds, which were watchful and humble, so that I can safely finish my journey to its end along with Your Majesty. “The Book of Changes says, ‘It is the way of Heaven to diminish the full and augment the humble. Spiritual Beings inflict calamity on the full and bless the humble.’104 It also says, ‘A superior man toiling laboriously and yet humble will bring things to an end, and with good fortune.’105 This is the reason I bother you to withdraw your excessive favors from me. “I sincerely beseech that Your Majesty take pity on my serious worries and fear about my undeserved honor and power. If you understand my loyal plan and my desire to share the joy with my country, and order my fief and tax villages restored to the state and my military power entrusted to 102. Also called Yu Shi, which means “Lord of Rain,” he is a spirit who appears in Chinese mythology in association with Feng Bo, god of wind. 103. The date and month given here seems to refer to the fourth month of the Mujin year (1388) in which the military expedition against Liaodong, China, started. 104. The I Ching: The Book of Changes. (Legge, p. 226). 105. The Qian Hexagram. The Book of Changes.

Book II

outstanding generals, I will exert myself to the utmost to repay your lifesaving virtue and benevolence bestowed upon me.” The king denied the request, sending down his royal decree. 17th Day (Kyehae)

The king dispatched Assistant Chancellor U Innyŏl to the imperial capital to submit his memorial to the emperor, along with thirty tribute horses, in order to express his gratitude for his graces. The memorial read as follows: “Cho Rim, an envoy of your vassal state, returned from the Ming capital, and I respectfully received the letter from the Ministry of Rites, which carried the imperial instruction. Your admonition, as well as your permission for the provisional rule granted me, was so sincere and moving that I am overwhelmed by gratitude along with all my people. “The way of the emperor, reaching far and wide, has nothing it does not affect, and his admonition is manifest in the proclamation of his sacred plan. The warm affection in your admonition will be engraved on my mind and will never be forgotten. “As I think quietly, our small kingdom has had various incidents since the death of King Kongmin. Whenever they happened, however, your servant only set his mind to serving the suzerain state without changing his loyalty. As the crises [in our country] grew worse and critical, the people eagerly recommended that I be elevated to the throne, which I took rather reluctantly. I was so worried that I felt like walking on thin ice across a pond. I only wished that my humble thought could reach the gate of your imperial palace, but I hardly imagined that I would receive your special message through my envoy returning from your court. You instructed me to follow the will of Heaven, admonished me not to cause troubles, and said to bring happiness to the country and secure long-lasting peace through visits and exchanges. Even if parents teach their child, the affection they show to their child cannot be compared to yours. I was so impressed that I only shed tears. “This happened because I was fortunate enough to serve Your Imperial Majesty, who is magnanimously generous and virtuous, distributing his benevolence and benefits to everything on the earth, and I became just one of those recipients. “I pledge that I will never be idle and abandon my duty recklessly. I will carefully maintain the fief I was entrusted with, and I wholeheartedly wish you long life and prosperity.”

225

226

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

22nd Day (Mujin)

The Censorial officials submitted a memorial to the king: “We have heard that nothing is more important than finding capable men for the administration of the government. However, the task is so difficult that even the sages found it quite challenging. “Even in the golden period of Tang Yao and Yu Shun, there were wicked people such as Gong Gong and Huan Dou;106 notwithstanding, after the Han dynasty and the State of Wei, the number of posts, both in the capital and in local governments, increased by great numbers. Then how can it be possible for the ruler to handle the matter of employing or dismissing them all by himself? Therefore, laws were made in order that the records of officials could be reviewed for verification and their achievements evaluated in accordance with the assignments they are given. Hence, this verification and evaluation process is a prerequisite for the appointment of officials. “The law of selecting public officials in our country is too simple to be adequate, whereas the path to enter public service, extremely complicated and disorganized. Furthermore, since officials are promoted as long as they serve for a certain amount of time, it becomes unavoidable that outstanding individuals are mixed with those who lack in ability, and, accordingly, honorable people are treated just as the dishonorable. Laws were made to rectify this problem, and this is the reason the appointment of officials must be reviewed and approved by the Censorate. The one who fails to meet the confirmation of the Censorate is prohibited from serving in the government and therefore has no chance to defile public office. “If there is any official who is mindful not to make mistakes and tries to change his ways because he is afraid of the Censorate, how can you say that the benefits are small when he cares about his office and thereby promotes good custom? “It is quite possible that sometimes wicked people join the Censorate and, making excuses, delay the confirmation of officials for their own ends. Granted that it happens, how can you give up the law as a whole just because of such problems? “I am afraid that Your Majesty has replaced the Censorate’s confirmation process with an old system in which the ruler directly conferred ­appointment. 106. The ministers who conspired against Emperor Shun. They are known as two of the four evil characters along with San Miao and Gun.

Book II

As we quietly reviewed the appointment system of the Tang dynasty, we found that academicians, who wrote imperial decrees of appointment, tried to avoid writing them when they found the appointments inappropriate; and even if the decrees were sent down to the Censorate, it happened that they were audacious enough to return them after sealing them in an envelope. The reason that they acted in this way was to prevent incompetent people from entering public service by luck. Therefore, even if the officials of the Censorate at the moment try to avoid approving the appointment of officials, it is not that they ignore the royal order of Your Majesty. Their inten­­ tion is only to assist you with choosing the right people for the government. “Your Majesty tells us to speak out against your appointment of officials when a mistake is made, but it is possible only when a wise sovereign such as yourself is alive to rule the country and good subjects are available to assist you so there is no hindrance to communication between the ruler and the ruled. However, if it happens in later generations that the order and discipline among officials deteriorate and cunning and powerful officials abuse their power at will, who would risk his life to remonstrate with the king and correct wrongs, even if there were loyal subjects such as Wei Zheng107 and Yang Cheng?108 “We earnestly urge Your Majesty to restore the old system of reviewing candidates for office that was entrusted to the Censorate and at the same time prevented cunning people from serving in the Censorate. Then the honor of public office (myŏnggi) will be preserved from defilement, and the distinction between encouragement and discouragement will be made clear. As a result, both wise and foolish people can be assigned to the posts in accordance with their abilities, which will set a good example for future generations.” The king replied, “The law of the previous dynasty with regard to the confirmation procedure for appointment had some inconveniences, which needed to be changed. From this day forward, in the case of officials above rank 4, I will personally bestow the certificates of appointment. In the case 107. The statesman of the Tang dynasty who served as chancellor for thirteen years. He was famous for his outspokenness against mistakes committed by Emperor Taizong; nevertheless, he was trusted and respected by the emperor until his death. 108. An imperial scholar during the reign of Dezong (742–805 AD) of the Tang dynasty. In 795, after the former chancellor Lu Zhi and several of his associates were exiled due to false accusations by Emperor Dezong’s favorite, Pei Yanling, he led a group of junior officials in petitioning Emperor Dezong concerning Lu’s innocence, drawing the emperor’s ire.

227

228

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of officials below rank 5, I will have the Chancellery issue them. If you happen to find the wrong person recommended for office, I want you to speak out immediately.” 24th Day (Kyŏngo)

The government dispatched investigating censors (kamch’al) to Ŭiju and other places to prohibit people from crossing the border to conduct trade. 25th Day (Sinmi)

The sacrifice for the four generations of the king’s royal ancestors was offered on the day of sacrifice (nabil).109 Minor merit subjects, including Yu Mansu, held a banquet to entertain the king. 26th Day (Imsin)

The government had Inhŭi Hall110 and Chŏkkyŏngwŏn,111 of the previous dynasty, demolished. 27th Day (Kyeyu)

O Mongŭl,112 general-in-chief, visited the palace, leading twenty-six youths from Wansan. The king called him into the inner palace and bestowed wine upon him. Then he ordered Yi Hwa, Count of Ŭian, to take care of them. The king proclaimed a royal decree: “At the end of the previous dynasty, the laws of land and slaves were in disarray so that cunning people conspired to 109. It indicates the day designated for the royal family to offer sacrifices to its ancestors or state guardian deities. It normally took place several days after the winter solstice. 110. It is a palace near Wangryun Monastery in Kaesŏng, built by King Kongmin to enshrine the portrait and spirit tablet of his beloved Queen Noguk after her death. 111. A royal garden in Kaesŏng, built by King Kongyang in 1390 to enshrine the spirit tablets of his ancestors of the four preceding generations. 112. O Mongŭl (?–1398): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as governor of Kangwŏn Province and general-in-chief. Actively participating in the efforts to recommend T’aejo to the throne, he became a dynasty-founding merit subject first class and received 150 kyŏl of land. However, he was exiled and executed for joining the clique of Nam Ŭn and Chŏng Tojŏn, the supporters of Crown Prince Pangsŏk, during the First Strife of Princes in 1398.

Book II

file lawsuits using every means possible. The problem was so serious that fights broke out among parents and brothers, who killed one another and harmed good custom, and it made me feel very sorry. Since I had the army march back in the Mujin year (1388), I abolished abusive private landholdings to straighten out the land system and caused the people to calm down, until peace was gradually restored both to the capital and to the provinces. “However, the problems related to slaves still remain unresolved and continue to be troublesome, as in the past. Therefore, we must set them straight at a time when we are trying to make a fresh start in the administration of state affairs. “Starting from the twenty-seventh of the twelfth month of the twentyfifth year (1392) of the reign of Hongwu, slaves who contend that they were originally people of good status should remain as they are if they have already served as slaves for a long time; however, they should again be made people of good status if they were forced to become slaves despite having never been slaves before. As for the slaves whose cases keep being delayed, they should be given to the litigator who wins the lawsuit. The slaves who ran away after the Sinch’uk year (1361)113 of Zhizheng are an exception to this decree. “If there is anyone who recklessly contends with another in violation of this decree, he should be punished by one hundred strokes of beating with a paddle, and his documents concerning his slaves shall be confiscated and burned by the authorities. The officials who knowingly forgive the offender shall be punished by the law and dismissed from office with no chance for reappointment. The Privy Council should take my orders to the offices concerned and make them announce these to the public both in the capital and through local governments.”

Intercalary 12th Month 4th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king ordered Chŏng Ch’ong, senior secretary of the Security Council, to compose the prayer for the publication of Tripitaka Koreana. Ch’ong

113. This is the year when the massive army of Red Turban bandits invaded Koryŏ and King Kongmin was forced to take refuge in Andong, North Kyŏngsang Province, which is in the south.

229

230

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

said, “Why is Your Majesty so devoted to Buddhist works? I beg you not to believe in Buddha.” Then the king replied, “A great Confucian scholar such as Yi Saek also believed in Buddha. If it is indeed wrong to believe in him, why do you think Saek believed in him?” Ch’ong replied, “That is the reason Saek, despite being a great Confucian scholar, is criticized.” The king said, “Are you saying that Saek is no better than you? Do not mention it again.” 5th Day (Sinsa)

The government conducted the investigations on the condition of ­prisoners. 6th Day (Imo)

The king went out the north gate of the temporary palace and inspected the royal guards. Looking around at the officials attending him on the left and right, he said, “The Art of War says, ‘Do not confront a well-ordered army with banners in the right places, and never attack the military camp deployed with confidence.’ The statement speaks of our guards, doesn’t it?” 13th Day (Kichíuk)

The government had two administrators and two record keepers installed in the Directorate for Dynasty-Founding Merit Subjects (Kaeguk kongsin togam).114 Inspector-General Nam Chae spoke to the king: “The so-called stipend was originally instituted by the sage kings of antiquity in order to foster the officials responsible for administration. However, the mothers and wives of merit subjects with the title of Lady of the House (T’aekchu) are now provided with stipends. Though you are very generous in treating your merit subjects, it is not appropriate that two persons in a family receive stipends from the government at the same time. So we request that noble women115 and ladies of the house, except those who belong to the royal family, not be paid stipends. The king said, “The merit subjects who rendered service in 114. It was first established in the eighth month of 1392. Later, its name was changed to “Directorate for Merit Subjects” (Kongsin togam). 115. Here they refer to the princesses-ordinary, who belonged to the extended royal family.

Book II

founding the dynasty had their names on the stipend records and received titles in accordance with their contributions. If their parents and wives, on the other hand, were given nothing but titles and no stipends, would it be reasonable?” 14th Day (Kyŏngin)

[The representatives of] Wuliangha116 came and presented their local ­products. 15th Day (Sinmyo)

The day being the Onset of Spring, various officials during the morning audience congratulated the king, and the king bestowed upon them his calligraphy of words and phrases related to the Onset of Spring. 16th Day (Imsin)

The king issued a royal decree: “Yi Yŏm, assistant grand councilor, was meticulous, precise, and farsighted. His father, deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, treated me with great respect. Yŏm was like an old friend to me from the moment we met. Notwithstanding, he has never failed to respect me despite the fact that many years have passed and has always admonished me to reduce my mistakes; therefore, his contributions are not small. “In the Kyŏngo year (1390), when Prince Kongyang [King Kongyang] moved down to Namgyŏng [Seoul],117 Kim Chongyŏn, a fugitive who had committed a crime, gathered a wicked gang of people and secretly conspired to harm me. Thus, I was in danger, and the crisis could soon have extended to the state. However, Prince Kongyang and a few of his subjects, being ignorant, tried to protect them, while punishing the ones who reported their crimes, and there was a rumor that concerned my safety. I did not 116. Wuliangha refers to either a chief or representatives of a Jurchen tribe who lived in the region of the Tumen and Yalu Rivers and in the north of Hamgyŏng Province. 117. The word, “moved” (徙) here is rather intriguing because King Kongyang did not move the capital nor his palaces. According to the Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea (Sinjŭng tongguk yŏji sŭngnam), he only had Namgyŏng or Hanyang belong to Left Kyŏnggi Province. (Vol.I, p. 252)

231

232

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

know what to do until I had advice from Yi Yŏm and made up my mind, and as a result, I am able to be here today. Though Yŏm could not participate in opening the new dynasty because he served in the province, he should be at the top of the minor merit subject list. Last time, when the responsible office submitted a list of minor merit subjects, they accidentally left out Yŏm’s name, and it made me extremely upset. He shall be honored and rewarded based on the precedent of Ch’oe Yŏngji, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery.” The Board of Punishments submitted a memorial to the king: “Since socalled punishment is what the sages dealt out with extreme caution, one cannot but be careful when one carries it out. In olden days, capital punishment was enforced after reporting it three or five times, but these days the ancient law is no longer kept and, accordingly, mistakes are made. From this day forward, we request that capital punishment be reported three times. When a crime for capital punishment is committed outside the capital, the local magistrate should report to the governor, and the governor, in turn, should personally investigate it and report it to the Privy Council; then the Privy Council should report it to the king three times before it is finally implemented.” The king granted the request. 19th Day (Kimi)

The king with Consort Hyŏn paid a visit to Lady An of Ŭihwa Palace at her private residence and enjoyed a banquet. 20th Day (Pyŏngsin)

A tiger strayed into the downtown district, and a resident of Hŭngguk Village shot it down. 27th Day (Kyemyo)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace with Consort Hyŏn. 28th Day (Kapsin)

Dynasty-founding merit subjects held a banquet for the king, and one after another they wished the king a long life, raising their drinking cups. They enjoyed themselves to their hearts’ content and went home.

Book II

233

*   *   * This year, Satto,118 King of Chūzan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, sent a letter and gifts through a [Korean] interpreter named Yi Sŏn and others, introducing himself as a vassal of Korea. He also returned eight male and female Korean captives in their custody.

118. Also known as Chadu, he was a king of Chūzan, one of the three kingdoms formerly on the island of Okinawa. His reign was marked by expansion and development of Chūzan’s trade relations with other states, including China and Korea. The relations with Korea are believed to have first been established in 1389 at the end of the Koryŏ period, and they continued throughout the Chosŏn dynasty, which replaced Koryŏ.

Book III

Second Year of Reign (1393) 1st Month 1st Day (Chŏngmi)

Leading a host of officials, the king held a congratulatory ceremony of the new year while facing in the direction of the Chinese emperor. For the first time, the officials were dressed in the official uniforms made in China. After the ceremony ended, the king sat on the throne and received felicitations from officials both of the court and from the provinces. The Privy Council presented a memorial of felicitations (chŏnmun), and the military commissioners, surveillance commissioners, magistrates, and prefects from all the provinces also presented letters of felicitations along with local products. Cho Pak, surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province, presented a diagram arranged by subject depicting kings throughout history as they engaged in study and state governance. Chŏng T’ak, governor of Kyoju-Kangnŭng Province, presented a scene in which Shi Shang Fu [Father Shang of the Army]1 admonishes King Wu by offering a book inscribed in red ink (danshu)2 1. Also called Jiang Ziya or his original name, Lü Shang, he served as military advisor and prime minister of King Wen of Zhou, the founder of the Zhou dynasty. He was discovered by King Wen, who was looking for a man of talent, while engaged in fishing along the Weishu River. The first meeting and conversation between the two are recorded in a book called Six Strategies of War (Liutao sanlüe), which was about military strategies and statecraft for the king. 2. It refers to the book or a writing that carried the teachings of ancient sage emperors and a sage named Chan Xu. According to a legend, it was dropped by a red sparrow.



234

Book III

as well as two copies of Extended Meaning of the Great Learning, and Woduli3 presented a live tiger. Then the king treated the officials with a banquet. Left Chancellor Cho Chun offered a toast, lifting his chalice of wine toward the king: “On the morning of New Year’s Day, with a heart filled with joy, we wish Your Majesty to live a thousand years.” Following his remark, all the officials chanted “Long live the king!” three times. As the king emptied his chalice of wine and allowed the officials to take a seat, they prostrated themselves before him twice and returned to their seats. They enjoyed themselves fully until the banquet was over. In the evening, they had the Directorate for Armaments stage a fireworks display for them to watch. The king pardoned thirty people, including U Hyŏnbo, Yi Saek, and Sŏl Changsu, and allowed them live wherever they chose, either in the capital or the provinces. 2nd Day (Musin)

Kwŏn Chunghwa, who was on a mission to search for a site for burying the umbilical cord of the king, returned and spoke to the king: “I found an auspicious site in Chindong District4 of Chŏlla Province. Then he presented a topographic map of the site along with the territorial map of Mt. Kyeryong in Yanggwang Province,5 [a potential candidate for the capital of the new dynasty]. 5th Day (Sinhae)

The king paid a visit to Yŏnbok Monastery6 to see a new pagoda.

3. Woduli here is perhaps not an individual name. It may refer to the chief of the Woduli tribe. 4. Also called Chinsan, it is modern Kŭmsan, which became part of South Ch’ungch’ŏn Province. 5. During the Koryŏ period, Ch’ungch’ŏng Province was called Yanggwang Province. Mt. Kyeryong, located in South Ch’ungch’ŏng, is presently Kyeryongsan National Park. 6. A Buddhist temple in Kaesŏng, presumably built in the early 11th century. King Kongmin tried to build a five-story pagoda in the precinct of the temple, with no success. King Kongyang resumed the construction later, in 1391. The new pagoda mentioned here probably indicates this one, which took a long time to complete.

235

236

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

6th Day (Imja)

The king ordered the Privy Council to have a new fortress built in P’yŏngyang. 7th Day (Kyech’uk)

It being the second day the first lunar month, various subjects in the morning audience congratulated the king, and the king bestowed upon them hairpins (insŭng)7 and salary certificate templates (nokp’ae).8 The king ordered the Prosperity Expansion Warehouse (Kwanghŭngch’ang) to pay the stipend to all officials. Yi Kŏin,9 who visited China as envoy to express condolences, returned home. The king dispatched Kwŏn Chunghwa, left director of the State Finance Commission, with an order that his umbilical cord be buried in Chindong District in Wansan Prefecture, promoting the status of Chindong from district to subprefecture (chu) by changing its name to Chinju.10 The king also said, “On the eighteenth of this month, I will take a trip to Mt. Kyeryong. Let each official from the Censorate and Chancellery (Taesŏng) and the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards escort me on my trip.”

7. The so-called insŭng refers to the hairpins used by officials to bind their hair. Made of gold, silver, and bronze, and shaped like a human, they symbolized longevity and blessings in life, and they were traditionally distributed to the officials at the beginning of the New Year. 8. Nokp’ae was issued by the Board of Taxation to the officials twice a year, in the first and seventh lunar months. Officials presented it to the Property Expansion Warehouse (Kwanghŭngch’ang) to receive their salary. 9. Yi Kŏin (?–1402): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as assistant administrator of the Chancellery, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, and chief magistrate of Kaesŏng. He was impeached and dismissed for secretly trading while visiting the Ming capital on a mission to express condolences. However, he became director of the State Finance Com­mission in 1400 and retired a little later. He was granted the posthumous title of Kongchŏl. 10. Also called Chinsan, it is modern Kŭmsan County in South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province.

Book III

9th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “Kim Kyesŏn, special director of Ubong Smithy (chŏlso),11 stole goods while supervising the work. We request you to have his appointment withdrawn and order that he be interrogated and punished.” The king gave an order, saying, “The property he stole shall be confiscated and reverted to the government, and his appointment withdrawn permanently.” 12th Day (Muo)

The Office of the Inspector-General presented a memorial to the king: “Yi Haeng, former academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and Historical Records, who served as chief royal secretary during the reign of King Kongyang, made a false record that Your Majesty killed Sin U [King U], Sin Ch’ang [King Ch’ang], and Pyŏn Annyŏl in an effort to seek favor from Yi Saek and Chŏng Mongju. We request you to have his letter of appointment (chikch’ŏp) revoked and have him interrogated for his crime.” The king granted the request. Prior to this, Chancellor Cho Chun had visited the Bureau of State Records to review the historical records of the former dynasty and happened to find a preliminary draft related to himself, which was made by Yi Haeng.12 The draft said, “Yun Sojong was jealous of Yi Sungin’s talent, so he tried to harm him by slandering him to Cho Chun.” Pointing at the sun, Cho Chun swore, “The sun is my witness that I did not try to harm Yi Sungin after listening to the slander perpetrated by Sojong.” Then he reported the matter to the king. The king ordered the preliminary drafts of historical records made after the Mujin year (1388) to be brought in and personally read the record made by Yi Haeng. The record said that Annyŏl, U, and his son Ch’ang, were all executed by the king [T’aejo] despite their having committed no crime. The king said, “When the Censorate requested capital punishment for Pyŏn Annyŏl, King Kongyang granted it so fast that I had no time to stop it.

11. Ubong is an old name for Kŭmch’ŏn County in Hwanghae Province. 12. Yi Haeng (1352–1432): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. During the reign of King Kongyang, he served as royal secretary and concurrently editor (such’an) of the Bureau of State Records. He was impeached and exiled to Ulsan for making a wrongful record regarding T’aejo but was released the following year.

237

238

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

As for U and his son Ch’ang, the officials as well as the people across the country all asked that they be executed, a request that King Kongyang granted. I had no intention of harming them from the beginning. How can a petty scholar be so reckless as to make such a record?” Then he permitted the Office of the Inspector-General to interrogate Haeng. Originally, King Kongmin of the Koryŏ dynasty had no son to succeed him. Then he fell into a cunning scheme devised by monk Sin Ton and made the monk’s son U his own, claiming that he had had him by a court lady named Han. Though U was only nine years old, the king installed him as Great Prince Kangnyŏng and let him live in the palace of the Queen Dowager. After King Kongmin suddenly passed away, Yi Inim and others recommended that U be seated on the throne, fully aware of the evil intention of King Kongmin. In the Mujin year (1388) when our army turned around [at Wihwa Island] to march back home, the king [the general at that time] tried to restore the royal Wang family. But Cho Minsu insisted on placing Ch’ang, the son of U, on the throne, following the counsel of Yi Saek; and Pyŏn Annyŏl joined Yi Im, the father-in-law of U, in enthroning Ch’ang. These facts clearly came to light through investigations. After King Kongyang rose to the throne, the Censorate requested that Annyŏl be punished, and King Kongyang granted the request. Consequently, the Office of the Inspector-General immediately dispatched an official to the place where Annyŏl was exiled and carried out the execution. Upon hearing what was happening, the king [then right chancellor] tried to stop the execution, but it was already too late for him to prevent it. The death of U and his son Ch’ang also took place because all high- and low-ranking officials made a request that the root of the troubles be eliminated, and King Kongyang granted it. Being one of the trusted officials of King Kongyang, Yi Haeng distorted the truth of the matter and eventually suffered the consequences for it. 15th Day (Sinyu)

As the king returned to the temporary royal palace, over fifty people blocked the royal carriage and appealed to the king to restore them to their original status as commoners. The king ordered the Capital Constabulary Prison to interrogate them for trespassing in a restricted area and punish three people who were presumed to be the leaders by beating them with a heavy paddle.

Book III

16th Day (Imsul)

The king ordered Prince Yŏngan13 to offer sacrifice to the God of Chief Banners (Tuksin).14 Earlier, he had ordered made two banners, one red and the other black, and they were completed by this time. So he gave such an order. The officials who participated in the sacrifice were all dressed in military attire. When the king sat in the royal Council Hall, Nam Chae, inspector-general, reported the harmful effects of Buddhism without leaving anything out. 18th Day (Kapcha)

Censorial officials, including An Kyŏnggŏm, memorialized: “We respectfully believe that Your Majesty founded a new dynasty according to the will of Heaven and the wishes of the people and intended to hand it down to your descendants. Every move you make can be an example followed by your descendants, and therefore it is impossible for you not to be considerate in whatever you do. Now you are going to take a royal trip to the south for inspection, but you decided to take only the Three Armies15 with you and no other officials. We deeply regret that. We urge you to let a member from each department escort the royal carriage so that a precedent can be established for your posterity.” The king allowed only an official from the Board of Punishments to follow him, along with the Censorate and Chancellery officials. 19th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The king left Songdo.16 He wanted to personally inspect the topographic features of Mt. Kyeryong, a prospective site for the national capital. An Chongwŏn, director of the State Finance Commission; Kim Sahyŏng, right 13. Yi Panggwa, T’aejo’s second son and later King Chŏngjong. 14. The God of Chief Banners here also refers to the banner placed in front of the royal procession or the commander-in-chief with his army, which symbolized the power of the ruler or the military forces. Established in the Koryŏ period, the sacrifice was offered by military officials. 15. The Three Armies refers to the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies, especially the royal guards belonging to it. 16. Kaesŏng, the capital of Koryŏ.

239

240

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

chancellor; Yi Chiran, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Nam Ŭn, commissioner of the Security Council; and others followed the king. 21st Day (Chŏngmyo)

Passing by Hoeam Monastery,17 the king asked Royal Preceptor Cha Ch’o to join him on his trip to Mt. Kyeryong. The Board of Personnel requested that the guardian deities of famous mountains, rivers, towns, and islands across the country be invested with titles of nobility. As a result, the guardian deity of Songak, the nation’s capital, was named Duke Chin’guk; the guardian deities of the districts, including Hwaryŏng, Anbyŏn, and Wansan, as Count Kyeguk; the guardian deities of mountains Chiri, Mudŭng, Kŭmsŏng, Kyeryong, and Samgak, as well as the subprefecture of Chinju, as Count Hoguk; and the rest of the deities as the nation’s guardian deities (hoguksin). This request was originally based upon the proposal made by Yu Kyŏng, chancellor of the National Academy, and the Board of Rites worked on rules and details. Yi Saek had an audience with the king and expressed his gratitude for being pardoned.18 17. A Buddhist temple located in Yangju, Kyŏnggi Province. 18. Yi Saek and Yi Sŏnggye (later King T’aejo) became assistant grand councilors in 1371, and King Kongmin was proud of making their appointments. Yi Sŏnggye, a military leader at the time, had great respect for Yi Saek because the latter generally represented the Confucian scholars and civil officials. Yi Saek, on the other hand, tried to keep a distance from Yi Sŏnggye because he was afraid of his ambition to become king. After Yi Sŏnggye finally rebelled against the regime and turned his army around at Wihwa Island to march back home, he wanted to choose a king among the members of the royal Wang family. Cho Minsu, a military commander who joined Yi Sŏnggye in the military expedition against Ming China, however, insisted on having Ch’ang, the son of King U, as the new king (with the support of Yi Saek), because Minsu was related to Yi Im, the father-in-law of King U. Yi Saek was well aware that the prevailing political system was corrupt and in disarray and that changes had to be made, but what was more important to him and his conservative supporters was to bring about changes without changing the order of the society or the regime. Yi Sŏnggye and his followers, including Chŏng Tojŏn and Cho Chun, former students of Yi Saek, all advocated for drastic changes, starting with abolishing private landholdings, which could hurt most conservative and established officials and royal in-law families. Having aligned himself with this group, Yi Saek stood against Yi Sŏnggye, but he completely lost in the power struggle after Chŏng Mongju, his former disciple, was assassinated. Yi Saek was finally exiled to Changhŭng, a remote district in South Chŏlla Province. However, thanks to T’aejo’s policy of reconciliation and his personal respect for him, Yi Saek, along with others, was allowed to live near the

Book III

22nd Day (Mujin)

Being ill during the royal trip, the king stayed near the Han River for four days. The king ordered the Capital Constabulary to arrest a man who had harassed the people in the village and had him publicly beaten in front of the soldiers. 24th Day (Kyŏngo)

Sŏl Changsu19 came and had an audience with the king. He expressed his gratitude for being pardoned. 25th (Sinmi)

There was a red glow in all directions. The king ordered Chŏng Ch’ong, assistant deputy commissioner of the Security Council, to compose the epitaph for Chŏngnŭng [the royal tomb of Hwanjo, the king’s father]. 29th Day (Ŭlhae)

There was a red glow in the west. An earthquake occurred. There was a halo around the sun. The king sent down his royal decree to the Privy Council, which read: “Prohibit strictly the mendicant monks in all provinces from wandering around and cheating both gentry and common people, pretending to carry a prayer signed by the king himself.” capital. This is the reason Yi Saek came to express his gratitude to King T’aejo on his way to Mt. Kyeryong. 19. Sŏl Changsu (1341–1399): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was originally Uighur and became naturalized when his father fled to Korea to avoid the Red Turban bandits in 1358. Passing the civil service examination in 1362, he served in numerous posts, including director of the State Finance Commission, and traveled to Ming China many times on diplomatic missions. In 1392, when Chŏng Mongju was assassinated, he was arrested and exiled for being a member of Mongju’s followers. After T’aejo ascended the throne, he was pardoned and became acting chancellor and invested with the title of Great Lord of Yŏnsan.

241

242

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Kim Hŭisŏn, surveillance commissioner of Chŏlla Province, sent a report to the Privy Council: “No one in the provinces is knowledgeable in medicine. I request that the government dispatch an instructor in medicine to each province, establishing a medical facility in every major county or district (kyesugwan); select students among the children of yangban gentry and train them in medicine; choose a leader among those students who are learned and discreet and let him read the Prescriptions of Folk Medicine Beneficial to the People (Hyangyak hyemin kyŏnghŏmbang);20 and have the instructor in medicine travel around to teach and explain about the medical arts. The instructor should also be provided with an able-bodied person so that with his help he can collect medicinal ingredients at the appropriate time and treat the people immediately with the medicine he has prepared.” This month, the Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters (Chŏngdong haengsŏng)21 was repaired and renamed as Guesthouse of Great Peace (T’aep’yŏnggwan).

Second Month 1st Day (Pyŏngja)

When the king, early in the morning, gave orders to prepare the carriage for his trip, Chŏng Yo, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, brought in the report of the Privy Council from the capital.22 According to the report, Consort Hyŏn was ill, and bandits appeared in places such as P’yŏngju and Pongju.23 Displeased by the report, the king asked, “Did you say bandits? Was the report made by the provincial military commander? Who brought that report?” Yo was unable to answer.

20. A book of medicine presumed to be published during the Koryŏ period. It no longer exists. 21. It was established by the Mongols in 1280 in order to prosecute the second campaign against Japan and continued to exist even after they abandoned any thought of subjugating Japan. (Ki-baik Lee, p. 157) 22. Kaesŏng. 23. Modern Pongsan, Hwanghae Province.

Book III

The king said, “Moving the nation’s capital is what powerful and flourishing families dislike, so I know they are trying to find excuses to stop it. Grand councilors and high officials have lived in Songdo for a long time, and therefore they do not want to relocate. How can they be enthusiastic about moving the nation’s capital, not to mention moving their households?” The officials on the left and right all kept silent. Nam Ŭn said, “Though unworthy, we presumptuously became merit subjects and occupied high positions thanks to your generous favor. Even if we move to the new capital, what can we lack, and how can we begrudge you our lands and houses? Since your royal carriage is not far from Mt. Kyeryong, we urge you to personally go down to look at the site. We will remain here and take care of the bandits.” The king said, “I am sure you also dislike moving the capital. Throughout history, whenever dynasties changed and kings newly received the Mandate of Heaven, they always moved the nation’s capital. The reason I am now in a hurry to see Mt. Kyeryong is that I am anxious to have it done during my reign. My heir will want to move the capital, respecting my will, but how will he be able to do it if his officials are against it?” Then he gave orders to turn around his royal carriage. Nam Ŭn and others asked Yi Mindo to try fortune-telling, and Mindo replied, “Consort Hyŏn will certainly recover from her illness, and the bandits are not worth worrying about, either.” Then the officials had a discussion and requested that the king carry out his trip to Mt. Kyeryong. The king said, “Fine, but we will leave only after punishing Chŏng Yo.” Nam Ŭn said, “Would it really be necessary to punish him?” The royal carriage finally left and stayed in the field of Ch’ŏngp’owŏn.24 2nd Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king ordered Cho Pak, surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province, to inspect the conditions of prison inmates. 3rd Day (Muin)

Kwak Haeryong,25 an interpreter and a member of the diplomatic mission led by Han Sangjil, envoy (chumunsa) on a mission to make a report to the

24. A place near Mt. Tobong in Seoul. 25. An interpreter of late Koryŏ. He served as director of the Directorate of Armaments.

243

244

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Chinese court, returned to present a copy (pubon) of the letter from the Ministry of Rites. The king was extremely pleased and bestowed on him a horse as a gift. 5th Day (Kyŏngsin)

When the royal carriage arrived in Ch’ŏngju, Magistrate Chin Yŏŭi and Administrator Min Tosaeng and others greeted the king by performing a ceremonial dance called narye26 in the northern suburbs of the town, and the elders of the villages bowed down to the ground before the royal carriage, singing songs. 6th Day (Sinsa)

There was a sinister red glow in the south. 8th Day (Kyemi)

The royal carriage arrived at the foot of Mt. Kyeryong. 9th Day (Kapsin)

There was a ring around the sun until the evening. Leading many officials, the king inspected the mountains and rivers of the site for the new capital. Then he ordered the officials, including Sŏng Sŏngnin, right director of the State Finance Commission; Kim Chu, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery; and Yi Yŏm, Chancellery scholar, to make observations on the topographical features of the site in relation to marine transportation and the construction of roads. He also ordered Prince Ŭian Yi Hwa and Nam Ŭn to inspect the sites on which city walls were to be constructed. 10th Day (Ŭlyu)

Kwŏn Chunghwa, left director of the State Finance Commission and concurrent director of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, presented the diagrams of the Royal Ancestral Shrine, Altars of Earth and Grain, royal palaces, and markets. The king ordered geomancy experts, 26. It is a ritual dance of exorcism for warding off evils, performed in wintertime or on some festive occasions.

Book III

including Yi Yangdal and Pae Sangch’ung,27 to examine the topographical features of the site as a whole and made Kim Sahaeng, director of the Directorate of Palace Attendants (p’an Naesibu sa), survey the land, measuring it with a carpenter’s ink line. 11th Day (Pyŏngsul)

The king appointed Kim Chu as grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, Han Sangjil as assistant deputy commissioner of the Security Council, To Hŭng and Yi Mu as second magistrates of Kaesŏng, Yu Yang as assistant director of the Security Council, Nam Chae as academician of the Security Council, An Kyŏnggong as inspector-­general and concurrently as commissioner of the Privy Council, and Pak Sin as third inspector of the Office of the Inspector-General. Climbing a tall hill at the center of the new capital site, the king looked around the topography of the area and asked Royal Preceptor Cha Ch’o about his opinion. The latter replied, “I dare not tell you.” 13th Day (Muja)

Leaving Mt. Kyeryong, the king ordered Kim Chu, [assistant chancellor]; Pak Yŏngch’ung,28 associate commissioner of the Security Council; and Ch’oe Ch’ilsŏk,29 former commissioner of the Security Council, to stay behind and supervise the construction of the new capital city.

27. The officials of the Astronomical and Meteorologival Observatory. They were not enthusiastic about moving the nation’s capital and often quarreled each other over the site they inspected. 28. He joined T’aejo in his campaign against Liaodong, China, and supported his decision at Wihwa Island to turn the army around to march home. Accordingly, he became a minor merit subject and served as vice magistrate of Hanyang, military commander of Kanghwa, and associate director of the Security Council. 29. Ch’oe Ch’ilsŏk (?–1394): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was a native of Chŏnju. Starting his career as an officer under the command of Sim Tŏkbu and Ch’oe Musŏn, he repulsed Japanese marauders and received citations. In 1389, he joined Pak Wi, the military commander of Kyŏngsang Province, in subjugating Tsushima and brought back one hundred Korean captives. The day he returned triumphantly happened to be the seventh day of the seventh month. So King Kongyang bestowed him with the name Ch’ilsŏk, which is a traditional holiday celebrating the annual reunion of the Herdboy (Altair) and Weaver Maid (Vega).

245

246

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

14th Day (Kich’uk)

The king arrived in Ch’ŏngju30 on his way back to the palace. 15th Day (Kyŏngin)

Han Sangjil, who had visited China on a mission to submit a memorial to the Chinese emperor, returned and delivered a letter from the Ministry of Rites. The king performed a ceremony while facing towards the Chinese imperial palace to express his gratitude to the emperor. The letter sent by the Ministry of Rites of China read as follows: “Zhang Zhi, right vice minister of the Ministry of Rites, and others received an imperial instruction on the ninth day of the twelfth month of the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Hongwu, and it said, ‘For the country name of the Eastern Barbarians (Tongi),31 Chosŏn not only sounds appropriate, but also it has been used for a long time. So the name needs to be preserved, and one who rules a country of that name should govern the people well in accordance with the will of Heaven so that his posterity can prosper permanently.’ The Ministry of Rites conveys the imperial instruction to your government.” Deeply impressed and overwhelmed with joy, the king bestowed 50 kyŏl of land on Han Sangjil and issued a proclamation as follows: “The king addresses the people. Despite my lack of virtue, I founded a new dynasty according to the will of Heaven. Last time, I sent Cho Im, director of the Security Council, to China on a mission to present a memorial to the emperor. Later the emperor sent us a reply, saying, ‘Report to me as quickly as possible when you change the name of your country.’ So we immediately dispatched Han Sangjil, senior secretary of the Security Council, and requested that a new name for our dynasty be chosen. On the fifteenth day of the second month of the twenty-sixth year of the reign of Hongwu, Han Sangjil returned with a letter from the Ministry of Rites. The letter said, ‘For the country name of the Eastern Barbarians, Chosŏn not only sounds appropriate, but also it has been used for a long time. So the name needs to be preserved, and one who rules a country of that name should govern the people well in accordance with the will of Heaven so that his posterity can prosper permanently.’

30. A city in North Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, which is on the way to Seoul. 31. Tongi, literally “Eastern Barbarians,” is an uncomplimentary name for Korea or Koreans, which was used by the Chinese from antiquity.

Book III

“How can this great news concern me alone? This is indeed a blessing for the entire country and the people. Let everyone know about it and participate in making a fresh start. From this day forward, the name Koryŏ will be abolished and replaced with a new name, Chosŏn. “Since it is necessary to show benevolence at a time when we make a fresh start in administration, all crimes (except capital punishment, by either beheading or hanging) committed before the early morning of the fifteenth day of the second month of the twenty-sixth year (1393) of the reign of Hongwu will be forgiven, regardless of whether the guilty were sentenced. Those who make accusations or lawsuits concerning the things that happened before this amnesty shall be subject to a penalty equal to that for the charges they are seeking. “Ah! Now that the work of founding a nation has already been accomplished, and it ought to be handed down to posterity under the new name, measures must be taken to ensure that the administration looks after the people benevolently.” The left chancellor and others dispatched Yi Hwang, left grand master of remonstrance, to submit a memorial to the king, which carried a message of congratulation: “A sage king rose to establish a new dynasty, which is the old land once ruled by Kija [Jizi]32 in ancient days, and the emperor was gracious enough to bestow a beautiful country name, Chosŏn, upon your kingdom. This is a great honor and glory to the entire country and the people. “We believe that Your Majesty surpasses Yu Shun in culture and possesses the courage and wisdom of King Tang. Crowds of people gather around you singing praises to you, and Heaven grants you fortune. You increase benefits to those who serve you and at the same time try to be more sincere in serving the great (sadae).33 Since the emperor first settled the matter of our country name by proclaiming a decree composed of ten lines, 32. According to ancient records, he is a parental uncle of the tyrannical King Zhou of Shang. He was imprisoned at the time when the Shang dynasty ended. Released from the prison by King Wu, with his followers, he traveled to the east, presumably to the modern Korean Peninsula, and established a kingdom called Kija Chosŏn. But scholars differ on the exact location of his kingdom. 33. The Korean term, “sadae,” describes a foreign policy toward Ming China, which was characterized by the various ways a weaker state acknowledges the strength of a greater power like China, constantly conveying good will and respect through its envoys.

247

248

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the foundation [of the kingdom] that is to last thousands of years has just been been laid down. “Being far away from you, we are at the moment unable to join the people in congratulating you, but our hearts, along with those of the people in the capital, are very ardent and sincere in congratulating you.” 16th Day (Sinmyo)

The moon approached the left corner of a star in the Purple Forbidden Enclosure (Chamisŏng). A tiger roamed onto the grounds of Myot’ong Monastery,34 and villagers came together to capture it. 20th Day (Ŭlmi)

There were strong winds, and many people in the town set their places on fire by mistake. A fire broke out accidentally at a family’s home in Yangju, Kangnŭng Province,35 and spread to the neighboring structures until most of the government buildings and private homes were burnt down. 21st Day (Pyŏngsin)

Left Chancellor Cho Chun had an audience with the king at the temporary palace. 24th Day (Kihae)

As it was the anniversary of the death of Queen Ŭi, [the king’s mother], the king paid a visit to Hoeam Monastery and served meals to the monks. 25th Day (Kyŏngja)

Ming Yi reported the death of his father, Ming Sheng,36 and the king then ordered it to be reported to the Chinese Ministry of Rites. 34. A Buddhist temple at Mt. Myŏngbong in Kaesŏng. 35. An old name of Kangwŏn Province. 36. Ming Sheng (1355–?): a Chinese who became naturalized in 1372 along with twentyseven of his countrymen. He was a native of West Shu and the son of the king of Xia. King Kongmin treated him as a member of the nobility.

Book III

26th Day (Sinch’uk)

The moon approached Jupiter. The crown prince welcomed the royal carriage of the king in Changdan.37 27th Day (Imin)

When the king returned from his trip to Mt. Kyeryong, all the officials went out to greet him at the field of Yongdun. The king entered through Sungin Gate. Outside the palace gate they set up a stage decorated with colorful silk and performed a ceremonial dance to welcome the king. The educational officials (hakkwan) of the National Acad­­emy brought many students with them and sang songs [praising the king]. The king ordered the palace guards (sugwi) to recite at the palace yard an incantation called the “Prayer for Eliminating Disasters” (Sojaeju) in the Sinjunggyŏng sutra.38

3rd Month 1st Day (Pyŏngo)

The Privy Council held a banquet for the king at the temporary palace. Pak Pu, magistrate of Chukchu,39 demolished Yagwang Monastery in his district with the permission of the surveillance commissioner and repaired government buildings with it. The Office of Buddhist Affairs made a report on the matter, and the king intended to have Pu physically punished. How­ever, the king changed his mind and ordered that Pu simply pay a penalty of five hundred bolts of fabric and then be reappointed to his original post. 37. A district in Kyŏnggi Province that is between Seoul and Kaesŏng. 38. Also called Hwaŏm Sinjunggyŏng, it is presumed to be a text used either by shamans or Daoist experts. 39. An old name of Chuksan in Kyŏnggi Province.

249

250

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

2nd Day (Chŏngmi)

Chang Yŏn, director of the Criminal Administration Bureau of the Board of Punishments, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “The last royal decree that you proclaimed said, ‘Those among the slaves who filed lawsuits to acquire yangin40 status shall be made to continue to live as slaves if they have been slaves for a long time; those slaves whose status is undecided despite lawsuits shall be assigned to the one who wins the court decision.’ However, some of the slave owners failed to win the settlement even though they have kept their slaves for a long time or failed to have the settlement actually implemented though they won the settlement. As a result, the litigation became more cumbersome.” The king said, “My intention was to prohibit the litigations, but you say that, on the contrary, they became more cumbersome. Why is it so? Let the Office of the Inspector-General look into the matter and submit the result to me.” 4th Day (Kiyu)

The king ordered Kim Sŭngni, magistrate of Kŭmsŏng,41 to be detained in the Capital Constabulary Prison. 5th Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king ordered Chŏng T’ak, surveillance commissioner of Kyoju-­ Kangnŭng Province, to be imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison. At first, Kim Sŭngni, [magistrate of Kŭmsŏng], had three men from his district, including one named Chang Kŏm, thrown into the district jail for violating the law and later released them. Kŏm and others were originally members of the Royal Guard (Siwi) and were on their way to serve their rotation duties [at the time of the incident]. They stormed into the district office and knocked down Sŭngni. Then they hit him and verbally abused him. When Sŭngni reported the incident to Surveillance Commissioner Chŏng T’ak, the latter ordered the magistrate of Ch’unju42 to arrest Kŏm and his colleagues and to interrogate them.

40. Status of good persons or commoner. 41. A district of Ch’ŏrwŏn Strategic Prefecture in Kangwŏn Province. 42. An old name for modern Ch’unch’ŏn, a city in Kangwŏn Province.

Book III

Hearing the report, the king said, “The royal guardsmen should not be arrested precipitously even if they have committed a serious crime.” He summoned T’ak and asked if he had indeed interrogated Kŏm and the others, and T’ak denied it in his reply. The king became indignant and ordered T’ak to be imprisoned. He also sent Sŭngni into exile to Kosŏng43 after ordering a beating of one hundred strokes with a paddle and levying one hundred bolts of cloth as a penalty on Chŏn I, magistrate of Ch’unju. 6th Day (Sinhae)

The king pardoned Chŏng T’ak and let him return to his job. 8th Day (Kyech’uk)

The people recruited for the construction of the new capital were released to go home. 9th Day (Kabin)

The king moved his quarters to Such’ang Palace. The king dispatched Assistant Chancellor Ch’oe Yŏngji44 to the Ming ­capital and expressed his gratitude to the emperor through his memorial, which read: “The grace of Your Imperial Majesty being deep as the vast ocean, and your sacred precepts stern and kind, I feel deeply honored along with our people. Respectfully, as the provisional ruler of a remote corner, I believe I am fortunate to meet up with the enlightened age. Yet, as I am unable to offer you any help, I have only looked up to you reflectively. “Last time, when our envoy returned from the imperial court, I received your special order to change the name of the country and report it to you in the fastest time possible, and I was overwhelmed with gratitude with all of

43. A district in northern Kangwŏn Province. 44. Ch’oe Yŏngji (1331–1403): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. In 1388, he participated in the military campaign against Liaodong, China, and became a follower of Yi Sŏnggye. Accordingly, he was appointed a minor merit subject when T’aejo ascended the throne. He served at various posts, including vice grand councilor. He also served as magistrate of P’yŏngyang, and during his term, he supervised the construction of the fortress to reinforce the defense of the northern region.

251

252

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

my people. I carefully thought about the matter and remembered that in the ancient times of Kizi we already used Chosŏn as the country name. So I submitted the name, and you were gracious enough to approve it right away by bestowing your reply immediately. In addition, you admonished me to look after my people and encouraged me to produce many offspring. Your kind words touched me deeply, and I am afraid I am unable to repay your favor no matter how hard I try. Though you are seated in the middle of the ninefold imperial palace, you clearly see what is happening ten thousand li away. That is why you knew I am cautious and loyal and regarded me with favor, and consequently granted our small kingdom a new country name. Your servant in charge of your vassal state will do his best in carrying out his duty towards you, wishing the Son of Heaven his health day and night.” In addition, the king dispatched Chancellery Scholar Yi Yŏm45 to China and returned a golden royal seal to the Chinese authorities, which the Chinese emperor bestowed during the reign of King Kongmin of Koryŏ. 10th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king ordered to have the morning audience and the markets suspended and closed for the day to commemorate the anniversary of Mokcho, the king’s great-­great-­grandfather. 11th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The Office of the Inspector-General memorialized to the king: “Your Maj­ esty issued a royal decree last time and had all the slave litigations stopped permanently. Nevertheless, the director of the Criminal Administra­tion

45. Yi Yŏm (?–1403): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. In 1392, during the reign of King Kongyang, he was exiled for being drunk and behaving recklessly toward the king. After T’aejo ascended the throne, he became a minor merit subject and served as assistant grand councilor. In 1393, he visited the Ming court as an envoy to express gratitude on behalf of the king, but failing to observe protocol, the Chinese emperor had him beaten and made him return home on foot. In 1394, he was appointed the director of the Directorate for the Construction of New Palaces, but was impeached and exiled the following year for frequenting the royal palace while astride a horse. In 1398, he became the commissioner of the Directorate for the Construction of New Palaces and later right director of the State Finance Commission. When the First Strife of Princes broke out, he was charged as a member of Ch’ŏng Tojŏn’s clique and exiled briefly. In 1400, he often visited T’aejo, who was by then retired, and stayed in Kyŏngun Palace. Then he was again charged with speaking recklessly before the king and exiled to Ch’unch’ŏn, where he died. He was invested with the title of Lord of Hoesan and granted the posthumous title of Chŏnggan.

Book III

Bureau did not comply with your decree and tried to cause trouble by making things up and memorializing them to Your Majesty. We urge you to dismiss permanently Chang Yŏn, director of the Criminal Administration Bureau, Chang U, third minister of the Board of Punishments, Cho Kyŏm, bureau section chief, Yun Sillo, vice bureau section chief, and others, depriving them of a chance to be reinstated.” The king had only Chang Yŏn, the chief official, and Yun Sillo, the official in charge of practical affairs, dismissed. 12th Day (Chŏngjin)

The Office of Buddhist Affairs (Sŭngnoksa)46 submitted a memorial to the king: “According to the custom of the previous dynasty, in the third month of springtime every year, the Buddhists from various sects all gathered and walked around downtown chanting Buddhist sutras, and this practice was called “chanting of Buddhist sutras on the streets” (kyŏnghaeng). We request that the practice of kyŏnghaeng be allowed to be held.” The king granted the request. 13th Day (Muo)

The Privy Council requested that the three generations of ancestors of Queen Ŭi, the king’s mother, and Queen Hyŏn, the king’s wife, be posthumously invested with the titles of nobility. The request was granted. 15th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The Privy Council spoke to the king, citing a report from the Board of Punishments: “Sin Yongmu, brigade commander of Komallyang,47 failed to repulse Japanese marauders and three of his battleships were captured by the enemy. According to law, he is subject to capital punishment.” The king followed the advice. 16th Day (Sinyu)

The Board of Rites submitted a memorial to the king: “The civil service examination, according to what you said in your royal decree, was ­originally 46. A government agency dealing with Buddhist rituals and the administration of monks. It was first established in the early Koryŏ period and abolished in 1424. 47. A place, presumably an island, located near Poryŏng of South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province.

253

254

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

intended to find talented people who are capable of serving the country. You also instructed that the candidates who pass the final third stage be sent to the Board of Personnel, and the Board of Personnel will employ them according to their talents. The examination administered by the Directorate of Education (kamsi) will be abolished. So we request that the civil service examination from this day forward be held only in triennial years such as Cha, O, Myo, and Yu.” The king replied, “The civil service examination this year should be held according to the precedent of the Kiyu year (1369) of the former dynasty, and the examination administered by the Directorate of Education should also be held as before.” Sim Hyosaeng48 sent a report to the king: “Since Japanese marauders are about to invade our borders, I request you to send military commanders to various provinces to make preparations for the attack of the Japanese. 18th Day (Kyehae)

The king dispatched Count of Ŭian Yi Hwa, military commander of three provinces, Pak Wi, former assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and Ch’oe Unhae, to Yanggwang Province; Yi Che, Lord Hŭngan, Nam Ŭn, commissioner of the Security Council, and Yi Chiran, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to Kyŏngsang Province; and His Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan] and Chin Ŭlsŏ, former military commander of Chŏnju, to Chŏlla Province, to prepare for the defense against the Japanese marauders. The king said, “You cannot see me unless you win your battles and bring me captives.” 19th Day (Kapcha)

Mars (Hyŏnghok) approached Ghoul Star (Yŏgwi) and Heap of Corpses (Chŏksi).49 48. Sim Hyosaeng (1349–1398): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as third and second inspector. In 1394, he had his daughter married to Prince Ŭian Pangsŏk and became Lord of Pusŏng. However, in 1398 he failed (together with Chŏng Tojŏn and others) to enthrone his son-­in-­law and was killed during the First Strife of Princes. 49. Ancient Chinese astronomers divided the sky into four regions or four symbols, which comprised of Azure Dragon on the east, Black Tortoise on the north, White Tiger on the west,

Book III

255

*   *   * The king ordered Pak Chaan,50 navy commander of the Left Province, and Kim Ŭlgwi, navy commander of the Right Province,51 to lead out the battleships to the sea and capture the Japanese. Chŏng Hŭigye, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, spoke to the king: “Last time, the Privy Council requested that Sin Yongmu, myriarch of Komallyang, be punished [for losing his ships to the Japanese], but he is known to be quite fierce and courageous in battle, and therefore too good to be killed. Chaan now wants Yongmu to be pardoned so that he can join him in fighting against the Japanese.” The king pardoned Yongmu and let him do his best to regain his reputation. Expressing his gratitude to the king, Chanan left, taking Yongmu with him. 20th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

Chŏng Tojŏn, who visited China to express gratitude, and No Sung52 and Cho Inok, who visited China for the New Year embassy, returned from their trip to the Chinese capital. Ch’oe Yŏngji arrived in Anju on his way to China. Chŏng Tojŏn met with him and said, “When I have an audience with the king, he will certainly call you back. You had better stay here for a while.” Upon returning from China,

and Vermilion Bird on the south. Ghoul Star or Demon Star or Algol belonged to Vermilion Bird on the south. According to the western astrology, it belongs to the constellation of Perseus. The Heap of Corpses or Chŏksisŏng is close to the Ghoul Star, and when it shined bright, or the stars around them were visible in a large number, it was believed that many people would die. 50. Pak Chaan (?–1408): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. In 1389, along with Pak Wi, he led a military campaign against Japanese marauders and subjugated Tsushima, burning three hundred enemy ships and bringing back one hundred Korean captives. In 1397, when he served as military commander of Chŏlla Province, he was sentenced to death but was saved at the last minute due to the intervention of Prince Chŏngan, later King T’aejong. 51. “Left and Right” Provinces here indicates the Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces. 52. No Sung (1337–1414): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Passing the civil service examination in 1365, he served in various important posts, including censor, inspector­general, and royal secretary. In 1389, when he was governor of Chŏlla Province, he established granaries named Tŭksŏngch’ang and Yŏngsanch’ang in Yŏngan (modern Iksan) and Yŏngan (modern Naju), respectively. Later, he served as magistrate of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy and governor of Left Kyŏnggi Province.

256

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Tojŏn spoke to the king: “Since Yŏngji has served as military commander of the Northwest Region for a long time, he is well known to the Chinese. Hence, we should not send him too hastily.”53 The king soon summoned Yŏngji and let Yi Yŏm take Yŏngji’s place visiting China with his memorial expressing gratitude to the emperor. The king reproached Yi Kyŏk, education officer of the school in the Eastern Ward, saying, “Why did you allow such a mischievous young student to visit the monastery and defile and damage the holy place?” He intended to have him beaten with a paddle but gave it up. Then he ordered the schools in the five wards [in Seoul] not to allow their students to visit or stay at Buddhist temples. 21st Day (Pyŏngin)

The king ordered that Yi Haeng54 be physically punished by one hundred strokes with a paddle and exiled to Uljin55 after having all of his properties confiscated. 22nd Day (Chŏngmyo)

The king sent Chŏng Sang, director of palace attendants, to Royal Preceptor Chach’o and invited him to Hoeam Monastery to see him. 23rd Day (Mujin)

The king appointed surveillance commissioners of various provinces separately. He appointed Pak Sin, third inspector (sisa) of the Office of the Inspector-General, to Kyoju-­Kannŭng Province; Kwŏn Munŭi, vice ­minister 53. The Northwest Region or P’yŏngan province of Chosŏn shares the border with China. Since Ch’oe Yŏngji served as military commander of the region for a long time, and there were often disputes over the territories as well as Jurchen residents along the border, Chŏng Tojŏn thought it was not advisable to send Ch’oe Yŏngji to China as an envoy. 54. An academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and Historical Records who served as royal secretary, and concurrently historian, during the reign of King Kongyang. In his draft of the Veritable Records, he wrote that T’aejo was responsible for the death of King U and King Ch’ang. King Kongyang was the one who actually ordered their deaths. 55. A district in North Kyŏngsang Province.

Book III

of the Office of Guest Affairs, to Sŏhae Province; Chang Chach’ung, minister of works, to Left Kyŏnggi Province; and Im Ku, left assistant director of the State Finance Commission, to Right Kyŏnggi Province. 24th Day (Kisa)

Mt. Kyeryong was chosen as the site for the new capital, and Kyŏnggi Province was divided into various administrative units, including counties and districts and villages designated for the people of low status (pugok) and for artisans (hyangso),56 and their number amounted to eighty-­one in total. The pines in Songak suffered damage by caterpillars. 28th Day (Kyeyu)

As the five-­story pagoda of Yŏnbok Monastery57 has been completed, the king held the dharma assembly for the worship of Manjusri and personally attended the sermon delivered by Chach’o. 29th Day (Kapsul)

Fire broke out at Simwŏn Monastery,58 and smallpox spread at Hoeam Monastery, where Royal Preceptor Chach’o concurrently served as abbot. Cho On, provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region, attacked Japanese marauders in Suju59 and captured a Chinese named Li Tangxin, a resident of Ninghai Prefecture, who had been taken away by the Japanese. When he presented him to the king, the king ordered that the Chinese captive be provided with clothing and food and delivered by Kim Ŭlsang, former director of the Directorate of Ceremonies, to the Chinese authorities in Liaodong. 56. Literally, “local places,” hyangso is presumed to be an administrative unit established to produce gold, silver, copper, iron, thread, paper, porcelain, ink stick, etc. The residents of this unit were mostly either criminals or men of low social status. 57. A Buddhist temple in Kaegyŏng (now Kaesŏng), the capital of Koryŏ. 58. A Buddhist temple in Ch’ŏrwŏn, Kangwŏn Province. 59. Modern Chŏngju, a strategic town in North P’yŏngan Province.

257

258

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

4th Month 1st Day (Ŭlhae)

The artisans who were recruited to construct the new capital were allowed to go home. 2nd (Pyŏngja)

The king, accompanied by the queen, paid a visit to Yŏnboksa Monastery and watched the dharma assembly for the worship of Manjusri. The king ordered Yi Chik, chief royal secretary, recalled and restored to the post he previously occupied. At first, as his father had passed away, Yi Chik mourned his death in Kyŏngsan Prefecture. So the king forcibly had him recalled. The Privy Council requested that the royal seal currently in use continue to be used for all documents, including royal decrees and official appointments, until the one made in Ming China arrives. The king granted the request. 3rd Day (Chŏngch’uk)

Cho On, provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region, sent a report: “Tuohuan Buhua, an envoy of the suzerain state [China], visited to look for the residents of the area under his jurisdiction in the past.” Tuohuan Buhua was originally a resident of the Northwest Region. In the Kisa year (1389), during the reign of the previous dynasty, however, he went over to China on the order of the Chinese emperor. 4th Day (Muin)

The king together with Wang U played a ball game on horseback (kyŏkku) and, during the game, he spoke: “People say that I forgave you because you are my relative,60 but that is not really true. Having served King Kongmin together and maintained a good relationship, how could I hurt you? My 60. Wang U’s daughter was married to Prince Muan, T’aejo’s seventh son, who was born of Queen Sindŏk. So T’aejo and Wang U were in-­laws.

Book III

enfeoffing you with Majŏn County is like when the Zhou dynasty enfeoffed Weizi with the State of Song.61 The problem was with your elder brother [King] Kongyang. He was too avaricious, and all this happened.” Shedding tears, Wang U expressed his gratitude to the king. 6th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king dispatched Pak Wŏn, former commissioner of the Security Council, and Yu Yun, former deputy director of the Security Council, to the prefectures of Prince of Liao and Prince of Ning,62 respectively, in order to establish friendly relations. The king ordered the officials to inspect the conditions of prison inmates. The king dispatched No Sang, section chief of the Board of Punishments, to Kyŏngsang Province; No Sŏkchu, section chief of the Board of Works, to Yanggwang Province; and Yun Ŭi, assistant director of the Directorate for the Shipbuilding and Transportation, to Chŏlla Province. They were tasked with inspecting the military readiness of troops and their training as well as horses. The king entertained Royal Preceptor Ch’ach’o at the Royal Palace and bestowed colorful silk as a gift. 8th Day (Imo)

Crows swarmed over Yŏnbok Monastery, cawing loudly. 11th Day (Ŭlyu)

As the king traveled to the hot spring in P’yŏngju, royal guards, Censorate officials, and historians followed him. 61. The Zhou King Cheng, through the regent (his uncle, the Duke of Zhou Dan), enfeoffed Weizi, the brother of Zhou Xin, the last king of the Shang dynasty, with the territory that became the State of Song. Weizi, unlike his brother, was humble and wise enough to understand the changes in political situations at the time as well as the limits of his power. Thus, he was able to gain the trust of the leaders of the newly established Zhou dynasty and preserve his life and career. The State of Song and the royal Shang descendants maintained rites to the dead Shang kings and lasted until 286 bc. (See Records of the Grand Historian.) 62. Zhu Quan (1378–1448), the 17th son of Ming Hongwu Emperor.

259

260

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

12th Day (Pyŏngsul)

The king stayed overnight in a field of the district of Kangŭm.63 Since Cho Ŭlsang, supervising administrator, extorted money from the residents on the pretext of serving the king, the king ordered him to be flogged. 13th Day (Chŏnghae)

Tuohuan Buhua64 arrived. 14th Day (Muja)

Provincial military commanders, including Prince Ŭian Yi Hwa, returned because the Japanese marauders had withdrawn on their own accord. 16th Day (Kyŏngin)

U Innyŏl, New Year embassy to China, returned from the Ming capital and visited the king at his temporary palace. During his royal audience, he presented to the king two bows made of horn. Cho On, provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region, sent a report: “The prefecture of Prince Qin sent a man to trade oxen with us, and he has arrived in Ŭiju.” The king ordered Yi Chik, chief royal secretary, to prepare the official reply to the prefecture of Prince Qin, in consultation with the Privy Council. 17th Day (Sinmyo)

A flock of crows swarmed over Mt. Paengnok.65 The king ordered Kwŏn Kyun, former royal secretary, to take an official letter to the representative sent by the prefecture of Prince of Qin 66 and explain the difficulty of trading oxen. Then he sent wine, along with ramie and hemp fabric, [as a gift to the Chinese representative].

63. A district in Hwanghae Province. 64. He was originally a tribal leader of the Jurchens who lived in the Northwest Region; however, at the end of Koryŏ, he surrendered himself to Ming China. Earlier, he visited Chosŏn as an envoy of China. 65. A mountain in Kaesŏng. 66. Zhu Shuang, second son of Hongwu Emperor.

Book III

19th Day (Kyesa)

Worried about drought, the king sent Han Sanggyŏng, third royal secretary, to the Privy Council, conveying his instructions on four matters: “1. Widows and widowers, orphans, childless older people, those who are old and sick or incapable of making a living due to illness, and other such ­persons shall be exempted from various labor services and provided with relief. “1. Some of those in the central and local government jails have been unjustly imprisoned because of false accusations, machinations of cunning clerks, or lack of clear evidence, and their complaints and resentment have increased to the point that social peace has been disrupted. All crimes committed prior to the nineteenth day of the fourth month, except for those punishable by death, shall be pardoned; and those who were excluded from regular amnesties despite the fact that the evidence of their crimes still remains unclear even after repeated interrogations and having already completed their terms of penal servitude shall all be released. “1. Rules and regulations are already in place for the central and local government to evaluate the achievements and failures of individuals in public service. Detailed reports on all personnel shall be made in accordance with those rules and submitted so that outstanding persons can be promoted and incompetent people removed. “1. If you have any good ideas that can benefit the people, make a report immediately and satisfy my wishes.” After the king let the officials immediately look into the situation of the prisoners, it started raining in the early evening. 20th Day (Kabo)

Cho Pak, surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province, sent a report: “Over thirty ships carrying Japanese pirates are moving toward our ­seacoast.” 21st Day (Ŭlmi)

The king appointed Na Se67 battleship commander (pyŏngsŏn chojŏn chŏlchesa) of the affected seacoast area, with orders to fight the Japanese, recruiting brave warriors from among the royal guards. 67. Na Se (1320–1397): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. The details of his life and career are not known.

261

262

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

25th Day (Kihae)

The king returned from his trip to the hot springs. Tuohuan Buhua presented two bows made of horn, and the king reciprocated by sending a official with the following message: “If I were a general as I used to be, I would accept your gift. What would I do with it now? Though I wish to see you right away, I have just returned from my trip to the hot springs, which was made to treat a minor ailment. So I am now very tired and weary. If you stay at the guesthouse for a couple of days, I will be able to see you.” Then he ordered a palace attendant to have food sent [to Tuohuan Buhua]. 26th Day (Kyŏngja)

The king ordered Yi Mu,68 commissioner of the Security Council, to inspect the battleships in the West River (Sŏgang) in order to make preparations for the Japanese marauders. 27th Day (Sinch’uk)

The government provided relief to poor people with grain from the righteous granary (ŭich’ang).69 30th Day (Kapchin)

The day being the anniversary of the death of his father, King Hwan, the king ordered that the number of dishes for his meals be reduced and that monks chant Buddhist sutras in the palace. Pine trees suffer caterpillar damage. 68. Yi Mu (?–1409): a civil official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. During the reign of King Kongyang, he was exiled for being a member of Yi Inim’s clique. After the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, he became deputy commissioner of the Security Council and visited Ming China as an envoy to express gratitude on behalf of the king. In 1396, he became supreme commander and subjugated the Japanese islands Iki and Tsushima, and in 1398, he assisted Prince Chŏngan during the First Strife of Princes. In 1409, implicated in the conspiracy of Min Mugu, he was exiled to Ch’angwŏn. A little later, he was moved to Chukchu and executed. 69. One of the storehouses that stored grain in normal times for public relief in years of poor harvest. (Ki-­baik Lee, p. 124)

Book III

5th Month 1st Day (Ŭlsa)

The king had the royal garden repaired. 2nd Day (Pyŏngo)

Ascending Ch’ŏngsimjŏng Pavilion,70 the king watched a stone fight (ch’ŏksŏkhŭi).71 3rd Day (Chŏngmi)

The names of those who passed the examination [administered by the Kukchagam or the National University]72 were posted in front of the royal palace. The examination was supervised by Yu Kyŏng, former chancellor of the National Academy, and a total of ninety-­nine candidates, including Pak Ansin, passed the examination. The king, however, selected three additional candidates, citing the health of three royals—i.e. the king and queen and the crown prince—as the reason. The king ordered to have the letter of appointment for Yu Chŏnghyŏn, which had been withdrawn, returned to him because his two sons, Ŭi and Chang, had both passed the examination administered by the National University.

70. A pavilion inside Such’ang Palace. 71. One of the traditional folk games that used to be very popular, particularly in the western regions of North Korea. To play the game, people were divided into two groups, and they threw stones at each other, keeping themselves at a distance over a river or a road. The play often turned violent and dangerous, but it was believed to be helpful for fostering the skills and spirits of the people, especially for military purposes. The games were normally held on New Year’s Day or during the Tano festival. 72. This was the second examination for civil service, and those who passed it became literary licentiates or classics licentiates. Since it was administered by Kukchagam, it was called kamsi.

263

264

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

4th Day (Musin)

The king appointed Pak Yŏngch’ung73 as military commander of Kanghwa Island, and Yi Sŭngwŏn74 as military commander of Kyodong.75 7th Day (Sinhae)

The king bestowed ramie and hemp fabric upon Tuohuan Buhua and also his attendant. The king ordered that Pak Pu, supervising administrator of Chukchu, be beaten with a heavy paddle and exiled to Ch’uksan. Earlier, Pu had discovered four people hiding on the farm of Pak Yŏngch’ung, associate commissioner of the Security Council, and forced them into military service, and it made Yŏngch’ung resentful. Later, Yŏngch’ung happened to pass by Chukchu on his way to the court after finishing the construction work of the new capital. He reprimanded Pu for greeting him without wearing official dress and appealed to the king when he returned and had an audience with the king. Thirteen ships carrying Japanese pirates invaded our seacoast of Komallyang. Myriarch Ch’oe Yongyu fought hard and died in battle along with his two sons, and the Japanese seized five of our ships. Having heard that Yongyu had died in battle, the king lamented, “Nothing is more serious than Japanese pirates among the things the government is worried about.” Then he gave orders to reinforce the defense of the coastal areas. *   *   * 73. Pak Yŏngch’ung (?): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as military commander of Kongju, and in 1388 participated in the military campaign against Liaodong, China, as deputy commander. Assisting T’aejo in turning the army around at Wihwa Island, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject second class and served as vice magistrate of Hanyang. 74. Yi Sŭngwŏn (?): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. When he served as vice commander of Yanggwang Province, he joined the military campaign against Liaodong, China, and assisted T’aejo in turning his army around at Wihwa Island and fought together with him to repulse the Japanese Namwŏn and Hamyang. Later, he served as magistrate of Anju and associate director of the Security Council. 75. A district located in Right Kyŏnggi Province.

Book III

The king gave orders to stop the construction of a summerhouse for the crown prince.76 Prior to the king’s order, the crown prince had told one of his attending officers, “Since the space of my quarters is too low and narrow, how can I stand the heat of the summer?” Having heard of what he said, the Privy Council ordered the Directorate for Palace Maintenance (Sŏn’gonggam) to build a small summerhouse for him. The king learned about it later and said to Yi Chik, chief royal secretary, “In recent years there has been a great deal of public construction, but it was all unavoidable, and I took no pleasure from it. The crown prince will be fine without such a summerhouse.” The king said, “Previously I allowed the sons of merit subjects to attend lectures for the crown prince, but I found some problems because those young people only tried to flatter the crown prince instead of paying attention to their studies. From this day forward, do not permit them to study with the crown prince. Instead, let them take turns attending to the crown prince individually each day. 8th Day (Imja)

Japanese marauders invaded Ayongp’o of Chŏlla Province and seized one of our battleships. The king commanded Yi Mu, commissioner of the Security Council, to inspect the battleships in Kanghwa and capture Japanese marauders, waylaying the enemy at strategic points. 10th Day (Kabin)

The three preceding generations of the ancestors of Queen Ŭi [the King’s Mother] were posthumously honored and invested with titles of nobility. The late Honorable Ch’oe Han’gi, the king’s maternal grandfather and Great Lord of Yŏnghŭng, was appointed merit subject for building virtue, defending righteousness, displaying dignity, cooperating with the new dynasty, assisting the king, and straightening out state affairs (Chŏkdŏk suŭi sŏnwi pojo hyŏpch’an chwari kongsin), as well as specially appointed 76. The crown prince at this time was Yi Pangsŏk, T’aejo’s youngest son born of Consort Kang. He was killed by Pangwŏn, his stepbrother and later King T’aejong, during the so-­ called First Strife of Princes in 1398.

265

266

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

bulwark grand master for splendid happiness (T’ŭkchin poguk sungnok taebu), chief grand councilor of the Chancellery (p’an Munhabu sa), concurrently director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals (p’an Sangsŏsa sa), and Count of Yŏnghŭng. Lady Yi, the king’s maternal grandmother who was posthumously called Lady of Hongwŏn County, was invested with the title of Mistress of the State of Chosŏn (Chosŏn kuktae puin). The late Honorable Ch’oe Chongdae, the king’s maternal great-­grandfather and security commandant of the Left and Right Guard (chwau posŭng chung nangjang), was appointed wing guard merit subject for being sincere, diligent, respectful, frugal, steadfast, loyal, justice-­defending, and strenuously protecting (sun’gun konggŏm kyŏngjŏl pyŏngŭi sŏllyŏk igwi kongsin), as well as bulwark grand master for the defense of the state, left chancellor, commissioner of Privy Council in charge of personnel, and Count of Yŏnghŭng. The late Honorable Lady Kim, the king’s maternal great grandmother, was appointed Lady of Hwasan County and invested with the title of Mistress of the State of Chosŏn. The late Honorable Ch’ŏnbo, the king’s maternal great great-­grandfather and township head (hojang), was appointed merit subject for being dignity­displaying, dynasty-­assisting, enlightening-­commending, principle-­adapting, and mandate-­assisting (sŏnwi pojo iktae ch’anhwa pyŏlli, chwamyŏng kongsin), as well as bulwark grand master for the defense of the state, chief grand councilor of the Chancellery, concurrently director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals, and Count of Yŏnghŭng. Lady Kim, the king’s great great-­grandmother, was invested with the title of Mistress of the State of Chosŏn. 11th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king offered prayers for rain to the Royal Ancestral Shrine as well as to the guardian deities of various mountains and rivers. Tuohuan Buhua returned to the Ming capital. 13th Day (Chŏngsa)

It finally rained for three days.

Book III

14th Day (Muo)

Japanese marauders raided Kyodong.77 16th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king bestowed a robe upon each of the five members of the Wulangha tribe.78 17th Day (Sinyu)

Following the royal instruction of the king, the Privy Council appointed Gong Fuda, a Mongol from Wuliangha, as senior myriarch of Tongliang and other places. Conferring a letter of appointment, the king said, “I want you to be fair and diligent in whatever you do. Be careful not to grow slack.” 18th Day (Imsul)

When Cho Pak, surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province came to visit the king, the king asked, “According to a report, the drought in the three provinces of Yanggwang, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang is so severe that the crop this year is already ruined. Is that true?” Cho Pak replied, “I don’t know much about Chŏlla and Kyŏngsang Provinces, but it kept raining in Yanggwang Province and the rice plants are growing thick and tall.” The king was very pleased. Cho Pak requested that he be allowed to retire from his job: “Having made little contribution, I presumptuously became one of the first-­class merit subjects. I started out as a commoner and rose to the highest position and have always felt uneasy about it. Moreover, since you entrusted me with a province, I feel like I became a mosquito carrying a mountain on its back. How can I bear this burden? Furthermore, there have been many people assigned to work in the local provinces who were often slandered and defamed. So I beseech you to release me from my work so that I can spend my remaining life in peace.” The king said, “Why do you say this? I always make it a rule to determine the truth whenever an official is either praised

77. A district near Kanghwa Island in Right Kyŏnggi Province. 78. A Jurchen tribe who resided in the Northwest Region or North P’yŏngan Province.

267

268

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

or criticized. Since I dispense reward and punishment only after finding out facts, you go back to your work and do your duty.” 20th Day (Kapcha)

Japanese marauders raided Kyodong. 21st Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The king dispatched Yi Hwa, Count of Ŭian and various military commanders to repulse Japanese marauders. The Japanese ran away. 23rd Day (Chŏngmyo)

Chinese envoys, Hwang Yŏnggi and Ch’oe Yŏn, arrived carrying an imperial letter. Leading all the officials, the king greeted them outside of Sŏnŭimun Gate. Upon arriving at Such’ang Palace, the king performed a rite in which the imperial letter was read: “1. Last time you lured some ruffians from among the residents of Zhejiang to collect information on our domestic affairs and report to you. So I have searched them out and already killed dozens of households. How can it be possible that the mountains and rivers of Koryŏ and their deities are unaware of what you are doing, making unnecessary trouble that would harm your people? This is the first incident that has marred our relationship. “1. You sent your people to Liaodong and tried to bribe our officers on the borders with linen and silk as well as gold and silver. This is the second incident that has marred our relationship. “1. You have recently sent your people secretly to lure Jurchens residing in our land. Consequently, five hundred Jurchen families sneaked across the Yalu River to settle in your territory. No crime can be more serious than this. This is the third incident that has marred our relationship “1. You pretend to be our vassal state, paying tribute, but whenever you bring in horses as your tribute payment, our horse experts find them mostly too slow and tired. This is clearly a sign of disrespect for us. “1. As for the matters concerning your country name, I allowed you to choose it on your own after you sent an envoy to us with that request. Consequently, you chose Chosŏn as the name of your country, and I let you rule over it if you regard yourself as its descendant. However, after your

Book III

envoy returned to your country, we heard no more about the matter, and, even worse, the aforementioned incidents occurred. This is another sign of disrespect for us. “Ah! Towards the end of the Yuan dynasty, disturbances and wars started breaking out, and people suffered from them. Warlords rose up in various places and kept on fighting for over twenty years, killing or hurting one another, but I have already suppressed them all. Thereafter, another twenty years passed, and during these years barbarians in all directions caused trouble on the borders, but they also have surrendered by now, and even those on the islands across the seas come to pay tribute. In recent years some wicked people committed treason, and therefore I captured them and rooted them out completely. “Now I intend to turn swords into ploughshares, comfort soldiers to forget their past hardship, and look after the wounded so that they can spend the rest of their lives at home. I also desire all my military generals to enjoy peace, traveling around in light clothes and riding fine horses. Why are the people of Koryŏ anxious to fight? “I will soon report to the Lord on High and order my military commanders to march to the east to avenge the two incidents you dared to perpetuate. If you want to prevent our army from coming, you have to return all the Jurchens you took away as well as all the ones you lured prior to the latest incident. Then our army will not cross your border.” After the rite was over, the king entertained the Chinese envoys in the royal palace. The two envoys were originally Koreans. Kim Sahaeng, director of the Directorate of Palace Attendants, spoke to the king: “Many people from the Northwest Region who belong to the Royal Clothing Office are missing.79 We request that you allow our Directorate to dispatch a man to the Northwest Region, let him go by post-­horse, and have him investigate the real situation closely.” The king replied: “This is a matter 79. The meaning of this sentence is not clear. The Royal Clothing Office was the government agency established in the first reign year of T’aejo in order to take charge of mainly all the uniforms and clothes for those living in the palace, including the royalties. For this purpose, one can suppose it hired various artisans, including tailors and weavers. If many of those hired by this agency are from the Northwest, and they are missing, what could be the reason? Were there some sort of mistreatments for them or did those people commit any irregularities and disappear when their acts were discovered? What is also intriguing is that the king says it is a private matter concerning the royal house while it doesn’t appear so.

269

270

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

concerning the private properties of the royal family, not urgent business of the state. I have heard of the abuses caused by royal messengers. How dare I cause trouble by permitting the use of post-­horses for a thing such as that?” Though Sahaeng made the request two or three more times, the king did not grant it. 24th Day (Mujin)

The king held a banquet for the Chinese envoys at Ch’ŏngsimjŏng Pavilion. 25th Day (Kisa)

The king ordered the Privy Council to hold a banquet for the Chinese envoys. The king gave orders to search for the Jurchens who had moved into Isŏng, Kanggye, and other places and return them to China to accede to the demands of the Chinese emperor. The king said to the officials on left and right: “Having a large army and enforcing a rigorous discipline in administration and punishments, the emperor finally conquered the whole kingdom. However, he killed so many people in the process that there were many among the outstanding merit subjects and officials who were unable to preserve their lives. Formerly, he used to reprimand us frequently and make endless demands on a small state such as ours, which were all unreasonable. Even now, he reprimands us for things we have little to do with and threatens war against us. How is it different from intimidating a child?” Chief Royal Secretary Yi Chik said, “How would you then deal with his demands?” The king replied, “It seems I have no choice but to serve him with humble words and sincere attitude.” Then he ordered the chief royal secretary to meet with Chancellor Cho Chun, Kim Sahyŏng, and others to discuss the memorial that was to be submitted to the emperor. 26th Day (Kyŏngo)

The king sent his order to the Privy Council through Yi Chik, chief royal secretary: “From old, the kings who founded new dynasties have sought to eliminate the descendants of the previous dynasties out of fear and suspicion that

Book III

they could threaten their rule in the future, but I am different. Since Heaven made me the ruler of a kingdom, everyone in my domain is my people. I intend to treat all my people benevolently, with no discrimination, in order to pay back the grace of Heaven. So I permitted Lord Kongyang [King Kongyang] to live in a place that he chose and let his wife and children as well as slaves live together as they used to. However, his kinsmen who were exiled to islands are having difficult times in making a livelihood, and I feel very sorry for them. “I want to have those Wang clan members who are now on Kŏje Island relocated to the mainland by a certain date and allowed to live in designated districts and provided with the means to settle down. Furthermore, I will employ the talented among them and thereby show publicly how fair-­minded I am. The Privy Council shall carry out my order as fast as it can.” The Privy Council immediately sent dispatches to the surveillance commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province and the military commander of Kŏje Island and let the members of the Wang clan leave the island. Then it divided them into three groups and assigned them to Wansan, Sangju, and Yŏnghae,80 respectively. The king summoned Wang Kang and Wang Sŭngbo.81 Each province submitted military census records. Previously, the government dispatched eight military commanders, including Nam Ŭn, Pak Wi, Chin Ŭlsŏ, and so forth, to make preparations for the Japanese attack. After the Japanese withdrew, Nam Ŭn, Pak Wi, and Chin Ŭlsŏ conducted a military census separately in Kyŏngsang, Yanggwang, and Chŏlla Provinces, respectively; and in the rest of provinces, surveillance commissioners did the same, making the military records of all service personnel. The military records of the whole army were finally made at this time, and the result showed as follows: The total number of personnel on duty 80. Wansan is modern Chŏnju, and Yŏnghae a district in North Kyŏngsang Province. 81. Wang Kang was a member of the royal family. He passed the civil service examination at an early age and served as the navy commander of Yanggwang, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces and, concurrently, as the commissioner of salt and iron. He was praised for his contributions to the transport of grain and military provisions by ship. Wang Sŭngbo, also a member of the royal family, was a military commander. Outstanding in military affairs, he was regarded as dangerous to the new regime of Chosŏn and was executed in 1394 when the purge of the Wang clan took place.

271

272

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

in eight provinces, including the cavalry, infantry, and navy soldiers of Kyŏngsang, Chŏlla, Sŏhae, and Kyoju-­Kangnŭng Provinces, came to 200,800, and the number of the children [of the military personnel], local clerks, functionaries of post stations, and those who are eligible for labor service amounted to 100,500. Drought occurred in Kyŏngsang Province. 30th Day (Kapsul)

The king issued a decree: “Since the magistrates are concurrently in charge of both military and civilian matters, only the person who is outstanding in both areas is capable of carrying out the job. Since ascending the throne, I have employed people through recommendation, but many of those recommended were not fit for the job. The Privy Council, the Censorate, and the Six Boards shall separately let the officials recommend qualified people they know, regardless of their number, and employ them one by one. The record of recommendation shall also include the name of the person who recommends. If there is anyone who recommends an unqualified person, he shall be held responsible and punished.”

6th Month 1st Day (Ŭlhae)

The king sent Nam Chae, academician of the Security Council, to the Chi­­ nese capital to present a memorial in response to the emperor’s r­ eprimands: “Your stern instruction sounds very clear, and your awesome authority is quite palpable. Overwhelmed with fear, I would like to appeal to you. Though I lack the ability in ruling the state and live in a distant corner of the world, I have learned that I must serve the great because I have studied the teachings of sages. “In the twenty-­first year (1388) of Emperor Hongwu’s reign, the false king U, Ch’oe Yŏng, and others raised an army recklessly to invade Liaodong, and in the twenty-­fifth year (1392) of the same, Wang Yo [King Kongyang], Chŏng Mongju, and others also attempted to transgress the borders of the suzerain state, continuing U’s misguided policy. I pointed out to everyone, officials and people alike, that it was inappropriate for a barbarian state to bring disturbance to the Middle Kingdom and for a subordinate person to

Book III

insult his superior. Then many people were finally able to discriminate right from wrong and admitted their mistakes. As to what I did, Heaven knows it well and Your Majesty has witnessed it personally. You have been gracious enough to recognize my loyalty to you, and I am determined more than ever to repay your favor. So I have tried my utmost not to neglect paying respect and tribute to you whenever necessary. “In your recent imperial instructions, you said, ‘Last time you lured some ruffians from among the residents of Zhejiang to collect information on our domestic affairs and report to you.’ You also said, ‘You sent your people to Liaodong and tried to bribe our officers on the borders with linen and silk as well as gold and silver.’ Then you said, ‘You have recently sent your people secretly to lure Jurchens residing in our land. Consequently, five hundred Jurchen families sneaked across the Yalu River to settle in your territory.’ Further, you said, ‘You pretend to be our vassal state, paying tribute, but whenever you bring in horses as a token of your tribute, our horse experts find them mostly too slow and tired.’ Then you finally said, ‘As for the matters concerning your country name, I allowed you to choose on your own since you had sent an envoy to make that request to us. Consequently, Chosŏn was chosen as the name of your country, and I let you rule over the land, making you join the rulers of the kingdom. However, after your envoy returned to your country, we heard no more from you about the matter.’ “What was pointed out, however, was mostly what happened during the reign of Wang Yo. That was why the people thought he was wrong and had him stripped of his throne without taking his life. He is now allowed to retire to his private residence and live with his family comfortably, just as usual. However foolish he may be, how can he not regret what he has done? This is a result effected by your sacred virtue and also proof that I have no other intention but to be loyal to you. Besides, the people of Zhejiang never passed any information to us, and neither did our people to them. Moreover, what do I have to do with the things that happened during the reign of Wang Yo? “As for the alleged bribes you mentioned, they were gifts, not bribes, which traveling envoys normally offer to the officials of the hosting country out of courtesy or gratitude. “Since the Jurchens belonging to the Tongnyŏng Administration had already become soldiers, how could it be possible to lure them away by sending our agents?

273

274

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“When the inspector of Liaodong summoned Tuohuan Buhua, some of the residents in his jurisdiction did not follow him right away because they lived there comfortably. So it is far from being true that we forcefully detained them. They paid no taxes to our country and just kept on living as they used to. However, since in your imperial instruction you expressed your wishes that they be sent back to your country, we will order an investigation and repatriate without exception all those who were reluctant to return to their homes of origin. In the past, some of our people resided in Liaodong but often ran away because they missed their homes and relatives in their country, and they hid out in mountain valleys and other remote places. We were unaware of what was happening to them until we received an official letter from the Liaodong government. Consequently, we had them all arrested and brought in. Since these people were registered on the military records of the Liaodong administration notwithstanding that they were originally Koreans, we could not allow them to stay here; we have already returned them all [to Liaodong]. Furthermore, it is difficult to distinguish between Jurchens and Koreans among those who escaped [from Liaodong] and still remain uncaptured, nor do we know where they are now, since, being on the run, they didn’t turn themselves in. We will send out men to search for those people and return the escapees to you as soon as we capture them. Since the situation is so urgent, we decided to make this report first. “As for the poor quality of our tribute horses, [which you mentioned in your imperial instruction,] we believe it mainly had to do with their breed. Besides, the number of tribute horses was so many that we presume that some of them could be either weak or slow. “You also said, ‘Why are the people of Koryŏ anxious to fight?’ We feel extremely embarrassed and nervous about your reprimand. Even though I may be foolish, I am not insane to that degree. It is against reason that one who benefits from your grace and favor would dislike the grace and favor one receives or that one who reprimands the mistake of others would imitate it. How can it be possible? If I tell you a lie, Heaven is looking down on me. “Though I lack ability, I was the one who first risked his life to stop the military campaign [against China] and thereby in advance rooted out the source of conflict between the two countries. My decision originally derived from my loyalty to the suzerain state, but I had to suffer the complaints and troubles made by a number of petty people. People such as Yun I, Yi Ch’o,

Book III

and others secretly visited your court and recklessly made accusations against me. Fortunately, you were wise enough to see through their scheme, and I was vindicated. “Having met an enlightened sage emperor and relying on him, I did not worry too much even when I was slandered last time, but how could I expect that silklike slanderous words would enter your ears again? “I have always exerted myself to serve you. How dare I then disrespect you or risk our good relationship? Since I have met with the reprimands of Heaven [the Chinese emperor], there is no ground for me to stand on. I earnestly beseech you to look at things with the bright intelligence of the sun and moon and extend your generosity that resembles great Heaven and Earth. Please be aware that there are always slanderers who try to cause trouble, and also take pity on your subject who has been constant in serv­ ­ing you so that the people in your distant vassal state can live in peace. I will continue to be loyal to Your Majesty and pray for your health more than ever.” 2nd Day (Pyŏngja)

Suddenly, there was a cold, gusty wind. 3rd Day (Chŏngch’uk)

Paying a visit to the royal garden, the king ordered Kim Sahaeng, palace attendant, to have the Octagon Hall (p’algakchŏng) repaired. Sending for General Nam Chi,82 the king bestowed robes and wine upon Nam Chae, an envoy on a mission to make a report to the Chinese court (chumunsa). 6th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The Regional Military Commission (Duzhihuishisi) of Liaodong sent Chiliarch Gaokuokuochu with a letter from the Ministry of Rites: “On the twenty-­eighth day of the second month of the twenty-­sixth year (1393) of the reign of Hongwu, Gai Lin, secretary for rituals and ceremonies (yibu zhusi) of the Ministry of Rites, and other officials went to Fengtianmen

82. A younger brother of Nam Chae.

275

276

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Gate and reported to the emperor the number of tribute horses that the Regional Commission of Liaodong had received from Koryŏ on several occasions, and received instruction from the emperor. The emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites to pay for the horses with silk and linen according to their numbers. As the emperor’s orders had to be carried out, we dispatched Wang Nai, associate commander (zhihui tongzhi), and others to transport the linen and cotton to pay for the tribute horses. The number of horses we received was 9,880, and the price per head is one bolt each of linen and cotton, respectively. Therefore, the total amount of linen and cotton of various kinds is 19,760 bolts. Among them, the amount of linen is 9,880 bolts, and that of cotton 9,880 bolts.” Japanese marauders invaded two districts, Munhwa and Yŏngnyŏng,83 so Prince Yŏngan [Yi Panggwa],84 Chang Sagil, associate commissioner of the Security Council, and Kwang Ch’ungbo, discussant of the Security Council, were dispatched to repulse the invaders. 7th Day (Sinsa)

An Kyŏnggŏm, left policy advisor, and other officials requested that the king stop the construction work of the royal garden. The king said, “Do the Censorate officials want to confine the king within the walls of the royal palace? This garden was made by the previous dynasty. Why is it wrong to repair it to prepare for royal excursions in the future?” Then the king called Left Reminder Wang Pi and said, “From now on, do not take anything and bring it up to me unless it concerns serious affairs of state.’ 10th Day (Kapsin)

Gaokuokuochu returned to China. The government dispatched Cho Im, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, to China to collect the money from the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong for the horses it sold. 83. Districts located in Hwanghae (Sŏhae) Province and South P’yŏngan Province, respectively. 84. Later King Chŏngjong, the second king of the Chosŏn dynasty.

Book III

13th Day (Chŏnghae)

Taking a seat in Pop’yŏng Hall (Pop’yŏngjŏn), the king tested thirty-­three candidates, including Yun Chŏng, who were recommended by left chancellor Cho Chun, examination administrator, and Kim Chu, associate ­examination administrator and concurrent grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records. He selected Song Kaesin as the first winner. 14th Day (Muja)

On the occasion of Queen Hyŏn’s birthday, the king pardoned the prisoners except those who have been sentenced to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation. 16th Day (Kyŏngin)

Siam [Kingdom of Thailand]85 sent twenty people, including an official named Chang Sado, who presented one thousand taels of sappanwood,86 another thousand taels of spices, and two natives to the king. The king assigned the two natives to palace gate guard duties. Monk Kentetsu of Iki Island, Japan, sent a representative and returned two hundred male and female Korean captives. He also presented local products of his island, saying, “We express our respect to you from a distant place.” 17th Day (Sinmyo)

The king dispatched Yun Ho, director of the State Finance Commission, to congratulate the Chinese emperor on his birthday, and Kim Ipgyŏn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to express his gratitude for the payment of the tribute horses. The memorial he presented was as follows: “Imperial envoy Wang Nai, associate commandant of Jianyang Guard (Jianyangwei), along with other officials, visited us with a letter from the Ministry of Rites. My people and I are deeply grateful for your generosity regarding the payment for our tribute horses. Considering that you paid for 85. Thailand was formerly called Siam. 86. Sappanwood, called somok in Korean, was a species of flowering tree native to Southeast Asia. Having many uses, including medicine and dye, it was one of the popular trade goods in the 17th century.

277

278

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

them so generously even under the circumstances in which we already owe you a great many favors, we cannot help being overwhelmed by your grace and kindness. “Though I lack talent and ability, I am always anxious to repay my gratitude to you as much as I can because I feel fortunate to live in peace thanks to you. Though I sent you the horses last time to follow your orders, their quality was inferior because they were raised in a remote place. I was afraid that they would not be fit for your imperial stable. Then how could I dare expect to get paid for them? Since I did not expect any payment from you, I am more grateful and at the same time ashamed. “Your Majesty is so generous that you make it a rule to pay more while taking less, which is beneficial to your tributary states. Your generosity makes me more determined to serve you with loyalty and more sincere in wishing you good health and long life.” 19th Day (Kyesa)

The king had eunuch Yi Man beheaded and Lady Yu, Consort Hyŏn, (consort of the crown prince), driven out.87 21st Day (Ŭlmi)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments presented a memorial: “Though eunuch Yi Man was beheaded and Lady Yu, Consort Hyŏn expelled to her private home, the people of the country do not know the reason and therefore continue to feel suspicious and worried. We request that Your Majesty order those who attend you closely on left and right to be taken to the authorities so that they can be interrogated, and the suspicions of the people removed.” The king became indignant and gave orders to send Hong Po, right cavalier attendant-­in-­ordinary, Yi Cho, left reminder, Yi Su, second inspector, Yi Wŏn, third inspector (sisa), and No Sang, section chief of the Board of Punishments, to the Capital Constabulary Prison. 87. It is a mystery why eunuch Yi Man was suddenly beheaded and Consort Hyŏn expelled to her private home without any explanation. It is generally presumed that they were discovered to have had some sort of improper relationship. It is not clear what that was exactly because T’aejo refused to reveal it despite the subsequent requests by Censorate officials. Strangely enough, he reacted by ordering them imprisoned for making such requests. Crown Prince Ŭian (Pangsŏk) married Consort Hyŏn (Lady Yu) at the age of eleven, and therefore one can imagine that he was too young to consummate his marriage with her.

Book III

22nd Day (Pyŏngsin)

In addition, the king ordered the following officials sent to the Capital Con­ stabulary Prison: Yi Hwang, left grand master of remonstrance; Min Yŏik, right grand master of remonstrance; Chŏng T’ak, auxiliary remonstrator; Yi Chigang, remonstrating censor; Yun Chang, right rectifier of omissions of the State Finance Commission; Wang Pi, right reminder; Yi Sŏ, minister of the Board of Punishments (Hyŏngjo chŏnsŏ); Cho Saŭi and Ch’oe Saŭi, court gentlemen for consultation of the Criminal Administration Bureau in the Board of Punishments; Min Sajŏng, assistant bureau section chief; Pak P’o, concurrent second inspector; Chin Kyŏng and Yi Ch’i, inspectors of miscellaneous affairs; Yu Sŏn, bailiff of the Office of the Inspector-General; among others. Then the king ordered Chŏng Hŭigye, Nam Ŭn, Cho Ki, and Hwang Hŭisŏk to interrogate the imprisoned officials. Prior to this, the king said to Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Right Chan­ cellor Kim Sahyŏng: “To drive out or punish junior eunuchs (naesu) and royal concubines is my private affair, which has little to do with the people outside. Nevertheless, the Censorate and the Board of Punishments are now reckless enough to discuss it publicly, and the people who have no business in the matter will gather and talk about it, so it seems that what is happen­­ing is not just accidental. I intend to have these people imprisoned and ­interrogated.” Cho Chun and others withdrew from the king without replying and later spoke to Yi Chik, chief royal secretary, “Since the Censorate and the Board of Punishments have been regarded as important from ancient times because they have taken charge of the discipline of the entire nation, if officials of the two departments are all imprisoned, it will be a disgrace to the government as a whole. Why don’t you speak to His Majesty and remind him of the consequences that his action can bring about?” Yi Chik spoke to the king, and he found his words reasonable. So he tried to have only those who were directly responsible imprisoned. However, since the royal order could affect the testimonies and depositions of individuals who were involved, the king finally gave orders to have all of them imprisoned. 23rd Day (Chŏngyu)

Hong Po, Yi Su, Yun Chang, Chin Kyŏng, Yi Ch’i, Ch’oe Saŭi, Cho Saŭi, and Wang Pi were exiled to their homes of origin; Yi Wŏn to Chungnim;88 No

88. A village in Myŏnch’ŏn county in South Ch’ungch’ŏng province.

279

280

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Sang to the Military Command of Chŏlla Province; and Yi Cho to Kaksan.89 Yi Sŏ, Pak P’o, Min Yŏik, Chŏng T’ak, Yi Hwang, Yi Chigang, and others who were merit subjects were allowed to return to their private homes. 24th Day (Musul)

The National Academy administered classics licentiate examination (saengwŏnsi) and selected 132 candidates, including Yun Sangsin. Yun Ho, director of the State Finance Commission, died at Kŭmam Post Station90 on his way to China to celebrate the imperial birthday. At the news of his death, the king ordered the morning audience suspended for three days. Yun Ho’s courtesy name was Chungmun, and he was a son of Hae, Lord of P’ap’yŏng. He was by nature honest and good at calligraphy. He started his public career during the reign of King Kongmin. One day he played go with the king, and when he lost,91 the king ordered him to compose an old-­ style poem. So he presented a poem based on the work of Li Shen92 of the Tang dynasty, entitled “Upon Reading the Life of Li Si.”93 His poem was as ­follows: How can you always beguile the foolish only? You put your life at risk when you try to beguile the wise. One man’s hand is not good enough To blind the eyes of the whole world. King Kongmin thought the poem was intended to be a satire about him and thereafter began to alienate Ho. When Ho served as provincial military commissioner of Yanggwang Province, he captured Japanese pirates repeatedly through ingenious military tactics. When he served as the magistrate of Kyerim, he also successfully defended his district [against Japanese attack]. 89. According to Sinjŭng tongguk yŏji sŭngnam, two places are registered under the name Kaksan. One is located in Hwanghae province, and the other North Kyŏngsang province. 90. Located in P’yŏngsan, Hwanghae Province. 91. It implies that he intentionally lost the game. 92. An official of the Tang dynasty who served as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Wuzong. 93. The prime minister of Qin who served during the reign of the First Emperor, Qin Si Huang. He was notorious for suppressing intellectual dissent and destroying historical records and literature, which led to the well-­k nown event “Burning Books and Burying Confucianists.”

Book III

At the time when the revolution was underway [at the end of the previous dynasty], he made contributions in assisting and recommending that the king be elevated to the throne, and he did not make excuses for his illness when he received the royal orders from the king to depart for the Ming capital to carry out a diplomatic mission.94 Accordingly, he left in spite of being ill and died on the way. He had no sons. The government sent Kim Ipgyŏn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to take his place. 26th Day (Kyŏngja)

A red, sinister glow appeared in the western sky. 28th Day (Imin)

Yi Mindo, minister of rites, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “Nothing is more important than sacrifices among the official ceremonies of the state. Therefore, people in ancient days carried themselves with extreme caution for seven days and purified themselves for three days before they performed sacrifices. So it is due to individual efforts and sincerity that the heavenly spirits are impressed and the ghosts of men savor the ­sacrifices. “Confucius said, ‘He sacrificed to the dead, as if they were present. He sac­ ­rificed to the spirits, as if the spirits were present.’95 The master also said, ‘I consider my not being present at the sacrifice as if I did not sacrifice.’96 “We sincerely request Your Majesty to abstain [from sex, meat, and alcohol] for seven days and to fast for three days before you personally offer a libation to the spirits at the Royal Ancestral Shrine and to ceremoniously plow or reap the state fields (chŏkchŏn) so that you can set a precedent for your posterity; and if it happens that you are unable to sacrifice, let the crown prince take your place.” 29th Day (Kyemyo)

The king ordered Nam Ŭn, director of the Security Council, to visit the coffin hall of Yun Ho and perform a sacrificial offering.



94. “Mission” here indicates the imperial birthday embassy. 95. “Bayi,” The Analects. (Confucius, trans. Legge, p. 159) 96. Ibid.

281

Book IV

Second Year of Reign (1393) 7th Month 1st Day (Kapchin)

An eclipse took place, but it was invisible. At first, an astrologer (ilgwan) reported, saying, “There will be an eclipse around sunset.” The king waited until the sunset, dressed in plain white clothes. He took them off after the sun went down. The king said to Chief Royal Secretary Yi Chik, “Every day when I carry out my duties, both high-­ and low-­ranking officials abruptly come into Pop’yŏngjŏn1 Hall to make a report, which I believe is quite inappropriate and presumptuous. From this day forward, let the military commissioner [of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards] first inquire about official business at the gate before he allows the visitors to proceed to see me. 2nd Day (Ŭlsa)

The king sent Han Kyebo, special director of palace attendants (naesi pyŏlgam), to invite Royal Preceptor Ch’ach’o with a message: “Since you became royal preceptor, it is not appropriate that you stay in the deep in the mountains. Come to the capital as fast as you can.” 1. One of the royal council halls where the king attended to the routine matters of government. Later, it was renamed “Sajŏngjŏn.”



282

Book IV

283

*   *   * The king ordered Cho On, provincial military commissioner of the North­ west Region, to set straight the military record of Ŭiju Circuit (Ŭijudo). 3rd Day (Pyŏngo)

The Board of Rites submitted a memorial to the king: “Yun Ho, late direc­ ­tor of the State Finance Commission, was by nature diligent and frugal, became general when he left the court, and served as grand councilor when he came back, working hard for the country for a long time. When Your Majesty first received the Mandate of Heaven, he cooperated in recommending that you be seated on the throne, and this time he went to China on your orders without complaining, despite the fact that he was too aged to discharge his duty and died on his way while traveling. Conferring a posthumous title on him and arranging his funeral with propriety befitting his status and contributions should be carried out generously based on old precedents.” Granting the request, the king ordered to have Yun Ho promoted to right chancellor of the Chancellery and buried with full honors and propriety with the posthumous title of Chŏnghu conferred on him. 4th Day (Chŏngmi)

The king bestowed a banquet on those who had lately passed the civil service examination. 5th Day (Musin)

The king dispatched Pak Wi, former assistant grand councilor of the Chan­ cellery, to Yanggwang Province to build warships. The officials, including Song Kaesin, who had passed the most recent civil service examination submitted a memorial to the king to express their gratitude for the banquet bestowed upon them. The king appointed Chŏng Tojŏn, assistant chancellor, as the chief pacification commissioner of the Northeast Region.

284

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

7th Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king replaced Kim Ipgyŏn with Yun Sadŏk for a diplomatic mission to express his gratitude to the Chinese government for the payment for horses.2 13th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The status of Chiksan3 was promoted from district to county because Ch’oe Yŏn, a native of the district who had become palace attendant in the Chinese court, came to visit Korea as an envoy and made the request. The Privy Council presented a memorial to the king: “The purpose of training soldiers in the art of war is to prepare for emergency. However, at the end of the previous dynasty, the relaxation of order and discipline became so serious that military training was neglected and the rules concerning the disposition of troops and the art of war, which were instructed by the Mili­ tary Training Agency of the Central Army (Chunggun kunhuso),4 have now all become nothing but empty words and phrases. From this day forward, the Military Training Agency should be allowed to recruit young people from among the sons of the gentry and the royal guards (sŏngjunggwan)5 of various security divisions and teach them from books on military science and the disposition of troops. If there is anyone who is outstanding, he should be employed through examinations in accordance with the royal decrees previously issued, and an inspector should be dispatched to the Military Training Agency to daily supervise the training.” The king granted the proposal as requested. The surveillance commissioner of Sŏhae Province made a report: “Provincial military commanders (Chi kunsa) Kim Kyun and Kim Kwŏn were defeated in battle against the Japanese marauders.” The king said, “Listening to the 2. Kim Ipgyŏn was dispatched to China a couple of weeks earlier to celebrate the imperial birthday of the Chinese emperor. 3. A district in South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. Now it was incorporated into Ch’ŏnan City. 4. “Chunggun kunhuso” is an old name for the Military Training Agency (Hullyŏn’gwan). 5. “The royal guards” here refers to the members belonging to various security divisions who either attend the king at close distance or serve as night guard.

Book IV

report, I believe that the provincial military commanders were defeated because they did not do their best. They shall be punished according to military discipline. However, I don’t want to have them put to death, and therefore I will forgive them for the time being. Let the two commanders be beaten one hundred times with a paddle, and squad commanders (p’aedu) eighty times with a paddle, and have them pledge that they will render service in future battles. On the other hand, the chiliarchs in command of battleships (yŏngsŏn ch’ŏnho) who failed to participate in the battle shall be beheaded.” The king ordered to have a fortress constructed on the West River and the workers recruited from Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces. 14th Day (Chŏngsa)

The Board of Rites presented a memorial: “Since medical science is a way to save human lives, and criminal jurisprudence an instrument to assist governance, please let the people who are distinguished in these areas be employed in the government.” The king granted the request as presented. The king ordered the Privy Council: “Let the mother whose three sons passed the civil service examinations be provided with the stipend of rice based on old precedents.” 15th Day (Muo)

The astrologer reported a lunar eclipse to the king: “A lunar eclipse occurred, but it was not visible because of dark clouds.” 19th Day (Imsul)

The king visited, incognito, the Octagon Hall in the royal garden because it was currently being repaired. Finding that the budget for red paint calculated by the painters appeared to be excessive, the king ordered an official of the State Finance Commission to personally look into the matter. The work of repairing and decorating, planting flowers, and carving wood and stone were all supervised by eunuch Kim Sahaeng.

285

286

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * When Royal Preceptor Chach’o arrived, the king had him stay at Kwangmyŏng Monastery.6 At first, Chach’o stayed at Hoeam Monastery,7 but in the spring of this year an epidemic broke out at Hoeam Monastery. Chach’o visited Yŏnbok Monastery8 to attend the dharma assembly for the worship of Manjusri but did not return to Hoeam Monastery even after the dharma assembly was over and instead went to Buddha Mansion (Pulgukchang) in Kokchu9 to stay there. In the summer, the epidemic ran rampant, and many monks at Hoeam Monastery died. Around this time, the king received Chach’o and had him stay at Kwangmyŏng Monastery. The number of Buddhist laymen and laywomen in the walled town who visited the monastery to listen to his sermons increased, and their number amounted to several hundred every day. The king held a banquet in the royal garden for the visiting Chinese imperial envoy (hŭmch’a naesa). 22nd Day (Ŭlch’uk)

There was hail. The king issued a royal decree: “One hundred twenty-­seven officials, including Hong Yŏngt’ong, chief grand councilor of the Chancellery, and An Chongwŏn, chief director of the State Finance Commission, have always supported me with their trust ever since Sin U [King U] usurped the throne and the chaos increased to such an extent that good governance was called for. Therefore, their contributions are not small. The office responsible shall hold a ceremony and have them rewarded.” The king issued a royal decree: “At the end of the previous dynasty, the false king Sin U grew so stubborn and violent that he, together with his subject 6. A Buddhist temple located in the northern slope of Mt. Songak in Kaegyŏng, the capital of Koryŏ. 7. A Buddhist temple in Mt. Ch’ŏnbo in Yangju, Kyŏnggi Province. Constructed by Master Naong (1320–1376) and completed by his disciple Kakchŏn, the temple was famous for its magnitude which amounted to 262 kan. 8. A Buddhist temple in Kaegyŏng, the capital of Koryŏ. 9. Modern Koksan in Hwanghae Province.

Book IV

Ch’oe Yŏng, attempted to invade Liaoyang and pressured many generals to cross the Yalu River. Being the commander-­in-­chief of the Right Army at that time, I persuaded various generals, saying, “It is not appropriate for a small kingdom to invade the territory of the Son of Heaven. Furthermore, if it trespasses the suzerain state, none of our people will be able to survive.” As a result, various generals came to realize clearly what was right and wrong. If our army had crossed the river at that time, how could our people have survived and lived comfortably until now? “You generals only listened to what I said for a good cause and had your troops march back and brought peace to the country; and because of that, I am here today. If your contributions are to be discussed, they must be rewarded. “Thirteen people, including Sim Tŏkbu, Count of Ch’ŏngsŏng; Yi Hwa, Count of Ŭian; Yu Mansu, magistrate of Kaesŏng Magistracy; Ch’oe Yŏngji, assistant chancellor; and Yi Chiran, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, deserve to be merit subjects first class. Fifteen people, including Kyŏng Po, former magistrate of Chahye Special Prefecture (Chahyebu);10 Kyŏng Ŭi,11 assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Yun Sadŏk, right director of the State Finance Commission; Chŏng Yo, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery; and Pak Yŏngch’ung, associate commissioner of the Security Council, also knew the cause of righteousness and participated in the meeting, advancing their views, and therefore they deserve to be merit subjects second class. “Ten people, including Ch’oe Tan, former magistrate of Chahye Special Prefecture; Wang Pin, former magistrate of Kyerim; Kim Ch’ŏnjang, former second royal secretary; Nam Sŏngni, former magistrate of Kaesŏng; Yi Chi, former magistrate of Hanyang; Chang Chach’ung, former minister of works; Ch’oe Yunsu, assistant commander-­in-­chief; and Hwang Sunsang, 10. It was newly established at the end of Koryŏ dynasty. It is presumed to be a local administrative unit; however, as for its location or function, there is hardly any information available. 11. Kyŏng Ŭi (?―1395): a civil official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. His family seat is Ch’ŏngju. He was the son of Chancellor Kyŏng Pokhŭng. He joined the military expedition against Liaodong, China in 1388 as deputy director of the Security Council and concurrently provincial military commissioner of Sŏgyŏng (P’yŏngyang) and vice supreme commander of the Northwest Region. In 1392, he visited the Ming capital as assistant grand councilor, and in 1393, was appointed merit subject for withdrawing the army in Mujin year (1388), joining T’aejo who made the decision. Later, he also served as military commissioner of the Northwest Region and concurrently magistrate of Sŏgyŏng.

287

288

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

former magistrate of Chinju, also understood what was beneficial or harmful for the country and obeyed my orders without reservation, and therefore they deserve to be merit subjects third class. “Nam Chae, academician of the Security Council; Yun Sojong, minister of war; and others did not join the army in marching back home, but when we returned to the capital and discussed the future of the state, they assisted us by citing old precedents. Hence, they deserve to be made merit subjects third class and treated in the way Merit Subject Third Class Ch’oe Tan is treated. “The late chancellors Cho Minsu and Pae Kŭngnyŏm; Yun Ho, director of the State Finance Commission; and others deserve to be treated like Sim Tŏkbu, merit subject first class. Nine officials, including Pyŏn Annyŏl, late acting chancellor; Wang Andŏk and Chi Yonggi, directors of the State Finance Commission; Cho Inbyŏk, left director of the State Finance Commission; Yi Wŏngye, Prince Wansan; Chŏng Chi, assistant grand councilor of the Chan­ ­cellery; and Ch’oe Kongch’ŏl, military commander of Ch’ungju, deserve to be treated like Kyŏng Po, merit subject second class. An Kyŏng, late magistrate of Chahye Special Prefecture; Kim Sang, magistrate of Chinju; Yi Paek, magistrate of Kaesŏng; and others should be treated like Ch’oe Tan, merit subject third class. The office responsible should hold a ceremony and have those officials rewarded.” 23rd Day (Pyŏngin)

On the occasion of the anniversary of the death of Queen Kyŏng, the king’s grandmother, the king suspended the morning audience and had meals served to five hundred monks at Kwangmyŏng Monastery. 24th Day (Chŏngmyo)

On the occasion of the anniversary of the death of King To, the king’s grandfather, the king had the morning audience suspended as he had the day before. 26th Day (Kisa)

Chŏng Tojŏn, assistant chancellor, submitted a memorial: “Throughout history, the kings who received the Mandate of Heaven and possessed both

Book IV

achievements and virtue, as I observe, always expressed their greatness through music so that the music could illuminate their times and could also be transmitted to posterity. Hence they say, ‘When a new dynasty arises, it must have music of its own to celebrate a new age.’ “Your distinguished martial prowess assists your intelligence, and your courage and wisdom are provided by Heaven. Naturally, it has been a long time since your excellent virtue and benevolence became engraved on the hearts of the people. The great expectations among the people enabled you to ascend to the throne, so you should remedy the ills before the day breaks. “Auspicious phoenixes and sacred herbs are different from their inception from ordinary ones. Likewise, it is quite natural that auspicious signs appear when a sage emerges as a leader. When King Wu rose against tyrant Zhou, he was confident because his dream agreed with his divination sign. Emperor Guangwu12 also received from Heaven a red tally called chifufu, which was another auspicious sign for a great man recorded in the annals of history. “Your Majesty also had a dream before you ascended to the throne. In that dream, you received a golden ruler from a divinity, who told you to rule the state with that ruler. Another person also offered you a mysterious scroll, saying, “Keep this only to yourself and do not show it to others.” Ten years after these incidents, the prophecies indeed turned out to be true, and they were foretold by Heaven. “With magnanimous generosity, Your Majesty listens to the voices of all people. Hence you are able to know unfailingly about your people. If there is anyone among ordinary people who is unable to find a place to live, you know about it, and once you know about it, you always provide help to the person. Notwithstanding, you worry that people may fail to report their problems. You expanded the road to free speech and treated merit subjects sincerely. You bestowed upon them your written pledge and furthermore had their contributions permanently engraved in stone. That shows how much you are committed to preserving the honor of your merit subjects. At the end of the previous dynasty, the public administration and law were in serious disarray. People suffered harm because the land system collapsed, and officials failed to keep their posts as rites and music degenerated. Your Majesty rectified all these anomalies at once. What you have done is manifestly in accord with the way of Heaven and the way of man. Your contributions and

12. The emperor of the Han dynasty (5 bc –57 ad) and the founder of the Eastern Han.

289

290

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

virtue are incomparable. So they need to be expressed through poetry and music in order that people will know about them forever, even if just a little. “Though I am worthless, I was fortunate to have met this glorious age and become the last one to join the rank of merit subjects. Furthermore, having learned how to write, I was favored to serve as grand scribe (t’aesa), and therefore I can hardly suppress my awe and joy. I dared to try to compose three pieces of narrative for music with regard to the auspicious signs from the Mandate of Heaven that you received before you ascended to the throne as well as the benevolent rule you practiced once you became king. I humbly submit these three poems along with a memorial. “1. Dreaming of the Golden Ruler (Monggŭmch’ŏk): Your Majesty had a dream before you ascended to the throne. In that dream, a divinity with a golden ruler descended from Heaven. He said, ‘Chancellor Kyŏng13 is too old though he is virtuous, and Director Ch’oe14 of the State Finance Commission is stubborn though he is upright.’ Then he gave a golden ruler to His Majesty, saying, ‘Since you are good at both literary and military arts, virtuous and intelligent, people will look up to you.’ “All-­seeing Heaven, through an auspicious dream, Gave you a golden ruler. Since he who was virtuous was old,15 And he who was honest was stubborn,16 Who else could deserve such a gift? Seeing through our hearts and knowing our wishes, Heaven made you rule the state. The Mandate of Heaven was evidenced By the rise of the new dynasty. It will be handed down to children And children’s children forever. “1. Receiving the Precious Secret Scroll (Suborok): When Your Majesty was staying at your private home, out of public view, someone found a 13. Kyŏng Pokhŭng (?–1380) is an official of late Koryŏ. He served as chancellor during the reign of King Kongmin. 14. Ch’oe Yŏng, a military general and statesman of late Koryŏ. 15. The person referred to here is Kyŏng Pokhŭng. 16. The person referred to here is Ch’oe Yŏng.

Book IV

strange writing among the rocks of Mt. Chiri and presented it to you, and what was written in it proved to be true in the Imsin year (1392). So I composed this poem with the title ‘Receiving the Precious Secret Scroll.’ “In the lofty mountains, rocks stood stately like the mountains, And among the rocks, a mysterious scroll was found, which said, ‘A brave man with wood (mok) and son (cha) in his name will arise.17 Who will be able to assist him? One with running (chu) and resemblance (ch’o) in his name is virtuous,18 One with being not (pi) and clothing (ŭi) in his name came from Kŭmsŏng.19 And one who is referred to as three dedications (chŏn) and three towns (ŭp)20 Will come to his aid and make him succeed. In the newly established capital, the dynasty will continue to thrive As long as eight hundred years.’ What a precious scroll it was! It was given to our king. “1. Upon ascending the throne, Your Majesty established law and order, while making changes together with the people. Many things you have done deserve to be praised, and among them the following are outstanding: ‘opening channels of communication to secure good opinions and advice,’ ‘protecting the privileges of merit subjects,’ ‘regulating the problems of land administration,’ and ‘establishing rites and music.’ 17. T’aejo’s surname, Yi (), consists of two characters: mok (木) meaning “tree” and cha (子) meaning “son.” 18. The person referred to here is Cho Chun, one of the foremost merit subjects who assisted T’aejo. His surname, Cho (趙), consists of two characters: chu (走) meaning “running” and ch’o (肖) meaning “resemblance.” 19. The person referred to here is Pae Kŭngnyŏm, another merit subject who was deeply trusted by T’aejo. His surname, Pae (裵), consists of two characters: pi (非) meaning “being not” and ŭi (衣) meaning “clothing.” Kŭmsŏng is an old name of Ŭisŏng, a town in North Kyŏngsang Province. 20. The person referred to here is Chŏng Tojŏn, the author of the poem himself. But the way he presents is intriguing because the character of his name, Chŏng (鄭), does not have three dedications or sacrifices and three towns (三奠三邑) as described in the source text. We know his pen name is Sambong (三峯), which means “Three Summits.” This makes one wonder if there is any connection between his name and pen name in relation to the reference he made to himself in the poem.

291

292

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

In the royal palace, solemn and nine-­fold deep, Thousands of state affairs are piled high even in a day. The king needs to know how people are doing, So he keeps the road wide open for opinions and advice. As I see that road before my eyes, Our king in his virtue matches Emperor Shun. When you ascended the throne, obeying the Mandate of Heaven, Numerous officials vied with each other to follow you. When they assisted you with ideas and actions until the goal was accomplished, You made a pledge to the mountains and rivers to remember their ­contributions. I witnessed how dearly you cherish your merit subjects, and The virtue of Your Majesty will be known to posterity forever. As the land administration collapsed and was abandoned, The strong devoured the weak, and their struggles grew worse. Within a year since Your Majesty assumed control, The state granaries are filled up, and the people have gained their strength. I witnessed the abuses of land administration rectified, and It made Your Majesty pleased. May you live a thousand years. Since propriety and music are essential to governing the state, They start with a family and extend to the whole country. Your Majesty newly established the rules and rites So that order and peace can prevail in the lives of the people. I saw propriety and music being instituted. No contributions and achievements can be comparable to yours.” The king bestowed colorful silk upon Chŏng Tojŏn and ordered the court musicians to play these songs. Tojŏn also made more songs regarding the king’s military achievements and submitted them to the king: 1. Song of Driving out Nahachu (Napssi kok) Being recklessly self-­confident, Nahachu invaded our northeastern border. Arrogant and anxious to display his forces,

Book IV

He seemed almost invincible. At the sound of the drum and with redoubled courage, Our king ran into the heart of the enemy. He shot down the vice chief first, And Nahachu himself with another arrow. Like a meteor, he pursued the enemy, Who ran away, leaving their weapons behind. They got scared even by the blowing wind And suspicious of croaking cranes. All their strength being spent, Our northeastern border regained peace. The victory His Majesty won at this battle Will be handed down for a thousand years. (This song is about the battle with Nahachu, a warlord of the Manchu region.) 1. Song of a Beast Running Away (Kungsubun kok) The beasts driven into a corner ran away to rugged cliffs. Our army ran after them, and they were scattered on both sides. They were either killed or captured, or fled or hid. The bodies of the dead were broken into pieces, And the spirits of the living hardly remained in their bodies. Even before half a day was over, the troubles were all cleared up. Your Majesty returned triumphantly, and the lives of the people became comfortable. (This song is intended to celebrate the king’s victory over the Japanese invaders.) 1. Song of Maintaining Peace in the Eastern Kingdom (Chŏngdong­­ bang kok) Ah! In the Eastern Kingdom 21 surrounded by the sea A cunning child usurped the throne. He was crazy enough to raise an army [against China]. Who could prevent the calamities from his mischief?

21. Chosŏn, Korea.

293

294

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Heaven assisted a virtuous general and had his righteous banners turn around. One who was guilty was driven out, and the other who committed treason killed. The emperor was pleased and bestowed his generosity [upon our kingdom], Acknowledging His Majesty as the rightful sovereign of our people. Since both the people and the state have their lord to depend on, May his kingdom last forever! (This song is about the momentous decision made by the king to stop the military campaign against Ming China.) 27th Day (Kyŏngo)

The king issued a royal decree: “To evaluate officials for their contributions and have them rewarded is originally in the law. Especially at the beginning of founding the new dynasty, it is indispensable that their contributions be evaluated and rewarded. U Innyŏl, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng, is by nature gentle and dignified and prescient. He was my old friend from the days when I served as general or councilor, always supporting and protecting me, which was his contribution. “Kim Sahaeng, director of the Directorate of Palace Attendants, in the situation in which I had just ascended the throne and the rules and regulations for affairs inside the palace were not fully in order, established ways to take control of them and thereby assist the king from the inside, either making cuts where there was excess or adding where there was lack, based on the rites and ceremonies of the previous dynasty when it flourished. Hence, his contributions deserve to be recorded. “Yun Sang and Yi Kwang, associate directors of the Directorate of Pal­­ace Attendants; An Kŏ, administrative director of the Directorate of Palace Atten­ ­dants; and others assisted greatly [in dealing with internal palace affairs]— though their contributions could not equal [those of Kim Sahaeng]—and therefore their contributions also deserve to be recorded. “Eight people, including Kwŏn Chunghwa, left director of the State Finance Commission, and Sŏng Sŏngnin, former assistant chancellor, have always supported me since the days when Sin U usurped the throne. Then,

Book IV

the state was in extreme disorder and a remedy for it called for. The office responsible shall hold a ceremony and have these people rewarded.” 28th Day (Sinmi)

The king paid a visit to the royal garden. Interpreter Kwak Haeryong, who had accompanied Kim Ipgyŏn in the imperial birthday embassy, returned and made a report: “When Ipgyŏn arrived in Baita,22 the Regional Military Commission (Dusi) of Liaodong blocked the entry of our mission, saying, “We have an imperial order. From this day forward, Koreans are not allowed to enter.” The king ordered the construction of a fortress on the West River to be stopped. 29th Day (Imsin)

The senior retired officials of the Chancellery and the Security Council had a meeting to discuss the report made by Kwak Haeryong. The king issued a royal decree: “Seventy-­one people, including Kang Yuin, former deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, and Han Ch’ŏn, magistrate of Kaesŏng, have always supported me since the days when Sin U usurped the throne and threw the state into extreme disorder until everyone deliberated on the remedy for it. They convinced the people of my virtue and promoted my reputation, so they made it possible for me to reach where I am. Hence, their contributions are not small, either. Eleven people, including Yu Pangtaek and No Ŭljun, acting deputy directors of the Security Council, all served as astrologers when I ascended the throne. They harbored no suspicion in their hearts and did their best to choose the most auspicious day for my inauguration and recommended that I ascend the throne. Their contributions also deserve credit. The office responsible shall hold a ceremony and have them rewarded. The king decreed: “Five hundred ninety-­five people, including former ministers Kang Ch’ŏnsu and Yi Ch’ŏnu, have sacrificed themselves to protect

22. A city in Liaoning, China, located in the middle of Liaodong Peninsula.

295

296

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

me, risking their lives, and underwent all kinds of difficulties over the past thirty years when I either went out or stayed in the court serving as general or grand councilor. So I owe them, to this day. Though they failed to join me in bringing about the new dynasty, how dare we forget their contributions? The office responsible shall hold a ceremony and have them rewarded.

8th Month 1st Day (Kapsul)

The king dispatched Yi Mu, magistrate of Kaesŏng, to Kyŏngsang Province and Yi Ŭi, assistant director of the Security Council, to Chŏlla Province to inspect the military readiness. The government mobilized people from six provinces, including Kyŏnggi, Yanggwang, Sŏhae, and Kyoju-­Kangnŭng, to construct the capital walls but reduced the project scale to half of the original plan because the old site of the walls was too extensive for repair. 2nd Day (Ŭlhae)

Yun Sojong, minister of war, made a request to be allowed to resign for reasons of illness. The king appointed Yi Chiran,23 chief pacification commissioner of the Northeast Region, replacing Chŏng Tojŏn. Our envoys to China, including Kim Ipgyŏn, imperial birthday embassy, and Yun Sadŏk, tribute embassy, arrived in Liaodong, but they were denied entry to China and returned home. 23. Yi Chiran (1331–1402): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Born in Qinghai, China, he was the son of a Jurchen chiliarch named Aluobuhua and was a sixth-­ generation descendant of Yue Fei, a famous general of the Southern Song dynasty. In 1371, he came to Koryŏ, leading a dozen of his people. Being naturalized, he lived in Pukch’ŏng in Hamgyŏng Province. In 1380, he joined T’aejo in fighting against the Japanese in Hwangsan and thereafter became his deputy and supported him until T’aejo rose to the throne. As a result, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject and served as military commander and grand councilor to the end of his career.

Book IV

297

*   *   * Censors, including An Kyŏnggŏm,24 memorialized to the king: “We request that the walls of the capital be constructed on their original sites [without reducing their scale].” The king did not grant their request. When the imperial envoys Hwang Yŏnggi and Ch’oe Yŏn 25 returned to China, the king saw them off in the Western Suburbs (Sŏgyo). The king dispatched Yi Chi, assistant director of the Security Council, to China with a memorial requesting that tribute missions be allowed to continue. He also had him lead over four hundred Jurchen men and women to the Chinese capital. The memorial submitted to the Chinese emperor was as follows: “Kim Ipgyŏn, an envoy of your tributary state [Korea] and assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, as well as his diplomatic entourage, arrived in Liaodong, but the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong refused them entry into China, citing imperial orders, which said, ‘All the memorials and tributes from Chosŏn, as well as the envoys who carry them, shall be prohibited.’ Now that our envoys have returned without accomplishing their mission, my people and I are quite surprised and cannot help expressing the way we feel on this matter. “In order that a vassal state serve the suzerain state, it should be able to pay tribute to the latter, and the latter in turn should provide the former with an opportunity for presenting an appeal. Located far away, Koryŏ was ignorant of propriety. The false king Sin U attempted to attack Liaodong, endangering the Sino-­Korean relationship, and Wang Yo [King Kongyang], his successor, also committed the same error. However, I declared that their action was against principle, making efforts to eliminate the cause of the troubles. Your Imperial Majesty was so sagacious and gracious that you commanded me to assume control of the state and use Chosŏn for our country name once again.

24. An Kyŏnggŏm (?): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son of An Ch’uk, a famous scholar-­official. In 1390, when he served as second inspector, he impeached U Hyŏnbo and others who were implicated in the conspiracy of Yun I and Yi Ch’o. After the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, he served as left policy advisor and secretary of works. 25. These Chinese envoys were originally Koreans.

298

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Deeply moved by your kindness, I have tried to be sincerer in discharging my duties toward you as the chief of your vassal state, but it unexpectedly happened that Your Majesty sternly reprimanded me for my failure to serve you properly, and I am completely at a loss and afraid. “Your Majesty is benevolent like the heavens and the earth that make all things grow, and generous like parents who love their children. If you will be so kind and gracious as to allow us access to your country once again, we will never neglect to pay tribute every year and wish you good health evermore.” Collecting the payment for the horses, Cho Im and others returned from Liaodong, China. 5th Day (Muin)

The government started the construction of the walls of the capital. 6th Day (Kimyo)

Jupiter entered the constellation of Aquarius. The king secretly paid a visit to the top of Mt. Namsan and inspected the construction sites for the walls of the capital. Later, as he moved around the royal garden, Yi Mindo, minister of rites, spoke to the king: “I am afraid that the construction of the walls cannot be completed easily.” The king asked, “Why is that?” Mindo replied, “Since the officials in charge are negligent in supervising the work, and the workers lazy in carrying out their work, we are simply wasting manpower, without results. In my opinion, the weather will be freezing anytime soon, and the construction will fall short of completion.” Believing that Mindo was honest in what he said, the king bestowed upon him 30 sŏk of rice and beans along with a set of robes. 7th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king ordered Ch’oe I,26 fourth royal secretary, to go out to observe the construction supervisors working on the walls of the capital, to see if they 26. Ch’oe I (1356–1426): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. In 1390, during the reign of King Kongyang, he served as second inspector and, during the Chosŏn dynasty, inspector-general and minister of works and minister of punishments, via various posts, including fourth and third royal secretary.

Book IV

were discharging their duties properly. Thereafter, the king commanded the inspectors [of the Office of the Inspector-General] to patrol and check on the progress of the work every day. 8th Day (Sinsa)

The king ordered fourteen supervisors detained in the Capital Constabulary Prison for neglecting the supervision of the construction of the fortress walls but released them a little later. However, he made one exception and had General Chŏn O assigned to the navy of Kanghwa Island.27 10th Day (Kyemi)

The king issued a royal decree: “It is a way handed down from antiquity to evaluate and reward officials by having them present their ideas or carry out certain tasks to make contributions. “Wang Kang, former associate commissioner of the Security Council, is distinguished in learning and always in full control of what he does. He is also eloquent and accomplishes his tasks without delay. So everyone praises his talent and ability. I once tested him by assigning him to the task of maritime transport mission, and he accomplished his assignment excellently and proved that what people said about him was right. “The waterways closed for forty years in the previous dynasty are now finally opened, contributing to the development of the state economy and solving the problems with overland transportation, which three provinces had to endure for forty years, and thereby helping the people to revive their livelihoods. Since the contributions that he made are so clear, who dares criticize him? I was so impressed that I could not forget him. “In addition, at the beginning of our dynasty, music and instruments were not well harmonized, so I tested him by appointing him commissioner for ceremonial music (sŭbak chejo). Then he regulated the music so remarkably that he removed from it the melancholic sound that was handed down from the previous dynasty, creating a music that befitted the spirit of the governance of the new age. How can you say that this contribution is small? Therefore, it is appropriate to include his name on the list and reward him, based on the example of Nam Chae, a merit subject who joined me when I turned my army around to march back home. 27. Being assigned to the navy is better than the imprisonment but much worse than the job of supervising the construction of walls.

299

300

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Song Munjung,28 director of the Publications Office, and Cho Kyŏng, general-­in-­chief, have served me for a long time, risking their safety since the days when I was out of public view until now. Therefore, they deserve to be rewarded in the way that Yi Ok, a minor merit subject, was rewarded. The office responsible shall hold a ceremony and have these men rewarded.” 11th (Kapsin)

The king paid a visit to Kwangmyŏng Monastery and had an audience with Royal Preceptor Chach’o and moved on to the Daoist Temple of Brilliant Rectifica­tion (Sogyŏkchŏn). 12th Day (Ŭlyu)

Yi Chiran, chief pacification commissioner of the Northeast Region, was dispatched to construct fortresses in Kapchu and Kongju.29 The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Ku Sŏngno,30 assistant director of the Security Council, for having an argument with his colleague Cho Pan during his trip to Liaodong, China, and also for personally misappropriating the colorful silk that he received as the payment for tribute horses from the Chinese government. The king dismissed him. 14th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king dispatched Chin Ch’unggwi,31 assistant military commissioner of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards, to Yanggwang Province to 28. Song Munjung (?): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as senior military protector and magistrate of Naju. In 1389, he was appointed second inspector and concurrently military protector, but failed to pass the confirmation because he was charged of corruption when he served as magistrate of Naju. Later, he served as chancellor of the National Academy and in 1391 visited Kyushu, Japan, as an envoy to thank Governor Minamoto for sixty-­eight Korean captives. 29. Kapchu is an old name of Kapsan, a town in Hamgyŏng Province. Kongju refers to Kyŏnghŭng, a town in Hamgyŏng Province and a place where Mokcho Yi Ansa, T’aejo’s great­g reat-­g randfather, once served as chiliarch and Mongol overseer. 30. Ku Sŏngno (?): a military official of late Koryŏ. He served as great military protector and participated in the military campaign against Liaodong, China, in 1388 as the vice commander of Kangwŏn Province. Later, he became a merit subject for his participation in turning the army around to march back home, which was led by T’aejo. 31. He also served as discussant of the Security Council and military commander and concurrently magistrate of Ŭiju.

Book IV

make investigations on the local magistrates who failed to provide corvée laborers by the designated time. He had nine magistrates flogged and Military Commissioner Cho Pak locked in the jail of Hansŏng Magistracy (Hansŏngbu). 15th Day (Muja)

Tribute envoy Yi Yŏm returned from the Chinese capital. As Yi Yŏm went in to have an audience with the emperor, the emperor reproached him for kneeling before him improperly. He let him bow his head down and had him beaten with a heavy stick until he nearly died. They revived him with medicine. As he arrived in Liaodong on his way home, the Chinese refused to provide him with post horses. So he had to walk all the way back home. The emperor gave orders to the Liaodong government: “Let no envoys from Chosŏn cross our border.” The king issued a royal decree: “Eleven people, including An Ik, former assistant Chancellor, have always supported to me since the days when Sin U usurped the throne and threw the state into disorder to such a degree that a remedy was called for. They convinced the people of my virtue and promoted my reputation, so they made it possible for me to reach where I am. Hence, their contributions are not small, either. The office responsible shall hold a ceremony and have them rewarded.” 16th Day (Kichíuk)

The king issued a royal decree: “The lands of Kyŏnggi Province, where the new capital will be seated, shall be surveyed again and distributed after grading their size and quality by 5 or 10 kyŏl per unit and assigning numbers to them.” The king moved into the private residence of Kim Chin,32 Lord of Sangnak. 17th Day (Kyŏngin)

The king issued a royal decree: “The contributions made by thirty-­nine people, including Kim Po, former supervisor of the Astronomical and 32. He is presumed to be a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. The reason that T’aejo moved his residence is not known.

301

302

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Meteorological Observatory, are the same as those made by Kang Ch’ŏnsu, Yi Ch’ŏnu, and others.33 The office responsible shall hold a ceremony and have them rewarded. 18th Day (Sinmyo)

The moon approached the Pleiades. The Privy Council held a banquet at Wangryun Monastery34 for Hong Yŏngt’ong, An Chongwŏn, and others, the directors of the Directorate for the Construction and Repair of the Walls of the Capital (Kyŏngsŏng such’uk togam).35 19th Day (Imjin)

The king inspected the walls under construction and paid a visit to the royal garden. 20th Day (Kyesa)

Chŏng Tojŏn, assistant chancellor, made the Pictures of Hunting Scenes in the Four Seasons (sasi susudo) and presented it to the king.36 23rd Day (Pyŏngsin)

The government ordered Mun Chip, supervising administrator of Majŏn, and O Samin, supervising administrator of T’osan,37 beaten with a paddle and exiled to border districts because they failed to provide workers to the central government by the designated time. 33. They refer to the officials who became minor merit subjects about three weeks ­earlier. 34. A Buddhist temple in Mt Songak in Kaesŏng and one of the ten major temples established by T’aejo, the founder of Koryŏ. 35. It is an ad hoc office established solely for the purpose of constructing or repairing the walls of the capital. 36. Though these pictures present seasonal hunting scenes, some scholars believe that they were, in fact, intended to show the various tactical deployments of troops and military arrangements to prepare for the expedition against Liaodong, China, in the future that Chŏng Tojŏn was seriously deliberating at that time. 37. When the districts were very small, the government dispatched supervising administrator called kammu, instead of magistrates, to administer them.

Book IV

29th Day (Imin)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace to stay overnight. The government had runaways of Korean descent from Liaodong forcibly transferred back to China. It ordered Cho Ŏn,38 former deputy director of the Security Council, to transport them to the Chinese authorities and also sent an official letter to the Ministry of Rites of China: “On the twenty-­third day of the fifth month of the twenty-­sixth year of the reign of Hongwu, we received a letter from the emperor through imperial envoys Hwang Yŏnggi and others. In that letter, the emperor said, ‘Lately you have secretly sent your men to lure over five hundred Jurchens from our land, and they crossed the Yalu River. No crimes can be serious more than this.’ So our people and I were afraid and at a loss for what to do about your reprimands. Then we dispatched your servant Nam Chae, academician of the Security Council, to your court to explain our situation, submitting my memorial to you. “According to the investigations we have made, the soldiers and the people of our country who had gone over to Liaodong listed themselves on the military register of Liaodong. However, as they missed their home, they again escaped and returned to their country and went into hiding in the valleys. At first I did not know about it, until I read the report from the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong and thereafter captured those people and continued to send them back to Liaodong. Moreover, Jurchens are foreigners who use a different language from us. How dare we secretly send our men and lure those people across the Yalu River? “Upon receiving your imperial instruction, I immediately dispatched officials to all the districts and villages in the Northwest Region and rounded up a total of 122 households, which were made up of 388 people, including a Korean named Pak Yong, who had repeatedly run away from Liaodong. We handcuffed and shackled them, then handed them over to the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong. “Previously, your envoy Tuohuan Buhua visited us to claim the people who originally belonged to the domain of his ancestors and took the people 38. Cho Ŏn (?): a military official of late Koryŏ. He served as magistrate of Kaesŏng in the early years of King U and became second royal secretary in the year when King Kongyang ascended the throne. Implicated in the conspiracy of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, which was to remove T’aejo with the help of Ming China, he was exiled to a distant district.

303

304

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

away, but the ones he took away were actually not his.39 If there were some who belonged to him, they had already been carried off by battalion commanders such as Xu Bian and Hubadu in the sixteenth year (1383) of the reign of Hongwu. Furthermore, even if there were people who were not repatriated and settled down comfortably in their places, they were not forced to stay in our small kingdom. “When we received your latest instruction this time, we immediately sent our men to search for Jurchens in our land. We found 25 households, made up of 116 people, including a Jurchen named Chouyitu, and handed them over to Chiliarch Wang, sent by the Right Army of the Chief Military Commission (Youjun dudufu), along with Kim Wan’gwi, the chiliarch who was in charge of Tuohuan Buhua’s jurisdiction and the plain of Pyŏktun and Kuja.” 40

9th Month 1st Day (Kyemyo)

The king dispatched Pak Yŏngch’ung, associate commissioner of the Secu­ rity Council, to China to congratulate them on the birthday of the Chinese heir apparent. The king performed a rite of bowing down to the memorial of congratulation at Such’ang Palace and returned to his temporary royal quarters. The Chinese government paid for tribute horses, and our government divided the money and distributed it to those who sold them. 2nd Day (Kapchin)

Envoy Nam Chae, who had visited the Chinese capital, returned and reported to the king: “The emperor treated me generously and also said, “Since it costs a great deal for the envoys of your country to travel a long distance to pay tribute, send your envoys only once every three years from now on.” 39. Tuohuan Buhua, originally a resident of the Northeast Region in Korea, made his visit on the third day of the fourth month of 1393. 40. It seems to be the name of a strategic district somewhere on the Yalu River Area because the word “p’ajŏl” prefixed to the chiliarch suggests defending a strategic point of military importance.

Book IV

4th Day (Pyŏngo)

The king ordered the Privy Council to have the workers who were engaged in constructing the walls provided with provisions. The king ordered the Privy Council to send official notices to the surveillance commissioners of Kyŏngsang and Chŏlla Provinces to let them recruit corvée laborers and send them to the new capital. 6th Day (Musin)

The Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory submitted a memorial: “Master Tosŏn was known to have said, ‘Songdo [Kaesŏng] is the capital whose site is auspicious for only five hundred or four hundred eighty years or so.’ Furthermore, it has become a place where the sacrifices to the [royal] Wang clan have ceased. Notwithstanding, it is undergoing construction all over the place. We urge you to relocate your royal quarters to some good place even before the new capital is fully completed.” The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the matter. 10th Day (Imja)

On the occasion of the anniversary of the death of King Ik (Ikcho), the great-­grandfather of the king, the king had the morning audience and the markets closed for the day. He inspected the walls under construction and moved to Such’ang Palace. 11th Day (Kyechíuk)

When the Japanese government sent an envoy to present twenty swords, the king distributed them to high officials and returned to his temporary royal quarters. 13th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king abolished the current official title of surveillance commissioner and changed it from Allyŏmsa to Kwanch’al ch’ulch’ŏksa and appointed surveillance commissioners of various provinces. He appointed Han Sangjil as surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province; Min

305

306

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Kae, of Kyŏngsang Province; An Kyŏnggong, of Chŏlla Province; Yu Wŏnjŏng, of Sŏhae Province; Yu Yang, of Kyoju-­Kangnŭng Province; Ha Yun, of Left Kyŏnggi Province; and Yi Pin, of Right Kyŏnggi Province. In addition, he appointed Hong Yŏngt’ong Count of Namyang; An Chongwŏn, grand councilor of the Chancellery; Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission; Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission; Yu Mansu and Sŏng Sŏngnin, vice grand councilors of the Chancellery; Nam Ŭn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Nam Chae, commissioner of the Security Council; Yi Chik, academician of the Security Council; Yi Kŭn, inspector-general; and Han Sanggyŏng, chief royal secretary. 14th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The Supreme Control Commission of Three Armies (Samgun Ch’ongchebu)41 was reorganized as the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies (Ŭihŭng Samgunbu),42 and the Council of Generals (Chungbang)43 abolished. Hwaryŏng Prefecture was changed to Yŏnghŭng Prefecture, and Yŏnghŭng District to Yŏngp’yŏng District.44 Japanese marauders raided Chŏngju,45 in the Northwest Region. 16th Day (Muo)

The king inspected the walls under construction and paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. 41. Established in 1391, the third year of King Kongyang, the Five Armies were reorganized into the Three Armies to assume control of the military apparatus. 42. Toward the end of the Koryŏ period, the military system was in disarray, and members of the royal household and merit subjects retained their private soldiers. The Ŭihŭng Three Armies was created to bring about the centralization of military authority in the hands of the government. (Ki-­baik Lee, p. 178) 43. During the Koryŏ dynasty, the army at first consisted of the Two Guards and Six Divisions, and each of them had a general and a lieutenant general. So they had a deliberative organ called Chungbang, which was a counterpart of the Privy Council (Todang) of the civil officials. (Ibid, p. 117) 44. The districts here are all located in South Hamgyŏng Province. 45. A district located in North P’yŏngan Province.

Book IV

17th Day (Kimi)

Yi Chi, an envoy on a diplomatic mission to present a memorial to the Chinese emperor, reached Liaodong but had to return home, as Chinese authorities denied his entry. Yun Sojong, minister of war and participant in the drafting of proclamations (chijegyo) and associate administrator of the Bureau of State Records, died. His courtesy name was Hŏnsuk, and his clan seat Musong. He was a grandson of Yun T’aek, Duke Munjŏng. Being intelligent and good at studies, he could produce fine poems even before he reached the age of twenty. His talent was noticed by Yi Chehyŏn,46 Duke Much’ung, and drew praise from him. He passed the examination of the National Academy in the Kyŏngja year (1360), during the reign of King Kongmin, and passed the civil service examination in the Ŭlsa year (1365), at the age of twenty-­one, winning first place in the second-­rank group (ŭlgwa).47 His essay on policy matters (taech’aek), which was part of the examination, surpassed those of his senior competitors in its content. As a result, he became compiler of the Bureau of State Records and eventually got promoted to the rank of left fourth censor (chwa chŏngŏn) via various posts. At that time, Kim Hŭnggyŏng,48 who was a favorite of the king, arrogantly flaunted his power, and eunuch Kim Sahaeng ingratiated himself so well with the king that he took charge of all public works. These two people damaged the country and harmed the people. Sojong drafted a memorial to the king to eliminate them, strongly condemning their irregularities, but his colleagues who had known his plan in advance accused Sojong of neglecting his duties under the pretext of illness and had him dismissed. Consequently, his memorial could not be presented. 46. Yi Chehyŏn (1287–1367): a renowned scholar-­official of late Koryŏ. He is better known by his pen names, Ikjae and Yŏgong. He served five kings, from Ch’ungsŏn to King Kongmin, as either chancellor or grand councilor. He traveled throughout Yuan China and associated with distinguished Chinese literati, including Yao Sui and Yan Fu. He also served as administrator of the civil service examination and selected outstanding scholars and officials for public service; Yi Saek was one of them. 47. The successful candidates were divided into three groups, kapgwa, ŭlgwa and pyŏnggwa, depending on their rank in the examination. 48. Kim Hŭnggyŏng (?–1374): an official of late Koryŏ. He was one of the favorite subjects of King Kongmin. When King Kongmin was suddenly assassinated, he was impeached for abusing his power and executed.

307

308

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

In the Kimi year (1379), during the reign of the false king [U], Sojong was reinstated as assistant director of the Palace Document Office (Chŏn’gyosi) and later transferred to the posts of vice director of ceremonies (chŏnŭi puryŏng) and fourth royal counselor (ŭnggyo) of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records. In the Sinyu year (1381), his mother passed away, and he observed mourning, living in a hut next to the tomb of his mother in Kŭmju.49 When the period of mourning was over, many scholars in the south came to study under him. In the Pyŏngin year (1386), he was appointed second assis­ ­tant master of the National Academy. In the summer of the Mujin year (1388) when the king [T’aejo] marched back with his army from Wihwa Island and stayed outside the east gate of the royal palace, Sojong went to see him, taking The Biography of Huo Guang (Huo Guang Chuan)50 with him. After eliminating Ch’oe Yŏng and others, the king carried out a reform in relation to officials, hiring capable people and dismissing incompetent ones. Accordingly, he appointed Sojong as vice minister (ch’ongnang) of the Board of Personnel and soon promoted him to the post of right grand master of remonstrance (u saŭi taebu). In the spring of the Kisa year (1389), Sojong impeached Yi Inim, [who was already dead,] requesting that his coffin be dug out, his corpse chopped into pieces, and the site of his house made into a swamp. His request, however, was not granted. Then he served as chancellor of the National Academy. Attempting to abolish private landholding with the support of Cho Chun and others, the king [T’aejo] asked for the opinions of all officials on that matter. Everyone was opposed to it, but Sojong, along with Chŏng Tojŏn, insisted on abolishing private landholding. When King Kongyang rose to the throne, Sojong was appointed left policy advisor and reader of the Office of the Royal Lectures. However, he was opposed to the king when the latter tried to appoint monk Ch’annyŏng51 as royal preceptor and blocked the king’s attempt by submitting a memorial. Deeply resentful of this and other matters, King Kongyang transferred Sojong to the post of minister of the Board of Rites and a little later sent him into exile to Kŭmju. 49. Modern Kŭmsan in South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 50. Huo Guang (?–68 bc): a statesman of the Western Han during the reign of Emperor Wu. He deposed the prince of Changyi, whom he had installed as a new emperor, for the good of the state rather than to usurp the throne. Then he offered the throne to Liu Bingyi, a great-­ grandson of Emperor Wu, who was later known as Emperor Xuan. 51. Ch’annyŏng (1328–1390): a monk of late Koryŏ. He served as royal preceptor during the reign of King U.

Book IV

When the king [T’aejo] ascended to the throne, he appointed Sojong as minister of the Board of War and included his name on the list of minor merit subjects (wŏnjong kongsin). Being a man of righteous integrity and ambition, he believed that it was his duty to enlighten the king and correct wrongful customs. Whenever he spoke to the king, he was very outspoken and hid nothing. When he returned home from work, he paid little attention to the livelihood of his family, who often ran out of provisions. Nevertheless, he did not mind and only devoted himself to reading classics and histories day and night. Learned in the study of Neo-­Confucianism, he exerted himself to suppress other religions. After he passed away from illness at the age of forty-­nine, the literati mourned his death. He left behind eight volumes of poems and prose essays, which were collected under the title of Tonghŏnjip. His son Hoe passed the civil service examination in the Sinsa year (1401) and now serves as assistant director of the Office of Diplomatic Correspondence (ch’ŏmji Sŭngmŭnwŏn sa). 18th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king commemorated the imperial birthday in a ceremony at Such’ang Palace and returned to the temporary palace. The king sent Sŏng Sŏngnin, assistant chancellor, to Hamju of the Northeast Region and ordered him to erect an inscribed tombstone at Chŏngnŭng, the royal tomb of his father, King Hwan (Hwanjo). The inscription was as ­follows: “On the Sinmi day52 of the first month of the spring in the second year of the king’s reign, the king ordered his servant Chŏng Ch’ong, saying, ‘It is only thanks to the virtues accumulated by my ancestors that I, though lack­ ­ing in virtue, received the Mandate of Heaven and founded a new dynasty. Since I have already dedicated posthumous titles of king to each of the four generations of my ancestors, I want you to compose the epitaph for the royal tomb of Chŏngnŭng, which will be handed down to posterity forever.’ “Upon receiving this royal order, I was afraid but dared not decline the task by making excuses for my inability to write. As I reviewed the words of Mencius, I saw that he said, ‘It is a rule that a true royal sovereign should

52. The 25th day.

309

310

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

arise in the course of five hundred years.’53 It is five hundred years since the Koryŏ dynasty was founded by the Wang clan. “As the fortune of the dynasty declined, King Kongmin failed to produce an heir, and the son [King U] of the wicked monk Sin Ton usurped the throne by falsifying his family name and fell into debauchery and tyranny. In the Mujin year (1388), together with grand councilor Ch’oe Yŏng, he recklessly raised an army to trespass upon the territory of the Son of Heaven, and because of that, the people’s troubles were without end. Our Majesty, who was commander-­in-­chief of the Right Army at that time, advocated a great cause and turned his army around to march back home. U at last realized that he had made a mistake and abdicated in favor of his son Ch’ang. “The following year, the Son of Heaven reprimanded our government for allowing a man of a different family name to become the heir of the royal Wang clan, and His Majesty, who was then a chancellor in charge of state affairs, consulted with various generals and councilors and established Yo, a member of the Wang clan, on the throne. Originally, from the days of U’s reign, powerful ministers took over the affairs of state, corrupting the court and causing abuses by selling public offices and taking bribes for fixing court cases. They also seized land and monopolized mountains and fields so that the rule of discipline collapsed, and the resultant harms and sickness grew worse by the day. So all the people complained and lamented and started seeking a remedy day and night. “When His Majesty became chancellor, he eliminated old abuses and brought reform to governance. He set the land system straight by abolishing abusive private landholdings and raised the dignity of office by reducing superfluous personnel. He employed men of ability and drove out the wicked and avaricious; displaying his martial prowess, he repulsed invaders from the borders, and treating the people with benevolence, he settled their livelihood; and he established law and order and developed rites and music. So the people of Korea loved him like their parent. “Wang Yo was by nature confused and indiscriminate in his judgment so that he trusted cunning people while alienating loyal subjects; listening to the words of women and eunuchs, he caused the land system to fall into disarray; employing his relatives and close subjects, he undermined the fairness of public office; making his decrees and instructions inconsistent, he destroyed the law of the state; unrestrained in expenditure, he damaged

53. “Gongsunchou II,” The Works of Mencius. (Legge, p. 232)

Book IV

the property of the people; listening to the secret slander of petty people around him, he forgot about His Majesty, [T’aejo] who made contributions in bringing the country back to normal; and he, instead, always tried to accuse you along with Chŏng Mongju, chancellor at that time. Mongju secretly instigated his followers in the Censorate to bring charges against merit subjects and those who are outspoken, and let them submit memorials by fabricating facts. When the consequences were about to reach the attention of His Majesty and thus things appeared unpredictable, everyone in the country became outraged. “In the sixteenth day of the seventh month, the twenty-­fifth year of Hongwu [1392], fifty-­two people, including Left Chancellor Pae Kŭngnyŏm and Right Chancellor Cho Chun, acted together for a good cause, knowing where the Mandate of Heaven and the hearts of the people were directing. Hundreds of officials as well as the old and young, without discussion, came to an agreement and together urged His Majesty to ascend to the throne. His Majesty declined their request two or three times but finally gave in to it as he found their wishes were too strong to resist. The markets were not closed, and soldiers did not have their weapons stained with blood, and instead the court was bright, cleared of all its anomalies, and the people were delighted. “His Majesty immediately sent Cho Pan, administrative director of the Security Council, to Ming China and submitted to the emperor a report on his ascension to the throne. The emperor said, ‘The people of Three Han [Korea] already raised a member of the Yi clan to the throne without suffering the disaster of war, and everyone of them is happy about it. This is indeed the Mandate of Heaven.’ A little later, Cho Im, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, returned from China and brought an imperial message, which said, ‘What is the new country name that you chose? Come back to report as soon as possible.’ His Majesty immediately dispatched Han Sangjil, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees, to China and requested a new country name. The emperor bestowed the name Chosŏn and said, ‘Following the will of Heaven, govern your people and have your progeny multiply forever.’ This was the way that His Majesty obtained the support from Heaven above and men below, and it attests to his benefitting from the fortune that is known to take place every five hundred years. “As your servant reverentially reviews the genealogy of His Majesty’s royal house, his ancestors were members of the illustrious Yi clan of Chŏnju. Yi Han, who served as minister of works in the kingdom of Silla, married a

311

312

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

daughter of Prefect Kim Ŭnŭi, a tenth-­generation descendant of King T’aejong, and sired Chancellor Chayŏn. The chancellor sired Chief Admin­ istrator Ch’ŏnsang, who in turn sired Kwanghŭi, chief administrator. The chief administrator sired Ipchŏn, minister of education, and the minister of education sired Kŭnghyu. Kŭnghyu sired Yŏmsun, and Yŏmsun sired Sŭngsak. Sŭngsak sired Ch’unggyŏng, and Ch’unggyŏng sired Kyŏngyŏng. Kyŏngyŏng sired Ch’ungmin, and Ch’ungmin sired Hwa. Hwa sired Chinyu, and Chinyu sired Kungjin. Kungjin sired General-­in-­Chief Yongbu, and the general-­in-­chief sired In, palace attendant. The palace attendant married the daughter of Chancellor Mun Kŭkkyŏm and sired General Yangmu. The general married the daughter of Supreme General Yi Kangje and sired Ansa, magistrate of Ŭiju. “Ansa later served in the Yuan dynasty and became Mongol overseer in charge of five thousand households in Nanjing. He is no other than His Majesty’s great-­great-­grandfather. He was posthumously enfeoffed as King Mok and his tomb named Tŏngnung. His wife, Lady Yi, was the daughter of Yi Kongsuk, administrator of the Thousand Bull Guard, and is now enfeoffed as Queen Hyo and her tomb named Allŭng. Haengni, His Majesty’s great-­grandfather, inherited from his father the post of chiliarch and is now enfeoffed as King Ik and his tome named Chirŭng. His wife was Lady Ch’oe of Tŭngju, now enfeoffed as Queen Chŏng, and her tomb named Sŭngnŭng. Ch’un, His Majesty’s grandfather, posthumously vice grand councilor, is now enfeoffed as King To and his tomb named Ŭirŭng. His wife was Lady Pak of Munju, now enfeoffed as Queen Kyŏng, and her tomb named Sullŭng. “Chach’un, His Majesty’s father, was grand master for glorious happiness (yŏngnok taebu) and director of the Directorate for Palace Buildings as well as myriarch of Sakbang Province54 and posthumously vice grand councilor of the Chancellery. After winning various battles, he became myriarch. He passed away in Sakbang Province on the Kapsul day of the fourth month of the Kyŏngja year (1360) of Zhizheng55 at the age of forty-­six. He was buried on the hill of Kwiju56 to the east of Hamju on the Pyŏngsin day of the eighth month of the same year. He is now enfeoffed as King Hwan and his tomb named Chŏngnŭng. His wife, Lady Ch’oe, daughter of Ch’oe Han’gi,

54. Kangwŏn Province. 55. The reign name of Emperor Huizong of Yuan for the period 1341–1370. 56. It refers to Kwiju-­tong, a subdistrict of Hamju, located 10 li in the east of Hamju.

Book IV

Count of Yŏnghŭng, posthumously Chancellor and Duke Chŏnghyo, was enfeoffed as Queen Ŭi and her tomb named Hwarŭng. “His Majesty’s royal family have made contributions and accumulated virtue over many generations and thereby laid the foundation for raising a new dynasty. They have done good things to help people, and that has led to a series of happy occasions to celebrate. As the headwaters were distant and the current of the waters shined all the way down, the royal family was finally able to achieve the great work of founding a new dynasty, producing offspring distinguished in talent and wisdom. The assistance of Heaven to the men of virtue was quite extreme. “His Majesty married his daughter to Cho Inbyŏk, left director of the State Finance Commission. His wife, Lady Han, was the daughter of Han Kyŏng, posthumously chief grand councilor of the Chancellery, who passed away early. She was posthumously enfeoffed as Queen Chŏl and her tomb named Cherŭng. His Majesty enfeoffed his son Pangu as Prince Chinan, former king [Panggwa] as Prince Yŏngan, Pangŭi as Prince Igan, Panggan as Prince Hoean, and the current king [Pangwŏn] as Prince Chŏngan. Another son named Pangyŏn passed away early, and he was posthumously awarded the title of wŏnyun;57 he has two daughters who are both young. “His second wife, Lady Kang, daughter of Kang Yunsŏng, director of the State Finance Commission, was enfeoffed as Queen Hyŏn. His son Pangbŏn was enfeoffed as Prince Muan, and the other son, Pangsŏk, was young. His daughter married Che of the Yi clan of Kyŏngsan, who was enfeoffed as Lord of Hŭngan. “Prince Chinan married the daughter of Chi Yun, assistant chancellor, and sired a son named Pokkŭn, who became wŏnyun. Prince Yŏngan married the daughter of Kim Ch’ŏnsŏ, who was posthumously promoted to left chancellor. Prince Igan married the daughter of Ch’oe Indu, who was posthumously promoted to assistant chancellor and sired a son named Sŏkkŭn, who became wŏnyun. Prince Hoean married the daughter of Min Sŏn, who was posthumously promoted to assistant chancellor and sired a son named Maengjong, who became wŏnyun. Prince Chŏngan married the daughter of Min Che, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees. Prince Muan married the daughter of Wang U, Lord of Kwiŭi. 57. An honorary title given to the nobility or merit subjects. It is the equivalent of count or baron.

313

314

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“As your servant has observed, when the kings arose with new dynasties, none could surpass the royal house of the Zhou dynasty in terms of ancestral virtue accumulated over many generations and the number of outstanding offspring. Multiple generations have passed since the days of Houji,58 and when ascendancy came down to the generation of King Wen59 and King Wu, they were able to attain the kingdom. King Wen and his wife Taisi laid the foundation of the Zhou dynasty, which lasted for eight hundred years, by producing outstanding children, but they were also aided by the good works of their ancestors, who were virtuous and benevolent. “Our kingdom at the present time, from the days of Minister of Works [Yi Han] until King Hwan [the king’s father], has accumulated good works for a long time. Our Majesty, endowed with intelligence and divine wisdom, inherited the legacy of his ancestors and brought about the great occasion of joy and happiness, opening the way for endless prosperity. Further, having already produced outstanding offspring, his flourishing royal house can be said to equal that of the Zhou dynasty. This happened because his good works that have accumulated for so long have grown great, and their effects, which were planted firmly [in the hearts of the people] spread afar. Oh, how awesome they are! “Your servant Ch’ong submits the following inscription for the royal tomb, gathering his hands together and bowing his head down. A plum tree [Yi clan] from the kingdom of immortals Took its root deeply in the hardened ground. Starting from the minister of works, the king’s grand ancestor, The royal clan has made and accumulated numerous charitable deeds, Producing auspicious signs until it reached the generation of King Hwan. King Hwan sired a sagacious monarch, Who suddenly attained the Eastern Kingdom. Since he was already destined to have the Mandate of Heaven, There was no need to fight from the beginning. In order to make a fresh start for the people, 58. A legendary Chinese culture hero during the time of the Xia dynasty, who is known to have introduced millet to humanity. 59. The king of Zhou during the late Shang dynasty. He was honored as the founder of the Zhou dynasty though his son, King Wu, actually conquered the Shang dynasty.

Book IV

The king illustriously proclaimed a governance of benevolence. He said, ‘Though lacking in ability I ascended the throne, And it is only thanks to the virtue of my ancestors.’ So the king consulted old precedents and honored His ancestors by posthumously investing them with the titles of king. Since their virtue, which has been unrecognized, was revealed, Wouldn’t it look more illustrious and shiny? The flourishing royal family will see the increase of happiness, And its offspring, both the trunk and branches, will prosper forever. As one looks at the land of Kwiju60 and its high hills and mountains, He feels strongly the air of vitality and the strength characteristic of the king; And, further, it is boundless. Your servant bows down his head and present this epitaph to you. Since it has no exaggeration, let it be engraved on the stone for ­posterity. King Hwan had two nothoi. Wŏ’ngye was born of a female servant named Naeŭnjang, and Hwa of a female servant named Koŭmga. Wŏ’ngye had four sons, and they were Yangu, Ch’ŏnu, Cho, and Paegon. Hwa had seven sons, and they were Chisung, Suk, Ching, Tam, Kyo, Hoe, and Chŏm. Yangu’s sons were Hŭngbal, Hŭngje, Hŭngno, and Hŭngmi. Ch’ŏnu’s son was Koenghŏn, and Chisung’s, Sujang. Suk’s sons were Omang and Chibal. Ching’s sons were Ŭigyŏng and Midong. Tam’s son was Hyoson; and Hoe’s, Poktong; and Chŏm’s, Silgyŏn. 19th Day (Sinyu)

The Court of Interpreters (Sayŏgwŏn) was established in order that Chinese language could be taught and practiced. 20th Day (Imsul)

As it was the anniversary of the death of Consort Chŏng, the great-­ grandmother of the king, the morning audience and markets were closed.

60. Kwiju here appears to indicate the northern part of Korea extending to Manchuria.

315

316

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

21st Day (Kyehae)

The king dispatched Yi Chik, academician of the Security Council, to the Chinese court to express his gratitude and request the emperor to allow Chosŏn to continue paying tribute as it did before. The memorial he submitted to the Chinese emperor was as follows: “Your servant Nam Chae returned from his trip to the Chinese capital with your imperial instruction. Deeply impressed and awed by the sincerity of your words, my people and I can hardly suppress our excitement and gratitude. Your sacred admonitions show such kindness and generosity that they make me feel ashamed though my sincere loyalty toward you has been constant “Last June I sent your servant Kim Ipgyŏn to your court to express my gratitude to you for paying for our tribute horses, and in July I sent another your servant, Yun Sadŏk, to celebrate your imperial birthday. However, our envoys returned because the Regional Commission of Liaodong denied their entry according to your imperial decree. “This time I hurriedly sent your servant Yi Chi with my memorial that explains what has really happened in response to your reprimands, and I hope you will realize how distressed I am at the moment and that the memorial will clear up all the misunderstandings about me. “Your servant Nam Chae has recently brought your sacred message. You said to him, ‘When you return to your court, tell your government that tribute should be paid only once every three years from this day forwards. Since you are so sincere in carrying out your duty, I called you to have an audience with me by sending a man.’ Thus, you graciously granted permission for us to pay tribute once again and I am deeply grateful for your sage­like generosity. “Your Imperial Majesty looks upon a small kingdom with benevolence and gives me a fresh start after ascertaining the sincerity of my devotion, with your great wisdom. The only thing that concerns me, however, is not being allowed to pay tribute more often, which I am afraid may prevent me from carrying out my duty properly. Hence, I request that you allow me to pay tribute as frequently as the usual practice, and I extend my wishes for your longevity.” The government elevated the status of Kokchu, the birthplace of Consort Hyŏn,61 from county to prefecture (pu) and renamed it Koksanbu.

61. Lady Kang, or Queen Sindŏk, T’aejo’s second wife.

Book IV

317

*   *   * The king appointed Yu Kyŏng as left policy advisor, Yi Kŏi as right policy advisor, Chŏng T’ak as auxiliary remonstrator, Pak Sin as concurrent second inspector, and Kim Sŭng as second inspector of the Office of Inspector-­ General. 23rd Day (Ŭlch’uk)

As it was the anniversary of the death of Queen Chŏl,62 the king had the morning audience and the markets suspended. 27th Day (Kisa)

The king had all prisoners released except those sentenced to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation. 28th Day (Kyŏngo)

When the king became ill, he had the Privy Council look for a place for him to recuperate. 29th Day (Sinmi)

The members of the Privy Council had a meeting at Puril Monastery in Songnim63 and searched for a place where the king could stay. Pak Yŏngch’ung, an envoy dispatched to celebrate the birthday of the Chinese heir apparent, arrived at Tianshuizhan64 but returned to Chosŏn after Chinese authorities denied him entry. 30th Day (Imsin)

The government summoned the officials of the Astronomical and Meteo­ rological Observatory to the court and had them choose an auspicious site for the king to recuperate from illness. 62. Lady Han, or Queen Sinŭi, T’aejo’s first wife. Queen Chŏl is her posthumous title. 63. Songnim is an old name of Changdan, a district in Kyŏnggi Province. Puril Monastery was established during the reign of Kwangjong (925–975), the fourth king of Koryŏ. 64. One of many places in China located on the route of Korean envoys traveling to Beijing. It is located between Lianshanguan and Liaoyang.

318

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * There was thunder.

10th Month 3rd Day (Ŭlhae)

Trees were covered in hoar frost. 4th Day (Pyŏngja)

The king ordered Magistrate Yŏng and former general Cho beaten with a heavy paddle for taking a concubine away from former director An Ŭi. Extremely indignant to learn about what they had done, the king ordered them physically punished. 6th Day (Muan)

Authorities had six workers beheaded for running away while the capital walls were under construction. 9th Day (Sinsa)

The Military Music Section (Mugongbang)65 was established in order that martial music could be taught and practiced. 10th Day (Imo)

The king made Sim Chong,66 the son of Sim Tokbu, Great Lord of Ch’ŏngsŏng, his son-­in-­law. 11th Day (Kyemi)

As it was the king’s birthday, Chancellery officials, governors, and military commissioners from various provinces submitted memorials to congratulate the king. The king granted general amnesty to all the prisoners except 65. Mugongbang appears to be a section belonging to the Music Office (Chŏnaksŏ), which was in charge of music related to state ceremonies and rituals. 66. He married Princess Kyŏngsŏn, T’aejo’s second daughter.

Book IV

those sentenced to capital punishment by either beheading or hanging and served meals to 1,500 monks at Kwangmyŏng Monastery. 13th Day (Ŭlyu)

The government allowed the workers who had been recruited from Yanggwang, Kyoju, and Sŏhae Provinces to construct the capital walls to return home. The king visited Such’ang Palace. He sent Kyŏng Ŭi,67 assistant grand councilor, and Chŏng Namjin,68 discussant of the Security Council, to the Chinese capital to congratulate the emperor on New Year’s Day. 17th Day (Kich’uk)

The king visited Yŏnbok Monastery and served meals to monks. He had the monks read Tripitaka sutras and let Royal Preceptor Chach’o give a sermon. Earlier, a five-­story pagoda had been completed for preserving copies of the Tripitaka (Taejanggyŏng),69 and a ceremony of completion was held on this day. There was a rainbow in the eastern sky. The official titles of various provincial military commissioners (chŏlchesa) were changed. Prince Yŏngan [Yi Yangu]70 was appointed commander of the Middle Army of the Three Armies (Samgunbu chunggun chŏlchesa), Prince Muan Yi Pangbŏn,71 commander of the Left Army (Chwagun chŏlchesa), and Prince Hŭngan Yi Che,72 commander of the Right Army

67. Kyŏng Ŭi (?–1395): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son of chancellor Pokhŭng. He also served as royal secretary during the reign of King U and military commander of the Northwest and, concurrently, magistrate of P’yŏngyang. 68. He also served as minister of personnel and military commander of Andong. While serving as discussant of the Security Council, he visited the Ming court but was impeached later for private trading during his trip. 69. The Tripitaka sutras, which are now in Haein Monastery, were once kept in this pagoda of Yŏnbok Monastery. 70. The son of Yi Wŏn’gye, King T’aejo’s stepbrother. 71. T’aejo’s son born of Consort Hyŏn, or Lady Kang. 72. T’aejo’s son-­in-­law who married Princess Kyŏngsun, T’aejo’s third daughter.

319

320

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

(Ugun chŏlchesa). In addition, Sim Chong73 was invested with the title of Lord of Ch’ŏngwŏn; Yi Sŏ,74 Lord of Anp’yŏng; and Kim Kyun,75 Lord of Kyerim. 19th Day (Sinmyo)

The royal carriage moved to Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery. The king ordered officials belonging to various departments within the Privy Council to return to the capital—except each member of the Censorate and of the Board of Punishments, respectively, and the royal guards of the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies—to take charge of the king’s security by taking turns. Chang Wŏn’gyŏng, military commissioner (ch’eboksa) of the Northwest Region made a report: “Yi Kwich’ŏl,76 myriarch of Isŏng, repulsed the Japanese pirates, beheading over forty of them.” Pleased with the report, the king immediately ordered Paek Ŏllin, assistant military commissioner, to bestow robes, wine, and a horse from the royal stable upon Yi Kwich’ŏl, and robes and wine upon Chang Wŏn’gyŏng. 21st Day (Kyesa)

As it was the day for the regular meeting with the king (ajo),77 all officials from various departments in the Privy Council went to see the king at his temporary royal quarters.

73. T’aejo’s son-­in-­law who married Princess Kyŏngsŏn, T’aejo’s second daughter. 74. Yi Sŏ (1332–1410): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Being a member of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects first class, he served as minister of punishments, inspector general, and vice grand councilor of the Chancellery. He was well known for his filial piety. 75. Kim Kyun (1341–1398): a member of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects third class. Recommended by Cho Chun, he became minister of punishments and later served as assistant director of the Chancellery and fourth state councilor. 76. He also served as discussant of the Security Council and, concurrently, military commander of Chŏngju and, later, of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 77. The officials of the Six Boards and the Censorate were required to have a regular meeting with the king every five days and report their activities to the king, and this meeting was called ajo. During Koryŏ, the ajo convened on the 1st, 5th, 11th, 15th, 21st, and 25th days, while in Chosŏn it was on the 1st, 6th, 11th, 16th, and 26th days. Later, the monthly frequency of the meeting was reduced by two times, so it was held only four days a month.

Book IV

321

*   *   * Venus and Saturn appeared close together in the eastern sky. The king commanded each department to send an official to Such’ang Palace to work night duty alternately, and the Office of Inspector-General to observe how well they carried out their duties. 23rd Day (Kabo)

Venus approached Spica (Kaksŏng) from the left. The king played kyŏkku, a ball game on horseback. 24th Day (Pyŏngsin)

A meteor shot to the west. 26th Day (Musul)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. 27th Day (Kihae)

The king invited Royal Preceptor Chach’o to perform the rite for the dead and donated silk. Sitting in the palace, the king bestowed a bolt of silk upon each of the directors of the Directorate for the Construction and Repair of the Walls of the Capital. The Privy Council held a banquet for the king. Chŏng Tojŏn and Wang Kang, directors of the Directorate of Ceremonial and Court Music (Kwansŭp togam), and Vice Director Chŏng Sach’ŏk led out the musicians of the Music Office and in the presence of the king performed new songs, including “The Enlightened Virtue of Our King” (Mundŏk), “Military Achievements of Our King” (Mugong), “Dreaming of the Golden Ruler,” and “Receiving the Precious Secret Scroll.”78

78. These songs were all written by Chŏng Tojŏn and dedicated to the king.

322

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Six branches of learning are established [in the National University] for the education of the sons of gentry, and they are military science, laws, Chinese characters (chahak),79 translation, medicine, and arithmetic. Yi Chik, tribute envoy, arrived in Baita80 but returned home after Chinese authorities denied him entry into China. 28th Day (Kyŏngja)

The king returned to Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery.81 29th Day (Sinch’uk)

The frequent occurrence of stellar catastrophes prompted the king to gather monks at his temporary royal quarters and let them perform the rite for eliminating natural calamities. The king, together with the queen, burned incense.

11th Month 1st Day (Imin)

Privy Council members and the officials from other departments visited the king at his temporary palace for a regular meeting. Therefore, the king canceled the morning audience because he felt it was too cumbersome to have it. 2nd Day (Kyemyo)

The king ordered Chief Royal Secretary Han Sanggyŏng and Fourth Royal Secretary Song Munjung to present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning. 79. Chahak literally means “study of characters,” and the characters here indicate Chinese. 80. A place located in Liaoyang, China. 81. A Buddhist temple in Kaesŏng, the capital of Koryŏ.

Book IV

4th Day (Ŭlsa)

There was heavy fog. 5th Day (Pyŏngo)

Leading various officials, the king celebrated the birthday of the imperial crown prince [of China] at Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery. Yu Kyŏng, left cavalier attendant-­in-­ordinary, spoke to the king: “Although I am holding high office thanks to your great favors, I have failed to make contributions, only wasting the stipend I receive, and I feel ashamed of it. I would appreciate it very much if you would allow me to resign from my office. I plan to devote myself to learning Daoist magic.” The king replied, “It is not a day or two since I knew you, and I have treated you generously, as everyone says. If you decide to resign suddenly, what will people say about it? Furthermore, learning Daoist magic requires you to abandon your king and father. You are now going to risk being disloyal to your king and unfilial to your father. Then what is the reason that you want to learn Daoist magic?” 6th Day (Chŏngmi)

The king appointed Chŏng Sinŭi82 as deputy director of the Security Council, and Chŏn Paegyŏng83 as grand master of remonstrance.

82. Chŏng Sinŭi (?): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. In 1395, when he served as magistrate of Hansŏng, he visited the Ming court as vice envoy, accompanying Yu Ku, chief envoy and grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records. He was detained in the Ming court along with Yu Ku for the inappropriate expression of the memorial submitted to the emperor. He was released to return home the following year, and in 1397, he was appointed associate director of the Security Council. In 1398, when the First Strife of Princes took place, he was accused of being a member of Chŏng Tojŏn’s supporters and exiled. 83. Chŏn Paegyŏng (?–1412): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Passing the civil service examination at the end of King Kongmin’s reign, he served as censor and impeached Chancellor Yi Inim, who abused his power. In 1393, after the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, he became the grand master of remonstrance, and in1397, minister of war and concurrently pacification commissioner of the Northwest Region. The following year, he became governor of P’unghae Province and later of Kyŏngsang Province and of Kyŏnggi Province and, finally, minister of rites.

323

324

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The government changed Pongsŏng District to Sŏwŏn County84 after elevating its status. 7th Day (Musin)

The king prohibited officials from writing memorials in small letters. The king dispatched officials to the workers engaged in constructing the walls and had them inquire about any ailments that the workers were suffering from. 9th Day (Kyŏngsul)

Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, proposed to the king that various provincial commissioners select the most talented military strategists among the officers under their command and teach them how to deploy troops. 10th Day (Sinhae)

On the occasion of the winter solstice, the king led his officials in performing the rite of paying respect to the Chinese emperor. However, he stopped the officials from paying respect to himself. 11th Day (Imja)

[The leaders of] the Wulangha tribe paid a visit. 12th Day (Kyechíuk)

The moon concealed the Pleiades. Chŏng Tojŏn mustered the troops on the kyŏkku ground and drew them up in a battle array. Then, he trained them to respond to the sound of drums and horns as well as banners and signals and practiced advance and retreat.

84. Pongsŏng and Sŏwŏn are old names for modern P’aju in Kyŏnggi Province.

Book IV

325

*   *   * The government had all but the leading military officers from Ŭiju, Isŏng, and Kanggye Circuit, who came up to the capital for duty, released to return home. The major cities (kyesugwan) of each province are designated. They are: Andong, Sangju, Chinju, Kimhae, and Kyŏngsan in Kyŏngsang Province; Wansan, Naju, and Kwangju in Chŏlla Province; Kwangju, Ch’ungju, Ch’ŏngju, Kongju, and Suwŏn in Yanggwang Province; Wŏnju, Hoeyang, Ch’unju, Kangnŭng, and Samch’ŏk in Kyoju-­Kangnŭng Province; Hwangju and Haeju in Sŏhae Province; Hanyang and Ch’ŏrwŏn in Left Kyŏnggi Province; and Yŏnan and Pup’yŏng in Right Kyŏnggi Province. 15th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king ordered the crown prince to hold a banquet for various princes and lords to mark the ending of the three-­year mourning period for Consort Chŏl [the king’s first wife, Lady Han]. 16th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king ordered officials to carry out the rite of the profound bow (ŭpbaerye) to one another, which is currently practiced in the Ming court. He had the officials of the Privy Council and various other departments gathered at Such’ang Palace. The officials below rank 3 went into the office of the Privy Council and made a deep bow. When they walked out of the palace gate, they again made a bow to each other before they went their ways. 19th Day (Kyŏngsin)

Chosaeng, chief monk (kamju) of the Palace Buddhist Temple for Prayer (Naewŏndang),85 had an audience with the king. Earlier, the king had worried that he was relying excessively on the people’s labor in his zeal to construct the new capital. He said, “Since there are many among the monks

85. Naewŏndang is a Buddhist temple or shrine on the palace precincts for use by the royal family. It was first established in Koryŏ, remained popular through the end of the dynasty, and continued to exist in Chosŏn until the 16th century.

326

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

who are idle, I should muster their manpower.” Having heard of what the king said, the monks of various sects urged one another to join the construction effort, and those who volunteered numbered in the dozens. As Chosaeng led them out to see the king, the king was pleased and bestowed food on Chosaeng, as well as silk and cotton on the monks from various sects. 20th Day (Sinyu)

Water did not freeze due to unseasonably warm weather, and the land was enshrouded in thick fog. Therefore, the king sent Ch’oe I, second royal secretary, to the Daoist Temple of Brilliant Rectification (Sogyŏkchŏn), a Daoist temple at the royal palace, and had him offer a sacrifice to a northern star, T’aeilsŏng,86 to rectify the weather patterns. 21st Day (Imsul)

The Office of the Inspector-General requested that the king punish Cho Pan, Cho Im, and Ku Sŏngno. Earlier, Cho Pan and others went to Liaodong to collect the money for the tribute horses. They were paid in silk and secretly expropriated the silk to trade for other goods, in search of personal gain. This was why the Office of the Inspector-General impeached them. Then the king ordered the inspectors to look into the matter closely. This day, the inspectors made their request again, and the king asked, “How could they trade more than two hundred bolts of silk? If you make them compensate for all the goods, they will certainly feel they are being treated unfairly. However, since the officials responsible for tribute goods (ammul) who ran away are suspicious, place a public notice and persuade them to turn themselves in. Those who surrender themselves to authorities in three days shall be treated leniently and punished just for the charge of disrespecting the order of the government, and those who fail to do so shall be made to compensate for the loss.” 24th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

There was heavy fog. 86. T’ailsŏng is a northern star sacred to Daoists. It was believed to rule over wars, natural disasters, and other calamities that affected the people.

Book IV

327

*   *   * The king appointed Kwŏn Hŭi87 as acting chancellor. For the first time, the government assigned two caretakers provisionally to each of the various royal tombs in the Northeast Region. 25th Day (Pyŏngin)

The moon approached a star in the Room Lodge (Pangsŏng). 26th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. 28th Day (Kisa)

The king bestowed robes and wine on Kim Chu,88 left director of the State Finance Commission. Left Chancellor Cho Chun made a request to implement a new law that would require a medical practitioner to be sent to treat officials suffering from ailments. The Privy Council submitted detailed measures to the king to stop abuses and irregularities concerning various issues: 87. Kwŏn Hŭi (1319–1405): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son of Kwŏn Ko, acting chancellor, and entered public service with the ŭm privilege, without taking the civil service examination. In 1363, when the Red Turban bandits invaded, he contributed to repulsing them in Changdan, Kyŏnggi Province. Later, he rose to the rank of vice grand councilor and received the title of Lord of Yŏngga. After the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, he became chancellor-­without-­portfolio and a minor merit subject. He retired in 1400 as deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission. 88. Kim Chu (?–1404): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He served as second inspector, royal secretary, assistant grand councilor during the reign of King U, and assistant administrator of the Chancellery and, concurrently, inspector-general during the reign of King Kongyang. He proposed a massive repair of the capital walls and became left director of the State Finance Commission. He also supervised the construction of the new capital at Mt. Kyeryong and later in Hanyang. T’aejo probably bestowed robes and wine on him at this time, in recognition of his service of supervising the construction of the new capital at Mt. Kyeryong.

328

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“1. Our warships are the reason that the attacks of the Japanese pirates have abated somewhat in recent days. Whenever a seaman deserts or dies, the lesser garrison commander or battalion commander should immediately send an official notice to the district magistrate to fill the vacancy, and the governor and provincial military commissioner should frequently check it out. If there is anyone among the local magistrates who fails to fill the vacancies of missing seamen, he should be beaten with a paddle ten times per person, and the punishment can be increased to an additional degree per person and extended up to ninety strokes with a paddle, but he will be allowed to return to his job. However, if the missing seamen number more than ten, the magistrate responsible will be subject to one hundred strokes with a heavy paddle and dismissed from his office. “1. When the royal guards from various provinces travel back and forth to report to their duty stations, they recklessly pass through local districts, harassing the people and causing damage to their crops. The people find it very distressing. From this day forward, they should be prohibited from entering the districts and required to make camp in open fields. Anyone who violates this injunction should be punished according to the law along with the head of his group. “1. When the slaves belonging to the warehouses of the Royal Palace and other government agencies go out to local provinces to collect taxes, they move in a large group, taking a number of horses with them. They ruthlessly collect taxes, using all kinds of unlawful means. Hence, from this day forward, each slave should not be allowed to take more than one horse with him when he goes out to collect taxes, and the collection of personal properties other than land taxes should be strictly prohibited. “1. The people who have no properties migrate from one place to another, and consequently the number of households decreases day after day. Once the household registration is made up, and it happens that the registered people continue to migrate, the head of a migrating family will be subject to one hundred strokes with a heavy paddle, and the one who receives the migrating family into his village should also be subject to the same degree of punishment. The village head who fails to immediately report on the newcomers to the authorities should be subject to seventy strokes with a heavy paddle. The magistrate who fails to return the newcomers to their original birthplace or neglects to interrogate them should be subject to sixty strokes with a heavy paddle; after the punishment, however, the magistrate should be allowed to go back to his job.

Book IV

“1. Many provinces have suffered poor crop yields this year due to severe drought. Unless measures are taken to deal with it, people will face starvation. Nevertheless, ignorant people spend their resources to sacrifice to gods, paying little attention to the impending disaster. The magistrates of districts and counties also spend a great deal of expense in entertaining their guests. We request that spending money for serving wine should be prohibited except when paying tribute to the king or offering sacrifices for the state or entertaining Chinese envoys.” The king granted the request. The government renamed the Household Secretariat (Sŏbangsaek) as the Household Service Bureau (Pongsŏguk).89 29th Day (Kyŏngo)

The king dispatched Kim Chu to Mt. Kyeryong, the [prospective] site of the new capital.

12th Month 1st Day (Imsin)

The king played kyŏkku, a ball game on horseback, with Wang U, Lord of Kwiŭi; Yu Mansu, assistant chancellor; and others, in a royal palace courtyard. 2nd Day (Kyeyu)

The West River90 was flooded by high tides, causing damage to private houses. 4th Day (Ŭlhae)

The king went out to inspect the old site of the Temple of Brilliant Rectification, designated for building the Royal Ancestral Shrine, and chose a construction supervisor. 89. Sŏbangsaek was an agency belonging to the royal quarters or the office for Palace Administration (Aekchŏngsŏ), which supplied brushes, ink sticks, and other stationery items. 90. The tributary of the South Han River that runs through the heart of Seoul.

329

330

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

5th Day (Pyŏngja)

The king commanded the Office of the Inspector-General, saying, “Since the weather is extremely cold right now, and the envoys from China are on their way to the capital, have the prohibition of alcohol lifted.” 6th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king bestowed cotton cloth upon the royal guards from the Northeast Region. 7th Day (Muin)

Kyŏng Ŭi, an envoy dispatched to China as New Year embassy, reached Liaodong, but the Chinese authorities denied him entry to China, and he returned home. 8th Day (Kimyo)

When four Chinese envoys led by Palace Attendant (Neishe) Kim Inbo91 brought a letter from the Chief Military Commission of Left Army (Zuojun dudufu), the king went out to greet them in the suburbs, leading various officials and displaying due propriety. 9th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The moon approached the Pleiades. The king bestows 100 sŏk of rice and beans on the parents of Kim Inbo and other Chinese envoys. 10th Day (Sinsa)

The king held a banquet for the Chinese envoys at Such’ang Palace. 91. He was originally a Korean who went over to China to serve in the imperial court. His official title, neishe, may be the equivalent of neishi, which means “eunuch.” The other Chinese envoys who accompanied him are also presumed to be Koreans.

Book IV

11th Day (Imo)

The king dispatched General-­in-­Chief Sim Hyosaeng to Mt. Kyeryong to stop the construction of the new capital city. Ha Yun, governor of Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces submitted his opinion to the king: “The nation’s capital should be located in the middle of the country. The area surrounding Mt. Kyeryong is too far south and therefore separated from the Northeast and Northwest Regions. Previously, I read a number of books related to geomancy in order to find an auspicious site for my father’s tomb. According to what I found, the mountain ranges in the Mt. Kyeryong area start from the northwest, and the waters in it flow toward the southeast. This is exactly the kind of place that Hu Shunchen92 of the Song dynasty warned about: ‘a land in which waters destroy long life, producing decline and defeat.’ Hence, it is not the right place for a capital city.” The king had geomancy books brought in and ordered Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief grand councilor of the Chancellery, Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, and Nam Chae, commissioner of the Security Council, and others to study them. He also ordered them to make investigations on the royal tombs of the Koryŏ dynasty to find out whether or not their sites are auspicious and to make a report to him. They examined the maps of the royal tombs in the Court of Ancestral Rites, focused on the directions of mountain ranges and rivers, and found that their luck for good or ill corresponded well with the facts. As a result, the king finally ordered Sim Hyosaeng to go down to stop the construction of the capital city at Mt. Kyeryong. The people across the country were very pleased with the news, and the book of Hu Shunchen began to be popular from that time. The king had Ha Yun review all the secret records in the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory of the previous dynasty and report to him on a new site for the capital. 13th Day (Kapsin)

Prince Chinan Yi Pangu is the eldest son of the king. He by nature enjoyed drinking until it became part of his daily life, and he finally passed away 92. A famous geomancer of Song, China, who wrote a geomancy book called Dili xinfa. Conceiving the universe as an organic whole, he finds that the lands are closely interrelated with the fortunes of humans who live on them. There are vital spots in the mountains, but the

331

332

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

after drinking soju.93 The morning audience was suspended for three days to mourn his death, and he was granted a posthumous title, Reverence and Filial Piety (Kyŏnghyo). He is survived by a son named Pokgŭn. 14th Day (Ŭlyu)

All officials offered their condolences [to the king and his royal family]. 15th Day (Pyŏngsul)

All officials bid their final farewell to the funeral carriage of Prince Chinan outside the palace gate. The Chinese envoys visited their birthplaces to see their parents and ­relatives. 16th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king bestowed cotton robes upon over ten representatives of the Wulangha tribe. 18th Day (Kich’uk)

The king returned to Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery. The Agency of Land Management Grants (Kŭpchŏnsa) of the Board of Taxation submitted a memorial to the king: “The remaining land in Kyŏnggi Province should be granted to those among the officials who received rank lands (kwajŏn) in an amount less than they were entitled to or those who were newly appointed and therefore have received no land yet. However, the descendants of local functionaries who failed to get the certificates that authorize the exemption from their hereditary status or the children of vitality of those sports depends upon the harmony or combination of various elements: yin and yang (umbral and bright) and wuxing (five phases or elements). According to the traditional Chinese cosmology, water and wind belong to yang, and earth to yin. The author of the book connected the movement of those elements or energy with the life cycle of a man or a kingdom, dividing good and bad fortunes into twelve categories. His theory had great influence over the people of Korea at the beginning of the Chosŏn dynasty in the selection of the site for their new capital. 93. A distilled beverage native to Korea.

Book IV

public and private slaves, artisans and merchants, shamans, entertainers, dancing girls, and monks and nuns, who are unlawfully employed by the government, should not be provided with any land at all.” The king said, “The local functionaries who are no longer bound by their hereditary status and have rendered service to the country should be provided with land, even if they do not have the certificate of exemption. Those who were newly appointed and rendered service to the country as well as those who have only dedicated themselves to their duties for the country since their appointment should also be provided with land regardless of their social status or family history.” 19th Day (Kyŏngin)

The king appointed Kim Sŏngju, palace censor, as myriarch of Isŏng and Cho Ch’i, the bailiff of the Office of the Inspector-General, as the special inspector (hŏmch’al pyŏlgam)94 of the Northwest Region. 21st Day (Imjin)

An official of the Directorate for Palace Maintenance was put in the Cap­ ital Constabulary Prison because the outer coffin of Prince Chinan that he made was too small to fit the inner coffin. He was released from jail on the kabo day.95 27th Day (Musul)

The remonstrators and the Office of the Inspector-General impeached Chancellery Scholar Yi Yŏm: “We believe that the following is a matter of grave importance. Confucius said, ‘An envoy sent to any quarter should not disgrace his prince’s commission.’96 The officials who have visited the Chinese court as envoy since Your Majesty ascended the throne all received a great grace from the emperor. Yi Yŏm, however, made a mistake when he had an audience with the emperor and was physically beaten in the presence of the emperor, 94. The word hŏmch’al means “personal inspection.” However, the exact function of the special inspector is not clear. 95. The Kabo day, according to a source, was the 23rd day. 96. “Zilu,” Confucius, p. 271. Legge’s translation was revised to fit the context here.

333

334

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

making himself a laughingstock in China. Furthermore, our envoys got banned from entering China thereafter. “There must have been a reason when this happened. The incident should have been seriously discussed and dealt with according to law. Nevertheless, no measures were taken, and the person who made the mistake still remains in his post, enjoying your favor. So there is no one among the officials and the people across the country who is not complaining about this. We, therefore, request you to give orders to revoke his appointment certificate and conduct interrogations concerning his mistake so that the morale of the officials can be restored.” The king told them to only revoke his letter of appointment. 28th Day (Kihae)

The king pardoned all prisoners except those sentenced to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation. 29th Day (Kyŏngja)

The king returned from Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery with the queen and dismounted from his royal carriage at the private home of Kwŏn Son in Yujŏngdong.97

97. Yujŏngdong was a village in Kaesŏng. Kwŏn Son served as magistrate of Hansŏng during the reign of Sejong, but little information is available about his personal relationship with T’aejo.

Book V

Third Year of Reign (1394) 1st Month 1st Day (Sinchíuk)

The king went to Such’ang Palace, leading all officials in a ceremony to congratulate the Chinese emperor on New Year’s Day. 2nd Day (Imin)

The king ordered to have the western bedchambers of Such’ang Palace pulled down to build a two-­story palace, and put Kim Sahaeng in charge of its construction. 4th Day (Kapchin)

The king sent the crown prince to Chaun Monastery1 to hold a Dharma assembly with a sacrifice called sadae yŏnsŏng pŏpsŏk, which was designed to prevent stellar catastrophes from taking place. The king personally attended the assembly and watched the proceedings. 7th Day (Chŏngmi)

On the seventh day of the New Year (inil), the king went to Such’ang Palace to accept felicitations from officials. Later, he visited the construction site



1. One of the ten Buddhist temples in Kaesŏng.

335

336

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of the Royal Ancestral Shrine. He said to the supervisor, “Carry out everything in a simple way without harassing people.” The king ordered the Office of the Inspector-General to enforce the alcohol prohibition law once again. 11th Day (Sinhae)

The king gave orders to the Office of the Inspector-General: “Let the Wine Bureau (Saonsŏ)2 sell wine to those who want to offer a sacrifice.” 12th Day (Imja)

The king led an entourage of officials outside Sŏnŭimun Gate to greet Chinese imperial envoys No T’anae, Pak Tŏngnyong, Chŏng Ching, and others, who were bringing a letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army. The letter read as follows: “On the twentieth day of the eleventh month of the twenty-­sixth year (1393) of the reign of Hongwu, the Ninghai Guard (Ninghaiwei) of the Regional Military Commission of Shandung captured a Korean bandit named Ch’oe Togi and sent him to our headquarters. According to the deposition he made, he is a resident of Nojildong, Sukchu,3 in Korea. In the seventh day of the seventh month of the twenty-­sixth year of the reign of Hongwu, the king of Koryŏ [Chosŏn] ordered Myriarch Kim Saŏn and chiliarchs, including Ch’a Sŏngbu, Yi Pusu, Im Wŏn, Im Ch’ŏngŏn, Yi Pulsu, and Hong Ch’ungŏn, and company commanders, including Chŏng Yung, Hong Wŏn, and Im Ch’ungwŏn, to take ships and disguise their soldiers as traveling merchants to gather information on our domestic affairs. He provided them with 7 ships, each ship carrying 37 soldiers and 2 large rolls of hemp cloth. So the total number of the crew who boarded the 7 ships amounted to 259, and the cloth amounted to 560 bolts. Then he told them, according to the investigations, that he would raise an army and attack Liaodong if there were no large Chinese army around. A little later, he additionally sent 10 more ships, having each ship carry 37 soldiers as well as weapons. Thus, the total number of the crew amounted to 270. 2. It was a government agency established to supply wine and sweet drink in the royal palace. 3. An old name of Sukch’ŏn in the Northwest Region (South P’yŏngan Province).

Book V

“In addition, according to the deposition made by Chiliarch Kim Wan’gwi in our custody, the company commander of the Jurchen army, named Kim Kwangŭi, contended that the whole thing was the conspiracy of Imgaryongŭi, administrator of Kŭmsŏng, and Magistrate Yŏgyunp’iryŏk and others, and therefore he had nothing to do with what happened and those who were involved in the incident were now residing in P’ildun and Kuja.4 “Left Commissioner Yang Wen and other officials of our Chief Military Commission of the Left Army took the depositions of the interrogated individuals to Fengtianmen Gate and submitted them to the emperor. The instructions we received from the emperor were as follows: ‘Your Chief Military Commission should make an official document regarding this incident and send it to Korea so that Yi [T’aejo] may know about it. Let them know that their disguising themselves as Japanese marauders indicates that they want to cause more trouble. Tell them to send us the officials who tried to lure Jurchens.’ Thus was the imperial instruction. The king had the Training Agency of the Middle Army (Chunggun Kunhuso) abolished and Merged into the Military Training Agency (Hullyŏn’gwan). 13th Day (Kyech’uk)

The Office of the Inspector-General was harsh in its crackdown on alcohol prohibition, so the king summoned Kim Kudŏk,5 inspector of miscellaneous affairs, and gave an instruction: “One who is sick can take wine as medicine. Is it right, then, to punish him for violating the law? The purpose of alcohol prohibition is mainly to prevent the people from having parties and excessively indulging in drinking.” 14th Day (Kabin)

Trees were covered with frost. The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace and inspected the royal bedchamber, which was under construction. 4. P’ildun and Kuja appear to be small military towns established in the Yalu River areas. However, the names of individuals residing in them are confusing if not complicated. There is a good possibility that these names are fictitious or fabricated because they are not Korean names. 5. Kim Kudŏk (?–1428): an official of early Chosŏn. He also served as magistrate of Hanyang, governor of Kangwŏn Province, and director of the Royal House Administration.

337

338

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The magistrates of Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces arrived, recruiting workers to construct the fortification of the capital. 15th Day (Ŭlmyo)

Trees were covered with hoarfrost. 16th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king went to Such’ang Palace. He dispatched An Chongwŏn, grand councilor of the Chancellery, and Yi Sŭngwŏn, deputy director of the Security Council, to the Chinese capital and had them express gratitude to the emperor on his behalf by submitting his memorial. The memorial he sent to the emperor read as follows: “Since you send your imperial envoys one after another with your instructions, I am tearfully grateful and at the same time ashamed to the point of sweating. I am well aware that the countries that border China, all with differing customs, have paid tribute to China since antiquity. Hence I am always mindful of your grace and in awe of your mighty power. I indeed have tried to serve you with unbound loyalty because I cannot survive unless I do so. Furthermore, I was fortunate to live in an enlightened age and to benefit from your noble instructions on multiple occasions. You entrusted me with the power to rule my kingdom and allowed me to change its country name from Koryŏ to Chosŏn. Since I stabilized the state on the strength of your sacred authority and dignity, I worried that I might not be able to repay the favor you gave to me. Then how dare I bring you troubles endangering our relationship? “One of your imperial instructions, which I received through the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, was as follows: ‘You sent your man to request me to allow you to change your country name. So I gave you my permission to change it to Chosŏn if you cherish its legacy. You changed your country name but continued to refer to yourself as provisional ruler (kwŏnji kuksa) just as you used to, which I cannot understand.’ “The reason that I continued to present myself inappropriately as I used to do even after changing the country name is because I was not conversant with relevant precedents, not because I had certain schemes in mind. I

Book V

believe that your severe reprimands were intended to make me a better person, and your kind persuasion motivated to raise me with affection, which is similar to the words of a parent who raises a child. Now that I have your instruction, I will certainly follow it. “Your Majesty, with your extraordinary intelligence, closely observes even the most distant places and generously forgives a mistake I made in ignorance, which I believe is intended to give me an opportunity to mend my ways. The people of my small kingdom and I forever wish you a long life.” The king ordered able-­bodied men mobilized from each province to assist in the construction of the capital fortifications. Pak Wi, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, was confined in the Capital Constabulary Prison. Prior to his imprisonment, Kim Kahaeng, magistrate of Tongnae, and Pak Chungjil, director of the Saltern Office (yŏmjanggwan), and others visited a blind fortuneteller named Yi Hŭngmu at his home in Milsŏng (Miryang)6 to read the future of the newly established dynasty and the fortune of the royal Wang clan. Their action was discovered by the authorities, and the king had the fortuneteller Hŭngmu jailed in the Capital Constabulary Prison and ordered the Office of Remon­ strance and the Office of the Inspector-General (Sŏnghŏn) and the Board of Punishments to conduct investigations on the incident, along with the Cap­ ital Constabulary (Sun’gun manhobu). Hŭngmu made the following confession: “Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, and others, at the request of Pak Wi, came to see me and asked, ‘Who has the better fortune, King Kongyang of Koryŏ or His Majesty the king?7 And who is the most fortunate person among the members of the Wang clan?’ So I told him that Prince Namp’yŏng Wang Hwa was the most outstanding in his fortune, and next was Prince Yŏngp’yŏng Wang Kŏ.” As a result, the king put Pak Wi in jail and ordered the officers of the Capital Constabulary to go down to Kyŏngsang Province to arrest Kim Kahaeng and Pak Chungjil.



6. Miryang, South Kyŏngsang Province 7. King T’aejo Yi Sŏnggye.

339

340

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

17th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king dispatched Kim Yŏnghwa, judge of the Capital Constabulary (Sun’gun chinmu), Chiliarch Yu Yang, and others to relocate the Wang clan members to Kŏje Island. He also sent General-­in-­Chief Sim Hyosaeng to have Wang Hwa and Wang Kŏ confined in Andong Prison. 18th Day (Muo)

The king sent an official to Pak Wi [in prison] to persuade him, bestowing wine and taking off his handcuffs. He said, “How can I believe that you did such a thing? If Kahaeng and Chungjil arrive and you prove your case, you will be released soon. Since this incident had to do with the security of the state, I was not able to interfere in it personally. So I had no choice but to have you confined. I completely forgive people regardless of their crimes. Then how can I make you an exception? Trust me and do not be agitated.” Kwŏn Chu, former third royal secretary, died. His clan seat was Andong. He was the son of Kwŏn Yŏm, Lord of Hyŏnbok, and the grandson of Kwŏn Yŏm, Lord of Kilch’ang. Being upright and sincere, he devoted himself to his studies and passed the civil service examination. He was appointed to various important posts, concurrently serving in the prestigious Office of Special Counselors and at the National Academy. Early in his career he became the magistrate of two districts, Ch’ungju and Hwangju, and governed them both with benevolence. Thereafter, he was summoned to the capital to serve as chief royal secretary (chisinsa), and when he presided over the civil service examination at the National Academy, no one found fault with him. His rank reached academician of the Security Council. He had two sons, Hun and Po, and they both passed the civil service examination. The government had the stipend of the sinecure officials (kŏmgyo)8 of each rank fixed lower than that of regular officials by three grades. 8. During Koryŏ and Chosŏn, sinecures called kŏmgyo were awarded to those who rendered service to the country. Since the number of offices and positions were limited by law, this system served to curb the expansion of the government bureaucracy. However, as the number of titular position holders increased later, it brought about the loss of national revenue because they were exempted from various privileges and duties.

Book V

341

*   *   * The Privy Council requested that the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources (Sajaegam)9 administer both public and private fish traps and salt production, while restoring the salt production of military colonies on the borders to meet military expenses. The Bureau of Capital Markets (Kyŏngsisŏ)10 requested that a regulation be made requiring each store to hang a wooden board bearing its name along with an image of its merchandise, to eliminate confusion. 20th Day (Kyŏngsin)

When the authorities brought to the court Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, and others [who were involved in the conspiracy related to the members of the Wang clan], the king ordered them interrogated. 21st Day (Sinyu)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial: “Together with the Capital Constabulary, we conducted an interrogation on the crimes of Yi Hŭngmu, Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, and others. Since our findings concern state security, decisions cannot be made lightly. We request that the interrogation of the suspects be carried out in one specified place so that the evidence can be collected more effectively, and thereby justice can be administered for their crimes.” Refusing to grant the request, the king forgave Pak Wi11 and reinstated him. Then he said, “Even if Wi harbored thoughts of betraying my trust from the beginning, how dare he do anything against me after I generously 9. It was a government agency established to deal with affairs concerning fish and meat, salt, firewood, and torches for public purposes. 10. Also called Kyŏngsigam, it supervised price control, merchants, weights and measures, etc. 11. Pak Wi (?–1398) supported T’aejo in the military campaign against Liaodong in 1388, joining the latter in deposing King Ch’ang and enthroning King Kongyang. After T’aejo ascended the throne, he served as military commander of Yanggwang Province and repulsed the Japanese invaders. After Pak became embroiled in the Yi Hŭngmu conspiracy and was accused of treason, T’aejo generously pardoned him. However, he was arrested in 1398 when the First Strife of Princes broke out and was eventually executed for siding with Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and the other rebels.

342

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

granted him high rank and post? It is not easy to find talented men like Pak Wi.” As for Chungjil, Kahaeng, Hŭngmu, and the others, he had them beaten with a heavy paddle and then exiled to border regions. The Censorate and the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial requesting that the king remove the Wang clan. The king refused their request. 23rd Day (Kyehae)

The king inspected the city walls under construction. 25th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. The king ordered Cho Ki [commissioner of the Royal Guards] to have some officers and hallyang officials under the command of various military commissioners (who received land from the government but were living outside the capital and failed to guard the royal family) checked out and punished. The Censorate and the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial illustrating the crimes of Wang Kang, Wang Sŭngbo, Wang Sŭnggwi, and Pak Wi and requested that they should not be allowed to live in the capital. The king refused to grant their request. 27th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The king dispatched Chŏng Tojŏn, chief military commissioner of the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies, to offer the grand sacrifice (tailao) to the banner12 of the military commander. Chŏng Tojŏn and the participating generals who accompanied him were all dressed in armor and performed the sacrifice. After the sacrifice was over, Chiliarch Yu Sŏbong13 suddenly died. 12. “Banner” here indicates the one called tok, which is carried at the head of the military procession or with the royal carriage of the king. In ancient times, there was a shrine for these banners, and sacrifices were offered twice a year. The grand sacrifice called tailao or taeroe in Korean, originally consisted of three main livestock animals ― ox, lamb and pig ―but it was scaled down to only one animal later. 13. Unknown.

Book V

28th Day (Mujin)

The commanders and officers under the command of various military commissioners received a beating with a heavy paddle because their superiors failed to attend the sacrifice to the banner. Chŏn I, magistrate of Koksan, submitted a proposal to the Privy Council: “As I hear, it is the general and permanent law of the nation to prepare against unexpected troubles by training soldiers and stocking up on provisions. However, the troops cannot be hidden from the enemy unless they have rugged places as cover, and the military provisions they saved can only help the enemy when they have no strong fortresses to protect them. Only after the provisions are safely preserved in strong fortresses and the troops are stationed at strategic points can our army fight against an exhausted enemy, and our well-­nourished army can then wait for the starved enemy, and eventually they will be able to suppress the enemy. “In earlier times, when Tang emperor Taizong invaded to attack our Ansi Fortress, Generals Ko Yŏnsu and Ko Hyejin14 were dispatched to save the fortress. Taizong said to his generals, ‘The best action Yŏnsu can take to fight against us is to build and fortify the bastions along the fortresses and take their time, waiting in the rugged places and eating their provisions until our army gets tired.’ When Yŏnsu and Hyejin were about to leave, the chancellor [Ko Chŏngŭi],15 who was old and experienced, said to them, ‘Taizong of Tang is known to be the most distinguished and talented person in his time, and he arrived leading all his armies. So it is not a good idea to risk a direct confrontation with them. What you should do is wait indefinitely, without fighting, and carry out surprise attacks to cut off their supply lines. When they run out of provisions, they cannot fight even if they want to, and they cannot go back because there will be no route they can take. Then you can surely win the war.’ “Nevertheless, Yŏnsu disregarded his advice and decided to confront the enemy directly. As a result, he lost the battle and surrendered to the enemy. What the chancellor said to Yŏnsu, therefore, was no other than what 14. The military generals of Koguryŏ during the reign of King Pojang (642–668). When Tang emperor Taizong attacked Ansi Fortress in 645, they fought with an the army of 150,000 Korean and Mohe troops, lost, and surrendered to the Tang emperor along with their army. 15. A chancellor and military strategist during the reign of King Pojang of Koguryŏ.

343

344

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Taizong called ‘the best way that Yŏnsu can take.’ If Yŏnsu had followed the chancellor’s advice, Taizong would have withdrawn his army, because he could not wait until the grass dried and water froze. Though the relief army [led by Yŏnsu] was defeated from outside [the fortress], Ansi Fortress was able to survive without surrendering to the enemy because it refrained from attacking the enemy recklessly. So Taizong finally withdrew his armies back to his country, after displaying their power under the ramparts, making lame excuses that winter comes early in Liaodong. “The reason that Taizong, with his intelligence and boldness, and Li Ji,16 with his courage and wisdom, were unable to take that single fortress of ours was because the fortress was on rugged terrain, well stocked with provisions, and courageously defended by our soldiers, wasn’t it? “Now our dynasty has newly established laws and institutions, and when it comes to the ways of raising armies to defend the country against the enemy, they are more detailed and meticulous than ever. However, when it comes to places to store provisions and station troops, the situation remains unchanged. This is why I dare to decide to make this presumptuous proposal despite my foolishness and inexperience. “Last winter, I traveled to the northern part of our district for inspection and observed the topography of that region. A fortress was situated on a rugged mountain, and I found a good place for storing military provisions and weapons. The fortress is 150 li away from Hwaryŏng to the east and only three or four post-­horse stops from Sŏngju to the west. This is indeed a strategic point connecting the Northeast and Northwest Regions. Sages said that a little preparation can save a lot of trouble, and the School of the Military (Pyŏngga) teaches that one can win the war only when he carries himself as if he faced the enemy. If event such as attacking Ansi Fortress happen, battles can be won when one takes an appropriate measure that can be found in the advice of Chancellor Ko. If there are no provisions for emergency, how can we deal with the crisis? “In my humble opinion, if the grains produced from the eight districts of Koksan, Ich’ŏn, Hyŏpkye, Suan, Samdŭng, Sŏngju, Yangam, and Sudŏk are all set aside for military provisions and the officials of the Quartermaster Bureau personally visit these places to collect the grains and transport them 16. Originally called Li Shiji (594―669), he became one of the most outstanding generals during the reign of Taizong. He served as the commander of the army against Koguryŏ and eventually took it over in 668.

Book V

to the mountain fortress in Koksan, we can secure within three or four years enough provisions to feed tens of thousands of soldiers for a few years. If war happens to break out, we can station tens of thousands of soldiers in the mountain fortress and let them wait for an opportunity while subsisting on those provisions. “If the enemy recklessly invades our territory, we will take the roads starting from Yŏngam and Sudŏk and run quickly and unnoticed through Maengju and Tŏkchu, launch a surprise attack on the enemy from either the front or the back, and cut off their military supply lines. This is one of the military strategies for commanding troops. It is also possible for our army to be stationed in the rugged place, subsist on the prepared provisions, display its military power, and lend support to our armies in P’yŏngyang and Hwaryŏng.” When the Privy Council submitted the proposal to the king, the king was pleased to read it and ordered its implementation. 29th Day (Kisa)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial to the king: “We earnestly urge you to relocate Wang Kang, Wang Sŭngbo, Wang Sŭnggwi, and Wang Kyŏk to an island in the sea.” The king summoned the officials of the Censorate and the Board of Punishments and told them not to mention the matter concerning Wang clan members. Then they replied, “Such people will betray you, no matter how generously you treat them. Furthermore, Kang is extremely resourceful, and Sŭngbo and Sŭnggwi matchless in courage and strength. If they remain in the capital, they will certainly raise a disturbance that is unpredictable. Therefore, we urge you to prevent potential problems in the future by granting our request.” The king replied, “How can I not know it? Just let them out of prison for now.” Then, he summoned Kang and others and said, “I believe that you are all men of ability, and that is why I brought you all to the capital to reside. My trust in you remains strong, and I have no suspicions whatsoever. Since I have already forgiven you, you don’t have to worry. I want you to continue to carry yourselves as you used to.” 30th Day (Kyŏngo)

The king went to Such’ang Palace and walked around to inspect the construction of city walls.

345

346

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

2nd Month 1st Day (Sinmi)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments submitted another memorial requesting that the king exile Wang Kang and others. The king did not grant their request. 4th Day (Kapsul)

The king looked around and inspected the construction of the walls of the capital. 6th Day (Pyŏngja)

Trees were covered with hoarfrost. A fire broke out on the east side of the servants’ quarters at the National University. The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial to the king: “We examined the depositions made by Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, and the blind man Yi Hŭngmu and found their crimes were related to state security. So we previously submitted a joint memorial to bring their crimes to light. Your Majesty, however, decided to have mercy on them and only exiled them to various districts separately. We were naturally very disappointed and worried about the consequences for the future of the state. “At the moment, we have also found that the depositions made by Wang Hwa, Wang Kŏ, and monk Sŏngnŭng related to state security. The circumstances revealed in their depositions are different from those in that of Hŭngmu, but the details of their cases are essentially the same. Clearly, they committed treason, and their crime cannot be forgiven according to the law of the state. “Those who commit wicked acts generally form a band first. Hence, the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) teaches that traitorous subjects and sons should be punished only after punishing their associates first, so that those evildoers can be isolated and helpless. The Spring and Autumn Annals was emphatic about this.

Book V

“Unless Your Majesty interrogates these kinds of people and exposes their crimes to the public, we are afraid that wicked leaders will arise one after another to bring about unexpected trouble. It cannot be denied that our recent problems with the suzerain state [China] have to do with these groups of people who spread groundless rumors in China. So we urge Your Majesty to decide according to what is right and let the censors and other law enforcement officials arrest the aforementioned people and bring their crimes to light by interrogating them and at the same time root out potential trouble by suppressing their clique. Since we make this request for the sake of the state, which is to last forever, Your Majesty should pay close attention to it.” The king ordered the Censorate and the officials of the Board of Punishments to arrest Chungjil, Wang Hwa, and others and to have them detained in Suwŏn Prefecture for interrogation. The officials of the Censorate and the Board of Punishments did not come to work out of protest that their proposals had been rejected. The king summoned those officials and instructed them, saying, “I did not grant your requests only because I wanted to have time to think about them more deeply. You should come to work.” 8th Day (Muin)

The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: The governor of Left Kyŏnggi Province reported as follows: ‘When local magistrates are transferred or take over, they only review the handover records without checking the amount of money and grains in the district warehouses. As a result, the grains that were recklessly spent, stolen, damaged by rain or humidity, or spoiled by rats are mostly unaccounted for, and no one takes responsibility for this. After several years pass, investigations on grain losses become useless because it is hard to tell exactly when the losses took place. Though preventing rats from damaging the grain is difficult, the damage also results from lack of attention to the problem. The same is true with rain damage. From this day forward, the magistrates who depart or arrive should personally verify that the recorded amount of grain is correct. If they find any shortage, they should ensure that double the amount of grain recklessly wasted or stolen is returned by the perpetrator. Grain damaged by rain or rats should also be fully replaced. After this process is

347

348

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

duly completed, the transfer of the magistrates can be authorized, and this procedure should be made permanent by law. “The Privy Council reviewed the proposal and found it appropriate. From this day forward, new and old grains should be kept in separate granaries. When they have to be kept in the same granary, a partition is needed to separate them so that old grains can be released first. The grain recklessly wasted or stolen should be replaced with twice the amount, and the rat-­ damaged grain by half the original amount. The grain damaged by rain and humidity should be replaced by new grain, and those who violate these regulations punished according to the law.” The king followed the advice. A fire broke out in the Great Market, burning down the servants’ quarters. 9th Day (Kimyo)

There was a halo around the sun. 11th Day (Sinsa)

The king watched the Dharma assembly for the worship of Manjusri at Yŏnbok Monastery and visited the private home of Chŏng Hŭigye, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, before returning to Such’ang Palace. The Censorate and the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial to the king: “We request that you allow us to cross-­examine Wang Hwa, Wang Kŏ, Sŏngnŭng, Yi Hŭngmu, Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, and others at one place.” The king ordered the Censorate, the Board of Punishments, and the Cap­ ital Constabulary to choose a single official to conduct the cross-­examination at Suwŏn Prefecture together with the governor of Yanggwang Province. Kwŏn Munŭi and Yun Ch’ang, third inspectors; Chŏng Kwijin, remonstrating censor; Ch’oe Sagang, left reminder; Yi Pongnye, bailiff; and others were impeached by the Censorate and the Board of Punishments. Earlier, the officials from the three agencies (samgwan)17 had a meeting to discuss the matter concerning the elimination of Prince Kongyang and 17. The Office of the Inspector-General, the Office of the Censor-General, and the Board of Punishments.

Book V

his two sons, Wang U and his two sons, and Wang Kang, Wang Sŭngbo, Wang Sŭnggwi,18 as well as others. They said, “Yesterday we jointly submitted a memorial to the king requesting that the members of the Wang clan be eliminated. Since we failed to obtain the king’s permission, how about submitting another memorial, making a request to allow us to eliminate Wang Kang, Wang Sŭngbo, and Wang Sŭnggwi?” Kwŏn Munŭi and others said, “If you want to eliminate the Wang clan, you must insist on eliminating them all. Why do you single out Wang Kang and the others?”19 For making a remark such as this, Munŭi and others were impeached. 12th Day (Imo)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. He had an official who supervised the construction of the semicircular chemise (ongsŏng) of Sŏsomun Gate20 exiled to the military garrison in Ongjin21 because the walls were tilting and in danger of collapse. The king ordered the officials of all ranks, both civil and military, to provide workers for the construction of the walls of the capital in accordance with their ranks. 13th Day (Kyemi)

An Ch’ŏsŏn, the navy deputy commander (sugun ch’ŏm ch’ŏmchŏlchesa) of Kyŏngsang Province, beheaded twelve Japanese pirates and submitted their heads to the king along with the weapons he had captured. The king bestowed royal wine (kung’on) and silk upon him. 14th Day (Kapsin)

The king, together with the queen, paid a visit to Yŏnbok Monastery and watched the Dharma assembly for the worship of Manjusri. 18. Though these people were the members of the Koryŏ Wang clan, they assisted T’aejo and became merit subjects, except for Wang Sŭngbo. T’aejo wanted to save them, but they were eventually executed in 1394, when the purge of the Koryŏ Wang clan occurred. 19. T’aejo was reluctant to eliminate some of the Wang clan members, including Wang Kang and Wang Sŭngbo, because he was indebted to their help during his struggle. However, the speaker here wants to eliminate the Wang clan as a whole. Knowing that this was contrary to the king’s wishes, the Censorate impeached the officials involved in the above discussion. 20. This refers to the one in Kaesŏng, not in Hanyang. 21. A district in Hwanghae Province.

349

350

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The king ordered sinecure officials to help provide the workers for the construction of the walls of the capital in accordance with their rank. The king commanded Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission; Yi Mubang, chancellor-­without-­portfolio; Chŏng Tojŏn, direc­ ­tor of the State Finance Commission; Sŏng Sŏngnin, assistant chancellor; Min Che, grand academician; Nam Ŭn, assistant grand councilor of the Chan­ ­cellery; Chŏng Ch’ong, senior secretary of the Security Council; Kwŏn Kŭn, grand academician-­without-­portfolio; Yi Chik, academician of the Security Coun­­cil; and Yi Kŭn, inspector-general, to review (along with Ha Yun, governor of Left [Kyŏnggi] Province) the secret records (pirok) of various sages throughout the history of the Eastern Kingdom [Korea] and submit the essential points extracted from these records. 15th Day (Ŭlyu)

In response to the envoy’s request, the king raised the status of Miryang from county to prefecture because it was the birthplace of Kim Inbo, imperial envoy from China. Yi Hwang, magistrate of Kyŏngsan, found in Habin District22 a strange plant that was red, three-­branched, and looked like a mushroom. Presuming it to be auspicious, he sent it to the private residence of Nam Ŭn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery. Nam Ŭn recognized that it was Lingzhi mushroom, used in making an elixir of immortality. So he presented it to the king. The king gave orders to rebuild Sŏsomun Gate. He warned the workers by beheading a monk who worked as a stonemason and hanging his head on top of the gate. 16th Day (Pyŏngsul)

The king went to Such’ang Palace. Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission, and others presented the king with a copy of the

22. Located in the west of Taegu Strategic Prefecture.

Book V

Compendium of Secret Records (Pirok ch’alyo). The king then ordered Ha Yun and Yi Chik to make presentations concerning it. 17th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king attended the Manjusri Buddhist ceremony at Yŏnbok Monastery. Royal Preceptor Chach’o requested that the king pardon prisoners, and he granted his request. The king dispatched Yi Kŏi, policy advisor; Pak Sin, second inspector; Chŏn Si, section chief of the Board of Punishments; Sŏng Po, administrative commissioner of the Capital Constabulary (Sun’gun chisa); and others to Suwŏn Prefecture to interrogate Wang Hwa, Wang Kŏ, monk Sŏngnŭng, Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, Yi Hŭngmu, and others. 18th Day (Muja)

The king held a banquet at Such’ang Palace for the visiting Chinese envoys and bestowed on each of them one nugget (chŏng) of silver, forty bolts of black hemp and ramie fabric, and one saddle. The king ordered eleven officials, including Cho Chun, left chancellor, and Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission, to go down to inspect the terrain south of Muak 23 for a site of the new capital. They were also ordered to take an official from the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory and geomancy books24 with them. 19th Day (Kichíuk)

Imperial envoys Kim Inbo and Zhang Fujie returned to China. The king asked them to convey a memorial to the emperor and led various officials to Sŏnŭimun Gate to see them off. The memorial to the Chinese emperor was as follows: “On the eighth day of the twelfth month of the twenty-­sixth year (1393) of the reign of Hongwu, imperial envoys Kim Inbo and others visited us, 23. It refers to Mt. Muak, located at West Gate in Seoul. 24. The geomancy books mentioned here are presumed to be part of the Compendium of Secret Records that Kwŏn Chunghwa and other officials presented to the king a couple of days earlier.

351

352

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

bringing an official letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, and through the letter I received your sacred instruction. This is a summary of what was stated: ‘How come Yi [Sŏnggye] of Koryŏ never stops causing trouble on the border every year? It is because he believes that his country is safely surrounded by the sea and range upon range of rugged mountains. So he often dared to provoke us, mistaking our military capability as something similar to that of Han or Tang China. The generals of Han and Tang were only good at horsemanship and archery but poor at navigating the sea, so they had difficulties in crossing the sea and transporting their troops. I fought both on land and sea to conquer the whole of China and suppress barbarians. How can my navy commanders be compared to their counterparts in the days of the Han and Tang? If you want to prevent our armies from reaching your shore, you must return to us all the Jurchens you have lured so far as well as your battalion commander on the border who lured them. From this day forward, you should stop causing trouble on the border and make the lives of your people comfortable. Then you will be able to rule your country with no problems, and your descendants will prosper.’ “I respectfully believe that our small kingdom has served the Heavenly Kingdom [China] with the utmost sincerity of heart. How dare I cause trouble on the border? In a narrow land with a small population, which mountains and seas can I rely on? And how can I recklessly provoke you? I have never lured any Jurchens as far as I know, but you said that I did. I am so afraid and do not know what to do. “My ancestors were originally Koreans. Yi Han, my twenty-­second-­ generation ancestor, served as minister of works in the kingdom of Silla. As Silla collapsed, Kŭnghyu, a sixth-­generation descendant of Han, served in the court of Koryŏ. Ansa, a thirteenth-­generation descendant of Kŭnghyu, served in the Yuan government during the Koryŏ period, and he is my great­great-­grandfather. Thereafter, no one in my family served in the Koryŏ government for years. At the end of the Yuan dynasty, however, disturbances broke out, and my father, Chach’un, took refuge in the eastern part of our country, leading his family, including myself. It so happened that Japanese marauders, as well as Mao Yuanshuai, Guan Xiansheng, and Nahachu,25 25. Mao Yuanshuai and Guan Xiansheng were the commanders of the Red Turban bandits who invaded Koryŏ in 1361. Nahachu was the Yuan general who invaded Ssangsŏng in the Northeast Region in 1362, leading an army of thirty thousand or so but defeated badly by the forces led by T’aejo.

Book V

invaded consecutively. Having practiced some martial arts, I was assigned to lead the army to battle, but my rank was not very high. During the sixteen­year period starting from the death of King Kongmin to the rule of the false king U who usurped the throne, powerful officials such as Yi Inim, Im Kyŏnmi, and Yŏm Hŭngbang all abused their power, causing harm and damage to the people until they brought themselves to self-­destruction. “Being discreet and free from mistakes, I was appointed vice chancellor (sumuhasijung)26 and participated in the government for the first time. However, Ch’oe Yŏng, with the support of the false king U, unexpectedly contrived an outrageous scheme to raise an army to attack Liaodong, China. Believing that it was inappropriate for a small kingdom to dare to violate the territory of the suzerain state, I persuaded my colleagues and other commanders and marched back home with our army. As a result, the false king U realized that he had made a mistake, and Ch’oe Yŏng was punished with death. “The people of the country had Wang Yo, a descendant of the royal Wang family, rule the state provisionally, with Chŏng Mongju as his chancellor. However, disregarding the lesson from the failure of Ch’oe Yŏng, Mongju conspired with Wang Yo to attack Liaodong once again. Their reckless plan drew criticism from the people. Consequently, Wang Yo retired to his private residence, and Mongju was put to death. Now people concluded that they were unable to find a man of virtue among the royal Wang clan who could meet their expectations, and at the same time they decided that the seat of the head of state could not remain unoccupied even for a day. So all the officials of high and low ranks, as well as hallyang and retired senior officials, importuned me to ascend the throne and assume control of state affairs. Then I immediately submitted a memorial for your permission, and you graciously granted my request. “Being originally a military person, I have little knowledge and understanding. Besides, my forefathers who served in the Koryŏ dynasty had no power to rely on. Under the circumstances, I was fortunate to receive great favors from you and finally arrived at where I am. Hence, my sincerity towards Your Majesty is as clear as the sun in the sky. If I continued to contrive cunning schemes against you notwithstanding the foregoing incidents 26. The word su prefixing the title of sijung, or chancellor, means acting or probationary. However, su sijung here indicates one of the two chancellors, whose rank was lower than the other.

353

354

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

caused by Ch’oe Yŏng and Chŏng Mongju, how could my people forgive me even if you may want to? If I am not so senseless as wood or stone, why should I dare to cause trouble and bring disaster to myself for no reason, exhausting my spirit and energy? If I really tried to deceive you, Heaven and Earth as well as the spirits would look down and see me. “Let me now respond to your reprimands one by one, explaining the real situations related to them. The first item (kuan) was as follows: ‘Whenever the imperial court dispatched generals to defend Liaodong, you also quickly sent your men to present them with things such as fabric, silk, gold, and silver under the pretext of paying respect to them. But your real intention was to lure our generals on the border.’ I conducted an investigation into this allegation. When our envoys visit the Chinese capital, they are required to pass through Liaodong without exception. Out of their respect for the suzerain state, they offered their local products such as fabric [to the officials in charge] as gifts, which they believed to be common courtesy. If their gifts were nothing but the signs of their courtesy and respect, how could they intend to lure your officials? “The second item was as follows: ‘Recently you sent a man to the quarters of Prince of Qi27 to pay your respects, but the man you sent falsely accused his own country in the prince’s presence; I believe he was intended to spy on our side.’ I conducted an investigation into the above allegation. When our envoys visit the Chinese capital, they have to pass through the domain of Prince of Qi. Naturally, they stopped by the residence of His Highness Prince of Qi and offered gifts they brought in accordance with propriety. If our envoys made any mistakes in their speech, they were personal in nature and therefore have nothing to do with their government. “The third item was as follows: ‘You vowed to keep promises but repeatedly broke them after your envoys returned. You lured over 500 Jurchens and secretly crossed the Yalu River. Is this the way you keep your promise? Nothing can be more damaging to our relationship than that.’ I conducted an investigation into the above allegation. Some of our soldiers and people continued to run away to Liaodong to join the Chinese army or reside there temporarily. Although we never tried to lure them, they missed their home so much that they escaped to return to their home and hid out in mountain valleys. At first, I did not know about it. After receiving a letter from the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong, however, I arrested 23 people,

27. Zhu Pu, seventh son of Hongwu Emperor.

Book V

including Squad Commander (xiaoqi) Yi Hanni, and sent them to the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong. Later, on the thirteenth day of the fifth month of the twenty-­sixth year (1393) of the reign of Hongwu, I received your letter and immediately ordered all the local governments in the Northwest Region to search these people out. Consequently, 383 people, with their families, including a Korean named Pak Nyong, as well as Kim Wan’gwi, battalion commander of a strategic point (p’ajŏl ch’ŏnho), were captured, and I had them all repatriated to China under the escort of Cho Ŏn, former second royal secretary. In addition, I discovered 116 Jurchens, including Jiuyitu, residing in our territory and entrusted them to Wang Tuohuan Buhua, a visiting Chinese battalion commander, for their supervision. With his help, we delivered them to the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong and made other personnel exchanges at that time, and the imperial envoys Hwang Yŏnggi and Ch’oe Yŏn witnessed it on their way home. It took place in the eighth month of the twenty-­sixth year of the reign of Hongwu. “The fourth item was as follows: ‘According to the report sent from Liaodong, a robber was arrested in the seventh month this year. Upon interrogation, he turned out to be a man named Chang Kalmae, a subordinate of Hadugan, the chiliarch of Ch’ŏngsan, a strategic point in Haeju, Korea. Chang confessed that the king of Koryŏ gave Hadugan thirty rolls of dark-­ colored hemp fabric and ordered him to prepare seventeen ships, each with forty soldiers, eighteen rowers, and one captain on board. Then he made Chiliarch Wu of the Yan River28 supervise the whole operation and finally let them depart on the fifth day of the seventh month. Those aboard the ships disguised themselves as Japanese pirates, and the ships were all painted black so that they would resemble merchant ships. Their real purpose, however, was to gather information on China’s domestic situation. When they came across the Chinese authorities, they introduced themselves as Japanese merchants and robbed civilians traveling along the river roads. Furthermore, they captured nine eunuchs [who were in exile] and killed one of them. They released six but detained the remaining two eunuchs to use as guides. On the twenty-­eighth day of the seventh month, they arrived at Wei Island in Jinzhou, and Chiliarch Wu led all the soldiers ashore, leaving 28. It is not clear who Chiliarch Wu is. If he is a Korean, his surname should be O. In addition, it is very unlikely that a Korean served as chiliarch of the Yan River in China. There is no river in Korea under such name.

355

356

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

behind ten soldiers on each of the ships to keep watch. Setting fire to the military base of Xinshi, they took away four soldiers and their family members. They killed two of them and seriously wounded three other people.’ “The fifth item was as follows: ‘Besides, these people sailed around disguising themselves as Japanese merchants until they arrived in Ninghai Prefecture. Then they slaughtered or kidnapped people recklessly. I learned about this because one of the captured eunuchs ran away from them and reported on what had happened.’ “I quietly deliberated over the above allegations. Our small kingdom has served the great nation with utmost sincerity and never harbored any thought of betrayal. How can I possibly make my people sail around disguised as Japanese pirates and slaughter and plunder the people and their properties in Jinzhou and Shandong and other places in China? According to the allegation brought against me by Chang Kalmae, I sent my people disguised as merchants to gather information on the domestic situation in China, but I do not know who Chang Kalmae is. If my people indeed slaughtered people, plundered, and committed other such crimes over there, how could they collect the information they needed since the Chinese people kept themselves away from them? It is, therefore, indisputably self-­evident that Chang Kalmae lied. “Previously, Yun I and Yi Ch’o ran away to the Chinese capital and caused controversy by making false reports on their government, but their conspiracy was revealed and has already been punished thanks to the emperor’s far-­reaching insight and scrutiny. I am afraid that Chang Kalmae is also probably a wicked person similar to Yun I and Yi Ch’o, and I suppose he told such a lie because he was arrested by the Chinese authorities. So we send our envoys to your court to vindicate ourselves, and the sun in the sky is looking down on our grievances. It is hard to express them all orally. If Your Majesty sends your official along with the bandit Chang Kalmae so that he can be cross-­examined by people here, we will be able to determine whether what he said is true or false. “The sixth item was as follows: ‘You pretend to be our vassal state paying tribute, but whenever you send us horses as a token of your tribute, our horse experts find them to be mostly too slow or exhausted. Among the tribute horses you sent most recently, half of them were either lame or toothless or unbroken, and the rest were all poor in quality, though they had no arthritis, which indicates that you are lacking in sincerity by submitting such horses.

Book V

Wouldn’t it better if you reduce the number of tribute horses and send us quality horses only instead of showing us disrespect and causing trouble?’ “I also looked into this matter. The horses produced in our small kingdom are originally small in stature and dull in mind. When the time comes to send tribute horses, we try to select the best ones we can. However, since they have to travel a very long distance, I am afraid that their legs hurt and some of them get sick. How can a small kingdom dare to show disrespect [to the great nation]? “The seventh item was as follows: ‘As a procedure for changing your country name, you sent an official to request my decree. So I allowed you to choose Chosŏn or some other name on your own, and you found the right one. However, despite the fact that your country name was already changed, in your memorials you continue to refer to yourself as provisional ruler (kwŏnji kuksa), and I do not understand what you have in mind. This is nothing but trickery and, in fact, an inauspicious sign.’ “As for this problem, on the fifteenth day of the second month of the twenty-­sixth year of the reign of Hongwu, your servant Han Sangjil returned home from the Chinese capital carrying a letter from the Ministry of Rites that bore Your Majesty’s sacred instruction. Your sacred instruction was as follows: ‘For the country name of the Eastern Barbarians [Koreans], Chosŏn not only sounds appropriate but also it has been used for a long time. So, taking that country name as his foundation, he should revere Heaven and govern the people well so that his posterity can prosper permanently.’ “I indeed received your permission to change our country name to Chosŏn. However, being foolish, I thought I had as yet failed to receive the title of king from you. Therefore, I feared it would be reckless and inappropriate that I refer to myself as the king in my memorials submitted to you. This indicates that I had no intention whatsoever of committing trickery or insulting Your Majesty. Your instruction that recently arrived by letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army said, ‘Rectify the current way of referring to yourself immediately.’ Another instruction of yours, sent separately through the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, also said, ‘This epistle is directed to Yi [Sŏnggye], the king of Chosŏn. Based upon this instruction, let him change the old ways of referring to himself in his subsequent memorials expressing gratitude or making appeal.’ So I obeyed the instruction.

357

358

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“The eighth item was as follows: ‘I already gave you my permission to change your country name and yet did not hear from you for a long time after your envoys returned home. You first sent your officials to Prince of Liao and Prince of Ning to pay your respect, referring to yourself as provisional ruler of Chosŏn. One month later, you finally sent me your man to express your gratitude by submitting a memorial. So it appears that you deliberately disregarded the dignity of rank and position by reversing their order.’ “I looked into this matter, and the truth is as follows: As for the mission to express gratitude after changing the country name, on the ninth day of the third month of the twenty-­sixth year of the reign of Hongwu, I dispatched Yi Yŏm, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to the Chinese capital, carrying my memorial and tribute gifts. A little after he departed, I came to learn that Prince of Liao and Prince of Ning had arrived at their posts after they were enfeoffed. Since our small kingdom shares borders with Liao and Ning and particularly had great respect for the imperial court [of China], I felt that it was appropriate for us to pay respect to them. On the sixth day of the fourth month of the same year, I sent Pak Wŏn, former commissioner of the Security Council, and Yu Un, former deputy director of the Security Council, and others to pay my respect to His Highnesses Prince of Liao and Prince of Ning. What happened was that Yi Yŏm, whom I mentioned before, arrived at the Chinese capital late because he traveled a long distance to reach the Chinese capital. Besides, his travel was encumbered by the saddles and other tribute gifts he carried to be presented to the emperor. So how could our envoys plan to arrive early or late, deliberately disregarding the dignity of rank and position? “The ninth item was as follows: ‘Some years ago, King Ch’ang requested an audience with me, but I did not grant his request. Afterwards, Wang Yo took over the country and also requested that he be allowed to have an audience with me, and I refused his request as well. At last, Yo sent his son Sŏk to my court, but I had him return home. After he returned to Koryŏ, both Yo and his son acted lawlessly until they committed treason. I believe the reason they made such requests repeatedly was that they feared China would send an army to chastise them. So they were anxious to secure my trust in their favor through their visits.’ “With regard to the matter mentioned above, my humble opinion is this: Sin Ch’ang and Wang Yo and others of the previous dynasty repeatedly requested permission to visit your heavenly court, and Yo finally sent his

Book V

son Sŏk to your court. Sŏk had an audience with you and returned home. Then he and his father, Yo, conducted themselves recklessly until they eventually committed treason. The people hated them, so they had to retire to their private residences. People unanimously recommended that I be elevated to the throne and report such to the imperial court. The sage emperor clearly understood the situation and permitted his servant to assume the control of state affairs. Wang Yo and his son now live together in peace, their lives preserved. “The tenth item was as follows: “In your memorial expressing gratitude for my permission to change your country name, I found some words insulting. How can a vassal state serving the suzerain state be so negligent in its sincerity?’ As I looked into this matter, our small kingdom, located far from the advanced culture, is incapable of communicating properly. Limited in knowledge and behind in education, we barely know only how to express ourselves. The mistakes made in the composition of memorials, therefore, had to do with our ignorance of proprieties and nothing else. They were absolutely unintentional.” 20th Day (Kyŏngin)

The king served a meal to Royal Preceptor Chach’o in the Inner Palace. Ch’a Chun, navy brigade commander of Kyŏngsang Province, captured a Japanese pirate ship and beheaded thirteen pirates. As he presented them, along with the captured weapons, to the king, the king bestowed royal wine and silk upon him. The king bestowed wine upon Kwŏn Chunghwa and others through a royal messenger. 21st Day (Sinmyo)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. The Censorate and the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial to the king: “As we have heard, preventing disasters before they escalate is the main thesis of the Spring and Autumn Annals. Last time, we requested you to pun­ ­ish Lord Kongyang and his two sons but failed to obtain your permission

359

360

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and now feel extremely frustrated. As we believe, crops will be harmed unless weeds are plucked out, and likewise the state will certainly be thrown into danger unless wicked people are removed. Your Majesty expelled some of the Wang clan to islands on the sea and others to distant districts, while having another group of them called back to the capital. We do not understand why you ordered such measures. Why were some of them unlucky and exiled to islands or distant districts and why were others fortunate enough to be called back to the capital? According to an old saying, “A beast driven into a corner harms a man, and a man pushed into predicament seeks ways to survive.” Furthermore, men like Wang Kang, Wang Kyŏk, Wang Po, and Wang Sŭnggwi are wicked and treacherous. They surpass others in devising clever strategies. Even if Your Majesty rewards them with grace and treats them generously, they will be never satisfied and will wait for their opportunity, so they undoubtedly will be a source of trouble in the future. This is exactly why your subjects are worried about the future and feel uneasy for the safety of Your Majesty, whom they serve. “We request that Your Majesty watch the world like the sun and moon and, heeding the admonitions of the Spring and Autumn Annals, order to have the responsible office relocate the people above mentioned, together with their wives and younger brothers and nephews, to various islands. If you thus prevent disasters in advance, it will be extremely fortunate for the state.” The king did not grant their request. 22nd Day (Imjin)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial to the king: “Lord Kongyang and other members of the Wang clan should be relocated to sea islands.” The king called the heads of the three offices29 and instructed them as follows: “I already gave my order last time. I said, ‘However serious the matter may be, do not submit a memorial jointly.’ Why do you disregard my orders?” As for this matter, I told you to think deeply. Why are you in such a hurry?” They replied, “Though we received your order, we memorialized jointly because the matter was too serious, and the reason we memorialized again despite the fact that you ordered us to think deeply was that we worried that troubles would take place unexpectedly.” 29. Office of the Censor-General, Office of the Inspector-General, and the Board of Punishments.

Book V

361

*   *   * The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial to the king and requested that Cho Pan, Kwak Sŏn, and others be punished for failing to supervise the construction of the gate of the fortification walls. The king did not grant their request. 23rd Day (Kyesa)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial to the king to discuss the crimes committed by the Wang clan of the previous dynasty and Pak Wi, but the king only kept their memorials on his desk. Though the officials made their requests with great urgency, prostrating themselves in front of the palace gate, the king refused to grant their request. Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission, and Cho Chun, left chancellor, and others returned from their trip to Muak and made a report: “The land south of Muak is too small for the new capital.” Ha Yun, governor of the Left [Kyŏnggi] Province was alone in favor of Muak as the site of the new capital. He said, “Though the auspicious site of Muak may appear somewhat small, it is, in fact, a little larger than Kangan Hall (Kanganjŏn) in Songdo and Changnak Palace (Changnakkung) in P’yŏngyang, if you compare them. Besides, the site fully corresponds to what is said in the secret records of the previous dynasty and the theories of geomancy popular in China.” The king said, “I will make my decision after taking a look at it personally.” 24th Day (Kabo)

There was a ring around the sun. Since it was the anniversary of the death of Consort Ŭi [the king’s mother], the king reduced the number of side dishes in his meal and ordered the morning audience and markets suspended. 25th Day (Ŭlmi)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial to the king and made a request: “We have heard that it is the permanent law of the state not to forgive those who committed treason. This is the reason

362

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

your subjects jointly submit a memorial to you and never cease making requests. Last time, because the deposition made by the blind fortune-­teller Yi Hŭngmu concerned state security, we jointly submitted a memorial to you to punish the clique involved in the conspiracy. Your Majesty immediately ordered the officials of the Censorate and the Board of Punishments to go to Suwŏn Prefecture and conduct an investigation. This time, according to the depositions made by Yi Hŭngmu and Pak Chungjil, ‘Pak Wi secretly sent a man [to the fortune-­teller] to read the fortune of the state and conspired to restore the Wang clan, which was a serious act of treason.’ We urge you to order the responsible office to have him arrested and transferred to Suwŏn Prefecture so that he can be interrogated in one place together with Hŭngmu and others, and thereby you remove the source of trouble in advance.” The king did not grant their request. 26th Day (Pyŏngsin)

The king inspected the [city] walls under construction. The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a ­memorial: “Yesterday we jointly submitted a memorial requesting that the Wang clan be removed, but failed to obtain your permission. We feel extremely sorry and distressed that we have to bother you by repeatedly submitting memorials. “We believe it is Heaven that is extremely fair and free from personal favors, and it is people who are extremely foolish and yet wise. Heaven did not bring evil upon the Wang clan members and bless Your Majesty with good luck, but it brought evil upon the one who was lawless and blessed the one who follows the path of virtue. The people did not hate the Wang clan members and love Your Majesty, but they hated an evil person and loved a virtuous person. Since you founded a new dynasty, following the will of Heaven and the wishes of the people, it is natural that you respect the will of Heaven and the wishes of the people. Why, then, is it that you continue to disregard the memorials of the Censorate and the officials in charge of law? To pardon the ones who committed serious wrongdoings is what the Spring and Autumn Annals warned against, and that one who loves people is also capable of hating people is a precept left by earlier scholars. “Realizing that the Mandate of Heaven and the hearts of the people had already left him, Kongyang withdrew to his private residence to live with

Book V

his wife and children, and his way of life is not much different from the one he used to have, and this was only thanks to the generosity you showed him. Notwithstanding, he ungratefully harbored thoughts of treason and caused trouble, and it is an unalterable law that such a person gets punished by Heaven. If you are reluctant to touch the root in removing evils, the conspiracies of cunning and ambitious people will never stop arising. “The reason Pak Chungjil and Kim Kahaeng sought the fortune-­teller was that Prince Kongyang is still alive. The other Wang clan members either live in the capital or outside the capital, and they do not feel restricted in their activities, which is a real problem. Furthermore, Wang Kang and Wang Kyŏk are both outstanding in making schemes, and Wang Sŭngbo and Wang Sŭnggwi are faster and more daring than others. Therefore, they are capable of using their talents to cause trouble. These people always seeking an opportunity, while harboring wicked intentions in their hearts. They have only failed to have an opportunity so far, even though they have never abandoned their goal. “Though Emperor Guangwu was an illegitimate son of the Liu clan in Nanyang, and Liu Bei was a distant descendant of Prince Jing of Zhongshan [Zhongshan Wang], the whole world responded to their calls once they rolled up their sleeves and cried out for action. You should keep this precedent in mind. [King] T’aejo of the previous dynasty admonished his descendants not to employ the people from Paekche. If his descendants had followed his admonitions, how could Your Majesty have become what you are?30 This is the reason we dare to offer our advice to Your Majesty. Your Majesty must have heard that many kings in ancient times courted disaster by failing to make up their minds quickly. “Therefore, we urge you to decide according to what is right, keeping in mind that the will of Heaven is never fixed and the hearts of the people are hard to win indefinitely. We want you to order the Censorate and law officials to bring Kongayng and his two sons to justice immediately and expel Wang Kang, Wang Kyŏk, Wang Sŭngbo, and Wang Sŭnggwi and their their brothers and nephews, as well as the Wang clan members presently on Kanghwa Island, to the remote islands so that the people across the country may not worry or become suspicious any longer.” 30. This refers to the fact that the clan seat of T’aejo of Chosŏn was Chŏnju, a major town in the old Paekche region.

363

364

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

After the king withheld his permission, the officials of the Censorate and the Board of Punishments refused to report to work. The king summoned Wang Kang and others and said, “You all have made contributions to the state, and for that reason I excluded your names from the list of exiles, refus­ ­ing to listen to the Censorate, which has tried to impeach you until now. However, since the officials of the Censorate all refuse to come to work, I have little choice but to have you leave to your places of exile. I will not forget your contributions to the state.” Then he bestowed wine upon them. Consequently, the king had Wang Kang exiled to Kongju, Wang Kyŏk to Anbyŏn, Wang Sŭngbo to Yŏnghŭng, and Wang Sŭnggwi to Happ’o. Then the officials of the Censorate and the Board of Punishments finally returned to their posts. The provincial military commander of Kyŏngsang Province made a report: “Navy Brigade Commander (sugun manho) Ch’a Chun captured two Japanese ships.” The king bestowed wine upon Ch’a Chun by sending a royal messenger. [Policy Advisor] Yi Kŏi and others conducted interrogations into Yi Hŭngmu, Wang Hwa, Kim Kahaeng, Sŏngnŭng, and others. Yi Hŭngmu made the following deposition: “In the ninth month of the past Imsin year (1392), I met Prince Namp’yŏng [Wang Hwa] at Ŭich’ang, his place of exile. Prince Namp’yŏng first asked me to foretell of Prince Kongyang if it were possible to reinstate him as the king, and next, of his fortune. So I read his fortune and said, ‘This is a fortune in which the king and his subject have a joyous reunion and the virtues of Heaven and Earth are fully combined. If you reach the age of forty-­seven to forty-­eight, a great fortune will befall you, and after the age of fifty, you will become a general commanding an army and certainly a chief (taein) of the people later.’31 Then an unknown monk sitting next to us asked me about his fortune, and I replied, ‘You have a fortune to become royal preceptor.’ ” Wang Hwa made the following deposition: “In the ninth month of the last Imsin year, when I was about to be transferred from Ŭich’ang, my place of exile, to Kŏje Island, my uncle, monk Sŏngnŭng, and I asked Hŭngmu to read our fortune. He said to me, ‘Your fortune is extremely good. If you go to the island, you will certainly leave it after three years, and when you

31. The word taein literally means “a great man,” but it implies a king here.

Book V

reach the age of forty-­seven to forty-­eight, you will become a general commanding an army and eventually the Sole One [a king].’ ” Sŏngnŭng made the following deposition: “When I was exiled in Ŭich’ang with Wang Kŏ, Wang Hwa, and others, I asked Hŭngmu to tell us our fortune. Speaking of Wang Hwa’s fortune, he said, ‘He will be able to leave the island after three years, and when he reaches the age of forty-­seven to forty­eight, he is destined to become a king in command of armies.’ ” Kim Kahaeng made the following deposition: “In the twelfth month of the last Imsin year, when I was in Tongnae District, I asked Hŭngmu about my fortune. He replied, ‘According to your fortune, you will walk on the jade steps in the golden palace. You deserve to be congratulated.’ Last spring, I also met with Pak Chungjil at the state guesthouse of Tongnae, and he said, ‘The fortune of the firstborn of Lord of Kansŏng32 is good. I now have in my pocket the records of the fortune that I made during the session.’ ” 27th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king commanded the Office of the Inspector-General to have Kanghwa Prefecture keep a close watch on all the members of the Wang clan staying on Kanghwa Island, including the old and young, and submit reports to him. 28th Day (Musul)

A strong wind and rain struck suddenly and violently; the western sections of the market buildings collapsed, killing many people and horses. The king appointed Ch’oe Yŏngji, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery, as the magistrate of Anju and concurrently commander-­in-­ chief of Anju, Ŭiju, Isŏng, Kanggye, and other districts. 29th Day (Kihae)

The king issued a royal decree, releasing the people recruited for the construction of fortress walls from their duty: “There has been a great deal of corveé duties since the end of the previous dynasty, and the people have had to suffer for a long time. I intended 32. King Kongyang was exiled to Kansŏng in Kangwŏn Province. So it appears that Lord of Kansŏng here refers to Kongyang, the former king now deposed.

365

366

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

to give them a break after I ascended the throne, but the construction of the walls was indispensable because they are the fences of the state as well as protection for the people against ferocious enemies. Hence, starting from last fall, people were recruited from various provinces, including Kyŏnggi, Yanggwang, Sŏhae, and Kyoju-­Kangnŭng, to construct the walls of the capital. Some of the workers happened to die in accidents while carrying timber and stones, or of disease, and I feel extremely sorry about them. The local governments that they belong to, following the instruction from the Privy Council, should exempt their families from corveé service for the next three years and report the names of the concerned individuals to me.” The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial to the king: “Since Pak Wi, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, sent a man to Yi Hŭngmu to ask about the fortunes [of the Wang clan], he committed a treason that cannot be forgiven.” The king said, “What you are saying is understandable, but I cannot help cherishing the talent of this man. How can I suddenly punish him based on words that are hard to believe?” The king ordered the Privy Council to send official dispatches to all the provincial governors across the country and have them report their evaluation on the job performance of local magistrates since the Imin year.33 Yi Kŏi and others interrogated Wang Kŏ, Pak Chungjil, Yi Hŭngmu, and others once again. Wang Kŏ said, “In the ninth month of the last Imsin year (1392), when I was in Ŭich’ang, the place of my exile, Wang Hwa said to me, ‘I let Yi Hŭngmu read my fortune and he told me that I was destined to defend the borders commanding the troops.’ ” Pak Chungjil said, “In the third month last year, I met Kim Kahaeng at the guesthouse of Tongnae and showed him the fortune of the firstborn of the Lord of Kansŏng [King Kongyang], which I kept in my pocket, and I also told him that Pak Wi was trying to install his son on the throne.” Yi Hŭngmu said, “In the fifth month last year, Royal Secretary Yi Ch’ŏm first asked me to read his fortune to see if it was good or bad. He also said, ‘Every fortune-­teller used to say that the Lord of Kansŏng had good luck. Is it then possible to reinstate him on the throne?’ I told him that his fortune

33. The Imin year here probably refers to 1362, the 11th year of King Kongmin’s reign.

Book V

had declined. Then he asked again, ‘How about the fortune of his firstborn son?’ I replied, ‘His fortune will come late. He had better shave his head to become a monk and wait for it.’ Ch’ŏm also asked, ‘How is the fortune of the Lord of Namp’yŏng [Wang Hwa]?’ I replied, ‘Though it is weak now, it will change for the better in the future.’ ” Chŏng Tojŏn, commissioner of the Flourishing Righteousness Three Armies, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “Since those who ruled the state from ancient times have administered state affairs with “civil means” (mun) and suppressed disturbances with “mil­ ­itary means” (mu), the offices of these two parts are like the two arms of a man, and neither of them can be abandoned. That is why we already have numerous departments and bureaus, as well as various armies and guard units, with the purpose of dealing with both civil and military affairs. “Our pubyŏng military system (pubyŏng che),34 however, generally follows the old one of the previous dynasty. Even when the previous dynasty prospered, there were no armies except the one under that name. There was Great Liao35 in the north, and Jurchen and Japan in the east, which invaded us from the outside, and there were also frequent uprisings of bandits from the inside. If the scale of the disturbance was small, a military officer below the rank of commandant was dispatched; if large, a supreme general or general was sent to repulse the enemy. If the situation was too serious, however, extra soldiers were mobilized from the counties and districts to fight against the enemy outside or the enemy within. Thus the system has been transmitted for over four hundred years, and one can see how well it worked in those days. When there was peace, troops were trained, and when disturbances broke out and troops were raised, they always used five tactical troop formations. So you can also see how soldiers in those days were trained in the art of war. 34. It is a military system in which soldiers did not belong to a fixed commander or an army and supported themselves by farming. Originating in the Sui and Tang of China between the sixth and eighth centuries, it was employed in Koryŏ and continued through early Chosŏn. However, the soldiers in the Koryŏ’s pubyŏng system, provided with land, were known to be more committed to their jobs. So they were more like soldiers in modern times. 35. Known as the Liao dynasty or the Khitan Empire, it ruled over the vast territory, including Mongolia, portions of the Russian far East, and northern China from 907 to 1125 until it was destroyed by the Jurchens of the Jin dynasty in 1125.

367

368

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“After King Ch’ungnyŏl started serving the Yuan dynasty,36 the eunuchs and ladies, or envoys from the Yuan court who visited Koryŏ, often made personal requests on behalf of the people they favored. Consequently, the number of government posts increased, and those who were employed that way were all assigned to the guard units. Boasting about the power behind them, they acted arrogantly and neglected their guard duties. As a result, the pubyŏng military system was thrown into such disarray that royal guards of various security divisions (aema), including Holji and Ch’ungyong, were created to carry out the royal guard duty properly. During the reign of the false king U, the law deteriorated to the point that those who occupied the posts of royal guard under the pubyŏng system only wasted government stipends without doing anything, which eventually led to the loss of the whole kingdom. This is what Your Majesty personally witnessed. “Since Your Majesty, receiving the Mandate of Heaven, is now carrying out great work, you must abolish the old abuses, strengthen the state, and stop the wrath of Heaven so that a new way of government can be realized. However, the people who are accustomed to what they have heard and seen find it difficult to change their ways. The reason that a king who newly receives the Mandate of Heaven always changes official uniforms and posthumous epithets is to abolish old abuses and draw people’s attention by making changes. Song Emperor Taizong37 boosted the morale of the Forbidden Troops (Kŭmgun)38 by changing the old name of the division they belonged to. “Your Majesty has recently changed the titles of civil officials completely, making their responsibilities clear and thus inducing them to exert themselves in their duties. However, you allowed the titles of military officials and guards to remain unchanged. Hence, old abuses continue to take place as before. Since I am in command of the Three Armies, I have to worry about it. So I submit to you a list of things related to the reform of the royal guards in the pubyŏng system, one by one, as follows: “1. The name of the Left Guard of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards (Ŭihŭng ch’in’gun chwawi) should be changed to Ŭihŭng siwisa; Right Guard of the Ŭihŭng Royal Guards (Ŭihŭng ch’in’gun u wi) to Ch’ungchwa siwisa; Soaring Falcon Guard (Ŭngyangwi) to Ungmu siwisa; and Internal Security Guard (Kŭmowi) to Sinmu siwisa. Each of these

37. Taizong (939–997) is the second emperor of the Song dynasty. 38. Another name for Imperial Guards.

Book V

guards (sa) should have five commanders (yŏng) assigned to five units (i.e., middle, left, right, forward, and rear units), and they should be incorporated into the Middle Army (Chunggun). “The name of the Left and Right Guard (Chwa u wi) should be changed to Yongyang sunwisa; Divine Tiger Guard (Sinhowi) to Yonggi sunwisa; and Elite Striking Guard (Hŭngwiwi) to Yongmu Sunwisa. “Each of these guards should have five commanders assigned to five units (i.e., middle, left, right, forward, and rear units), and they should be incorporated into the Left Army (Chwagun). “The name of the Patrolling Personal Guard (Pisunwi) should be changed to Hobun sunwisa; Thousand Bull Guard (Ch’ŏnuwi) to Hoik sunwisa; and Palace Gate Guard (Kammunwi) to Hoyong sunwisa. “The name of the Left and Right Guard (Chwa u wi) should be changed into Yongyang sunwisa; the name of the Divine Tiger Guard (Sinhowi) to Yonggi sunwisa; and the name of the Elite Striking Guard (Hŭngwiwi) to Yongmu Sunwisa. “Each of these guards should have five commanders who are to be assigned to the Right Army (Ugun). The above ten royal guards, including siwisa and sunwisa, should be separately provided with an official seal of cast iron, and those seals should be managed by the commander-­in-­ chief (towi). “1. The titles of generals should be changed as follows: supreme general (sang changgun) to to wisa, and general-­in-­chief (tae changgun) to to ch’ŏm wisa. The titles of generals commanding various royal guards should be changed to chunggun sama, chwagun sama, and ugun sama, respectively. The title of commanders should be changed as follows: general (changgun) to sama; commandant (chung nangjang) to sajik; vice commandant (nangjang) to pu sajik; subcolonel (pyŏlchang) to sajŏng; executive captain (sanwŏn) to pu sajŏng; captain (wi) to taejang; and lieutenant (chŏng) to taebu. “The title of the Palace Patrol Battalion (Tobuoe) should be changed to Middle Army (Chunggun) and staffed with 1 commandant (sajik), 1 vice commandant (pu sajik), 2 subcolonels (sajŏng), 3 executive captains (pu sajŏng), 20 captains (taejang), and 20 lieutenants (taebu). The Left Army (Chwagun) should be staffed with 1 commandant, 1 vice commandant, 2 subcolonels, 3 executive officers, 20 captains, and 20 lieutenants. The Right Army (Ugun) should also be staffed in the same way as above. “Each brigade (sa) should be commanded by 1 supreme general (to wisa) and 2 generals-­in-­chief (to ch’ŏm wisa), and each battalion by 1 general,

369

370

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

3 commandants, 5 vice commandants, 5 subcolonels, 7 executive officers, 20 captains, and 40 lieutenants. “The military commissioner (chŏlchesa) of each province should be appointed from among the members of the royal house or high officials; vice provincial military commissioner (pu chŏlchesa) from among the officials of the Security Council; and chief military administrator of infantry and cavalry (pyŏngma kŏmhalsa) from among the grand masters for excellent goodness (kasŏn taebu), each of them having command of one hundred soldiers recruited from local districts. The military training commissioner (pyŏngma tallyŏnsa) should be appointed from among the officials of senior and junior rank 3, providing one hundred soldiers recruited from local districts. And the number of soldiers provided to the commanders, from the commissioner down to military training administrator (tallyŏnsa p’an’gwan), should be commensurate with rank and seniority. “The Middle Army should belong to Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces and the Northeast Region; the Left Army to Kangnŭng, Kyoju, Kyŏngsang, and Chŏlla Provinces; and the Right Army to Yanggwang Province, Sŏhae Province, and the Northwest Region. “1. The reason that the royal guards are divided and assigned to various units is to imitate the military system of the Northern and Southern Armies of the Han dynasty. The Southern Army of Han guarded the palace gate, and the Northern Army policed the capital. The advantage of this system was the mutual surveillance of the inside and outside forces, which worked well to prevent any disturbances. “The battalions currently under the names of Ŭihŭng, Ch’ungchwa, Ungmu, and Sinmu should be turned into royal guards and assigned to the Middle Army, while supreme generals and generals-­in-­chief alternately guard the palace gate on certain designated dates, leading the officers and troops at their command. This is to imitate the military system of the Southern Army of the Han dynasty. “The battalions named Yongyang, Yonggi, Yongmu, Hobun, Hoyong, and Hoik should be made into patrolling royal guards and assigned to the Left and Right Armies, while supreme generals and generals-­in-­chief with the officers and troops under their command alternately guard the bridge, patrol night streets, and defend the four main gates. This is to imitate the military system of the Northern Army of the Han dynasty. “As to the supreme general of each brigade and the officers below him, who are on duty in their turn, the Three Armies Headquarters will issue

Book V

orders in time so that they can discharge their duties properly without violating the rule. It will make sure that the guards do not move in and out of their posts recklessly and punish those who violate the rule. “1. The various royal guards named Sasun, Saŭi, Samak, Sai, and Saong were additionally established at the end of the previous dynasty, so they should be abolished. However, since they have their own functions, it seems to be difficult to eliminate them abruptly. The commanders of these guards who concurrently hold the responsibilities of other posts, being occupied with their duties, are unable to attend to their original unit (yŏng) and consequently cannot help being careless in their guard duty. “Each battalion should now reduce the number of government stipend recipients, and sasun, the first watch of the royal guard, should consist of 1 commandant, 1 vice commandant, 2 directors, 2 vice directors, 3 secretaries (kŭpsa), and 3 vice secretaries (pu kŭpsa). The remaining three rotations and other guard units should be staffed likewise, and the officials and commanders who are regularly chosen as the chief officer of each rotation will be required to quit their posts in due time. Once a system such as this is established, one who has work to do will receive a stipend, and one who receives the stipend will do what he is supposed to do. As form and content agree with each other, there will be no conflicts or disorder in running the system. “1. At the end of the previous dynasty, young inexperienced people, eunuchs, artisans, merchants, and various servants and slaves were appointed to posts with the royal guards. Naturally, many of them were unable to discharge their duty, relying on the power behind them. So they neglected their work, their stipend was wasted, and royal security became lax. If you allow these abuses to continue without rectification, a bad example will be set for posterity at the beginning of the new dynasty. “Our Three Armies Headquarters and the Board of War will jointly examine all the personnel engaged in royal guard duties. We will test their physical condition and talents. If we find them strong and talented and worthy of their task, we will let them stay at their jobs. However, if they are found to be unqualified for their jobs, being too young or old or lacking in talent or belonging to the miscellaneous class or neglectful of their duties, we will have them all driven out. Likewise, the members of the royal guards who are minor merit subjects or have studied military arts at the Military Training Agency or are knowledgeable in calculating years and dates concerning important state affairs, including wars, should be required to have

371

372

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

recommendations from the offices and agencies they belong to and undergo tests related to their physical fitness and qualification. “The personnel who serve as royal guard, including those belonging to various branch units, should all register their names on the list, and when they take turns on guard duty, they should make a list specifying individual names and the units they belong to. The ones who are on the list and yet fail to report to duty and the ones who report to duty despite the fact that their names are not on the list should be punished without exception. Except those who are on duty, the guards should receive military training for combat; the ones who are outstanding should be awarded, and the ones who show poor performance should be punished. “1. Since strictness is essential to all military affairs, those who disobey orders or violate the rules of the guard units they belong to should be subject to a thorough investigation by the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies. Those who have committed serious wrongdoings should be reported to the king and handed over to the agencies in charge of the law, and those who, being wicked and cunning, refuse to give up their evil ways or disturb law and order or instigate the people should be driven out to the frontier to serve in the army. “1. The commanders more easily obey the orders of their superiors when their ranks are low, because they are aware of their status. Hence, it is easy to have them put to work and hold onto their status. The great nation [China] has commander-­in-­chief (dudu), commander (zhihui), and chiliarch (qianhu) in their military hierarchy, but those who actually take charge of troops are company commanders (baihu). The previous dynasty had the Military Affairs Commission (Chungch’ubu), the Board of War, supreme general, and general-­in-­chief, but the ones who actually took charge of troops were generals, and this was to ensure permanent public order and security. “Since the pubyŏng military system of our dynasty was also already intended to emulate this, five military officials and ten commandants (owŏn sipchang) and sixty captains and lieutenants (yuksip wijŏng) should be placed under the command of a general, whereas the commanders above the rank of general-­in-­chief should be excluded from this commission. The soldiers from each local province, county, and district should also be placed under the command of a provincial military commander (pyŏngmasa) or the commandants of lower ranks, and the military commissioner (chŏlchesa) of the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies should only keep watch on the performance of the former in terms of diligence and negligence. If this

Book V

system is implemented, the military command and control will be integrated more effectively and therefore there will be no worries about rebellions and disturbances even if a large number of soldiers are gathered together.” The king followed the advice.

3rd Month 1st Day (Kyŏngja)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. The officials of the Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly told the king, “The crimes committed by Pak Wi cannot be forgiven.” The king replied, “I fully understand what you mean, but how couldn’t I also think about it deeply?” Then he had Wi released and summoned him. He said to him, “I want you to continue to work as usual and have no doubts. Even if millions of people speak ill of you, I will not suspect you.” The Board of Rites submitted a memorial to the king: “King T’aejo of the previous dynasty used to visit the three capitals (samgyŏng)39 for inspection, so he established the grounds for kyŏkku, a ball game on horseback, and places for Daoist constellation rites, both in the Eastern Capital (Tonggyŏng)40 and the Western Capital (Sŏgyŏng).41 Since we are now at the beginning of a change of government, we cannot continue to have wrongful precedents. We request that you abolish them except the ones in the main capital.” The king followed the advice. When Yi Kŏi, Pak Sin, and Chŏn Si and others interrogated Wang Hwa, Kim Yuŭi, and others, Wang Hwa said, “In the eleventh month of the last Imsin year (1392), Prince Chŏngyang [Wang U]42 sent a man to the Lord of Ikch’ŏn [Wang Chip]43 with a message that said, ‘Don’t worry about being exiled to an island. I am trying to restore the king to the throne.’ ” 39. The three (secondary) capitals in the Koryŏ period refer to Kaesŏng, P’yŏngyang, and Kyŏngju. Located in the middle, Kaesŏng was also called chunggyŏng, which means “middle capital.” 40. Kyŏngju. 41. P’yŏngyang. 42. The Younger brother of Wang Yo, King Kongyang. 43. The son-­in-­law of King Kongyang.

373

374

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Kim Yuŭi stated, “In the ninth month of the last Imsin year, I met with Pak Wi at a farm tent in Pongsŏng. Wi asked, ‘What did Hŭngmu say about my fortune?’ I replied, ‘He said it’s not good.’ Wi asked again, ‘What about the fortunes of Prince Kansŏng’s44 eldest son and Prince Chŏngyang?’ I replied, ‘He said their good fortunes have declined.’ Then Wi said to me, ‘Go back to bring me the fortunes of the above people once again.’ So, in the eleventh month of this year, I returned to Milsŏng45 and informed Pak Chungjil of what Wi wanted and let him visit Hŭngmu to find out about the fortunes of those people. Having read their fortune again, however, Hŭngmu also said, ‘Their fortunes have declined.’ ” 2nd Day (Sinch’uk)

The king stayed overnight at Such’ang Palace. Chang Tam,46 quartermaster of the Quartermaster Bureau, came in to make a report: “A man named Yi Ingil made a report. ‘Nine hundred people or more are conspiring to raise a rebellion.’ ” The king ordered Cho Ki,47 commissioner of the Capital Constabulary, and Chang Tam to ask Ingil where he got his information. Ingil replied, ‘I heard it from Kim Paek, my neighbor.’ ” They finally had Kim Paek imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison. 3rd Day (Imin)

The king stayed at Such’ang Palace. He appointed Cho Chun, left chancellor, as commander-­in-­chief (to ch’ongjesa) of five provinces, including Kyoju, Kangnŭng, Sŏhae, and Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces, and Chŏng Tojŏn, deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, as 44. King Kongyang. 45. An old name of Miryang, a town in Kyŏngsang Province. 46. Chang Tam (?–1400): A military official of early Chosŏn. He married the daughter of Yi Wŏn’gye, T’aejo’s stepbrother. Assisting T’aejo with his enthronement, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject second class and director of the Directorate for Armaments. However, he was killed during the Second Princes’ Rebellion in 1400 for siding with Prince Hoean Yi Panggan, who fought with his younger brother Prince Muan, later King T’aejong. 47. Cho Ki (?–1395): A military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was originally a subordinate of Ch’oe Yŏng but became a follower of T’aejo after the latter turned his army around at Wihwa Island to march back home. Assisting T’aejo to ascend the throne, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject second class and associate commissioner of the Flourishing Righteousness Royal Guards. Being illiterate, he was scorned by officials. He developed a lump on his back and suddenly died because of it.

Book V

commander-­in-­chief of three provinces, including Kyŏngsang, Chŏlla, and Yanggwang Provinces.48 Strong winds lashed with rain and snow, and trees were frozen with ice. Upon returning from Suwŏn, Chŏn Si went into the palace to report to the king: “Conspiracy accomplices Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, and others are now in the capital, and we cannot help but worry about it.” The king said, “It’s nothing really new that Pak Wi harbored thoughts of rebellion against me. In the Kyŏngo year (1390), when [King] Kongyang moved to Hanyang, he was taken in by what Chŏng Mongju said and started thinking about rebelling against me. It has not been only a day or two that he has had such notions, but he has still not revealed his true intentions. Now, what can he do suddenlly? If the enemy surrenders himself to us even when he is confronted by us, we accept him and make him one of us. Moreover, Wi is a man of talent, so I cannot simply abandon him. If the allegations concerning him are true, that is because he was not satisfied with the treatment he received from me. Why should he rise to rebellion if I treat him generously? If we are prepared for him in advance, what can he do? This is only an incident in which Kahaeng and Chungjil attempted to raise a rebellion believing that they could get support from Wi.” 4th Day (Kyemyo)

Cho Ki interrogated Kim Paek in the Capital Constabulary Prison, but the latter refused to admit his crime. So Cho Ki brought in Yi Ingil for cross-­ examination. Then it was finally discovered that Paek had made a false report. The king ordered both of them released. The officials of both the Censorate and the Board of Punishments said to the king, “Since the men confined in the Capital Constabulary Prison are related to a matter of national security, we request that you allow us to interrogate them further.” The king said, “I already found out clearly that the man’s words were a lie. Why should you interrogate them any further?” 48. It appears that T’aejo appointed Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn as commanders of five and three provincial armies, respectively, in order to consolidate military power and thereby strengthen his control over them.

375

376

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Japanese marauders raided near the border of Yŏnan Prefecture.49 5th Day (Kapchin)

The king appointed Yi Sŭngwŏn50 and Cho Kyŏn51 military commanders of Yanggwang and Kyŏngsang Provinces, respectively. 6th Day (Ŭlsa)

The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “The number of military officers under the commander-­in-­chief (to chŏlchesa) of each province needs to be decided. We request that they should be made up of one pro­ vincial military commander (pyŏngmasa), one administrative provincial military commander (chi pyŏngmasa), one deputy provincial military commander (pyŏngma pusa), three administrators, and three runners (pandang).” The king followed the advice. 7th Day (Pyŏngo)

Though An Chongwŏn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, reached Lianshan Post Station [in Liaoning, China] with his entourage, he was denied entry to China and returned home. Yi Ch’ŏm, the royal secretary of the previous dynasty, was exiled to Happ’o for being implicated in the deposition made by Yi Hŭngmu [who read the fortune of the Wang clan of Koryŏ]. The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king, based on the report made by Min Kae, governor of Kyŏngsang Province: “We request that Iji 49. Located in Hwanghae Province. 50. A military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He supported T’aejo in turning the army around at Wihwa Island to march back home and became a merit subject. He also served as magistrate of Anju and assistant director of the Chancellery. 51. Cho Kyŏn (1351–1425): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He is the younger brother of Cho Chun, left chancellor. Making contributions to the enthronement of T’aejo, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject second class and served as assistant councilor of the Security Council and military commander of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province.

Book V

District belong to Sillyŏng,52 Ansimso to Hayang, Susŏng to Taegu, Kyesŏng to Yŏngsan,53 Andŏk to Songsaeng,54 Ch’ŏngbu to Posŏng,55 Yŏngsŏn to Myŏngjin,56 Angang back to Kyerim, and Kiran to Andong. The king followed the advice. 9th Day (Musin)

The king returned to the temporary palace. Sin Wŏnjŏl, magistrate of Ch’angp’yŏng, Chŏlla Province, beheaded seven Japanese pirates and captured one pirate alive, with weapons and clothing; and Yi Chidae, navy myriarch of Kyŏngsang Province, captured one Japa­ nese ship. The king ordered Yi Munhwa, director of the Publications Office, to take royal wine and silk and bestow them upon Wŏnjŏl and Chidae. 10th Day (Kiyu)

As it was the anniversary of the death of Mokcho, the king’s great-­great-­ grandfather, the king reduced the number of side dishes in his meals and had the morning audience and markets closed for the day. 11th Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king went out to Sumip’o in Imjin and ordered Chŏng Tojŏn to give a presentation on Ogun chindo, the deployment of five combat forces. Then he said, “I will personally watch it tomorrow.” He appointed Chin Ch’unggwi57 assistant military commander [of Yanggwang Province] and Yi Kwiryŏng,58 general-­in-­chief, as commander of the Middle Army (chunggun sama) and

52. Also called Sinnyŏng District, it is located east of Yŏngch’ŏn County and west of Ŭihŭng District. 53. Located in Miryang Military Prefecture. 54. Located in Ch’ŏngsong Military Prefecture. 55. Chinbo District located 20 li west of Andong. 56. Kŏje District, which is an island. 57. Chin Ch’unggwi (?–1412): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Assisting with T’aejo’s enthronement, he became a minor merit subject. He also served as discussant of the Security Council, magistrate of Ŭiju, and concurrently military commander of Ŭiju and other areas. 58. Yi Kwiryŏng (1346–1439): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. With the enthronement of T’aejo, he became a minor merit subject and served in various posts throughout

377

378

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

summoned various commanders-­in-­chief and said, “Last time, I told you to practice troop disposition. If there is anyone who failed to practice it or carry out my order, he shall be punished.” The king said to Tojŏn, “In ancient times, people hunted animals for sacrifices at the Royal Ancestral Shrine. I also intend to hunt animals this spring and offer them first as the sacrifice at the Royal Ancestral Shrine. What do you think of the idea?” Tojŏn replied, “There is nothing wrong with offering hunted animals for sacrifice. However, since the day of the great sacrificial ceremony (taehyang)59 is already past, it seems advisable to offer them at the regular ceremonies held in the middle of the month (mangje).” The king found his advice sensible. The king appointed Yi Cho,60 former vice magistrate [of Hanyang], as supreme general and had him take over the army, which used be commanded by the late Prince Chinan.61 Cho was the son of Wŏn’gye, [the king’s stepbrother] Prince Wansan. 12th Day (Sinhae)

When the king returned from Sumip’o to Such’ang Palace, officials of each department welcomed him at Sungin Gate. The king stayed a while in Such’ang Palace and returned to his royal quarters in the evening. 13th Day (Imja)

The king paid a visit to Such’ang Palace. Second Inspector Pak Sin came from Suwŏn and reported to the king, presenting the depositions of the individuals involved in the conspiracy against the king. The king called in two chancellors and had them discuss the his long life, including minister of rites and of punishments, pacification commissioner of Kilchu Circuit, minister of war, and magistrate of Hansŏng. In 1415, he retired as second state councilor and died at the age of 94. 59. Taehyang refers to the great sacrificial ceremonies held at the Royal Ancestral Shrine on one of the first ten days of the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth lunar months of the year. 60. Yi Cho (?–1408): he was the eldest son of Yi Wŏn’gye, T’aejo’s stepbrother. While serving as supreme commander, he was impeached for abusing his power, including raping the wife of the administrator of Hanyang, and stripped of his office. However, he continued to behave lawlessly and was eventually exiled to Yangju and later Onjin. 61. T’aejo’s eldest son, Yi Pangu, who died at an early age.

Book V

matter. Then he had Wang Hwa, Wang Kŏ, Kim Kahaeng, Pak Chungjil, Kim Yuŭi, Yi Hŭngmu, and others beheaded; Wang U and Pak Wi specially pardoned; and monk Sŏngnŭng exiled to Kŏje Island. 14th Day (Kyech’uk)

King Kongyang and his two sons were transferred to Samch’ŏk to live in exile. The government elevated the status of Samgi District,62 installing a supervising administrator (kammu), because it was the birthplace of Royal Preceptor Chach’o. 15th Day (Kabin)

The king ordered that eunuch Cho Sun be recalled to service and restored to his previously occupied post despite his being in mourning. 16th Day (Ŭlmyo)

Chinese imperial envoy No T’anae and his aides63 returned from their visit to their homes, and the king held a banquet for them. 17th Day (Pyŏngjin)

An Kyŏnggong, governor of Chŏlla Province reported: “Kim Pin’gil, assistant navy commander-­in-­chief, Kim Yun’gŏm and Kim Munbal, lesser garrison commanders, and others captured three Japanese ships, annihilating all the invaders aboard the ships.” The king sent a royal messenger and bestowed bows and arrows, silk, and silverware upon them according to their rank and contributions. 18th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king moved to Such’ang Palace, displaying the dignity of his royal equipage and the escort of the ceremonial honor guard. 62. As Samgi was the birthplace of royal preceptor Chach’o, the government, not too long ago, made it a district, installing supervising administrator. This time, it again elevated its status from district to county. 63. These Chinese envoys were originally Koreans.

379

380

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

19th Day (Muo)

When Chinese envoy No T’anae and his entourage returned to the Chinese capital, the king bid farewell to them at Yŏngbin Guesthouse, leading all officials. 20th Day (Kimi)

When Pak Chŏsaeng was newly appointed as inspector of miscellaneous affairs and came to work at the office, Bailiff An Inyŏng and others refused to greet him because Chŏsaeng was a member of Pak Wi’s family.64 So the Office of the Inspector-General impeached Inyŏng for failing to greet Chŏsaeng [who was his superior] properly. 22nd Day (Sinyu)

After censors impeached Pak Wi, assistant grand councilor, the king reprimanded their chief and ordered Wi to carry out his duties. 23rd Day (Imsul)

Kim Pin’gil, assistant navy commander-­in-­chief of Chŏlla Province, captured one Japanese ship with weapons on board and presented it to the king. The king sent his royal messenger to bestow him with wine and silk. 24th Day (Kyehae)

An Chongwŏn, chief grand councilor of the Chancellery, died. His courtesy name was Sach’ŏng, and his clan seat Sunhŭng.65 He is the son of An Ch’uk, Duke Munjŏng, assistant chancellor of the Council of State (Ch’ŏmŭibu). Passing the civil service examination early, he served as editorial examiner and diarist of the Office of Royal Decrees. When he completed his term and was eligible for promotion, he declined his promotion for the sake of Sim 64. Though Pak Wi was involved in the conspiracy against T’aejo along with the members of the Wang clan, T’aejo pardoned him, and it appears that some of the inspectors who impeached him were not happy about it. This is the reason Bailiff An Inyŏng showed disrespect to his superior, the newly appointed Inspector of Miscellaneous Affairs Pak Chŏsaeng, who was a relative of Pak Wi. 65. Located in North Kyŏngsang Province.

Book V

Tongno,66 his colleague of the same rank but older than him. Duke Munjŏng heard of it and was delighted. He said, “Making concessions is the foremost virtue. This is a sign that our family will prosper.” A year later, Chongwŏn got promoted and served at various posts until he became section chief of the Ministry of Justice (Chonbŏpsa) and thereafter went out to serve as surveillance commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province. In the Sinch’uk year (1361), when he served as royal censor (siŏsa) and later as surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province, the Red Turban bandits seized the capital, and King Kongmin went down south to take refuge in Chukchu. As officials and people were already scattered, Chongwŏn was utterly at a loss and unable to serve the king properly. The king became furious and tried to kill Chongwŏn, but he was spared through the intercession of Yu Suk,67 the king’s trusted subject. In the Kapchin year (1364), he was appointed vice minister of justice (chŏnbŏp ch’ongnang) but left to serve as magistrate of Kangnŭng after he incurred the disfavor of Sin Ton, who seized power at that time, for refusing to follow him. He governed the people with benevolence, and the people built a shrine in his honor after he departed and sacrificed to him while he was still alive. In the Sinhae year (1371), when Sin Ton was overthrown, Chongwŏn was reappointed third inspector and finally inspector-general after serving as counselor of the left grand master and right policy advisor. Then he became academician of the Security Council and was soon promoted to Chancellery scholar and concurrently served as inspector-general. In the Imsul year (1382), he became examination administrator and selected thirty-­three new officials, including Yu Yang, and continued to rise in rank until he became assistant chancellor and director of the State Finance Commission. Chongwŏn was by nature kindhearted and reticent. He named the pavilion in which he lived “Double Clean Pavilion” (Ssangch’ŏnjŏng). He treated 66. An official of late Koryŏ. He served as minister of rites and director of the Hall of Worthies. He is also known as the grand ancestor of the Sim clan of Samch’ŏk. 67. Yu Suk (1324–1368): an official of late Koryŏ. His clan seat is Sŏsan, and his pen name Saam. He served King Kongmin in the capital of Yuan (then Great Lord Kangnŭng) before the latter ascended to the throne. In 1351, when King Kongmin ascended the throne, he returned to Koryŏ and became second assistant royal secretary and quickly rose in rank until he became commissioner of the Security Council. However, in 1365, he was falsely accused by monk Sin Ton, who was afraid of his integrity and loyalty, and returned to Yŏnggwang, South Chŏlla province. He was killed there by an assassin hired by Sin Ton. He was posthumously awarded the title of Munhŭi.

381

382

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

people with respect and always conducted himself with great care, while being mindful of every situation. Thus, he was able to preserve himself. However, he proved incompetent in dealing with affairs, so he failed to make achievements of any significance. At the beginning of the new dynasty [Chosŏn], the king appointed him chief grand councilor of the Chancellery because he was a senior statesman. He died of illness at the age of seventy-­one. The king had the morning audience suspended for three days and ordered Cho Chun, left chancellor, to sacrifice to the dead in the coffin hall and provide him with a proper funeral, bestowing him with the posthumous title of Mun’gan. His sons were Chungon, Kyŏngnyang, and Kyŏnggong, and they all passed the civil service examination. Chungon and Kyŏngnyang served in the Chancellery, and Kyŏnggong became a member of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects with the title of Lord of Hŭngnyŏng. Kyŏnggŏm, another of his sons, also rose to the position of minister of works. 26th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region reported: “When the [returning] Chinese envoys arrived in Ŭiju, the Chinese soldiers from Liaodong who were escorting the envoys home forced local residents named Yi Kyŏnsil, Kang Pojŏng, and Kim Yong to go with them.” 27th Day (Pyŏngin)

The king appointed Nam Ŭn as left director of the State Finance Commission, Nam Chae as assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, Cho Im as administrative grand councilor of the Chancellery, Chŏng Ch’ong as Chancellery scholar, Ha Yun as senior secretary of the Security Council, Chin Ch’unggwi as discussant of the Security Council and concurrently chief regional military commander of Ŭiju and other places, Yi Kwich’ŏl as discussant of the Security Council and concurrently chief regional military commander of Chŏngju and other places, Cho Yŏngmu as discussant of the Security Council and concurrently chief regional military commander of Kanggye and other places, and Cho Ŏn as discussant of the Security Council and concurrently military commander of Isŏng and other places. However, he had Pak Wi dismissed. *   *   *

Book V

The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “Schools had never been established on Cheju Island, and none of the children of local residents have served in the government. Therefore, they do not know how to read and are ignorant of the laws. The chiliarchs of various posts are mostly foolish and act so recklessly that they cause people trouble. So we request that instructors (kyosugwan) be sent to the island to educate local officials’ (t’ogwan) children above the age of ten and prepare them for the civil service examination. In addition, letters of appointment to battalion or company commander should be issued to some of those who are in the capital serving as royal guards.” The king followed the advice.

4th Month 1st Day (Kyŏngo)

There was frost. The king ordered to recruit the people in the town who were good at stone fights to make a military unit and named it “Stone-­Throwing Army” (ch’ŏksŏkkun). The Censorate and the Board of Punishments jointly submitted a memorial urging the king to eliminate members of the Wang royal clan. The king replied, “Gather various members of the Wang clan at one place and protect them well. Wang U, Lord of Kwiŭi, who lives in Majŏn County to sacrifice to his ancestors, should be excepted in discussions of the matters related to the Wang clan.” 3rd Day (Imsin)

Sitting on the open floor of the East Hall, the king inspected the Stone-­ Throwing Army, having Cho Ki,68 commissioner of the Security Council, command the troops. A roe deer entered through Sŏnŭi Gate.

68. Cho Ki at this time served as commissioner of the Capital Constabulary.

383

384

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Song Tŭksa, vice supervisor of the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources (Sajae sogam), submitted a memorial to the king: “Since military training of people is absolutely necessary, people should be trained regularly twice a year, spring and autumn, and, following the example of the local examination for civil officials, the Military Training Agency should conduct an examination to select officers (tosi).69 If the one who wins first place gets promoted two ranks and the one who wins second place is promoted one rank, our plan for national defense will be accomplished. “When Li Baozhen70 of the Tang dynasty became military commissioner of Zelu Circuit, he provided people with bows and arrows to practice archery during agricultural off-­seasons, rewarding the most capable archers through the military examination held at the end of the year. As a result, no other army in the realm could rival Zelu’s.” The king gave orders to implement the plan as it was. 4th Day (Kyeyu)

Ch’oe Yŏn, Chin Hallyong, Kim Hŭiyu, Kim Hwa, and other Chinese envoys arrived, carrying a letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army. The king led his officials out as far as Sŏnŭimun Gate to greet the envoys outside the gate. Then Ch’oe Yŏn and others delivered the imperial message they had brought: “The emperor said, ‘Send ten thousand horses as well as eunuchs and the families of Kim Wan’gwi.’ ”71 The king knelt down and bowed his head to the ground as he listened to the imperial message. Then he inquired the health of the emperor and received an official letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army while bowing again. 69. Tosi was a special examination established to select military officers twice a year, and it was conducted by the Board of War and the Military Training Agency in the capital as well as governors and military commanders in the provinces. 70. Li Baozhen (733–794) was a Tang general during the reign of Emperor Dezong. He contributed greatly in fighting Zhu Tao and other rebel warlords. After the Anshi Rebellion, the Zelu Circuit that he headed lacked military power and financial resources to recruit soldiers. He thus created an innovative program to raise an army of civilians by waiving their taxes and rewarding the most capable. 71. Kim Wan’gwi is the Korean chiliarch of the Pyŏkkun and Kuja areas who was previously captured and taken away by the Chinese authorities.

Book V

The letter was as follows: “On the twenty-­fourth day of the second month of the twenty-­seventh year (1394) of the reign of Hongwu, Yang Wen, left commissioner of the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army and others received an imperial decree at Fengtianmen Gate. In the decree, the emperor said, ‘In recent days our armed forces at the borders in Ganpu and other places captured five bandits, including one named Hu De. They stated in their depositions that they had been sent by the Koryŏ officials in charge of border defense to plunder our coastal areas and gather information. Therefore, the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army should make a list of people involved in banditry and send it to Yi, the king of Chosŏn, so that he may know what has happened. Let him capture and send us all the culprits after reviewing their names on the list.’ “Since our Military Commission has now made a list of culprits’ names based on the depositions made by Hu De and others and officially sent it to you, you shall transport them under escort and hand them over to us. The ones you shall send are twenty-­five in total.” After the ritual of greeting the Chinese envoys was over, the king held a banquet for them. Ch’oe Yŏn and others were all originally Koreans who had gone over to China to become eunuchs. 6th Day (Ŭlhae)

The government established the Horse Purchasing Office for Tribute Payments (Chinhŏn kwanmaso) and ordered the officials of various ranks, both currently employed and on inactive service, to donate horses in accordance with their ranks. 9th Day (Muin)

The government elevated the status of Imju72 to prefecture because it was the birthplace of Chin Hallyong, imperial envoy from China, and the envoy requested the change. Kim Pin’gil, assistant navy commander of Chŏlla Province, captured three Japanese ships. The king sent a royal messenger and bestowed royal wine, silk, a silver belt, and a silver bowl on him.

72. Also called Imch’ŏn, it is now part of Puyŏ, the old capital of Paekche.

385

386

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

10th Day (Kimyo)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial to the king: “These days we have troubled you through our memorials on the matter of eliminating the Wang clan. Having failed to receive your permission, we feel disappointed and frustrated. “As we reflect quietly, Your Majesty has been extremely fair in treating the Wang clan, without showing any suspicion or envy of them. Even King Tang and King Wu, notwithstanding their virtue, could not surpass you in generosity. Nevertheless, the Wang clan never appreciated it and instead caused trouble. “Last time, our two offices jointly submitted memorials to punish them, and we finally had some branch members of the clan executed. However, the rest of the clan members are still alive in various places, and therefore we are worried that some unexpected troubles will break out if there is a crisis. According to an old saying, ‘a man pushed into predicament seeks ways to survive.’ “We request that Your Majesty think over the matter deeply and decide according to what is right, ordering the responsible office to arrest King Kongyang and his son as well as other members of the Wang clan and have them permanently eliminated. If you do so, it will be extremely fortunate for the state.” The king said, “I already prohibited the three offices from submitting memorials jointly. Why are you doing this again?” Then he kept the memorial to himself. 11th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The Privy Council made a proposal to the king: “Agriculture is the foundation for producing provisions and national revenue as well as for raising an army. If farmland is wasted and granaries are empty, what good is it to have impregnable fortresses and advanced weapons? Hence we request that all miscellaneous expenditures and sacrifices not specified in the law be strictly prohibited except those related to tribute to the king, official sacrifices, entertainment of state guests, and certain expenditures unavoidable in running the capital and local governments. “Moreover, last year we had drought early in the year and floods later, which seriously damaged crops. Furthermore, the people recruited to work on the construction of the walls lost a chance to plant seed in the fall months.

Book V

Even this spring, many people were also unable to cultivate their land because they had to wander from one place to another to perform corveé service. Though it is quite necessary to build the capital walls, it interferes with agriculture. Hence we request that households with two men during the off-­season be allowed to send only one, and that households with only one man send one after joining a neighboring household, until the construction is completed. “From this day forward, people should never be summoned or mobilized during the busy farming season for matters that are not urgent, such as disputes over slaves or collecting old debts. Let them devote themselves only to their farming, except when the matters are related to treason or the fight against the Japanese invaders or capturing thieves. “We have heard that both the public and private sectors are impoverished because the magistrates of local counties and districts failed to encourage the people to work hard at their farming. So we request that you order the provincial governors to inspect the farming situation occasionally, making idle people get back to their farming, providing those who have run out of provisions with grain from the righteous granaries, and providing those who are unable to cultivate their land due to illness with help from neighbors and relatives so that they may not miss the farming season. “Those who prevent others from farming while occupying large lands and yet leaving them idle should be physically beaten with ten strokes of the paddle for every 10 pu73 of land, and the degree of punishment should increase for every 10 pu, up to eighty strokes of the paddle. Moreover, the land they own should be provided to those who have little or no land, so that all can be cultivated. Any measure that can contribute to the promotion of agriculture should be tried, and the magistrate’s job performance should be judged by the amount of land he has reclaimed. The record of expand­ ­ing cultivated land, ranked into three grades, should be used as a reference for promoting and demoting officials.” The king followed the advice as it was. 14th Day (Kyemi)

The Censorate and the Board of Punishments presented themselves to the king and said, “We urge you to grant the request we made a few days ago.”

73. Pu is a hundredth of a kyŏl.

387

388

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The king said, “I already prohibited the Three Offices from submitting a memorial jointly. Why do you not obey my orders?” At first, the Censorate and the Board of Punishments repeatedly submitted memorials to the king to eliminate the Wang clan, but the king did not have the heart to do so. Therefore, he refused to grant the requests made by the officials. For several days now, the officials have prostrated themselves on the ground in front of the palace gate, showing no sign of giving up their request. The king finally gave orders to the Privy Council: “I can hardly bear to see the Wang clan removed. Let all high and low officials, hallyang, and retired senior ministers have a meeting and write down their own opinions separately and submit them to me directly.” Gathering the officials of various departments and government agencies as well as retired officials at Such’ang Palace, the Privy Council announced: “The Wang clan of the previous dynasty lost both the Mandate of Heaven and the hearts of the people, so they themselves invited punishment from Heaven. His Majesty, however, generously spared their lives, which is itself a great favor. Notwithstanding, the Wang clan members became suspicious and secretly attempted to commit treason, and this is clearly against the law. We want you to write down your opinions as to how to deal with the Wang clan for their crime and directly submit them to the king.” So the officials of the Chancellery and the Security Council and other agencies, as well as retired senior ministers, said that the Wang clan should all be eliminated in order to prevent trouble in the future. Only several dozen officials of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, Palace Medical Office, and Palace Granary said that they should be exiled to an island. The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the matter once again. Then the Privy Council said, “The opinions of the majority should be followed.” Following what it said, the king finally gave his decree: “With regard to the matters concerning the Wang clan members, I will act according to the general opinions submitted by the officials of the various departments and agencies. As for Wang U and his two sons, however, I will make an exception and pardon them so that they can perform the rites for their ancestors.” The king dispatched Chŏng Namjin, assistant director of the Security Coun­ ­cil, and Ham Purim, third minister of the Board of Punishments, to Samch’ŏk; Yun Panggyŏng, minister of punishments, and O Mong’ŭl, general-­in-­chief,

Book V

to Kanghwa Island; and Son Hŭngjong, minister of punishments, and Sim Hyosaeng, assistant commander-­in-­chief, to Kŏje Island.74 An Ch’ŏsŏn, assistant navy commander of Kyŏngsang Province, captured a ship of the [invading] Japanese. The king dispatched a royal messenger to bestow wine and silk upon him. Ch’oe Yŏn, the Chinese imperial envoy, and his aides visited their parents at their birthplaces.75 15th Day (Kapsin)

Yun Panggyŏng and others drowned Wang clan members at Kanghwa Ferry. The Privy Council submitted to the king the land ordinance prepared by the Agency of Land Management Grants (Kŭpchŏnsa) of the Board of Taxation. The king granted it as it was. 16th Day (Ŭlyu)

The king dispatched Yi Hŭich’ung,76 assistant navy commissioner of Kyŏnggi Province to Left Kyŏnggi Province and Ch’oe Chilsŏk77 to Right Kyŏnggi Province [as provincial navy commanders]. 17th Day (Pyŏngsul)

Hail fell. The king dispatched Hwang Kunsŏ,78 former military commander of Ch’ungju, to Cheju Island to comfort the residents. 74. Dispatching officials to various islands, the places of exile, implies the execution of the Wang clan. 75. These Chinese envoys were originally Koreans. 76. Yi Hŭich’ung (1344–1397): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son of Yi Yu, magistrate of Kaesŏng. Though he rose to the rank of second royal secretary in 1397, he died at a relatively early age, 54. 77. He died suddenly, soon after his appointment. 78. Hwang Kunsŏ (1328–1402): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the father of Hwang Hŭi, the famous chief state councilor during the reign of Sejong. When he

389

390

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Chŏng Namjin79 and others arrived in Samch’ŏk and conveyed the king’s message to Prince Kongyang: “Since officials and the people recommended that I be elevated to the throne, my fortune is the one that can be granted only by Heaven. I allowed you to live in Kwandong [Kangwŏn Province] and other members of your family to settle in different parts of the country according to their convenience. However, it happened that Kim Kahaeng, magistrate of Tongnae, Pak Chungjil, director of the Saltern Office, and others conspired to commit treason against me. So they visited a blind fortune-­teller, Yi Hŭngmu, and asked him about your fortune as well as the fortunes of your family members. When the incident was discovered, those involved in the plot were seized and executed. You may have been unaware of what happened, but the censors and other officials in charge of the law submitted no fewer than twelve joint memorials insisting that you and your family be brought to justice. Now all the officials, both high and low, have joined them in submitting memorials. So I have had no choice but to grant their request. I want you to know this fully.” Then the king had Kongyang strangled to death along with his two sons. 19th Day (Muja)

The king ordered the officials of the Office of Royal Decrees, the National Academy, and the Publications Office to report on ways to make the nation rich and powerful and to produce strategies to deal with crises after reviewing the classics and records throughout history. 20th Day (Kichíuk)

Son Hŭngjong and others threw the members of the Wang Clan on Kŏje Island into the sea and had them drowned. served as pacification commissioner of Cheju, he successfully requested the government to stop the requirement that Cheju residents present dried mare meat, produced locally, as their annual tribute. 79. Chŏng Namjin (?–1410): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He is best remembered for carrying out the execution of King Kongyang when he served as deputy director of the Security Council. He also visited Ming China but caused controversy because of his private trading during his diplomatic mission.

Book V

391

*   *   * [The king] commanded the central and local governments to search out and behead the Wang clan members who remain alive. The government raised the status of Samgi80 from district to county. 21st Day (Kyŏngin)

The government stopped the construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine.81 22nd Day (Sinmyo)

The Board of Rites made the rules for military officials, which were needed for when they addressed each other, starting from supreme general at the top down to captain and lieutenant. After the Privy Council presented them to the king, the king gave his approval. Chŏng Tojŏn, deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission spoke to the king: “In the ancient times of the Chengzhou era,82 people were loyal and generous. Nevertheless, when King Wu of Zhou fell gravely ill, the Duke of Zhou told the people that he did not want his fortune read but instead wanted to die on behalf of King Wu. He acted out of fear the people might grow agitated with the founding of a new dynasty. Since Your Majesty does not attend to affairs of state, officials and the people may suspect that you have a serious health problem due to chronic illness. So we beg you to be present at the main hall early in the morning and call in many generals and ministers to discuss affairs of state together.” Finding the request sensible, the king granted it. 80. As Samgi was the birthplace of royal preceptor Chach’o, the government, not too long ago, made it a district, installing supervising administrator. This time, it again elevated its status from district to county. 81. Presumably, the government’s sudden decision to stop the construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine was related to the ongoing discussion of moving the nation’s capital from Kaesŏng to Hanyang. 82. “Chengzhou era” normally refers to the times when the capital of Zhou moved to Luoyang and the nation was in its prime. However, in the context of the above passage, it appears to indicate the early Zhou dynasty, immediately after its establishment.

392

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

25th Day (Kabo)

Three imperial envoys, including Hwang Yŏnggi, came to visit with an official letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, with an imperial message enclosed in it. Setting up a colorful tent and having a ritual dance performance for welcoming the honored guests, the king led all the officials out to Sŏnŭimun Gate to welcome the Chinese envoys and then returned to Such’ang Palace. The official letter brought by the Chinese envoys read as follows: “On the twentieth day of the third month of the twenty-­seventh year of the reign of Hongwu [1394], Li Zengzhi, assistant commander-­in-­chief of our Commis­ sion and other members received a sacred imperial message at Fengtianmen Gate: ‘In recent days, our security forces defending Ganpu and nearby regions have captured five bandits in succession, including one named Ho Tŏk. Those who were arrested made depositions, saying that they were all Koreans sent by Koryŏ officials guarding the border region to plunder the coastal districts [of China] and gather information. I want you to send a list of the individuals in the recent investigations of your Left Army, along with the list made in previous investigations, to Koryŏ, after making an official document, and let the eldest or the second-­eldest son of the Korean king personally bring back to China those who committed the incursion of our borders.’ This was the order from His Imperial Majesty. “Our Chief Military Commission of the Left Army should naturally carry out the imperial order, and therefore we send a list of individuals who are to be repatriated by your government. The number of people who are to be sent back totals forty-­two, and it includes twenty-­five people from the previous investigations and seventeen people discovered in the recent investigations. “Regional Commander Yun, Myriarch Yuan Cheng, and three Jurchens seized in Dongning, who are now residing in Pyŏktun and Kuja, earthen fortifications in the Northwest Region, as well as Captain Jin Cheng, Official Lin Julun, Officer Li Junbi, and Chiliarch Kim Wan’gwi, with his thirteen family members, ought to be sent back.” The three Chinese envoys aforementioned are all eunuchs that our government sent to China. 26th Day (Ŭlmi)

The people with the family name Wang who received their name from the Koryŏ dynasty were all commanded to use their original family names, and

Book V

the people who had Wang as their family name from the beginning were compelled to adopt their maternal family names, even if they did not belong to the royal Wang clan of Koryŏ. 28th Day (Chŏngyu)

There was hail in Yŏhŭng County.83 Three Chinese envoys, including Hwang Yŏnggi, visited their birthplaces to see their parents. Baron (chŏng yun)84 Yŏng died, and the government suspended the morning audience and markets for three days. Yŏng was the king’s younger stepbrother. Officials visited to express their condolences. 29th Day (Musul)

On the occasion of the anniversary of King Hwan’s death, the king visited Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery with the queen. Setting up the royal portrait of King Hwan, he offered a sacrifice and let a monk preach the Flower Garland Sutra (Hwaŏm sammaech’am).85

5th Month 1st Day (Kihae)

The king and queen returned to the palace from Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery. 3rd Day (Sinch’uk)

As someone presented a young bear, the king had it raised in the backyard of the royal palace. 5th Day (Kyemyo)

The king watched a stone fight while sitting on the open floor of the East Hall. 83. Yŏju in Kyŏnggi Province. 84. Chŏng yun, literally “principal magistrate,” was an official title accorded to the nothoi of the royal family or merit subjects in early Chosŏn. It is also called chŭngja. 85. Hwaŏm sammaech’am, literally “Flower-­Adorned Samādhi Repentance Sutra,” may be a sutra preaching meditation and repentance.

393

394

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

6th Day (Kapchin)

Because there was a severe drought, officials offered prayers and sacrifices at the Royal Ancestral Shrine and the Altars of Earth and Grain. 8th Day (Pyŏngo)

Because there was a severe drought, officials offered prayers and sacrifices at Buddhist temples and the shrines of spirits and relocated the markets. 9th Day (Chŏngmi)

Because there was a severe drought, prisoners were all released except those who were sentenced to capital punishment by either beheading or hanging. The king invited the royal preceptor to pray for rain and had a sacrifice offered to T’aeilsŏng, a northern star, at the Temple of Brilliant Rectification, a Daoist temple at the palace. 11th Day (Kiyu)

It rained. 12th Day (Kyŏngsul)

There was a heavy rain. 14th Day (Imja)

The king ordered the Directorate for Palace Maintenance to install a blind in the main hall. The Directorate for Palace Maintenance made a report to the king: “In ancient times, Choŭn Island, a place that produces reeds, belonged to our Directorate. So every year we gathered reeds for public purposes. However, the island no longer belongs to us because the Agency of Land Management Grants awarded it to Chŏng Hŭigye, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, as his rank land. For this reason, it is difficult for us to install the reed blinds in the main hall.” The king said, “[King] Kongyang of the previous dynasty privately bequeathed the land to his son, which was not appropriate. Now, the Agency of Land Management Grants gave the island to the state councilor as rank land to seek his favor, without considering the public use of the land, and

Book V

that is not right either.” Then he immediately ordered that Yi Chae, chief official of the Agency of Land Management Grants, be imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison and dispatched Pak Charyang,86 an official of the Directorate for Palace Maintenance, to the site [Choŭn Island?] to conduct investigations. 15th Day (Kyech’uk)

As it was the anniversary of the death of Queen Hyo, the king’s great-­great­grandmother, the king had the number of his dishes reduced and the morning audience and the markets suspended. 16th Day (Kabin)

The king pardoned Yi Chae.87 20th Day (Muo)

When the envoys of Ming China, Ch’oe Yŏn and Chin Hallyong and others, returned to China, [Korea] offered five eunuchs to the Chinese emperor. The king went out as far as outside Sŏnŭimun Gate to bid farewell to them. The Privy Council also gave them a farewell party at Pot’ongnu Pavilion in the west. Chin Hallyong, a member of the Chinese envoys, became so drunk that he started complaining: “The [Chinese] envoys who previously visited were all treated generously. Tell me why you treat me now as if I were nobody?” He abruptly tore off his robe and stamped on it, shouting, “I would rather die here than see the emperor wearing this shabby-­looking robe.” Then he suddenly attempted to stab himself in the neck. Our ministers tried to avoid him, but Kim Ipgyŏn,88 who was responsible for entertaining Chinese envoys, quickly grabbed his arm, saying, “How can an imperial envoy behave like this?” 86. He also served as governor of Chŏlla Province. When his uncle, Pak Wi, was executed during the Second Strife of Princes in 1400, he retired to Namwŏn, the birthplace of his wife. 87. A couple of days ago, he got imprisoned for making a mistake in granting an island to Grand Councilor Chŏng Hŭigye. 88. Kim Ipgyŏn (1340–1396): a military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He escorted King Kongmin to Andong when Red Turban bandits invaded and also repulsed Japanese pirates in 1371 together with T’aejo. After T’aejo ascended the throne, he became grand councilor of the Chancellery.

395

396

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Hallyong tried to further perpetuate a disturbance but finally stopped acting recklessly because Ipgyŏn was strong and polite in his words. The king ordered Chin Ch’unggwi, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, to get a new robe for the envoy. At that time, the imperial envoys sent by the Chinese emperor were always Koreans who had become eunuchs for the emperor. As soon as they finished their mission of conveying the imperial decree, they immediately visited their birthplaces and behaved lawlessly, as this time, so the local governments found them extremely troublesome. The government dispatched Song Hŭijŏng, director of the Directorate for Ship­ ­building and Transportation, to the Chinese capital, taking the family of Kim Wan’gwi with him. The memorial submitted to the emperor was as follows: “On the seventh day of the second month of the twenty-­seventh year (1394) of Hongwu, over ten cavalier soldiers arrived at the foot of Mt. Mashan.89 Believing that they were the entourage of the Chinese diplomatic mission to Korea, Yŏ Ch’ing, myriarch of Ŭiju, immediately sent three residents in his district, including Kim Paegan, to greet them, crossing the Yalu River. The Chinese cavalier soldiers, however, captured Paegan and others and took them away. “Also, on the twenty-­first day of the third month in the same year, four Chinese envoys to Korea arrived at the riverside of Posuo,90 escorted by thirty Chinese soldiers of Liaodong, so Yŏ Ch’ing, myriarch of Ŭiju, crossed the river [Yalu] to greet them. However, the Chinese escort soldiers suddenly grabbed our people and took away three of them, including Interpreter Kim Yong, Military Commissioner Kim Pojŏng, and Chiliarch Yi Kyŏnsil. “To think over the matter earnestly, our small kingdom never had any thought other than serving the great nation [China]. Since our border is so close to the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong, only a river stands between to block passage. Therefore, whenever Chinese envoys sent by the imperial court or the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong visited our country, our officials in Ŭiju used to greet them first, crossing the Yalu River. Henceforth, our people on the border will be afraid and suspicious when they have Chinese envoys in their district and thereby cannot avoid making mistakes in entertaining them. 89. A mountain on the Chinese side of the Yalu River. 90. Modern Dandong, a city in Liaoning Province, which is on the border with Sinŭiju, North Korea.

Book V

“So we request Your Majesty to order the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong to return the Koreans whom it took away on the two aforementioned occasions, including Kim Paegan and Yi Kyŏnsil, so that the hearts of our people living on the border region can be calmed. 23rd Day (Sinyu)

Japanese invaded P’ungju.91 The king ordered young eunuchs and others in the palace to read the Great Learning. Ch’oe Ch’ilsŏk, military commander of Right Kyŏnggi Province, died of illness in the military camp. His clan seat was Wansan.92 He was so big and tall in stature that none among his contemporaries could rival him. Every time he received orders to go out to defend against Japanese marauders, he failed to make contributions and yet he never lost his battles either. His public service reached the position of second royal secretary. He is survived by two sons, Ŏngnyong and Mallyong. 28th Day (Pyŏngin)

Kim Kŏwŏn, our envoy who paid a courtesy visit to Japan,93 returned with monk Pŏmmyŏng [or Honmyo],94 bringing 569 Korean captives with him. 30th Day (Mujin)

Chŏng Tojŏn presented his book, titled Administrative Code of Chosŏn (Chosŏn kyŏnggukchŏn),95 to the king. After perusing it, the king expressed his admiration, praised the author, and bestowed upon him a horse in the royal stable along with silk and silver. 91. An old name of P’ungch’ŏn in Hwanghae Province. 92. Modern Chŏnju, a city in North Chŏlla Province. 93. This visit was made in response to the visit of Japanese envoys to Korea. 94. It’s not clear whether this monk was Korean or Japanese. If Japanese, his name could be Honmyo. 95. Also called Kyŏnggukchŏn, this book was akin to a constitution for the Chosŏn dynasty. As an architect of the new regime and a strong advocate of sweeping reform for education and government based on Neo-­Confucian ideals, the author laid down the laws for the six major areas of personnel, taxation, rites, the military, punishments, and works.

397

Book VI

Third Year of Reign (1394) 6th Month 1st Day (Kisa)

The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “Now that you have ascended the throne and established a new dynasty, you should set a good example for posterity by making clothes, goods, and decorations for daily use as frugal as possible. Items such as diverse colorful silks and dyes of various colors are all imported, so it is hard to supply them all the time. So are gold and silver, because they have to be sent away as tribute to the suzerain state [China] every year. Nowadays, people use them as they please, regardless of their rank and position, so it happens that they have little thought of their social status. Furthermore, those who only pursue their self-­interest through trade often cause trouble as they secretly cross the frontier, and the damage and harm they produce are quite serious. “Henceforth, the use of various kinds of silk and the decorations made of gold and silver, except the robes or goods presented to the king or the belts worn by high officials, should be strictly prohibited to those starting from the rank below the officials of the Chancellery and Security Council down to the common people. Public buildings and private houses and temples should not be allowed to use colorful paints. Officials except those above the rank of royal secretary should be prohibited from having their cap strings decorated with gold or jade. Oranges and other rare fruits, brocade flowers and phoenixes, gold and silver spoons, and colorful floral decorations should also be prohibited except when entertaining Chinese envoys.”



398

Book VI

The king said, “You need to discuss further the use of silk, gold, silver, beads, and jade of various kinds, as well as official uniforms, saddles, harnesses, and so on, and then report back to me. As for those who secretly cross the border for trade, they should all be put to death regardless of the amount of money or goods they have or the roles they have played in their illegal activities.” The king appointed former minister Kim Yŏngnyŏl1 as assistant navy commander of the Right Kyŏnggi Province. Supreme General Yi Cho2 visited Pak Tŏgi, former administrator of Hanyang, and raped his daughter at night. Furious, the king ordered him confined in the Capital Constabulary, but Cho ran away. Then the king commanded the officers of the Capital Constabulary to search the capital and the rest of the country until he is found, saying, “Anyone who harbors Cho shall be punished.” Nam Ŭn, right director of the State Finance Commission, said to the king, “Your Majesty seems determined to track Cho down, but what will you do if he is caught?” The king replied, “I will have him punished according to the law.” Nam Ŭn responded, “If Your Majesty really punishes him, the special relationship with family members will suffer. If you do not punish him, the laws will prove to be useless. If Cho is not found, on the other hand, Your Majesty can preserve the good relationship with your family members as well as the integrity of the law. Why do you then try so hard to track him down?” The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “The royal family members of the previous dynasty, including the queen and her 1. Kim Yŏngnyŏl (?–1404): a military official of early Chosŏn. Proposing a good strategy to repulse the Japanese marauders, he got promoted from assistant navy commander to navy commander in 1395. However, making a grave mistake of some kind, he was exiled to Ongjin. His career setback did not last long. He made contributions during the Second Strife of Princes, assisting Prince Chŏngan, later King T’aejong, and became a merit subject with the title of Lord of Ŭisŏng. 2. Yi Cho (?–1408): the eldest son of Yi Wŏn’gye, T’aejo’s stepbrother. He behaved lawlessly and abused his power, so T’aejo did not like him. During T’aejong’s reign, he was exiled to Yangju and later to Ongjin.

399

400

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

mother and close relatives, who were enfeoffed as lady of the palace (kungju), princess-­ordinary (ongju), and great lady of the state (kuktae puin), were provided with either tribute supplies or monthly stipends. We request that both tribute supplies and monthly stipends be abolished.” The king said, “Stop providing tribute supplies and give them all monthly stipends instead.” The king said to Prince Chŏngan [later King T’aejong], “If the Ming emperor asks a question, there is no one but you who can answer.” Prince Chŏngan replies, “How dare I decline the task when it concerns the future of the state?” In tears, the king said, “Being so physically weak, can you undertake such a long journey without trouble?” Officials in the court unanimously said that it was too risky for His Majesty [Prince Chŏngan] to undertake the journey. Nam Chae said, “Prince Chŏngan is going to travel a thousand li for the state. How can we die here, laying our heads on the pillow [comfortably]?” Then he volunteered to follow the prince. 7th Day (Ŭlhae)

The king finally sent Prince Chŏngan and Cho Pan, administrative director of the Security Council, to Ming China, carrying his memorial to the emperor, and also let Nam Chae, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, submit another memorial to the emperor. The memorial was as follows: “Your imperial envoys Hwang Yŏnggi and others visited us with an official letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, which carried your sacred instruction, and this is what you said: ‘Take a list of individuals in the recent investigations of your Left Army to Koryŏ, together with the one made in the previous investigations, after making them into an official document. Furthermore, let the eldest or second-­eldest son of the Korean king personally bring back to China the ones who committed the incursion of our borders.’ “Having received your decree, which is no less dreadful than the Mandate of Heaven, I decided to send my son, which I believe is my duty as your subject. Now I would like to appeal to you by submitting what I feel, for your merciful consideration. “As I look back, I was able to arrive at the present position thanks to your great favor and therefore have tried to express my gratitude as your subject

Book VI

by sending our envoys to you every year. In the twenty-­sixth year of the reign of Hongwu (1393), I sent your servant Kim Ipgyŏn to your court with a memorial expressing gratitude for the payment for our tribute horses and also sent our official Yun Sadŏk with a memorial to celebrate the imperial birthday. However, they returned without accomplishing their mission because the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong denied their entry into China by imperial decree. Nevertheless, I again sent your servant Yi Chi to request your permission for our visit to your court and continued to send your servant Pak Yŏngch’ung to celebrate the birthday of the heir apparent (ch’ŏnch’ujŏl) and Kyŏng Ŭi to congratulate Your Majesty on the twenty-­seventh New Year of your reign. However, when they arrived at Liaodong, they were again all denied entry into China by the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong and returned home without success in their mission. “Now the officials and people of our country were afraid, not knowing what to do. This was the situation when imperial envoy Kim Inbo and others arrived on the eighth day of the twelfth month this year and we received your sacred decree through the official letter of the Chief Military Com­ mission of the Left Army. In that letter, you said, ‘You sent your man to request me to allow you to change your country name. So I gave you my permission to change it into Chosŏn if you cherish its legacy. You changed your country name but continued to refer to yourself as interim ruler (kwŏnji kuksa) just as you used to, which I cannot understand.’ “In my foolish thought, it appeared inappropriate for me to dare to refer to myself as the king of Chosŏn because I was not yet awarded the title even though the new country name was already granted. Now, I finally was able to confirm that I had received the title ‘King of Chosŏn’ through your sacred decree via the letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army. “That was the reason I dispatched your servant An Chongwŏn to the Chinese capital with my memorial to express my gratitude to Your Majesty for granting me the title of king. However, he also came back without success, as he was denied entry to China when he arrived in Liaodong. “Having no way of changing your heart, I and my people were extremely disappointed and discouraged. Under such circumstances, I unexpectedly received your sacred decree to send my son to you, and I was deeply moved by the enormity of your magnanimity. It was like a poor son being embraced once more by a mother or a traveler returning home. My joy was so great that I was choked with tears.

401

402

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“As to the man named Yu Tua and others mentioned in your decree, we could not find them even though we searched extensively. There was no one by those names among our people. Im Karyongŭi was named Im Kŏryun, and Yŏgyunp’iryŏk was called Yi Kyunp’il, only because of their vocations, and the sound of their names were similar, [not that they committed any wrongdoing]. Nevertheless, we sent them away to comply with your orders. What could possibly be the reason we would hold Yu Tua and others against their will? “The depositions made by Hu De and others, which said that we sent them to collect information about the Chinese domestic situation, are even more preposterous. When the sun and moon are bright in the sky, the men with eyes and ears cannot help admiring them. When Your Majesty sits on the lofty throne, everyone reveres you and stands in awe of you. Having served the great nation [China] for many years, our small kingdom has already learned that it has a large population and a mighty army. We are also well aware that the great nation is distinguished in all areas, including rites, music, justice, and administration. How could we, then, be so childish as to send our men to collect information about China? We have already submitted memorials to vindicate ourselves on the false charges brought against us. “Therefore, I earnestly beseech that Your Imperial Majesty show great generosity that encompasses Heaven and Earth as well as our small kingdom, take pity on your subject who became helpless, not knowing how to vindicate himself, and allow him to make a fresh start in serving you. Our small kingdom will continue to be loyal to you, praying for your health and long life in the days to come.” 11th Day (Kimyo)

The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “Kaesŏng Magistracy is solely responsible for maintaining the rules and security of the royal capital, following the example of the capital magistracy (jingzhaofu) of the Han and Tang dynasties. As the rules and regulations were in disarray at the end of the former dynasty, ignorant and petty people neglected their parents and relatives, refused to help their neighbors, collected unreasonably high interest on old loans, and recklessly seized merchandise in the market against the will of the merchants. Sometimes when one fell ill or died, no one provide either help or burial. As a result, humaneness and good customs deteriorated.

Book VI

From this day forward, Kaesŏng Magistracy should be much stricter in enforcing the rules of society and at the same time publicize its policy by posting public notices to prevent people from any further wrongful conduct. If there is anyone who continues to act lawlessly as before, his neighbors or village head should report this to the ward (pu) concerned, and the ward in turn should report to Kaesŏng Magistracy so that disciplinary action can be taken against the man. One who witnesses a lawbreaker and yet fails to report to the authorities will be punished by the same law that the lawbreaker is subject to. Those among the chief officials in charge of Kaesŏng Magistracy and the five wards in it who receive the reports and yet fail to take action should also be punished according to the law.” The king followed the advice. 16th Day (Kapsin)

Hwang Yŏnggi, Chinese imperial envoy, and his retinue returned to China. The king had them deliver his memorial to the emperor and saw them off at Yŏngbinwan Guesthouse. His memorial read as follows: “On the twenty-­fifth day of the fourth month of the twenty-­seventh year (1394) of Hongwu, imperial envoy Hwang Yŏnggi and others arrived with the emperor’s written prayer (ch’ungmun) offered to the spirits of seas and mountains and rivers, and the gist of the prayer was as follows: ‘The one named so-­and-­so [Yi Sŏnggye], who is the son of Yi Inim,3 an official of Koryŏ, now called so-­and-­so, secretly or sometimes publicly sent out his people to spy on our borders. His men committed wrongdoings by inducing our soldiers to kill or lure our residents in the coastal regions. Since he caused such disturbances, I wished to raise an army immediately to chastise him but refrained from acting hastily because my large army, once crossing the border, would certainly harm numerous lives. ‘Besides, Koryŏ is surrounded by sea on three sides and mountains on one side. Its land, being rugged, stretches out several thousand li and ­therefore

3. The statement that T’aejo was the son of Yi Inim was indisputably wrong. T’aejo’s father is Yi Chach’un, not Yi Inim. Inim, as a matter of fact, was an adversary of T’aejo. The Chosŏn Korea endeavored to correct this erroneous record of T’aejo’s ancestry, which was perpetuated through the Veritable Records of the Ming Dyansty (Ming Shihlu) and the Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty (Daming Huidian), whenever it sent envoys to China; however, the correction was finally made two hundred years later in 1584, in the seventeenth year of King Sŏnjo.

403

404

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

forms a natural fortress. The one who rules over such a land cannot maintain himself without the Mandate of Heaven. When I observe what Yi So-­and-­so is doing, he does not appear to be one who rules the people by following the orders of the Lord on High. Though I wish to report the matter to him, I fear that I may disturb his peace too precipitately. So I send a man to report it to the spirits first, expecting that they in turn will look into the matter and report it to the Lord on High. If Yi and his people continue to be arrogant and insulting, I will have no choice but to raise an army to chastise them.’ “Having received this instruction from the emperor, I cannot help feeling that I certainly do not deserve his warning. My ancestors originally came from Chosŏn. Yi Han, my twenty-­second-­generation ancestor, served as minister of works in the kingdom of Silla. After Silla ended, Yi Kŭnghyu, Han’s sixth-­generation descendant, served in the government of Koryŏ, and Yi Ansa, Kŭnghyu’s thirteenth-­generation descendant, served in the previous Yuan dynasty. He was my great-­great-­grandfather. After him, our family did not serve in the government of Koryŏ. As a war broke out at the end of Yuan, my father Yi Chach’un took refuge in the eastern region, taking with him his family, including myself. I served in the army because I was known to have some knowledge of military affairs, but I failed to rise to a high rank. “After King Kongmin of Koryŏ passed away, Sin U usurped the throne and ruled for sixteen years, and during that time, officials such as Yi Inim, Im Kyŏnmi, Yŏm Hŭngbang, and others alternately seized power. They caused such great harm to the people that they paid with their lives. On the other hand, I became chancellor of the state because I comported myself cautiously from the beginning and made no mistakes, and thenceforth I participated in the administration of the government. As for these facts, I have already submitted them to you through my memorials. “Yi Inim and your servant [Yi Sŏnggye] do not belong to the same family. From the day I started governing the state, I tried to correct all the wrongdoings committed by Inim. So he and his followers became resentful, and eventually Yun I and Yi Ch’o ran across to the suzerain state [China] and made false reports to you against me. Fortunately, thanks to your good judgment, those wicked people were brought to justice. However, the members of their clique, hiding out both in the capital and the provinces, have kept on accusing me out of their jealousy until now. “I also believe that Heaven and men, high and low, are connected by a single principle. The mind of Your Majesty is actually the mind of the Lord

Book VI

on High. If your servant, who received favor from Your Majesty, sent his men to spy secretly on your territory, and if they plundered and killed people by luring your soldiers on the borders, no crime would be more serious than that. If that really happened—and yet I deny it—it would be deceiving Your Majesty. Among the crimes committed by a subject, nothing can be more serious than deceiving his sovereign, and the one who dares to deceive his sovereign cannot live in the civilized world. If I deceived Your Majesty, it amounts to my having deceived Heaven. Among the crimes of men, nothing is more serious than deceiving Heaven, so I would have no place between Heaven and Earth to which to belong. The spirits are everywhere. If I really deceived Heaven and the emperor, how can it be possible that those spirits not report to the Lord on High and have him send down calamities on me? With extreme fear and trepidation, I presume to speak these words. I sincerely beg Your Majesty to take a pity on me with your benevolence.” To accede to the imperial demands delivered by Ch’oe Yŏn [Chinese envoy], the king had Kim Ŭlsang, chamberlain for ceremonials of the Court of Royal Sacrifices, take 500 tribute horses to Liaodong and deliver them to the Chinese authorities. 18th Day (Pyŏngsul)

Pyŏn Hon, record keeper of the Office of Appointments and Royal Seals, who concurrently holds another office, ran away. Earlier, Hon privately recommended two people to the positions of captain and lieutenant, respectively, and spent their stipend for his own use. Around this time, as his embezzlement came to be discovered, the Office of the Inspector-General impeached him. 19th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king dispatched Cho Im, administrative grand councilor of the Chancellery, to China to submit a memorial congratulating the emperor on his birthday. 20th Day (Muja)

The water of Kit’an Rapids turned red.

405

406

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

21st Day (Kich’uk)

Hwangbo Im, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, died. He was a native of Yŏngju4 and the son of An, magistrate of Chinju. In the previous dynasty, he went out to battle a few times, following his father-­in­law, An U, assistant chancellor. Earlier, he served as subcolonel and rose up through ranks to vice minister of works after serving at various posts. After An U fell from power, Im resigned and spent several years without being employed in the government. King Kongmin thought that Im was knowledgeable in military affairs because he followed An U for years, so he appointed him deputy director of the Court of the Royal Clan (Chongbusi) and quickly promoted him to director (p’ansa). He joined Ch’oe Yŏng, director of the State Finance Commission, in a military campaign and pacified Cheju Island. During the reign of the usurper Sin U, he became minister of justice and deputy director of the Security Council and served twice as provincial military commissioner of Chŏlla Province. In the Mujin year (1388), he went to Wihwa Island, following the king [then General Yi Sŏnggye], and participated in the discussion of turning the army around to march back home and became merit subject first class. Outside the royal court, he served as supreme commander of Yanggwang, Kyŏngsang, and Chŏlla Provinces and crushed the Japanese marauders at Namwŏn. Upon returning from Namwŏn, he went out again to serve as provincial military commander of the Northwest Region and magistrate of P’yŏngyang. After ascending the throne, the king called him and appointed him administrative commissioner of the Security Council. At this time, he died of illness, and his age was sixty-­two. The government assisted his funeral according to the rules and rites. He had two sons, Chŏn and In. 23rd Day (Sinmyo)

The Privy Council requested to have the districts of Kyŏnggi Province reorganized into Left and Right Provinces separately, based on their population and land area. The districts included in the Left Province were as follows: Changdan, P’ap’yŏng, Hyŏnju, Sach’ŏn, P’oju, P’ungyang, Sŏwŏn, Haengju, Simak, Hanyang, Puwŏn, Kwaju, Ch’ŏrwŏn, Yŏngp’yŏng, Sŭngnyŏng,

4. Yŏngch’ŏn in North Kyŏngsang Province.

Book VI

Sangnyŏng, Chŏksŏng, Imgang, Majŏn, Songnim, Yŏnju, Kobong, Kyoha, Kŭmju, Yangch’ŏn, Namyang, Ansan, Inju, T’osan, and Anhyŏp. The districts included in the Right Province were as follows: Kaesŏng, Kangŭm, Haep’ung, Paekchu, Yŏnanbu, P’yŏngju, Chaeryŏng, Kanghwa, Chin’gang, Haŭm, Kyodong, Sŏhŭng, Ubong, Hyŏpkye, Suan, Kokchu, Pup’yŏng, Tongsŏng, T’ongjin, Suan, Kimp’o, and Tŏksu. The name of Yanggwang Province was changed to Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, that of Kangnŭng-Kyoju Province to Kangwŏn Province, and that of Sŏhae Province to P’unghae Province. 24th Day (Imjin)

The king sent his royal decree to the Privy Council through Han Sanggyŏng, chief royal secretary. “It was only for the people that the sacrifices to the royal Wang clan were severed, and Heaven made me rule this country. If I neglect the will of Heaven and fail to look after the people, Heaven will certainly bring down disasters on me. From antiquity until now, the rea­ ­son countries are poorly ruled is that both the king and his subjects fail to meet with each other properly. Though I lack in virtue and ability, you came to my aid at the right time and assisted me in accomplishing a great task. Hence, we should be alert day and night in order to fulfill the will of Heaven. “There is an old saying, ‘I never hear that one who rules over the land of a thousand li is afraid of others.’ Since our land is as large as two to three thousand li, how can we be afraid of others if we govern the land properly? However, being old and sick and incapable of discharging my duty properly, I have to rely on you officials. How can I forget even a moment my wish to rule the state well? I want you to assist me with all your heart, making up for my shortcomings. “We need to be extremely careful in appointing governors. If we find the right person for the job, one whole province can benefit from it, and if we choose the wrong person, an entire province will suffer the consequence. So I want you to recommend men of talent that you know and submit their names to me.” Chancellors Cho Chun and Kim Sahyŏng and others replied, shedding tears: “Men such as us are all foolish, but we were fortunate to meet an outstanding sovereign such as you. How can we not add our meager strength to your efforts if it can be of any help? Since it is important to choose good

407

408

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

governors as you have instructed, we will have the Censorate recommend the right candidates.” They also said, “The soldiers guarding the royal palace work hard day and night, but many of them have failed to get paid any salary, whereas some members of the Brave Loyal Guards (Ch’ungyongwi) or the officers of similar units who attend you closely are mostly unfit for their job. So they should be replaced with the soldiers guarding the royal palace. As for other problems, we will report to you as soon as they arise and submit our answers to your inquiry.” When Sanggyŏng submitted the report, the king summoned the chief officials of the Censorate and gave them his order: “If there is anyone who is above the rank of royal secretary (sŭngji)5 or minister of personnel and qualified for the job of governor, submit his name regardless of whether he is on active duty or retired. The inspectors, including Yi Kŭn, submitted a memorial to the king: “Previously, you decreed to have alcohol prohibition extended until we had good crops. This time, you decreed to have it terminated after the twenty-­ third day. Since our dynasty is newly established, all the laws cannot be changed lightly. Hereafter, we request to have wine drinking banned at public and private gatherings or welcoming or farewell parties until we have good crops.” The king granted the request. Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, wrote about the royal guard system using regular soldiers (pubyŏng)6 throughout history. Discussing potential problems and abuses when the system was adopted, he produced a diagram to present its history as well as a [reform] policy concerning the current pubyŏng system. He submitted his work to the king. 25th Day (Kyesa)

The king appointed the candidates recommended by the Censorate as the governors (to kwanch’alch’ulch’ŏksa) of various provinces. He appointed

5. Rank 3a. 6. They presumably indicate the seasoned veterans who were more battle hardened and efficient.

Book VI

Ch’oe Yugyŏng7 as governor of Kyŏngsang Province, Hong Kilmin8 as governor of P’unghae Province, O Sach’ung as governor of Kangwŏn Province, and Kim Hŭisŏn9 as governor of Right Kyŏnggi Province. Yun Sadŏk, former right director of the State Finance Commission, died. He was a native of Kigye in Kyerim (Kyŏngju). He was by nature gentle—so gentle that he never incurred the hate of others. He died of illness and had no sons. 26th Day (Kabo)

The Privy Council presented a memorial to the king with the proposal made by the Board of Rites: “Except the tribute items presented to the king, officials should not be allowed to use gold, and no officials should be allowed to wear silk as well as jade attached to hat string or headband except the members of the State Council and the Security Council. The officials of rank 6 below grand master for excellent goodness should not use silver except in wine cups, and the officials below rank 7 should not be allowed to use silver even for their wine cups. However, articles such as belts or decorative headpieces on top of the Confucian-­style coronet (chŏngja) that are worn by the officials of the Censorate can be an exception. People such as commoners, artisans, merchants, and men of low status should be prohibited from using silver and fur even if they once served in the government. Even those who are married should be restricted to using the aforementioned articles in accordance with their official rank.” The king followed the advice. 7. Ch’oe Yugyŏng (1343–1413): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. When serving as third inspector during the reign of King Kongmin, he impeached eunuch Yun Ch’unhchwa, who arrogantly abused power. When T’aejo turned his army around to march back home, he reported it to King U. Notwithstanding, T’aejo appointed him as minor merit subject later because Ch’oe acted out of loyalty. In 1397, he served as administrative director of the Security Council and, concurrently, the supreme commander of Kyŏnggi and Ch’ungch’ŏnggi Provinces. During the reign of T’aejong, he also served as inspector-general, fourth state councilor, and chief magistrate of Hansŏng. 8. Hong Kilmin (1353–1407): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He also served as surveillance commissioner of Kangnŭng Province, third inspector, royal secretary, and discussant of the Security Council. 9. Kim Hŭisŏn (?–1408): an official and physician of early Chosŏn. He served as minister of works, pacification commissioner of Chŏlla Province, director of the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits, and governor of Kyŏngsang Province. Learned in medicine, he wrote a few important medical books.

409

410

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Im Kŏryun and Yi Kunp’il returned. At first, as the Chief Military Commission of Five Armies (Wujun dudufu) put pressure on us by sending a letter saying to repatriate their people allegedly living as captives in our country, we sent them our people whose names sounded similar to those on their list. Now they were released and returned home by the order of the Chinese emperor. 27th Day (Ŭlmi)

Yi Kyŏnsil, Kang Pojŏng, Kim Yong, and others returned. When they visited China, they had an audience with the emperor. The emperor returned them to Korea after asking some questions about things related to our border. The king gave his instruction to the Privy Council: “I had already decided on Muak as the site of the new capital after having over ten ministers personally inspect it. However, Yu Hanu and Yi Yangdal, officials of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, say that Muak is not the right place for the capital as far as their expert knowledge is concerned. No affairs of state can be more important than this, and yet officials are divided over the matter. I want the ministers and the officials of the Directorate of Astronomy who visited the site of the new capital last time to discuss the matter again and report the result to me.” Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission and Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, wrote down the opinions of a number of ministers and the officials of the Directorate of Astronomy and made a report to the king: “Everyone is against the idea.” The king said, “Let them look for another good place.” 29th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king dispatched Min Che, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, to the Northeast Region and had him offer sacrifices to the royal tombs of the king’s immediate ancestors going back four generations.

Book VI

7th Month 2nd Day (Kihae)

The officials of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory reported on the site of the new capital city: “The best is the site where Puril Monastery10 is, and the second best is Sŏnjae.”11 To express his gratitude to the [Chinese] emperor for releasing Yi Kyŏnsil, the king prepared a memorial and dispatched Cho Im to present it to the emperor while carrying out his diplomatic mission to commemorate the imperial birthday as envoy (chŏrilsa). The memorial he sent was as follows: “On the twenty-­first day of the third month of the twenty-­seventh year of the reign of Hongwu (1394), a representative (ch’ain) dispatched by the Chief Military Commission of Liaodong arrived at the Yalu River. Three people on our side, including ChiliarchYi Kyŏnsil, Military Commissioner Kang Pojŏng, and Interpreter, Kim Yong crossed the river to welcome the Chinese representative, but to their surprise, they got arrested by the Chinese authorities. Our people living on the border areas were so shocked and afraid that they did not know what to do, and I had to submit a memorial to you explaining what had happened. Under such circumstances, on the twenty-­ eighth of the sixth year of the twenty-­seventh year of the reign of Hongwu, the aforementioned three people, including Yi Kyŏnsil, were released and returned from the Chinese capital after receiving your instruction. Upon their return, they reported that they had received favors and gifts from Your Majesty. Our people and I are overjoyed.” 3rd Day (Kyŏngja)

An Sungno, former administrative commissioner of the Security Council, died. He was a native of Sunhŭng and the son of Kŭgin, Lord of Chuksŏng.12 He was by nature tidy and diligent. He was well read and ambitious. He died of illness and was survived by two sons, Mangji and Kyŏngji.

10. Presumably located in P’aju, Kyŏnggi Province. It is also called Sŏngogae. 11. Presumably located in P’aju, Kyŏnggi Province. It is also called Sŏngogae. 12. An Kŭgin (?–1388): an official of late Koryŏ. He served as military commander of the Eastern Capital (Kyŏngju), right policy advisor, director (taejehak), and administrator of the civil service examination.

411

412

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

4th Day (Sinch’uk)

The officials of the Privy Council inspected Sŏnjae [which the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory recommended as the site of the new capital] and found that it was not good. Nam Ŭn, right director of the State Finance Commission, reprimanded Yi Yangdal, [an official of the Astro­ nomical and Meteorological Observatory]: “You people pretend to know about geomancy and have deceived the king several times, recommending the wrong places for the site of the new capital. You need to be severely punished so that other people can be warned against such trickery.” 5th Day (Imin)

The officials of the Privy Council visited Puril Monastery [the site of the new capital recommended by the Astronomical and Meteorological Obser­ vatory] and found that it was not good either. The envoys from Thailand (Sŏmnagok), including Chang Sado, returned and reported, “In the twelfth month last year we arrived in Japan along with Pae Hu, a [Korean] envoy on a mission to pay a courtesy visit (hoeryesa), but we were waylaid by bandits, who robbed us of all gifts and belongings. If you provide us a ship, we would like to return to our country as soon as the winter is over.” Then they presented a sword, armor, some copperware, and two dark-­skinned servants. When the king held the morning audience, he ordered the Board of Rites to let the envoys from Thailand join our officials when there was morning audience. Locust swarms ravaged regions of Yŏnan and Paekchu.13 A large flock of crows descended on the capital center. 7th Day (Kapchin)

The residents of Cheju Island, including Ko Pongnye, arrived and presented one hundred horses. The king bestowed 100 kok of rice upon them. 13. Also called Paech’ŏn County, Paekchu is a district bordering Yŏnan, Hwanghae Province.

Book VI

11th Day (Mujin)

The government changed the name of the official title of administrator belonging to the Consorts’ Establishment from ch’asaol to sagŭm,14 and the name of the Royal Forest Park from Tongsansaek to Sangnimwŏn.15 The Privy Council spoke to the king: “Since individuals all have their own opinions concerning geomancy, their opinions are often confusing and their correctness hard to determine. The secret records handed down from the previous dynasty are also at variance, making it difficult to distinguish right from wrong. Hence, we request that a Directorate for Geomancy (Ŭmyang sanjŏng togam) be established to make various opinions consistent.” The king followed the advice. 12th Day (Kiyu)

Having established the Directorate for Geomancy, the king ordered Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission; Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission; Sŏng Sŏngnin, assistant chancellor; Nam Ŭn, right director of the State Finance Commission; Chŏng Ch’ong, Chancellery scholar; Ha Yun, senior secretary of the Security Council; Yi Chik, academician of the Security Council; Yi Kŭn, inspector-­general; Yi Sŏ, Prince P’yŏngwŏn; as well as the officials from the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, to collect various books and records on geography and geomancy and use them for references and revision. 13th Day (Kyŏngsul)

A Japanese envoy of Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu, visited together with monk Pŏmmyŏng, whom we had sent earlier, and returned 659 Korean captives who had been taken away by Japanese marauders. Pŏmmyŏng also presented a monkey to the king, and the king had it kept in the Royal Stable Court. 14. The Consorts’ Establishment, called Pijubu, was created to give preferential treatment to royal consorts and princesses, and an administrator called ch’asaol or sagŭm headed this establishment. 15. It refers to the government office in charge of growing and managing fruit trees and flowers as well as ponds in the royal garden. It supplied the palace with the fruits needed for various occasions of celebration, including royal birthdays or New Year.

413

414

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The king sent his decree to the Privy Council: “According to what I have heard, the residents of Liaoyang, China, are saying to our people, ‘The estranged relationship of Chosŏn with China is largely due to the [Korean] monks spreading false rumors while traveling around.’ Henceforth, the monks frequenting the Northeast Region shall be beheaded, with no exception. 14th Day (Sinhae)

Japanese marauders suddenly invaded Haeju and seized one of our battleships and ran away. Kim Pin’gil, military commander of Haeju, pursued them without success. 15th Day (Imja)

The Office of the Inspector-General spoke to the king: “These days, a band of wicked people cause abuses across the country, relying upon the influence of the imperial envoys. They should be severely punished after the official records of entertaining the envoys have been examined.” The king followed the advice. 17th Day (Kabin)

In order to pray for the blessings of the Wang clan, the king ordered the officials, including Han I,16 former minister of rites, Chŏng Ku,17 third magistrate (uyun) of Hansŏng, Cho Sŏ,18 chief minister of the Court of Royal Sacrifices, Kwŏn Hong,19 former third censor (hŏnnap), and Pyŏn Hon,20 former recorder of the Royal Stable Court, to write the Flower Garland 16. Han I (?–1417): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. By the order of T’aejo, he presided over the sacrifices to the royal Wang clan of Koryŏ. He was invested with the title of Lord of Kyerim. 17. Chŏng Ku (1350–1418): of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He also served as chief royal secretary, inspector-general, minister of works and of taxation, and fourth state councilor. 18. He also served as left policy advisor. 19. Kwŏn Hong (1360–1446): of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was exiled for impeaching Chŏng Tojŏn. After his daughter became the consort of King T’aejong, he was invested with the title of Lord of Yŏngga. Later, he served as minister of rites and director of the Royal House Administration. 20. He also served as recorder of the Office of the Personnel Appointment and Royal Seals (Sangsŏsa). According to the Annals of King T’aejo, he was impeached for recommending officials after taking bribes.

Book VI

Sutra in gold and to make four copies so that they can be kept in the Buddhist monasteries and read once in a while. Prior to this, Pyŏn Hon ran away after committing some wrongdoings. Since he was good at calligraphy, the king summoned him to join the others in making copies of the sutra. The king ordered all officials to donate cast iron items in their possession to the Directorate for Armaments, in accordance with their rank, so that military weapons could be manufactured. 18th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted the results of its investigation on those who committed irregularities relying upon the influence of envoys from Ming China. The king said, “Those who committed the most serious abuses should be put to death. Those who tried to acquire government posts should be sent away to serve in the navy. [Envoy] Hwang Yŏnggi made contributions to the country and moreover did not ask for many favors. So those who sought favor from him should be excluded from the ones to be punished.” Yi Mindo, minister of taxation, requested that paper currency be used. 19th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king planned to inspect Muak personally to make a final decision concerning the site of the new capital, so the Remonstrance Bureau of the Chancellery submitted a memorial: “The weather is still extremely hot for the royal carriage to travel, and the farmers are also too busy to give their time [to the construction work]. It will not be too late to wait until the middle of the eighth month to visit the site. The king followed the advice. 21st Day (Muo)

The Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies submitted a memorial to the king: “At the end of the former dynasty, the pubyŏng military system fell into serious disarray. As our dynasty has just become established, we must abolish old abuses and enact new laws. Since tightening discipline among royal guards to prepare for unexpected crises and strengthening the nation by raising the dignity of the king are extremely important, everyone must do his utmost. “Nevertheless, some ignorant people who became royal guards simply forget the reason they were appointed to the post of captain or chief and

415

416

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

only complain about their dissatisfactions, often breaking the law, and this is extremely disloyal. Henceforth, if there is anyone who continues to violate the law, let the Office of Inspector-General report it [to the king] so that he can be punished. Furthermore, we request that his name be removed permanently from the list of names for official appointment. The supervisory officials in charge of the royal guards should likewise be punished if they fail to report to the authorities the wrongdoings of their subordinates.” The king followed the advice. The Privy Council presented a memorial to the king: “Last time when people were mobilized from villages for the construction work of fortresses, men of robust health employed all sorts of trickery to evade their corvée labor obligations, and households that were poor and had sick men sent children or women, which was extremely unfair. “From this day forward, every household should provide manpower as follows: a large household should send two men, a midsized household one man, and a small household one man jointly with a couple of other small households. If there is any household that evades corvée labor service or sends children or women, please let the head of that household be punished.” The king followed the advice. As it was the anniversary of the death of Queen Kyŏng, the king’s grandmother, the king ordered the number of his foods reduced and the morning audience and markets suspended. 24th Day (Sinyu)

The king performed the ancestral sacrifice for King To, his grandfather, based on precedents. 25th Day (Imsul)

Hwang Hŭisŏk, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, fell ill, prompting the king to order that prayers be offered to Buddha. 28th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

Strong, gusty winds caused crop damage.

Book VI

30th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “The people recruited from the provinces for the capital wall construction project should be divided into two groups and work alternately so that they can have a break from their work.” The king replied, “How about finishing the work fast rather than dividing the people into two groups and prolonging the work? Provide an adequate amount of provisions to those who are unable to secure their own provisions continuously.” The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “It is crucial to reinforce the security of Kyŏnggi Province seaports. Henceforward, large ships should be deployed at strategically important places to be ready for unexpected crises, and elite troops on fast boats should search various islands while pursuing the enemy. “If trouble breaks out, the provincial military commissioner should report to the court and return to shore only after receiving orders from the court. Those who violate this rule should be punished. The provincial surveillance commissioner [governor] should keep close watch on the provincial military commissioner, as well as the myriarchs and chiliarchs, and supervise their performance closely. If they fail to do their duties properly, he should punish them. However, in the case of the military commanders above the rank of grand master for excellent comfort, the governor should report the case to the king first before he takes punitive action against them.” The king followed the advice.

8th Month 1st Day (Mujin)

Kaesŏng Magistracy (Kaesŏng pu) conducted a survey of all large and small households in the capital. 2nd Day (Kisa)

Chŏn Paegyŏng and other Censorate officials jointly submitted a memorial to the king: “Your Majesty, endowed with outstanding military talent, came to occupy the throne, which had been in the hands of the Wang clan for five hundred years. How could human effort alone make this possible? Koryŏ

417

418

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

King Kongmin’s lack of an heir to succeed him indicates that you had already been chosen by Heaven. “The officials in power at that time recklessly had Sin U succeed King Kongmin, but U also committed many wrongdoings, rashly raising an army to violate the territory of the suzerain state [China]. “Your Majesty, however, turned your army around to march back home, persuading your fellow military commanders for a great cause. As a result, the evildoers were suppressed and the people across the country were elated. This is also an indication that you were destined by Heaven to replace the Wang clan. “Your Majesty installed Ch’ang, the son of U, as king after listening to Cho Minsu and others, but Ch’ang was too young and ignorant to discharge his royal duties. Discussing the matter with the people once again, Your Majesty placed Kongyang on the throne, which indicated how loyal you remained to the Wang clan. “Kongyang, however, was also so ignorant and jealous that he alienated his officials and generals and made Heaven eventually abandon him. The reason Heaven abandoned the Wang clan was not that it hated them but that it hated the evil paths they took. The reason Heaven accorded its mandate to Your Majesty was not that it loved you as a person, but because it loved the virtues you practiced. If the people fail to benefit from your virtues, it is against the will of Heaven that made you king. “From the time you ascended the throne, you proclaimed your decree across the country, which avowed that you would rule the state with virtue and benevolence. Now again, you ask the Privy Council about the ways to govern the people and bring them comfort. This is a great fortune for our people and also a way of repaying our debt to Heaven. We, who are your subjects, are so much moved [by your love of the people] that we are anxious to respond to your request for our advice. We would feel extremely fortunate if you would accept what we are about to present for your consideration. “1. The Classic of Documents says, ‘Look after people as if they were children.’21 The Book of Rites says, ‘Don’t exceed more than three days a year when using the labor of the people.’ Following these admonitions indicates that the sage king loves his people so much that he tries to minimize their labor service as much as possible. This is exactly the benevolent rule 21. According to James Legge’s translation, “Act as if you were watching an infant.” (The Great Learning, p. 370)

Book VI

of the sage king who really cares about his people. The Classic of Documents says, ‘Heaven hears and sees as our people hear and see.’22 These days, strange things are happening in the sky, such as flocks of raven darkening the sky, which appear quite dreadful. We are currently undertaking the construction of two capital cities simultaneously. Hence, manpower is divided, and the people are having a hard time, while the construction itself is still far from completion. We request you to reduce their burden by prioritizing what is urgent. Then the people, as well as Heaven, will be pleased, and it will bring about auspicious signs [to dispel our worries]. “1. The Analects says, ‘Love your people by practicing economy.’23 The Book of Changes says, ‘Neither waste property nor harm people by adhering to the rules of spending.’ What these admonitions indicate is that the love of the people is not to waste property, and wasting property always brings harm to the people. In ancient times, Emperor Yao lived in a straw-­thatched cottage with mud walls. Yu the Great had the roof of his royal palace lowered. Emperor Wen of the Han dynasty gave up building a lofty terrace in order to save money. So they have been admired for their virtues from antiquity until now. We request that Your Majesty have your royal palace look simple and modest and reduce unnecessary officials or integrate offices, if possible, to save state expenditures, emulating those ancient sage kings. “1. In ancient times, the well-­field (chŏngjŏn) system served as the foundation for maintaining state armies. This system disappeared with the decline of the Zhou dynasty but revived during the Tang dynasty, when the divisional militia (fubing) system was established. We now have the Three Armies Headquarters in the capital, and in local districts the units of palace guards that consist of rotated militiamen, and the units are assigned to one of the Three Armies. This is no other than the legacy of the old divisional militia system. However, at the end of the previous dynasty, the household register fell into disarray and consequently the people came to bear an unfair burden of military service. Virtually all members of the household often had to serve as royal guards or seamen, and since everyone in the family was recruited for military service, people who were unable to bear the burden increasingly ran away to avoid it. 22. “The Counsels of Kao Yao,” (The Shu King p. 56) 23. This was adapted from the chapter “Xueer” in The Analects: “To rule a country of a thousand chariots, there must be reverent attention to business, and sincerity; economy in expenditure, and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper season.” (Legge, p. 140)

419

420

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“The quality of military forces outweighs their numbers in importance. We would like to request that each province carefully enlist soldiers, while fixing their numbers. In the case of the cavalry, one soldier should be selected from among five capable men, and in the case of the infantry, one soldier from among three capable men. If such a system is implemented, soldiers who travel will be able to avoid the hardship of carrying heavy loads of equipment either on their shoulders or heads, and those who are exempt from military service can have the opportunity to improve their livelihoods at home. In an emergency, those who stay at home can also be recruited for military service. “In times of peace, soldiers should be allowed to take care of their farms, and during the agricultural off-­season, the officers of the units that the soldiers are assigned to should inspect the weapons, while training them so that they can be ready to serve under their commanders. Then the soldiers will be more strengthened in their readiness and there will be no lack of provisions for them. “The members of the regular royal guards should be chosen from those in the units of the Three Armies Headquarters as well as from the royal guards of various security divisions. However, only those who are quick and brave should be provided with stipends, and others who do not belong to this group should be excluded from the payroll. Additionally, when those who received land are too old and sick to serve, they should be replaced with their mature sons or sons-­in-­law or nephews. “1. At the end of the previous dynasty, land administration fell into disarray. Powerful people grabbed land for themselves, and household registers were almost abandoned so that the people of good (commoner) status were undistinguishable from the lowborn. Consequently, litigations increased by the day, and feuds drove families apart as people tried to occupy mountains and fields for their own benefit, depriving others of their land. They also abused their power by seizing the slaves of others and, much worse, even turned commoners into people of low birth. As a result, they made the people resentful and the spirits indignant, and eventually brought an end to the reign of the previous dynasty. “When Your Majesty was out of public view before you ascended the throne, you deeply deplored this terrible situation. Thus, you finally changed the abusive land administration, and many of the irregularities disappeared by themselves. However, the problem concerning slaves still remains unresolved, constantly causing lawsuits. We request that Your Majesty create a

Book VI

directorate that will handle solely slave affairs, employing fair-­minded officials and establishing strict rules and regulations that require that litigations be resolved within a certain time limit. You should make official documents based on the originals and give them to the litigants but burn the original copies of those documents as you did when you brought about land reforms in order to eliminate the root cause of disputes. “According to an old record, ‘Emperor Guangwu threw away his spear to devote himself to his study and stopped horse-­riding because he felt that a discourse on the Way (Dao) was more urgent.’ Because he gave priority to civil administration like this, he was admired by posterity for his virtue. Since Your Majesty has founded a new dynasty and brought peace to the country according to the Mandate of Heaven, you should hold royal lectures, discussing the classics and histories, so that you can learn from them the ways to govern the state, making the precedents and admonitions in them your guidance. Our Chosŏn was originally a feudal kingdom ruled by the Viscount of Ji (Jizi) and has recently received its country name from Ming China once again. The Great Plan with Nine Divisions (Hongfan jiuchou)24 was his work, which was designed to provide guidance to the rulers. We urge you to hold a royal lecture and have a discussion on this text first. “1. Since the state affairs that the king has to take care of every day amount to ten thousand, he cannot but be diligent. Your Majesty should go out to your main audience hall and personally make final decisions on the matters presented by various government agencies and consult your ministers if the matters are important enough to consult them. “1. Since the appointment of officials is one of the king’s main prerogatives, you cannot help being impartial. Now you appoint military officials based upon the records of their service, but some of them are also appointed to their posts without rendering any service. We request that henceforth 24. After the final defeat of Shang, King Wu of Zhou asked Jizi about the ways to rule the empire, and the latter was known to have answered with the so-­called Great Plan with Nine Divisions: (1) living in accordance with the five phases (metal, wood, water, fire, and earth); (2) attending to the five essential matters (appearance, speech, observation, listening, and thinking); (3) developing agriculture; (4) integrating the use of the five methods of keeping time (by year, month, day, stars, and calendar); (5) using imperial standards; (6) regulating the three virtues (impartiality, hard prevalence, and soft prevalence); (7) verifying through examination; (8) thoughtfully using all signs (rain, rising sun, warmth, cold, and wind); (9) using the five blessings (long life, health, wealth, love of virtue, and peaceful death) and the six extreme misfortunes (violent premature death, bad health, distress, poverty, being hated, and becoming infirm and weak).

421

422

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

civil or military officials who rendered service to the state should be promoted regardless of their order and rank for the sake of boosting their morale, and those who expect to be promoted without rendering any service should be driven out and punished as a warning to others. “1.The Classic of Documents says, ‘Shun liked examining trivial words.’ It also says, ‘Yu did homage to excellent words.’25 Shun and Yu were the greatest sages of all time, and their wisdom, so illuminating, extended to all things, and yet they did not take their wisdom for granted; they never ceased to make efforts to expand their wisdom. Emperor Dezong26 of the Tang dynasty visited a house of a commoner named Zhao Guangqi, and after listening to his daring words, he finally realized, for the first time, the extent of the people’s suffering. It happened because the emperor had no honest officials around him, and therefore the real situation of the people was unable to reach his ears. Your Majesty now asks us about the ways to govern the state, and that indicates that you have the heart of Shun and Yu, who cared about their people. We would like to urge you to extend your benevolent heart all the way down to the common people until they freely speak their minds. You will accept their words if they are right, and even if what they are saying is against reason, we want you to forgive them. “1. Looking back at history, how long the newly founded dynasty will last and how well it will be governed indeed depends on the thought of the founder king. Figuratively speaking, it is like the builder of a house laying a good foundation and one who plants a tree making its roots well established. Unless the dynastic founder is careful about ruling the state at the beginning, how is he different from the builder of a house or the planter of a tree who neglects laying a good foundation or having the roots well established? We sincerely urge you to keep this in mind, having men of integrity near you and listening to their good advice. Please make sure that your rule shows benevolence toward the people and provides help to the needy first. Avoid enjoying luxury items and respect a life of simplicity. Your conduct should be based on trust, and frugality should be the foundation of your life. If benevolence and righteousness take root in your administration, the foundation of the state will be strengthened and your descendants will prosper for many generations to come.

25. “The Counsels of the Great Yü.” (The Shu King, p. 52) 26. Dezong (779–805): the 9th Tang emperor.

Book VI

“1. It is the king’s virtue to listen to words of advice and accept the remonstrance of his subjects, and it is the duty of his subjects that they prevent troubles from happening by offering honest advice to the king. The officials who fail to discharge their duty because of their self-­interest are the ones who deceive the king, only receiving the favors and stipend from him. Though we lack talent and ability, we are specially favored to serve as censors in your government. How can we then keep silent and pretend to ignore your request, which was intended to find the right ways to rule the state from the beginning of your reign? “In ancient times, Jia Yi27 of the Han dynasty wailed over wrongful measures, and his remonstrance made Emperor Wen’s reign prosperous, while the outspokenness of Wei Zheng of the Tang dynasty contributed to the success of the “Reign of Zhenguan.”28 If Your Majesty accepts our proposals and puts all of them into practice, it will be extremely fortunate for the people in the days to come.” The king ordered Kim Sahaeng, director of the Directorate of Palace Attendants, to build the Inner Royal Stable (Naegu) in the section of Holchŏkbang.29 3rd Day (Kyŏngo)

Hwang Hŭisŏk, Lord of P’yŏnghae and assistant grand councilor of the Security Council, died. He was a native of P’yŏnghae. Hŭisŏk led the troops under Taejo’s command even before he ascended the throne and was staying at his private home, out of public view. His contributions qualified him to be named a dynasty-­founding merit subject. After he fell ill, the king sent him a royal physician to treat and remain with him until he recovered. Then the king continued to dispatch runners to inquire after his condition. After Hŭisŏk died, the king mourned his passing so deeply that he ordered the

27. Jia Yi (200–169 bc): a poet and statesman of the Han. Extremely talented in literature, he was recommended to Emperor Wen and rose to a high position at a young age. However, he made many enemies at court because of his ideas of reform and outspokenness and suffered persecution until he committed suicide at the age of thirty-­one. 28. It refers to the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty, which was considered a golden age of Chinese history and required study for future rulers. 29. Location unknown.

423

424

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

morning audience suspended. He also sent Yi Hwa, Count of Ŭian, to offer a sacrifice in front of the coffin. Then the king posthumously promoted Hŭisŏk to assistant chancellor and bestowed on him the title of Yangmu. The king also ordered the government to provide a generous donation to help the family pay for the funeral. He was survived by a son named Sang. Fire broke out in the entrance building (haengnang) of the Directorate for Armaments. 6th Day (Kyeyu)

Summoning Third Censor (pogwŏl) Pae Kyu,30 a chief administrator in the Office of the Censor-General, the king gave the following order: “Write down and report the names of those who receive the stipend from the government without doing anything, those who are recruited for military service along with the members of their households, and those who were appointed to government posts without making any contributions. Chŏn Paegyŏng and others submitted a memorial to the king: “We, your subjects, in spite of being foolish, were fortunate enough to live in a great age and undeservedly entrusted with the responsibility of remonstrance. Not daring to keep silent without doing anything, we submitted our humble opinions yesterday, troubling your heavenly intelligence. Fortunately, you paid attention to them and allowed us to resubmit them in detail, showing your willingness to carry them out. This indicates that Your Majesty, earnestly desiring to achieve good governance, shows the noble manner of following the advice of his ministers. We, your subjects, can hardly contain our gratitude, so we decided to respectfully submit to you what we know, for your review. If Your Majesty takes a look at it and implements it along with other proposals, it will be fortunate for the future of Chosŏn. “Emperor Shun of Yu31 was a great sage in the world, and Danzhu, the son of Emperor Yao, the most foolish man in the world. Yu [of Xia],32 however,

30. He also served as inspector-general later. 31. “Shun of Yu” is the title of Yu Shun or Great Shun. The “Yu” in “Shun of Yu” is the name of the fiefdom that Shun received from Yao. 32. Yu the Great, founder of the Xia dynasty, was renowned for his introduction of flood control.

Book VI

admonished Emperor Shun, saying, ‘Don’t be arrogant like Danzhu,33 who only likes to enjoy himself, doing nothing and behaving tyrannously.’ How could Yu, who was extremely intelligent, not realize that a great sage such as Shun would not be arrogant like Danzhu? Yu, nevertheless, warned the emperor because he was compelled by his loyalty and worried that one who sits on the lofty throne could commit an error by making just one poor judgment. “From the days when Your Majesty was staying at your private home, out of public view, you read all the classics and histories and studied the rise and decline of dynasties and kingdoms throughout history. You also learned and felt bad about the sufferings of the people serving both in the capi­ ­tal and provinces. So how can it be possible that you know only after ­listening to the reports from others? Notwithstanding, the reason we submit these words is just to follow the tradition of the age of Tang and Yu [Yao and Shun], in which the sovereign and the subjects admonished each other. We urge Your Majesty to understand our true intention and pay attention to our words.” 7th Day (Kapsul)

The king summoned Chief Royal Secretary Han Sanggyŏng to Ch’ŏngsim­ jŏng Pavilion and told him to present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning. The king appointed Chang Sado, a man from Thailand, as chief minister of the Office of Guest Affairs and Chin Ŏnsang34 as vice supervisor of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory. 8th Day (Ŭlhae)

Lightning struck with thunder, and hail fell. The king dispatched Yi Mu, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng, to Ming China to express his gratitude [to the emperor] for granting the entry of the Korean diplomatic mission [after months of disruption]. His memorial to the Chinese emperor was as follows: “Your servant speaks to the emperor. On a number

33. The son of Emperor Yao. Emperor Yao made Shun his successor, not his son Danzhu. 34. According to a source, he was an envoy from Java, Indonesia.

425

426

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of occasions, I sent my officials to your court—including Kim Ipgyŏn, Yun Sadŏk, Yi Chi, Pak Yŏngch’ung, Kyŏng Ŭi, An Chongwŏn, and others— carrying my memorials to Your Majesty, but their entry was denied by the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong, and they had no choice but to return home before they reached the Chinese capital. Consequently, I was embarrassed and worried. In these circumstances, you graciously allowed my son [Yi Pangwŏn] and officials Nam Chae, Cho Pan, Cho Im, and others to visit you, and I as well as my people are overwhelmed by gratitude. Since your sacred virtue and generosity extend to a distant country such as ours, we are all moved to tears and delighted that we are able to pay homage to you once again. “I was undeservedly made a king, but I was fortunate to enjoy the age of peace. Although I have been unable to provide you with any assistance despite my having ruled my country for several years, I have always been loyal to you and never forgotten to pay tribute to you, sending my envoys to you whenever it was necessary, such as for New Year’s Day. “In recent months, our way to your court has been blocked due to the false accusations against us. I was very distressed and did not know what to do. Since my son was allowed to have an audience with you and my officials to personally congratulate you on your imperial birthday, I am twice as happy as ever before. Though you sit deep in your imperial palace, you know what is happening 10,000 li away. Thus, you could see my grievances and innocence and made our kingdom across the sea look up to the sun of the great nation once again. I will be more reverent and careful in serving you and always pray for your long life.” The king presented sixteen high-­ quality horses [to the emperor as tribute]. The government constructed a fortress in Anju.35 Taking each official from the Privy Council, the Censorate, and the Board of Punishments with him, and escorted by the Royal Guards (Ch’in’gunwi),36 the king embarked on his journey to see Muak, the site of new capital, ­personally. 35. A county belonging to P’ungch’ŏn Military Prefecfture in Hwanghae Province. 36. The members of the Royal Guards, called Ch’ingunwi, consisted of soldiers selected from those in the Northeast Region or Hamgyŏng Province, which was Taejo’s birthplace and power base.

Book VI

427

*   *   * The Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory reported that the moon came close to the Constellation of Heart (Simsŏng),37 prompting the king to pardon those in exile. 11th Day (Muin)

Arriving at Muak, the king inspected the site. Yun Sindal, director of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, and Yu Hanu, vice director of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, advanced to speak to the king: “According to the theory of geomancy, this place cannot be the capital of the state.” The king said, “You may say that a place is good or bad as you please. If this place is indeed as bad as you say, you should look into your books first and make a report based on that.” Sindal and Hanu withdrew from the king and discussed the matter. The king called Hanu again and asked, “Is this place that bad?” Hanu replied, “In my opinion, it is bad indeed.” The king said, “If this place is not good, where is a good one?” Hanu replied, “I have no idea.” The king became indignant and said, “Being an official of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, how can you say that? Are you going to lie to me? Haven’t you heard that the power of Songdo [Kaesŏng] [as the site of the capital] has run out?” Hanu said, “That idea came from the popular belief in divination (toch’am), but I am ignorant of it because what I have learned is only geomancy.” The king said, “As far as I know, much of the old divination theory was also based on geomancy. Then how can it be groundless? Tell me if there is any good place that you have in mind.” Hanu replied, “T’aejo of the previous dynasty took Mt. Songak as the site of his royal palace, but starting from the middle of the dynasty, the kings ignored propitious sites and moved their palaces many times to other places that were distant from the capital. In my opinion, the strength of Songdo still remains strong, and therefore I believe it would be advisable to continue to keep Songdo as the nation’s capital. The king said, “I have already decided to move the capital. If there is no pro­ p­ itious site in the vicinity [of Muak], one among the old capitals of the three kingdoms might be a good choice. Discuss the matter and let me know.”

37. One of the Twenty-­eight lunar mansions in the Chinese constellation system.

428

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Then the king said to Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng: “At the end of the previous dynasty, the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory claimed that the strength of Songdo had already declined and submitted numerous memorials, proposing to move the nation’s capital to Hanyang. In recent days, they recommended Mt. Kyeryong as a potential site for a new capital. So I mobilized the people for construction work, causing them hardship. Then someone said that this place [Muak] is better than others, so I came down to see it personally. Now, Hanu says that this place is not good and that we had better keep Songdo as the nation’s capital. So everyone has different opinions, arguing among each other and deceiving the nation. This happens because no one was called to account for his opinions. I want you to talk to the officials of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory and let them find the right place for the capital as soon as possible.” Ch’oe Yung, director of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, who concurrently held some other post, along with Yun Sindal and Yu Hanu, submitted a memorial to the king: “The ideal site for the nation’s capital in our country is Puso,38 and the second best is Namgyŏng.”39 That night the king stayed at the foot of Mt. Muak. 12th Day (Kimyo)

The king invited Royal Preceptor Chach’o into his tent and had a meal served. Prior to his royal tour, the king sent a man to summon the national preceptor. The king ordered the grand councilors to submit reports on the prospective site of the new capital, and Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, made the following proposal: “1. This place [Muak] is located in the middle of the country and easily accessible by marine transportation. However, being situated in a valley, it is not spacious enough to accommodate royal palaces inside and government offices, markets, and the Royal Ancestral Shrine outside. Therefore, it is not an ideal place for the king to rule the country conveniently. “1. I have not learned the art of geomancy. Since everyone’s opinion is preoccupied with geomancy, I do not know what to say. According to what

38. Another name for Kaesŏng. In Koguryŏ, Kaesŏng was called Pusogap. 39. In Koryŏ, Hanyang (Seoul) was called Namgyŏng, which means “Southern Capital.”

Book VI

Mencius said, ‘The purpose of learning some skill is to put it in practice when one grows up.’40 So I would like to speak based on what I have learned. “Establishing his capital in Jiaru—namely, Guanzhong—King Cheng [of Zhou]41 foretold that his dynasty, reigned over by thirty generations of kings, would last eight hundred years. The Zhou moved its capital to Luoyang during the reign of King Ping,42 the eleventh monarch, and this took place 449 years after the dynasty was founded. Then the Qin took over the old capital of the Western Zhou as its new capital. The Zhou dynasty came to an end during the reign of King Nan,43 the thirtieth [thirty-­sixth] monarch and was finally replaced by the Qin dynasty. If we look at what happened, the fortune of the Zhou shown in the thirty generations and eight hundred years had little to do with the site of its capital. When Han Gaozu [Liu Bang] and Xiang Yu attacked the Qin, Han Sheng44 urged Xiang Yu to establish his capital in Guanzhong, but Xiang Yu was reluctant to follow his advice because he saw that royal palaces were burnt down and many people were killed.45 Someone said to Xiang Yu, using language characteristic of a geomancer: ‘If you ring a bell in a room divided by a wall, a man in the next room will be pleased to hear its sound though he cannot tell what the bell looks like. So it is natural that one wants to see the land where his ancestors lived once he has achieved fame and wealth.’ Listening to these words, Xiang Yu made his way eastward to Pengcheng,46 and Han Gaozu moved

40. “King Hui of Liang,” Mencius. 41. King Cheng (1042–1021) was the second Zhou king. His father was King Wu, and he was young when he ascended the throne. So his uncle, the Duke of Zhou, became the regent until he came of age. The exact location of Jiaru is not clear. However, if it indicates Guanzhong, which literally means “within the passes,” it refers to the broad region of the lower valley of the Wei River, which is the cradle of ancient Chinese civilization. It is known that King Cheng attempted to move his capital eastward and build his residence in the heartland of the ousted Shang dynasty. 42. As the nomadic tribes in the north continued to attack Haojing (present Xian), the Zhou capital, King Ping moved the capital eastward to Luoyang, thus beginning the Eastern Zhou and ushering in the Spring and Autumn Period. 43. The thirty-­sixth Zhou king. He ruled for fifty-­nine years and was killed after Qin annexed his kingdom in 256 bc. 44. A retainer of Xiang Yu. 45. According to Zeng Xianzhi, a Yuan historian, Xiang Yu said, “Not to go home after achieving a great success is like walking in the darkness dressed in silk.” Then, Han Sheng said to himself, “They say the people of Chu are like monkeys wearing scholars’ caps, and they are right indeed.” Hearing of this, Xiang Yu had Han Sheng boiled alive. (Shiba Shilue) 46. Also known as Xuzhou, it is a major city in Jiangsu Province.

429

430

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

westward and established his capital in Guanzhong, following the advice of Liu Jing.47 Xiang Yu was soon ruined, but the Han dynasty became the country ruled by the Son of Heaven. Thereafter, the [Northern] Zhou dynasty of the Yuwen clan48 and the Sui dynasty of Yang Jian49 established their capitals in Guanzhong, successively, and the Tang followed their examples, so its prosperity matched that of the Han. All of these things indicate that the success of ruling the state depends on men, not on the strength of the sites. “1. In China there were many who became the Son of Heaven, and they established their capitals in Guanzhong, which was situated in the west. In the east, there was Jinling [Nanjing], which, successively, was the capital of Jin, Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen. In the middle, there was Luoyang, which successively served as the capital of Liang, Tang, Jin, Han, and Zhou. The Song also made Luoyang its capital, and its prosperity was no less than that of Han and Tang. In the north was Yanjing [Beijing], which became the capital of the Great Liao [Liao dynasty],50 the Great Jin [Jin dynasty],51 and the Great Yuan [Yuan dynasty],52 successively. Although China had the largest territory under heaven, the places chosen for its capital cities were only a few. Throughout the establishment of numerous dynasties, how could there have been no one good at geomancy? The places chosen by the kings for their capitals are fixed from the beginning; they cannot be found by the skill of geomancy. “1. In our country, since the days of the Three Han Kingdoms [Samhan],53 the old capitals were Kyerim [Kyŏngju] in the east, Wansan [Chŏnju] in the south, P’yŏngyang in the north, and Songgyŏng [Kaesŏng] in the middle.

47. An advisor of Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty. After the Han was founded, Liu Jing advised Emperor Gaozu to move the capital from Luoyang to Chang’an, which is modern Xi’an. 48. The Yuwen were the descendants of the southern Shanyu of the Xiongu. A descendant of the Yuwen tribe, Yuwen Tai established the Northern Zhou in the sixth century. 49. Yang Jian is the personal name of Emperor Wen (581–604), the founder of the Sui dynasty. 50. Also known as the Khitan Empire (907–1125). It was destroyed by the Jurchen people of the Jin dynasty. 51. Also known as the Jurchen dynasty (1115–1234). 52. After conquering the Southern Song dynasty in 1271, Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borgijin clan, officially proclaimed his realm the Great Yuan Empire (1279–1368). 53. Samhan refers to the three confederacies of chiefdoms on the southern Korean Peninsula in the Proto–Three Han Kingdoms Period.

Book VI

Since Kyerim and Wansan are located very far from the center, how could you rule the state from such remote places? P’yŏngyang is also not suitable as the nation’s capital because it is too far north. “1. Since Your Majesty has recently ascended the throne, succeeding the previous dynasty that had collapsed, the livelihood of the people is not yet quite settled, and the foundation of the state is far from being secure. Therefore, it is important to calm things down and give people a break and, further, to examine the seasonal changes while observing how things turn out among the people, finally moving the capital after choosing an auspicious time. Then everything will be fine and the rule of the Chosŏn dynasty will last forever, and my descendants also will thrive. “1. The people who argue the pros and cons of the site for the new capital do not base their claims on their knowledge of the truth but rather on what the ancients have said. What I said also derived from the experiences of the people who preceded me. Then how can you trust the words of those who practice geomancy and distrust the words of a scholar? I earnestly request that Your Majesty think deeply and find out what you can best do under the present circumstances, and after that you can try fortune-­telling. Then nothing will go wrong, whatever you choose to do.” Sŏng Sŏngnin, assistant chancellor, said: “One can say that this place [Kaesŏng] is good because mountains and rivers gather here and it is therefore accessible by marine transportation. However, the site [where the palaces are to be constructed] is too steep and narrow, and the mountain behind too small, so it is not appropriate for the royal capital. Even a great nation such as China had only a few places for an imperial capital. How, then, can it be easy to find good places in a small country such as ours? Because some of the mountains and rivers in Puso [Kaesŏng] are not in the ideal location, the ancient sages used to say that the king should stay both in the left and right areas of Puso, alternately. “It would be fortunate if you made this place a royal quarters for inspection, while constructing the main palace in Puso. How can it be that Puso is only for the Wang clan, not for the kings who come after them? Besides, it would not be too late to move the capital after giving the people a break for a couple of years.” Chŏng Ch’ong, Chancellery scholar said: “Since ancient times, it has been a difficult task to find a place to set up the nation’s capital. Even a great nation

431

432

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the likes of China had only a few places for its capital, such as Guanzhong, Bianliang [Kaifeng], and Jinling. How can a small nation such as ours have many good places? The Zhou established its capital in Guanzhong, and the Qin and Han also used the same place as their capital. Bianliang was the capital of the Five Dynasties,54 and Jinling the capital of the Six Dynasties.55 “Master Tosŏn said that the kingdom with Puso as its capital could capture the territories of the three kingdoms. There were three kingdoms before Wang Kŏn, the founder of Koryŏ, unified them, and after the unification, Kaesŏng served as the nation’s capital all along. It is the fortune of the Wang clan that their rule came to an end after five hundred years; it had little to do with the strength of the capital site. If we consider the fact that the Zhou and Han maintained their capitals at the same location, there will be nothing wrong even if we make Kaesŏng our capital. If you want to continue to search for other places, abandoning this one, the search had better be more extensive. “The Muak site is extremely narrow, and the main mountain behind it is very low, and the mouth of the river is overly exposed. If this were really a propitious site, why was it not used by our predecessors?” Ha Yun, senior secretary of the Security Council said: “Kyerim and P’yŏngyang are the old capitals of our country that survived the longest time. Though the ground of Muak may be low and narrow, the building site for the royal palace is much larger than at Kyerim or P’yŏngyang. Furthermore, located in the middle of the country and surrounded by mountains and rivers both inside and outside, it is both within easy access of marine transportation and safe from external threats. Hence, the place has many virtues, described in the secret records of our predecessors. Besides, the location of Muak agrees with the theories of the Chinese geomancers, who emphasize that the nation’s capital should be a place where mountains and rivers converge, which I already explained to you in detail last time I had an audience with you. “I believe that there is the Mandate of Heaven when a dynasty is born. To establish the nation’s capital is also extremely important. If you want to 54. Five Dynasties (907–960 bc), which include Liang, Tang, Jin, Han, and Zhou. 55. A collective name for six Chinese dynasties during the periods of the Three Kingdoms (220–280 ad), Jin dynasty (265–420), and Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589).

Book VI

relieve the people of their burden, being anxious to gain their support for now, you should continue to stay in Songdo. However, if you want to establish a nation that will last forever, there is no better place than here.” Yi Chik, academician of the Security Council said: “Examining the books on geomancy in relation to moving the nation’s capital, I found that ‘The site for the royal capital should be a place where myriad streams of water and countless mountain peaks merge into one great mountain and one great river.’ This indicates that the place should be a spot where the energy of mountain ranges gathers, and where the waters of the river are deep and broad enough to accommodate boats. The books also say, ‘The capital of the state with land 1,000 li long should be as large as 500 li in all directions, and the capital of the state with land 500 li long should be as large as 50 li in all directions.’ This statement indicates that the distance from the capital to local provinces should be equal in all directions. The secret records handed down in our country also say that the capital should be located ‘below Mt. Samgak,’ or ‘in the vicinity of the Han River,’ or ‘the capital [below Mt. Muak.’ These locations indicate right here. “Finding the right place to move the capital is so important that it cannot be decided by a few people. It can be done only after following the will of Heaven and securing the support of the people. The Classic of Documents says, ‘Consult the tortoise shell, divining stalks, ministers, and officers’56 [when you have doubts about any great matter]. Therefore, the decision cannot be made without their assistance. “Since moving the capital or not depends on time and fortune, how dare I express my opinion thoughtlessly? Your Majesty is serious about [mov­ ­ing the capital] and also mindful of public opinion, and that is to follow the will of Heaven. [However], I also believe that the site of Muak is a little too small.” The reluctance shown by various grand councilors in their discussion about moving the capital displeased the king, who said, “When I return to the capital [Songdo], I will clear up my doubts at the Daoist Temple of Brilliant Rec­tification.” Then he took his royal carriage to Namgyŏng [Hanyang].



56. “The Great Plan.” (Shu Ching, p. 130)

433

434

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

13th Day (Kyŏngjin)

Inspecting the site of the old royal palaces in Namgyŏng and observing the features of the mountains, the king asked Yun Sindal: “How do you like this place?” Sindal replied, “In our country, Songgyŏng [Songdo or Kaesŏng] is the best, and this place is the second best. The only problem is that the low terrain on the northwest side dries up streams and springs.” Pleased by the answer, the king said, “No place can be perfect, even including Songgyŏng. As I examine the terrain of this place, it appears to be good for the royal capital. Most of all, the rivers here can accommodate boats, and the distance from the capital to local provinces is even in all directions. So this place will also be convenient for the people.” The king also asked Royal Preceptor Chach’o, “What do you think of this place?” Chach’o replied, “Since the terrain on all four sides is high and the middle section is flat, this place appears to be good for building the palace. However, I would like to ask you to make your final decision following the general opinion.” The king ordered grand councilors to discuss the matter, and they replied, “If you really want to move the capital, we recommend this place.” However, Ha Yun alone said, “The mountainous terrain appears to be fine, but this place is not good with regard to geomancy.” Following the general opinion of the officials, the king decided to move the nation’s capital to Hanyang. Then Yang Wŏnsik, former library clerk, stepped forward and said, “I already submitted the secret record [on geomancy] in my possession last time, in response to your order. There is a mountain on the east side of Kwangsilwŏn in Chŏksŏng,57 and the residents call it Mt. Kyejok.58 Taking a look at it, it corresponds to the description in the secret records.” The king said, “There being no river to float boats, how can it be the capital?” Wŏnsik replied, “From Imjin to Changdan, the river is deep enough to float boats.” The king inspected the construction site for the Royal Ancestral Shrine, taking a ride in the royal vehicle, and spent the night in the Nowŏn Post Station fields. The king ordered the Privy Council to mobilize able-­bodied people from the Kyŏngsang, Chŏlla, Ch’ungch’ŏng, Kangwŏn, P’unghae, and Left and 57. Chŏksŏng is known to be in the modern P’aju area near Mt. Kamak in Kyŏnggi Province. Kwangsilwŏn is located in Yŏnch’ŏn County in Kyŏnggi Province. 58. A mountain in Yŏju, Kyŏnggi Province.

Book VI

Right Kyŏnggi Provinces to complete the construction of city walls in the old capital [Kaesŏng?].59 15th Day (Imo)

A white rainbow appeared. The king paid a visit to Hoeam Monastery and had food served to the monks. Then he traveled and stayed overnight west of P’ungch’ŏn. After Left Chancellor Cho Chun fell ill, the king provided him with a sedan chair and ordered him to return to the capital first. Japanese marauders raided Ansŏng in Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. Chang Yonggŏm, navy myriarch, captured nine enemy vessels. 16th Day (Kyemi)

A white rainbow appeared. The king arrived on the east side of Kwangsilwŏn and inspected the prospective site for the royal palace that Yang Wŏnsik had mentioned. Everyone said that the place was not good, so the king gave up his search and went over to enjoy a boat ride at Changdan Ferry. Grand councilors and senior officials presented wine to the king, wishing him long life. After everybody was drunk, Nam Ŭlbŏn, chancellor-­without­portfolio, rose from his seat and began to dance. Looking at Nam Ŭn, the king said, “You became grand councilor while your parents are still alive. Though I attained the highest honor to become the king of a nation, how can my fortune match yours?” Thus speaking, the king shed tears. The king sailed down the river and spent the night downstream. 17th Day (Kapsin)

A white rainbow appeared. Spending the night in the north of Imjin District, the king took a tour of the new capital site designated by the previous dynasty. 59. “Old capital” here appears to indicate Kaesŏng, not Hanyang. However, there was no reason to build the city walls at that time when T’aejo had already decided to relocate the capital in a couple of months.

435

436

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

18th Day (Ŭlyu)

After taking a look at Mt. Tora, which Min Chungni60 suggested, the king said, “How can such a dirty and humid place be a royal capital?” Then he returned to Songgyŏng [Songdo]. As the king neared the capital, the crown price came out to greet him, and the officials of various departments greeted him in front of Ch’ŏnsu Monastery. 21st Day (Muja)

The government dispatched Song Hŭijŏng, director of shipbuilding and transportation, to China to present one thousand tribute horses, and he returned from Liaodong, China, after accomplishing his mission. The Board of Rites spoke to the king: “Since the days of the Three Kingdoms, our country has long offered sacrifices to Heaven at the Circular Mound Altar (Wŏn’gudan), praying for good harvest and rain. Hence, the sacrifice cannot be rashly abolished. We request that the rules of the ritual be recorded and the tradition be preserved as it has been in the past after renaming it the Circular Altar (Wŏndan).” The king followed the advice. The king ordered all officials to present horses in accordance with their rank. 22nd Day (Kich’uk)

Japanese marauders invaded Yŏnggwang County,61 and their battleships were ten or so. Over thirty people working at a salt farm fought hard, beheading three of them, and routed the invaders. The government abolished the Warehouse for Buddhist Ritual Implements (Tojanggo) and the Temple of Sakra Devānām Indra inside the palace 60. An official of late Koryŏ. In 1378, King U ordered Kwŏn Chunghwa, assistant grand councilor, and Chang Poji, director of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, to search for a site for the new capital, saying, “Since Kaesŏng is vulnerable to Japanese attack and its vitality as the nation’s capital has run out, find a new place based on the secret record of Master Tosŏn.” Min Chungni, serving as vice minister at that time, recommended Mt. Kidal in the north, which was called Pukso, meaning “a vital spot in the north.” However, Mt. Kidal is located in Hwanghae Province, so it is not clear how his name was connected with Mt.Tora, which is located south of the capital. 61. A seatown in South Chŏlla Province.

Book VI

p­ recincts (Naejesŏgwŏn)62 and established the Flourishing Fortune Ware­ house (Pokhŭnggo). 24th Day (Sinmyo)

The king paid a visit to Ch’ŏngsimjŏng Pavilion and ordered Han Sanggyŏng, chief royal secretary, to present a lecture on the Extended Meaning of the Great Learning. The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng present their views as follows: Since the days of old, when kings rose to the throne, founding new dynasties with the Mandate of Heaven, they always settled the people by establishing their royal capital. Therefore, Yao established his capital in Pingyang, Xia in Anyi, Shang in Bo, Zhou in Fenggao, Han in Xianyang, and Tang in Chang’an. Some of them chose their royal capital in the land in which they rose to power, and others chose it mainly for the sake of convenience, but they all made the capital their power base in order to rule the whole country. “Since the reign of Tan’gun, our country has been either united or divided, and capitals were chosen regardless. After unifying the whole country, the previous dynasty established its capital in Songak, and it lasted for almost five hundred years until its fortune ran out. “Endowed with great virtue and distinguished for contributions, Your Majesty received the Mandate of Heaven and became the ruler of the kingdom. Since you already established new laws so that the dynasty can last forever, you should also lay the foundation for thousands of generations to come by establishing a new capital. “Surrounded by mountains and rivers both from inside and outside, Hanyang has been famous from the days of old for its outstanding terrain features. Situated in the middle of the country, the distance between Hanyang and local provinces in all directions is even, and it can be reached by river and road. Hence, we believe that it is the will of Heaven as well as the people to establish the capital right there.” The king granted the request. 62. Sakra is an Indian god who can be compared to the Daoist Jade Emperor, who rules the universe. Koreans called him Chaesŏkch’ŏn or Chaesŏk Hwanin and worshiped him mainly in connection with their prayers for the country.

437

438

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

9th Month 1st Day (Musul)

The government created the Directorate for the Royal Palace Construction in the New Capital (Sindo kunggwŏl ch’ukosŏng togam) and appointed as its directors the following officials: Sim Tŏkbu, Count of Ch’ŏngsŏng; Kim Chu, left director of the State Finance Commission; Yi Yŏm, former assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; and Yi Chik, academician of the Security Council. 2nd Day (Kihae)

Water froze. 4th Day (Sinch’uk)

The king dispatched Chŏng Namjin,63 discussant of the Security Council, to the Ming court as envoy to celebrate the birthday of the imperial crown prince. 5th Day (Imin)

Im Su,64 former minister of works, returned after delivering five hundred horses to the Chinese authorities in Liaodong. 6th Day (Kyemyo)

The government divided up and separately dispatched officials of granaries and storehouses (ch’anggo chŏnminsa) to each province. 8th Day (Ŭlsa)

The king appointed Kwŏn Kŭn as senior secretary of the Security Council; Han I as academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records; Yi Ch’ŏnu, Hwang Sŏng, and Kang Kyegwŏn as discussants of the Security Council; and Yi Sŏ as inspector-general. Hwang Sŏng is the father of Hwang 63. Chŏng Namjin (?–1410): a military official of early Chosŏn. In 1394, when he served as assistant director of the Security Council, he carried out the execution of King Kongyang and his two sons exiled to Samch’ŏk, Kangwŏn Province. Little is known about him except that he served as minister of works. 64. He is unknown except that he served as minister of works.

Book VI

Yŏnggi [Chinese envoy]. Because Yŏnggi, who often visited Korea as an imperial envoy, conducted himself in a discreet and humble manner, unlike other eunuchs who acted tyrannically, the king appointed his father as an official. The king appointed Cho Ku, a monk of the Ch’ŏnt’ae sect (Ch’ŏnt’aejong),65 as national preceptor. 9th Day (Pyŏngo)

Satto, the king of Chūzan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, sent an envoy and submitted a letter and gifts. Returning twelve Korean men and women in captivity, he requested that Ofusato, the son of the king of Sannan, who had defected to Korea, be repatriated. Bunei, the crown prince of Chūzan, also sent a letter to our crown prince, along with gifts. The king sent officials to Hanyang in order to choose the sites of the Royal Ancestral Shrine, the Altars of Earth and Grain, the royal palace, and the markets and roads, and the officials he dispatched were Kwŏn Chunghwa, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission; Sim Tŏkbu, Count of Ch’ŏngsŏng; Kim Chu, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Nam Ŭn, left director of the State Finance Commission; and Yi Chik, academician of the Security Council. Kwŏn Chunghwa and others said that the old site of the royal palace, which was constructed during the years of King Sukchong of the previous dynasty, was too small, so they chose another place toward the south. The site had a guardian mountain in the north-northwest direction (haebang), facing south-southeast (pyŏngbang),66 and the ground was flat and wide and 65. It was a major Buddhist sect of Koryŏ established by National Preceptor Ŭich’ŏn (1055– 1101), the fourth son of King Munjong. Ŭich’ŏn tried to reform and reconcile the Koryŏ Buddhist world, in which the Doctrinal (especially Hwaŏm sect) and Sŏn sects were in conflict. Urging their unity, he propagated a doctrine that emphasized the concentration of one’s spiritual energy by ridding the mind of random thoughts, to observe thus the nature of things with correct insight, as the means by which a clear perception of ultimate truth might be achieved (Ki-­baik Lee, p. 133). Though Cho Ku became national preceptor, he died the following year. 66. Hae indicates the twelfth of the twelve earthly branches, while pyŏng the third of the ten heavenly stems and im the ninth heavenly stem. All of these characters indicate various directions. Though the cardinal directions in the Chinese system are four—i.e., east, west, north, and south—they are subdivided into twenty-­four altogether.

439

440

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

s­ urrounded by mountain ranges, so its terrain appeared to be quite appropriate [for the royal palace]. In addition, they found a site for the Royal Ances­ ­tral Shrine about 2 li away from the palace site toward the east, which had the main mountain due north (kambang) and facing south-southeast. Then they drew diagrams of these sites and presented them to the king. 10th Day (Chŏngmi)

The king appointed Pak Wi, former assistant grand councilor, as provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region. 11th Day (Musin)

The king attended the morning audience. The envoys from Japan and Ryukyu joined our officials in performing the ceremony. 12th Day (Kiyu)

Mars approached Algol and Heap of Corpses. 15th Day (Imja)

In the temporary royal palace, there was a lecture on the Lotus Sutra written in gold, and the king attended it together with the queen. Because of ominous celestial events, the king pardoned the prisoners except those sentenced to capital punishment by beheading or strangulation and let the grand councilors speak out about mistakes related to governance as well as the benefits and harm to the people. 16th Day (Kyechíuk)

Armored soldiers carrying swords ceremoniously moved the military banner of the Middle Army to the Army Training Hall (Kangmudang). 17th Day (Kabin)

Cho Pak, governor of Chŏlla Province, reported to the Privy Council: “Arriving in the province and listening to what the senior residents said, I

Book VI

learned that Chŏng Chi,67 former chief magistrate of Kaesŏng, had constructed battleships for the first time and repulsed the invading Japanese marauders. He made great contributions to winning the battles both at Changp’o68 and Namwŏn, and all the people here still remember his remarkable feats. Thanks to his leadership, the people living in the coastal region could maintain their livelihood in peace as they used to. I request that a red gate (chŏngmun)69 be constructed in his honor to encourage the people to emulate his example.” When the Privy Council reported the governor’s request to the king, the king granted it. 18th Day (Ŭlmyo)

Leading various officials, the king performed a ceremony of congratulations on the imperial birthday [of the Ming emperor] and later inspected the construction of the walls in the capital. 19th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king dismissed Pak Wi, provincial military commissioner of the Northwestern Region, because the Office of the Inspector General requested his dismissal, citing allegations that he was implicated in the imprisonment case of Kim Kahaeng and Pak Chungjil. The king appointed An Kyŏngnyang70 provincial military commissioner of the Northwestern Region. The Privy Council spoke to the king: “The taxes for the residents of the Northeast Region have been collected based on the size of household.

67. Chŏng Chi (1347–1390): a military official of late Koryŏ. Though he became metropolitan governor of Kaesŏng in 1390, he died of illness in the same year. 68. Changp’o is presumed to be a village near Kangjin. However, there is also a village with that name in Wanju. 69. It refers to the gate that the government set up in front of the house of an individual in order to honor his or her loyalty and filiality to the king or parents or husband. Traditionally, the color of the gate was red. 70. An Kyŏngnyang (?–1398): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He also served as governor of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province and academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records.

441

442

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

However, we request that taxes be collected on the basis of cultivated land size as we do in the Northwest Region.” The king followed the advice. 20th Day (Chŏngsa)

A roe deer entered through Sunginmun Gate.71 The king toured the city walls under construction for inspection. 21st Day (Muo)

The government dispatched Son Hŭngjong, assistant director of the Security Council, to Ming China to present fifty stallions. 22nd Day (Kimi)

The king ordered the Privy Council to conduct a survey of the officials of various departments on the time to move the capital, and everyone said that it was better to move this year. 23rd Day (Kyŏngsin)

Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, and others returned from Hanyang. Sim Tŏkbu, Count of Ch’ŏngsŏng, and Kim Chu, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, stayed behind to take care of the work [related to moving the capital city]. 25th Day (Imsul)

A meteorite (ch’ŏn’gusŏng)72 fell to the ground, causing a terrifying, thunderous crash. 27th Day (Kapcha)

Sleet fell in P’yŏngju.73 The king ordered an investigation on the current status of prisoners.

71. A gate located on the east side of Kaesŏng. 72. A meteor such as this was regarded as a star of ill omen. 73. A district in Hwanghae Province. It is modern P’yŏngsan.

Book VI

28th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The government integrated three subdistricts (hyang)—Simak, Kyoha, and Sŏkch’ŏn—into one district, named it Kyoha,74 and installed a supervising administrator (kammu). Three other subdistricts—Kobong, Haengju and Hwangjo—were also integrated into a new district named Kobong,75 and a supervising administrator was installed. 29th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The government had the workers mobilized for the construction of the fortifications released to go home.

10th Month 3rd Day (Kisa)

The king rose early in the morning and went hunting in the Western Suburbs (Sŏgyo). The king ordered the office responsible to offer a sacrifice to the Royal Ancestral Shrine in his stead. 4th Day (Kyŏngo)

Inspector-General Yi Sŏ76 and others submitted a memorial to the king requesting that he not change the law lightly or pardon prisoners too often. 5th Day (Sinmi)

Ch’oe Yŏngji, military commander of the Northwestern Region, captured a man who had surrendered himself and his family. He sent the man to the capital. The man turned out to be an excellent player of the bamboo flute, so he came to be called Taep’yŏngso.77 74. A district located 16 li east of P’aju, Kyŏnggi Province. 75. An old name of Koyang, Kyŏnggi Province. 76. Yi Sŏ (1332–1410): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. Making contributions to the enthronement of T’aejo in 1392, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject third class and minister of punishments. After serving as inspector-general, he continued to rise in rank until he became chief state councilor. He was notorious for being outspoken. 77. A traditional Korean wind instrument.

443

444

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The Office of Inspector-General made the prohibition of gold, silver, and silk much tougher. 6th Day (Imsin)

The king attended the morning audience. He ordered the performance of ceremonial music suspended because of unusual phenomena observed in the sky. The king sent three pairs of domestic pigeons to Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu, Japan. He did it at the request of the latter. 8th Day (Kapsul)

General Yi Chisung was dismissed from his command and former minister Kim Ch’ŏn’gu imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary. The Office of Inspector-General impeached them for wearing silk robes. 9th Day (Ŭlhae)

The king dispatched Min Che, Chancellery scholar, and Yu Wŏnji, assistant director of the Security Council, to the Ming capital to celebrate New Year. 10th Day (Pyŏngja)

The title of chancellor was changed from sijung to chŏngsŭng. The king dismissed Inspector General Yi Sŏ and invested him with the title of Lord of Anp’yŏng. He replaced him with Pak Kyŏng, former magistrate of Hwaryŏng. Being a man of integrity and strong character, Sŏ was always outspoken whenever he was compelled to speak out. Summoned to appear in the presence of the king, he never spoke flattering words. When the king dismissed him, Chŏng Tojŏn tried to save him, without success. 11th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

As it was the royal birthday of the king, a lecture on the Lotus Sutra was held in the palace, and the prisoners both in the capital and the provinces were released. In particular, Yi Haeng78 and Yi Ch’ŏm, who had been in 78. He was an official who served as royal secretary and, concurrently, historian during the reign of King Kongyuang. In his draft of the historical record, he accused T’aejo of killing King U and King Ch’ang despite the fact that it was actually King Kongyang who ordered their execution.

Book VI

exile, and Yi Inim and Cho Minsu,79 who had been placed in confinement, were all pardoned and received back their letters of appointment from the government. The king dispatched Ch’oe Yongso,80 former minister of works, to Japan and let the Privy Council send a letter to Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu. The letter was as follows: “Cho Chun, chancellor of Chosŏn, and others reply to the letter of Honorable Governor Minamoto. Our envoys brought your letter, and we are pleased to find that you are well. “We are extremely grateful that you sent back seven hundred of our people who had been taken away to your country. We are also very pleased to hear that you will send more Korean people in the future when you gradually gather them together. Furthermore, you will crack down on Japanese marauders so that there might be no permanent rift between the two countries. As you are serious about improving our relationship, we are delighted and gratified. “Our navy commanders have recently captured Japanese marauders on a number of occasions and decided to send more battleships to seize their remnants. The general opinion in the court was to approve the idea, but our government stopped short of taking further action after receiving your letter. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if the wicked pirates were suppressed and the worries on the borders removed by tightening control of them, as you mentioned in your letter? “We are also grateful for your precious gifts. So we are sending Ch’oe Yongso, former minister of works, to express our gratitude and offer some of our local products to Your Excellency. We would be happy if you accepted them.” 12th Day (Muin)

A rainbow appeared in the west. 79. According to the Encyclopaedia of Historical Figures of Korea (Han’guk minjok taebaekkwa), Yi Inim and Cho Minsu died in 1388 and 1390, respectively. However, this statement in the Annals of King T’aejo contradicts the time of their death. 80. Ch’oe Yongso (?–1422): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. After returning from Japan, he served as discussant of the Security Council and governor of Kangwŏn Province. Being implicated in the conspiracy of Prince Panggan during the Second Strife of Princes in 1400, he was briefly imprisoned but released by T’aejong when the latter ascended the throne. Later, he served as minister of works and visited Ming China as envoy to extend congratulations on the New Year.

445

446

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

15th Day (Sinsa)

The Office of the Inspector-General discussed the crimes of Yi Inim and Cho Minsu by submitting a memorial to the king and asserted that what they did could not be forgiven. The king accepted its argument. 16th Day (Imo)

The king chose the daughter of Sim Hyosaeng, former minister of personnel, as crown princess. The king summoned Cho Ch’imyŏng, inspector of miscellaneous affairs, and ordered him to have the pond dug on the site of Yi Inim’s house filled in with earth.81 17th Day (Kyemi)

A rainbow appeared in the west. It reappeared the following day. 19th Day (Ŭlyu)

The king paid a visit to Kwanŭm Cave.82 21st Day (Chŏnghae)

The Inner Quarters [of the Queen] served meals to 108 monks83 in the palace and held a ceremony celebrating the appointment of a national preceptor. It also bestowed a horse with a saddle. 25th Day (Sinmyo)

The nation’s capital was moved to Hanyang. The king ordered every department to have two officials stay behind in Songgyŏng [Kaesŏng]. Creating a Branch Privy Council (Pun top’yŏngŭisasa), he let Ch’oe Yŏngji, assistant 81. In olden days, those who committed serious crimes, including treason, were not only punished physically but also had their properties destroyed. 82. It is a grotto attached to KwanŭmMonastery in Kaesŏng. 83. The number 108 figures prominently in the symbolism associated with Buddhism, as it signifies 108 agonies or torments that one experiences in life. The number of monks here, in that sense, is certainly not accidental.

Book VI

chancellor, U Innyŏl, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and others supervise it. 28th Day (Kabo)

The royal carriage arriving in the new capital, the government converted the old guesthouse of Hanyang Magistracy into a detached palace (igung).

11th Month 2nd Day (Musul)

Leading the officials of the Privy Council and the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, the king inspected the sites of the Royal Ancestral Shrine and the Altars of Earth and Grain. 3rd Day (Kihae)

The government established the Engineering Bureau (Kongjakkuk)84 for the first time. The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “The Royal Ancestral Shrine is designed to promote filial piety, the royal palace to display the authority of the state and carry out state affairs, and city walls to make a distinction between inside and outside and thereby defend the state. These three things should be foremost priorities for those who rule the state. “Since Your Majesty has founded a new dynasty according to the Mandate of Heaven and established Hanyang as the nation’s capital according to public opinion, the foundation for the everlasting rule of your royal house has already been laid down. However, the Royal Ancestral Shrine is not yet built, the royal palace unprepared, and the fortifications remain unfinished. This is contrary to your wishes for making Hanyang the foundation of the country and raising its dignity. “We understand that Your Majesty is reluctant to hasten the construc­­ tion work because you care for the people, but to face and solve those three tasks are unavoidable. By ordering the government agencies responsible to 84. This agency is presumed to be established to carry out the construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine and city walls of the new capital.

447

448

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

expedite the construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine and royal palaces and the fortification of the walls as fast as possible, you will show your filial piety to your ancestors and display your dignity to the people. The government system is finally established when you firmly solidify the power of the state, and it can be handed down to posterity for thousands of years. We urge Your Majesty to implement our request.” The king granted the request. 4th Day (Kyŏngja)

The king paid a visit to Moksadong85 and inspected the site of his own tomb. The king had Palace Censor Pyŏn Chungnyang86 locked up in the Capital Constabulary Prison and ordered Pak Kyŏng, inspector-general, and Yi Chik, commissioner of the Capital Constabulary, and others to interrogate Chungnyang. Earlier, Chungnyang had said to Yi Hoe,87 section chief of the Board of War: “Since antiquity, one person is not supposed to hold both political power and military power concurrently. The military power should belong to the royal family, and political power to grand councilors. Nevertheless, Cho Chun, Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others have now seized both military and political power, and this is very wrong.” Chungnyang also spoke the same words to Lord Ŭian Yi Hwa.88 When Hwa reported it to the king, the king summoned Chungnyang to verify the truth of the report, and Chungnyang admitted it, saying, “Pak P’o also said that the strange celestial phenomena that frequently appears in the sky has to do with the wrongful course Your Majesty has taken in running the country.” Becoming indignant, the king said, “The various people [who are slandered] are all my loyal subjects who are like my own limbs and have been 85. Unknown. 86. He is the son-­in-­law of Yi Wŏn’gye, T’aejo’s elder stepbrother. When Cho Yŏnggyu and others planned to attack Chŏng Mongju, he secretly passed the information to Mongju. He was executed for being a member of Chŏng Tojŏn’s clique when the First Strife of Princes broke out in 1398. 87. There are two people under the name Yi Hoe. One is T’aejo’s stepbrother, and the other related to the incident of Pyŏng Chungnyang. The latter was later appointed as supervisor of the royal horse-­breeding ranch in Tanju. 88. T’aejo’s stepbrother.

Book VI

with me a long time. If I suspect them, then who else can I trust? Those who speak such words must have a cause [that he alone knows].” Then the king immediately ordered the interrogation of Chungnyang, P’o, and Hoe. P’o and Hoe argued with Chungnyang to save their skin. 5th Day (Sinchíuk)

Leading all officials, the king held a ceremony celebrating the birthday of the heir apparent of Ming China. 6th Day (Imin)

The king ordered to have Pyŏn Chungnyang exiled to Yŏnghae89 and Yi Hoe to Sunch’ŏn, after depriving them of their public office and rank. He also had Pak P’o confined in Chukchu.90 8th Day (Kapchin)

There was fog. 10th Day (Pyŏngo)

The crown prince91 held a banquet in his residence for the members of the royal family and high officials. The king visited the Yongsan River92 and inspected the lumber used in building the Royal Ancestral Shrine. 11th Day (Chŏngmi)

The trees were covered with hoar frost.

89. A district in North Kyŏngsang Province. 90. An old name for Ansŏng, Kyŏnggi Province. 91. Yi Pangsŏk, T’aejo’s eighth son, born of Queen Sindŏk, T’aejo’s second wife. T’aejo designated him crown prince when his son was only eleven years old, in the eighth month in 1393, a month after he ascended the throne. Yi Pangwŏn, T’aejo’s fifth son (and later King T’aejong) at that time was twenty-­six years old. 92. It refers to a section of the Han River that is the modern Map’o area in Seoul.

449

450

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

12th Day (Musin)

The government installed a supervising administrator in the district of T’ongjin,93 integrating Tongsŏng and Suan with it. 15th Day (Sinhae)

There were strong, gusty winds with thunder and rain. 16th Day (Imja)

Individuals under the current law are required to measure out the amount of their grain taxes themselves when they pay them, and the king ordered to enforce that law strictly. 17th Day (Kyech’uk)

The statue of Buddha in Hŭngguk Monastery, which was made of copper, excreted sweat. 19th Day (Ŭlmyo)

There was thunder, and a rainbow appeared. His Majesty [Prince Chŏngan at the time] returned from his trip to the Chinese capital. Nam Chae and Cho Pan94 also returned with him. When His Majesty arrived in the Ming capital, the emperor granted him an audience a few times. When His Majesty explained about the misunderstanding [between the two countries in relation to kidnapping people and prohibiting the entry of Korean envoys], the emperor was pleased with his words and treated him with hospitality.

93. An old name of modern Kimp’o. 94. Nam Chae (1351–1419) was a dynasty-­merit subject first class and became chief state councilor in 1416 after serving as inspector-general and governor of Kyŏngsang Province. His younger brother, Nam Ŭn, was executed along with Chŏng Tojŏn in 1398 during the First Strife of Princes. Cho Pan (1341–1401) served as royal secretary and magistrate of Kaesŏng. Proficient in Chinese and Mongolian, he visited Ming China a few times, including on a diplomatic mission to inform the Chinese government of T’aejo’s ascension as the new monarch of the Chosŏn dynasty.

Book VI

At first, when His Majesty was about to depart on his diplomatic mission to China, Sŏng Sŏngnin, vice grand councilor, bid farewell to him by composing a poem: Being the son and subject of the king, you well understand that To serve the great nation is to serve his people. Everyone says that the everlasting fortune of Chosŏn depends On your trip that braves the waters and mountains through heat and rain. Upon meeting His Majesty, the scholars of Ming China showed him great respect, calling him the crown prince of Chosŏn. When His Majesty passed by the residence of Prince of Yan [later Emperor Yongle or Taizong], Prince of Yan personally came out to see him. He had no personal guards with him except one who appeared to be his attendant. He treated His Majesty with kind words and great courtesy, ordering his attendant to bring out wine and food of fine quality. His Majesty resumed his trip to the Ming capital, but on his way he again came across Prince of Yan, who traveled fast in a carriage driven by horses in order to attend the meeting at the imperial court. As His Majesty paid him his respects, quickly dismounting from his horse, the prince had his carriage stop. Opening the curtain of the window of his carriage, the prince exchanged warm words with His Majesty for a good while and then left. Years later, His Majesty asked Hwang Ŏm, imperial envoy from Ming China, “Who was the man standing by the emperor when I met him at the residence of Prince of Yan?” Ŏm replied, “He was a tribal overseer (daren) named Qing. He was the emperor’s most trusted advisor. However, he is dead now.” Sŏl Changsu, commissioner of the Court of Interpreters, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “According to what we have heard, in governing the state it is most fundamental to nurture men of talent, and the men of talent need to be educated first more than anything else. So it is quite necessary to establish a school for them. “Since our country has served China from generation to generation, we cannot but study the Chinese language. For that reason, Your Majesty established the Court of Interpreters as soon as you inaugurated the new dynasty, installing officials and instructors who would take charge of training ­students.

451

452

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Thus, you would have the students learn the sounds and meanings of the Chinese language, as well as the correct ways of producing compositions, so that we can do our best in serving the great nation and at the same time bring about the effect of cultivating our customs. We have discussed the important matters related to instruction and examination and submit the result of our discussions as follows: “1. The faculty should consist of three instructors. Two of them should teach Chinese and the other one Mongolian, and they need to be provided with a generous stipend. The students are to be divided into two groups accord­ ­ing to the languages they study—i.e., Chinese and Mongolian—and they will be rewarded or punished based on their academic achievements, and the instructors will also be subject to the evaluation of their job performance. “1. Since there are few students who want to study these foreign languages, the five wards in the capital and the major towns and districts in local provinces across the country should be required to select an intelligent person under the age of fifteen among the people of good status and send him [to the central government in Seoul] every year. “1. The examination will be held every three years. As for the qualifications of the candidates, specifications will be needless if there is none. In the case of the students of the Court of Interpreters, those who are below rank 7 and proficient in The Four Books, The Small Learning (Sohak), imun [Chinese language used in diplomatic documents], Chinese, and Mongolian, should all be allowed to take the examination. “The candidates taking the examination are divided into three categories: the ones who belong to category 1(ilgwa) are those who are proficient in all four areas—i.e., The Four Books, The Small Learning, imun-­style Chinese, and the Chinese language—and they will be given senior rank 7 by royal decree [if they pass the examination]. The ones who belong to category 2 (igwa) are those who are good at only half of The Four Books, The Small Learning, and the Chinese language, and they will be given rank 8a. The ones who belong to category 3 (samgwa) are those who are good at The Small Learning and the Chinese language, and they will be given rank 9a. “The candidates who specialize in the Mongolian language are divided into two categories: the ones who belong to category 1 are those who can both translate and write Mongolian and Uyghur, and those belonging to category 2 are those who can only write Uyghur and speak Mongolian, and the ranks awarded to the successful candidates of these two categories should be the same as those of the candidates who specialize in the Chinese language.

Book VI

“However, those who already have official rank and belong to category 1 should be promoted by skipping two grades, and those who belong to categories 2 and 3 should also be promoted one grade, respectively. “The number of people to be selected for each category is as follows: In the division of the Chinese language, category 1 selects one person; category 2, three people; and category 3, eight people. In the division of the Mongolian language, category 1 selects one person and category 2, two people, but the total number of selected candidates should not exceed fifteen people. If category 1 fails to have a successful candidate, only categories 2 and 3 should select qualified candidates, and if category 2 also fails to produce successful candidates, only category 3 should select qualified candidates, but without being bound by any fixed number. “1. When the government evaluates the job performance of officials every year, it should recommend three candidates for each office, and those who are proficient in the Chinese language should be placed at the top of the list. However, one who is fluent in Chinese should be allowed more priority than those who have more years of training. If the three candidates are all good at speaking Chinese, however, the length of their training should be taken into consideration. “1. The students who fail to master the Chinese or Mongolian language despite the fact that they spent three years in training should be driven out and sent to serve in the military. “1. Those who successfully pass the due examination should be issued red certificates called hongp’ae, and on the certificates the following statement inscribed: “Upholding the royal decree, the Court of Interpreters confers this certificate on Interpreter So-­and-­so, who belongs to such and such a category and passed the examination with such and such a grade.” Then the date that the certificate is issued will be recorded and the official seal of the Court of Interpreters stamped, along with the signatures of all the staff, including the commissioner.” The king sent the proposal to the Privy Council to be discussed and implemented. 25th Day (Sinyu)

The king ordered the Privy Council to gather all officials and discuss again moving the capital to Muak. As everyone said that the place was too small, the king abandoned the idea.

453

454

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

26th Day (Imsul)

The king ordered the letters of appointment withdrawn from those who got promoted by skipping ranks and the horses issued to them collected in accordance with their rank. Earlier, the government had set no limit on the maximum number of honorary posts, so it had overissued letters of appointment. Hence, the Privy Council requested to have the governor of each province investigate the facts and retrieve the horses.

12th Month 3rd Day (Mujin)

Purifying himself for a night, the king had Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, offer sacrifices to the deities of Heaven and Earth, explaining the reason for starting the construction of the royal capital. The written prayer he recited was as follows: “Your servant, the king of Chosŏn dares to announce to Heaven and Earth with all sincerity, after purifying himself and leading his officials, including Cho Chun, left chancellor; Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor; and Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission: “Prostrating myself before you, I acknowledge that all things are created and grow because heaven covers and earth carries them. Following the laws of nature, I desire to renew what is old and create a capital that extends in all directions. Though lacking in virtue and ability, your servant humbly believes that he was fortunate to win the favor of the hidden spirits and powers that be. Thus, I lived in the times in which Koryŏ was about to collapse and received the mandate to make a fresh start of the new Chosŏn dynasty. However, always burdened with heavy responsibility and tormented by anxieties, I have searched in vain for a way to accomplish the mission that concerns the future of the nation. Then, an official in charge of astronomy said, ‘Since the site of the present capital, Songdo, has run out of strength and the land in the south below Mt. Hwasan95 can satisfy the requirements of geomancy, this is a good place to set up a new capital.’ So I discussed the matter with my officials and reported the decision to the Royal

95. Mt. Samgak in Seoul.

Book VI

Ancestral Shrine and finally moved the capital to Hanyang on the twenty-­ fifth day of the tenth month. “The office in charge of moving the capital also said, ‘The Royal Ancestral Shrine is where the spirits of former kings are worshiped, and the royal palace is where government administration is performed for the people; therefore, their construction is unavoidable.’ So I ordered the office responsible to start the construction on the fourth of this month, but I am worried that the people may have to undergo hardship. “I sincerely pray that Heaven show compassion on us and let the work proceed smoothly by providing us with fine weather. If you allow us to build a great capital here, uphold the Mandate of Heaven, and look after the people in the days to come, I will offer you sacrifices with more gratitude and sincerity. I will also work harder to discharge my duty, mindful of seasonal changes and opportunities, and enjoy peace with my officials and people.” The king also dispatched Kim Ipgyŏn, assistant grand councilor, to announce to the spirits of mountains and rivers. The prayer he recited was as follows: “The king speaks as follows! You the spirits of Mt. Paegak,96 Mt. Mongmyŏk,97 and all other mountains, and the spirits of the Han River, Yangjin Ferry, and all other rivers! From antiquity, those who established a royal capital always chose the principal mountain and river, calling them chin [suppressor of evil influence] and ki [fishnet rope or basic structure], respectively. Therefore, the famous mountains and great rivers in the country are all listed on the record of ritual sacrifices, and that is to pray for assistance from the spirits or to acknowledge and repay them for their aid. “Looking back, though lacking in virtue and ability, I ascended the throne as I was unable to resist the wishes of the officials and the people any further, and it is already three years since I began to rule this county with great trepidation. Following the advice from an official in charge of astronomy, I have already fixed the date for moving the capital to Hanyang and constructing the Royal Ancestral Shrine and royal palaces. However, I cannot help being worried that the construction will bring hardship to the people. If the weather becomes bad, causing unusual rain or cold or heat, the construction will be impeded.

96. Mt. Pugak located in the north. 97. An old name of Mt. Namsan located in the south.

455

456

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“After purifying myself with all sincerity, and now leading out all the officials, including Cho Chun, left chancellor, Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, and Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, I make this announcement to all the spirits [of the mountains and the rivers], with food and wine on the table, by sending Kim Ipgyŏn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, on the third day of this month. “The reason that I decided to undertake this project is not to seek my personal interest but to bring benefits to the people by offering sacrifices and ruling them in accordance with the will of Heaven. If you spirits truly understand my sincere heart and help me finish this great task safely, preventing things such as bad weather, disease, and accidents, I will never forget to offer sacrifices to you. Let me assure you that I will not indulge in a life of ease even though I am a wretched person, and you will enjoy food forever [because people are thankful to you]. Therefore, I hereby make this announcement.” 4th Day (Kisa)

The king sent Ch’oe Wŏn, assistant director of the Security Council, to the site of the Royal Ancestral Shrine, and Kwŏn Kŭn, senior secretary of the Security Council, to the site of the royal palace and had them prepare the building sites by offering sacrifices to the Earth Spirits of the Five Directions (Obangsin). In order to reduce the hardship of the people, the king had the monks from various temples recruited for the construction work, providing them with food and clothes. The king watched the site being prepared. At night, there was an earthquake. 5th Day (Kyŏngo)

The trees were covered with frost. 9th Day (Kapsul)

Kaesŏng Magistracy, for the first time, parceled out the building site for each government office, based on different degrees [of importance].

Book VI

10th Day (Ŭlhae)

Venus was seen in broad daylight. The king dispatched Yi Chik, academician of the Security Council, to the Ming capital to express his gratitude, and the memorial he submitted read as follows: “My son [Yi Pangwŏn] and his retinue returned from the Ming capital, carrying your sacred instruction with them. Your exhortation was sincere to such a degree that I became overwhelmed. The sacred counsel that you gave was clear and bright, and the wonderful grace that you showed made me grateful, and at the same time the whole country feels honored. In the sixth month of this year, having received your sacred order, I sent my son and my ministers Nam Chae and Cho Pan to the imperial court. Fortunately, they had the honor of sitting at an audience with Your Majesty and returned with your special instruction for me. You admonished me to look after my people, heeding the Mandate of Heaven, and I am deeply moved. Your Imperial Majesty is benevolent in caring about the people and generous in embracing faraway regions, allowing me to benefit from your virtue despite my being in a distant corner of the world. Ever strengthening and renewing my loyalty and allegiance, my wishes for your long life have been redoubled.” The Privy Council spoke to the king: “Since so-­called weather calculation (t’aeilsan) is important in the arts of warfare, we request that a bureau be newly installed to train the people and that it belong to the Military Training Agency so that men of talent can be selected [along with other regular candidates] through the highest military examinations (mukwa).” The king followed the advice. 11th Day (Pyŏngja)

The government prohibits military officers in all provinces from practicing falcon hunting. The government released those workers who had fulfilled the term of their labor service.

457

458

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

14th Day (Kimyo)

A man named Fu Yan from the land of Duowan98 and a man named Suowu from the land of Wuduli99 presented their local products to the king, and the king ordered the Security Council to grant them both the official title of myriarch. 15th Day (Kyŏngjin)

Giving orders to the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals (Sangsŏsa),100 the king had officials promoted according to the Sunjabŏp,101 a law of employment or promotion, which is based on the number of years and months of public service. The monks of the Chogye sect requested that the Sŏn Discussion Assembly (Tamsŏnbŏp) be restored, so the king ordered the Privy Council to discuss it. Then the Privy Council reported to the king: “The Sŏn Discussion Assembly was established by the previous dynasty to promote the geomantic theory on Songdo, the nation’s capital. Now that Your Majesty has moved to the new capital, why should you use the old precedents related to Songdo? We request that Your Majesty prohibit all those practices and start your governance anew, together with the people. We also urge you to make everything that you see and hear fresh and your mind consistent.” The king followed the advice. Censorial offices impeached Yi Kŏin,102 magistrate of Kaesŏng, for seizing a site for a house from the resident. 98. It probably refers to a region in Assam or Assam itself, which is located in the northeast of India. The man’s name could be Fuyan. 99. Jurchens who lived in the regions of the Tumen and Yalu Rivers. 100. This office originated in the Personal Authority, called Chŏngbang, which was established by military general Ch’oe U (?–1249) for the purpose of handling official appointments. However, its name was changed to Sangsŏsa during the reign of King Ch’ang (1380–1389), and the office under that name continued to exist during the reign of T’aejo. 101. Since 1009 at the latest, the year of Hyŏnjong’s enthronement, the Koryŏ government maintained a system called ch’anyŏnbŏp that evaluated the performance of officials every year for their promotion. In 1368, King Kongmin changed the system into the so-­called tosukbŏp, which required that the performance of officials be evaluated based not only on the years but also the number of months of their service. The Chosŏn dynasty continued to use the system. 102. His career was turbulent. In 1389, the first year of King Kongyang’s reign, he became involved in the conspiracy led by Kim Chŏ, who attempted to remove T’aejo, and was exiled.

Book VI

16th Day (Sinsa)

Yi Sung, chancellor-­without-­portfolio, died. The government assisted his funeral and posthumously awarded him with the title of Anjŏng. Sung was a native of Kosŏng and the son of Chancellor Am. He was by nature gentle and reputed to be an excellent archer. He had three sons, Min, Ch’i, and Hŭl. 19th Day (Kapsin)

The king wanted to travel to Kwaju103 to see the future site of his royal tomb, but Censor Chang Chihwa104 and others said, “The trip can be dangerous even if your royal carriage uses a boat to get there. Moreover, we are afraid that the ice of the river is not frozen solid yet. How can you cross the river?” The king postponed his travel plans. 20th Day (Ŭlyu)

There was mist. The king had his royal carriage stand by rather than make a trip to Kwaju, which included a river crossing. Yi Sukbŏn,105 left reminder, spoke to the king: “When Your Majesty tried to cross the frozen river yesterday, we tried to stop you from risking the danger. When you finally granted our request, we were deeply moved. You are now trying to cross the river once again in this cold weather. The waters of the river are deep and wide. If the horses happen to slip and fall, your person will be in danger. Furthermore, the soldiers who escort you will have to take off their clothes and jump into the freezing water. We beseech you to consider our request.” The king finally gave up making his trip. After the Chosŏn dynasty was founded, he visited Ming China as envoy. After his return home, however, he was impeached and dismissed for conducting secret trading during his diplomatic mission as well as seizing from others a plot to build a house. In 1399, he was involved in the attempt to murder Cho Pak and exiled to Ch’ŏngju. 103. An old name for Kwach’ŏn. 104. Participating in enthroning T’aejo, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject third class. He was related to Prince Pansŏk by marriage and was killed during the First Strife of Princess in 1398. 105. Yi Sukbŏn (1373–1440): an official of early Chosŏn. Loyal to Prince Muan (later King T’aejong), he played a crucial role in removing Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn, who supported Prince Pangsŏk for the throne during the First Strife of Princes. He also helped eliminate Pak P’o, who instigated Prince Panggan to become the king. Consequently, he became minister of war and fourth state councilor. However, he was stripped of his office and sent into exile in 1417 for being arrogant and acting lawlessly.

459

460

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

21st Day (Pyŏngsul)

The king ordered Yi Kŏin to resume his duty. There was a rumor that the government prohibited the people from raising chickens, dogs, and horses that are white in color. 23rd Day (Muja)

The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Ch’oe Kŭng, director of the Criminal Administration Bureau in the Board of Punishments. At first, Pak Inŭl, section chief of the Board of Punishments, had secretly changed some words in litigation documents, and, upon discovering this, Kŭng impeached him. Inŭl became furious and ran to the house of Kŭng. He found Kŭng engaged in hearing lawsuits; nevertheless, he insulted him in front of people. As a result, it happened that the Office of the Inspector General impeached Inŭl together with Kŭng. 24th Day (Kich’uk)

The king ordered the inspectors and censors not to wear headbands with jade. 26th Day (Sinmyo)

Sim Hyosaeng,106 minister of personnel, entertained the king. Pak Kyŏng, inspector-general, submitted a memorial to the king: “Since pub­ ­lic office is a public instrument (konggi), the official appointment must be made based on the virtue of the candidate and nothing else. Following in the footsteps of the previous dynasty, our government has appointed officials according to their rank, and therefore no one is supposed to be appointed or promoted by skipping ranks, unless he is indisputably distinguished in talent and virtue. “Concerned about the royal guards who might have been left out from getting their just rewards, Your Majesty wanted to establish sinecure 106. Sim Hyosaeng (1349–1398): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the father-­in-­law of Crown Prince Pangsŏk and killed during the First Strife of Princess in 1398. He also served as pacification commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province and assistant director of the Security Council.

Book VI

p­ ositions and let generals and commanders place their names on the candidate list. However, some who were cunning and wicked took advantage of this opportunity and rose rapidly to high positions by falsifying the records of their ranks and achievements. Everyone feels resentment towards them, and those people must be punished according to the law. The government already sent orders to all local provinces to search out those people and recall their horses and letters of appointment. “However, we believe that it is better to be cautious from the beginning than to punish wrongdoings later. So we request that henceforth those who receive a sinecure higher than grand master for excellent goodness below rank 4 should be required to record all the official titles they have held in the letters of their appointment, which will prevent trickery. The letters of appointment will be sent down again to the Office of Inspector-General for the final verification before they are officially issued to the individuals. If this procedure is implemented, there will be few people who want to get a promotion recklessly, and there will be no abuses such as the govern­­ ment granting sinecure appointment inappropriately.” The king granted the request. This month Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu, Japan, requested a copy of the Tripitaka by sending an envoy.

461

Book VII

Fourth Year of Reign (1395) 1st Month 1st Day (Pyŏngsin)

The king, with all officials behind him, performed the New Year ceremony to honor the Ming emperor and received felicitations from the officials. 2nd Day (Chŏngyu)

Yi Mu, tribute emissary, and Chŏng Namjin, envoy on a mission to celebrate the birthday of the imperial crown prince, returned from Nanjing. 3rd Day (Musul)

Four Japanese, including one named Omote Shila, surrendered themselves to the Korean authorities, and the government let them stay in Kyŏngsang Province. 4th Day (Kihae)

The king sent Sŏng Sŏngnin, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng, to the Northeast Region to offer sacrifices to various royal tombs. Inspector-General Pak Kyŏng submitted a memorial requesting that the king punish Chŏng Chi, clerk of the Board of Punishments. At first, Chi tried to impeach Cho Ch’i, inspector of miscellaneous affairs, after a dispute over



462

Book VII

protocol, but the Office of the Inspector-General acted as soon as it found out of Chi’s plan [to impeach Cho Ch’i]. At this point, the Office of the Inspector-General not only asked the king to punish Chi for insulting it but also to prohibit the Board of Punishments from impeaching the Office of the Inspector-General. The king granted the request and dismissed Chi. 6th Day (Sinch’uk)

The barbarian Myriarch Mengshang and Chiliarch Fuli and others, who lived in the north above Kongju [Kyŏnghŭng], sent their men to present their local products, and the king reciprocated by bestowing silk and hemp fabric according to their rank. A man named Nŭnggwi, recording secretary (kigwan) of Suwŏn, and a man named Hŭijin, household chief (hojang) of Yonggu [modern Yongin], spread treacherous rumors that made people afraid to raise dogs, horses, chickens, and goats that are white. So the authorities beheaded them and had their heads displayed throughout the country. 8th Day (Kyemyo)

Censor Chang Chihwa and others impeached Yi Kŏin, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng: “Prone to lying and deception, Kŏin served as a high official in the previous dynasty, and soon after Your Majesty ascended the throne he visited China as an envoy. During his diplomatic mission, he secretly conducted trading for personal gain. On his way back home, he was robbed in Laizhou. Being angry, he made his attendants, named Kim Pugae and Yi In’gil, compensate for the silk that they had lost. Not only that, he was so angry that after he returned home he even had Yi In’gil confined in Suju [modern Chŏngju] until he fell sick and died. His avarice and violence indeed know no limits. “Furthermore, when Your Majesty began to construct the new capital, he tried to seize the site of a private house that belonged to Ch’oe Sawi, third minister of the Board of Personnel, who was in charge of land management. When he failed in his attempt, he instead seized the private house owned by Ch’oe Yung, assistant director-­without-­portfolio of the Security Council, making his wife and children cry out in cold. “Previously, we impeached him for his wrongdoings, but he was fortunate enough to be reinstated to his former position by your special favor.

463

464

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Nevertheless, he continues to cause trouble without changing his ways. Joining the Directorate for the Royal Palace Construction, he keeps lying and slandering people to cover his wrongdoings, and his slander even extends to the directorate he works for. Hence, we request that his appointment be withdrawn and that he be investigated fully for wrongdoings, including his secret trading during the diplomatic mission, so that the irregularities such as seizing houses and lands in the new capital may not recur.” The king only allowed Kŏin to be dismissed from his office because he was one of the minor merit subjects. 9th Day (Kapchin)

Royal messengers were dispatched to various provinces to inspect the current status of military readiness. Supreme General Sin Hyoch’ang was sent to Kyŏngsang Province, General-­in-­Chief Kim Kyesu to Chŏlla Province, General-­in-­Chief Ku Sŏngnyang to P’unghae Province, and General-­in-­ Chief No Sangŭi to Kangnŭng Province. Cho Yŏnggyu, minister of rites, died. Yŏnggyu’s earlier name was P’yŏng. He followed the king from the days when the king stayed at his private home, out of public view, and rendered service in battle several times. When the new dynasty was established, he joined the file of dynasty-­merit subjects. At this time, he died of illness. The king posthumously promoted him to assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and generously donated expenses for his funeral. He was survived by three sons, Chu, In, and U. 10th Day (Ŭlsa)

The Privy Council spoke to the king: “At the end of the previous dynasty, official posts were so drastically increased that old and young people with no talent drew stipends from the government as they were assigned to various military units, while palace guards were all given nonpaying posts that were newly added and faced hardship in their lives. All these activities were damaging to the national interest. We request that you command the Three Armies Headquarters and the Board of War to conduct a survey of the age, appearance, talent, and ability of all the military officers in all provinces and guard units, whether they are in the service or retired, and make them captains and commanders of military units.” The king granted the request.

Book VII

11th Day (Pyŏngo)

The government newly established the Waterways Transport Agency (Suro chŏnunso) and appointed a supervisor, called special security director (wanho pyŏlgam). Seven posts called so [along the Han River] were established, starting from the Yongsan River down to Yŏnch’ŏn in Ch’ungju, and to each were assigned thirty households [for financial support]. Censor Chang Chihwa and others impeached Chŏng Namjin, discussant of the Security Council: “Previously, when Chŏng Namjin visited China as envoy, he conducted trading and fought with a military commissioner who escorted him. Thus, he earned the scorn of the Chinese [who saw him]. We request that the Office of the Inspector-General interrogate him and punish his wrongdoings.” The king said, “Namjin is a minor merit subject. Besides, he returned in time after accomplishing his mission. Do not discuss his wrongdoings.” 14th Day (Kiyu)

Chang Chihwa and others submitted a memorial to the king: “When Your Majesty established the new capital [Hanyang, or Seoul], you ordered the Kaesŏng Magistracy to distribute residential lots, start­ ­ing with all of the officials of different ranks, regardless of whether they are currently in office or retired, and on down to the common people. In our opinion, there is a problem with that decree. The area of the new capital is only 500 kyŏl or so. If Kaesŏng Magistracy distributes the land according to what it has decided, starting from 60 pu to the officials of rank 1 to steadily smaller plots of land to the officials of lower rank, there will not be enough even for those in active service, not to mention those who hold sinecure offices or the common people. We request that you order the departments in charge to reduce the amount of land to be distributed so that it does not exceed 30 or 40 pu. Then the people will be satisfied and everyone will be able to have some land to live on.” The king granted the request. The Kaesŏng Magistracy reset the area of residential lots for distribution according to the rank of the officials. It granted 35 pu to the official of rank

465

466

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

1, reducing the amount by 5 pu to each lower rank. So an official of rank 6 received 10 pu, and a commoner 2 pu.1 19th Day (Kabin)

Bo Suo, brigade commander of Wulangha, as well as Zhao Yiguai and Li Dujie, battalion commanders, and others presented their local products. The king bestowed dresses on them.2 People from Liaodong, China, crossed the frontier to Korea, and the king had them arrested and ordered Commandant Chŏng Anji to take them back to their homes under escort. 22nd Day (Chŏngsa)

Venus appeared in daylight, starting from the southeast. 23rd Day (Muo)

Cho Ki, Lord of Ŭnch’ŏn, became critically ill from boils on his back, prompting the king to have monks gather at the private palace precint to offer prayers for his recovery. Pyŏn Ongnan, director-­without-­portfolio of the Security Council, died. Ongnan was a native of Miryang. He was the son of Wŏn, posthumous assistant chancellor, and a descendant of Royal Inspector (kamch’al ŏsa) Hyŏnin. Before he became of age, he observed the mourning rite for his grandmother on behalf of his father, who had passed away earlier. After finishing the mourning, he said to his mother, “I will go to the capital [Kaesŏng] to become an official and continue the legacy of my ancestors.” Though his mother tried to dissuade him from leaving home because he was still too young, he persisted in his request for her permission. In the Pyŏngsul year (1346) of the previous dynasty, he passed the civil service examination and became palace attendant of the Women’s Quarters (aekchŏng naesi). Then he got promoted to the rank of assistant director 1. Pu is a hundredth of a kyŏl. A kyŏl varied from 2.2 to 9.0 acres depending, on the productivity of the land. 2. The people mentioned here are presumed to be the chiefs of Jurchen tribes in the north.

Book VII

(sŭng)3 of the Office of Guest Affairs. In the Kyŏngja year (1360), he became administrator of Chinju. In the autumn of the Chŏngmi year (1367), he was appointed section chief of the Board of Punishments and went out to serve as surveillance commissioner of Chŏlla Province. In the Musin year (1368), he became deputy magistrate of Hwaryŏng, and in the Imja year (1372), magistrate of Suwŏn. In the Ŭlmyo year, he was appointed director of the Directorate for Palace Maintenance, and in the Pyŏngjin year (1376), supervisor of the Office of the Royal Household. At that time, Sin Wŏnjwa, surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province, reported on Ongnan’s benevolent administration based on the praises of the residents when he served as magistrate of Suwŏn. As a result, Ongnan was appointed director of the Agriculture Office and received the title of grand master for transmitting law (t’onghŏn taebu). A little later, he received a more prestigious title, grand master for service and support (pongik taebu) and went out to serve as magistrate of Ch’ŏngju and, later in the Kyŏngsin year (1380), magistrate of Ch’ungju. After his mother died, he observed the mourning rite, and after finishing the mourning, he retired from public service for ten years until he became minister of taxation in the Kyŏngo year (1390). A little later, he consecutively served as minister of war and of personnel. In the Imsin year (1392), the king ascended the throne, and he received the title of minor merit subject. In the Kyeyu year (1393), he was appointed commissioner-­without-­ portfolio of the Security Council because he was old. Now he has died of illness at home, at the age of seventy-­four. When the news of his death reached the king, he was extremely saddened, saying, “I was going to appoint him actual director of the Security Council. That is no longer possible.” Ongnan was by nature strong and intelligent, and had a heart that was kind and benevolent, so the people of his birthplace praised his filial nature and brotherly love. Serving both in the capital and the provinces, he made outstanding contributions. He always instructed his children, saying, “When you serve the king, you must do your utmost, and when you are in public service, you must exert yourself. You should be careful not to put your heart on things such as chasing after power and increasing wealth.” His loyalty to the king and concern for the nation never wavered in his old age. He had two sons, Chungnyang and Kyeryang, both of whom passed the civil service examination. Chungnyang rose to the rank of fifth royal secretary, and Kyeryang is now vice director of the Office of Royal Decrees.

3. Rank 6b.

467

468

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

25th Day (Kyŏngsin)

Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission; Chŏng Ch’ong, Chancellery scholar; and others presented to the king the History of Koryŏ in thirty-­seven books, starting from T’aejo to King Kongyang. The king personally read it and issued a royal decree to Chŏng Tojŏn: “I had heard that the king who inaugurates a new dynasty replacing the old always orders scholar-­officials to compile the history [of the previous dynasty] because it is necessary to record what has happened in the preceding dynasty and also important to encourage and admonish his posterity. When we look back at the previous [Koryŏ] dynasty founded by the Wang clan, it drew its name from Koguryŏ, achieving the unification of the Three Kingdoms. It lasted almost five hundred years, and the kings were no fewer than thirty generations. The newly compiled history naturally provides numerous records related to the fortunes of the dynasty, such as its rise and fall, good and bad aspects, and losses and gains, but I suppose a great deal of the records must have been lost. Unless an outstanding historian [such as yourself] undertook this task of compiling a dynastic history, how could such a fine book be published? “Your extensive learning mastered the minutest details in the Classics and histories, and your judgment penetrated the complexities of changes during the course of human history. Your discussion is straight, based on the words of sages, and your clear judgment has always separated the good from the bad. You not only have assisted me in inaugurating the new dynasty, which is a great contribution to the country, but also produced many good ideas, which have helped me in carrying out state affairs and enlightening the people. Talented in writing, you deserve to be entrusted with the task of promulgating the laws and institutions. Furthermore, you have the humility characteristic of a fine scholar and the impressive stature of a grand councilor. From the beginning when I ascended the throne, I knew that I would need your talent. So I appointed you as a member of the grand councilors and concurrently assigned you the task of compiling the history. You indeed discharged your duty remarkably well and, further, produced a fine history in your spare time. “In your book, you put the date at the beginning and briefly summarized the details of the history you introduced. When you dealt with trouble and ordinary affairs, you chose only those related to the main thesis of historical importance, and when you praised or criticized individuals, you did not

Book VII

allow your opinions to be restricted by those of the sages. You provided causes and effects in detail in explaining occurrences, without being complicated. Since your literary style is terse and far from being vulgar, it shows the outstanding styles of historians such as Ban Gu and Sima Qian, not to mention those of ancient scholars such as Ziyou and Zixia. Having read the book, I cannot help admiring it. So I intend to award a prize to you for your hard work. “Ah! When the Xia historians recorded the life of Emperor Yao, they had already established the tradition of upholding integrity in recording history, and the Yin drew a lesson from the history of the Xia dynasty. Now let me award you one nugget of silver, one horse from the Royal Stable, one bolt of colorful silk, and one bolt of regular silk. I want you to accept them.” The king also gave his royal decree to Chŏng Ch’ong: “The rise and fall of the former dynasty is always recorded in history by its successors, and the things that the kings of later generations should learn from are all recorded in the Classics and histories. When we consider the Wang clan, they achieved the unification of the Three Kingdoms after founding the Koryŏ dynasty and served China since the Five Dynasties period.4 Because they ruled the country for many generations, many wars and disturbances took place, destroying numerous historical records and materials. Besides, because its dynastic records were made by more than one person, they are all inconsistent in terms of content and style. Hence, they often failed to provide correct judgments and properly distinguish between good and evil. So the task of compiling the history of the dynasty required a person who is distinguished in the three areas—i.e., talent, learning, and judgment. “Your personality is pure and clean, your learning profound and plentiful, your language clear and trustworthy, and your style refined enough to be handed down to posterity. The critical judgments you made [in your book] are cautious and discreet, as they are based on principle. The integrity in your heart was so clean and trustworthy that at the beginning of my rule, I appointed you to a high post for determining state affairs and concurrently assigned you to the task of compiling the history [of the previous dynasty]. You single-­heartedly assisted me in carrying out my duty and simultaneously devoted yourself to the assignment I gave. Emulating Gongyang Gao’s 4. It refers to an era of political upheaval in China from 907 to 960. The above five dynasties are Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou. Koryŏ was founded in 918.

469

470

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

appraisal of three types of rules and periods,5 as well as the chronological approach made by Sima Qian, you have completed the entire history of Koryŏ to be handed down to posterity. There is nothing to be ashamed of in your critical appraisal, even if it is compared to the historical critique [of the Tang period], the Mirror of the Tang Dynasty (Tangjian).6 And, like the Book of Han (Hanshu),7 it shows no vulgarity or meanness in delineating history. Being both flexible and consistent, your account is meticulously precise and also clear about what is to be emulated or admonished. I was very impressed, and therefore I want to reward you generously for your good work. “Ah! Since your work is brilliant but not complicated, and simple but not vulgar, you indeed have a talent to become a great historian. If the state is well governed, it always prospers; if not, it is bound to collapse. How, then, can I avoid looking at the history of the previous dynasty? Since I bestow upon you one horse, fifty taels of silver, and one bolt of colorful silk, I want you to accept them.” Censor Yi Munhwa and others submitted a memorial, and the request they made is basically as follows: “Peerage (myŏnggi)8 is very important because it is the instrument used by the king when he rewards men of virtue. Furthermore, since the title of chancellor indicates the head of the grand councilors, it should not be granted lightly even if the title is only honorary; otherwise it can cause confusion in the official hierarchy. According to the observations we have made, Your Majesty has granted such prestige titles to 5. According to Gongyang Gao, a scholar of the State of Qi during China’s Warring States period (475–221 bc) and famous commentator of the Spring and Autumn Annals, human society evolves over time and can be divided into three phases: the first stage (luanshi) is marked by political chaos and social anomie, the second stage (shengpingshi) is characterized by the reestablishment of legitimate political order, and the third stage (taipingshi) is when the whole world enjoys great harmony and every individual is able to fulfill his or her potential. 6. A historical critique of the Tang dynasty (618–907) written by Song-­period scholar Fan Zuyu (1041–1098) and commented by Lü Zuqian (1137–1181). 7. Also called Hanshu or History of the Former Han Dynasty, it covers the history of China under the Western Han from 206 bc to 25 ad. This book was intended to be the continuation of the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, the great Han historian. However, unlike his predecessor, who started his history from the earliest legendary rulers, Ban Gu started his history from the Han dynasty and, further, initiated the format for dynastic histories that was to remain the model for official histories until modern times. 8. Myŏnggi, literally “famous vessel,” originally referred to dresses and carriages that the king conferred on his subjects and thereby meant peerage and honor for the officials.

Book VII

eight or nine officials since you ascended the throne for the reason that they were senior officials, regardless of whether they made contributions or whether they were men of virtue. This is clearly an abuse of the favors for peerage that you have the privilege to dispense. We request that you abolish the office of chancellor-­without-­portfolio (kŏmgyo sijung).” The king said, “Those who were appointed chancellors-­without-­portfolio during this time are all senior officials whom I cannot abandon. So don’t mention them again.” 27th Day (Imsul)

The government elevated the status of Tamyang from district to county because it is the birthplace of National Preceptor Cho Ku. 29th Day (Imsul)

The construction of the Altars of Earth and Grain was begun.

2nd Month 1st Day of (Ŭlch’uk)

The king returned fifty monks recruited for the construction of the royal palace back to their respective temples to pray for the recuperation of the ailing Cho Ki.9 Deeply moved by the news, Cho Ki shed tears. Seven people of the Northwest Region, including Kim Pŏphwa and Chŏng Tae, were beheaded in the marketplace for illegally crossing the border. 2nd Day (Pyŏngin)

The king gave orders to the Thee Armies Headquarters and the Board of War: “Since the commanders in charge of separate armies, including the five officers and ten commandants (owŏn sipchang),10 are responsible for both royal security internally and the defense of the country externally, we 9. Cho Ki was a member of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects second class. He was suffering from boils on his back. 10. The word owŏn sipchang generically referred to the midranking military officers and commanders in late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn.

471

472

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

need to be very cautious in selecting them. Let the commanders-­in-­chief and provincial military commanders separately recommend five men who are outstanding in military strategy among the people in their provinces whose rank is below director (p’ansa),11 and let the needed personnel finally be chosen among them. 7th Day (Sinmi)

Ten members of the Wuduli tribe visited to present their local products. The king encouraged them, generously bestowing them with rice and fabric. 13th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king enfeoffed Pokkŭn, the son of Prince Chinan, [his first-­born who died earlier], as Prince Chinan. For the first time, the posts of two concurrent officials for court service, two concurrent compilers, and four concurrent auxiliaries were added in the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records (Yemun ch’unch’ugwan). The posts of two directors and two aides of rank 7 and 8, respectively, were also established in the Office of Benefitting the People (Hyemin’guk). The Office of Military Officials was reorganized. The Left Guard (Chwa wi) of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards was changed to the Righ­­ teousness Flourishing Metropolitan Command (Ŭihŭng siwisa); the Right Guard (U wi) of the Righteousness Flourishing Royal Guards to the Right Royal Metropolitan Command (Ch’ungchwa siwisa); the Soaring Falcon Guard (Ŭngyangwi) to the Victorious Martial Metropolitan Command (Ungmu siwisa); the Internal Security Guard (Kŭmowi) to the Inspired Martial Metropolitan Command (Sinmu siwisa); the Left and Right Guards (Chwau wi) to the Dashing Dragon Patrolling Guard Command (Yongyang sunwisa); the Divine Tiger Guard (Sinhowi) to the Dragon Riding Patrolling Guard Command (Yonggi sunwisa); the Elite Striking Guard (Hŭngwiwi) to the Dragon Martial Patrolling Guard Command (Yongmu sunwisa); the Defending Patrolling Guard (Pisunwi) to the Swift Tiger Patrolling Guard Command (Hobun sunwisa); the Thousand Bull Guard (Ch’ŏnuwi) to the Winged Tiger Patrolling Guard Command (Hoik sunwisa); and the Palace

11. The rank of director here, and who the director is is not clear.

Book VII

Gate Guard (Kammunwi) to the Brave Tiger Patrolling Guard Command (Hoyong sunwisa). The king appointed Yun Panggyŏng as discussant of the Security Council and Sim Hyosaeng as academician of the Security Council. He abolished the post of administrative aide (chusa) of the Six Ministries. Lady Yu, the wife of Sim Hyosaeng, was invested with the title of Princess­Ordinary Chŏnggyŏng.12 Nam Ŭlbŏn, chancellor-­without-­portfolio, died. Ŭlbŏn was a native of Ŭiryŏng in Chinju and the son of Ch’ŏllo, magistrate of Yŏnggwang County. He was by nature simple-­hearted and cautious. Starting his public service in the previous dynasty, he rose to the position of deputy director of the Security Council. He had four sons, Chae, Ŭn, Sil, and Chi. At the beginning of the dynasty, two of his sons, Chae and Ŭn, became dynasty-­founding merit subjects. So he was honored to be appointed as chancellor-­without-­ portfolio. He died at the age of seventy-­six and was granted a posthumous title of Kyŏngnyŏl. His funeral was administered by the government. 17th Day (Sinsa)

Cho Ki, Lord of Ŭnch’ŏn and administrative director of the Security Council, died. Ki was a native of Paekchu.13 Starting his career as an ordinary soldier, he served in the army of General Ch’oe Yŏng and finally rose to the position of minister of revenue. He was a man of strong and fierce character and discharged his duty wherever he went. When Yŏng was defeated, the king [T’aejo] placed Ki under his command and had him take care of military affairs. After T’aejo ascended the throne, he became a dynasty-­founding merit subject. Serving as senior commissioner of the Royal Guards, he frequented the palace, carrying out royal orders, and his soldiers and subordinates feared him greatly. However, he was illiterate and impervious to reason. Unable to control his joy and anger, he often insulted civil officials, and people thought of this as his shortcoming. His death deeply saddened the king, who had the morning assembly suspended. The 12. Sim Hyosaeng was the father-­in-­law of Crown Prince Pangsŏk, so probably this honor was accorded to his wife. 13. Also called Paeju, it is located near Yŏnan, Hwanghae Province.

473

474

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

king also posthumously promoted him to assistant chancellor and granted the title of Ch’ungwi. Then he sent Yi Ch’ŏnu, discussant of the Secu­­ rity Council, to offer a sacrifice before Ki’s coffin and ordered the office responsible to administer his funeral with propriety. He had a son named Sunhwa. 19th Day (Kyemi)

By sending Yi Kak, controller (chegong) of the Capital Constabulary, the king had Cho Pak, governor of Chŏlla Province, confined in Kongju. Earlier, Kim Kyesu, a royal messenger, had arrived in Chŏlla Province to conduct a head count of provincial army troops. Governor Pak discussed this matter with Kyesu and submitted a report, saying, “Since it is now busy farming season, it is impossible to conduct a head count of army troops without a compelling reason.” Later, he was late in submitting a report concerning the border. So the king was upset at him. The government released the civilian workers recruited from various provinces for the construction of the royal palace and used monks in their stead. Earlier, Inspector-General Pak Kyŏng and others submitted a memorial to the king: “The royal palace should have the king’s private quarters as well as the offices in which all officials carry out their duties. So the number of rooms to be made will amount to no less than a thousand, and therefore it will require tens of thousands of artisans and workers to complete the entire construction project. If we fill up the workforce with farmers, they will miss their farming season, and that is a source of major concern. “Officials always prefer to employ monks when they build their houses, as they are skilled workers and able to devote themselves to their work because they have no families. The monks also like to work because they can receive food and clothes. Moreover, how can you hire unskilled people when you build the royal palace for the first time? The inevitable result will be that their crops are ruined and your construction is delayed. “The number of people who became monks was originally not fixed by the state, and they comprise one-­third of the whole population. Two-­thirds of them are capable of carrying out labor service. Generally, there are three grades of monks: the ones belonging to the first grade are those who neither seek to fill their stomachs nor stay at one place permanently, undergoing a

Book VII

spiritual cultivation in the monastery; the ones belonging to the second grade are those who travel on horseback, preaching Buddhist scriptures; and in the third grade are those who welcome the people coming to offer sacri­­ fices or visit families in mourning to get food and clothing. In our opinion, there is no problem even if we mobilize the group of monks who belong to the third grade and use their labor for the construction of the royal palace. “We request that you give orders to the departments concerned to recruit the monks for the construction, instead of issuing a requisition to the people for labor service, and thereby improve people’s livelihood. Then the construction can continue on schedule and the foundation of the state will also be strengthened.” The king accepted the advice and consequently had the people recruited for labor service return to their homes. No Sang, timber supervisor (changmok pyŏlgam) of Kyoju Province, spoke to the king: “There will be many problems if we try to transport over ten thousand logs, which we have just cut down, on time. It would be advisable to tie them together and float them down the river after the rains.” The king followed the advice. The [Righteousness Flourishing] Three Armies submitted a memorial to the king: “The so-­called ‘military affairs’ can be best carried out when superiors and inferiors hold one another in check and oversee one another. The various guard units serving inside the royal palace should be placed under the command of the Three Armies Headquarters, and the Office of the Judge of the Royal Guards (Chinmuso) should check the guards on duty against the list with their names and submit a report to the king. An official of the Security Council on night duty should make a chief clerk (tanghugwan) of the Security Council collect the name lists of guards on duty, including those of the commanders in charge. The chief clerk writes ‘present’ or ‘absent’ under the names of the commanders above the rank of supreme general and general-­in-­chief. However, he makes the commanders below the rank of general personally sign their own names and submits the paper to the king the following morn­ ­ing. In the case of commanders below the rank of commandant, he reports only the total number of those who were on night duty. “The task of conducting reviews of various guard units should be also carried out by the Three Armies Headquarters, and the military commissioner on duty should personally confirm the names on the list every time

475

476

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

he conducts reviews. When he finds that there are guards who fail to report to duty without a compelling cause or abandon their posts without permission, he reports it to the Security Council and the Office of the Judge of the Royal Guards. The military commissioner should also report the personnel who fail to report to patrol duty without reasonable cause to the Three Armies Headquarters so that they can be disciplined. Those whose mistakes are minor are allowed to return to their jobs, but those whose mistakes are serious should be dismissed and replaced by others. “Since military affairs require strict rules and discipline, military orders can be carried out when superiors and inferiors acknowledge their stations properly. The military rank and hierarchy of supreme general, general-­in-­ chief, and the generals of the Three Armies, as well as general, commandant, vice commandant, deputy general, officer, company commander (taejang), and deputy company commander (taebu), should be clearly defined and main­ ­tained regardless of the armies and units they belong to so that they cannot be disrespectful to one another, and juniors dare not stand or walk abreast with their superiors. When junior officers meet their superior officers on the road, they should dismount their horses first, but the superior officers, even if they are higher by one rank, can either dismount or stay on horseback in response to the courtesy of junior officers. Those who disregard this rule should be punished.” The king followed the advice. 20th Day (Kapsin)

Mars approached Ghoul Star. 21st Day (Ŭlyu)

The moon approaches the Heart Constellation. 22nd Day (Pyŏngsul)

The government dispatched interpreter Kim Ŭlsang to China with a mission to transfer twenty-­five Chinese soldiers from Liaodong, including one named Kim Pulgae [Jin Bugai],14 who had defected to Korea, back to the Chinese authorities.



14. It is likely that these Chinese soldiers were originally Koreans.

Book VII

24th Day (Muja)

The appearance of strange natural phenomena prompted the king to pardon and release all the prisoners across the country except those who are sentenced to capital punishment either by beheading or hanging. The king gave orders to the Privy Council: “Since the jails both in the capital and the provinces are unsanitary and unrepaired, many prisoners become sick or die of intolerable heat or cold, and I feel sorry for them. Let the officials in charge inspect them as often as they can and keep them clean.” The construction of the Altars of Earth and Grain makes progress. The king gave orders to hold sacrificial ceremonies for the wandering ghosts both in the water and on land (suryukchae) at places such as Kwanŭm Cave, Kyŏnam Monastery15, and Samhwa Monastery16 every spring and autumn, as supplications for the Wang clan of Koryŏ. 25th Day (Kich’uk)

The king had [General-­in-­Chief] Kim Kyesu confined in the Capital Constabulary, and that was because he failed to obey orders to conduct a head count of army troops.17 Sŏhae Province suffered from a poor harvest, prompting the king to order that grain in the state granary be released to provide relief [to the people in the province]. 26th Day (Kyŏngin)

Sŏhae Province suffered a poor harvest, so Governor Hong Kilmin18 requested that the king declare the prohibition of alcohol. The king granted 15. Located in Mt. Udu in Kŏchang County, South Kyŏngsang Province. It is also called Hyŏnam Monastery. 16. Located in Mt. Tut’a in Samch’ŏk, Kangwŏn Province. 17. He probably joined Cho Pak, who tried not to conduct a head count of army troops during the busy farming season. 18. Hong Kilmin (1353–1407): an official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He also served as surveillance commissioner of Kangnŭng Province, third inspector, right grand master of remonstrance, and discussant of the Security Council.

477

478

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

his request and also ordered the Privy Council to send public notices to all provinces to enforce the prohibition. 27th Day

The king paid a visit to the foot of Sŏbong Hill19 to watch the construction of the Altars of Earth and Grain. This month, Venus was observed in daylight.

3rd Month 1st Day (Kabo)

The king gave orders to release the grain from the state granary and provide relief to the Northeast Region to save people from starvation. A man named No Ŭlsaeng was beheaded. Earlier, Ŭlsaeng had managed to obtain a letter of appointment for Chŏng Seyong, vice director of the Directorate of Medicine. Then he scratched out Seyong’s name and replaced it with the name of Pang Yongje after receiving a large bribe from him. After this incident was discovered, Ŭlsaeng was put to death and Yongje was beaten with a heavy paddle. A man named Chin Song, a resident of Kasu20 in Kyŏngsang Province, had an argument with his neighbor named Chŏng Man over a matter concerning land and struck Man dead. Wŏnch’ŏl, the son of the victim, however, did not report the murder to the authorities after receiving a large bribe. After this incident was discovered, the son was put to death. A falcon farm (ŭngbang) was created beside the Han River. 2nd Day (Ŭlmi)

A man named Sin Ch’ŏng was beheaded for impersonating the navy myriarch of Kangnŭng Province.



19. Also called Sŏsan or Western Mountain, it refers to Mt. Inwang in Seoul. 20. It is presumed to refer to Samga District in South Kyŏngsang Province.

Book VII

479

*   *   * Min Che, assistant grand councilor, and Yu Wŏnji, assistant director of the Security Council, who visited China as envoys to celebrate New Year, returned home from the Ming capital [Nanjing], together with Son Hŭngjong, assistant director of the Security Council, who transported tribute horses to China. 3rd Day (Pyŏngsin)

The planet Venus was visible during the day. 4th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king paid a visit to Kwaju to inspect the site for his royal tomb. On the way back to the palace, the Privy Council set up a drink table on a boat at Tumop’o Ferry,21 and officials in turn offered wine to the king. Chŏng Tojŏn came forward to the king and said, “As Your Majesty has founded a new dynasty with the help of Heaven, we are now enjoying your generous favor, wishing you long life. Since you are looking for the site of your royal tomb today, I cannot help being sad.” Then he shed tears. The king said, “It is only that I want to have it done in advance when I have time for it. Why do you cry?” Arriving at the road to Wangsimch’on, the king wanted to shoot a roebuck from horseback, but Pak Pugŭm, the king’s horseman, kept holding the king’s horse by the bridle. The king finally gave up pursuing the animal. 7th Day (Kyŏngja)

The government dispatched officials to all provinces to conduct a head count of all military personnel. 8th Day (Sinch’uk)

Mars showed up to the east of Ghoul Star.

21. Presently the Oksudong area beside the Han River.

480

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

9th Day (Imin)

Censor Yi Ko and others submitted a memorial to the king: “The commentary of a classic [The Analects] says, ‘There must be sufficient food for the people and sufficient soldiers to safeguard them.’22 Neither food nor soldiers can be ignored. If there is no food to eat, what is the use of strong armor and sharp weapons? One way of producing sufficient food is not to take away the farming season from the people. “At the beginning when Your Majesty ascended the throne with the Mandate of Heaven, the people were overjoyed and congratulated one another because they expected to enjoy benefits from your benevolent rule. In recent years, however, the continuing construction work and repeated head counts of military personnel have caused the suffering of the people to become so extreme that they have abandoned their homes and scattered in all directions. No one knows how many of them altogether have disappeared. We have heard that soon officials will be dispatched to conduct another head count of military personnel. Though the head count is intended to prepare for the future during peacetime, it is now busy farming season, and we should not take it away from the people. If the head count is to be conducted, the farmers will have to be assembled and spend time coming and going, missing the opportunity to sow seeds. Since they even lack sufficient time to serve their parents and raise their children, where can the military supplies and national revenue come from? “We request that you suspend the military head count temporarily so that the people can devote themselves to their farming. It would not be too late if you dispatched officials for the head count during the agricultural off-­ season.” The king summoned Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Com­ mission and said, “Censorate officials, in their memorial, requested that the military head count be suspended during the busy farming season. The words of a censor, not to mention the words concerning the people, are to be taken seriously even if they are unpleasant to your ears. I believe what they are saying makes sense. However, since both left and right chancellors are now unable to come to work due to their illness, I want you to visit them at their homes to discuss the matter and report back to me.” 22. “Yanyuan,” The Analects, p. 254. “Zigong asked about government. The Master said, ‘The requisites of government are that there be sufficiency of food, sufficiency of military equipment, and the confidence of the people in their ruler.’ ”

Book VII

Tojŏn reported the matter to the king after discussions with the chancellors. He said, “The best thing to do is not to dispatch officials to the provinces and instead let the local officials carry out the head count of the military personnel.” The king followed the advice. Yi Mindo, Lord of Sangsan, died. Mindo was a native of Hejian, China, and the son of Gongshu, area commander chief of Qingyuan Route of the Yuan dynasty. After his father died while on duty, he was appointed associate prefect of Zhuozhou. However, the Yuan government was in disarray at that time. So he stayed with his mother’s family in Mingzhou. When Sŏng Tŭkchun, envoy of the previous dynasty, returned home after visiting the domain of Zhang Shicheng,23 Mindo asked to accompany him and came to Koryŏ. He gained a reputation for his skill in medicine and fortune-­telling, often producing good results. Consequently, he was appointed vice supervisor of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory and supervisor of the Palace Medical Office. Afterwards, he rose to the rank of prefect of Chahye Special Prefecture while concurrently serving as director of the Palace Medical Office. When the king [T’aejo] was staying at his private home out of public view, Mindo explained to him the dynastic changes throughout history, secretly wishing to recommend that T’aejo be seated on the throne. After the king ascended the throne, he joined the file of merit subjects and rose to the rank of discussant of the Security Council. Since the family seat of his wife was Sangju, he was enfeoffed as Lord of Sangsan. He died at the age of sixty, and the king posthumously promoted him to assistant chancellor and granted the title of Chikhŏn. He had a son named Chin. Ch’a Chun, navy myriarch of Kyŏnnaeryang,24 Kyŏngsang Province, captured two [invading] Japanese vessels. 12th Day (Ŭlsa)

The king dispatched a royal messenger to bestow wine and colorful silk on Ch’a Chun. He also bestowed the same amount of wine and silk on An 23. Zhang Shicheng (1321–1367) was a leader of the Red Turban Rebellion in the late Yuan. He expanded his domain significantly by 1363 and declared himself the king of Wu. He was a main rival of Zhu Yuanzhang, later founder of the Ming, who started an uprising from Nanjing. 24. A narrow strait located in modern Kŏje City. It leads to Hansan Island, where the naval Battle of Hansan Island took place during the Japanese invasion of Korea in the late 16th ­century.

481

482

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Ch’ŏsŏn, chief brigade commander (to manho). In addition, he bestowed wine on Commander-­in-­Chief Cho Kyŏn and Governor Ch’oe Yugyŏng. Having heard that Ch’a Chun’s father-­in-­law had died, he bestowed 100 sŏk of rice and beans. Both Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng suffered from abscesses. The king dispatched eunuch Cho Sun to inquire after their health and said, “Since it is important to remain mentally focused to cure abscesses, do not worry about state affairs or entertain guests.” 13th Day (Pyŏngo)

There was hail. Chŏng Tojŏn, second tutor (isa) of the crown prince, gave a lecture on the Mencius. Commenting on the sentence “By weighing, we know what things are light, and what are heavy,”25 he said, “Our mind is like a scale. A small amount of weight is measured in taels (yang) and a large amount of weight in catties (kŭn). If something light is weighed together with something heavy, the weights of taels and catties become confused. Therefore, they should be weighed separately if one wants to know their real weight. “The so-­called scale should be empty in order to weigh things. A man’s mind is much the same. It is pleased when it sees a good thing, and it is upset when it sees a bad thing, and this is the mind of a normal person. Would it be right, then, if a man gets upset at a time when he should be pleased or pleased at a time when he should be upset? Therefore, the so-­called mind should always be kept empty in order to deal with things properly. I urge Your Honor to pay close attention to this aspect of the matter.” 18th Day (Sinhae)

When the king planned to take a trip to P’yŏngju Hot Springs, Censor Han Sanghwan and other officials submitted a memorial to the king: “We have heard that Your Majesty was planning to take a trip to the hot springs. Since your trip is intended to cure your illness, we dare not hope that you would cancel your trip. However, the hot springs are as far as 300 li away from the new capital. We are afraid that you will have to risk the

25. “King Hui of Liang, Part I,” Mencius. The translation is Legge’s.

Book VII

wind and dew on the way while crossing mountains and rivers, and, much worse, your royal carriage must stop in the middle of a desolate field to spend the night. If that happens, this trip will bring harm to your health, contrary to its original purpose. Furthermore, it is now busy farming season. How can your royal trip not interfere the people in their work no matter how hard you try to make your trip simple? We request you to reconsider making your royal trip.” The king called Third Censor Yun Su, an official in charge. He said, “This trip is intended to treat my illness. Since you only talk about the trouble to the people and show no concern for my failing health, what kind of attitude is that?” The king, at last, did not grant the request. 20th Day (Kyechíuk)

Thunder boomed and lightening flashed, while the wind was strong and hail fell. The king held a banquet on the main floor of the new royal palace, and his old friends he associated from the days when was out of public view, including Hong Yŏngt’ong, Count of Namyang, and Sŏng Yŏwan, Great Lord of Ch’angnyŏng, were among those invited. Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, submitted a poem to the king to celebrate the occasion: “In the forbidden garden, the spring is rife with flourishing flowers / And old friends are invited to enjoy drinks together. / Since Heaven sends a timely rain / I feel drenched with the grace of our lord.” 21st Day (Kabin)

The king departed for P’yŏngju Hot Springs. The king pardoned Cho Pak and sent for him. 23rd Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king arrived in the old capital [Kaesŏng]. 24th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king dispatched Chŏng Hon, vice director of the Publication Office to review the strengths and weaknesses of the warships as well as the

483

484

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

­ ilitary readiness of the commanders and the troops in Left Kyŏnggi and m Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces. 25th Day (Muo)

The king went out to the plot of land for the ruler’s ceremonial cultivation and watched a hunt using hawks.

4th Month 1st Day (Kapcha)

It rained, and a red glow reached midsky. The king arrived at P’yŏngju Hot Springs. The king ordered the Three Armies to publish the Pictures of Hunting Scenes (Susudo) and Diagram of Troop Dispositions (Chindo). 2nd Day (Ŭlch’uk)

Kyŏng Ŭi, magistrate of P’yŏngyang, died. Ŭi was a native of Ch’ŏngju. He was the son of Pokhŭng, Duke Chŏngnyŏl, who served as left chancellor. He was by nature plain, simple, and unaffected. His rank reached assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery. Outside the court, he served as military commissioner of the Northwest Region and, concurrently, magistrate of P’yŏngyang. He was granted the posthumous title of Sunjŏl. He had a son named Sŭp. 4th Day (Chŏngmyo)

Inspector-General Pak Kyŏng and others submitted a memorial to the king: “At the end of the previous dynasty, the land system was in such disarray that powerful people expanded their landholdings to the point that the state granaries lay empty and litigations increased day by day among the people, including family members and relatives. “Soon after Your Majesty ascended the throne, you executed land reform by changing the old landholding system. You allocated land in Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces and six other provinces for royal tombs, state

Book VII

g­ ranaries, military expenses and provisions, office expenses, monasteries, schools, shrines, local magistrates, subfunctionaries working at the ferries and post stations, artisans engaged in producing paper, and so forth. For the scholar-­officials (sadaebu) you provided rank land (kwajŏn) and made their livelihood comfortable because they live in the royal capital and protect the royal family. For the soldiers, you provided military land so that they could support their families because they are in charge of defending the country on border regions. “In most cases, the rank land and merit land were provided in Kyŏnggi Province, and the military land was mainly outside Kyŏnggi Province. This is truly an outstanding law that should be handed down to a thousand generations. Therefore, we should make efforts to preserve this law in the days to come. “However, the Merit Recommendation Office recently sent an official notice to the Land Grant Office (Kŭpchŏnsa) of the Board of Taxation (Hojo) and ordered that all the lands granted to minor merit subjects should be in their birthplaces. Those who own a big mansion on a large tract of land mostly have private lands in the countryside. If they are free to have lands outside Kyŏnggi Province, they will be greedy for more land, vying against one another. Furthermore, the lands [outside Kyŏnggi Province] converted into merit lands will acquire a different status from those within Kyŏnggi Province that have landlords. If some avaricious and cunning people happen to use their power to steadily swallow up the landholdings, merit land is certain to run out eventually. We believe that serious problems and abuses will recur in the regions outside Kyŏnggi Province because everyone will vie with one another to grab more land until the situation is beyond remedy. “We sincerely urge Your Majesty to order the office responsible to discuss the matter once again and let the distribution of merit land be restricted to Kyŏnggi Province. If the merit lands in Kyŏnggi Province run out, you may as well add one or two districts to them since you plan to fix its border sooner or later, and it causes no harm. The merit land is public land just the same, whether it is included in Kyŏnggi Province or not. There is no loss, only a different of appearance. In other words, if you provide lands from within Kyŏnggi Province, there is no damage as far as the established system is concerned; if you provide them from outside Kyŏnggi Province, however, there is conflict with what has been established. Furthermore, it can also revive old abuses, which were already abolished.”

485

486

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The king let the Privy Council discuss the matter. The opinion of the latter agreed with that of the Office of the Inspector-General. So the king followed the advice. Though the Lord of Hŭngan, Yi Che26, whipped Kwŏn Sang, chief of the West Regiment (Sŏbu) out of personal anger, no one in the Office of the Inspector-General dared to speak out against him. 8th Day (Sinmi)

It happened that Yi Kyo, the son of the Count of Ŭian [Yi Hwa]27 insulted a patrolling officer as he wandered about the capital at night during the lantern festival, leading a group of mean people. The king had him imprisoned and the chief of the group punished with one hundred strokes of the heavy stick and the rest of the group beaten commensurately. 9th Day (Imsin)

The king spoke to Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng: “Though Ch’oe Yugyŏng, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, stood up to oppose us in the Mujin year (1388),28 what he did was only out of his loyalty to the king, and besides, he is talented in carrying out the things he is assigned to.” Then the king appointed Ch’oe as administrative director of the Security Council and, con­­ currently, associate military commissioner as well as governor [of Kyŏngsang Province], and Chin Ŭlsŏ as provincial military commander of the Northwest Region and magistrate of P’yŏngyang. 17th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king bestowed 170 sŏk of rice and beans and 200 bolts of osŭngp’o fabric upon Hoeam Monastery, and that was because Royal Preceptor Chach’o held a Buddhist ceremony with the sermon on the Surangama Sutra (Nŭngŏmgyŏng).29

26. T’aejo’s son-­in-­law. 27. T’aejo’s stepbrother. 28. This is the year when T’aejo turned his army around at Wihwa Island to march back home, disobeying the order of attacking Liaodong, China. 29. One of the Buddhist scriptures influential in the tradition of Chan Buddhism. The word Surangama roughly means “indestructible.”

Book VII

19th Day (Imo)

Ch’oe Musŏn, assistant grand councilor-­without-­portfolio, died. His clan seat was Yŏngju, and he was the son of Tongsun, supervisor of Kwan­ ghŭngch’ang State Granary. Naturally intelligent and talented in technology and strategy, he always liked to talk about the art of war. In the previous dynasty, he rose to the position of assistant grand councilor. He used to say, “There is nothing better than gunpowder for suppressing Japanese marauders, but in our country no one knows about it.” Whenever Chinese merchants from the southern part of China visited Korea, he asked them if they knew how to make gunpowder and finally found one who knew about it to a certain extent. Taking the Chinese merchant to his home and providing him with food and clothes for several weeks, he eventually got the idea of producing gunpowder after asking numerous questions day after day. Then he reported to the Privy Council about what had happened and requested that he be provided with a chance to test out his way of making gunpowder. However, no one among the officials wanted to believe what he said and even mocked him for attempting to cheat them. Musŏn still continued to persuade them for many years until they became impressed by his sincerity. As a result, the Superintendency for Gunpowder Weapons (Hwat’ongdogam) was newly established and Musŏn appointed its superintendent, and finally gunpowder could be produced. The manufacture of gunpowder soon led to the manufacture of a number of gunpowder weapons of various names. The names of the artillery are these: general-­in-­chief (taejanggun), two generals (ijanggun), three generals (samjanggun), six-­stone ball cannon (yukhwa sŏkp’o), fire cannon (hwap’o), and trusty cannon (sinp’o). The other fire weapons operated by gunpowder are these: gunpowder tube (hwat’ong) and rocket-­launched arrows of different names, such as hwajŏn, ch’ŏllyŏngjŏn, and p’iryŏngjŏn. In addition, there are shrapnel bombs and grenades called chillyŏp’o and ch’ŏlt’anja, the incendiary five-­dragon arrow named ch’ŏnsanoryongjŏn, and arrows of flying fire and rockets of various names, such as yuhwa, chuhwa and ch’okch’ŏnhwa. When these weapons were made, everyone who saw them was surprised and greatly admired them. They [The Superintendency for Gunpowder Weapons] also conducted research on constructing battleships and finally completed them with the support of the Privy Council. In the Kyŏngsin year (1380) when Japanese invaded Chinp’o30 of Chŏlla Province leading three hundred battleships, the government appointed Ch’oe

30. Located 17 li north of Imp’i District, Chŏlla Province.

487

488

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Musŏn as assistant military commander to test the new weapons on the enemy. Joining Sim Tŏkbu, chief military commander, and Na Se, superior military commander (sang wŏnsu), Ch’oe Musŏn arrived at Chinp’o leading the boats equipped with gunpowder weapons. Never realizing that Koreans had gunpowder weapons on their ships, the Japanese marauders gathered all their ships together and fought back, but Musŏn destroyed them completely by discharging his cannons. Having lost their ships, the Japanese enemies came ashore and plundered the inland areas while running away, until they reached Chŏlla and Kyŏngsang Provinces and finally assembled at Unbong in Chŏlla Province. At this time, the king [T’aejo], who had become supreme commander of our army, completely wiped them out with the help of other commanders. Thereafter, the invasion of Japanese marauders gradually decreased and some of them voluntarily surrendered themselves to our authorities one after another, so our people on the seacoasts were able to recover their livelihood. Though this happened due to the help of Heaven granted to our virtuous king, Musŏn’s contributions were no less significant. Though he was too old to serve in the government at the beginning of the Chosŏn dynasty, the king appointed him assistant grand councilor-­without­portfolio (kŏmgyo ch’amch’an pusa), taking his contributions into consideration. When he passed away, the king expressed his sorrow and generously bestowed condolence money. Furthermore, in Sinsa year, the king posthumously promoted him to the position of right state councilor and Great Lord Yŏngsŏng. He had a son named Haesan. Once, when he came close to death, he handed a book to his wife and asked her to give it to his son when he grew up. She kept the book well and gave it to Haesan when he became fifteen years old and learned to read. The book was no other than the method for manufacturing gunpowder. As Haesan mastered the method, he was called to serve in the government, and he is now vice director of the Directorate of Armaments. 20th Day (Kyemi)

The king returned from his trip to the hot springs. 21st Day (Kapsin)

The king ordered the Two Departments to recommend ten officials from among those who were below the rank of grand master for excellent ­goodness

Book VII

[rank 2b] and above rank 6 and capable of taking charge of both civil and military affairs concurrently. Private slaves named Ch’oe Mun, O Ch’ŏnsu, and others who forged documents written in the king’s name were all beheaded and their bodies publicly displayed. Yi Yŏm, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records was dismissed because the Office of the Inspector General impeached him for entering the royal palace riding a horse. 22nd (Ŭlyu)

The king watched the archery at Pine Terrace Pavilion [Pansongjŏng]31 and moved to Yongsan to see the horse farm. This evening, hail fell with loud thunder. The king sent Yang Ch’ŏmsik, minister of works [to Ming China] to present five hundred tribute horses, and he returned from Liaodong after delivering the horses. 23rd Day (Pyŏngsul)

Hail fell with loud thunder and lightning. The king went out to the Han River and visited the falcon farm. 24th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king ordered Chŏng Tojŏn, deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, to compose a royal decree, and it read as follows: “Despite the fact that it is now a month full of positive yang energy, it is unusually cold and dreary, and I am very worried about this natural disaster. Whatever a man does turns out to be either good or bad, and Heaven rewards him accordingly. Therefore, the sage kings in olden days always searched for the cause in human affairs whenever they had natural disasters. So they 31. It refers to a pavilion with an ancient pine tree whose branches spread like a table, which was known to have located in the north of Mohwagwan, a state guesthouse for visiting Chinese envoys which was outside Tŏnŭi Gate (commonly called West Gate) in Seoul.

489

490

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

inclined to examine themselves on their conduct, or actively sought advice from their advisors and put it into practice. That was to return to the root of the matter. “Though I am entrusted with the responsibility for ruling the people on behalf of Heaven, I carry it out together with grand councilors because I cannot do it by myself. I want you to tell me honestly whether or not the state is well governed and if the people are enjoying themselves. I intend to eliminate natural disasters by promoting goodness, while correcting ­mistakes.” 25th Day (Muja)

Pak Kyŏng, inspector-general, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “One thing that cannot be prevented is the anger of Heaven, and one thing that cannot be ignored is the suspicion of people. If you know how to dis­ ­pel the suspicion of people, you will also be able to dispel the anger of Heaven. “On the twenty-­second of this month when Your Majesty paid a royal visit to places outside [the palace],32 there was fierce thunder and lightning and hail day after day. This is a sign sent by the benevolent Heaven asking you to examine yourself and rectify mistakes you may have committed. “We believe that even in the flourishing ages when two emperors [Yao and Shun] and three kings [Yu, Tang, and Wen] reigned, the rulers conducted themselves according to rules and principles as well as times and seasons so that there was nothing inappropriate or unreasonable about their conduct. So everyone said, ‘How constant the heart of our king is! How consistent his words are!’ Hence, their words and conduct and governance became the model for posterity. When there was flood or drought once in a while, or when natural disasters such as thunder and lightning occurred, they examined themselves and asked others about their mistakes, trying to change their conduct with fear and anxiety until the strange natural phenomena dissipated. So they turned misfortune into fortune, weakness into strength, and eventually made their dynasties last forever. “After the Han and Wei Dynasties, the rulers failed to cultivate themselves and turned their public office responsible for spreading virtue into a private place to satisfy their personal desires and avarice. So they did not

32. It refers to the King’s excursion to Pine Tree Pavilion and Yongsan.

Book VII

know when the sun set while they were outside or when the morning broke while they were inside. As a result, the hours they spent carrying out their duties could be numbered, whereas the time they spent with their consorts and concubines was unlimited. The banquets and entertainments knew no limits, while the meetings with their councilors and ministers became less frequent. “Nevertheless, they could not avoid dealing with the state affairs on their hands. However, the problem was that they found it difficult to bring councilors and ministers into their private royal quarters in order to have the state affairs carried out, nor could they let court women convey their messages to the councilors and ministers who were living outside. Thus, they used eunuchs as their messengers or agents to contact the outside world. Furthermore, so-­called eunuchs are the ones who were so clever that they knew how to please the king with their words and behavior. So the kings believed that the eunuchs were good for conveying royal messages and had them carry out the task from morning till night. “Consequently, it happened that the power of deciding on promotions and demotions or rewards and punishments was transferred to the eunuchs, while the kings were unaware of it. This was certainly no trivial matter. Since every word they heard was nothing but flattery, the kings believed that there was nothing to worry about and that they were doing well in governing the state. Indulging themselves in music and women, they enjoyed drinking in the backyard of the palace, leading a life of luxury. They also started massive construction works, draining the national treasury until they ruined not only themselves but also their kingdoms, and such cases have never ceased to take place. This is the reason ancient sage kings rejected the [lewd] songs of Zheng and stayed away from cunning people. “Endowed with virtue and talent and assisted by Heaven and men, Your Majesty has inaugurated a new dynasty, ascending the throne and emulating the laws of the Three Dynasties [Sandai: Xia, Yin, and Zhou]. This has never happened since the days of the Han and Tang dynasties. However, according to the observations we have made, there are certain things in your words or conduct that do not agree with those found in the flourishing ages of the three dynasties, and therefore we dare to speak out. “We have noticed in recent days that the sound of music in the palace has often continued all night long, which contradicts the benevolence of the king who wants to foster the people, and also that the royal carriage left the palace too impulsively, which we are afraid is not the proper way to conduct

491

492

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

yourself for posterity. Since the burden of construction work imposed on the people is heavier than usual, this is contrary to your intention to love and foster the people, and since you are at times surrounded by those who are eager to flatter you, we fear that this goes against the way of the leader who takes command of his subordinates by controlling himself first. It is not profitable to fear and flatter Buddha and the spirits, and it undermines the royal dignity to place female musicians in front of your carriage. These few things make the people suspicious and Heaven indignant. “If Your Majesty emulates the laws of the flourishing ages of the two emperors and three kings while taking the mistakes made after the Han and Wei dynasties as a mirror for your conduct and thereby maintains discipline in enjoying music or taking outdoor activities, reduces construction work, keeps away flatterers, and is careful not to go extreme in serving Buddha and the spirits or keeping female musicians too close, the people will be delighted and the wrath of Heaven will relent. We urge you to take our request seriously and grant it.” The king said, “I will change my ways with regard to having music performed at night, leaving the palace frequently, and having female musicians in front of the royal carriage. Serving Buddha and the spirits is a practice handed down from former kings, and it is performed at the request of the Board of Rites and the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory. Since the royal palace is a place where affairs of state are carried out, its space should not be too small. If there is anything problematic with the system we have, make a report about it again. If there are flatterers around me, submit a list of their names.” On this day, the Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “In olden days when sage emperors and kings established their rites and rituals, they made various wine cups and ritual vessels as well as musical instruments fashioned out of metal and stone, string, and bamboo, and they used them for the sacrifices held in the royal ancestral shrines and outdoors or for the banquets in the palace. The reason they created and regulated all the rites and rituals of banquets and sacrifices starting from the king on top down to the people below was to make a distinction between the high and the low in rank and status and thereby establish order and discipline in the hearts of the people. They were also concerned that people might fall into trouble because of excessive drinking, so they admonished the people by establishing the rites and rituals.

Book VII

“The Classic of Documents says, “Spirits should be consumed only on the occasions of sacrifices, but then virtue should preside to avoid drunkenness.”33 The Book of Rites says, “The guest and host bow to each other a hundred times when they offer a cup of wine, so they do not get drunk though they drink all day long.”34 This was the way in which those kings fostered the personality of the people and how they provided help against the evil consequences of drinking. This was the best way of prohibiting wine. “After the Han and Wei dynasties, the world has gradually declined generation after generation to such a degree that it became incapable of preserving the laws of the former sage kings and preventing troubles and disasters from their inception. The government prohibited drinking alcohol to save grain only after disasters such as flood, drought, frost, and locusts broke out, but this approach was neither good nor bad. Sometimes the author­ ­ities, concerned about the lack of expenditure, prohibited the people from privately producing wine, while monopolizing the whole wine industry to make profits, and this was the worst kind of approach that they could adopt. “We observe that Your Majesty is anxious to emulate the flourishing age of the three dynasties in promulgating rites and music, but when it comes to the matter of the prohibition of alcohol, you continue to be unchanged. What can be the reason? Since the prohibition of alcohol was originally motivated by the fear that wine could harm the human nature and cause trouble, your decree had better warn against the danger of wine. “At the end of the previous dynasty, discipline and order deteriorated and rules and rites of propriety collapsed so that the literati enjoyed drinking and letting their hair grow loose, imitating the people of Jin in olden days. Pretending to be detached from the world, they threw away manners, oblivious of all the earthly affairs. As common people imitated them, a custom was finally formed, and it remains unchanged. “Families who invite guests, regardless of their rank and status, are eager to be extravagant to make their meetings more memorable, spending many days on preparation. Unless the wine served is of the finest quality like that used in the palace, or the table is not filled with rare kinds of food and snacks, they dare not invite guests. This is no doubt a waste of property, but will it end right there? It has grown worse and worse until the distinction between high and low or good and bad has disappeared. In the worst of

33. “The Announcement about Drunkenness,” The Shu King, p. 175. 34. Li Ki, Sacred Books of China, vol. xxviii, p. 107.

493

494

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

cases, people go on a drinking spree and get drunk for several days, forgetting everything, including their work. “We request that from this day forward no officials, regardless of their rank, should be allowed to drink wine except at a sacrificial ceremony of the Royal Ancestral Shrine or a state banquet attended by the king or [Chinese] envoys. Their practice of gathering together to have a drink, neglecting their duty, should be stopped, and the common people, including artisans and merchants and slaves, should also be prohibited from gathering in groups to have a drink, so that the loss of property as well as the damage to human nature can be eliminated. If there is anyone who violates your order, he should be strictly punished, and let your royal order be made into law, to last permanently.” The king followed the advice. Fuji Korehisa, governor of Satsuma Nokami [modern western Kagoshima] of Japan and Fujiwara Yorihisa, prefect of Nakaiyuin, submitted a memorial and tribute gifts, addressing themselves as the vassals of our king and returned the Korean captives who were scattered throughout Japan. The king sent royal messengers to various Buddhist monasteries, including Ch’ongjisa35 and Hyŏnsŏngsa,36 and had them offer sacrifices to prevent unusual natural phenomena. Censor Yi Ko and others submitted a memorial to the king: “Since we are entrusted with the office of censorship, we dare not keep silent about [grave] matters related to the security of the nation. Furthermore, since you issued a royal decree to seek advice from officials, we dare to risk causing annoyance to you with our foolish opinions. “We believe that all troubles of the state always originate from neglecting, not from being reckless. The reason that sage kings in olden days drove traitors far away, prohibiting them from setting foot in their world, was because they intended to prevent unexpected troubles in the future and thereby protect the state and the people, thinking far ahead. “The Wang clan of the previous dynasty lacked virtue and failed to live up to the royal way, so both Heaven and men abandoned them, and they perished by themselves. Your Majesty was so gracious that you allowed 35. Located 10 li outside T’anhyŏn Gate of Kaesŏng. 36. Located inside T’anhyŏn Gate of Kaesŏng. It was established by T’aejo, the founder of the Koryŏ dynasty, but no longer exists.

Book VII

them to live together, but some of them committed treason, betraying your kindness, and those who were involved in the treason were all put to death. “Wang U was, in fact, the leader of that treasonous gang, but his life was spared thanks to your generosity. Though this happened because of Your Majesty’s unbounded generosity and benevolence, which is similar to heaven and earth, nurturing all creatures, how is it possible that he [U] simply forget the dynasty that lasted five hundred years just because of the momentary grace he received from you? There will not be a day that he does not think about ways to retaliate [in order to gain what he lost]. The reason that he did not dare take action was only because he had failed so far to secure enough strength to accomplish his goal. He has a brother [Wang Yo, former King Kongyang] whom he loved dearly; his brother, uncommonly talented, had gained the hearts of many followers.37 There is a rumor that the residents of the northern border are now agitated. “If he takes this opportunity and secretly rises in rebellion, gathering a wicked gang of people, we are afraid that it will be too late to regret. If he becomes so suspicious and worried that he chooses to run away crossing the border, the troubles we have to face in the years ahead will be beyond description. We urge Your Majesty to relocate Wang U and his two sons to Kanghwa Island and have them confined there, restricting their activity as well as the access of people so that the root of troubles can be eradicated. “In our opinion, the reason that the month of April, which is supposed to be filled with yang energy, is dreary and cold with hail has to do with the treachery of wicked people. Prostrating ourselves, we beg Your Majesty to give this serious thought.” The king did not grant the request. 26th Day (Kichíuk)

Censorial officials submitted a memorial to the king once again: “Yesterday we requested that Wang U and his two sons be transferred [to Kanghwa Island], fully explaining the reason, but Your Majesty did not grant us ­permission. However, since this is a matter related to the security of the state, we cannot leave it there and therefore risk our lives to make another request. “Since we are convinced that Wang U will conspire to commit treason sooner or later, he is our enemy who cannot live with us under the same sky. When King Wu of Zhou started a revolution, he enfeoffed Wugeng, the son 37. King Kongyang or Wang Yo was the younger brother of Wang U, and was dead at this time. He was executed on the seventeenth day of the fourth month in 1394.

495

496

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of King Zhou, as the Duke of Shang. However, it did not take long before Wugeng rose in rebellion, and King Cheng of Zhou had Wugeng put to death. Thereafter, the whole kingdom gained peace, and the royal house settled again. If Wugeng’s conspiracy had succeeded, the eight-­hundred-­ year history of the Zhou dynasty could not have existed. “The troubles of the world always start with things that are neglected, and they end up being beyond remedy. Though we are foolish and simple-­ minded, we cannot but be worried and disturbed at heart. If Your Majesty makes a final decision for a great cause and has Wang U and his two sons confined to Kanghwa Island to prevent unexpected troubles, it would be fortunate for the future of the state.” The king did not grant the request. 27th Day (Kyŏngin)

The king appointed Yi Mu as director of the Security Council, Han Sanggyŏng, chief royal secretary, as senior secretary of the Security Coun­ ­cil, Chang Chihwa as chief royal secretary, and Yu Kyŏng as assistant director of the Security Council. He also made local magistrates of all provinces to concurrently train the troops, appointing the magistrates of rank 3 as training commanders (sa), the magistrates of rank 4 as assistant training commanders (pusa), and the magistrates of ranks 5 and 6 as administrative commanders (p’an’gwan). In the case of small districts, he let a magistrate take charge of two small districts alternately, having one magistrate lead out the troops, while the other defended the district by staying behind for crisis prevention. Pak Insu, chiliarch of Ch’angp’o, failed to repulse Japanese marauders. Consequently, the enemies were able to infiltrate the district, killing and plundering our people twice. Furthermore, he seized a daughter from his subordinate and made her his concubine. When this was reported to the court, the king ordered him beheaded. A gate of honor (chŏngmun) was built to honor Lady Im of Wansan [Chŏnju]. She was the wife of Ch’oe Kŭkbu, a resident of Wansan, and a daughter of Im Kŏ, a scholar of Taebingjae Academy.38 Being captured and sexually 38. It is one of the public academies established by King Yejong (1103–1122) of Koryŏ in 1109. In Munjong’s reign (1046–1083), the great Confucian scholar Ch’oe Ch’ung opened a

Book VII

assaulted by the Japanese, she fiercely resisted until the Japanese cut off one of her arms. When she continued to resist, they cut off one of her legs and finally stabbed her to death. 28th Day (Sinmyo)

The government selected thirty-­three officers through the military martial arts examination (muye tosi).

5th Month 1st Day (Kyesa)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king and made six proposals on matters concerning appointing military commanders, repairing weapons, reinforcing fortresses, saving supplies and provisions, administering rewards and punishments fairly, and lightening the burden of taxes and labor services. The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the proposals and put them into practice. 3rd Day (Ŭlmi)

The Privy Council spoke to the king concerning the manners of the officials who convey or receive royal orders. It suggested that when one personally takes royal orders and conveys them, the one conveying the royal orders should stand and the one receiving them kneel down. In the case of a person taking royal orders from someone else and conveying them to others, it was suggested that both the one who conveys them and one who receives them kneel down. 7th Day (Kihae)

Officials were dispatched to all provinces to inspect the current readiness status of the military forces. private school called “Nine-­Course Academy” (Kujae hakdang), establishing nine specialized areas of study. Having produced many high officials in its time, Ch’oe Ch’ung’s private academy prospered and became more popular than the National University (Kukchagam). In imitation of the Nine-­Course Academy, King Yejong established lectures in seven specialized fields: Book of Changes, Classic of Documents, Book of Odes, Book of Rites, Spring and Autumn Annals, and a new field of military studies. Taebingjae was one of these seven academies, specializing in the study of Classic of History. (Ki-­baik Lee, pp. 129–130)

497

498

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

8th Day (Kyŏngja)

Yi Chik, tribute embassy, returned from the Chinese capital. The king bestowed 400 kok of rice and beans and 30 bolts of ramie and hemp fabric upon Crown Prince Bobo [of Yuan], and 100 kok of rice and beans and 10 bolts of ramie and hemp fabric upon the grandson of the prince of Liang.39 11th Day (Kyemyo)

The government sent one thousand horses to Ming China by dispatching Ch’oe Chaun, former agriculture director (nongjŏng). He returned after delivering the horses to the Chinese authorities in Liaodong, China. New posts of third and fourth mentors for the crown prince were instituted for the first time. The king appointed Han Sanggyŏng as third mentor (chwa pu pin’gaek) and Yu Kyŏng as fourth mentor (u pu pin’gaek). Over twenty eunuchs in the Chinese court, including Hwang Yŏnggi, Yi In’gyŏng, Sin Yongmyŏng, Sin Hŭnggi, Kim Hwa, Chŏng Ching, Kim Hŭiyu, Yi Wŏnŭi, Ch’oe Yŏn, and others returned home from the Chinese capital. They were originally Koreans. The king asked them why they returned, by sending Chŏng Hon, vice supervisor of the Publications Office. They replied that they were expelled by the emperor. Sometime earlier, when Hŭnggi, Hwa, Ching, Wŏnŭi, Hŭiyu, and others returned to the imperial court in China after their visit to Korea and their parents [in their old hometowns], some of them possessed herbal medicine called sohaphyangwŏn, others had letters from the families of their Korean colleagues in the Chinese court, and another carried loops varnished with lacquer that Royal Preceptor Chach’o had given them in order to purchase Buddhist scriptures. When the 39. At the end of the Yuan dynasty, many members of the royal families and nobles who had surrendered themselves to Ming China moved to Cheju Island either for asylum or exile, and Crown Prince Bobo, the son of the prince of Liang, was one of them. Upon the request of the Chinese government, Chosŏn provided them with shelter and provisions. In 1381, the prince of Liang, who became a fugitive, eventually committed suicide, and the following year his son, Crown Prince Bobo, took asylum on Cheju Island.

Book VII

imperial guards searched their bags and found them out, they reported it to the emperor. Greatly surprised by the report, the emperor expelled all Korean eunuchs in his court. The king sent Kim Ŭlsang, chamberlain of the Court of Royal Sacrifices, to China with his memorial to the emperor and requested the emperor to punish the wrongdoings of Hwang Yŏnggi and others.40 13th Day (Ŭlsa)

Censor Han Sanghwan and others spoke to the king about the essential steps for strengthening military forces and increasing the reserve of provisions: “We request that the sinecure posts for officials and women be abolished, and that will prevent the government stipends from being wasted. No more lands should be granted to the Buddhist temples except those already granted. Providing lands to minor merit subjects should be also stopped, and hereafter the practice of paying condolences with rice should be completely prohibited so that the state can be ready for any kind of unexpected troubles.” 15th Day (Chŏngmi)

Kim Hŭisŏn, governor of Right Kyŏnggi Province, made a report to the Privy Council: “Yi Che, a former deputy commander and a resident of Kyodong, 40. The Chinese envoys who visited Korea as imperial envoys were originally Koreans, and they often acted arrogantly. For that reason, some of them were hated by the officials in the Korean court. However, the reason the Chosŏn government requested the punishment of Hwang Yŏnggi perhaps had little to do with personal resentment against him. Though Hwang often visited the Chosŏn court and carried the imperial messages that so profoundly disturbed the king and his officials, being originally a Korean, he tried to be of help in solving the problems between the two countries. In appreciation, T’aejo appointed Hwang’s father discussant of the Security Council. In the Annals of King T’aejo, Hwang’s name appears in relation to the wrongful record in the Veritable Records of Emperor Taizu concerning the T’aejo’s genealogy. In 1390, during the second year of King Kongyang’s reign, Yun I and Yi Ch’o secretly went over to China and falsely accused T’aejo. They said that Yi (T’aejo), after seizing power, drove out the former kings and killed various officials. In their accusation, they described T’aejo as the son of Yi Inim, a powerful minister of the Koryŏ court. As the accusation proved to be a slander, the Ming government forgave T’aejo; however, for some unknown reason, the mistake related to the name of T’aejo’s father was not corrected. Since this mistake concerned the legitimacy of the royal family of Chosŏn, the government of Chosŏn was anxious to straighten it out, but it took almost two hundred years to finally solve the problem.

499

500

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

had a wife who was a daughter of a commoner named Cho Changsu. Years ago, she was captured and taken away by Japanese marauders but chose to die rather than betraying her husband. We believe that a gate of honor should be built to honor her faithfulness.” The Privy Council granted the request after submitting the report to the king. 17th Day (Kiyu)

Sixteen grain transport ships (chosŏn) of Kyŏngsang Province ran into a violent storm and sank in the sea near Anhŭngnyang.41 18th Day (Kyŏngsul)

Juewu, a Chinese monk from Liaodong, was beheaded. Earlier, he visited our country and said, “China plans to send armies to invade Korea.” So our authorities put him in the Capital Constabulary Prison and interrogated him. Then the monk confessed, saying, “When Chiliarch Min of Liaodong went to war, leading out the troops of all guard units, he sent me to Korea to gather information because he was concerned that Korea would exploit his absence while engaged in war.” 19th Day (Sinhae)

The planet Venus was visible during the day. 24th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king ordered Nam Ŭn, left director of the State Finance Commission, and Nam Chae, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to report back to work despite the fact that they were in mourning, bestowing them with dresses and caps. 27th Day (Kimi)

The king inspected the construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine and visited the falcon farm on the banks of the Han River.

41. Located in T’aean, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, Anhŭngnyang was one of the major sea routes for the grain transport ships during the Chosŏn dynasty. It was notorious for being dangerous.

Book VII

28th Day (Kyŏngsin)

Censor Yi Ko and others submitted a memorial to the king: “It is absolutely necessary for the king to seek the right words and accept them. Otherwise, he cannot know the mistakes that he has made. Therefore, even a sage emperor such as Yao gave up his opinion to follow the advice of his ministers, and Great Shun, who surpassed in wisdom, paid careful attention to the words of others, however trivial they were. Praising the virtue of King Cheng Tang [of Shang], Yi Yin said that he was ‘never stingy in repairing his faults.’ Fu Yue said to Emperor Gaozong, ‘If you accept remonstrance, you will become a sage.’ Since the Three Dynasties, no monarchs have been better than Emperor Wen of the Han dynasty and Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty in their willingness to accept remonstrance from their ministers. Therefore, their rule almost equaled the greatness of the Three Dynasties. “Previously the Office of the Inspector-General requested that you refrain from making frequent trips to go outside [the palace] and playing music in the palace until late at night. You were gracious enough to grant our request instantly, and all of us were so moved that we praised your virtue of tolerating our remonstrance. However, since Your Majesty has resumed playing music as usual and making a trip to the falcon farm on the banks of the Han River, your acceptance of our remonstrance exists only in name, and we find little evidence of your sincere desire to follow our advice. “The founder king of the new dynasty is the model for your royal descendants, and the trust he displays is also the great treasure among the things that the king has. Your Majesty already made a promise to follow our advice and yet revoked it through your conduct. Where, then, should we find our trust in you? We request that Your Majesty pay attention to our foolish words and renew your promise to graciously follow them so that your virtuous conduct may become the model for a thousand generations of your descendants. “We have observed that Your Majesty lets armored soldiers (kapsa) chant Buddhist scriptures in the yard of the royal palace, making the sound of bells and drums ring throughout the whole capital, but this is contrary to the way of guarding the royal palace strictly. Even if Buddha is miraculous, how can he be moved by their chanting of scriptures? We sincerely urge Your Majesty to stop what they do at once and make the security of the ­pal­­ace stricter by letting the royal guards concentrate only on their original duty.”

501

502

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

6th Month 1st Day (Kyehae)

The king offered sacrifices by sending officials to Sach’ŏngwang Monastery and other places.42 6th Day (Mujin)

The government renamed Hanyang Magistracy (Hanyang pu) as Hansŏngbu (Hansŏng pu) and relocated yamen clerks and people to Hyŏnju, changing its name to Yangju County.43 The king dispatched Ch’oe Yugyŏng, administrative director of the Security Council, to find out if a canal (chogŏ) could be constructed in the north of T’aean County for the passage of grain transport ships. Yugyŏng returned and reported, “The ground being too elevated and filled with hard rocks, it is impossible to construct waterways quickly.” The king ordered Kwŏn Kŭn, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, to make the rules concerning the four family ceremonies [coming of age, wedding, funeral, and ancestral rite]. Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, presented the king with his new book, Discourse on the Governance (Kyŏngje mun’gam).44 9th Day (Sinmi)

When the king wanted to see the draft of the annals of his reign since he ascended to the throne, following the precedent set forth by Emperor 42. In Buddhism, Sach’ŏngwang, literally Four Heavenly Kings, were the deities in charge of the four main compass directions and therefore worshiped as guardian deities of the state. The Buddhist monastery of that name was located in the south of Mt. Nangsan in Kyŏngju, South Kyŏngsang Province. 43. Modern Yangju City, Kyŏnggi Province. 44. This book was written to supplement or reinforce the discussion on governance in the Administrative Code of Chosŏn (Chosŏn kyŏnggukchŏn), which Chŏng Tojŏn had published earlier. Chŏng reviews the government system from a historical perspective since the days of the Three Dynasties and advocates the monarchy led by grand councilors, not kings and emperors. The book is included in the Collected Works of Sambong.

Book VII

Taizong of the Tang dynasty, high officials were strongly opposed to his attempt, and the censorial officials soon joined in protest by submitting a memorial. The king yielded to their remonstrance. 12th Day

The moon approached a star in the Room Lodge. 13th Day (Ŭlhae)

The government changed the name of Kaesŏng Magistracy (Kaesŏng pu) to Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy (Kaesŏng yuhusa),45 and the names of Yanggwang and Sŏhae Provinces to Ch’ungch’ŏng and P’unghae Provinces, respectively. It merged Kangnŭng and Kyoju Provinces into one province and renamed this Kangwŏn Province. Then it appointed Sŏng Sŏngnin as chief magistrate of Hansŏng (p’an Hansŏng pusa), Chŏng Sinŭi as second magistrate (pu yun) of Hansŏng, U Innyŏl as special capital magistrate (yuhu) of Kaesŏng, and No Sung and Chŏng Namjin as second special capital magistrates (pu yuhu) of Kaesŏng. The king dispatched Kim Ipgyŏn, assistant grand councilor of the Chan­ cellery, to Nanjing to extend congratulations on the imperial birthday. The planet Venus was visible during the day. 14th Day (Pyŏngja)

As it was Queen Hyŏn’s birthday, the prisoners both in the capital and local provinces were released, except those subject to capital punishment. 15th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king dismissed Cho Rim, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery. The censorial offices impeached him for acquiring an excessive amount of rank land, but the king only dismissed him from office, because he was a minor merit subject.

45. As the nation’s capital moved from Kaesŏng to Hanyang (Seoul), Kaesŏng turned into a sort of auxiliary capital governed by a special magistrate.

503

504

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

23rd Day (Ŭlyu)

Pak Hŏn, chief clerk of the Security Council, submitted a proposal to the Privy Council that every standby troop (ikkun) of the Northwest Region be trained again and chiliarchs appointed to lead them; also about changing the prebendal system (chirokche) and such things as prohibiting falcon hunting. The Privy Council reported the proposal to the king. 26th Day (Muja)

Kim Yŏngsu, former vice commandant, was beheaded. Yŏngsu sent an anon­ ­ymous letter to An Kyŏngnyang, provincial military commissioner, with the intention of slandering Ch’oe Yunji, chief patrolling pacification commissioner of the Northwest Region. In his letter, Yŏngsu said, “Yunji and his son, being ambitious, are conspiring to commit treason.” So Kyŏngnyang had Yŏngsu arrested and taken to the capital after binding him with shackles. The king had Yŏngsu locked in the Capital Constabulary Prison and interrogated. Then he summoned Yunji and told him about the accusation brought against him. Utterly devastated, Yunji requested that he and his accuser be cross-­examined. The king said, “You and I are officially king and subject, but father and son in terms of affection. Even if you are accused, how can I suspect you?” Then the king immediately ordered the office responsible to execute Yŏngsu and have his corpse on display. 28th Day (Kyŏngin)

The Office of the Inspector-General impeached General Kim U, who had abandoned his lawful wife to have his concubine take her place. It also impeached Pyŏn Ong, former magistrate of Yean, for recklessly acquiring rank land through cheating. The king ordered U to be fired and Ong exiled to a distant district. The king bestowed wine and food upon supervisory officials and workers engaged in the construction of the royal palace. The Office of the Inspector-General spoke to the king: “We request that here­ after all officials, regardless of whether they are incumbents or sinecure hold­ ­ers, be required to observe three years’ mourning for parents, setting up their family shrines. The burial after three days and cremation should be prohibited, and burial should take place three or two months after death.” The king had the Privy Council discuss the matter and submit a report to him.

Book VIII

Fourth Year of Reign (1395) 7th Month 1st Day (Imjin)

The censorial offices impeached Kim Un’gwi, former magistrate of Kaesŏng, for excessively acquiring rank land and being unfilial to his parents. The king sent him into exile only on charges of acquiring more rank land than he was entitled to. Then the king summoned Yi Ko, policy advisor, and other officials and said, “At the end of the previous dynasty, it often happened that censors impeached innocent people based on the rumors they heard and sometimes had them killed. I feel sorry for those people. Since I ascended the throne, I have given orders that the censorial officials should not impeach people based on rumors. Nevertheless, you still request me to punish people for the rumors that you have heard, and what is the reason?” Yi Ko replied, “Everyone in the country knows that Un’gwi is guilty of unfiliality. Serving in the Censorate, how can we not impeach such a person?” Then the king told Yi Ko to stay off his current job. Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu of Japan presented local products by sending his men, including a monk named Hara Syousen. The king prohibited the local government of Cheju Island from annually presenting dried horsemeat to the king as tribute goods. It was the custom of Cheju Island that the islanders slaughtered female horses in the twelfth month every year and made dried meat, which they presented as local tribute

505

506

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

goods. Returning from his mission to Cheju Island, Hwang Kunsŏ, chief pacification commissioner, made a report of this custom to the king, and the king made a decree to stop it.

3rd Day (Kabo) There was a storm with heavy rain and lightning, which brought down the 48 kan of the servant’s quarters on the east side of the new royal palace. 5th Day (Pyŏngsin)

The king dismissed Yi Ko, left policy advisor, who had impeached officials based on rumors. The king enfeoffed [Yi] Pokkŭn, the son of Prince Chinan [Yi Pangu, T’aejo’s eldest son] as Lord of Pongnyŏng. Ch’oe Sik, magistrate of Kwangju,1 was dismissed from office. Violating the royal prohibition of alcohol, he held a banquet with wine and music to entertain his guests. Having heard of it, Governor Ch’oe I impeached him, and consequently he was dismissed. 8th Day (Kihae)

The king sent Kim Ŭlsang to the Ming court and submitted a memorial. The main message of the memorial was as follows: “On the nineteenth day of the eleventh month of the twenty-­seventh year of the reign of Hongwu, my son [later King T’aejong] brought your sacred message when he returned from the Ming capital. Your message was: “When one of the eunuchs who was originally Korean returned from his trip to your country, he hid a roll of willow tree bark in his topknot. Inside the roll was a paper with some characters whose meaning was incomprehensible. In addition to that, it was discovered that the eunuch had several letters sewed into the sleeves of his dress. He also said, ‘The king of our country gave me four pieces of silver for a gift.’ If they were indeed a gift from you, I suppose you intend to have contact with his parents and relatives. Did you then tell him to take those things with him when he returned to China? What he brought with him were all trivial things, and I did not

1. A district in Kyŏnggi Province.

Book VIII

reprimand him at all for bringing such items. Nevertheless, he took his own life by jumping into a well. This is what happened.’ “Having read your message, your servant was extremely embarrassed and worried. But again, on the twenty-­fifth day of the fourth month of the twenty-­eighth year of the reign of Hongwu, I received another message from the Ministry of Rites through the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong, and the message was as follows: ‘We had Yao Zhong, company commander, transport twenty-­six eunuchs, including Chang Pugae, who were originally your people, and return after handing them over to your authorities in Ŭiju.’ Having read this notice, we learned in detail about the incident related to Chang Pugae and the other eunuchs. “Since they received your sacred order and went over to the imperial capital, they should have been careful and discreet in discharging their duty in your court. Notwithstanding, Chang Pugae and others were so wicked and avaricious that they violated the law. Since Your Majesty, however, was gracious enough to return them to their country without punishing them, I am surprised and find myself utterly at a loss. “I immediately ordered my officials to interrogate each of those eunuchs. According to the report made by Chŏng Hon, who conducted the investigation, they all deserve to be punished for their wrongdoings. However, since they once served in your imperial court, I dared not punish them rashly. So I had Chang Pugae, Sin Hŭnggi, Kim Hŭiyu, Yi Wŏnŭi, Kim Hwa, Ch’oe Yŏn, and Kim Kwich’ŏn imprisoned to wait for your further instruction, and I submit to you the detailed affidavits of these individuals by dispatching Kim Ŭlsang, director of the Directorate of Ceremonies (Chŏnŭisi).” Kim Ch’ŏnsin, assistant navy commander of Kyŏngsang Province, and Myriarch Ch’a Chun captured a ship of the Japanese invaders. The king bestowed them with royal wine and silk by sending Cho Panghyŏn. 9th Day (Kyŏngja)

The king called Nam Chae and Nam Ŭn to his private quarters (p’yŏnjŏn) and told them to eat meat.2 2. Nam Chae and Nam Ŭn were brothers and well known for their loyalty to T’aejo. They were both appointed dynasty-­founding merit subjects first class. A couple of months earlier, they were in mourning for their parent, but T’aejo ordered them to return to their work despite the fact that they were still in mourning. The reason T’aejo told them to eat meat was probably that he was worried about their health during their mourning.

507

508

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The government fixed the grades of sacrificial attire based upon the regulations made by the suzerain state (Ming China). The first grade of sacrificial attire, which consisted of a headdress with seven strings and a robe with five patches, was to be made to correspond to the third grade of Chinese sacrificial attire and worn by royal family members and grand councilors of the Chancellery. The second grade, which consisted of a headdress with five strings and a robe with three patches, was to be made to correspond to the fourth grade of Ming China and worn by the grand councilors of the Security Council. The third grade, which consisted of a headdress with five strings and a robe with one patch, was to be made to correspond to the fifth grade of Ming China and worn by the secretaries (chŏnsŏ) of each ministry. The fourth and fifth grades, which consisted of headdresses with three strings and robes with no patch, were to be made to correspond to the sixth and seventh grades of Ming China and worn by the officials of rank 3 to 4. The sixth and seventh grades, which consisted of headdresses and robes with no strings and patches, were to be made to correspond to the eighth and ninth grades of Ming China and worn by the officials of rank 5 to 9. The officials below rank 7 were not allowed to have any stringed decorations attached to their robes. 10th Day (Sinchíuk)

Ch’oe Yongso, who had visited Japan as envoy in response to the visit of the Japanese, returned together with a Japanese monk named Sougu sent by Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu of Japan, as well as over 570 male and female Korean captives who had been taken away to Japan. The king sent Song Tŭksa, chief minister of the Office of Guest Affairs, to greet and entertain them. The letter from Governor Minamoto was as follows: “Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu of Japan, presents this letter to Their Excellencies, the two chancellors of Chosŏn. I read your letter delivered by your envoy Ch’oe Yongso, minister of works, after burning incense and bowing down to it. I was very pleased to learn that you are in good health more than ever. I am also grateful for your gifts, the-­high quality local products as listed in your letter. Having received your instruction to crack down on piracy, I have done my utmost to eradicate the pirates from Iki and Tsushima Islands for a long time, but the pirates use their boats as

Book VIII

their abodes and always move from one place to another. However, their number has now decreased by 80 to 90 percent compared to the old days. “If your government tries to take a different course of action by sending an army, we are afraid that the routes of communication and exchange will be severed. According to an old saying, “A thief may be a petty person, but his cleverness can surpass that of a superior man.” So it happens that the schemes and contrivances of those lawless people cannot be surpassed even by sages. “Hence, we urge you to give us a little more time and trust us with the task of what we have been doing all along to eradicate those thieves. Then they will certainly disappear, and the friendship between the two countries will be twice strengthened. We will search out male and female captives and repatriate them as soon as we find them and never be so bold as to have them stay here in confinement. “Your envoy Kim Chŏksŏn, minister of revenue, visited us escorting two copies of the Tripitaka. His ship arrived on the eighth day of the third month of this year with your precious letter. Bowing to the letter, I read it and felt that the gracious friendship your country had shown us was boundless as the sea. Since the splendid religion makes our mountains and rivers more shining, I have no ways to express my gratitude. Entrusting your gift to the monks from two temples, I wish your country and people peace and prosperity. I also received the gifts including the paints [ch’aesaek?], which I heard that you searched out in your capital, and that Minister Kim brought with him. At this time, I send you Sougu, chamberlain of Shiragaki, in advance to express my heartfelt gratitude, and it will be fortunate if you pay attention to it. Now is the summer season. Let me close my words by sincerely hoping that you will take care of your health for the sake of your country.” 11th Day (Imin)

The moon approached the Heart Lodge. A man from Hyugashu of Japan came and presented a local product. The king ordered the officials, including Chŏng Tojŏn, deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, Nam Chae, left director of the State Finance Commission, Nam Ŭn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery,

509

510

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and Yi Chik, director of the Security Council, to go down to Kwangju [in Kyŏnggi Province] to look for a prospective site for the royal tomb of the king. 12th Day (Kyemyo)

When Queen Hyŏn fell ill, the king served meals to the monks and let them pray to Buddha for her recovery and also had all the prisoners across the country released except those who were subject to capital punishment. It happened that the minor merit subjects who had already received merit land also received the merit land granted to those who joined the retreat of troops led by the king in the Mujin year (1388), so the Office of the InspectorGeneral requested the king not to grant land to the same person twice. The king granted the request. 13th Day (Kapjin)

Mun Ch’ungbo, the son of the Prince of Cheju,3 presented seven fine horses [to the king]. The king ordered that the Longevity Hall of Fame (Changsaengjŏn) enshrining the portraits of merit subjects be built on the west side of the royal palace. Many merit subjects, in accordance with their rank, contributed money and grain to save on expenditures for the construction of the building. Xia Zhi, company commander from Liaodong, was drowned in the Yalu River. Zhi went to Ŭiju in order to escort Yang Ch’ŏmsik, Korean tribute horse envoy (chinmasa). On his way back home, he bought cows and crossed the river. However, the rising floodwater became so turgid as the boat reached the middle of the river that the cows on the boat got scared and fell down on their sides, making the boat turned over. The people on the boat with him were all drowned. 3. Cheju Island, also called T’amna or T’amnaguk, was officially annexed to Koryŏ in 1105 yet maintained its autonomy until it became completely absorbed by the Chosŏn dynasty in 1404.

Book VIII

16th Day (Chŏngmi)

A man from Satsuma Prefecture in Japan came and presented a local product. The king sent a eunuch to Hoeam Monastery and inquired after the health of the royal preceptor [Chach’o]. 17th Day (Musin)

Heavy rain caused landslides and flooded many places. Starting from Mt. Wŏnjŏk to Mt. Udu,4 over 1,600 areas suffered severe damage, and fifteen people were buried in landslides. The king bestowed a horse upon Left Chancellor Cho Chun, Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, and Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, separately. The horses were the ones presented by Mun Ch’ungbo [the son of the Prince of Cheju]. 20th Day (Sinhae)

There was thunder and lightning. Taking them as signs of divine displeasure, the king ordered officials to speak out on the affairs of state. When Royal Preceptor Chach’o fell ill, the king sent Yang Hongwŏn, supervisor of the Palace Medical Office, to treat his illness. Chach’o completely recovered his health, and the king bestowed Hongwŏn with a horse from the royal stable. The king bestowed food on Mun Ch’ungbo5 in Cheju. 21st Day (Imja)

The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “It is inappropriate that civil and military officials who were newly promoted do not present themselves at court right after their appointment and express their gratitude

4. Mt. Wŏnjŏk is located in Ich’ŏn, Kyŏnggi Province, and Mt. Udu in Kŏch’ang, South Kyŏngsang Province. 5. The son of the nobility in Cheju who previously presented good horses to the king.

511

512

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

to the king, and it is even more inappropriate that the military officials below rank 4 and civil officials below rank 7 neither present themselves at court nor express their gratitude to the king at all. “We request that from this day forwards, all the newly appointed officials dressed in formal uniform be required to present themselves at court the following day after their appointment and express their gratitude to the king just as they attend the regular court meeting. The Office of Personnel Appointment and Royal Seals should take out the letters of appointment from a box and hand them to the officials, just as it does with salary certificate templates (nokp’ae). “When this ceremony is over, they should make a courtesy visit to the Privy Council, with military officials additionally making a courtesy call to the Three Armies Headquarters. Those who are unable to participate in this ceremony should do so the following day, and those who fail to observe this rule should be reported to the Office of the Inspector-General for ­supervision.” 22nd Day (Kyechíuk)

Kŏdu, a resident of Sŏwŏn County, is struck by lightning. 25th Day (Pyŏngjin)

It was discovered that a man named Yuk Hŭiun, a resident of Ch’irwŏn Distrct,6 was beheaded for forging official documents. 26th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king issued his orders to each province to let officials visit the elderly people over seventy years of age and bestow them with 2 kok of rice, regardless of their social status. The king gave orders to the Privy Council and had all provincial governments recommend sons and grandsons outstanding in the practice of filiality or men of integrity and submit their names along with their personal information, which could be used for their career opportunities in public service.

6. Located in South Kyŏngsang Province.

Book VIII

27th Day (Muo)

The Privy Council spoke to the king: “The neglect of duty among officials is getting worse day by day. Those who are in charge of criminal justice and prolong lawsuits or delay verdicts should be investigated by the Office of the Inspector-General. Those who are responsible for money and grain and fail to manage them properly by neglecting to check for damage or loss should be investigated and impeached by the State Finance Commission. If it happens that both the Office of the Inspector-General and the State Finance Commission fail to bring such people to justice, let the Privy Council directly report to the king and punish them.” The copper Buddha statue in Hŭngguk Monastery in the Special Capital Magistracy sweated. The king visited the Royal Ancestral Shrine to inspect the progress of its construction. 30th Day (Sinyu)

The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Ch’oe Yunji, director of the Agency of Land Management Grants, Chang Chach’ung, minister of taxation, Yi Munhwa, policy advisor, Song In, third inspector, Yun Hoejong, third minister [of the Board of Taxation], Kim Wi, bureau section chief, and An Kŭn, vice bureau section chief, for making mistakes in distributing land. [The king] deprived these of their posts and sent them into exile to distant districts; however, he spared Ch’oe Yunji and Chang Chach’ung because they were minor merit subjects. The king ordered the Privy Council to provide relief to the starving people across the country: “Send an official dispatch to all provincial governors and let them have local magistrates release the rice and beans from the public granaries for famine relief. The magistrates who work hard to save people from famine should be rewarded, and those who do not shall be ­punished.” The Privy Council conveyed the royal orders [to the provincial governors]: “Let local magistrates establish relief centers, taking distance and the number of villages into account, and personally inspect relief activities now

513

514

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and then, appointing supervisors among unemployed sons of civil and military officials or regular officials who are attentive and honest. For those who are unable to come to the relief centers, being too old and sick or starved or ashamed because of their yangban status, relief should be provided separately. The magistrate who performs an outstanding job in saving people from starvation in his district shall be reported with his name and official title as well as the number of people that he has saved so that the information can be used as a reference for his promotion. The magistrate who neglects providing relief to starving people and thereby causes their death, however, shall be punished by beating with the heavy stick along with the supervisor of famine relief [whom he has appointed]. Further, the magistrate shall be dismissed from office and the supervisor of famine relief assigned to the navy, and their names and official titles shall be reported.” The Privy Council reported to the king a proposal made by Chŏng Pun, former vice commandant, and the proposal was generally like this: “One of the best ways to promote agriculture is to construct embankment dams. Though the magistrates are responsible for promoting agriculture, they do not pay much attention to it. Since embankment dams are designed to prevent drought and flood, I request the Privy Council to give orders to pro­ vincial governors and let them have magistrates of counties and districts in their domains appoint supervisors of agriculture (kwŏnnonggwan) among the unemployed officials who are capable and honest and, during the agricul­tural off-­season, conserve snowmelt water by constructing embankment dams. “What is important here is to make embankment dams so sturdy and tight that they do not have water leaks. Additionally, the weep holes of the dam should be made of stones and connected to the ditches, whose tops parallel the height of the dam. Inside the ditches, a wooden structure is built that has three to five holes to release water. Outside the ditches, another wooden structure is made with water outlets so that the water inside dam can be always released and regulated. In addition, a part of the embankment dam on one side should be made a few feet lower than the other parts so that water can be overflowed whenever the dam is flooded. “The supervisor of agriculture is supposed to manage the water supply, having a few households under his command. When agriculture starts in the spring, farmers ask the supervisor to release the water of the reservoir, and the supervisor opens the outlets of the dam one by one and distributes water to those who need it. Then the water can be saved with no waste.

Book VIII

“The governor should personally inspect the activities of supervisors of agriculture as well as the performance of magistrates to find out if they are discharging their duties properly and diligently, and report the results of his inspection to the king so that they can be used as references for their promotion or dismissal. “Thickly wooded forests make the land productive, reduce the damage of drought, and enable the people to survive during famine by providing them with acorns for food. However, since lawless people who are eager to hunt set fires in the forest, it is really deplorable [to see the destruction of forests]. The magistrates should be required to personally check on the forests in their districts and have the residents in the neighborhood take care of them also. “If there is anyone who sets a fire in a forest, people should immediately report his act of arson to the authorities so that he can be duly punished. The one who fails to report an arson case should be punished just like the one who committed the arson. The pastures of horse farms, however, should be allowed to be burned before hibernating insects wake up.” The king approved the proposal. The districts between Kwangju and Ch’ŏnnyŏng7 were struck by landslides and floods. The king exonerated the residents of their land tax and provided them with rice and millet.

8th Month 7th Day (Mujin)

Ten grain ships of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province and sixteen grain ships of Kyŏngsang Province were destroyed by storm. Having heard that Cho Pak, magistrate of Wŏnju, was suffering from an illness, the king sent his royal physicians, Ŏ Sŭngjin and Kim Chisu, to treat him. 8th Day (Kisa)

By orders of the king, the Military Training Agency gathered supreme generals and generals-­in-­chief of various guard units as well as all the generals

7. It is modern Yŏju, Kyŏnggi Province.

515

516

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and officers of the entire army and conducted lectures on various books of military science. The king sent Ham Purim, director of the Publications Office to Kangwŏn Province to supervise the maintenance of the timber for the construction of Longevity Hall of Fame. He also ordered him to visit Cho Pak, magistrate of Wŏnju, who was suffering from an illness, to bestow him with the medicine used in the royal palace. 9th Day (Kyŏngo)

The governor of Kyŏngsang Province sent a report: “Japanese marauders have invaded Pusŏngp’o.8 They burned one of our ships and killed three soldiers.” 11th Day (Imsin)

There was a ring around the sun. 12th Day (Kyeyu)

The government mobilized workers from three provinces for the construction of the royal palace: 4,500 from Left Kyŏnggi Province, 5,000 from Right Kyŏnggi Province, and 5,500 from Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 14th Day (Ŭlhae)

The king appointed Yi Mu as governor of Chŏlla Province, Yi Pin as commissioner of the Security Council, and O Sach’ung as discussant of the Security Council. Cho Pan, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, ran across Governor Yi Chi on his way to the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy, carrying incense to pray for rain.9 Chi dismounted from his horse to pay his respect to Pan, but the latter passed by him without dismounting from his horse. Chi said, “I also came here carrying the battle-­ax10 bestowed by the king. 8. It’s presumed to belong to Ulsan, South Kyŏngsang Province. 9. The reason Cho Pan went to the Special Capital Magistracy to pray for rain was probably because Hŭngguk Monastery was in Kaesŏng. 10. The battle-­ax is a symbol of power and authority.

Book VIII

Since Pan passes by me without dismounting from his horse, is his conduct appropriate?” Then he complained to the Office of the Inspector-General by sending a letter. The Office of the Inspector-General condemned Pan’s conduct and impeached him, but the king forgave him. 15th Day (Pyŏngja)

The king summoned a chief inspector and gave orders: “The uncultivated lands in Kyŏnggi Province are all forcibly occupied by powerful local families or turned into pasturage, so the people have no place to get the forage for their cattle. Furthermore, their crops are often trampled and ruined by the horses and cows [owned by the landed gentry]. Send out inspectors and stop these abuses.” Then he appointed Kim Chil and Kim Yak, bailiffs of the Office of the Inspector-General, as the chief inspectors of Left and Right [Kyŏnggi] Provinces, respectively. 16th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king called an official of the Astronomical and Meteorological Obser­ vatory and asked, “What should we think about the collapse of mountains?” The official replied, “It doesn’t really matter as long as they are not famous ones.” 18th Day (Kimyo)

The government dispatched Palace Censor Kwak Kyŏngŭi to Liaodong to deliver one thousand horses to the Chinese authorities. 20th Day (Sinsa)

Hail fell and continued for next couple of days. 27th Day (Muja)

Venus approached Regulus. Kim Yŏngnyŏl, navy commander of Right Kyŏnggi Province, captured one Japanese ship along with twenty-­six people and presented them to the king. Pleased with his performance, the king bestowed upon him a horse from the

517

518

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

royal stable as well as silk and wine by dispatching General-­in-­Chief Ko Pongji. 28th Day (Kichíuk)

The king dispatched Chang Chach’ung, assistant director of the Security Council, to the Chinese capital with his memorial to congratulate the birthday of the Chinese crown prince. Pak Ŏn, a resident of Yŏnghŭng Prefecture and former director of the Directorate for Armaments, fell sick and died at hae hour [9:30–10:30] at night on the eleventh day of the sixth month, and Kim Wŏn’gyŏng, the son of his wife’s ex-­husband, buried him at chin hour [7:30–8:30] in the morning of the following day. When four days passed after the funeral, it happened that Kim Yonggyun, former vice commandant, passed by Ŏn’s grave and heard a sound of calling a servant from inside the grave. He ran to Ŏn’s house and told the residents what had happened. The servant of the house went and opened the grave, but he found his master dead again. The king sent Yu Ku, grand academician to Hoeam Monastery, to hold the ceremony for eliminating disasters (sojae pŏpsŏk). A sacrificial ritual was held on the altar on Mt. Paegak [Mt. Pugak].11 Venus approached Regulus.

9th Month 4th Day (Ŭlmi)

The king ordered Chŏng Hon, third minister of the Board of Rites, and Chang Chido, vice supervisor of the Publications Office, to submit a copy of Essentials of the Government of the Zhenguan Period (Zhenguan Zhengyao)12 after proofreading the book. 11. The mountain right behind Kyŏngbok Palace in Seoul. It is also called Mt. Pug’ak. 12. It is a book that documented the words and deeds of Emperor Taizong of the Tang dynasty, who was considered the paragon of all the rulers in Chinese history. It was compiled by a historian, Wu Jing, fifty years after Taizong’s death. After its publication, the book became so famous and influential that it served as the textbook for rulers of later ages.

Book VIII

5th Day (Pyŏngsin)

The king ordered the Board of Personnel to enfeoff East Mountain (Tongsan)13 as guardian deity of the state. 9th Day (Kyŏngja)

Queen Hyŏn went to the hall at the back of the new palace and presented meals to the monks and workers, including carpenters and masons, who were recruited to construct the palace. 15th Day (Pyŏngo)

Except the monks, the workers recruited for the construction of the royal palace were temporarily released to go home to harvest crops, and that was because the government knew the importance of harvesting the crops. 16th Day (Chŏngmi)

The king gave orders to left and right chancellors: “The filial sons and grandsons, as well as men and women outstanding in righteousness and loyalty, who are listed in the reports submitted by various provinces, have proven themselves worthy of commendation and honor. They should be honored by the construction of a gate of honor in their villages. In addition, the ones who are subject to statutory labor should be exempt from their duty, and the ones who are poor should be provided with relief so that the people can be encouraged to follow their examples.” T’ak Sin, exam passer (kŭpche), is a resident of Kwangju, Chŏlla Province. When his father died, he fulfilled the three years’ mourning while serving his mother with sincerity and respect, and he was well known as a filial son among the people of his village. Kim Saji, former bureau supervisor (sŏryŏng), is a resident of Chŏnŭi, Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. Living with his old mother, he personally prepared meals every morning and evening and tasted the foods first before he served them to her. He never went against the wishes of his mother and always sought to make her heart glad. Kong Toji, a scholar of Aju,14 lost his father when he was twenty-­seven years old. Being poor and having no means of income, he could hardly maintain his livelihood. His wife requested that they move to some other

13. A guardian mountain of Sanŭm district, South Kyŏngsang Province. 14. Asan in South Ch’ungchŏng Province.

519

520

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

town, but Toji shed tears and said, “How can I abandon the place where my forefathers are buried?” He never skipped ancestral rites even though he made a living by making straw shoes. Im An’gwi, a resident of Imju,15 spent as many as eight years mourning the death of his parents, staying at their graves. Son Hŭi, household chief of Ch’ŏngju, lost his mother, wife, and younger sister to the Japanese marauders, who unexpectedly attacked his village in the Muo year. Outraged by the loss of his family, he ran into the middle of the enemy at the risk of his life and carried his mother on his back to escape to the nearby mountain. Thus, he was able to save his mother from death. Continuing to serve his mother with all his heart until she died, he fulfilled his duty as a filial son. Mulgŭm, official slave of Yŏngju, served his father with sincerity. When his father passed away, he observed three years of mourning without taking off his coarse mourning dress and offered sacrifice every morning and evening to the mortuary tablet of his father enshrined in his house. Yi Yŏnggi, former executive captain of Kŭmhwa, lived with grandparents and parents who were old, and his family was poor. He worked hard to serve them, cultivating land and never neglecting his duty as a filial person. Pang Kunjŏng, a resident of Kyodong, served his mother with all his heart and was praised by the people of his village. Yang Hŭihyŏn, former vice supervisor, is a Chinese and a resident of Kangŭm District. He was very poor and lived with his mother, who was old. Though he served his mother only with simple food and vegetable soup, he let her enjoy them with the music of her old hometown [in China]. He was such a filial son that his wife was also anxious to serve her mother-­in-­law. Forgetting the exact date, Yi Chŏk, household chief of Kwangju,16 failed to report to the military unit he belonged to. When Cho Hŭigo, military commander of Kwangju, tried to put him to death, Hosaeng, the son of Chŏk and former myriarch, embraced his father and pleaded that he would be allowed to die for his father. Moved by the filiality of Hosaeng, Hŭigo had his father Chŏk released. Later, Chŏk died of illness, and Hosaeng observed three years of mourning for his father, wearing mourning dress. Yi Cho, classics licentiate of Suwŏn, built a thatched cottage next to the grave of his mother and lived there for three years, eating only gruel every

15. A district in Kongju, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 16. Located in Kyŏnggi Province.

Book VIII

morning and evening and never touching foods such as salt, soybean paste, vegetables, and fruits to express his sorrow and respect for his mother. Kim Kyedong, former subcolonel, was also a resident of Suwŏn. He was by nature so filial and reverent that he looked after his mother all the time. After her death he built a shrine for her and offered sacrifices twice a month all year long without fail. The people mentioned above are all filial sons and grandsons. Lady Hong, the wife of Ch’oe Tŭngnim, a resident of Hamnyŏl17 and former executive captain, was captured by the Japanese in the Muo year (1378). As the Japanese tried to sexually assault her, she fiercely resisted, reproaching the enemy, until she was stabbed to death. Lady No, the wife of Chŏn Obok, a resident of Yangsŏng18 and former director, built a thatched cottage right below the grave of her husband after he died in the Chŏngmyo year and has lived there for nine years until now and never failed to perform memorial rituals for her husband. Lady Yi, the mother of Cho Anp’yŏng, district magistrate of Nangch’ŏn in Ch’unju,19 lost her husband early in her marriage and lived as widow, remaining faithful to her deceased husband and educating her son to become an official. Lady Cho, the wife of Yi Che, former deputy general of Kyodong, was taken away to Japan by the Japanese invaders and chose to die at the age of nineteen to maintain her honor. These women were all loyal wives. The king gave orders that their houses be exempt from statutory labor and their children be provided relief. If anyone among their children wants to serve in the government, he should be provided with a horse for his travel to Seoul, and the people who are old and poor or women should be provided with rice in accordance with their situation, and, lastly, the gate of honor should be built at the entrance of their villages and the record of their good conduct published so that they can be known throughout the whole country. 17th Day (Musin)

The government requisitioned 1,200 people from Ch’unch’ŏng Province and Left and Right P’unghae Provinces and sent them to Kanghwa Island to bake limestone.



17. Located near Iksan, North Chŏlla Province. 18. A district near Ansŏng, Kyŏnggi Province. 19. Modern Ch’unch’ŏn in Kangwŏn Province.

521

522

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

18th Day (Kiyu)

Leading various officials, the king performed a ceremony to celebrate the birthday of the Chinese emperor in accordance with the rules. The government dispatched Ok San’gi, director of the Bureau of Cultivation (p’an Sanongsi sa) to Liaodong to deliver five hundred horses to the Chinese authorities. When censorial offices told the king that the crown prince had little interest in his studies, the king ordered the crown prince to attend the lectures every day and exert himself in his studies without being negligent. 22nd Day (Kyechíuk)

The king said to Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission: “On the walls of my bedroom in the new palace, I want to place some praiseworthy and admonishing words. I want you to search for them through classics and histories and submit them to me.” 26th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king gave instructions to the left and right chancellors by sending to them Nam Chae, left director of the State Finance Commission, and Cho Sun, director (sayun) of Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture: “Starting from the first month of next year, I intend to requisition the people from various provinces to construct the city walls of the capital. Since you are informed of my intention, I want you to expedite the construction as fast as you can.” 28th Day (Kimi)

The king visited Anamdong20 to look for a prospective royal tomb site and after that inspected a bell factory (chujongso). 29th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king bestowed each of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects with a royal horse.

20. An area in Seoul, located outside Hyehwa Gate.

Book VIII

523

*   *   * A pheasant flew into the southern yard of the Main Audience Hall (taejŏn) of the new palace. Sim Hyosaeng, governor of Kyŏngsang Province presented to the king a rice stalk that had nine ears. A pond was dug in the back garden of the new palace. The Japanese marauders captured by Kim Yŏngnyŏl21 were beheaded in Sŏngdong.22 This month, the construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine and new royal palaces is complete. The main shrine (t’aesil) of the Royal Ancestral Shrine consists of 7 kan,23 which are separate chambers (rooms) in the same hall. Inside the shrine, there are 5 kan of stone chambers and a pair of 2-­kan side rooms. The merit subject shrine (kongsindang) consists of 5 kan; the spirit gate (sinmun), 3 kan; east gate (tongmun), 3 kan; and west gate (sŏmun), 1 kan. These buildings are [this shrine compound is] surrounded by a wall. Outside are a 7-­kan kitchen (sinju) for preparing sacrificial foods, a 5-­kan office for the officials in charge of ritual sacrifice (hyanggwanch’ŏng), 5-­kan corridors (haengnang)24 on both the left and right sides, 9-­kan walking corridors that run south, and a 5-­kan purification hall (chaegung). The new royal palace compound has a 7-­kan main residence (yŏnch’im) for the king, flanked by 2-­kan sleeping halls on the east and west sides, and a 7-­kan verandah (arang)25 running north. A row of servants’ quarters 21. About a month earlier, Kim Yŏngnyŏl, military commander of Kyŏngsang Province, captured twenty-­one Japanese marauders who invaded the province. 22. A village in Kunwi District, North Kyŏngsang Province. 23. Kan originally indicated a space or interval in a house or building. So here it means either the division of the shrine structure or its width—that is, the space between two pillars. It seems possible that each kan represents one room. 24. Haengnang normally indicates servants’ quarters on both sides of the gate. Nang (廊) has two meanings: (1) a covered walkway between buildings (hence, a veranda, gallery, porch, corridor); (2) a row of small rooms that line a courtyard wall. 25. Arang 穿廊 is a covered way or corridor or just a walkway, as it is unlikely that there are any “rooms” here.

524

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

[lining the inner courtyard] extends 25 kan along the north wall. A 3-­kan row of rooms is in the eastern corner [of the courtyard] and a 5-­kan row of two-­story rooms is in the western corner. A 5-­kan corridor extends to the south [or is on the south side]. On the eastern corner [of the servants’ quarters], there are 3-­kan rooms in a row, and on the western corner, 5-­kan story rooms in a row, and 5-­kan rooms in a row along the corridor that extends to the south. The small bed chamber on the east (tongsoch’im), which consists of 3 kan, and a row of 7-­kan rooms in the corridor are connected to the south corridor of the main royal bedroom (yŏnch’im). The 5-­kan rooms along the corridor also lead to the east side of the corridor of the main royal bedroom. The small bed chamber on the west (sŏsoch’im), which consists of 3 kan, and a row of 7-­kan rooms in the corridor leads to the south corridor of the main royal bedroom. The 5-­kan rooms along the corridor also lead to the west corridor of the main royal chamber. A council hall, Popy’ŏngch’ŏng (later renamed Sajŏngjŏn), which consists of 5 kan, is located south of the king’s main residence. A 1-­kan room is attached on both the east and west sides of the main structure. The south corridor is 7 kan long, and the east corridor extends 15 kan. The 5-­kan rooms of the south corridor reach the east corridor. The west corridor, 15 kan long, starts from the fifth kan of the south corridor and connects to the west corridor. The rooms starting from the eastern corner of the servants’ quarters on the north side start from the king’s main residence and end at the twenty-­third kan in the eastern corner of the servants’ quarters on the north side of the main audience hall. The west servants’ quarters extend from the west tower and end at the twentieth kan in the west corner of the servants’ quarters on the north side of the main audience hall. The above buildings belong to the Inner Palace (Naejŏn). The 5-­kan throne hall,26 where the royal audiences are held, is located south of Pop’yŏngch’ŏng. The building rests upon a double-­tiered stone platform (wŏldae) 50 ch’ŏk deep and 112.5 ch’ŏk wide. Each stone step on the east, west, and north stairways is 15 ch’ŏk wide. The top of the stairsteps is 4 ch’ŏk high, and the stone bridge [?] consists of five steps. The stairs in the middle are 15 square ch’ŏk, and the stairs at the bottom are 4 ch’ŏk high, and the stone bridge consists of five steps.

26. It indicates the main audience hall.

Book VIII

The servants’ quarters lining the north wall of the throne hall courtyard extend 29 kan, and a 5-­kan corridor starts from the north servants’ quarters and reaches to the north side of the throne hall. The royal kitchen (suragan) consists of 4 kan. The East Tower (Tongnu) is 3 kan, with an upper and lower story. Its 19-­kan row of servants’ quarters on the north side is connected to the east corner of the north servants’ quarters for the throne hall and also to the each corridor of the Inner Palace. Its 9 kan on the south side connects with the East Tower (Tonggangnu) of the (council) hall gate. The 3-­kan West Tower has an upper and lower level. Its 19-­kan row of servants’ quarters on the north wall is connected to the west corner of the north servants’ quarters for the throne hall and also to the west corridor of the Inner Palace. Its 9-­kan row of servants’ quarters on the north wall is connected to the west corner of the north servants’ quarters for the throne hall and also to the west corridor of the Inner Palace. Its 9-­kan section on the south connects with the West Tower (Sŏgangnu) in the yard of the council hall. The courtyard of the throne hall measures 80 ch’ŏk on each side, both east and west, 178 ch’ŏk on the south side, and 43 ch’ŏk on the north side. The gate of the throne hall [later named Kŭnjŏngmun], which is 3 kan wide, is south [dividing the cloister right down the middle] of the hall. The servants’ quarters extending to the left and right of the gate are each 11 kan long, and the towers on the east and west sides are each 2 kan. The South Gate (Omun), 3 kan wide, is to the south of the throne hall, and the servants’ quarters that extend to the east and west are each 17 kan long. The Pond Pavilion (Sugak) consists of 3 kan, and in the middle of the courtyard, there is a stone bridge and royal moat where water drains off. On the left and right of the palace gate are rows of servants’ quarters, each 17 kan long, and the East and West Towers each have 2 kan. The east gate is named Ilhwamun, and the west gate Wŏlhwamun. In addition, there are kitchens, the Lantern and Admittance Office (Tŭngch’ok injabang), the Bureau of Royal Attire, the Royal Cuisine Office for King and Queen (Yangjŏn Saongbang), the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals, the Office for Royal Secretaries (Sŭngjibang), the Chamber of Palace Attendants for Tea Service (Naesi tabang), the Administrative Office of the Queen (Kyŏnghŭngbu), the Security Council, the Three Armies Headquarters, and the warehouse buildings in the east and west, which have floors, amount to 390 kan in total. Behind the royal palace defensive walls were built, and the east gate was named Kŏnch’unmun; the west gate, Yŏngch’umun; and the south gate, Kwanghwamun. The 3-­kan tower (for the south gate) has both upper and

525

526

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

lower floors. A bell and a drum hang in the upper story and are used to indicate the hour in the morning and evening and to keep the palace security tight. On the left and right sides in front of Kanghwamun many public buildings stand in a row, and they include the State Council [Ŭijŏngbu; Privy Council], the Three Armies Headquarters, the Six Ministries, and the Office of the Inspector-General.

Intercalary 9th Month 1st Day (Imsul)

The Directorate for the Relocation of Royal Ancestral Tablets (Ian togam) was established at the Royal Ancestral Shrine.27 The king held a banquet for the commissioners in charge of the construc­­ tion of the Royal Ancestral Shrine and bestowed a royal horse upon each of them. 2nd Day (Kyehae)

A roe deer roamed into the downtown district. 3rd Day (Kapcha)

Pak Man, magistrate of Samch’ŏk, captured two Japanese marauders who invaded our territory. The king sent General Yi Chabun to bestow royal wine on him. 27. Right after ascending the throne at Such’ang Palace in 1392, T’aejo began to show interest in building the ancestral shrine because he believed it was indispensable to his new dynasty, like the royal palace. If the royal palace was purposed to rule the people while displaying the dignity of the nation to them, the ancestral shrine was designed to promote filiality and loyalty, which were essential to governing the people. So the first thing he did was to present posthumous titles to his immediate ancestors of four generations, which was done twelve days after his ascension to the throne. However, he had difficulty in finding the proper site for a new ancestral shrine in Kaesŏng. As a result, he demolished the old ancestral shrine of Koryŏ and constructed a new one there. However, before the building was completed, T’aejo relocated the nation’s capital to Hanyang (present Seoul) and finished the construction of another ancestral shrine in the ninth month of 1395. Under these circumstances, the Directorate for the Relocation of Royal Ancestral Tablets was created in order to carry out the task of moving the ancestral tablets from Kaesŏng to the new Royal Ancestral shrine in Hanyang.

Book VIII

8th Day (Kisa)

Five Jurchen chieftains, including Tongmengge Tiemuer, senior myriarch of Wuduli, visited and presented their local products. 10th Day (Sinmi)

The king visited Tonggyo28 and watched falcon hunting. The king inspected the site where the walls of the capital are to be constructed. 13th Day (Kapsul)

For the first time, the government created the Directorate for the Capital City Construction (Tosŏng choch’uk togam) and appointed its personnel to various posts: director, vice director, commissioner, vice commissioner, administrator, and record keeper. The king ordered Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, to choose the sites where the city walls are to be constructed. 16th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

When the king wanted to leave the palace to visit the Yongsan River, remonstrance officials said, “Please do not make your trip too thoughtlessly, traveling alone on horseback.” The king took their advice. 19th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king gave orders to requisition one thousand workers from various provinces to build T’aep’yŏnggwan, a guesthouse for visiting Chinese envoys. 24th Day (Ŭlyu)

The king visits Prince Muan Pangbŏn 29 at night at his private residence to inquire after his health.

28. It refers to the areas in Seoul that are generally known as Ttuksŏm. 29. T’aejo’s seventh son, born of Queen Sindŏk.

527

528

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

25th Day (Pyŏngsul)

The king visited West Mountain (Mt. Inwang)30 and inspected the site where the city walls were to be built. The water of a large well in Kaesŏng boiled up and turned red. 26th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king sent Kwŏn Kŭn, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, to inform the Special Capital Magistracy of his decision to move the royal ancestral tablets to the Royal Ancestral Shrine [in Hanyang]. An official from each government agency was sent to the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy to escort the four principal royal ancestral tablets.31 27th Day (Muja)

The king performed a purification regimen [i.e., fasting]32 at the new royal palace. Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, libationer (hŏn’gwan) of the ceremony, also performed the purification and made a pledge, in front of his aides at the Office of the State Finance Commission. The officials of other departments did the same at their respective places. The censorial officials such as Yi Sŭngsang, O Sŭng, An Sok, Chŏng Suhong, and Yun Su, who failed to attend the ritual ceremony, were impeached by the Office of the Inspector-General and dismissed from office. 28th Day (Kich’uk)

Dressed in court attire, all officials went out to Pine Terrace Pavilion (Pansongjŏng) to escort the ancestral tablets of the king. Placing the tablets in the ivory carriage (sangno) and playing music in a procession, they 30. It refers to Mt. Inwang. At the beginning of Chosŏn, it was called West Mountain (Sŏsan) but was renamed Inwang Mountain during the reign of King Sejong. Inwang is one of the watchful-­looking deva guardian kings. 31. The four principal royal ancestors are: Mokcho (Yi Ansa), Ikcho (Yi Haengni), Tojo (Yi Ch’un), and Hwanjo (Yi Chach’un). 32. “Purification,” 齋, essentially means fasting or abstaining from meat, alcohol, and sex.

Book VIII

brought the tablets to the newly built Royal Ancestral Shrine. Then the king ordered Kwŏn Chunghwa, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to perform the ceremony of relocating the royal ancestral tablets. 29th Day (Kyŏngin)

Hail fell with loud thunder and lightning.

10th Month 2nd Day (Imjin)

Rain fell, accompanied by lightning. 4th Day (Kabo)

Dressed in the red royal robe (kangsap’o)33 with a jade crown (wŏnyugwan)34 and riding in the ivory carriage, the king arrived at the Royal Ancestral Shrine at the front of the entourage of officials, all attired in court dress. When the royal carriage arrived, the officials in charge of the shrine stood on the left side of the street to greet the king. The king performed a rite of prostrating himself four times (sabaerye) outside the east gate before entering the shrine. 5th Day (Ŭlmi)

Dressed in the royal dragon robe (kollyongp’o) and the mortarboard crown with strings of hanging beads on the front and back (myŏllyugwan), the king personally performed the invocation ceremony of the spirits and offered the first cup of wine. Then the crown prince offered the second cup of wine to the spirits and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng the third and final cup. After the king returned to his quarters from the ceremony, the “hundred” [various] officials from the central and provincial governments congratulated him. When the royal carriage arrived on the streets, the erudite of the National Academy, along with the students, presented three songs to the king. The first was “Song of Heavenly the Mandate” (“Ch’ŏn’gam”); the second, “Song

33. It is the king’s formal attire made of red silk. 34. The crown is made of black silk and decorated with jade.

529

530

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of the Royal Capital” (“Hwasan”); and the third, “Song of the New Royal Ancestral Shrine” (“Sinmyo”). When the royal carriage arrived at Unjong Street (Unjongga), female musicians of the Music Bureau sang songs and performed dances. The king watched them, his royal carriage stopping no fewer than three times. Arriving at the South Gate (Omun) and the tented area reserved for the king, he proclaimed a royal decree: “The king announces as follows: Though I lack ability, thanks to the accumulated virtues of my ancestors and the support of the officials and the people, I have laid down the foundation of the new dynasty and become the ruler of the eastern kingdom [Chosŏn Korea], establishing a new capital in Hanyang. “In the ninth month of the Ŭlhae year (1395), the Royal Ancestral Shrine was completed, and the spirit tablets of four generations of my immediate ancestors were enshrined: King Mok and Queen Hyo, my great-­great-­ grandfather and great-­great-­grandmother, King Ik and Queen Chŏng, my great-­grandfather and great-­grandmother, King To and Queen Kyŏng, my grandfather and grandmother, and King Hwan and Queen Ŭi, my father and mother. On the Ŭlmi day [5th day] of the tenth month, I purified myself and personally performed the ritual ceremony of offering sacrifices and gifts to the spirits, and the ceremony was carried out in accordance with propriety and in the most solemn manner. “Since I believe that the Royal Ancestral Shrine is the great founda­­tion of the state, it should have an impressive appearance and the sacrifices offered to the spirits should be clean and appropriate. My ancestors have prepared a way for me, and in my generation, a family turned into a kingdom. “Looking at the great ceremony at this time, I find myself deeply moved and gratified. Hence, I intend to do the people a generous favor and proclaim a new decree of amnesty for the people of our nation. The crimes committed before the dawn of the fifth day of the tenth month of the twenty­eight years of the reign of Hongwu, except those subject to capital punishment by either beheading or hanging, will all be forgiven regardless of whether they are known or have been adjudicated. “Ah! Since my ancestors saw the lives of people saved, they will bless us more, and since all the people shared the joy, they will attain the state of virtue and longevity together. Therefore, I announce a list of things that must be accomplished in the days to come.

Book VIII

“1. If one wants to keep the heart of the nation beating, one must foster mutual respect and good customs. At the end of the previous dynasty, governance and enlightenment deteriorated and the moral system of the country collapsed. So the behavior of scholars and the customs of the common people degenerated so badly that the dynasty eventually came to an end. From this day forward, the members of the literati shall exercise self-­ discipline to control their conduct and show diligence in carrying out their duties, and the members of the common people shall also be faithful to their duties and bring about fine customs by avoiding fortuitous means to get what they want or reckless behavior in selfishly seeking comfort. “1. Since the people are the foundation of the state, they shall be looked after by the districts they belong to. Lately, the people have been frequently burdened by excessive labor service due to the relocation of the capital. However, since the construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine was intended to fulfill filial duty and reverence, the royal palace to carry out state affairs and display the dignity of the state, and the city walls to defend against the enemy both inside and outside, these projects were all unavoidable. How could I feel comfortable and happy in exhausting the strength of people? All the construction work except those three projects shall be stopped in order for them not to be too exhausted. If one dies during his labor service, his family shall be provided with relief and exonerated of their labor services by the authorities responsible for him. “1.Upon ascending the throne, whenever I issued royal decrees, I ordered an investigation into the current status of the cultivation of land and crops and reasonably reduced taxes based on the result of the investigation, and this has now become an ordinance. This year there were natural disasters caused by heavy rains and frost. In addition, many people were unable to cultivate their land due to their military duties. So the taxes of those who suffered great damage shall be reduced after the investigation. The defaulted grain taxes of local districts that occurred in the previous dynasty shall all be forgiven, and the transfer of loans made by either the government or individuals to the family of a debtor shall be strictly forbidden if the debtor has already died. “4. The purpose of rotating troops who guard the royal palace is to respect the foundation [the king] and distribute labor and leisure evenly. However, I feel extremely sorry that the elderly and the infirm have to come up and have a hard time discharging their duties, and that those who live alone cannot get help in making ends meet. From this day forward, the service

531

532

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

troops on rotation shall be selected among those who are physically strong and have slaves or extra manpower in their family, while those who are old and infirm or have no family shall not be dispatched. “1. Though I have repeatedly issued royal decrees on the ways to bring benefits to the people, governors and magistrates have regarded them simply as routine orders and failed to implement them. So I am afraid that the benefits I conferred did not reach down to the people. The Office of the Inspector­General in the capital and governors in the provinces shall announce the measures [to help the people] every year and implement them rigorously forthwith. “1. Agriculture and sericulture are the foundation of the monarchy, and schools the source of edification of the people. Since I ascended the throne, I have issued royal decrees many times to promote agriculture and sericulture as well as education. However, magistrates did not strive to implement them and governors neglected to oversee their implementation. Thus, my policies failed to produce any results, and I am concerned about this. From this day forward, the Office of the Inspector-General in the capital and the governors in the provinces shall monitor often to ensure they are implemented in accordance with my love of the people and my priority on education. Then what I intend to accomplish will not be allowed to come to nothing.” Having finished reading his decree, the king returned to the palace in a royal carriage. Female musicians followed the king to play music in the palace, and Queen Hyŏn watched their performance from a distance through the beaded hanging screen. Three days later, which was the Chŏngyu day [7th day], the king promoted by one rank the officials who had taken charge of the sacrificial rite [at the Royal Ancestral Shrine]. He also bestowed a royal horse [i.e., from the royal stable] on each official above rank 2 and held a banquet for all officials at the new palace. The king said to those who had presided over the sacrificial rite: “You did an excellent job, and I am sure that my ancestors were pleased with your work, so I also am quite pleased.” In addition, the king bestowed a horse from the royal stable on Cho Chun, left chancellor, and on Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commis­ ­sion, and said, “Though you did not participate in the sacrificial rite, the rules of the rite were all laid down by you.” The king also bestowed Tojŏn with a gold-­gilt belt and said, “Listening to the ceremonial music today, I realized that the service you have rendered is not small.”

Book VIII

7th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king appointed Supreme General No Sŏkchu concurrently as vice minister of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals. Though he was not an official who passed the civil service examination, his appointment was made by special order of the king. The king ordered Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, to give names to various halls on the grounds of the new royal palace. Hav­ ­ing completed his task, Tojŏn submitted his account of the names to the king: “The new palace is called Kyŏngbokkung [Palace of Resplendent Bless­ ings]; the king’s main quarters (yŏnch’im), Kangnyŏngjŏn [Hall of Health and Serenity]; the small quarters on the east (soch’im), Yŏngsaengjŏn [Hall of Prolonged Life]; the other small quarters on the west, Kyŏngsŏngjŏn [Hall of Felicitous Perfection]; the council hall immediately south of Kangnyŏngjŏn, Sajŏngjŏn [Hall of Contemplative Government]; the [main throne] hall further south, Kŭnjŏngjŏn [Hall of Diligent Government]; the east tower, Yungmunnu [Tower of Eminent Civil Officials]; the west tower, Yungmuru [Tower of Eminent Martial Officials]; the gate of Kŭnjŏngjŏn, Kŭnjŏngmun [Gate of Diligent Government]; and the front [south] gate (omun), Chŏngmun [Gate of Uprightness]. “Your servant finds the royal palace to be a place where the Lord of Men listens to (proposals on) state affairs and the place where the people everywhere look up to. Since the officials and the people came together to build it, it should appear dignified and majestic, and the beauty of its name should match its appearance, moving those who see it. Since the Han and Tang dynasties, palace names have sometimes been preserved and sometimes changed, but the intention to display the dignity and majesty and generate a sense of awe has remained constant. “Three years after Your Majesty ascended the throne, the nation’s capital was established in Hanyang. The Royal Ancestral Shrine was built first, followed by the royal palace. On the Ŭlmi day [fifth day] of the following year (1395), Your Majesty personally performed the sacrificial ritual to honor the former kings and queens at the new Royal Ancestral Shrine, in full ceremonial dress, including the royal dragon robe and mortarboard crown with strings of hanging beads on the front and back, and also held a banquet for officials in the new palace. These rites were intended to increase the blessings from the spirits and confer benefits upon posterity.

533

534

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“After the wine cups were passed around three times, you commanded your servant Tojŏn, saying, ‘I have offered sacrifices to my ancestors and reported to them that the royal palace in the new capital has been completed. So this banquet has been held so that the court officials may enjoy this felicitous occasion together. Now I want you to make names for the various palace buildings so that they may be praised forever along with the country.’ “Upon receiving your order, your servant clasped his hands together and did obeisance, chanting a verse from the ‘Odes of Zhou’ in the Book of Odes: “We are already drunk with wine; we are sated with virtue and power. Here’s long life to you, our lord; may resplendent blessings be vouchsafed to you.’ So I request that the name of the new palace be Kyŏngbokkung, Palace of Resplendent Blessings.35 “Your Majesty and your descendants will enjoy ten thousand years of peace, and the officials and people across the country will admire your achievements forever. However, the Spring and Autumn Annals admonishes the rulers to regard the people’s strength and be cautious in starting public works. How then can one who is the Lord of Men harass the people to satisfy his own interest? When he enjoys ease and comfort in his spacious mansion, he should think of protecting the poor scholars who are suffering from cold, and as he dwells in his refreshing residence, he should think about sharing the cool shade with his people. Then it will not happen that he will abandon his people. Therefore, I dare to add few more words. “The reason I named the king’s main quarters Kangnyŏngjŏn is as follows: the third among the ‘Five Blessings’ (wufu) in the scheme of the ‘Great Plan’ (Hongfan)36 is the soundness of body and serenity of mind (kangnyŏng). If the ruler rectifies his heart and cultivates virtue, and thus advances to the perfection of the sovereign (hwanggŭk), he will be capable of enjoying the five blessings. Since kangnyŏng is one of the five sources of happiness, 35. According to the commentary on this poem made by James Legge, “The uncles and brothers of the king express their sense of his kindness, and their wishes for his happiness, mostly in the words in which the personators of the dead had conveyed the satisfaction of his ancestors with the sacrifice offered to them and promised to him their blessing.” 36. “The Great Plan,” or the grand model for the government of the nation, is one of the sections in the Classic of Documents. It consists of the counsels of Count Ji (Jizi), the grand master at the court of Shang, addressed to King Wu, the founder of Zhou. Though he refused to join King Wu’s government that had overthrown Shang, Count Ji gave the king his counsel, which became known as the Great Plan. (Legge, The Shu King, pp. 139–138, 149)

Book VIII

he can attain the others if he fully attains the kangnyŏng, which lies in the middle of the five. “When the ruler rectifies his heart and cultivates virtue, however, he feels pressured to do so because of the eyes of the people who look up to him. So it often happens that he is inclined to laxity in discipline when his is alone. If the heart is not set straight and virtue remains uncultivated, it is impossible to attain not only the perfection of the sovereign but also the five blessings. “In antiquity Duke Wu of Wei composed a poem to admonish himself: When seen befriending a gentleman, You make your countenance harmonious and mild, Not far off there are transgressions. Be observant and attentive of your house— Are you still not fearful In your curtained enclosure?37 “Such caution and prudence in conduct enabled the Duke of Wei to enjoy life past the age of ninety. His life shows that he lived in accordance with the rules to attain royal perfection and thereby he was able to enjoy the five blessings. But his good fortune started from the self-­cultivation he practiced while he was alone at leisure. “We pray that Your Majesty emulates Duke of Wei in the poem, guarding yourself against laxity while maintaining a sense of reverence, and thus enjoys the benefits from the attainment of royal perfection. Then your divine descendants will imitate their sage ancestor and keep his sacred teachings alive through tens of thousands of generations. So I named the king’s main quarters Kangnyŏngjŏn. “The reason for the names Yŏnsaengjŏn and Kyŏngsŏngjŏn is this: Heaven and Earth give birth to myriad things in the spring and let them mature in the autumn. The sage king saves the people with benevolence and controls them with justice. Hence, the sage king rules the world on behalf of Heaven, and his laws and ordinances are always in harmony with the movements of Heaven and Earth. Conferring the name Yŏnsaengjŏn on the small sleeping hall on the east side (of the main residence), and Kyŏngsŏngjŏn on the small sleeping hall on the west side, was intended to show that Your

37. “Book III, Decade of Tang, II,” Book of Odes. A translation by Jeffrey Riegel.

535

536

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Majesty follows the way of Heaven and Earth in ruling the people and preserving their lives. “The reason behind the name Sajŏngjŏn [Hall of Contemplative Gov­ ernment] is as follows: The principles for ordering all things under Heaven are found through contemplation; without contemplation, they are lost.38 The Lord of Men, who is only one person, occupies the most exalted position, while the multitude of myriad people is a mixture of the wise, foolish, honest, and incompetent, and myriad affairs are mixed with what is right and wrong or beneficial and harmful. If the Lord of Men does not ponder deeply and fails to observe closely what goes on, how can he distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate and recognize a good or bad person for employment or dismissal? From the time of antiquity, kings have invariably wanted glory and despised peril. However, many of them ended up with calamities and defeat by having wicked people around them and by making plans that were harmful. Their problem started from their habit of not thinking. “The Book of Odes says, ‘How can I help longing for you? It’s only that your house is too far from me.’ Confucius says, ‘The point is that he does not think of the person. How can he complain that the house is too far?’39 The Classic of Documents says, ‘If you think, you become wise, and if you become wise, you become a sage.’40 These remarks attest that thinking is extremely useful for men. “This hall is a place where you carry out state affairs every morning. Myriad affairs, being recommended and gathered, are presented to Your Majesty for your final decisions and decrees. I cannot help thinking, therefore, how important it is for you to think [before you make a decision]. So your servant begs leave to name the palace Sajŏngjŏn [Palace of Con­ templative Government]. 38. This statement is based on what Mencius said: “The organ of the heart can think. But it will find the answer only if it does think; otherwise, it will not find the answer.” 心之官則 思 思則得之 則 之. 39. “Zihan,” The Analects (Legge, p. 226). Translation is revised. Yang Bojun suggests that this is a metaphor for authoritative conduct (仁) and the Way (道). If he does not think about the distance, how could it be a problem? 40. Jizi’s remark addressed to King Wu in the “Great Plan” (Legge, p. 141). T’oegye also quotes this remark in his Ten Diagrams on Sage Learning to King Sŏnjo (Sŏnghak sipto).

Book VIII

“Kŭnjŏngjŏn and Kŭnjŏngmun were named based on the following reason: all matters under heaven are managed when one is diligent, and when one is not, they fail to be managed, and this is absolutely inevitable. If trivial matters are like that, how much more the serious affairs of state? The Classic of Documents says, ‘Admonish yourself to caution, when there seems to be no occasion for anxiety. Do not fail to observe the laws and ordinances.’41 It also says, ‘Let not (the Son of Heaven) set to the holders of states the example of indolence or dissoluteness. Let him be wary and fearful, (remembering that) in one day or two days there may occur ten thousand springs of things. Let him not have his various officers [be] cumberers of their places. The work is Heaven’s; men must act for it!’42 These counsels indicate how diligent Emperor Shun and Yu the Great were. The Classic of Documents also says, ‘From sunrise to sunset, [the king] made relentless efforts to stabilize the livelihood of the people, even forgetting his meals.’ This testifies to the diligence of King Wen of Zhou. The Lord of Men cannot but be diligent like that. However, he can easily become complacent and arrogant if he falls into a life of ease. When this happens, he will find himself pursued by those who try to tempt him by flattering words, such as ‘Why should you exhaust your energy and cut your life short because of your work under heaven?’ or ‘Having already attained the highest position, why should you toil alone, undertaking the weight of all the troubles?’ Then these people induce the Lord of Men to indulge in entertainment with female musicians or hunting or playing games or starting [unnecessary] public works, which are all disreputable and improper. Then he mistakes these flatteries for affection for him and naturally falls into dissoluteness and idleness while unaware of the danger of their consequences. This is what makes the Han and Tang rulers inferior to those of the Three Dynasties. How, then, can the Lord of Men not be diligent even a day? However, if the Lord of Men knows only that he should be diligent, not knowing how he should be diligent, his diligence will turn into something that is too cumbersome and meticulous so that there will be nothing worth observing about his diligence. “Confucians of former times said, ‘In the morning, [the ruler] attends to state affairs; at noon, takes counsel; in the evening, prepares laws; and at



41. “The Counsels of the Great Yü,” Classic of Documents (Legge, p. 47) 42. “The Counsels of Gaoyao,” Classic of Documents (Legge, p. 55)

537

538

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

night, rests his body.’43 This is the diligence of the Lord of Men. They also said, ‘[The ruler] is diligent in seeking men of wisdom and speedy in employ­ing them.’44 So I beg leave to name the palace based on these statements. “The names Yungmunnu and Yungmuru were made based on the following reasons: [The ruler] rules the state with scholarly (cultured) methods (mun) and suppresses disturbances with martial prowess (mu).45 Hence, these two are like two arms and neither of them can be abandoned. Our cultural artifacts, including rites and music, are splendid and worth observ­ ­ing, while the troops and arms are in good order. From the perspective of employing officials, men of integrity with literary talent as well as brave warriors outstanding in martial prowess are serving both in the capital and the provinces. This all happened because Your Majesty has promoted both scholarship and martial skills until you arrived at a stage at which your everlasting rule is assured. “The name Chŏngmun was made based on the following reasons: Though the Son of Heaven and feudal lords (chehu) differ in the degree of their powers, they all face south and bring order to their states and take rectitude (chŏng) as the foundation of their rule. In that sense, the principle is the same. According to what is said in the ancient classics, the gate of the Son of Heaven is called Tanmun, and the word tan signifies rectitude. So I named the south gate Chŏngmun [Gate of Uprightness]. All the royal orders and decrees must pass through this gate [to reach the people]. If they pass the gate after you examine and approve them, words of defamation cannot enter, and false excuses have nothing to rely on. Furthermore, since all the memorials and reports reach you via this gate, all that is wicked and perfidious cannot advance to you unless they attain your approval first. Close the gate and shut off unorthodox words and perverse people; open it and admit men of integrity from the four quarters. This is the greatest among the matters related to rectitude.”

43. The Commentary of Zuo. The king here refers to Duke Zhao of Lu. 44. Ibid. 45. The dyad concept of Wenwu, 文武, can be more complicated than it seems because wen also means literature and art, and wu more than martial strength. They are distinct in their meaning and yet complementary.

Book VIII

10th Day (Kyŏngja)

The government dispatched Yu Ku, grand academician, and Chŏng Sinŭi, magistrate of Hansŏng, to the Ming capital to offer congratulations on the New Year. 11th Day (Sinch’uk)

It was the king’s birthday. Officials wished him a long life, presenting wine. The king held a banquet for them. Hong Yŏngt’ong, Count of Namyang, fell off his horse and died. He was a man from Namyang [modern Hwasŏng] and the son of Chancellor Hong Sŭngyŏn who was posthumously promoted and the great-­grandson of Chancellor (toch’ŏmŭi chungch’an)46 Hong Chabŏn. Thanks to his ŭm privilege, he became an official without taking the civil service examination and served as chamberlain of palace revenues (p’an sobusi sa) during the reign of King Kongmin and later as magistrate of Andong. When Sin Ton seized power, Yŏngt’ong became investigating grand master (kamch’al taebu) and, soon, second royal secretary because of the favors he had previously given to Ton, who was then a monk. Thus, he became Ton’s right-­hand man together with Yi Ch’unbu and Kim Nan. Ton was killing many people for personal reasons, but Yŏngt’ong saved many others by persuading Ton to desist for karmic reasons. When Ton was eventually driven out, Yi Ch’unbu and others were all put to death, but Yŏngt’ong was spared and exiled to a district. After Sin U [King U] ascended the throne, Yŏngt’ong eventually rose to the position of left chancellor after serving in a number of posts because he was related by marriage to the king. Being simple and cautious by nature, he followed prevailing opinions without submitting any ideas or recommendations of his own. At the beginning of our new dynasty, he was enfeoffed as Count of Namyang for being a senior official and received generous treatment from the king on a number of occasions. He became drunk at the king’s birthday banquet and died on his way back home, falling off his horse, which jumped

46. According to the Monograph of a Hundred Officials (Paeggwanji) included in the History of Koryŏ, during the reign of King Ch’ungnyŏl, “chancellor” (sijung) was called ch’ŏmŭi chungch’an. (Pak Yongun, p. 75)

539

540

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

when startled. The king mourned his death and, by sending an official, ordered the office responsible to take care of his funeral in accordance with the rites. He also bestowed him with a posthumous title of Anmin. The deceased had no son. The king bestowed 300 kok of rice and beans upon Hoeam Monastery. 12th Day (Imin)

It was foggy. The moon concealed the Pleiades. 13th Day (Kyemyo)

The trees were covered with hoar frost. Yi Hwa, Prince Ŭian, asked Prince Chŏngan to go hunting in Sŏgyo. During the hunt, Prince Chŏngan ran into an angry leopard, which cornered him. Vice Commandant Song Kŏsin charged his horse toward the beast, which then stopped going after Prince Chŏngan and instead jumped on Kŏsin, biting his horse’s saddle. Kŏsin avoided the leopard’s attack by lying on his horse’s back. After the leopard came off his horse, Vice Commandant Kim Tŏksaeng, who pursued Kŏsin at full speed, shot an arrow at the animal and killed it immediately. Prince Chŏngan awarded each of these two commandants with a horse, and King T’aejo also bestowed a horse on Kŏsin as well as on Yi Hwa and Min Che. 14th Day (Kapchin)

Cho Chun, left chancellor, Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, Kwŏn Chunghwa, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, as well as old, retired officials, were all provided with sedan chairs made of bamboo, and that was to prevent accidents such as that of Hong Yŏngt’ong, who had died after falling off his horse. There was fog, which continued for two more days. 17th Day (Chŏngmi)

After thunder sounded and springs bubbled up like boiling water despite it being winter, the king held a Diamond Sutra prayer meeting in the Inner

Book VIII

Palace and also sent officials to many Buddhist monasteries to hold prayer meetings. Robbers killed a man named Yi Chich’ŏn, a resident of Kwangju.47 The victim had two sons, Tugae and Naeŭnsam. They avenged their father’s murder by capturing the thirteen robbers, including one Yi Pugae, who broke into Chich’ŏn’s house at night, killed Chich’ŏn, and plundered his property. Tugae, the victim’s son, and others tracked the robbers until they arrived at a road in Ch’ŏnnyŏng. There they secretly sent a man to inform the local authorities of the robbery and murder. The district office dispatched yamen personnel to various ferries to wait for the robbers. When the robbers boarded a boat, they were all captured, and in the end were beheaded. 25th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king gave orders to construct the National Confucian Shrine. Because a man named Yi Chungsil committed adultery with the wife of his slave Songsan, Songsan falsely accused his master of committing treason. The authorities made investigations on the accusation and executed Songsan. The government sent an official letter to the Ministry of Rites of Ming China: “Your servant Kim Ŭlsang returned from the Ming capital and submitted the following report: ‘At the king’s command, I visited the Ming capital and then I received a sacred imperial order from the emperor. I was told to take eunuch Ch’oe Kamul with me on my trip back home. So I arrived in Liaodong along with Kamul. However, the Regional Commission of Liaodong told us that no escort could be provided us because of the imperial orders they had received.’ As a result, Ŭlsang and others had to come home on foot. “Thinking over the imperial orders, since our small kingdom serves the suzerain state [China], the Regional Commission of Liaodong has always provided escort to our envoys whenever they returned home from China, and therefore they could travel safely without incident. “According to what Kim Ŭlsang reports, the areas starting from the west of the Yalu River of our country to Tianshuizhan of Liaodong are

47. Located in Kyŏnggi Province.

541

542

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

u­ ninhabited and full of dense trees and grass. Unless our traveling envoys are provided with escorts, we are afraid that they will be harmed by tigers and wolves. This is the reason we decided to bother you with this letter and request that you command the Regional Commission of Liaodong to provide us with escorts as before.” The king admonished various princes, saying, “It is very wrong to kill the chickens and dogs of the people in order to raise your falcons. From this day forward, stop raising falcons.” The king also stopped the practice of giving falcons as personal gifts except when presenting them as tribute to the king. Hongsu, the son of Chang Paek, director of the Court of Interpreters returned with his father’s remains. Paek visited China on a diplomatic mission and died of illness in Dengzhou. His son Hongsu submitted a petition to the government, and the latter sent an official letter to the Ministry of Rites of China. Hongsu went over to the Chinese capital and appealed with tears to the Chinese authorities. Thus, he was able to gather the bones of his father out of ground and rebury them at home. 30th Day (Kyŏngsin)

At night, the king invited Chŏng Tojŏn and other merit subjects to enjoy a banquet together. He had music performed while they drank. At the peak of the excitement during the banquet, the king said to Tojŏn, “I got to where I am today thanks to the support from you officials. I want you to respect one another and be cautious with your conduct so that your blessings can reach a thousand generations of your descendants.” Tojŏn replied, “Duke Huan of Qi asked Baoshu Ya about the way of governing the state, and the latter answered, ‘I wish Your Majesty would not forget the days when you resided in the land of Ju, and Zhongfu [Guan Zhong] the days when you were carried on a vehicle as a captive.’48 So I 48. When Duke Xiang (r. 679–686 bc) of Qi died, succession struggles broke out between Prince Jiu and Xiaobo (later Duke Huan). Though the latter eventually defeated the former, he initially fled to the land of Ju. In the contest, Guan Zhong, who supported Prince Jiu, became a captive of Duke Huan. So both Duke Huan and Guan Zhong, who started out as mutual enemies, had a difficult time, in their own ways, at the beginning.

Book VIII

wish Your Majesty would not forget the days when you fell from your horse, and I the days when I wore a wooden collar around my neck.49 Then our descendants will be able to prosper forever.” The king agreed. The king ordered a musician to play “Mundŏkgok” [“The Enlightened Virtue of Our King”]50 and, looking at Tojŏn, he said, “Since you are the author of this song, why don’t you rise and dance?” Tojŏn immediately rose to dance, and the king told him to take off his jacket and dance and bestowed on him a fur-­lined turtle jacket. Everyone really enjoyed themselves and finally left for home early in the morning.

11th Month 1st Day (Sinyu)

It was the day of the winter solstice. Leading all officials, the king performed the ritual ceremony celebrating winter solstice day facing toward the imperial palace of Ming China. 2nd Day (Imsul)

For the first time, the post of assistant director (sŭng) is created at Imwŏn’gwan and Imban’gwan, the state guesthouses of the Northwest Region.51 3rd Day (Kyehae)

The trees were covered with frost, and they were so the next day. 49. “A wooden collar around my neck” here refers to the imprisonment of Chŏng Tojŏn at a critical time. In 1389, Crown Prince Sŏk, the eldest son of King Kongyang, visited the Ming court. T’aejo went out to welcome him at Haeju, Hwanghae Province. On his way, T’aejo went hunting and fell off his horse. As he was seriously hurt, Chŏng Mongju tried to take advantage of the opportunity to remove T’aejo and his followers. However, his plan was prematurely discovered by Yi Pangwŏn, T’aejo’s fifth son, who assassinated Chŏng Mongju. So the incident in which T’aejo fell off his horse was perhaps most critical in his career. Around that time, Chŏng Tojŏn also had difficulties. Chŏng Mongju had had him imprisoned despite his already being in exile. The two were originally disciples of Yi Saek and worked as colleagues until Tojŏn attempted to overthrow the government and enthrone General Yi Sŏnggye (later T’aejo) as the new king. Chŏng Mongju attempted to remove him, together with T’aejo, when T’aejo was confined to bed after falling off his horse. 50. It is a ceremonial song composed by Chŏng Tojŏn, which praises the royal virtue of the king, who is intent on promoting culture in his governance. 51. Imwŏn’gwan was located in P’yŏngyang, and Imban’gwan in Sŏnch’ŏn, North P’yŏngan Province.

543

544

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

5th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

Leading various officials, the king congratulated the imperial crown prince of China on the occasion of his birthday. 6th Day (Pyŏngin)

Kim Ipgyŏn, our envoy who had visited Ming China to celebrate the imperial birthday, returned from the Ming capital and reported that Song Hŭijŏng, our interpreter, and Kwŏn Ŭlsong, envoy of horses (amma), had been exiled to a distant place. Earlier, Kim Ŭlsang, envoy to the Imperial Throne, paid a visit to the prince of Yan at his palace on his way to the Chinese court and reported to the king after he returned home: “Prince of Yan said to me, ‘Why does your king not send me horses?’ ” Trusting this report from his envoy, the king had Ipgyŏn deliver a saddled horse to the prince of Yan when he visited China a little later. After receiving the horse from our envoy, the prince of Yan told the emperor about it. The emperor became indignant to hear about the horse and said, “How can the king of Chosŏn personally associate with the prince of Yan?” Then he gave orders to banish Hŭijŏng and Ŭlsong to Jinchi Guard Unit and later to Tengchong Prefecture.52 7th Day (Chŏngmyo)

Rain kept falling and finally stopped the next day. The king said, “The families of high officials have seized most of the thick forests in the Kyŏnggi region, and the common people are unable to get their firewood, and I feel sorry for them. Give orders to the Office of the Inspector-General to watch over those families carefully.” The Privy Council sent the Lord of Hansan, Yi Saek, 100 sŏk of rice and beans, but the latter declined to receive them. The king strictly prohibited the private trading of hawks among the people.



52. Modern Baoshan City in southwest China.

Book VIII

9th Day (Kisa)

The king, for the first time, ordered the Privy Council that a bailiff of the Office of the Inspector-General join the special patrolling commissioner (pyŏlsun chŏlchesa) on an inspection tour. 10th Day (Kyŏngo)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king regarding the evaluation of the job performance of provincial governors and district magistrates, and the criteria it proposed were as follows: promotion of learning (hŭnghak), looking after the people (mumin), administering pun­­ ishments with care and caution (hyulhyŏng), training the troops (ch’ibyong), preparation of salt and iron, efforts to repair fortifications, saving materials and provisions, reducing the burden of taxes and corvée service, prohibiting hunting, taking action against the tyranny of powerful local families, collecting taxes by allowing the people to personally measure the amount of grain for taxes, planting mulberry trees and hemp, and growing flat sedge and paper mulberry. Having heard that the sacrifice offered at the ritual ceremony held on the first day of the month was not enough, the king ordered the Office of the Inspector-General to look into the matter to learn the truth. As a result, the Office of the Inspector-General impeached and dismissed Min Che, supervisor of the Office for Oversight and Review (Sangjŏnggwan) and right director of the State Finance Commission; Yun Sayŏng, section chief of the Board of Rites who was responsible for the ritual ceremony; and Kang Ch’ŏnju, court gentleman for sacrifices (Chehyangsa). 11th Day (Sinmi)

The Privy Council sent out a royal decree to all provinces, which said: “A comprehensive survey of the hallyang class of military junior officers who are above rank 6 and under seventy years of age, except instructors of the local Confucian school (hundo) and maritime officers (kisŏn kun’gwan), shall be conducted and reported to us.” The government dispatched Chŏng Ch’ong, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, to the Ming capital with the petitions

545

546

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of hallyang and retired officials, as well as officials of both high and low ranks, to request an imperial decree with the royal seal that authorizes and empowers our king. The petition they carried was as follows: “Cho Chun, left chancellor of the Privy Council of Chosŏn, submits this petition on behalf of all the officials and the people. When the royal Wang clan of our small kingdom lost the trust of the people, Cho Chun and others, together with people across the country, recommended that Yi [T’aejo] be elevated to the throne. On the fifteenth day of the seventh month of the twenty-­fifth year of the reign of Hongwu, we reported it to the emperor by dispatching Cho Pan, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, to the imperial court in China. And following that, we dispatched Cho Im, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to submit a memorial that explained what had happened. As a result, we obtained his sacred decree, which appointed our king as the interim ruler of our kingdom. “Then we received from the Ministry of Rites an official letter inquiring about the new country name we had chosen. So we dispatched Han Sangjil, administrative commissioner of the Security Council, to the capital of the suzerain state [China] with a memorial to the emperor, and we received an imperial decree which said, ‘For the country name of the eastern Barbarians [Koreans], Chosŏn not only sounds appropriate, but also it has been used for a long time. So the name is worth preserving as the foundation of the kingdom.’ In accordance with the imperial decree, on the ninth day of the third month of the twenty-­sixth year of the reign of Hongwu, we sent Yi Yŏm, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and submitted to your authorities the royal seal of the previous Koryŏ dynasty. “On the eighth day of the twelfth month of the same year, the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army sent us an official letter in which an imperial decree was enclosed. The imperial decree stated, ‘You changed your country name but still continue to refer to yourself as interim ruler (kwŏnji kuksa) just as you used to, which I cannot understand.’ Upon receiving this imperial decree, our officials as well as people across the country were terrified and urged our king to follow the imperial instruction immediately. “However, though we are now able to refer to our ruler as king, we have failed to receive either an imperial decree or the royal seal that authorizes and empowers our king as the legitimate ruler of our kingdom. Hence, we officials and the people of our country anxiously wish to receive them day

Book VIII

and night and make bold to appeal to you. We earnestly beg you to appeal to His Imperial Majesty on our behalf so that the imperial decree and the royal seal of Chosŏn can be bestowed. The king ordered the Privy Council to summon Kim Yongnyŏl, navy commander, and Kim Sŭngju, minister of punishments, and consult them on the ways to attack Japanese marauders. The government dispatched governors to each province. 14th Day (Kapsul)

It rained. National Preceptor Cho Ku died of illness, so the king had the morning audience suspended. 15th Day (Ŭlhae)

The trees were covered with hoar frost. 16th Day (Pyŏngja)

The Court of Royal Sacrifices spoke to the king: “Because the dynasty is newly founded, it is necessary to renew the old system of ritual ceremonies. The ritual songs performed at the Royal Ancestral Shrine have already been revised; however, the ritual songs for the sacrifices to the Altars of Earth and Grain, the Circular Mound Altar, King Munsŏn [Confucius], and others still remain unchanged. So they also need to be revised.” The king followed the advice. 21st Day (Sinsa)

The Privy Council sent down a royal decree to various provinces and ordered them to investigate the good and bad deeds of all officials of both high and low ranks, including magistrates, army and navy commanders, brigade and battalion commanders, instructors of Confucian studies and medicine, supervisors of salt and iron production, and chiefs of post stations and to submit detailed reports on them.

547

548

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

24th Day (Kapsin)

Yi Saek, Lord of Hansan, returned home after staying at Mt. Odae. At first, he was driven out to a distant district but received a royal favor to live wherever he chose. So he requested that he be allowed to tour the Kwandong region and stayed at Mt. Odae. He finally returned after the king dispatched a man to invite him. The king treated him with courtesy as an old friend and conversed with him cordially over a drink of wine. When Yi Saek rose to leave for home, the king saw him off as far as the middle gate. 25th Day (Ŭlyu)

There was fog, and it persisted for two days. The king gave an order to the Privy Council: “The officials responsible for sacrifice or related affairs who serve in the Royal Ancestral Shrine, the Altars of Earth and Grain, the Buddhist temples, the Taoist temples, and the shrines for various spirits were originally appointed by the Security Council after receiving a royal decree. The appointment of these officials, however, is now carried out by a seventh-­grade official (tanghugwan), and this is very inappropriate. From this day forward, the appointment should be made jointly with the consultation and approval of higher authorities in the Security Council, including the director, notary, and academician. 27th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king bestowed Yi Saek, Lord of Hansan, with 120 kyŏl of rank land, 100 kok of rice and beans, and 5 kok of salt. 28th Day (Muja)

There was rain. Censor Yi Chŏnggyŏn and others submitted a memorial to the king: “The Classic of Documents says, ‘Consult with the common people [when you have doubts about any great matter].’53 The Book of Odes says, ‘Consult the grass and firewood-­gatherers.’54

53. “The Great Plan,” Classic of Documents, trans. Legge, p. 146 54. “Ban, Decade of Shengmin,” Greater Odes of the Kingdom.

Book VIII

“Since the king is sitting deep in the heart of the palace, it is impossible for him to know every little thing. Hence, he must visit the people and ask them for their opinions if he wants to know what is good or bad. Then he will have no problem in understanding the situation of the people and will not make mistakes in governing them. The reason our dynasty made it a rule to hold a morning audience six times a month was not only for having a meeting between the king and his officials, but also for discussing state affairs. “Since Your Majesty meets with your ministers every day and discusses the ways of governing the state, there is no doubt that you are carrying out state affairs as you should. Nevertheless, how can it possibly be conveyed to Your Majesty in detail what is happening to numerous officials as well as the common people, including their successes, failures, sufferings, and so forth? We request that, when the morning audience is over, Your Majesty go into the main audience hall and sit on the throne. Then you let your ministers and officials speak out about what is in their minds and listen to them patiently. If you accept their opinions generously and put them into practice, there will be communication between the king on top and the people down below. “Since the magistrates of local districts directly deal with the common people, they know well what is profitable or not, or good or bad [for the people], but their knowledge and experience cannot reach Your Majesty because they stay far away from you. We request that all the local magistrates, hereafter, be required to submit a written report to Your Majesty regarding what the people like or dislike, or whether or not certain public policies are working, or which measures are to be implemented or eliminated for the people. Then the real situation of the people can be conveyed to you without interruption.” The king said, “Since I discuss the state affairs with grand councilors every day, it is not necessary for me to see ordinary officials personally. In the case of local magistrates, let them submit their reports to me.” Pak Sin, chief of the Criminal Administration Bureau of the Board of Pun­ ishments, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “We have heard that a ruler who inherits the throne in a time of peace should govern the state in the same way as his predecessors, and a ruler who inherits the throne in a time of trouble should change the way of his predecessors in governing the state. This refers to the case of the sage emperors of the Three Dynasties,

549

550

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

who had no choice but to straighten out the problems in the ways of governing the people. “We respectfully believe that Your Majesty deplored the disarray of the land system of the previous dynasty and abolished the abuse of expanding private lands. So you rectified land boundaries, destroying all the exist­ ­ing registers of public and private land. Then, you changed the law and issued officials documents [to the landowners]. As a result, individuals were restricted in the amount of land they could possess. Because of the new law, the powerful families naturally abandoned plans to expand their lands, and the litigations over lands among relatives also decreased. Since your reform brought benefits to both officials and the people and made their lives equally comfortable regardless of their rank and status, it really has become an outstanding law, and its noble intention will be handed down for tens of thousands of generations. “However, one problem still persists, and that involves slaves. Conse­ quently, litigations and trickeries over the matters of slaves continue to proliferate day after day, and even fathers, sons, and brothers fight one another, cursing and swearing. Because they become estranged as a result, their families fall apart and their clans become hopelessly divided. If family members fight one another in this manner, one can imagine what will happen in the cases of strangers [when the ownership of slaves is at stake]. Since everyone is determined to win a lawsuit, some fabricate facts, mixing truth with falsehood, and that delays the legal process. Cunning and wicked people often track down the secrets of their opponents, and avaricious people forge the dates of the documents or repeat the same words until they make investigators and judges utterly confused. Preventing litigation seems difficult. Even if a judge deliberates and rules with fairness, people in most cases will complain and protest, and after the judge is transferred, they file another lawsuit, and therefore the lawsuits are endless. No abuses can be more serious than this. “Your Majesty hated such things and tried to solve the problems by allowing the winners of lawsuits to take slaves, but the pending litigations were simply too numerous to end the trouble. Since many people are still engaged in legal battles, they cast a dark shadow over the reputation of your benevolent rule. How can you eliminate all these abuses unless you change the law? “Your Majesty has now established a new dynasty in response to the Mandate of Heaven as well as the wishes of the people and carefully prepared an inheritance for your descendants, which will last ten thousand

Book VIII

years. Why, then, should you leave this problem alone, letting it harm good custom and damage the hearts of the people? “We humbly believe that you should give it a serious thought and be resolute in making your decision. We hope that you accept our ideas, though they may be foolish, and establish a new law befitting your benevolent rule, while eliminating great abuses, and finally set the country on the right path—and now is the time to start. “From this day forward, in accordance with the precedent of the Agency of Land Management Grants of the Board of Taxation, we request that you separately choose an official from the Censorate and let him review and revise the register of slaves in the Criminal Administration Bureau, tracing the root causes of conflicts and legal disputes concerning slaves, while strictly prohibiting fraud and trickery. Collecting original, primary slave documents and tracking down supporting documents, they should make a master record of slaves who are currently serving in the households of officials, regardless of their number or the rank of their masters, and issue a new deed [to the slave owners] after destroying all preexisting documents. If the newly made deeds serve as the master documents in the future, litigations over the documents will naturally decrease because they are simple and clear. In addition, they will calm the people’s hearts, and the good, old custom will be restored. “Complaints and resentment were voiced before, when you launched the land reform. Under the system, the individual’s rank was the basis for determining the amount of land to be distributed, sparking disputes over the amount of distributed lands. As the difference in amount turned out to be ten-­ or even a hundredfold, the wrangling was constant. Only after much time passed did it subside. “The current problem of slaves is actually different from the controversial land system. If you issue new deeds to the slave owners after clarifying the personal history of the slaves, there will be nothing complicated about your reform of slave matters, and people will also find it convenient. However, there may be cases where those who seized slaves from others are allowed to continue owning them and where others lose their slaves from lack of power to appeal their grievances. Therefore, Your Majesty should establish a special agency to deal with such complaints and let the officials set a deadline for settling them, as they do in dealing with regular lawsuits. After the final sentence, let them issue new deeds to the litigants and destroy their preexisting ones to eliminate permanently the chances for further litigation or trickery. The registers of official slaves and monastery slaves should

551

552

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

also be revised, following the above example, but they must be free of any complication or confusion. As for the articles of prohibition, allow us to continue to discuss this matter and report to you.” The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the matter and report the result to him. Consequently, the Privy Council had a discussion and made a report as follows: “We reviewed and discussed the proposal made by the Criminal Admin­ istration Bureau of the Board of Punishments, and, as it was proposed, we decided to create a separate directorate to deal with the matters concerning public and private slaves and to issue new slave documents, while destroying old ones. As for the slaves currently involved in litigations filed after the Sinch’uk year (1361), we are making sure that the official responsible for slave affairs adjudicates litigations within two years starting from the Pyŏngja year (1396) and makes a report to the directorate for slave affairs. He will also issue new deeds to the owners of slaves, while destroying old ones, to permanently prevent litigations in the days ahead.” The king followed the advice.

12th Month 1st Day (Kyŏngin)

There was a red glow in the north. 3rd Day (Imjin)

A woman named Chungbo, the wife of Executive Captain Ch’oe Anjong, strangled her husband to death after committing adultery with Kim Chungmyŏng, the brother of her husband’s cousin by his father’s sister. After the crime was discovered, the Board of Punishments interrogated the suspects. Chungmyŏng ran away, and Chungbo was executed by hanging. 7th Day (Pyŏngsin)

The king ordered the National Academy and the two publication offices55 to supervise the construction work of the National Shrine of Confucius.



55. The Publication Office (Kyosŏgam) and the Office of Editorial Review (Kyosŏgwan).

Book VIII

553

*   *   * The Board of Rites made the rules of the civil service examination. It made the recitation of classics the first part of the examination (ch’ojang) and replaced the current literary licentiate examination (chinsasi) with the ­classics licentiate examination (saengwŏnsi). The king approved the new rules. The king visited the new palace and watched kyŏkku contests for three days. 8th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king bestowed 100 kok of rice and beans as well as wine and meat on Yi Saek, Lord of Hansan, telling him, “You have grown old. Try to take care of your health with wine and meat.” At that time, Saek abstained from wine and meat under the pretext of believing in Buddhism; therefore, the king gave him such an admonition. 11th Day (Kyŏngja)

Pyŏn Namyong, former magistrate of Kaesŏng, got remarried to Lady Yŏm, the wife of Minister Yi Song, who had passed away, and his son Hon also married the daughter of his father’s second wife. The remonstrance officials requested the king’s permission to have Hon divorced, and the king granted their request. 12th Day (Sinch’uk)

The provincial military commissioner of the Northeast Region made a report: “A woman named Kŭmjin, a daughter of a resident of Hamju, became a widow at the age of twenty-­three and has remained faithful to her deceased husband all her life until she reached the age of seventy-­two. Sin P’il, a resident of Chŏngju, is ninety-­nine years old. The grandmother of Kim Pugae, a resident of Yŏnghŭng, became a widow at the age of thirty-­two and has remained single for the rest of her life. Pugae served her with filial piety so diligently that she has now reached the age of seventy-­nine. The king separately bestowed 10 sŏk of rice upon those who were recommended for their good deeds and had them exempted from their corvée duty.

554

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

14th Day (Kyemyo)

Kim Chŏksŏn, who visited Japan as envoy in response to the visit of the Japanese, returns home. Four Jurchen chiefs, including Shui Wu and Di Jie, defected from Wuliangha and came to our country. At the end of the Three Kingdoms, the northern territory above P’yŏngyang was mostly a hunting ground of Jurchen people. During Koryŏ, the government forcibly relocated people in the south to the northern territory and secured the border by constructing long walls extending from Ŭiju to Yangdŏk.56 The people who had to go north were reluctant to settle down and often rose in rebellion. So the government sent troops to suppress them, but a man named Chang [Sagil], a member of the powerful family of Ŭiju, continued to be rebellious against the government. In the southern part of the country, Japanese marauders were rampant. They invaded everywhere, ravaging our land over several thousand li from east to west and burning down our fortresses, which were several hundred li away from the sea. So many people were killed that their skeletons covered the land, and there were no signs of life in the villages and towns. The region north of Anbyŏn was mostly occupied by Jurchens, so it was beyond the control of our government. King Yejong of Koryŏ sent an army deep into the region and established garrisoned forts, but those forts soon fell into the hands of Jurchens. So they existed only in name.57 Since our king ascended the throne, his influence has extended as far as the people of the Northwest Region so that their livelihood was settled and they enjoyed working for their livelihood. They reclaimed the land, and the population began to increase day by day. Chang Sagil of Ŭiju voluntarily subordinated himself to the king and later became a member of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects. Thereafter, 56. Ŭiju is located in North P’yŏngan Province, and Yangdŏk in South P’yŏngan Province. The former is close to the Chinese border and the latter close to Yŏnghŭng in South Hamgyŏng Province. 57. In 1107, the second year of the reign of King Yejong (1105–1122), Yun Kwan led a military expedition to secure the northern territory, which was mainly on the Hamhŭmg Plain, a region inhabited by Jurchens. After occupying the region, he constructed the so-­called Nine Forts and garrisoned them for defense. “However, unceasing Jurchen attacks alternating with diplomatic appeals, as well as jealousy in the Koryŏ court of Yun Kwan’s success, led ultimately to the return of the region of the Nine Forts to the Jurchens.” (Ki-­baik Lee, p. 128)

Book VIII

the rebellion of Chang naturally ceased. Then, the government established towns along the river that extended a thousand li, from Ŭiju to Yŏyŏn,58 and installed magistrates in them, making the Yalu River our national border. Japanese islanders also changed their attitude and sent their envoys, resuming trade with us. So the people of the southern provinces were able to feel secure. As a result, the regional population began to grow [along with villages], and the people in one village could hear the sound of crowing chickens and barking dogs in the next. The lands along the coast and on distant islands were all reclaimed, and the people lived in peace, eating and drinking every day, forgetting war. Since the Northeast Region served as the foundation of our dynasty, it has long commanded the awe of Jurchen leaders, who were grateful for the king’s benevolent virtue. So the chiefs of the Jurchens in distant regions such as Yilan59 defected to our country. Always carrying swords and bows with them, they served as guards for our king even before the king rose to the throne and followed the king in numerous expeditions and battles. The Jurchen chiefs who came to serve our king were as follows:60 Jiawen Menggetiemurer, myriarch (douman) of Woduoli; Gulun Ahachu, myriarch of Huoera; Gubuere, myriarch of Tuowen; Xitanhelangha, Mongol overseer (dudaluhachi) of Hamnan [Hamju];61 Guluntuolan Tiemurer, chiliarch (mengan) of Samsan; Fuyimowuerzhu, miryarch of Yilan Tumen; Guaeryahuoshi Tiemur, chiliarch of Haeyang [Kilchu]; Aotunwanzhe, chiliarch of Aduge; Xitantasi, chiliarch of Shiyanchun; Yunganggua, chiliarch of Kapchu [Kapsan]; Guaeryawunan, chiliarch of Honggŭng [Hongwŏn];62 Zhuhuguidong, chiliarch of Haet’ong; Jiawenbuhua, chiliarch of Tongnool [Tanch’ŏn]; Xitanxuelie, chiliarch of Kanhap; Jiawenchiwuli, chiliarch of Wuerhuli; Zhuhuyindahu, chiliarch of Asa [Asha]; Zhuhuwanzhe, chiliarch of Rencekuoshi; Nuantugulu and Xitanboya, chiliarch of Orongso [Chongsŏng];63 Gulunboli, chiliarch of Tomun [Tumen]; Xitanguyunu, company commander (tanggua) of Amula; and so forth. The other Jurchen tribal leaders [who joined and served our 58. Located in Kwisŏng in North P’yŏngan Province. 59. It is presumed to be a county in south-­central Heilongjiang Province, China. 60. Tumen or Maengan in the Jurchen language mean “chief” and a place name. For this reason, the names of Jurchen leaders are often confusing and certain place names hard to identify. 61. A district presumed to be located near Hamhŭng, South Hamgyŏng Province. 62. Located in South Hamgyŏng Province. 63. Located in North Hamgyŏng Province.

555

556

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

king] were: Guaeryabaersu, a member of the Wulanghe tribe of Tumen; Guaerya Qimuna, Davina, and Keerdage,64 members of the Wudihe tribe of Xianzhen who inhabited Guzhou; Alahaboyan, a member of the Southern Tujue tribe, a branch of the Wudiha tribe, who inhabited the Suping River; Guaeryatuchenggai of Yanchun, a member of the Wudiha tribe of Kuoerkan; and so forth. After ascending the throne, the king appointed these Jurchen leaders, appropriately, as myriarchs and chiliarchs and let the Jurchens submit themselves peacefully by sending Yi Turan [who was the king’s trusted Jurchen leader]. As a result, they abandoned their custom of having their hair loose and wore hats and belts. They also changed their barbarous behavior and practiced proper manners. They intermarried with our people, performed corvée service, and paid taxes just as our people did. Besides, feeling ashamed to live under their chief, they all wanted to become the citizens of our land. From Kongju to the north of Kapsan,65 the government established towns and garrisons and governed the people, providing them with military training and schooling in the classics. Thereafter, the government of culture and military arts was finally realized in that region, and the land that stretched a thousand li was added to our national territory, with the Tumen River as our border. Tribes of different customs across the river [Tuman] and over areas reaching as far as Juzhou heard the rumor and admired our culture. So they personally visited our court or sent their sons and brothers or voluntarily made themselves retainers to attend our king. Some of them requested public employment, migrated to our territory, or presented their local products, and people like them formed long lines on the road. If their mares gave birth to foals of outstanding quality, they vied with one another to present them to us. If it happened that some of the residents on the riverside filed lawsuits against our people, our government adjudicated them, either putting them into jail or punishing them by beating them with the paddle, but none dared to complain against our military commanders on the border. When they went hunting, they wanted to join our Three Armies, and when they hunted animals, they presented them to our authorities, and when they violated the 64. According to a source, Qimuna is a family name. However, this family name in the sentence is attached only to the first person, Guaerya, which suggests that possibly the three men are brothers. 65. Kapsan Strategic Prefecture in North Hamgyŏng Province.

Book VIII

law, they were punished, so they received the same treatment by the government as our people did. Later, when the king paid a visit to his ancestral tombs in the mountains of the Northeast Region, the Jurchens who lived across the river vied with one another to see him, and those who were unable to come in time returned home shedding tears. The Jurchens still become emotional remembering the king’s generous treatment of them in olden days whenever they have talks over drinks with our border commanders. The king dispatched Yangu, Lord Yŏngan66 to the Northeast Region to perform the ancestral rites at various royal tombs. 15th Day (Kapchin)

The Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits (Nobi pyŏnjŏng togam)67 was established, and Nam Chae, left director of the State Finance Com­ mission, Han Sanggyŏng, senior secretary of the Security Council, and Kim Hŭisŏn, director of the Security Council, were appointed as member-­ directors. 16th Day (Ŭlsa)

The trees were covered with hoar frost. The Board of Personnel and that of War requested that the Personal Records Law (Chŏnganbŏp)68 of the previous dynasty, [which required the government to keep personal records of all officials], be revived and implemented. Tatara of the Ouchi clan in Japan presented local products through an envoy.69 66. The son of Yi Wŏn’gye, T’aejo’s stepbrother. 67. It was created to deal with legal disputes concerning the ownership and inheritance of slaves, which was a serious social problem at that time, and also to secure and solidify the financing of the state by turning private slaves into public slaves, following the success of the land reform. 68. “Personal records” indicates the ones produced and kept by the government to determine the officials’ qualification for promotion, transfer, compensation, disciplinary action, etc. 69. The Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan says the Ouchi family was descended from a “prince” [Imsŏng t’aeja] who moved to Japan from Paekche in 61. In this sillok entry, the name is given as Ouchi Tatara. Tatara is a family name used by one branch of the Ouchi family and is said to have been the name before members took the name Ouchi. The

557

558

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

19th Day (Musin)

There was fog. 20th Day (Kiyu)

The king bestowed one sword each upon Left Chancellor Cho Chun, Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, and Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission. 22nd Day (Sinhae)

Yi Saek was enfeoffed as Count of Hansan and appointed as the commissioner of five palace storehouses, including Ŭisŏnggo and Tŏkch’ŏn’go. 23rd Day (Imja)

The king bestowed a sedan chair made of bamboo upon Yi Saek, Count of Hansan. 24th Day (Kyech’uk)

The king visited the residence of Prince Muan Pangbŏn to inquire after his health. 25th Day (Kabin)

The king held a banquet for Yi Saek, Count of Hansan, and Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, also attended. Listening to the songs, “The Enlightened Virtue of Our King” and “Military Achievements of Our King” [which were composed by Chŏng Tojŏn himself], the king said, “The excessive praise in the songs embarrasses me whenever I hear them.” Tojŏn replied, “It is because you have such a humble heart that I composed those songs.” Listening to the two songs praising his royal virtues and military con­ tributions. Ouchi played a leading role in Japan’s foreign trade during this time period. They were one of the most powerful families in Japan during the reign of the Ashikaga shogunate in the 12th to 14th centuries.

Book VIII

559

*   *   * Chŏng Sŏn, former vice minister of the Royal Stable Court, captured a runaway female servant and had her confined to his house. Then, a man named Yongsŏk, who had had an adulterous relationship with the female servant, killed Sŏn and ran away with the female servant. They were captured at Ansan and put to death. The dead body of the man was dismembered and displayed publicly, and the woman was strangulated to death. Min Yuŭi, magistrate of Ikchu,70 submitted a memorial to the king requesting that unauthorized shrines be abolished and the shrines for ancestors be established in each family, and also that chickens and pigs be raised so that they could be used for the old and sick as well as for ancestral rites. He also requested that female servants in the Buddhist temples be prohibited from preparing meals and that entertainers and performers be prohibited from wandering around and, rather, be registered on the household records and provided with land to cultivate. The king said, “There are already ordinances that address all these matters, but the problem is that they have not been properly enforced until now.” Then he ordered the Privy Council to transmit his decree to local provinces. 28th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king moved into the new royal palace. 29th Day (Muo)

The king ordered the Board of personnel to appoint Mt. Paegak as Count Chin’guk and Mt. Namsan as King Mongmyŏk the Great and prohibited high-­ranking officials as well as scholars and common people from performing ancestral rites on those mountains.



70. Modern Iksan City.

Book IX

Fifth Year of Reign (1396) 1st Day (Kyŏngsin)

Leading all officials, the king performed the ritual ceremony celebrating the New Year facing in the direction of the Chinese emperor. Then the king received congratulations from the officials and held a banquet for them. All the officials enjoyed themselves very much, and Yi Mubang, Great Lord of Kwangyang, became so animated that he got up and danced. Chŏng Tojŏn, director of the State Finance Commission, offered a toast to the king’s longevity: “Since New Year’s Day is the top of the year, and the founder king, the supreme head of a nation, to bring a nation into existence and serve as the supreme head is the foremost among all good things; therefore, he who is the founder of a dynasty cannot but be careful and discreet.” The king agreed. 3rd Day (Imsul)

Kim On, bureau section chief of the Board of Punishments, was incarcerated in the Capital Constabulary Prison for writing the given name (whi)1 of the crown prince as it was in a transcript of a ruling of the court. 4th Day (Kyehae)

The king inspected the sites where the city walls are to be constructed. 1. Whi originally meant the name of a deceased person or a man of high position. So one had to be extremely cautious when mentioning or writing whi names. Perhaps for this reason, whi also means “avoid.”



560

Book IX

9th Day (Mujin)

The people were mobilized from all across the country to construct the city walls of the capital. They were from Kyŏngsang, Chŏlla, and Kangwŏn Provinces as well as the Northwest Region south of Anju and the Northeast Region south of Hamju, and their number amounted to 118,070 altogether. The construction sites were already measured and numbered according to the order of the characters in the Thousand Character Classic (Qianziwen). Starting from the east side of Mt. Paegak with the character 天 (heaven), the sites extended to the west side of Mt. Paegak, ending with the character 弔 (condolence). The length of the construction site, including a hill in the western mountains, was a total of 59,500 ch’ŏk. A character was assigned every 600 ch’ŏk, and the total number of assigned characters amounted to ninety-­seven. Each site with a different character was divided into six sections, and to every site covered by two characters, twelve personnel were assigned. They included one director, one vice director, supervisors, vice supervisors, and administrators. Calculating the population of each county and province, the sites from character 天 to character 日 (sun) were assigned to the Northeast Region; the sites from character 月 (moon) to character 寒 (cold), to Kangwŏn Province; the sites from character 來 (come) to character 珍 (treasure), to Kyŏngsang Province; the sites from character (plum) to character character (dragon), to Chŏlla Province; and the sites from character 師 (teacher) to character 弔 (condolence), to the Northwest Region. The supervising officials were making the people work day and night, and the king ordered them to stop working at night because of the severe cold weather. To pray for the success of constructing city walls, the king offered sacrifices to Mt. Paegak and the Deities of the Five Directions (Obangsin).2 10th Day (Kisa)

The king gave orders to mobilize two hundred workers from the Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces to work on the construction of the Daoist Temple of Brilliant Rectification (Sogyŏkchŏn).

2. “Five directions” indicates the four cardinal directions of east, west, south, and north plus center.

561

562

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

11th Day (Kyŏngo)

Merit subjects at the inner royal hall of the new palace offered a toast to the king’s longevity. 14th Day (Kyeyu)

The king inspected the city wall construction project. 16th Day (Ŭlhae)

Chang Chach’ung, an envoy who had been dispatched to China to extend congratulations on the birthday of the crown prince, returned from the Ming capital. 17th Day (Pyŏngja)

The king was planning an upcoming visit to the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy, and Remonstrator Yi Chŏnggyŏn and others prostrated themselves on the ground outside the hammun, a royal gate reserved for the king only, begging that he abandon the plan. However, the king refused to grant their request. The following day, Chŏnggyŏn and others made the same request, but they again failed to obtain the king’s permission. The king summoned twenty-­seven monks to the inner royal halls, where they held a Dharma assembly, preaching the Maha Prajna Sutra as a supplication for eliminating natural disasters. 19th Day (Muin)

The king called Yŏ Ch’ing, director of the Royal Stable Court and said to him: “After I leave the palace, do not provide the crown prince with a horse even if he wants to go out to enjoy himself.” 20th Day (Kimyo)

The king, accompanied by Queen Hyŏn, paid a visit to the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy. *   *   *

Book IX

Kim Ipgyŏn, grand councilor of the Chancellery, died. The king had the morning audience suspended for three days. Ipgyŏn was a native of Fushan.3 He was the son of Ŏjin, patrolling myriarch (sunbang manho) of the Yuan court. Serving in the previous dynasty, he became a general and finally chief royal secretary. In our dynasty, he at first served as ch’amji grand councilor of the Chancellery and was promoted to ch’amch’an grand councilor of the Chancellery. His age was fifty-­seven when he died, and he was granted the posthumous title of Yangp’yŏng. He had no sons. The king appointed Kim Sŭngju, minister of punishments, as pacification commissioner and, concurrently, surveillance commissioner (ch’allisa) of Ch’ŏnghaedo4 of the Northeast Region. The king bestowed salary certificates (nokkwŏn)5 upon minor merit ­subjects. The king sent a royal secretary to the places where city walls were under construction and had him convey his order: “These days the weather is so cold that I am afraid that workers may be frozen to death. From now on, let them rest whenever it is windy and snows.” 21st Day (Kyŏngjin)

The moon approached a star in front of the Constellation of the Heart. 22nd Day (Sinsa)

The trees were covered with hoar frost. 23rd Day (Imo)

The royal carriage arrived at the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy.

3. District of Yantai in the Chinese province of Shandong. 4. It is presumed to indicate Ch’ŏnghae County in the domain of Pukch’ŏng Strategic Prefecture in North Hamgyŏng Province. 5. Nokkwŏn is an official document issued to merit subjects in which personal information is recorded, including the name and rank of the individual and the amount of salary. It was made in the form of a scroll.

563

564

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

24th Day (Kyemi)

The king summoned Yi Ch’om, former chief royal secretary, from Kyŏngsang Province. The king gave the order to paint a portrait of Buddha to be hung in the new palace and held Buddhist ceremonies. The consumption of oil and honey pastry (yumilgwa) was prohibited. When the crown prince finished his lessons, all the instructors left the room. Then Ham Purim, second tutor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office, approached the crown prince and said, “I have heard something about you, and it is not appropriate that you hide it from me.” The crown prince replied, “Tell me what you have heard.” Purim said, “You allowed prostitutes to be brought into the palace. Is that true?” Looking embarrassed, the crown prince said, “It will not happen again.”

2nd Month 5th Day (Kyesa)

There were strong gusty winds with sleet. More than eighty houses in the Kŭmch’ŏn Bridge6 area were destroyed by fire. 9th Day (Chŏngyu)

Equipment Manager (t’agakbu) Kim Ŭlchin and Tribute Manager (ammul) Ko Inbaek who had accompanied our embassy to Ming China to commemorate the New Year, returned home with a letter from the Ministry of Rites of China. The letter was as follows: “Our Ministry of Rites received the following imperial instruction: ‘Because the king of Chosŏn has often caused trouble before, I reported it to Yuezhen and Haidu [Deities of Great Mountains and Seas] and other 6. Kŭmch’ŏn Bridge was inside Ch’angdŏk Palace. However, Ch’angdŏk Palace was built in 1411, during the reign of T’aejong, so the bridge in question was probably in a residential area for commoners when this fire broke out.

Book IX

spirits of mountains and rivers and appealed it to the Lord on High. In the memorials submitted to commemorate the New Year in the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, Chosŏn erred once more by including some frivolous and insulting words. Though those words insinuate provocation for war and breaking the peace, it is not appropriate to raise an army to seek retribution only because of such arrogance. Why? In ancient times when the Zhou dynasty intended to undertake a punitive expedition against Quanrong,7 there was one8 who advised against the plan of sending an army to distant places based on five reasons that were established by the law of the former king. The reason that I did not raise an army right away has to do with the aforementioned precedent. Let Yi [Sŏnggye] know about the cause of trouble and at the same time send to my court the person who drafted the memorial. Then I will allow the envoys from Chosŏn to return home.’ Such is the instruction we received from the emperor. Our Ministry of Rites officially conveys the imperial instruction to your government.” The king and Queen Hyŏn visited Kwanŭm Cave and offered a sacrifice, praying to Buddha and returned to the palace the following day. 13th Day (Sinch’uk)

Song Munjung,9 governor of P’unghae Province10 captured a ship that carried Japanese pirates. Song beheaded the pirates and presented their heads [to the king], and the king sent General-­in-­Chief Kim Chŏm to bestow royal wine and silk upon him. The king appointed Kim Yakhang as academician of the Security Council and Kwak Haeryung as general-­in-­chief. 15th Day (Kyemyo)

The king ordered Kwak Haeryung to escort Kim Yakhang, who had drafted the controversial memorials submitted to the Chinese emperor, to the Ming 7. Also known as Dog Rong, it is an ethnic group active in the northwestern part of China during the Zhou (1046–221 bc) and later dynasties. 8. Probably Zhai Gong, the son of King Mu of Zhou (r. 976–922 bc or 956–918 bc). He was opposed to the use of force in settling disturbances. 9. A military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He also served as magistrate of Naju. 10. Modern Hwanghae Province.

565

566

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

capital and sent another memorial to the Ministry of Rites in response to the imperial letter: “On the ninth day of the second month of the twenty-­ninth year during the reign of Hongwu, Ko Inbaek, a military retinue member responsible for equipment,11 along with other people of our small kingdom, all of whom had accompanied an envoy dispatched to your court to celebrate the New Year, returned home with the official letter from the Ministry of Rites. Upon reading the letter, Your Servant became surprised and deeply mortified. “Pondering the cause of the matter quietly, the language and speech of our small kingdom, which is located in the remote corner across the sea, are not like those of China. So it is hard for us to understand the Chinese language without the help of an interpreter. Moreover, we are shallow in learning, crude in the use of words, and too ignorant to master the various ways of composing memorials, which naturally and inevitably prevented us from employing the correct words or expressions. How dare we provoke trouble by deliberately using frivolous and offensive language? As Heaven is my witness, this is indeed no lie. “Fortunately, Your Majesty, being gracious and generous, has decided not to punish us for our mistakes and forgave us. We are so moved and gratified to receive the favors from you, while we are deeply ashamed of ourselves, and the favors you bestowed upon us are too great to be repaid even with my life. “As I looked into the matter concerning the memorials, I found that the memorial on the occasion of the New Year, which we submitted to congratulate Your Majesty on the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, was drafted by Chŏng T’ak, chancellor of the National Academy, and the one submitted to the heir apparent, drafted by Kim Yakhang, director of the Court of Royal Ceremonies and Sacrifices. Since Chŏng T’ak is presently suffering from paralysis, we are unable to send him to you. So I send you only Kim Yakhang, who composed the memorial to the heir apparent, and let interpreter Kwak Haeryung escort him to the Chinese capital. I will await your decision.” The king gave orders to provide relief to the people of Kyŏngsang Province who were suffering from famine. 11. According to a previous record (ninth day of the second month), Ko Inbaek was a retinue member responsible for horses.

Book IX

567

*   *   * The king gave orders to the Privy Council: “Let all the workers recruited for the construction of the new capital return to their homes at the end of this month so that they can engage in farming.” 18th Day (Pyŏngo)

The royal carriage left Songgyŏng [Kaesŏng]. 19th Day (Chŏngmi)

The king watched people hunting on Sumi Plain (Sumiwŏn),12 after setting it on fire. 20th Day (Musin)

There was a red glow in the southeast sky. 22nd Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king returned from the Special Capital Magistracy to the palace with Queen Hyŏn. The Buddha’s skull relic and the Bodhi Tree Leaves Sutra (Porisuyŏp kyŏng) were formerly kept at T’ongdo Monastery.13 Fearing their loss to Japanese marauders, the king dispatched a man to have them brought to Songnim Monastery14 in the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy. The king sent Ham Purim, chancellor of the National Academy, to Kim Yakhang, who stayed in Ŭiju [on his way to the Ming China], and Purim conveyed a royal message from the king: “You will understand that I have no choice but to send you to the Ming court because I cannot ignore the emperor’s order. I want you to do well in giving your answers, making no mistakes.” In response to the royal message, Yakhang said, “How dare I not do my best?”

12. It is presumed to be located in Haeju, Hwanghae Province, but it is not certain. 13. Located in Yangsan County, South Kyŏngsan Province. 14. Located within the Fortress of Mt. Yongsu in Kaesŏng.

568

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

On the pyŏngin day [6th day of the third month] when he was ready to cross the Yalu River, Yakhang said to Purim, “I hope that His Majesty keeps men of virtue close while warding off petty people and carries out state affairs and laws with justice and benevolence. He should not worry about whether I die. I have long been determined to sacrifice my life for the country. It will be fortunate if you convey my words to His Majesty.” Having spoken these words, he left. The king inspected the construction of walls in the capital for three straight days. 25th Day (Kyechíuk)

The king gave orders to the Privy Council: “I have heard lately that a majority of the magistrates are not doing their jobs properly. Send my orders to each government agency to recommend talented men among the officials outstanding both in literature and military affairs whose rank is below grand master for excellent goodness [rank 2b] and above rank 6, for the position of local magistrate. If someone recommends the wrong person, he shall also be punished.” 27th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king ordered the offering of sacrifices to the wandering ghosts of construction workers [killed during the wall construction project] at the three sites outside the city walls and to have their families receive an exemption from corvée duty for three years. 28th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The workers recruited for the construction of walls in the capital were released to go home. The walls on the high and rugged places were constructed with rocks to a height of 15 ch’ŏk, and their length totaled 19,200 ch’ŏk. The walls on the flat terrain were constructed with earth to a height of 25 ch’ŏk. The width of these walls is 24 ch’ŏk at the base and 18 ch’ŏk at the top, and they run for a distance of 43,000 ch’ŏk. Viaducts were built over the drain, and stone walls were constructed on both sides of the viaducts. These walls are 16 ch’ŏk high and run a total of 1,050 ch’ŏk in length.

Book IX

The East Gate (Tongdaemun) is located on low terrain, so layers of rocks were first laid down, and a foundation and the walls were built on top of them. Therefore, twice the manpower was needed to finish the construction of this section than for other parts of the wall. The construction was carried out by the people from Andong and Sŏngsan,15 but they did not finish it. Sim Hyonsaeng, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, issued a request to the king: “Please let the workers in charge of the East Gate construction stay for ten more days so that they can finish their work now and not have to resume their work later.” However, Chŏng Hŭigye, chief magistrate of Hansŏng [Seoul], said to the king, “We cannot deceive the people. Recently your royal order was issued saying, ‘Since it is time to sow and cultivate fields, the wall construction workers should be released to take care of their farming.’ Those who heard of your royal order were all overjoyed. Under the circumstances, if you have only the people of Andong and Sŏngsan continue to stay and work, how will they feel about it? Furthermore, the reason that they were unable to finish their work in time was because the terrain on which the walls were built was very low, not because they were negligent in their work.” Finding this argument persuasive, the king also ordered that the people from Andong and Sŏngsan be released to go home.

3rd Month 4th Day (Sinyu)

The king ordered the Privy Council to hold a banquet for the officials of both central and local governments who supervised the construction of city walls [of the capital]. Malgŏn, the son of An Paek, attendant royal guard, became so drunk on the street that he recklessly seized the possessions of others. His outrageous act was discovered by Hwang Kŏjŏng, discussant of the Security Council, who was passing by. When Kŏjŏng ordered his servant to stop Malgŏn, the latter suddenly jumped on Kŏjŏng, shouting insults at him and pulling him down from his horse.

15. Andong and Sŏngsan are the districts in North Kyŏngsang Province.

569

570

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The king had Malgŏn locked in the Capital Constabulary Prison, intent on having him killed. The officials of the Capital Constabulary reviewed the case according to the law and made a report to the king. As a result, Malgŏn was punished by one hundred strokes with the heavy paddle and sent to serve in the navy. The king had monks assemble at the hot springs to build a wŏn house,16 and he bestowed 30 sŏk of rice and beans on them. Monk Chongnim, abbot of Chaŭn Sect, together with former director Yun Anjŏng, built a wŏn house called P’angyowŏn, where they treated ailing work­ ­ers recruited for the capital wall construction project. Whenever they found a sick worker, they called a doctor to examine him and procured the medicine he needed. They also provided meals, and when the patients were fully recov­ ­ered, they provided them with provisions so they could return to work. Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng heard of their activities and reported them to the king, and the king ordered that they be provided with rice and beans as well as salt and soy sauce. A girl named Torijang, a daughter of a resident of Chinwŏn County,17 heard that her father, who had been recruited to construct the walls in the capital, had fallen ill. Weeping aloud, she said, “Since I have no brothers, I must go and look after him to save his life.” Disguising herself as a man, she immediately left home. On her way, she found many people suffering from illness, and whenever she found them, she visited them to see if one of them was her father. She was finally able to find her father when she arrived at P’angyowŏn. Her father was seriously ill, but she looked after him with love and care and finally accompanied him home. The people of her birthplace praised her filiality, and their words reached the ears of the authorities. The government awarded her cotton fabric. 7th Day (Kapcha)

Eight officials of the Security Council were concurrently appointed as ­district magistrates of the Northwest Region. Kim No was appointed as

16. Wŏn (院) house refers to a facility providing services to the people. 17. Modern Changsŏng County in South Chŏlla Province.

Book IX

magistrate of Isŏng, Im Kyŏng as magistrate of Kangye, Cho Sung as magistrate of Ŭiju, Pak P’o as magistrate of Hwangju, Chang Tam as magistrate of Chŏngju, Hwang Kŏjŏng as magistrate of Sukchu, Nam Sil as magistrate of Sŏngju [Sŏngch’ŏn], and O Mong’ŭl as magistrate of Yŏnsan Prefecture [modern Yŏnan County]. 9th Day (Pyŏngin)

Yi Chŏn, former magistrate of Andong, was imprisoned. Chŏn had drinks with Chŏng Hŭigye, chief magistrate of Hansŏng [Seoul], at the residence of Prince Igan [Yi Pangŭi]. He became drunk and exchanged jokes with Hŭigye until his words became defamatory against the king. Hŭigye reported this, so the king ordered the Office of the Inspector-General to interrogate Chŏn, who replied that he could not remember what he said because he was drunk. 10th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The king left for the hot springs in Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. Initially, Censor Yi Chŏnggyŏn had requested that the king cancel his trip, without success. Then the Censorate submitted a jointly signed memorial to dissuade the king from taking the trip. The king said, “The purpose of my trip is to treat my illness. Why do you censors try to prevent my trip?” Then the king left. 13th Day (Kyŏngo)

While the king was on a hunt in the northern suburbs of Honggyŏngch’ŏn [modern Ansŏng],18 two private slaves of Yun Ch’im appealed to him, asking that he allow them to work at Ŭisŏng Palace Storehouse. The king had them sent away after being beaten with a paddle for their recklessness in making such an appeal. 16th Day (Kyeyu)

There was fog. The king appointed Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn, deputy chief director of the State Finance Commission, as examiners of the civil 18. It was originally located in Yangsŏng Distrct, which is close to Ansŏng in Kyŏnggi Province.

571

572

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

service examination, and Min Yŏik, chief royal secretary, and Ham Purim, chancellor of the National Academy, as examiners of the National Academy examination (Sŏnggyunsi). Chŏng Tojŏn requested that the king relieve him of the responsibility of examiner, but the king did not grant his request. Then he again asked to be relieved, but the king refused to allow it. Min Yŏik made a similar request, but his request was denied too. The king arrived at the hot springs. The king heard that many people from Chŏlla Province had died of illness during the construction of city walls in the capital, so he gave the order to have rice and beans bestowed on their families. 19th Day (Pyŏngja)

The king married his eldest daughter [Princess Kyŏngsin] to Yi Paekkyŏng,19 assistant director of the Quartermaster Bureau. 29th Day (Pyŏngsul)

On the king’s orders, the first harvest of the season, such as fresh vegetables and tangerines, as well as wild game from hunts, was offered on the altar of the Royal Ancestral Shrine. Nam Ŭn had an audience with the king, bringing his son with him, and the king bestowed two bolts of cotton fabric upon Nam Ŭn. Chŏng Ch’ong, envoy to the Imperial Throne, and his retinue returned from the Ming capital, bringing an official letter from the Ministry of Rites of China. The letter said:

19. A military official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He is the son of Chief State Councilor Paek Kŏi. He assisted Yi Pangwŏn (later King T’aejong) in suppressing the forces of Yi Pangsŏk during the First Strife of Princess in 1398 and became Chŏngsa merit subject. He also made contributions in suppressing the rebellion of Yi Panggan (Prince Hoean) in 1400 and became Chwamyŏng merit subject and rose to assistant state councilor. However, as his father Kŏi was exiled to Hamju, he was also sent into exile but later allowed to live in Chinju, his birthplace.

Book IX

“Men Kexin, minister of rites, along with other officials reported to the emperor: ‘The king of Chosŏn sends an official named Chŏng Ch’ong, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, to request your formal recognition and the royal seal.’ In response, the emperor sent us the following instruction, which is directed to the government of Chosŏn: ‘I had the fact clearly indicated through historical records that emperors of China from antiquity until now have ruled the people with benevolence. The feudal states enfeoffed [by the emperor] obey the law without fail once it is pronounced by the emperor, and they dare not transgress it. This is the system that has been handed down in the territory of China. ‘The four barbarian states surrounding China, however, are all different in their customs, and not all their leaders receive the investiture as the ruler of their respective states. Since they are outside the boundary of our enlightenment and sovereignty, China has led them with instruction and did not use the law to chastise them. The various sage emperors in the past worked hard to bring peace and stability, always keeping their desires under control and making the people happy. This was the reason they became sage rulers. ‘In order to spread benevolence under heaven, they divided the imperial domain and position (fu) into nine grades. Since they stabilized domestic affairs and pacified the outside regions well, they could govern the empire with little effort. What are the nine grades of official rank? [In the northeast], they are hou, dian, nan, cai, wei, man, yi, zhen, and fan. [In the southwest], they are bin, yi, and huang. [In the northwest], they are hou, sui, yao, and huang. The divisions were made based on the degree of distance and importance [of the territory], as well as on the level of their Sinicization. ‘To recognize one as the ruler of the country is part of our policy intended to ensure peace with the four barbarian states. What more can you add to it? Chosŏn in the reign of the current king likes exchanges with us and sends envoys whenever it pleases. There is nothing much I can do even if the king is wicked and cunning. However, his request for the royal seal and formal recognition, which was made through the regular exchanges, cannot be granted lightly. ‘Chosŏn has mountains as its boundary and is separated by the sea. So the nation was naturally formed on the east side of us and has developed its unique customs. When it requests that I grant its king the royal seal and formal recognition while his subjects as well as the spirits [of his land] are

573

574

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

watching, isn’t his request excessive? As I reviewed the precedents set by sage kings in the past, it is impossible for me to make such a promise. A few years ago, I admonished them to adhere to their tradition and respect the laws from antiquity. If they admire our culture, I will allow them to visit us; if they are against us, I will prohibit them from visiting us and let them do whatever they like to do. You officials of the Ministry of Rites, send an official letter to Yi [Sŏnggye] and let him know how I feel about his request.’ ” The Ministry of Rites sent another official letter: “Men Kexin, minister of rites, along with other officials, received another imperial instruction, which was as follows: ‘Since antiquity, small states have served the suzerain states and made sure that they chose the most appropriate wording and expressions to show their respect. According to the institutions established by ancient sage kings, those among the fiefs and states, including various feudal lords, nine wild tribes of the east (jiuyi), and eight wild tribes in the south (baman), who failed to pay tribute to the suzerain state or attend the council meetings of the rulers of states were required to submit an explanation concerning the failure of their duty, choosing the most appropriate wording and expressions and showing manners that are persuasive and polished. Looking at this, you will find that the use of proper words and expressions is most important when the suzerain state makes a demand of the vassal state or the vassal state serves the suzerain state. “Why in the past did the nations never stop having disputes and conflicts among them? It was because they failed to choose the proper words and ex­­ pressions or present persuasive reasons to their counterparts. Only Zichan 20 of the State of Zheng, being talented in the use of language, did not suffer attacks from other states. In producing diplomatic correspondence, Bi Chen made a first draft, Shishu reviewed it, Ziyu revised it, and Zi Chan polished it until it became detailed and precise. Because they worked this way, they never failed to maintain amicable relationships with the feudal lords [of other states]. “On every holiday and occasion, Chosŏn sends us an envoy along with congratulatory memorials. Though its memorials appear to show us all due 20. Also known as Gongsun Qiao, he was a statesman of Zheng who served as prime minister from 544 bc until his death. He was responsible for many reforms and strengthened the state under the difficult situation of being surrounded by powerful neighbors.

Book IX

respect, the words in them are often indiscreet and insulting. In the latest memorial requesting the granting of the royal seal and formal recognition of its king, I noticed the incident of tyrant Zhou mentioned, which I find extremely inappropriate. I am not sure if the impropriety in the memorial had to do with the king’s intention or the trickery of his subjects, or if the memorial was revised on the way to China, because it had no royal seal on it. For this reason, I am not allowing your envoys to return to their homes. If you send us all of those who participated in drafting and revising the problematic memorial, I will permit your envoys to return home.” This month, Tatara Yoshihiro, left grand master of the Capital (sakyo gono daibu) of Japan, sent us two Zen Buddhist monks named Tsuziku and Eirin with his pledge that he would suppress the activity of pirates and repatriate the Koreans held captive in Japan. The monks on his behalf presented gifts and asked for a copy of the Korean Tripitaka.

4th Month 1st Day (Muja)

The royal carriage left the hot springs and stayed in Yŏngju [modern Ch’ŏnan]. Sending out patrolling officers, the king prohibited the members of his entourage from letting horses graze on farmers’ crops. 6th Day (Kyesa)

While passing by Kwangju,21 the king inspected the area to find a potential site for his royal tomb. 7th Day (Kabo)

The king returned to the royal palace from his trip to the hot springs. 8th Day (Ŭlmi)

Pak Kwangch’un, a retinue member of envoy Yu Ku, who had visited Ming China to celebrate the New Year, returned home with an official letter from the Ministry of Rites of China. The letter he brought read as follows: “Men Kexin, minister of rites, along with other officials, received the following

21. Located in Kyŏnggi Province.

575

576

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

imperial instruction: ‘The king of Chosŏn tends to be suspicious and has caused problems repeatedly. There were a number of inappropriate words in the memorials that he submitted to commemorate the New Year, so I intend to detain his envoys who brought them in our capital. You officials of the Ministry of Rites, send an official dispatch to Yi So-­and-­so [Sŏnggye] and have him send the wives and female servants of his envoys so that they can live in our capital. I will have his envoys and their attendants work in the various departments of our government. Yi So-­and-­so keeps sending his officials to spy on the situation here, and that is unacceptable. If he does not send us the old and young officials [responsible for the controversial memorials], I will have all of his envoys sent to Jinchi Guard Unit.’ ” 10th Day (Chŏngyu)

In response to the prolonged drought, the king ordered that the drinking of alcohol be prohibited. 13th Day (Kyŏngja)

The drought has persisted for a long time, prompting the censorial officials to propose countermeasures: “First, current public construction works should be suspended; second, the families of the workers who died of illness during the construction of the city walls should be exempted from labor service; and third, investigations should be conducted into the delay in adjudicating the cases of prisoners, both in the capital and local provinces, and the officials responsible punished if they committed any wrongdoing.” The king had the families of the envoys detained in the Ming Capital provided with rice and beans according to their rank and seniority. The mother of Yu Ku was provided with 80 kok [of rice and beans]; the family of Chŏng Sinŭi with 50 kok; the mother of Kim Yakhang with 50 kok; and the families of retinue members were also provided with [unspecified amounts of] grain of different grades. 14th Day (Sinch’uk)

The prisoners both in the capital and the provinces were all released except those who were sentenced to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation.

Book IX

17th Day (Kapchin)

The king sent palace attendants to pray for rain in various locations around the kingdom, including Pagyŏn 22 in the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magis­ tracy, Tŏkchin in Imjin District,23 Taejŏng in Kaesŏng District,24 Namjin in Haep’ung County,25 Taeji in Yŏnan Prefecture,26 as well as Haeryongwang Monastery in P’oju27 and Ch’ŏnsin Monastery in Kangŭm.28 Eunuch Cui Tiermuer returned to the Ming capital. Earlier, when Tiermuer had entered the imperial palace to be in attendance on the emperor, the emperor told him to go home to see his parents. Later, the emperor asked about him when he saw our envoy in his court. Therefore, we sent him back [to the Ming court]. The markets were relocated because of the drought. 19th Day (Pyŏngo)

The king ordered the Hansŏng Magistracy to set up the name signs for the precincts (pang) of the Five Wards (Obu) in the capital. The East Ward (Tongbu) consisted of twelve precincts: Yŏnhŭi, Sunggyo, Ch’ŏndal, Ch’angsŏn, Kŏndŏk, Tŏksŏng, Sŏun, Yŏnhwa, Sungsin, Inch’ang, Kwandŏk, and Hŭngsŏng. The South Ward (Nambu) consisted of eleven precincts:

22. Pagyŏn is a famous waterfall in Kaesŏng and presumed to be near the Office of the Special Capital Magistracy. 23. Located in modern P’aju City in Kyŏnggi Province. 24. Kaesŏng District here indicates the area 25 li west of the city walls of Kaesŏng. The place named Taejŏng, which literally means “Great Well,” is 22 li west of the Kesŏng Magistracy. The well, according to the History of Koryŏ, was made by Chakchegŏn (posthumously King Ŭi), the grandfather of Wang Kŏn, the founder of Koryŏ. Chakchegŏn married the daughter of the Dragon King, and when he arrived in Kaesŏng for the first time, he dug a ground with a silver bowl at the foot of a hill and water sprang out to form a well. The government offered sacrifices every spring and autumn and also on some important occasions. (Sinjŭng tongguk yŏji sŭngnam, vol. I, p. 450) 25. Originally a district of Hwanghae Province. It became part of Kaesŏng and later P’ungdŏk County. 26. Located in Hwanghae Province, its name was changed into Yŏnbaek later. 27. P’oju is an old name of modern P’och’ŏn in Kyŏnggi Province. Haeryongwang Monastery no longer exists. According to a source, it used to be located in Mt. Sŏngsan. 28. Also called Kangsŏ, it is located near P’yŏngsan in Hwanghae Province.

577

578

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Kwangt’ong, Hohyŏn, Myŏngnye, T’aep’yŏng, Hundo, Sŏngmyŏng, Naksŏn, Chŏngsim, Myŏngch’ŏl, Sŏngsin, and Yesŏng. The West Ward (Sŏbu) consists of eleven precincts: Yŏnggyŏn, Indal, Chŏksŏn, Yŏgyŏng, Inji, Hwanghwa, Ch’wihyŏn, Yangsaeng, Sinhwa, Pansŏk, and Pansong. The North Ward (Pukbu) consisted of ten precincts: Kwanghwa, Yangdŏk, Kahoe, An’guk, Kwan’gwang, Chinjŏng, Sunhwa, Myŏngt’ong, Chunsu, and Ŭit’ong. The Central Ward (Chungbu) consisted of eight precincts: Chŏng Sŏn, Kyŏnghaeng, Kwanin, Sujin, Chingch’ŏng, Changt’ong, Sŏrin, and Kyŏnp’yŏng. The crown prince returned to the palace at night after visiting Yu Yongsaeng,29 former commissioner of the Security Council. 23rd Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king dispatched inspectors to both Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces to prohibit the people from recklessly releasing their horses to graze, thereby harming crops. 26th Day (Kyech’uk)

Yu Yang, former director of the Agriculture Office (Chŏnnongsi), was ordered to deliver 500 tribute horses to the Chinese authorities in Liaodong. 27th Day (Kabin)

The Office of the Inspector-General requested that Yi Chŏn be punished according to the law, and His Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan] said to the king, “I heard that Talch’ung, Chŏn’s father, had asked Your Majesty to look after his son before you ascended the throne. Though he committed a crime, I believe it is not appropriate to behead him.” The king suddenly ­remembered 29. Yu Yongsaeng (?–1434): An official of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn. He was the son of Assistant Chancellor Yŏn. He grew up in the court of King Kongmin and became deputy commissioner of the Security Council when he was twenty during the reign of King Ch’ang. In 1392, he served as military commissioner of the Northeast Region and magistrate of Hwaryŏng and rendered a great service in capturing Japanese marauders. Later, he served as minister of works, of punishments, of taxation, and sixth state councilor, and visited Ming China as envoy.

Book IX

and gave orders to the Board of Punishments as follows: “A man such as Chŏn, being crazy from the beginning, does not deserve any favor, but his father was a respectable man and used to be one of my associates. If I have his son beheaded, what would the ghost of Talch’ung say to me? Forgive his crime.” Then he had him exiled to Haenam District30 for hard labor (tohyŏng) after confiscating all his property. Chŏn died at the place of his exile while serving his penal sentence. 29th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king had eight hundred Buddhist monks gather at the Hall of Diligent Government to recite the Diamond Sutra (Kŭmganggyŏng).

5th Month 1st Day (Chŏngsa)

While the king seated in the Hall of Diligent Government, Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn supervised the civil service examination and selected thirty-­ three successful candidates, including Cho Yuin.31 They chose Kim Ikchŏng32 as the first-­place finisher. The king invested Yi Paekkyŏng [his son-­in-­law] with the title of Lord Sangdang. 4th Day (Kyŏngsin)

There was rain. The censorial offices requested that the king order the royal guard to tighten its security, reinforcing patrols. If any fail in their guard duties, they should be punished according to the law, without leniency. The king followed the advice. 30. Located in South Chŏlla Province. 31. Little is known about him except that he served later as minister of personnel. 32. Kim Ikchŏng (?–1436): an official of early Chosŏn. He served as governor of three southern provinces, successively, and became inspector-general. Then he served as vice minister of personnel, of rites, and of punishments.

579

580

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

6th Day (Imsul)

The Board of Rites repeatedly made requests to the king: “From now on, the candidates who take the examination should be required to answer only one question (ŭi) and provide interpretation (ŭi) on one subject, and their number should be limited to a hundred. Based on the precedents of literary licentiates established by the previous dynasty, the names of successful candidates should be posted in front of the examination site and they should be allowed to stroll in public for three days to promote the people’s zeal for learning. The tribute students (kongsaeng)33 who take the examination should first recite the books they mastered among the Four Books and Three Classics at the Righteous Records Office (Chŏngnokso) of the National Academy and register their names before they take the actual examination.” The king granted the request. The king had Mun Kyejong, minister of punishments, and Kim Kudŏk, third minister, and others imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison. A female servant of Yu Wŏnjŏng, Lord of Sŏsŏng, ran into armed soldiers who were transporting timber on the road. A soldier named Yi Pugae sexually harassed her and she was accidentally crushed to death under the vehicle. The Board of Punishments put Pugae in prison and tried to punish him physically, while making him pay for her funeral expense as well as the price of a dead person. Having heard of it, the king said, “The way the officials handled the case was not fair.” Because of the king’s remark, [Yi Pugae] was released a little later. 7th Day (Kyehae)

The king decided to send Nam Chae, left director of the State Finance Com­ mission, to Punghae and Kangwŏn Provinces, and the Northeast and North­ west Regions, as well as Kim Hŭisŏn, assistant director of the Security Council, to Ch’ungch’ŏng, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces, so that they could look into the condition of the people. In response, the Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king, saying: “It is not 33. “Tribute students” here refers to those who took the civil service examination, but they were originally the students admitted as nominees of local Confucian schools for advanced study and subsequent admission to the civil service. (Hucker, p. 295)

Book IX

advisable to send out royal messengers during the busy farming season. Though the idea of ascertaining the people’s circumstances is derived from your sincere love for the people, it would be far more convenient and profitable to wait until the fall before sending the officials.” The request was denied [by the king]. Yi Saek, Count of Hansan, died at Sillŭk Monastery in Yŏhŭng [modern Yŏju]. At the news of his death, the king suspended the regular morning audience and presided over the funeral, bestowing condolences as well as a posthumous title, Munjŏng. Yi Saek’s courtesy name was Yŏngsuk; his pen name, Mogŭn; and his family seat, Hanju [modern Hansan]. He was the son of Duke Munhyo Yi Kok, who served as director of the Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters (Chŏngdong haengsŏng) and assistant chancellor of the Security Council. He was a child prodigy who passed the National University examination at the age of fourteen. In the Muja year (1338), when his father Kok was appointed manager of registration (dianbu) of the Office of Personnel Appoint­ments and Royal Seals (Zhongruisi), Yi Saek was awarded the privilege of being a student of the Directorate of Education (Guozijian) because he was the son of Kok, who had been a Yuan official. In the first month of the Sinmyo year (1351), Kok returned to Koryŏ and died. Saek also returned home, to observe the mourning rites for his father. In the Kyesa year (1353), he was selected as the top finisher in the civil service examination by Chief Examiner Yi Chehyŏn and others, and that examination was the first to be held since King Kongmin took the throne. In the autumn of the same year, he also passed with top honors the provincial examination held by the Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters. In the Kabo year (1354), he took first place in the metropolitan examination (hoesi) and shared second place in the first kap category of the palace examination with another candidate. Highly praised by Du Bingyi, assistant administrator who served as palace examination grader (duquanguan), Ouyang Xuan, Hanlin academician recipient of edicts (Hanlin chengzhi), and other Chinese officials, Saek was appointed provisional participant in the drafting of proclamations and, concurrently, junior compiler of the Hanlin and His­to­­ riography Academy (yingfeng Hanlinwenzi tongzhi zhigao jian Guoshiyuan bianxiuguan). After he returned to Koryŏ, King Kongmin appointed him bureau section chief of the Board of Personnel and, concurrently, fourth royal counselor of

581

582

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the Office of Royal Decrees and junior compiler of the Bureau of State Records. The following year, he was promoted to the position of drafter in the Chancellery, and in the summer went to Yuan China, to work in the Hanlin Academy. In the Pyŏngsin year (1356), he resigned from office and returned home to serve his aged mother. That autumn he was appointed vice minister (sirang) of the Board of Personnel and soon promoted to fifth royal secretary (u pu sŭngsŏn). Thereafter he served the king as royal secretary for seven full years. In the Sinch’uk year (1361), the capital [Kaesŏng] fell into the hands of Red Turban bandits (Honggŏnjŏk). King Kongmin was forced to take refuge in the south, and Saek escorted him; when Koryŏ regained the capital, he was appointed merit subject first class and bestowed with an iron tally (ch’ŏlgwŏn) [an emblem of authority with the inscription of personal records, including rank]. In the Kyemyo year (1363), he was appointed supervisor of Confucian schools (ruxue tiju) of the Secretariat (zhongshusheng) of the Eastern Expedi­ ­tion Field Headquarters on the order of the Yuan emperor, and in Koryŏ was made academician of the Security Council and merit subject for utmost sincerity and defending principle (tansŏng pori kongsin). In the Chŏngmi year (1367), he was appointed director of the Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters, and in Koryŏ, chief magistrate of Kaesŏng and, concurrently, chancellor of the National Academy. He selected six or seven scholars learned in Confucian classics, including Chŏng Mongju and Yi Sungin, and let them teach the students [of the National Academy]. He had the instructors divide the classical texts among themselves for teaching, always emphasizing discussion and analysis or finding the middle ground, avoiding wayward views until the students thoroughly understood the topic under discussion. As a result, the old practice of focusing solely on rote memorization or practical matters gradually disappeared, and the serious study of Neo-­Confucianism began to take root once more. In the Kiyu year (1369), when he served as associate examination administrator together with Yi Inbok, examination administrator, he requested that King Kongmin implement the Chinese civil service recruitment examinations for the first time. Though Saek supervised the civil service examinations as many as four times, everyone was impressed by his fairness. King Kongmin built a shrine for his late Queen Noguk, but the shrine in which the portrait of the queen was to be hung was too ostentatious. Chancellor Yu T’ak submitted a memorial requesting that the king cease the construction, enraging the king to the point that he tried to kill T’ak and

Book IX

ordered Saek to draft a royal decree proclaiming T’ak’s death. When Saek asked the king to specify the crimes T’ak had committed, the king named four. Saek replied, “The crimes you just mentioned are not the ones that require capital punishment. Please reconsider!” Now, angrier still, the king made him hurry to draft his royal decree. Then Saek said, “I would rather die before fabricating crimes in my own hand.” King Kongmin finally realized that he was wrong, and Saek managed to avoid death. In the Sinhae year (1371), Saek’s mother passed away. The following year, the king appointed Saek Chancellery scholar despite his still being in mourning, but Saek declined the appointment on the pretext of being ill. In the Kabin year (1374), King Kongmin passed away. Saek’s health deteriorated so seriously that he had to stay home for seven to eight years. In the Imsul year (1382), [which was the eighth year of King U’s reign], he was appointed director of the State Finance Commission. In the Mujin year (1388), Ch’oe Yŏng made a request to attack Liaodong, China. [King] U ordered the Bureau of Superannuation and the Two Departments to discuss the matter to make a final decision. Many of those who participated in the discussion advocated Yŏng’s idea because they wanted to please the king. Saek also followed the general opinion, but when he returned home, he said to his sons: “Today I allowed myself to be involved in making a decision that is not right, and that was for your sake.” Later the king [then general Yi Sŏnggye] marched back with his army. Then he drove out Yŏng and others and made Saek chancellor. After King Kongmin passed away, the emperor of Ming China repeatedly demanded that Chosŏn send the chancellor and other high officials to attend the morning audiences at the imperial court, but no one dared to go because they were afraid. When Saek became chancellor, he urged the deposed king Ch’ang personally attend the morning audiences, and he himself volunteered to go to China with the purpose of making Ch’ang provisional ruler (kamguk). Consequently, he was appointed New Year embassy to China, and T’aejo [then general Yi Sŏnggye] said, “This old man is a man of spirit.” As T’aejo’s dignity and reputation grew by the day and the hearts of the people across the country turned to him, Saek was worried that there might be some disturbances during his absence. So he requested that he be allowed to take one of T’aejo’s sons with him on his diplomatic mission to China. T’aejo had His Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan and later King T’aejong] accompany Saek as secretary of his diplomatic mission. Having already heard of Saek’s reputation, the emperor granted him an audience and asked quietly, “Since you served as Hanlin academician in the

583

584

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Yuan court, I suppose you can speak Chinese.” Saek quickly replied in Chinese, “I personally came to attend the morning audience in your court” (qinzhao). Unable to understand what Saek said, the emperor asked him to repeat what he had said. Then an official from the Ministry of Rites explained on behalf of Saek. Since Saek visited the Chinese court after a long absence, his Chinese naturally would be awkward and inarticulate. The emperor said laughingly, “Your Chinese sounds like that of Nahachu.”34 After he returned to the court, Saek said to the people, “The current emperor [of Ming] is one who has no views of his own. I expected that he would ask certain questions, but he never did; instead, he asked only the things I least expected.” The people at that time laughed at him, saying, “How can a vulgar scholar understand the thoughts of a great sage?” In the winter, King Kongyang ascended the throne. As Saek did not concur with the general opinion of those in power at that time, he was ostracized as many as five times. When T’aejo ascended to the throne, he forgave Saek on the grounds that he was an old friend. Whenever Saek returned home after having an audience with T’aejo, he said to his sons, “He is truly a sage king who received the Mandate of Heaven.” Saek often requested that T’aejo stop public works, but when he found people who spoke against them, he would say, “The king who has founded a new dynasty cannot delay the construction works of buildings such as the Royal Ancestral Shrine, palaces, government offices, and city walls.” In the autumn of the Ŭlhae year (1395), he requested that he be allowed to tour the Kwandong region [Kangwŏn Province] and went to Mt. Odae with the intention to reside there. Then the king sent a royal messenger summoning him to the court, where he enfeoffed him as Count of Hansan. In his audience with the king, Saek said, “Why didn’t you inform me of your ascending the throne? If you had, I would have come without fail to pay my respects and could have made the occasion shine much brighter. Wouldn’t it be better than having a horse merchant lead the royal procession?” The one referred to as a horse merchant was Pae Kŭngnyŏm. Nam Ŭn, [who happened to be sitting next to the king], said, “Why is it necessary to invite an old, corrupt scholar like you?” Reproaching Nam Ŭn 34. A Yuan general who invaded Ssangsŏng in the Northeast Region in 1362, leading the army of thirty thousand or so but defeated badly by the forces led by T’aejo. Later, he surrendered to Zhu Yuangzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty.

Book IX

severely, the king ordered him to stop talking. Then he treated Saek with courtesy, walking with him as far as the middle gate to see him off as an old friend. Later, the people who heard about Saek’s insulting remarks [concerning Pae Kŭngnyŏm] became angry and resentful. So Nam Chae summoned Saek’s son Chongsŏn and said, “Because of the crazy remark made by your father, people are complaining. He will suffer disaster unless he leaves here.” In the fifth month of the summer of the Pyŏngja year (1396), Saek requested that he be allowed to stay at Sillŭk Monastery to avoid the heat, and when he was about to leave, he began to feel sick and his condition seriously deteriorated by the time he arrived at his destination. When a monk approached him to say something, Saek waved his hand to stop him and said, “I am well aware that a man is born to die.” Upon finishing these words, he died. Saek was by nature talented and intelligent. His learning was both accurate and extensive. He was magnanimous in dealing with people and considerate in carrying out his work. When he served as chancellor, he tried to follow the existing laws and did not like to change them frivolously. He worked hard to foster young students and was never tired of helping them. When it came to composition, he wrote very fast as soon as he grabbed a brush; nevertheless, his words were precise and their messages powerful. His works were collected in fifty-­five scrolls and published. He paid little attention to the finances of his household, and no one ever heard him say something recklessly or saw him ever show anger, suddenly changing color on his face. When he attended formal banquets, he was so relaxed and orderly in his manners that he never made mistakes. Though he served in the highest office for a long time, enjoying royal favors, he did not show his pleasure, and despite the fact that he met misfortune twice, he did not reveal his sorrow. In his old age, at the request of the king, he wrote epitaphs on the monuments of two monks, Master Chigong and Master Naong,35 so the disciples of the two monks frequently visited him. Because of this, he was criticized for indulging in Buddhism. Having heard of it, Saek said, “Since they prayed 35. Master Chigong was an Indian monk who went to Koryŏ during the reign of King Ch’ungsuk (r. 1313–1330; 1332–1339). He became royal preceptor. Master Naong, or Hyegŭn, (1320–1376) was royal preceptor of King Kongmin. He went to Yuan China to learn the Linji (Imje in Korean) kanhwa teaching that had been popularized by Master Chinul (1158–1210). He was interested in scriptural study as well as Confucianism and Daoism.

585

586

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

for the late kings and parents, there was no reason for me to refuse their favors.” He had three sons. His eldest son was Chongdŏk, and the second son Chonghak. Though they both served as commissioners of the Security Council, they died at an early age, and his youngest son, Chongsŏn, is now serving as third minister of the Board of War. The king ordered that the Capital Constabulary whip Yi Chin, bureau section chief of the Board of Punishments, and Sim Kyemong, vice bureau section chief, one hundred times each and let them return to their duties. Then he had ten slaves of Yu Wŏnjŏng’s household locked up in prison. When this happened, the Office of the Inspector-General impeached Yu Wŏnjŏng.36 8th Day (Kapcha)

The censorial offices impeached Yi Pin, commissioner of the Security Council, who was in charge of the construction of the city walls as commissioner. He went home several times, neglecting his supervisory duties. The king ordered that he be exiled to Yŏnghae Prefecture after revoking his appointment certificate as well as confiscating his land and the people who belonged to them. 11th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The king bestowed 50 kok of rice and beans upon Hwang Sŏng, assistant director of the Security Council. Sŏng was the father of Hwang Yŏnggi [imperial envoy of China]. 12th Day (Mujin)

The work of casting a new bell was finally completed. The king bestowed 2 bolts of silk each upon Kwŏn Chunghwa and Yi Yŏm, the commissioners for supervising the production of the bell. 36. A couple of days earlier, a female servant of Yu Wŏnjŏng had been killed by an armored soldier named Yi Pugae. However, the incident turned out to be fabricated by Wŏnjŏng because he himself killed his female servant while interrogating her. Yi Chin and Sim Kyemyŏng knowingly charged the innocent Pugae for murder, probably in order to help out Wŏnjŏng, who was a merit subject and a powerful grand councilor. This is the reason the king punished Chin and Kyemyŏng lightly and let them report to their duties as usual. Though the censors requested that Wŏnjŏng be punished, the king forgave him because he was a merit subject.

Book IX

18th Day (Kapsul)

Yi Wŏn, second inspector and Cho Ch’i, inspector of miscellaneous affairs, impeached Inspector-General Pak Kyŏng, Third Inspectors Chŏng Chŏl and Kwŏn Chŏng, and Inspector of Miscellaneous Affairs Yi Ch’i. This happened because Kyŏng and others conducted investigations on the death of a female servant who belonged to the household of Yu Wŏnjŏng and sent an official document to the Board of Punishments, requesting that Wŏnjŏng be exiled to a distant district after confiscating his appointment certificate. The king, however, forgave Wŏnjŏng on the grounds that he was a merit subject. 20th Day (Pyŏngja)

The Board of Personnel requested that the officials be allowed to exalt their ancestors and treat their spouses with respect: “1. For an official above rank 6 and responsible for ancestor worship of three generations, his ancestors of three preceding generations should be awarded posthumous titles. The rank of his father should be equal to his, and the rank of his grandfather and great-­grandfather should each be lowered by one rank, and the rank of their spouses should be lowered in the same way. If his ancestors happen to be merit subjects, two ranks should be added. “1. The lawful wives of officials should be called differently according to each rank: the wives of officials who hold rank 1 should be called kunbuin, and the wives of officials who hold rank 2, hyŏnbuin. The wives of officials who hold rank 3 should be called sugin if the position of their husbands is above chancellor of the National University; otherwise, they should be called yŏngin. The wives of officials who hold rank 4 should be called kongin; the wives of officials who hold rank 5, ŭiin; the wives of officials who hold rank 6, anin; and the wives of officials whose rank is 7 or below, yuin. The Board of Personnel should be responsible for handling the affairs and issuing a certificate to each individual. Those who have already received titles because of their husbands or sons who rendered great service to the state should not be restricted by these provisions after receiving the royal order. “1. Wives who are qualified to receive these titles are those who were virgins before they were lawfully married. If they were not virgins at the time of marriage, they should not be awarded titles, even if they were lawfully married; they should just be called wife of so-­and-­so who served as

587

588

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

so-­and-­so, or lady so-­and-­so, etc. Wives who have serious problems in their families [in terms of morality or loyalty] should also be disqualified from receiving the titles, even if they are the lawful wives of the officials. Those who recklessly use titles that they are not entitled to should be seriously punished, and, finally, those who are remarried after the death of their husbands should be deprived of their titles.”

6th Month 1st Day (Chŏnghae)

Sitting in the Kŭnjŏngchŏn Throne Hall, the king had the names of ninety-­ nine classics licentiates announced, including Yi Su, who had successfully passed the civil service examination. Eunuch Cho Sun was close friends with Pak I, a tribute student from Kongju. Pak I had failed in the examination, so Cho Sun visited Min Yŏik to request help. Then Yŏik told Yi Hŭiro, a chief official of the National Acad­ ­emy, to slip I’s examination paper in with those of the others. However, it was discovered by Ham Purim. Purim took the paper out and threw it away. The king enfeoffed the envoys detained in China with titles: Yu Ku as Lord of Chinch’ŏn; Chŏng Ch’ong as Lord of Sŏwŏn; Chŏng Sinŭi as Lord of Och’ŏn; and Kim Yakhang as Lord of Kwangsan. He also appointed Pak Kyŏng as governor of Right Kyŏnggi Province because the father of current governor Hong Kilmin had died. The king dispatched Kim Chŏnggyŏng, director of the Office of Guest Affairs, to Chŏlla and Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces to supervise the military exercise and inspect the weaknesses and strengths of our warships as well as the number of stolen vessels and the soldiers killed in battle. 2nd Day (Muja)

Yi Sŏngjung, commissioner responsible for the construction of the city walls, was incarcerated in the Capital Constabulary Prison after defects were found in newly constructed walls. Twenty people, including Song Moji, Song P’adu, Sin Wŏn, Kim Wŏn, So Komi, and Yi Haea, as well as monks named Sŏnun, Sŏno, and Talsŏn,

Book IX

returned [from China]. The government made them settle down in two districts, Ch’ungju and Ch’ŏngju, providing them with land, housing, food, and clothing. The king paid a visit to the downtown section to see the newly made bell. He ordered the people to ring the bell four or five times to test out its sound, and the bell cracked. He told them to cast another one. 5th Day (Sinmyo)

The Privy Council requested that all the eunuchs, regardless of their rank, be required to wear official uniforms when they greeted Chinese envoys. Cho Sun dissuaded the king from granting the request. 9th Day (Ŭlmi)

Both men and women were prohibited from wearing yellow robes and using costly trappings for their horses. The Board of Punishments punished the two slaves of Yu Wŏnjong with one hundred strokes of the paddle and three years of hard labor for making false accusations. 11th Day (Chŏngyu)

Chinese envoy Niu Niu, assistant director of the Seals Office (Shangbaosi), and palace attendants, including Wang Li, Song Boluo, and Yang Tiemuer, arrived. The king greeted them, leading out all officials as far as Pansongjŏng Pavilion. Arriving at the Hall of Diligent Government of Kyŏngbok Palace, the Chinese envoys delivered the imperial message they brought. The message read: “Since all the eunuchs who came from your country are free to stroll and look around the imperial palace as they please, the eunuchs we are sending to you should be allowed to enjoy the same privilege to see your royal palace as much as they want. Then it will be convenient for us to become a family through marriage in the days ahead.” The Chinese envoys also delivered an official letter from the Chinese Ministry of Rites, and it read as follows: “Men Kexin, minister of rites, along with other officials, received an instruction from the emperor: ‘Last time I told Yi So-­and-­so [T’aejo] to send us the ones who drafted the controversial memorials congratulating

589

590

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the New Year, but he sent only one of the drafters and did not send the others, namely Chŏng Tojŏn and Chŏng Ch’ong. So I now send you again Niu Niu, assistant director of the Seals Office, and palace attendants, including Yang Tiemuer, Song Boluo, and Wang Li, as well as interpreter Yang Ch’ŏmsik and attendant Kim Chang, whom you sent earlier, so that they can bring to my court Chŏng Tojŏn and others together with the families of Yu Ku. I will let them all live here.’ This was the sacred instruction from the emperor. We write down the imperial message and send it to you officially.” The king ordered all officials to gather at the palace gate every day and escort the king, always wearing black gauze caps. 13th Day (Kihae)

The king visited the Royal Ancestral Shrine and reported to his ancestors that the Chinese emperor had proposed to establish marital relationship with his family. The king released Yi Sŏngjung [imprisoned for failing to properly supervise the construction of the city walls]. 14th Day (Kyŏngja)

Cho Pan, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, was dispatched to the Ming Capital to extend congratulations on the imperial birthday. The government sent a letter to the Ministry of Rites, and it read as follows: “In the eleventh month of the twenty-­seventh year of the reign of Hongwu, your servant Yi Hyŏn, vice director of the Court of Interpreters, returned home from the Ming capital, carrying an imperial message with him. The message read: ‘Some of the words in the memorials brought by Chosŏn envoys are strange and unacceptable. Stop them from submitting any more memorials.’ “When we deliberate deeply on the imperial instruction, we believe that submitting memorials to the emperor is the least that a vassal state can do in serving the suzerain state and showing its respect to it. Hence, on occasions such as New Year’s Day or the imperial birthday, all the states both inside and outside China dare not fail to submit congratulatory memorials to the emperor. For this reason, I submitted a memorial to extend congratulations

Book IX

on the imperial birthday and the birthday of the heir apparent in the twenty­eighth year of the reign of Hongwu as well as another memorial for the New Year’s Day of the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, as I have done in the past. “In these circumstances, the Ministry of Rites sent us an imperial message that was as follows: ‘In the memorials [submitted by Chosŏn] to commemorate New Year’s Day in the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, there are frivolous and insulting words.’ “Having received your message and reflected upon it deeply, we realized that despite no change in the sincerity of your vassal state toward you, we cannot not help making mistakes in composing memorials because we are set apart by the sea from the great nation and shallow in learning and thus ignorant about the proper ways of producing them. So we are utterly at a loss. For the upcoming imperial birthday, which is the eighteenth day of the ninth month of the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, I dare not submit a congratulatory memorial to you.” 15th Day (Sinch’uk)

Kim Pogye, myriarch of Chindo Island in Chŏlla Province beheaded ten Japanese marauders. 17th Day (Kyemyo)

There was fog. The king dispatched Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief grand councilor of the Chan­ cellery, and Ku Sŏngno, discussant of the Security Council, to the Ming cap­­ ital to express his gratitude for proposing marriage between the two royal families, presenting twelve quality horses to the emperor. The prohibition of alcohol was abolished. Locust swarms struck in Kwangju, Kyŏnggi Province. 18th Day (Kapchin)

Yun Hyŏng, myriarch of Tongnae, and Yi Ŭigyŏng, chiliarch of Sŏkp’o, Kyŏngsang Province, captured a ship of Japanese marauders and presented

591

592

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

it [to the king] along with the arms and armor found on the ship. The king sent an official to bestow royal wine and silk on them. 19th Day (Ŭlsa)

There was thunder with lightning. 25th Day (Sinhae)

A thick mist persisted until the twenty-­eighth day. 26th Day (Imja)

After Queen Hyŏn fell ill, the king moved his quarters to the old palace. The king ordered the princes to entertain Chinese envoys in turns, inviting them to their private homes. Chinese envoy Niu Niu privately requested that he be provided with a prostitute for the night. He was arrogant and behaved rudely wherever he went. When he visited His Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan] at his private residence, he suddenly stepped down from his seat and prostrated himself on the floor to pay his respect to His Majesty. The followers of the crown prince [Prince Ŭian Pangsŏk] did not like his unexpected behavior and said, “How can an imperial envoy bow his head to the subject of the emperor? What kind of courtesy is that? There must be a reason.” They intended to entrap T’aejo [Prince Chŏngan?] but eventually failed.37 29th Day (Ŭlmyo)

There were strong winds and heavy rain in the fourteen counties and districts along the seacoast of Kyŏngsang Province, and the damage was so extensive that even the border areas of Chŏlla Province were affected. Rice plants were flattened, and trees were either broken or pulled out, and forty-­ three warships in various harbors were destroyed or damaged. This month, Hujihara Yorihisa, prefect of Satuma Ishuin, sent a man to present gifts. 37. It makes little sense to entrap T’aejo here because T’aejo had nothing to do with the unexpected, erratic behavior of the Chinese envoy. Besides, the political rival of Crown Prince Pangsŏk was not his father T’aejo but his elder stepbrother Prince Chŏngan who later became the third monarch of the Chosŏn Dynasty.

Book X

Fifth Year of Reign (1396) 7th Month 1st Day (Pyŏngjin)

After Queen Hyŏn fell ill, the king had fifty monks gather in the inner palace and pray to Buddha for her recovery. 3rd Day (Muo)

Due to a heavy overnight rainstorm, a section of the semicircular chemise [defensive bastion] near the water outlet in the capital collapsed. 4th Day (Kimi)

The king dispatched a eunuch to invite the Ming envoys to the inner palace, but they said, “We came here on a mission given by the emperor but have not accomplished anything yet. If we keep on enjoying ourselves, drinking wine, how should we report to the emperor when we return home? If you can tell us about the decision you have made, however, we don’t mind getting drunk day after day.” Because the envoys declined to come, the king sent two grand councilors to the guesthouse where they stayed to invite them once more. Then they finally came. 5th Day (Kyŏngsin)

After a heavy rainstorm, a section in the semicircular chemise near the water outlet in the capital collapsed again.

593

594

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

6th Day (Sinyu)

The Remonstrance Bureau of the Chancellery proposed measures to increase the production of military provisions and strengthen the army by submitting a memorial to the king: “We request that the construction of fortresses be suspended this autumn and that the people be given a break so that they can avoid abandoning their farming in the autumn and can put their efforts toward military training in order to be ready for any unexpected crisis.” 7th Day (Imsul)

There was fog. The king had the monks gather at the inner palace to pray for the queen’s recovery and sent officials to Hoeam Monastery to do the same. He also had Daoist constellations rites performed at the Sogyŏk Hall and released all the prisoners except those sentenced to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation. 8th Day (Kyehae)

Heavy rainstorms caused flooding and landslides in nine districts of Kangwŏn Province, including Ch’unju (Ch’unch’ŏn), Kŭmsŏng (Kimhwa)1 and Hongch’ŏn. One hundred and fifty houses either floated away or were submerged, and 108 people, 10 cows, and 9 horses drowned. Nam Ŭn, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery submitted a memorial to the king, requesting that he not send to China the officials who drafted controversial memorials to the Chinese emperor and the family members of the Korean envoys, including Yu Ku, who was currently detained in China. 11th Day (Pyŏngin)

Yi Chayŏng returned home from Japan. Earlier, he had visited Thailand as an interpreter, accompanying envoy Pae Hu, vice minister of the Office of Guest Affairs, to reciprocate a visit of Thai diplomatic envoys to Chosŏn. During his return voyage, he was captured by Japanese marauders in the

1. A district in Northern Kangwŏn Province.

Book X

waters off Naju, Chŏlla Province, along with a Thai envoy named Im Tŭkchang2 and others. All those who were captured were killed except Chayŏng. Chayŏng was taken to Japan and returned home now. The remonstrator submitted a memorial to the king requesting that he stop the construction of the city walls. Reproaching him, the king said, “The city walls are essential to the defense of the capital. Why do you make such a request? You go home and wait until I summon you.” 12th Day (Chŏngmyo)

Chŏng Hŭigye, chief magistrate of Hansŏng and Lord of Kyerim, died. Hŭigye was a native of Kyerim [Kyŏngju] and a son of Whi, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery. He started his public career in the previous dynasty. King Kongmin observed his face and stature and chose him as a close attendant. Hŭigye continued to rise in ranks and finally became great military protector. After King Kongmin died, he became the aide of Ch’oe Yŏng and, finally, deputy commissioner of the Security Council. After Yŏng was defeated [by Yi Sŏnggye], king [T’aejo], related by marriage, treated Hŭigye favorably, and consequently Hŭigye became assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and concurrently great military protector of the Soaring Falcon Army (Ŭngyanggun).3 Arriving at the time when the dynasty was founded, he joined those who recommended that T’aejo be elevated to the throne and received the title of mandate-­assisting dynasty-­founding merit subject. However, people despised him because he lacked education and acted rashly. He died of boils on his back. The king had the morning audience suspended, ordered the office responsible to provide assistance for his funeral with propriety, and conferred a posthumous title upon him. The Court of Royal Sacrifices proposed Anhwang for his posthumous title; however, the king ordered it changed to Yanggyŏng. His son is Kilsang. 13th Day (Mujin)

There was a heavy rain, and a meteor at night came out of the south gate of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure, entering the Lodge of the Five Emperors (Ojechwa).

2. The name of the Thai envoy is romanized into Korean. 3. It may refer to the Soaring Falcon Guard.

595

596

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

14th Day (Kisa)

The king paid a visit to T’aep’yŏnggwan Guesthouse and met with Chinese envoys. 16th Day (Sinmi)

The king held a banquet for Chinese envoys at the Kŭnjŏngchŏn Throne Hall. 19th Day (Kapsul)

Chinese envoy Song Boluo returned to Nanjing first. Leading all officials, the king went to Pansongjŏng Pavilion to see him off, and [another] Chinese envoy Niu Niu accompanied his colleague as far as the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy to bid farewell and then returned [to Seoul]. The king appointed Yi Ŭlsu, director of the Court of Interpreters, as tributary envoy escort (kwanapsa) and had him escort to the Ming court the officials responsible for drafting or revising the controversial memorials [to the Chinese emperor]. So he escorted Kwŏn Kŭn, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, Chŏng T’ak, third royal secretary, who had drafted the memorials and letters of felicitations (chŏnmun), and No Indo, drafter of Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture who had proofread them, to Nanjing, China. The king also appointed Ha Yun, chief magistrate of Hansŏng [Seoul], as envoy to the Imperial Throne and had him submit a memorial that gave a full account of the controversy related to the [previous] memorials: “On the eleventh day of the sixth month of the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, imperial envoy Niu Niu, assistant director of the Seals Office, and others arrived with an official letter from the Ministry of Rites, and the letter read: “We received the emperor’s order, which says, ‘In your last memorials and letters of felicitation submitted to commemorate the New Year, there were certain words that were frivolous and insulting. So I told you to send the officials who drafted those memorials, but so far you have sent only those who drafted the memorial [addressed to the crown prince or the empress], not the ones who drafted the memorial4 addressed to the emperor, 4. The memorials submitted to the Chinese court consisted of three kinds: p’yomun, chŏnmun, and chamun. The first refered to the one addressed to the emperor; the second, the one addressed to the crown prince or the empress; and the third, the Ministry of Rites.

Book X

i.e., Chŏng Tojŏn and Chŏng T’ak.Now, once again I send Niu Niu and others to your country to expedite your dispatch of those who have failed to appear at my court. I also want you to send the family members of Yu Ku and others so that they can live here.’ This was the order we received from the emperor. “We also received another official letter from the Ministry of Rites prior to the aforementioned one, and the message in it was basically as follows: ‘Though there were some frivolous and insulting words in your congratulatory memorials for the New Year, it is not appropriate to raise an army to seek retribution only because of those words. However, the ones who drafted those memorials should be sent here. Then your envoys detained here will be able to return to their homes.’ “According to our investigations on this matter, the New Year memorial in the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, which was submitted to Your Majesty, was drafted by Chŏng T’ak, chancellor of the National University, and another memorial was written by Kim Yakhang, director of the Court of Royal Ceremonies and Sacrifices. At that time, Chŏng T’ak was ill and unable to make the trip. So I sent only Kim Yakhang, who drafted the memorial, to the imperial capital on the fifteenth day of the second month of the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu. “Having received an order from Your Majesty once again, I must obey it. However, I have received a report from the Privy Council about the investigations into the allegations made against Chŏng Tojŏn. According to the deposition made by Chŏng Tojŏn, which was included in the report of the Privy Council, Tojŏn is fifty-­five years old and now serves as director of the State Finance Commission. In addition, he is currently suffering from abdominal bloating and beriberi disease. Furthermore, he never participated in drafting or revising the controversial congratulatory memorial for the New Year in the twenty-­ninth year of the reign of Hongwu, which was drafted by Chŏng T’ak, academician of the National University. Tojŏn requested that the authorities conduct investigations into the allegations against him, interrogating the officials of the Office of Royal Decrees and vindicating his innocence. “So we summoned and interrogated No Indo, an official of the Office of Royal Decrees. According to the deposition he made, Indo is thirty years old and without any health problems and now serves as auxiliary (chikkwan) of the Office of Royal Decrees. He sent the first draft of the controversial congratulatory memorial for the New Year of the twenty-­ninth year of the reign

597

598

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of Hongwu to Tojŏn, supervisor (chejogwan) of ritual ceremonies and director of the State Finance Commission, for proofreading. The memorial was drafted by Chŏng T’ak, chancellor of the National Academy, and it was composed on the fourteenth day of the intercalary ninth month of the twenty-­eighth year of the reign of Hongwu. Tojŏn at that time, however, was too busy to read it because he was in the middle of organizing the ritual ceremonies related to moving the tablets of royal ancestors to the newly built royal shrine. So Indo asked Chŏng Ch’ong, vice supervisor and assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and Kwŏn Kŭn, deputy director of the Office of Royal Decrees, to proofread the memorial. The Privy Council, in its report included with this deposition made by Indo, says that it is accurate and believes that it is all true. “Thinking about the matter the report is based on, I am ignorant about classics and histories, and all our officials are also limited in their learning because they live far from China and the language they use is so different that they have failed to master the proper ways of producing memorials and diplomatic documents. How, then, would they dare to insult you on purpose? “As you instructed, I send Chŏng T’ak, who drafted the memorial, Kwŏn Kŭn, who revised it, and No Indo, who requested Kwŏn Kŭn to revise it, to the imperial capital under the escort of Yi Ŭlsu, director of the Court of Interpreters. I will leave them at your disposal. However, since Chŏng Tojŏn had little to do with the memorial drafted by Chŏng T’ak and is also suffering from abdominal bloating and beriberi, I am unable to send him to you. “Speaking of your order requiring us to send you the family members of Yu Ku and others who are now detained in China, we have never been negligent in our duty since our small kingdom started serving the suzer­ ­ain state. Nevertheless, our New Year embassy, Yu Ku and others, are forced to stay in China and, further, their family members are soon required to join them. Our people across the country are all surprised and scared by what is happening, and the family members of our envoys are extremely distressed and saddened to leave their home. I very much feel sorry for them. “Following your order, I sent Chŏng T’ak and Kim Yakhang and others who drafted the controversial memorials to the imperial capital so that they can be at your disposal. Prostrating myself to the ground, I beg Your Majesty to generously forgive them and let our people have hope.”

Book X

20th Day (Kihae)

The king reproached himself for natural disasters and sought straight advice from his subjects. Chang Chach’ung, assistant director of the Security Council, expressed his view in a memorial. He said, “When the nation is not ruled properly, Heaven reacts with natural disasters.” The way he expounded the correspondence between Heaven and mankind was quite extreme. 21st Day (Pyŏngja)

When the king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the idea of mobilizing soldiers from various provinces to finish the construction of the walls in the capital, most officials below the rank of assistant chancellor were opposed to the idea. Then the king called the officials and said, “Having moved the nation’s capital, I expect to finish the construction of the walls quite soon. Under the circumstances, what is wrong with mobilizing soldiers from various provinces to complete the remaining construction work? Nevertheless, you are all against the idea. How, then, can I move the capital here?” U Innyŏl, left director of the State Finance Commission, replied, “We did not mean to say that you should stop constructing the walls forever; we only meant that you should wait until we have a good harvest.” Han Sangjil, Chancellery scholar, also said, “We were opposed to the idea because this year crops were poor as a result of the early drought and late rainy season as well as the locust damage. So we request that you wait until next year to finish the construction.” The king said, “I already ordered the governors of various provinces to provide provisions to the workers who would participate in the construction of the capital walls.” An Ik, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, said, “We were opposed to the idea without knowing that you had given such an order. We all made a mistake.” Hearing what Ik said, the king was somewhat mollified. He bestowed wine on the officials and sent them home. 24th Day (Kimyo)

The moon conceals Jupiter. Kim Yŏngnyŏl, navy commissioner of Right Kyŏnggi Province seized two Japanese ships on Ch’uja Island. They also captured three Japanese maraud­ ­ers alive.

599

600

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Chinese envoy Niu Niu and his colleagues took an excursion to the Han River and enjoyed themselves. 25th Day (Kyŏngjin)

There were strong winds. Venus penetrated the moon. The king entertained Chinese envoys in the sleeping hall of the inner palace. 26th Day (Sinsa)

There was fog. 27th Day (Imo)

Chŏng Tojŏn was enfeoffed as Count of Ponghwa, and Sŏl Changsu appointed director of the State Finance Commission. Based on the report made by the provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region, the Privy Council reorganized administrative districts. As a result, Sunnyŏng and Anjŏng were merged and renamed Sunan District. Kaeju, which was administered together with Hŭiju, was made into a separate county, and Taesakchu, Sosakchu, and Kuju were merged and named Chi Sakchu County. Chŏngyung, Yŏngdŏk, and Yŏngsak, which used to be part of Yongju, were merged and renamed Chŏngnyŏng District, and Yangam and Sudŏk were merged and named Yangdŏk Kammu.

8th Month 3rd Day (Muja)

The king appointed Kim Yŏngnyŏl5 as deputy director of the Security Coun­ ­cil and, concurrently, military commissioner of Kyŏnggi Province and dispatched General-­in-­Chief Chŏng Ku to bestow royal wine and silk on him. 5. The promotion of Kim Yŏngnyŏl appears to have to do with his recent military success in which he captured two Japanese ships together with three marauders. He was appointed navy commander of the Right Kyŏnggi Province on the first day of the sixth month in 1394.

Book X

4th Day (Kich’uk)

Chinese envoy Niu Niu and others watched a hunt using hawks at Yŏngsŏ Post Station.6 6th Day (Sinmyo)

There was frost. The king sent eunuch Cho Sun to Ŭiju to entertain Chinese envoy Song Boluo [who had to return home early]. A total of 79,400 workers were mobilized from Kyŏngsang, Chŏlla, and Kangwŏn Provinces for the construction of the walls around the capital. 8th Day (Kyesa)

The king ordered the Royal Stable Court (Saboksi) to dig a horse washing pond (semaji) to the west of its office building and went out to see the people working on it. 9th Day (Kabo)

Queen Hyŏn’s condition became so serious that the king had her taken to the private house of Yi Tŭkbun,7 director of the Directorate of Palace Attendants, for intense treatment. The king bestowed 50 sŏk of rice and beans upon Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission. The Japanese invaded Kyŏngsang Province with a fleet of 120 warships and took away 16 military vessels from us. They also captured the fortresses of Tongnae, Kijang, and Tongp’yŏngsŏng, killing Navy Myriarch Yi Ch’unsu. 6. It used to be located in modern Ŭnp’yŏnggu in Seoul. 7. He was a eunuch who served as assistant grand councilor during the reign of King U. According to the History of Koryŏ, he was avaricious and impeached for committing various irregularities. During early Chosŏn, he became director of the Directorate of Palace Attendants; however, in 1398, he was exiled to Kilchu, North Hamgyŏng Province, for taking bribes.

601

602

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

12th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king appointed Sin Yujŏng, chief minister of the Office of Guest Affairs (yebin kyŏng), as special commissioner (kyŏngch’agwan) of Ch’ungch’ŏng, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces to defend the region against Japa­nese raids. Queen Hyŏn’s illness became critical, and the king paid a visit to Yi Tŭkbun’s house [to see her]. 13th Day (Musul)

Queen Hyŏn passed away at night at Yi Tŭkbun’s house. The king grieved and wailed for her, suspending the morning audiences and closing the markets for ten days. 14th Day (Kihae)

Dressed in sackcloth with hemp belts, the crown prince and all officials mourned the death of the queen and wrapped her body in a shroud. Then they established four directorates and thirteen places [to pay condolences] to carry out the funeral rites of the queen. The king ordered the Ministry of Rites to proclaim the mourning for the queen and the procedures of the funeral rites, while moving her body to the old palace8 [for the visitors to pay condolences]. The king stops the high-­and low-­ranking civil and military officials of local provinces from paying condolences. 15th Day (Kyŏngja)

The queen’s body was completely wrapped in a shroud. The crown prince and the officials, all dressed in white sackcloth and caps, performed the mourning rites at the place where her body was laid. 8. It is not clear where this old palace or kugung was located, but some suggest that it could have been a state guesthouse of the Hanyang Magistracy.

Book X

603

*   *   * Dressed in white mourning robe and cap, the king went out to Anamdong9 and looked for the queen’s tomb site. 16th Day (Sinchíuk)

Venus approached the Constellation of the Heart. Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, who were both merit subjects, submitted a memorial to the king: “Respectfully, we believe Your Majesty on high turned your family into a nation in accordance with the will of Heaven and the wishes of the people. This was possible because of your sublime virtue and profound benevolence, which impressed both Heaven and the people. Her Majesty, Queen Hyŏn, also deserves the credit because she was faithful and discreet in her words and conduct. She was always careful in ordinary times and decisive in a crisis, lending her support to Your Majesty whenever you made serious decisions. The assistance and contributions that she has made as the wife of Your Majesty, shining in history, are too numerous to count. Since she suddenly passed away due to the indifference of Heaven, the sorrows and griefs of your servants are ten thousand times deeper than those of ordinary people. “As we look at ourselves, in spite of lacking talent and ability, we were so fortunate to encounter the great era [reigned over by Your Majesty] and presumptuously joined the rank of merit subjects. Though you are officially our sovereign, you are like a parent in our hearts. We owe you favors and gratitude beyond description but do not know how to repay them. Hence, we request you to appoint one of the merit subjects and have him watch over the queen’s tomb for three years. Then you can make it a precedent so that the tomb of the queen can continue to be guarded and managed generation after generation. Though this is very far from repaying our debt of gratitude to you, we would like to at least express it this way for now. It would be extremely fortunate if you were to grant our request.” Granting the request, the king had Lord Anp’yŏng Yi Sŏ, a member of the merit subjects, watch over the tomb of the queen.

9. An area in Seoul that now belongs to the Borough of Sŏngbuk

604

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

17th Day (Imin)

Pak I, construction supervisor of the capital walls who formerly served as director of the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources, removed the fence of the private house belonging to Yi Sawi, former deputy commissioner of the Security Council, while transporting the rocks that were to be used for the construction of the walls. Finding the road too narrow to pass through, Pak I ordered the soldiers who were moving the rocks to dismantle the fence and clear the passage. Then Sawi jumped on Pak I, beating and swearing at him violently. Ch’oe Yugyŏng, commissioner responsible for constructing the city gates, reported the incident to the king. Then the king had Sawi donate twenty slaves of his house to assist in the construction work of the South Gate. The king ordered the prohibition of alcohol and falconry both in the capital and the provinces. 18th Day (Kyemyo)

The king appointed General-­in-­Chief O Yonggwŏn as special commissioner of Ch’ungch’ŏng, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces, to be ready for Japanese incursions. Japanese marauders raided Kyŏngsang Province and took away nine battleships moored at T’ongyangp’o.10 20th Day (Ŭlsa)

The king visited Haengju and inspected the tomb site for the queen but did not like it. Yu Hanu, Pae Sangch’ung, and Yi Yangdal, officials at the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, were divided in their opinions, arguing among themselves over whether the site was appropriate. The king became indignant and had them all beaten with a paddle. 21st Day (Pyŏngo)

The king paid a visit to Anamdong and found a site that appeared suitable for the queen’s tomb. The following day he ordered men to dig the ground. When water appeared, he had them stop working.

10. Modern P’ohang, South Kyŏngsang Province.

Book X

23rd Day (Musin)

Japanese marauders seized Yŏnghaesŏng.11 The king paid a visit to Ch’wihyŏnbang12 and chose a tomb site after inspecting the topography of the area. 24th Day (Kiyu)

The king ordered all the civil and military officials to wear mourning dress only when they performed purification and memorial service because of the inconvenience while working. 25th Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king dispatched Kim Chŏksŏn, discussant of the Security Council, to the Ming Court to celebrate the birthday of the imperial crown prince. The king appointed Hong Yuyong,13 director of the Directorate of Pal­ ­ace Attendants, as special commissioner of Kangwŏn Province and Ku Sŏngnyang,14 director of the Bureau of Cultivation, as special commissioner of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 26th Day (Sinhae)

The king appointed Yi Chi, discussant of the Security Council, as chief surveillance commissioner (to ch’alisa) of Ch’ungch’ŏng, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces; Yi Ch’ŏnu, former discussant of the Security Council, as provincial military commander for assisting the war effort (chojŏn chŏlchesa) of Kangwŏn Province; and Yi Kwich’ŏl, former military commander of Isŏngdo, as provincial military commander for assisting the war effort of Ch’ungch’ŏng and Kyŏngsang Provinces. He made these appointments in order to prepare for Japanese raids. 11. A coastal town in North Kyŏngsang Province between Uljin and Yŏngdŏk. 12. The modern Chŏndong area in Seoul. Chwihyŏnbang was one of the eleven precincts belonging to the West Ward in Hanyang (Seoul) during the Chosŏn dynasty. 13. Serving as special commissioner, he committed wrongdoings and, consequently, the king revoked his appointment. 14. A military official of early Chosŏn. After serving as general-­in-­chief, he became special commissioner. Later, he also served as military commander of Ch’unch’ŏng Province and grand protector of Andong Strategic Prefecture (Andong tohobu).

605

606

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

28th Day (Kyech’uk)

The Court of Royal Sacrifices presented three prospective temple names for Queen Hyŏn: Hyoso, Sosun, and Sohŏn. It also presented several posthumous titles for Chŏng Hŭigye—including Anyang, Anhwang, and Anhok— to the Board of Rites. Then the Board of Rites passed them on to the Chancellery, and the Chancellery made a final report and submitted them to the king for his approval. 29th Day (Kabin)

The following Kabin day [29th day], the king summoned Ch’oe Kyŏn, erudite of the Court of Royal Sacrifices who played a major role in determining the posthumous title of Chŏng Hŭigye. The king said, “Hŭigye is a merit subject who rendered a great service to the state. How could you treat him so badly? For what reason did you only illustrate his shortcomings without mentioning his contributions?” Then the king immediately sent him to the Capital Constabulary Prison for interrogation. He also ordered the incarceration of other Court of Royal Sacrifices officials: Vice Minister An Sŏng, Assistant Director Kim Pun, Senior Supplicator (taech’uk) Han Ko, Chief Musician (hyŏmnyullang) Min Simŏn, and Record Keeper Yi Sajing. This turn of events prompted the Board of Punishments to impeach Chŏn Paegyŏng and Yi Hwang, policy advisors; Maeng Sasŏng, third minister of the Board of Rites; Cho Sasu, assistant bureau section chief [of the Board of Rites]; and others for failing to point out the problems with the posthumous title presented by the Court of Royal Sacrifices. This month, the provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region requested that a new fortress be constructed in Yŏngsakchin.15 The king granted his request.

9th Month 1st Day (Pyŏngjin)

The frequent occurrence of natural disasters prompted the king to order Assistant Grand Councilor An Ik and Chancellery Scholar Han Sangjil to

15. Modern Ch’ŏnma County in North P’yŏngan Province.

Book X

607

offer sacrifices to Mt. Paegak and to send officials to various temples to hold the ceremony for eliminating disasters. 5th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The Board of Punishments decided on the penalties for the officials of the Court of Royal Sacrifices in accordance with the law. As a result, Ch’oe Kyŏn was sentenced to death by strangulation, and An Sŏng and Kim Pun to one hundred strokes of a paddle and three years of hard labor. Having heard of it, Left Chancellor Cho Chun felt sorry for them and said, “Is Kyŏn’s offense serious enough to deserve such punishment?” Then he reviewed the provisions of law relating to their punishments together with Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, and Tang Sŏng, minister [of personnel], and went into the palace to have an audience with the king, still holding the law code in his hand. When they appealed to him, the king followed their advice. Consequently, Kyŏn was sentenced to hard labor and exiled to Kimhae after being struck one hundred times with a paddle. Sŏng and others were also punished physically, though in different degrees, and sent into exile. Sŏng was sent to Ch’uksan, Pun to Kaksan, Sim Ŏn to Sunch’ŏn, and Sajing to Kangju. The officials, including Chŏn Paegyŏng, Yi Hwang, Maeng Sasŏng, and Cho Sasu, were all dismissed from office; and as for Hŭigye, he was granted the new posthumous title of Yanggyŏng. 6th Day (Sinyu)

There was fog, and the fog persisted until the following day. 9th Day (Kapcha)

The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “Since the conferment of posthumous titles is one of the important affairs of state, it cannot be entrusted exclusively to the erudites of the Court of Royal Sacrifices. We request that the matter be discussed first by the officials of the Court of Royal Sacrifices, including the chamberlain, and reported to the Privy Council so that the latter can submit it to the king. This procedure should be made into law.” *   *   *

608

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Sin Yujŏng and O Yonggwŏn16 were imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison because they delayed executing royal orders for a long time. The king inspected the construction of the city walls and bestowed wine on the construction supervisors. The king inspected the construction of the royal tomb. The king bestowed silk upon Yŏ Ŭison, magistrate of Cheju Island, and also 30 sŏk of rice upon his mother. 12th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The Board of Punishments presented the case in which Yi Sawi assaulted and abused construction supervisor Pak I while the latter was carrying out his duty, and the king ordered Sawi locked up in the Capital Constabulary Prison. 13th Day (Mujin)

The Board of Punishments impeached O Yonggwŏn, supreme general, Sim Ching and No Sangŭi, generals-­in-­chief, Yun Poro, general of the Middle Army, Yi Sagŭn, general of the Left Army, and others for drinking wine and eating meat during the mourning for Queen Hyŏn. The king only allowed them to be dismissed from their offices. However, the Board of Punishments, submitting a memorial, requested that the king punish them more severely. Then the king allowed the Board to strip them of their titles. 14th Day (Kisa)

Cho Inok, Lord of Hansan, died. His clan seat was Hanyang, and he was the son of Ton, minister of taxation. During the reign of King Kongmin, he started serving in the government as executive captain and finally rose to the rank of senior military protector. In the Mujin year (1388), he joined the

16. Previously, they were dispatched to three southern provinces as special commissioners in order to supervise the preparation against Japanese raids. They obviously failed in their mission.

Book X

military expedition against Liaodong led by T’aejo and assisted T’aejo in making the decision at Wihwa Island to turn around to march back home. Because of the contributions he made, he was appointed minister of punishments (chŏnbŏp p’ansŏ) and later third royal secretary (u pu taeŏn) in the Kisa year (1389). In the Imsin year (1392), he participated in the meet­ ­ing in which the decision was made to recommend that T’aejo be elevated to the throne and later became assistant director of the Security Council and merit subject titled “Steadfastly-­loyal and mandate-­assisting, dynasty-­ founding merit subject” (Such’ung chwamyŏng kaeguk kongsin) when T’aejo ascended the throne. In the Ŭlhae year (1395), he was enfeoffed as Lord of Hansan. After he died of illness, the king ordered the appropriate office to carry out his funeral and bestowed upon him a posthumous title, Ch’ungjŏng. From his youth, Cho Inok was known as a man of principle. He also acquired some learning so that he liked to talk about things related to history. When T’aejo marched his army back home, he had a secret meeting with Nam Ŭn and others to recommend that T’aejo be elevated to the throne but did not dare speak of it openly because he was afraid of T’aejo’s integrity and authority. Later, when he returned [to Kaesŏng], he told His Majesty [then Yi Pangwŏn] about the meeting, and His Majesty warned him to keep it a secret. In the Imsin year, along with Nam Ŭn and others, he finally revealed it to His Majesty and accomplished the great plan. In the Kyŏngin year (1410), his tablet was established in the royal shrine of T’aejo. He was survived by four sons: Noe, Chae, Kwan, and Kaeng. 15th Day (Kyŏngo)

In a procession with ceremonial armed guards, the king relocated his residence to Kyŏngbok Palace. 18th Day (Kyeyu)

Leading various officials, the king held a ceremony celebrating the imperial birthday of the Chinese emperor. Chinese envoys, including Niu Niu, first rose to the double-­tiered stone platform (wŏldae) and performed the rite of bowing down five times with the forehead touching the ground three times (obae sam kodurye). On this day, the king paid a visit to the T’aep’yŏnggwan Guesthouse and held a banquet for Chinese envoys.

609

610

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

22nd Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king ordered that Yi Sawi be released from prison.17 24th Day (Kimyo)

The king forgave the transgressions committed by Sin Yujŏng and O Yonggwŏn.18 With the completion of the city wall construction, the workers were released to return to their homes. Some wall sections laid in the spring crumbled because of the water spouting up from the ground, so they had to be repaired with either rocks or earth. One of the cloud bridges (unje) was also destroyed in the flooding, so it was rebuilt and an additional cloud bridge was constructed in order to divide the flowing water. The stone walls that were too low were built up with more rocks. Every gate of the walls had a dome-­like ceiling and a pavilion on top of it. The gate located due north was named Sukch’ŏngmun, and the one located in the northeast Honghwamun, commonly called Tongsomun. The gate located due east was named Hŭnginmun, commonly called East Gate (Tongdaemun), and the one located in the southeast Kwanghŭimun, commonly called Sugumun. The gate located due south was named Sungnyemun, commonly called South Gate (Namdaemun), and the one located somewhat to the north Sodŏngmun, commonly called Sŏsomun. The gate located due west was named as Tonŭimun, and the one in the northeast Ch’angŭimun. 28th Day (Kyemi)

The Court of Royal Sacrifices submitted Queen Sindŏk as the temple name for Queen Hyŏn and Chŏngnŭng as the name of her royal tomb. The Privy Council decided to merge districts and counties based upon the reports made by the governors of the provinces concerned and submitted 17. A little more than a month earlier, Yi Sawi, former royal secretary, was involved in a fight with Pak I, construction supervisor of city walls. The road being too narrow, the latter intentionally broke Sawi’s fence in order to transport the rocks to the construction site. Though Pak I’s action was done in the performance of his duty, Sawi became furious and physically assaulted him. The king was displeased and had Sawi imprisoned. 18. Eleven days earlier, they were impeached and dismissed from office for having drinks and meat during the funeral of Queen Hyŏn.

Book X

a proposal to the king for his approval. As a result, Yŏnp’ung and Changmyŏngjin of P’unghae Province were merged under the name of Yŏnp’ung Subdistrict (kammu);19 Munhwa and Paengnyŏng under the name of Munhwa District; Chaeryŏng and Samjigang under the name of Chaeryŏng District; Hyŏpkye and Sinŭn under the name of Sinŭn District; and Kahwa and Yŏngnyŏng under the name of Kahwa Subdistrict. Yŏnggang, Ch’ŏlhwa, and Ŭnnyul were each made into subdistricts; Tongbok and Hwasun of Chŏlla Province were merged under the name of Tongbok Sub­district; and Mup’ung and Chugye under the name of Mup’ung Subdistrict. When the workers from Chŏlla Province transported the canopy stones for the king’s future royal tomb (surŭng),20 the vehicles carrying them overturned, leaving as many as eighty-­nine workers with broken arms and legs.

10th Month 1st Day (Ŭlyu)

The king bestowed a royal horse each upon Kwŏn Hwa, Pak Chaan, and Sin Yuhyŏn, the commissioners supervising the construction of the city walls in the capital. 2nd Day (Pyŏngsul)

The king went out to inspect the construction of city walls. 3rd Day (Chŏnghae)

An Ik, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and Kim Hŭisŏn, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, were dispatched to the Ming capital to celebrate the forthcoming New Year. 4th Day (Muja)

There was fog.

19. Kammu normally indicates the magistrate of subdistricts or small districts. However, it also indicates the subdistricts themselves. 20. The royal tomb referred to as surŭng indicates the one made while the king was still alive. T’aejo’s royal tomb is called Kŏnwŏnnŭng and is located in Kuri City, Kyŏnggi Province.

611

612

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

5th Day (Kich’uk)

The king ordered all officials to gather at the palace gate for the regular morning audience at four to five o’clock (ogyŏng sajŏm) on workdays and at three to four o’clock (ogyŏng iljŏm) for major morning audiences.21 10th Day (Kabo)

The king ordered Cho Chun, left chancellor, and Yi Kŭn, commissioner of the Security Council, to submit a eulogy in relation to the posthumous title of Queen Sindŏk. Yi Sangchwa and Kang Ch’ung, who returned home from overseas, were made to live in Chŏlla Province. 11th Day (Ŭlmi)

It was the king’s birthday. The palace served meals to 108 monks in the yard and had them recite the Diamond Sutra. The king ordered the release of the prisoners both in the capital and the provinces except those who were sentenced to capital punishment by either beheading or hanging. He also granted that the property confiscated from former officials, including U Hyŏnbo and Yi Chŏn, be returned to their owners. 13th Day (Chŏngyu)

A meteor emerged from the Stomach Lodge (Wisŏng), entering the constella­ ­tion of Aries (Ch’ŏnjanggunsŏng). 14th Day (Musul)

The Privy Council readjusted the jagged boundaries of districts and counties of each local province, cutting off the boundaries where they jutted out and evening them out where they veered inward. When the Council submitted a detailed plan, the king gave his approval. 21. In ancient China, the night hours were usually referred to by the watch (wugeng) count. Ogyŏng indicated 3:00 to 5:00 a.m., and chŏm the subdivision of kyŏng hours. Hence, one can see that the regular morning audience here was held somewhere between 4:00 and 5:00 a.m., and major audiences between 3:00 and 4:00 a.m.

Book X

17th Day (Sinchíuk)

O Chunghwa, assistant grand councilor-­without-­portfolio of the Chancellery, died. Chunghwa was a native of Tongbok in Naju. He was the son of Sŏn, Lord of Kusŏng. In the previous dynasty, he rose to the rank of commissioner of the Security Council. When T’aejo visited Kaesŏng during the reign of King Kongmin, Sŏn saw T’aejo for the first time, and he was so impressed by him that he asked him to take care of his son [Chunghwa]. He said, “I am already too old and have not many days left. I would like to ask you to look after my son in the days ahead.” When the king was out of public view and living at his private residence [before he ascended the throne], he treated Chunghwa generously, and after he ascended the throne, he made him left director of the State Finance Commission. However, Chunghwa was by nature careless in his conduct and prone to lie and made innocent people look suspicious. Consequently, he failed to be employed at the high level of the hierarchy. He built a new house and had an ox tied to a column even before the earthen walls of the house were dried. When the ox was surprised and ran amuck, the column of the house was pulled out and Chunghwa, who unwittingly stayed inside, was crushed to death. He was survived by his two sons, Sŭng and Che. 18th Day (Imin)

The government had Palace Censor Kwak Kyŏngŭi transport twenty-­five Chinese soldiers, including Lou Jindao, to Liaodong, China, and deliver them to Chinese authorities. The king ordered the Court of Royal Sacrifices to grant a posthumous title to Ch’oe Yŏng, who served as chancellor in the previous dynasty. The leaders of the Woduli tribe, including Suoyima and Yuezhe, arrived and presented their local products, so the king bestowed them with twenty bolts of ramie, hemp cloth, and cotton fabric. 22nd Day (Pyŏngo)

There was thunder.

613

614

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

23rd (Chŏngmi)

The king appointed Ch’oe Unhae, administrative director of the Security Council, as provincial military commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province, and Yi Kwich’ŏl, former military commander of Isŏng, as provincial military commissioner of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. The government had six people who returned home from overseas, including Ko Kyŏm, settle down in Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, providing them with lands and houses. 27th Day (Sinhae)

Japanese marauders laid siege to Tongnae Garrison. Unable to capture the garrison, they finally withdrew after setting fire to our battleships and destroy­­ing twenty-­one of them. Navy Myriarchs Yun Hyŏng and Im Sik died in battle.

11th Month 1st Day (Ŭlmyo)

The military banner of the Middle Army moved by itself. 2nd Day (Pyŏngjin)

Ch’oe Unhae, military commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province, Yu Yang, Magistrate of Kyerim, and others had a battle with Japanese marauders in Changgi22 and beheaded three of them. Sijin, Tŏgŭn, and Ch’aeun in Ch’ungch’ŏng Province were merged into one under the name of Tŏgŭn Subdistrict.23 Kyŏngyang District was abolished and made into property land, having its name changed to Kyŏngyangjang and merged into Chiksan County.24



22. A coastal town in South Kyŏngsang Province. 23. Modern Yŏnmu District in Nonsan City. 24. Located in modern Ch’ŏnan City.

Book X

4th Day (Muo)

Ha Yun, envoy to the Imperial Throne, and Ch’ŏng T’ak, who had drafted the [controversial] memorial to the Chinese emperor, returned home with a letter from the Ministry of Rites of China. The letter was as follows: “The officials of the Ministry of Rites, including Zhang Bing, left vice minister (zuo shilang) of the Ministry of Rites, received an imperial order from the emperor, which was as follows: The memorials that Chosŏn submitted previously contained some frivolous and insulting remarks that seemed to be deliberately made. So I had six Chosŏn envoys, including Yu Ku, detained in our capital and demanded that Chŏng Tojŏn, an author of that problematic memorial, be sent to our capital. The envoys of Chosŏn have now arrived with a reply from their king, which said, “Being seriously ill, Chŏng Tojŏn is unable to travel.” So the king sent only three officials, including Chŏng T’ak, who participated in drafting the memorials, and chose not to send Chŏng Tojŏn. I ordered them to be investigated, and they stated that it was certain that the memorials submitted to me were drafted by outstanding scholars and that the memorials submitted most recently were no exception. The envoys, including Yu Ku, who were here last time did not belong to that group of outstanding scholars, so I had already let them return to their country even before the current visiting envoys arrived. I intend to return the current visiting envoys soon, together with those who visited last time. I believe that these envoys are all conversant with histories and precedents; nevertheless, they secretly included some frivolous and insult­ ­ing words when they drafted the memorials. Wouldn’t the king of Chosŏn say that their mistake is only that of a few aberrant Confucian scholars? When those Chosŏn scholars are compared with their counterparts in ancient China, they are no better than a Confucian scholar who was base in his rank and status. In antiquity, when the State of Chu attacked the State of Zheng, it suffered defeat because it was outnumbered by the Zheng army. The State of Zheng captured Lord Zhongyi of Yun (Yungong Zhongyi), who was a musician, and presented him to the

615

616

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

State of Jin. Taking notice of him in the military camp, the Duke of Jin asked, “Who is the one who wears a cap worn by the people of the south?” The office concerned said, “He is a captive of the State of Chu presented by the State of Zheng.” The Duke of Jin called the captive and asked some questions. Though Zhongyi was originally a musician [yŏngin] who was base in status, the words he spoke were all reasonable and free from prejudice or ignobility. Despite being a slave, he was a superior man as far as the way he thought and spoke was concerned. When the Duke of Jin spoke to Fan Wenzi about Zhongyi, Wenzi knew that Zhongyi was an extraordinary person. Wenzi said to the duke, “Why don’t you send him back to his country? Since the State of Jin and the State of Chu have been at war for many years, numerous lives have been lost and injured and the harmony between heaven and earth has been harmed. If this man is allowed to return to his country, the military conflicts between Jin and Chu will certainly come to an end no matter how hard they have fought.” The Duke of Jin took the advice and returned the captive to the State of Chu after treating him hospitably. Not long after Zhongyi returned, the State of Chu sent an envoy to express its gratitude for the return of Zhongyi. Thereafter, the soldiers were sent home and the war stopped, and there were no problems of fighting a war for several decades. This shows an instance in which even a man of base social status can bring peace to the state if he possesses the virtue of a superior man. The few Chosŏn scholars [mentioned earlier], therefore, are no better than the musician of the State of Chu who was base in social status. Hence, I intend to hold them here in our capital to prevent them from attending the king [of Chosŏn]. There is an old saying: “One should assist his lord by leading him with the “Way” (Dao) and not pretending to be strong throughout the world by displaying his military power.” Those few scholars [of Chosŏn] tried to serve their king without considering the strength [of their coun­ ­try] and dared to pretend to be strong, acting defiantly by using frivolous and insulting language [in drafting memorials submitted to the suzerain state] and consequently bringing disasters to their people. You officials of the Ministry of Rites should send a letter to the king of Chosŏn and tell him that it is not necessary for them stay in China, so have him give them low-­level positions.

Book X

5th Day (Kimi)

Japanese marauders laid siege to P’yŏnghae Fortress.25 6th Day (Kyŏngsin)

Kwŏn Chunghwa, envoy with the mission of presenting a memorial of gratitude (saŭn chinp’yosa), Ku Sŏngno, envoy responsible for presenting a diplomatic letter (chinjŏnsa), and Yu Ku and Chŏng Sinŭi, the envoys who had been detained in Nanjing, returned from the Chinese capital. Sinŭi delivered a letter from the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army. The letter was as follows: “The officials of the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, including Yang Wen, received an imperial instruction from the emperor, which was as follows: ‘Last May when Yang Ch’ŏmsik, an envoy of Chosŏn in charge of presenting tribute horses, returned to his country, the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong ordered Company Commander Xia Zhi and ten soldiers, including one named Liu Wanzi, to escort Yang Ch’ŏmsik and his entourage as far as the Yalu River. Crossing the river, the Chosŏn envoy in charge of presenting tribute horses kindly invited Xia Zhi and others to the post station in the garrison headquarters of Ŭiju and tried to entertain them as much as they could. However, finding the words of his host too pretentious and exaggerating, Xia Zhi could not help being suspicious of his real intention. ‘After bidding farewell to Chosŏn envoys, Xia Zhi took a boat to cross the Yalu River. When his boat reached the middle of the river, however, one of the boatmen suddenly grabbed Xia Zhi by the collar and jumped into the water. Consequently, Xia Zhi was drowned. Was this a conspiracy devised by the king of Chosŏn? Or did the accident take place because the myriarch of Ŭiju was wicked? Since such people, being frivolous and cunning, caused troubles recklessly, you, the officials of the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, send a letter to the king of Chosŏn and have the myriarch of Ŭiju personally appear and give an explanation for the incident.’ ” Kwŏn Chunghwa and others said to the king: “Kim Chŏksŏn and his entourage ran into a storm on the sea near Dengzhou. They were all shipwrecked and drowned.

25. Uljin, North Kyŏngsang Province.

617

618

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

8th Day (Imsul)

The king paid a visit to T’aep’yŏnggwan Guesthouse and entertained Chi­ nese envoys, including Niu Niu. He ate meat for the first time [since the death of Queen Sindŏk]. 9th Day (Kyehae)

Chinese envoy Niu Niu (and others) paid a visit to the palace and expressed his gratitude to the king [for the entertainment he had received on the previous day]. Eunuch Wang Li [another Chinese envoy] fell off his horse. He became so furious that he whipped Chŏng Pin, an official responsible for greeting guests (yŏngjŏpkwan). Escort Commissioner (chŏpbansa) Chang Chach’ung, magistrate of Kyŏnghŭng, tried to stop the Chinese envoy, and because of that, he himself got into trouble. Having heard of the incident, the king had Ch’oe Tŭkkyŏng, assistant director of the Bureau of Supplying Post-­Horses (kongyŏksŏ), locked up in the Capital Constabulary Prison. It was because he provided the envoy with an unruly horse. The king dispatched Kwak Ch’ungbo, discussant of the Security Council, and Yi Ch’ŏnŭi, former discussant of the Security Council, to Kangnŭng Province [Kangwŏn Province] to prepare for potential Japanese incursions. 10th Day (Kapcha)

The king dispatched To Hŭng, assistant consultative councilor, to Kwangam Monastery 26 to hold the ceremony for eliminating disasters related to [inauspicious] stellar catastrophes. Cho Pan, imperial birthday embassy, returned from the Ming capital [Nanjing ]. 13th Day (Chŏngmyo)

Ch’oe Unhae, provincial military commander of Kyŏngsang Province, routed the invading Japanese marauders in Yŏnghae, and the defeated Japanese again headed back to Kangwŏn Province by ship.

26. Also called Unamsa, it used to be located in Kaep’ung County, Kyŏnggi Province.

Book X

15th Day (Kisa)

A lunar eclipse occurred. 16th Day (Kyŏngo)

Mars moved into the southern part of the Northwest Guardian Constellation (Sŏbuk Pyŏngsŏng), which lined up in the Right Law Administrator (U chipbŏp) of the Supreme Palace Constellation (T’aemisŏng). 17th Day (Sinmi)

Japanese marauders raided Uljin District. When Japanese marauders invaded Ulju, Prefect Yi Ŭn beheaded six of them after urging the soldiers of his district to resist resolutely. The king bestowed silk upon him. 19th Day (Kyeyu)

The king visited T’aep’yŏnggwan Guesthouse and entertained Chinese envoys. Later, he inspected the prospective site for his own royal tomb. 20th Day (Kapsul)

The king had Kang Chungnim, director of the Office of Guest Affairs, escort to Nanjing the family members of the officials Chŏng Ch’ong, Kwŏn Kŭn, Kim Yakhang, and No Indo [who were detained in Nanjing because of the memorials that allegedly offended the Chinese emperor]. The king bestowed twenty bolts of ramie and hemp fabric each upon Ch’ong, Kŭn, and Yakhang, and six bolts of ramie and hemp fabric upon Indo. The king sent Kwŏn Hyo, drafter (sain) of the Office for Audience Cere­ monies (Hammun),27 to Kyŏngsang Province to bestow royal wine and silk upon [Military Commissioner] Ch’oe Unhae.

27. Also called Kangmun, it was renamed later as the Comprehensive Rites Agency (T’ongnyemun).

619

620

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

21st Day (Ŭlhae)

Chinese envoy Niu Niu and eunuch Wang Li returned to the Ming capital. Yang Ch’ŏmsik, minister of taxation, accompanied them. The Privy Council set the maximum weight limit of baggage carried by a post horse, making it not to exceed sixty catties, and required that one weigh the baggage first before he travel by horse. 23rd Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king dispatched Kwŏn Hwa, right director of the State Finance Com­ mission, Chang Sajŏng, assistant discussant of the Security Council, and Cho Iksu, chief magistrate of Hansŏng, to Kangwŏn Province to prepare for a possible invasion of Japanese marauders. The king allowed Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, to take Kyerim as his clan seat. He was originally a Uyghur. [As the national mourning for Queen Sindŏk expired], all officials put off their mourning robes. Dispatching Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, and Sin Yuhyŏn, assistant director of the Security Council, to the Ming capital, the king expressed his gratitude to the Chinese emperor. His memorial to the emperor was as follows: “Your Servants Ha Yun and others returned from the Ming Capital and brought me your sacred message, which was as follows: ‘It is my earnest wish to establish a close relationship with you through marriage. The males among my children are many, and females are few. I have heard that in your country one aged between eight and sixteen is regarded as an adult. I wonder if that is true, since many things in your country are rather incredible. Be that as it may, I want to have a close relationship with you through marriage. Give it a serious thought and do not cause any more trouble.’ “In addition, I also received another instruction from Your Majesty through a letter from the Ministry of Rites, which said, ‘The envoys, including Yu Ku, who were here last time did not belong to the group of outstanding scholars, so I have already let them all return to their country.’

Book X

Receiving your sacred message, I am deeply grateful, along with our people across the whole country. So I send Sŏl Changsu, an official of your vassal state, along with others to the Ming capital and express my gratitude, presenting saddled horses and other gifts.” The government also sent a letter to the Ministry of Rites of China, which read as follows: “Your servants Kwŏn Chunghwa and others returned home with your instruction, and it was: ‘The number of Chosŏn envoys and their retainers who visited the Ming capital on four occasions was twenty-­six altogether, and His Imperial Majesty was gracious enough to bestow a horse upon each of them to ride on their return home.’ Upon hearing of it, we are deeply grateful.” The government also had Ch’oe Un, drafter of the Court of Interpreters, transport Chin Ch’unggwi, former chief regional military commander of Ŭiju, to the Ming capital and sent a letter to the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army: “According to the letter that we received, the officials of the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, including Yang Wen, received an imperial order from the emperor, which read as follows: ‘Last May when Yang Ch’ŏmsik, an envoy of Chosŏn responsible for presenting tribute horses, returned to his country, the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong ordered Company Commander Xia Zhi to escort Yang Ch’ŏmsik and his entourage, but they drowned him in the river. You, the officials of the Chief Military Commission of the Left Army, send a letter to the king of Chosŏn and have the myriarch of Ŭiju personally appear and give an explanation for the incident.’ “Upon receiving this letter from your Commission, our Privy Council immediately ordered Chin Ch’unggwi, military commander of Ŭiju, to submit a report on the accident. The report submitted by Chin Ch’unggwi read as follows: ‘On the fifteenth day of the sixth month of the twenty-­ eighth year of the reign of Hongwu, Company Commander Xia Zhi and fourteen soldiers sent by the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong arrived at the post guesthouse of Ŭiju, escorting Yang Ch’ŏmsik. While they rested, a heavy summer rain fell. The river rose quickly, and they had no choice but to stay there for ten days until the water level abated. ‘On the twenty-­fifth day of that month, the weather cleared and Xia Zhi urged his men to cross the river quickly in the six small boats they had. He had eleven soldiers under his command leave first, taking four boats, and they crossed the river to arrive at Posuofu [modern Dandong]. As for the

621

622

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

remaining two boats, Xia Zhi lashed them together. Worried about the delay in crossing the river, Xia Zhi reproached his men and pressed them to hurry. So he finally boarded the boat along with three soldiers, including Liu Chouer, as well as two boatmen named O Ŭlch’ung and O Paek, residents of Ŭiju. ‘At the sin hour [around three thirty to four thirty in the afternoon] on that same day, three people, including Liu Chouer, hailed us from across the river, so we sent our men on a small boat in response to their call. Liu Chouer and others returned to our side, crossing the river, and told us that their boat, which carried five people, including Xia Zhi and boatmen O Ŭlch’ung and O Paek, was overturned while crossing the Yalu River. When they passed through the third crossing point in the West River and reached the middle of the river, they ran into swirling rapids. Then the cows aboard their boat lost their balance, causing the boat to tip to one side and capsize immediately. As they struggled to come out of the water and looked around, they found that Xia Zhi and O Paek were drowned and four other people, including boatman O Ŭlch’ung, were missing. ‘Upon hearing this report, Chin Ch’unggwi immediately ordered his men, together with Liu Chouer and others, to search for the dead and missing people by combining ten small boats into one large boat and scouting up and down the river for several days, but with no success.’ “We have already reported the accident and our rescue efforts to the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong. Our report was all based upon the testimony made by Liu Chouer, O Ŭlch’ung, and others who survived the ordeal. Though we did not personally witness the accident, the circumstances in which Xia Zhi was drowned do not disagree with the report we made. “Now, based upon the above report, and in accordance with the imperial instruction, we transport Chin Ch’unggwi, myriarch of Ŭiju, as well as the boatmen who were involved in that accident, to the Ming capital, having interpreter Ch’oe Un take charge of them.” 30th Day (Kapsin)

The Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies submitted a memorial to the king: “As we humbly review the military training systems throughout history, the Zhou dynasty trained soldiers in the military camp in spring and summer

Book X

and inspected them in autumn and winter. Because people were taught in the art of war all year around, their military skill was outstanding, and because the military training was provided both in the capital and local provinces alike, it turned out to be effective in every crisis. Thanks to such a military training system, the Zhou dynasty was able to endure. “In the Western Han, the emperor drove a war chariot, wielding a crossbow. Bestowing silk upon military officers, he had them teach the art of war cultivated by Sun Wu and Wu Qi and practice various battle formations. Gathering the troops from five divisions, he made them practice the Eight Array Formation (Bazhenfa). This military training conducted in the capital was called chengfa. Every commandery had the governor and defender (duwei) evaluate the performance of individuals for their military skill, so all officers practiced military skills, whether they were charioteers or naval officers. Hence, it was called dushi, nationwide military training, because military training was carried out both in the central and local governments. Since Emperor Gaozu of Han frequented battlefields, he had chances to study the advantages and disadvantages [related to warfare, including military training] and consequently left an outstanding military training system for his posterity. “The Qin lost the military training system, and military training was carried out only in the capital, and even that system was abolished later. It dominated the world with wealth and power but was unable to defend Hanguguan Pass28 when common people rose in rebellion, and this is because it failed to have any military training system. “The Eastern Han abolished the offices of defenders (duwei) and commandants (hou) as well as the dushi system and also eliminated the people such as charioteers and naval officers from the armed forces. The government continued to neglect military training and wariness about the dangers of possible disturbances, so it eventually encouraged barbarians to take their chances. Once a disturbance broke out, the government sent people off into battle, and those who had no experience in archery or horse-­riding had to fight with the well-­trained enemy soldiers. That was the reason they were defeated whenever they fought. Driving the people into battle without proper military training is just like abandoning them. If one looks into the cause of 28. A strategic pass in ancient China south of the great eastern bend of the Yellow River in today’s Lingbao, Henan Province. It was built by the State of Qin in 361 bc to serve as its eastern gate.

623

624

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the disastrous defeats [that the later generations suffered], how can Emperor Guangwu29 escape from responsibility? “We humbly believe that since Your Majesty, with divine strength and capacity, founded a new dynasty, you have made efforts to establish laws and culture one by one. However, you have neglected to pay attention to one thing, which is training soldiers. Is this not a flaw in your flourishing reign? We sincerely urge you to order both the central and local governments to conduct military training and show them that you have not forgotten potential crises in a time of peace. “Since the military training system and the frequency of training itself need to be adjusted in accordance with the changes in time and situation, we made the Pictures of Hunting Scenes for Military Training (Susu kangmudo), adding or reducing the details in the old tradition of military training. “In the capital in the months of all four seasons, military training combined with hunting should be carried out, and the games offered as sacrifices to the Royal Ancestral Shrine and the Altars of Earth and Grain. “In the provinces, military training combined with hunting should be conducted in spring and autumn, and the games offered to the local deities. If the military training is implemented that way, people not only will be able to acquire military skill but will also make peace with spirits. “As to the rules and procedures concerning the royal inspection of the military training or having a substitute carry out the inspection or the supervision and evaluation of the military training conducted by the local officials, have the Board of Rites decide and submit them to you.” The king followed the advice.

12th Month 1st Day (Pyŏngsul)

The king paid a visit to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery and bestowed food on artisans [engaged in constructing the monastery].30 29. The founder of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was a brilliant strategist, and because of that he failed to foster major strategists in his state. His descendants tried to emulate him; however, lacking his brilliance, they produced only disastrous results. 30. When Queen Sindŏk died, T’aejo ordered that Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery be constructed to pray for his queen. The monastery is located in the Borough of Sŏngbuk, Seoul.

Book X

625

3rd Day (Chŏnghae)

The king appointed Kim Sahyong, right chancellor of the Chancellery, as supreme commander (tot’ong ch’ŏch’isa) of five provincial armies for the military campaign against the Japanese; Nam Chae, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, as chief regional military commander; Sin Kŭkkong, deputy director of the Security Council, as provincial military commander; and Yi Mu, former governor, as chief commander of the Office of the Commander. Then he ordered them to launch a military expedition to Iki and Tsushima Islands, mobilizing all the battleships from five provinces. The king went out as far as South Gate to see them off, bestowing Kim Sahyŏng with a battle axe and a royal decree as well as a saddled horse, an official headgear (mogwan), a set of armor, bows with arrows, and a medicine box. He also bestowed separately Chae, Mu, and Kŭkkong with formal caps, sets of armor, and bows with arrows. The royal decree conferred on Sahyŏng was as follows: “From antiquity, he who becomes king has always taken the peace and comfort of his people across the country as his responsibility. When it happened, unfortunately, that a small band of petty thieves caused trouble like rats and dogs, he had provincial governors capture them, holding them responsible for resolving the problems. When the power of those thieves was too great, however, the king ordered high officials to go out to suppress them. Thus, Zhao Hu suppressed the Huaiyi barbarians and Yin Jifu subjugated the Xianyun [Xiongnu], and they are the best examples.31 “Since I ascended the throne, I have never recklessly mobilized the military, trying to follow the precedents set by the old sages, and the reason was that I was afraid people might be agitated. These days, despicable barbarians from islands [Japanese marauders] were mad enough to dare invade our coasts as many as three or four times. I have already sent military commanders to stop them, but I am afraid that there will be no peace within our borders unless we eliminate them in one stroke by attacking them both at sea and on land. “You are a descendant of a noble family and a man of great talent in the royal court. Your personality is austere and awe-­inspiring, and your way of 31. Zhao Hu and Yi Jifu were officials during the reign of King Xuan (r. 827–782 of Zhou.

bc)

626

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

thinking is both generous and tough. So, when you discharge state affairs, they all turn out to be reasonable, and when you recommend men of talent, they all perform as is expected of them. You are intelligent enough to distinguish between the true and the false, and wise enough to find ways to suppress the enemy. For this reason, I appointed you commander-­in-­chief of the five provincial armies for this military campaign, bestowing you with a banner and a battle axe and providing you with officials and aides who are to assist you. Because I have made you supreme commander, other commanders will listen to your orders most humbly, and the enemy will be scared to death when they hear the news [about you]. I expect you, while sitting in your tent, to produce outstanding ideas and strategies to defeat the enemy and lead your generals until you accomplish your goal. You should make no mistakes, so that there may not be another military campaign against the same enemy in the future, thereby fulfilling my expectations of you. “If it happens that some commanders and soldiers violate military rules, or the local magistrates neglect your orders, I want you to immediately deal with them in accordance with the law, regardless of their rank.” The members of the Privy Council went out as far as the Han River to bid farewell [to the departing expeditionary force]. Min Kae, chief magistrate of Hansŏng, died. His clan seat was Yŏhŭng, and he was the youngest son of Pyŏn, minister of personnel. He was born intelligent and used to express passionate indignation against injustice. Thus, he served as censor, and when he became chief royal secretary, he did a good job in delivering royal orders to officials and conveying the opinions of officials to the king. On the day when [King] Kongyang abdicated, Kae, inspector-general at that time, was against what was happening, and his words and face betrayed his displeasure. Nam Ŭn and others said to Cho Chun: “Kae should be beheaded.” Chun, however, stopped them from taking action, and Kae was able to escape death. Later, Kae served as governor of Kyŏngsang and Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces, and his performance was outstanding. When he died, his age was thirty-­ seven, the scholars lamented his premature death. When Kae served as governor, he led a life of frugality until he became ill. Having heard of it, the king made a law requiring all provincial governors to have a meal four times a day.

Book X

7th Day (Sinmyo)

The king paid a visit to the belfry and saw the newly made bell. 8th Day (Imjin)

The planet Venus appeared in the sky during the daytime. 9th Day (Kyesa)

Japanese marauders with sixty ships arrived at Ch’uksan Island32 of Yŏnghae [Strategic Military Prefecture], and their chief, named Hayashi On, submitted a letter to Governor Han Sangjil: “We intend to surrender ourselves to your authorities. If your country grants us a corner on the border, providing provisions, we will not dare to betray you and will also prevent other thieves from what they are doing.” After Sangjil made a report to the king, the king gave him permission to accept the offer from the Japanese. At that time, Ch’oe Unhae, provincial military commissioner; Yu Yang, magistrate of Kyerim; Yun Chŏ, magistrate of Andong; and others established a military camp in the west of Yŏnghae, fighting against the Japanese. They were defeated. So, when they heard that the chief of the Japanese enemy wanted to surrender himself by sending his man, they did not believe the offer of the surrender. Unlike others, however, Yang alone said, “Since it is not unprecedented to receive the surrender of the enemy, resorting to the dignity and trust one has, how can you lose a good opportunity because of your suspicion?” Then he immediately ran a horse toward the enemy. When he had one of his men shout at them, “The magistrate of Kyerim is here,” five leaders of the Japanese came out of their boats with hundreds of their soldiers. They all took off their armor and bowed down, standing in a line and awaiting orders. When Yang explained to the Japanese the advantages gained by surrendering, urging them to surrender, the leaders of the Japanese marauders were pleased and finally decided to surrender themselves and released all the Korean people that they held as captives. 32. It is located 10 li east of Yŏnghae. The island on the sea resembled an ox, so it was called Ch’uksan. A Chinese character ch’uk 丑 signifies ox. Yŏnghae is located in North Kyŏngsang Province.

627

628

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

13th Day (Chŏngyu)

There was rain. Song Tŭkkŏ, official of the Clothing Office (saŭi sajik), No Mulli, former subcolonel, and others proceeded to the palace and said to the king, “We believe that Your Majesty is now so worried about Japanese marauders that you have ordered military generals to suppress them. If you allow us, we would like to spearhead the attack against the Japanese and dare to fight to the death.” Admiring their spirit, the king had them report to the camp of the supreme commander of the five provincial armies for the military campaign against the Japanese. 14th Day (Musul)

It rained. 21st Day (Ŭlsa)

The king ordered Censors Yi Hwang and Chŏn Paegyŏng and Bailiffs Yi Pal and U Hongdo to report to work.33 Two superintendents were appointed to manage the Hall of Benevolent Tranquility (Inanjŏn).34 Leading three people, Kyuroku, the chief of the surrendering Japanese marauders, joined the officials in the morning audience and presented a long sword and a saber, making obeisance to the king. The king granted audience to them and bestowed a robe and a top hat upon Kyuroku. Then he asked, “What is your purpose for seeing me?” Kyuroku replied, “I heard that Your Majesty allays surrendering people and has them settle down without bringing up their past wrongdoings. We would like to be your people after requesting land from you.” 33. A few months earlier, Policy Advisors Chŏn Paegyŏng and Yi Hwang were dismissed for failing to point out the problems with the posthumous title of Chŏng Hŭigye, which was presented by the Court of Royal Sacrifices. It seems that Yi Pal and U Hongdo were probably involved in that incident, though their names do not appear in the record of the annals (29th day of the 8th month; 5th day of the 9th month). 34. A place in Kyŏngbok Palace in which the spirit tablet of Queen Sindŏk was enshrined.

Book X

The king said, “You are not the only one who surrenders, and I am not the only one who receives those who surrender. There are too many such incidents in this world. If one chooses to go away, there is no reason to hold him back, and if one chooses to come, there is also no reason to refuse him. Making the final decision depends only on you. Go back to your people and tell them what I have said. How can there be none among you who are fortunate and wise? Think about your future more seriously and report back to me.” Kyuroku shed tears and withdrew. The king ordered U Innyŏl, left director of the State Finance Commission, and Ha Yun, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, to visit the Japanese at their quarters and hold a banquet for them. 22nd Day (Pyŏngo)

The king sent Chang Chach’ung, magistrate of Kyŏnghŭng, to bestow royal wine upon Kim Sahyŏng, supreme commander of the five provincial armies [who led the military campaign against the Japanese]. The king appointed Nam Ŭn as concurrent director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals; Sim Hyosaeng as administrative deputy commissioner of the Security Council; Min Yŏik as inspector-general; Chŏng T’ak as left royal secretary; Kyuroku, the chief of the Japanese marauders who surrendered, as manifestly expedient general of the Dashing Dragon Patrolling Guard Command serving as rectifier and, concurrently, myriarch in charge of supervising soldiers and people on the sea (sŏllyak changgun yongyang sunwisa haeng sajik kyŏm haedo kwangunmin manho); and Hikyu Tokitomo as ardently brave commandant of the left unit of the Dashing Dragon Patrolling Guard Command serving as director and, concurrently, company commander in charge of soldiers (tonyong kyowi yongyang sunwisa haeng sajŏng kyŏm kwangun baekho). The king also bestowed upon Kyuroku a silver belt, a gauze cap, and a pair of mokhwa shoes.35 24th Day (Musin)

The king visited the royal tomb prepared for him.



35. Men’s wooden-­sole deerskin boots worn with a formal uniform.

629

Book XI

Sixth Year of Reign (1397) 1st Month 1st Day (Kabin)

It rained and snowed. Leading all officials, the king held a ritual ceremony commemorating the New Year, facing the direction of the Ming capital, but did not receive the New Year greetings of the officials. Instead of attend­ ­ing the morning audience, all officials went to the coffin hall (pinjŏn), where the corpse of Queen Sindŏk was temporarily laid, and offered a sacrifice to the spirit of the deceased queen. 2nd Day (Ŭlmyo)

Meteors fell in the north. Mars moved into the main gate of the Supreme Palace Enclosure and remained south of the Guardian Stars. All officials proceeded to the hall where the coffin of the queen was laid and performed the last ritual before her coffin was moved out to her royal tomb. 3rd Day (Pyŏngjin)

Queen Sindŏk was buried on the northern hill of Ch’wihyŏnbang Precinct [in Hansŏng],1 and her royal tomb was named Chŏngnŭng.





1. Modern Sŏsomundong, Chunggu, Seoul.

630

Book XI

Members of the royal family and all officials took their mourning garments off and changed into court dress. Then they established the spirit tablet of the queen in the Hall of Benevolent Tranquility (Inanjŏn) and carried out their regular duties in white robes with a black belt. The Directorate of the Royal Spirits Hall (Honjŏn togam) was established.2 Aida and Ochu, the chiefs of the [surrendered] Japanese marauders, arrived at Uljup’o3 leading their people. Yi Ŭn, magistrate of the district [Ulju], treated them with hospitality, providing them with provisions. Aida and others, however, became suspicious that Yi Ŭn was trying to capture them after luring them into a trap. So they took Ŭn, his attendant Pak Ch’ŏng, secretary Yi Ye, and others captive and ran away. 5th Day (Muo)

The Privy Council held a banquet for the king. 6th Day (Kimi)

Inspector-General Min Yŏik impeached Cho Kyŏn, administrative deputy commissioner of the Security Council, and Sin Hyoch’ang, chief magistrate of Hansŏng. The reason was that Kyŏn failed to repulse the Japanese when he served as military commissioner of Happ’o, and Hyoch’ang, then inspec­­torgeneral, did not impeach Kyŏn for his failure. Yŏik secretly said to Cho Chun, the elder brother of Kyŏn: “It has been a long time since His Majesty tried to make the Office of the Inspector General impeach Kyŏn.” Hearing what Yŏik had said, the king became indignant and said to Yŏik: “You are inspector and it is your job to impeach the wrongdoers. Why do you make such an excuse? Besides, it is impossible to impeach Kyŏn lightly because he is a merit subject.” Then the king tried to send Yŏik to prison. Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng, stepped forward and said: “Kyŏn and Yŏik are both merit subjects. Are you going to keep one while throwing out the other?” Then the king ordered Yŏik to go home and not return to work. The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Yŏik, but the king forgave him a little later.

2. The ceremony was performed after the death and before burial. 3. Modern Ulsan in South Kyŏngsang Province.

631

632

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

10th Day (Kyehae)

The moon concealed Jupiter. 15th Day (Mujin)

The king paid a visit to Chŏngnŭng.4 The Office of the Inspector-General impeached eunuch Cho Sun by sub­ mitting a memorial to the king, and a brief summary of the memorial is as follows: “Cho Sun is by nature cunning and greedy, and his words and deeds are devious and sycophantic. In the previous dynasty when the usurper Sin reigned tyrannously, Sun served as his right-­hand man, freely exercising the power in granting favors while taking bribes and breaking laws. “Thanks to your benevolence of nurturing life, he not only has preserved his life but also enjoyed the privilege of serving Your Majesty by your side. It would, then, be natural for him to change his ways and serve the king more respectfully and diligently. However, on the contrary, he is constantly contriving to extort others and seize their property. “When Your Majesty recently presented silverware, robes, and a saddled horse as offerings to the Buddha and other spirits to pray for the recovery of the ailing Queen, Sun seized them all under the pretext of exchanging them with some other things. Later, being afraid that his thievery would be discovered, he turned over the horse to the shaman. His cunning trickery is no worse than that of a thief who makes a hole in the fence to break into a house. We urge you to have him imprisoned and his crimes investigated and then confiscate all the property belonging to him.” The king only allowed for Sun to be sent away to his birthplace. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted another memorial to the king and impeached Sun again for taking many bribes from Yang Ch’ŏnsik, minister of taxation. The king only permitted the inspector-general to withdraw his certificate of appointment. The governor of P’unghae Province submitted a memorial to the king: “The people of our province have failed in farming and suffered from famine and

4. The tomb of Queen Sindŏk who recently passed away.

Book XI

poverty due to the natural disasters and locust damage. Under the circumstances, if they are required to bring their own provisions to the capital when they are called to construct the city walls, their difficulties will become worse. Hence, we request that the provincial government provide them with the millet and beans stored in the state warehouse.” The king granted the request. 16th Day (Kisa)

A meteor emerged from the Constellation of the Heart and Mars, flying to the south. 22nd Day (Ŭlhae)

Sŏng Yŏwan, Great Lord of Ch’angsŏng, died. His clan seat was Ch’angnyŏng, and he was the son of Kunmi, bureau section chief of the Board of Revenue. In the Pyŏngja year (1336) of the reign of Zhiyuan, he passed the civil service examination and became editorial examiner (kŏmnyŏl).5 After serving in various posts, he rose to the position of bureau section chief of the Board of War and surveillance commissioner of Yanggwang Province. Then he became [concurrent] vice minister of punishments (chi Hyŏngbu sa), vice censor-­in-­chief (ŏsa chungsŭng), and minister of punishments, successively. In that period, he also briefly served as the magistrate of two districts, Haeju and Ch’ungju, and was promoted to the positions of senior secretary of the Security Council and Chancellery scholar. At the beginning of the new dynasty, he joined the retired elder statemen (kiro), was appointed chancellor-­without-­portfolio, and was granted the title of Great Lord of Ch’angsŏng. He died at the age of eighty-­nine. Bestowing 100 sŏk of rice and beans, the king had his funeral carried out according to protocol and conferred upon him the posthumous title of Duke Munjŏng. Yŏwan was by nature simple and averse to luxury. He brought up his children according to strict principles, and his three sons all passed the civil service examination. The eldest son, Sŏngnin, is now left chancellor, the second son, Sŏgyŏng, magistrate (yuhu) of Kaesŏng Special Capital Magis­ tracy, and the youngest son, Sŏgin, minister of taxation. Those who have had a death in the family, as well as the old and infirm among the workers, were released to go home.

5. A low-­ranking or unranked clerk in the Bureau of State Records.

633

634

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

24th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The status of Yangju6 in Kangwŏn Province was elevated from district (chu) to prefecture (pu) because Yangju was the clan seat of the king’s maternal ancestors. The king bestowed silk and ramie fabric upon the five people from Wulangha, including Bayisu, Fuli, Choulilao, Fuyiwu, and Gaoliduoshi, and another five people from Wuduli, including Tongmengge Tiemuer, Tongsuowu, Mayuezhe, Tongyugezhou, and Douyiyu, in accordance with their individual rank and status. The status of Yangju [in Kyŏnggi Province] was elevated from county to prefecture. The Expert Training Institute (Sainso) was established in the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies with the purpose of training the sons, sons-­in­law, brothers, and nephews of high-­ and low-­ranking officials in various fields for public service, such as the classics, history, military science, law, mathematics, archery, and horsemanship. 25th Day (Muin)

The planet Mars was visible on the right side of the Supreme Palace Enclosure. 27th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The planet Mars was visible in the middle of the Western Sun Gate west of the Supreme Palace Enclosure. The king paid a visit to the East Gate and inspected the site for the construction of the semicircular chemise [defensive bastion].

6. Yangju refers to Yangyang Strategic Military Prefecture in the north of Kangwŏn Province.

Book XI

28th Day (Sinsa)

The king paid a visit to Chin’gwan Monastery.7 The king appointed Yu Ku as right director of the State Finance Commission, Chŏng Sinŭi as administrative commissioner of the Security Council, Yi Chik as inspector-general, Ham Purim as left policy advisor, Cho Sŏ as right policy advisor, Chŏng Ku as left grand master of remonstrance, and Hŏ Chu as second inspector. The king ordered the Privy Council and various departments and the retired senior officials to discuss the failures of provincial military commanders, including Ch’oe Unhae, Yi Kwich’ŏl, Kim Pin’gil, and Kim Yŏngnyŏl. Earlier, the Japanese marauders who wanted to surrender had arrived at Uljup’o of Kyŏngsang Province. Rakaon, the chief of the Japanese, first sent his son Tojiro and his subordinate Konjiro to Yu Yang, magistrate of Kyerim, as hostages. However, Yang failed to appear to them, being ill at that time, and that made the Japanese suspicious. So they seized Yi Ŭn, magistrate of Ulju, and ran away. At the time, Unhae was provincial military commander of Kyŏngsang Province, Kwich’ŏl military commissioner of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, Pin’gil military commissioner of Chŏlla Province, and Yŏngnyŏl military commissioner of Right Kyŏnggi Province. Unhae failed to capture the fleeing enemy after violating military orders, and other commanders such as Kwich’ŏl, Pin’gil, and Yŏngnyŏl also failed to show up in time. Kim Sahyŏng, supreme commander of the five provincial armies for the military campaign against the Japanese, had them confined in Kyŏngsan Prefecture and made an emergency report to the king, requesting that they be punished. Pak Chaan was appointed military commissioner of Chŏlla Province; Yun Panggyŏng, military commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province; and Cho Yŏngmu, military commissioner of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 7. Located in Mt. Samgak, it used to be one of the four major Buddhist temples in the suburbs of Seoul. The purpose of the king’s royal visit was probably to offer the sacrifices for the abandoned ghosts of the royal family members of the Koryŏ Wang clan, who died both in the water and on land. Such sacrifices were often held at the temple.

635

636

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

30th Day (Kyemi)

Kim Sahyŏng, supreme commander of the five provinces, returned. The king went out as far as the outside of the East Gate (Hŭnginmun) to wel­­come him.

2nd Month 1st Day (Kapsin)

There was a strong wind. 2nd Day (Ŭlyu)

The king ordered the Privy Council to inspect the site for the construction of the National Confucian Shrine. 3rd Day (Pyŏngsul)

There was a ring around the sun. Venus emerged from the western lodge of the Supreme Palace Constellation to enter the Middle Step (Chungt’ae) in the Three Steps (Samt’aesŏng).8 5th Day (Muja)

A meteorite, about 1 ch’ŏk long, shot from the seat of Regulus and fell to the earth. 6th Day (Kich’uk)

The king hunted in Tonggyo [the eastern suburbs of Hansŏng]. 8th Day (Sinmyo)

The king ordered Yi Hwa, Count of Ŭian; Cho Chun, left chancellor; and Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa to hold a banquet in honor of Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, and various envoys, including Kwŏn Chunghwa, tribute emissary to China, and Kyuroku, [chieftain of the surrendered Japanese marauders], attended the banquet. The king bestowed on Sahyŏng a belt decorated with water buffalo horn.

8. Ursa Major in the Western constellation.

Book XI

9th Day (Imjin)

The Japanese returned Wi Ch’ung,9 former director, and Yi Ŭn, magistrate of Ulju, and others to Korea.10 10th Day (Kyesa)

The king appointed Tojiro, the son of Rakaon, the brigade commander of the Japanese marauders, as director (sajŏng), and Konjiro and Mazamon as deputy directors (pu sajŏng), bestowing robes and caps on them. Yu Chŏnghyŏn, former second royal secretary, beat to death his retainer Kang Insin, whom he suspected of stealing the grain from his house. The Board of Punishments requested that he be punished, and the king ordered that the Board only collect funeral expenses from the accused for the dead. 11th Day (Kabo)

The king received the morning audience while sitting in the Hall of Diligent Government. When Kyuroku advanced toward him to pay his respects, the king gave him some words of comfort. Awestruck, Kyuroku dared not look up at the king, but only broke out in a sweat and shed tears. The king ordered the Censorate and the Board of Punishments to interrogate [former provincial military commanders] Ch’oe Unhae, Yi Kwich’ŏl, Kim Pin’gil, Kim Yŏngnyŏl, and others after having them confined in the Capital Constabulary Prison. They were found guilty [of neglecting their duties], and Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, and Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng, requested that their penalties be reduced.11 The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “At the end of the previous dynasty, there were no military or household records of the people throughout the provinces. Therefore, when the 9. Unknown. 10. About five weeks earlier, Yi Ŭn had been kidnapped by the Japanese, who changed their mind at the last moment when they decided to surrender themselves to Korean authorities. 11. About two weeks earlier, these provincial military commanders, including Ch’oe Unhae, were arrested for the incident in which Yi Ŭn, magistrate of Ulju, was kidnapped by the Japanese who changed their minds at the last moment when they decided to surrender them­ ­selves to the Korean authorities.

637

638

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

authorities mobilized soldiers, they fixed the number of soldiers [to be mobilized] recklessly, and it produced abuses, which were not few. “Now, we have already made complete military and household records of the people. Based on those records, the provincial military commissioner should assign the number of soldiers to be mobilized. He should train soldiers during the agricultural off-­season and either attack or defend against the enemy by mobilizing them during a crisis. “If it happens that the magistrate and the military commissioner fail to send officers and soldiers in time or repair weapons and armor improperly, or if they send only old and infirm soldiers, their offenses should first be discussed in accordance with the law and then they should be reported to the governor. “And if it also happens that the provincial military commissioner hesitates to take immediate action despite reports that the enemy is approaching, fails to do his best in the battle, raises troops for no reason, musters the entire forces when the enemy are few in their number, goes hunting at an inappropriate time, or allows officers to roam throughout the province when they have no official businesses to carry out, the governor should conduct investigations and indict his offense. “It is also essential for the magistrate to know the exact number of residents in his district. [Hence] the household register in each province is required to show the individuals belonging to each household. However, the magistrate tends to forget the general intent behind the law of making household records and tries to recruit all the members of each household for every military affair or corvée labor project, depriving them of the time to look after their crops and thus causing their financial ruin. “From this day forward, the members of a household, including sons, sons-­in-­law, brothers, and nephews who are aged below sixty and above sixteen, regardless of whether they live together, should perform military service under the name of the household head. A cavalry soldier who is on active duty shall be provided with four support personnel (pongjok);12 a ­cavalry soldier who is not on active duty, three support personnel; an infan­ ­try soldier, two support personnel; and a soldier who has neither paternal nor maternal relatives, just like the regular soldiers, a single support personnel. “When the people are called up for corvée labor, support personnel should be excluded, and when they are called to military service, the number of

12. “Support personnel” here indicates support taxpayers for duty soldiers.

Book XI

sup­­port personnel one can take should depend on the urgency of the military situation. One who takes many slaves with him should not be provided with support personnel, and the magistrate who recruits extra support personnel except those who are needed for carrying out military affairs should be punished. “1. Since the Kyŏngin year (1350), Japanese marauders have raided the districts along the seacoast, and those districts have been laid waste and are virtually deserted. When we have built warships lately and defended our coast successfully, the enemy has dared not approach our land, and the residents were also able to settle down. This was possible thanks to the construction of warships. “However, naval officers and soldiers have to spend most of their time at sea, most likely under extremely miserable conditions. Moreover, they are required to provide themselves with all the supplies that were produced from the land and needed for their boats, as well as with miscellaneous labor service, so their burden is excessive. Nevertheless, the magistrate ignores their burdens and sufferings and harasses them by levying corvée labor on those military households. Consequently, navy soldiers run away and the number of military households decreases day by day. “From this time forward, the navy soldiers and their military households should all be exempted from corvée labor, and the magistrate and cunning yamen clerks who keep on disregarding this decree should be punished for disobedience. “If any household is missing among the military households attached to the navy, it should be registered on the records and assigned to different services, except the people who are already registered as sons, sons-­in-­law, and support personnel. “1. According to the art of war, he who commands the army should share his soldiers’ joys and sorrows and always look after them when they are ill. That way, he can win the hearts of his soldiers, who will serve well when he fights the enemy. The navy ship captains of each province, however, often punish their seamen in anger, abusing the law or, even worse, abandoning them on deserted islands. When the seamen become sick due to humidity or hunger and cold after a long voyage or when they lie in bed from exhaustion for a day or two, these commanders believe they are suffering from fever and do not provide them with any treatment. They instead cut their lives short by leaving them behind on a desert island or throwing them into the sea to drown. Sometimes the seamen become sick because they are not ­provided with drinking water. Because problems such as these are ­overlooked, seamen

639

640

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

are resentful. When they fight against the enemy, they do not try to do their best and fail to win the battle. “From this day forward, orders should be given in order to strictly prohibit those abuses. When there is a seaman who is ill, he should be provided with adequate treatment. If his illness is too serious to be treated on the ship, the ship should seek a nearby district at which to drop him off, letting the local government look after him. If he unfortunately dies, the local government should bury him in the vicinity and set up a sign to mark his grave. Then the magistrate should make a report to the governor on his illness and death, and the governor to the Privy Council, and the Privy Council to the king, looking after his household while exempting it from corvée labor service for a certain period of time set by the law. If it happens that a seamen dies due to the lack of treatment, the commissioner (ch’ain) of each office [responsible for the accident], the myriarch and chiliarch, and the navy ship captain, who continued to disregard the government orders[to take care of seamen], should be struck one hundred times with a paddle and banished to the borders to serve in the army. They should be punished in accordance with the Great Ming Code (Da Minglü), which prohibits the reckless treatment of subordinates.” The king followed the advice. 12th Day (Ŭlmi)

Yu Yang, discussant of the Security Council, returned from Kyerim, bringing with him two Japanese, including Doshira, a son of the chief of Japanese marauders. The king bestowed robes upon Doshira. 15th Day (Musul)

The king personally offered sacrifices at Inanjŏn, the Hall of Benevolent Tranquility [where the spirit tablet of Queen Sindŏk was enshrined]. 16th Day (Kihae)

The king appointed Pak Chaan chief pacification commissioner of Kyŏngsang and Chŏlla Provinces. 17th Day (Kyŏngja)

Cho Chun, dynasty-­founding merit subject and left chancellor, along with other officials, held a banquet for Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng and others. The king permitted them to use wine.

Book XI

18th Day (Sinch’uk)

The king ordered that Ch’oe Unhae be exiled to Chinmyŏngp’o13 in Anbyŏn. He also ordered that Kim Yŏngnyŏl be banished to Ongjin, Kim Pin’gil to Ch’ŏnghae, and Yi Kwich’ŏl to P’yŏngyang and that they all be assigned to the navy. 19th Day (Imin)

The king paid a visit to Chŏngnŭng to inspect Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery, which was under construction. Originally, the king wanted a Buddhist monastery built in Chŏngnŭng simply to burn incense every morning and evening. However, eunuch Kim Sahaeng, by his cunning and flattery, induced the king to build an extremely luxurious monastery. 21st Day (Kapchin)

At night, a streak of white gas clusters was visible in the north. 22nd Day (Ŭlsa)

Examiners Cho Chun and Chŏng Tojŏn presided over the technical examinations (chapkwa) and selected eight people in the area of medicine and seven people in the area of law. 24th Day (Chŏngmi)

Wang U, Lord of Kwiŭi, died. The king ordered that he be buried with propriety and bestowed a posthumous title, Kyŏnghŭi. Being the biological younger brother of Prince Kongyang, U had performed the ancestral rites of the Wang clan. He had two sons, Cho and Kwan, and his daughter married Pangbŏn, Prince Muan. 25th Day (Musin)

The king took a trip to P’yŏngju. A meteor emerged from east of the Heavenly Market Enclosure (Ch’ŏnsiwŏn) to enter the West Enclosure, and its length was around 2 ch’ŏk.

13. A local navy base in Anbyŏn, North Hamgyŏng Province.

641

642

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

26th Day (Kiyu)

There was an earthquake. 27th (Kyŏngsul)

A halo was visible around the sun. Five people, including Pak In’gwi, were each given 10 sŏk of rice, and their households were exempted from corvée duty. Earlier, when Yi Ŭn, magistrate of Ulju, was abducted by the Japanese marauders and detained in Tsushima, In’gwi and others voluntarily went to Tsushima [to stay with Yi Ŭn]. They persuaded the Japanese captors to release Ŭn, reasoning with them and emphasizing the importance of mutual favors and trust and finally returned home with Ŭn and other Korean ­captives. 28th Day (Sinhae)

The king stayed in Imjin, and south of there was the tomb of Kyŏng Pokhŭng, Duke Chŏngnyŏl, who served as chancellor in the previous dynasty. The king said, “Chancellor Kyŏng was a man of integrity who held passionate indignation against injustice. When he served as chancellor, he treated me as if I were his son, and I also respected him as if he were my father.” Then he sent Cho Saŭi, assistant military commissioner, to offer sacrifices at his tomb. The king bestowed 30 sŏk of rice and 20 sŏk of beans upon Kyuroku, the chieftain of the surrendered Japanese marauders, and a set of robes and a cap upon each of his two subordinates. 29th Day (Imja)

Staying in Sumip’o, the king watched people hunting by setting the grass on fire. 30th Day (Kyech’uk)

The king stayed overnight in Songdo.

Book XI

3rd Month 1st Day (Kabin)

The king paid a visit to Yŏnbok Monastery. 3rd Day (Pyŏngjin)

A storm blew, and the northeastern sky turned crimson at night. 4th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king sent eunuch Kim Yonggi to offer sacrifices to Wang U, Duke Kyŏnghŭi.14 The king paid a visit to Kyŏngch’ŏn Monastery and comforted the spirit of Queen Sindŏk by holding a Buddhist ceremony celebrating the Flower Garland Sutra. 5th Day (Muo)

The king took the daughter of Kim Wŏnho, former director, as a court lady. 8th Day (Sinyu)

An Ik, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, Kim Hŭisŏn, associate commissioner of the Security Council, and Kwŏn Kŭn, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, returned home from the Ming capital, carrying a letter and poems of condolence from the Chinese emperor as well as two official letters from the Ministry of Rites of China. The imperial letter of condolence read as follows: “Envoys arrived to report that Lady Kang, the king’s chief queen consort, had expired, and I am extremely saddened by the news. I am sure that the king will miss his queen very much every morning and evening, struggling to cope with his sorrow. How can he stop thinking about her? “When he transformed his old household into the royal family of the nation, Lady Kang supported him as his wife and set a good example as the mother for the nation, didn’t she? Though she left him, he finds her traces

14. Younger brother of King Kongyang. Kyŏnghŭi is his posthumous title.

643

644

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

everywhere, so he feels her absence more poignantly, doesn’t he? When she was alive, she got up early to assist him to dress and made sure that he was not late for his schedule, constantly checking the water clock. And when he was late for dinner, being too busy with state affairs, she helped him to have meals properly. When he went out to preside over the morning audience, she saw him off with court ladies, and when he returned in the evening after dark, she waited for him along with court ladies, holding a candle in her hand, and escorted him to his bed chamber. “Now she is gone forever and there is no one who looks at the mirror hanging on the wall. Neither is there one who attends the king when he goes out early to preside over the morning audience nor one who shares conversation with him when he returns late to his bedchamber. The only ones that he sees are the court ladies and female servants who shed tears, touching and stroking her coffin. How sad! “Ah, ah! After her death, time passes so quickly, like running water, that the weeds on her grave grow tall and thick, and through the tangled weeds, foxes and rabbits run back and forth. Near the grave, trees stand tall, revealing their old trunks, and when the sun sets, birds come down in pairs to perch on top of the branches. Shaken by the blowing winds, the trees let out a hoarse cry, and the stream in the dark forest runs away making a murmuring sound. In the still of the night, the field of the suburbs is surrounded with desolate quietness, and the messengers of death sing far across the field, thick with grass. If the spirit of Lady Kang, the king’s first queen consort, looks at the palace under such a circumstances, wouldn’t she feel sad and deserted? Wouldn’t the king feel the same way? However, Lady Kang has left permanently, and the king should take care of himself. Therefore, the emperor sends these words to the king.” The sacred instruction and exhortation of the emperor were as follows: “The king of Chosŏn did me a favor once. In the twenty-­first year during the reign of Hongwu, the army of a small kingdom arrived at the Yalu River to attack China, but Yi [king of Chosŏn] turned his army around. Then he became the king of Koryŏ, changing the country name to Chosŏn. This was the natural order, showing the way of Heaven as well as his sincere respect for the great kingdom. “However, the relationship between the two countries has recently deteriorated because some scholar-­officials [on your side] tried to be deliberately disrespectful and insincere. When a small kingdom serves the great

Book XI

one, it should be straight and sincere in everything it does. Where does the sun rise and where does it set? There is only one sun, and you cannot look down on it. When you send envoys to China, send the ones who are proficient in the Chinese language; otherwise, do not send envoys at all. I have grandsons and the king of Chosŏn has granddaughters. Let’s have them get married with each other. If you agree, send us one among your grand councilors who knows how to speak Chinese. I will speak to you through him. “Among the four scholars whom you sent to us, only Kwŏn Kŭn looks experienced and sincere, so I allow him to return home. I want the king of Chosŏn to convey these words to him. Since none of the three scholars who recently arrived speak Chinese, I send them back home. The baggage belonging to the four scholars who are still here will be transported later at one time.” The poems composed by the Chinese emperor were as follows: The old kingdom whose border is the clean water of the Yalu River Achieved peace, eliminating the wicked. Refusing to accept runaway people, it preserved peace for many years And made propriety and fidelity its major legacy. The war with the Han dynasty is clearly in the records, and The armies of the Khitan also left their traces for the reflection of ­posterity. When my heart stays in the middle of the sky, The water is calm and the border is quiet. (The above is about the Yalu River.) The capital moved away and the streets turned desolate. Passing travelers are saddened to look at the desolation. Only the flowers are left in the palace gardens crowded with bees, But the empty palaces became the home of wild rabbits. The peddlers take a roundabout way to get to the new city, And the merchants newly relocated miss their old marketplace. This is what happened to the capital of the Wang clan. How many times has the nation’s capital changed since Tan’gun? (The above is about the old capital of Koryŏ.)

645

646

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Upon crossing the border, one finds the fields full of farmers and their singing. How many years have passed since soldiers were engaged in farming? The iron drum hanging on top of the pavilion is rusty, And the watchtower became a heap of earth covered with shrubs and weeds. The people at the post station welcome the traveling envoys, And they bid them farewell, wishing them a safe trip. Passing by the fields filled with crops and prosperity, They finally arrive at the Chinese border where the horizon ends. (The above is about the Korean envoys traveling through Liaodong.) These three poems were composed by the emperor himself and presented to Kwŏn Kŭn. Earlier, Kŭn had paid a visit to the Ming court and had an audience with the emperor. Recognizing that Kŭn was a man of learning, the emperor told him to compose twenty-­four poems. So Kŭn complied and submitted the poems: On the Old Royal Capital of Koryŏ Setting up a kingdom on the eastern border, The Wang clan ruled it over five hundred years until it ended. Running out of energy and losing the support of the people, Its rise and decline was the will of Heaven. The city still remains, looking desolate. The once-­prosperous capital has already vanished. As I return to survey it, I feel my laments increasing, And I find a cold smoke hanging onto the tall tree. On Yi’s Separate Housekeeping The Eastern Kingdom underwent many troubles, But our king rose up to solve them. Looking after the people and practicing benevolence, He has done his utmost in serving the suzerain state. Changing the country name owing to the grace of His Imperial Majesty, He moved the nation’s capital and constructed a new city.

Book XI

He wishes to fulfill his duty to serve the great nation And avows to pay tribute for thousands of generations. Traveling on a Diplomatic Mission Having received the royal order to depart as an envoy, I bid farewell to my parents and traveled a long distance. How can I complain about the fatigue of horse-­riding? My only concern is that I may fail in my mission. Wide open is the palace gate of the great nation, But the post road I am traveling never ends. I wish that I could spread my loyalty and sincerity on it, And that the emperor could notice it even a little. Arriving at the Capital Carrying the Royal Orders As the sage ruler rises like a dragon and pacifies the world, People from distant lands pay tribute to him, crossing mountains and seas. His palace, filled with auspicious energy, stands magnificently, And the splendid culture shows the greatness of his rule. As the morning mist clears, the sun shines on the imperial banner, And the wind from heaven makes incense burn fragrantly. Favored and honored by His Majesty, his servant from a small kingdom Attends on him in his august presence, standing in the red palace yard. Passing by Western Capital [P’yŏngyang] A thousand-­year-­old kingdom ruled by Jizi is laid along the sea, And the legacy of his Eight Prohibitions15 is still alive. The distant hills and mountains surround the plain, And the long river flows swiftly, encircling old villages. 15. They are the laws promulgated by Kija [Jizi] and enforced in the kingdom of Old Chosŏn. However, only three among the Eight Prohibitions are handed down. The first is that one who commits homicide is put to death; second, one who physically harmed others should compensate them with grain; and third, one who steals the property of others should be made a slave of the person or the house that he tried to rob.

647

648

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Traveling ten thousand li crossing mountains and seas, We pay tribute and will stay as your vassal state forever. When we talked with the people on our way, They said they owed their living to the grace of the emperor. Crossing the Yalu River Lonesome border villages have only old trees that grow green, And they are on the other side of Liaoyang, across the long river. The grace of the emperor has no border, embracing both China and Chosŏn. Why then do the people set up borders, claiming their land? Sitting on a small boat swaying with the waves, I joyfully watch The sun sending its light as far as the distant, rugged land. Who will understand my impatience to hurry the journey? I am anxious to convey the gracious words of the emperor to my king. Passing through Liaodong The Crane Fields16 stretch afar and the roads are endless, and Famous vassal states, all powerful, spread out like chessmen on the board. The countries in distant lands send their envoys pledging their loyalty, and Various generals expand the nation’s borders, displaying their power and dignity. Should I write my confidence on the column of the bridge?17 The gate guard will laugh at me when I throw away the pass he gives to me.18 16. It refers to the Liaodong plains. 17. When Sima Xiangru, a famous poet of the Western Han, traveled to the west, he happened to cross Shengxian Bridge. Before he crossed the bridge, he wrote his resolution on the column of the bridge: “I will never cross this bridge again unless I succeed in my dream and return home riding in a luxurious carriage drawn by four horses.” Later, he indeed returned home riding in a luxurious carriage. 18. There was a young man during the Han dynasty, a son of an official serving as erudite. At the age of eighteen, he was chosen as a candidate for the civil service examination at the palace. As he was about to pass through the palace gate, a gate guard handed him a pass made of silk, explaining that he needed to show it when the latter returned home. The young man,

Book XI

Nowadays, the four seas [the world] share the same culture, and The best thing is to see the greatness of the superior nation. Sailing Laizhou Bay Large grain vessels with tall masts And the vast blue ocean under the clear sky. The stars sparkle on the waves, And the waves keep rolling until they touch the Milky Way. As my boat approaches midocean, I mourn the death of ancient ­warriors.19 Why should I seek Daoist immortals of the faraway Three Islands?20 Lying in the boat and looking up at the sky, I am excited Because my boat floating on the sea sails toward heaven. Ancient King of the Eastern Barbarians As I have heard, at the dawn of history, Tan’gun descended from heaven and alighted on a tree. When he descended to found this Eastern Kingdom, It was the same age as that of Tang Yao. How many generations since Tan’gun? The years exceed a thousand. Later, even in the reign of Jizi, The kingdom was still called Chosŏn. however, threw the pass away. Later, the man became a chamberlain serving the emperor. He passed through the palace gate to carry out the imperial order, and the gate guard instantly recognized him, saying, “This is the scholar who threw away the pass.” 19. Tian Heng (?–202 BC) was enfeoffed as the king of Qi by Xiang Yu. As Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu, Tian Heng escaped to an island on the sea with five hundred men who were his followers. Liu Bang, now Emperor Gaozu, summoned Heng to his court in Luoyang. Heng had no choice but to comply. However, when he had almost arrived at his destination, Heng committed suicide. His five hundred followers, who heard of his death, also committed suicide. 20. “Three Islands” here refers to the Three Divine Mountains (Mt. Sanshen), which are allegedly located in the Boahi Sea: Penlai, Fanzhang, and Yingzhou. These mountains were known to be the home of immortals. Legend has it that Qin Shi Huang dispatched thousands of virgin boys and girls to these mountains to seek the elixir of immortality, without success.

649

650

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Looking toward Japan In the east beyond the sea, There live wicked people called Japanese. Having never been exposed to the influence of sages, They are always brutal and cunning. Invading and plundering the neighboring countries, They live in the mountains along the sea. I wish the suzerain state would send its army to suppress them And return in triumph after bringing them to justice. On Kŭmgang Mountain Ten million mountain peaks standing in the snow Appear as jade lotus when the clouds are cleared over the sea. The awesome lights over the mountain peaks create the vast blue ocean, And they look as if they have gathered all the clean energy and vibrant harmony. The steep hills and mountains look down narrow trails, And deep valleys hide the traces of Daoist immortals. While traveling east, I wish to climb the highest peak And wash my heart clean, looking down at the great ocean. On the Geomancy of the New Capital After a thousand years, the sea kingdom [Chosŏn] is fortunate to have A benevolent emperor, and our king tries to serve him with all his heart. The king was granted a new country name, with an order to raise his people. So he established the nation’s capital in Hansŏng and built royal palaces. In the south, a river is unwinding with rolling waves; In the north, three mountains soar above the clouds. What’s the use of talking about geomancy? Everyone will enjoy peace evermore thanks to the grace of the emperor.

Book XI

On the State of Chinhan Three States of Han in antiquity stood like a three-­legged cauldron,21 And the land of a thousand li grew exhausted with war. Their strength being comparable, They failed to achieve unification. As Duke Wang first rose to redress the malady, The Kim clan gave themselves in submission from afar.22 Starting from that time until now, Our people have continued to live in peace. On the State of Mahan The land of Mahan, which stretched afar, was located on the coast Where whales were frolicking off the shore. At first, when it was one of the three competing states, it fought hard; Once the country became unified, however, it made peace with ­neighbors. A thousand years have passed since people sharpened their weapons for war; Every field is now filled with mulberry and hemp, fresh with spring sunshine. Moreover, they are now fortunate to live in the reign of peace, Enjoying the benevolence of the emperor from afar. On the State of Pyŏnhan When the Eastern Kingdom was divided into three states, The lives of the people were unsettled for a long time.

21. “Three States,” or Samhan, refers to those that existed before the Three Kingdoms. Chinhan is assumed to be located to the east of the Nakdong River in Kyŏngsang Province. Mahan was located in the region of modern Kyŏnggi, Ch’ungch’ŏng, and Chŏlla Provinces, and Pyŏnhan in Kyŏngsang Province to the west of the Nakdong River. (Ki-­baik Lee, p. 26) 22. “Duke Wang” refers to Wang Kŏn (918–943), who brought order out of the chaos of the Later Three Kingdoms and founded a new unified kingdom named Koryŏ. “Kim clan” indicates the Silla nobility, especially the last king, Kyŏngsun, who chose to surrender to Wang Kŏn in exchange for his security.

651

652

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Always at war with each other in a small land, Both Pyŏnhan and Chinhan used to be in turmoil. The wind passing over the ancient garrison sounds sad; The clear moon on the ruined terrace is cold. After the two states became one, the people no longer Have enemies and live together forever. On the Kingdom of Silla In antiquity when Hyŏkkŏse23 established the kingdom, It was the Wufeng era [of the Han dynasty].24 It survived a thousand years Until it was reduced to occupy a corner of the kingdom. After offering the land of Kyerim, the people paid tribute To the king of Kongnyŏng.25 The ancestral rites to the three royal clans, which have continued, Are now stopped forever. What a pity! On T’amna26 A dark green single dot on the vast ocean is Mt. Halla. It is far away, floating in the boundless expanse of the sea. Following the star, people crossed the sea to reach the island And produced the best horses to fill the emperor’s stable. Though the island is remote, people make a good living. When the wind is fair, merchant ships arrive and depart. You officials who under the sage king make records of ruling districts, Do not leave this island out, though it may be secluded. On the Taedong River The old capital of Jizi is now an empty field, And the great river embraces the lonely fortress, veering to the west. 23. The first ruler of the Silla Kingdom. His full name was Pak Hyŏkkŏse. 24. Wufeng (57 BC –54 bc) is the era name of Emperor Xuan of the Han dynasty. 25. Kongnyŏng is another name for Mt. Songak, which stands for Songdo or Kaegyŏng, the capital of Koryŏ. 26. Cheju Island.

Book XI

Smokey waves appear to reach the distant sky, And sandy waters are clear, revealing the riverbed. Accepting myriad streams, the river flows as usual, Carrying the whole world in its rolling tide. The way it flows into the sea resembles no other than our king, Who is eager to serve the great with all sincerity. Listening to Music at the Laibin Pavilion for Foreign Envoys As foreign envoys from myriad kingdoms are gathered at the Jade Capital, A tall pavilion was built on the roadside to entertain them. With the wine that warms the body, A pure voice of a singer stirs my heart. At the blowing wind, dress decorations jangle, And the fluttering foresleeves of dancing girls yield fragrance. How many envoys are privileged to enjoy a moment such as this? And how many more times can I have it in days ahead? Watching the Performers at Zhongyi Pavilion As a traveler in favor with the emperor goes out the gate of the Phoenix City, He runs into the main street, bright with fine weather, and the gait of his horse is light. Ascending the pavilion, he is struck by great views all around; Lifting his cup, he indulges in watching the performance of ­entertainers. Their pleasantries and humor sound quite interesting, and The way they move their bodies at will is very impressive. After watching the skills displayed by the performers, I feel quite drunk but still sober enough to remember the favor of the emperor. Returning to My Quarters after Having Drinks at Nanshi Pavilion A hundred-­foot-­tall pavilion towers over the city center; A traveler who surveys the city cannot help being excited.

653

654

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Along streets stretching long, numerous stores are lined up; Thousands of colorful roofs adjoin one another. Watching exciting dances while having a gold cup full of wine, I could not help reciting a new poem again to the sound of the lute. Having already found great favor with the emperor, how can I decline to drink? As I returned to my quarters quite drunk, the moon was high in the sky. After Having a Good Time at Beishi Pavilion Looking down from Beishi Pavilion in front of Mt. Zhongfu, I see red roofs soaring high, showing the strength of the nation. As a traveler favored by the emperor visits the city from a distant land, A beautiful dancing girl approaches him to offer a drink. I drank to my heart’s content and, feeling lonely, I returned to my quarters, but I have no regrets at all. Since I have never had the favor of the emperor like this time, The only thing to do is to be grateful to him all my life. Watching the Slopes of the River after Drinking at Zuixian Pavilion A nice day for sightseeing, and I climb Zuxian Pavilion. Looking at the river and the sky while leaning against the balustrade, The wind and haze adjoin the lands outside the capital, And clouds and waters stretch afar to the coast of the sea. Not declining to drink, I became under the influence While having too much of tasty and fragrant dishes. At the sound of a song, I forgot that I was a traveler, And, being grateful, I wished the emperor many years of blessed life. Revisiting Heming Pavilion and Listening to the Sound of Jade Pendants Climbing up Heming Pavilion and walking around on the terrace for a while, A girl wearing jade pendants walks toward me lightly. It’s such a pleasure to listen to her song, to the accompaniment of the exquisite lute.

Book XI

But it’s equally wonderful to observe her slim hand offering wine in a gold cup. The rivers and mountains running to the south look magnificent, And the sun and moon stay at the imperial palace in the north. Thanks to the imperial favors sent through a palace eunuch, I went out To enjoy myself for three days and returned home drunk and helped by others. Praising [Kwŏn Kŭn], the emperor bestowed a prize and ordered him to work at the Hall of Literary Profundity (Wenyuange).27 The emperor also gave him the poems he had personally written, which was a sign that he really liked Kŭn. An official letter from the Ministry of Rites of China delivered the imperial message, which was as follows: “From now on, when you send envoys to us, send only those who are proficient in the Chinese language. Those who cannot speak Chinese will not be allowed to visit.” The Ministry of Rites conveyed another imperial message, which was as follows: “Zhang Bing, minister of rites, and others received a sacred instruction from the emperor, which was as follows: Since antiquity, starting from the emperor from above down to the lords of vassal states, one who want to establish a new dynasty and continue to rule the state must secure men of integrity, outstanding in wisdom. This is a sure way to make his state prosper. If he employs petty people from the beginning, they will certainly throw the country into chaos. The current king of Chosŏn became the ruler of the country at a time when the fortunes of the Wang clan ran out, and Heaven proceeded to replace them with new leadership, owing to the fact that one should fulfill his duty from below, and Heaven responds to his efforts from above. Thus, he was able to own the Three Han States, changing the country name to Chosŏn. Then he settled the lives of the people, both in the cities and in the countryside. 27. “One of the palace buildings to which Ming Dynasty Grand Secretaries were assigned.” (Hucker, p. 568)

655

656

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

He tried to follow a mainstream tradition in establishing rituals and ceremonies, and the laws he made emulated those in antiquity. Consequently, the country as a whole is now in good shape. Why, then, does he not look far ahead and think deeply about the ways of establishing a good relationship with neighbors, rather than surrounding himself with petty and frivolous people? Though they call themselves Confucian scholars, they are, in fact, Confucian scholars only in appearance and incapable of assisting the king in achieving his virtues. Though they pretend to serve the great, they only seek the disastrous words that will bring harm [to the relationship with the suzerain state]. So what they do is dangerous enough to bring the disaster of war to the land of Chosŏn and deprive their king of his domain. What is the use of employing such worthless people? In ancient times, there was a loyal subject in China. He served a king who liked war and always tried to prevent him from starting a war. What could be the reason? When a country is in discord with its neighbor, what it should do first is cultivate language [that will please its neighbor]; next, it should cultivate the language of diplomatic letters; next, it should cultivate a name and honor [so that its neighbor can observe propriety]; next, it should cultivate virtues [so that its neighbor can be impressed]; and, finally, it should cultivate punishments [so that it can display dignity and authority]. Even if its neighbor persists in wrong conduct, one should avoid taking its people to distant lands and making them work hard; one should rather cultivate one’s virtues more assiduously. How dare one start wars and make good people miserable by transgressing the will of Heaven as well as the spirits of the mountains and rivers? Nowadays, there are those among the scholars of Chosŏn who compose memorials and letters who are causing trouble every year by using inappropriate words. Mountains and streams as well as both the spirits above and the spirits below all know what goes on, even the things that we are unaware of. If this situation continues, disasters are inevitable in the days ahead. You officials of the Ministry of Rites, send a letter to the king of Chosŏn and let him deeply think over what I have said. 9th Day (Imsul)

There was a ring around the sun, and at night, red and white streaks of energy stretched out across the sky toward the south.

Book XI

657

15th Day (Mujin)

Cho Chun, director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals, Chŏng Tojŏn, and others requested that court ladies (naegwan) be provided with official titles and ranks: “There should be two ladies of worthy deportment (hyŏnŭi), of which one is rank 1a and the other rank 2b; two ladies of chaste deportment (sugŭi), of which one is rank 2a and the other rank 2b; three ladies for admonishment (ch’andŏk), of which one is rank 3a and the other two rank 3b; three ladies of complete complaisance (sunsŏng), of which one is rank 4a and the other two rank 4b; three inner palace matrons (sanggung), of which one is rank 5a and the other two rank 5b; three matrons for personnel management (sanggwan), of which one is rank 6a and the other two rank 6b; four household provisioners (karyŏng), of which two are rank 7a and the other two rank 7b; four directresses of supplies (sagŭp), of which two are rank 8a and the other two rank 8b; and four directresses of ceremonial regalia (sasik), of which two are rank 9a and the other two rank 9b.” 16th Day (Kisa)

The king dispatched Yu Un, discussant of the Security Council, to the Ming capital and expressed his gratitude to the emperor [for paying condolences to him on the death of Queen Hyŏn]. He said, “Lady Kang, the wife of your servant, suddenly left the great age reigned over by the sage emperor, but I dared not report it to you because it was not good news. Then I received your sacred letter of condolence, brought by our envoy An Ik, who had just returned from the imperial court. Your words of sympathy and comfort were so moving that I am overwhelmed by your kindness.” 17th Day (Kyŏngo)

Remonstrators submitted a memorial to the king: “Since the ceremony for the memorial to be submitted to the emperor (paep’yojirye) cannot be held in the middle of the fields while traveling, we urge you to return to the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy and perform the ceremony with due propriety.” The king replied, “Going to the Special Capital Magistracy is also traveling.” *   *   *

658

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The king ordered the Privy Council to send a dispatch to the provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region and tell him to strictly prohibit the people from conducting trade without permission on the borders. 18th Day (Sinmi)

When the king stayed at the hot springs, two children begged for food. After the king told the officials to bring them in and ask about this, the children said they were orphans and had no place to live. The king ordered the Royal Clothing Office to provide them with clothes and to feed them at the Catering Bureau (Sasŏnsŏ). 19th Day (Imsin)

Jupiter continued to approach Ghoul Star and Heap of Corpses until the Chŏngch’uk day.28 20th (Kyeyu)

When the king went hunting at Mt. Ch’ŏnsin and stayed in P’yŏngju, he saw a woman following behind the officials. He asked the reason and found that she was a female slave belonging to the Royal Stable Court. He ordered the officials to release her to go home. Then he had the five officials of the Royal Stable Court, including Director Yi Pi, locked up in jail. The following day, he forgave them. The royal tomb of the king’s grandmother, Consort Kyŏng, was in Hamju. A geomancer recommended that the tomb be moved to another place, so the king sent Prince Yŏngan Yangu and moved the tomb to a mountain slope in Imbang, which is located in the eastern part of Kwiju.29 25th Day (Muin)

There was frost. Interpreter Pak In’gwi, former vice supervisor [of the Directorate for Fish­ eries and Natural Resources], and other Koreans returned from Tsushima, 28. According to the Korean sexageny cycle, the chŏngch’uk day comes five days after kyeyu, the 19th day of the 3rd month here. So it indicates that the above celestial phenomena continued for five days. 29. A town located to the east of Hamju, South Hamgyŏng Province.

Book XI

and Japanese aboard ten ships voluntarily surrendered themselves to our authorities. 26th Day (Kimyo)

There was frost. The king bestowed straw hats and jade hat strings upon Cho Chun, left chancellor, and straw hats upon Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, and Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng. 27th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king left the hot springs to return to the capital. The king gave instructions to the Privy Council: “Though it is hard to tell whether the Japanese who are now in Kyŏngsang Province and begging for surrender are serious in their intention to surrender themselves to us, their surrender should be accepted. Even if they deal with us deceptively, we should not fail to show our trust. However, we should strengthen ourselves, and if they go back to the old ways of plundering once again, we should not lose opportunities to annihilate them.” 28th Day (Sinsa)

With a falcon perched on his arm, the king went out hunting in the districts of Kangŭm and Kaesŏng.

4th Month 1st Day (Kyemi)

There was fog. The yellow corvina fish caught for the first time this year were offered to the royal ancestors at the shrine. Rakaon, the chief of the Japanese marauders, requested that he be allowed to surrender with his people, leading twenty-­four warships. 3rd Day (Ŭlyu)

There was loud thunder with lightning and rain.

659

660

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

5th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king dispatched Kim Kyesu, general-­in-­chief, and Pak Munsung, former myriarch, to Kyŏngsang Province in order to find ways to prevent the attack of Japanese marauders. Two chiefs of surrendered Japanese marauders, leading six subordinates, visited the governor of Kyŏngang Province and served him wine that they had brought. 6th Day (Muja)

Returning to the capital, the king first visited the Royal Ancestral Shrine to report his safe return to his ancestors and then moved on to his royal palace. The chiefs of the Japanese [marauders] sent their message to the governor through two of their subordinates: “We three myriarchs want to have an audience with the governor, each leading a hundred men. However, we would first like to request provisions.” The governor gave them 200 sŏk of rice. Rakaon requested an audience with the governor, and the governor granted it. So Rakaon arrived in Miryang, leading eighty Japanese under his command. Governor Yi Chi served Rakaon wine and food and sent him to the capital along with ten of his subordinates, and the rest of the Japanese to their ships. Pak Chaan, chief pacification commissioner, tried to attack them, leading out battleships, but the Japanese, who realized danger, ended up running away. Though Chaan pursued them, he failed to capture them. 8th Day (Kyŏngin)

There was fog. The government mobilized five hundred soldiers from Ch’ungch’ŏng Province and dispatched them to Kyŏngsang and Chŏlla Provinces in order to make preparations against raids by the Japanese.

Book XI

9th Day (Sinmyo)

The king paid a visit to Chŏngnŭng, [the tomb of his wife Queen Sindŏk]. 12th Day (Kabo)

The censorial offices impeached Han Sangjil, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, and Yu Yang, discussant of the Security Council. Earlier, when Sangjil served as governor of Kyŏngsang Province and Yang as magistrate of Kyerim, Yang said to Sangjil, “We should send a man to the Japanese and persuade them to surrender themselves for their own sake.” So, they sent a monk named Ŭiun to them, but the Japanese ran away. So the censorial offices decided to investigate the reason for sending a monk. The censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king: “Ch’oe Sŏn, former vice supervisor; Ch’oe Koeng, former fourth censor; Yi Pan, former bureau section chief; and others engaged in boisterous, drunken merrymaking at night, joined by entertaining women and playing loud music. They not only violated the prohibition on alcohol but also recklessly trespassed on private property and damaged household items while they were drunk. Furthermore, Sŏn and Koeng committed such wrongdoings while they were still in mourning for their grandmothers. We request that they be turned over to the departments responsible and punished according to law.” Though the king granted the request, he forgave Pan, exceptionally. 14th Day (Pyŏngsin)

Yi Mich’ung, special director of the Saddlery Service (Pyŏlan’guk), was incarcerated in the Capital Constabulary Prison for writing the character ch’ŏn (heaven) on the golden saddle that was presented to the [Chinese] emperor. Upon finding the character, the emperor became indignant and said, “A saddle is a thing that a man sits on. How then can a man sit on Heaven? This is an insult to me.” Then the emperor had it burned. However, Mich’ung’s intention for putting the character there was simply to make it stand out among the saddles that he had produced; he had no ulterior motives. Therefore, he was released a little later.

661

662

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

16th Day (Musul)

The king dispatched O Chonji, vice minister of the Palace Directorate (Chŏnjung sogyŏng), to provide famine relief to the Northwest Region. The king bestowed robes upon each of four Jurchens, including Wuduli and Yudiha, and five surrendered Japanese chiefs, including Kyuroku and Tojiro. 17th Day (Kihae)

Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission and tribute emissary to China; Sin Yuhyŏn, assistant director of the Security Council and vice tribute emissary; Chin Ch’unggwi, former military commissioner of Ŭiju; Yang Ch’ŏnsik, former minister of taxation; and others returned from the Chinese capital and delivered the letters from the Ministry of Rites of China. One of the letters was as follows: “Our Ministry of Rites received a sacred instruction from the emperor, which was as follows: ‘The four barbarian states (siyi) are all different in their distance from China, but Chosŏn, being located on our eastern border, is much closer to us than the other places. Some time ago, the Wang clan came to their end after negligence in governing the people, and the Yi clan rose to replace them. Subsequently, trouble on the borders has been frequent. Though I admonished them several times, I was unable to stop the troubles until now. Worried that they might lead to war if they are allowed to continue, I proposed marriage between the members of the two royal families, which I believed would bring peace and stabilize the lives of the people in both countries. Several years have already passed since I first entertained such thoughts. Therefore, in the sixth month of the twenty-­ninth year [of the reign of Hongwu], I had the imperial messenger convey my message [to the king of Chosŏn]. The messenger returned and reported that the king of Chosŏn had come out to welcome him, so I believed that the marriage between the two royal families would certainly take place sooner or later. ‘In the spring of the thirtieth year [during the reign of Hongwu], Chosŏn also sent us an envoy and expressed its sincerity [in relation to my marriage proposal], presenting horses with saddles. The following day, we examined the horses and found that both saddles and animals were all flawed. Upon

Book XI

seeing how the gifts were produced and presented, I could not help but be disappointed and skeptical, because such an unfavorable beginning of our new relationship foreboded an undesirable consequence in the end. A good friend of a superior man is a person with whom one can communicate through understanding and affection even if one is far apart and unable to see each other notwithstanding his wishes. ‘Chosŏn at the present deals with me falsely despite my expressions of sincere desire to have a good relationship with it. How, then, is it possible for us to communicate through understanding and affection, transcending a long distance? Unless this relationship is severed at the beginning, I am afraid that I will certainly regret it later. Since it is no longer possible to discuss marriage with Chosŏn, I want you, the officials of the Ministry of Rites, to send a letter to break off the marriage discussion but treat the Chosŏn envoys with hospitality so that they may persuade their government not to cause trouble on the borders when they return home.’ ” Another letter from the Ministry of Rites was as follows: “Our Ministry of Rites received a sacred instruction from the emperor, which was as follows: ‘In order to establish a new dynasty and continue to preserve it, petty people should not be allowed to serve in the government. When one reads the memorials and letters submitted by Chosŏn, one can find out what kind of people the newly founded Chosŏn has in its government. They are not the ones who can bring good fortune to the people of Chosŏn; they are the main source of trouble for them. ‘In ancient China the emperor established, were many states of feudal lords, but very few succeeded in bequeathing the lands to their posterity. Why was that? It was because they allowed petty people to rule the state. For this reason, the emperor set down the nine regulations concerning the suppression of feudal states that failed to employ the right people.30 There 30. The Nine Regulations (Jiufazhifa) here refers to the law and responsibility in the Rites of Zhou to be carried out by the minister of war (dasima). According to this law, the suzerain state has the right to rectify the irregularities of the vassal states under nine different circumstances by taking military action against them or replacing their ruler or reducing their territories. The nine circumstances are: when they despise the weak and oppresses minorities; when they harass the wise and harm the people; when they act tyrannously, showing disrespect to neighboring states; when they make their land waste and their people scattered; when they are disobedient and intransigent, trusting something they want to rely on; when they harm or kill their kinsmen; when the subjects murder or expel their monarch; when they violate the orders of the emperor, neglecting affairs of state; and when they bring chaos to the whole country, leaving birds and beasts to overrun the streets.

663

664

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

were only a few vassal states that were able to preserve themselves along with the Heavenly Kingdom (Tianzhao). The State of Zheng, which was a small kingdom, was often suppressed [by the imperial army] because it chose to use the wrong people in its government. Later, Zichan became chancellor of the state, and what an extraordinary person he was! Sending letters to all the neighboring states and their leaders, he established good relationships with them, and he was successful in his endeavor because in his diplomatic correspondence he was very cautious in using language that did not incur the disapproval of his counterparts. While he served in the government, therefore, there were no military conflicts. How can you explain that? ‘Generally speaking, when he wrote letters to the feudal lords and leaders of neighboring states, he was very sincere. After much thought and consideration, he started drafting his letters. He took several steps in producing each of the letters: writing a first draft, discussing and reviewing, fleshing out, and finally revising and polishing. Since he sent letters after undergoing all these procedures, how could even one word incur the displeasure of his readers? ‘What has the man named Chŏng Tojŏn done for Yi [Sŏnggye], the king of Chosŏn, under the pretext of assisting him? Unless the king realizes the danger, that man will certainly bring disaster upon his kingdom. If Chŏng Ch’ong, No Indo, and Kim Yakhang were now in Chosŏn, they could have become the right-­hand men of Chŏng Tojŏn and brought disaster down upon themselves. The king of Chosŏn should watch out. Unless he is watchful, his country will suffer disasters once again, and he will have no choice but to ask others for help. You, the officials of the Ministry of Rites, send a letter to the king of Chosŏn and tell him to think deeply and find the ways to preserve his kingdom.’ ” Sŏl Changsu also delivered the imperial instruction [of the Chinese emperor]: “On the second day of the second month, the emperor gave audience to Sŏl Changsu and others at the West Gate of Obedience (Youshunmen) and said: ‘As for the matter concerning the marriage between the two royal ­families, since your king is still in mourning, I will decide it by sending an official in the first month of the following year when the mourning period ends. ‘Yi So-­and-­so [King T’aejo] does not know how to discriminate between good and bad. What is the use of hiring one as worthless as Chŏng Tojŏn?

Book XI

Yesterday, Chŏng Ch’ong sent a letter to the Hanlin Academy (Hanlinyuan) and requested that he be allowed to wear mourning dress since his queen had passed away. The Hanlin Academy replied that it is not allowed [for a foreign official] to wear mourning dress at the imperial court even if he has a death in the royal family of his own country. Nevertheless, he entered the imperial palace on New Year’s Day wearing white mourn­ ­ing dress. ‘He also composed a poem entitled “The Yalu River.” In that poem, he wrote, “Dragon Bay looks desolate.” When I asked about Dragon Bay, he replied that there is a place called Dragon Bay on the Yalu River. ‘When Chŏng Tojŏn visited here and returned home, he passed by Shanhai Guard. He said, “I am not sure whether what looks good really is good” and had an argument [with the people of the Guard?].31 ‘The eunuchs who came from your country now run errands and manage all the affairs in my palace, including my bed and food. They wanted to see their parents in their country, so I gave my permission. I believe you gave them money, and if you did, they should have given that money to their parents. Why do they need to bring the money here? When we searched the belongings of one of the eunuchs, they consisted of one blue bundle, one red bundle, and a willow chest. When we opened the chest, we discovered a piece of paper filled with the writing of the Western barbarians (Xifan). Since it seems that there are still the remnants of some Tartars, I intend to go out to suppress them. If you send us twenty thousand men and horses to repulse them, I will have no doubts whatsoever about your faithfulness. Can you do that?’ “At noon, the emperor arrived at the West Gate of Obedience and said: ‘Earlier, Chosŏn sent us horse saddles, and when we pulled them apart, we found some characters inscribed inside them. If I again decide to examine the saddles that you brought this time, I wonder what will be found in them?’ Then several eunuchs cut the saddles apart [to see what was inside], and they found the Chinese character tian [signifying heaven] inscribed on both sides of the seat upside down, and characters such as xuan [signifying darkness] and shi [signifying ten] inscribed on other parts of the seat. Standing up slowly, the emperor personally held and examined the saddle. Then he 31. This remark sounds ambiguous. Perhaps what was meant was that either the speaker was not impressed with the Shanhai Guard or that he showed his dissatisfaction with something else.

665

666

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

sat down again and said, ‘How can they be as tricky as that? When we write characters on documents, we always make sure that the character tian comes first, on top. I have never ridden on a saddle like that.’ “Changsu spoke to the emperor: ‘Having heard that characters were found in the saddles previously presented to Your Majesty, I personally checked with the artisan who made the saddles several times when I brought them over. The man reassured me that there were no characters in the saddles, so I brought them without any worries. Those who make saddles normally indicate the grade of quality by placing characters on them and remove them later when they have completed their work. The one who made the saddle this time, however, forgot to remove the characters. How can his mistake be forgiven? It has been forty years since I served in Koryŏ. I served two or three kings,32 and I dare not say that any of them, not to mention King Kongmin,33 were sincere in their faithfulness to the emperor. The present king, however, is [different from them and] consistently sincere in his respect for the emperor and never negligent.’ “The emperor said, ‘I understand that you are trying to defend your king. However, since he shows little sincerity toward us, how do I dare make him my in-­law? Though I really intended to establish a family relationship through marriage, the other side paid almost no serious attention to it. What can I do, then? ‘As for Chŏng Ch’ong’s family, the statements made by Chŏng Ch’ong and his wife are factually at variance, including dates of birth. How can they belong to the same family? Take away all of his family with you when you go home. ‘In the case of the tribute horses you brought, I want you to take them back home since the marriage is already canceled, and it is difficult to keep them here. As for the saddles, I ordered the Directorate of Horses (Majian) to burn them all. Take 57 taels of gold for their price. Tell your king not to cause trouble. If he continues to keep petty people around and listens to them, he will see things fall apart very soon. ‘The myriarch of Ŭiju was originally supposed to be sent to the department responsible for interrogation. However, Yi [Sŏnggye] sent you to me 32. King U, King Ch’ang, and King Kongyang. 33. Unlike his successors, King Kongmin tried to establish a friendly relationship with Ming China. The speaker deliberately disregards this fact in order to emphasize T’aejo’s loyalty to the Chinese emperor.

Book XI

directly, and it was a good idea. I allow you to return home without ­interrogation. But tell your king to be careful not to cause trouble henceforth.’ “Then the emperor explained how he was able to gain all under heaven and finally said, ‘The reason your king attained the throne will be the same as this. Unless Heaven allows and the people follow, how can one attain the throne only with power?’“ 18th Day (Kyŏngja)

Mars stayed in the west of the Supreme Palace Enclosure, near to the First Western General (Sangjang) by half a ch’ŏk. 19th Day (Sinch’uk)

Mars approached the First Western General. 20th Day (Imin)

The Office of Inspector-General impeached Yang Ch’ŏnsik, former minister of taxation, as well as Sŏl Changsu, chief director of the State Finance Commission, and Kwŏn Kŭn, Lord of Hwasan. Earlier, the Chinese emperor sent Niu Niu and other envoys [to Chosŏn] to summon Chŏng Tojŏn, and Tojŏn did not obey the emperor’s command by feigning illness. Kŭn spoke to the king: “In composing the [controversial] memorials, I also participated. Please allow me to follow the Ming envoys to the Chinese capital and give my explanation to the emperor.” The king, however, did not grant his request because there was no imperial order to send him to the Chinese court. Then Kŭn made the request to the king once again, and the king said, “You have old parents at home, and besides, there is no order from the emperor to require your presence at his court. I can hardly bear to send you over there.” Kŭn said, “If you [voluntarily] send me without the order from the emperor, one who failed to go because of illness can avoid suspicion and I can be also forgiven. On the other hand, if I go there only after I have received the summons from the emperor, I am afraid that my penalty will become heavier.” So the king finally granted his permission. People at that time generally praised Kŭn, while some of them were critical of Tojŏn. Hearing the public talk, Tojŏn became jealous and spoke to the king: “Kŭn is a disciple of Yi Saek, who unsuccessfully tried to accuse

667

668

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

you to the emperor in the Kisa year (1389). He must have some reason when he strongly requests for permission to go to China. I urge you not to send him.” However, the king did not listen to him. Shortly after Kŭn departed, the king dispatched an official to give him some gold. When Kŭn returned home after receiving special treatment from the emperor, Tojŏn instigated the Office of the Inspector-General to impeach Kŭn for returning alone while Chŏng Ch’ong and others were still detained in the Chinese capital. Then he said to the king, “While they still have Ch’ong and others detained, they allowed Kŭn alone to return home, even providing him with gold, and this is exactly what I expected to happen. I urge you to interrogate him.” The king asked, “How do you know that Kŭn was awarded gold?” Tojŏn replied, “I heard that Kŭn used gold to pay for his expenses. Unless the gold was bestowed by the emperor, how could such a poor scholar obtain gold?” The king laughed and said, “Even though he is a poor scholar, are there no ways for him to get gold?” Tojŏn did not know that the king himself had given the gold to Kŭn. As Tojŏn strongly urged the king to interrogate Kŭn, the king said, “At a time when the emperor was enraged, he volunteered to go to China and mollify the emperor. As a result, the emperor no longer demanded that you appear at his imperial court. So Kŭn made contributions not only to the country but also to you yourself. I was going to reward him, but you want me to punish him?” Then the king ordered Kŭn to come back to work as usual. Tojŏn dared not say a word in reply. Because Ch’ŏnsik and Changsu were also people whom he tried to shun, Tojŏn tried to accuse them of speaking slanderous words at the imperial court. The king gave orders to the Privy Council, saying, “Since the construction of the royal palace is pretty much completed, what remains incomplete should be taken care of later. For now, stop all construction work and give your best effort to training troops and saving provisions.” 21st Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king ordered Yi Hwa, concurrent chief director of the State Finance Commission, and Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, to hold a banquet for the commissioners in charge of palace construction. *   *   *

Book XI

The king ordered the Chancellery and the Security Council to each produce plans to stabilize the lives of the people and made the Privy Council review them and submit the final version. 23rd Day (Ŭlsa)

The former officials of the Two Departments who were below rank 2 were ordered to always reside in the capital and protect the royal house. The reporting deadline for the holders of senior rank 2 was the first day of the sixth month, and the deadline for the holders of junior rank 2, the first day of the eighth month, respectively. When Im Tŭkchang, envoy from Thailand, and five members of his entourage arrived, escaping from captivity in Japan, the king bestowed one set of robes each on four people, including Tŭkchang and two of his attendants. 24th Day (Pyŏngo)

Rakaon, the chief of the [surrendered] Japanese arrived in the capital along with his twelve followers. 25th (Chŏngmi)

The king dispatched Yi Kŏin, director of the State Finance Commission, to Hoeam Monastery and Yu Ku, right director of the State Finance Commis­ sion, to Kwangam Monastery to conduct ceremonies to pray for the elimination of disasters related to inauspicious celestial portents, and Ch’oe Yung, assistant grand councilor-­without-­portfolio of the Chancellery, to the Sogyŏk Hall to offer a sacrifice exclusively to Mars. The censorial officials submitted a memorial to the king: “1. Since you built the Royal Ancestral Shrine as soon as you established the nation’s capital and offered sacrifices and freshly harvested produce to the spirits of your royal ancestors at the appropriate time, you fully demonstrated sincerity in displaying gratitude toward one’s ancestors (pobon). As for the four seasonal sacrifices, however, you always send high officials to officiate on your behalf. Henceforth, except for the occasional sacrifices, we request that Your Majesty personally attend the four major seasonal sacrifices and display your sincerity in remembering and appreciating your roots by offering sacrifices.

669

670

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“1. The requirement that literati officials establish family shrines in their houses is already in the law. Nevertheless, respecting Buddhism and worshiping spirits, they neglect to build their family shrines and hold ancestral rites. Henceforth, we request that you make them build their ancestral shrines in their houses within a certain time period. If some officials still dare disobey the royal orders and continue their evil practices, please have the Office of the Inspector-General investigate and discipline them. “1. The morning audience in the palace, which is held every five days, has only the ceremony for paying respect to the king and no procedures for listening to or receiving the reports on state affairs. Besides, the Hall of Diligent Government is actually a place where state affairs are discussed and decided; however, since monks are always invited to chant sutras inside the hall, that goes against the intention of naming the palace “Hall of Dili­ gent Government.” Henceforth, whenever the morning audience is held, we request that Your Majesty allow the officials from the various departments and agencies, regardless of rank, to join the meeting if they have important state affairs to report and let the reports be discussed and decided on the spot. “1. In antiquity the Three Dukes (Sangong)34 discussed major government policies, and the six ministers (liuqing)35 divided their work of administration. However, they employed only the right person for the job, rather than simply filling the posts. The current bureaucratic system, however, is extremely cumbersome. Starting from the Privy Council at the top down to various government bureaus, it is so overstaffed with public officials that it has to increase the posts as much as possible to accommodate them all. It is like the situation in which nine shepherds take care of ten lambs and ten people try to carry one bottle. We urge you to eliminate the nonessential posts and reduce the number of public officials so that the officials can do their best in discharging their duties, while taking pride in their posts. “1. Due to public works these days, the people have failed to cultivate their lands. Since the fortifications of the capital are now completed and the 34. Grand preceptor (taishi, 太師), grand mentor (taifu, 太傳), and grand guardian (taibo, 太保). 35. Ministry of State (Tianguan, 天官, headed by the Chancellor Zhongzai, 冢宰), Ministry of Civil Administration and Social Welfare (Diguan, 地官, headed by Minister of Education Situ, 司徒), Ministry of Rites (Chunguan, 春官, headed by Minister of Rites Zongbo, 宗伯), Ministry of War (Xiguan, 夏官, headed by Minister of War Sima, 司馬), Ministry of Justice (Qiuguan, 秋官, headed by Minister of Justice Sikou, 司寇), and Ministry of Works (Dongguan, 冬官, headed by Minister of Works Sikong, 司空).

Book XI

royal palaces also constructed, all the public works should be stopped regardless of their urgency. It will not be too late to construct or repair the facilities after waiting for a year of good harvest. Furthermore, this year, the burden of taxes levied upon both public and private lands should be alleviated so that the people can be rewarded for their contributions, and their livelihood improved. “1. What military conscripts and people across the country find most painful is riding on a ship. Since military provisions are now procured through the profits from catching fish and making salt, the work is very hard and the supply of provisions not sufficient. For this reason, whenever the people are called to serve in the navy by turns, entire families often run away and hide. Henceforth, we request that the navy soldiers be issued provisions as they used to in the past as well as be allowed to keep the profits from extra salt-­making for their expenses. If there is anyone among provincial military commanders or lesser garrison commanders who make fortunes by harassing the soldiers to catch fish and make salt, we urge you to punish him strictly by the law. “1. Roguish monks travel all over the place, cheating people and causing trouble. From this day forward, we request that the local government responsible strictly crack down on the vagrant monks who reside in villages begging for food and doing nothing. Those who have no monk certificates (toch’ŏp) should be prohibited from practicing Buddhist ministry, and when they violate this law, their parents and their abbot should be punished together. “1. It may appear really convenient that the soldiers of each province take turns once a year for their service duty; however, those who come from distant districts need to both serve their royal guard duty when they come up to the capital and engage themselves in defending their districts against the Japanese attacks when they go home, so they virtually have no time for rest. Earlier, because of the Japanese who had surrendered, they were unable to attend to their livelihood from winter to summer, spending their time at sea aboard ships, which was extremely hard. The royal guard duty at the moment being fortunately carried out by armed soldiers, we request that the soldiers of each province be exempted from their guard duty and take a break while raising horses. Then you should order the governors to provide them with training both in spring and autumn and prepare them militarily. If there are any disturbances on the borders, it will be quite easy to recruit them when and where they are needed. “1. Military training and grain cultivation are essential; neither can be abandoned, but what is especially important in ruling the state is to produce

671

672

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

sufficient grain for the people. We request that henceforth what is nonessential be absolutely eliminated, from the expenditures for worshiping Buddha and the spirits as well as from various benefits and awards granted by the king, thereby increasing savings to prepare for any contingency. “1. Forests and streams are the natural resources for people across the country to enjoy. However, some powerful individuals occupy them for their own self-­interest as they please, and this is against justice. We request that henceforth all the local districts and counties be ordered to conduct a survey on the forests and streams in their jurisdictions, and if there is any­ ­one who occupies them unlawfully, they should report the names of those individuals to the Office of the Inspector-General. Then the Office of the Inspector-General should stop their abuses by punishing them after conducting investigations. If any magistrate fails to report on those individuals, because of the favors they want to seek from them or because of their fear of their power, we request that they be also punished in just the same way as the accused are punished.” The king granted the requests and gave orders to carry them out. 26th Day (Musin)

Sitting on the throne in the Hall of Diligent Government, the king received the greetings from the officials. Rakaon, the chieftain of the surrendered Japanese, stood in the line of the Eastern File [civil officials] a little behind the head official of rank 8, and the envoys from Thailand stood in the line of the Western File [military officials] a little behind the head official of rank 8. The king bestowed Rakaon with a silk robe, a ramie robe, a cap, a silver belt, and a pair of men’s wooden-­sole deerskin boots, and each of his twelve subordinates with a ramie robe. 27th Day (Kiyu)

The king appointed Yi Munhwa as second royal secretary; No Sŏkchu as fifth royal secretary and, concurrently, magistrate of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals; Rakaon, the chieftain of the surrendered Japanese, as manifestly expedient general; and his eight subordinates, including Tojiro, as director (sajŏng) and deputy director (pu sajŏng), respectively. The king officially appointed court ladies.

Book XI

28th Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king paid a visit to East Gate (Hŭnginmun) and inspected its semicircu­ ­lar chemise. Thereafter, he visited Tongsomun Gate and returned to the palace. The king sent royal messenger Kwŏn Chŏn to Poju [Yech’ŏn]36 to summon Second Royal Secretary Yi Munhwa, who was in mourning. Then he also sent orders to provincial governors and military commanders to keep a close watch over the surrendered Japanese. He said, “If you fail to capture the Japanese when they betray us and run away, there will be no forgiveness for your failure.” The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the rule that prohibits the military officials below rank 6 and civil officials below rank 7 from riding a horse and submit the result to him. General-­in-­Chief Nam Chi and General Kang Yusin went for an outing with the crown prince and shot, while on horseback, goats and ducks belonging to local residents. So they were impeached by censorial officials.

5th Month 1st Day (Imja)

An eclipse occurred, and the king donned a white robe and offered the eclipse prayer. With the approval of the king, the Board of War took those who had passed the highest military examinations (mukwa) to the Military Training Agency and tested them on various classics of military science as well as martial art skills. Then it divided the examinees into three groups and assigned them to various posts based upon the rules adopted for the selection of civil officials. 2nd Day (Kyechíuk)

Censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king, and it was basically as follows:

36. The hometown of Yi Munhwa.

673

674

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“After our looking into the matter, when Yu Yang, discussant of the Security Council, served as magistrate of Kyerim, the Japanese marauders cautiously revealed their intention of surrendering themselves to our authorities. So he rushed out alone on horseback and reasoned with them about the benefits they could get when they turned themselves in, and finally succeeded in persuading them to surrender themselves, offering their sons as our hostages. Having accomplished his goal successfully, he should have continued to exert himself until he brought the matter to a successful conclusion. “However, after the Japanese surrendered and moored their ships at our port, he just chose to stay at his quarters under the pretext of being ill and paid little attention to them. He did not do anything except sending monk Ŭiun to them, and that made the Japanese suspicious and they finally ran away. Furthermore, he concealed the fact from the government that he had dispatched the monk, and when asked the reason, he only gave vague answers made of weird words, tantamount to lying. We request that the department responsible have his appointment revoked and interrogate him until the suspicion is cleared.” The king, however, ordered the officials in charge to send Yu Yang away to a distant district and to wait until monk Ŭiun showed up and then find out the facts by cross-­examining them. 4th Day (Ŭlmyo)

Lady Kim, the mother of Subcolonel Cho Tŏngnin, a resident of Ch’ŏngju, was bereaved of her husband at the age of nineteen. After her parents put pressure on her to remarry, she had her hair cut and lived as a widow for sixty years. Magistrate Kim Chasu reported this to the government. The government built a gate [in her village] to honor her faithfulness and let Tŏngnin serve her by granting him an exemption from military service. This month, there was a heavy rain. Almost 10,000 kyŏl of farmland in Kyŏngsang Province was washed away. 5th Day (Pyŏngjin)

Ascending Yungmuru, the Tower of Eminent Martial Officials, the king watched a stone fight.

Book XI

6th Day (Chŏngsa)

Pak In’gwi, former vice supervisor of the Directorate for Fisheries and Nat­ural Resources, was dispatched to Tsushima with a letter, which read as follows: “Cho Chun, left chancellor of Chosŏn, sends a letter to Honorable Governor (Shugo) of Tsushima Ritaikei (Sou Yorishige).37 Facing each other across the sea, our country and your island formerly maintained a good relationship. Since the Kyŏngin year (1350), however, lawless people from your island [Tsushima] and Iki Island formed a gang and invaded our coasts, causing significant damage. “When our king ascended the throne, he took pity on the innocent people who were suffering from the damage and decided to save them by exterminating the wicked pirates on our borders. So he ordered the districts along the seacoast to repair warships and planned to launch military expeditions on a certain date. “Last year, the chieftains of the marauders arrived at our Ch’uksan Island of Yŏnghae Prefecture and requested that they be allowed to surrender themselves. Finding commendable their intention of laying aside their past evil deeds, our king let them reside in Ulju, providing them with food. Then they suddenly became suspicious and ran away, taking the district magistrate as their captive. “This spring, they came again to our country to request that they be allowed to surrender themselves. Forgiving their past evil deeds, our king ordered regional military commanders to treat them generously. Among them, one who is called deputy myriarch or thirty thousand myriarch (sammanho) is now living in the capital, well provided with houses and food. One who is called senior myriarch arrived in Miryang. We treated him with hospitality, holding a banquet for him. When they wanted to return to their ships, we provided escorts for them. Then they suddenly became suspicious and ran away again, taking our warships with them. A little later, a military commander on the border presented the letter from Your Honor to our king, and His Majesty was pleased with it. 37. Ritaikei as a Japanese name is intriguing. Taikei means chief minister, but the Ri as a Japanese surname is very unusual. It appears to indicate the ministry of personnel. So Ritaikei or Rihoutaikei is actually the name of the official title. According to historical records, the governor of Tsushima at the time was Sou Yorishige. So I chose to translate Ritaikei as governor of Tsushima here rather than minister of personnel.

675

676

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Now we send you Pak In’gwi, former vice supervisor of the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources, in order to inform you that one who is called senior myriarch has already broken his promise and betrayed us as well as his own lord. That indicates that he not only committed wrongdoings against us but also betrayed your honor. Therefore, we would like to ask you to decide whether it is in your interest to bring him to justice. It will be very fortunate if you remove that culprit and thereby bring peace to the relationship of our two countries.” 7th Day (Muo)

Kim Siyong, assistant director of the Bureau of Capital Markets (Kyŏngsisŏ), and others requested that the markets be allowed to open at noon. The king granted the request. 8th Day (Kimi)

There was a heavy rain. The remonstrator submitted a memorial requesting that the king punish Yu Yang, and the king replied, “It is hard to believe that Ŭiun fled to hide himself. Since we have revoked the appointment certificate [of Yu Yang] and sent him away to a distant district, wait until Ŭiun shows up and then investigate the facts.” 10th Day (Sinyu)

The remonstrator submitted another memorial requesting that the king punish Yu Yang. In response, the king had Yu Yang imprisoned and ordered the Office of the Inspector-General to interrogate him to clearly determine the facts and submit a report to him. 13th Day (Kapcha)

When Kim Hyogyŏm, bailiff of the Office of the Inspector-General, visited P’ungjŏch’ang State Granary38 for inspection, he discovered a mistake made 38. A state granary established in Hanyang (Seoul) during the Koryŏ period in order to deal with tribute taxes.

Book XI

by the granary manager. Whipping one of the runners of the granary, he said, “Why didn’t you teach your superior officer the right way?” Pak Sangmun, the granary manager, asked the bailiff in protest, “So does the bailiff also take instructions from the runners of the Office of the Inspector-General?” After the Office of the Inspector-General impeached Sangmun, the king said, “How could a granary official dare insult the bailiff? The bailiff must have insulted the granary official first.” The king dismissed both Hyogyŏm and Sangmun. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “We request that all litigation concerning slaves be delegated to the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits, and its officials issue final rulings.” The king followed the advice. 14th Day (Ŭlmyo)

Japanese marauders plundered Haeju. 15th Day (Pyŏngin)

When a certain star came out of Cassiopeia 5 (Wangnyangsŏng) and drifted northward, the ceremony for eliminating disasters was held at Chich’ŏn Monastery.39 Japanese marauders invaded Onjin Garrison (Ongjinjin)40 and burned two of our battleships. 16th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “Hong Mi, assistant director of the Directorate for Armaments, embezzled rice and beans from the Directorate and recruited firearms soldiers (hwat’onggun) for his private purposes. We urge you to withdraw his appointment certificate and punish him.” The king followed the advice.

39. One of the Buddhist temples in Seoul. 40. Located in the southern part of Hwanghae Province.

677

678

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

17th Day (Mujin)

The Office of the Inspector-General again submitted a memorial to the king: “An Ŭlgwi, manifestly expedient general, entered the house of Kim Ku, former vice commandant, during the daytime and threatened his wife with a sword in order to violate her. Since his deed is extremely wicked, we urge you to punish him according to the law.” The king followed the advice. Inspector-General Yi Chik went into the palace and made a request to the king: “It is my mistake that I requested Your Majesty to punish Pak Sangmun and Kim Hyoryŏm.”41 The king called a senior officer [of the Office of the Inspector-General] and ordered him to take over the job of the inspectorgeneral. 18th Day (Kisa)

Han Ŭlgi, chiliarch of the Capital Constabulary, was dispatched to execute Pak Chaan at a military camp. At that time, Chaan arrived at Chinp’o in Chŏlla Province pursuing Japanese marauders. Since his activity was kept secret because it concerned the enemy, no one outside knew about it. Having heard of the news [that a man was dispatched to behead his father], Pak Sil ran to the private residence of His Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan]. Incidentally, a number of royal family members, including Prince Ŭian, Yi Hwa, also arrived at the residence of His Majesty, and His Majesty came out to greet them at the gate of his residence. Upon finding His Majesty, Pak Sil appealed to him to save his father from death, prostrating himself with his face to the ground and shedding tears. His Majesty said, “How can I help you when it concerns serious affairs of the state?” The members of the royal family went inside, and when they left the residence a little later, His Majesty came out again, to see them off. Pak Sil threw himself to the ground again and wept aloud. His Majesty felt sorry for him and asked the royal family members to proceed to the palace together and jointly make a request to the 41. Four days earlier, Bailiff Pak Sangmun and granary manager Kim Hyoryŏm had an argument over a mistake in running the granary and the former tried to punish the latter unreasonably. The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Hyoryŏm for insubordination, but the king dismissed both Sangmun and Hyoryŏm, which was an indication that the king was not quite pleased with the impeachment.

Book XI

king. Then they said, “This is a state affair that is supposed to be kept secret. If His Majesty [King T’aejo] asks you where you gained the information, how will you answer?” His Majesty [Prince Chŏngan] said, “I will take the responsibility.” So they all headed to the palace immediately. When they requested an audience with the king through eunuch Cho Sun, the latter asked, “This is supposed to be a secret. How did you learn about it?” His Majesty [Prince Chŏngan] replied, “Carrying out punishment and putting an official to death is a serious affair of state. How can the people outside not to know it?” Sun went in and spoke to the king. At first, the king was upset and said, “Do you people believe that Chaan is innocent?” However, a little later, the king gave orders to the Privy Council: “I intend to reduce Chaan’s penalty as much as possible. Make haste to find the seal keeper (chiin) who is good at horse-­riding and deliver my order.” After the Privy Council suggested sending Sim Kwisu, the king said to Kwisu, “Run as fast as you can and save Chaan’s life.” Upon receiving the royal order, Kwisu galloped his horse at full speed, but he fell off his horse at the halfway point. So he handed over the royal order to an official of the post station and had him deliver it on his behalf. On the day when the royal order arrived, the officials in charge of the execution had already covered Chaan’s face with dark paint, taken his clothes off, and made the sword ready. Then, all of a sudden, they saw a man galloping toward them from a distant field, waving his cap in the air. Thinking it strange, they stopped their proceedings of execution, and thereby Chaan was able to escape death. Though Pak Sil originally had neither education nor skills in martial arts, His Majesty [King T’aejong] thought that it was admirable of him to save his father’s life and made him command Forbidden Soldiers. As a result, his position eventually rose as high as rank 2. The king ordered the Privy Council to send his royal order to Kyŏngsang Province: “The military officers of Happ’o have engaged in repulsing Japanese marauders over the years. So they must know well how to deal with the changing situations and when to advance or retreat. “Right now, however, despite the fact that numerous Japanese marauders landed on our territory, those officers are only concerned about their own safety and comfort, paying little attention to the dangerous situation itself.

679

680

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Making false reports, they let their commander lose a good opportunity to attack the enemy. They also failed to capture the fleeing Japanese marauders by delaying their action, and instead they only captured and harmed those who had already surrendered. They certainly deserve to be punished by military law, but for now, they shall be punished lightly. The chief officers in charge of affairs shall be struck one hundred times with a paddle and made to serve as ordinary soldiers. Submit a report on the names of the duties they are assigned to.” 21st Day (Imsin)

The post of provincial military commander was abolished and replaced by that of garrison commander. The garrison commanders belonging to each province were required to defend the province using local troops, and the governor was supposed to watch over them and make a report on how well they carried out their duties. Kyŏngsang Province has four garrisons: Happ’o, Kangju, Yŏnghae, and Tongnae; Chŏlla Province has four garrisons: Mokp’o, Choyang, Okku, and Hŭngdŏk; Ch’ungch’ŏng Province has three garrisons: Sunsŏng, Namp’o, and Isan; P’unghae Province has two garrisons: P’ungju and Ongjin; and Kangwŏn Province had two garrisons: Samch’ŏk and Kansŏng. The king appointed Kim Sahaeng prefect of Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture and associate director of the Privy Council, and, concurrently, director of the Royal Stable Court, the Agriculture Office, and the Directorate for Palace Buildings. Then he enfeoffed Sahaeng as Count of Karak. 22nd Day (Kyeyu)

After the Japanese laid siege to Sŏnju Fortress, Kim Wŏn’gye, vice myriarch of Isŏngdo, rushed to rescue our people from the fortress, and the enemy ran away in defeat. Taking the opportunity, Wŏn’gye drove himself into the middle of the enemy force and, consequently, was cut down. Upon hearing the news, the king deeply lamented his death and ordered the Privy Council to punish those among his subordinates who did not run to his rescue. The king said, “Since the navy myriarchs of P’unghae, P’yŏngyang, and Anju failed to capture the Japanese and were routed in disorder, they must be beheaded by law. Carry out the execution of those three commanders and show how strict the military law is.”

Book XI

24th Day (Ŭlhae)

There was a heavy rain. 27th Day (Muin)

Japanese Marauders plundered Yongju.42 The king had Pak Chaan43 imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison and appointed Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief grand councilor of the Chancellery, as chief interrogator. The latter conducted an interrogation along with the Censorate and the Board of Punishments. In the deposition he made, Chaan implicated Yun Panggyŏng, military commander of Kyŏngsang Province, and Ha Yun, magistrate of Kyerim, in his case. Consequently, both Yun Panggyŏng and Ha Yun were summoned and imprisoned. 29th Day (Kyŏngjin)

After Japanese marauders raided and plundered Changyŏn,44 Myriarch Ch’a Sŭnghak fought back and beheaded five of them. Kang Si, former assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery; Kim Tŭkche, former left director of the State Finance Commission; and former deputy commissioners of the Security Council, including Kim Sŏnch’i, Kim Yonggyun, and Pak Sagwi, paid their respects to the king at the palace, obeying the royal orders that required retired high officials to reside in the capital. Very pleased that they had arrived in time despite being old, the king bestowed them with rice as well as land and houses.

6th Month 1st Day (Sinsa)

The king gave orders to build the Three Armies Headquarters. 42. A district in P’yŏngan Province. 43. Nine days earlier, Prince Chŏngan appealed to the king to save Pak Chaan from death at the critical moment before his execution. The crime he was accused of was not clearly stated; however, it appears that it was serious enough for the king to order another investigation. 44. A district in the western part of Hwanghae Province.

681

682

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

2nd Day (Imo)

The governor of Chŏlla Province reported that Navy Myriarch Ch’oe Wŏnch’ung had captured a ship of Japanese marauders and presented the weapons and armor that were seized. The king said, “If Wŏnch’ung captured the ship completely, why is there no one whom he captured alive?” Then the king dispatched Kim Ch’ŏm, a royal guard attending the king, and ordered him to investigate the matter. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “Former retired officials living outside were given orders to move their households to the capital by a set date to attend to the king nearby. However, Ch’oe Yŏm, former assistant grand councilor; Pak Ch’ŏnsang, former magistrate of Hwaryŏng; Chŏn Chach’ung and Son Kwangyu, former deputy commissioners of the Security Council; and others failed to meet the deadline. We request that their appointment certificates be revoked and their properties confiscated by royal decree.” The king followed the advice. Eunuch Kim Sahaeng was appointed commissioner in charge of constructing the National Confucian Shrine. 5th Day (Ŭlyu)

Japanese marauders raided and plundered the district of Yonggang. Provin­ ­cial Military Commander Yi Kŏi led his troops in pursuit of them. He found one of the enemy ships stranded on the hill as the tide ebbed. Nevertheless, he did not go down immediately and eventually failed to capture it. Having heard of this, the king dispatched O Kyenyŏn, administrative commissioner of the Capital Constabulary, to interrogate Kŏi for hesitating to engage the enemy and to have his subordinate officers beaten with a paddle. 8th Day (Muja)

The censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king: “Upon hearing that Sŏnju was under siege by the enemy, Kim Wŏn’gye, myriarch of Isŏng, rushed immediately to Sŏnju at full speed, leading a small group of soldiers. He broke the siege and pursued the fleeing enemy, but he soon found himself trapped in the middle of the enemy forces and eventually died in battle. Being a man of valor, Wŏn’gye faced up to the crisis resolutely and risked his life to save the fortress, which was on the

Book XI

verge of collapse. Since he sacrificed himself to save so many other lives, his contributions will endure forever even though he died. We request that the department responsible promote his rank posthumously, honor him by building a shrine for him in Sŏnju, and employ his children in the government so that his loyal soul can be consoled and his posterity be encouraged to emulate him.” The king followed the advice. 9th Day (Kich’uk)

Yu Yang became ill in prison and so was released on probation. 10th Day (Kyŏngin)

The king dispatched Chŏng Yunbo, minister of rites, to the Chinese capital to extend congratulations on the imperial birthday, presenting his memorial to the emperor. The Privy Council requested that the Ministry of Rites of China allow Kim Chagwi, the son of Kim Chŏksŏn, to recover the body of his dead father and bring it home for burial.45 14th Day (Kabo)

Sometime earlier, Chŏng Tojŏn, commander of the Three Armies Head­ quarters, had compiled and submitted the Five-­Troop Disposition Diagram and the Pictures of Hunting Scenes. Pleased with them, the king gave orders to appoint military training instructors of those books to all provincial commanders, their subordinate officers, and military officials of all ranks belong­ ­ing to the Western File, as well as royal guards of various security divisions, and to provide them with training according to those books. The king also dispatched experts to each province to give instructions on the diagram. At that time, Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, Sim Hyosaeng, and others conspired to raise an army and advance to the border, and they revealed their plan to the king for his approval. They also visited Left Chancellor Cho Chun at his residence in order to persuade him. Chun, who, incidentally, was sick and lying in bed, immediately called for a sedan chair and proceeded to the palace and strongly expressed his opposition against the plan: “Our country 45. Kim Chŏksŏn, on his diplomatic mission to China, ran into a storm on the sea near Dengzhou. With his entourage, he was shipwrecked and drowned on the sixth day of the eleventh month in 1396.

683

684

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

from ancient times has never failed to serve the great, and besides, having been newly founded, it is absolutely impossible for it to raise an army lightly. Even if you deliberate the matter in terms of advantages and disadvantages, the Heavenly Dynasty [China] is in no way vulnerable to our attack. Hence, I am afraid that we have little chance of success and will encounter trouble unexpectedly.” The king was pleased with his remarks. Ŭn was indignant and said, “The two chancellors may be good at handling a few bushels of grain but are incapable of discussing important affairs that concern the future of the state.” Thereafter, Chun’s relationship with Ŭn and his colleagues began to deteriorate. Later, Ŭn slandered Chun before the king, and that made the king upset and reproach him. 17th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king ordered the Capital Constabulary to behead Pak Chaan but later released him by sending Chŏng Tam, chief royal secretary. However, he revoked Chaan’s appointment certificate and had him exiled to Samch’ŏk after administering a hundred strokes with a paddle. He also had Yun Panggyŏng and Ha Yun exiled to Kwangju and Suwŏn, respectively. The king sent an official of the Capital Constabulary to have Ch’oe Unhae beaten a hundred times with a paddle and then banished to the navy in Ch’ŏnghaedo. He also banished Kim Pin’gil to the navy in Hŭngnim after ninety strikes with a paddle; Yi Kwich’ŏl to the navy in Anju after ninety strikes with a paddle; and Kim Yŏngnyŏl to the navy in Ongjin after ninety strikes with a paddle. In addition, he had their appointment certificates revoked.46 18th Day (Musul)

Pak Wŏnjŏng, navy myriarch of Anjudo47 in the Northwest Region, led out ten battleships to fight against a Japanese fleet of twenty-­four ships. Six of the ships he led were destroyed by the enemy. 46. Ch’oe Unhae, Kim Pin’gil, Yi Kwich’ŏl, and Kim Yŏngnyŏl were all provincial military commanders who failed to deal with the surrendered Japanese appropriately. The Japanese, being suspicious, ran away, kidnapping Yi Ŭn, magistrate of Ulju. 47. There are several places under the name of Anju: one in South P’yŏngan Province, and two in Hwanghae province. The one here probably indicates the one in South P’yŏngan

Book XI

20th Day (Kyŏngja)

The king ordered the Office of the Inspector-General to reinstate Ch’oe Yŏm, returning his appointment certificate and confiscated property.48 21st Day (Sinch’uk)

Minamoto Ryōshun, governor of Kyushu of Japan, sent a man to present local products. 23rd Day (Kyemyo)

The king paid a visit to Inwang Monastery49 to see Abbot Chosaeng of Naewŏndang, [a Buddhist temple in the precincts of the royal palace]. Yu Un returned from Liaodong, China, and made a report to the king: “After receiving your order to visit China as special envoy, I arrived in Liaodong on the twenty-­first day of the fourth month with the horses carrying tribute gifts for the emperor. The Regional Military Commission of Liaodong told us that it would have to send a messenger to the Ming capital to make a report on us, and therefore we stayed in Liaodong for forty-­two days until the messenger returned. On the third day of the sixth month, Liu Guichi, imperial messenger, finally arrived in Liaodong carrying the instruction from the emperor and read it in front of us. Then he cross-­ checked the tribute gifts and horses with the list he had and told us to take them back home. He also brought a letter from Zhang Bing, left vice minister of rites, and gave it to me, so I have brought it with me.” The letter reads as follows: “A messenger from the Regional Military Commission of Liaodong has arrived and said, ‘The king of Chosŏn had sent an envoy with tribute gifts for the emperor, and the man has now arrived in Liaodong.’ Hence, our Ministry of Rites immediately reported it to the Province, which has the Slasu (Ch’ŏngch’ŏn River) in which Koguryŏ annihilated the invading Sui army in 612. “Do” attached to the name, Anju, may indicate its status as a military ­circuit. 48. More than a couple of weeks earlier, Ch’oe Yŏm, former assistant grand councilor, was punished for failing to move his residence to the capital by a set date to serve the king from close by. 49. It is located Mt. Inwang in Seoul. According to a source, T’aejo ordered Abbot Chosaeng to build the monastery to offer sacrifices to the guardian deities of the state.

685

686

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

emperor, and the emperor instructed as follows: ‘The kingdom of Chosŏn is separated from China by mountains and seas, and its customs are different from ours. Because it was created like that by Heaven and Earth, it became the state of Eastern Barbarians from the start. Being close to China, those who rule the country have cultivated good relationships with us by paying tribute and sending envoys. Therefore, it was natural for them to send us envoys regularly on special occasions. That they send us an envoy with trib­ ­ute gifts now, however, is incomprehensible, although it is allegedly intended to express gratitude to us. I wonder what China has done for Chosŏn lately to deserve such gratitude? Furthermore, it is impossible to receive the tribute on an occasion that is inappropriate. If the king [of Chosŏn] wants to stabilize the lives of his people both in the cities and the countryside, he should exert himself to rule the country quietly without causing trouble on the borders instead of sending us envoys frequently and making them undertake arduous trips back and forth.’ This is basically what the emperor said. Since I convey his message in response to your letter, the king [of Chosŏn] should take it to heart.” 27th Day (Chŏngmi)

Japanese marauders raided Changsangot and burned ten navy vessels. The king ordered Kim Ŭlbo, navy commander of Right Kyŏnggi Province, and Kang Yang, assistant navy commander of Left Kyŏnggi Province, to lead out the warships in their provinces as well as those in P’unghae Province and pursue the Japanese marauders in the Northwest Region. Then he ordered Ch’oe Yongso, discussant of the Security Council, to see them off with royal wine. 28th Day (Musin)

The king appointed Kim Chu, assistant chancellor, as chief mobile inspector of the Northwest Region and ordered him to suppress Japanese marauders by supervising both army and navy troops. He also made him look for a prospective site for a royal palace in P’yŏngyang. 29th Day (Kiyu)

The king sent Kim Chŏnggyŏng, director of the Agriculture Office, to Chŏlla Province and gave him an instruction as follows: “Navy Myriarch

Book XI

Ch’oe Wŏnch’ung killed a Japanese envoy and seized the envoy’s tribute gifts and possessions and divided them up with his soldiers. Furthermore, he falsely reported that he had captured the enemy. His crime deserves worse than death. Take Kim Ch’ŏm as well as the governor with you and interrogate Wŏnch’ung further. Punish him according to law and display his body publicly throughout the country and confiscate all his property. Those who were involved in the crime should all be punished.” Upon arriving in the province, Chŏnggyŏng ordered Chŏng Chi, magistrate of Sunch’ŏn, to arrest Wŏnch’ung, but Wŏnch’ung had already run away. The six accomplices, including Yu Ch’ŏnŭn, however, were all executed.

687

Book XII

Sixth Year of Reign (1397) 7th Month 1st Day (Kyŏngsul)

Yi Sun, assistant navy commander of Right Kyŏnggi Province, captured five Japanese marauders and presented them [to the authorities]. 2nd Day (Sinhae)

The king bestowed saddled horses upon Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, and Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng. 3rd Day (Imja)

The king appointed Na Se, former assistant grand councilor of the Chan­ cellery, as chief commissioner for criminal apprehension (to ch’up’osa) of Kyŏnggi and P’unghae Provinces as well as the Northwest Region; Ch’oe Yugyŏng, deputy director of the Security Council, as supreme inspector of Kyŏnggi and Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces; and Kang Chungnim, director of the Office of Guest Affairs, as special commissioner of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. The king ordered them to take battleships out to capture Japanese marauders who had invaded the coastal areas, including P’unghae Province and the Northwest Region. He sent Cho Iksu, chief magistrate of Hansŏng [Seoul], to bestow royal wine on them and bid them farewell.



688

Book XII

4th Day (Kyechíuk)

Dispatching Commandant Sin Poan to the Northwest Region, the king bestowed royal wine on Kim Chu, chief surveillance commissioner, and ordered him to return to the capital. 5th Day (Kabin)

The king sent his royal instruction to the Privy Council: “Buddhist teachings place a great emphasis on the purification of the heart and the abstention from avarice. The abbots of various monasteries, however, are now actively engaged in business and even womanizing, and yet they are not ashamed of themselves at all. When they die, their disciples fight against one another to take possession of the monastery and slaves and even take their case to court, claiming that they are legitimate heirs of their master. “From the days before I ascended the throne, I thought about remedying these abuses. Right now, monk Chŏngŭi of Changgyŏng Monastery requests that he be allowed to take over Chahwa Monastery in Kyŏngsang Province, claiming that he is the legitimate heir. Now, at the beginning of the dynasty, I intend to rectify this problem. I want the Office of the Inspector-General in the capital and the governors’ offices in the provinces to investigate the buildings, slaves, and lands belonging to the monasteries, as well as the number of slaves, that all ranks of monks inherited as legitimate heirs, and submit a report to me.” 6th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king paid a visit to the Sŏgang River. 7th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king appointed Chin Ŭlsŏ, discussant of the Security Council, as provincial chief military commissioner for assisting war effort, in charge of the [northwestern] seaboard area (haedo chojŏn tochŏlchesa); and Sin Kŭkkong, Sin Yuhyŏn, and Chang Sajŏng, deputy directors of the Security Council, as military commissioners for assisting war effort (chojŏn to chŏlchesa), with the purpose of capturing the Japanese marauders operating in P’unghae Province and the coastal areas of the Northwest Region. The king sent them on their way to their posts after cheering them with royal wine.

689

690

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

8th Day (Chŏngsa)

Armored soldiers, including Yi Sunbaek and No Hyŏnsu, defiantly insisted on boarding the ship in the Yongsan River, talking back to Military Commissioner Chin Ŭlsŏ and others. Ŭlsŏ and others became indignant and said, “When it concerns matters outside the royal palace, the commanding general is in charge.” Then he wanted to try them by court-­martial. His aides, however, said, “Since they are the king’s personal guards, you had better report them first.” The king heard the report and ordered the Capital Constabulary to have Sunbaek and the other soldier beaten with a paddle and then allowed them to get on the ship. 9th Day (Muo)

The king appointed U Inyŏl, assistant consultative councilor of the Chan­ cellery, as supreme commander for supervising the naval warfare (sugun togamjŏn ch’ech’alsa). Paying a visit to the Yongsan River, the king held a banquet for him to encourage him. He stayed there overnight and returned to the palace the following day after sending Inyŏl on his mission. 11th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king dispatched [Yi] Chi, Prince Sunnyŏng;1 Yi Ch’ŏnu, discussant of the Security Council; Chŏn Yŏngbu and Chang Ch’ŏl, assistant military commissioners; and others to the sea routes to capture Japanese marauders, leading out warships with armored soldiers and stone throwers. He sent Yi Kŭn, commisioner of the Security Council, to bestow royal wine on them and encourage them. 13th Day (Imsul)

The east wind finally ceased after three days. 16th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The governor of Kyushu [Minamoto Ryōshun], of Japan, sent a man to present local products.

1. T’aejo’s younger cousin of paternal side.

Book XII

18th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The king ordered Kim Chu, assistant chancellor, and eunuch Kim Sahaeng to build the royal palace in the Western Capital [P’yŏngyang] but revoked his order after Sim Hyosaeng, associate commissioner of the Security Coun­ ­cil, remonstrated with him. 19th Day (Mujin)

Tojiro, the son of Rakaon, the chief of the surrendered Japanese marauders, died. The king gave orders to arrange his funeral and sent an official to hold a memorial service for the dead, causing Rakaon to shed tears of ­gratitude. 21st Day (Kyŏngo)

Mansamun, one of the chiefs of the surrendered Japanese marauders, brought three Japanese. In return, the king bestowed robes on him. 22nd Day (Sinmi)

The king gave orders to mobilize people from Kyŏnggi Province and build in advance a stupa for Royal Preceptor Chach’o north of Hoeam Monastery. Officials were sent to Buddhist temples and shrines for the guardian spirits to pray, as there had been a prolonged drought and persistent high winds. 24th Day (Kyeyu)

The Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits had Cho Ho, former deputy commissioner of the Security Council, beaten eighty times with a paddle for filing litigation over disputes dating prior to the Sinch’uk year (1361), which was prohibited by royal decree. 25th Day (Kapsul)

The Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits submitted to the king nineteen proposals concerning the problems of slave lawsuits, based on the initial proposal made by the Office of the Inspector-General and transferred to the Directorate with the approval of the king, as well as on the proposals

691

692

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

that had been made by the Directorate every year since the Imsin year (1392) and already approved by the king: “The Privy Council reviewed and discussed the proposal [concerning slave lawsuits] by the Criminal Administration Bureau of the Board of Punishments and submitted a final version as follows: ‘We decided to create a separate directorate to deal with the matters concerning public and private slaves, and to issue new slave documents while destroying old ones. As for the slaves currently involved in litigation that was filed after the Sinch’uk year (1361), we made sure that the official in charge of slave affairs would adjudicate the lawsuits within two years starting from the Pyŏngja year (1396). He will also issue new documents to the slave owners while destroying old ones, to permanently prevent lawsuits in the days ahead.’ Hence, we submit a list of proposals to be implemented, as follows: “1. One who files a lawsuit to recover the status of commoner (yangin) should be granted the status that he seeks even if he has no records to prove himself as long as his slave records are ambiguous and he did not serve as a slave from the beginning. On the other hand, one who has served as a slave for generations should be ruled as a slave unless he is able to present a record to prove his status of good person. “1. As for slaves involved in lawsuits, they should be divided and given to legitimate heirs when the records of some heirs are problematic. When the family branch of heirs is dubious, the slaves should be returned to the government. “1. As for slaves involved in lawsuits, heirs who failed to participate in the litigation should be prohibited from filing lawsuits after the final ruling is made, even if they are members of the same family and right­ ­f ul heirs. “1. When a child is adopted before the age of three by a childless person to carry on the family line or an abandoned child is raised by him, the child is entitled to become rightful heir. Even if he or she has no written parental will for inheritance, he or she should be fully provided with slaves. Even if a person was adopted for service, he should be provided with slaves if he can present his parents’ written will on slave inheritance. If he cannot produce such a record, he shall be provided with only half of the slaves, and the remainder should be given to the one who carries the family line or the relatives who rendered service to the bequeather, according to the degree of his or her service.

Book XII

“1. It is very unreasonable to regard a brother from the same parents who died prematurely as unfilial and therefore bequeath fewer slaves to his ­children. Male and female slaves should be distributed equally without discrimination. “1. One who was born of a concubine and has no documents to prove his rights for inheritance should be provided with one-­seventh of the inheritance, but this practice should be prohibited for one who was born of a base concubine and has no document to prove his or her rights for inheritance for filing a lawsuit to claim inheritance. “1. Even if a child was born of a female slave, he or she is still one’s own flesh and blood, and therefore it is inappropriate for the bequeather to treat his child like other slaves. The bequeather should release the child permanently so that he or she can acquire good commoner status in his or her lifetime, and this practice should be made permanent. “1. When a person who purchased slaves dies without an heir, it should be allowed that his slaves be distributed to his relatives, and the children of the person who sold his slaves should be prohibited from claiming their rights to those slaves. “1. Since monks are people who have already left their parents, it is inappropriate for them to claim their rights to the slaves of their parents like ordinary people. They should be prohibited from claiming their rights to inheritance except in the case of property they received directly from their parents and also prohibited from giving their parents’ slaves to other people after their parents’ death except the religious sect they belong to. “1. Due to the disturbance of Red Turban bandits that took place in the Sinch’uk year (1361), virtually all the public and private records were destroyed. As a result, it became very difficult to adjudicate the disputes over slave matters. Therefore, people should be prohibited from suing one another over matters that occurred prior to the Sinch’uk year. However, lawsuits should be allowed if one heir has exclusive possession of all the undistributed slaves or has illegally deprived others of their slaves and if the person directly involved is still living. “1. When defendants fail to respond to lawsuits against them, residents of the capital will be given twenty days, residents of provinces near to the capital one month, and residents of distant provinces two months maximum to appear at court. If they fail to appear at a set date, the case should be judged in favor of the plaintiffs.

693

694

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“1. A high-­or low-­ranking member of gentry (yangban) who has availed himself of slaves solely on the basis of documents drafted locally should be reported to his local government so that the slaves in his possession can be returned to their rightful owners. “1. Childless couples should be allowed to have their slaves during their lifetime, even if they have no legal documents, and when they die, their slaves should be given to the rightful heir of their families. If the hus­­ band draws up a legal document for bequeathing the slaves to his wife, her inheritance will be valid. However, when a wife bequeaths slaves to her husband, the legal document needs to be backed up by the statements and signatures of witnesses, because her stamp or signature alone is not sufficient for verifying the authenticity of the document. If the wife fails to remain faithful to her husband, her slaves should be restored to the right­ ­f ul heir of her husband’s family even if she has a legal document for her inheritance. “1. Since the adjudication of the slave lawsuits is supposed to be completed within the year set by law, everyone—including even inspectors and censors and officials of the Board of Punishments, as well as all other local officials serving in the provinces—must designate their sons or nephews or rightful heirs among their family members by placing their own signatures in their petitions and letting these conduct the lawsuits on their behalf. A spouse should be allowed to submit a petition on behalf of her husband only when a litigant has no sons and relatives. If there is an official in the Directorate who is related by blood to the litigants, the litigation should be transferred to a different division [in the same Directorate] to ensure fair legal proceedings. If there is a rightful heir among the litigants who has a relative in the department in charge of slave lawsuits, his case should be transferred to another department where there are no relatives related by blood to the rightful heir and other litigants, and the department for the trial should be chosen among the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits, the Office of the Inspector-General, and the Board of Punishments. “1. Unless a deadline is set for accepting lawsuits, cunning people may have a chance to intervene and play tricks to complicate the litigation. Lawsuits should be accepted only once every season for five days consecutively, and after the fourth month of the upcoming Muin year (1398), they should not be accepted at all. “1. Lawsuits that concern officials who are below the rank of grand master for excellent goodness [rank 2b], except those in the Office of the

Book XII

Inspector-General and the Board of Punishments, should be processed in the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits. “1. One who turns a person of commoner status into a slave by exercising suppression, one who forcibly seizes the slaves from the weak and helpless, one who forges documents that enslave another, one who continues to hold slaves despite a court ruling to the contrary, one who keeps the slaves entirely to himself and does not divide them up among the heirs, one who keeps slaves omitted from the documents entirely to himself, one who monopolizes slaves who are supposed to be divided among the heirs, and one who permanently seizes slaves from the owner for a mortgage should be allowed to negotiate with the other heirs before they bring their cases to court. “One who never sees his own fault and tries to manipulate the law and confuse the judge by using all sorts of trickery should be reported to the Two Departments and punished for disobeying the court ruling. Officials who are below the rank of grand master for excellent goodness [rank 2b] should be punished so that they can be made examples for posterity. The most cunning among them should be deprived of their own slaves and their slaves returned to the government. Law officials who adjudicate cases according to their personal feelings or pay little attention to them, or litigants who recklessly complain about the court ruling, shall all be reported to the Office of the Inspector-General and punished severely. “1. The adjudication of slave lawsuits in the provinces should be entrusted to the governor of each province. The governor appoints three or four fair-­ minded men of integrity in the province to serve as judges on his behalf and distributes the lawsuits presented to him to those judges so that they can adjudicate the lawsuits together. The judges issue written decisions and later submit reports to the governor, explaining briefly which litigants were right or wrong and writing their names and ages. If a judge makes a wrongful decision and litigants lodge an appeal, the governor then reviews the documents of both sides; and if he finds that the decision is unmistakably flawed, he severely punishes the judge responsible and has all the slaves owned by him returned to the government. “1. As for unsolved problems, we will continue to discuss them and implement solutions after submitting a report to you.” The king said, “When you decide whether a man is a slave, one whose record clearly shows his slave status should be made a slave, and one whose record is ambiguous should be made a man of good status. Nevertheless, the

695

696

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

latter should be made to carry out the work of slaves and sent away to a government office to work as a runner.” Then the king approved all of the remaining proposals. The censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king: “Yi Ch’im, former magistrate of Cheju, made no notable achievements despite having served for three years. Furthermore, he and his son married the daughters of local officials. When you look at the way he took his wife and daughter-­in-­law, it is not difficult to assume that he secretly carried out state affairs in an inappropriate way. We request that you order the relevant department to punish him so that he can be made an example for posterity.” The king only ordered the revocation of his appointment certificate. Ham Purim, left policy advisor, had been in mourning for his father for more than a year, so the king had him recalled to service and restored to his previously occupied post (kibok). Purim submitted a memorial to the king requesting that he be allowed to follow the rules of mourning, and the king granted his request. Wang Mi, former supervisor of the Publications Office, had an affair with his female servant, and his wife killed her out of jealousy and discarded her dead body on the side of the road. The Board of Punishments requested that he be punished, so Mi ran away with his wife. The king ordered that his appointment certificate be revoked. Tatara Yoshihiro, regional chief of Six Prefectures [Rokushu]2 in Japan sent a letter to the Privy Council through his envoy, and the letter was basically as follows: “Blocked by seas and mountains, I had no choice but to lift my head and look into the distance. Messenger (Gyounin) Tsuziku3 and others finally returned, and I am so pleased and relieved to hear the news of Your Honor. I am deeply grateful for your letter as well as for the local products that you sent me. As for your order that the border people of Iki and Tsushima Islands be prohibited from invading Chosŏn, how dare I disregard this?” 2. The Six Prefectures here refer to Izumi, Kii, Suō, Nagato, Buzen, and Iwami, which are located in southern Japan and close to the Korean Peninsula. 3. It is likely that messenger Tsuziku here was a monk.

Book XII

8th Month 1st Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king sent General-­in-­Chief Pak Chach’ŏng and ordered him to offer a sacrifice to Honorary Secretary Yong Hŭisu at his mortuary. Hŭisu was a member of minor merit subjects who rendered service to the king. The Privy Council sent a royal instruction to Kyŏngsang and Chŏlla Prov­ inces: “Since the people have failed in their farming due to the continuing floods and droughts of recent years, the presentation of all the seasonal tribute to the king should be stopped. As for tribute presented for the New Year and the king’s birthday, the items should be modest in accordance with one’s financial situation; however, even the presentation of these tribute goods should be stopped except by the governors.” The king also gave orders to each province: “Try to store wheat and barley at the appropriate time and distribute them to the poor people so that they can carry out their farming.” 3th Day (Imo)

Jupiter approached the Ghoul Star (Yŏgwisŏng) and Heap of Corpses (Chŏksisŏng). 5th Day (Kapsin)

When Japanese marauders plundered Namp’ojin, Garrison Commander Kang Sadŏk beheaded eight of them and presented the weapons captured from them. The king bestowed silk and royal wine on him. 6th Day (Ŭlyu)

Because of a long drought, the king ordered public works suspended and workers released to go home. U Innyŏl, Chin Ŭlsŏ, and others pursued Japanese marauders but failed to capture them and returned.4 4. About a month earlier, the king appointed U Inyŏl director-­in-­chief of the navy to repulse Japanese marauders. When he departed, the king held a banquet for him at the Yongsan River to encourage him.

697

698

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Satto, king of Chūzan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, dispatched an envoy bearing a letter and local products. He also repatriated nine shipwrecked Koreans. His letter read as follows: “Since the energy of heaven and earth is in good harmony and the four seasons are well ordered, all the nations enjoy peace and all the creatures have places to live. Your Majesty, the sovereign of Chosŏn, governs your kingdom so well that your rule achieves peace and your benevolence prospers. Since you are not arrogant toward those close to you and never forgetful of those far away from you, your virtue and grace reach your neighboring countries. How can we not be impressed? Though I am foolish and ignorant and living on a remote island, I would like to pay my respects to you by sending a man with our local products. Though I am unable to personally have an audience with you because of the vast ocean between us, I always admire your virtue and wish you a long life. I will be most grateful if you graciously accept my sincere heart.” Since Wang Cho5 was in mourning, the king ordered Pak Kyŏng, governor of Right Kyŏnggi Province, to perform the ancestral rites to T’aejo, the founder king of the previous dynasty. 8th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king paid a visit to the Yongsan River and inspected the warships newly constructed by the Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation (Sasugam). Kim Sahaeng spoke to the king: “Since the public works are almost completed, there is no need to suspend anything.” The king approved of what he said. 9th Day (Muja)

The surrendered Japanese were divided into groups and arrangements were made for them to live in various provinces.

5. The son of Wang U, Lord of Kwiŭi.

Book XII

699

*   *   * The instructors of the Diagram of Troop Dispositions were divided into groups and dispatched to each province and garrison. The members of the [Righteousness Flourishing] Three Armies, starting from the commissioner to regular officers, were ordered to gather on the downtown streets and practice troop disposition. The western district of Kyoha had loud thunder, lightning, and rain. 12th Day (Sinmyo)

The Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits submitted a memorial to the king: “If one reviews the old law code, the right of the firstborn or the second born or the wife or the concubine to inherit the estate depends on their ability to continue the family line. Should the legal wife fail to produce heirs, the son of the concubine would be entitled to continue the family line. Therefore, we request that the children of a concubine of good status (yangch’ŏp) be allowed to inherit all the slaves in their family. If a concubine of good status fails to produce heirs and the head of the family begets a son through his slave, he shall bequeath half of his slaves to that son without making official documents and have the remaining half of his slaves returned to the government. If the head of the family begets a son through a female slave belonging to others, he shall bequeath one-­seventh of his slaves to his son and hand over the rest of his slaves to the government.” The king granted the request. 14th Day (Kyesa)

The Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits requested that Chŏng Yŏngson, former military commissioner of Andong, be punished for altering slave documents. Because Yŏngson was over seventy years old, the king only ordered the revocation of his appointment certificate. Japanese marauders invaded and plundered Yongju. On the eighteenth day [Chŏngyu], Na Se and others were again given orders to go out and capture them.6 6. On the third day of the previous month, Na Se was appointed chief commissioner of criminal apprehension of Kyŏnggi and P’unghae Provinces as well as of the Northwest Region.

700

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Yu Ho, former magistrate of Kwangju, was dispatched to the Ming capital. The king gave orders to mobilize the people of Kyŏnggi Province and repair the walls in the capital. The king ordered Cho Sŏ, left policy advisor, to copy the “Great Plan” [in the Classic of Documents]7 and submit it to him. 20th Day (Kihae)

Saturn approached the asterism Punishment (Pŏlsŏng),8 prompting the king to gather monks to hold the ceremony for eliminating disasters. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “Yi Chi, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, Ch’oe Kwan, chief administrator, and Yi Che, auditor, failed to fully confiscate the property of Pak Ch’ŏnsang,9 former magistrate of Kaesŏng.” The king said, “Chi is diligent by nature and cautious in his public service, and he is also known for his benevolent administration as the governor of Kyŏngsang Province.” He pardoned Chi but ordered Kwan and Che to be banished to border districts. 23rd Day (Imin)

Frost fell and killed grass. The Lifesaving Dispensary (Chesaengwŏn) was newly established. Each province was ordered to provide the Dispensary with medicinal plants and herbs every year just as it is required to provide the Public Dispensary (Hyemin’guk)10 with the same. 7. Also called the Great Plan with Nine Divisions, it is about ways to rule the empire proposed by Jizi for King Wu of Zhou. 8. Pŏlsŏng (Punishment asterism) is identified among the stars in Orion’s Belt. The Chinese associated it with the northern barbarians, who were traditionally their enemies. 9. He was one of the former officials who failed to meet the deadline set by the king to move his residence to the capital and serve the king from close by. Consequently, on the second day of the sixth month, his properties were confiscated for his punishment. 10. It was established in 1112 during the reign of Yejong of Koryŏ.

Book XII

701

*   *   * The king ordered Chŏng Chŏm, former director, to capture Japanese marauders by leading out a battalion of stone throwers along with new recruits on boats. The king personally paid a visit to the Yongsan River to watch [the military operation]. Nineteen Korean men and women carried away captive to Japan, and three Japanese and two Chinese, arrived from Japan. The king ordered all provincial governors to investigate and report on the personal achievements of every local official of any rank who carries out civil and military affairs, as well as the Confucian scholars not in pub­ ­lic service (yuhak), instructors of medicine, and post-­station supervisors (yŏksŭng). 24th Day (Kyemyo)

The Board of Punishments requested that Supreme General Yi Pu11 be ­punished for taking the slaves offered by Pak Sahu.12 Considering his merit subject status, the king only ordered that Pu be suspended from his office. 25th Day (Kapchin)

There was a torrential rain. A Japanese monk named Genkai came to Korea with his family. He was somewhat skilled in medicine. The king made him grow his hair and work in the Palace Medical Office as a medical practitioner, bestowing on him the family name P’yŏng. Taxes were reduced for the counties and districts in Kyŏngsang Province that had suffered damage from a flood. Pak Yongsu, myriarch of Ch’angp’o, was imprisoned.

11. He was one of those who joined Cho Yŏnggyu, who killed Chŏng Mongju. 12. Unknown.

702

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

26th Day (Ŭlsa)

The daughter of Yu Chun, former deputy commissioner of the Security Council, was brought into the palace.13 27th Day (Pyŏngo)

The king bestowed 100 sŏk of rice on Hoeam Monastery. 28th Day (Chŏngmi)

The envoy from the Ryukyu Kingdom returned home. 29th Day (Musin)

The Temple of Great Unity (T’aeilchŏn) was abolished and merged with the Daoist Temple of Brilliant Rectification.14 30th Day (Kiyu)

Three navy myriarchs of Ŭiju, Anju, and P’yŏngan Provinces were beheaded for failing to capture Japanese marauders.

9th Month 1st Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king appointed Chŏn Paegyŏng, minister of war, as pacification commis­ ­sioner (sŏnwisa) of the Northwest Region and ordered him to search for places throughout the region to construct fortresses and then report back to him. 2nd Day (Sinhae)

Yi Hŭich’ung, former navy commander of Left Kyŏnggi Province, died. He was a native of Yŏngju and the son of Yu, magistrate of Kaesŏng, as well as

13. It had been a little more than a year since T’aejo’s second wife, Queen Sindŏk, died. So it appears that T’aejo decided to have a new royal consort at this point. 14. T’aeilchŏn is a Daoist temple worshiping a great star named T’aeil, which is in charge of war and disasters. Sogyŏk Hall is also a Daoist temple established to worship the Lord on High and various constellations related to the fortunes of mankind.

Book XII

the fourth-­generation descendant of de facto chancellor Chŏng. In the previous dynasty, he served as director of ceremonial propriety (singmok togam) and rose to the position of deputy director of the Security Council after serving in various posts. He was fifty-­four years old when he died. He is survived by a son, Ŭng, a member of the mandate-­assisting merit subjects (chwamyŏng kongsin), who is currently serving as sixth state councilor (chi Ŭijŏngbu sa).15 4th Day (Kyech’uk)

Kim Ŭlbo, navy commander of Right Kyŏnggi Province, captured a ship of Japanese marauders, beheading fourteen of them on board and taking twenty-­four alive. After he presented them to the king, the king dispatched Kim No, chief minister of the Bureau of Cultivation (sanonggyŏng), to bestow silk and royal wine upon him. 7th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “Yang Ch’ŏmsik had a secret talk with Ming envoys, including Yang Tiemuer and Niu Niu, setting other people aside and urging them to take Chŏng Tojŏn with them when they returned to China. He also tried to bribe Cho Sun with silk and slaves to avoid punishment. However, since he refused to plead guilty at the risk of his life, he was able to avoid imprisonment. We request that his property be confiscated and that he be banished to an island so that he is deprived of any chance to serve in the government for the rest of his life.” The king granted the request. 8th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king ordered Yi Munhwa, second royal secretary, to present a lecture on the “Great Plan” [in the Classic of Documents]. 9th Day (Muo)

Thunder and lightning occurred and continued until the following day. 15. When the word chi is attached to an official title as a prefix, it suggests “a specially authorized appointment of someone with normally different status to serve in a normally more prestigious post as administrator of an agency.” (Hucker, p. 155)

703

704

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

15th Day (Kapcha)

The king dispatched Cho Pan, assistant grand councilor, and Yi Kwan, former concurrent magistrate of Ch’ŏngju, to the Ming capital as the New Year embassy. 16th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The king gave orders to the Privy Council: “Since farming in Kyŏngsang Province has failed due to flooding and drought, the governor should work hard to save the people from famine, suspending the monthly routine of repairing military weapons.” 17th Day (Pyŏngin)

Na Se, who retired as assistant grand councilor, joined the army and died on duty. He was seventy-­eight years old. 18th Day (Chŏngmyo)

The king held a banquet for all officials at Kyŏngbok Palace. 19th Day (Kisa)

The government sent men to various Buddhist monasteries to pray for the prevention of war.16 The Privy Council submitted a memorial to the king: “When an official above rank 6 is impeached by the Office of the Inspector-General, his appointment certificate is always revoked even if his offense makes him subject to a beating. This was actually one of the old abuses practiced in the previous dynasty. “According to the law of the suzerain state [China], ‘Civil and military officials of all ranks, in both the central and local governments, who commit a public offense punishable by a beating are required to pay a fine to the government. When civil officials commit a private offense subject to fewer than forty strokes with a paddle, they are required to pay a fine but allowed to keep their posts; those who receive the punishment of fifty strokes with a

16. The literal meaning of the word chinbyŏng, 鎭兵, is the “suppression of war.”

Book XII

paddle are dismissed from their current office and transferred to differ­ ­ent posts.’ “Hence, the offenses committed by the officials who are above rank 6 should first be investigated in order to determine their gravity, and if they exceed offenses subject to a beating with a heavy paddle (changhyŏng), the offenders should be reported to the king and their appointment certificates revoked after interrogation. For offenses subject to a beating with a light paddle (t’aehyŏng), however, the revocation of their appointment certificates should not be allowed. In this case, an official letter is to be sent to the offender to inquire about the nature and details of the offenses as well as the motives. Then the records should be submitted to the Privy Council, and the Privy Council in turn determines the gravity of the offenses and sends its findings to the Capital Constabulary. Then the Capital Constabulary should carry out the punishment of a beating with a light paddle and have the offender return to his current post.” The king followed the advice. 22nd Day (Sinmi)

On the occasion of the Chinese emperor’s birthday, the king performed a celebratory ceremony and held a banquet for participating officials. The crown prince presented a cup of wine to the king, and the officials shouted, “Long live the king!” The king said, “It is the imperial birthday today. Is it, then, appropriate for you to wish me a long life on this day? It makes me feel very sorry and uncomfortable. I want you to stop expressing such sentiments from now on.” 23 (Imsin)

Kim Chagwi, the son of Kim Chŏksŏn,17 discussant of the Security Council, requested that he be allowed to go to Dengzhou, China, to collect the remains of his father. The government provided him with an interpreter. 24th Day (Kyeyu)

The king paid a visit to Chin’gwan Monastery and returned the following day after staying overnight in the Western Suburbs (Sŏgyo). 17. Kim Chŏksŏn, an envoy to China, was drowned in the sea near Dengzhou during his diplomatic mission.

705

706

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

27th Day (Pyŏngja)

Dressed in his royal robes and sitting in the main audience hall, the king invested Lady Sim as the wife of the crown prince and ordered Yi Mu, assistant grand councilor, and Chŏng T’ak, academician of the Security Council, to bestow her with the royal rescript and seal.

10th Month 1st Day (Kimyo)

The king received the morning audience while sitting in the Hall of Diligent Government. The envoy sent by the governor of Kyushu of Japan visited with monk Pŏmmyŏng of our country and presented local products. The king gave orders to the Privy Council: “I am worried that the navy soldiers serving in P’unghae Province and the Northwest Region may freeze to death due to severe cold on their mission to capture Japanese marauders. Have them turn their ships around quickly and return to their homes.” 2nd Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king went out hunting in Kwangju.18 4th Day (Imo)

There was rain with thunder and lightning. 5th Day (Kyemi)

Swan meat was offered as sacrifices to the Royal Ancestral Shrine. The censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king: “The king’s conduct cannot but be discrete, and therefore there are certain procedures to be observed whenever he goes out or travels. The office concerned is always informed of his royal trip in advance in order to prepare the royal guards to escort him so that his dignity is duly displayed during his trip.

18. Located in Kyŏnggi Province.

Book XII

“Previously, you visited the Yongsan River twice without notifying in advance the office concerned about your royal outing, but your visit was intended to encourage the military commanders leaving on their mission, and it deserved praise. However, last month you stayed overnight in the Western Suburbs, and also a few days ago you went out to Kwangju and returned after staying there overnight. We do not understand the real purpose of your royal excursions. When you stayed in the Western Sub­ urbs, there were gusty winds, and when you went out to Kwangju, there was thunder and lightning. We dare to believe that Heaven deeply cares about Your Majesty and therefore reproaches you so that you can correct your ways. “We beseech Your Majesty to be reverential toward the wrath of Heaven and compassionate about the sufferings of the people. So, when you have royal excursions, you should set the date in advance, following the age-­old rules, and let the officials and people know clearly about your itinerary. It will be very fortunate if your posterity emulates your good example.” The king found the advice quite reasonable. 6th Day (Kapsin)

The Directorate of Royal Weddings (Karye togam) was newly established, and Yi Hwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission, Cho Chun, left chancellor, Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, and Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, were appointed commissioners. 7th Day (Ŭlyu)

The king paid a visit to the construction site of the National Shrine of Confucius and bestowed wine on the supervising officials and soldiers. The king sent Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng to Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, to find out whether reopening the old stream of Sunsŏng Garrison19 would be feasible. 8th Day (Pyŏngsul)

Inspectors were dispatched to various provinces with orders to investigate salt cauldrons, salt farms, fish traps and weirs in order to assess, for tax purposes, the income generated from them. Sin Ich’ung was dispatched to

19. Located in T’aean, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province.

707

708

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Right Kyŏnggi Province and P’unghae Province; Pak Hŏn to Ch’ungch’ŏng Province; Ch’oe Ho to Kyŏngsang Province; and Ko Hyu to Chŏlla Province. The king bestowed 50 sŏk of rice and beans on Kyuroku, the chief of the surrendered Japanese marauders. 10th Day (Muja)

The king promoted Supreme General No Cho20 to the rank of bulwark grand master for the defense of the state. He also enfeoffed him as Lord of Kwiŭi of Majon County, restoring his family name to Wang so that he could carry out ancestral worship for the royal Wang clan [of the Koryŏ dynasty]. 11th Day (Kich’uk)

On his birthday, the king received felicitations from officials and held a banquet for them. 12th Day (Kyŏngin)

The king pardoned Ha Yun,21 former magistrate of Kyerim, and Yun Panggyŏng, former provincial military commander, as well as An Sŏng, Ch’oe Kyŏn, Kim Pun, and others. 13th Day (Sinmyo)

The censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king: “Reducing spending while producing sufficient food is a main priority of the king, and not forgetting potential danger in times of safety is the foresight of the leader who rules a country. If the ruler spends money and grain only for current affairs without paying attention to unexpected crises in the future, it will indeed not be the right way to govern the country. “According to the Rites of Zhou, the minister of education oversaw the amount of money and grain, and the minister of state (zhongzai) managed 20. He is the son of Wang U, Lord of Kwiŭi. After the collapse of Koryŏ, he was forced to change his family name from Wang to No; however, he was allowed to inherit the title of his father and the responsibility of offering sacrifices to his royal ancestors. 21. He was implicated in the imprisonment case of Pak Chaan, who failed to capture the surrendered Japanese when they became suspicious and ran away at the last moment.

Book XII

its account, spending the money and grain based on the orders from above and making sure that spending did not exceed the income of the state. Hence, national revenue was not wasted and the husbandry of three years gave one year’s surplus of food;22 consequently, national expenditures were under control. “As we respectfully look back, it has been six years since Your Majesty ascended to the throne. If you now have serious disturbances such as rebellion or war, do you have two years’ military provisions to feed and maintain several hundred thousands of troops? Since so-­called military provisions directly concern the lives of the Three Armies, even an army of a million soldiers is useless when they run out of their provisions, and an impregnable fortress unreliable even if it is a thousand feet tall. “After the land reform was carried out, a set of laws was promulgated with regard to the tribute taxes to the king, from above down to the stipend land for officials according to their rank, as well as the lands for military purposes. These laws were undoubtedly made in consideration of various problems. However, these laws are quite problematic from the standpoint of expanding savings and preparing for unexpected trouble in the future, because the construction of the new capital in recent years has cost much more than expected. “Furthermore, Ch’ungch’ŏng, Chŏlla, and Kyŏngsang Provinces, which take the major portion of the national tax revenue, recently suffered flood and drought damage, and their agriculture was devastated. So it is apparent that the taxes collected from these provinces will be lower than in the previous year. The so-­called mobilization of troops is something that can occur unexpectedly at any time. If an urgent dispatch happens to be issued from our borders, how would you raise the expenses for the army and the military provisions for their use? Though we are crude and ignorant, we are deeply troubled by this. “Fortunately, however, Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces are expecting a somewhat favorable crop this year. Hence, we request that, for this year only, taxes be levied on all the public and private lands and collected appropriately, except on those belonging to royal family members, ferries, post stations, dispensaries, guesthouses, yamen offices, and widows, so that we can make good the deficiency in military supplies and stop the practice of spending the entire revenue only for immediate affairs.

22. The Liji, p. 222.

709

710

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“From this day forward, all the government expenditures must be spent properly, emulating the instruction in the Rites of Zhou on economizing in spending on nine items.23 We urge you to replenish the national treasury and prepare for unexpected crises in the future by carefully calculating the amount of revenues and expenditures.” The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the matter and report to him. The Privy Council reported the result of their discussion to the king: “The taxes on all public and private lands, except those belonging to the royal families, local yamen offices, ferries, post stations, dispensaries, and guest­­houses, should be levied and collected.” The king approved the proposal. 14th Day (Imjin)

Chŏng Chi, magistrate of Sunch’ŏn, was beheaded.24 15th Day (Kyesa)

There was fog. 16th Day (Kabo)

The Headquarters of the Three Armies spoke to the king, submitting a formal document: “If you look at the way the military administration of the Han dynasty was carried out, first public declarations were posted in order to mobilize the troops nationwide. Then they dispatched messengers to each province to match tiger tally sticks (hubu), a means of identification, for verification. As a result, when Prince of Jiaoxi [Liu Ang]25 wanted to raise an army for his own purpose, Marquis of Gonggao [Han Tuidang]26 reprimanded him, and 23. The “nine items” refers to sacrifice, entertaining guests, funeral, mourning dress, construction work, wedding ceremony, fodder, gifts, and employment. 24. Earlier, on the 29th of the sixth month, Royal Commissioner Kim Chŏnggyŏng ordered Chŏng Chi, magistrate of Sunch’ŏn, to arrest Navy Myriarch Ch’oe Wŏnch’ung who killed a Japanese envoy and made a false report that he had captured the enemy. Chi’s failure to capture Wŏnch’ung led to his execution at this point. 25. One of the seven princes who rebelled against Emperor Jing (r.157-­141 BC) of the Han dynasty during the so-­called Wu-­chu qiguo zhi luan (Rebellion of the Seven States), which took place in 154 BC, under the leadership of Wu and Chu. 26. During the rebellion, he wrote a letter to Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, to surrender. The latter did so and committed suicide.

Book XII

when Yan Zhu27 tried to mobilize troops arbitrarily, the magistrates of local counties refused to cooperate. The mobilization procedures were strict enough to prevent treachery, and the Han dynasty had no trouble until its end. Though the disturbance of the Lü clan 28 and the Seven States took place unexpectedly, the empire was already well prepared to defend against them. Despite the fact that it had to continuously fight against both the Five Northern Tribes (Wu Hu) and Nanyue29 in the south for several years, the foundation of the empire was not shaken. Emperor Gaozu of Han, who went through numerous battles, knew exactly which system was best for the security of his empire, which lasted four hundred years. “We sincerely urge you to emulate a system such as that [employed by the Han dynasty] and order the office concerned to issue tiger tally sticks, obeying royal orders whenever it is necessary to mobilize troops. Those who raise troops without tally sticks shall be punished for violating the law, which prohibits mobilizing troops arbitrarily, and this law must be made permanent.” The king approved the proposal. Ch’oe Yongso, discussant of the Security Council, was dispatched to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery to pray for the elimination of disasters. The Military Supply Warehouse (Yubigo) was newly established, and Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, appointed its commissioner. 17th Day (Ŭlmi)

Returning from his trip to Sunje Fortress, Nam Ŭn reported to the king: “Because of the many hard rocks underneath the ground, it is not easy to

27. An official of the mid-­Former Han period, who served during the reign of Emperor Wu. He rose to the rank of ordinary grand master (zhong dafu), prefect of Guiji, and palace attendant. He also commanded an army to pacify the rebellious people of the Yue. Later, he was involved in the rebellion of Liu An, Prince of Huainan, and was executed. 28. It refers to the family of the Grand Empress Lü, the wife of Emperor Gaozu of the Han dynasty. After the death of Gaozu, she wielded a great power, killing her husband’s concubine and sons. However, after her death, the political dominance of the Lü clan came to an end, and they were eventually put to death for allegedly attempting to take over the government. 29. Wu Hu was a Chinese term for the northern non-­Chinese nomadic tribes that caused the Wu Hu uprising. Nanyue (South Vietnam) was an ancient kingdom that consisted of parts of the modern Chinese provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, and Yunnan as well as what is now northern Vietnam.

711

712

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

construct waterways.” At that time, the matter of newly establishing the Transport Station (Chŏnunso) in Sunje was brought up, and the king ordered the Chancellery and the Security Council as well as retired officials to discuss the matter and report the result to him. As the general opinion was opposed to the idea, the plan [to build the Transport Station] was finally abandoned. 19th Day (Chŏngyu)

The workers recruited for the construction of fortresses were released to go home. 20th Day (Musul)

The king forgave Cho Sun and allowed him to live wherever he chose to outside the capital.30 22nd Day (Kyŏngja)

When the king did not feel well, he sent for medical officials (ŭigwan). However, they failed to present themselves right away. Enraged, the king ordered the medical officials of the Directorate of Medicine banished to various places on the twenty-­fourth day. Thus, O Kyŏngu was exiled to Ch’ŏnghae, Kim Chiyŏn to Ongjin, Chang Ik to Yŏnghae, and Yang Hongdal to Ch’uksan. The king called Hongdal back from exile a little later. 26th Day (Kapchin)

The king paid a visit to Chŏngnŭng [the tomb of his wife Queen Sindŏk]. The king ordered the governor of Right Kyŏnggi Province to mobilize the residents of the nearby districts of Majŏn and build a shrine for King T’aejo of the Koryŏ dynasty. 28th Day (Pyŏngo)

The king ordered the Privy Council to report on the results of his orders requiring officials residing in local provinces to change their residency to 30. Cho Sun, a eunuch trusted by T’aejo, was impeached by the Office of the Inspector General early in the year for stealing the presents offered to the Buddhist monastery for praying for the recovery of the ailing queen, and for taking a bribe from an official.

Book XII

the capital. Four officials, including former ministers, Chŏng U and Kim Ŭlsaeng, were imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison because they failed to meet the deadline. 29th Day (Chŏngmi)

There was a little snow. The king ordered To Hŭng, assistant consultative councilor of the Chan­ cellery, to preside over the great winter sacrifice ceremony at the Royal Ancestral Shrine on his behalf. The king ordered the Privy Council to send dispatches to various provinces and to mobilize twenty thousand soldiers for the construction of the fortresses in the capital, setting a deadline for each province. The deadline for Kyŏngsang and Chŏlla Provinces was the twentieth day of the first month, and the deadline for Ch’ungch’ŏng and P’unghae Provinces, the fifteenth day of the first month. 30th Day (Musin)

A celebration was held because of the first snow.

11th Month 1st Day (Kiyu)

Remonstrator Pak Sin and others submitted a memorial to the king: “In the Mujin (1388) year of the previous dynasty, the properties and slaves of those who were punished for opposing T’aejo [then commanding general, who chose to march his army back from Wihwa Island in defiance of the government order to invade Liaodong, China] were confiscated and handed over to the government, and the members of their cliques were also made to surrender all their slaves to the government, which was intended to punish not only the offenders but also their cliques. “Since Your Majesty ascended the throne, however, you granted generous favors to the families of those people, including those who were executed, by having their private slaves given back to their children. The slaves surrendered by their cliques, on the other hand, still remain in government hands. These slaves often run away, unable to endure the hard work and

713

714

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

hunger and cold, and when it happens, the original owner of the runaway slave is required to provide another slave in his place. Sometimes, the same man has had to provide as many as three or four different slaves because they keep running away. When the original owner of a runaway slave does not show up, his relatives or witnesses listed on the slave documents or the ones who made a copy of the documents are held responsible. Because of this, many people squander their family fortune but have no place to appeal their grievances. Will it not be against the principle and leave a blemish on your benevolent rule if no differences are made between the punishment of principal offenders and that of their accomplices? “We request that, except for those among the runaway slaves who are on the slave documents, all the slaves who died or ran away or were provided by the original slave owners as substitutes to fill in for their missing slaves should not be investigated any further and returned to their original owners. If anyone dares to hide these slaves and use them for personal purposes, he should be severely punished. The Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits should provide replacements for the slaves who are released from the government.” The king approved the proposal. Local officials who are over seventy years old and ill and classics licentiates and presented scholars were all given the permission to retire and go home. The king gave orders to hold a banquet for those who are over seventy years old and release their families from labor service. As for those who are healthy and robust, he let them reside in the places of their choice either in the capital or Kyŏnggi Province. 5th Day (Kyech’uk)

It rained at night. 6th Day (Kabin)

Chŏng U and other officials were released from prison.31 The king bestowed a wooden flute on Left Chancellor Cho Chun. 31. About a week earlier, they were imprisoned for their failure to meet the deadline for changing their residency from the provinces to the capital.

Book XII

7th Day (Ŭlmyo)

Dispatching Kang Kyegwŏn,32 Great Lord of Sangsan, to the Northeast Region, the king had the tomb of the Count of Kyŏngan [Kang Yunsŏng]33 relocated. Gathering monks at the inner palace, the king had them recite the Dia­ mond Sutra. 10th Day (Muo)

The king ordered the Privy Council not to withdraw the lands granted for the sacrifices to King T’aejo of the former dynasty and Lady No, the wife of Prince [former king] Kongyang. The king ordered the Privy Council to provide house lots to the ranking local officials who moved their residences to the capital. 13 (Sinyu)

A ring appeared around the sun, followed by thunder and an earthquake. 14th Day (Imsul)

Trees were covered with hoar frost. From morning to evening, fog was so dense that even a person only a few feet away could not be distinguished. Tatara Yoshihiro, regional chief of Six Prefectures in Japan, sent monks named Eihan and Eikaku to present local products. 15th Day (Kyehae)

Trees were covered with frost. The king first paid a visit to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery and then went to Chich’ŏn Monastery.

32. The elder brother of Queen Sindŏk, T’aejo’s second wife. 33. T’aejo’s father-­in-­law.

715

716

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Chŏng Yunbo, minister of rites who had visited Ming China as imperial birthday embassy, returned home. 16th Day (Kapcha)

There was fog. 18th Day (Pyŏngin)

There was a drizzling rain. 19th Day (Chŏngmyo)

There was fog. A kite flew into the South Gate to perch on the crossbeam but died after two days. The king ordered Sŏng Sŏngnin, former special capital magistrate, to stop wearing mourning dress and change into everyday clothes. 23rd Day (Sinmi)

There was a little drizzling rain. 24th Day (Imsin)

There was heavy rain. 27th Day (Ŭlhae)

There was heavy rain. 29th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The censorial officials did not sign the paper of the royal order recalling to service Chŏng Nan, director of the Directorate for Palace Maintenance, who was in mourning. Therefore, the king summoned Hwang Hŭi, reminder (sŭbyu), and an official in charge. The king asked, “Why didn’t you sign the paper recalling Chŏng Nan to service?” Hŭi replied, “The position held by

Book XII

Nan is not absolutely necessary.” The king said, “You people give favors to those you know but treat those you do not know as if they were your enemies, which is not fair. You are suspended.” 30th Day (Muin)

The king gave orders to Cho Sŏ, left policy advisor: “Let the remaining [censorial] officials except the one in charge return to their work.” Upon hearing the news through Chŏng Yunbo [who had been to Ming China as imperial birthday embassy] that Chŏng Ch’ong, Kim Yakhang, and No Indo [who had been forcibly detained by the Chinese emperor] had passed away, the wives of the dead officials went into mourning. Having heard of it, the king said, “If the [Chinese] emperor killed Ch’ong and the others, the Ministry of Rites [of Ming China] must have sent us an official letter. The words of Yunbo cannot be believed yet.” Then he gave orders to stop mourning. The courtesy name of Ch’ong was Mansŏk, and he was a native of Ch’ŏngju. He was the son of Konggwŏn, Duke Mun’gan. In the Pyŏngjin year (1376), during the reign of the false king U when Hong Chungsŏn became examination administrator and changed the civil service examination system to focus on the ability to write poems and rhapsodies (sibu), Ch’ong passed the examination in first place. At the age of nineteen, he became editorial examiner of the Bureau of State Records and great military protector via censor and fourth royal counselor. In the Kisa year (1389) when Prince Kongyang [King Ch’ang?] ascended the throne, he was promoted to minister of war. The memorials and official letters to Ming China at that time were mostly drafted by him. The king [T’aejo] has trusted him for a long time, even before he ascended the throne. Upon ascending the throne, the king made him a member of the merit subjects first class and also appointed him senior secretary of the Security Council, conferring the title of Lord of Sŏwŏn on him. In the Kapsul year (1394), he was appointed assistant grand councilor and a little later grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records. He also compiled the History of Koryŏ (Koryŏguk sa) together with Chŏng Tojŏn. In the Ŭlhae year (1395), he visited the Ming capital on a mission to request an imperial decree and the royal seal that would authorize and empower our king. At that time, the emperor was indignant over some words in a memorial submitted by our government that he deemed inappropriate,

717

718

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and finding that Ch’ong was one of the authors who drafted the memorial, he ordered him to be detained and demanded that his family be brought to his court by dispatching an envoy [to Korea]. When his family was finally brought to the court, the emperor was angry because he suspected that they were not the real members of his family. Consequently, he ordered all of them to be repatriated [to Korea]. He also tried to bring Chŏng Tojŏn to his court by sending an envoy to Korea. Because Tojŏn was ill, Kwŏn Kŭn requested that he be allowed to visit the Ming court: “I also participated in drafting the memorial to the emperor. If I pay a visit to the Chinese court voluntarily despite no order for my appearance from the emperor, I may be forgiven, and the one [Chŏng Tojŏn] who failed to appear at the court may also escape the suspicion [of disobeying the imperial order]. If I tarry and pay a visit later after receiving the order for my appearance, I may face severe punishment.” So the king gave him permission to leave. After Kŭn had an audience with the emperor, the emperor was mollified and ordered Kŭn and Ch’ong as well as other Korean officials to go out every day to attend the lectures by various [Chinese] scholars at the Hall of Literary Profundity. Intending to repatriate them in the future, the emperor bestowed clothes on them and had them tour the capital city for three days, composing poems under various titles that he gave. When they finally bid farewell to the emperor in the courtyard, Kŭn wore the robes that the emperor had bestowed on him, but Ch’ong wore white robes to mourn the death of Queen Hyŏn. The emperor became furious and said to Ch’ong, “Why did you wear the mourning dress instead of the one I bestowed on you?” The emperor ordered the Imperial Bodyguard (Jinyiwei) to take Ch’ong and others away to be interrogated, while permitting Kŭn to return to Korea. Ch’ong became terrified and tried to escape but was soon captured and executed. Kim Yakhang and No Indo were also executed because of Ch’ong. The king grieved over his death when he heard of it and granted Munmin for his posthumous title. He was survived by two sons, Hyomun and Hyoch’ung. Kim Yakhang’s courtesy name was Kugyŏng, and his clan seat Kwangju. He was the son of Chŏng, Lord of Kwangsŏng. Passing the civil service examination in the Sinhae year (1371) of the previous dynasty, he became recorder of the Court of Royal Ceremonies and Sacrifices. After serving in various posts, he rose to the rank of superintendent of ceremonial proprieties (yeŭich’ongnang) in the Kyech’uk year (1373) and second inspector of

Book XII

the Office of the Inspector-General in the Imsin year (1392). After the king [T’aejo] ascended the throne, he was appointed right grand master of remonstrance, and in Ŭlhae year (1395) he was further promoted to chancellor of the National Academy. In the Pyŏngja year (1396), the Ming emperor issued a decree that the Korean officials who were involved in drafting the controversial memorial submitted by Chosŏn be sent to the imperial court, and Yakhang, appointed academician of the Security Council, was sent to the Ming capital and suffered death due to the incident of Ch’ong. In the Kyŏngjin year (1400), Kwŏn Kŭn, Lord Kilch’ang, in his memorial to the king said, “Since Yakhang was a man of integrity and died for the country, it would be appropriate to promote him posthumously.” Our Majesty [King T’aejong] ordered the office concerned to promote him to the rank of fourth state councilor of the State Council (Ŭijŏngbu ch’ansŏng) and conferred on him the title of Lord of Kwangsan as well as “bulwark grand master of the state revering the ruler.” He was survived by two sons, Ch’ŏ and Hŏ.

12th Month 1st Day (Kimyo)

It rained overnight. Paegan, Yŏn’gŭm, and Kŭmman, three nothoi of the royal Wang clan of the previous dynasty, paid frequent visits to the capital and countryside after changing their names. The king ordered the Censorate and the Board of Punishments to interrogate and behead them. 2nd Day (Kyŏngjin)

There was heavy rain. 3rd Day (Sinsa)

At night, the northeast sky glowed red. The king gave orders to distribute 600 sŏk of rice produced in Kangnŭng Province34 to various Buddhist monasteries on Mt. Odae and Mt. Kŭmgang.

34. One of the old names for Kangwŏn Province.

719

720

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, spoke to the king: “Issuing royal decrees several times, Your Majesty gave orders to recommend filial sons and grandsons and men of integrity for public service. However, since you do not employ them right away, it is hard to make recommendations of those who would come after them. We urge you to employ those who were recommended, in both central and local governments. 4th Day (Imo)

There was thunder overnight. The king ordered the Privy Council to return local officials to their respective posts. 5th Day (Kyemi)

The cold winter weather started. 8th Day (Pyŏngsul)

The Board of Punishments executed Yaksano by strangulation. He was a nothos of the royal Wang clan. 9th Day (Chŏnghae)

There was a white glow in the northwest at night. 10th Day (Muja)

The king appointed Yu Chun as specially promoted bulwark grand master of the state for splendid happiness and enfeoffed him as Count of Kohŭng,35 and Yu Kwan as left policy advisor. The Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits requested that the old slave documents invalidated by the court be destroyed as soon as they are 35. T’aejo took Yu Chun’s daughter as royal concubine on the 26th day of the 8th month of the year.

Book XII

ruled on by the court. The king said, “There will be no problem with that if the court ruling is clear and fair; however, people will be bitter and resentful if it is not. The Privy Council shall examine them once again and make a report to me on the documents that need to be destroyed.” 13th Day (Sinmyo)

There was fog. 15th Day (Kyesa)

Jupiter entered the Ghoul Star territory. Military training was conducted at a public ranch in Yangju.36 Yu T’ak, former chancellor of the Koryŏ dynasty, was posthumously granted the title of Duke Ch’ungjŏng (Ch’ungjŏng kong). The king paid a visit to the Yongsan River to inspect warships. 16th Day (Kabo)

Cho Chun was concurrently appointed chief military commissioner of the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies; Kim Sahyŏng was concurrently appointed inspector-general; and Kim Sahaeng was concurrently appointed merit subject for unchanging loyalty and assistance (such’ung pori kongsin), magistrate of Kyŏnghŭng, and associate director of the Privy Council. 17th Day (Ŭlmi)

Ch’oe Yŏngji, assistant chancellor, was appointed chief pacification and sur­­ veillance commissioner and mobile inspector of the Northwest Region. 18th Day (Pyŏngsin)

Ch’oe Ho, a retinue member responsible for managing the equipment (t’agakbu) of Yu Ho, envoy on a mission to celebrate the birthday of the imperial crown prince, brought back a letter from Zheng Yi, Chinese minister of rites, and the letter read as follows:

36. “Public ranch” here was a place for raising horses in the early Chosŏn period.

721

722

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“Since there were some offensive and insulting words in the memorials and letters previously submitted by your country, we did not permit you to submit memorials and letters thereafter when you paid tribute [to the emperor]. However, we found that your latest memorial also contained some inappropriate words. This happened because the scholars whom you employed for drafting the memorial played cheap tricks to make phrases and sentences by purposely putting similar characters and sounds together, which is ridic­ ulously insulting, thus causing trouble on their own. How can this be the way to preserve the country [Chosŏn] permanently? We inform the king [of Chosŏn] of this problem by sending back only the retinue member responsible for managing equipment, while keeping your envoy here. If you send us those who drafted the memorial to explain themselves at our imperial court, we will permit your envoy to return home. From this day forward, we want you to pay tribute only once every three years, and it is not necessary for you to submit memorials and reports. The king should keep this in mind.” 19th Day (Chŏngyu)

Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, made a request to the king: “Since medical officials in the capital are few, I beg you to pardon O Kyŏngu, Kim Chiyŏn, and the others.”37 The king granted his request. 20th Day (Musul)

There was hail with rain. There was a halo, and the northwestern sky glowed red. 22nd Day (Kyŏngja)

With a royal decree, the king appointed Chŏng Tojŏn as chief pacification mobile inspector (to sŏnmu sunch’alsa) of the Northeast Region: “It has been six years since this man of little virtue took over the eastern kingdom thanks to the virtues accumulated by my ancestors. Cherishing my roots and being sincere about fulfilling their expectations, I posthumously presented my immediate forefathers of four generations the title of 37. They are those who failed to respond properly to the emergency calls from the palace when the king was ill.

Book XII

king in accordance with the precedents in ancient laws. Building their shrines and tombs first and purifying the sites where they are found, I have carried out ancestral rites in all seasons. However, the royal tombs in Tŏngnŭng and Allŭng are located in Kongju, which is far from here, preventing me from doing my best in performing ancestral rites. Though I wanted to maintain them in good shape, performing ancestral rites in all seasons, I have failed in my duty so far, which I feel is very regrettable. “Extremely conversant with all kinds of learning throughout history and singularly talented both in literary and martial arts, you created the culture and institutions representing our age. Hence, I appointed you chief pacification mobile inspector of the Northeast Region. Leave now to your new post and make sure that nothing is amiss in attending to and maintaining the royal tombs and shrines in terms of ceremonial proprieties. Repair the fortress and ramparts so that people can settle down comfortably, and facilitate people’s coming and going by creating a post station. Clarify the boundaries to prevent the districts from having disputes, and regularize the titles of civil and military offices so that official ranks can be clearly distinguished one from another. “All the territories extending from Tanju to Kongju belong to the jurisdiction of concurrent mobile inspector. Submit detailed reports on the number of resident populations, the quality of military officials in the district, and so forth, and when you find ways to improve the lives of the people, carry them out on you own. “Ah, ah! To remember and worship ancestors is the duty of a man [the king]; to receive an order from him and carry it out is the duty of a subject. Go now and do your duty reverently.” 24th Day (Imin)

Appointing Yi Chiran, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, as chief regional military commander, the king had him accompany the chief pacification mobile inspector [Chŏng Tojŏn] as his deputy. Kwŏn Kŭn, Lord of Hwasan, submitted the following memorial to the king: “Despite being foolish and mediocre, for a long time I have been favored by Your Majesty because I happen to have a little literary skill. During the previous dynasty, when I was crazy enough to violate the law and my crimes were much more serious than anyone could have understood, I was ­fortunate

723

724

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

that Your Majesty had pity on me and protected me, and thus I was able to stay alive. At that time, I thought to myself that I would be indebted to you for the rest of my life and swore before Heaven that I would spend my whole life repaying the generous way you had treated me even if I had to die doing so. “Then it came about that Your Majesty received the Mandate of Heaven to ascend the throne. You then overlooked my offenses with magnanimous generosity and appointed me to the Security Council and even had me attend the meetings of the Privy Council. The honors and generous stipend you bestowed on me are far more than I can deserve. You have given me an opportunity for a new life that is as vast and infinite as the sky. I constantly remind myself humbly that I was fortunate to be born at the beginning of your new dynasty and have been awarded the underserved honor of becom­ ­ing one of your grand councilors. However, lacking talent and ability, I failed to make much of a contribution, and therefore I have not been included among the hundreds who have been named minor merit subjects. Given my lack of ability, that is only natural, but I cannot help feeling deeply ashamed nonetheless. “I also remind myself that the great accomplishments of the sage rulers and wise ministers of old, which set standards for Heaven and Earth and illuminated all within the Four Seas, are only known to posterity because of the records penned by civil officials who were skilled writers. The outstanding achievement and the sagely virtues displayed by Your Majesty are so unprecedented in history that talented civil officials crowd around you like trees in a forest, and the way they sing your praises is impressive indeed. Their praise of you does not fall short of what we see in the odes and eulogies dedicated to Tang Yao and Yu the Great. “Despite having all these wonderful writers around you, even though my writing is rather unpolished, you asked me to do some writing for you. So I did my best and, using my limited talent, penned paeans to the great accomplishments of this sagely dynasty. So it can be said that I have made at least some small contributions to letting future generations know of your achievements, though I had hardly made any contribution when you first established this new dynasty. Therefore, it would not necessarily be inappropriate if I were admitted to the lower ranks of the hundreds of minor merit subjects. I have harbored this thought for years in silence, with my eyes turned to heaven above, because I was well aware that it is reprehensible for scholars and women to promote themselves. Hence, I did not dare broach this subject and instead remained quiet for several years.

Book XII

“I have also been thinking to myself that, since the relationship between the king and his subject is like that between father and child, it is very natural that the child, without holding anything back, lets his father know when there is something he wants. That is natural, given the love parents and children have for each other. Now that I am fortunate enough to live under the compassionate rule of Your Majesty, I find that your compassion is as extensive as heaven above. There is nothing, no matter how large or how small, that does not flourish under your rule. There is no place, even if it is far away or in a dark corner, where your benevolence does not reach. How, then, can I hide from you what is in my mind and continue to bite my tongue because I am worried that it would not be proper for me to ask for something of you? That would be to ignore how benevolent and magnanimous you are. Hence, despite the extreme discomfort I feel about promoting myself, I submit one or two of my works that I believe important for the state. Prostrating myself before you, I beg you to take a look at them. “The Northeast Region is the area that served as the foundation for the reign of Your Majesty. When the suzerain power [China] intended to establish an army garrison in Ch’ŏllyŏng, I was the one who drafted the memorial that was sent to the emperor. In his reply, the emperor said, “In regard to Ch’ŏllyŏng, I recognize that your kingdom [Chosŏn] has something to say about it. So your country should not worry about the Northeast Region any longer. Instead, it should try to become our loyal servant and assist us in making things better for everyone.” Though this incident happened in the previous dynasty, we still derive some benefit from it today. “The tombstone epitaph of Chŏngnŭng, at the royal tomb of King Hwan [T’aejo’s father], was jointly composed by Chŏng Ch’ong and myself in obedience to your orders, and all the royal decrees issued to the dynasty-­ founding merit subjects were also proofread and revised by me. The ritual songs for sacrifices to Heaven, Earth, and the Gods of Earth and Grain, as well as for the rituals at the Royal Ancestral Shrine, were my work, and the official documents related to choosing the nation’s new capital and the construction of the royal palaces were also mine. Though my writing may be crude and vulgar, those works will still allow posterity to know of the splendor of the achievements made at the beginning of this dynasty. “Last winter when I was in China, assistant grand councilor of the Chan­ cellery (Munha p’yŏngni) An Ik, who visited China along with Asso­ciate Royal Secretary Kim Hŭisŏn and others as leader of an embassy sent to offer New Year’s felicitations, arrived and respectfully brought the report of the death of our queen. Together with Chŏng Ch’ong, Kim Yakhang, No

725

726

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Indo, and others, I informed the authorities of the Hanlin Academy of the sad news so that it could be conveyed to the emperor. As a result, I was able to return home with the letter from the emperor, who expressed his deepest sympathy [with regard to the queen’s death]. That was a special favor unprecedented in our history. Whenever I talked with Hanlin academicians, I spoke of Your Majesty’s sincerity in serving our suzerain and praised your momentous decision to turn your army around and march back to the cap­­ ital in the year Mujin (1388). The emperor must have been well aware of this, as you can tell from the kind words in his letter. The officials and people across the land, without exception, were overjoyed to hear about the emperor’s remarks. This was one of the many good things that happened in your reign. “The New Year’s felicitations submitted to the emperor in the Pyŏngja year [1396] were revised by myself alone, and I defended Chŏng Tojŏn against the allegation that he was involved in revising [the controversial memorial]. Consequently, the emperor’s instruction and the letter from the Ministry of Rites, which I brought with me, did not reiterate the demand that Tojŏn be sent to the Chinese court. Though I was a little-­k nown scholar from a country across the sea, I was privileged to join the Hanlin academicians and compose poems every day in the Hall of Literary Profundity in obedience to the emperor’s order and also had the honor of receiving the work of the emperor, written by himself. So I helped our Chosŏn enhance its good reputation among the Chinese and in neighboring countries as well. Though this was originally made possible because your sincerity in serving China was so great that everyone was impressed by it, how can I not be pleased with my role in bringing this about? “In the future, it will be said of me, ‘He did not bring embarrassment to his king when he served as an envoy and therefore he provided some minor assistance when the dynasty was newly founded.’ “Prostrating myself on the ground before you, I sincerely beseech Your Majesty to forgive me for transgressing propriety by promoting myself and to take pity on your subject who is making such a fool of himself. I will feel most fortunate if you add my name to the bottom of the list of minor merit subjects. Your servant Kŭn is so nervous and ashamed of the boldness of his request that he is in a cold sweat.” The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss Kŭn’s memorial and submit a report to him. He then allowed Kŭn and Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, to be included on the list of minor merit

Book XII

subjects. Bestowing the certificate of minor merit subject, the king said [to Kwŏn Kŭn], “Previously when merit subjects were selected, your name was accidentally left out.” At that time, Sŏl Changsu had also submitted a memorial to the king requesting that he be enrolled on the list of minor merit subjects. 25th Day (Kyemyo)

A meteor emerged from the east of Gemini (Chŏngsŏng) and approached the corner of the northwestern sphere of Capella (Ogŏsŏng). The king ordered every high official above senior rank 2 of the Chancellery and the Security Council to recommend men of ability and integrity. When Eihan and Eikaku, Japanese envoys sent by Yoshihiro, regional chief of Six Prefectures in Japan, returned home, the king sent Pak Tonji, former director of the Palace Library (pisŏgam), to Japan as envoy on a mission to pay a courtesy visit and ordered the Privy Council to reply to the letter sent by Yoshihiro. The letter basically read as follows: “We appreciate the information that your premier (daishokoku) was mak­ ­ing efforts to prohibit the people from practicing piracy in neighboring coun­ ­tries. We believe that such efforts are quite laudable, for they show your determination to bring about peace and good relationship between neighbors. However, the residents of two islands, Iki and Tsushima, are crafty enough to continue to practice piracy, violating the prohibition. They keep invading our territories, damaging the good relationship between the two countries. They also travel afar to invade the territory of China, so everyone in the world calls them island pirates. Therefore, there is no one among our navy soldiers who does not feel outraged about them. They have repeatedly made requests that battleships be prepared on a massive scale and that our armed forces be dispatched to exterminate the bandits from the islands and thus remove the trouble by the roots. Our sage king, however, wants to exert his virtues in treating faraway neighbors well, and also, because your country sent us envoys and told us about your efforts to prohibit piracy, our military campaign against the pirates on those islands is temporarily suspended. “If Your Excellency consults with your premier with the intention of promoting peace and makes people rest and develop a friendly relationship by suppressing the wicked gang, your beautiful honor and righteous spirit will

727

728

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

be known to the whole world and the friendly relationship between the two countries will last forever.” 26th Day (Kapchin)

Yun Hoe and Yi Paekkong, the officials of the Prosperity Expansion Ware­­ house and Supervising Inspector Ch’oe I were imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison because they did not pay salaries to court ladies. Then the salaries of Yun Hoe and others were seized to cover the expenses of the Office of the Royal Grange (Chŏn’gusŏ). The Privy Council ordered the Office for Legislating Laws and Regulations to compile the administrative law that had been implemented since the Mujin year (1388) and, with the approval of the king, print them in a book under the title of Six Codes of Governance (Kyŏngje yukchŏn) and have the books distributed to both central and local governments. 28th Day (Pyŏngo)

Having read the letter that Ch’oe Ho brought from the Chinese court, the king ordered interpreter Kwak Haeryong to visit the Chinese capital, escorting Cho Sŏ, minister of personnel, and also carry his reply to Zheng Yi, minister of rites of China. The letter read as follows: “I received the letter that was brought by Ch’oe Ho, a retinue member responsible for managing equipment who returned from the capital of the great nation. I read it several times, and I am surprised and embarrassed. Since I took over the affairs of state from the twenty-­fifth year of Hongwu, congratulatory memorials celebrating the heir apparent’s birthday were drafted and forwarded according to the old precedents. Deeply appreciative of the sacred favors of the emperor, I have preserved a small kingdom, but my respect and loyalty have never diminished. Because the memorials and letters written by our scholars caused trouble earlier, I have been extremely afraid and worried until now. It transpires that the latest memorial we submitted was also found to have an error. “Such an error was made because, first of all, I am foolish, and second, our language is different from Chinese in its sounds so that we are ignorant of the manners and customs of the imperial court in relation to drafting diplomatic documents. How can I fully express my fear and shame? “Though I respectfully ordered our interpreter, named Kwak Haeryong, to escort Cho Sŏ, the author of the controversial memorial, to the Chinese

Book XII

capital, I am afraid that the same kind of errors will be made again in the future. So I sincerely beg you to relate our problems to the emperor and let us know about the words and expressions to be avoided when we draft memorials and diplomatic letters so that we can observe the injunctions on a permanent basis. “In addition to indicating the error in our memorial, you also admonished us to pay tribute to the emperor every three years. However, our country is not really far from China, and therefore we who are your servants would feel uncomfortable if we were allowed to pay tribute only once every three years. I beg you to give it consideration and report it to the emperor. We will be extremely fortunate if you allow us to pay tribute three times a year as we used to, on occasions such as New Year’s Day, the Imperial Birthday, and the Heir Apparent’s Birthday.” 29th Day (Chŏngmi)

At night, a white energy stretched from east to west until it reached the night sky. Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, Yi Yŏm, right direc­­tor of the State Finance Commission, and Yi Sŭngwŏn, minister of personnel, were dismissed. Despite the fact that they were appointed libationers, they were late for the oath ceremony at the office of the State Finance Commission, which was held prior to the winter sacrifice at the Royal Ancestral Shrine. The water was not frozen. Minamoto Douchin [Michitsune], military governor (tandai)38 of Kansai region39 and Kyushu presented gifts by sending a man and requested a copy of the Korean Tripitaka.

38. Tandai is a title for a regional military governor in Japan during the period of military rule in the 14th and 15th centuries. Since Minamoto Douchin is Japanese, his name should be written as Minamoto no Michisune, rather than giving the Korean pronunciation for the three characters in his name. He claimed to be the military governor for Kansai and Kyushu, though his actual base was Kyushu. He is better known as Shibukawa Mitsuyori. His family and the Ouchi families were rivals. 39. “Kansai region” here may be different from the modern Kansai because the latter acquired its current form after the Edo period.

729

Book XIII

Seventh Year of Reign (1398) 1 Month 1st Day (Kiyu)

Dressed in the royal robe of the highest protocol and with the mortarboard crown with strings of hanging beads on the front and back, the king led various officials to hold a New Year ceremony congratulating the emperor [of China]. Then he received felicitations from all officials while sitting in the Hall of Diligent Government. The civil and military officials from various provinces separately came forward to present local products to the king, and the chiefs of the Wuduli and Wulangha tribes also presented their local products. After the ceremony was finished, the king held a banquet for the officials. The envoys from Japan; the messengers from Iki, Tsushima, and Hakata; and other Japanese island chiefs as well as the chiefs of Wuduli and Wulangha also attended the banquet until it was time for them to return home.

2nd Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king bestowed clothes upon the chiefs of Wuduli and Wulangha. Min Yŏik, governor of Chŏlla Province, requested that he be allowed to resign to look after his mother, who had become ill. Finding that his intention to resign was very serious, the king granted his request.



730

Book XIII

4th Day (Imja)

The king did not feel comfortable. 5th Day (Kyechíuk)

The king regained his health. 6th Day (Kabin)

The sacrificial ceremony for wandering ghosts both in the water and on land was held at Chin’gwan Monastery. Crown Prince Yi Pangsŏk moved to the old palace.1 7th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The king enfeoffed Son Hŭngjong as Lord of Ich’ŏn and concurrently appointed him military commander of the Northeast Region and magistrate of Yŏnghŭng. He also appointed Chang Chach’ung as governor of Chŏlla Province; Ch’oe Yŏngji as patrolling surveillance commissioner (to sunmun ch’allisa) of the Northwest Region and, concurrently, magistrate of P’yŏngyang; and Pak Wi as assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery. In addition, he enfeoffed concubine Yu as Princess-Ordinary Chŏnggyŏng and concubine Kim as Princess-Ordinary Hwaŭi. Concubine Yu was the daughter of Yu Chun. Fawning over court ladies, Chun showed his daughter to the king and finally offered her to him. As a result, he was drastically elevated in rank from former deputy director of the Security Council to Lord of Kohŭng. Concubine Kim was originally a kisaeng (female entertainer) named Ch’ilchŏmsŏn who once lived in Kimhae. Avatamska Samadhi confession (Hwaŏm sammaech’am) was held in the Hall of Diligent Government, and various warehouses were ordered to provide supplies and equipment for the event. It was very extravagant, and eunuch Kim Sahaeng was responsible for that. The participating monks numbered 108. 1. “Old palace” here probably indicates the state guesthouse of Hanyang Magistracy. When Queen Hyŏn was ill, she moved into the old palace, and when she died, her coffin hall was established at the same place.

731

732

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Dispatching Ch’oe Yugyŏng, assistant director of the Security Council, the king cheered Ch’oe Yŏngji, chief patrolling and surveillance commissioner of the Northwest Region, by bestowing royal wine and a certificate of appointment on him. Though Yŏngji was illiterate, the king entrusted him with the post because he was by nature diligent and cautious. The king dispatched Yi Hwasang, minister of works, to bestow royal wine on Chŏng Tojŏn, chief pacification and mobile inspector of the Northeast Region. 9th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king allowed two Buddhist monasteries, Yŏnboksa and An’guksa, to be exempted from paying land taxes. The (river) water was frozen solid, so ice was harvested and stored. 11th Day (Kimi)

The governor of Kyŏngsang Province submitted a proposal that was originally made by U Kyun, magistrate of Yŏngju. The proposal was as follows: “Since fish and salt (ŏyŏm) are sources of revenue for the nation and necessities for the lives of the people, it is necessary to encourage the people to produce them. Since our country is surrounded by sea on three sides, the people have an advantage of producing them wherever they go. However, the people living in coastal areas have been scattered in all directions for many years because of the repeated raids by Japanese marauders. “Our country has recently strengthened offensive and defensive capabilities significantly by constructing fortresses and moats as well as selecting military generals and training soldiers while also bringing together and settling down the homeless. As a result, in recent years, the people who had formerly abandoned their homes began to return and carry out their livelihoods. The government now dispatches officials to various districts along the coast to investigate the production of fish and salt for the purpose of ­collecting taxes, which seems to be quite sensible. However, according to reports, residents of the coasts who heard of the government’s investigation

Book XIII

were worried that the government might take away all their profits made by producing fish and salt, and many of them decided to abandon their villages once again. So I am afraid that the idea that is supposed to bring benefits to the country may end up being counterproductive. Therefore, it would be not too late to put the law into practice after we wait a few years until the people accumulate capital and are more settled down in their livelihoods.” The Privy Council spoke to the king: “Taxes this year should be collected based on the amount of the previous years’ taxes. Starting from next year or so, investigations should be made on the amount of production so that taxes can be levied fairly, helping people settle down.” Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng started working at last in the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits. 13th Day (Sinyu)

The king gave orders to supply provisions to the soldiers who worked on the construction of the palace walls. 14th Day (Imsul)

The government released 46,000 sŏk of rice and beans and 180 bolts of silk, which were kept by the Board of Taxation, in order to make up for the amount of the salaries that were to be paid to officials. Pak Hyŏng, who retired as grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, died. He was born in Chukchu as the son of Tŏngnyong, who served as minister of personnel. Having learned to read at an early age, he passed the National University examination in first place and soon passed the civil service examination. Then he served as censor and second royal secretary and became associate examination administrator in the Kyŏngsin year (1380) of the false king while serving as royal secretary. At the beginning of the present dynasty, he was appointed grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records and also served as assistant chancellor until he retired. After he died, he was granted a posthumous title, Chŏnggang. His son was Chungyong, who served as deputy director (chehak) and was executed for being a member of the clique led by Im Kyŏnmi [who once notoriously abused power].

733

734

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

15th Day (Kyehae)

Jupiter approached the Ghoul Star. A set of robes was bestowed on each of four members of the Jurchen Wuduli tribes including Wuduli and Yuheli. The remonstrator impeached officials of the Security Council, including Yu Un and Chŏng Yongsu, because Un and Yongsu, together with To Hŭng, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery; Kim Sŭng and Yi Insu, commissioners of the Security Council; Cho Hwa, academician; Sin Hyoch’ang, chief magistrate of Hansŏng; Song Chŏn; and others, sneaked away from the Privy Council office to enjoy themselves at a game of go in the adjoining room [while a meeting was being held]. 16th Day (Kapcha)

The Privy Council requested that the law requiring people to carry a personal identification tag (hop’ae) be implemented, but the law ended up not being enforced. Yu Ku, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, died. He was a native of Chinyang [Chinju] and a son of Hyebang, magistrate of Yŏnggwang. Upon passing the civil service examination, he was appointed royal inspector. In the winter of the Sinch’uk year (1361), Red Turban bandits captured the royal capital [Kaesŏng], and the king was forced to flee south to Ich’ŏn. Ku arrived at his farm ahead of the king and prepared wine and roe deer meat to serve the king. Turning around to look at Yu Suk,2 King Kongmin [Hyŏllŭng] said, “Let’s not forget the affection that Ku showed us today.” Thereafter, he gained the trust of the king and rose to right grand mas­ ­ter of remonstrance after serving in various posts. In the Kyech’uk year (1373), he went out to serve as surveillance commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province and became right policy advisor after he returned to court. In the Kyŏngsin year (1380), he was appointed second royal secretary, and in the 2. Yu Suk (1324–1368): an official of late Koryŏ. He escorted the king when the Red Turban bandits seized the capital and the king escaped to take refuge in the south.

Book XIII

spring of the Kyŏng’o year (1390), he went out again, to serve as the governor of Yanggwang Province. In the Ŭlhae year (1395) of the present dynasty, he at first served as Chancellery scholar and finally assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and the king had him join the file of minor merit subjects. He visited China as the New Year embassy but was detained in Ming cap­ ital until he returned home in the winter of the Pyŏngja year (1396). After he returned home, he died at the age of sixty-­four. He had a son named Kyŏm. When he was about to die, he said to his son: “Though I lacked talent, I was fortunate to receive favors from the king, but my greatest regret is that I was unable to repay my gratitude to the king. However, since I am over sixty years old and rose to the position of rank 2, what more can I ask for? The only thing is that my old mother is still alive, and yet I have failed to do my filial duty, which makes me distressed. I want you to serve your grandmother with your children as in the days when I was with you.” Ku was diligent and frugal and paid little attention to his appearance before the people. He was granted Chŏngp’yŏng for his posthumous title. 17th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The supervising officials of the palace walls construction were bestowed with wine. At night, a fire broke out due to a mistake made by a worker, and it spread to the northern tent of the officials. Nam Sŏngni, former magistrate of Kaesŏng, being too drunk, was unable to escape and died. Dispatching Pak Yuson, former director of shipbuilding and transportation, the king bestowed a royal message, a battle axe, and royal wine upon Ch’oe Yŏngji, patrolling surveillance commissioner of the Northwest Region. 20th Day (Mujin)

The king paid a visit to the South Gate to inspect the construction site of the palace walls. There was a violent storm and heavy snow overnight. 21st Day (Kisa)

Because the king paid a visit to Inwang Monastery, Cho Saeng, the abbot of Naewŏndang, the monastery in the precincts of the royal palace, returned from Mt. Tae [Mt. Odae].

735

736

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

22nd Day (Kyŏngo)

Because the king paid a visit to Chich’ŏn Monastery, Controller-­in-­Chief (tosŭngt’ong) Sŏlo returned from Mt. Kŭmgang. The king paid a visit to Chŏngnŭng. Prayer was offered at Chich’ŏn Monastery to prevent catastrophes brought on by baleful stars.3 23rd Day (Sinmi)

Prisoners both in the capital and the provinces were all released except those sentenced to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation The king ordered Yu Un and Chŏng Yongsu to report back to work.4 The king pardoned Yi Pogyang, who committed slander. Earlier, Pogyang said to Pyŏn Chungnyang, chancellor of the National Academy: “A man named Hŭngdo, a nothos of the Wang clan of the previous dynasty, changed his family name to Hwang and moved from Hayang to Miryang. Ŏ Yŏn, magistrate of Hayang; Pak Sanggyŏng, magistrate of Miryang; Kwŏn Kan, administrator; and others all knew about it but did not report it to authorities. At the same time, Yi Sin, former fourth inspector; Ch’oe Kwan, instruc­ ­tor [of the provincial academy]; and others associated with Hŭngdo.” After Chungnyang reported the information to the king, the king had Hŭngdo interrogated by the Board of Punishments. Hŭngdo said, “Previously, I recklessly changed my family name to Wang but changed it later to Hwang because the [royal] Wang clan was ruined. In fact, I am Yi Kŭm, a slave of Chŏng T’ak, assistant director of the Security Council. I lived in hiding for years to avoid mandatory services, and that is why I have kept such a family name until now.” The king summoned T’ak to verify the truth and found that the statement made by Hŭngdo was accurate. Then the king forgave all those involved in this incident except Ŏ Yŏn, because he failed to thoroughly interrogate the 3. The details of the stellar catastrophes here are unclear. 4. They were the grand councilors impeached for playing the go game during a Privy Council meeting.

Book XIII

person who had reported that Hŭngdo was a member of the Wang clan. The king had him beaten with a paddle and banished. The officials of the Board of Punishments requested that Pogyang be punished for committing slander. Then the king said, “Though Pogyang’s report does not fully agree with the facts, it is true that Hŭngdo changed his family name from Wang to Hwang. Hence, one cannot say that he completely committed slander.” 24th Day (Imsin)

The king ordered the Privy Council to specially grant a tax exemption on the lands belonging to two Buddhist monasteries, Chunghŭngsa and Ŏkchŏngsa.5 The king appointed Manifestly Expedient General Tong Duolao as senior chiliarch of Wuduli, with a letter of appointment issued by the Security Council. The king ordered Ch’oe Yŏngji, chief patrolling and surveillance commissioner of the Northwest Region, to construct fortresses in Sŏnju and P’yŏngyang. The king ordered the Privy Council to increase the salary land (nokkwajŏn) of all rank­holding officials. 26th Day (Kapsul)

The king ordered each province to present fifty stallions that were to be sent to China as tribute horses. The Ulju yamen clerks named Yi To and Pak Ŏn were exempted from the government conscription of residents in their district. Earlier, Japanese marauders captured Yi Ŭn, magistrate of Ulju, and carried him away. To and Ŏn pursued them as far as Tsushima and finally rescued [their magistrate, Yi Ŭn, from the Japanese marauders]. Yi Chi, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, reported [the feat of the two yamen clerks] to the king and requested that he reward them, and the king granted the request. 5. Chunghŭngsa is located in Mt. Pukhan in Seoul. The Ŏkchŏngsa mentioned here is probably the one in Ch’ungju, North Ch’ungch’ŏng Province.

737

738

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The king ordered the Privy Council to grant tax-­exempt status on the lands belonging to the two Buddhist monasteries, Pongnyŏngsa and Haeinsa.6 29th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

A streak of white energy stretched up to the sky. The king watched people hunting with newly trained hawks in the northern suburbs of Kwangju. The king bestowed 100 sŏk of rice and beans on the parents of Cho Sŏ.7

2nd Month 1st Day (Muin)

Remonstrator Yu Kwan and others submitted a memorial to the King: “Since the three years’ mourning [for parents] is universally observed throughout the world, all officials should be allowed to observe it to the end regardless of whether they are currently employed. It is already stipulated by law that those who are engaged in serious affairs of state be allowed to return to work during their mourning. As we have observed, however, those who are neither employed nor involved in any work of significance in the government take off their mourning robes, ignoring the institution [of mourning] made by sage kings. Upon fulfilling a hundred days of mourning, which is the minimum requirement sanctioned by old practice, they put on white robes and hats and walk vigorously through government offices, showing no shame on their faces. This is not only against the sacred institution created by the sages but also is actually an affront to the outstanding 6. Pongnyŏngsa was located on Mt. Songak in Kaesŏng, and Haeinsa in Hapch’ŏn, South Kyŏngsang Province. 7. Earlier, Ming China detained Korean officials in its capital for purposely including insulting words in drafting memorials to the emperor and later executed some of them, including Chŏng Ch’ong. Cho Sŏ was the one who drafted a memorial of felicitations to the emperor for New Year, and the Ming government, still finding fault with the memorial, demanded that he be sent to the Ming court. The king obviously felt sorry for him as well as his family, so he bestowed rice and bean upon his parents.

Book XIII

rites and ceremonies of the enlightened age. So we cannot help worrying that it will negatively affect our customs. “To summon the officials in mourning is to recall and restore them to their previously occupied posts. If they are men of outstanding talent who are indispensable for the security of the state, the state cannot afford to lose them for even a day. If they are also men of war who are capable of fighting against the enemy, wearing armor, and wielding a sword, they need to be saved and nurtured for a crisis in the future; therefore, it may be necessary to recall them to their previously occupied posts, even if they have not fulfilled their mourning period. “However, in the glorious dynasty ruled brilliantly by Your Majesty, there is no lack of talented people who are waiting to be employed. Why do you, then, recall the ones who are hard-­hearted and shameless enough to take off their mourning robes to seek important posts both in the capital and the provinces? When we are faced with a crisis, it can be allowed that the officials in mourning, whether they be civil or military, take off their mourning robes and return to their posts, circumventing the rites. However, is it appropriate to allow them to disregard the rites of mourning in times of peace? “We request that hereafter no officials, whether they be generals or ministers, be recalled and restored to their old posts during their mourning unless they are urgently needed for affairs of state, and that the military officials who serve as royal guards be allowed to carry out their duties by special orders in this exceptional situation. If there is any official who voluntarily takes off his mourning dress before he finishes the mourning period, he should be strictly punished by law. In addition, the practice of making requests through departments or provinces concerned for the restoration of officials to their previous posts during their mourning should be prohibited so that officials may be dissuaded from availing themselves of opportunities and, rather, devote themselves more to the principle of human­ ­ity.” The king granted the request. 3rd Day (Kyŏngjin)

The Office of the Inspector-General requested that the practice of paying a stipend to the holders of sinecures and retired officials be abolished. Chŏng Tojŏn, chief pacification and surveillance commissioner of the Northeast Region, decided the names of prefectures, counties, and districts,

739

740

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and sent his retainer Ch’oe Kŭng to submit them to the throne. [The names he submitted were as follows]: “The district north of Anbyŏn and south of Ch’ŏngju is named Yŏnghŭng Province, and the district north of Tanju and south of Kongju is named Kilchu Province, and these districts will be governed by the chief patrolling inspector of the Northeast Region. “Besides, the districts north of Tanju, including prefectures, counties, and districts as well as post-­stations, are all installed with various officials and functionaries. The officials and personnel of Kilchu Province consist of 1 surveillance commissioner (ch’allisa); 12 clerks (yŏngsa), who are chosen from yangban families; 6 seal keepers, chosen from yangban families; and 20 runners, chosen from ordinary families. “The officials and personnel of Kilchu Prefecture are: 1 magistrate, 12 clerks, 25 runners, and 15 post-­station runners (ilsu yangban). Those assigned to to the subprefecture office (chusa) consist of 2 administrators and 4 vice administrators who are below rank 5, 6 staff foremen (sali) who are chosen from yangban gentry, and 15 functionaries (toye) who are chosen from ordinary people. Left and right battalion wings are separately commanded by 1 chiliarch, 6 captains, and 12 warrants (t’ongju). “The officials and personnel of Tanju Prefecture are: 1 magistrate (chisa), 10 clerks, 20 runners, and 10 post station runners; and the subprefecture office consists of 2 administrators, 3 vice administrators, 4 staff foremen, and 10 functionaries. Left and right battalion wings are separately commanded by 1 chiliarch, 4 captains, and 8 warrants. “The officials and personnel of Kyŏngsŏng County are: 1 magistrate, 6 clerks, 15 runners, and 8 post station runners. The subcounty office (kunsa) consists of 2 administrators, 2 vice administrators, 2 staff foremen, and 8 functionaries. Left and right battalion wings are separately commanded by 1 chiliarch, 4 captains, and 8 warrants. “The officials and personnel of Kyŏngwŏn Prefecture consist of 1 prefect, and the rest whose rank is lower than that of the clerks are like those of Tanju. “The officials and personnel of Ch’ŏngju Prefecture consist of 1 prefect, and the rest whose rank is lower than that of the clerks are like those of Tanju. “The officials and personnel of Kapchu Prefecture consist of 1 magistrate, and the rest whose rank is lower than that of the clerks are like those of Kyŏngsŏng.

Book XIII

“The personnel of each post station consists of 2 staff foremen, 5 runners, 5 guesthouse workers (kwanbu), 5 couriers (kŭpchuin), and 15 horse­ ­men (mabu). “[The names of post stations in various places are changed as follows]: Sinikch’am in Hongwŏn is changed to Sinŭnch’am, but P’yŏngp’och’am is allowed to preserve its old name. Tat’ant’aech’am in Ch’ŏngju is changed to Och’ŏnch’am, and Soŭnggŏt’aech’am to Kosanch’am. Sisirich’am in Tanju is changed to Sirich’am, P’adokchich’am to Kiwŏnch’am, and Kumaich’am to Magokch’am. Sŏjiwich’am in Kilchu is changed to Immyŏngch’am, but Yaksuch’am is allowed to preserve its old name. However, Myŏngganch’am is changed to Myŏngwŏnch’am. Chuoech’am in Kyŏngsŏng County is changed to Chuch’onch’am, Oroch’onch’am to Och’onch’am, Chaesŏngch’am to Yongsŏngch’am, and Kabut’aech’am to Pugach’am. Sibanch’am in Kyŏngwŏn Prefecture is changed to Siwŏnch’am, Ongguch’am [翁口站] to Ongguch’am [翁丘站], and Chaesŏngch’am to Kangyangch’am. “Yeju and Wŏnhŭng are merged into one county named Yewŏn, and the county has a magistrate. The name of Honghŏn, which belongs to the jurisdic­­tion of Hamju, is changed to Hongwŏn, and the district has a ­magistrate.” Pae Ku, magistrate of Ch’ŏngju, is appointed supervisor of the Royal Horse Breeding Ranch (Naesŭngchamokso) in Kilchu, and Yi Hoe, magistrate of Tanju, supervisor of the Horse Breeding Ranch in Tanju. Dharma assemblies were held in four Buddhist monasteries, including Changŭisa, Chich’ŏnsa, Anamsa, and Wanghŭngsa, in order to prevent celestial catastrophes. 4th Day (Sinsa)

Cho Pan, New Year embassy to China, and his deputy Yi Kwan arrived in Dengzhou, but they were denied passage by Prince of Qi8 and had to return home. Except for local products, the tribute items that were to be presented to the Chinese emperor, their belongings, including travel expenses (panjŏn) and fabric that they carried with them, were all confiscated. 8. Zhu Fu (1364–1428), the 7th son of Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Qingzhou was his fiefdom.

741

742

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * The king decided on his pen name as Pine Hut Dweller (Songhŏn kŏsa). The king said to Yi Munhwa, left royal secretary, “As I have heard, King Ch’ungsuk of the previous dynasty called himself Dweller (kŏsa) when he wrote to Kwŏn Han’gong, Lord of Yech’ŏn. I also intend to write to Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, using the same title of Dweller, but what pen name will agree with that title?” Munhwa replied, “What do you think of the pen name that you used before you ascended the throne?” The king said, “Good idea.” Thus, the king’s pen name was finally decided as Pine Hut (Songhŏn). 5th Day (Imo)

At night, a meteorite, which was a foot long, shot from the Regulus (Hŏnwŏn) and fell to the ground. Chŏn Hŭigil was ordered to mine gold in Tanju and Yŏnghŭng. The king appointed Sin Kŭkkong, assistant director of the Security Council, as pacification commissioner of the Northeast Region, and sent him to Chŏng Tojŏn, chief pacification mobile inspector of the Northeast Region, with his letter as well as robes and wine. The king’s letter was as follows: “Many days have passed since your departure, so my anxiety about you is growing. When I was about to send Sin, assis­ ­tant director of the Security Council, to find out how you were doing [in the distant place], Ch’oe Kŭng happened to arrive, bringing news from you, and I was very glad and relieved. I send you a set of padded clothes so that you can avoid cold weather, and I will feel better if you accept it. I also send the same to assistant grand councilor Yi and provincial military commander Yi, respectively. I hope you will tell them how I miss them. As for other messages, Assistant Director Sin [Kŭkkong] will tell you personally. Take care of yourself against the cold spring weather so that you can successfully carry out your mission at the borders. Let me stop here. Written by Pine Hut Dweller.” 6th Day (Kyemi)

The king inspected the palace walls and ordered dozens of supervisors to be physically punished with a paddle for failing in their supervision [of

Book XIII

construction]. Then he appointed Pak Wi, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, as supreme commissioner (to chejo) and had him watch over the supervisors to find out whether they executed their jobs properly. The Office of the Inspector-General impeached An Ik, left director of the State Finance Commission, and other officials: “Yu Sŏn, chief of the Pros­ perity Expansion Warehouse, and Chŏng Sangju, recorder of the Warehouse, who are responsible for paying stipends, reported the current accounts for stipends to the Finance Commission, showing a surplus,. However, An Ik, advisor (chaŭi), An Inyŏng, and other Finance Commission officials were so negligent in their duties that they overpaid stipends and lost their jobs. We request that they all be dismissed and never employed again.” The king granted the request, but he granted a special pardon to An Ik because he was old and had visited China twice as envoy. 8th Day (Ŭlyu)

The king inspected the South Gate (Nammun) in the capital, which had been completed. The king ordered Sŏl Changsu, Yi Yŏm, and An Ik to report back to their posts. 10th Day (Chŏnghae)

The king inspected the palace walls. 11th Day (Muja)

The king gave orders to return to their respective districts the local magistrates who had supervised the construction of fortresses. The king ordered officials of all ranks, both civil and military, to donate rocks for the construction of the palace walls. Kwŏn Chunghwa, concurrent director of the State Finance Commission, was ordered to supervise the casing of a bell in Kwangju. He used 50 taels of platinum to make the bell, and it turned out successfully.

743

744

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

12th Day (Kich’uk)

There was hail. The king pursued an escaped falcon in the northern suburbs of Kwangju. 13th Day (Kyŏngin)

The king returned to the royal palace from Kwangju.9 14th Day (Sinmyo)

The trees were covered with hoar frost. A dharma assembly was held at Chich’ŏn Monastery to prevent celestial catastrophes.10 The twelve nidānas (sibi inyŏn) assembly11 was also held at Changŭi Monastery by dispatching O Sach’ung, Great Lord of Yŏngsŏng. 15th Day (Imjin)

Ice formed on the trees. The king inspected the city walls. 16th Day (Kyesa)

Onshadō, king of Sannan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, arrived, leading fifteen retainers under his command. Driven out by the king of Chūzan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, he arrived in Chinyang and lived there. The government provided him with clothes and provision every year. Feeling sorry that he had lost his kingdom and wandered foreign lands, the king looked after him by bestowing on him clothes, rice, and beans. Chŏng Tojŏn, chief pacification mobile inspector of the Northeast Region, constructed a fortress in Kyŏngwŏn Prefecture. 9. Located in Kyŏnggi Province. 10. It is not clear what the celestial catastrophes or changes are. 11. Nidānas, literally “fetters,” or “preconditions” in a broad sense, signifies the causal chain responsible for rebirth.

Book XIII

745

*   *   * Yi Chi, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, submitted a memorial to the king: “Some of the officials in our province, both high and low in rank, are registered as residents in the capital. So it happens that their horses are often exhausted, collapsing and dying on the road while traveling to or from the capital. They were now given orders to report to the court by a fixed date, and some of them hurry to buy horses, spending their family fortune. “In my opinion, in time of peace they should be allowed to exert themselves toward cultivating lands while training soldiers to prepare for crisis. If they are pressured to come up to the capital, and both men and animals are too exhausted to take care of farming, it will be extremely counterproductive. Furthermore, the people in our province lost the season for farming last year, so they could not even afford to procure the necessary travel provisions. Except those who are outstanding in filial piety, integrity, and talent, I request that only for this year the officials in our province be allowed to stay in their hometowns comfortably exerting themselves at farming and training soldiers.” The king gave orders to the Privy Council: “Among those who came up to the capital, the ones who are outstanding in filial piety, integrity, and talent should be selected and their names submitted, and the rest [of the officials] should be released to go home.” Pak Kyŏng, governor of Right Kyŏnggi Province, submitted a proposal to the Privy Council, which was as follows: “Naval seamen who have to spend several months aboard ship are very vulnerable to health risks posed either by vapors and humidity or hunger and cold, which are combined with physical exhaustion. If they lie in bed one or two days, they are suspected of having a contagious disease. As a result, even the ones who are capable of surviving are often abandoned on islands or thrown into the sea and thus cut off in their prime. Since this practice brings about complaints and resentment, isn’t it lamentable? While many trained seamen are allowed to die that way, the districts concerned are ordered to find replacements for the dead, which also gives the people a major burden. “We request that hereafter medical doctors be sent to each coastal province to provide timely and adequate treatment [to navy seamen] and thus prevent them from dying so soon. If a seaman loses his life while serving at sea, a marker stake carrying the information, including the names of the

746

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

individual and his hometown, the date of his death, and the burial spot, should be set up on the ground so that his family can gather his remains later for his funeral. The death of the seaman should also be reported to the king so that his family can be exempted from corvée duty. “Some naval myriarchs and chiliarchs give favors to those who are registered on the military records in their jurisdiction after taking bribes from them. Since they release the rich and powerful from their military service while filling their vacancies for the defense of the districts with those who are poor and old and young, they are well aware that they are incapable of defending themselves against the enemy. Whenever the enemy invades, therefore, they are reluctant to fight, only making spurious excuses that the sea is too dark or the wind is too strong. For this reason, the warships we have are not put to good use. “We request that inspections [of those commanders] should be carried out at any time. If a chief commander among those officers is found to release even one soldier as he pleases, he should be punished by law.” When the Privy Council reported the proposal to the king, the king approved it. 17th Day (Kabo)

The king appointed Yi Chi, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, as deputy commissioner of the Security Council and had Im Kyŏng succeed him. He enfeoffed O Mong’ŭl, governor of Kangwŏn Province, as Lord of Posŏng, and had Ch’oe Yongso succeed him, and appointed Yi Minhwa as chief royal secretary. The surrendered Japanese chiefs had their names changed and were appointed to various public posts. Myriarch Kyuroku had his name changed to Tŭng Yuk and was appointed manifestly expedient general serving as commandant (sŏllyak changgun haeng chungnangjang; rank 5a). Rakaon had his name changed to Im On and was appointed manifestly expedient general serving as acting subcolonel (sŏllyak changgun haeng nangjang; rank 6a). Mazamon, a retainer of Kyuroku and Rakaon, had his name changed to Chi Mun and was appointed manifestly expedient general serving as subcolonel (sŏllyak changgun haeng pyŏlchang: rank 7a). Konjiro had his name changed to Tŭng Kon, Samongoro to O Mun, Saborohe to Chang Po, Aunbo to Sin O, Majiro to Chang Mang, Kenjun to Tŭng Hyŏn, and Asiro to P’yo Si. They were all appointed to the post of executive captain.

Book XIII

18th Day (Ŭlmi)

The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Hwang Chaejung, keeper of the palace keys (sayak), for embezzling fine ramie cloth, which was supposed to be used for the dharma assembly at Chich’ŏn Monastery, a prayer meeting to prevent celestial catastrophes. He switched the ramie with coarse hemp fabric. The inspectors requested that he be interrogated and his appointment withdrawn. The king only granted that he be suspended. Inspector-General Yi Chik and others submitted a memorial to the king: “We believe that the purpose of establishing offices and dividing responsibilities among them is to charge the officials with certain duties and have them produce results. At the moment when the dynasty is newly founded, the old sinecures should not all be allowed to remain. We request that all the supernumerary sinecures be completely eliminated except those among the merit subjects and retired senior officials who have rendered services to you for your enthronement, or the officials of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory or the Palace Medical Office who are essential to the government.” The king granted the request. 20th Day (Chŏngyu)

The king inspected the palace walls. 21st Day (Musul)

The king paid a visit to Kwangju and inspected the newly cast bell. The king had eunuch Cho Sun recalled to the palace. 23rd Day (Kyŏngja)

The king inspected the city walls. Inspector Pak Sin and others submitted a memorial to the king: “According to the memorial submitted by the inspector-general, Hwang Chaejung, keeper of the palace keys, replaced the fine ramie cloth that was to be used for the dharma assembly to pray for the prevention of celestial catastrophes with coarse hemp gnawed by rats. Though the inspectors urged you

747

748

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

to punish him according to law, withdrawing his appointment, Your Majesty only allowed that he be suspended. In our opinion, however, no crimes committed by the subjects are more serious than deceiving the sovereign that they serve. Chaejung was originally a member of the lowly class but was fortunate enough to rise to the fourth rank thanks solely to your royal favor. Despite enjoying unlimited honor and blessings, he dared to steal the stuff, even when you were admonished by Heaven to conduct yourself more carefully, and thereby tarnished the sincerity of Your Majesty to do the best as a ruler. “Though the profit he gained [through his stealing] is no more than a bolt of fabric, his crime of deceiving his sovereign as well as Heaven cannot be forgiven lightly. Hence, we sincerely implore that you withdraw his appointment and punish him according to law, as the Office of the Inspector-General urged you to, so that he can serve as a warning for posterity. Then have him serve his term of physical labor, a disciplinary measure stipulated by the law.” The king said, “Is is necessary to chastise the offense of a petty eunuch so seriously?” A meteor came out of the east of the Heavenly Market Enclosure (Ch’ŏnsidan)12 and entered the west of the same. Its length was about two feet. The king ordered Lord Sunnyŏng [Yi Chi],13 inner capital township military commander (naesang chŏlchesa), and Yi Ch’ŏnu, assistant director of the Security Council, and others to each lead out armored soldiers and supervise the construction of the palace walls. 25th Day (Imin)

The king inspected the palace walls. The king accepted the daughter of Wŏn Sang, commissioner for presentation of the Office for Audience Ceremonies (hammun injinsa), as his royal concubine. 26th Day (Kyemyo)

The king inspected the palace walls.

12. Its equivalent in the West is Hercules. 13. T’aejo’s younger cousin of paternal side.

Book XIII

749

*   *   * The king dispatched Sŏng Sŏngnin, grand academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, to have his royal portrait enshrined in the Hall of Deep Origin (Chunwŏnjŏn) in Hamju.14 There was an earthquake overnight. Pak Sin and another remonstrance official submitted a memorial to the king: “We have heard that Your Majesty has recalled Cho Sun, and he is now riding a post-­horse on his way to the capital. He is a man cunning and crafty enough to cloud your judgment and reverse right and wrong with his eloquence. He is the kind of person who must be driven out in an enlightened age, even if he has not committed any crime. However, he actually did commit a crime a year ago when he stole the offerings [for the monastery], and his crime of betraying your trust became quite clear. Though we, along with the Office of the Inspector-General, requested that he be punished, Your Majesty only had him banished to his hometown, and everybody was not exactly happy about it. “Notwithstanding the fact that, if you recall him in less than a year, you will not only fail to fully chastise him for his old crimes but also you cannot imagine the magnitude of abuses and greed that could be committed by unrepentant people in the days to come. Though we believe that the strong intelligence and good judgment of Your Majesty will certainly not allow such cunning and trickery to work their own way, we are still troubled by your decision because the wicked should be punished and the cunning abandoned. So, prostrating ourselves at your feet, we beg that Your Majesty quickly withdraw your orders and leave him as he is in his old hometown.” The king said, “There is no one among the eunuchs who can convey my orders.” 27th Day (Kapchin)

The king inspected the palace walls. Relief was provided to the starving people in the north of Sŏnju of the Northwest Region. 14. The Hall of Deep Origin was built in 1396, the fifth year of T’aejo’s reign, on the site where T’aejo’s placenta and umbilical cord were buried.

750

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

28th Day (Ŭlsa)

The king dispatched General Yŏn Sajong to offer a sacrifice for Sŏ Inbi, late supervisor of the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources. The prayer [that he personally wrote] read as follows: “As far as personal affection is concerned, no one is closer than an old friend, and in the case of favors and gratitude, no one can match the consistency you showed from start to finish. Therefore, granting this favor, I intend to demonstrate how deeply I have cared for you. “You, Inbi, are by nature so diligent and frugal that you are capable of carrying out whatever task you may be given, and your talent combined with courage is outstanding enough to defend against the enemy. From the days before I ascended the throne, you have long served as my personal security guard, and your zeal for your work was absolutely admirable. So I bestowed on you the title of minor merit subject and made you a member of the royal guard. Though you were unable to join the highest-­ranking officials, how can I forget your dedicated service? I am grieved by the news of your unexpected death. I specially send General Yŏn Sajong to perform a service before your coffin. If your soul is still there, it will allay my grief and sense of loss.” 29th Day (Pyŏngo)

Scheduled to leave for the hot springs in P’yŏngju, the king reported to the spirits at the Royal Ancestral Shrine. The king was pleased to find that the mound behind the Royal Ancestral Shrine was made fast and bestowed a set of robes upon Yi Kŭn, who supervised the construction. The king had the daughter of Wŏn Sang follow the royal carriage, dressed in men’s clothes.15 The Office of the Inspector-General requested that the various districts and counties of each province not be allowed to provide supplies to the royal tour. The king granted the request. Chŏng Tojŏn, chief pacification and surveillance commissioner of the Northeast Region, received a personal letter from the king and expressed his gratitude through a memorial. 15. Four days earlier, the king accepted her as a royal concubine. The reason he ordered her to follow him dressed in men’s clothing is not clear.

Book XIII

“The letter [from Your Majesty] gave me a sacred instruction, and the robes from Heaven fit the length of my body perfectly. On top of that, you also bestowed on me two jars of royal wine, so I am overwhelmed by mixed feelings of gratitude and shame, and tears fell following the words I spoke. Because I am foolish by nature and coarse in my learning, I am exposed to frequent attacks and interference every time I make a move until my life is on the line. However, I was fortunate enough to receive favors and support from Your Majesty and able to preserve my worthless life. Though I have been very anxious to prove my loyalty to Your Majesty from the days prior to your enthronement until you inaugurated a new dynasty, I feel ashamed that I failed to assist you fully due to my lack of wisdom and ability. “Now, taking orders directly from you, I visited the tombs of your royal ancestors. Though the old site of the walled town still remains, the livelihood of the residents was still not restored. Recruiting workers among the residents, I carried out the repair of the royal tombs day and night. Though the entire project could not possibly be completed in a day or so, it was finished within no more than ten days. This was possible basically due to the extreme filial piety and divine calculation of Your Majesty. How can your servant deserve credit for it as well as the generous favors from you? Basically because I happen to serve a sovereign such as Your Majesty who treats his subjects sincerely and never fails to recognize and reward them for their achievements and services, even if they are trivial, such grace and generosity was able to reach a worthless person such as myself. “Your servant will consult people as much as possible and make a careful plan for promoting the grace of the king in this region. Whether sleeping or awake, I pray for your long life.” 30th Day (Chŏngmi)

The king paid a visit to Hoeam Monastery and met with Royal Preceptor Chach’o. Then he stayed in P’ungch’ŏn. The king called Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, and said, “The matter of establishing a military garrison that O Mong’ŭl, governor of Kangwŏn Province, proposed is worth considering, but it is not really urgent. However, I am deeply concerned about a report that such districts as Hoeyang, Kimhwa, and Kŭmsŏng16 are quickly devastated by the frequent visits of the officials traveling to the Northeast Region to offer sacrifices to the royal ancestors four times a year. Since the

16. These districts are all located in Kangwŏn Province.

751

752

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

sacrifices cannot be abolished, what can we do to avoid such a problem? You visit Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, and ask his opinion about it.” Kim Sahyŏng replied, “Since those districts are located along the travel route, they have already suffered abuses for a long time. If we reduce their burdens by giving them the benefits of exemption on various duties that are hard to fulfill, and if we also reduce the number of officials who travel to the Northeast Region, the residents of those districts will be able to breathe a sigh of relief.”

3rd Month 1st Day (Musin)

Upon arriving at Somadong, the royal carriage stopped. The king talked with Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, and Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng, about their friendship and the hardships prior to his enthronement, and the way they offered wine and interacted was like old times. When the royal carriage stopped at Changdan, the king ordered Yi Cho, fourth royal counselor, to compose a funeral ode for Kyŏng Pokhŭng, chancellor of the previous dynasty, and offer a sacrifice to his tomb on his behalf. That night, the king had a dream in which he composed a poem, and the couplet [he attached to Yi Cho’s poem] was as follows: “The sound of drums and bells shakes the whole country, / and it is leveling the ground to build Three Han States that will last forever.” 3rd Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king ordered the workers recruited for the construction of the palace walls to be released to go home. The workers who died of illness were fifty­four in total. The king ordered the office concerned to provide their families with rice and beans and to allow exemption from corvée labor for three years. Yi Chik, inspector-general, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “When Queen Hyŏn was critically ill and the officials both in the capital and the provinces ran about in fear and surprise, and Your Majesty in sadness and anxiety was preoccupied with the prayer for her recovery, eunuch Cho Sun secretly carried away the silverware, clothes, and horses to his house, which were to be used to pray for the long life of the queen [at the Buddhist monastery].

Book XIII

753

“The crime of deceiving Heaven and the king that Sun committed certainly deserved more than death, but he was allowed to return to his old home without losing his head thanks to the magnanimous benevolence of Your Majesty, who likes to save the lives of people. This was a favor that he really did not deserve; nevertheless, he was recalled to the capital within less than a year, and one who has heard of it cannot help being surprised. If it is not possible to add more penalties, it would be advisable to let him continue to live as an exile until he dies.” “The king said, “Because Yi Kwang, being deaf, often makes many mistakes in carrying out my orders, I want to replace him with Sun. If Sun cannot be recalled, who can take his place?” In the end, the king did not grant the request. 4th Day (Sinhae)

The king said to the officials of the Censorate, “Since the personnel of the Censorate, including runners, are too cumbersome and excessive, I want every one of them to go back to the capital.” Yi Munhwa, chief royal counselor, said, “It is impossible to send them back to the capital no matter how cumbersome and excessive they may be.” The king said, “Even if they are allowed to follow the royal carriage, there will be nothing they can do.” 5th Day (Imja)

Water froze. Hŏ Chi, rectifier of ommissions, Chŏn Si, inspector of miscellaneous affairs, and others advanced forward and spoke to the king: “The reason that we take many runners with us is also for the sake of Your Majesty. If you feel they are too many, we will reduce their number. So please allow us to escort the royal carriage.” The king said, “Since my decision to send them back was already made, do not make a request again.” Earlier, the attending officials of the Censorate were one censor and one inspector each, but now they were all ordered to return to the capital. 6th Day (Ŭlch’uk)

Water froze. *   *   *

754

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, spoke to the king once again: “Since the temporary abode of the king (haengjaeso) cannot be without the officials of the Censorate, it is not possible to return them all.” The king said, “The purpose of the Censorate is to eliminate abuses. If they travel with many attendants, how can they eliminate abuses?” The king sent Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, to have his royal portrait enshrined in Kyerim Prefecture. The king stayed at the Special Capital Magistracy (Yuhusa). He ordered Yi Kwiryŏng,17 minister of punishments, and others to report to work. 7th Day (Kabin)

The censors and inspectors impeached Kang Ŭn, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, and Min Anin, former instructor. On the day when Ŭn was newly appointed and paid his respects to the Privy Council, Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng alone sat on the upper seat in the office. Though Left Chancellor Cho Chun came in to take a seat a little later, Ŭn did not repeat the ritual ceremony of paying respect to the senior officials and went directly to his designated seat. Then Chun asked Yun Sasu, chief administrator and right grand master of remonstrance, “Why doesn’t Academician Kang pay respect to senior officials?” Earlier, Anin had presented a copy of Outline and Digest of the Com­ prehensive Mirror to Aid in Government (Kangmok t’onggam), owned by his family, to the crown prince of the previous dynasty, and he found that the book was presently in the Office of the Crown Prince. Anin asked eunuch Kang Inbu to switch that book with another copy. As the crown prince showed the two books to Hwang Hŭi, proofreader of the Publications Office and right reminder, and had him compare the two, the latter said, “The new copy is no better than the old one.” As a result, the crown prince did not allow the exchange of the books. Sasu and Hŭi separately reported the matters to their colleagues, who are censors, and the latter in turn impeached each of them [Kang Ŭn and Anin]. 9th Day (Pyŏngjin)

Water froze.

17. He also served as general-­in-­chief.

Book XIII

755

*   *   * Dispatching Yi Ch’ŏnu, director of the Security Council, the king bestowed an official cap and a weapon upon Ch’oe Yŏngji, patrolling surveillance commissioner of the Northwest Region, and also had him inspect the fortresses constructed in Sŏnju and P’yŏngyang. The king had thirteen palace wall construction supervisors, including Chŏng Ŭi and Kang Hoejung, locked in prison. At first, the king ordered the Direc­ torate for the Capital City Construction (Tosŏng ch’ukcho togam) to release the work­­ers but, following the advice from Kim Chu and Kim Sahaeng, gave orders to first transport the timber prepared by the Quartermaster Bureau and then release the workers. However, the Directorate released the workers accord­ ­ing to the first royal order, and therefore Kim Chu and others reported the matter to the king, and their report led to the imprisonment of the supervisors. 10th Day (Chŏngsa)

Staying at the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy, the king had Chief Magistrate Yi Wŏn’goeng and Vice Magistrate Yi Ok dismissed from office for not repairing Such’ang Palace and fortresses, which the Special Capital Magistracy was responsible for. He replaced them with Ch’oe Yugyŏng, deputy commissioner of the Security Council, and Sin Kŭkkong, assistant director of the Security Council, respectively. 11th Day (Muo)

The royal carriage arrived at the southern suburbs of Kŭmgyo Post Station. Chŏng Ŭi, Kang Hoejung, and others were beaten with a light paddle and ordered to report to work. The king gave orders to the Privy Council: “Since the royal tombs, Allŭng and Tŏngnŭng, are located in Kyŏngwŏn Prefecture, officials frequently travel back and forth, and thereby the districts through which post roads pass have to suffer abuses. Have the surveillance commissioner of Ch’ŏnghaedo18 take charge of offering the four seasonal sacrifices on my behalf.” 18. It seems to refer to Pukch’ŏng Strategic Prefecture in South Hamgyŏng Province. It is close to Hamhŭng, the seat of Ssangsŏng Commandery, which T’aejo and his father, Hwanjo, took back from Yuan during the reign of King Kongmin.

756

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

13th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king arrived at the hot springs. 14th Day (Sinyu)

Water froze. 15th Day (Imsul)

By sending an official, the king offered wild herbs and vegetables (sanch’ae) to the Royal Ancestral Shrine. 17th Day (Kapcha)

Kim Kyeran, special director for horse-­raising (ch’ungma pyŏlgam) of Cheju Island arrived to present eight fine horses. The king bestowed one of them on Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng. The king appointed Ko Yŏch’ung, a resident of Cheju, as special director for horse-­raising and bestowed two bolts of silk and two hundred bottles of wine upon Kim Ch’ŏnsin, myriarch of Cheju, and 30 sŏk of rice and beans on Yŏch’ung’s mother. The king ordered that Cheju annually present one hundred horses and one hundred oxen as tribute. 19th Day (Pyŏngin)

Ch’oe Yŏngji, provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region, arrived to have an audience with the king [to pay his respects]. The casting of the new bell in Kwangju was finished, and so sacrifices were offered at both Mt. Paegak and Mt. Mongmyŏk. 20th Day (Chŏngmyo)

Jupiter approached the Ghoul Star and Heap of Corpses and stayed until the Imsin day [the 26th day?]. *   *   *

Book XIII

Chŏng Tojŏn, chief pacification and surveillance commissioner of the North­­ east Region, and Yi Chiran, provincial military commander, returned to court after completing their mission. Bestowing on each a saddled horse, the king held a banquet for them. The king said to Tojŏn, “The service that you have rendered is greater than that of Yun Kwan. What Yun Kwan did was only constructing Nine Forts [in occupied areas] and setting up some memorial stones. You, however, fixed the boundaries of all the districts and post roads as well as the titles and ranks of the local officials and, consequently, made Sakbang Province [Hamgyŏng Province] no different from any other province. Your service, therefore, is hardly insignificant.” The king also said to Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng, “Though honest advice is unpleasant to the ears, it is profitable for good conduct. So I want you ministers to speak out without hesitation.” Then he said to Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, “The words unpleasant to the ears usually come from the Censorate. However, since I am impatient by nature, I often fail to show my tolerance. As you alone are beside me, dare to speak out with no fear.” Ŭn came forward and said, “If Your Majesty were not in control of the army before your enthronement, how would you be able to have a day such as today? I, too, would not have been able to be here with you today. At the time when the dynasty was newly founded, you had various merit subjects take control of militia units, which was understandable under the circumstances. Years have passed since then, and the time has finally arrived to abolish the provincial military commissioner system. If you bring those militia units together to form a regular army, it will be much safer.” The king said, “Who says that Nam Ŭn is not realistic? His remarks should be kept in mind for a long time.” The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Song Kyŏl, third inspector. Kyŏl was mean and ignorant. Sitting in the main office, he ordered a junior official to bring the stirrups of a newly made saddle. Laying the stirrups on the table, he showed them to the bailiff on duty (ch’amdae kamch’al) and asked, “How do you like the stirrups?” Bailiff Cho Kyesaeng spoke to his colleagues about Kyŏl’s behavior and did not go out to greet him when Kyŏl came to work at the Office of the Inspector-General. 21st Day (Mujin)

After leaving the hot springs, the king arrived at Ch’ŏnsin Monastery.

757

758

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

22nd Day (Kisa)

The king arrived in the suburbs of Mokch’on. Yŏ Ch’ing, inspector of horse-­raising (ch’ungma chŏmgosa) of Cheju, Bailiff Pak Anŭi, and others arrived and presented the records of horses and oxen. The number of horses amounted to 4,414, and that of oxen to 1,914. Kim Sŏnch’i, former deputy commissioner of the Security Council, died. Sŏnch’i was a native of Sangju and a son of Kunsil, director of the Court of the Royal Clan (Chongbusi).19 He started his public service as an officer in the previous dynasty and rose to vice commandant. In the Imo year (1342), he became the deputy of Yu T’ak, chief provincial military commissioner of Chŏlla Province, and fought against Japanese marauders, killing several dozen of them. In the Imjin year (1352), he became administrator of Naju. During his term, a powerful family in his district forced a clerk of Chindo County into lowly status, so he restored the man back to his original social standing. Returning to court, he became chief of the Criminal Administration Bureau (Togwan) and the Personnel Bureau (Ibu), and, leaving the court again, he served as surveillance commissioner of two provinces, Chŏlla and Yanggwang. In the Sinch’uk year (1361), when he served as director of the Directorate for Palace Buildings, he joined Yi Am, supreme field commander (towŏnsu) of the Northwest Region, to defend against Red Turban bandits. When he arrived in P’yŏngyang, the strength of the enemy camp looked overwhelm­ing, and the military commanders were afraid. When the supreme field commander ordered Sŏnch’i to burn the prefecture warehouses to prevent the enemy from securing military provisions, Sŏnch’i said, “If you destroy the warehouses and the enemy has no place to get provisions, they will invade even farther into our territory. Therefore, it is not a good idea.” The supreme field commander became furious and reproached Sŏnch’i, but General-­in-­Chief An U, who was standing next to him, spoke slowly: “What he says makes a sense.” Consequently, the supreme field commander followed Sŏnch’i’s advice. That winter, Songdo, the nation’s capital, fell to 19. An agency responsible for maintaining the genealogy and monitoring the activities of all royal relatives.

Book XIII

the enemy, and Sŏnch’i joined his elder brother Tŭkbae as well as other mil­ itary commanders and finally recaptured the capital city. The following year, he was appointed director of the Office for Palace Ceremony and Supplies (Wiwisi) and rose to second royal secretary after serving in various posts. In the Kabin year (1374) of the false king, he became associate royal secretary, and in the Ŭlmyo year (1375), promoted to magistrate of Sunggyŏng. In the Muo year (1378), he was enfeoffed as Lord of Naksŏng at the age of sixty­one and bestowed with a title of Uplifting and Loyal, Defending and Stead­ fast, Assisting and Enlightening Merit Subject (Ch’uch’ung pojŏl ch’anhwa kongsin). In the Imsul year (1382), he retired to Sangju. In the Chŏngch’uk year (1385), he visited the capital and had an audience with the king. Finding him very old, the king bestowed rice on him and told him to return to his home. Arriving at home, he died at the age of eighty-­one. He was survived by three sons, Ch’u, Chŏn, and Kyun. 23rd Day (Kyŏngo)

When the king arrived at the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy, Left Chancellor Cho Chun went out to greet him. 24th Day (Sinmi)

The districts and counties of the four provinces were ordered to repair and maintain the fortresses of the [Kaesŏng] Special Capital Magistracy and the new capital. Right Kyŏnggi and P’unghae Provinces were assigned to the Special Capital Magistracy, and Left Kyŏnggi and Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces to the new capital. 25th Day (Sinmi)

All prisoners were released except those subject to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation. When the Privy Council set a banquet table for the king on a boat in the Imjin River, a gust of west wind blew so strong that people were unable to open their eyes due to the dirt and sand. The crown prince and councilors greeted the king at Pyŏkche Post Station.

759

760

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

26th Day (Kyeyu)

The king returned to the palace from his trip to the hot springs. 28th Day (Ŭlhae)

The king inspected the palace walls. 29th Day (Pyŏngja)

The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Min Chungni, honorary deputy director of the Security Council; No Sik, magistrate of Yŏngil; Cho Ido, director of the Saltern Office; Yuk Chin, recorder of the Royal Stable Court; and other officials, stating as follows: “Despite his being in mourning for his mother, Min Chungni wore everyday robes without any special permission and received a stipend from the government. Since his conduct violates humane principles, we request that his appointment be withdrawn and that he be sent into exile and barred from office for the rest of his life. “Cho Ido and No Sik privately set up cauldrons to produce salt but destroyed them after they heard the rumor that a special commissioner was coming down to inspect their districts. We request that their appointment be withdrawn and that they be sent away to a distant district. “Yuk Chin used more post-­horses than he was assigned to when he traveled to Chŏlla Province to carry out royal orders. We request that his appointment be withdrawn and that he be punished according to law.” The king had Chungni exiled to his hometown, and Ido and Sik also exiled to distant districts after having them beaten with a heavy paddle, but gave orders to pardon Chin. Earlier, Chin had told the king, “There are many beautiful flowers during winter, including peonies, on the islands off Chŏlla Province.” So the king let him go down to the province. Chin gathered the flowers and presented them to the king, pleasing him. Therefore, the king bestowed a horse from the royal stable on Chin. Royal Preceptor Cha Ch’o requested that he be allowed to leave Hoeam Monastery and stay at Yongmun Monastery, but the king refused to grant his request. Pyŏn U and Kang Hŭi, residents of Cheju Island, presented fine horses to the king, who bestowed silk on each of them.

Book XIII

761

*   *   * The king gave orders to provide relief to the starving people in various provinces. The weather was dry this month.

4th Month 1st Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The king paid a visit to Chŏngnŭng, [the tomb of Queen Sindŏk]. 3rd Day (Kimyo)

Jupiter approached the Heap of Corpses. Sixteen construction supervisors of the palace walls, including Chŏng Ŭi and Kang Hoejung, were sent into exile. The special commissioners of various provinces collected taxes [from fishermen] after making records of their fish traps, and then presented the taxes to the state granary called Yubich’ang. Pak Sin and other Censorate officials submitted a memorial to the king: “Toward the end of the previous dynasty, useless offices and titles of nobility (chak) proliferated to as many as seventy, but the number was reduced after Your Majesty ascended the throne. However, the total has again risen to fifty-­six in less than ten years. “Looking at the Rites of Zhou (Zhouguan), one finds that the entire kingdom was governed by only three dukes (sangong) and six ministers (liuqing), and the present Ming dynasty is also ruled by the Six Ministries (Liubu). Our country alone, despite having a territory of only a thousand li, has twice as many grand councilors. Furthermore, since they are employed all together and dismissed all together, the employment of public officials has become extremely problematic. Even if we cannot emulate the administrative system established by Zhou and Ming, we request that the office of discussant (sangŭi) and the newly added posts in the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records be eliminated. We also request that Hansŏng Magistracy

762

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

have only one magistrate, and the other, lower-­ranking offices either be eliminated or integrated by the office concerned. “It is apparently a way of encouraging scholars to provide a loyal and trustworthy subject with a generous stipend, but to save money and be prepared for a potential crisis is actually more advisable if you want to preserve the nation. Finding that the stipend to be paid to officials is insufficient, Your Majesty ordered the Board of Taxation and the Agency of Land Management Grants to secure more salary land, and it was very generous of you. However, if you exclude the lands of all provinces that are already set aside for various purposes, the lands that belong to the Quartermaster Bureau are only 100,000 kyŏl or so. On the other hand, the collected revenue is, in fact, less than the amount of tax shown on the original tax register, because of either abandonment or disasters. If the salary land is expanded under these circumstances, we will not only have no savings for the future but also will lack the budgets for all the annual expenditures necessary for running the government both in the capital and the provinces. Even worse, if enemies invade the country, how will you deal with them? In addition, the taxes that were originally due are delayed due to the problem of transportation. On top of that, if you increase salary land any further, the people will be unable to support themselves because of the added burden. “Hence, we request that the State Finance Commission review the original amount of the salary land and reduce it appropriately and that no additional land be assigned for use by the Quartermaster Bureau so that the people can save their strength.” The king said, “Let the Two Departments review the matter and try to reduce the amount [of the salary land] if ­necessary.” 4th Day (Kyŏngjin)

The king paid a visit to Kwangju and looked at the newly cast bell. He bestowed a saddled horse on Kwŏn Chunghwa, commissioner in charge of manufacturing the bell. Recruiting 1,300 soldiers from Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces, the king had the bell transported to the downtown area of the capital and placed in the pavilion. Earlier, he gave orders to have a bell made and a little later to have a pavilion built for it. Then he appointed Kwŏn Chunghwa and Yi Yŏm commissioners in charge of casting the bell. Yŏm was stubborn and impetuous, so he failed in casting the bell even after three attempts. After the king entrusted the task exclusively to Chunghwa, he consulted many people, while gathering their opinions, and at the same time came up with a brilliant

Book XIII

idea. When he cast the bell successfully in his first attempt, the king was so pleased that he awarded such a prize to him. The king ordered Kwŏn Kŭn, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, to compose the inscription on the bell, and the inscription began as follows: “Only three years after the Chosŏn received the Mandate of Heaven, the king established the nation’s capital on the north side of the Han River and started constructing the royal palace the following year. In the summer of that year, the king ordered the office concerned to cast a large bell. When the bell was finished, a pavilion was built on the main street in the city center to hang the bell, and the purpose of having such a bell is to inscribe our achievements on it and pass on the greatness to posterity. “Since antiquity, when one who took over the land rendered great services to the state and made outstanding achievements for the people, they were always inscribed on the bells or cauldrons. Therefore, the beautiful sound of his fame and achievement rang out loudly and sonorously, moving the hearts of the people for generations. Furthermore, the bells placed in the middle of the capital or big cities, being rung early in the morning and late at night, strictly told the people the time to get up or go to bed, and the use of the bell was indeed great. “[This writer] respectfully believes that the virtue and fame of Our Majesty grew day by day since the days prior to his enthronement until no one could stop the Mandate of Heaven for him and the growing expectations of the people. Numerous men of virtue came to his aid and supported him, dedicating all their efforts and resources, and as a result, he took over the nation in a day, replacing the Wang clan of Koryŏ. Working from early in the morning until late at night, he established all the institutions and the social order that would serve as the foundation for thousands of years of peace for his descendants. So it can be said that the greatness of his services and contributions are already established. Hence, the details of his achievements need to be inscribed and passed on to posterity. “The Book of Changes also says, ‘The great virtue of all under heaven is called life, and the great treasure of sages is called status (wei). How can they keep their status? It is benevolence (ren).’ What it means is that the sages are able to keep their status because they take the life-­fostering virtue of all under heaven as their own and keep on expanding it. “Though Heaven and man are different, they are one in their minds. On the day when His Majesty ascended the throne, the soldiers did not stain

763

764

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

their swords with blood, and both the capital and the provinces were calm and peaceful, and the people harassed by tyranny all came to feel the joy of living. No virtue of fostering the lives of people can be greater than that. This is the reason one cannot help making the following inscription.” The inscription on the bell was as follows: “Ah, the Mandate of Heaven that our king received was profound and extensive. The place he finally decided on as a new capital was a sunny area north of the Han River. When Songdo was the capital, the nation was in terrible shape. Then our king took over the nation and replaced tyranny with benevolence. The people no longer saw wars, and the clouds looming over the court suddenly cleared. The wise and talented were united in their efforts to bring about peace. Those in the near and distant places began to return until the streets were filled with people and their renewed energy. For this reason, a bell was made that will be rung at dawn and at night, and we had our achievements engraved on it so that they can be passed on to posterity as well as preserve the new capital forever.” The king ordered the officials of the State Finance Commission to go out with the special commissioners of each province and investigate the amount of taxes on the salt, which are manufactured by either boiling seawater or burning sand, as well as fish traps and boat taxes, to find out if the amount of taxes was adequate. The king gave his instructions to the Privy Council through Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary: “Last time when the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits reported the problems concerning the slaves whose status is ambiguous, I specifically instructed that the ones who are clearly men of good [commoner] status be ruled as men of good status, the ones who are clearly men of base status be ruled as men of base status, and as for the ones whose slave status is ambiguous and therefore it is hard to tell whether they are men of good status or men of base status, they should be accorded good status but made to carry out base work and sent to each government agency as runners. Presently, the people belonging to Sŏnju and Yŏngju Post Stations, whose status is ambiguous according to the records, filed a petition to the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits and pleaded that they be granted the status of good men. If you again assign them to the above two post stations after making them men of good status while having them carry

Book XIII

out base work simply because their status in the records is ambiguous, they will certainly be treated just like ordinary slaves and in time will become permanent male and female slaves. Then how can they suppress their resentment, and where should they release it? “From this day forward, the slaves whose status is ambiguous in the records should not be sent to districts outside the capital; they should be assigned to the various government agencies within the capital and made to work as runners or guards of main gates or guesthouses. If any make outstanding contributions, they shall be awarded and employed for public service and their children made men of good status permanently.” 5th Day (Sinsa)

The king returned to the palace from his trip to Majŏnp’o. 6th Day (Imo)

Pak Sin and other remonstrators presented themselves in the palace courtyard and spoke to the king: “The kings in antiquity attended the morning audience every day and personally administered all affairs of state. Cur­ rently, our country has designated six days as the official workdays (ail) dur­­ing which the king personally presides over morning assemblies. However, it has already been several months since the morning audience was held last. We request that hereafter, on every official workday, you receive the morning audience and personally administer all affairs of state. “In addition, it is a busy farming season now, and therefore every minute counts. Hence, it is inappropriate to recruit farmers to transport the large bell. We request that you order the troops, led by the company commanders and lieutenants, to transport the bell.” “The king replied, “What you said is right. Feeling somewhat ill, and the weather also being cold, I was unable to attend the morning audience. However, henceforth, I will accede to your request. As to the transportation of the bell and trouble for the people, I was also very concerned. Since my orders were already issued several days ago, the districts and counties must have recruited people by now.” Then the king gave orders to the Board of Rites: “From this day forward, every official workday when the officials below the rank of superintendent20 [of the Six Boards] gather in the palace

20. “Superintendent” (chŏnsŏ) here indicates the minister of each board.

765

766

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

courtyard and line up according to their rank, I will go out to attend the morning audience.” 8th Day (Kapsin)

There was frost. Former officer Kim Kwisaeng circulated anonymous letters falsely accusing former district magistrate Yi Chŏk of committing treason, but his slandering was discovered; he was put to death by dismemberment, and his corpse was publicly displayed. At first, Kwisaeng and Chŏk had a fight over slaves and became estranged from each other. Reading the anonymous letter, the Privy Council interrogated Chŏk: “Who is the person you regard as your enemy?” Chŏk replied, “Kwisaeng is the only one.” The Privy Coun­ ­cil immediately sent officials to search his house and, as expected, discovered the first draft of the anonymous letter that was made by him. He was then arrested. 9th Day (Ŭlyu)

Yŏngwŏnjin Garrison of the Northwest Region was merged into Yŏngch’ŏng District and renamed as Yŏngnyŏng District. 10th Day (Pyŏngsul)

There was lightning with snow. The king paid a visit to Majŏnp’o. 11th Day (Chŏnghae)

There was frost. Sangbu, controller-­in-­chief of the two branches (yangga tosŭngt’ong), requested that monks be prohibited from drinking wine, and the king ordered the Office of the Inspector-General to enforce the prohibition strictly and have those monks who violate the order grow hair and serve in the army. 13th Day (Kich’uk)

The king paid a visit to the Eastern Suburbs [Tonggyo] to inspect the royal horse farm.

Book XIII

14th Day (Kyŏngin)

Pok Tae, a man who practiced wicked works with people, was put to death. Originally a native of Munju [Munch’ŏn], he deceived people by pretending to be a female shaman wearing female dresses. 15th Day (Sinmyo)

The king paid a visit to the belfry and watched the workers hanging the bell. Kim Sŏ, concurrent recorder of the Astronomical and Meteorological Obser­ ­va­­tory, reported his prediction of a lunar eclipse to the king, but it did not occur. 16th Day (Imjin)

The king held the morning audience. Onshadō, king of Sannan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, and others attended it and had an audience with the king. As the pines on the left hill of Kyŏngbok Palace withered, the king ordered that the houses near that hill be removed. 17th Day (Kyesa)

An envoy from Tsushima arrived. The censors, including Pak Sin, submitted a memorial to the king: “Kim Sŏ, concurrent recorder of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, predicted a forthcoming lunar eclipse and reported it to the Board of Rites, but the eclipse that he predicted did not take place. His job is to observe the astronomical phenomena, but he proved ignorant of what he was doing. Hence, it is impossible not to take disciplinary action against him. We request that the office concerned withdraw his appointment and punish him according to law.” At that time, this memorial had not yet reached the king, though it had already been submitted. The king thereupon summoned censors, inspectors, and the officials of the Board of Punishments and reproached them as follows: “Since an official in charge of astronomical phenomena made a mistake in his observation, there must be a discussion to take disciplinary action

767

768

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

against him. However, those of the offices concerned keep silent, pretending nothing happened, and the neglect of their duty is just as serious as the mistake itself [made by the official of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory]. The mistake made by Kim Sŏ is so obvious that everyone can see it. Nevertheless, no one talks about it. If this happens, how dare you speak out against the mistakes that are committed either by myself or grand councilors?” Chŏn Si, inspector of miscellaneous affairs, said, “Yun Ch’ang, third inspector and the official in charge, was reprimanded and ordered to stay home, and therefore we were also unable to carry out our work as usual.” Yu Yŏngmun, bureau section chief of the Board of Punishments, also replied, “We could not impeach the man because of your instructions that were given previously.” Hŏ Chi, third censor, said, “The memorial [concerning the impeachment of Kim Sŏ] was already submitted.” The king insisted that the censors had failed in carrying out their jobs in time and had the censors Pak Sin and Hŏ Chi suspended from their work. Then the king read the memorial and ordered the punishment of Sŏ as it was proposed in the memorial. 18th Day (Kabo)

The king ordered the officials of the Office of the Inspector-General to return to work. 19th Day (Ŭlmi)

A prolonged dry spell prompted the performance of the ritual of calling for rain (kiuje). 20th Day (Pyŏngsin)

Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, and Kwŏn Kŭn, Lord of Hwasan, were appointed commissioners of the National Academy in order to teach classics and history to the Confucian officials who were not on active duty and unemployed hallyang officials below rank 4 as well as the Confucian students from the Three Offices (Samgwan).21 21. Samgwan is a generic name for the three offices: Office of Special Counselors (Hongmungwan), Office of Royal Decrees (Yemungwan), and Publications Office (Kyosŏgwan). It is not clear who the Confucian students from the Three Offices were, but one can presume that they were some sort of trainees.

Book XIII

21st Day (Chŏngyu)

The ritual of calling for rain was performed at the Royal Ancestral Shrine, the Altar of Earth and Grain, and the Altar of Heaven (Wŏndan), as well as at various waterfall basins. Eunuch Yi Kwang was ordered to take charge of the Palace Guards (Sugwi), overseeing them and handling reports and so forth. [Eunuch] Cho Sun was made responsible for carrying royal orders while always attending upon the king. The king admonished Cho Sun: “The crimes that you committed, accord­ ­ing to the Censorate, are so serious that you cannot be admitted into the city gate, not to mention the royal palace. You should correct your faults and behave yourself.” Yu Kwan, minister of punishments, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “The officials in charge of penalty and imprisonment cannot be careless because the lives of people depend on them. In antiquity, when Gao Yao became an official responsible for criminal justice, he administered penal measures in accordance with the law. However, he generously forgave people who were subject to the Five Punishments22 by sending them into exile. When officials administered corporal punishment, he had them use whips, and when instructors punished their students, he had them use rods. He also allowed the people to pay their penalty with money. “So-­called penalization is no more than a device to help the ruler to govern the people. Hence, the sages resort to it very reluctantly. When committed crimes are serious enough to come under the category of the Five Punishments, they are punished in accordance with the law applicable to them. When the crimes are light enough to be punished either by whip or rod, they are also punished in accordance with the relevant law. When the offenders deserve sympathy or their crimes appear suspicious, regardless of the seriousness of their crimes, they are sent into exile or allowed to pay for their penalty with money. So cautiousness and compassion are embedded in these laws, and they are the rules for those who carry out the law for thousands of years. 22. A collective name for a series of physical penalties meted out by the legal system of premodern dynastic China. The Five Punishments here refers to tattooing, cutting off the nose, amputation of one or both feet, castration, and death.

769

770

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“When we look at the law this way, there was pardoning through exile but no payment of money for penalty when it came to the Five Punishment crimes. The law that allowed offenders to pay for their penalty in the cases of the Five Punishments was finally made during the reign of King Mu of Zhou, and that was not the law made in antiquity. Later generations took advantage of the law, and consequently the rich used it to avoid punishment for their crimes, while the poor had no choice but to suffer punishment. This was certainly not the original intention of the sages who promulgated the law. “When the crime of a man is light or looks suspicious, it is appropriate to allow him to pay for his penalty with money so that he can have a chance to start again. However, if those who have committed crimes are also allowed to pay the penalty with money under the pretext that their crimes are suspicious, people will take the law lightly, and the problems and troubles will never stop. “From this day forward, those who commit a crime subject to sixty strokes of the paddle and over a year of penal servitude should not be allowed to pay off the penalty with money even if the crime deserves sympathy or looks suspicious. They should be punished leniently only through penal servitude and exile, making the distance of exile different according to the seriousness of their crimes. If those who commit a light crime and are expected to be released soon after the ruling are allowed to pay off the penalty after making sure that they deserve sympathy or that their crimes look suspicious, it will not be against the spirit of the law or disagree with the institution in antiquity. “When it comes to deciding the penalty for stolen goods, calculating their monetary value, the law says that if those who are responsible for supervising and keeping the stolen goods happen to steal those goods for themselves, they are put to death if the value of the stolen goods exceeds 400 catties. If five bolts of fabric of average quality cost 10 catties, two hundred bolts of fabric cost 400 catties, and it is quite pathetic that a man should lose his life for stealing two hundred bolts of fabric. On the other hand, it is also problematic to allow the one who is supposed to be punished with one hundred strokes of the heavy paddle to pay for his penalty with just thirty bolts of fabric. Since the penalty is too light in this case, it is against the principle of law that emphasizes the appropriateness of penalty. “We wish that fifteen bolts of average fabric would cost 10 catties of cash. If they do, one receives capital punishment only when he steals more than

Book XIII

six hundred bolts of fabric, and those subject to 100 strokes of the heavy paddle are required to pay ninety bolts of fabric in lieu of corporal punishment. As a result, both punishment and redemption become appropriate. “In addition, while crimes are diverse, the laws to deal with them are mostly inadequate. This is one of the reasons that sentencing is often unbalanced, and we cannot help being worried about it. There is an old saying, ‘Even if you draw a picture of hell on the ground, I will never enter it; even if you engrave a figure of an official on the woodblock, I will never look at him.’ These are the words indicating how much people hated officials. The superior man feels ashamed of the officials whose public career is handling prisoners and convicts, because he finds such officials mostly ignorant. Those in charge of punishing and imprisoning are often so ignorant they cannot even understand the penal code, and even if they can read the penal code, they do not pay much attention to it. So what happens is that they leave all the legal matters and judgments to legal experts, and this leads to the failure of finding appropriate provisions in the law and thereby bringing about sentencing that is unfair and unbalanced. The crimes that should be punished severely are punished leniently, and the crimes that should be punished lightly are punished severely. The problem is not confined to the application of the law; it seriously damages the peace and harmony of the society. “We request that henceforth the crimes not specifically covered by the law be deliberated based on similar statutes. When a crime is light but its penalty is too heavy, the penalty should be reduced by several grades. When a crime is heavy but its penalty is too light, the penalty should be added to by several grades. Then the sentences on the crimes should be reported to the proper authorities for approval before they are finally carried out. And if the cases that are already carried out are all recorded, they will be made into a book of precedents by themselves as time passes. Then there will be no crimes that are difficult to handle by the law.” The king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the proposal, and in response the Privy Council requested that the proposal submitted by the Board of Punishments be granted as it is. 22nd Day (Musul)

Dispatching Kim Sahaeng, the king bestowed wine upon Chŏng T’ak, assistant director of the Security Council. At that time, by order of the king, he went out to perform sacrifices to the royal ancestors of the king and returned from his trip.

771

772

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

23rd Day (Kihae)

The newly built Military Stores Warehouse (Kunjago) collapsed in a strong wind. The king ordered the Privy Council to return the properties and grain of late chancellor Cho Minsu [to his family]. The king had the royal palace repainted, and it took 400 tu of linseed oil. The king ordered that the Privy Council transport 1,000 sŏk of military pro­ ­visions from the districts and counties located north of Tanju to Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture and also deploy ten warships on the Tumen River, newly establish­ ­ing a garrison named Sinik Brigade on the border of Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture. 24th Day (Kyŏngja)

Sleet fell on Mt. Kyeryong. 25th Day (Sinchíuk)

Because of a long drought, the king pardoned all prisoners except those sentenced to death either by beheading or hanging and ordered the offices concerned to repair ditches and streams and gather up skeletons and corpses for burial. 26th Day (Imin)

The number of military officers guarding the Special Capital Magistracy of Kaesŏng was fixed at 340. The king bestowed one folding screen each on Left Chancellor Cho Chun and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng. The eight-­paneled folding screens featured views in the new capital [Hansŏng]. Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, composed poems on the eight scenes and submitted them to the king. The first was about the mountains and rivers of Kyŏnggi Province, in which the capital is located: The fertile land of Kyŏnggi extends a thousand li, With a hundred two mountains and rivers on it.

Book XIII

Since they show both moral virtue and natural majesty, One can prophesy a thousand years of history ahead. The second was about the city walls and royal gardens: The impregnable city walls are a thousand feet high, And covered with the colorful clouds of Mount Penglai. In the Forbidden Gardens, nightingales sing and flowers bloom. Citizens will enjoy themselves forever, busy moving around. The third was about the various office buildings lined up outside the royal palace: The high-­rise office buildings that face one another Are like the countless stars surrounding Polaris. The moonlit official streets in the dawn look like a river. A carriage runs with its jade decorations ringing, but hardly a speck of dust rises. The fourth was about the numerous wards of the capital city arrayed like a go playing board: The grand mansions stand tall above the clouds, And the villages, closely connected, fully occupy the land. Since they are covered with smoke every morning and evening, One sees the peace and prosperity of an age. The fifth was about the military training field inside the East Gate: The resounding sound of bells and drums shake the earth, And the flying banners and flags reach out to the sky. More than ten thousand horses move as if they were one. With the horses driven like that, one can go to war. The sixth was about the cargo ships anchored in the West River: Ships gather in the West River from all quarters, Fast as dragons carrying thousands of tons of grain. Look at the ceiling of the granary getting rotten with grains. The secret of good government is to secure sufficient food.

773

774

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The seventh was about the travelers at the South Ferry: As the water at the South Ferry runs with rolling waves, Travelers gather from all quarters to make the place bustle. As old people rest while the young carry baggage, They exchange songs back and forth while walking. The eighth was about the horses pastured in the northern suburbs: Look at the northern suburbs, which look like a smooth whetstone. When spring arrives, grass luxuriates and streams are sweet. Thousands of horses run and frolic like magpies, And herdsmen run towards the west or south as they please. 27th Day (Kyemyo)

The ritual of calling for rain was performed at the Altar of Heaven and at mountains and rivers. 28th Day (Kapchin)

The king paid a visit to the belfry to listen to the sound of the [new] bell and later to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery to inspect the construction site for the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics. 29th Day (Ŭlsa)

An Kyŏngnyang, academician of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, died. He was born in Sunhŭng as the second son of Chongwŏn, assis­ ­tant grand councilor of the Chancellery. Being gentle and sincere, he carried out affairs in a highly meticulous manner. He became governor of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province and served as patrolling inspector of the Northwest Region. People respected him, and some mourned his death by abstaining from meat. He was survived by a son named Minsu, who was born of his concubine. When caterpillars ate the pine trees in the northern mountains at the back of the Royal Ancestral Shrine, the people were recruited from five wards [in the capital] to catch them. This month had dry weather.

Book XIV

Seventh Year of Reign (1398) 5th Month 1st Day (Chŏngmi)

The king paid a visit to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery and gave orders to build a three-­story Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics to the north of Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery. Then he ordered various military units to recruit fifty volunteers among company commanders and lieutenants, providing them with provisions. 2nd Day (Musin)

There was a strong wind. O Sach’ung, Great Lord of Yŏngsŏng, submitted a memorial to the king request­ing that the prohibition of alcohol be enforced, and his request was granted. A meteorite fell in the northeast. 3rd Day (Kiyu)

There was a strong wind. An accidental fire broke out in the houses in Kahoebang1 and spread through the neighborhood until it burned down



1. One of the precincts located in the north of Seoul.

775

776

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

143 houses as well as the Palace Granary (Yomulgo). Watching the blaze, the king lamented: “The drought we have had is already too extreme. Now, we are struck by fire. What did I do wrong? Because the construction of royal palaces could not be stopped, it happened that the people had to suffer.” As the drought continued, a sermon on the Cloud and Rain Sutra (Unugyŏng) was delivered at Hŭngbok Monastery. A dharma assembly to pray for the elimination of disasters was also held at Yŏnhwa Monastery because the pine trees were withering. The king ordered the Privy Council to distribute thatch to the households damaged by fire, according to their needs. Remonstrators submitted a memorial to the king: “The Classic of Poetry says, ‘Revere the anger of Heaven, / And presume not to make sport or be idle.’2 It also says, ‘One can preserve himself by being afraid of the dignity of Heaven.’ As we humbly observe, a series of floods and droughts during the past few years has destroyed people’s livelihood and many, being starved, have abandoned their homes. This year, starting from the spring almost to the end of the summer, scorching sun has persisted, with no rain, and everything on the earth has dried up. As a result, people lost the sowing season and have no barley to harvest. There are none among the officials and the people who do not let out a sigh. “Your Majesty was so worried that you prayed to the gods for rain with all your heart. Nevertheless, you were unable to move the will of Heaven, and the drought has worsened. A few days ago, a fierce windstorm erupted, spreading fire until over a hundred houses were burned down, and the damage extended to chickens and dogs as well as the Palace Granary, which provides supplies to the royal family. The drought disaster has reached an extreme, and the calamity from Heaven is astounding. “In antiquity, King Tang, faced with drought, showed fear and reproached himself: ‘Was I rash and reckless in carrying out affairs of state? Did I bring hardship to the people? What made the drought go to such extremes? Did I extend my royal palaces? Did I fail to suppress slanderers? Why do we have no rain for such a long time?’ Even a sage such as King Tang reproached

2. “Decade of Sheng Min” (translation is James Legge’s).

Book XIV

himself in this way, and his sincerity was able to impress Heaven so that it finally allowed rain and the people did not have to suffer damage. “As we prostrate ourselves and recall, since Your Majesty rose to the throne, there have been construction projects every year, and the people have had no time to rest. Concerned about this problem, Your Majesty released the people from these projects except the professional artisans (kongjang), unemployed people, and Buddhist monks, whom you had employed after providing supplies. Nevertheless, the number of people working at various places still numbered in the thousands. Since they have been working hard for several years, separated from their wives and children and leaving their parents behind, how can they not be resentful? “People say, ‘One must not worry about trivial complaints and petty abuses if he wants to lay down a foundation for thousands of generations.’ In our opinions, however, such a foundation cannot be established all at once. Fortunately, since the royal palace is now completed and the city walls already constructed, it would not be too late if you were to take a few years break before you continue the construction work. “We request that Your Majesty, revering the anger of Heaven and emulating the heart of King Tang, stop all the current construction work and return the workers to their homes to look after their families. Then their com­ ­plaints and resentments will cease, and peace and harmony will be restored. “We urge you to abolish the [current] Directorate for the Palace Con­ struction (Kunggwŏl chosŏng togam) and replace it with the Directorate for Palace Maintenance (Sŏn’gonggam) so that the latter can be responsible for palace construction as it used to and give people a break for a while.” The king ordered that those recruited as substitutes for runaway monks and the 27 monks with wives and children as well as 545 unskilled artisans be released. The government had the administrators (p’an’gwan) of Namwŏn and Kwangju removed. 5th Day (Sinhae)

Paying a visit to the South Gate of the royal palace, the king watched an organized stone fight. Military Commissioner Cho On led the stone-­ throwing battalion, and Yi Kŭn, director of the Security Council, commanded officers of various guard units. Positioning themselves on the left

777

778

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and right, they fought against each other until the sun set. Many of the participants were either killed or wounded. The Palace Granary was rebuilt inside the royal palace. 6th Day (Imja)

There was hail and a windstorm. The king sent eunuch Yi Kwang to bestow wine on the Privy Council. 10th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The king paid a visit to the Yongsan River to see the woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana (Taejanggyŏng) transported from Sŏnwŏn Monastery on Kanghwa Island. 11th Day (Chŏngsa)

It rained. 12th Day (Muo)

It rained. Two thousand military officers and soldiers were mobilized to transport the woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana to Chich’ŏn Monastery. Yu Kwangu, assistant grand councilor-­without-­portfolio of the chancellery, was ordered to hold an incense burner, and the monks of the Five Sects and Two Schools (Ogyo yangjong)3 chant sutras, leading the procession in accordance with the ceremonial guard and music. Paying a visit to the West River, the king inspected the grain ships from Chŏlla Province.

3. “Five Sects” here refers to Yŏlban, Kyeyul, Pŏpsŏng, Hwaŏm, and Pŏpsang. The Two Schools are the Doctrinal School (Kyojong) and the Meditational School (Sŏnjong).

Book XIV

13th Day (Kimi)

It rained. A meteor emerged from the east of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure (Chamiwŏn) to enter the seat of Emptiness Constellation (Hŏsŏng), the eleventh lodge. The king ordered the districts and counties of Left Kyŏnggi and Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces to repair the walls in the capital when necessary. The circumference of the city walls slightly exceeded 9,760 paces. Sangch’ong, chief monk of Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery, submitted a memorial to the king: “Meditation (sŏn) is the mind of Buddha, and doctrine (kyo) the word of Buddha. However, there is little difference between the two because those who belong to them all pray for the long life of the king and the well-­being of the state and the people. I believe that Your Majesty has realized the wish of his former life. After you established a new capital on the site you chose, you put all government buildings in good order and harmonized various duties and responsibilities. On top of that, you built a monastery in the capital and bestowed the name of Hŭngch’ŏnsa (Monastery of Heavenly Prosperity), making it the center for the practice of meditation. Your reverent faith in Buddha and thereby your expectations for blessings from the dragon kings and devas (Yongchŏn)4 were extremely deep and serious. “Since you appointed Sangch’ong as chief monk, one who used to live in the mountainous countryside, how can your servant not purify his heart and do his utmost in discharging his duty of spreading dharma and praying for blessings? “Generally speaking, among Buddhists meditation is regarded most highly. If a man is born with a superior nature, he can succeed even in a day and thereby attain enlightenment and great wisdom. Even if he is not so successful, Buddha will be delighted in him and dragon kings and devas respect and trust him when he can investigate hwadu [critical phrase].5

4. They refer to the eight kinds of demigods that protect dharma. 5. Hwadu is the phrase in a verbalized phrase or exchange that points to the reality beyond thought. One is supposed to focus on that critical phrase until one can see that it fails to accurately represent the undifferentiated thusness that underlies all discriminated phenomena. See Robert E. Buswell’s article “Chinul’s Systemization of Chinese Meditative

779

780

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

“At the end of the previous dynasty, however, all the Buddhist monks, including those belonging to both the Doctrinal and Meditational Schools, only coveted profit and reputation and vied to grab famous monasteries for themselves. As a result, only one or two monasteries were left to practice meditation and promote enlightenment. How could this agree with the original intention of the government, which established Buddhist temples to strengthen the nation and pray for blessings? National Preceptor Chin’gak once said, ‘The practice of meditation renews the fortune of the nation, and the study of great perfection of wisdom (Chiron)6 suppresses the army of a neighboring country.’ No one would believe that the preceptor deceives us with his words. Why should he? “I request that Your Majesty hereafter select leaders among those of the Meditational and Doctrinal Schools who are outstanding in morality and talent and have them oversee renowned monasteries both in the capital and the provinces. Furthermore, let the one distinguished in meditation take charge of teaching meditation as well as the tradition of the Meditational School, and the one excelling in doctrine take charge of teaching Buddhist scriptures as well as the rules and teachings of various masters. Then the younger generation of the Meditational School shall study the Records of the Transmission of the Lamp (Chuandenglu)7 and practice chanting Buddhist hymns, and those of the Doctrinal School shall also study Buddhist scriptures and rules more systematically. If this happens, no temple will lack monks who are distinguished in talent and virtue in the years to come. “However, since it [Hŭngguk Monastery] was already designated as the center (bonsa) by its name, all the famous monasteries both in the capital and the provinces should be attached to it and supervised mutually, following the example of Songgwang Monastery.8 Then there will be no trouble in Techniques in Korean Sŏn Buddism” in Peter N. Gregory, ed. Tradition of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986), pp. 199–242. 6. Chiron here probably refers to The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom (Taejidoron) written by Long Shu, or Nagarjuna, a Mahayana scholar of southern India who was presumed to have lived between 150 and 250 years ce. 7. A book written by Daoyuan, a Chinese monk of the Song dynasty. It sets the Zen tradition into family-­like lineages transmitting dharma from one master to another through lines of teaching heritage. (See Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright.) 8. Located in Sŭngju County in South Chŏlla Province, it is known as one of the three major temples in Korea along with Haeinsa and T’ongdosa in Kyŏngsang Province. It was originally established by monk Hyerin toward the end of the Silla Kingdom and was greatly expanded by monk Chinul, or National Preceptor Pojo, during the reign of King Myŏngjong of Koryŏ.

Book XIV

offering prayers for blessings even if anyone wants to interfere with them. What goes on in our monasteries these days is that they all try to emulate the ways of Chinese monks but fail to attain what they want. So it happens that the picture of a tiger that they are drawing ends up being that of a dog. “I respectfully believe that we should teach the legacy left by National Preceptor Pojo of Songgwang Monastery, turning it into the rules we ought to follow and, at the same time, have our monks practice them day and night. Then we will be able to repay Your Majesty for greatly promoting Buddhism among the people. Prostrating myself on the ground, I sincerely urge you to proclaim the law both to the capital and the provinces, and if it can be handed down to later generations permanently, how can it not be greatly beneficial to the nation?” The king followed the advice. 14th Day (Kyŏngsin)

There was frost. Ch’oe Nok, a retainer of our envoy Cho Sŏ who was detained in China during his diplomatic mission, returned home from the Ming capital with a letter from Zhang Bing, Ming minister of rites, as well as the depositions separately made by Cho Sŏ and Kwak Haeryong. The letter from Minister Zhang was as follows: “Zhang Bing, minister of rites of the Great Ming, writes this letter to the king of Chosŏn. Previously, Our Majesty ascended his imperial throne and united China in accordance with the will of Heaven, replacing Yuan. Then he quickly dispatched envoys to four neighboring states and informed them of what had happened. The king of Koryŏ, in response, immediately sent an envoy to China to establish a friendly relationship between the two countries. Though Koryŏ subordinated itself to be a vassal state and promised to pay tribute to China, it in fact wanted to make its people comfortable by securing peace. “Since Our Majesty looks after the people by upholding the will of Heaven, how can he be anxious to show his strength by displaying military power to the world? This was the reason he admonished the king of Koryŏ not to make trouble on the border. Thereafter, when Koryŏ sincerely requested that it be allowed to observe and practice the rites and ceremonies of China, our emperor again admonished, saying, ‘As to the rites and ceremonies, it is advisable to follow one’s own customs, and as to the law, it is better to keep the old one.’ This admonition was given several decades ago. Ever since the

781

782

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

beginning, our emperor seriously warned you not to cause trouble on the border and never resorted to using his superior military power to force you to do anything against your will. “Several years have passed since the present king ascended the throne, replacing the Wang of the previous dynasty. However, one cannot help wondering if he ever heard the imperial admonition concerning border trouble. Since he took the throne, conflicts have broken out on the border because of disturbing words and behavior that recur from his side. “According to what we have already heard, the problem is that your people enter our country disguised as tribute envoys and secretly bribe our officials on the border who know nothing about what goes on. Looking back, during the times of various dynasties, such as Han, Sui, Tang, Liao, Jin, and Yuan, when the rulers of Three Han States [Korea] caused even minor trouble, the emperors of those dynasties immediately raised armies, and the people in your country had to suffer harm. This is not a small matter to be ignored. Though such disasters took place in the remote past, who could not feel alert and sorry when he considers the magnitude of the sufferings caused by them? “The current king [of Chosŏn] has repeatedly caused trouble, and our emperor in response reported the matter to the gods of heaven and earth. Why did he do that? The reason he did not dare to raise an army with instant courage was that he feared for the lives of people on both sides. The rulers in antiquity did not dare to take their expeditionary forces to distant lands even when they were unable to persuade their adversaries to have peace despite issuing declarations and warnings against them. “Because the current king [of Chosŏn] has often caused trouble on our border, our emperor was worried and has already sent an imperial messenger to offer sacrifices to the seas and mountains and rivers and to report the matter once to their guardian spirits. Furthermore, our emperor also had the eunuchs, who had originally come from your country, inform their king of this matter when they returned home. Nevertheless, both the current king and the spirits of his kingdom were not afraid at all. “Therefore, they think they are fortunate enough to successfully seize the country from others and are never worried that there is the Mandate of Heaven, believing that it is natural to deceive others. Since China is very close to the Three Han States, how can it disregard the propriety of reproaching its neighbor when the latter goes wrong? Though the reproach was made, the real intention of the emperor was to teach its vassal state not to behave recklessly.

Book XIV

“The king [of Chosŏn], however, detested the reproach so much that he treated it as if it were words from the enemy and never stopped seeking ways to secretly insult [the emperor]. If the king is allowed to continue to follow his ways, his kingdom will be dominated by treachery and filled with subjects who are scheming like the king himself. If this happens, what good is it for the king if he is seated on the throne? “Those who are now following the king are the scholars who are all frivolous and inexperienced. Instead of assisting the king based on principle, they steal words and phrases from the Chinese classics written by sages and turn them into insulting remarks by purposely twisting their meaning. Thus, they have committed crimes before the spirits of heaven and earth, and how can they be forgiven? “Now, according to the deposition made by Cho Sŏ, there are three more people who plotted together to insult in drafting the memorials and letters to us. Since I am particularly letting the king know about it, the king shall look into the matter and send the people concerned to our court.” The deposition made by Cho Sŏ was as follows: “Yun Kyu, former section chief of the Board of Rites, Kong Pu, assistant master of the National Academy (Sŏnggyun sasŏng), and Yun Su, section chief of the Board of Rites, all belong to the same group of scholars including Cho Sŏ. Around the eighth month of the thirtieth year of Emperor Hongwu’s reign, Yun Kyu and others told Sŏ: ‘Last year, the emperor of the Great Ming read the memorial that we jointly composed, and Kim Yakhang had to rush to the Ming capital. Now, according to Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, who has just returned from China, the emperor of the Great Ming detained our people and he is not going to release them anytime soon. Strangely enough, the emperor destroyed all the horse saddles that we presented as a tribute. Further, he will also detain some of the people who brought those saddles and will not release them easily.’ In the eleventh month, which included the birthday of the imperial crown prince, they said, ‘Our Majesty will send tributes again together with a congratulatory memorial. Then why don’t we produce some characters similar in sound and have them hidden in the memorial? Let’s find out if China has scholars intelligent enough to discover them.’ “All agreed with the plan, and then they disingenuously placed the characters of ch’ŏnch’ujŏl sa (千秋節使) in the text of the memorial in an insulting way and finally had Yu Ho, acting director of the Directorate of

783

784

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Ceremonies, Chŏng Anji, administrator of the Court of Interpreters, and Ch’oe Ho, a retinue member in charge of managing equipment, carry it to the Ming capital. To our surprise, on the nineteenth day of the twelfth month of the same year, a Chinese envoy named Yuan Gen arrived with Ch’oe Ho, a retinue member in charge of managing equipment who originally had followed Yu Ho, carrying a letter from the Ministry of Rites, which demanded that those who drafted the [controversial] memorial be sent to the Ming court to give their explanation. “Yun Kyu, Kong Pu, and Yun Su, who conspired to make fun of the Chinese when they jointly drafted the memorial, presented themselves before the king and Chinese envoy Yuan Gen, and they said, ‘Though we were together in drafting the memorial, it was Cho Sŏ that actually led the discussion throughout the process.’ “As a result, on the twenty-­fifth day of the same month, our king summoned interpreter Kwak Haeryong and ordered him to take Cho Sŏ [myself] to China with the following instruction: ‘Since you have visited the Ming capital many times, you must be good in Chinese. That was the reason I had you escort Kim Yakhang to the Ming capital last year. Later, our envoys No Indo, Chŏng Ch’ong, and O Segyŏm visited the Ming capital, but they were not allowed to return home. I am afraid that the Chinese, after detaining them, may try to use them as their guides to invade our land. I am now sending you to the Ming capital, escorting Cho Sŏ, and the reason is that I want you to speak with the Chinese to find out what they have in mind and report back to me when you return.’ For the reasons stated above, Kwak Haeryong escorted me to the Ming capital, and the purpose was also to get some information on the situation in China. I confirm that what is stated in this deposition is all true.” The deposition made by Kwak Haeryong was found to be quite the same as that of Cho Sŏ. 15th Day (Sinyu)

There was frost. A meteor emerged from Cassiopeia Constellation (Wangliang) and flew to the north. 9 Minister-­without-­Portfolio Yi Ŭng was exiled to Hamju; Kim Yongsam, manifestly expedient general, to Kanghwa; Chi P’aan, to Amnyung as a 9. According to Chinese astrology, this could be a sign of war. Wangliang was a famous charioteer during the Spring and Autumn Period.

Book XIV

shepherd; Yi Tŭkhang, assistant magistrate of Kyŏnghŭng Prefecture, to Ongjin; and Kim Yŏnu, manifestly expedient general, was imprisoned in the Capital Constabulary Prison. Yi Ŭng and others were the men who followed the king from the days prior to his enthronement. Returning to the Northeast Region after bidding farewell, Ŭng forcibly seized post-­horses and acted violently at the post station. Nevertheless, his colleagues, including Kim Yongsam, did not stop him. Having heard of it, the king ordered the officers of the Capital Constabulary to immediately run after them and arrest them. He had them thrown into jail and each exiled later to distant districts. Sŏn Yunji, post-­station master (chŏngyŏksa) of Right Kyŏnggi Province, and Chŏn Tŭkkyŏng, post-­station clerk of Ŭn’gye,10 were beaten with a paddle for providing horses to those who had no permits for using them. 16th Day (Imsul)

The king ordered the Two Departments to report the good and bad in the administration as well as the benefits and abuses against the people. The pine trees on the guardian mountains [of Hansŏng] withered and died, while frost fell during the summer. As a result, the king sent Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, to relay his orders to the Privy Council: “Let the fortress construction supervisors of the capital who were dismissed or sent away to the provinces previously all be pardoned of their offenses. Pardon should also be extended to Kim Sŏ. Have him report back to his original post after due punishment. As for the officials who were driven out to the provinces, submit a detailed report on their mistakes and their seriousness.” Receiving the royal instruction, the Privy Council spoke to the king through a memorial: “Since Your Majesty has already shown fear and regret, you had also better inquire about the good and bad in the administration as well as the benefits and abuses against people.” The king followed the advice. The king ordered all (literally a hundred) officials and retired senior officials to gather in the court and discuss the matter of sending away the three officials, including Kong Pu, to the Ming capital. The majority said that they had no choice but to send them, and only ten officials or so, including

10. Located in Hoeyang, Kangwŏn Province.

785

786

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Han Sanggyŏng, Lord of Sŏwŏn, were opposed to it. Chŏng Ku, left grand master of remonstrance, and others said: “When the king gives orders, courtesy requires his subject to obey, and this is natural. However, the courtesy of obeying orders sometimes can change if circumstances do not allow. If we look at the depositions made by Cho Sŏ and Kwak Haeryong and the letter from the Ministry of Rites of China, deception is too extreme. This was not the first time that we sent congratulations on the birthday of the imperial crown prince, and nothing has changed in the form and the phrases in drafting memorials to the emperor compared with previous years. The anger of the suzerain state [Ming China] started from the Chŏngch’uk year (1397), and there must be a reason when they try to conspire against us. Besides, everyone knows that the three officials, including Cho Sŏ and Kong Pu, did not attempt to mock or insult the Chinese court, and the spirits of heaven and earth are our witnesses. The suzerain state fabricated a preposterous thing and extracted depositions from our envoys by using threats, and now demands that we send the three officials to them. If their demands are limited only to the three officials, we may allow them to go, but if they fabricate things against us after drawing the depositions from the three officials, they will certainly come up with new demands, which is difficult for us to accept. Then how will we be able to deal with them in the days ahead? If we can have peace by sending the three officials today and ten more tomorrow, we should indeed send them. However, we know well that the Chinese are now trying to snare us. Under the circumstances, if we just accede to their demands, faintheartedly displaying our weaknesses, we are afraid we will regret our decision in time. We request that Your Majesty sincerely implore the Chinese authorities to reconsider their demands instead of sending away the three officials, and then it is possible that they will be persuaded.” Even after discussing the matter with Left Chancellor Cho Chun and others, the king could not decide. 17th Day (Kyehae)

The king pardoned sixteen officials, including [fortress construction supervisors] Chŏng Ŭi and Kang Hoejung, and twenty-­two military officials, including Yi Kwich’ŏl, Kim Yŏngnyŏl, and Min Chungni. The king ordered Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, to meet with the people who were recommended by their local governments in various provinces

Book XIV

for their outstanding filial piety and integrity as well as talent. Finding over seventy of them unqualified, the king had them return home. 18th Day (Kapcha)

Establishing the Military Supply Warehouse for the first time, the king ordered Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, to convey his instruction to the Privy Council: “When Emperor Taizu of the Song dynasty established the Palace Store­ house (Neiku), a separate warehouse different from the existing ones, it appeared that he created it for his personal purpose. However, he said earlier to some of his close lieges, ‘Since one must always be ready for wars or lean years, it is not a good policy to levy heavy taxes when the crisis actually takes place.’ He also said, ‘I feel sorry for the people of the eight provinces under prolonged barbarian control. I intend to save five million strings (min) of coin money and recover the various counties behind the mountain [Mt. Taixing] with that money.’ Then the Palace Storehouse established by Emperor Taizu was for a public purpose, not for his private use. So I have entrusted the offices concerned with property such as money and gold and silk and clearly fixed their responsibilities to safeguard them after counting their exact amount. “The reason I have created the Military Supply Warehouse at the moment is only for military purposes. As for the money and grain and fabric, which are the income of the Warehouse, let the State Finance Commission take charge and handle their accounting. If it happens that troops have to be mobi­­ lized, the Commission should use the goods for their originally intended purpose after reporting to the king for his instruction, and let this be a permanent law.” The king paid a visit to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery and inspected the site for the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics. Then he said to Kim Chu, supervisory commissioner in charge of constructing the Hall: “It is not really necessary to construct the royal tomb of Chŏngnŭng and the Palace Granary in a hurry. However, I wanted for a long time to have the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics finished. Unless it is completed now, I am afraid that there may be someone in the future who wants to stop its construction. I want you to hurry so that you can fulfill my wish.” The king thereupon returned to the royal palace and played kyŏkku, a ball game on horseback, together with Yu Mansu, To Hŭng, and Yu Un.

787

788

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

20th Day (Pyŏngin)

Yi Paegan, Pu Kae, and other returnees from overseas as well as a blind man named Kim Hyodo arrived from Liaodong, China, and the king bestowed upon them clothes and provisions. 21st Day (Chŏngmyo)

[The government] appointed Ch’oe Yŏngji as director of the State Finance Commission; Sŏng Sŏngnin as assistant chancellor; U Innyŏl and Yu Mansu as assistant grand councilors of the Chancellery; and Sŏng Sŏgyong as inspector-general. Then it dismissed ten discussants of the Two Departments, one magistrate of Hanyang Magistracy, and two grand academicians and two academicians of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records. 22nd Day (Mujin)

One hundred and eight monks assembled for a five-­day ceremony to pray for the elimination of disasters. Pak Ch’ŏnsang and Chŏn Chach’ung were pardoned.11 23rd Day (Kisa)

A meteor came out of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure to enter the Great Bear Constellation (Yŏngsŏng). 24th Day (Kyŏngo)

The king was not well. 25th Day (Sinmi)

The king recovered from his illness. When eight Koreans held captive in Tsushima arrived with nine Japanese, the government let them return to their homes. The government also let the 11. They were former officials who failed to meet the deadline for residing in the capital and were punished for it.

Book XIV

Japanese live in several districts after providing them with food and clothing. 26th Day (Imsin)

A comet came out of the Southern Dipper (Namdu) to enter the asterism Winnower.12 The king gave orders to restore the official appointment of U Hyŏnbo and return his confiscated property.13 He also had the certificates of appointment returned to Hyŏnbo’s two sons, Hongbu and Honggang. Chŏn Hŭigil went to the Northeast Region and mined gold with eighty soldiers under his command. After working for nine days, he excavated 4 maces (ton)14 of gold and presented it to the king. 28th Day (Kapsul)

Kim Yuk, third royal secretary, presented a fine horse to the king, and the king bestowed a saddled horse upon him. The king again gave orders to enforce strictly the prohibition of alcohol in all provinces. 29th Day (Ŭlhae)

Hyŏnbin, the consort of the crown prince, gave birth to a son.

Intercalary 5th Month 1st Day (Pyŏngja)

Ordering the historiographers to submit the history drafts from the days of his enthronement, the king asked Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, “What 12. According to the source text, the constellation here is Kaus Australis (Kisŏng), which is a component star of Sagittarius. 13. U Hyŏnbo was once implicated in the conspiracy of Yun I and Yi Ch’o, who falsely accused T’aejo in the Ming court of installing King Kongyang and conspiring together to invade China for his political purposes. 14. A measure of weight; it is one tenth of 1 yang (Ch. liang) or tael.

789

790

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

is the reason that the king is barred from taking a look at the historical records during his reign?” Munhwa replied, “History should be written straightforwardly, without concealing anything. If the king and high officials are allowed to see them, one is afraid that history cannot be written truthfully.” Then the king said, “I am also aware that the law is like that. However, there is a precedent: that Emperor Taizong of Tang saw the history draft. So I also want to see it. If the historiographer refuses to show it to me, would his attitude be that becoming a subject? The office of the historical records shall be opened and all the records submitted to me.” 2nd Day (Chŏngch’uk)

Kaesŏng District was abolished and merged into the Special Capital Mag­ istracy [of Kaesŏng]. Hŏ Chisin, provisional first drafter (kwŏnji kyogam) of the Office of Dip­ lomatic Correspondence, took off his mourning dress while in mourning for his mother and filed litigation at the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits. Inspectors impeached him and put him in prison. 3rd Day (Muin)

Pyŏn Chungnyang, right policy advisor, and others submitted a memorial to the king: “Previously when you ordered us to discuss the matter concerning sending our officials Yun Kyu, Kong Pu, and Yun Su away to China, we submitted our written opinions in detail, focusing on the advantages and disadvantages. We have heard that our government has decided to send them and let them defend themselves in the Ming court. The decision may appear appropriate from the perspective of serving the suzerain state, but it is not really a good way of dealing with problems under the present circumstances. Since we cannot follow the prevailing opinion slavishly, we have no choice but to worry your divine intelligence. “Your Majesty has never been slack in serving the great suzerain state ever since you ascended the throne. Nevertheless, the suzerain state tries to find faults with us, contending that we attempted to mock or insult them. Thus, perusing every word in our diplomatic documents, they have already detained our officials, including Chŏng Ch’ong, Kim Yakhang, No Indo, and Yu Ho, and forcibly extracted depositions from Cho Sŏ and Kwak

Book XIV

Haeryong to prove their allegations. Though their charge that our three ­officials attempted to insult them is absolutely not true, they made it difficult for us to defend ourselves when it came to their suspicion of our espionage. If we look into what has happened in their way of dealing with us, there must be something behind their conspiracy. “In addition, even though sending the three officials to China is itself not a matter of great importance, it is likely that the prestige of our nation will be affected by it. Those who advocate the idea of sending the officials to China want to accede to the Chinese demand first and then deal with the problems later, observing the further development of the matter. However, China has repeatedly made demands on us, and we have never refused to satisfy even one. They, nevertheless, continue to reproach us, and there­­ fore how can we be sure that things such as this will not happen in the days ahead? “If our country, in spite of having rugged terrain for its defense, keeps on yielding to their unjust demands and showing weakness of attitude, we cannot help fearing that there will be demands in the future that we cannot accept, and then how should we respond? Furthermore, how can we satisfy the pleasure of the suzerain state only by deciding to send a few of our scholars who are little known? “We request that you hold the departing scholars, even if you have to depart from the precedents this time, and explain the reason by sending a letter [to the Chinese authorities]. At the same time, if you also show a hard stance on this matter, there may be a chance that our detained envoys can return home earlier. “We also request that you look after the families of the detained officials, including Chŏng Ch’ong, Kim Yakhang, Song Hŭijŏng, O Chin, Yang U, No Indo, O Segyŏm, Kwŏn Ŭlsong, Chŏng Anji, Cho Sŏ, and Kwak Haeryong, inquiring after their parents as well as wives and children as often as you can, and show them how deeply you care for them.” The king had the memorial sent to the Privy Council for discussion and the result reported to him. The general opinion among the members of the Privy Council was to send all the scholars concerned to China and to wait and see what would happen next. Four residents of Chunghwa County, including one named Kim Kyŏn, were put to death for harming the people by putting curses on them.

791

792

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

4th Day (Kimyo)

The king paid a visit to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery15 and later inspected the new office building of the Privy Council. 6th Day (Sinsa)

The king ordered Kwŏn Hŭi, Great Lord of Yŏngga, to perform the rite of blessings for his grandson at the south gate of the crown prince’s residence [compound on the grounds of the royal palace]. Kim Chasu, Magistrate of Ch’ŏngju, requested in writing that the gover­ ­nor reduce this year’s taxes on barley because of the poor crop. His petition read: “The Privy Council recently issued an instruction to provinces and counties to provide relief, according to the need, to those who suffer famine and also warned that the officials would be strictly punished for neglecting government orders if anyone in their districts happens to starve to death. Reading the instruction, one cannot help being impressed by the sincerity of a government that cares for the people, and reading it again, one becomes so fearful that he pledges to himself to follow the orders to the best of his ability. “As I respectfully think about the matter quietly, however anxious you may be to help the people, your words will sound empty unless you provide them with real benefits. In ancient times, Emperor Wen of Han encouraged farmers by halving their annual taxes, and the sages in later times praised his act of benevolence. Thus, he was able to make his name remembered throughout history. “The government collects taxes from the beginning of the sixth month every year when wheat is ripe. This tax, called “payment in advance” (sŏnnap), is immediately transported to the warehouse in the capital. This is what happens every year. “This year, from the third month until now, we have had no rain. The monthly rain that fell previously was not enough to soak the soil, and the weather cleared up very quickly. The drought grew so terrible that the barley 15. Hŭngch’ŏnsa was a Buddhist monastery built to the right of Chŏngnŭng, the tomb of Queen Sindŏk, T’aejo’s second wife.

Book XIV

and wheat crops suffered losses. Right now, hungry people are crying for food. Unable to fill their stomachs, how can they expect to find seed for their autumn plowing? And that being so, how can you collect the so-­called payment in advance? “Nothing would benefit the people more than your forgiving them of all their taxes and thereby allowing them a chance to recover. And no famine relief would be more urgently needed than that. Since the magistrate is supposed to share the burden of worries about the state with his sovereign, I cannot keep quiet about what I have seen. So I dare to make this request at the risk of my life, sincerely hoping that it will be conveyed to the highest authorities and implemented.” When the governor sent this petition to the Privy Council, the Privy Council, finding it reasonable, in turn reported it to the king and reduced the taxes of various provinces. The governor of Kyŏngsang Province requested famine relief to save starving people, and Left Chancellor Cho Chun and others spoke to the king: “There are so many starving people in every province, and if we try to save all of them, there will be nothing left in the government warehouses. What shall we do?” The king replied, “Provide relief as long as reserve grain is left in the warehouse.” 7th Day (Imo)

There was rain. A private slave named Omadae is beheaded for beating his father. 9th Day (Kapsin)

There was rain. The king paid a visit to the West River to watch twenty grain ships arrive from Kyŏngsang Province. 10th Day (Ŭlyu)

There was rain. A water clock was installed in the belfry.

793

794

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

11th Day (Pyŏngsul)

Red rain fell on Mt. Paegun in Yŏngp’yŏng.16 When the king ran his eyes over the memorials from the Chancellery and the Security Council, he saw that they were mostly about the request for ending the construction work, abolishing the offices of court ladies and eunuchs, holding the morning audience and receiving reports on state affairs, associating with virtuous men while shunning petty people, and so forth. Among these memorials, the one submitted by Yi Chi was most ardent. It read as follows: “Endear yourself to men of virtue while keeping away from petty people. The Classic of Documents says, ‘The three dukes discuss the way and run the state.’ It also says, ‘Morning and evening present your instructions to aid my virtue.’17 The sage rulers in antiquity invited men of virtue, even at night, to seek advice for affairs of state, and the degree of their diligence was to that extent. “Your Majesty now allows only a few days for seeing your ministers, and consequently wise counsel on the affairs of state cannot reach you. I sincerely urge you to give an audience to wise scholars and ministers and discuss the ways of governing the state. In so doing there will be no abuses that cannot be corrected and no profits that fail to be produced, and petty people will withdraw from you by themselves. “1. The way of receiving remonstrance should be open. The Classic of Documents says, ‘Wood by the use of the line is made straight, and the sovereign who follows reproof becomes sage.’ The sage kings in antiquity pretended not to be wise and kept remonstrating officials next to them so that these could advise them on all of their conduct, and the kings followed their counsel like running water. As remonstrating officials now find themselves alienated, the right and wrong of your conduct as well as the comfort and anxiety of the people have no proper channels by which to be conveyed. Hence, I urge you to let remonstrating officials attend you all the time, in turn. If you make sure that their words are implemented and their ­remonstrance accepted without fail, you will be duly informed of the real 16. A district in South Hamgyŏng Province. 17. The remark of King Wu Ding of the Shang dynasty to Fu Yueh, his newly appointed prime minister. See “Charge to Yueh,” Shu King, p. 96.

Book XIV

situation of the common people, and you will have no problems of erring in judgment. “1. The security of the royal palace should be rigorously reinforced. The rulers in antiquity, though they resided in the deepest heart of their palace complexes, always came out to spend time in the outer palace precinct during the day and stayed in the inner palace precinct at night, following the time assigned for their daily routines and strictly differentiating the inside [private space] and the outside [public space]. Your Majesty now stays mostly in the auxiliary palace (pyŏlchŏn), spending time with military officials and enjoying their company, and I am very concerned about it. I request that Your Majesty sit high on the throne in the main audience hall of the palace and comport yourself in accordance with the time assigned for your schedule, thus regulating your conduct and strictly tightening the security of the royal palace. “1. The public construction should be stopped. The Analects says, ‘King Yu lived in a low mean house, but expended all his strength on the ditches and water-­channels.’18 The rulers in antiquity wanted no less to live in luxurious palaces, but they dared not start public construction for fear of wasting assets and harming the people. Now we have had no rain during the farming season, and the people are faced with famine, and natural disasters keep recurring. This is quite terrible. I urge you to suspend all public construction in the capital until we have a bumper year and complete construction thereafter. If there is anyone who tries to prove their loyalty by recklessly recruiting people for construction, regardless of their situation, you should reject them. “1. Buddhism should be rejected. Buddhism is what sages warned about because it teaches how to destroy human relationships and escape the present world. It deceives their ears and eyes with hollow and weird words. Under the pretext of serving Buddha or praying for blessings for the country, they build temples everywhere, and the monks, who are as many as the trees in the forests, lead a life of ease and idleness, riding on the backs of the people’s labor. Sometimes, under the pretext of making Buddha statues or printing Buddhist sutras or preparing robes and bowls for practicing monks, they invite the people to submit paper prayer slips and collect donations in return, wandering as they please across the country and deceiving and seducing the people. In extreme cases, they threaten the people to make

18. “Taibo,” Analects of Confucius, p. 215.

795

796

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

them accede to their demands. So the people have to spend all that they have just to satisfy the insatiable greed of these monks, and this is certainly a serious concern of the state. How can it be possible for a man who committed a crime to be forgiven by bribing Buddha? “I urge you to gather up the paper prayer slips, prohibiting Buddhist services and transactions based on donations from the people. I also urge you to prohibit the members of the royal family from donating palace properties to the temples or holding services in the inner palace for preventing disasters. If one is always careful and afraid, reflecting on himself for proper conduct, all the blessings will follow by themselves. Why should he depend on benefits from Buddha? If there is anyone among the grand councilors, literati, and eunuchs who dares to make proposals related to the construction of Buddhist temples, you should discipline him strictly and drive him out. “1. The military should be reorganized. When the provincial navy was originally organized, the number of active seamen was prescribed in such a way that if the father was first squad leader, the son was made second squad leader, and if the elder brother was first squad leader, the younger brother second squad leader. In addition, if there was a supernumerary person, he was turned over to another soldier so that he could be his support person. As a result, the suffering of the people was extreme. Furthermore, sometimes they are captured by the Japanese invaders or shipwrecked while transporting goods on a boat or run away one after another because they were unable to bear the hardship of being on board the ship for a long time, so the number of naval personnel decreases day by day. Then provinces and counties are ordered to replenish the prescribed number of seamen within a fixed date, and in the process, hundreds of abuses take place and the provinces and counties are thrown into turmoil. “We request that provinces and counties fill up the fixed quota of seamen with those on active duty and the ones to be recruited, updating the military records, and if they are incapable of meeting it, the number of seamen short should be subtracted from the fixed quota, readjusting the prescribed number to the current level. In addition, if a household has two or three adult males, it should be required to send no more than a male for military service, and if it has four or five males, it should be made to send two males—first and second squad leaders, respectively. Even if a household has extra males eligible for military service, they should not be handed over to others. Then the living conditions of the people will improve to a certain extent.

Book XIV

“1. The number of nonessential government employees should be reduced. The purpose of treating public officials honorably with a generous stipend is to encourage them. However, the government officials who receive stipends have proliferated to the point where their number cannot but be reduced. The temporary or sinecure positions of each rank as well as the positions of the princess-­ordinary, lady of the house, and court lady should all be eliminated. Besides, since much of the stipend land is now allocated to the provinces, transportation [of the produce from the land] became much harder. If such problems are all eliminated, loyal and trustworthy officials can be provided with more generous stipends, and the people’s burden will be also eased.” The king ordered the Privy Council to abolish the Directorate for the Palace Construction and transfer its affairs to the Directorate for Palace Buildings, releasing the artisans both in the capital and the provinces to go home. He also ordered that the payment of stipends to sinecure officials as well as princesses-­in-­ordinary, ladies of the house, and palace women (yŏgwan) be suspended, except princesses-­in-­ordinary who are the wives or mothers of dynasty-­founding merit subjects. Then the king sent Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, to ask the Privy Council: “What you officials said was quite reasonable, but it was not really straightforward, deliberately avoiding naming things or persons. Why is that?” The king also said, “The reason I have failed to attend the morning audience recently is that I was unable to get up early due to my poor health. Henceforth, I will make sure I attend the morning audiences, even if I have to do so while sick.” 12th Day (Chŏnghae)

Sitting in the open pavilion, the king wrote a reply to each memorial submitted by the Chancellery and the Security Council. He sometimes admitted his own mistakes or reproached his subjects, and he wrote his comments at the end of the memorials and sent them to the Privy Council. Cho Chun, left chancellor, and others said, “The royal palace and the gates of the city walls are now almost completed. Please allow us to work on them for only ten more days and then stop working.” The king denied the request. 13th Day (Muja)

There was heavy rain.

797

798

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

14th Day (Kichíuk)

The government ordered each province to distribute rice and beans from the warehouses to the people and to have the people repay with wheat and barley. That was to provide the people with seed for planting. 15th Day (Kyŏngin)

Kim Ŭlnam, former vice commandant, and others filed lawsuits to seize the slaves from others by falsifying documents, but their trickery was discovered, and they were required to be punished by the law. Hence, the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial to the king: “Among the lawsuits transferred from the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits to the Board of Punishments, there was a case in which Ch’a Sŭngdo, Kim Ŭlnam, and others conspired to bring about lawsuits through trickery. The Directorate interrogated them and took depositions from them. Ch’a Sŭngdo and others, however, in making their testimonies about the origin of the slaves, dared to implicate Your Majesty recklessly, which is even more serious than their trickery. Consequently, we interrogated and tortured the members of their clique who were below rank 7, but as for the offenders between rank 6 and rank 3, we were unable to interrogate them unless they were already stripped of their rank and title, because precedents forbid the Board of Punishments from doing so. We submitted a report on this problem but failed to gain approval from Your Majesty. As we reflect quietly, authority over life and death belongs to the sovereign, and it is not something we can decide on our own. If you deny our request, what should we, your subjects, do in the future? “If an incident took place before Your Majesty was enthroned, you distance yourself from the case simply by saying that the controversy over the slaves owned by kinsmen are a private family matter. Once you are enthroned, however, there are no men and women across the country who are not your subjects and concubines. Then how can you differentiate the offenders from other people in your treatment of them? If Your Majesty asserts all power and authority and thereby punishes and rewards, and appoints and dismisses, regardless of whether the people are close to you, who can find fault with you? “If you do not make yourself clear about the justice of law at this time, we will be incapable of carrying out your orders, and this will not be a good

Book XIV

precedent that we can proudly hand down to our posterity. We request that you approve the report we previously submitted to you and allow us to deal with the case according to law.” When this memorial reached the king, the king ordered the Privy Council to discuss it. As a result, Ch’a Sŭngdo, Kim Ŭlnam, Kim Ilche, and others were punished in accordance with the law. The provincial military commissioner of the Northeast Region sent a report: “Yuzhijie of Luqing tries to invade our borders.” The king immediately issued a royal decree and ordered Navy Myriarch Chŏn Sŭnggye, lesser gar­­ rison commander, to lead out the battleships in Yŏnghŭng and Ch’ŏnghaedo to suppress the invaders and also ordered pacification commissioner, Kim Sŭngju, to lead army officers out to repulse the enemy. Im Munhwa, a resident of Sŏngju, and his family, including his wife and children, who were eight altogether, were found in the act of putting a curse on others. They were put to death according to law. 16th Day (Sinmyo)

Watching people engaged in construction work on top of the East Gate of the royal palace, the king summoned the superintendent and asked him, “I gave orders to stop public works, accepting the advice from grand councilors. However, you still have the people work. What is the reason?” Then the superintendent replied, “Some of the workers still remain unreleased because the Privy Council notified us that it wanted them to lay roof tiles.” The king said, “Since I already ordered the public works to be suspended, it is not right to make people keep working without my permission.” Then he sent his message to the Privy Council through Yi Munhwa, [chief royal secretary]: “I have kept people working at the royal palace from the start until now because quite a few parts have remained unfinished. If the entire project had been completed, I would not have called up the people for work. While I was reluctant and uncomfortable all along, drought grew so serious that I was compelled to release all the farmers among the workers to go home, while keeping only monks and artisans of various specialties. At that time, an urgent request was made to release the workers, and I reluctantly agreed. If it was wrong for me to take time in releasing the workers, they should have been released right away once I gave orders to release them. If

799

800

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

you ask why I was reluctant to release the workers, it was not because I liked to have them working, but because I had no choice. If so, wasn’t it obviously wrong that you made an urgent request to release the workers? Why do you intentionally avoid discussing this mistake of yours?” At that time, Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng was staying home on leave. So Left Chancellor Cho Chun alone had to respond to the king’s reproach, but he did not know how to answer. So he only said that he was responsible. The king also reproached Yi Chi: “In the memorial you submitted earlier, you said, ‘If anyone among the grand councilors, literati, and eunuchs dares to make proposals related to the construction of Buddhist temples, you should discipline him strictly and drive him out.’ I want to know if you are, in your remarks, referring to the monasteries that were under construction at that time or the monasteries to be built in the days ahead. If you referred to the latter, why have I failed to hear anything about the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics whose construction has been under way for a long time? If you referred to the temples that were currently under construction, can you name the person among the grand councilors, literati, and eunuchs who initially submitted a proposal to build them? Make yourself clearer.” Yi Chi, out of fear, replied: “Your servant only complied with the order to submit honest opinions on the affairs of state, following the examples of our predecessors, and in that regard expressed my view that Buddhism is detrimental to governing the state. I neither referred to the matter in the future nor at the moment. Nor do I know about the person who originally submitted a proposal to you.” When Yi Munhwa submitted Yi Chi’s reply, the king laughed and said: “It is natural that the man was unable to reply properly. You indeed pressed him hard in your reprimand. Since he will be so worried and become sick if I keep silent for several days without saying anything, I want you to go back to him and explain what is in my mind. Having already sincerely sought honest advice from my subjects, how can I dislike hearing about it and reproach the person who submitted it? I only felt that the advice I received did not agree with the current state. of affairs. Nevertheless, punishing a subject because his advice is wrong is not the right way to seek advice. I respect and accept all the advice. Therefore, you officials should stop worrying and set your minds at ease. You should not be too cautious or suspicious because I was indignant. If there is anything related to my mistakes or the interests of the state, speak out about it in my presence. If you are

Book XIV

reluctant to be frank about matters concerning the future for fear that you will be reprimanded today, how can this be the way for the subject to proceed?” All high officials went into the palace and expressed their gratitude to the king. The Board of Rites spoke to the king: “An official who is called to service despite still being in the three-­year mourning period for his parents should go out to receive the letter of appointment and then perform the ceremony of expressing his gratitude to the king, wearing a pointed kerchief on the head (yŏn’gak poktu) and a dark purple traditional overcoat (ch’amjap’o) with a black horn belt (chogaktae). Next, he should pay a courtesy call to the Privy Council as well as the officials of the upper end of the hall (tangsanggwan), whom he will work with. However, he should not be allowed to participate in such occasions as great morning audiences, or the ceremonies of sending memorials to the Chinese emperor (paep’yo) or of receiving the imperial instruction (yŏngjo), or the meetings in which everyone is formally dressed.” The government dispatched Bailiffs Kim Kyŏng and Chŏng Kae to Ch’ungch’ŏng and P’unghae Provinces, respectively, to inspect the status of warships, weapons, and armor. The official ranks of navy officers were fixed. The myriarch was accorded rank 3 and above, chiliarch rank 4 and above, and captain rank 6 and above, and their ranks were made commensurate with those of all other military officials. The government specially created this rank system for the naval officers because of the extreme hardships and life-­threatening danger at sea that they constantly have to endure. A private slave named Ingŭpgŭm was put to death by strangulation for raping an eleven year-­old girl. 18th Day (Kyesa)

Setting up a banquet in the open pavilion in the north, the king called Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa; Yi Chiran, assistant grand councilor; Sŏl Changsu, Lord of Wŏlsŏng; and Sŏng Sŏngnin, assistant chancellor, and complimented them for accomplishing their missions as royal commissioners and envoys.

801

802

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Sim Tŏkbu, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Kwŏn Chunghwa, chief director of the State Finance Commission; Cho Chun, left chancellor; Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor; and Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng, joined the banquet and went home after enjoying themselves greatly. 19th Day (Kabo)

The government reverted to the Military Supply Warehouse 135 kyŏl of land in Kwaju, which used to be land set aside for the expenditure of district (arokchŏn) and the salaries of district officials (illijŏn), and had warehouse slaves (kono) cultivate it. 20th Day (Ŭlmi)

The king ordered that the captains and lieutenants of each battalion (yŏng) as well as artisans and monks all go out to help in the construction of the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics.19 21st Day (Pyŏngsin)

The king held the morning audience at the crack of dawn because sometime earlier the Censorate officials had remonstrated with the king about his paying little attention to the morning audiences. The king sat on the throne in the Hall of Diligent Government, with torches set up in the palace yard. Then he told Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary: “If there are any officials of the Two Departments who want to speak about affairs of state, have them directly come forward and speak in my presence and withdraw at the sound of the drum at noon.” Seven Japanese chiefs, including Onshadou, king of Sannan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, attended the morning audience. The Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies reported to the king: “The main purpose of the Three Armies Headquarters is to protect the inside [of the royal palace] and defend against outside invasion, and it cannot afford to be lax in its duty. The executive captains and commandants of the ten 19. It was located in the north of Hŭngch’ŏnsa, which T’aejo built to the right of Chŏngnŭng, the tomb of his second wife, Queen Sindŏk.

Book XIV

battalions (sa) under the command of supreme generals and generals-­in-­ chief shall be inspected with regard to their guard duty and patrolling. If they fail to report to work for no reason, the first-­and second-­time offenders shall be disciplined but allowed to return to their posts. However, if they violate the rule for the third time, they shall be thoroughly investigated and reported to the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals so that they can be stripped of their appointment and replaced by those talented in martial arts.” The king gave his approval. 26th Day (Sinchíuk)

The king sat on the throne in the Hall of Diligent Government at early dawn. After the official in charge of rites and ceremony shouted to the attending officials to make a vow, the king stopped them, saying, “When we have the morning audience, such courtesy is not really necessary.” Then he gave his instruction to the Board of Rites: “As to the detailed affairs of each department, I don’t need to know and decide, but as to the cases that concern governing the state and the people, I will let them speak out in person in my presence.” Every official of each department became so fearful that they dared not advance toward the king. The king asked Chŏng Tojŏn, saying, “What do you think of what I said?” Tojŏn replied, “It is right.” The king made a further reproach, saying, “Earlier, various officials criticized me for not holding the morning audience. Today, why is it that no one comes forward to speak in person?” Tojŏn said, “Would you allow me to explain it through a vulgar metaphor? Even when friends have a party and try to sing together, starting off a song is not very easy. Then how can you expect them to speak freely in the presence of their sovereign?” The king agreed. Sŏng Sŏngnin, inspector-general, spoke to the king: “Osŭngp’o fabric, which is now in use, is too heavy to be carried and loosely woven. If you weave it more densely and have one bolt measured as 10 feet, it will become light and convenient for use.” The king replied, “Matters such as that should be submitted in writing so that they can be discussed and implemented by the Privy Council.” Yu Kwan, minister of punishments, spoke: “The human disposition can vary widely. It can be tough, fierce, strong, and audacious but also soft, mild, timid, and weak. For this reason, a real thief, being tough, endures torture without confessing his crime, or an innocent person confesses his crime because he is unable to endure the pain of torture. So it is extremely

803

804

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

difficult to distinguish right from wrong as far as the situations of people are concerned. Nevertheless, the officials in charge of handling punishments are only eager to establish their reputation in discharging their duties, disregarding the importance of human life. Consequently, they interrogate a suspect in every way possible, carrying out all kinds of torture that are not authorized by the law, and the suspect dies of merciless beating even before his crimes are fully investigated and decided. If a suspect dies during the process of interrogation, it is certainly wrong. Even if he is a real thief, it is still problematic if he dies without confessing his crime. Even worse, if an innocent man loses his life in such legal proceedings, how can his grievances and complaints be regarded as a trivial matter? “We request that the law officials who are both in the capital and the provinces be allowed to torture the suspects only in accordance with the law and prohibited from carrying out all corporal punishments except those permitted by the law. Even if torture is authorized by law, it should not be applied more than three or four times a day. Always watching the words and face of the suspect closely, the interrogator should only discriminate truth from falsehood based on evidence, not reckless beating.” Finding the request reasonable, the king sent it to the Privy Council so that it could be implemented both in the capital and the provinces. The king ordered the Office of the Inspector-General that, after the morning audience, officials should go to work in their respective offices, and those who have other things to do in different places should first report to the Office of the Inspector-General before they attend to their business. Before sunrise, the king returned to the inner royal hall and sat down to have a drink on the terrace, calling Left and Right Chancellors Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, and Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng. Everyone became drunk, and the king, also under the influence, discussed the incidents related to founding the new dynasty as well as his mistake in forgiving Ch’oe Unhae.20 28th Day (Kyemyo)

Military training was carried out at the state ranch in Yangju according to the Diagram of Troop Dispositions. 20. Ch’oe Unhae was the military commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province who rendered great service in repulsing the Japanese marauders, and the king repeatedly bestowed rewards

Book XIV

29th Day (Kapchin)

There was another drill.21 Earlier, the emperor of Ming China believed that in the memorials submitted by the Korean government there were some insult­ ­ing words deliberately hidden in the text and thereupon demanded that Chŏng Tojŏn appear at the imperial court. Tojŏn pretended to be ill and did not comply with the order of the emperor. Then he was afraid that he would be accused of committing a crime [against Ming China as well as Korea] in the days ahead. So he submitted a proposal to the king, saying, “It is essential for the soldiers and officers to learn the art of war.” Thereafter, he wrote and submitted to the king a manual for military training titled Diagram of Troop Dispositions. Having decided the rules and movements for the provincial commanders and troops, he suddenly had them practice these, beating and lashing the soldiers, so there were many who complained about him. Kim Kwa, Administrator of Cheju Island, submitted a memorial to the king concerning a private matter: “In terms of loyalty, nothing is greater than the relationship between sovereign and subject, and in terms of attachment, nothing is deeper than the bond between mother and son. If both loyalty to the king and filial duty to the mother can be carried out without conflicts, what can be better than that, which is the way that creates peace in all the states under heaven? “As I respectfully reflect, from the days prior to your enthronement, Your Majesty did not abandon this worthless person and allowed me to aid you from close by. After ascending the throne, you appointed me inspector of Ch’in’gunwi [one of Five Guards] and military commissioner of the Three Armies Headquarters and let me join the ranks of minor merit subjects along with Yi Hwa and Yi Yŏng. “Thereafter, I have served at various posts until I reached vice bureau section chief of the Board of Taxation, and your grace and generosity were indeed great. Then I was determined to pay back your kindness, even if it

on him. However, it happened that the surrendered Japanese suddenly captured a local magistrate and carried him away to their country. As he failed to prevent the incident and to retrieve the magistrate from the hands of the enemy, he was demoted to a private soldier and assigned to the navy. His punishment could have been heavier except that Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng and Grand Councilor Nam Ŭn interceded on his behalf. 21. Military training to practice the Diagram of Troop Dispositions.

805

806

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

were in a small way, and until my life and strength were exhausted, and I have never been idle in my duty from early in the morning until late at night. “In the third month, spring of the Pyŏngja year (1396), my father unfortunately fell ill, and unable to nurse him properly, I requested that I be allowed to resign. In the fourth month, the summer, my father passed away, and I have tended his grave for three years. Though I was in mourning day and night, how could I dare to forget Your Majesty even a moment? “After the mourning for my father was finally finished, I wanted to render a small service by working at a post either in the capital or the provinces, and that was to pay back your favor and kindness. On the twenty-­first day of the fifth month, you selected me as administrator of Cheju and, concurrently, instructor, and I was even more grateful to receive a great favor from you and desired to go to my post immediately. “However, I am concerned that my mother, who is already seventy-­five, is so old and ill that it is hard to predict how many days are left for her. I have failed to serve her for a long time because I had to tend to my father’s grave for three years, and under the current circumstances, if I have to leave her behind in order to serve in a remote place, I will be unable to look after her day and night and correspond with her as often as I want. Then I will be worried and miss her, and I am afraid that she will also miss me and her poor health will grow worse. If this happens, how can I fully devote myself to my duty? “According to an old saying, ‘Filial piety leads to loyalty.’ I turn thirty-­ eight this year, which indicates that I have many years to serve Your Majesty but only a few years to serve my old mother. This is the reason I have decided to tender my resignation. “Prostrating myself on the ground, I beg you to heed my plea. If you send me to an inland post instead of the one on an island, changing my appointment so that the communication between my mother and myself may not be disrupted, how would I dare avoid the job that you give even if it is such a lowly one as that of a security guard patrolling the street at night with a spear or a stick in his hand? Once I have finished serving my mother, how would I dare to decline your appointment even if I have to serve in a remote place to the end of my life? “As I respectfully believe, if you are gracious enough to change my appointment as I wish, and thereby let it be known that you rule the world with filial piety, both the relationship between sovereign and subject and the bond between mother and son can be realized without discord.” The king allowed him to resign.

Book XIV

6th Month 1st Day (Ŭlsa)

The hundred [i.e., all] officials stood in line at their respective posts, but the king did not attend the morning audience. He instead called Cho Chun, left chancellor; Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor; Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa; and Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng, to the west pavilion. Cho Chun and others requested that princesses-­in-­ordinary, ladies of the house, and palace women be provided with a stipend as before, and the king responded, “Since I have already given orders to stop providing it, it is not possible to revoke it.” Cho Chun and others repeated their request, but the king refused to grant it. When the officials of the Eastern and Western Files below rank 3 paid a courtesy call to the Privy Council, U Innyŏl, assistant chancellor, fell asleep and snored on a low wooden bench, so inspectors impeached him. 3rd Day (Chŏngmi)

The king ordered Chŏng Yŏn, former director of the Office of Receptions (Chŏn’gaeksi), to escort Kong Pu, libationer of the National Academy; Yun Su, section chief of the Board of Rites; and Yun Kyu, former section chief of the Board of Rites, to the Ming capital. The king admonished the three officials: “If you are careful and act properly, Heaven will surely help you.” The three officials bowed twice to the king and left. The king, in his reply to the letter of Zhang Bing, minister of rites of China, said as follows: “The king of Chosŏn sincerely and respectfully replies to the Honorable Minister of Rites. On the twenty-­eighth day of the fifth month, Ch’oe Nok, the retainer of Cho Sŏ, returned from the Ming capital with the letter from the Ministry of Rites as well as the depositions made by Cho Sŏ and others. Having read them and learned what had happened in detail, I am so surprised and awed that I am completely at a loss. Ever since I was bestowed with grace and favor from the emperor, who said, ‘Upholding the will of Heaven, rule the people and make your descendants prosper forever,’ I have always endeavored to be loyal to the emperor and preserve our small kingdom so that I could repay a debt of gratitude to him throughout the generations of my descendants. Then how would I deliberately dare to cause trouble that could affect our good relationship? “The memorial submitted through Yu Ho was written by Cho Sŏ, but he only wrote it based on the existing memorials for its content and form, and

807

808

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

that indicates that he was unaware that there existed certain words to be avoided in recent years. How would he dare hide insulting words in the memorial on purpose? “Kwak Haeryong is quite illiterate, but since he speaks a little Chinese, I had him escort Cho Sŏ to the Ming capital. How could I want him to gather intelligence on your domestic situation? If I indeed carried out such things, how could the spirits of heaven and earth forgive me? “The three officials mentioned in the depositions, Yun Su, Yun Kyu, and Kong Pu, do not speak Chinese at all. Though they know how to read and write some literary Chinese, they were not learned enough to write the memorial and therefore never participated in the process of drafting it. Their names were mentioned [in the depositions] only because they were the colleagues of Cho Sŏ working in the same office. “Having received your letter and instruction, I dare not delay sending the officials to the Ming capital. I have no choice but to make them explain themselves individually at your court. I sincerely request Your Honor to intercede with the emperor on their behalf and thereby do a favor to a man in a distant place.” The authorities discovered that Pak Ha, former magistrate of Hoeyang, had personally appropriated 4 sŏk of the grain provisions meant for the construction workers while supervising the construction of the National Shrine of Confucius. The Office of the Inspector-General requested that Pak Ha be stripped of his appointment and punished according to law. Then the king instructed that he only be deprived of his appointment and the grain that he took for himself. When monk Sagŭn of Hŭngbok Monastery was discovered to have drunk alcohol, the Office of the Inspector-General requested that he be made to return to secular life and serve in the army. Ŏ Maengyu, magistrate of Yŏnan, was discovered to have taken a bribe from a man in his district. Consequently, he was deprived of his appointment and interrogated. The Office of the Inspector-General impeached Yu Yang again, saying, “Previously, Yu Yang, though guilty, was ordered to be released on bail because of illness, without being sentenced. Having already recovered from

Book XIV

his illness, he should search for monk Ŭiun and come out to defend him­­ self but has failed to do so.22 We request that you allow us to reinterrogate him so that we can expose his crime clearly and punish his wickedness.” The king ordered him to be interrogated thoroughly but without using ­torture. 5th Day (Kiyu)

Kim Sŭng was appointed associate commissioner of the Security Council, and Chŏng Chin assistant director of the Security Council. Chin was the son of Chŏng Tojŏn. Kim Hŭisŏn was appointed magistrate of Wŏnju. The king ordered Yun Ch’ang, third inspector, and Hŏ Chi, right rectifier of omissions, to return to their posts. Ch’ang was the elder brother of Yun Su. Before his departure, Kong Pu spoke to the king: “Su is leaving for the Ming capital, but his brother Ch’ang, being reprimanded, is not allowed to perform his duties. I urge you to reinstate him so that his mother can feel better.”23 Having Ch’ang and others return to their posts, the king said, “Be more diligent in doing your duties.” The king ordered the Prosperity Expansion Warehouse to resume paying a stipend to the mothers and wives of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects who became princess-­ordinary and lady of the house. The king called the chief officer of the Office of the Inspector-General and ordered him to return the letters of appointment to eunuch Cho Sun and U Hyŏnbo, former director of the State Finance Commission.

22. When Yu Yang served as magistrate of Kyerim, he sent monk Ŭiun to the Japanese in order to persudade them to surrender. However, both Ŭiun and the Japanese mysteriously ran away. For this incident, he was impeached less than a couple of months earlier. 23. Yun Su was one of the officials indicated by the Ming government as having allegedly conspired to insert insulting words in the felicitation memorial to the crown prince of Ming China. Thus, it was decided less than a month earlier that he be sent to the imperial court along with Yun Kyu and Kong Pu as the Ming government demanded. From the standpoint of the Chosŏn court, the Chinese demand was extremely unfair, and therefore the king and others regarded the three officials as unfortunate victims destined to sacrifice their lives for the country. Under this circumstance, Kong Pu made a request that the king pardon Yun Su’s brother.

809

810

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

6th Day (Kyŏngsul)

The hundred [i.e., all the] officials were assembled at their assigned places in the palace courtyard, but the king did not attend the morning audience. Instead, he left for Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery to inspect the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics, which was under construction. The planet Venus appeared in broad daylight. 7th Day (Sinhae)

Ch’oe Paegan, Pu Kae, and others, residents of Ch’ŏnghaedo,24 and their seven households, were relocated to Kwaju to serve as guards of the royal tomb Chŏngnŭng. Each of the households was provided with 2 kyŏl of land to settle down. However, Paegan, Kae, and others repeatedly committed wrong­ doings. So they were banished to the coastal region to serve in the army.­­ The Board of Punishments made a report to the king: “A man named Ch’a Sŭngdo, together with his gang, physically assaulted people on the road and stole their goods because of his anger over the delay of the court decision related to his slave lawsuit. However, there is no law to punish him.” The king said, “Forming a gang, assaulting people, and seizing property during broad daylight is called robbery. What do you mean by saying that we have no law to punish such a crime? The law officials should be chosen among the scholars who are both learned and experienced in world affairs. How can you be so ignorant? If he who is in charge of penalties submits the cases based upon the relevant provisions of the law to request punishment, I will be the judge and decide whether or not to forgive the suspect. What happens inside the borders of the state is more or less like family affairs. How can I discriminate one against another? I like nothing but fairness and dislike what is prejudiced. 10th Day (Kabin)

A man named Kim Song, who had been taken away to Liaodong as a captive, escaped to return home and made the following report: As Mongol armies advanced toward Liaodong, the prince of Yan led his troops and

24. A district in the Northeast Region or South Hamgyŏng Province.

Book XIV

crushed them. The prince of Liaodong also raised an army to fight against the Mongols. I was conscripted to serve in his army but ran away while marching to the battle and returned home.” The king had him settled down, bestowing clothing and provisions upon him. 11th Day (Ŭlmyo)

The provincial military commissioner of the Northwest Region sent a report: “The imperial envoy of China is on his way.” The government dispatched Yu Un, magistrate of Kyŏnghŭng, to welcome the Chinese envoy and entertain him with royal wine. The king ordered Yi Chi, director of the Security Council, to supervise the construction of the South Gate of the palace walls. Earlier, Chi had ardently remonstrated with the king about the abuses caused by public works, eventually raising the king’s ire. At this time, when he heard that the Chinese envoy was coming to visit, the king made Chi supervise the construction of the gate and complete it by an appointed time, providing a small number of workers. 12th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The Veritable Records [dynastic annals] of the previous dynasty were already compiled, from King Kongmin to Prince Kongyang. Therefore, Cho Chun, supervising director of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, and others attempted to submit the drafts of history starting from the Imsin year (1392) to the present time so that the king could take a look at them. Then, historiographer Sin Kae submitted a memorial to the king: “To reflect quietly, every state in antiquity employed its own historiographers and had them truthfully record the words and conduct of the king as well as the rights and wrongs of the subjects and their performance without reserve. Therefore, the kings and subjects secretly handed down the history of their times to posterity and dared not act wrongfully because they were always mindful of the orders and commands they issued and the ways in which they spoke and behaved. So there was a deep purpose in having historiographers in the state. “In antiquity, Emperor Taizong of Tang once asked Fang Xuanling, ‘Why is the emperor not allowed to see the historical records made by the historiographers over the generations?’ Xuanling replied, ‘Since they do not

811

812

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

exaggerate facts falsely or cover up evildoings, the ruler who reads their records will certainly become upset, and that is the reason they dare not submit the records to the ruler.” “Nevertheless, Emperor Taizong ordered Xuanling to submit the draft of history, and Xuanling complied with his order. Though the history compiled by Xuanling was called the Veritable Records and submitted to the emperor, the words in it concealed many things. Emperor Taizong, being wise, would not have had any problems with the history even if it were allowed to be written truthfully, but even such a famous grand councilor as Xuanling preferred to hide facts and avoided writing truthfully. If rulers of later ages, on the other hand, being less wise than the emperor, wanted to see the contemporary history, would their flattering subjects only limit themselves to hiding facts as Xuanling did? “I respectfully believe that Your Majesty has tried to emulate the Three Dynasties, but recently you issued a royal decree to see the contemporary history, and we subjects became afraid when we heard of it. Given that Tang Taizong could not avoid being criticized by posterity for reading the draft of history of his own age, how can Your Majesty follow the bad example left by him? “In the Ŭlhae year (1395), Your Majesty also wanted to see it once but eventually changed your mind. Thus, you left a precedent in establishing the law of an age, which will influence public opinion throughout ten thousand generations. However, since you now give orders such as this, though we are not sure, you make us wonder if you want to admonish posterity by examining rights and wrongs in the records? If not, do you intend to correct the mistakes by reviewing what is in the records? Or do you want to review it so that nothing important is left out? If you want to admonish posterity, the works of the sages in antiquity will serve your purpose since they show how the state can be ruled properly or thrown into disarray or how it rises and falls. Then why is it necessary for you to review the contemporary history to warn posterity? If your intention is to correct the mistakes in the historical records, we remind you that the historiographers recorded the facts after looking into them thoroughly by making numerous queries and verifications. How can they deceive posterity by recording falsehood based on rumors and speculations? If you desire to have all the facts recorded, you have officials serving as historiographers, starting from compilers to auxiliaries, who produce the history drafts based on what they see and hear. Since there are dozens of these diarists, how can it be possible that important

Book XIV

813

things fail to be recorded? We, your subjects, do not understand why Your Majesty wants to see the draft history. “To reflect respectfully and quietly, the founder king of the new dynasty is the example to his royal descendants. If Your Majesty once sees the draft of history of your reign, your successors will certainly find an excuse for reading the draft of history of their reigns, saying, ‘My father read it and so did my grandfather.’ If this practice of reading or revising the draft of history is thus justified and handed down, how can a historiographer dare to grab a brush and write history as he witnesses it? Unless he is allowed to write history truthfully, his will to promote the good and discourage the bad will be undermined. Then, wouldn’t the time come when the king and his subjects have nothing to fear and no reason to reflect on their conduct? Seeing the draft of history today, therefore, is not the right way of leaving a good example for your descendants. “Furthermore, in the age of peace, a sage king and loyal subjects have met, and their laws and commands—which are all so good, beautiful, and exemplary—have made their history shine. However, once Your Majesty takes a look at it, I am afraid that the people of later ages will certainly say, ‘Since this history was personally read by the king during his reign, how could historiographers be honest about what they recorded?’ If that happens, wouldn’t the great virtue and achievements of Your Majesty appear false and lose credibility, contrary to your expectations, and consequently damage the reputation of the laws and commands during your great reign? Prostrating myself to the ground, I beg you to specially accept my request. If you have your order to see the draft of history repealed, it would be extremely fortunate for the people and the state.” Denying the request, the king gave orders immediately: “The reason I personally want to read the draft history now is not because I want to see evidence of my good or bad conduct, but because I suspect the historiographers are largely ignorant of the talks secretly exchanged between the king and his subjects in the Imsin year (1392) when I ascended the throne. Since Yi Haeng, though he served as chief royal secretary, made a mistake in his account of history, how can other historiographers fully know about the talks carried out between the king and his subjects? The history since King Kongmin of the previous dynasty, which is already compiled, as well as the draft history since the Imsin year shall be selected and submitted.” *   *   *

814

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Sŏk Kuji, a servant of Panggan, Prince Hoean, visited the house of Yi Hang, recorder of the Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation. Relying on the power of his master, he tried to seize a female servant from Hang. When the Board of Punishments interrogated him and requested his punishment, the king ordered him beheaded. 13th Day (Chŏngsa)

Mun Ikchŏm, former counselor of the left grand master (chwa saŭi taebu), died. He was a native of Kangsŏng District of Chinju. His father, Suksŏn, passed the civil service examination but did not serve in the government. Carrying on his family tradition, Ikchŏm studied and passed the civil service examination during the reign of King Kongmin and was appointed record keeper (sarok) of Kimhae Prefecture. In the Kyemyo year (1363), he was promoted from first proctor of the National Academy to fourth censor of the left (chwa chŏngŏn) and visited the Yuan court as secretary of a diplomatic mission led by Yi Kongsu, left chancellor and chief envoy responsible for presenting the case. On his way back home, he saw cotton plants on the roadside. He gathered ten of their seeds and brought them home in his pocket. In the Kapchin year (1364), he arrived home in Chinju and gave half of the cotton seeds to Chŏng Ch’ŏnik, a resident of his hometown, who was retired as manager of receptions (chŏn’gaengyŏng), so that the latter could plant and cultivate them, and only one of the seeds survived. In the autumn, Ch’ŏnik gathered over a hundred seeds, and every year he planted and gathered more and more seeds. In the spring of the Chŏngmi year (1367), he distributed the cotton seeds to the residents of his district, encouraging them to grow cotton. However, all of the seeds that Ikchŏm planted failed to grow. Hongyuan, a Tibetan monk, visited Ch’ŏnik at his house and was deeply moved to see the cotton plants growing in the field. Shedding tears, he said, “I never imagined that I would find those plants from my land here today.” Entertaining the monk with all his heart for several days, Ch’ŏnik asked him about the techniques of spinning thread and weaving cloth. The monk explained the techniques in detail and even made necessary devices to process cotton. Ch’ŏnik had one of his female servants learn the skill and finally produced a bolt of cotton fabric. Then the residents of neighboring villages vied with each other to learn the skill, until it spread throughout the district and, in less than ten years, throughout the country.

Book XIV

As this was known, in the Ŭlmyo year (1375) of Hongwu, the government appointed Ikchŏm recorder of the Directorate of Ceremonies (chŏnŭi chubu). After serving at various posts, he finally rose to counselor of the left grand master and died at the age of seventy. Arriving at the present dynasty, due to the suggestions of some people, Ikch’ŏm was posthumously promoted to seventh state councilor, deputy director of the Office of Royal Decrees, third deputy director of the Bureau of State Records (tongji ch’unch’ugwansa), and Lord of Kangsŏng. He is survived by three sons, Chungyong, Chungsil, and Chunggye. 15th Day (Kimi)

The king paid a visit to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery to see the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics. The king demoted the officials of the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits, including Deputy Director Pak Chŏsaeng and Administrator Song Hŭng, and reassigned the two officials as supervisors of the East and West Kilns, respectively. Earlier, the late former commandant Im Chibaek, Son Tŭkkwang, and others had filed a lawsuit against Wang U, Lord of Kwiŭi, over a slave. Chŏsaeng and other judges of the lawsuit ruled that Wang Chong [presumed to be a slave here] was the brother-­in-­law of the Lord of Kwiŭi. Pointing out that Chŏsaeng and his colleagues failed to recognize things that are common knowledge and therefore were incapable of dealing with other slave lawsuits properly, the king called the commissioners of the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits, including Nam Chae, Yi Mu, and Han Sanggyŏng, and said as follows: “The reason we established the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits was to judge rightly [the disputes over slaves]. However, since the judgment is so faulty, why don’t we abolish the Directorate and go back to the previous system? The abuses caused by the private landholding system being already rectified, public sentiment has calmed down. Only the matters of slaves still remain problematic, causing discord and fights between family members and raising complaints and slander daily. So the sovereign and subjects openly discussed the problem together and created a separate agency to deal with those complaints and the slander, to resolve them by distinguishing truth from falsehood. However, the rulings on the lawsuits

815

816

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

overseen by the thirteen chambers continue to be problematic. Earlier, I told you that I would hold you responsible first if any chamber of the Directorate commits an error. That was not because I wanted to punish you, but rather to make you relay my message to each chamber so that there could be no unfairness in decisions on the disputes over slaves. Given that, who is responsible for what is happening now?” Nam Chae and others were unable to reply. The king sent Yi Chik, senior secretary of the Security Council, with royal wine to comfort the Chinese envoys who came to visit. 18th Day (Imsul)

The planet Venus appeared in broad daylight. Chŏng Kae, provincial bailiff (haengdae kamch’al) of P’unghae Province [Hwanghae Province], made a report: “Kim Ŭlbo, provincial navy commander, received a horse from his subordinate as a gift and also seized private land to turn it into a military farm. I urge you to punish him.” Considering that Ŭlbo had made contributions in defending against the enemy, the king ordered him to return to his post. The Criminal Administration Bureau in the Board of Punishments submitted a memorial to the king: “The average price of a male or female slave is no more than 150 bolts of osŭngp’o fabric, while that of a horse is 400 or 500 bolts. This violates what is right, since it indicates that an animal is more highly regarded than a human being. We request that, hereafter, the average price of a slave who is fifteen to forty years old, either male or female, be set at 400 bolts, and 300 bolts for one who is younger than fifteen or older than forty-­one years old. Furthermore, this price should be made a standard for trading slaves in the future. The wage of a runaway slave at the moment should be 3 bolts of osŭngp’o per month, but the wage should not be allowed to exceed the price of the slave no matter how long he remains on the loose.” The king granted the request as it was. The Board of Rites requested that the king personally perform a sacrifice at the Royal Ancestral Shrine in the early autumn. He granted the request.

Book XIV

19th Day (Kyehae)

“Blood rain” fell over Mt. Paegun in Yŏngp’yŏng. In response, O Sach’ung, Great Lord of Yŏngsŏng, was dispatched to hold a ceremony to eliminate natural disasters. 20th Day (Kapcha)

The planet Venus appeared in broad daylight. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king requesting that Yu Yang be interrogated and tortured to fully investigate his crime. The king said, “If I grant your request as it is, Yang will certainly die. Though it goes against precedents, I will only allow you to confiscate his property and banish him to a distant district.” 21st Day (Ŭlch’uk)

The planet Venus was visible in broad daylight. Chinese envoys arrived in Sŏwŏn County,25 so the king ordered eunuch Yi Kwang and interpreter Yi Hyŏn to welcome and entertain them with royal wine as well as provide clothing, hats, and shoes for them. 23rd Day (Chŏngmyo)

Visiting the South Gate, the king watched various entertaining performances and the colorful stage being prepared for the visiting Chinese envoys. The members of the Privy Council went out to Yŏngsŏ Post Station 26 to welcome them, and they found the envoys extremely arrogant. Pointing out the letter they brought with them, they said, “This is an instruction given by the emperor himself.” 24th Day (Mujin)

Leading the hundred officials, the king went out to Pansongjŏng Pavilion to welcome the Chinese envoy, and all the officials arrayed in ceremonial dress

25. Modern P’aju, Kyŏnggi Province. 26. Located in modern Ŭnp’yŏng-­g u, Seoul.

817

818

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

led the envoy to the yard of the royal palace. When the envoy ascended to the hall, the king knelt down and personally received a letter from him. It was an official letter from the Ministry of Rites of China. The letter read: “As to the matter that concerns the return of eunuch Sin Kwisaeng to his country, Zhang Bing, left vice minister of rites, and others received a sacred instruction from the emperor: ‘In the twenty-­fifth year of Hongwu (1392), I had several dozen Korean eunuchs brought to my imperial court, and the reason I employed them was to appoint them to posts in the inner court to carry out various missions, both domestic and overseas, with full knowledge and competence. This indicates how open-­minded and sincere I was in treating Chosŏn. Thereafter, I often sent those eunuchs to their country as my envoys. However, King Yi did not treat them as sincerely as I expected. So I decided to send several dozen eunuchs permanently, whom I have already mentioned, back to their country, except one named Sin Kwisaeng. Kwisaeng was too young to know anything yet, so I decided to return him later after training him for several years. He was so intelligent that I always kept him beside me, and that is why there is nothing that he does not know about what is happening in my court. Now Kwisaeng was returning to his country, and I said to him before his departure, ‘When you go back to your country, tell your king about everything you have heard and seen here, without exaggeration or omission. Since you have worked here for years, I bestow you with one large silver ingot, one roll of silk, and 20 ding of chao currency.’27 “This is the instruction of the emperor, and we duly convey it to you.” Having finished reading the letter, the king performed the ritual kowtows with Sin Kwisaeng. The king did not entertain the envoy personally. He instead had U Innyŏl, assistant chancellor, and Yu Un, escort commissioner (yŏngjŏpsa), sit with the envoy and entertain him. Displeased with this, Kwisaeng did not accept a drink. All the officials hated Kwisaeng for his deception and arrogance. Earlier, when Kwisaeng arrived in Ŭiju and met with our people, he spoke only in Chinese, so our people did not realize that he was originally a Korean. Pointing at the stuff that he brought, he said, “That was bestowed by the emperor.” When he met with Yu Un, escort commissioner, he also pointed at his belongings and said, “That was bestowed by the emperor.” Placing it on top of the table, he sat down to guard it, pulling out his sword.

27. Chao, 鈔, was the official banknote of Yuan, China.

Book XIV

When he traveled, he placed it in a horse-­drawn carriage and followed it from behind, carrying a sword. Being old and fainthearted, Un did not dare ask the envoy any personal question or about the items he so jealously guarded. So he sent a report to the Privy Council: “The envoy is, in fact, a Chinese, and he brought a gift from the emperor.” The Privy Council in turn reported the same to the king. Now, it was discovered that the report was wrong. The items that Kwisaeng said were bestowed by the emperor were his personal belongings. Un mistook them as gifts sent by the emperor to our country. The king dispatched eunuch Pak Yŏngmun to Chŏlla and Kyŏngsang Provinces to ascertain the current status of training with the Diagram of Troop Disposition. 29th Day (Kyeyu)

The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial to the king: “The rules and regulations for dress set by sage kings show the grade of rank, and therefore the use of primary and complementary colors for dress cannot help being regulated. The official robes in our country now have no distinction in terms of rank and status. We request that hereafter all the robes presented by the king should be made of primary colors, and the common people prohibited from wearing yellow, gray, and white silk dress, regardless of male and female.” The king granted the request. Floods caused serious damage in various northwestern districts, including Sunju, Chaju, Kangdong, Tŏkchu, Ŭnju, and P’yŏngyang.

7th Month 1st Day (Kapsul)

The king did not attend the morning audience. He had Chŏn Si, inspector of miscellaneous affairs, locked up in the Capital Constabulary Prison. 3rd Day (Pyŏngja)

The king entertained Chinese envoy Sin Kwisaeng at Ch’ŏnghwaru Pavilion.

819

820

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

4th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

Sin Kwisaeng returned to his hometown, Yŏnghŭng.28 5th Day (Muin)

Chŏn Si was sent into exile at Kapchu.29 Earlier, Yu Hanu, minister of works, returned from his trip to the Northeast Region and visited Si at his house. When the latter asked about what he had seen in the northeast, Hanu replied, “Sullŭng [the royal tomb of the king’s grandmother] was relocated, and the stone sheep and tiger statues as well as the stone chamber of her tomb were extremely luxurious and splendid.” Si said, “If it were the royal tomb of the king, such luxury and splendor for Sullŭng might be allowable. However, isn’t it a little too much for the tomb of the king’s grandmother?” Hanu replied, “The tomb of the Count of Kyŏngan [the king’s father-­in­law] is much the same.” Si said, “When it is problematic to make the tomb of the king’s grandmother luxurious, how can the tomb of the king’s father­in-­law be made like the royal tomb?” Hanu also talked about the construction of Chunwŏnjŏn, the hall enshrining the umbilical cord of the king, and Si replied, “Since Longevity Hall of Fame (Changsaengjŏn) is already completed, the construction of Chunwŏnjŏn is not necessary. The minister of works [Hanu] cannot avoid responsibility for it.” Hanu reported what Si said, infuriating the king, who ordered Si interrogated and tortured. He also made him divulge the names of those with whom he had talked. Si said, “Hanu is the only one I spoke to, and there is no one else.” However, as he was tortured more severely, he finally confessed the names of Hwang Hŭi and Pak Sugi. Upon further interrogation, he also disclosed the names of over ten people, including his father-­in­law Yu Wŏnjŏng, his uncle Chŏn Yu, Cho Hwa, Sin Hyoch’ang, and Yun Sindal. The king said, “Si is now serving as remonstrator. If he finds anything that is abusive, it is appropriate that he should report it to or request it from me directly. Without speaking a word to me, he criticized me behind my back together with various people. What crime can be greater than this?

28. A district in Hamgyŏng Province and the hometown of T’aejo. 29. Also called Kapsan, it is located in Hamgyŏng Province.

Book XIV

However, I intend to forgive him and hence have him banished to a distant place. Pak Sugi and Hwang Hŭi, who are also remonstrating officials, privately discussed affairs of state, neglecting their duty, and therefore they all need to be banished to districts outside the capital.” As a result, the king had Si exiled to Kapchu, and Sugi and Hwang Hŭi reassigned to instructor positions and sent away to Kyŏngsŏng and Kyŏngwŏn, respectively. He gave orders not to discuss the offense of Yu Wŏnjŏng and Yun Sindal and pardoned them because they were a dynasty-­founding merit subject and a minor merit subject, respectively. He also pardoned the others involved. 8th Day (Sinsa)

Provincial governors were newly appointed. Ch’oe Yugyŏng was appointed to Right Kyŏnggi Province, Chang Chihwa to Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, and Chŏn Paegyŏng to P’unghae Province. Chŏng Tam was appointed assistant director of the Security Council; Pyŏn Chungnyang, fifth royal secretary; Yi Ch’ŏm, minister of personnel; Cho Yong, grand master of remonstrance; and Kim Pun, music master of the National Academy. At the beginning of our dynasty, Yong resigned from the office of libationer because of illness and retired to teach children in Poju. He was recalled to service at this time. Pun, former vice censor-­in-­chief (sisŭng), received the current appointment for informing the words of [Bailiff] Kim Pu to Left Chancellor Cho Chun. Left Chancellor Cho Chun, Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, and Chŏng Tojŏn, Countof Ponghwa, entertained eunuch Cho Sun at Nam Ŭn’s house and each gave him a horse. Since he was recalled to service, Sun was more favored by the king. On the day when the king held a banquet for Sin Kwisaeng,30 Kwisaeng became very drunk and lost control, drawing his sword. Sun restrained him right away. That was why Chun and others treated Sun with wine and food. 11th Day (Kapsin)

Bailiff Kim Pu was beheaded, Bailiff Hwangbo Chŏn was beaten with a heavy paddle, and Recorder Yi Yangsu was lashed. Earlier, Pu and Chŏn

30. A Chinese envoy.

821

822

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

had had drinks at the house of Kim Chungsŏng, who was newly appointed as bailiff. On their way home, they passed by the house of Cho Chun, and Pu said, “Though he built such a large house, how long can he live there? It will certainly fall to somebody’s lot in the days to come.” Chŏn conveyed Pu’s remarks to Yangsu, and Yangsu in turn to Kim Pun. Since Pun was a disciple of Chun, he informed Chun of Pu’s remarks. When Chun finally made a report to the king of Pu’s remark, the king became furious and said, “Chun is one of the most outstanding dynasty-­ founding merit subjects who will be with the nation, whether in joy or sorrow. To say that Chun’s fortune will not last long is to say that the fortune of the Chosŏn dynasty is short-­lived.” Then he immediately gave orders to behead Pu. Someone recommended that Chun ask the king to spare Pu’s life; however, Chun was hesitant and took time to visit the palace. Pu was executed in the meantime, and the efforts to save Pu’s life also ceased. After this, people regarded Chun as a heartless person because he did not hurry to visit the palace and ask the king to save Pu’s life. Chŏn and Yangsu were punished differently for failing to report directly to the authorities, and eighteen bailiffs, who were at the party, were dismissed from office for having drinks with Pu. The king said to Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary: “Last time when Chŏn Si uttered reckless words, I supposed there must have been a leader, but the interrogator was unable to find him out, which was disgusting. So I said to forgive them all. Now, Kim Pun made a report of another case of reckless words that were spoken by Kim Pu this time, so Kim Pun certainly deserves to be awarded a promotion.” Earlier, Nam Ŭn and Chŏng Tojŏn had gotten together and talked about the idea of attacking Liaodong, and Ŭn secretly said to the king, “Cho Chun and Kim Sahyŏng always chose to be different in their opinions.” Incidentally, Chŏn Si was arrested for making critical remarks related to the royal tomb of the king’s grandmother, and during the ensuing investigation, the names of Yu Wŏnjŏng, Cho Hwa, and Sin Hyoch’ang were mentioned. Wŏnjŏng was close to Chun, Cho Hwa was Chun’s nephew, and Hyoch’ang was the son-­in-­law of Kim Sahyŏng. Hence, Nam Ŭn tried to further implicate the above three men in the incident by torturing Si, but the latter had nothing to say about them. Since Ŭn was a man dearly trusted by the king, the king did not punish him.

Book XIV

14th Day (Chŏnghae)

Ullambana, the All Souls Festival,31 was held at Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery. 19th Day (Imjin)

Ha Yun was appointed governor of Ch’ungch’ŏng Province, Yi Chŏngbo governor of Left Kyŏnggi Province, and Kim Pun third minister of rites. 22nd Day (Ŭlmi)

Mt. Obong32 collapsed. 25th Day (Musul)

Eunuch Pak Yŏngmun returned from his inspection trip and made a report to the king: “Each garrison failed to give instruction in the Diagram of Troop Dispositions. Only Naju Garrison is a little better than others.” Upon hearing the report, the king became indignant and immediately gave orders to arrest the instructors of each garrison and discuss the failure of each garrison commander in supervising the instructors and their training. 26th Day (Kihae)

The Agency of Land Management Grants of the Board of Taxation submitted a memorial to the king: “At the end of the previous dynasty, discipline deteriorated, and it led to the collapse of the land system above all else. Men in power monopolized 31. Also called Paegjung in Korea, Ullambana in Sanskrit; it is a Buddhist festival held on the fifteenth of the seventh lunar month. Ullambana, 盂蘭, may be another form of lambana or avalamba, “hanging down,” referring to extreme suffering in purgatory; but there is a suggestion of the dependence of the dead on the living. By some, 盆 is regarded as a Chinese word, not part of the transliteration, meaning a vessel filled with offerings of food. The term is applied to the festival of All Souls, held about the 15th of the 7th moon, when masses are read by Buddhist and Taoist priests and elaborate offerings made to the Buddhist Trinity for the purpose of releasing from purgatory the souls of those who have died on land or sea. Thanks to the Confucian value of filial piety and ancestor worship, it became very popular among Asian countries. 32. There are a number of mountains in various provinces that are named Obong. It is not clear which one is referred to. The collapse of the mountain here may refer to a landslide.

823

824

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the land, and family members filed lawsuits in feuds with each other. Consequently, both the government and the people became impoverished. Therefore, around the Kisa year (1389), a general land survey was carried out in Kyŏnggi as well as five other provinces, numbering the land using Chinese characters. However, inexperienced in calculation and pressed by the deadline, the light and heavy were not properly balanced, things happened to be left out, and the land near the seas even failed to be surveyed. “We request that officials in the court be dispatched to various districts and inspect the land together with local magistrates, and provincial governors supervise their activities and collect taxes after numbering the land with the characters of the Thousand Character Classic. In the case of the Northeast and Northwest Regions, we request that the chief patrolling inspector survey the land based on the amount of the land that can cultivated in a day with an ox. “If the magistrates and officials responsible for the tasks hesitate to make sufficient field trips, they should be punished in accordance with the regulations of the Board of Taxation. They should be dismissed from office and never employed again. When the governor or chief patrolling inspector fails to supervise the surveying activities, they should also be reported to the king and punished.” The king granted the request. 27th Day (Kyŏngja)

There was a windstorm and hail. Genkei, governor of Hizen Province and Shunshu [Suruga] Province,33 sent a man to present gifts. The king paid a visit to Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery and saw the Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics. Kim Ch’ŏnik, senior officer of the Capital Constabulary, was dispatched to each garrison in Chŏlla and Kyŏngsang Provinces with orders that he physically punish those among the garrison commanders who failed to master the Diagram of Troop Dispositions. 33. An old province of Japan that bordered on Chikuzen and Chikugo. Today the area is split into Saga and Nagasaki Prefectures.

Book XIV

825

*   *   * A total of 3,700 soldiers were called up from Left Kyŏnggi and Ch’ungch’ŏng Provinces to repair and construct the palace walls. 29th Day (Imin)

The king was not well.

8th Month 1st (Kapchin)

The king ordered the Office of the Inspector-General to investigate why the princes; Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng; Yi Mu, assistant grand councilor of the Chan­­cellery; supreme generals; and generals-­in-­chief failed to learn the Diagram of Troop Dispositions. 2nd Day (Ŭlsa)

The portrait of Queen Sindŏk was enshrined in the Hall of Benevolent Tranquility. Sitting in an open pavilion west of the palace, the king personally conferred the letters of appointment and battle axes on Ha Yun and Yi Chŏngbo, governors of Ch’ungch’ŏng and Left Kyŏnggi Provinces. 3rd Day (Pyŏngo)

The king was not well. 4th Day (Chŏngmi)

The Office of the Inspector General, following the royal instruction, impeached 292 military officers, including the commander of the Three Armies, supreme commanders, generals-­in-­chief, and officers for failing to learn the Diagram of Troop Dispositions. 6th Day (Kiyu)

The king was not well.

826

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

*   *   * Im Chŏng, governor of Kyŏngsang Province, made a report: “As there has been no rain from summer to autumn, the rice crop is bad. So we request that the court decisions on all the lawsuits concerning slaves be suspended temporarily so that people can secure substitute provisions by picking acorns and chestnuts and cultivate land for the autumn season.” The king denied the request because the deadlines were already set for the legal cases. 7th Day (Kyŏngsul)

When the provincial instructors of the Diagram of Troop Dispositions arrived, one hundred strokes with the paddle were meted out to each of them. Then five military officers were selected among those who mastered the Diagram of Troop Dispositions and were dispatched separately to each province. There were no officers among the royal guard in the capital who did not learn the Diagram of Troop Dispositions. 9th Day (Imja)

Sŏng Sŏgyong, inspector-general, submitted a memorial to the king: “It has been several years since Your Majesty ordered military officials to learn the Diagram of Troop Dispositions. However, high-­ and low-­ranking generals below provincial military commanders have not participated in the training, which is tantamount to neglecting their official duty. The officials of the Chancellery and the Security Council should be dismissed, and those who are not on active duty be deprived of their appointment in accordance with their rank and demoted by one rank, and those below rank 5 be lashed on the buttocks to warn posterity.” The king said: “Nam Ŭn, Yi Chiran, and Chang Sagil and some other provincial military commanders are dynasty-­founding merit subjects. Yi Ch’ŏnu has now become commissioner of palace guards (naegapsa chejo), while Prince Ŭian Hwa, Prince Hoean Panggan, Prince Igan Pangŭi, Prince Muan Pangbŏn, Prince Yŏngan Yangu, Prince Yŏngan [Panggwa, the name of the former king], Prince Sullyŏng Chi, Prince Hŭngan Che, and Prince Chŏngan [Pangwŏn, the name of the current king] are all members of the royal family. Yu Mansu, Chŏng Sinŭi, and others are minor merit subjects. Therefore, these people cannot be questioned concerning the offense. Their subordinates, however, should be given fifty lashes; Yi Mu, dismissed from

Book XIV

office; and the provincial military commanders who have failed to learn the Diagram of Troop Dispositions, all beaten with a paddle.” Earlier, Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn had an audience with the king almost every day and recommended that our forces attack Liaodong, China. This was why military officers and officials were required to learn the Diagram of Troop Dispositions as fast as they could. Sometime earlier than this, Cho Chun, left chancellor, requested leave and stayed home, and Tojŏn and Ŭn visited him at his house and said, “Since attacking Liaodong is already decided, we want Your Honor not to mention it again.” Cho Chun replied, “Occupying the senior seat among dynasty-­founding merit subjects, how can I betray His Majesty? Since His Majesty ascended the throne and relocated the nation’s capital, the people have had to suffer because of construction work and have never gotten a chance to enjoy his grace and benevolence. Under the circumstances in which their resentments rise to the extreme and provisions for them are lacking, how can you have things accomplished by leading them out [on a military campaign]? He said to Tojŏn again, “If I undertake this military expedition with Your Honor, leading the people from various provinces, would they, who have hated us for a long time, be willing to follow our orders? I am afraid that I will bring myself to ruin and the country as well even before we reach Liaodong. My condition is so bad now that I can hardly get out of bed. I would like to ask you to take my message to the king. As soon as I feel a little better, I will personally present him with my opinion.” Later, Cho Chun remonstrated with the king assiduously, and the king followed his advice. The king visited Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery and watched the Buddhist prayer ceremony conducted for the spirit of Queen Sindŏk. 10th Day (Kyech’uk)

Kim Kyun, Lord of Kyerim, died. He was a native of Kyerim. In the Kyŏngja year (1360) of King Kongmin’s reign, he passed the National Academy examination. However, failing to pass the civil service examination, he belonged to the inner circle of officials attending the king and made friends with Cho Chun. When Chun took power, Kyun finally rose to minister of justice via various posts. At the beginning when our dynasty was founded, Chun allied himself with Kyun and recommended him to be made Iktae [Respectfully-Assisting] merit subject and later promoted to assistant director

827

828

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

of the Security Council. He died of illness. He had sons, who were Maengsŏng, Chungsŏng, and Kyesŏng. 13th Day (Pyŏngjin)

The planet Venus appeared in broad daylight. Venus and Mars moved close to Regulus (Hŏnwŏnsŏng).34 A sacrifice to eliminate stellar catastrophes was held at Mt. Pong. The chanting of the Golden Light Sutra (Kŭmgyŏng) was also performed for the welfare of the king and the country. A sacrifice was offered for Queen Sindŏk at Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery on the second anniversary of her death. The Privy Council separately held another sacrifice for the queen at Hŭngbok Monastery. The king appointed Yi Sŏ assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and Kang Inbu discussant of the Security Council, and ordered that a public gate be set up in front of their houses with a sign that says, “The House of a Loyal Subject,” and separately bestowed on them saddled horses, dresses, hats, and golden belts. Sŏ and Inbu have tended the tomb of the queen from the beginning, wearing mourning for three years. Crown Prince Pangsŏk stopped wearing mourning dress and again wore regular dress. 14th Day (Chŏngsa)

The king was not well. 15th Day (Muo)

Yi Mubang, Great Lord of Kwangyang, died. Mubang was a native of Kwangyang. His courtesy name was Sŏkchi, and he was a son of Inyŏng, 34. Xuanyuan asterism, 軒轅星, corresponds roughly to Leo in the West, and its chief star is Regulus. 軒轅, Xuanyuan, is the personal name of Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor (黄 帝, divine King in Yellow).

Book XIV

posthumous vice grand councilor. He was by nature upright and simple. Studying hard by himself, he passed the civil service examination, served both in the capital and the provinces in the previous dynasty, and earned a reputation for being upright and unbending. When he served as magistrate of Sunch’ang, one of his friends happened to drop by and request a local product. He (Yi) unloosed his sword and gave it to a clerk. He told the clerk to sell it to buy the requested item. Ashamed, the friend left. When he served as fourth inspector, Kim Yong, a powerful minister at the time, wanted to see him, but Yi made excuses not to visit him. When Yŏm Chesin was appointed chancellor, he said, “He abandoned his mother in the Sinch’uk year (1361) when the Red Turbans invaded and failed to escort the royal carriage. How can he be made chancellor?” Then he refused to the end to sign his name on the document of Chesin’s appointment. When he served as fourth inspector, King Kongmin carried out the funeral of Queen Noguk. The second inspector, according to precedents, was supposed to make the burial mound, but he did not show up, under some pretext, for he believed in the old saying that one who makes the burial mound cannot be successful in his public career. His Lordship [Mubang], next in the line of responsibility, undertook sincerely the making of the burial mound. Respecting his integrity, King Kongmin appointed him director of the Court of Royal Ceremonies and Sacrifices and soon promoted him to inspector-general. Then he was promoted again, to academician of the Security Council with the title of Uplifting, Loyal, and Mandate-­Assisting Merit Subject (Ch’uch’ung chwamyŏng kongsin). When he served as magistrate of Kyerim, he governed his district with benevolence, and the residents who had abandoned their hometown returned home. Thereafter, he was summoned back to court and appointed Chancellery scholar. In the spring of the Kabin year (1374), he was appointed examination administrator of the civil service examination. After the death of King Kongmin, he left public service for sixteen years. Then, his former student Cho Chun, who passed the civil service examination and rose to power, recommended him to the position of chancellor-­without-­portfolio and enfeoffed him as Great Lord of Kwangyang. He died at the age of eighty. Upon his death, the king suspended the morning audience. He was granted a posthumous title, Mun’gan. He had two sons, Yŏm and An’guk.

829

830

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

17th Day (Kyŏngsin)

In response to strange phenomena taking place in the sky and on the earth, dharma assemblies were held at various Buddhist temples, including Sangwŏnsa on Mt. Odae and P’yohunsa on Mt. Kŭmgang. 19th Day (Imsul)

The sacrifice for the Three Sages (Samsŏngjae)35 was performed at Sŏgwang Monastery.36 20th Day (Kyehae)

Venus and Jupiter approached each other. 21st Day (Kapcha)

There was a rainstorm with thunder and lightning. Cho Chun, left chancellor, held a sacrifice at the Daoist Hall of Brilliant Rectification to pray for the long life of the king. 22nd Day (Ŭlch’uk)

A current of red energy streamed into the capital from the east and passed across the city. 23rd Day (Pyŏngin)

There was thunder and lightening as well as hail and a rainbow. Mars approached the left corner of Regulus. Prince Yŏngan, [later King Chŏngjong], purified himself at the Daoist Hall of Brilliant Rectification to perform a sacrifice to pray for the long life of the king. 25th Day (Mujin)

A meteor emerged from the Neck Lodge to enter the Southern Dipper Lodge. 35. The Three Sages refer to Hwanjo, Tojo, and Ikcho, the king’s great-­g randfather, grandfather, and father. 36. Located in Kosan County, Kangwŏn Province.

Book XIV

26th Day (Kisa)

Chŏng Tojŏn, Count of Ponghwa, Nam Ŭn, Lord of Ŭisŏng, Sim Hyosaeng, Lord of Pusŏng, and others conspired to harm the various princes [born of Queen Sinŭi, the first wife of T’aejo] but failed in their attempt and were executed. From the first, the king was fully aware that Prince Chŏngan [later King T’aejong] had made the most outstanding contributions among the princes to the founding of the new dynasty, and therefore specially bestowed on him over 500 kabyŏlch’i households,37 handed down from his ancestors. Subse­ quently, the king appointed princes and merit subjects as military commissioners of the various provinces, dividing royal guards and horses among them. He put Prince Chŏngan in charge of Chŏlla Province, and Pangbŏn, Prince Muan, in charge of the Northeast Region. Prince Chŏngan conceded his kabyŏlch’i households to Pangbŏn [his stepbrother born of Queen Sindŏk], and Pangbŏn readily accepted. Though the king knew about it, he neither reprimanded him nor demanded him to return it. Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others, coveting power, tried to set up a young nothos [Prince Pangsŏk, born of Queen Sindŏk, T’aejo’s second wife] as crown prince. Calculating that Sim Hyosaeng, because of his humble origin, was easy to manipulate, they promoted the virtue of Hyosaeng’s daughter and induced the crown prince to take her as his wife. They also conspired with Pangbŏn, the elder brother of the crown prince born of the same mother, as well as his brother-­in-­law Yi Che, Lord of Hŭngan, and others. They formed a clique to eliminate all the princes [born of the first queen of T’aejo] in the future. Furthermore, they instigated eunuch Kim Sahaeng to speak secretly to the king about the idea of enfeoffing a province to each prince, following the precedents of imperial princes being enfeoffed as rulers of fiefs in ancient China. The king gave no response. Later, he said to Prince Chŏngan indirectly, “You need to be aware of what the people say outside. Tell your brothers to be cautious about this.” Tojŏn and others also persuaded Pyŏn Chungnyang, policy advisor, to submit a memorial requesting that the military power held by the various princes be revoked. Though Chungnyang made the request repeatedly, the king did not grant it. A fortune-­teller named An Sik said, “There are more 37. Also called kabyŏlch’o, kabyŏlch’i refers to the private army that consisted of the natives of the Northeast Region and T’aejo’s family.

831

832

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

than one among the stepbrothers of the crown prince who can receive the Mandate of Heaven.” Upon hearing that, Tojŏn said, “They are to be removed pretty soon. Why should you worry?” Having learned about the conspiracy, Yi Hwa, Prince Ŭian [T’aejo’s stepbrother], secretly passed the information to Prince Chŏngan. About this time, eunuch Cho Sun announced the king’s instruction, which said, “My illness being serious, I want to see nobody. No one except the crown prince will be allowed to see me.” Both Kim Sahaeng and Cho Sun were members of the clique led by Tojŏn. Tojŏn, Ŭn, Hyosaeng, Yi Kŭn (director of the Security Council), Yi Mu (former assistant grand councilor), Chang Chihwa (Lord of Hŭngsŏng), Yi Chik (Lord of Sŏngsan), and more gathered to plot day and night at the house of Nam Ŭn’s concubine—which was in Songhyŏn—under the pretext of paying a visit to inquire after the king’s health. They decided to have Pangsŏk, Yi Che, Pak Wi (chief military commissioner of the Royal Guard), No Sŏkchu (fourth royal secretary), and Pyŏn Chungnyang (fifth royal secretary) stay in the palace and lure the princes by sending notice of the king’s critical condition. Then palace slaves and armored soldiers could attack the princes as soon as they entered the palace, and Tojŏn, Ŭn, and others could join the attack from the outside. They set the Kisa day for the day of action. Some time earlier, Prince Chŏngan had secretly told Yi Sukbŏn, magistrate of Ansan, “In ordinary times the wicked gang behaves normally, but they will certainly take action when the king falls seriously ill. If I call you, you should come immediately.” So, at this time, Prince Chŏngan called Sukbŏn by dispatching [his brother-­in-­law] Min Mugu, and Sukbŏn finally arrived. Now, the king’s illness became so critical that the princes, the king’s sons-­in-­law, and his step-­brothers—including Prince Chŏngan, Prince Igan Pangŭi, Prince Hoean Panggan, Lord of Ch’ŏngwŏn Sim Chong, Lord of Sangdang Yi Paekkyŏng, Prince ŬianYi Hwa, and Yi Che—all gathered and stayed overnight at the western hall outside the main gate leading to the Hall of Diligent Government. On the evening of this day, Min Mujil [Prince Chŏngan’s brother-­in-­law] proceeded to the private residence of Prince Chŏngan and had a long talk with his sister, Lady Min, the wife of Prince Chŏngan. Then, Lady Min summoned a servant named Sogŭn and said, “Hurry to the palace and tell your lord to come home right away.” Sogŭn replied, “When all the princes are gathered in a hall, what should I say to my lord to have him come home?” Lady Min said, “If you tell him in

Book XIV

a rush that I suddenly have severe pain in the chest and stomach, he will hurry to come home.” When Sogŭn galloped his horse to the western hall and delivered the message to the prince, Prince Ŭian gave Prince Chŏngan some medicines good for clearing the chest and digestion, saying, “You had better hurry home and take care of her.” Prince Chŏngan immediately went home, and a little later, Min Mujil returned and had a prolonged secret conversation with Prince Chŏngan and Lady Min. Lady Min, tugging his sleeve, begged Prince Chŏngan not to proceed to the palace. Prince Chŏngan replied, “How can fear of death prevent me from going to the palace? All my brothers are there, and I must go warn them. If a disturbance breaks out, I will raise an army while paying attention to how people in the country react.” Then he shook her hands off and left home. Lady Min followed him outside the gate and said, “Please, please be careful.” It was already dark. By that time, more than ten days had passed since the order was given to disband the private security forces of each prince. Yet Pangbŏn [the king’s seventh son, born of Queen Sindŏk] still retained his soldiers. When Prince Chŏngan had his private army disbanded, he ordered that all weapons be destroyed, but his wife Lady Min covertly had them concealed in case of emergency. Yi Mu intended to maintain neutrality from the beginning, so he secretly informed Prince Chŏngan of the conspiracy led by Nam Ŭn and others. At this time, he followed Mujil to see the prince at his private house, stayed a while, and left early. He was closely related to Mujil by marriage. Pak P’o, Lord of Chuksŏng, also moved back and forth between the two sides and secretly watched the movements of the conspirators [for Prince Chŏngan]. At this point, Prince Chŏngan dispatched Min Mugu to Yi Sukbŏn with orders that the latter be fully armed and standing by at the house of Sin Kŭngnye,38 which was in front of his own house. Then he himself proceeded to the palace and stayed at the western hall. The other princes did not have their horses around them, but Prince Chŏngan had his servant Sogŭn feed his horse and wait at the back of the western hall. 38. Sin Kŭngnye (?–1407): a military official of the late Chosŏn dynasty. His family seat was Yŏngsan (modern Ch’angnyŏng), South Kyŏngsang Province. In 1398, when the first Strife of Princes took place, he assisted Prince Chŏngan, later King T’aejong, and became mandate-­assisting merit subject as well as Lord of Chwisan. Later, he served as superintendent of the Board of Personnel and associate commander-­in-­chief of the Left Army.

833

834

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Catching sight of Pangbŏn entering the inner palace, Prince Chŏngan called to him, but Pangbŏn simply paused a moment, scratching his head, and then proceeded without answering. Early in the evening, someone came out from the inner palace and called out to the princes: “The king’s condition is so serious that he intends to be moved to another place for treatment. The princes should come in quickly, but none of their attendants are allowed.” Hwa [Prince Ŭian], Chong [Lord of Ch’ŏngwŏn], and Yi Che first went out to the yard, but Prince Chŏngan, along with Prince Igan, Prince Hoean, and Lord of Sangdang, stayed behind for a moment. Before they proceeded, they quietly exchanged words inside the hall. Old custom dictated that the various gates inside the palace be illuminated with lamps at night. This night, however, none were lit, making the princes even more suspicious. Though Hwa, Che, and Chong went inside, Prince Chŏngan went outside the gate of the western hall on the pretext that his stomach was upset. He continued to ponder while sitting on the toilet, and then he suddenly heard his elder brothers Igan and Hoean running out and calling for him. Prince Chŏngan asked, “Brothers, why do you call me so loudly?” Prince Chŏngan stood up and, shaking his sleeves on both sides, he said to himself, “The situation is irreversible.” He immediately ran out of the West Gate of the palace walls on horseback, and Prince Igan, Prince Hoean, and Lord of Sangdang all ran after him on foot. Though Lord of Sangdang continued to follow Prince Chŏngan, the other princes floundered around. Prince Chŏngan sent a message to Prince Pangbŏn through his subordinate Ma Ch’ŏnmok.39 He said, “I want you to follow me. In the end, they40 will not leave you alone, either.” Pangbŏn, who was lying in his room inside the palace, sat up to see Ma Ch’ŏnmok. After listening to his words, he lay back down. Pangbŏn’s followers were all thugs and ruffians, only good at archery and horseback riding. They had long tried to seize the position of crown prince 39. Ma Ch’ŏnmok (1358–1431): a military official of the late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn dynasty. Assisting Prince Chŏngan during the First Strife of Princes in 1398, he became supreme general. He also made contributions during the Second Strife of Princes the following year. He served as commander-­in-­chief (toch’ongje) and military commissioner of Chŏlla Province and, concurrently, magistrate of Naju and was enfeoffed as Lord of Changhŭng. 40. Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others who supported Crown Prince Pangsŏk and tried to remove Prince Chŏngan and his brothers for the purpose of seizing power in the future.

Book XIV

for Pangbŏn. They would tell Pangbŏn, “Since we have already made a connection with Her Majesty the queen, she will get Your Lordship to take the place of Pangsŏk [crown prince and the younger brother of Pangbŏn born of the same mother, Queen Sindŏk]. Since a royal decree on that will be announced soon, please don’t go out—wait inside.” Still trusting what they said, Pangbŏn did not come out from where he was, and people scorned his foolishness. Prince Chŏngan knew that Pangbŏn would not be spared by the conspirators, so he told him to come out, but Pangbŏn chose to ignore him. Arriving at the entrance of his village where a military unit and his house were located, Prince Chŏngan halted his horse and called Yi Sukbŏn. Then Sukbŏn, fully armed, showed up with two warriors. Prince Igan, Lord of Sangdang, and Prince Hoean and his son also arrived on horseback. Yi Kŏi, Cho Yŏngmu, Sin Kŭngnye, Sŏ Ik, Mun Pin, Sim Kwiryŏng, and others, who were the followers of Prince Chŏngan, now joined the forces of Prince Chŏngan, but they only consisted of ten men on horses and nine more on foot, including Min Mugu and Min Mujil, the brothers-­in-­law of Prince Chŏngan. Then iron spears that were prepared by Lady Min were brought out and half of them distributed to the soldiers. The attendants and slaves of the princes, who numbered about ten, held sticks in their hands, and only Sogŭn [the servant of Prince Chŏngan] carried a sword. Having run as far as the road north of Tukso, where the military banner of the supreme general was displayed, Prince Chŏngan called Sukbŏn and asked, “What should we do about today’s developments?” Sukbŏn replied, “Now that things have come to such a point, there is no need to be afraid. Just give us a military password, please.” Prince Chŏngan gave two characters, “sansŏng” [mountain fortress], for the password and proceeded to the gate of the Three Armies Headquarters to wait for the Mandate of Heaven. Having learned that a disturbance had broken out, Pangsŏk decided to lead the soldiers under his command into the fight. He ordered Pong Wŏllyang, vice minister of the Office of Guest Affairs, to go up the south gate and find out if there were many soldiers. Finding that the streets from Kwanghwamun Gate to Namsan Mountain were filled with fearsome mounted troops, Pangsŏk became scared and dared not go out. The people at that time called this the help from the spirits. Prince Chŏngan called to Sukbŏn again and asked, “What should we do now?” Sukbŏn replied, “We should go to the place where the wicked gangs are gathered and lay siege to the house they are in. We will set the house on fire and kill them as soon as they jump out.”

835

836

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

At the second watch of the night [about 10:00 p.m.], when they were passing through Songhyŏn,41 Sukbŏn galloped his horse to Prince Chŏngan and reported that he had spotted the house of Nam Ŭn’s concubine in the small village. Prince Chŏngan stopped his horse and had ten foot soldiers, including his servant Sogŭn, surround the house first. Outside the gate, there were a couple of saddled horses, and the slaves in charge of the horses had all fallen asleep. Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others sat together under the light, talking and laughing. Sogŭn and others did not enter the house yet, only looking in, and then they suddenly heard three arrows in a row fall on the tiled roof of the house. Sogŭn and others came back to the entrance of the village and asked where the arrows had come from. Sukbŏn replied, “They are mine.” He told Sogŭn and others to go back to the house, surround it, and set fire to the three houses next to it. Tojŏn and others all ran away and hid somewhere, but Sim Hyosaeng, Yi Kŭn, Chang Chihwa, and others were all killed. Tojŏn escaped to the nearby house of Min Pu, former director, but Pu reported, saying, “A man with potbelly came into my house.” Prince Chŏngan knew that he was Tojŏn and ordered four men, including Sogŭn, to capture him. Finding that Tojŏn was hiding in the bedroom, Sogŭn and others commanded him to come out. Tojŏn finally emerged out of the room holding a dagger in his hand; but hardly able to walk, he crawled out. Sogŭn and others ordered him to drop the dagger in his hand. Then Tojŏn threw it away and came out of the door. He said, “Don’t kill me, please. Let me say a word before I die.” As Sogŭn and others dragged him before the horse of Prince Chŏngan, Tojŏn said, “Your Lordship already saved my life before. I beg you to save it once more.” Prince Chŏngan said, “You became Count of Ponghwa. Do you feel it is not enough for you? How can your evil reach such an extreme?” Then he ordered him to be beheaded. At first, Lady Min [the wife of Prince Chŏngan] tried to follow her husband, desiring to share the same fortune as him, whether it be good or bad. Watching her walking toward the prince, the prince’s subordinate, named Ch’oe Kwangdae, and others remonstrated with her to stay home, but she insisted on joining the prince. She finally returned home after she saw Tojŏn’s hat and dagger that were brought by her slave Kim Pugae.

41. It refers to modern Hoehyŏn-­dong and Sogong-­dong areas in Seoul.

Book XIV

Chŏng Tojŏn had four sons. Upon hearing that a disturbance had broken out, Yu and Yŏng ran to rescue their father but were killed on their way. Tam, another son, killed himself at home by stabbing himself in the neck. Earlier, Tam had said to his father, “We cannot help but inform Prince Chŏngan of today’s incident.” Tojŏn replied, “I have already betrayed Koryŏ. If I now betray this side and switch to the other, shouldn’t I feel ashamed when I am alone even if people do not talk about it?” Yi Mu came out of the room, opening the door, and was hit by a stray arrow. He said, “I am Yi Mu.” As a foot soldier ran to kill him, Prince Chŏngan commanded, “Don’t kill him.” Then he provided him with a horse. Nam Ŭn escaped to hide with his attendants, Ha Kyŏng and Ch’oe Un and others, and Yi Chik also escaped, disguised as a servant and pretending to be engaged in extinguishing the fire on the roof. The people in the palace now saw a massive blaze rising to the sky from the Songhyŏn area. As they ran to the king to make a report, royal guards made noise, beating drums and blowing horns. Yi Ch’ŏnu [the nephew of T’aejo] left his house to proceed to the palace along with his two attendants. Having noticed him, Ma Ch’ŏnmok [Prince Chŏngan’s man] followed him as far as the entrance of An’gukbang.42 He asked, “Aren’t you Lord Ch’ŏnu?” As Ch’ŏnu did not answer, Ch’ŏnmok said, “If Your Lordship keeps on going without answering me, you will have arrows to fear.” Then Ch’ŏnu said, “Are you Rectifier Ma? What business do you have with me?” Ch’ŏnmok replied, “Prince Chŏngan is with other princes here.” Ch’ŏnu raced to Prince Chŏngan and said, “Why didn’t you tell me about today’s incident earlier?” Prince Chŏngan sent for Left Chancellor Cho Chun, dispatching Pak P’o and Min Mujil. Chun hesitated to come, having had a fortune-­teller read his fortune. Then the prince sent Sukbŏn to put pressure on him and proceeded to greet him at some point on the way. Chun, accompanied by Kim Sahyŏng, right chancellor, arrived, and many of his attendants dressed in armor followed him. When they reached the bridge at the entrance of Kahoebang, soldiers stopped them with their weapons, saying, “Only two chancellors are allowed to enter.” Chun, Sahyŏng, and others dismounted from their horses and crossed the bridge with quick steps.

42. Modern An’guk-dong in Seoul.

837

838

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Prince Chŏngan said to them, “Why are you lords not worried about the Earth and Grain of the Yi family?” Chun, Sahyŏng, and others were so surprised and fearful that they knelt down before the horse of Prince Chŏngan. The prince said, “Because Tojŏn, Ŭn, and others tried to set up a young nothos as crown prince, eliminating my brothers born of the same mother, we, being the underdogs, struck them first.” Bowing down more deeply, Chun and others said, “We did not know at all what they were doing.” Prince Chŏngan said, “A serious incident such as this should have been reported to the government, but there was no time to do so today. You lords should convene a meeting as soon as possible.” No Sŏkchu and Pyŏn Chungnyang [fourth and fifth royal secretaries], both staying in the palace, dispatched a man to summon Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, and Kim Yuk, third royal secretary. Munhwa rushed in to ask, “How is the king’s health?” Sŏkchu replied, “His condition being serious, we want to move him to the open pavilion in the west at midnight tonight.” Thereupon, all the royal secretaries proceeded to the gate of the Hall of Diligent Government. Pak Wi, chief military commissioner of the Royal Guard, called out loudly, standing at the gate of the Hall of Diligent Government: “Have soldiers arrived or not?” Munhwa asked, “Are you going to move the king’s quarters now? Why do you blow a horn and muster in troops?” Wi replied, “What do you mean by moving the king’s quarters? Many soldiers and horses have now surrounded the meeting place of the Count of Ponghwa and the Lord of Ŭisŏng and set it on fire, so I blew my horn to muster ­soldiers.” Some time earlier, Prince Chŏngan had said to Sukbŏn, “Our forces are not strong enough to defeat the enemy. After beheading Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others first, four or five of our brothers will stop their horses in front of the gate of the Three Armies Headquarters and observe public sentiment. If the hearts of the people turn against us, there is nothing we can do about it. If they favor us, however, we will be able to survive.” By this time, Prince Chŏngan had returned to the front of the gate of the Three Armies Headquarters and halted his horse, and it was already the fourth watch of the early morning [between 1:00 and 3:00 a.m.]. The people who were supportive of Prince Chŏngan kept on arriving. Yu Mansu, assistant chancellor, approached the horse of the prince to pay his respects with his son Wŏnji. Prince Chŏngan asked, “What brought you here?” Mansu replied, “I have heard that His Majesty has decided to move his quarters to

Book XIV

my house for treatment of his illness. But he has not arrived yet. I also heard that a disturbance had broken out, so I hurried here to protect him.” Prince Chŏngan asked, “Are you then dressed in armor?” Mansu replied, “No, I am not.” Prince Chŏngan immediately ordered him provided with armor and had him stand behind his horse. Ch’ŏnu said to Prince Chŏngan: “Mansu belongs to the clique of Tojŏn and Ŭn. You should remove him.” Prince Chŏngan replied, “Impossible.” Prince Hoean, Ch’ŏnu, and others insisted more strongly that Mansu be removed, saying, “In a critical situation such as this, the majority opinion should be allowed to prevail.” Turning around to look at Sukbŏn, Prince Chŏngan said, “It seems there is no choice.” Then he ordered Sukbŏn to enumerate the wrongs that Mansu had committed. Mansu immediately dismounted from his horse and pleaded with the prince, holding the horse’s reins. He said, “Let me confess. Please, let me.” Prince Chŏngan ordered his subordinate to pull him off his horse, but Mansu quickly grabbed the reins. Sogŭn stabbed him under the chin with a small dagger, and Mansu collapsed, then raised his head, and people cut it off. Prince Chŏngan said to Wŏnji [the son of Mansu], “You have done nothing wrong. Go back home.” However, Prince Hoean followed after him and killed him before the gate of the Office of Guest Affairs. Chun, Sahyŏng, and others went into the office of the Privy Council to hold a meeting. Prince Chŏngan figured that it was advisable for him to stop them. If Pangsŏk decided to fight, leading out royal guards under his command to the outside of the palace gate, he thought he would be outnumbered and would have no choice but to withdraw momentarily. Then there would be a good chance that the chancellors in the Privy Council would choose to stand on the enemy’s side because they supported the enemy forces. So, Prince Chŏngan sent a man to the Privy Council with his message. He said, “It is inappropriate that grand councilors sit in the Privy Council while our brothers are standing out on the road. You shall move to Unjong Street immediately and have a meeting over there.” Then, Prince Chŏngan ordered the Board of Rites to summon all of the officials in a hurry. Cho On, chief military commissioner of the Royal Guard, was on night duty in the palace. Prince Chŏngan sent a man to summon him along with Pak Wi, and Cho On immediately showed up, leading armored soldiers and officers, and paid his respects to the prince on horseback. Pak Wi, on the other hand, lingered for a long time and finally but reluctantly came out, carrying a sword, but Prince Chŏngan treated him

839

840

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

with nice words. Quickly surveying the forces of Prince Chŏngan, which appeared to be weak, Wi said, “All due measures will be carried out when day breaks.” He figured that when daylight broke, the weakness of Prince Chŏngan’s forces would become apparent and then the hearts of the people would not follow him. Prince Chŏngan sent him to the Privy Council. Prince Hoean requested that Prince Chŏngan send a man to behead him. Prince Chŏngan ordered Cho On to bring armored royal guards on night duty. On immediately sent senior officers into the palace and brought them all out. Consequently, the armored guards south of the Hall of Diligent Government all came out, taking off their armor and throwing away their weapons. They were told to go home. Earlier, Yi Mu, observing that the forces of Prince Chŏngan were weak, pretended to be dizzy [because of his arrow wound]. He had a man hold his arm and said to Prince Chŏngan, “The arrow wound hurts so much. Please allow me to take a rest in the lounge of the Privy Council.” Prince Chŏngan said, “Go ahead.” A little later, Mu heard that Wi had been executed. He immediately came back out to return to Prince Chŏngan. At dawn the next day, the king called Sŏkchu [fourth royal secretary] to the palace. He also called Munhwa early in the morning. As Munhwa proceeded to the open pavilion in the west, the crown prince, Pangbŏn, Hwa, Yangu, and Chong, as well as the high officials of the Security Council, including Chang Sagil, Chang Tam, and Chŏng Sinŭi, had already arrived ahead of him. Everyone—starting from the princes, officials of the Security Council, and major and minor eunuchs down to the palace slaves—was dressed in armor and carrying swords. Only Cho Sun, Kim Yuk, Sŏkchu, and Chungnyang wore no armor at all. Sŏkchu delivered the royal order to Munhwa, saying, “The king wants you to draft a royal decree.” When Munhwa appeared reluctant to carry out the royal order, Sŏkchu said, “The royal decree composed by Lord of Hansan [Yi Saek] when [King Kongmin] executed three military generals can be your model.”43 Munhwa asked, “So you know what it was about?” Sŏkchu replied, “The merit of defeating the enemy may last one generation, but the heart that betrays the king cannot be forgiven for ten thousand years. That was the main point of that royal decree.” 43. The three military generals are An U, Yi Pangsil, and Kim Tŭkbae, who made great contributions in defending the country against invading Red Turban bandits.

Book XIV

Munhwa asked, “Who is the leader of the traitors?” Sŏkchu replied, “I will have to ask the king about that again. For now, it is important to make a draft of the royal decree.” Then he pressed Munhwa to hurry. Grabbing a brush, Munhwa said, “Since you also know how to write, you dictate what is to be written. Then I will write it down.” So Sŏkchu made the draft as follows: “So-­and-­so and others secretly conspired together to harm so-­and-­so and many others, who are distinguished dynastic dynasty-­ founding merit subjects. But their attempt was discovered, and they were all arrested and executed. Those who were forced to join the conspirators shall be forgiven without question.” When the draft of the royal decree was completed, Sŏkchu went in and submitted it to the king. The king said, “Wait a moment until two chancellors arrive. Let them have a discussion and then proclaim the decree.” A little later, the Privy Council, leading the hundred officials, presented themselves and made a report to the king: “Tojŏn, Ŭn, Hyosaeng, and others formed a clique and secretly conspired to harm the members of the royal family and the most outstanding merit subjects and thereby throw the country into disorder and turmoil. The situation being so critical, we were unable to report it immediately. However, the conspirators have already been eliminated, so we request that Your Majesty not be surprised.” Yi Che [the king’s son-­in-­law],44 who happened to be next to the king, said, “Since various princes raised an army and beheaded Ŭn and others, I am afraid that the calamity will reach me in times to come. I request that you allow me to take royal guards and attack them.” The king said, “Don’t worry. How can calamity affect you?” Hwa also dissuaded him, saying, “This is an internal matter. You don’t need to fight against each other.” Che pulled out his sword and stared at it a few times, but Hwa kept his calm without moving at all. When this happened, Prince Yŏngan was purifying himself at the Sogyŏk Hall in order to pray for the recovery of the king. Having heard that a disturbance had broken out, he snuck over the palace wall using a rope, with a help of a slave. He kept walking until he arrived at P’ungyang and hid himself in the house of Kim In’gwi. Prince Chŏngan sent men to look for him, and when they finally found him and escorted him to arrive at the outside of the south gate of the city wall, the sun was about to set. 44. He married Princess Kyŏngsun but was killed during the First Strife of Princes, and his wife became a nun.

841

842

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Everyone at that time wanted to request that Prince Chŏngan be established as crown prince, but Prince Chŏngan resolutely declined and instead entreated the king to designate Prince Yŏngan as crown prince. Prince Yŏngan said, “It is all thanks to the contributions made by Prince Chŏngan that we could first raise a rightful cause and succeed in establishing a new dynasty today. It is impossible for me to become crown prince.” Prince Chŏngan now became more adamant in his refusal, saying, “In order to establish the foundation of a nation, the eldest son must be chosen.” Prince Yŏngan said, “In that case, I will see what I can do.” Thereupon, His Majesty [Prince Chŏngan] ordered the Privy Council to submit a memorial to the king, leading the hundred officials. The memorial read: “To set up the eldest son as crown prince when the heir is chosen is the law handed down through ten thousand generations. Nevertheless, Your Majesty abandoned the firstborn to choose the youngest. Tojŏn and others, manipulating the [young] crown prince, wanted to harm the [older] princes, and its dire consequence appeared to be unpredictable. Fortunately, thanks to the divine help of Heaven and Earth and the spirits of the royal ancestors, the traitors were all brought to justice and executed. We request that Your Majesty designate Prince Yŏngan, who is a rightful heir, as crown prince.” The memorial was presented to the king, and Munhwa [chief royal secretary] read it aloud to the end. The crown prince, who was beside the king, also heard it. After a long silence, the king finally remarked, “They are all my sons. How can there be anything impossible [in making one of them crown prince]!” Then, turning around, the king said to Pangsŏk [crown prince and the youngest son], “It has also turned out to be convenient for you.” The king immediately granted the request. The grand councilors in the hall asked what was going on. Munhwa replied, “It is about replacing the crown prince.” Sŏkchu sealed the draft of the royal decree and asked Munhwa to sign his name on it. When Munhwa refused, Sŏkchu asked Hwa, and Hwa also refused. Then, Sŏkchu asked all the grand councilors in the room, but none of them would do it. Munhwa said to Sŏkchu, “You are the one who drafted the decree. Why don’t you sign the draft that you yourself wrote?” Sŏkchu finally said, “Fine.” He signed his name on the draft and put it in his sleeve. A little later, Sŏkchu went inside and came out with the royal orders from the king. He said, “The king wants to have his decree revised and proclaimed as soon as possible.” Munhwa asked, “How should we revise it?”

Book XIV

Sŏkchu replied, “The dynasty-­founding merit subjects, including Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn and others who conspired to harm the princes and other members of the royal family. Their treasonous attempt was discovered, and their offenses surpassed their contributions, so they have already all been executed. The individuals who were forced to join the traitors under threat shall not be punished.” As the royal decree, handwritten by Pyŏn Chungnyang, was presented, the king got up, assisted by the maids, and placed his signature and seal on it. Having finished this, he returned to lie down on the bed. His illness being extremely serious, he tried to vomit but couldn’t. He said, “I feel as if something has gotten stuck in my throat and does not go down.” Prince Chŏngan ordered Kim Kyŏm, foreman of the Weapons Bureau, to open the Military Weapons Storehouse (Kun’gigo), take out suits of armor and spears, and distribute them to over a hundred musketeers (hwat’onggun). His security forces were thus strengthened somewhat. An armored soldier named Sin Yongbong went into the palace to deliver the words of Prince Chŏngan. He said, “Prince Hŭngan and Prince Muan have returned to their homes. Why don’t Prince Ŭian [Yi Hwa, T’aejo’s stepbrother] and the others come out?” The various princes just stared at each other and kept silent. After the messenger pressed them again, Hwa and the other princes all came out, but Sim Chong [T’aejo’s son-­in-­law]45 ran away through a sluice gate. Chŏng Sinŭi kept lingering but eventually emerged, unable to resist the pressure any longer. Because the Privy Council requested the king to release Pangsŏk, the king said to him, “Since the arrangements were already made, what harm would there be if you go out?” Pangsŏk bade farewell to the king, sobbing. Consort Hyŏn, his wife, wept loudly, pulling his sleeve, so he had to shake her off to go out. At first, they decided to banish Pangsŏk to a distant place. However, as he went out the west gate of the city wall, Yi Kŏi, Yi Paekkyŏng, Cho Pak, and others consulted with the Privy Council and sent a man to kill him on his way. The Privy Council also requested that Pangbŏn be sent out. The king said to Pangbŏn, “Though nothing could be done for the crown prince, the worst that can happen to you is that you will be sent into exile to a distant ­district.” When Pangbŏn was about to depart, passing through the south gate of the city wall, Prince Chŏngan dismounted from his horse and went inside the

45. He married Princess Kyŏngsŏn, the second daughter of T’aejo.

843

844

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

gate. Grasping Pangbŏn’s hands, Prince Chŏngan said, “If Nam Ŭn and the others removed our group, I figured you would not be able to eventually escape from the danger. So I called you before to join us. Why didn’t you listen to me? Though you have to go away to a distant region now, it won’t be very long before you’re back. Farewell. Farewell.” Being sent to T’ongjin46 for exile, Pangbŏn crossed Yanghwado Ferry47 and stayed at a nearby guesthouse. Panggan, together with Yi Paekkyŏng and others, had a discussion with the members of the Privy Council and sent a man and had Pangbŏn killed. Having learned that Pangsŏk and Pangbŏn had died, Prince Chŏngan secretly said to Sukbŏn: “If I tried to save a man such as Yu Mansu,48 then how much more so in the case of my brothers? Without letting me know, Yi Kŏi and his son killed my brothers, only consulting with the Privy Council. Since the hearts of the people are not yet settled, I have to secretly endure it without revealing my anger on my face. I want you to keep this to yourself.” The soldiers captured Pyŏn Chungnyang, No Sŏkchu, Nam Chi, and the others and brought them before Prince Chŏngan. Then Chungnyang looked Prince Chŏngan in the face and said, “I have kept you in my heart for several years now.” The prince said, “You are despicable.”49 Chi was a brother of Ŭn. He served as military commissioner of the right royal guards (usang chŏlchesa) at that time. They were all locked up in the Palace Patrol Prison and brought out to be beheaded on the road later. When Yi Che came out, Price Chŏngan told him to go home. The king at last designated Prince Yŏngan as crown prince and issued a royal decree, which read as follows: “To establish the eldest son born of the legal wife as crown prince is the law and the tradition handed down for ten thousand generations. Since the rightful heir is like a fortress, my hope depends on him. Contrary to what was handed down, however, I, your father, designated the youngest son, Pangsŏk, as crown prince, abandoning the legitimate eldest son, and that 46. Modern Kimp’o. 47. The old ferry, located in Map’o County, is now replaced by a bridge. 48. Yu Mansu was originally a cowardly person, but T’aejo liked him and made him a minor merit subject. A little earlier, knowing well who he was, Prince Chŏngan tried to save Yu’s life, but his aides prevailed on him to kill him because Yu vacillated and joined the conspirators led by Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn. 49. The exact words, according to the text are “That mouth is also a piece of meat.”

Book XIV

was not only a mistake that I made while blinded by my indulgent love, but also the responsibility of Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others, who failed to assist me properly. If they had remonstrated with me, citing the mistake of King Ping of Chu,50 who chose a younger son for his successor, how could I have dared not to ignore the warning? Tojŏn and his collaborators not only did not remonstrate with me, but also they were afraid that they might fail to establish my youngest son as crown prince. “A few days ago, Tojŏn, Ŭn, Hyosaeng, Chihwa, and others secretly conspired to undermine the foundation of the state for their own interests. Fortunately, thanks to the help of Heaven and Earth as well as the spirits of our ancestors, the traitors were deservedly put to death and the royal house regained peace. Pangsŏk being the main source of trouble, he cannot be allowed to stay in the capital and shall be banished to a distant eastern border. Having already repented for my past mistake, I designate you [Prince Yŏngan] as crown prince in accordance with the requests of the hundred officials. I want you to cultivate your virtue, never make your parents ashamed of you, and devote yourself wholeheartedly to stabilizing our Altar of Earth and Grain.” The king called Munhwa and Kim Yuk and ordered them to go out to see the [new] crown prince. The crown prince called Munhwa and said to him, “There are no royal guards in the palace. I want you to go back as fast as possible.” Munhwa at once returned to the palace. Cho Sun [eunuch] announced the order of the crown prince, saying, “Have everyone, except court maids and palace slaves, leave the palace.” So, Munhwa also went out. The crown prince asked Munhwa why he came out. Munhwa explained the reason. The crown prince said, “I did not mean that you should come out. Go back to the palace quickly and attend the king.” The crown prince also ordered Supreme General Yi Pu to go into the palace and attend the king. The king sent Cho Sun to bestow a hat and saddled horse upon the crown prince. The crown prince went into the palace. When Yi Che [Lord of Hŭngan and the king’s son-­in-­law] returned home, the princess, his wife, said to him, “If your Lordship goes with me to Prince 50. King Ping of Chu (r. 527–516 bc) intended to marry his son, Crown Prince Jian, with a princess from Qin. The princess was so beautiful that King Ping decided to take her for himself. His ministers frightened the king into believing that his son might usurp the throne, and his son fled to the Song court. So King Ping chose his underage son as his heir before he died.

845

846

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Chŏngan’s house, you will surely be able to live.” However, Yi Che did not listen to her. At dusk, soldiers who followed him killed him. Surprised to hear that Yi Che had died, Prince Chŏngan immediately summoned Chŏn Hŭng, pacification commissioner. He said, “The Lord of Hŭngan being dead, the male and female slaves of his house will certainly run away. Take ten or so soldiers with you to the house of the Lord of Hŭngan. Have them wash and shroud the body and warn them not to run away lest they be severely punished later.” Arriving at the house of the Lord of Hŭngan, Chŏn Hŭng introduced himself through a female slave of the house: “Don’t be surprised. I am a military commissioner sent by Prince Chŏngan.” Then he cleaned and dressed the body according to the orders given by Prince Chŏngan and carried out all the procedures necessary for the funeral. The princess was so grateful that she shed tears. Nam Ŭn managed to escape through a sluice gate and hid himself in a lookout hut outside the city wall. His aides, including Ch’oe Un and Ha Kyŏng, remained constantly at his side. Ŭn wanted to surrender himself to the Capital Constabulary Prison, and Un and others tried to dissuade him. Ŭn said, “Though Tojŏn was hated by the people and thereby executed, I made no such enemies.” Then he proceeded to the Capital Constab­u­ lary Prison and was beheaded outside the prison gate. After His Majesty [Prince Chŏngan and later King T’aejong] ascended the throne, he had Kyŏng and Un picked out and appointed to public posts for their loyalty to their lord. Prince Chŏngan and the other princes spent three days and nights in a tent set up in front of the Capital Constabulary Office (Kamsunch’ŏng) and later moved to the Three Armies Headquarters, where they continued to spend nights. When the crown prince received the decree designating him as the royal successor of the king, everyone returned home. Tojŏn’s courtesy name was Chongji, his pen name Sambong (Three Summits), and his family seat Ponghwa of Andong. He was a son of Chŏng Un’gyŏng, minister of punishments. In the Kyŏngja year (1360), during the reign of King Kongmin of the previous dynasty, he passed the National Academy examination, and in the Imin year (1362) the literary licentiate examination. Via several posts, he was appointed to the Comprehensive Rites Agency as secretary (chihu). In the Pyŏngo year (1366), when his father and mother died in close succession, he duly performed mourning,

Book XIV

living in a hut built next to their tombs. In the Sinhae year (1371), he was called to serve as grand erudite (t’aesang paksa), and when King Kongmin personally performed sacrifices at the Royal Ancestral Shrine, he made a musical instrument [for the occasion] based upon the diagram in a book. Thereafter, he served as bureau section chief of the Board of Rites, fourth royal counselor of the Office of Royal Decrees, and, finally, second assistant master of the National Academy. In the Kabin year (1374), King Kongmin passed away, and an envoy from the Northern Yuan arrived at the border. Tojŏn said, “Since the former king already decided to serve the Ming dynasty, it is not appropriate to welcome the envoy of Yuan. Furthermore, under the circumstances that the Yuan envoy wants to pardon our transgression after fabricating it, how can we receive him?” The grand councilor, who was in command at that time, would not listen to Tojŏn’s argument. Tojŏn, notwithstanding, insisted upon his opinion. Consequently, he incurred the wrath of the grand councilor and was demoted and transferred to Hoejin.51 In the Kapcha year (1384), he visited the Ming capital as secretary of the imperial birthday embassy led by Chŏng Mongju, and upon returning home was appointed assistant manager of the National University. In the Chŏngmyo year (1387), he volunteered to serve in the districts and thus became magistrate of Namyang.52 In the Mujin year (1388) when the king [T’aejo] came into power, he was appointed chancellor of the National Academy. After submitting proposals on various government policies, he was promoted to academician of the Security Council and examination administrator. Then he became supreme commissioner of ten areas of study (siphak tojejo) and taught Explanations of Arithmetic (Xiangmin suanfa) and calendrics in the t’aeŭl (taiyi) method of divination, and also wrote a book of medicine titled The Secrets of Pulse Diagnosis through Diagrams (Chinmaek togyŏl) while serving as deputy director of the Office of Royal Decrees. In the Kisa year (1389), along with Cho Chun and others, Tojŏn proposed the reform of the abusive private landholding system. After King Kongyang was enthroned, he was promoted to right director of the State Finance Commission (Samsa usa), appointed King Kongyang merit subject (Chunghŭng kongsin), and enfeoffed as Lord Ch’ungŭi.

51. Naju, South Chŏlla Province. 52. Modern Hwasŏng, Kyŏnggi Province.

847

848

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

In the Kyŏngo year (1390), he was promoted to Chancellery scholar, and in the same year, Yun I and Yi Ch’o went secretly to the Ming court and accused T’aejo of elevating King Kongyang to the throne for personal advantage. Tojŏn insisted on a thorough investigation of their false accusation, but Chŏng Mongju persuaded the king [Kongyang] to prevent the case from escalating. [That year], he visited the Ming court as envoy responsible for presenting the case. In the Sinmi year (1391), he submitted a memorial to the king concerning the problems with dispensing rewards and punishments, which incurred the wrath of the king. He was demoted and transferred to Naju. In the Imsin year (1392), he was called back to the court, and with Nam Ŭn and others he made plans to install the king [T’aejo] on the throne. After the king was enthroned, he was appointed dynasty-­founding merit subject first class and concurrently assistant chancellor and director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals. Then he again visited the Ming court as envoy to the Imperial Throne. Upon returning home from China, he became director of the State Finance Commission and, concurrently, supervisor (p’ansa) of the Three Armies, and eventually rose to commander­in-­chief of three provinces (samdo tot’ongsa). In addition, he wrote books such as the Diagram of Troop Dispositions, Pictures of Hunting Scenes, National Code (Kyŏnggukchŏn), and Discourse on Governance (Kyŏngje mun’gam); composed the lyrics of the songs such as “Dreaming of the Golden Ruler,” “Receiving the Precious Secret Scroll,” “The Enlightened Virtue of Our King,” “Song of Driving out Nahachu,” and “Song of Maintaining Peace in the Eastern Kingdom”; and compiled the History of Koryŏ with Chŏng Ch’ong and others. He was enfeoffed as Count of Ponghwa, and his rank reached grand master for the veneration of splendid happiness [rank 1b]. In the Pyŏngja year (1396), he became associate examination administrator and, for the first time, instituted the recitation and presentation of Confucian classics for the preliminary examination. In the Chŏngch’uk year (1397), he went out to serve as chief pacification mobile inspector of the Northeast Region, established the names of various local districts, and repaired the Fortress of Kongju. When he returned to court in the spring of the Muin year (1398), the king welcomed him generously, complimenting his hard work. Tojŏn was by nature shrewd and intelligent. From childhood, he liked to study and read extensively. Hence, his discourse being reasonable and appro­­ priate, he always took it as his duty to admonish the younger generation to

Book XIV

reject heresies [i.e., Buddhism]. In his early years, he led a life of poverty but remained calm, believing that he was well equipped with both literary and military talent. When he arrived in the Northeast Region, following the king, he saw that his army was well-­ordered and disciplined, and he secretly said to the king, “They are absolutely impressive. What could be impossible with such an army?” The king asked, “What do you mean by that?” Tojŏn replied, “What I am saying is that you should attack Japanese marauders from the southeast.” In front of the military camp there stood an old pine tree. Tojŏn requested that he be allowed to write a poem on it, and, peeling off the bark, he wrote as follows: I see a pine tree53 that has endured myriad years, That was born and grew in ten thousand folds of green mountains. I wonder if we can see each other in years ahead. The world changing at a dizzying pace is suddenly a thing of the past. Around the time when the dynasty was newly established, he drank heavily and in an alcoholic stupor would murmur, “It was not that Gaozu of Han employed Zhang Zifang; it was Zhang Zifang who employed Gaozu of Han.” Whenever things came up that could be of any help to the king, Tojŏn never failed to act or participate. Consequently, he managed to make great achievements and became the foremost merit subject. However, he was narrow-­minded, jealous, and also timid, so he always tried to harm the people whom he believed were better than he, settled old scores, and urged the king to display his authority by killing people, but the king did not always listen to him. The History of Koryŏ, which he compiled, contained many things that did not agree with the facts because of omissions or false additions, especially when it came to the incidents occurring after Kongmin. Men of judgment were critical of it. At first, Tojŏn took Hansan Yi Saek as his master and made friends with Och’ŏn Chŏng Mongju and Sŏngsan Yi Sungin,54 and his relationship with

53. It refers to T’aejo whose pen name was Songhŏn or Songhŏn kŏsa (Pine Hut or Pine Hut Dweller). 54. Hansan (Mountains of Korea), Och’ŏn (Crow Stream), and Sŏngsan (Starry Mountain) are used here either as names of family seat or titles of nobility of Yi Saek, Chŏng Mongju, and Yi Sungin, respectively.

849

850

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

them was very close and sincere. However, he slandered them and made them his enemies when he wanted to associate with Cho Chun. Kim Chin, the father-­in-­law of U Yŏn, Tojŏn’s maternal grandfather, in his early days became a monk and secretly committed adultery with the wife of his slave named Sui and gave birth to a daughter, who later became Tojŏn’s maternal grandmother. The descendants of U Hyŏnbo, being related to Kim Chin by marriage, knew well this family history of Tojŏn. When Tojŏn started his public career, the confirmation of his appointment happened to be delayed. Tojŏn suspected that the descendants of U Hyŏnbo had to do with the delay of his confirmation, believing that they must have told the authorities about his base origin. He harbored resentment and animosity toward them for years until he rose to power. Then he at last fabricated the crimes of the U Hyŏnbo family, instigating Hwang Kŏjŏng and others, and killed five people, including U’s three sons and Yi Sungin. Afterward, he conspired with Nam Ŭn and others to set up a young nothos of the king as crown prince to wield his power, harming the members of the royal family. When he failed in his attempt, he was put to death, along with his three sons. Nam Ŭn’s family seat was Ŭiryŏng of Chinju, and he was the son of Ŭlbŏn, chancellor-­without-­portfolio. In the Kabin year (1374) during the reign of King Kongmin, he passed the National Academy examination, and in the Kyŏngsin year (1380) during the reign of the deposed king was appointed superintendent of the Altar of Earth and Grain. In the Ŭlch’uk year (1385) when Japanese marauders invaded Samch’ŏk County, the fortress, being small, was hard to defend. Ŭn volunteered to fight the invaders. Upon arriving in Samch’ŏk, the Japanese marauders suddenly appeared. Opening the fortress gate, Ŭn led out ten or so mounted troops and launched a surprise attack on the enemy, and the Japanese marauders ran away. After his military feat was reported, he was recalled to court and promoted to supervisor of the Royal Stables Court. In the Mujin year (1388), he went to Wihwa Island, following the king, and joined Cho Inok and others in submitting a proposal for marching the army back home. He also secretly discussed the plan to enthrone the king but dared not reveal it to the king out of fear because the king was solemn and discreet. After returning from Wihwa Island, however, he secretly revealed it to His Majesty [Yi Pangwŏn, later King T’aejong], and the latter warned him not to tell anyone about it. In the Kisa year (1389), he was appointed senior military protector of the Soaring Falcon Guard and, ­concurrently,

Book XIV

minister of war (kunbu p’ansŏ), and in the Kyŏngo year (1390), he was ­promoted to deputy director of the Security Council. In the Imsin year (1392), King Kongyang, believing the slander about him, became suspicious and jealous of him. When the situation became uncertain, His Maj­ esty [Yi Pangwŏn] summoned him and ordered him to secretly discuss the matter of enthroning the king with those who regarded themselves as followers of the king from the start. After the king ascended the throne, Ŭn was appointed commissioner of the Security Council and granted the title of Rising in Righteousness and State-­Assisting Dynasty-­Founding Merit Subject (Pŭnŭi chwamyŏng kaeguk kongsin). After serving at various posts, he eventually rose to the position of assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and, concurrently, director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals, as well as military commander of the Right Army. In the Chŏngch’uk year (1397), he was enfeoffed as Lord of Ŭisŏng. Nam Ŭn was by nature gallant and outstanding, disliked restriction, and liked eccentric plans and strategies. He made major contributions to the founding of the new dynasty, but, lacking learning and experience, he fell for the scheme of Lady Kang, who deprived the king’s firstborn son of the seat of crown prince [in order to make her son a rightful heir for succession]. As a result, together with Chŏng Tojŏn and others, he willfully attempted to seize the reins of power after eliminating the members of the royal family. He eventually failed and met with calamity, and his age at the time of his death was forty-­five. He had four sons, and they were Kyŏngsu, Kyŏngu, Kyŏngbok, and Kyŏngji. Sim Hyosaeng was a native of Puyu of Sunch’ŏn and the son of Innip, magistrate of Kŭmju.55 In the Kyŏngsin year (1380) during the reign of the false king, he passed the National Academy examination, and in the Kyehae year (1383) the civil service examination, winning second place in the ŭl category (ŭlgwa). Starting his public career as chief clerk of the Security Council, he became fourth inspector after spending many years at various posts. Since his family has lived in Chŏnju for many generations, he became a follower of the king from the start and eventually joined the rank and file of the dynasty-­founding merit subjects. While serving as second inspector, he went out to serve as pacification commissioner of Kyŏngsang Province

55. Kŭmsan, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province.

851

852

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

and later was promoted to deputy director of the Security Council. Later, he also served as governor of Kyŏngsang Province, and during his term he manufactured military weapons, which people praised for being elaborate. More recently, his rank rose to director of the Office of Royal Decrees, and he was enfeoffed as Lord of Pusŏng. His age was fifty, and his son was Towŏn. Pak Wi was a native of Miryang. He started his public career during the reign of King Kongmin and served at various posts both in the capital and the provinces until the end of the reign of the false king, earning praises for his talent. Kimhae, Chinju, Kyerim, and Yŏnghŭng are the districts in which he served. He also earned recognition for repulsing Japanese marauders several times and was steadily promoted until he reached deputy director of the Security Council. When he served as military commander in Happ’o, he led out naval seamen to attack Tsushima and subjugated the island. After the king ascended the throne, it happened that Pak Chungjil and others were arrested and Wi was found to be implicated in the incident under investigation. The Censorate officials repeatedly requested capital punishment for his crime, but the king defended him and saved his life. He was promoted to assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and was also responsible for supervising the Forbidden Soldiers. When the disturbance broke out, the princes called him to join them. He came out of the palace gate with armored soldiers under his command, rather reluctantly. Because he was hesitant and did not act, he was quickly put to death. His son is Ki. Yu Mansu was a native of Munhwa56 and the son of Ch’ong, right assistant transmitter. During the reign of King Kongmin, he became chief of the Royal Equipage (poma bae haengsu), and in the Kyemyo year (1363) military general. After serving at various posts, he reached the rank of deputy director of the Security Council. In the Chŏngsa year (1377), he followed the king [then general Yi Sŏnggye] to P’unghae Province to attack Japanese marauders. In the Mujin year (1388), he joined the king in his military expedition [against Liaodong, China] until he arrived at Wihwa Island. He participated in the discussion to withdraw the army and upon his return to the capital was appointed administrative grand councilor of the Chancellery as

56. Located in Hwanghae Province.

Book XIV

well as merit subject for marching the army back home (hoegun kongsin). In the Kyŏngo year (1390), he was appointed assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, and in the Sinmi year (1391), he concurrently assumed the position of senior military protector of the Soaring Falcon Guard. After the king ascended the throne, he was given the title of minor merit subject and appointed assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery. Arriving at the time [of the disturbance], he appeared on the scene with his son Wŏnji, but unable to decide at the critical moment, he ended up dead with his son. He had three sons, and Wŏnji was the eldest. The younger sons are Ŭnji and Yŏnji. Nam Chae, Chancellery scholar, was the elder brother of Nam Ŭn. Earlier, by order of the king, he went to offer a sacrifice at Mt. Songak, and upon hearing that a disturbance had broken out, he returned to the capital and visited various princes. Someone contended that he also should be punished [like his brother Nam Ŭn], but Our Majesty [T’aejong] responded, “Since Chae did not join his brother Ŭn in the treasonous activity from the beginning, he shall not be implicated in this incident. Let him go and stay at my house.” Thereupon, the king issued a royal decree: “On the eleventh day of the sixth lunar month of the twenty-­ninth reign year of Hongwu, the emperor sent us envoys, including Yang Tiemuer, Song Boluo, Wang Li, and Niu Niu [assistant director of the Seals Office], and demanded that we send Chŏng Tojŏn to the Ming court. At that time, Tojŏn was suffering from a bloated stomach and unable to rise. Once again, on the seventeenth day of the fourth lunar month of the thirtieth reign year of Hongwu, the Ministry of Rites [of China] sent us a letter carrying the instruction of the emperor, which said, ‘The king of Chosŏn now employs a man named Chŏng Tojŏn. What kind of assistance did the man provide to the king? If the king fails to realize the danger [of having him at his side], he will certainly be a cause of troubles in the days to come.’ “Having received such an instruction and warning from the emperor once again, I intended to send away Tojŏn, but his illness was too serious to undertake a journey to China. This was the reason his visit to China was delayed. After Tojŏn recovered from his illness, my eldest son [Yi Panggwa] said to me, ‘Tojŏn should be made to go to the Ming capital.’ Resentful, Tojŏn conspired with Nam Ŭn, military commissioner of the Three Armies; Sim Hyosaeng, the father-­in-­law of my youngest son, Pangsŏk; Chang

853

854

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Chihwa, one of his relatives; and others to harm Panggwa and other princes, relying on the forces of Pangsŏk. They nearly plunged the country into chaos, but with the help of Heaven and Earth and our royal ancestors, they were seized and executed. “My eldest son is by nature sincere and cautious, practicing loyalty and filial piety. Hence, he deserves to be crown prince, and all officials, ­regardless of their ranks, request that he be designated as heir apparent. Therefore, on the twenty-­seventh day of the eighth lunar month of the thirty-­first reign year of Hongwu, I make a report to the Royal Ancestral Shrine and designate him as my rightful heir of succession. “Ah! Since it is prohibited to be rebellious toward the king and parents, the conspirators were seized and executed. Moreover, the eldest son was also already designated as heir apparent, and therefore the Altars of Earth and Grain became secure. At the beginning when the disturbance is suppressed and the heir apparent is appointed, it is appropriate that special amnesty for prisoners be dispensed. Except those committed by the Tojŏn clique, the offenses and crimes, whether they were already discovered or not yet discovered prior to the early dawn of the twenty-­seventh day of the eighth lunar month of the thirty-­first reign year of Hongwu, shall all be pardoned unless they are subject to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation.” [The king] had Kang Kyegwŏn, Lord of Sangsan; Yi Chi, Prince Sunnyŏng; O Mongŭl, Lord of Posŏng; Chŏng Sinŭi, administrative commissioner of the Security Council; Kang T’aek, general-­in-­chief; Chŏng Chin, the son of Chŏng Tojŏn; and the members of their clique taken into custody in the Capital Constabulary Prison. Wang Cho, Lord of Kwiŭi, and his brother Wang Kwan died. [The king] had Cho Saŭi, former assistant military commissioner; Yi Yŏm, right director of the State Finance Commission; Yi Paegyu, Lord of Wansŏng; and Yi Cho, third minister of personnel, confined in the Capital Constabulary Prison. He also had Chŏng Chin and Kang T’aek assigned to the navy of Chŏlla Province; General-­in-­Chief Han Kyu, Son Wŏnman, and Song Ch’ŏnu to the navy of Kyŏngsang Province; Yi Pogŏm, director of the Royal Stable Court, and General Im Tŭkbang to the navy of Kangwŏn Province; former

Book XIV

general Ha Sŭnghae to the navy of P’unghae Province; and Mok Inhae, Pak Pin, and Yi Ch’ŏnu to the navy of Ch’ŏnghae. Next, the king had Yi Cho exiled to Hŭngdŏkchin;57 Kang Kyegwŏn to Kaksan;58 Chŏng Sinŭi to Yŏnghaejin;59 O Mongŭl to Isanjin;60 General Cho Hong and former General Yi Tŭng to Sunsŏngjin;61 and Quartermaster Kim U and Pong Wŏllyang, vice minister of the Office of Guest Affairs, to Namp’ojin.62 Finally, he pardoned twenty-­one officials, including Kim Sahaeng and Cho Saŭi. 29th Day (Imsin)

The king moved to the western chamber, and his condition improved slightly. [The king] ordered Yu Tumyŏng, supervisor of the Publications Office, and Chang Yunhwa, his assistant, confined in the Capital Constabulary Prison.



57. A garrison in Ŭnsan District, South P’yŏngan Province. 58. Located in Paech’ŏn County, Hwanghae Province. 59. A garrison located in North Kyŏngsang Province. 60. A garrison in Dŏksan District, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 61. A garrison in T’aean County, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province. 62. Poryŏng, South Chŏlla Province.

855

Book XV

Seventh Year of Reign (1398) 9th Month 1st Day (Kyeyu)

The sun appeared in five colors. Venus was visible during the day, and at night, a meteor came out of the lodges of Kui and Mars and entered the mansion of Lou. The king ordered the crown prince to occupy the Eastern Bedchamber. Wanting to eat grapes, the king ordered Cho Sun to take his message to the crown prince and the other princes: “Since I no longer have my father, I made his portrait to preserve his memory. Though my health has broken down, I am still breathing, which I believe is fortunate for you. While my illness continues, I wish for some grapes.” The crown prince and other various princes all cried aloud to hear the message. They immediately ordered Han Kan, manager of the Royal Forest Park (Sangnimwŏn), to look for grapes throughout Special Capital Magis­ tracy [of Kaesŏng] and Left Kyŏnggi Province. Then Chief Administrator Kim Chŏngjun happened to present a box of mountain grapes, which were half ripe in the frost, and the king was extremely pleased. The king enfeoffed the wife of the crown prince as Consort Tŏk. *   *   *

856

Book XV

The king promoted Kim Chŏngjun to director of the Agriculture Office, and for the first time, enfeoffed his sons as dukes (kong), various members of the royal family as marquis (hu), and the high officials of senior rank 1 as counts. He appointed Duke Igan as commander-in-chief of the Middle Army, Duke Hoean as commander-in-chief of the Left Army, and His Majesty [T’aejong] as commander-in-chief of the Right Army. He enfeoffed Pokkŭn1 as Marquis of Pongnyŏng, Yangu2 as Marquis of Yŏngan, Paekkyŏng3 as Marquis of Sangdang, and Sim Chong4 as Marquis of Ch’ŏngwŏn. He also appointed Yi Hwa as chief grand councilor of the Chancellery and concurrently chief military commissioner of the Righteousness Flour­ish­ ­ing Three Armies and Duke Ŭian; Sim Tŏkbu, as chief director of the State Finance Commission and Count of Ch’ŏngsŏng; Cho Chun, as left chancel­ ­lor and Count of P’yŏngyang; Kim Sahyŏng as right chancellor and Count of Sangnak; Kwŏn Chunghwa as Count of Yech’ŏn; Sŏng Sŏngnin as assistant chancellor and, concurrently, minister of Taxation; Yi Chiran as assistant chancellor and, concurrently, minister of punishments and commander-­in-­ chief of the Middle Army of the Three Armies and Lord of Ch’ŏnghae; Yi Mu as assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and, concurrently, minister of rites and commander-­in-­chief of the Left Army of the Three Armies; Chang Sagil as assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and, concurrently, minister of works and commander-­in-­chief of the Right Army of the Three Armies and Lord of Yŏngga; Cho Pak as assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Ha Yun as Chancellery scholar; Yi Kŏi as assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Cho Yŏngmu as commissioner of the Security Council and, concurrently, associate commander-­in-­chief of the Middle Army of the Three Armies; Cho On as deputy commissioner of the Security Coun­ ­cil and, concurrently, associate commander-­in-­chief of the Left Army of the Three Armies; Kim No as associate commissioner of the Security Council and, concurrently, associate commander-­in-­chief of the Right Army of the Three Armies; Chang Sajŏng as discussant of the Security Council; Yi Ch’ŏnu as associate commissioner of the Security Council and, concurrently, minister of war and supreme general of the Righteousness Flourishing Metropolitan Command and administrative commissioner of the Three Armies; Chŏng 1. The son of Prince Chinan, the eldest son of T’aejo, who died early. 2. The son of Yi Wŏn’gye, T’aejo’s stepbrother. 3. T’aejo’s son-­in-­law who married Princess Kyŏngsin, the eldest daughter of T’aejo. Later, he changed his name to Ae. 4. T’aejo’s son-­in-­law who married Princess Kyŏngsŏn, the second daughter of T’aejo.

857

858

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

T’ak as academician of the Security Council; Chang Ch’ŏl as deputy director of the Security Council; and Nam Chae as Lord of Ŭiryŏng. Then he had Yi Munhwa continue to serve as chief royal secretary and, concurrently, director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals. The king granted pardons to Yi Yŏm, Yu Tumyŏng, and Chang Yunhwa.5 3rd Day (Ŭlhae)

Han Kan6 obtained grapes and presented them to the king. The king was so pleased that he bestowed 10 sŏk of rice upon him. Whenever the king felt thirsty, he tasted one or two grapes, and thereafter the king started recovering from his illness. The king ordered eunuch Kim Sahaeng beheaded and his head displayed in front of the gate of the Three Armies Headquarters. A cunning schemer, he sought the king’s favor by constructing the royal palace. During the previous dynasty, he also misled King Kongmin by constructing the hall for enshrining the portrait of the late queen. Now, at the beginning of the new dynasty, he was fortunate enough to enjoy the king’s favor again and rose to Count of Karak and, concurrently, director of the Privy Council. When he frequented the royal palace, he always rode a sedan chair. On the day when he was executed, everyone was delighted.7 4th Day (Pyŏngja)

Kim Chu, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery, was exiled to Yŏngju8 because he also abused the people together with Kim Sahaeng, exerting himself to make the construction work overly elaborate. 5. Though the behavior of these three officials was controversial at times, it is not clear what offenses they committed around this time. 6. A couple of days earlier, Han Kan, manager of the Royal Forest Garden, was ordered to find grapes for the king. 7. Kim Sahaeng supervised the construction of palaces and pavilions on a number of occasions and enjoyed special favors from the king. However, the reason that he was executed was not his abuse of power or extravagance in spending government money for construction; it could be his cooperation with Chŏng Tojŏn and his cohorts. 8. An old name of Ch’ŏnan, South Ch’ungch’ŏng Province.

Book XV

5th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

The moon approached Saturn. A meteor came out of Polaris (Kujin)9 to flow west, and it also came out of the Five Chariots (Ogŏsŏng) to enter the constellation of Auriga (P’algok),10 and Mars was observed to be in the middle of the right gate of the Supreme Palace Enclosure (T’aemiwŏn).11 The king said to Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary: “Falling ill, I have failed to attend to the affairs of state for a long time. How long can I leave unattended the numerous things that happen every day? Whenever I think of this, I feel my condition worsen. Now I want to abdicate the throne to the crown prince so that I can live out my last days while coping with my illness without worries. Go and tell the scholar-­officials to draft a royal decree and submit it to me.” Munhwa immediately told Yi Ch’ŏm, minister of personnel, to draft a royal decree and present it. The king sent Sim Tŏkbu, chief director of the State Finance Commission, to make an announcement to the Royal Ancestral Shrine on his behalf: “Although I lack benevolence, I have already been ruling over the people for seven years, thanks to the virtue and strength of my royal ancestors. Being old and often ill, I am worried that I am incapable of dealing with numerous affairs of state from early morning to late evening with due diligence. Crown Prince Panggwa, being my eldest son, showed benevolence and filial piety in his conduct from childhood and in addition helped me greatly in various ways at the beginning of the new dynasty. So I respectfully make this report, intending to have him take over my throne and continue to offer sacrifices to the royal ancestors.” The king also sent Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, and Kim Ŭlsang, minister of rites, to the Ming capital to report his abdication to the Chinese government: “Your servant has suffered palsy after 9. It is located in the Purple Forbidden Enclosure (Chamiwŏn) where ancient people thought was the seat of the Heavenly Emperor. Ancient Chinese thought that the appearance of a stray comet near these enclosures, the center of the celestial kingdom, was a bad omen such as disturbance, war, death of the king or a grand councilor. 10. Píalgok, literally “Eight Grains,” is a constellation north of the Five Chariots. They are also close to the Polaris. 11. One of the three enclosures around the Polaris, lying east and north to the Purple Forbidden Enclosure.

859

860

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

p­ rolonged exposure to the damp-­wet weather during my military career, which started at an early age. Being old now and feeling weak, I can hardly deal with numerous affairs from morning until evening. My eldest son, Panggwa, is by nature sincere and careful, displaying integrity in his conduct, so he deserves to be entrusted with the lordship of our eastern kingdom. On the fifth day of the ninth lunar month of the thirty-­first reign year of Hongwu, I commanded the crown prince to assume control of the state affairs provisionally. So I respectfully await your approval.” Ordering a palace attendant to lend his arm, the king sat up and called the crown prince. Dressed in formal attire, the crown prince prostrated himself to the floor in front of the king. As the king personally handed the royal decree, the crown prince took it and placed it on his bosom. The royal decree read: “The king speaks as follows. Lacking in virtue but indebted to the hidden support of royal ancestors as well as the Son of Heaven [Chinese emperor], I founded a new state, and it has been already seven years since I began ruling over the people. Staying in the military for a long time and often exposed to frost and dew, I am worried that I have now become too old and sick to carry out various affairs of state from early in the morning until late at night, paying due attention to all of them. “You, crown prince Panggwa, are my eldest son and have been benevolent and filial from childhood; furthermore, you made numerous contributions to the founding of the new dynasty, a fact everyone in the country knows. Therefore, on the fifth day of the ninth lunar month of the thirty-­first reign year of Hongwu, I report to the Royal Ancestral Shrine and command you to take over my throne. I also admonish you to carry yourself according to precedents and regulations. Try to befriend men of integrity and keep away from petty people. Do not impose your personal prejudice upon others; instead, decide your preference in accordance with popular opinion. Do not dare to abandon yourself to dissolution or neglect to pay attention to your duty. Let your successors prosper by making your throne secure forever. Ah! Your father, lacking virtue, is not worth emulating, but the Way of the sage kings is recorded in the books. Get up early and go to bed late, always being reverent in your behavior.” Next, he called the left and right chancellors. They also presented themselves dressed in formal uniform. The king said, “I now hand over my throne to the crown prince. I want both of you to get together and assist him with his governing of the people, and make sure that nothing goes wrong with his reign.”

Book XV

Thereupon, he passed the royal seal to them and next ordered Yi Munhwa to escort the crown prince out. Holding up the royal seal, the left and right chancellors led the way, and escorting the crown prince, Yi Munhwa arrived at the Hall of Diligent Government. Changing into a ceremonial kangsap’o robe and wŏnyugwan crown,12 the crown prince ascended the throne and received felicitations from all the officials, now using a different name, Kyŏng. Then, changing into another dress with a golden dragon and a crown with stringed beads and leading all officials behind him, he presented his father, now the former king, with the eulogistic name of Supreme King (Sangwang) and congratulated him, bowing to him with the hundred ­officials. Consort Tŏk was enfeoffed as Queen Tŏk, and Our Majesty [T’aejong] concurrently took charge of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals. Min Che was appointed right director of the State Finance Commission; Cho Pak, concurrently inspector-general; Yi Kŏi, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery and, concurrently, commissioner of the Middle Army of the [Righteousness Flourishing] Three Armies; Cho Yŏngmu, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Cho On, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery; Pak P’o, administrative director of the Security Council and, concurrently, associate commander-­in-­chief of the Right Army of the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies; Ma Ch’ŏnmok, general; and Yi Sukbŏn, fifth royal secretary. 7th Day (Kimyo)

There was red energy in the air. Because the former king [T’aejo] did not eat meat, thinking of Pangsŏk and others [who died during the First Strife of Princes], the Privy Council requested that meat be included in his meals. The king [T’aejo] ordered the portrait of Queen Sindŏk relocated to Chŏngnŭng, her royal tomb. The king [T’aejo] ordered Yi Ch’ŏm, minister of personnel; Cho Yong, right grand master of remonstrance; Chŏng Io, former magistrate of Sŏnju; and others to select and compile the precepts found in various classics and 12. Kangsap’o (“scarlet gauze robe”) is a scarlet gown of silk gauze fashioned like the kujangbok, but without the emblems. Wŏnyugwan (distant traveling hat) is the coronet that matches the kansap’o robe.

861

862

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

h­ istories that concern the attitude and administration of the ruler, and to submit them to him. 9th Day (Sinsa)

The former king [T’aejo] conveyed his order to the king [Ch’ŏngjong]: “I have longed to see the stupa of Hŭngch’ŏn Monastery finished. Make sure that its construction is completed.” 10th Day (Imo)

At night, an owl hooted in the northern garden of Kyŏngbok Palace. The former king moved his quarters to the pavilion in the north. 11th Day (Kyemi)

Venus entered the Supreme Palace Enclosure through the main gate. 12th Day (Kapsin)

A meteor came out of the celestial route Niandao13 and entered the Emptiness Lodge (Aquarius).14 The king [Chŏngjong]15 sent Pokkŭn, Marquis of Pongnyŏng,16 to report his enthronement to the spirit of his mother Queen Sinŭi17 at Cherŭng, her royal tomb. The king ordered the Privy Council to manage the money and grain of the Five Warehouses and Seven Palatial Offices (Ogo ch’ilgung).18 13. Presumed to be located near Vega in the Milky Way. 14. One of the Twenty-­eight lodges of the Chinese constellations. 15. Hereafter, the king (sang) refers to Chŏngjong, the king who succeeded T’aejo. 16. He is T’aejo’s grandson born of Prince Pangu, T’aejo’s eldest son who died in 1393. Therefore, he is a nephew of King Chŏngjong. 17. Cherŭng is located in Kaep’ung County in North Hwanghae Province. 18. Five Warehouses, established in early Koryŏ, served as the agency that managed all the private lands belonging to the royal family. They were Ŭisŏnggo, Tŏkch’ŏn’go, Naejanggo, Pohwago, and Ŭisun’go. As to the Seven Palatial Offices, it is not clear exactly what their function was.

Book XV

863

*   *   * Chŏng T’ak was exiled to Ch’ŏngju, and Pak P’o to Chukchu. After the crisis19 was stabilized, Pak P’o thought that the contributions he made were equal to those of other officials. Dissatisfied with his reward, he complained to Chŏng T’ak: “Though Yi Mu joined the ranks of [King Chŏngjong’s] merit subjects, his contributions were suspect in the hearts of the people. Besides, he conducted himself so inconsistently that he is unpredictable.” Upon hearing his complaint, Kim No, director of the Security Council, relayed it to Cho Yŏngmu, and Yŏngmu in turn reported it to Our Majesty [T’aejong]. After Our Majesty reported it to the king, he became so furious that he drove out the two [complaining] officials. At first, Yi Mu tried to maintain neutrality, watching the situation develop until he made his final decision. When he joined the rank of merit subjects, men of intelligence scorned him. The king purified himself from the Kyŏngjin day and ceremoniously proceeded to the tent temporarily established (akch’a) on the grounds of the Royal Ancestral Shrine on the Pyŏngsul day.20 He personally offered a ­sacrifice and reported his enthronement on the following Chŏnghae day. Finishing the ceremony, the king returned to the temporary quarters and received felicitations from various officials. Thereupon, the royal carriage returned to the main audience hall, and the king sat on the throne and had his royal decree proclaimed: “The king speaks as follows: I respectfully believe that the former king [T’aejo] founded a new dynasty in accordance with the principle of Heaven and the hearts of the people and established rules and regulations that would serve as permanent laws for generations to come. Unfortunately, traitorous subjects such as Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others banded together and secretly conspired to seize power for themselves. As a result, they tried to establish a young nothos as the heir to the throne, reversing the due order of old and young and disturbing differences between legitimate and illegitimate. They caused estrangement among our brothers, instigating us one against another, and the effects from it became unpredictable. Fortunately, 19. It refers to the day in which the First Strife of Princes took place. 20. The period from Kyŏngjin to Pyŏngsul day is six days. If the king ascended the throne on the following Chŏnghae day, the whole process of inauguration took seven days.

864

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Heaven and Earth and the spirits of our royal ancestors aided us from behind the scenes, and loyal subjects and scholars were all united to save the country, so that the wicked gang was seized and executed, and the state finally stabilized. “Incidentally, the former king, who has been ill for a long time, failed to recover and therefore ordered me to succeed his throne because I am his eldest son and capable of discharging my duty. Knowing that I am unworthy for the task, I was terrified and tried to resist the royal order several times, without success. “On the fifth Chŏngch’uk day of the ninth lunar month of thirty-­first reign year of Hongwu, I ascended the throne in the Hall of Diligent Government and on the tenth Chŏnghae day sacrificed to the Royal Ancestral Shrine, wearing the royal dragon robe and crown with strings of hanging beads in front and back. As I look back and think, the former king entrusted me with the throne because he was too tired to take care of myriad affairs. So I want to serve him forever with all the resources that the country can afford. The provisions and tribute presented by each government agency and various provinces should continue to be presented as they were when the former king was on the throne. “Since we are at the beginning of the new reign, it is necessary to proclaim the new measures of forgiveness and reform. The crimes and offenses committed prior to the early morning of the fifteenth day of the ninth lunar month of the thirty-­first reign year of Hongwu, except those related to treason, robbery, homicide through poisoning and witchcraft, and willful murder, or joining the traitorous clique of Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn, shall all be granted amnesty, regardless whether they were already discovered or not. If there is anyone who dares to report to the authorities from this day forward regarding the offenses prior to this amnesty, he shall be punished just as the one he accuses. All the measures designed to help the people shall be listed as follows: “1. The sacrifices to the Royal Ancestral Shrine and the Altar of Earth and Grain shall be offered with sincerity and respect. The foods and sacrificial vessels on the table shall be clean, and invocations and rituals appropriate so that there may be no disrespect at all. “1. Since Exalted King Of Culture [Confucius] is the king of kings throughout a hundred generations, the sacrifices offered to his shrine shall also be clean, and no disrespect allowed.

Book XV

“1. Kija [Ch. Jizi] was enfeoffed to Chosŏn and set the foundation for its customs and culture. The founder king of the previous dynasty21 unified the Three Han. So both of them achieved great works for the people of our Eastern Kingdom, and therefore a land for ancestral rites shall be set aside and sacrifices offered to them every season. “1. The things that Heaven sees and hears are, in fact, found in the people. If there is anything that inconveniences the people, I shall remove it quickly so that I may never fail to serve the will of Heaven and look after the people. “1. Since the king and his subjects are one body, they shall share their joys and sorrows together. All the officials, both major and minor, shall speak out without reserve when it comes to the good and bad in the administration, as well as benefits for and harm to the lives of the people, and the common people who have grievances and have no means to solve them by themselves shall be allowed to present their cases. “1. Respecting frugality while renouncing extravagance is the foundation of governing the people. The ceremonial weapons and banners, dresses, and vessels used in the palace shall be made as simple as possible. If there is anyone who tries to make them look luxurious, he shall be punished by the Office of the Inspector-General. “1. Because of the continuing construction projects since the relocation of the nation’s capital, the people have suffered greatly. All the public works both in the capital and the provinces shall be suspended until the people have a rest. “1. In the spring and summer of this year, the disasters of drought and locust took place in succession. The coastal districts and counties suffered particular hardship from damage, and I feel extremely sorry for the residents. The granaries in the region shall be opened and shall quickly provide relief so that the people can avoid dying in the ditches and valleys. The taxes shall be reduced according to the extent of the damage. “1. The Regulations of Six Ministries (Yukchŏn) is instrumental for governance. Each of the six boards shall study the meaning of instituting offices and seek ways to fully accomplish its mission without negligence. “1. Since naval seamen risk their lives on the sea to defend against foreign invaders, their hardship is more extreme than that of others. The Board of War shall review the number of the military households of each province to

21. Wang Kŏn (r. 918–943).

865

866

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

enlist a seaman out of every three adult males and divide the seamen into two groups so that they can serve alternately, and the household of a seaman on active duty shall be excused from other labor services. “1. The service of the firearm-­bearing soldiers and rotating clerks from local districts responsible for wood and fuel supplies for capital bureaus is also hard. The Board of Taxation shall review the number of functionaries of each local district and the slaves of government offices and Buddhist monasteries and readjust the number of recruits so that work and rest can be distributed evenly among the people. “1. The law of establishing the land for the military started from the time when the armies were stationed on the borders, and its purpose was not to exploit the labor of common people. Except the military colonies in which troops serving either on land or on the sea actually cultivate, those lands that are cultivated by the common people under the name of a military colony shall all be abolished. “1. When corvée labor is unfairly imposed, it hurts the people seriously. If there is an unavoidable circumstance from this day forward, the Privy Council shall review the size of the land and population of each province and assign the amount of corvée labor in different grades. The governor of each province shall distribute the corvée labor in different grades in accordance with the size of the land and population of each district, and the magistrate of each district shall do the same in accordance with the size of the land and population of each household, so that there may not be complaints about the assignment of corvée labor among the people. Widowers, widows, orphans, and childless elderly people, as well as the sick people living alone, shall all be exempted from their taxes. “1. Since agriculture and sericulture are the foundation of food and clothing and related to the lives of the people, the governors of various provinces are to divide the counties and districts in their jurisdiction and have the people construct embankments, prohibit them from setting fire in early winter, and have them plant mulberry trees in early spring and mulberry seeds in midsummer, without negligence. “1. The purpose of installing instructors at the National University and the schools of the Five Wards in the capital as well as in each province outside the capital is to cultivate men of talent, and it is necessary to supervise the instructors so that they may not neglect their duty. “1. Whether the people lead a good life depends on the ability of their magistrates. The officials above rank 6 in the central government shall each

Book XV

recommend a man of talent. If they submit the details concerning the life history, including the career, of the person they recommend, the Privy Council shall closely review them and appoint the person to the post [in the local government], and the governor will either employ him or dismiss him, evaluating his performance strictly. If the person recommended for the ­government post turns out to be incompetent, the one who recommended him shall be held responsible. “1. As for loans to poor people, either of cloth or grain, only the collection of interest on the principal loan shall be permitted; collecting compound interest shall be prohibited. Anyone who violates this order shall be deprived of their principal and interest by the authorities and duly punished. “1. At the end of the previous dynasty, there was a general custom that esteemed luxury to such a degree that they used the rare goods produced from distant regions for banquets or Buddhist ceremonies, and the custom still remains today. Gold and silver, beads and jades, colorful flowers made of genuine silk thread, and such items shall all be prohibited. “1. At the end of the Koryŏ dynasty, the Saddlery Service (Pyŏransaek) was first established, but it happened to infringe upon the jurisdiction of the Board of Works, which was contrary to the original purpose of establishing it. Therefore, it must be abolished. “1. There must be a law to prohibit the people from slaughtering cows and horses privately. Hansŏng Magistracy shall be in charge of enforcing the law. “1. Since fish traps and streams and marshes fall under the jurisdiction of the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources, they shall not be assigned to the Royal Cuisine Office (Saongwŏn), and receipts and disbursements shall be handled by one agency. Mountain meadows and pastures are managed by the Directorate for Palace Maintenance. The Directorate, therefore, shall prevent individuals from privately occupying those meadows and pastures and shall lower taxes to make the lives of the people comfortable. “1. The firewood and charcoal levied by the Directorate for Palace Main­ tenance and the Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation, and the straw collected by the Royal Stables Court, are a serious burden on the people. The offices responsible shall review the volumes of these items and fix them again to match the exact amounts used so that the previous abuses no longer occur. “1. The male and female slaves of the government offices, who are forced to do corvée service, suffer cold and hunger and have no choice but to run away. Hereafter, only one out of every two slaves should be required to

867

868

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

carry out corvée labor, so that they may not lose the foundation of their livelihood; and when a slave dies, the original owner of the slave should not be required to supply a substitute for the dead slave. When a slave reaches the age of sixty, he should be released from labor duty, and one among ten slaves should be made a leader to watch over the group of slaves. If there is any slave who escapes, the leader shall be held responsible. “1. Form and content shall not be mixed to create confusion. Except the memorials submitted to the king or the king’s father, both official and private documents shall not be allowed to have a front cover with a title. The supplies submitted to the Long Prosperity Warehouse (Changhŭnggo)22 shall also be readjusted in their amount after reviewing their various uses. “1. Government offices must not be allowed to seize without payment the fruit and bamboo cultivated by the common people, and each government office shall establish its own orchard to supply the necessary fruit. “1. The old retired ministers over seventy years of age shall be exempted from attending morning audiences and joining the ranks of officials, except for on the New Year or the king’s birthday, so that the measure can show my respect for them. “1. The iron smelted in the provinces shall all be handed over to the Directorate for Armaments—except the items that are originally fixed for monthly use—so that there can be no reckless waste. “1. Since weapons are nothing but ominous instruments, presenting them on New Year’s Day or the king’s birthday shall be strictly prohibited. “1. The amount of the tribute goods paid by counties and districts to various bureaus of the government in the capital shall be fixed again based upon the production in the local areas. When the tribute goods are not locally produced, the districts and counties concerned can be exempted from paying them. “1. The financial accounts of public warehouses and palace bureaus shall all be entrusted to the State Finance Commission so that the latter can take charge of these. “1. It is unavoidable to dismiss supernumerary officials. The Privy Council shall discuss and look into the matter seriously until it finds a practical solution. “1. If there are things that are left out in this decree, the Privy Council shall continue to discuss and investigate them so that they can be implemented.”

22. It was an agency that handled the supplies such as mats and oilpaper umbrellas.

Book XV

17th Day (Kichíuk)

The king said to Ha Yun, deputy director of the Office of Royal Lectures and Chancellery scholar, and Cho Pak, concurrent inspector-general: “Since I want to read the Four Books, put a punctuation mark on every phrase in the texts and submit them to me.” The king discussed with Our Majesty [T’aejong] how to decide the grades of merit subjects who rendered service for his enthronement (Chŏngsa kongsin). Then he ordered Yi Munhwa, chief royal secretary, to take his royal decree and announce it: “Because it has not been long since our dynasty was founded, [officials] should have strived in solidifying the foundation [of the new nation] and making a good start, so that the Mandate of Heaven could be implemented and the dynasty handed down over ten thousand generations. “Unfortunately, treacherous subjects, including Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn, took advantage of the situation in which the former king was ill in bed for a long time and rose in revolt against the state. Relying on a young nothos of the king, they tried to harm our brothers and conspired to overthrow our monarchy, which has been already established, and the calamity that they caused became unpredictable. “Duke Ŭian Hwa, Duke Igan Pangŭi, Duke Hoean Panggan, His Majesty [Pangwŏn], Marquis of Sangdang Yi Paekkyŏng, Left Chancellor Cho Chun, and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, as well as Yi Mu and Cho Pak, assistant grand councilors of the Chancellery; Ha Yun, Chancellery scholar; Yi Kŏi and Cho Yŏngmu, ch’amji and ch’amch’an assistant grand councilors of the Chancellery, faced up to the crisis, displaying their loyalty, and suppressed the rebellion and restored peace. The contributions they made are so great that they can never be forgotten. “Marquis of Yŏng’an Yangu; Marquis of Ch’ŏngwŏn Sim Chong; and Marquis Pongnyŏng Pokgŭn; as well as other officials such as Yi Chiran, assistant chan­­cellor; Chang Sagil, assistant grand councilor of the Chancel­ lery; Cho On, assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery; Kim No, commissioner of the Security Council; Pak P’o, former discussant of the Security Coun­­cil; Chŏng T’ak, former academician of the Security Council; Yi Ch’ŏnu, associate commissioner of the Security Council; Chang Sajŏng, discussant of the Security Council; Chang Tam, associate commissioner of the Security Council; Chang Ch’ŏl, deputy director of the Security Council;

869

870

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Yi Sukbŏn, fifth royal secretary; Sin Kŭngnye, supreme general; Min Mugu, general-­in-­chief; Min Mujil, third minister of taxation; and others, assisted the king with sincerity, suppressed the rebellion, and restored peace. Hence, their con­­tributions, being also very significant, should never be forgotten. The office responsible shall hold a ceremony of dispensing rewards to these ­officials.” 18th Day (Kyŏngin)

Leading a number of officials, the king performed the ceremony celebrating the imperial birthday of the Chinese emperor. Venus approached the Supreme General, a star in the constellation of the Supreme Palace Enclosure. The Office of the Inspector-General requested that all the private proper­­ ties of Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, Sim Hyosaeng, Chang Chihwa, Yi Kŭn, and others be confiscated. Our Majesty [who was then Duke Chŏngan] talked to the king [Chŏngjong] about the matter and ordered that only the rank lands owned by them be confiscated. The Censorate submitted a memorial to the king: “1. Ever since Your Majesty ascended to the throne and started a new reign, you have tried to imitate the institutions of old days and govern the people by seeking good advice from your subjects. We are now fortunate enough to serve you as remonstrators and therefore respectfully submit our humble opinions one by one so that you can choose and implement them. “1. To have a teacher is to follow the way the teacher practices. The previous dynasty worshiped Buddhism, and the kings took Buddhist monks as their teachers. So they lost the Way handed down from old. We request that hereafter Your Majesty choose your teacher among high officials who are distinguished in virtue, abolishing the wrongful practice of adopting Buddhist priests as royal preceptors. “1. The duty of eunuchs is only to keep the palace clean. At the end of the previous dynasty, however, they were recklessly employed as officials and allowed to work with the grand councilors of the Sangbu [Chancellery or the Security Council]. So their influence grew day by day until they became powerful enough to prevent the advancement of men of virtue and let the country fall into sickness and disarray. We request that hereafter their office

Book XV

871

not exceed rank 3, and they should not be allowed to become officials in the court. If they have made special contributions, they should be rewarded with gold and silk. The office of junior eunuchs should not surpass rank 5, and they should not be allowed to become officials, either. “1. Since historians are responsible for recording current affairs, we request that hereafter they be allowed to attend you on your left and right. “1. The reason the law unexceptionally requires officials to pass through the Censorate for their confirmation is to examine their talent and virtue and to make sure that their status and identity fit the standard for their public employment. However, the officials above rank 4 are now chosen directly without confirmation process. Consequently, it happens that incompetent people are confusingly mixed with men of talent, and even men of base social status can join the rank of officials. We request that the officials above rank 2 be appointed as before, but that the officials whose rank is lower than grand master for supporting probity [rank 2b] should be appointed after passing through the confirmation of the Censorate. “1. In ancient times [in China], the people with the surnames of Xi and He inherited the office of their forefathers, generation after generation, and people did not buy medicine unless the house of the doctor had practiced medicine for no less than three generations. We request that hereafter the profession of the doctors attached to the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory and the Palace Medical Office be made hereditary so that their art of medicine can be perfected. “1. Those who are unable to speak Chinese should not be appointed to the Court of Interpreters, and those who failed to master the books on the art of war should not be employed as instructors of the Military Training Agency. “1. The provincial hallyang officials who were recommended for their exemplary conduct and talent came up to the capital but still remain unemployed indefinitely, which is no small problem. We request that those who are worthy to be employed be employed, and those who are not be allowed to return to their homes.” The king said, “The officials above rank 4 shall be appointed as they used to for the time being.” 21st Day (Kyesa)

A meteor emerged from Vega and entered the lodge of Altair. *   *   *

872

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

[The king] had the official letters of appointment of Kang Kyegwŏn, Han Kyu, Chŏng Sinŭi, Chŏng Chin, Kang T’aek, Yi Cho, O Mongŭl, Yi Su, Sin Kŭkkong, Chang Yunhwa, Hong Yuyong, Sin Kŭgon, Yu Ŭnji, Yu Yŏnji, Pak Ki, and Kang Chunggyŏng withdrawn and their lands and tenants assigned to government offices. Then, he also expelled forty-­three officials, including Yi Chi, Nam Sil, Sim Towŏn, Yi Paegyu, Chŏng Tongsŏk, and Yi Kwisaeng, from the capital and sent them to local districts. In addition, he had Yi Tŭkbun exiled to Kilchu, Kim Chu deprived of his letter of appointment and his lands and tenants assigned to government offices, and Yun Sang driven out to live in local districts, while his lands and tenants were assigned to government offices. 22nd Day (Kabo)

An annual memorial service was held for Queen Sinŭi at Changŭi Monastery. 26th Day (Musul)

The Privy Council, with the approval of the king, decided the amount of stipend for the provincial military commanders. The personnel and horses that each commander was provided with was fifteen officers and runners (pandang), fifteen attendants (chong’in), and fifteen large and small horses, as well as fifty officers stationed at the military headquarters, fifty attendants, fifty large and small horses, and thirty-­seven artisans that manufacture military weapons. 28th Day (Kyŏngja)

There were strong winds, which were fierce enough to knock down trees and blow tiles and stones off roofs. 29th Day (Sinch’uk)

Mars closely approached the south part of the constellation named Pyŏngsŏng.23

23. Literally, “Constellation of Fence,” it is located near the constellation of Orion.

Book XV

873

*   *   * The king had eunuch Cho Sun beheaded. The Office of the InspectorGeneral submitted a memorial to the king: “In the previous dynasty, Cho Sun presumptuously served in the Security Council and, concurrently, as commissioner of the Capital Constabulary, displaying his power both in the capital and the provinces and killing many innocent people. Furthermore, despite the fact that the king he used to serve perished, he managed to survive, and everyone has hated him. Recently, he again flattered the old eunuch Kim Sahaeng to establish connections and gained the king’s favor, while deceiving him recklessly. His crime deserves to be punished by death. In addition, he was in league with the clique of Chŏng Tojŏn and Nam Ŭn and helped them from inside the palace, carrying out evildoing together. On the day when Your Majesty ascended the throne, he uttered unspeakable words, and everyone across the country said that he should be executed. We request that you bring him to justice strictly in accordance with the law, confiscating all of his properties so that he can serve as an admonishment to posterity.” The king granted the request.

10th Month 1st Day (Kyemyo)

The Merit Recommendation Office submitted a memorial to the king: “We respectfully read your royal decree, and it stated: ‘Because it has not been long since our dynasty was established, [officials] should have strived in solidifying the foundation [of the new nation] and making a good start, so that the Mandate of Heaven could be implemented and the dynasty handed down over ten thousand generations. However, Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and other treacherous subjects took advantage of the situation in which the former king was ill in bed for a long time and rose in revolt against the state. Relying on a young nothos of the king, they tried to harm our brothers and conspired to overthrow our monarchy, which has been already established, and the calamitous effects of their actions became unpredictable. Duke Ŭian Hwa, Duke Igan Pangŭi, Duke Hoean Panggan, Our Maj­esty [Pangwŏn], Marquis of Sangdang Yi Paekkyŏng, Left Chancellor Cho Chun, and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, as well as Yi Mu and Cho Pak, assistant grand coun­­cilors of the Chancellery; Ha Yun, Chancellery scholar; Yi Kŏi, ­assistant

874

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

grand councilor of the Chancellery; and Cho Yŏngmu, assistant chancellor, faced up to the crisis, displaying their loyalty, and suppressed the rebellion and restored peace.’ “This mainly happened because Your Majesty has cultivated virtue from the days prior to your enthronement, gained the hearts of Heaven and the people, and thereby suppressed rebellion and inherited the throne, obeying the Mandate of Heaven. However, it also owed to the contributions made by outstanding subjects who helped you overcome the crisis and restore peace, which was well indicated in your royal decree. Their contributions were indeed not small and difficult to be forgotten. “We request that they be named Chŏngjong merit subjects first class and a shrine built in their honor, with their portraits hung and monuments erected. They should be enfeoffed with titles and lands, and their parents and wives enfeoffed by skipping three ranks, whether they are alive or not. Their direct-­line sons should be granted the ŭm privilege by skipping three ranks, and if they have no sons, their nephews and sons-­in-­law should be granted the ŭm privilege by skipping two ranks. In addition, they should be provided with a certain amount of lands, a certain number of male and female slaves, seven attendants (kusa), and ten private soldiers (chinbae p’aryŏng) who are just starting their career. Their legitimate heirs shall be allowed to keep their inheritance without losing their stipend throughout generations, and their children shall be recorded in the official register as “descendants of Chŏngjong merit subject first class” and any of their crimes forgiven throughout generations even if they commit them. “Marquis of Yŏngan Yangu; Marquis of Ch’ŏngwŏn Sim Chong; and Marquis of Pongnyŏng Pokkŭn; as well as Yi Chiran, assistant chancellor; Chang Sagil, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery; Cho On, assistant consultative grand councilor of the Chancellery; Kim No, commissioner of the Security Council; Pak P’o, discussant of the Security Council; Chŏng T’ak, former academician of the Security Council; Yi Ch’ŏnu, associate commissioner of the Security Council; Chang Sajŏng, discussant of the Security Council; Chang Tam, associate deputy commissioner of the Secu­ rity Council; Chang Ch’ŏl, deputy director of the Security Council; Yi Sukbŏn, fifth royal secretary; Sin Kŭngnye, supreme general; Min Mugu, general-­in-­chief; and Min Mujil, third minister of taxation, all participated in the discussion of saving the country until they suppressed rebellion and restored peace. As your royal decree indicated, their contributions are not insignificant and therefore cannot ever be forgotten.

Book XV

875

“We request that they be named Chŏngjong merit subjects second class and a shrine built in their honor, with their portraits hung and monuments erected. Their parents and wives should be enfeoffed by skipping two ranks, whether they are alive or not, and their direct-­line sons granted the ŭm privilege by skipping two ranks, and if they have no sons, their nephews and sons-­in-­law should be granted the ŭm privilege by skipping one rank. In addition, they should be provided with a certain amount of lands, a certain number of male and female slaves, five attendants, and eight private soldiers who are starting their career. Their legitimate heirs shall be allowed to keep their inheritance without losing their stipend, and their children shall be recorded in the official register as “descendants of Chŏngjong merit subject second class” and any of their crimes forgiven throughout generations even if they commit them.” When this memorial was submitted to the king, the king granted the requests and ordered that they be carried out as proposed. He ordered that each of the merit subjects first class be granted 200 kyŏl of land, twenty-­five male and female slaves, one royal horse with a saddle and a halter with reins, one gold-­ decorated belt, and one bolt of fabric for the inside and outside of clothing. As to the merit subjects second class, who are Cho On, Yi Ch’ŏnu, Chang Ch’ŏl, Yi Sukbŏn, Sin Kŭngnye, Min Mugu, and Min Mujil, the king ordered that each be granted 150 kyŏl of land, fifteen male and female slaves, a royal horse, a gold-­decorated belt, and a bolt of fabric for the inside and outside of clothing. As to Yi Yangu, Sim Chong, Yi Pokkŭn, Yi Chiran, Chang Sagil, Kim No, Pak P’o, Ch’ŏng T’ak, Chang Sajŏng, and Chang Tam, who are also merit subjects second class, the king ordered that each be granted with 100 kyŏl of land, ten male and female slaves, one royal horse, one gold-­and­silver-­decorated belt, and one bolt of fabric for the inside and outside of clothing. 3rd Day (Ŭlsa)

Kong Pu and others returned home from Liaodong, China. When they arrived in Liaodong, they heard that the emperor had passed away and was succeeded by his grandson, who declared a great amnesty upon his enthronement. Thus, they were able to return home. *   *   *

876

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The censorial offices submitted a memorial to the king: “Observing things quietly, the traitor Nam Ŭn recklessly abused his power to entrust his relatives and right-­hand men with military power and deploy them in various garrisons. An Pin, former commander of Happ’o Garrison, was his right-­hand man, and Sin Yujŏng, former commander of Isan Garrison; Pak Ryŏng, former commander of Kangju Garrison; Yi Sin, former commander of Samch’ŏk Garrison; and Han Ch’ŏndong, former associate commander of Kansŏng Garrison, are all his relatives. When they arrived at the posts, they neglected to look after the people and only conducted military training even though the season was inappropriate for such training. In spite of their crimes, which were not small, they are now residing in the capital and running around as if nothing happened. Therefore, we cannot help eliminating this clique of traitors. We request that the Office of the Inspector-General withdraw their letters of appointment and banish them to the outside and prevent them from rising in rebellion from the outset.” The king only granted that they be banished from the capital to live in the provinces. 5th Day (Chŏngmi)

Sitting in the royal lectures, the king had official Pae Chungnyun present a lecture on the Essentials of the Government of the Zhenguan Period. 9th Day (Sinhae)

Leading twenty-­nine enthronement merit subjects, the king [Chŏngjong] concluded a pact, and its document was as follows: “Your subject Kyŏng, the king of Chosŏn—together with the members of my royal family, Duke Ŭian Hwa, Duke Igan Pangŭi, Duke Hoean Panggan, and Our Majesty [Pangwŏn], as well as high officials, including Left Chancellor Cho Chun, and Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng—dares to make an announcement before Heaven and Earth, the Royal Ancestral Shrine, the Gods of Earth and Grain, and the various spirits and deities of mountains and rivers. “My ancestors strove after virtue for a hundred years, and our former king with sacred virtue and outstanding contributions to the state obeyed the Mandate of Heaven and hearts of the people, and my two or three brothers assisted him until he finally attained the throne of our kingdom. “The wicked subjects, Chŏng Tojŏn, Nam Ŭn, and others, however, unexpectedly tried to eliminate the rightful heir from succession, changing the

Book XV

order of old and young, because they wanted to perpetuate their privileges through royal favor and also thought that establishing the youngest son as the new king was more advantageous for them. Thus, they harbored evil intentions and conspired to harm our brothers until the calamitous effects of their actions became unpredictable. Fortunately, thanks to the help of Heaven and Earth and my ancestors, the traitors were seized and executed. “Being the eldest son and rightful heir, I had no choice but to obey the order of the former king and become his successor, but, worried that I might fail to discharge my responsibility, I continue to work from early morning until late at night but can still hardly find ways to overcome this crisis. “Looking back, when the wicked gang instigated the rebellion, the members of the royal family and the officials of all ranks rose up to confront them out of their loyalty and for the cause of righteousness. Taking decisive measures, they suppressed the rebellion and restored peace. Due to their service and success, the state became stabilized. The great service accomplished by them should not be forgotten even if the Yellow River dries up to look like a thin belt and Tai Mountain shrinks as small as a whetstone. So I give my orders to the office responsible to dispense rewards to those who rendered their service, and, choosing an auspicious day such as this, offer a sacrifice to the guardian spirits and conclude our pact. “The subjects who join me in this pact are one in body and soul. No matter how people slander them or try to have them alienated from me, I will not suspect them, and even if they commit offenses, I will forgive them forever, and their descendants throughout generations shall not forget what happened today. “You who participate in this pact shall redouble your efforts to assist the royal house and perpetuate its rule, while enjoying the fruits of your service with your country. If there is anything that you feel suspicious about, you shall directly let it be known to each other, and if there is anything that you feel resentful about against each other, you shall resolve it rationally, talking face to face. Everyone shall be sincere, never throwing others into danger by pretending to be pleased in their presence while hating and hurting them behind their back. If one makes a mistake, others shall help him to correct it, and when one is in trouble, others shall lend their assistance. You need to get together, always encouraging each other with virtue and sharing good and bad times all the way to the end. “If this pledge is violated, there will certainly be the punishment of the gods, and the calamity will reach your descendants. Every one of you must

877

878

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

be careful in conducting yourself and make sure that you dare not be neglectful of what is to be done.” 10th Day (Imja)

The king had O Mong’ŭl executed and Chŏng Chin assigned to the navy. Censor Kwŏn Suk and others submitted a memorial to the king: “Mong’ŭl, Chin, and others conspired with Tojŏn, Ŭn, and others in order to establish a nothos as the heir for succession and harm the members of the royal family, and their crimes were clearly exposed. Tojŏn, Ŭn, and others were already seized and put to death, but Mong’ŭl and Chin are still allowed to keep their lives, which shows that different sentences were carried out for the same crime. We request that these people be brought to justice so that the roots of treason can be eradicated.” Consequently, the king gave his order as above. 11th Day (Kyechíuk)

It was the former king’s birthday. By this time, the former king had recovered from his illness. So the king led dukes and marquises, who were the members of the royal family, to the Northern Hall and offered food to the former king. Then everyone enjoyed the banquet until it was over. The king pardoned the prisoners whose crimes were less than those subject to capital punishment either by beheading or strangulation. 15th Day (Chŏngsa)

Onshadō, king of Sannan of the Ryukyu Kingdom, died. 18th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king sought advice from his subjects by issuing a royal decree. 26th Day (Mujin)

Chŏngjong merit subjects served food to the king and entertained him at the Hall of Diligent Government. The king banished Nam Chae to Ŭiryŏng. At first, Our Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan] wanted to save Chae and ordered him to stay at his house. His mother thought that Chae had died along with his brother Ŭn, the leader of

Book XV

the rebellion, and mourned him bitterly. So Chae plucked out his beard and sent it to his mother. His mother said, “Chae is not dead.” After the rebellion was suppressed, Chae visited his mother at the farm in Kwaju and stayed there. Later, he heard the news that the people related to Ŭn’s clique were about to be punished. Now he became scared and ran away in disguise. General-­in-­Chief Ma Ch’ŏnmok ran across him on the road in Wansan 24 and had him confined in the local office. He went up to the capital and reported the matter to the court. As a result, the king gave such an order. 28th Day (Kyŏngo)

The Capital Constabulary had a kisaeng named Kukhwa [meaning “Chry­ santhemum”] drowned in the Han River. At first, Kukhwa became a concubine of [Chancellor] Cho Chun. After she was abandoned by him, she was resentful and said to others, “Chun is planning to commit treason.” Then Chun requested that she be interrogated. The king had her confined in the Capital Constabulary. When she made a confession upon interrogation, they immediately had her drowned. 29th Day (Sinmi)

The Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies requested that the order of rank of military officials be fixed: “1. The military commissioners of the Three Armies Headquarters and provincial commissioners of local provinces should be allowed to gather at the Headquarters, discuss together various major and minor military affairs related to the capital and provinces, and implement them, just as the Privy Coun­ ­cil regularly holds a meeting on appointed days [to carry out affairs of state]. “1. The grand master for government overall (t’ongjŏng taebu), who is a civil official, is equivalent in rank to assault-­resisting general (chŏlch’ung changgun), who is a military official. Five royal secretaries as well as chancellor of the National Academy all wear silver-­decorated belts with flowers engraved on them, but assault-­resisting generals simply wear silver-­decorated belts with no design. We request that assault-­resisting generals be allowed to wear the same kind of belts as their civil counterparts. “1. According to the old military system, the rank of the generals of the Three Armies Headquarters was above that of third ministers (ŭirang; rank

24. Modern Chŏnju.

879

880

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

3a) of the six boards. Previously, when Tojŏn changed the system, he placed it below the rank of drafters of the Chancellery (naesa sain; rank 4b). We request that the rank of the generals be restored to its previous status. “1. In former times, civil and military officials could exchange posts, and the system was intended to eliminate mutual conflicts between the two groups of officials. Therefore, supreme generals and generals-­in-­chief served concur­ ­rently as second inspector (chungsŭng) and auxiliary remonstrator (chingmunha), respectively, and the general in command of a precinct (pangju changgun) served concurrently as third minister of war. We request that the old system be restored.” After the king ordered the Privy Council to discuss the matter, the Privy Council reported the result of their discussion to the king: “Going back to much earlier times, the rank of assault-­resisting general was below that of chancellor of the National Academy, and general for safeguarding righteousness (poŭi changgun) was lower in rank than grand master of remonstrance. We request that, based on this precedent, the commander-­in-­chief of the Three Armies Headquarters be lower in rank than the third minister of personnel, and the commanding general of each division be lower than the third minister of war. As for the other requests made by the Three Armies Headquarters, they should be granted as they are.” The king followed the advice.

11th Month 1st Day (Kyeyu)

The king prohibited the drinking of alcohol. 5th Day (Chŏngch’uk)

It was the winter solstice. Leading the officials, the king performed a congratulatory ceremony towards the imperial palace of China and received felicitations from his subjects, sitting in the Hall of Diligent Government. 6th Day (Muin)

Tamyang County was elevated in status to Tamyang Prefecture because it was a district where Queen Tŏkbi’s maternal family resided.

Book XV

881

7th Day (Kimyo)

The king took Lady Yu as his royal concubine. Lady Yu used to be the king’s concubine when he was out of view staying at his private house [before he was enthroned], and she was Inspector-General Cho Pak’s sister. She was married to someone at an early age and had a son named Pulno. She lived in Chukchu, and Cho Pak spoke to the king about her around this time. The king bade Lady Yu and her son welcome to his private mansion and later called them into the palace, providing them with proper attire and equipment. Then he enfeoffed the lady as Princess Kaŭi (Kaŭi Ongju) and designated her son as his firstborn (wŏnja). Yi Sukbŏn visited Duke Chŏngan at his residence, and the duke called him to his bedchamber to talk. Sukbŏn said, “It has not been more than a few months since the state became stabilized. During that time, a man such as Cho Pak, one of your close relatives, has changed a little, and the thoughts of other people are also hard to tell. Now it is time that Your Highness should seriously consider measures concerning your safety, and preparations for the troops to protect you cannot be delayed, either.” The Prince became upset to hear the remark and said, “Are you people saying such words because you are not satisfied with the wealth and fame that you were awarded?” Sukbŏn replied, “We are not lacking in wealth and fame. The reason a few of us, your subordinates, stabilized the state in a critical time, risking our lives, was to see Your Highness enthroned. Now, a man called “firstborn” is in the palace. Though we have little to do with him, you will certainly regret it unless you listen to what we say. Since I am a common person, I can run away, shaving my head. Your Highness, however, is different. Where can you go?” The prince did not answer. 11th Day (Kyemi)

The king posthumously honored his real mother, Consort Chŏl, Lady Han, by enfeoffing her as Queen Sinŭi. Appointing Right Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng commissioner for presenting noble titles (pongch’aeksa) and Ha Yun, assistant grand councilor, as vice commissioner, he established the spirit tablet of the queen at the detached palace, which he named Insojŏn. *   *   *

882

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Sitting in the Office of Royal Lectures, the king ordered Deputy Director Cho Pak to present a lecture on the Great Learning. The censors submitted a memorial to the king, which contained four reform measures on current affairs: “1. The most important of the teachings of Buddha is to keep hearts clean by reducing desires. Building temples and making pagodas and statutes of Buddha are nothing but secondary. A gang of ignorant monks, under the pretext of building new temples or reading some Buddhist sutras, goes around districts and counties as the monks please. Showing their written prayer with the royal signature, they insult local magistrates and lure foolish people. We request that you prohibit them from recklessly frequenting the palace to obtain the king’s signature on their written prayers and from visiting the people to extort them of their properties with those written prayers, and that those who dare to violate this order be strictly investigated and punished by the office responsible. “1. The purpose of establishing an office and peerage is to raise the dignity of the royal court and govern the people in accordance with the will of Heaven. Therefore, it is most necessary to employ the scholars who are wise, capable, and fair-­minded. At the end of the previous dynasty, even artisans, merchants, and base servants could purchase offices, causing disgrace to the dignity of the court. The old abuses and evil practices still remain unchanged. We request that hereafter the artisans, merchants, and base servants be rewarded with property if they made contributions to the state, not with offices in the government, so that the dignity of the office can be raised, and the royal court respected. “1. Since the security of the royal palace cannot but be strict, royal guards are installed both inside and outside to check and control the people who come in and out. The purpose of installing these guards is not only to prevent unexpected incidents but also to prevent the people who visit from requesting an audience with the king so that they cannot mislead the king and throw the court into disarray. At the end of the previous dynasty, monks and women who were crafty and petty frequented the palace as much as they wanted, and because of that, the judgment of the king was clouded and order and discipline deteriorated. We request that hereafter people should be prohibited from entering the palace freely and that this restriction be enforced. “1. Though we already have the law of evaluating the performance of local magistrates, it happens that those who are appointed to the posts in the

Book XV

capital after serving as local officials are often dismissed from their jobs after only a short time. This is a problem because it goes against the principle of encouraging officials to improve the performance of their duties. From this day forward, those who did outstanding jobs and are ordered to serve in the royal court as they finish the term of three years should not be dismissed too quickly, to show how serious the government is in encouraging officials for their good works.” The king followed the advice. 16th Day (Muja)

A meteor appeared in broad daylight, and it appeared as big as a bottle. 18th Day (Kyŏngin)

Dressed with a royal robe and a mortarboard crown with strings of hanging beads on front and back, and sitting in the Hall of Diligent Government, the king bestowed a document of investure and a seal (ch’aekbo) upon his royal wife, Queen Tŏk. He appointed Cho Chun, left chancellor, as commissioner for presenting noble titles, and Yi Kŏi, assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery, as vice commissioner for presenting noble titles. The document of investure that they wrote was as follows: “The Book of Changes clarifies the human relationship through the xian and heng hexagrams,25 and the Book of Rites recognizes the importance of the marital relationship by strictly scrutinizing the justification of matrimony. The ancient rules of conduct taken into account, which the spouse is always supposed to observe, the honorable title given her is made and presented with these words. “Lady Kim is exceptionally sincere and discreet, dignified and virtuous. From an early age, she has lived in harmony with her family by observing the way for unmarried young women, and when she became the wife of the eldest son [referring to King Chŏngjong himself], she successfully managed the affairs of our great family by carrying out her duties most excellently. When the nothos [Prince Yi Kangsŏk] caused trouble, she assisted her husband to overcome the crisis. Since she has already proved that she does not dislike the royal protocol and etiquette, she can help to generate a good influence on the general custom and the enlightenment of the people.

25. These two hexagrams concern the proper conduct of married people.

883

884

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

I hereby invest her with the title of Queen Tŏk and bestow her with a document of investure and a seal. “Ah! Yu Shun [Emperor Shun] took his wives while living in Weirui and laid the foundation of his prosperity, and King Wu of Zhou took Yi Jiang [of the State of Qi] as his wife and received assistance from her for governing the state. As you follow the examples made by ancient sages, let your descendants enjoy the blessings.” Holding a banquet for his enthronement merit subjects at the Hall of Diligent Government, the king bestowed each of them with a royal decree and a certificate of merit subject status. Those at the banquet left after enjoying themselves to their hearts’ content. 19th Day (Sinmyo)

There was a thick cloud of yellow fog on all four sides. 20th Day (Imjin)

Ice was formed on trees. 26th Day (Musul)

Pak Tuŏn, a servant of Pangbŏn [nothos of T’aejo], and others were seized and executed for plotting a rebellion. When Tuŏn formed a clique in order to raise a rebellion, Karach’i, a servant of Kim Sŏngbu, former vice commandant, joined the clique in the plot and secretly informed Yi Sukbŏn, fifth royal secretary, of the plot, and the latter in turn reported it to Our Majesty [then Duke Chŏngan]. When the authorities seized Tuŏn and others and interrogated them, it became clear that they were guilty as charged. Tuŏn was put to death by quartering, and the four other conspirators, includ­ ­ing Cho Tuŏn, were beheaded. Another two men, including Pak Song, were given one hundred strokes of a heavy paddle and assigned to the navy for failing to turn themselves in despite the fact that they knew about the plot. Karach’i [the informer] was rewarded with 10 sŏk each of rice and beans as well as a set of clothing. 28th Day (Kyŏngja)

The Loyal and Valiant Guards (Ch’ungyongwi), who protect the king at close range, were revived.

Book XV

885

*   *   * A guest star approached the moon. 30th Day (Imin)

Sŏl Changsu, director of the State Finance Commission, was dispatched to the Ming capital.

12th Month 1st Day (Kyemyo)

[The king] ordered the provincial military land exempted of its taxes. 2nd Day (Kapchin)

The Three Armies Headquarters submitted a memorial to the king: “It is inconvenient to levy corvée labor differently, in accordance with the number of households and the size of reclaimed land. So we would like to request that the law be abolished.” Earlier, when Ha Yun, assistant grand councilor, served as governor of Kyŏnggi and Chŏlla Provinces, he made a new law that levies corvée labor differently, in accordance with the number of households and the size of reclaimed land, because he believed that in olden days the troops were recruited from among the farmers. The people found the law very convenient, but those with power and large lands mostly disliked it. Around that time, Ha Yun made a proposal once again to carry out the law, and the Three Armies Headquarters made a request to abolish it. Nevertheless, local magistrates continued to practice the law as they used to. 3rd Day (Ŭlsa)

Because of severe cold, the prisoners guilty of minor crimes were released. 4th Day (Pyŏngo)

A meteor emerged from the west of the Supreme Palace Enclosure, and it was red and as big as a wine cup. A small meteorite also followed the former and fell to earth. *   *   *

886

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

The government had seven households, including that of Ch’oe Paegan Bulhwa [Cui Boyanbuhua], which initially settled in Ulju, transferred to Kongju, providing them with the farmland formerly owned by Cho Sun. 5th Day (Chŏngmi)

Tang Sŏng, minister of taxation, was dismissed. When Sŏng failed to win his slave lawsuits at the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits, he said to an official of the Directorate: “How can you call your office the Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits? It is, in fact, the opposite of what it is supposed to be.” For his remark, he was impeached by the Office of the Inspector-General and dismissed. 6th Day (Musin)

Left Chancellor Cho Chun requested that he be allowed to resign as commander-­in-­chief of Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces and returned the official seals he had and the troops under his command. Accepting his resignation, the king immediately handed over the troops to Kim Su, Lord of Wŏlsŏng,26 who was related to him through kinship. Left Chancellor Cho Chun and others had an audience with the king to directly make proposals on three current affairs: “1. We had a great famine this year. We would like to ask you to send your orders to various provinces to save the people from starvation by releasing the reserves of their military provisions. The magistrates who worked hard to save the people should be rewarded and employed in accordance with the number of people they saved, and those who caused the people to starve to death by neglecting to provide them with relief, investigated and severely punished. “1. The people over eighty years old in all provinces, regardless of being men or women, as well as filial sons and grandsons, men of integrity, loyal wives, and those who are too poor and disabled to make a living on their own, should all be exempted from miscellaneous corvée duties and particularly looked after without regard to their social status. “1. Those among the filial sons and grandsons and men of integrity who are worthy to be employed should be reported separately so that the reports

26. King Chŏngjong’s brother-­in-­law.

Book XV

on them can be used as references for their employment in the future.” The king said, “Fine.” 8th Day (Kyŏngsul)

The king forgave the unpaid taxes and tributes for last year owed by various provinces. The government prohibited people from slaughtering oxen and horses. 9th Day (Sinhae)

Sitting in the Office of Royal Lectures, the king read the Analects for the first time. The historiographer requested that he be allowed to attend the royal lectures, but the king did not grant his request. The Privy Council ordered governors of each province to report the names of the magistrates who made outstanding achievements during their service over the past thirty years. After reading the reports made by each government agency, the king ordered the Privy Council to submit the ones among those reports that were most appropriate. 12th Day (Kabin)

When General-­in-­Chief Yun Kon presented a set of weasel-­lined robes, the king bestowed one hundred bolts of osŭngp’o fabric upon him. 14th Day (Pyŏngjin)

Sitting in the Office of Royal Lectures, the king listened to the lecture on the Anaelects, which was about the remark of Confucius: “He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.”27 The king asked Chŏn Paegyŏng, an official in charge of the lecture that day, “Why does the solar eclipse take place?” Paegyŏng replied, “It is a response made by

27. Book II. “Wei Chang” (Legge, p. 145).

887

888

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

Heaven to what men do down on the earth. The story of King Ashura that Buddhist monks talk about is not true.”28 15th Day (Chŏngsa)

A meteor emerged out of the Eridanus constellation (Kuyusŏng) and disappeared to the southwest. The Board of Rites submitted a memorial to the king: “The Book of Rites says, ‘The saying that the superior man mourns all his life for his parents has reference to the recurrence of the day of their death.’29 According to the custom of the previous dynasty, on the death anniversary of their parents, people did not purify themselves or sacrifice; they only invited monks and served them with food. This was not only against the principle of filial piety but also against the rule of proper conduct toward parents. “We request that, hereafter, one who has a death anniversary refrain from eating strong-­smelling vegetables [garlic and scallion], drinking alcohol, and having meat, starting from one day before the anniversary, while purifying himself in a detached room, until the moment he performs the sacrifice. The sacrificial food should be prepared and arranged on the table according to the instruction manual “Diagram of Displaying Sacrificial Food and Wine” (Sihyang chinsŏldo), published by the Board of Rites. During the occasion, he should also keep away from women and never accept guests, and by putting all these rules into practice, he should fulfill what is meant by “the superior man mourns all his life for his parents.” The king followed the advice. The king recognized Our Majesty [then Prince Chŏngan], Duke Igan Pangŭi, and Duke Hoean Panggan for the contributions they made for the founding of the new dynasty and had them additionally recorded with the title and appropriate rewards. He instructed that the rewards for them should be based on those given to Cho Chun, a dynasty-­founding merit subject first class. 28. Ashura, or Asura, was originally a demigod who appeared in Hindu mythology. He is a sort of Titanic figure rebelling against the main god, Lord Vishnu. He is ultimately defeated but, still immortal, takes his revenge in the form of solar and lunar eclipses every once in a while. Therefore, the eclipses were thought to be a bad omen. 29. Book XXI. “Ki I” (Legge, p. 211).

Book XV

The king said, “My three brothers first stood up for a great cause and gave themselves to the founding of a new dynasty. Hence, their contributions are so great that they cannot be forgotten even if the Yellow River dries up to look like a thin belt and Tai Mountain shrinks as small as a whetstone. At first, the former king [T’aejo] had their contributions not recorded and publicly recognized because they were his own sons, and nothing has changed until now. However, it is the unchanging law and custom of all ages that one who makes contributions to the state should be rewarded, and therefore I cannot help doing what I should do.” Then he bestowed upon each of them thirty male and female slaves and 200 kyŏl of land, and ordered shrines built in their honor and their portraits hung in them, and their contributions inscribed on the monuments. 16th Day (Muo)

The king attended the royal lecture. Yi Sŏ, deputy director of royal lectures, made a presentation of a chapter in the Analects, which was about the folly of usurped sacrifices committed by the chief of the Ji family.30 Expositor (siganggwan) Yu Kwan stepped forward and said, “According to the Book of Rites, the Son of Heaven sacrifices to heaven and earth, and the princes of the states to the mountains and rivers that are in their own territories. Therefore, when the chief of the Ji family sacrificed to Tai Mountain, Confucius reproached this seriously.31 Then, it is also against propriety that the high officials of our country sacrifice to famous mountains.” The king asked, “If this is so, why was such a practice allowed to continue until now?” Yu Kwan replied, “It started in the previous dynasty. As we failed to prohibit it at the beginning of our dynasty, we still have it now. We urge Your Majesty to prohibit it.” 17th Day (Kimi)

Cho Chun, left chancellor, Cho Pak, concurrent inspector-general, Ha Yun, assistant grand councilor, Yi Ch’ŏm, academician of the Chancellery, Cho Yong, left grand master of remonstrance, Chŏng Io, vice minister of the Court of Royal Sacrifices, and others jointly compiled the Compendium of

30. “Bayi,” Analects, Confucius (Legge, p. 156). 31. “The Royal Regulations,” The Li Ki (Legge, p. 225).

889

890

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

the Four Books (Sasŏ chŏlyo) and submitted it to the king together with the following memorial: “Since the rule of the king depends on the learning of the mind-­and-­heart (simhak), one should strive to focus his mind to take the Middle Way and saturate and nurture himself in it so that he can cultivate his person, regulate his household, and rule the state. “As we survey the books left by the sages, Analects, Mencius, Doctrine of the Mean, and Great Learning are generally most outstanding. We respectfully believe that Your Majesty has venerated and studied the sacred learning given by Heaven. At the beginning of your enthronement, you desired to study and illustrate the learning of Confucius, Zengzi, Zisi, and Mencius,32 but it was difficult for you to read and study them thoroughly during the leisure hours away from your work. So you ordered us to select the essential parts from those books and submit them to you. “We believe that there are no words from the sages that are not profound and significant in their meaning. However, since their words were often occasioned by certain incidents or produced differently according to the people who asked questions, it would be necessary for the ruler who studies their books to set a priority in his proceeding. Thus, we have selected only the sections that are essential to learning or related to the way of ruling the people and submit these to you after making a copy of them and binding this into a book. “We sincerely urge you to read them whenever you find time and thereby set straight your learning of the mind-­and-­heart. If you start from the studies of simple matters and extend your knowledge to attain the general understanding of the Four Books, and if you keep cherishing your old knowledge so as to continually be acquiring new and make progress day after day and month after month, you will see that beginning and end agree with each other, the work of your virtue flourishes, the way of sages regains its influence, and the rule of peace is accomplished.” The king was pleased with the memorial. On this day, the king attended the royal lecture. He asked Yu Kwan a question in relation to the lecture: “What 32. The authors of the Four Books. Though Confucius did not write the Analects, the book is ascribed to him. Zisi is generally believed to be the author of the Doctrine of the Mean; Zengzi, the author of the Great Learning, according to Zhu Xi; and Mencius was written by Mencius himself with the participation of his disciples, according to Sima Qian.

Book XV

is the meaning of the term ‘indulging in luxurious ease’ (hwangnyŏng)?”33 Kwan replied, “It refers to what the ancients called ‘indulging in women and hunting.’ ‘Indulging’ is one thing that the ruler must be wary of.” The king asked, “If so, should the ruler keep away from hunting?” Kwan replied, “According to the ancient customs, in the spring, he only caught the animals that were not pregnant; in the summer, only those that harmed other animals; in the autumn, only those that were fat; and in the winter, any animal he liked. However, the hunting was mainly intended to offer sacrifices to the ancestral shrine, not for enjoying hunting itself. The princes in later times, on the other hand, became reckless in pursuing their pleasure and indulged in traveling around to hunt whatever animals they liked, paying no attention to discipline and propriety, which was very inappropriate.” The king agreed with him. Yi Sŏ stepped forward and said, “The ruler should not indulge in things no matter what they are. If he does, it is inevitable that he loses his mind along with his judgment. The reason you establish the royal lectures, inviting your subjects who are Confucian scholars and having them present lectures on the Way of sages, is because you are anxious to emulate the exemplary rule of two emperors and three kings.34 Searching for famous poems and quoting fine phrases, and reciting and singing of the wind and the moon, can mislead the ruler, because that is not the right way for the ruler who wants to rule the state properly.” The king found his remark reasonable. 18th Day (Kyŏngsin)

The king called the dukes and marquises of the royal family to the inner royal hall and spent the night with them. 20th Day (Imsul)

The government had Myŏngjin District of Kyŏngsang Province merged into Kangsŏng County and named it Chinsŏng. Myŏngjin was formerly part of Kŏje Island, but because of Japanese marauders, its residents lost their homes and moved to the southern border of Chinju. As the district was 33. “Gongyechang,” Zhu Xi’s Reading of the Analects, trans. Daniel Gardener. 34. The two emperors refer to Yao and Shun, and the three kings, Yu of Xia, Tang of Yin, and Wen of Zhou.

891

892

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

small and its residents were few, the governor [of Kyŏngsang Province] requested that the government integrate it into a neighboring county. 22nd Day (Kapcha)

When the letter from the Ministry of Rites of China notifying the death of Emperor Taizu [posthumously Emperor Gao] arrived, Yi Kwich’ŏl, myriarch of Ŭiju, went out to take it and sent it to the court along with a Chinese calendar of the following year and his own report. His report said: “When Chinese envoys, including Chen Gang and Chen Li, arrived at the west side of the Yalu River, the myriarch went out to greet them. They wanted to leave right away after delivering the official letter they had brought, but the myriarch insisted that they take some rest. So they crossed the river and spent two days on the side of our border and then returned home.” The letter [from the Ministry of Rites of China] was as follows: “This letter, from the Ministry of Rites of Great Ming, concerns ceremonies and rites. Emperor Taizu, posthumously Gaozu, recently passed away, and the current emperor succeeded according to the will of the former emperor. Upon his inauguration, the new emperor proclaimed to all under heaven the coming year as the first year (yuannian) of Jianwen, which is his reign title (yŏnho). Since the proclamation was made, every overseas state that pays tribute to China must inquire about it and use it. Now we send you a copy of the Datongli imperial calendar of the first year of Jianwen.” 23rd Day (Ŭlch’uk)

Leading the hundred officials and dressed in plain clothes, the king performed the condolence ceremony (chinwirye) towards the imperial palace of China. The former king ordered the people to take out the wild animals raised in the backyard of the royal palace to a large and empty field and have them released. 24th Day (Pyŏngin)

Leading various dukes and marquises, the king held a banquet and entertained the former king [T’aejo], and the latter was very pleased.

Book XV

25th Day (Chŏngmyo)

A streak of white energy encircled the sun. The king had a new portrait of Queen Sinŭi35 enshrined in the Hall of Insojŏn and went there to personally perform ancestor worship for her. 26th Day (Mujin)

Leading various officials, the king wore mourning dress for the late Emperor Gao [Taizu] at the Hall of Diligent Government, and major and minor officials also dressed themselves in mourning attire with large sleeves, thread caps, and hemp belts. The king ordered the office concerned to have morning audiences suspended and the markets closed and the playing of music prohibited, and let the officials take off their mourning dress after wailing for three days. Ŭnsil, a resident of Kyŏngsŏng of the Northeast Region, together with other residents, presented a hawk to the king. The king bestowed 10 sŏk of rice and beans upon them. The government ordered a hundred soldiers guarding the royal tomb of Chŏngnŭng reduced in their number and released to return to their original places.36 28th Day (Kyŏngo)

The king took off the mourning dress and changed into plain clothes. The officials of various government agencies also took off the mourning dress in their respective offices.37 The king sat in Pop’yŏngch’ŏng Hall and held a banquet for Left Chancellor Kim Sahyŏng, congratulatory envoy for the new emperor of Ming China (tŭnggŭksa), and Chancellery Scholar Ha Yun, who would visit China as 35. The birth mother of King Chŏngjong. 36. This appears to be a sign of disrespect for Queen Sindŏk, the king’s stepmother. 37. The king and the officials have observed mourning for the Ming emperor who passed away during this time.

893

894

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

an envoy to express condolences (chinwi chinhyangsa), and the farewell banquet ended at midnight. Then the king called Sahyŏng to his bedchamber and bestowed upon him wine as well as a fur-­lined robe and official headgear. 29th Day (Sinmi)

The king performed the congratulatory ceremony for the ascension of the Chinese emperor. The Privy Council urged the current officials who were above rank 6 to recommend men of ability for the position of county or district magistrate. Yu Kwan and Kang Sadŏk, chief secretaries of the Board of Punishments, No Sang, third minister, and other officials were dismissed. The Office of the Inspector-General submitted a memorial: “The royal decree that you last proclaimed says, ‘The Regulations of Six Boards is instrumental for governance. Each of the six boards should study the meaning of instituting offices and seek ways to fully accomplish its mission without negligence.’ However, the Board of Punishments, because of the allegations made against a prisoner in relation to his original social status, recklessly detained Yun Sim, an official of rank 3, without reporting it to higher authorities, which is first among the many mistakes it made. Only several days after the detainment, they made an ambiguous report in order to withdraw the prisoner’s letter of appointment, which is the second mistake they made. They interrogated Yun Sim at his private house and took a deposition of him and made an ambiguous report to the authorities, which is the third mistake they made. They detained the prisoner for three months and released him for no reason, which is the fourth mistake they made. They arrested the prisoner, whom they had already released, once again for no reason, which is the fifth mistake they made. They imprisoned criminals on the twenty-­fifth day of this month, but they manipulated the documents, changing the date of imprisonment to the third day of the tenth month, which is the sixth mistake they made. The weather is now very cold, but the prisoners whose cases are pending are forty-­five, and the ruling on crimes, including small ones, is delayed as long as seven to ten months, which is the seventh mistake they made. We request that you withdraw their letters of appointment and punish them according to law.” The king only

Book XV

allowed [the Office of the Inspector-General] to dismiss the officials responsible for the mistakes. The Privy Council submitted to the king the proposals that it selected among those made by each government office or agency: “1. When one performs ancestor worship, he must be sincere and reverent. The officials who are responsible for ancestor worship at the Royal Ancestral Shrine both on the first day and fifteenth day of the month neglect purifying themselves and pick up the incense in the afternoon, one day prior to the day when the ceremony takes place, and this is not right. We request that hereafter they should be ordered to purify themselves one day prior to the day of ancestor worship and pick up the incense in the morning and perform the worship at night while purifying themselves, and this practice should be made a permanent rule. “1. The four hundred lumberjacks of the Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation, who are residents of Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces, have no time to take care of their farms and livelihoods even during the busy farming season because they are required to produce a certain amount of lumber in a limited time, so they have no choice but to abandon their farming and run away. We request that hereafter the government calculate in advance the total amount of lumber necessary for the annual consumption and divide and distribute it to each district and county of Left and Right Kyŏnggi Provinces. If the government collects the lumber evenly twice a year during the spring and autumn seasons, the amount of lumber required of each household will turn out to be no more than a load. The lumber collected that way should be transported in time to the Directorate for Ship­ building and Transportation and used for the needs of the year. “1. Gold and silver and mercury are materials that are not produced in our country. The gold used for plating silverware requires repair and is completely wasted along with mercury when the silverware has to be repaired. In addition, the quality of the silver itself becomes bad in that process, and therefore there are only losses and no profits. The practice of plating goods [with gold] should be stopped completely except for belts that are part of the official uniform, marking their rank. The goods that are already gold-­plated, however, should not be prohibited. “1. Cloth, which is a commodity currency, is the product of the people’s labor. People, however, are using fine ramie cloth to make flowers and decorations for public and private banquets and throw them away once they have

895

896

t h e a n na ls of k i ng t ’a ejo

used them in that way because they become good for nothing after those occasions. Hereafter, except on the occasions of royal presentations or enter­­ taining Chinese envoys, the flowers made of cloth should be substituted by seasonal flowers or colorful paper flowers. “1. When poor people borrow grain from a rich family, they are forced to work at the latter’s farms during the busy farming season, which makes the rich become richer and the poor poorer. Wicked clerks and village heads also recklessly abuse poor people for no reason, making them abandon their farming. They should be prohibited from what they are doing, and at the same time, those who violate this prohibition should be punished, and the officials who neglect supervising them punished likewise. “1. When their parents die, the people in the countryside gather pallbearers, have drinks, and sing with them, showing no sorrow at all, and this is against propriety and custom. We request that hereafter this wrongful practice be stopped and those who violate the prohibition punished strictly. “1. Our capital, with its big river, is convenient for transportation, and therefore many people use it both privately and publicly. The Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation, however, under the pretext of transporting official freight, sends out personnel (chŏngun) who oversee shipping activities on the river, but they are often so ferocious and tyrannous that they physically abuse the people who travel the river by boat. The owners of boats are naturally outraged and resentful, so they sell their boats, and the merchants are fearful and reluctant to come into the capital, which leads to the increase of prices. “We request that the Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation have its personnel convey official freight by taking turns, and if they are short of boats, they can borrow them from civilians to meet deadlines but must pay for them according to the regulations. The ones who seize private vessels without due payment shall be reported and punished by the law of having stolen goods.” The king gave his permission for the implementation of the proposals. Tatara Yoshihiro, regional chief of Six Prefectures in Japan, under orders from the mother (taihujin) of the prime minister, sent a monk, Reichi, to present a gift and request a copy of the Tripitaka. The 3rd Month, 11th Kyesa Year (1413) of the Yongle Emperor’s Reign Your servant, Ha Yun, loyalty-­displaying, righteousness-­depending, virtue­sharing, state-­stabilizing, mandate-­assisting merit subject and, concurrently,

Book XV

greatly rectifying, state-­serving grand master for the defense of the state, councilor of the left of the State Council, director of Sumunjŏn Hall of Academicians, director of the Office of Royal Lectures and the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory and the Bureau of State Records, mentor of the crown prince, and Great Lord of Chinsan, as well as others, by royal decree, compile these veritable records and present them to His Majesty. The 6th Month, 13th Mujin Year (1448) of the Zhengtong Emperor’s Reign Your servant, Chŏng Inji, grand master for illustrious government, minister of personnel, director of the Hall of Worthies, administrative director of the Bureau of State Records, second mentor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office and, concurrently, chancellor of the National Academy, as well as others, by royal decree, compiled the expanded and emended version of these veritable records. The total number of the books consists of fifteen.

897

Glossary of Terms Aaksŏ 雅樂署  Music Office Aekchŏngsŏ 掖庭署  Office for Palace Administration Aema 愛馬  royal guards of various security divisions; also called Sŏngjunggwan Agan / ach’an 阿干 / 阿飡  holder of head rank 6 (Silla kingdom) Akchŏng 樂正  music master of the National Academy Allyŏmsa / Anch’alsa 按廉使 / 按察使  surveillance commissioner Ammul 押物  Tribute Manager Anin 安人  a title referring to the wives of officials of rank Sr. and Jr. 6 Anmusa 按撫使 / pacification commissioner Arokchŏn 衙祿田  land set aside for the provision of district salaries Baman 八蠻  eight barbarous states (in the south) Bianxiuguan編修官  junior compiler Chadŏkbu 慈德府  Chadŏk Special District Chaegung 齋宮  shrine room Ch’aengmun 策文  essays on policy Chaesang 宰相  grand councilor Chaesin 宰臣  grand councilor of the Chancellery Chahŏn taebu 資憲大夫  grand master for assisting toward fundamental laws



899

Glossary of Terms

900 Ch’allisa 察理使  surveillance commissioner Ch’am 站  post station

Ch’amch’an pusa / ch’amch’an Munhabu sa 參贊府事/ 參纂門下府事  assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery Ch’amch’an’gwan 參贊官  participant of the Office of Royal Lectures Ch’amgun 參軍  bailiff of the Kaesŏng Magistracy; of the Military Training Agency Chamisŏng 紫微星  a star in the Purple Forbidden Enclosure Chamiwŏn 紫微垣  Purple Forbidden Enclosure Ch’amjap’o 黲紫袍  dark purple traditional overcoat worn by an official who is summoned to service during the mourning of his parents Ch’amji chŏngsa 參知政事  state councilor; assistant grand councilor Ch’amji Munhabusa 參知門下府事  assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery Ch’amji Ŭijŏngbusa 參知議政府事  seventh state councilor Chamokso 孶牧所  Horse Breeding Ranch Ch’andŏk 贊德  lady of admonishment Chang 庄  proprietary land Ch’anggo chŏnminsa 倉庫田民使  officials of granaries and storehouses Changgun 將軍  general Changgyŏng togam 藏經都監  Directorate for the Publication of the Tripitaka Koreana Changhŭnggo 長興庫  Long Prosperity Warehouse Chang’iso 長貳所  Reviewing Office of the National Academy Changjakkam 將作監  Directorate for Palace Buildings Changmok pyŏlgam 斫木別監  timber supervisor Changnu 掌漏  keeper of the water clock of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory Changnyŏng 掌令  third inspector Changsa 長史  administrator

Glossary of Terms Changsaengjŏn 長生殿  Longevity Hall of Fame (enshrining the portraits of merit subjects) Changsarang 將仕郞  gentleman for ceremonial service Ch’angsin kyowi 彰信校尉  manifestly faithful commandant Changwŏn 壯元  principal graduate Ch’ansŏngsa 贊成事  assistant chancellor Chao 鈔  official banknote of Yuan China Chapdan 雜端  inspector of miscellaneous affairs; fourth inspector Chapkwa 雜科  technical examinations Ch’asaol 車沙兀  administrator of the Consorts’ Establishment Ch’asawŏn 差使員  commissioner Chaŭi 諮議  advisor; consultant Ch’eboksa 體覆使  military commissioner Chegŏ 提擧  supervisor Chegong 提控  controller Chegunsa 諸軍事  commander-­in-­chief Chehak 提學  deputy director of the Office of Special Counselors; of the Office of Royal Decrees Chehu 諸侯  various Marquises Chehyangsa 祭享司  Sacrifice Office Chejo 提調  commissioner; superintendent Chejogwan 提調官  supervisor (of ritual ceremonies) Cheng 丞  aide; assistant director Chesaengwŏn 濟生院  Lifesaving Dispensary Cheyonggo 濟用庫  Office of Royal Procurement; Saving Warehouse Chi 知  administrator of . . . Chi chusa 知州事  prefect; magistrate Chi Chungch’ubu sa 知中樞府事  administrative commissioner of the Security Council

901

Glossary of Terms

902

Chi Chungch’uwŏn pusa 知中樞院副事  deputy director of the Security Council Chi Chungch’uwŏn sa 知中樞院事  administrative commissioner of the Security Council Chi Hyŏngbu sa 知刑部事  vice minister of the Board of Punishments Chi kunsa 知軍事  provincial military commander Chi Milchiksa sa 知密直司事  administrative commissioner of the Security Council Chi Munhabu sa / chibusa 知門下府事 / 知府事  administrative grand councilor of the Chancellery Chi pyŏngmasa 知兵馬使  deputy provincial military commander Chi Ŭijŏngbu sa 知議政府事  acting sixth state councilor Chibŭi 執義  second inspector Ch’ibyong 治兵  training troops Chigonggŏ 知貢擧  examination administrator Chigwansa 知館事  administrative director of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records Chiin 知印  seal keeper Chijegyo 知製敎  participant in the drafting of proclamations Chijegyo tongji ch’unch’ugwan sa 知製敎同知春秋館事  participant in ­proclamation drafting and associate administrator of the Bureau of State Records Chik 直  auxiliary; superintendent; sentinel Chikchang 直長  superintendent Chikch’ŏp 職牒  letter of appointment Chikhak 直學  registrar of the National Academy Chikkang 直講  lecturer of the National Academy Chikkwan 直館  auxiliary of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records Ch’ilgung 七宮  Seven Palatial Offices (in Seoul)

Glossary of Terms Chillyŏp’o 蒺藜砲  shapnel bomb Ch’ilso 七所  Seven Sacred Sites Chin 鎭  suppressor Chindo 陣圖  Diagram of Troop Dispositions Chindŏk paksa 進德博士  second proctor of the National Academy Chin’gmunha 直門下  auxiliary remonstrator Ch’in’gunwi tojinmu 親軍衛都鎭撫  chief military commissioner of the Royal Guard Chinhŏn kwanmaso 進獻官馬所  Horse-­Purchasing Office for Tribute Payments Chinmaektogyŏl 診脈圖訣  The Secrets of Pulse Diagnosis through Diagrams Chinmasa 進馬使  tribute horse envoy Chinmu 鎭撫  military commissioner Chinnyong kyowi 進勇校尉  aggressively brave commandant Chinnyong puwi 進勇副尉  aggressively brave vice commandant Chinsasi 進士試  literary licenciate examination Chinwi chinhyangsa 陳慰進香使  envoy on mission to express condolences Chinwirye 陳慰禮  condolence ceremony Chiphyŏnjŏn 集賢殿  Hall of Worthies Chipi 持皮  handling the ball with the backside of the paddle in kyŏkku game Chip’yŏng 持平  fourth inspector Chirokche 地祿制  prebendal system Chisa 知事  administrative director; local magistrate Chisinsa 知申事  chief royal secretary Chisongzi 赤松子  Red Pine Immortal Chobong taebu 朝奉大夫  grand master of court service Chogaktae 皂角帶  black horn belt Chogŏ 漕渠  canal or waterways for the passage of grain transport ships

903

Glossary of Terms

904 Chogyo 助敎  instructor of the Palace Medical Office

Choho 助戶  support taxpayer (for duty soldiers); also called pongjok Chohoe 朝會  morning audience Chŏjangnang 著作郞  editorial director of the Publications Office Ch’oje 醮祭  Daoist Constellation Rites Chojŏn chŏlchesa 助戰節制使  provincial military commissioner for assisting the war effort Chojŏnsa 漕轉使  transport commissioner Chŏkchŏn 籍田  ruler’s ceremonial cultivation of his plot; the plot of land for the ruler’s ceremonial cultivation Ch’okch’ŏnhwa 觸天火  arrow of flying fire or rocket Chŏkdŏk suŭi sŏnwi pojo hyŏpch’an chwari kongsin 積德守義宣威補祚協贊佐 理功臣  merit subject for building virtue, defending righteousness, displaying dignity, cooperating with the new dynasty, assisting the king, and straightening out state affairs Chŏksisŏng 積屍星  Heap of Corpses; Algol Ch’ŏksŏkhŭi 擲石戱  stone fight Chŏlchesa 節制使  military commissioner Ch’ŏksŏkkun 擲石軍  Stone-Throwing Army Chŏlch’ung changgun 折衝將軍  assault-­resisting general Ch’ŏlgwŏn 鐵券  iron tally, an emblem of authority with the inscription of personal records including rank Ch’ŏllang 穿廊  corridor Chŏlli 典理  clerk Chŏlli ch’ongnang 典理摠郞  vice minister of the Board of Personnel Chŏlli chŏngnang 典理正郞  bureau section chief of the Board of Personnel Chŏlli p’ansŏ 典吏判書  minister of the Board of Personnel; minister of ­personnel Ch’ŏllŏngjŏn 鐵翎箭  rocket-­launched arrow

Glossary of Terms Ch’ŏlso 鐵所  smithy Ch’ŏlt’anja 鐵彈子  grenade Chŏltosa 節度使  provincial (army or navy) military commander Ch’ŏm chŏlchesa 僉節制使  assistant military commissioner; assistant commander-­in-­chief; assistant provincial commander; garrison commander Ch’ŏm Cungch’uwŏn sa 簽中樞院事  assistant director of the Security Council Ch’ŏmji Sŭngmŭnwŏn sa 僉知承文院事  assistant director of the Office of Diplomatic Correspondence Ch’ŏmsŏ / Ch’ŏmsŏ Chungch’uwŏn sa 僉書 / 簽書中樞院事  senior secretary of the Security Council Ch’ŏmsŏ milchik 僉書密直  senior secretary of the Security Council Ch’ŏmŭibu 僉議府  Chancellery; Council of State Chŏnaksŏ 典樂署  Music Bureau Chŏnbŏp Ch’ongnang 典法摠郞  vice minister of justice Chŏnbŏp p’ansŏ 典法判書  minister of justice Chonbŏpsa 典法司  Ministry of Justice; Office of Legal Administration; Office for Laws Chŏnbu 典簿  librarian of the National Academy Ch’ŏnch’ujŏl 千秋節  birthday of the imperial crown prince Ch’ŏnch’usa 千秋使  envoy on mission to celebrate the birthday of the imperial crown prince Chŏng 正  supervisor of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory; lieutenant (rank 9b) Chŏng yun 正尹  baron; count Chŏn’gaeksi 典客寺  Office of Receptions Chŏngaegnyŏng 典客令  manager of receptions Ch’ŏn’gam 天監  “Song of the Heavenly Mandate” Chŏngan Law 政案法  the law that requires the government to keep the personal records of officials

905

Glossary of Terms

906

Chŏngbang 政房  Personal Authority (established by Ch’oe U for the purpose of handling official appointments) Chongbusi 宗簿寺  Court of the Royal Clan Chŏngdang munhak 政堂文學  Chancellery scholar Chŏngdongbanggok 靖東方曲  “Song of Maintaining Peace in the Eastern Kingdom” Chŏngdongsŏng / Chŏngdong haengsŏng / Chŏngdonghaeng chungsŏsŏng 征東 省/ 征東行省 /征東行中書省  Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters Ch’onggwan 摠管  area commander-­in-­chief Ch’ŏnggye Paesŏngso 淸溪拜星所  Sanctuary of Purification and Obeisance to the Constellations Chongin 從人  attendant Chŏngsa kongsin 定社功臣  King Chŏngjong merit subjects Chŏngsun taebu 正順大夫  grand master for following righteousness Chŏnghŏn taebu 正憲大夫  grand master for illustrious government Chŏn’gusŏ 典廐署  Office of the Royal Grange Chŏn’gusŏng 天拘星  Dog Star; meteor Ch’onho 千戶  chiliarch; battalion commander Chŏngja 頂子  decorative headpieces on top of the hat Chŏngja 正字  proofreader (of the Publications Office) Ch’ongjae 冢宰  minister of state; high councilor Chŏngjŏn 正殿  main audience hall; main throne hall; Hall of Rectitude Chŏngjŏn 井田  well-­field Ch’ŏngjŏng kwayok 淸淨寡慾  obtaining a pure mind and restraining desires Chŏngmun 旌門  gate of honor (built by the state in honor of the chaste wife) Chŏngmun 正門  Gate of Uprightness Chongmyo 宗廟  Royal Ancestral Shrine Ch’ongnang 摠郞  vice minister Chŏngnang 正郞  bureau section chief

Glossary of Terms Chŏngnokso 正錄所  Righteous Records Office (of the National Academy) Ch’ŏngŏn 正言  fourth censor (of the Office of the Censor-General) Chŏngsa kongsin 定社功臣  King Chŏngjong merit subjects Chongsagwan 從事官  retainer; chief administrative officer Chongsarang 從仕郞  gentleman for escort service Chŏngsŏng 井星  Alhena (star) Chŏngsun taebu 正順大夫  grand master for following righteousness Chŏngsŭng 政丞  chancellor Chŏn’gusŏ 典廐署  Office of the Royal Grange Chŏn’gusŏng 天拘星  Dog Star; meteor Chŏn’gyo chubu 典敎主簿  recorder of the Palace Documents Office Chŏn’gyosi 典敎寺  Palace Documents Office Chŏngyŏksa 程驛使  post-­station master Ch’ ŏnho 千戶  chiliarch; battalion commander Ch’ŏnjanggunsŏng 天將軍星  Aries Constellation Ch’ŏnjonsang 天尊像  image of the Celestial Deity Chŏnjung kyŏng 殿中卿  minister of the Palace Directorate; palace censor Chŏnjung siŏsa 殿中侍御史  palace censor Chŏnjung sogyŏng 殿中少卿  vice minister of the Palace Directorate Chŏnjungsi 殿中寺  Palace Directorate; Royal Family Office Chŏnmun 箋文  letters of felicitations Chŏnnongsi 典農寺  Agriculture Office Chŏn’oksŏ 典獄署  Bureau of Prisons Ch’ŏnsanoryongjŏn 穿山五龍箭  incendiary five-­d ragon arrow Chŏnsi 殿試  palace examination Ch’ŏnsidan 天市垣, Heavenly Market Enclosure; Hercules Chŏnsŏ 典書  chief secretary; minister Ch’ ŏnt’aejong 天台宗  Ch’ ŏnt’ae Sect Chŏnŭigam 典醫監  Palace Medical Office; Directorate of Medicine

907

Glossary of Terms

908 Chŏnŭisi 典儀寺  Directorate of Ceremonies

Chŏnŭisi sa 典儀寺事  director of the Directorate of Ceremonies Chŏnunso 轉運所  Transport Station Ch’ŏnuwi 天牛衛  Thousand Bull Guard; Personal Guard Chŏpbansa 接伴使  escort commissioner Ch’orye 醮禮  Daoist Constellations Rites Chosan taebu 朝散大夫  grand master for closing court Chosŏn 漕船  grain transport ship Chosŏn kyŏnggukchŏn 朝鮮經國典  Administrative Code of Chosŏn Chosŏnguk taebuin 朝鮮國大夫人  State Mistress of Chosŏn Chuandenglu 傳燈錄  Records of the Transmission of the Lamp by Daoyuan Chubu 注簿  controller; assistant magistrate; recorder Ch’uch’ung pojŏl ch’anhwa kongsin 推忠保節贊化功臣  Uplifting and Loyal, Defending and Steadfast, Assisting and Enlightening Merit Subject Chuhwa 走火  arrow of flying fire or rocket Chujongso 鑄鍾所  bell factory Ch’umirwŏn 樞密院  Royal Secretariat; Security Council Chumunsa 奏聞使  envoy on a mission to make a report to the Chinese court Ch’unch’ugwan 春秋館  Bureau of State Records Ch’unch’u p’yŏnsu 春秋編修  junior compiler of the Bureau of State Records Ch’ung p’yŏnsugwan 充編修官  primary editor (of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records) Chungbang 重房  Council of Generals Chungbu 中部  Central Ward Chungch’uwŏn 中樞院  Security Council Chungch’uwŏn chisa 中樞院知事  administrative commissioner of the Security Council Chungch’uwŏn pusa 中樞院副使  deputy director of the Security Council Chungch’uwŏn sa 中樞院使  deputy commissioner of the Security Council

Glossary of Terms Ch’ungchwa siwisa 忠佐侍衛司  Right Royal Metropolitan Command Chunggun 中軍  Capital Army; Middle Army; chief military officer Chunggun kunhuso 中軍軍候所  Military Training Agency of the Central Army Chunggun sama 中軍司馬  commander of the Middle Army Chunggwan 中官  eunuch Chunghun taebu 中訓大夫  grand master of moral instruction for the court Chunghŭng kongsin 中興功臣  King Kongyang merit subject Ch’unghyogye 忠孝契  mutual assistance association for loyalty and filial piety Chunghyŏn taebu 中顯大夫  grand master for central appearance Chŭngja 鏳子  decorative headpiece on top of the hat Chungjik taebu 中直大夫  grand master of forthrightness for the court Ch’ungma chŏmgosa 畜馬點考使  inspector of horse-­raising Ch’ungma pyŏlgam 畜馬別監  special director for horse-­raising Chungnangjang 中郎將  commandant Chungsun kun’gi yun 中順軍器尹  chief of the Armory of Palace Guards Chungsŭng / sahŏn chungsŭng 中丞/ 司憲中丞  second inspector of the Office of the Inspector-General; also called chibŭi Chungt’ae 中台  Middle Step (in the Three Steps, or Ursa Major) Chunguan 春官  Ministry of Rites Ch’ungŭi kyowi 忠毅校尉  loyally brave commandant Ch’ungŭigun 忠毅君  Lord Ch’ungŭi Ch’ungyong 忠勇  a royal guard unit [at the end of the Koryŏ period] Ch’ungyongwi 忠勇衛  Loyal and Valiant Guards Chunqiu 春秋  Spring and Autumn Annals Chunwŏnjŏn 濬源殿  hall enshrining the umbilical cord of the king Chusa 主事  administrative aide; clerk; secretary Chusa 州司  subprefecture office Ch’usin 樞臣  officials of the Security Council

909

Glossary of Terms

910 Chusŏ 注書  recorder Chwa changsa 左長史  left scribe Chwa chaŭi 左諮議  left advisior

Chwa chŏngja 左正子  first proofreader of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa chŏngŏn 左正言  left fourth censor; fourth censor of the left Chwa hŏnnap 左獻納  left third censor; third censor of the left Chwa kanŭi 左諫議  left grand master of remonstrance Chwa kanŭi taebu 左諫議大夫  left grand master of remonstrance Chwa kun 左軍  Left Army Chwa munhak 左文學  first instructor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa p’ilsŏn 左弼善  third tutor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa pin’gaek 左賓客  first mentor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa podŏk 左輔德  first tutor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa pogwŏl 左補闕  left rectifier of omissions of the State Finance Commission Chwa pogya 左僕射  left director of the State Finance Commission Chwa pu bin’gaek 左副賓客  third mentor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa pu sŭngji 左副承旨  fourth royal secretary Chwa rang 佐郞  assistant bureau section chief Chwa ryŏng 左領  left regiment Chwa sa 左使  left director of the State Finance Commission Chwa sa 左師  left director of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa sagyŏng 左司經  first librarian of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office Chwa sangsi / chwa san’gi sangsi 左常侍 / 左散騎常侍  left policy advisor; left cavalier attendant-­in-­ordinary Chwa saŭi taebu 左司議大夫  counselor of the left grand master Chwa sayun 左司尹  director of the Left Office (of the Administrative Office of the Queen) Chwa sijik 左侍直  first attendant of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office

Glossary of Terms Chwa sŭbyu 左拾遺  left reminder (of the Chancellery) Chwa sŭng 左丞  left assistant director Chwa sŭngji 左承旨  second royal secretary Chwa sijung 左侍中  left chancellor Chwa taeŏn 左代言  second royal secretary Chwa wi 左衛  Left Guard Chwaeju 祭酒  headmaster of the National Academy; libationer; ritual master Chwagun tot’ongsa 佐軍都統使  commander-­in-­chief of the Left Army Chwamyŏng kaeguk kongsin 佐命開國功臣  mandate-­assisting dynasty-­ founding merit subject Chwamyŏng kongsin 佐命功臣  mandate-­assisting merit subject Chwau wi 左右衛  Left and Right Guard Da Minglü 大明律  The Great Ming Code Daduzongguan 大都摠管  regional commander-­in-­chief Daishokoku 大相國  premier Daluhuachi 達魯花赤  Mongol overseer Dasitu 大司徒  grand minster of education; minister of education Datongli 大統曆  Chinese imperial calendar Dawang 大王  grand prince Daxue yanyi 大學衍義  Extended Meaning of the Great Learning by Zhen Dexiu Diguan 地官  Ministry of Civil Administration and Social Welfare Ding 錠  silver ingot Dongguan 冬官  Ministry of Works Dongyi 東夷  Eastern Barbarians Douman 豆滿  myriarch (of Jurchens) Dudu 都督  commander-­in-­chief Dusi 都司  Regional Military Commission

911

Glossary of Terms

912 Duwei 都尉  defender; commandant Duzhihuishisi 都指揮使司  Regional Military Commission Fubing 府兵  Garrison Militia (system) Guoshiyuan 國史院  Hanlin and Historiography Academy Haejŏngo 解典庫  Directorate for Leather and Fur Products Haeng 行  acting Haengdae kamch’al 行臺監察  provincial bailiff Haengjaeso 行在所  temporary abode of the king Haengnang 行廊  entrance building; servants’ quarter Hagyu 學諭  instructor of the National Academy Hajŏngsa 賀正使  New Year embassy (to China)

Hakchŏng 學正  instructor second class of the National Academy Hakkwan 學官  educational official, a generic reference to all officials engaged in school instruction Haksa 學士  academician Hallyang 閑良  locally based former central officials and provincially domiciled children of central officials Hammun 閤門  Office for Audience Ceremonies; also called Kangmun Hammun injinsa 閤門引進使  commissioner for presentation of the Office for Audience Ceremonies Hangnok 學錄  instructor third class of the National Academy Hanlin 翰林  Hanlin academician Hanlinyuan 翰林院  Hanlin Academy Hanshu 漢書  Book of Han by Ban Gu Hansŏng yun 漢城尹  magistrate of Hansŏng Magistracy Hansŏngbu 漢城府  Hansŏng Magistracy Hanynagbu 漢陽府  Hanyang Magistracy Hobu sangsŏ 戶部尙書  minister of taxation Hobun sunwisa 虎賁巡衛司  Swift Tiger Patrolling Guard Command

Glossary of Terms Hoengbang 橫防  pulling out a foot from the stirrups and attacking the ball sideways Hoeryesa 回禮使  envoy on a mission to pay a courtesy visit Hoesi 會試  metropolitan examination Hoik sunwisa虎翼巡衛司  Winged Tiger Patrolling Guard Command Hojang 戶長  household chief; main clerk of a district magistrate Hojo 戶曹  Board of Taxation Hojo chŏnsŏ 戶曹典書  minister of taxation Holji 忽只  a royal guard unit [at the end of the Koryŏ period] Hŏmch’al pyŏlgam 驗察別監  special inspector Hongfan 弘範  “Great Plan” [in the Classic of Documents] Honggŏnjŏk 紅巾賊  Red Turban bandits Hongmun’gwan 弘文館  Office of Special Counselors Hŏn’gwan 獻官  libationer Honjŏn togam 魂殿都監  Directorate of the Royal Spirits Hall Hŏnnap 獻納  third censor Hŏnwŏn / Hŏnwŏnsŏng 軒轅 / 軒轅星  Regulus Hop’ae 號牌  identification tag Hop’o 戶布  household cloth tax Hŏsŏng 虛星  Emptiness Constellation Hoyong sunwisa 虎勇巡衛司  Brave Tiger Patrolling Guard Command Huang Shigong Sanlue 黃石公三略  Three Strategies of Huang Shigong Hullyŏn’gwan 訓鍊觀  Military Training Agency Hŭmch’a naesa 欽差內史  Chinese imperial envoy Hun 勳  merit titles Hundo 訓導  instructor of the local Confucian school Hŭnghak 興學  promotion of learning Hŭngwiwi 興威衛  Elite Striking Guard

913

Glossary of Terms

914 Huo Guang Chuan 霍光傳  Biography of Huo Guang Hwadu 話頭  critical phrase Hwajŏn 火箭  rocket-­launched arrow Hwanggŭk 皇極  perfection of the sovereign Hwangnyŏng 荒寧  indulging in luxurious ease

Hwaŏm sammaech’am 華嚴三昧懺  Avatamska Samadhi Repentence Prayer Hwap’o 火砲  fire cannon Hwasan 華山  “Song of the Royal Capital” Hwat’ong 火㷁  gunpowder tube or firearms Hwat’ongdogam 火㷁都監  Superintendency for Gunpowder Weapons Hwat’onggun 火㷁軍  firearms soldier Hyanggwanch’ŏng 享官廳  office for the officials in charge of ritual sacrifice Hyangso 鄕所  local yangban association Hyangyak hyemin kyŏnghŏmbang 鄕藥惠民經驗方  Prescriptions of Folk Medicine Beneficial to the People Hyemin’guk 惠民局  Public Dispensary Hyŏmnyullang 協律郞  chief musician of the Court of Royal Sacrifices Hyŏnbuin 縣夫人  a title referring to the wives of officials of rank 2 Hyŏnghoksŏng 熒惑星  Ghoul Star Hyŏngjo 刑曹  Board of Punishments Hyŏnsin kyowi 顯信校尉  splendidly faithful commandant Hyŏnŭi 賢儀  lady of worthy deportment Hyŏnŭi kyowi 顯毅校尉  manifestly brave commandant Hyŏpch’an kaeguk kongsin 協贊開國功臣  cooperating and supporting dynasty-­founding merit subject Hyulhyŏng 恤刑  administering punishments with care and caution Ian togam 移安都監  Directorate for the Relocation of Royal Ancestral Tablets Igung 離宮  detached palace

Glossary of Terms Igwa 吏科  examinations for clerks and scribes Ijanggunp’o 二將軍砲  two generals cannon Ijo 吏曹  Board of Personnel Iktae kaeguk kongsin 翊戴開國功臣  assisting and sustaining dynasty-­ founding merit subject Iktae kongsin 翊戴功臣  assisting and sustaining merit subject Iktae pojo kongsin 翊戴補祚功臣  enthronement-­assisting merit subject Ilgwan 日官  astrologer Illijŏn人吏田  land set aside for the salaries of district officials Ilsu yangban 日守兩班  post-­station runners Inanjŏn 仁安殿  Hall of Benevolent Tranquility Injinsa 引進使  commissioner for presentation Insŭng 人勝  hairpins used by the officials to bind their hair Isa 貳師  second tutor (of the crown prince) Isip pa’lsu 二十八宿  Twenty-­Eight [Lunar] Lodges Jiangzuo tongzhi 將作同知  associate director of the Palace Building Office Jinyiwei 錦衣衛  Imperial Bodyguard Jiufafa 九伐法  nine criteria for punishment of insubordinate rulers Jiuyi 九夷  nine barbarous states Kaeguk kongsin 開國功臣  dynasty-­founding merit subject Kaeguk kongsin togam 開國功臣都監  Directorate for Dynasty-­Founding Merit Subjects Kaeksŏng 客星  guest star; nova Kaesŏng yuhusa 開城留後司  Kaesŏng Special Capital Magistracy Kaesŏngbu 開城府  Kaesŏng Magistracy Kagakko 架閣庫  Archives Kaguso 街衢所  Street Jailhouse (of Koryŏ) Kaiyuan lu 開元路  Kaiyuan Route

915

Glossary of Terms

916 Kaja 加資  upgrade rank

Kajŏng taebu 嘉靖大夫  grand master for supporting tranquility Kaksŏng 角星  Spica Kam 監  supervisor Kamch’al 監察  bailiff; inspector; investigating censor; fifth inspector Kamch’al ŏsa 監察御史  royal inspector Kamgwansa 監館事  director Kamguk 監國  regent Kamhu 監候  astronomical observer of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory Kamjik 監直  steward; general superintendent Kamju 監主  chief monk (of the Buddhist temple in the precincts of the royal palace) Kammu 監務  magistrate of a small district; small district Kammunwi 監門衛  Palace Gate Guard Kamnok kuksa 監錄國事  overseer of personnel and state affairs Kamsi / Kukchagamsi 監試 / 國子監試  examination administered by the Directorate of Education Kamsunch’ŏng 監巡廳  Capital Constabulary Office Kamyŏk chejo 監役提調  supervisory commissioner Kamyŏkkwan 監役官  supervisory official Kangdokkwan 講讀官  reader (of the Office of Royal Lectures) Kangmok t’onggam 綱目通鑑  Outline and Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government Kangmudang 講武堂  Army Training Hall Kangmun 閣門  Palace Ceremonial Office Kangnyŏngjŏn 康寧殿  Hall of Health and Serenity Kangsap’o 絳紗袍  one of the red royal robes worn by the king Kan’gwan 諫官  remonstrance official; remonstrator; censorial offices

Glossary of Terms Kanŭi taebu 諫議大夫  grand master of remonstrance Kapsa 甲士  armored soldiers Karye togam 嘉禮都監  Directorate of Royal Weddings; Temporary Office of Royal Wedding Karyŏng 家令  household provisioner Kasŏn taebu 嘉善大夫  grand master for supporting probity; grand master for excellent goodness; Ki 紀  fishnet rope Kibok 起復  recall and restore (to previously occupied post) Kigŏju 起居注  remonstrating censor Kigwan 記官  recording secretary Kiin 其人  rotating clerks from local districts responsible for wood and fuel supplies to capital bureaus Kiro 耆老  retired elder statesman Kiroso 耆老所  Agency for the elder statesman; Bureau of Superannuation Kisŏn kun’gwan 騎船軍官  maritime officer Kisŏng 箕星  Sagittarius (Kaus Autralis) Kobu 古賦  old-­style rhyme prose Kodori 古刀里  small arrows Kogong chŏngnang 考功正郞  personnel evaluation section chief Kogong chwarang 考功佐郞  assistant section chief for personnel evaluation Kok 斛  38 liters (40 quarts; 1.25 bushels); 10 mal [in Yu Hyŏngwŏn’s units of volume] Kollyongp’o 袞龍袍  royal dragon robe Kŏmgyo 檢校  acting; temporary; sinecure Kŏmgyo munha sijung / kŏmgyo sijung 檢校門下侍中 / 檢校侍中  acting chancellor Kŏmgyo tae haksa 檢校大學士  acting grand academician Kŏmnyŏl 檢閱  editorial examiner; third diarist of the Office of Royal Decrees

917

Glossary of Terms

918 Kŏmsang 檢詳  legal secretary

Kŏmsang choryesa 檢詳條例司  Office for Institutional Investigation Kŏmt’ogwan 檢討官  commentator of the Office of Royal Lectures Kŏmyak 檢藥  medicine examiner of the Palace Medical Office Kongbonggwan 供奉官  diarist Kongbu sangjŏngdogam 貢賦詳定都監  General Directorate for Determining Taxes Konghaejŏn 公廨田  office-­expense land Kongin 恭人  a title referring to the wives of officials of rank 4 Kongjakkuk 工作局  Engineering Bureau Kongjang 工匠  official artisans Kongjo 工曹  Board of Works Kongjo chŏnsŏ 工曹典書  minister of works Kongjosŏ 供造署  Bureau of Bamboo Crafts Kongsa 貢士  nominees for office Kongsaeng 貢生  tribute students Kongsin 功臣  merit subject Kongsin togam 功臣都監  Directorate for Merit Subjects Kongsindang 功臣堂  Hall of Merit Subjects Kongsinjŏn 功臣田  merit subject land; merit land Kongyŏksŏ 供驛署  Bureau of Supplying Post-­Horses Kono 庫奴  warehouse slaves Koryŏsa / Koryŏguk sa 高麗史/ 高麗國史  History of Koryŏ Kosin 告身  letter of appointment Kuje hakdang 九齋學堂  Nine-­Course Academy (established by Ch’oe Ch’ung) Kujin 句陳  Polaris Kukchagam 國子監  National University Kukchagamsi 國子監試  National University Examination

Glossary of Terms Kuksa 國師  national preceptor Kŭmganggyŏng 金剛經  Diamond Sutra Kŭmgun 禁軍  Forbidden Soldiers Kŭmgyŏng / Kŭmgwangmyŏnggyŏng 金經/ 金光明經  Golden Light Sutra Kŭmjik 金直  keeper of the palace keys Kŭmowi 金吾衛  Internal Security Guard; Capital Patrol Kŭn 斤  catty; unit of weight Kunbu chŏngnang 軍簿正郞  section chief of the Board of War Kunbuin 郡夫人  a title given to the wives of officials of rank 1 Kun’gigam 軍器監  Directorate for Armaments; Weapons Directorate Kun’gigamsa 軍器監事  director of the Directorate for Armaments Kun’gigo 軍器庫  Military Weapons Storehouse Kun’gisi 軍器寺  Weapons Bureau Kungon 宮醞  royal wine Kungsubungok 窮獸奔曲  “Song of a Beast Running Away” Kunja 君子  man of virtue; superior man; gentleman Kunjach’ang 軍資倉  Military Stores Warehouse Kunjagam 軍資監  Quartermaster Bureau Kunjagam sa 軍資監事  quartermaster [of the Quartermaster Bureau] Kunjago 軍資庫  Military Stores Warehouse; also called Kunjach’ang Kunjajŏn 軍資田  land available for military expenses and provisions Kunjajwaeju 軍諮祭酒  military counselor of the Military Training Agency Kŭnjŏngjŏn 勤政殿  Hall of Diligent Government Kunsa 郡司  subcounty office Kunyun 軍尹  prefect (of a military prefecture) Kŭpche 及第  exam passer Kŭpchŏnsa 給田司  Agency of Land Management Grants Kŭpchuin 急走人  courier

919

Glossary of Terms

920 Kŭpsa 給事  secretary Kuyodang 九曜堂  Hall to the Nine Luminaries Kuyu 九游  Eridanus constellation Kwajŏn 科田  rank land Kwajŏnbŏp 科田法  Rank Land Law Kwanapsa 管押使  embassy escort; tributary envoy escort Kwanbu 館夫  guesthouse worker

Kwanch’al ch’ulch’ŏksa 觀察黜陟使  surveillance commissioner Kwanch’asa 觀察使  provincial governor Kwanghŭngch’ang 廣興倉  Prosperity Expansion Warehouse Kwan’gyo 官敎  letter of appointment Kwansŭp togam 慣習都監  Directorate of Ceremonial and Court Music Kwanŭmgul 觀音窟  Kwanŭm Grotto Kwaŭi changgun 果毅將軍  courageous daring general Kwŏnji 權知  provisional; supernumerary Kwŏnji kuksa 權知國事  provisional ruler Kwŏnji kyogam 權知校勘  provisional first drafter of the Office of Diplomatic Correspondence Kwŏnnonggwan/ Kwŏnnong 勸農官 / 勸農  supervisor of agriculture Kyegongnang 啓功郞  gentleman for guiding meritorious works Kyejŏngsa 計程使  inspecting commissioner Kyep’umsa 啓稟使  envoy to the Imperial Throne Kyesugwan 界首官  major cities in the province; regional supervisor Kyobang 敎坊  training school for entertaining girls Kyoch’ŏp 敎牒  letter of appointment Kyogam 校勘  proofreader of the Publications Office Kyŏkku 擊毬  ball game on horseback similar to western polo Kyŏl 結  a constant measure of crop yield produced by an area that varied from 2.2 acres to 9.0 acres depending on the fertility of the land (Palais, p. 1169)

Glossary of Terms Kyŏm chubu 兼注簿  concurrent controller Kyŏm chunsŭng 兼中丞  concurrent second inspector of the Office of the Inspector-General Kyŏm injinsa 兼引進使  concurrent commissioner for presentations Kyŏm p’ansa 兼判事  concurrent director of the Palace Chambers Office Kyŏm pongnyerang 兼奉禮郞  concurrent court gentleman for ceremonials Kyŏm p’yŏnsugwan 兼編修官  concurrent supportive editor (of the Office of Royal Decrees and State Records) Kyŏm sŭng 兼丞  concurrent assistant director Kyŏng 卿  minister; high officials Kyŏngbokkung 景福宮  Palace of Resplendent Blessings Kyŏngch’agwan 敬差官  special commissioner; special crop assessor Kyŏnghŭngbu 敬興府  Administrative Office of the Queen Kyŏngje mun’gam 經濟文鑑  Discourse on the Governance by Chŏng Tojŏn Kyŏngje yukchŏn 經濟六典  Six Codes of Governance Kyŏngnyŏk 經歷  chief administrator; provincial administrator Kyŏngnyŏksa 經歷司  Administrative Office Kyŏngsisŏ 京市署  Bureau of Capital City Markets Kyŏngsŏng such’uk togam 京城修築都監  Directorate for the Construction and Repair of the Walls of the Capital Kyŏngsŏngjŏn 慶成殿  Hall of Felicitous Perfection Kyŏngyŏn 經筵  Office of Royal Lectures; royal lectures Kyosŏgam 校書監  Publications Office; supervisor of the Publications Office Kyosŏgwan 校書館  Office of Editorial Review Kyosu 敎授  education officer Kyosugwan 敎授官  instructor Liaodong dusi 遼東都司  Regional Military Commission of Liaodong Libu 禮部  Ministry of Rites (China) Liji 禮記  Book of Rites

921

Glossary of Terms

922 Liuqing 六卿  six ministers Liutao sanlüe 三略  Six Strategies of War by Jiang Taigong Lu 樓  storied building Mabu 馬夫  horseman Majian 馬監  Directorate of Horses Maksa 幕士  tapestry weaver; aide

Manho 萬戶  myriarch; brigade commander; lesser garrison commander; subarea commander Mengan 猛安  chiliarch; battalion commander (of Jurchens) Milchik chehak 密直提學  academician of the Security Council Milchik pusa 密直副使  deputy director of the Security Council Milchiksa 密直使  deputy commissioner of the Security Council Milchiksa 密直司  Security Council Mogwan 毛冠  official headgear Mokhwa 木靴  men’s wooden-­sole deerskin boots Monggŭmch’ŏk 夢金尺  “Dreaming of the Golden Ruler” Mu 武  military; martial Mugong 武功  “Military Achievements of Our King,” a ceremonial song dedicated to King T’aejo Mugongnang 務功郞  gentleman for carrying out meritorious works Mukwa 武科  highest military examinations Mumin 撫民  looking after the people Mun 文  culture; pattern Mundŏkgok 文德曲  “The Englishtened Virtue of Our King,” a ceremonial song dedicated to King T’aejo Munha p’yŏngjangsa 門下平章使  assistant chancellor Munha p’yŏngni 門下評理  assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery Munha sijung 門下侍中  chancellor Munha sirang ch’ansŏngsa 門下侍郞贊成事  assistant chancellor (rank 2a)

Glossary of Terms Munhabu 門下府  Chancellery Munhak 文學  instructor (of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office) Munhasŏng 門下省  Chancellery Munmyo 文廟  National Shrine of Confucius Munsu pŏphoe 文殊法會  dharma assembly for the worship of Manjusri Muye tosi 武藝都試  martial arts examination Myŏllyugwan 冕旒冠  mortarboard crown with strings of hanging beads on the front and back Myosŏng 昴星  Pleiades Nabil 臘日  day of sacrifice Naealja 內謁者  palace eunuch; palace receptionist Naebusi 內府寺  Office of the Royal Household Naegapsa chejo 內甲士提調  commander of the Royal Guard Naegu 內廐  Inner Royal Stable Naejesŏgwŏn 內帝釋院  Temple for Śakra Devānām Indra in the palace Naejŏn 內殿  inner palace Naesa sain 內史舍人  drafter of the Chancellery Naesang chŏlchesa 內廂節制使  inner capital township military commander Naesi pyŏlgam 內侍別監  assistant overseer of palace attendants Naesi tabang 內侍茶房  Chamber of Palace Attendants for Tea Service Naesibu 內侍府  Directorate of Palace Attendants Naesu 內豎  junior eunuch Naesŭng chamokso 內乘孶牧所  Royal Horse Breeding Ranch Naet’anggo 內帑庫  Palace Treasury Naewŏndang 內願堂  Buddhist monastery in the precincts of the royal palace Nambu 南部  South Ward Namdu 南斗  Southern Dipper Nammun 南門  South Gate

923

Glossary of Terms

924 Nang 郎  gentleman

Nangjang 郎將  vice commandant; assistant commander; battalion commander Nangjung 郎中  director Nangsa 郎舍  Office of Remonstrance; remonstrative officials Napssigok 納氏曲  “Song of Driving out Nahachu” Narye 儺禮  ceremonial dance for welcoming the king or Chinese envoys Neishe 內史  royal secretary; chamberlain for the capital; administrator; director of the Secretariat; palace attendant; Neishi 內侍  palace attendant; eunuch Niandao 輦道  celestial route Ninghaiwei 寧海衛  Ninghai Guard Nobi pyŏnjŏng togam / Pyŏnjŏng togam 奴婢辨定都監 / 辨定都 監  Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits; Directorate of Slave Administration Nokkwajŏn 祿科田  salary land; salary land system Nokkwŏn 錄券  salary certificates issued to the merit subjects Nokp’ae 祿牌  salary certificate template Noksa 錄事  record keeper Nongjŏng 農正  agriculture director Nŭngŏmgyŏng 楞嚴經  Surangama Sutra Obae samgodurye 五拜三扣頭禮  rite of bowing down five times with the forehead touching the ground three times Obu 五部  Five Wards (in the capital) Odo Yanggye 五道兩界  five circuits and two border regions (of Koryŏ) Odobyŏngma tot’ongch’ŏch’isa 五道兵馬都統處置使  supreme commander of five provincical armies for the military campaign against the Japanese Ogo 五庫  Five Warehouses (of the royal palace in Seoul) Ogŏsŏng 五車星  Capella; Five Chariots Ogun 五軍  Five Armies

Glossary of Terms Ogun chindo / Ojindo 五軍陣圖 / 五陣圖  Five-­Troop Disposition Diagram Ogyo yangjong 五敎兩宗  Five Sects and Two Schools Ogyŏng 五經  Five Classics Ogyŏng 五更  night watch indicating 03:00–05:00 a.m. Ohyŏng 五刑  Five Punishments (tattooing, cutting off the nose, amputation of one or both feet, castration, and death) Omun 午門  South Gate Ongju 翁主  princess-­ordinary Ongsŏng 甕城  semicircular chemise Ŏsa 御史  secret censor Ŏsadae 御史臺  Office of the Inspector-General Ŏsajungsŭng 御史中丞  vice censor-­in-­chief Oŭpch’o 吾邑草 Owŏn sipchang 五員十將  five military officials and ten commandants P’aedu 牌頭  squard commander P’aegi 牌記  military recruiter system Paeji 排之  handling the ball with the inside of the paddle in kyŏkku game Paekkochwa 百高座  Hundred Seat Dharma Assembly Paekkwan 百官  all officials Paekho 百戶  company commander Paep’yo 拜表  formal ceremony of sending a memorial to the Chinese emperor Paksa 博士erudite P’aldo tot’ongsa 八道都統使  commander-­in-­chief of eight provinces P’algakchŏng 八角亭  octagon hall P’algwanhoe 八關會  Festival of Eight Vows P’alwi 八衛  Eight Guards P’an Changjakkam sa 判將作監事  director of the Directorate for Palace Buildings

925

Glossary of Terms

926

P’an Chungch’uwŏn sa 判中樞院事  commissioner of the Security Council P’an Hansŏngbu sa 判漢城府事  chief magistrate of Hansŏng P’an Kaesŏngbu sa 判開城府事  magistrate of Kaesŏng Magistracy P’an Milchiksa sa 判密直司事  commissioner of the Security Council P’an Munhabu sa 判門下府事  chief grand councilor of the Chancellery P’an Naesibu sa 判內侍府事  director of the Directorate of Palace Attendants P’an P’alwi sa 判八衛事  commissioner of the Eight Guards P’an Samsa sa 判三司事  director of the State Finance Commission P’an Sangsŏsa sa 判尙瑞司事  director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals P’an Ŭihŭng Samgunbu sa 判義興三軍府事  chief military commissioner of the Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies P’an Wiwisi sa 判衛尉寺事  director of the Office for Palace Ceremony and Sacrifice Supplies Pandang 伴黨  runners P’ando ch’ongnang 版圖摠郞  section chief of the Board of Revenue P’ando p’ansŏ 版圖判書  minister of revenue Pang 坊  precinct; subdistrict Pangmi 防尾  bending the body backward and sideways on horseback in order to hit the ball in the reverse direction, pushing the horse’s tail aside Pangsŏng 房星  a star in the Room [Lunar] Lodge P’an’gwan 判官  assistant to a provincial governor; chief clerk; administrator Panjŏn 盤纏  travel expense P’ansa / 判事  commissioner; director; supervisor; chief magistrate Pansongjŏng 盤松亭  Pine Terrace Pavilion P’anyun 判尹  second magistrate of Kaesŏng Magistracy Pi 妃  consort Pii 比耳  holding a mallet crosswise, parallel to the horse’s ears, in kyŏkku game P’il 疋  bolt; unit of measurement for fabric

Glossary of Terms Pin 嬪  concubine Pingzhang 平章  assistant chancellor Pingzhangshi 平章事  manager of governmental affairs; vice director of the Secretariat-­Chancellery; de facto chancellor Pinjŏn 殯殿  coffin hall Pirok 秘錄  secret records Pirok ch’alyo 秘錄撮要  Compendium of Secret Records P’iryŏngjŏn 皮翎箭  rocket-­launched arrow Pisŏgam 祕書監  director of the Palace Library Pisunwi 備巡衛  Ready Patrol Guard Pobon 報本  displaying gratitude toward one’s ancestors Pogŏbin 復業人  those who have returned to Korea Pogong changgun 保功將軍  general for safeguarding accomplishments Poguk sungjŏng taebu 輔國崇政大夫  bulwark grand master for state affairs Pogwŏl 補闕  third censor; rectifier of omissions; also called hŏnnap Pogwŏn’gung 福源宮  Temple of Original Happiness Pogya 僕射  chief administrator; supervisor Pojo kongsin 補祚功臣  dynasty-­contributing merit subject Pokhŭnggo 福興庫  Flourishing Fortune Warehouse Pŏlsŏng 伐星  constellation of Orion Pongch’aeksa 奉冊使  commissioner for presenting noble titles Ponghullang 奉訓郞  gentleman for rendering moral instruction Pongik taebu 奉翊大夫  grand master for service and assistance Pongjingnang 奉直郞  gentleman for rendering forthright service Pongjok 奉足  support taxpayer (for duty soldiers); support personnel Pongjŏng taebu 奉正大夫  grand master for government service Pongnyerang 奉禮郞  court gentlemen for ceremonials Pongnyŏl taebu 奉列大夫  grand master for government ranks

927

Glossary of Terms

928 Pongsangsi 奉常寺  Court of Ancestral Rites

Pongsangsi p’ansa 奉常寺判事  director of the Court of Ancestral Rites Pongsŏguk 奉書局  Household Service Bureau Pŏphoe 法會  assembly for worship or preaching Pŏpsŏk 法席  dharma assembly Porisuyŏpgyŏng 菩提樹葉莖  Bodhi Tree Leaves Sutra Poŭi changgun 保義將軍  general for safeguarding righteousness Pu 負  a hundredth of a kyŏl Pu 府  prefecture; special city Pu chikchang 副直長  deputy superintendent of the Wine Office Pu chŏng 副正  vice supervisor (of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory) Pu kŏmt’ogwan 副檢討官  deputy commentator of the Office of Royal Lectures Pu kŭpsa 副給事  vice secretary Pu manho 副萬戶  deputy myriarch Pu ryŏng 副令  vice director Pu sa 副使  assistant director; vice commissioner Pu sajik 副司直  assistant rectifier of the Military Training Agency Pu sajŏng 副司正  deputy director Pu yuhu 副留後  second special capital magistrate Pu yun 府尹  special capital city magistrate; second magistrate (of Hansŏng) Pubyŏng 府兵  regular troops; soldiers Pubyŏngje 府兵制  regular army system; divisional militia system Pugok 部曲  villages designated for the people of low status Pukbu 北部  North Ward Pukkye 北界  Northern Border Region Pun top’yŏngŭisasa 分都評議使司  Branch Privy Council

Glossary of Terms Puwŏn’gun 府院君  Great Lord P’yo 表  documentary prose Pyŏlan’guk 別鞍局  Saddlery Service Pyŏlgam 別監  special director Pyŏlchang 別將  subcolonel Pyŏlsun chŏllchesa 別巡節制使  special patrolling commissioner P’yŏngjangsa 平章事  manager of affairs; de facto chancellor Pyŏngjo 兵曹  Board of War Pyŏngma kŏmhalsa 兵馬鈐轄使  chief military administrator of infantry and cavalry Pyŏngma pusa 兵馬副使  deputy provincial military commander Pyŏngma tallyŏnsa 兵馬團練使  military training commissioner Pyŏngmasa / pyŏngsa 兵馬使 / 兵使  military commander of the border region; provincial military commander; regional military commander P’yŏngni / munha p’yŏngni 評理/ 門下評理  assistant grand councilor of the Chancellery Pyŏngsŏng 屛星  Inner Screen (of the Supreme Palace Enclosure) Pyŏngsŏn chojŏn chŏlchesa 兵船助戰節制使  battleship commander Pyŏransaek 別鞍色  Saddlery Service Qianhu 千戶  chiliarch; battalion commander Qin wangfu 秦王府  Prefecture of Prince of Qin Qinanhusuo 千戶所  chiliarchy; “battalion, a basic military unit normally comprising c. 1,000 men and headed by a battalion commander (qianhu)” Hucker, p. 153 Qingyuan Route 慶元路 Qiuguan 秋官  Ministry of Justice Ruxue tiju 儒學提擧  supervisor of Confucian schools Ryŏng 領  concurrent or concurrent controller Sa 司  battalion

929

Glossary of Terms

930

Sa 使  commissioner; deputy commissioner (of the Security Council) Sabaerye 四拜禮  rite of prostrating four times Sabok chŏng 司僕正  supervisor of the Royal Stable Court Sabokkyŏng 司僕卿  director of the Royal Stable Court; director of the Bureau of Prisons (in the Ministry of Justice); minister of husbandry Saboksi 司僕寺  Royal Stable Court Sach’o 史草  history drafts Sadae 事大  serving the great Sadaebu 士大夫  scholar-­officials; literati Sado 司徒  minister of education Saengwŏnsi 生員試  classics licenciate examination Sagong 司空  minister of works Sagŭm 司禁  Princesses’ Establishment Sagŭp 司給  directress of supplies Sagwan 史官/ 史館  Bureau of State Records Sahŏn chungsŭng 司憲中丞  second inspector of the Office of InspectorGeneral; also called chibŭi Sahŏn sisa 司憲侍史  third inspector of the Office of the Inspector-General; also called changnyŏng Sahŏnbu 司憲府  Office of the Inspector General Sain 舍人  secretary; houseman; drafter Sajae sogam 司宰少監  vice supervisor of the Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources Sajaegam 司宰監  Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources; Supervisor of the Directorate Sajik 司直  rectifier of the Military Training Agency; of the Such’ang Palace Management Office Sajikdan 社稷壇  Altars of Earth and Grain Sajŏng 司正  director Sajŏngjŏn 思政殿  Hall of Contemplative Government

Glossary of Terms Sakyo gono daibu 左京權大夫  left grand master of the capital Sali 司吏  staff foreman Sama 司馬  adjutant of the Military Training Agency; minister of war; commander; vice or assistant commander (in territorial units of administration) Samdo chŏlchesa 三道節制使  military commander of three provinces Samdo tot’ongsa 三道都統使  commander-­in-­chief of three provinces Samdogam 三都監  Three Directorates (Directorate for Tripitaka, Merit Recommendation Office, General Directorate for Determining Taxes) Samgong 三公  Three Dukes Samgun 三軍  Three Armies Samgun Ch’ongchebu 三軍摠制府  Supreme Control Commission of Three Armies Samgunbu / Ŭihŭng Samgunbu 三軍府/ 義興三軍府  Three Armies; Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies; Consolidated Army Command Samgwan 三館  Three Offices (Office of Special Counselors, Office of Royal Decrees, Publications Office) Samgyŏng 三京  three capitals (Kaesŏng, P’yŏngyang, and Kyŏngju) Samjanggunp’o三將軍砲  three generals cannon Samjung taegwang 三重大匡  prime minister plenipotentiary Samsa 三司  State Finance Commission Samsa Chaŭi 三司諮議  advisor of the State Finance Commission Samsa chwa sa 三司左使  left director of the State Finance Commission Samsa sa 三司使  director of the State Finance Commission Samsa usa 三司右使  right director of the State Finance Commission Samsŏng chogamhogye 三省照勘戶計  Census Jointly Conducted by Three Provinces Samsŏngjae 三聖齋  Sacrifice for the Three Sages Samt’aesŏng 三台星  Three Steps; Ursa Major in the Western constellation Sanch’ae 山菜  wild herbs and vegetables

931

Glossary of Terms

932

Sang chang 上將  First Western General (fifth star of the Supreme Palace Enclosure) Sang changgun 上將軍  supreme general; generalissimo Sang chinmu 上鎭撫  senior commissioner of the royal guards Sang hogun 上護軍  senior military protector; first deputy commander of the Five Military Commands Sang manho 上萬戶  senior myriarch; senior commissioner of the Capital Constabulary Sangbu 相府  Chancellery or the Royal Secretariat Sanggung 尙宮  inner palace matron Sanggwan 尙官  matron for personnel managememt San’gisangsi 散騎常侍  policy advisor; cavalier attendant-­in-­ordinary Sangjŏnggwan 詳定官  Office for Oversight and Review Sangnimwŏn 上林園  Royal Forest Park Sangno 象輅  ivory carriage Sangong 三公  three dukes Sangsi 常侍  attendant-­in-­ordinary Sangsŏsa 尙瑞司  Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals Sangsŏsa p’ansa 尙瑞司判事  director of the Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals Sangŭi Chungch’uwŏn pusa 商議中樞院副使  assistant discussant of the Security Council Sangŭi Chungch’uwŏn sa / Sangŭiwŏn sa 商議中樞院事 / 商議院事  discussant of the Security Council Sangŭi Munhabu sa / sangŭi pusa 商議門下府事 / 商議府事  assistant consultative councilor of the Chancellery Sangŭiwŏn 尙衣院  Royal Clothing Office Sangŭiwŏn sa 尙衣院事  director of the Royal Clothing Office San’gwan 散官  sinecures, posts without duties, salaries, or prebendal grants; candidates for civil service employment

Glossary of Terms Sanhak paksa 算學博士  erudites of mathematics Sanonggyŏng 司農卿  minister of the Bureau of Agriculture Sanongsi 司農寺  Bureau of Agriculture Sanongsi sa 司農寺事  director of the Bureau of Agriculture Sansŏng pyŏlgam 山城別監  mountain fortress supervisor Sanwŏn 散員  executive captain Saongwŏn 司饔院  Royal Cuisine Office Saonsŏ 四醞署  Wine Bureau Sari 司吏  staff foreman Sarok 司錄  record keeper Saryŏk 司曆  manager of the calendar Sasi susudo 四時蒐狩圖  Pictures of Hunting Scenes of Four Seasons Sasik 司飾  directress of ceremonial regalia Sasin 司辰   timekeeper (of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory) Sasŏ 四書  Four Books Sasŏ chŏlyo 四書切要 / 四書節要  Compendium of the Four Books Sasŏng 司成  assistant master of the National Academy Sasŏnsŏ 司膳署  Catering Bureau; Foods Office Sasugam 司水監  Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation; director of shipbuilding and transportation Sasun 司楯  shield manager of the Royal Guard Saŭi sajik 司衣司直  Official of the Clothing Office Saŭnsa 謝恩使  tribute emissary Sawŏnjŏn 寺院田  monastery land Sayak 司鑰  keeper of the palace keys Saye 司藝  second assistant master (of the National Academy) Sayŏgwŏn 司譯院  Court of Interpreters Sayŏn 司涓  custodian of the Such’ang Palace Management Office

933

Glossary of Terms

934 Sayun 司尹  director Seja Sigangwŏn 世子侍講院  Crown Prince Tutorial Office Semaji 洗馬池  horse washing pond Shangbaosi 尙寶司  Seals Office Shangdi 上帝  Lord on High

Shangshu 尙書  Classic of Documents; Venerated Documents Shangshu sheng (Ch.) 尙書省  Secretariat: Department of State Affairs (of the Yuan dynasty) Shi 試  probationary; acting Shi Shang Fu 師商父  Father Shang of the Army Shijing 詩經  Book of Odes; Classic of Poetry Shujing 書經  Classic of Documents Shumi fushi 樞密副使  vice commissioner of military affairs Shumiyuan 樞密院  Bureau of Military Affairs Sibi inyŏn 十二因緣  twelve nidānas Sichwagung 時坐宮  temporary palace Sichwaso 時坐所  temporary palace Siganggwan 侍講官  expositor (of the Office of Royal Lectures) Sigŭi 食醫  dietician of the Foods Office Sigŭp 食邑  fief; tax villages Siil 視日  astrologer of the Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory Sijung 侍中  chancellor Sikong 司空  minister of works Sikou 司寇  minister of justice Siksilbong 食實封  tax villages from which taxes can be collected Sima 司馬  minister of war Sima fa 司馬法  The Methods of Sima; The Methods of the Minister of War by Sima Rangju Simhak 心學  learning of the mind-­and-­heart

Glossary of Terms Simsŏng 心星  Constellation of the Heart Sin 信  trust Sindo kunggwŏl chosŏng togam 新都宮闕造成都監  Directorate for the Royal Palace Construction in the New Capital Singmok togam 式目都監  Directorate of Ceremonial Propriety; also director of ceremonial propriety Singyŏkchŏn 神格殿  Sanctuary of Godly Investigation Singnyŏnsi 式年試  triennial examination Sinhowi 神虎衛  Divine Tiger Guard Sinmu siwisa 神武侍衛司  Inspired Martial Metropolitan Command Sinmun 神門  gate of spirit (in the Royal Ancestral Shrine) Sinmyo 新廟  “Song of the New Royal Ancestral Shrine” Sinp’o 信砲  trusty cannon Siphak tojejo 十學都提調  supreme commissioner of ten areas of studies Sirang 侍郞  vice minister Sirang ch’ansŏngsa 侍郞贊成事  assistant chancellor Sisa 侍史  third inspector Sisŭng 寺丞  vice censor-­in-­chief Situ 司徒  minister of education Siwi 侍衛  royal guard or royal guardsman Siyi 四夷  four barbarian tribes Sŏban 西班  Western File; military officials Sŏbangsaek 書房色  Stationary Supplies Section Sŏbu 西部  West Ward Sŏbuk Pyŏngsŏng 西北屛星  Northwest Guardian constellation Soch’im 小寢  small royal quarters Sogam 少監  vice supervisor; vice director; assistant director Sogyŏkchŏn 昭格殿  Daoist; Temple of Brilliant Rectification

935

Glossary of Terms

936 Sogyŏksŏ 昭格署  Daoist Hall of Brilliant Rectification

Sŏgyŏng 署經  censorate’s right to review candidates recommended for office Sogyŏng 少卿  vice minister Sŏgyŏng 西京  Western Capital; modern P’yŏngyang Sohak 小學  The Small Learning Sojae pŏpsŏk 消災法席  ceremony for eliminating disasters Sŏjanggwan 書狀官  secretary of the diplomatic mission Soje 掃除  keeping the royal palace clean Sŏjŏgwŏn 書籍院  Publications Office Sojŏnsaek 燒錢色  Bureau of Burning Money Sŏllyak changgun 宣略將軍  manifestly shrewd general Sŏllyak changgun haeng chungnangjang 宣略將軍行中郞將  manifestly expedient general serving as acting commandant (rank 5a) Sŏllyak changgun haeng nangjang 宣略將軍行郞將  manifestly expedient general serving as acting vice commandant (rank 6a) Sŏllyak changgun haeng pyŏlchang 宣略將軍行別將  manifestly expedient general serving as acting subcolonel (rank 7a) Sŏmnagok 暹羅斛  Thailand Sŏnggyun chwaeju 成均祭酒  libationer of National Academy Sŏnggyungwan 成均館  National Academy Sŏnggyungwan Chŏngnokso 成均館正錄所  Civil Service Examination Office of the National Academy Sŏnggyunsi 成均試  National University examination Sŏnghŏn 省憲  Office of Remonstrance and the Office of the InspectorGeneral Songhŏn 松軒  Pine Hut Songhŏn kŏsa 松軒居士  Pine Hut Dweller Sŏngjŏlsa 聖節使  imperial birthday embassy (to China) Sŏngjung aema 成衆愛馬  royal guards of various security divisions (early Chosŏn)

Glossary of Terms Sŏngjunggwan 成衆官  royal guards of various security divisions; also called aema Sŏn’gonggam 繕工監  Directorate for Palace Maintenance Sŏn’gun 選軍  selected soldiers provided with land grants (early Koryŏ) Sŏn’gyorang 宣敎郞  gentleman for proclaiming edicts Sŏnjŏl changgun 宣節將軍  manifestly loyal general Sŏnmurang 宣務郞  gentleman for proclaiming responsibilities Sŏnwisa 宣慰使  pacification commissioner Sŏri 書吏  clerk Sŏryŏng 署令  bureau supervisor Sŏsoch’im 西小寢  small royal bedroom on the west side of the main royal bedroom (yŏnch’im) Sŏungwan 書雲觀  Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory; Directorate of Astronomy Sŏyo 西窑  Western Kiln Soyun 少尹  deputy magistrate; vice minister Ssangsŏng ch’onggwanbu 雙城摠管府  Ssangsŏng Commandery Su munha sijung 守門下侍中  vice chancellor Sŭbak chejo 習樂提調  commissioner for ceremonial music Suborok 受寶籙  “Receiving the Precious Secret Scroll” Sŭbyu 拾遺  reminder; a remonstrance official Such’an 修撰  editor of the Bureau of State Records Such’anggung Chegŏsa 壽昌宮提擧司  Such’ang Palace Management Office Such’an’gwan 修撰官  copyist Such’ung pori kongsin 輸忠輔理功臣  merit subject for unchanging loyalty and assistance Sugak 水閣  pond pavilion Sugin 淑人  wives of officials rank 3 or above Sugŭi 淑儀  lady of chaste deportment

937

Glossary of Terms

938

Sugun ch’ŏmchŏlchesa 水軍僉節制使  deputy navy commissioner Sugun manho 水軍萬戶  navy myriarch; navy brigade commander Sugun togamjŏn ch’ech’alsa 水軍都監戰體察使  supreme commander for supervising the naval war Sugwi 宿衛  palace guards Suho 守護  protector Sumun 守門  controling the access of people to the royal palace Sunbang manho 巡訪萬戶  patrolling myriarch Sŭng 丞  assistant director; aide Sŭngji 承旨  royal secretary Sŭngjibang 承旨房  Office for Royal Secretaries Sungjŏng taebu 崇政大夫  grand master for state affairs Sŭnghullang 承訓郞  gentleman for moral instruction Sŭngmunwŏn 承文院  Office of Diplomatic Correspondence Sungnok taebu 崇祿大夫  grand master for the defense of the state Sŭngnoksa 僧錄司  Office of Buddhist Affairs Sŭngsarang 承仕郞  gentleman for receiving instructions Sŭngŭi kyowi 承義校尉  commandant for upholding righteousness Sŭngŭi puwi 承義副尉  vice commandant for upholding righteousness Sŭngŭirang 承議郞  gentleman for counsel Sun’gun chegong 巡軍提控  controller of the Capital Constabulary Sun’gun chejo 巡軍提調  commissioner of the Capital Constabulary Sun’gun chinmu 巡軍鎭撫  judge of the Capital Constabulary Sun’gun chisa 巡軍知事  administrative commissioner of the Capital Constabulary Sun’gun ch’ŏnho 巡軍千戶  chiliarch of the Capital Constabulary Sun’gun kŭngŏm kyŏngjŏl pyŏngŭi sŏllyŏk Igwi kongsin 純勤恭儉 勁節 秉義 宣力 翊衛功臣  wing guard merit subject for being sincere, diligent, respectful, frugal, steadfast, loyal, justice-­defending, and strenuously protecting

Glossary of Terms Sun’gun manho 巡軍萬戶  commissioner of the Capital Constabulary Sun’gun manhobu 巡軍萬戶府  Capital Constabulary Sun’gunbu 巡軍府  Capital Constabulary Sun’gunok 巡軍獄  Capital Constabulary Prison Sunjabŏp 循資法  law of employment and promotion (based on the number of years and months of public service) Sunmunsa 巡問使  patrolling inspector Sunsŏng 順成  lady of complete complaisance Sunyu paksa 諄諭博士  first proctor of the National Academy Sunzi / Sunzi bingfa 孫子/ 孫子兵法  The Art of War by Sunzi Sŭpyu 拾遺  reminder; a remonstrance official Suragan 水剌間  royal kitchen Suro chŏnunso 水路轉運所  Waterways Transport Agency Suryukchae 水陸齋  sacrificial ceremonies for the wandering ghosts both in the water and on land; journey smoothing halls to speed the soul of the departed into the life after death Susudo 蒐狩圖  Pictures of Hunting Scenes Susu kangmudo 蒐狩講武圖  Pictures of Hunting Scenes for Military Training Suŭi kyowi 修義校尉  commandant for cultivating righteousness Suŭi puwi 修義副尉  vice commandant for cultivating righteousness Suyang 垂揚  lifting a hand and striking the ball down vertically in kyŏkku game Tabang 茶房  Tea Bureau Tae changgun 大將軍  general-­in-­chief; grand general Tae haksa 大學士  grand academician Tae hogun 大護軍  great military protector; general-­in-­chief T’aebaeksŏng 太白星  Venus Taebingjae 待聘齋  Taebingjae National Academy (specializing in the study of the Classic of Documents)

939

Glossary of Terms

940 Taebo 大寶  priceless treasure Taebu 大夫  grand master Taech’aek 對策  essay on policy matters

T’aech’ŏnggwan 太淸觀  Temple of Clarity; T’aech’ŏng Shrine T’aech’ŏnggwan p’an’gwan 太淸觀判官  chief clerk of T’aech’ŏng Shrine Taech’uk 大祝  orator of the Office of Royal Sacrifices Taegan 臺諫  Office of the Inspector-General and Office of the Censor General; censors and remonstrators; surveillance and censorial officials; Censorate Taehak 大學  Great Learning Taehak yŏnŭi 大學衍義  Extended Meaning of the Great Learning by Zhen Dexiu T’aehaksa 太學士  grand academician Taehyang 大享  great sacrificial ceremony (held at the Royal Ancestral Shrine) T’aeiljŏn 太一殿  Temple of the Great One T’aeilsan 太一算  weather calculation Taejang 隊長  company commander Taejang togam 大藏都監  Directorate for the Tripitaka Taejanggunp’o 大將軍砲  general-­in-­chief cannon Taejanggyŏng 大藏經  Great Collection of Buddhist Sutras; Tripitaka Koreana Taejidoron 大智度論  The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom by Nagarjuna T’aekchu 宅主  Lady of the House T’aemisŏng 太微星  Supreme Palace Constellation T’aemiwŏn 太微垣  Supreme Palace Enclosure T’aemyo chosŏng togam 太廟造成都監  Directorate for the Construction of the Royal Ancestral Shrine Taeŏn 大言  second royal secretary

Glossary of Terms T’aep’yŏnggwan 太平館  Guesthouse of Great Peace Taero 對盧  chancellor T’aesa 太師  grand preceptor T’aesa 太史  grand scribe Taesahŏn 大司憲  inspector-general Taesasŏng 大司成  chancellor of the National Academy Taesin 大臣  grand minister; high official Taesŏng 臺省  Surveillance Chancellery Taeujŏn 大羽箭  big arrows with feathers T’aewi 太尉  defender-­in-­chief T’agakbu 打角夫  retinue member in charge of managing equipment for an embassy Taibao 太保  grand guardian Taifu 太傅  grand mentor Taishi 太師  grand preceptor Tallyŏn p’an’gwan 團練判官  military training administrator Tamsŏnbŏp 談禪法  Sŏn Discussion Assembly Tandai 探題  military governor (Japan) [Tang Taizong] Li Weigong Wendui 唐太宗公問對  Questions and Replies between Tang Taizong and Li Weigong Tanghugwan 堂後官  seventh-­rank official of the Royal Secretariat; chief clerk Tangjian 唐鑑  Mirror of the Tang Dynasty by Fan Zuyu Tangsanggwan 堂上官  “officials of the upper end of the hall,” high-­ranking officials of ranks 1, 2, and part of 3 Tanmun 端門  Gate of Rectitude Tansŏng pori kongsin 端誠保理功臣  merit subject for utmost sincerity and defending principle Tansŏng yangjŏl iktae kongsin 端誠翊戴功臣  extremely sincere, brilliantly faithful, and respectfully assisting merit subject

941

Glossary of Terms

942 Tianguan 天官  Ministry of State Tianzhao 天朝  Heavenly Kingdom

To anmu ch’alisa 都按撫察理使  chief pacification and surveillance ­commissioner To anmusa 都按撫使  chief pacification commissioner To ch’alisa 都察理使  chief surveillance commissioner To ch’ech’alsa 都體察使  supreme commander of the Office of the Commander To chejo 都提調  supreme commissioner To chihwisa 都指揮使  commander-­in-­chief To chinmu 都鎭撫  chief military commissioner of the Royal Guard To chŏlchesa 都節制使  provincial military commissioner To ch’ŏmŭi chungch’an 都僉議中贊  chancellor To ch’ongjebu 都摠制府  Chief Command To ch’ongjesa 都摠制使  commander-­in-­chief To ch’up’osa 都追捕使  chief commissioner for criminal apprehension To kwanch’alch’ulch’ŏksa 都觀察黜陟使  governor To kwanch’alsa 道觀察使  governor To pyŏngmasa 都兵馬使  chief regional military commander To sunmunch’allisa 都巡問察理事  chief provincial and surveillance ­commissioner To sunmunsa 都巡問使  provincial military commissioner To sunmusa 都巡撫使  chief patrolling pacification commissioner Tobuoe 都府外  Palace Patrol Battalion Toch’ong chungoe chegunsabu 都摠中外諸軍事府  Chief Military Command Headquarters Toch’ongjebu 都總制府  Headquarters Command; Supreme Command Toch’ŏp 度牒  monk certificates Todang 都堂  Privy Council

Glossary of Terms Togwan 都官  Criminal Administration Bureau (in the Board of Punishments); Slave Agency T’oho 土豪  powerful local family Tohobu 都護府  strategic prefecture; regional military command Tohyŏng 徒刑  penal servitude Tojanggo 道場庫  Warehouse for Buddhist Ritual Implements Tŏkch’ŏn’go 德泉庫  Tŏkch’ŏn Storehouse Tollyŏngbu 敦寧府  Royal House Administration Tomanho 都萬戶  chief myriarch Tong chigonggŏ 同知貢擧  associate examination administrator Tong p’an Top’yŏngŭisa sa 同判都評議使司事  associate director of the Privy Council Tong p’ansa 同判事  associate director Tongban 東班  Eastern File; civil officials Tongbu 東部  East Ward Tongbu 東部  Eastern Bureau T’ongch’ansain 通贊舍人  secretarial receptionist of the Office for Audience Ceremonies T’ongdŏngnang 通德郞  gentleman for transmitting virtue Tonggyŏng 東京  Eastern Capital; Kyŏngju T’onghŏn taebu 通憲大夫  grand master for transmitting law T’onghun taebu 通訓大夫  grand master for moral instruction overall Tongji 同知  associate administrator Tongji Ch’unch’ugwan sa 同知春秋館事  associate director of the Bureau of State Records Tongji Ch’ungch’uwŏn sa 同知中樞院使  associate commissioner of the Security Council Tongji milchik 同知密直  associate commissioner of the Security Council Tongji sa 同知事  associate commissioner

943

Glossary of Terms

944

T’ongjian / Zizhitongjian 通鑑 / 資治通鑑  Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government by Sima Guang Tongjŏng 東井  Eastern Well Constellation T’ongjŏng taebu 通政大夫  grand master for government overall T’ongju 統主  warrant Tongmunsŏn 東文選  Anthology of Korean Literature T’ongnyemun 通禮門  Comprehensive Rites Office Tongnyŏngbu 東寧府  Tongnyŏng Administration Tongqian 同僉  deputy Tongsa kangmok 東史綱目  Annotated Account of Korean History by An Chŏngbok Tongsansaek 東山色  Royal Forest Park T’ongsarang 通仕郞  gentleman for transmitting instructions Tongsoch’im 東小寢  small royal bedroom on the east side of the main royal bedroom (yŏnch’im) Tongsŏdaebiwŏn 東西大悲院  East and West Infirmary T’ongsŏllang 通善郞  gentleman for transmitting goodness T’ongŭi taebu 通議大夫  grand master for transmitting discussions Tongyo 東窑  Eastern Kiln Tongzhi 同知  associate administrator Tonnyong kyowi 敦勇校尉  ardently brave commandent Tonnyong puwi 敦勇副尉  adently brave vice commandant Top’yŏngŭi noksa 都評議錄事  record keeper of the Privy Council Top’yŏngŭisa / Todang / Sasa 都評議使司 / 都堂 / 使司  Privy Council Top’yŏngŭisa sa 都評議使司使  commissioner of the Privy Council Tosa 都事  inspector; auditor Tosŏng choch’uk togam 都城造築都監  Directorate for Construction of City Walls

Glossary of Terms Tosŏng ch’ukcho togam 都城築造都監  Directorate for the Capital City Construction Tosŏnmu sunch’alsa 都宣撫巡察使  chief pacification mobile inspector Tosunch’alsa 都巡察使  supreme mobile inspector Tosŭngji 都承旨  chief royal secretary Tosunmunsa 都巡問使  provincial military commissioner Tosŭngt’ong 都僧統  controller-­in-­chief Tot’ong ch’ŏch’isa 都統處置使  supreme commander Tot’ongsa 都統使  commander-­in-­chief Towi 都尉  commandant; commander-­in-­chief Towŏnsu 都元帥  supreme field commander, dispatched from the capital Toye 徒隷  functionary Toyŏmsŏ 都染署  Bureau of Dyeing Tŭkchin poguk sungnok taebu 特進輔國崇祿大夫  specially appointed ­bulwark grand master for splendid happiness Tuksin 纛神  God of Chief Banners Tŭngch’okinjabang 燈燭引者房  Lantern and Admittance Office Tŭnggŭksa 登極使  congratulatory envoy for a new emperor (of Ming China) Tunjŏn 屯田  military colonies; state farm U changsa 右長史  right scribe U chaŭi 右諮議  right advisior U chipbŏp 右執法  Right Law Administrator (of the Supreme Palace Enclosure) U chŏngja 右正子  second proofreader of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U hŏnnap 右獻納  right third censor U kanŭi / u kanŭi taebu 右諫議/ 右諫議大夫  right grand master of r­ emonstrance U kun 右軍  Right Army U kun tot’ongsa 右軍都統使  commander-­in-­chief of the Right Army

945

Glossary of Terms

946

U munhak 右文學  second instructor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U p’ilsŏn 右弼善  fourth tutor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U pin’gaek 右賓客  second mentor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U podŏk 右輔德  second tutor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U pogwŏl 右補闕  right rectifier of omissions of the State Finance Commission U pogya 右僕射  right director of the State Finance Commission U pu pin’gaek 右副賓客  fourth mentor of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U pu sŭngji 右副承旨  fifth royal secretary U pu sŭngsŏn 右副承宣  fifth royal secretary U pu taeŏn 右副代言  fifth royal secretary; right assistant transmitter U ryŏng 右領  right regiment U sa 右師  deputy director of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U sagyŏng 右司經  second librarian of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U sangsi / u san’gi sangsi 右常侍 / 右散騎常侍  right policy advisor U saŭi taebu 右司議大夫  right grand master of remonstrance U sayun 右司尹  director of the Right Office (of the Administrative Office of the Queen) U sijik 右侍直  second attendant of the Crown Prince Tutorial Office U sijung 右侍中  right chancellor U sŭbyu 右拾遺  right reminder (of the Secretariat-­Chancellery) U sŭng 右丞  right assistant director U sŭngji 右承旨  third royal secretary U taeŏn 右大言  third royal secretary U wi 右衛  Right Guard U yun 右尹  third magistrate (of the Hansŏng Magistracy) Ŭi 義  interpretation (in the civil service examination) Ŭi 疑  question (in the civil service examination)

Glossary of Terms Ŭich’ang 義倉  Righteous Granary Ŭigŭmbu 義禁府  Office for the Deliberation of Forbidden Affairs; State Tribunal Ŭigwan 醫官  medical official Ŭihŭng ch’in’gunwi 義興親軍衛  Righteousness Flourishing King’s Personal Guards Ŭihŭng samgunbu / Ŭihŭngbu 義興三軍府 / 義興府  Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies Ŭihŭng siwisa 義興侍衛司  Righteousness Flourishing Metropolitan Command Ŭiin 宜人  a title referring to the wives of officials of rank 5 Ŭijŏngbu 議政府  State Council Ŭijŏngbu ch’ansŏng 議政府贊成  fourth state councilor of the State Council Ŭirang 議郞  court gentleman for consultation; third minister Ŭirye 儀禮  rites and ceremonies Ŭisŏnggo 義成庫  one of the palaces storehouses Ŭiyŏmch’ang 義鹽倉  Righteous Salt Storehouse Ŭiyŏnggo 義盈庫  Storehouse of Righteous Abundance Ullambana 盂蘭盆齋  Paegjung; Hungry Ghosts Festival Ŭm privilege 蔭  the right to office without examination, for sons of high ­officials Ŭmsa 淫祀  lewd sacrifices Ŭmyang sanjŏngdogam 陰陽刪定都監  Directorate for Geomancy Ungmu siwisa雄武侍衛司  Victorious Martial Metropolitan Command Ŭngyanggun 鷹揚軍  Soaring Falcon Army Ŭngyangwi 鷹揚衛  Soaring Falcon Guard Ŭnggyo 應敎  document drafter; fourth counselor of the Office of Special Counselors Unje 雲梯  cloud ladder Unugyŏng 雲雨經  Cloud and Rain Sutra

947

Glossary of Terms

948 Ŭpbaerye 揖拜禮  rite of making a deep bow Urimsŏng 羽林星  constellation of Aquarius Wangnyangsŏng 王良星  Cassiopeia 5 Wangsa 王師  royal preceptor Wanho pyŏlgam 完護別監  special security director Wei Liaozi 尉鐐子  Chinese text on military strategy Wenyuange 文淵閣  Hall of Literary Profundity Wi 衛  guards; royal guard units Wi 尉  captain (rank 9a) Wisŏng 胃星  Stomach [Lunar] Lodge Wiŭi changgun 威毅將軍  stately steadfast general

Wiwisi 衛尉寺  Office for Palace Ceremony and Sacrifice Supplies Wiyong changgun 威勇將軍  stately courageous general Wŏllyŏng 月令  proceedings of government in different months Wŏndan 圓壇  Circular Altar; Altar of Heaven Wŏn’gudan 圓丘壇  Circular Mound Altar Wŏnjong kongsin 原從功臣  minor merit subjects Wŏnsu 元帥  military commander; marshal Wŏnyugwan 遠遊冠  royal crown made of black silk and decorated with jade Wufu (Kr. obok) 五福  Five Blessings Wujun dudufu 五軍都督府  Chief Military Commission of Five Armies Wuxing 五行  Five Phases Wuzi 吳子Wuzi  by Wu Qi; Chinese text on military strategy Xiaguan 夏官  Ministry of War Xiangming suanfa 詳明算法  Explanations of Arithmetic by He Pingzi Xiaojing 孝經  Classic of Filial Piety Xiaoqi 小旗  squad commander

Glossary of Terms Xifan 西蕃  Western Barbarians Xingsheng 行省  Branch Secretariat Yang 兩  tael; a measure of weight Yangbu 兩府  Secretariat-­Chancellery and the Security Council; Two Departments Yangch’ŏp 良妾  concubine of good status Yangga tosŭngt’ong 兩街都僧統  controller-­in-­chief (of the two branches of the Buddhist Monks Office) Yanghyŏn’go 良賢庫  Provisions Office for the Students of the National Univeristy Yangjŏn Saongbang 兩殿司饔房  Royal Cusine Office for King and Queen Yangsa 兩司  Office of the Inspector-General and Office of the Censor-General Yebin’gyŏng 禮賓卿  chief minister of the Ritual Guest Agency Yebinsi 禮賓寺  Office of Guest Affairs Yebinsogyŏng 禮賓少卿  vice minister of the Office of Guest Affairs Yejo 禮曹  Board of Rites Yemun ch’unch’ugwan 藝文春秋館  Office of Royal Decrees and State Records Yemun ŭnggyo 藝文應敎  fourth royal counselor of the Office of Royal Decrees Yemun’gwan 藝文館  Office of Royal Decrees Yemun’gwan chikkwan 藝文館直館  auxiliary of the Office of Royal Decrees Yemun’gwan taejehak 藝文館大提學  director of the Office of Royal Decrees Yeŭich’ongnang 禮儀摠郞  superintendent of ceremonial proprieties Yibu zhushi 儀部主事  secretary for rituals and ceremonies Yingfeng 應奉  provisioner Yinyang 陰陽  umbral and bright Yŏgwan 女官  palace women Yŏgwisŏng 輿鬼星  Ghoul Star Yŏksŭng 驛丞  post-­station clerks

949

Glossary of Terms

950 Yŏlli 掾吏  administrative aides (of the Chancellery) Yŏmjang 鹽場  Saltern Office Yŏmjanggwan 鹽場官  director of the Saltern Office Yomulgo 料物庫  Palace Granary Yŏnch’im 燕寢  king’s main quarters Yŏndŭnghoe 燃燈會  Lotus Lantern Festival Yŏng 令  director Yŏng 領  subcommands; unit

Yŏng Samsa sa 領三司事  chief director of the State Finance Commission Yŏn’gak poktu 軟角幞頭  pointed kerchief on the head Yŏngbusa 領府事  chief grand councilor (of the Chancellery) Yongch’ŏn 龍天  dragon kings and devas Yŏngdollyŏng 領敦寧  director of the Royal House Administration Yonggi sunwisa龍騎巡衛司  Dragon Riding Patrolling Guard Command Yŏngin 令人  a title referring to the wives of officials of rank 3 Yŏngin 伶人  musician; entertainer Yŏngjo 迎詔  formal ceremony of receiving the imperial instruction of the Chinese emperor Yŏngjŏpkwan 迎接官  official in charge of greeting guests Yongmu sunwisa 龍武巡衛司  Dragon Martial Patrolling Guard Command Yŏngnok taebu 榮祿大夫  grand master for glorious happiness Yŏngŏpchŏn 永業田  state farm granted to soldiers Yŏngsa 領事  chief director of the Office of Royal Lectures Yŏngsa 令史  clerk of Kaesŏng Magistracy; clerk of the Board of Personnel Yŏngsa sa 領司事  chief director of the State Finance Commission Yŏngsŏn ch’ŏnho 領船千戶  chiliarch in charge of warships Yŏngsŏng 靈星  Great Bear Constellation; Ursa Major Yongyang Sunwisa龍驤巡衛司  Dashing Dragon Patrolling Guard Command

Glossary of Terms Yŏnho 年號  reign title; era name Yŏnsaengjŏn 延生殿  Hall of Prolonged life Youjun dudufu 右軍都督府  Right Army of the Chief Military Commission Youshilang 右侍郞  right vice minister Youshunmen 右順門  West Gate of Obedience Yuannian 元年  first year of a reign Yubich’ang 有備倉  State Reserve Granary Yubigo 有備庫  Military Supply Warehouse; Palace Storehouse Yuduochi 亏多赤  Palace Guards Yuezhenhaidu 岳鎭海瀆  Deities of Great Mountains and Seas Yuhak 幼學  Confucian scholars who passed the preliminary civil service examination (and were not in public service); scholars in training Yuhu 留後  special capital magistrate Yuhusa 留後司  Special Capital Magistracy Yuhwa 流火  arrow of flying fire or rocket Yuin 孺人  a title referring to the wives of officials of rank 7 or lower Yukbang noksa 六房錄事  chief clerks of Six Bureaus Yukcho 六曹  Six Ministries Yukhwasŏkp’o 六花石砲  six-­stone ball cannon Yuksip wijŏng 六十尉正  sixty captains and lieutenants Yulhak paksa 律學博士  legal erudite Yumilgwa 油蜜菓  oil and honey pastry Yungmunnu 隆文樓  Tower of Eminent Civil Officials Yungmuru 隆武樓  Tower of Eminent Martial Officials Yusa 有司  office concerned; authorities concerned; Yuyŏpchŏn 柳葉箭  willow-­leaf arrow Zhengdongxing zhongshusheng 征東行中書省  Secreteriat of the Eastern Expeditions Field Headquarters

951

Glossary of Terms

952

Zhenguan zhengyao 貞觀政要  Essentials of the Government of the Zhenguan Period Zhihui 指揮  commander Zhihui tongzhi 指揮同知  associate commander Zhizhi tongjian 資治通鑑  Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government by Sima Guang Zhizhigao 知制誥  participant in the drafting of proclamations; drafter Zhongruisi 中瑞司  Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals Zhongshusheng 中書省  Secretariat Zhongzai 冢宰  chancellor; minister of state Zhouguan 周官Rites of Zhou Zhouli 周禮  Rites of Zhou Zhouyi 周易  Book of Changes Zongbing 總兵  regional commander Zongbo 宗伯  minister of rites Zuojun dudufu 左軍都督府  Chief Military Commission of the Left Army Zuoshilang 左侍郞  left vice minister

Glossary of People and Places A Heng 阿衡

An Kyŏngji 安敬之

Acihaboyan 阿刺哈伯顔

An Kyŏnggŏm 安景儉

Aduge 阿都哥

An Kyŏnggong 安景恭

Agibaldo 阿其拔都

An Kyŏngnyang 安景良

Ajŏngnangi 阿赤郞耳

An Malgŏn 安末巾

Aju 牙州

An Mangji 安望之

Aldong 斡東

An Minsu 安民秀

Aldong Saori 斡東沙吾里

An Paek 安白

Allŭng 安陵

An Pin 安贇

Ambangsa 巖房寺

An Sok 安束

Amnyung 押戎

An Sŏng 安省

Amula 阿木刺

An Sun 安純

An Chonggŏm 安宗儉

An Sŭngjun 安升俊

An Chongwŏn 安宗源

An Sungno 安叔老

An Chu 安柱

An U 安祐

An Chungon 仲溫

An Ugyŏng 安遇慶

An Ik 安翊

An Ŭi 安義

An Inyŏng 安以寧

An Ŭlgwi 安乙貴

An Kŏ 安居

Anak 安岳

An Kŭgin 安克仁

Anamdong 安菴洞

An Kŭn 安懃

Anamsa 安巖寺

An Kyŏng 安慶

Anbyŏn 安邊



953

Glossary of People and Places

954 Anch’un [Yanchun] 眼春

Bi Chen 裨諶

Andŏk 安德

Bin 賓

Andong 安東

Bitunkouzi 畢屯口子

An’gang 安康

Bo 亳

An’guk 安國

Buhua 不花

An’guksa 安國寺

Bunei 武寧

Anhok 安惑

Cai 采

Anhŭngnyang 安興梁

Cai Ze 蔡澤

Anhwang 安荒

Ch’a Chun 車俊

Anhyŏp 安峽

Ch’a Sŏngbu 車成富

Anjŏng 安定

Ch’a Sŭngdo 車承道

Anju 安州

Ch’a Sŭnghak 車承鶴

Anjudo 安州道

Chaan 子安

Anmin 安愍

Ch’aeun 彩雲

Anp’yŏng (Lord) 安平君

Chaebyŏktong 滓甓洞

Ansan 安山

Chaeryŏng 載寧

Ansim 安心

Chaesŏngch’am 在城站

Ansisŏng 安市城

Chagora 者考羅

Anyang 安煬

Chahwasa 慈化寺

Anyi 安邑

Ch’ainsa 遮仁寺

Aotunwanzhe 奧屯完者

Chaju 慈州

Asa [Asha] 阿沙

Ch’ang (King) 昌王

Ashura 阿修羅

Chang Chach’ung 張子忠

Asiro 阿時羅

Chang Chido 張志道

Aunbo 吾音甫

Chang Chihwa 張至和

Ayongp’o 阿容浦

Chang Ch’ŏl 張哲

Bai Zhu 拜住

Chang Ha 張夏

Ban Gu 班固

Chang Hongsu 張洪壽

Bao Shuya 鮑叔牙

Chang Ik 張翼

Bayanfuxia 伯顔甫下

Chang Kŏm 張劍

Bayantiemuer [Mokcho] 孛顔帖木兒

Chang Mang 張望

Bayisu 八乙速

Chang Paek 張伯

Beishilou 北巿樓

Chang Po 張寶

Glossary of People and Places

955

Chang Pugae 張夫介

Cheng (King) 成王

Chang Sado 張思道

Cheng Tang (King) 成湯

Chang Sagil 張思吉

Chengzong (Emperor) 成宗

Chang Sajŏng 張思靖

Ch’ogodae 草古臺

Chang Tam 張湛

Chi Mun 池門

Chang Wŏn’gyŏng 張元卿

Chi P’aan 池波顔

Chang Wu 張羽

Chi Yonggi 池湧奇

Chang Yŏn 張演

Chi Yongsu 池龍壽

Chang Yonggŏm 張龍劍

Chi Yun 池奫

Chang Yunhwa 張允和

Chich’ŏnsa 支天寺

Changan 長安

Chigong (Master) 指空大師

Changdan 長湍

Chikto 稷島

Changgyŏngsa 長慶寺

Chikhŏn 直憲

Changju 長州

Chiksan County 稷山郡

Changmyŏngjin 長命鎭

Chikuzen Province 筑州

Changnakkung 長樂宮

Ch’ilchŏmsŏn 七點仙

Ch’angnyang 窄梁

Chin Chunggi 陳中奇

Ch’angnyŏng 昌寧

Chin Ch’unggwi 陳忠貴

Changp’o 長浦

Chin Hallyong 陳漢龍

Ch’angp’o 倉浦

Chin Kyŏng 秦瓊

Ch’angp’yŏng 昌平

Chin Ŏnsang 陳彦祥

Changsa (District) 長沙

Chin Song 陳松

Ch’angsŏn 彰善

Chin Ŭlsŏ 陳乙瑞

Ch’angsŏng 昌城

Chin Yŏŭi 陳汝宜

Changt’ong 長通

Chinan (Prince) 鎭安君

Ch’angŭimun 彰義門

Chinch’ŏn (Lord) 晉川君

Changŭisa 藏義寺

Chin’gak 眞覺

Ch’annyŏng 粲英

Chin’gang 鎭江

Chaŭn (Sect) 慈恩

Chingch’ŏng 澄淸

Chayŏn Island 紫燕島

Chin’gwansa 津寬寺

Ch’ayuryŏng 車踰嶺

Chinjŏng 鎭定

Chen Gang 陳綱

Chinju 晋州

Chen Li 陳禮

Chinmyŏngp’o 鎭溟浦

Glossary of People and Places

956 Chinp’o 鎭浦

Cho Minsu 趙敏修

Chinsŏng 珍城

Cho Noe 趙賚

Chinwŏn County 珍原郡

Cho On 趙溫

Chirisan 智異山

Cho Ŏn 趙彦

Chirŭng 智陵

Cho Pak 趙璞

Ch’irwŏn 㭍原

Cho Pan 趙胖

Chisongzi 赤松子

Cho Panghyŏn 趙方玄

Ch’ilwŏn District 柒原縣

Cho P’yŏng 趙評

Cho Anp’yŏng 趙安平

Cho Rim 趙琳 (Cho Im 趙琳)

Cho Chae 趙䝴

Cho Sasu 趙士秀

Cho Changsu 曹長壽

Cho Saŭi 趙思義

Cho Ch’i 曹致

Cho Sŏ 曺庶

Cho Ch’imyŏng 曹致命

Cho Sosaeng 趙小生

Cho Chu 趙珠

Cho Ssi (Lady Cho) 趙氏

Cho Chun 趙浚

Cho Ssi (Lady Cho) 曹氏

Cho Ho 趙瑚

Cho Sun 曹恂

Cho Hong 趙洪

Cho Sung 趙崇

Cho Hŭigo 趙希古

Cho Sunhwa 趙順和

Cho Hwa 趙禾

Cho Tŏngnin 趙德麟

Cho Hwa 趙和

Cho Tuŏn 曹豆彦

Cho Ido 趙以道

Cho U 趙祐

Cho Iksu 曺益修

Cho Ŭlsang 曺乙祥

Cho Im 趙琳

Cho Yong 趙庸

Cho In 趙仁

Cho Yŏnggyu 趙英珪

Cho Inok 趙仁沃

Cho Yŏngmu 趙英茂

Cho Kaeng 趙賡

Cho Yu 趙裕茂

Cho Ki 趙琦

Cho Yuin 曹由仁

Cho Ku 祖丘

Ch’odo 草島

Cho Kwan 趙貫

Ch’oe Anjong 崔安宗

Cho Kyesaeng 趙啓生

Ch’oe Ch’ilsŏk 崔七夕

Cho Kyŏm 趙謙

Ch’oe Ch’ung 崔沖

Cho Kyŏn 趙狷

Ch’oe Haesan 崔海山

Cho Kyŏng 趙卿

Ch’oe Han’gi 崔閑奇

Glossary of People and Places

957

Ch’oe Ho 崔滈

Ch’oe Unhae 崔雲海

Ch’oe Ho 崔浩

Ch’oe Wŏnch’ung 崔原忠

Ch’oe I 崔迤

Ch’oe Yŏm 崔濂

Ch’oe I 崔伊

Ch’oe Yŏn 崔淵

Ch’oe Indu 崔仁㺶

Ch’oe Yŏng 崔瑩

Ch’oe Kamul 崔加勿

Ch’oe Yŏngji 崔永沚

Ch’oe Kiyŏl 崔基烈

Ch’oe Yongso 崔龍蘇

Ch’oe Koeng 崔宏

Ch’oe Yongyu 崔用儒

Ch’oe Kongch’ŏl 崔公哲

Ch’oe Yu 崔濡

Ch’oe Kŭkbu 崔克孚

Ch’oe Yugyŏng 崔有慶

Ch’oe Kŭng 崔兢

Ch’oe Yung 崔融

Ch’oe Kwan 崔關

Ch’oe Yunji 崔允祉

Ch’oe Kwangdae 崔廣大

Ch’oe Yunsu 崔允壽

Ch’oe Kyŏn 崔蠲

Ch’oe Yuryŏn 崔有璉

Ch’oe Kyŏng 崔景

Chŏkto 赤道

Ch’oe Mallyong 崔萬龍

Chŏkgyŏngwŏn 積慶園

Ch’oe Mun 崔文

Chŏkchŏn 赤田

Ch’oe Nok 崔祿

Chŏksŏn 積善

Ch’oe Ŏngnyong 崔億龍

Chŏksŏng 赤城

Ch’oe Paegan 崔伯顔

Chŏksŏng 積城

Ch’oe Sagang 崔士剛

Chŏlbi 節妃

Ch’oe Saŭi 崔士儀

Ch’ŏlhwa 鐵和

Ch’oe Sawi 崔士威

Ch’ŏlhyŏn 鐵峴

Ch’oe Sik 崔湜

Ch’ŏlkwan 鐵關

Ch’oe Sŏn 崔宣

Chŏlla Province 全羅道

Ch’oe Ssi 崔氏

Ch’ŏllyŏng 鐵嶺

Ch’oe Tan 崔鄲

Ch’ŏrwŏn 鐵原

Ch’oe Togi 崔禿伊

Ch’ŏrwŏn’gwan 鐵原關

Ch’oe Tŭkkyŏng 崔得冏

Chomō 張望

Ch’oe Tŭngnim 崔得林

Chŏn Chach’ung 全子忠

Ch’oe Ŭlŭi 崔乙義

Chŏn Hŭigil 田希吉

Ch’oe Un 崔雲

Chŏn Hŭng 田興

Ch’oe Un 崔沄

Chŏn I 田理

Glossary of People and Places

958 Chŏn I 田易

Chŏng Konggwŏn 鄭公權

Chŏn Ido 全以道

Chŏng Ku 鄭矩

Chŏn O 全吾

Chŏng Ku 鄭龜

Chŏn Obok 全五福

Chŏng Kwijin 鄭龜晋

Chŏn Paegyŏng 全伯英

Chŏng Man 鄭萬

Chŏn Se 全世

Chŏng Mongju 鄭夢周

Chŏn Si 田時

Chŏng Namjin 鄭南晉

Chŏn Sŭnggye 全承桂,

Chŏng Nan 鄭蘭

Chŏn Tŭkkyŏng 田得敬

Chŏng Pin 鄭贇

Chŏn Yŏngbu 全英富

Chŏng Sach’ŏk 鄭士倜

Chŏn Yu 田宥

Chŏng Sang 鄭尙

Ch’ŏndal 泉達

Chŏng Sangju 鄭尙周

Chŏng Anji 鄭安止

Chŏng Seyong 鄭世龍

Chŏng Chagyu 鄭子珪

Chŏng Sin’gye 丁臣桂

Chŏng Chawi 丁子偉

Chŏng Sinŭi 鄭臣義

Chŏng Chi 鄭地

Chŏng Sŏn 鄭宣

Chŏng Chi 鄭持

Chŏng Sŏn 貞善

Chŏng Chi 鄭漬

Chŏng Suhong 鄭守弘

Chŏng Chin 鄭津

Chŏng Sŭngga 鄭承可

Chŏng Ching 鄭澄

Chŏng Tak 鄭擢

Chŏng Chŏl 鄭節

Chŏng Tam 鄭澹

Chŏng Chŏm 鄭漸

Chŏng Tang 鄭當

Chŏng Ch’ong 鄭摠

Chŏng Tojŏn 鄭道傳

Chŏng Ch’ŏnik 鄭天益

Chŏng Tongsŏk 鄭東石

Chŏng Hon 鄭渾

Chŏng Tŭkhu 鄭得厚

Chŏng Hŭi 鄭熙

Chŏng U 鄭寓

Chŏng Hŭigye 鄭熙啓

Chŏng Ŭi 鄭義

Chŏng Hwi 鄭暉

Chŏng Un’gyŏng 鄭云敬

Chŏng Hyoch’ung 鄭孝忠

Chŏng Wŏnch’ŏl 鄭原哲

Chŏng Hyomun 鄭孝文

Chŏng Yo 鄭曜

Chŏng Io 鄭以吾

Chŏng Yŏn 鄭連

Chŏng Kae 鄭愷

Chŏng Yŏng 鄭泳

Chŏng Kilsang 鄭吉詳

Chŏng Yŏngson 丁令孫

Glossary of People and Places

959

Chŏng Yongsu 鄭龍壽

Chŏngsim 貞心

Chŏng Yu 鄭游

Chŏngsimjŏng 淸心亭

Chŏng Yunbo 鄭允輔

Ch’ongsŏkchŏng 叢石亭

Chŏng Yung 鄭隆

Ch’ongsŏng (Count) 靑城伯

Chŏngan (Prince) 靖安軍

Chŏngŭi 定宜

Chŏngan (Princess) 定安翁主

Ch’ŏngwŏn (Lord) 靑原君

Chŏngbi 定妃

Ch’ŏngwŏn (Marquis) 靑原侯

Chŏngbi 貞妃

Chŏngyang (Prince) 定陽君

Chŏngbu 靑鳧

Chŏnju 全州

Chŏngbyŏnjin 靜邊鎭

Ch’ŏnnyŏng 川寧

Chŏngch’anggun 靖昌君

Ch’ŏnsin (Mountain) 天神山

Chŏngch’uk 丁丑

Ch’ŏnsinsa 天神寺

Chŏnggang 靖康

Ch’ŏnsusa 天水寺

Chŏnggang (Prince) 定康君

Ch’ŏnt’aejong 天台宗

Ch’ŏnggye Paesŏngso 淸溪拜星所

Chŏnŭi 全義

Chŏnggyŏng (Princess) 貞敬翁主

Chosaeng 祖生

Ch’ŏnghae 靑海

Choulilao 仇里老

Ch’ŏnghae (Lord) 靑海君

Choŭn Island 助隱島

Ch’ŏnghaedo 靑海道

Chouyitu 仇乙吐

Ch’ŏnghwaru 淸和樓

Choyang 兆陽

Chŏnghy (Duke) 靖孝公

Chu Ming 處明

Chongji 宗之

Chu Wŏnŭi 周元義

Ch’ongjisa 摠持寺

Chuch’onch’am 朱村站

Chŏngjong (King) 定宗

Ch’udo 楸島

Ch’ŏngju 靑州

Chugye 朱溪

Ch’ŏngju 淸州

Chukchu 竹州

Chŏngju 定州

Ch’uksan 丑山

Chongnim 宗林

Ch’uksando 丑山島

Chŏngnŭng 定陵

Chuksŏng (Lord) 竹城君

Chŏngnŭng 貞陵

Ch’unch’ŏn 春川

Chŏngnyŏl (Duke) 貞烈公

Chungbo 重寶

Chŏngnyŏng (District) 定寧

Ch’ungch’ŏng Province 忠淸道

Chŏngp’yŏng 靖平

Ch’unggyŏng (King) 忠敬王

Glossary of People and Places

960 Chunghŭngsa 重興寺

Duowan 多完

Chunghwa County 中和郡

Eihan 永範

Ch’ungjŏng (Duke) 忠靖

Eikaku 永廓

Ch’ungju 忠州

Eirin 永琳

Chungmun 仲文

Fan 蕃

Ch’ungnyŏl (King) 忠烈王

Fan Zuyu 范祖禹

Ch’ungsŏn (King) 忠宣王

Fengtianmen 奉天門

Ch’ungsuk (King) 忠肅王

Fu Yan 夫彦

Ch’ungwi 忠魏

Fu Yue 傅說

Ch’unju 春州

Fuji Korehisa 藤伊久

Chunsu 俊秀

Fujiwara Yorihisa 藤原賴久

Chuoech’am 朱外站

Fuli 甫里

Chūzan (King) 中山王

Fuyimowuerzhu 甫亦莫兀兒住

Chwamyŏng kongsin 佐命功臣

Fuyiwu 甫乙吾

Ch’wihyŏn 聚賢

Gao Yao 皐陶

Ch’wihyŏnbang 聚賢坊

Gaoliduoshi 高里多時

Cui Boyanbuhua 崔伯顔不花

Gaozu (Emperor) 高祖

Cui Tiermuer 崔帖木兒

Genkai 原海

Cui Xuanwei 崔玄暉

Genkei 源慶

Dade 大德

Gong Fuda 宮富大

Daluhuachi 達魯花赤

Gonggao (Marquis) 弓高

Dandong 丹東

Gongyang Gao 公羊高

Datashi 大塔失

Guaerya Qimuna 括兒牙乞木那

Davina 答比那 Deng Yu 鄧禹

Guaeryabaersu 括兒牙八兒速

Dengzhou 登州

Guaeryahuoshi Tiemur 括兒牙火失帖木兒

Di Jie 狄介

Guaeryatuchenggai 括兒牙禿成改

Di Renjie 狄仁傑

Guaeryawunan 括兒牙兀難

Dian 甸 cai

Guan Xiansheng 關先生

Dongjing 東京

Guan Zhong 管仲

Doshira 童時羅

Guang Yi 光奕

Doumen Ward 豆門城

Guangwu (Emperor) 光武

Douyiyu 豆乙於

Gubuere 高卜兒閼

Glossary of People and Places

961

Gulun Ahachu 古論阿哈出

Han Ko 韓皐

Gulunboli 古論孛里

Han Kyebo 韓季輔

Guluntuolan Tiemurer 古論豆闌帖木兒

Han Kyŏng 韓卿

Ha Kyŏng 河景

Han Nahae 韓那海

Ha Sŏkchu 河石柱

Han Pangsin 韓方信

Ha Sŭnghae 河承海

Han Sanggyŏng 韓尙敬

Ha Yun 河崙

Han Sanghwan 韓尙桓

Haeinsa 海印寺

Han Sangjil 韓尙質

Haeju 海州

Han Sau 韓思友

Haengju 幸州

Han Sheng 韓生

Haep’ung County 海豊郡

Han Ŭlgi 韓乙氣

Haeryongwangsa 海龍王寺

Han Xin 韓信

Haet’ong 海通

Hanguguan 函谷關

Haeyang 海陽

Hanju 韓州

Hakata 覇家臺

Hansan 韓山

Hakp’ogyo 鶴浦橋

Hansan (Count) 韓山伯

Hala 哈剌

Hansan (Lord) 漢山君

Ham Purim 咸傅霖

Hansŏngbu 漢城府

Hamch’ang 咸昌

Hanyang 漢陽

Hamgwallyŏng 咸關嶺

Hanyangbu 漢陽府

Hamhŭngbu 咸興府

Happ’o 合浦

Hamju 咸州

Haŭm 河陰

Hamnan 哈闌

Hayang 河陽

Hamnanbuk 哈闌北

He Shi 和氏

Hamnyŏl 咸悅

Hejian 河間

Hamyang 咸陽

Heminglou 鶴鳴樓

Han Ch’ŏn 韓蕆

Hizen Province 肥前州

Han Ch’ŏndong 韓天童

Hŏ Chi 許遲

Han Ch’ung 韓忠

Hŏ Chisin 許之信

Han Gaozu 漢高祖

Hŏ Chu 許周

Han I 韓理

Hŏ Hae 許晐

Han Kan 韓幹

Hŏ Ŭng 許膺

Han Kyu 韓珪

Glossary of People and Places

962 Hoeamsa 檜巖寺

Hou 侯

Hoean (Prince) 懷安君

Hou Zhu 後主

Hoebin Gate 會賓門

Hu Shunchen 胡舜臣

Hoejin 會津

Huaiyi 淮夷

Hoeyang 淮陽

Huan (Duke) 桓公

Hohyŏn 好賢

Huan Yanfan 桓彦範

Holchŏkbang 忽赤房

Huang 荒

Holjŏkch’ŏng 忽赤廳

Hubadao 湖拔道

Holmyŏn 忽面

Hubadu 胡拔都

Hong Chabŏn 洪子蕃

Hŭijin 希進

Hong Ching 洪徵

Hŭiju 熙州

Hong Ch’ungŏn 洪忠彦

Hundo 熏陶

Hong Chungsŏn 洪仲瑄

Hŭngan (Lord) 興安君

Hong In’gye 洪仁桂

Hŭngboksa 興福寺

Hong Kilmin 洪吉旼

Hŭngch’ŏnsa 興天寺

Hong Mi 洪敉

Hŭngdŏk 興德

Hong Po 洪保

Hŭngdŏkchin 興德鎭

Hong Ssi 洪氏

Hŭngguksa 興國寺

Hong Su 洪壽

Hŭnginmun 興仁門

Hong Sŭngyŏn 洪承演

Hŭngnim 黑林

Hong Wŏn 洪原

Hŭngnyŏng (Lord) 興寧君

Hong Yŏngt’ong 洪永通

Hŭngsŏng 興盛.

Hong Yuryong 洪有龍

Huoera 火兒阿

Honggŭng 洪肯

Hwajangsan 華藏山

Honggyŏngch’ŏn 弘慶川

Hwaju 和州

Honghŏn 洪獻

Hwang Chaejung 黃在中

Honghwamun 弘化門

Hwang Hŭi 黃喜

Hongwŏn 洪原

Hwang Hŭisŏk 黃希碩

Hongwŏngun (Lady) 洪原郡夫人

Hwang Kŏjŏng 黃居正

Hongwu 洪武

Hwang Kunsŏ 黃君瑞

Hongyuan 弘願

Hwang Sang 黃裳

Hŏnjong 憲宗

Hwang Sang 黃象

Hŏnsuk 憲叔

Hwang Sŏng 黃誠

Glossary of People and Places

963

Hwang Sŏng 黃成

Hyŏnsŏngsa 賢聖寺

Hwang Sunsang 黃順常

Hyŏpch’on 脥村

Hwang Un’gi 黃雲起

Hyŏpgye 俠溪

Hwang Yŏnggi 黃永奇

Hyosagwan 孝思觀

Hwangbo Chŏn 皇甫琠

Hyoso 孝昭

Hwangbo Im 皇甫琳

Hyugashu 日向州

Hwangbo In 皇甫仁

Ich’ŏn 伊川

Hwangch’oryŏng 黃草嶺

Ich’ŏn 利川

Hwanghwa 皇華

Ich’ŏn (Lord) 伊川君

Hwangjo 黃調

Igan (Prince) 益安君

Hwangju 黃州

Iji District 梨旨縣

Hwangsan 黃山

Ikch’ŏn (Lord) 益川君

Hwanjo / Hwanwang 桓祖 / 桓王

Ikhwa (Lord) 益和君

Hwaŏmjong 華嚴宗

Iktae merit subject 翊戴功臣

Hwarŭng 和陵

Iki Island 一岐島

Hwaryŏng 和寧

Ikcho / Ikwang 翼祖 / 翼王

Hwaryŏng Prefecture 和寧府

Ikchu 益州

Hwasan (Lord of) 花山君

Im (Lady) 林氏

Hwasun 和順

Im An’gwi 林安貴

Hwaŭi Ongju 和義翁主

Im Chabu 任子富

Hyejing 惠澄

Im Chibaek 任之伯

Hyejong 惠宗

Im Chŏng 林整

Hyobi 孝妃

Im Ch’ŏngŏn 任淸彦

Hyŏllŭng 玄陵

Im Ch’ungŏn 林忠彦

Hyŏn Kwimyŏng 玄貴命

Im Ku 林球

Hyŏn Tasa 玄多士

Im Kyŏng 林敬

Hyŏnamsa 見巖寺

Im Kyŏnmi 林堅味

Hyŏnbi 顯妃

Im Munhwa 任文和

Hyŏnbin 賢嬪

Im On 林溫

Hyŏnbok (Lord of) 玄復君

Im Ŏnch’ung 林彦忠

Hyŏnjong 顯宗

Im Sik 任軾

Hyŏnju 見州

Im Sŏngmi 林成味

Hyŏnsŏng 峴城

Im Su 任壽

Glossary of People and Places

964 Im Tŭkbang 任得邦

Jiang Taigong 姜太公

Im Tŭkchang 林得章

Jiaru 郟鄏

Im Wŏn 林原

Jiawenmengge Tiemurer 夾溫猛哥帖木兒

Imban’gwan 林畔館 Imgang 臨江

Jiawenbuhua 夾溫不花

Imjin District 臨津縣

Jiawenchiwuli 夾溫赤兀里

Imju 林州

Jin (Duke) 晉公

Immyŏngch’am 臨溟站

Jin Bugai 金不改

Imo 壬午

Jinchiwei 金齒衛

Imwŏn’gwan 林原館

Jing Hui 敬暉

Inanjŏn 仁安殿

Jintongbuhua 金同不花

Inch’ang 仁昌

Ju 莒

Indal 仁達

Juewu 覺悟

Ingŭpgŭm芿邑金

Juzhou 具州

Inhŭi Hall 仁熙殿

Kabin 甲寅

Inji 仁智

Kabut’aech’am 加夫台站

Imjin 壬辰

Kaeju 价州

Inju 仁州

Kaesŏng 開城

Insojŏn 仁昭殿

Kaesŏng District 開城縣

Inwang 仁王山

Kahoe 嘉會

Inwangsa 仁王寺

Kahoebang 嘉會坊

Inwŏl 引月

Kahwa 嘉禾

Isan 伊山

Kaiyuan Route 開元路

Isanjin 伊山鎭

Kaksan 角山

Isŏng 泥城

Kang (Lady) 康氏 / 康妃

Isŏng 利城

Kang Ch’ŏnju 姜天霔

Isŏngdo 泥城道

Kang Ch’ŏnsu 姜天守

Jia Yi 賈誼

Kang Ch’ung 姜忠

Jian Di 簡狄

Kang Chunggyŏng 康仲卿

Jiang Taigong 康太公

Kang Chungnim 姜仲琳

Jiang Ziya 康子牙

Kang Hoejung 姜淮仲

Jianwen 建文

Kang Hŭi 姜熙

Jiaoxi (Prince) 膠西

Kang Inbu 姜仁富

Glossary of People and Places

965

Kang Insin 康仁信

Karak (Count) 駕洛伯

Kang Inyu 姜仁裕

Kasu 加守

Kang Kyegwŏn 康季權

Kayangt’an 加陽灘

Kang Pojŏng 康寶鼎

Keerdage 可兒答哥

Kang Sadŏk 姜思德

Kenjun 賢准

Kang Si 姜蓍

Ki Ch’ŏl 奇轍

Kang T’aek 姜澤

Ki Huanghou (Empress Ki) 奇皇后

Kang Ŭn 姜隱

Ki Saiyintiermuer 奇賽因帖木兒

Kang Yang 姜楊

Kigye 杞溪

Kang Yusin 康有信

Kija 箕子

Kanganjŏn 康安殿

Kijang 機張

Kangdong 江東

Kilch’ang (Great Lord) 吉昌府院君

Kanggye 江界

Kilch’ang (Lord) 吉昌君

Kanghwa 江華

Kilchu 吉州

Kangju 江州

Kilchudo 吉州道

Kangjujin 江州鎭

Kilchup’yŏng 吉州平

Kangnŭng 江陵

Kim A 金阿

Kangnŭng Province 江陵道

Kim Chagwi 金自龜

Kangnŭnggyoju Province 江陵交州道

Kim Chasu 金自粹

Kangnyŏngjŏn 康寧殿

Kim Chigyŏng 金之景

Kangsŏng (Lord) 江城君

Kim Chil 金晊

Kangsŏng County 江城郡

Kim Chin 金璡

Kangsŏng District 江城縣

Kim Chin 金戩

Kangu 康禑

Kim Chinyang 金震陽

Kangŭm 江陰

Kim Chisu 金之粹

Kangwŏndo 江原道

Kim Chiyŏn 金之衍

Kangyangch’am 江陽站

Kim Ch’ŏ 金處

Kanhap 幹合

Kim Chobu 金兆府

Kansŏng (Lord) 杆城君

Kim Chŏksŏn 金積善

Kansŏng County 杆城郡

Kim Ch’ŏllyong 金天龍

Kapchu 甲州

Kim Chŏm 金漸

Karach’i 加羅赤

Kim Ch’ŏm 金瞻

Kim Chi 金祗

Glossary of People and Places

966 Kim Ch’ŏn 金天

Kim Kudŏk 金九德

Kim Chŏn 金銓

Kim Kunsil 金君實

Kim Chŏng 金鼎

Kim Kuyong 金九容

Kim Chŏnggyŏng 金定卿

Kim Kwangŭi 金光義

Kim Chŏnggyŏng 金鼎卿

Kim Kwi 金貴

Kim Chŏngjun 金廷雋

Kim Kwich’ŏn 金貴千

Kim Ch’ŏn’gu 金千具

Kim Kwiryŏn 金龜聯

Kim Chongyŏn 金宗衍

Kim Kwisaeng 金貴生

Kim Ch’ŏnjang 金天莊

Kim Kwŏn 金勸

Kim Ch’ŏnik 金天益

Kim Kyedong 金桂同

Kim Ch’ŏnsin 金天伸

Kim Kyeran 金桂蘭

Kim Ch’ŏnsŏ 金天瑞

Kim Kyesŏn 金係先

Kim Ch’u 金錘

Kim Kyesŏng 金季誠

Kim Chu 金湊

Kim Kyesu 金季壽

Kim Chungmyŏng 金仲明

Kim Kyŏn 金堅

Kim Chungsŏng 金仲誠

Kim Kyŏng 金庚

Kim Hŏ 金虛

Kim Kyun 金稛

Kim Hŭisŏn 金希善

Kim Kyun 金鈞

Kim Hŭiyu 金希裕

Kim Maengsŏng 孟誠

Kim Hŭnggyŏng 金興慶

Kim Munbal 金文發

Kim Hwa 金禾

Kim Myo 金畝

Kim Hwa 金和

Kim Nan 金蘭

Kim Hwa 金化

Kim No 金輅

Kim Hyodo 金孝道

Kim Ŏjin 金於珍

Kim Hyogyŏm 金孝廉

Kim On 金穩

Kim Ikchŏng 金益精

Kim Paegan 金伯顔

Kim Ilche 金日磾

Kim Paek 金白

Kim Inbo 金仁甫

Kim Panggwae 金方卦

Kim Inch’an 金仁贊

Kim Pin’gil 金贇吉

Kim In’gwi 金仁貴

Kim Po 金寶

Kim Ipgyŏn金立堅

Kim Pogye 金寶桂

Kim Kahaeng 金可行

Kim Pojŏng 金寶鼎

Kim Ku 金龜

Kim Pono 金甫奴

Glossary of People and Places

967

Kim Pu 金扶

Kim Ŭlsang 金乙祥

Kim Pugae 金夫介

Kim Ŭnŭi 金殷義

Kim Pulgae 金不改

Kim Wan’gwi 金完貴

Kim Pun金汾

Kim Wi 金偉

Kim Sahaeng 金師幸

Kim Wŏn 金元

Kim Sahun 金思訓

Kim Wŏn’gye 金元桂

Kim Sahyŏng 金士衡

Kim Wŏn’gyŏng 金原卿

Kim Saji 金四知

Kim Wŏnho 金原浩

Kim Samgae 金三介

Kim Yak 金鑰

Kim Samsŏn 金三善

Kim Yakhang 金若恒

Kim Sang 金賞

Kim Yŏji 金汝知

Kim Siŏn 金寺彦

Kim Yong 金鏞

Kim Siyong 金時用

Kim Yong 金龍

Kim Sŏ 金恕

Kim Yonggi 金龍奇

Kim Sŏnch’i 金先致

Kim Yonggyun 金用鈞

Kim Song 金松

Kim Yŏnghwa 金永和

Kim Songmyŏng 金續命

Kim Yŏngnyŏl 金英烈

Kim Su 金需

Kim Yongsam 金龍三

Kim Suik 金受益

Kim Yŏngsu 金永守

Kim Sŭng 金陞

Kim Yŏnu 金延祐

Kim Sŭngdŭk 金承得

Kim Yu 金庾

Kim Sŭngju 金承霔

Kim Yuk 金陸

Kim Sŭngni 金承理

Kim Yun’gŏm 金允劍

Kim Tŏksaeng 金德生

Kim Yuŭi 金由義

Kim Tŭkbae 金得培

Kimhae 金海

Kim Tŭkche 金得齊

Kimhae Prefecture 金海府

Kim Tŭksŭng 金承得

Kimhwa 金化

Kim U 金宇

Kimp’o 金浦

Kim Ŭlbo 金乙寶

Kiran 吉安

Kim Ŭlgwi 金乙貴

Kiwŏnch’am 碁園站

Kim Ŭljin 金乙珍

Ko Anwi 高安慰

Kim Ŭlnam 金乙南

Ko Hyejin 高惠眞

Kim Ŭlsaeng 金乙生

Ko Hyu 高休

Glossary of People and Places

968 Ko Inbaek 高仁伯

Kuja 口子

Ko Kyŏm 高謙

Kuju [Kwiju] 龜州

Ko Pongji 高鳳智

Kukhwa 菊花

Ko Pongnye 高鳳禮

Kumaich’am 仇麻耳站

Ko Yŏ 高呂

Kŭmch’ŏn Bridge 錦川橋

Ko Yŏch’ung 高汝忠

Kŭmgang Mountain 金剛山

Ko Yŏnsu 高延壽

Kŭmgyo Post Station 金郊驛

Kobong District 高峰縣

Kŭmjin 今珍

Kohŭng (Count) 高興伯

Kŭmju 錦州

Kŏje Island 巨濟島

Kŭmju 衿州

Kojong 高宗

Kŭmsŏng 金城

Koju 高州

Kunjin (Yi Sŏnggye) 君晉

Koju 古州

Kuoerkan 闊兒看

Kokchu 谷州

Kura Tadayoshi 藏忠佳

Koksan 谷山

Kuranushi 藏主

Komallyang 高灣梁

Kusŏng (Lord) 龜城君

Kŏnch’unmun 建春門

Kuyodang 九曜堂

Kŏndŏk 建德

Kwaju 果州

Kong Guang 孔光

Kwak Ch’ungbo 郭忠輔

Kong Pu 孔俯

Kwak Haeryong 郭海龍

Kong Toji 孔都知

Kwak Haeryung 郭海隆

Kongyang (King) 恭讓王

Kwak Kyŏngŭi 郭敬儀

Konjiro 昆時羅

Kwandŏk 觀德

Kongju 公州

Kwangamsa 光巖寺

Kongju 孔州

Kwanghŭimun 光熙門

Konshira 昆時羅

Kwanghwa 廣化

Kŏsanch’am 居山站

Kwanghwamun 光化門

Kosŏng 固城

Kwangju 光州

Kou Xun 寇恂

Kwangju 廣州

Koŭmga 古音加

Kwangmyŏngsa 廣明寺

Ku Sŏngno 具成老

Kwangsan (Lord) 光山君

Ku Sŏngnyang 具成亮

Kwangsilwŏn 廣實院

Kugyŏng久卿

Kwangsŏng (Lord) 光城君

Glossary of People and Places

969

Kwangt’ong 廣通

Kyeyuljong戒律宗

Kwan’gwang 觀光

Kyodong 喬桐

Kwangyang (Great Lord) 光陽府院君

Kyoha 交河

Kwanin 寬仁

Kyoju [Yaozhu] 咬住

Kwanŭmgul 觀音窟

Kyojudo 交州道

Kwiju 歸州

Kyojugangnŭng Province 交州江陵道

Kwiŭi (Lord) 歸義君

Kyŏng 曔

Kwŏn Chŏn 權專

Kyŏng Po 慶補

Kwŏn Chŏng 權鼎

Kyŏng Pokhŭng 慶復興

Kwŏn Chu 權鑄

Kyŏng Sŭp 慶習

Kwŏn Chun 權準

Kyŏng Ŭi 慶儀

Kwŏn Chunghwa 權仲和

Kyŏngan (Count) 慶安伯

Kwŏn Han’gong 權漢功

Kyŏngbi 敬妃

Kwŏn Hong 權弘

Kyŏngbokkung 景福宮

Kwŏn Hŭi 權僖

Kyŏngch’ŏnsa 敬天寺

Kwŏn Hun 權壎

Kyŏnghaeng 慶幸

Kwŏn Hwa 權和

Kyŏnghŭi景僖

Kwŏn Hyo 權曉

Kyŏnghŭngbu 慶興府

Kwŏn Kan 權簡

Kyŏnghyo 敬孝

Kwŏn Kŭn 權近

Kyŏngja 庚子Kyŏngsan 京山

Kwŏn Kyun 權鈞

Kyŏngsang Province 慶尙道

Kwŏn Munŭi 權文毅

Kyŏngsin (Princess) 慶愼

Kwŏn Po 權堡

Kyŏngsŏn (Princess) 慶善

Kwŏn Sang 權詳

Kyŏngsŏng County 鏡城郡

Kwŏn Ŭlsang 權乙詳

Kyŏngsŏngjŏn 慶成殿

Kwŏn Ŭlsong 權乙松

Kyŏngwŏn Prefecture 慶源府

Kwŏn Yŏm 權廉

Kyŏngyang District 慶陽縣

Kyejoksan 鷄足山

Kyŏngyangjang 慶陽庄

Kyemyo 癸卯

Kyŏnju 見州

Kyerim 鷄林

Kyŏnp’yŏng 堅平

Kyerim (Lord) 鷄林君

Kyuroku 㡱六

Kyeryong Mountain 鷄龍山

Kyushu 九州

Kyesŏng 桂城

Laizhou 萊州

Glossary of People and Places

970 Li Baozhen 李抱眞

Milsŏng 密城

Li Ji 李勣

Min (Lady) 閔夫人

Li Shun 李順

Min Anin 閔安仁

Li Tangxin 李唐信

Min Che 閔霽

Liang (Prince) 梁王

Min Chungni 閔中理

Lianshan Post Station 連山站

Min Kae 閔開

Liaodong 遼東

Min Mugu 閔無咎

Liaoyang 遼陽

Min Pyŏn 閔抃

Lijunpili 藜均皮力

Min Sajŏng 閔思正

Liu Bei 劉備

Min Simŏn 閔審言

Liuhelangha 劉訶郞哈

Min Sŏn 閔璿

Liuhou (Marquis of Liu) 留候

Min Tosaeng 閔道生

Lou Jindao 樓近道

Min Yŏik 閔汝翼

Lü Buwei 呂不韋

Min Yuŭi 閔由義

Lŭ Geer 魯哥兒

Minamoto Doujin 源道鎭

Lü Shang 呂尙

Minamoto Ryōshun 源了俊

Lŭ Tanai 盧他乃

Ming Sheng 明昇

Luoyang 洛陽

Ming Yi 明義

Luqing 陸靑

Miryang 密陽

Maeng Sasŏng 孟思誠

Mogŭn 牧隱

Maengju 孟州

Mok Inhae 睦仁海

Magokch’am 麻谷站

Mokcho / Mokwang 穆祖 / 穆王

Majiro 望時羅

Mokch’on 木村

Majŏn (County) 麻田郡

Mokp’o 木浦

Majŏnp’o 麻田浦

Monmyŏk (Mountain) 木覓山

Man 蠻

Mu (King) 穆王

Manjusri / Munsu 文殊

Muan (Prince) 撫安君

Mansŏk曼碩

Mulgŭm 勿金

Mashan 馬山

Mun Chip 文緝

Mayuezhe 馬月者

Mun Ch’ungbo 文忠甫

Mazamon 望沙門

Mun Chunggye 文中啓

Men Kexin 門克新

Mun Chungsil 文中實

Mengshang 蒙尙

Mun Chungyong 文中庸

Glossary of People and Places

971

Mun Ikchŏm 文益漸

Naksŏn 樂善

Mun Kŭkkyŏm 文克謙

Naksŏng (Lord) 洛城君

Mun Kyejong 文繼宗

Nam Chae 南在

Mun Pin 文彬

Nam Chi 南摯

Mun Suksŏn 文淑宣

Nam Kyŏngbok 南景福

Munch’ung (Duke) 文忠公

Nam Kyŏngji 南景祉

Mun’gan (Duke) 文簡公

Nam Kyŏngsu 南景壽

Munhwa 文化

Nam Kyŏngu 南景祐

Munhyo (Duke) 文孝公

Nam Sil 南實

Munjong 文宗

Nam Sŏngni 南成理

Munjŏng (Duke) 文靖公

Nam Ŭlbŏn 南乙蕃

Munju 文州

Nam Ŭn 南誾

Munmin文愍

Namdaemun 南大門

Munsŏn (King) 文宣王

Namgyŏng 南京

Muo 戊午

Namjin 南津

Mup’ung 茂豊

Namp’o 藍浦

Musong 茂松

Namp’ojin 藍浦鎭

Myŏngch’ŏl 明哲

Namp’yŏng (Lord) 南平君

Myŏngganch’am 明間站

Namwŏn 南原

Myŏngjin District 溟珍縣

Namyang 南陽

Myŏngnye 明禮

Nan 男

Myŏngt’ong 明通

Nan (king) 赧王

Myŏngwŏnch’am 明原站

Nanchao 南巢

Myot’ongsa 妙通寺

Nangch’ŏn 狼川

Na Se 羅世

Nanjing 南京

Naeŭnjang 內隱藏

Nanyang 南陽

Naewŏndang 內願堂

Naong(Master) 懶翁大師

Nagaon 羅可溫

Nayantiemuer 那延帖木兒

Nahachu 納哈出

Ninghai Prefecture 寧海州

Nahai 那海

Niu Niu 牛牛

Naju 羅州

No (Lady) 盧氏

Nakaijuin 中伊集院

No Cho 盧珇

Naksan 洛山

No Chŏng 魯丁

Glossary of People and Places

972 No Hyŏnsu 魯玄受

Obong Mountain 五峰山

No Hyŏnsu 魯玄守

Och’ŏn (Lord of) 烏川君

No Indo 盧仁度

Och’onch’am 吾村站

No Kwan 盧琯

Och’ŏnch’am 五川站

No Mulli 盧文理

Odaesan 五臺山

No Sang 盧湘

Ofusato 承察度

No Sangŭi 盧尙義

Ok San’gi 玉山奇

No Sik 盧植

Okch’ok Pavilion 玉燭亭

No Sŏkchu 盧石柱

Ŏkchŏngsa 億正寺

No Sung 盧崇

Okku 沃溝

No Ŭljun 盧乙俊

Omadae 吾麻大

No Ŭlsaeng 盧乙生

Ongjin 甕津

Noguk (Queen) 魯國

Ongjinjin 甕津鎭

Nojildong 爐叱洞

Ongguch’am 翁口站

Nowŏn (Post Station) 盧原驛

Ongguch’am 翁丘站

Nuantugulu 暖禿古魯

Oroch’onch’am 吾老村站

Nŭnggwi 能貴

Orongso 吾籠所

O Che 吳隮

Ouchi 大內

O Chin 吳珍

Oŭpch’o 吾邑草

O Chonji 吳存志

P’adokchich’am 波獨只站

O Ch’ŏnsu 吳天壽

Pae Hu 裵厚

O Il 吳一

Pae Hyŏnbo 裵玄甫

O Kyenyŏn 吳季年

Pae Hyŏn’gyŏng 裵玄慶

O Kyŏngu 吳慶祐

Pae Ku 裵矩

Ŏ Maengyu 魚孟游

Pae Kŭngnyŏm 裵克廉

O Mongŭl 吳蒙乙

Pae Kyu 裵規

O Mun 吳文

Pae Ŏn 裵彦

O Sach’ung 吳思忠

Pae Sangch’ung 裵尙忠

O Sŏn 吳僐

Paegak (Mountain) 白岳山

O Sŭng 吳陞

Paegun Mountain 白雲山

Ŏ Sŭngjin 魚承震

Paek Ch’ŏnu 白天祐

Ŏ Yŏn 魚淵

Paek Ŏllin 白彦麟

O Yonggwŏn 吳用權

Paekchu 白州

Glossary of People and Places

973

Paengnok Mountain 白鹿山

Pak Pugŭm 朴夫金

Paengnyŏng 白翎

Pak Ryŏng 朴齡

Pagyŏn 朴淵

Pak Sagwi 朴思貴

Pak Anŭi 朴安義

Pak Sahu 朴思厚

Pak Chaan 朴子安

Pak Sangch’ung 朴尙衷

Pak Chach’ŏng 朴子靑

Pak Sanggyŏng 朴尙絅

Pak Charyang 朴子良

Pak Sangmun 朴尙文

Pak Ch’ŏng 朴靑

Pak Sin 朴信

Pak Ch’ŏnsang 朴天祥

Pak Song 朴松

Pak Chŏsaeng 朴抵生

Pak Ssi 朴氏

Pak Ch’un 朴椿

Pak Sugi 朴竪基

Pak Chungjil 朴仲質

Pak Sugyŏng 朴修敬

Pae Chungnyun 裵仲倫

Pak Tŏngnyong 朴德龍

Pak Chungyong 朴仲容

Pak Tonji 朴惇之

Pak Ha 朴遐

Pak Tŭkhyŏn 朴得賢

Pak Hŏn 朴軒

Pak Tuŏn 朴豆彦

Pak Hyŏng 朴形

Pak Ŭi 朴儀

Pak I 朴 彛

Pak Ŭijung 朴宜中

Pak Imjong 朴林宗

Pak Wi 朴葳

Pak In’gwi 朴仁貴

Pak Wŏn 朴原

Pak Insu 朴仁守

Pak Wŏnjŏng 朴原廷

Pak Inŭl 朴仁乙

Pak Yong 朴龍

Pak Ki 朴耆

Pak Yŏngch’ung 朴永忠

Pak Kwang 朴光

Pak Yŏngmun 朴英文

Pak Kwangch’un 朴光春

Pak Yongsu 朴龍壽

Pak Kyŏng 朴經

Pak Yuson 朴有孫

Pak Li 朴理

P’algakchŏn 八角殿

Pak Man 朴蔓

Pan Cheng 潘誠

Pak Munsung 朴文崇

Pang Kunjŏng 方君正

Pak Ŏn 朴彦

Pang Yongje 方用濟

Pak Ŏn 朴焉

Pang’ol 方兀

Pak P’o 朴苞

P’an’gyowŏn 板橋院

Pak Pu 朴敷

Pansŏk 盤石

Glossary of People and Places

974 Pansong 盤松

Pukch’ŏng 北靑

Pansongjŏng 盤松亭

Puktong 北洞

Panya 般若

Pukkye 北界

P’ap’yŏng 坡平

Pulgukchang 佛國莊

P’ap’yŏng (Lord) 坡平君

Pulno 佛奴

Penggao 豊鎬

P’ungch’ŏn 楓川

Penglai 蓬萊

P’unghae Province 豊海道

Pingyang 平陽

P’ungjŏch’ang 豊儲倉

Po Toupan 破頭潘

P’ungju 豊州

Pogwŏn’gung 福源宮

P’ungyang 豊壤

Pojo 普照

Pup’yŏng 富平

P’oju 抱州

Purilsa 佛日寺

Poju 甫州

Puso 扶蘇

Pok Tae卜大

Pusŏng (Lord) 富城君

Pŏmmyŏng 梵明

Pusŏngp’o 夫成浦

Pong Wŏllyang 奉元良

Puwŏn 富原

Ponghwa (Count) 奉化伯

Puyu 富有

Pongju 鳳州

P’yo Si 表時

Pongnyŏng (Marquis) 奉寧侯

P’yohunsa 表訓寺

Pongnyong Post Station 奉龍驛

Pyŏkche Post Station 碧蹄驛

Pongnyŏngsa 福靈寺

Pyŏktun 僻屯

Pongsŏng 峰城

Pyŏn Annyŏl 邊安烈

Pongsŏng District 峰城縣

Pyŏn Chungnyang 卞仲良

Pŏpsangjong 法相宗

Pyŏn Hon 卞渾

Pŏpsŏngjong 法性宗

Pyŏn Namyong 卞南龍

Pop’yŏngjŏn 報平殿

Pyŏn Ong 卞雍

Popy’ŏngch’ŏng 報平㕔

Pyŏn U 邊祐

Posŏng 甫城

P’yŏnghae (Lord) 平海君

Posŏng (Lord) 寶城君

P’yŏnghae Fortress 平海城

Posuofu 婆娑府

Pyŏngja 丙子

Pu Kae 夫介

P’yŏngju 平州

Pubyŏngnu 浮碧樓

Pyŏngnando 碧瀾渡

Pugach’am 富家站

P’yŏngp’och’am 平浦站

Glossary of People and Places

975

Pyŏngsin 丙申

Sandaeam 山大巖

P’yŏngyang 平壤

Sangdang (Lord) 上黨君

P’yŏngyang (Count) 平壤伯

Sangdang (Marquis) 上黨侯

Rakaon 羅可溫

Sangju 尙州

Quanrong 犬戎

Sangnyŏng 朔寧

Reichi 靈智

Sangsan (Lord) 象山君

Rencekuoshi 紉出闊失

Sangsan (Lord) 商山君

Rengelongyi 任葛龍義

Sangwŏnsa 上元寺

Rinon 林溫

Sanji 散吉

Ryukyu 琉球國

Sannan (King) 山南王

Saborohe 三寶羅平

Sansu 酸水

Sach’ŏn 沙川

Satsuma Nokami 薩摩

Sach’ŏng 嗣淸

Satto 察度

Sagŭn 斯近

Saŭmdong 舍音洞

Sagŭnnae 沙斤乃

Sha Liu 沙劉

Sajŏngjŏn 思政殿

Shang Zai 尙哉

Sakbang-­Kangnŭng Province 朔方江 陵道

Shenyang 瀋陽

Sakbang Province 朔方道

Shi Shu 世叔

Sakchu County 朔州郡

Shiragaki 白垣

Sambong 三峯

Shiyanchun 實眼春

Samch’ŏk / Samch’ŏkbu 三陟 / 三陟府

Shizu 世祖

Samch’ŏkhyŏn 三陟縣

Shui Wu 水吾

Samdŭng 三登

Shundi 順帝

Samgi District 三歧縣

Sibanch’am 時反站

Samhaeyang 三海洋

Sijin 市津

Samhwasa 三和寺

Sillyŏng 新寧

Samjigang 三枝江

Sim (Lady) 沈氏

Samongoro 沙門吾羅

Sim Ching 沈澄

Samsal [Pukch’ŏng] 三撒

Sim Chong 沈淙

Samsan 參散

Sim Hyosaeng 沈孝生

Samsiphop’yŏng 三十戶平

Sim Innip 沈仁立

Sangch’ong 尙聰

Sim Kwiryŏng 沈龜齡

Shi Shang Fu 師商父

Glossary of People and Places

976 Sim Kwisu 沈龜壽

Sinju 信州

Sim Ŏn 審言

Sinp’yŏngbu 信平部

Sim Tŏkbu 沈德符

Sinŭi (Queen) 神懿

Sim Tongno 沈東老

Sinŭn 新恩

Sim Towŏn 沈道源

Sinŭnch’am 新恩站

Sima Qian 司馬遷

Siri 時利

Simak 深岳

Sirich’am 施利站

Simwŏnsa 深源寺

Sisirich’am 時時里站

Sin Ch’ŏng 申淸

Siwŏn 柴原

Sin Hŭnggi 辛興奇

Siwŏnch’am 時原站

Sin Hyoch’ang 申孝昌

Sŏ Ik 徐益

Sin Ich’ung 愼以衷

Sŏ Inbi 徐仁庇

Sin Kŭgon 辛克溫

So Komi 小古未

Sin Kŭkkong 辛克恭

Sŏ Kŭmgwang 徐金光

Sin Kŭngnye 辛克禮

Sŏ Kyŏn 徐甄

Sin O 信吾

Sŏ Sin 徐信

Sin P’il 申必

Sō Yorishige 宗頼茂

Sin Poan 辛保安

Sŏbong 西峰

Sin Wŏn 申元

Sodo (Prince) 昭悼

Sin Wŏnjŏl 愼原節

Sodŏngmun 昭德門

Sin Yongbong 申龍鳳

Sŏgang 西江

Sin Yongmu 申用茂

Sŏgokhyŏn 瑞谷縣

Sin Yongmyŏng 申用明

Sŏgyŏng 西京

Sin Yuhyŏn 辛有賢

Sŏhaedo 西海道

Sin Yujŏng 辛有定

Sohŏn 昭獻

Sinch’uk 辛丑

Sŏhŭng 瑞興

Sindŏk (Queen) 神德王后

Sŏjiwich’am 西之委站

Sin’gyŏkchŏn 神格殿

Sojŏnsaek 燒錢色

Sinhae 辛亥

Sŏk Kuji 石仇知

Sinhwa 神化

Sŏkchi 釋之

Sinik Manhobu 新翼萬戶府

Sokch’on 粟村

Sinikch’am 新翼站

Sŏkch’ŏn 石泉

Sinjo 神照

Sŏl Changsu 偰長壽

Glossary of People and Places

977

Sŏlhallyŏng 雪寒嶺

Sŏnggot 城串

Sŏlo 雪悟

Songgwangsa 松廣寺

Somadong 所磨洞

Songgyŏng 松京

Son Hŭi 孫禧

Songhŏn 松軒 (Yi Sŏnggye)

Son Hŭngjong 孫興宗

Sŏngju 星州

Son Kwangyu 孫光裕

Sŏngju 成州

Son Tŭkkwang 孫得光

Sŏngmyŏng 誠明

Son Wŏnman 孫原萬

Songnim 松林

Sŏn Yunji 宣允沚

Songnimsa 松林寺

Sŏndŏkchin 宣德鎭

Songsaeng 松生

Song Boluo 宋孛羅

Songsan 松山

Song Chŏn 宋㙉

Sŏngsan Prefecture星山府

Song Ch’ŏnu 宋千佑

Sŏngsan (Lord) 星山君

Song Hŭijŏng 宋希靖

Sŏngsan (Count) 星山伯

Song Hŭng 宋興

Sŏngsin 誠身

Song In 宋因

Sŏnjŏm 鐥岾

Song Kaesin 宋介臣

Sŏnju 宣州

Song Kŏsin 宋居信

Sŏnju 善州

Sŏng Kunmi 成君美

Sŏnju Fortress 宣州城

Song Kyŏl 宋潔

Sŏnjuch’am 宣州站

Song Moji 宋毛知

Sŏnjukgyo 善竹橋

Song Munjung 宋文中

Sŏno 禪悟

Song P’adu 宋波豆

Sŏnŭimun 宣義門

Sŏng Po 成溥

Sŏnun 禪運

Sŏng Sŏgin 成石因

Sŏnwŏnsa 禪源寺

Sŏng Sŏgyong 成石瑢

Sŏrin 瑞麟

Sŏng Sŏngnin 成石璘

Sosakchu 小朔州

Sŏng Tŭkchun 成準得

Sŏsomun 西小門

Song Tŭkkŏ 宋得居

Sŏsŏng (Lord) 瑞城君

Song Tŭksa 宋得師

Sosun 昭順

Sŏng Yŏwan 成汝完

Sougu 宗俱

Songak 松嶽

Soujun 宗順

Songdu 松豆

Sŏun 瑞雲

Glossary of People and Places

978 Soŭnggŏt’aech’am 所應居台站

Sunje (Fortress) 蓴堤城

Sŏwŏn 瑞原

Sunjŏl 順節

Sŏwŏn (Lord) 西原君

Sunju 順州

Sŏwŏn County 瑞原郡

Sunnyŏng 順寧

Ssangbu 雙阜

Sunnyŏng (Prince) 順寧君

Ssangch’ŏngjŏng 雙淸亭

Sunsŏng 蓴城

Ssangsŏng 雙城

Sunsŏngjin 蓴城鎭

Suan 遂安

Suowu 所吾

Suan 守安

Suoyima 所乙麻

Such’anggung 壽昌宮

Suping River 速平江

Sudŏk 樹德

Susŏng 守城

Sugumun 水口門

Suwŏn 水原

Sui 樹伊

T’aean County 泰安郡

Sui 綏

T’aech’ŏnggwan 太淸觀

Sujin 壽進

Taegu 大丘

Suju 隨州

Taeji 大池

Sukchong 肅宗

T’aejo 太祖

Sukch’ŏngmun 肅淸門

Taejŏng 大井

Sukchu 肅州

Taemullyŏng 大門嶺

Sullŭng 純陵

T’aep’yŏng 太平

Sumip’o 壽美浦

T’aep’yŏnggwan 太平館

Sumiwŏn 壽美原

Taesakchu 大朔州

Sunan District 順安縣

Taesan 臺山

Sunan’gun 順安君

Tairen 太任

Sunch’ŏn 順天

Taixing Mountain 太行山

Sŭngch’ŏn 昇天

Taizong (Emperor) 太宗

Sunggyo / Sunggyori 崇敎 / 崇敎里

Taizu (Emperor) 太祖

Sunginmun 崇仁門

T’ak Sin 卓愼

Sungnŭng 淑陵

T’ak Togyŏng 卓都卿

Sungnyemun 崇禮門

Taldandong 韃靼洞

Sŭngnyŏng 僧嶺

Talsŏn 達禪

Sungsin 崇信

Tamyang County 潭陽郡

Sunhwa 順化

Tamyang District 潭陽縣

Glossary of People and Places

979

Tamyang Prefecture 潭陽府

T’omun [Tumen] 土門

Tang Sŏng 唐誠

Tong Duolao 童多老

Tangguaxitanguyunu 唐括奚灘古玉奴

Tongbok 同福

Tan’gun 檀君

T’ongch’ŏn 通川

Tanju 端州

Tongdaemun 東大門

Tanyang (Count) 丹陽伯

T’ongdosa 通度寺

Tapsanggok 答相谷

Tonghŏnjip 桐軒集

Tasibuhua 塔思不花

T’ongjin 通津

Tasitiemuer 塔思帖木兒

Tongliang 同良

Tat’ant’aech’am 多灘台站

Tongmengge Tiemuer 童猛哥帖木兒

Tatara Yoshihiro 多多良義弘

Tongnae 東萊

Tengchong Prefecture 騰衝府

Tongno River 禿魯江

Tian Dan 田單

Tongnool 禿魯兀

Tianshuizhan 甛水站

Tŏngnŭng 德陵

To Hŭng 都興

Tongnyŏngbu 東寧府

To Kilbu 都吉敷

Tongp’yŏngsŏng 東平城

T’oadong 兎兒洞

Tongsomun 東小門

Tŏgŭn 德恩

Tongsŏng 童城

Tŏgŭn Kammu 德恩 監務

Tongsuowu 童所吾

Tŏgwŏn 德源

T’ongyangp’o 通洋浦

Tojiro 都時老

Tongyugezhou 童於割周

Tojiro 都時羅

Tonŭimun 敦義門

Tojo / Towang 度祖 / 度王

Torasan 都羅山

Tŏkchŏk Island 德積島

Torijang 都里莊

Token 藤賢

Toryŏng 都領

Tŏkhŭng (Prince) 德興君

Toryŏnp’o 都連浦

Tŏkchin 德津

T’osan 兔山

Tŏkchŏn 德川

Toŭn 陶隱

Tŏkchu 德州

Tsuziku 通笁

Tŏksandong 德山洞

Tujue 突厥

Tŏksŏng 德成

Tuman River 豆滿江

Tŏksu 德水

Tumop’o 豆毛浦

Tongbok Kammu 同福監務

Glossary of People and Places

980 Tumun Ward 豆門城

Ŭihwa Palace 義和宮

Tŭng Hyŏn 藤賢

Ŭiju 宜州

Tŭng Kon 藤昆

Ŭiju 義州

Tŭng Yuk 藤六

Ŭirŭng 懿陵

Tŭngju 登州

Ŭirŭng 義陵

Tuohuan Buhua 脫歡不花

Ŭiryŏng 宜寧

Tuowen 托溫

Ŭiryŏng (Lord) 宜寧君

Tut’a Sansong 頭陀山城

Ŭisŏng (Lord) 宜城君

U Che 禹磾

Ŭisŏnggo 義成庫

U Hongbu 禹洪富

Ŭit’ong 義通

U Hongdo 禹洪道

Ŭiun 義雲

U Hongdŭk 禹洪得

Ŭlhae 乙亥

U Honggang 禹洪康

Ulju 蔚州

U Hongmyŏng 禹洪命

Uljup’o 蔚州浦

U Hongsu 禹洪壽

Ŭlmyo 乙卯

U Hŭibŏm 禹希範

Unbong 雲峰

U Hŭngbŏm 禹興範

Unch’ŏn / Unch’ŏndong 雲天 /雲天洞

U Hyŏnbo 禹玄寶

Ŭnch’ŏn (Lord) 銀川君

U Innyŏl 禹仁烈

Unjongga 雲從街

U Kyun 禹均

Ŭnju 殷州

U Sinch’ng 禹臣忠

Ŭnnyul 殷栗

U Sŏngbŏm 禹成範

Ŭnsil 殷實

U Sŭngbŏm 禹承範

Ura Mountain Fortress 亐羅山城

U Wang 禑王

Wang Chip 王緝

U Yŏn 禹延

Wang Cho 王珇

Ubong 牛峰

Wang Chong 王琮

Udu Mountain 牛頭山

Wang Deming 王得明

Ŭi (Consort) 懿妃

Wang Hwa 王和

Ŭian (Count) 義安伯

Wang Hwan 王環

Ŭian (Prince) 義安大君

Wang Kang 王康

Ŭich’ang 義昌

Wang Kŏ 王琚

Ŭich’ang (Lord) 義昌君

Wang Kŏn 王建

Ŭihŭngbu 義興府

Wang Kŭmman 王金萬

Glossary of People and Places

981

Wang Kwan 王琯

Woduoli 斡朶里

Wang Kyŏk 王鬲

Wolianghe 兀良哈

Wang Li 王禮

Wŏlsŏng (Lord) 月城君

Wang Mi 王亹

Wŏn Sang 元庠

Wang Paegan 王伯顔

Wŏn Yŏngsu 元英守

Wang Pang 王昉

Wŏn’gudan 圜丘壇

Wang Pi 王裨

Wŏnhŭng 原興

Wang Pin 王賓

Wŏnhŭngjin 元興鎭

Wang Pongmyŏng 王福命

Wŏnjŏk Mountain 原寂山

Wang Sŏk 王奭

Wŏnju 原州

Wang Sŭng 王昇

Wŏnp’yŏng 院平

Wang Sŭngbo 王承寶

Wu (King) 武王

Wang Sŭnggwi 王承貴

Wudiha 兀狄哈

Wang U 王瑀

Wuduli 吾都里

Wang Yo (King Kongyang) 王瑤

Wuerhuli 兀兒忽里

Wang Yŏn’gŭm 王延金

Wugeng 武庚

Wanggŏsan 王巨山

Wulangha 吾郞哈

Wanghŭngsa 王興寺

Wulangha 兀郞哈

Wangryundong 王輪洞

Wuliangha 吾良哈

Wangsimch’on 往尋村

Wuluo 兀羅

Wansan 完山

Wulusibuhua 吾魯思不花

Wansŏng (Lord) 完城君

Xi Shi 羲氏

Wanzhebuhua 完者不花

Xia Zhi 夏質

Wei 衛

Xiang Yu 項羽

Wei Zheng 魏徵

Xianyang 咸陽

Weirui 潙汭

Xianyun 玁狁

Weizi 微子

Xianzhen 嫌眞

Wen (Emperor) 文帝

Xiao He 蕭何

Wen Cheng 文成

Xijiaomen 西角門

Wen Dachun 文大純

Xiongnu 匈奴

Wi Ch’ung 魏种

Xitanboya 奚灘孛牙

Wihwa Island 威化島

Xitanhelangha 奚灘訶郞哈

Woduli 斡都里

Xitantasi 奚灘塔斯

Glossary of People and Places

982 Xitanxuelie 奚灘薛列

Yangsaeng 養生

Xu Bian 徐便

Yangsŏng 陽城

Yagwangsa 野光寺

Yangyang Prefecture 襄陽府

Yaksano 藥師奴

Yao 要

Yaksuch’am 藥水站

Yao Zhong 姚忠

Yalu River 鴨綠江

Yaozhu [Kyoju] 咬住

Yan (Prince) 燕王

Yean District 禮安部

Yan Zhu 嚴助

Yech’ŏn 醴泉

Yan Ziling 嚴子陵

Yech’ŏn (Count) 醴泉伯

Yanchun 眼春

Yech’ŏn (Lord) 醴川君

Yang Ch’ŏmsik 楊添植

Yedun Village 也頓村

Yang Ch’ŏnsik 楊天植

Yejong (King) 睿宗

Yang Hongdal 楊弘達

Yeju 預州

Yang Hongwŏn 楊弘遠

Yeju 豫州

Yang Hŭihyŏn 梁希賢

Yeku Dawang 也窟大王

Yang Mun 楊文

Yesŏng 禮成

Yang Paegyŏn 楊伯淵

Yewŏn 預原

Yang Tiemuer 楊帖木兒

Yi 夷

Yang U 楊遇

Yi An’guk 安國

Yang Wŏnsik 楊元植

Yi Ansa 李安社

Yangam 陽巖

Yi Chabun 李子芬

Yangch’ŏn 陽川

Yi Chach’un 李子春

Yangdŏk 陽德

Yi Chae 李載

Yangdŏk Kammu 陽德監務

Yi Ch’agŏn 李次騫

Yanggŭn 楊根

Yi Chahŭng 李子興

Yanggwang Province 楊廣道

Yi Ch’ajŏm 李次點

Yanggyŏng 良景

Yi Chak 李作

Yanghwado 楊花渡

Yi Changsu 李長壽

Yangjin 楊津

Yi Ch’asam 李次參

Yangju 楊州

Yi Chasong 李子松

Yangju 襄州

Yi Ch’ayak李次若

Yangmu 襄武

Yi Chayŏn 李自延

Yangp’yŏng 良平

Yi Chayŏng 李子瑛

Glossary of People and Places

983

Yi Che 李堤

Yi Chŏnggyŏn 李廷堅

Yi Che 李提

Yi Chonghak 李種學

Yi Che 李悌

Yi Ch’ŏn’gi 李天奇

Yi Che 李濟

Yi Chongsŏn 李種善

Yi Chehyŏn 李齊賢

Yi Ch’ŏn’gye 李天桂

Yi Chi 李枝

Yi Ch’ŏnsang 李天祥

Yi Chi 李至

Yi Ch’ŏnu 李天祐

Yi Ch’i 李致

Yi Ch’un 李春

Yi Ch’i 李峙

Yi Ch’unbu 李春富

Yi Chibal 李之發

Yi Ch’unggyŏng 李充慶

Yi Chich’ŏn 李之天

Yi Ch’ungmin 李忠敏

Yi Chidae 李之帶

Yi Chungsil 李中實

Yi Chigang 李之剛

Yi Ch’unsu 李春壽

Yi Chik 李稷

Yi Chungyak 李仲若

Yi Ch’im 李忱

Yi Haea 李海兒

Yi Chin 李蓁

Yi Haeng 李行

Yi Chin 李震

Yi Haengni 李行里

Yi Ching 李澄

Yi Han 李翰

Yi Chinyu 李珍有

Yi Hang 李恒

Yi Chiran 李之蘭

Yi Hoe 李薈

Yi Chisung 李之崇

Yi Hoe 李淮

Yi Ch’o 李初

Yi Hosaeng 李好生

Yi Cho 李慥

Yi Hŭi 李熙

Yi Cho 李朝

Yi Hŭich’ung 李希忠

Yi Cho 李造

Yi Hŭl 李屹

Yi Chŏk 李勣

Yi Hŭngbal 李興發

Yi Chŏk 李迪

Yi Hŭngje 李興濟

Yi Ch’ŏm 李簷

Yi Hŭngmi李興美

Yi Ch’ŏm 李漸

Yi Hŭngmu 李興茂

Yi Chŏn 李專

Yi Hŭngno 李興露

Yi Chŏng 李頲

Yi Hwa 李和

Yi Chŏngbo 李廷俌

Yi Hwa 李華

Yi Chongdŏk 李種德

Yi Hwak 李擴

Glossary of People and Places

984 Yi Hwang 李滉

Yi Kwich’ŏl 李龜鐵

Yi Hwasang 李和尙

Yi Kwiryŏng 李貴齡

Yi Hyŏn 李玄

Yi Kwisaeng 李貴生

Yi Hyŏn 李賢

Yi Kwisu 李龜壽

Yi Hyŏn’gyŏng 李玄景

Yi Kyo 李皎

Yi Hyoson 李孝孫

Yi Kyŏk 李格

Yi Im 李琳

Yi Kyŏng 李曔

Yi In 李隣

Yi Kyŏngyŏng 李景英

Yi Inbok 李仁復

Yi Kyŏnsil 李堅實

Yi In’gil 李仁吉

Yi Kyusu 李嬀水

Yi In’gyŏng 李仁敬

Yi Maengjong 李孟宗

Yi Inim 李仁任

Yi Man 李萬

Yi Insu 李仁壽

Yi Manjung 李萬中

Yi Innyŏng 李仁英

Yi Mich’ung 李美忠

Yi Jiang 邑姜

Yi Midong 李微童

Yi Kak 李慤

Yi Mindo 李敏道

Yi Kam 李敢

Yi Mu 李茂

Yi Kangje 李康濟

Yi Mubang 李茂方

Yi Ko 李皐

Yi Munhwa 李文和

Yi Koenghŏn 李宏軒

Yi Nae 李來

Yi Kŏi 李居易

Yi Naeŭnsam 李內隱三

Yi Kŏin 李居仁

Yi Ok 李沃

Yi Kok 李穀

Yi Omang 李吾望

Yi Paekkong 李伯恭

Yi Ŏn 李彦

Yi Kongsu 李公遂

Yi Paegan 李伯顔

Yi Kongsuk 李公肅

Yi Paegon 伯溫

Yi Kŭm 李金

Yi Paegyu 李伯由

Yi Kŭn 李懃

Yi Paek 李伯

Yi Kŭnghyu 李兢休

Yi Paekkyŏng 李伯卿

Yi Kungjin 李宮進

Yi Pal 李潑

Yi Kwan 李觀

Yi Pan 李蟠

Yi Kwang 李匡

Yi Pangbŏn 李芳蕃

Yi Kwanghŭi 李光禧

Yi Panggan 李芳幹

Glossary of People and Places

985

Yi Panggwa 李芳果

Yi Su 李隨

Yi Pangu 李芳雨

Yi Sugya 李叔野

Yi Pangwŏn 李芳遠

Yi Sujang 李壽長

Yi P’arasil 李波羅實

Yi Suk 李淑

Yi Pi 李丕

Yi Sukbok 李叔福

Yi Pin 李彬

Yi Sukbŏn 李叔蕃

Yi Pogŏm 李寶劒

Yi Sukch’i 李叔畤

Yi Pogyang 李復陽

Yi Sukhyu 李叔畦

Yi Pok 李福

Yi Suktang 李叔當

Yi Pokkŭn 李福根

Yi Sukya 李叔野

Yi Poktong 福同

Yi Sun 李珣

Yi Pongnye 李復禮

Yi Sun 李淳

Yi Pu 李敷

Yi Sunbaek 李順伯

Yi Pu 李扶

Yi Sungin 李崇仁

Yi Pugae 李夫介

Yi Sungmyo 李叔畝

Yi Pulsu 李佛壽

Yi Sŭngsak 李承朔

Yi Pusu 李富壽

Yi Sŭngsang 李升商

Yi Saek 李穡

Yi Sŭngwŏn 李承源

Yi Sagŭn 李思謹

Yi Susan 李壽山

Yi Sajing 李士澄

Yi Taejung 李大中

Yi Sangchwa 李上左

Yi Talch’ung 李達衷

Yi Sawi 李士渭

Yi Tam 李湛

Yi Silgyŏn 李實堅

Yi Tan 李旦 (Yi Sŏnggye)

Yi Sin 李申

Yi To 李陶

Yi Sin 李伸

Yi Togyŏng 李都景

Yi Sŏ 李舒

Yi Tugae 李豆介

Yi Sŏkkŭn 李石根

Yi Tŭkbun 李得芬

Yi Sŏllae 李善來

Yi Tŭkhang 李得恒

Yi Song 李竦

Yi Tŭkhwan 李得桓

Yi Sŏnggye 李成桂

Yi Tŭng 李登

Yi Sŏngnim 李成林

Yi Turan 李豆蘭

Yi Ssi (Lady Yi) 李氏

Yi Ŭi 李薿

Yi Su 李䇕

Yi Ŭigyŏng 李義敬

Glossary of People and Places

986 Yi Ŭlsu 李乙修

Yŏn Sajong 延嗣宗

Yi Ŭn 李殷 Yi Ŭng 李膺

Yŏnan / Yŏnan Prefecture 延安/ 延安府

Yi Wŏn 李原

Yŏnboksa 演福寺

Yi Wŏn’goeng 李元紘

Yŏnch’ŏn 淵遷

Yi Wŏn’gye 李元桂

Yong Hŭisu 龍希壽

Yi Wŏn’gyŏng 李元景

Yŏng (Consort) 靈妃

Yi Wŏnŭi 李原義

Yŏngan (Marquis) 寧安侯

Yi Wulutiermuer 吾魯帖木兒

Yŏngan (Prince) 永安君

Yi Yangdal 李陽達

Yŏngan (Lord) 寧安君

Yi Yangmu 李陽茂

Yŏngbin’gwan 迎賓館

Yi Yangsu 李養修

Yŏngbok (Lord) 永福

Yi Yangu 李良祐

Yŏngch’ŏng District 永淸縣

Yi Ye 李藝

Yŏngch’umun 迎春門

Yi Yin 伊尹

Yŏngdŏk 寧德

Yi Yŏm 李恬

Yŏngga (Great Lord) 永嘉府院君

Yi Yŏm 李稔

Yŏngga (Lord) 永嘉君

Yi Yŏmsun 李廉順

Yŏnggang 永康

Yi Yŏng 李英

Yonggu 龍駒

Yi Yongbu 李勇夫

Yŏnggwang County 靈光郡

Yi Yŏnggi 李英奇

Yŏnggyŏn永堅

Yi Yu 李柔

Yŏnghae 寧海

Yi Yu 李瑜

Yŏnghaejin 寧海鎭

Yilan Tumen 移闌豆漫

Yŏnghaesŏng 寧海城

Yin Jifu 尹吉甫

Yŏnghŭng 永興

Yŏ Ch’ing 呂稱 Yŏ Ŭison 呂義孫

Yŏnghŭng (Great Lord) 永興府院君

Yodŏkchin 耀德鎭

Yŏnghŭng (Prince) 永興君

Yŏgyŏng 餘慶

Yŏnghŭng District 永興縣

Yŏhŭng 驪興

Yŏnghŭng Prefecture 永興府

Yŏlbanjong 涅槃宗

Yŏnghŭngdo 永興道

Yŏm Hŭngbang 廉興邦

Yongin 龍仁

Yŏm Ssi 廉氏

Yŏnginjin 寧仁鎭

Glossary of People and Places

987

Yongju 龍州

Yŏyŏn 閭延

Yŏngju 寧州

Yu Chang 柳暲

Yŏngju 永州

Yu Ch’ong 柳總

Yŏngjuch’am 寧州站

Yu Chŏnghyŏn 柳廷顯

Yongmunsa 龍門寺

Yu Ch’ŏnŭn 柳天隱

Yŏngnyŏng 永寧

Yu Chun 柳濬

Yŏngnyŏng District 永寧縣

Yu Hanu 劉旱雨

Yŏngp’yŏng 永平

Yu Ho 柳灝

Yŏngp’yŏng (Prince) 鈴平君

Yu Hyebang 柳惠方

Yŏngp’yŏng District 永平縣

Yu Inu 柳仁雨

Yŏngsak 寧朔

Yu Ku 柳玽

Yŏngsakchin 寧朔鎭

Yu Kwan 柳觀

Yongsan 龍山

Yu Kwangu 兪光祐

Yŏngsan 靈山

Yu Kyŏm 柳謙

Yongsan River 龍山江

Yu Kyŏng 劉敬

Yŏngsŏ Post Station 迎曙驛

Yu Mansu 柳蔓殊

Yongsŏk 龍石

Yu Pangtaek 柳方澤

Yŏngsŏng (Great Lord) 永城府院君

Yu Sŏbong 兪瑞鳳

Yongsŏng (Lord) 龍城君

Yu Sŏn 柳善

Yongsŏngch’am 龍城站

Yu Ssi (Lady Yu) 柳氏

Yŏngsuk 穎叔

Yu Suk 柳淑

Yŏngŭisŏ Bridge 永義署橋

Yu T’ak 柳濯

Yŏngwŏnjin 寧遠鎭

Yu Tumyŏng 柳斗明

Yŏnhŭi 燕喜

Yu Ŭi 柳顗

Yŏnhwa 蓮花

Yu Un 柳雲

Yŏnhwasa 蓮花寺

Yu Ŭnji 柳隱之

Yŏnju 漣州

Yu Wŏn 柳源

Yŏn’gp’ung 連豊

Yu Wŏnji 柳源之

Yŏn’gp’ung Kammu 連豊監務

Yu Wŏnjŏng 柳爰廷

Yŏngsŏn 永善

Yu Yang 柳楊

Yŏnsaengjŏn 延生殿

Yu Yŏngmun 柳榮門

Yŏnsanbu 延山府

Yu Yongsaeng 柳龍生

Youshunmen 右順門

Yu Yŏnji 柳衍之

Glossary of People and Places

988 Yu Yun 柳雲

Yun Sillo 尹莘老

Yuan Shuji 袁恕己

Yun Sim 尹諶

Yue Yi 樂毅

Yun Sindal 尹莘達

Yuezhe 月者

Yun Sojong 尹紹宗

Yuezhenhaidu 岳鎭海瀆

Yun Su 尹須

Yuheli 於何里

Yun Sŭngsun 尹承順

Yujŏngdong 柳井洞

Yun T’aek 尹澤

Yuk Chin 陸晉

Yun Ŭi 尹儀

Yuk Hŭiun 陸希雲

Yun Wen 允炆

Yuk Yŏ 陸麗

Yun Yurin 尹有麟

Yun Anjŏng 尹安鼎

Yunganggua 雲剛括

Yun Ch’ang 尹彰

Yungmuru 隆武樓

Yun Chang 尹將

Yungong Zhongyi 鄖公鍾儀

Yun Ch’im 尹忱

Yuzhijie 亏知介

Yun Chŏ 尹柢

Zelu (Circuit) 澤潞

Yun Chŏng 尹定

Zeng Xi 曾西

Yun Ho 尹虎

Zhang Bing 張炳

Yun Hoe 尹晦

Zhang Ge 張哥

Yun Hoejong 尹會宗

Zhang Jianzhi 張柬之

Yun Hyŏng 尹衡

Zhang Liang 張良

Yun I 尹彛

Zhang Pu 張溥

Yun Kon 尹坤

Zhang Shicheng 張士誠

Yun Kwan 尹瓘

Zhang Yu 張禹

Yun Kyu 尹珪

Zhang Zifang 張子房

Yun Panggyŏng 尹邦慶

Zhao Ao 趙奧

Yun Poro 尹普老

Zhao Guangqi 趙光奇

Yun Sadŏk 尹思德

Zhao Hu 召虎

Yun Sang 尹祥

Zhao Wu 趙武

Yun Sangjun 尹尙俊

Zhao (Duke) 召公

Yun Sangsin 尹尙信

Zhen 鎭

Yun Sadŏk 尹師德

Zhen Dexiu 眞德秀

Yun Sasu 尹思修

Zhiyuan 至元

Yun Sayŏng 尹思永

Zhizheng 至正

Glossary of People and Places

989

Zhongfu Mountain鐘阜山

Zhuhuguidong 朱胡貴洞

Zhongshan Wang 中山王

Zhuhuwanzhe 朱胡完者

Zhongtong 中統

Zhuhuyindahu 朱胡引答忽

Zhou (Duke) 紂王

Zhuo Qing 卓靑

Zhou Bo 周勃

Zi Yu 子羽

Zhou Zhuo 周倬

Zixia 子夏

Zhougong (Duke of Zhou) 周公

Ziyou 子游

Zhu Yuanshuai 朱元帥

Zizang 子臧

Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮

Zosu 藏主

Bibliography Primary Sources Chosŏn Wangjo Sillok [Veritable Records of the Chosŏn Dynasty]. 48 vols. Seoul: Kuksa p’yŏnch’an wiwŏnhoe [National Historial Compilation Committee], 1955-­58. T’aejo Kanghŏn Taewang Sillok. [Veritable Records of Grand Projenitor, the Strong and Dedicated Great King]. 2 vols. trans. Chaeho Lee [Yi] et al. Seoul: Sejong taewang kinyŏmsaŏphoe. 1972. Yijo Sillok: T’aejo Kanghŏn Taewang Sillok. 2 vols. Translated by Pukhan Sahoegwahak yŏn’guhoae, minjokkojŏn yŏn’guso, 1991

Secondary Sources An Sanghyŏn. Uriga Chŏngmal Arayahal Uri Pyŏlchari [The Constellations That We Should Really Need to Know]. Seoul: Hyŏnamsa, 2000. Ch’oe, Chŏnghwan. Yŏkchu Koryŏsa Paekkwanji [Annotated History of the Koryŏ Dynasty: Monograph on Official Posts]. Seoul: Kyŏngin munhwasa, 2006 Duncan, John B. The Origins of the Chosŏn Dynasty. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000. Giles, Herbert A., A Chinese Biographical Dictionary. Taipei: Literature house, 1898 Han, Sŏngju. Chosŏn Chŏn’gi Sujik Yŏjinin Yŏn’gu [A Study on the Jurchens Who Received Offices from the Chosŏn Government]. Kyŏngin munhwasa. Seoul, 2011. Han Woo-­keun [Han Ugŭn], Yi Sŏngmu, et al., eds. Yŏkchu Kyŏngguk Taejŏn [Translated and annotated Great Code for the management of the state]. Sŏngnam, Kyŏnggi Province: Han’guk chŏngsin munhwa yŏn’guwŏn, 1985



991

992

Bibliography Han’gukminjok Taepaekkwa Sajŏn [Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]. 27 vols. Seoul: Han’guk ch’ŏngsinmunhwa yŏn’guwŏn, 1991. Hucker, Charles O. A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985. Kim, Chuwon. Chosŏn Wangjo Sillok ŭi Yŏjinjok: Chongmyŏng kwa Inmyŏng [The Jurchens in the Veritable Records of the Chosŏn Dynasty: Their Tribal and Individual Names]. Seoul National University Press, 2007. Koryŏsa [History of the Koryŏ Dynasty]. 6 vols. Seoul: Kyŏngin munhwasa, 2011. Lee, Ki-­baik [Yi Kibaek]. A New History of Korea. Translated by Edward W. Wagner and Edward J. Shultz. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984. Lee, Peter, trans. Eminent Monks of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969. Lee, Peter H., and Wm. Theodore de Bary, eds., Sources of Korean Tradition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997 Lee, Sŏngmu. Chosŏn Wangjo Sillok Ŏttŏn Ch’aeginga? Seoul: Tongbang media, 1999. Legge, James. The Sacred Books of the East Series III XXVIII. Oxford, 1885. ———. The Works of Mencius. New York: Dover Publications, 1895 ———. Confucius: Confucian Analects, The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean. New York: Dover Publications, 1971. Pak, Yongun. Yŏkchu Koryŏsa Paekgwanji [Annotated History of the Koryŏ Dynasty: Monograph on Official Posts]. Seoul: Sinsŏwŏn, 2009. Palais, James B. Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the Late Chosŏn Dynasty. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996. Sin, Myŏngho. Joseon Royal Court Culture: Ceremonial and Daily Life. Timothy V. Atkinson, trans. Seoul: Tolbegae Publishers, 2002. (Sinjŭng) Tongguk yŏji sŭngnam [Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea]. 7 vol. Seoul: Minjokmunhwa ch’ujin wiwŏnhoe, 1973. Sohn, Pokee. Social History of the Early Chosŏn Dynasty: The Functional Aspects of Governmental Structure. Seoul: Chisiksanŏpsa, 2000. Ssu­ma Ch’ien. The Grand Scribe’s Records. Weiguo Cao, et al., trans. William H. Nienhauser, Jr., ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002. Wagner, Edward Willet. The Literati Purges: Political Conflict in Early Yi Korea. Cambridge, MA: East Asian Research Center and Harvard University Press, 1974. Waltham, Clae, ed. Shu Ching: Book of History. A Modernized Edition of the Translations of James Legge. Chicago: H. Regency, 1971.

Bibliography Wilkinson, Endymion. Chinese History: A Manual. Revised and Enlarged. Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-­Yenching Institute, 2000. Yi, Han’guk. Chikkwan kwa Koho Sajŏn [Dictionary of Officials Posts and Old Names]. Seoul: Ppuri chŏngbo media, 2012. Yi, Nŭnghwa, Chosŏn Togyosa [History of Korean Taoism]. Translated and annotated by Yi Chong’ŭn. Seoul: Posŏng munhwasa, 1985. Yi Sanggak. Chosŏn Wangjo Sillok. Seoul: Tosŏch’ulp’an Tŭlnyŏk, 2009

993

Index Abdication. See Kongyang; Sin U Abuses: of power, 46, 57, 76; of greed, 194; of stipends, 424, 743; land, 517 Acquittal, royal decree for, 80–81 Acrobats, 182–183 Administration: laws, 728. See also Criminal Administration Bureau; Land; Royal Stables Administration Administrative Code of Chosŏn (Chŏng Tojŏn), 397 Adoption, 691 Adultery. See Crimes After Having a Good Time at Beishi Pavilion, 654 Agency of Land Management Grants, 332, 394–395, 823–824 Agibaldo, 42–44 Agriculture, 157, 180, 532, 866; proposals for, 386–387, 514–515. See also Farms A Heng, 79 Aida, 631 Alahaboyan, 556 Alcohol: drunkenness and, 92, 395, 435, 493–494, 534, 539, 569, 571, 593, 653, 654, 655, 661, 735, 804, 808, 821; wine, 139, 140, 327, 336, 349, 380, 385, 408, 481–482, 493, 507, 518, 526, 529, 534, 553, 565, 600, 608, 619, 640, 688–689, 690, 697, 703, 732, 735, 766, 778, 811, 816; prohibition, 336, 337, 408, 477–478, 493–494, 506, 576, 604, 661, 766, 775, 880 Aldong, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 953 Algol, 440 Alhena Constellation, 167 Altars of Earth and Grain, 439, 447, 471, 477, 478, 547, 624 An (Lady). See Queen Dowager Analects (Confucius), 192, 281, 419, 480, 536, 795, 887, 889–891



995

Ancestors, 530; signs of protests by, 74; sacrifices to, 109, 179, 209, 210, 220, 228, 416, 443, 755, 816; posthumous titles for, 117–118, 200–202, 212, 265–266, 283, 332, 587; ancestral temple and, 119; memorial ceremonies for, 121; Office of Ancestral Rites and, 136, 141; ancestral rites, 148, 502, 559; rites for, 148; ancestral tombs and, 198, 312–315, 462, 557, 820; royal ancestral tablets and, 526, 528–529, 598; shrines, 670. See also Royal Ancestral Shrine An Chonggŏm, 54, 55 An Chongwŏn, 143, 239, 306, 338, 376; legacy of, 380–382; as envoy, 401, 426 An Ch’ŏsŏn, 349, 389, 481–482 An Chu, 189 An Ch’uk, 380 An Chun, 128 An Chungon, 382 Ancient King of the Eastern Barbarians, 649 Andong Prison, 340 Anger, of Heaven, 490, 492 An Ik, 301, 599, 607–608, 611, 643, 657, 725, 743 Animals, 557, 892; for sacrifices, 378; prohibition on raising white, 460, 463; falcon farms, 478, 489, 500, 501. See also specific animals An Inyŏng, 380, 743 Anju, 175, 365 An Kŏ, 294 An Kŭn, 513 An Kyŏng, 288 An Kyŏnggŏm, 239, 276, 297, 382 An Kyŏnggong, 102, 129, 151–152, 155, 382, 774; political duties of, 162, 245, 306; as merit subject, 172, 185 An Kyŏngji, 411

Index

996 An Kyŏngnyang, 382, 504 An Malgŏn, 569–570 An Mangji, 411 An Minsu, 774 Annals, of T’aejo’s reign, 502–503 Anniversaries. See Death anniversaries An Nosaeng, 126 Annŭng, 148 An Paek, 569 An Pin, 876 Anp’yŏng, 320 Ansa, 312, 352 An Sik, 831–832 An So, 63 An Sŏng, 606, 607, 708 An Sun, 215 An Sŭngjun, 42 An Sungno, 411 An U, 20, 406, 758 An Ugyŏng, 24 An Ŭi, 318 An Wŏn, 128 Aotunwanzhe, 555 Appointments, 32, 65, 67, 91, 143–144, 189, 672; letters of, 51, 81, 124–125, 127, 128, 188, 197, 263, 267, 334, 454, 461, 512, 809, 825, 872; revoked, 124–125, 127, 128, 237, 334; of officials, 143, 548; rules, 197; of governors, 407– 408, 409 Aquarius, 298, 862 Archery, 121, 181, 489, 634; T’aejo and, 15–17, 29, 33–34, 38, 41, 51–55 Architecture, 419 Archives, 141 Aries, 612 Arithmetic, 322, 847 Armies. See Left Army; Right Army; Righteous­ ness Flourishing Three Armies; Stone Throwing Army Arriving at the Capital Carrying the Royal Orders, 647 Arson, 515. See also Fires Artillery. See Weapons Artisans, 51, 134, 220, 257, 258, 333, 371, 409, 474, 485, 494, 624, 777, 797, 799, 802, 872, 882 The Art of War, 230, 639 Ashura (King), 888 Asiro (P’yo Si), 746 Astrologers, 138, 282, 285, 295 Astrology, 32. See also Constellations; Eclipses; Moon; Stars; Sun; specific planets Astronomical and Meteorological Observatory, 106, 138, 186, 244, 301–302, 305, 317, 331, 351, 410, 411, 425, 427, 428, 492, 517, 604, 747, 767– 768

Astronomy, 181, 410, 454–455. See also Constel­ lations; Eclipses; Meteors; Moon; Stars; Sun; specific planets Attire: uniforms, 216, 234, 589; prohibitions with, 460, 589; sacrificial, 508; ceremonial, 529, 533; for officials, 590; funeral, 602–603, 605; mourn­ ­i ng, 603, 620, 665, 716, 718, 738, 739, 760, 790, 828, 893; as gifts, 628, 629, 637, 640, 659, 669, 672, 691, 718, 730, 742, 744, 750, 788, 811, 817, 828, 884, 887; court, 631; for orphans, 658; rules of, 819 Audience. See Morning audience Aunbo (Sin O), 746 Auriga (constellation), 859 Avatamska Samadhi prayer, 731 Bai Zhu (Han Pok), 28, 29 Bamboo, 140, 443, 540, 558, 868 Bandits, 242, 243, 336, 412; Red Turbans, 20, 66, 78, 151, 381, 582, 693, 734, 758, 829; memorials from Imperial China about, 384–385, 392; memo­­ rials to Imperial China about, 396–397 Ban Gu, 469, 470 Banners, military, 440, 614 Banquets, 198, 283, 325, 449, 483, 668; for merit subjects, 174, 180, 203, 228, 232, 542–543; for officials, 235, 558, 569, 629, 636, 640, 704, 705, 714, 730, 757, 801–802, 892; for envoys, 270, 330, 385, 596, 609; for T’aejo, 321, 631, 759 Baoshu Ya, 543 Battle: T’aejo in, 19–32, 36–43, 47, 53–55, 62–63, 65–67, 488; Kongmin in times of, 20, 24–25, 27, 29, 33; Ch’oe Yŏng in, 24–25, 35, 39, 44, 62–63, 65–67, 406; Yi Turan in, 42–43, 47, 54–55; Chŏng Chi in, 441; against Japanese marauders, 614, 627, 674, 680, 682, 686, 688, 690, 697, 699, 701, 758 Bears, 393 Beatings. See Punishments Beheadings, 436, 565, 591, 614, 619. See also Punishments Bells, 526, 765, 767, 774; with language of geomancer, 429; factory, 522, 586; casting of, 586, 589, 627, 743, 747, 756, 762–763; inscriptions, 763–764 Bi Chen, 574 The Biography of Huo Guang (Huo Guang Chuan), 64, 308 Board of Personnel, 120–121, 134, 240, 587–588 Board of Punishments, 123, 134, 232, 239, 342; memo­­rials from, 345, 346–347, 359–365, 383, 386, 549–552, 798–799, 816; duties of, 607, 701, 736 Board of Rites, 134, 492, 839; civil service examinations and, 120; with ceremonial observances, 121, 801; Daoist temples abolished by, 199; rules

Index and, 209, 210, 436; with uniforms for officials, 216, 234; memorials from, 253–254, 283, 285, 373; proposals from, 409 Board of Taxation, 134, 332, 389, 485, 513, 551, 733, 762, 805, 823, 824, 866 Board of War, 121, 134, 187, 471–472, 673 Board of Works, 134, 208, 259, 867 Bodhi Tree Leaves Sutra, 567 Book of Changes, 195, 198, 224, 419, 763, 883 Book of Han (Ban Gu), 470 Book of Odes, 113, 534, 535, 548 Book of Rites, 198, 418, 493, 883, 888, 889 Books: burning of, 175; on Buddhism, 183, 229–230 Borders, 46–50, 399, 466, 471, 554, 658, 662, 799 Bo Suo, 466 Boyanfuxia, 21 Branch Privy Council, 446–447 Bribery. See Crimes Buddhism, 49, 108, 183, 216, 229–230, 239, 492, 494; elimination of, 114–115, 116, 176–177, 795– 796; tenets of, 115; Board of Rites and, 134; dharma and, 149, 150, 335, 348, 349, 741, 744, 747, 776; Zen, 193; Office of Buddhist Affairs and, 249, 253; sutras, 253, 262, 319, 393, 414– 415, 440, 444, 486–487, 540–541, 562, 567, 579, 612, 643, 670, 715, 776, 778, 828; temples, 256, 499, 559; ceremonies, 257, 258, 286, 348, 349, 351, 564; prayers, 416, 510, 540–541, 593, 594, 704, 788; miracles in, 450; with strange phenomena, 450, 513; scriptures, 498–499, 501; with land for temples, 499; diets with, 553; relics, 567, 775, 802, 810, 815, 824; supporters of, 585–586; meditation and, 779; prohibitions on, 882. See also Monks Bunei (Prince), 439 Bureau of Bamboo Crafts, 140 Bureau of Capital Markets, 341 Bureau of Cultivation, 136, 168, 522, 605, 703 Bureau of Dyeing, 141 Bureau of Prisons, 14, 141 Bureau of State Records, 157, 237, 307, 582, 717, 815, 897 Bureau of the Capital City Markets, 140 Cai Ze, 82, 86 Calendars, 138, 892 Calligraphy, 181, 231, 280, 415 Canals, 502 Capella (star), 173, 727 Capital cities, 140, 755; Hanyang as new, 151, 428, 446, 447–448, 455, 530; moving of, 167, 243, 244, 245, 427; construction of new, 251, 258, 331; possible sites for, 257, 328, 410, 411, 415, 426–435, 437, 453; walls of, 296, 297, 298–299,

997 302, 305, 306, 319, 324, 342, 346, 362, 435, 441, 442, 527, 560–561, 562, 563, 568, 588, 595, 599, 601, 604, 608, 610, 611, 743, 779, 825; fortification of, 339; geomancy and, 427, 428–432, 442; power of, 427, 428, 454; Songdo as old, 427, 428, 433; historic examples of, 429–431, 435– 436, 439–440; prayers for site of new, 454–456; poem, 650 Capital Constabulary Prison, 69, 170, 238, 250– 251, 278–279, 299, 339, 340, 374, 395, 448, 560, 570, 580, 588, 608, 637, 661, 681, 713, 728, 785, 819, 846, 854 Captives, 233, 274; from Japan, 277, 397, 413, 439, 445, 494, 508, 575, 627, 637, 642, 701, 788; from China, 410, 411 Cassiopeia (star), 677, 784 Caterpillars, 257, 262, 774 Celestial catastrophes. See Natural phenomena “Census Jointly Conducted by Three Provinces,” 12 Census records: military, 271–272, 479, 480, 637– 638, 772; household registers and, 420, 559, 637–638; of officials, 740, 772 Ceremonies, 141, 801; ancestors and memorial, 121; eliminating disasters, 607, 618, 677, 700; coming-of-age, 121, 502; family, 121, 148, 164, 502; funeral, 121, 502, 602–603, 605, 637, 752; wedding, 121, 164, 502, 572, 662, 664, 666, 707, 883; dances and, 244, 249; Buddhist, 257, 258, 286, 348, 349, 351, 564; music and, 444, 530; New Year, 462, 560, 630; attire for, 529, 533; wine in, 529, 534. See also Directorate of Ceremonial Propriety; Rites Chaan. See Yi Sungin Chach’o, 189, 240, 245, 257, 259, 282, 286, 300, 319, 321, 351, 511, 760; political duties of, 359, 428, 434, 486–487, 751; honors for, 379; Buddhism and, 498–499 Chach’un. See Hwan Ch’a Chun, 359, 364, 481, 507 Ch’agŏn, 160 Chahŭng, 9 Ch’ang (King), 89, 92, 358, 583; enthronement of, 64, 76, 89, 164–165, 310, 418; appointments made by, 65, 67; royal decrees issued by, 65–66; with honors for T’aejo, 69; demotion and exile of, 70; as pretender to throne, 70–71, 76, 77, 103, 118; execution of, 238 Chang Chach’ung, 257, 287, 513, 518, 562, 618, 629, 731 Chang Chido, 518 Chang Chihwa, 102, 155, 459, 463, 465, 496, 853– 854, 870; political duties of, 821; with conspir­ ­acy of crown princes, 832, 836, 845 Chang Ch’ŏl, 690, 857–858, 869, 874, 875

Index

998 Chang Ha, 80 Chang Hongsu, 542 Chang Ik, 712 Chang Kalmae, 355, 356 Chang Kŏm, 250–251 Chang Mang. See Majiro Chang Paek, 542 Chang Po. See Saborohe Chang Pugae, 507 Chang Sado, 277, 412, 425 Chang Sagil, 98, 102, 143, 154, 555, 857, 874; as merit subject, 173, 875; with Japanese maraud­ ­ers, 276; rebellions and, 554; military duties of, 826; crown prince conspiracy and, 840, 869 Chang Sajŏng, 102, 185, 620, 857, 869, 874, 875 Chang Tam, 102, 144, 155, 374, 571, 874; crown prince conspiracy and, 840, 869; as merit subject, 875 Chang U, 253 Chang Wŏngyŏng, 320 Chang Yŏn, 250, 253 Chang Yunhwa, 855, 858, 872 Ch’anyŏng, 308 Ch’asam, 160 Ch’a Sŏngbu, 336 Ch’a Sŭngdo, 798–799, 810 Ch’a Sŭnghak, 681 Ch’ayak, 69, 160 Chayŏn, 1, 312 Cheju Island, 144, 383, 389, 406, 412, 505–506, 511, 608, 756, 760 Chen Gang, 892 Cheng of Zhou (King), 429, 496 Cheng Tang (King), 204, 221, 224 Chengzong (Emperor), 9 Chen Li, 892 Chigong (monk), 585 Children, 61, 64, 242, 521; elderly without, 121, 192, 261; orphans, 121, 192, 261, 658; with military census, 272; adoption, 691; of slaves, 693, 699, 765; of monks, 777 Chi Mun. See Mazamon China: horses as tribute for, 204, 225, 268, 274, 275–276, 277–278, 298, 300, 304, 326, 356–357, 384, 405, 438, 442, 479, 498, 517, 522, 578, 591, 662–663, 737; language, 315, 451–453, 566, 584, 644–645, 655; rites for emperor in, 324. See also Liaodong, China; Memorials, from Impe­ rial China; Memorials, to Imperial China; Ming emperor; specific envoys Chinan (Prince). See Pokkŭn Chinan Pangu (Prince), 61, 147, 196, 313, 331–332, 333, 378, 888

Chin Chunggi, 42 Chin Ch’unggwi, 300, 377–378, 382, 396, 621–622, 662 Ching, 315 Chin Hallyong, 384, 395–396 Chinhan, 651 Chinju, 325 Chin Kyŏng, 279 Chin Ŏnsang, 425 Chinp’o, 487–488 Chin Song, 478 Chin Ŭlsŏ, 80, 190, 254, 271, 486, 689, 690, 697 Chin Yŏŭi, 244 Chinyu, 1, 312 Chi P’aan, 784 Chirŭng, 148 Chisongzi, 90, 224 Chisung, 315 Chi Yonggi, 70, 78, 288 Chi Yongsu, 25, 27, 29, 46 Chi Yun, 158, 313 Cho (Lady), 11 Cho (son of Prince Chŏngyang Wang U), 109 Cho (wife of Yi Che) (Lady), 521 Cho Anp’yŏng, 521 Cho Chae, 609 Cho Changsu, 500 Cho Ch’i, 587 Cho Ch’I, 462 Cho Ch’imyŏng, 446 Cho Chu, 464 Cho Chun, 68, 70, 78, 99, 108, 160, 162, 235, 540, 631, 659, 714, 754, 772, 829, 850, 857, 873; polit­­ ical duties of, 93–94, 95, 100, 154, 180–184, 186–187, 188, 195, 215, 216, 248, 270, 279, 311, 351, 374, 382, 407–408, 428, 454, 456, 546, 607, 612, 626, 636, 640, 675, 683–684, 707, 759, 800, 807, 811, 821, 822, 830, 837–838, 883, 886–887, 889; with T’aejo’s enthronement, 102; as merit subject, 143, 152, 153, 171, 173, 174, 888; with heir apparent, 153; memorials from, 217–225, 603; examinations and, 277, 571, 579, 641; with military power, 448; health of, 482; honors for, 532, 558; on titles for court ladies, 657; military duties of, 721, 827; banquets and, 802; with con­­ spiracy of crown princes, 837, 838, 839, 869; resignation of, 886 Ch’oe (Chŏngbi) (Lady). See Chŏng Ch’oe (Lady). See Ŭi Ch’oe Anjong, 552 Ch’oe Ch’ilsŏk, 245, 389, 397 Ch’oe Haesan, 488 Ch’oe Ham, 126 Ch’oe Han’gi, 15, 265

Index Ch’oe Ho, 708, 721–722, 728, 784 Ch’oe I, 298–299 Ch’oe Indu, 313 Ch’oe Kamul, 544 Ch’oe Kiyŏl, 8 Ch’oe Koeng, 661 Ch’oe Kongch’ŏl, 29, 80–81, 288 Ch’oe Kŭkbu, 496 Ch’oe Kŭng, 460, 740, 742 Ch’oe Kwan, 127, 700, 736 Ch’oe Kwangdae, 836 Ch’oe Kyŏn, 606, 607, 708 Ch’oe Kyŏng, 54 Ch’oe Mallyong, 397 Ch’oe Mun, 489 Ch’oe Musŏn, 487–488 Ch’oe Nok, 781, 807 Ch’oe Ŏngnyong, 397 Ch’oe Paegan, 810 Ch’oe Paegan Bulhwa, 886 Ch’oe Sagang, 348 Ch’oe Sawi, 463 Ch’oe Sik, 506 Ch’oe Sŏn, 661 Ch’oe Tan, 189, 287, 288 Ch’oe Togi, 336 Ch’oe Tongsun, 487 Ch’oe Tŭkkyŏng, 618 Ch’oe Tŭngnim, 521 Ch’oe Ŭlŭi, 125, 157 Ch’oe Un, 621, 622, 837, 846 Ch’oe Unhae, 189, 254, 614, 618, 619, 627, 635, 637, 640, 684, 804 Ch’oe Wŏn, 456 Ch’oe Wŏnch’ung, 682, 687 Ch’oe Yŏm, 682, 685 Ch’oe Yŏn, 268, 355, 384, 389, 395, 405, 498, 507 Ch’oe Yŏng, 310, 474, 595; in battle, 24–25, 35, 39, 44, 62–63, 65–67, 406; abuse of power and, 46, 57; T’aejo and, 52–53, 56, 62–63, 65; with invasion of Liaodong, 57–61, 71, 218, 272, 353, 583; as envoy, 508; posthumous title of, 613 Ch’oe Yŏngji, 216–217, 232, 251, 255–256, 732, 735; political duties of, 365, 446, 721, 788; military duties of, 443, 731, 737, 755, 756 Ch’oe Yongso, 445, 508, 686, 711, 746 Ch’oe Yongyu, 264 Ch’oe Yu, 24 Ch’oe Yugyŏng, 61, 409, 482, 486, 502, 604, 688, 732, 755, 821 Ch’oe Yung, 428, 463 Ch’oe Yunji, 504, 513 Ch’oe Yunsu, 190, 287 Ch’oe Yuryŏn, 204

999 Chogye sect, of monks, 458 Cho Ho, 99, 124, 691 Cho Hong, 855 Cho Hŭigo, 520 Cho Hwa, 734, 820, 822 Cho Ido, 760 Cho Iksu, 620, 688 Cho Im, 212, 214, 217, 246, 276, 298, 311, 326, 382, 405, 411, 426 Cho In, 464 Cho Inbyŏk, 288, 313 Cho Inok, 64, 90, 99, 102, 144, 203; political duties of, 154, 255; as merit subject, 173; legacy of, 608–609 Cho Kaeng, 609 Cho Ki, 102, 144, 155, 157, 199, 279, 342, 383, 466, 471; political duties of, 374, 375; legacy of, 473–474 Cho Ku, 439, 471, 547 Cho Kwan, 609 Cho Kyesaeng, 757 Cho Kyŏm, 253 Cho Kyŏn, 102, 184, 185, 376, 482, 631 Cho Kyŏng, 300 Cho Kyu, 95 Chŏl (Consort). See Sinŭi Chŏlla Province, 325, 572 Chŏm, 315 Cho Minsu, 58, 60, 64, 71, 76, 80, 103, 238, 288, 445, 772; political duties of, 64; legacy of, 75, 446 Chŏn Chach’ung, 682, 788 Chŏng (Chŏngbi, Lady Ch’oe, Queen), 8, 117, 201, 312, 315, 530 Chŏng (Consort Dowager), 70, 72, 74, 78 Chŏng Anji, 784, 791 Chŏng’an Pangwŏn (Prince), 147, 313, 400, 450, 540, 678–679, 826, 831, 832–836, 838–839, 869, 873, 881 Chŏng Chagyu, 189 Chŏngch’ang Yo (Prince), 70, 103, 108. See also Kongyang Chŏng Chawi, 164 Chŏng Chi, 64, 288, 441, 462–463, 687, 710 Chŏng Chin, 872, 878 Chŏng Ching, 336, 498, 809, 854 Chŏng Chŏl, 587 Chŏng Ch’ong, 102, 143–144, 154, 173, 229–230, 241, 468, 791; political duties of, 195, 309–310, 350, 382, 431–432, 469–470, 590, 598, 619, 725; as envoy, 545, 572–574, 588, 717–718, 784, 790; criticism of, 664, 665, 666; posthumous title for, 718 Chŏng Ch’ŏnik, 814 Chŏng Hon, 483–484, 498, 507, 518

Index

1000 Chŏng Hŭi, 99, 101, 128, 203 Chŏng Hŭigye, 143, 154, 173, 394, 606; political duties of, 217, 255, 279, 348, 569, 571; legacy of, 595 Chŏng Hwi, 21 Chŏng Hyoch’ung, 718 Chŏng Hyomun, 718 Chŏng Inji, 897 Chŏng Io, 861, 889 Chŏngji, 80 Chŏngjŏng (Yi Panggwa) (King), 61, 95, 147, 826; with crown prince conspiracy, 830, 859–860; pact of, 876–878 Chŏngju, 325 Chŏng Kae, 801, 816 Chŏng Kilsang, 595 Chŏng Konggwŏn, 717 Chŏng Ku, 414, 600, 635, 786 Chŏng Kwa, 128 Chŏng Kwijin, 348 Chŏng Man, 478 Chŏng Mongju, 70, 71, 78, 187, 188, 353, 582, 849; political duties of, 93–94, 95, 272, 847; conspir­ ­acy against, 96–98; conspiracies of, 108, 190, 220–221, 311, 375 Chŏng Namjin, 390, 438, 462, 465, 503 Chŏng Namju, 388 Chŏng Nan, 716–717 Chongnim (monk), 570 Chŏngnŭng, 148, 632, 641, 736 Chŏng Pin, 618 Chŏng Sach’ŏk, 321 Chŏng Sang, 256 Chŏng Sangju, 743 Chŏng Seyong, 478 Chŏng Sin’gye, 13 Chŏng Sinŭ, 840, 872 Chŏng Sinŭi, 323, 503, 539, 576, 588, 617, 635, 826, 843 Chŏng Sinŭi, 855 Chŏng Sŏn, 559 Chŏng Sŭngga, 53–54, 159 Chŏng Tae, 471 Chŏng T’ak, 96, 102, 154, 168, 234, 251, 280, 736, 857, 863, 869, 874; as merit subject, 173, 875; as prisoner, 250–251, 279; political duties of, 317, 566, 596, 597, 598, 615, 629, 706, 771 Chŏng Tam, 821, 837 Chŏng Tang, 168 Chŏng To, 128 Chŏng Tojŏn, 70, 78, 90–91, 93, 96, 160, 302, 321, 342, 502, 540, 560, 659, 668, 688, 717–718, 809, 851, 853, 870, 873; political duties of, 100, 108, 116, 154, 163, 195, 197, 216, 255–256, 283, 306,

308, 324, 350, 374–375, 408, 439, 442, 444, 454, 456, 468–469, 479, 480–481, 489, 509–510, 522, 527, 542–543, 571–572, 579, 590, 597, 598, 615, 636, 707, 720, 722–723, 732, 739–741, 742, 744, 768, 803, 807, 821, 847; with T’aejo’s enthronement, 102; with drafting of royal decree, 129, 489–490; as merit subject, 143, 153, 542–543; with heir apparent, 153; family lineage, 162; memorials from, 288–294, 367–373, 750–751; military duties of, 324, 377–378, 448, 683, 711, 757, 805, 827; geomancy and, 331, 413; as author, 397, 468–469, 484, 699, 717, 804, 805, 819, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 847, 848, 849; honors for, 397, 468–469, 532, 558, 600; poems by, 483, 772–774, 849; songs by, 558, 848; examinations and, 641; criticism of, 664, 665, 667; execution of, 831; with conspiracy of crown princes, 831–832, 836, 837, 838, 839, 841, 842, 843, 845, 846, 876; legacy of, 846–850, 863 Chŏng Tongsŏk, 872 Chŏng Tŭkhu, 69 Chŏng U, 128, 713, 714 Chŏngŭi (monk), 689 Chŏng Ŭi, 755, 761, 786 Chŏng Un’gyŏng, 162 Chŏng Wŏnch’ŏl, 478 Chŏngwŏn Sim Chong (Marquis), 318, 320, 832, 834, 843, 857, 869, 874, 875 Chŏngyang Wang U (Prince), 109 Chŏng Yo, 189, 242, 243, 287 Chŏng Yŏn, 807–808 Chŏng Yŏng, 837 Chŏng Yŏngson, 699 Chŏng Yongsu, 102, 155, 734, 736 Chŏng Yu, 837 Chŏng Yunbo, 683, 716, 717 Chŏng Yung, 336 Chŏn Hŭigil, 742, 789 Chŏn Hŭng, 846 Chŏn I, 144, 251, 343 Chŏn Ido, 26 Chŏnju. See Wansan Chŏn O, 299 Chŏn Obok, 521 Cho Noe, 609 Chŏn Oryun, 128 Chŏn Paegyŏng, 323, 417, 424, 606, 607, 628, 702, 821, 887–888 Chŏnsang, 1 Chŏn Se, 54 Chŏn Si, 351, 373, 375, 753, 768, 819–821, 822 Chŏn Sŭnggye, 799 Chŏn Tŭkkyŏng, 618, 785, 958

Index Chŏn U, 820 Chŏn Yŏngbu, 690 Cho On, 102, 155, 257, 258, 283, 303, 777–778, 861, 874; crown prince conspiracy and, 839– 840, 857, 869; as merit subject, 875 Cho Ŏn, 81, 355, 382 Cho Pak, 94, 100, 102, 149, 173, 205, 216, 234, 267–268, 301, 474, 483, 515, 516, 843, 857, 861, 869, 873, 881; memorials and, 150–151; political duties of, 154, 168, 243, 261, 440–441, 889; lectures of, 882 Cho Pan, 79, 102, 107, 109, 155, 198, 326, 361, 517, 741; political duties of, 196–197, 300, 311, 400; as envoy, 426, 450, 457, 546, 590–591, 618, 704 Cho Panghyŏn, 507 Cho Rim, 189, 503 Ch’ŏrwŏn, 65, 250, 257, 325, 406, 957 Chosaeng (monk), 325, 685, 735 Cho Sasu, 606, 607 Cho Saŭi, 279, 854, 855 Cho Sŏ, 414, 635, 700, 717, 728, 781, 791; deposition from, 783–784, 786, 790; as envoy, 807 Chosŏn dynasty, naming of, 246–247, 252, 268–269, 273, 297, 311, 338, 357–358, 401, 546 Cho Sosaeng, 20–21 Cho Sun, 379, 588, 601, 632, 679, 703, 712, 821, 873, 886; crimes of, 747, 749, 752–753, 769; political duties of, 769, 832; with letter of appointment, 809; with conspiracy of crown princes, 832, 840, 845 Cho Sung, 571 Cho Sunhwa, 474 Cho Ton, 608 Cho Tŏngnin, 674 Cho, Tuŏn, 884 Cho U, 464 Cho Ŭlsang, 260 Chou Shiliang, 114 Chouyitu, 304 Cho Yŏn, 284, 297 Cho Yong, 100, 821, 861, 889 Cho Yŏnggyu, 54, 55, 96–97, 102, 155, 464 Cho Yŏngji, 189, 287 Cho Yŏngmu, 96, 97, 102, 155, 382, 635, 835, 857, 861, 869, 874 Cho Yu, 81 Cho Yuin, 579 Ch’uja, 144 Chu Ming, 29–30, 33, 44 Ch’un. See To Chungbo, 552 Ch’unggyŏng, 1, 150, 312 Ch’ungju, 325 Ch’ungmin, 1, 312

1001 Ch’ungnyŏl (King), 6, 27, 130,150, 174, 368, 539, 960 Ch’ungsuk (Ŭirŭng) (King), 10, 15, 74, 148 Ch’unju, 325 Chu Wŏnŭi, 42 Cities. See specific cities Civil officials, ranks for, 129–130 Civil service examinations, 51, 120–121, 307, 571–572, 579, 588, 701; banquet for passing, 283; rules, 553, 580 Classic of History, 104, 110, 700, 703; on remonstrance, 112, 794; on indolence and greed, 113; on doubtful crimes, 193; on men of virtue, 208, 794; on money as payment for crimes, 209; on respect for people, 418–419; on wisdom, 422; on divination, 433; on wine and spirits, 493; on thinking, 536; on diligence, 537; on indolence and dissoluteness, 537; on consulting with common people, 548 Classic of Poetry, 776 Clerks, 122, 182, 219, 502 Clock, water, 793 Cloth, 183, 249, 251, 472, 895–896. See also Cotton; Hemp cloth; Linen; Ramie cloth; Silk Clothes. See Attire Cloud and Rain Sutra, 776 Colors, 398, 460, 463, 589, 794, 817, 819, 867. See also specific colors Coming-of-age ceremonies, 121, 502 Commoners, 289, 420, 422, 544, 548 Compendium of Secret Records, 351 Compendium of the Four Books, 889–890 Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government, 120 Comprehensive Rites Agency, 211 Concubines, 318, 504, 693, 699, 731 Confucius, 51, 56, 419, 480, 537–538, 887, 889, 890; shrines of, 148, 149, 541, 552, 636, 682, 707, 808; neo-Confucianism, 160, 309, 582; sacrifices to, 182; quotes from, 192, 281 Consorts. See specific consorts; specific queens Consorts’ Establishment, 413 Conspiracies: Sim Tŏkbu and, 81; against T’aejo, 81, 92–93, 95, 100, 190, 220–221, 231–232, 274– 275, 356, 360, 363, 375, 404; Chŏng Mongju and, 96–98, 108, 190, 220–221, 311, 375; Yi Ch’o and, 274–275, 356, 404; Yun I and, 274– 275, 356, 404; Wang Kang and, 360, 363; Kim Kahaeng and, 375; Pak Chungjil and, 375; Pak Wi and, 375, 832, 838, 839–840; rebellions and, 554–555, 623, 884; of crown princes, 831–846, 869–870, 876–878 Constellations, 150, 167, 173, 298, 427, 476, 509, 563, 603, 612, 619, 633, 636, 779, 788, 789, 830, 859, 872, 888

Index

1002 Construction. See Capital cities; Fortresses; Royal Ancestral Shrine; Royal palace; Walls Copper, 5, 24, 257, 412, 450, 513 Corvée labor. See Labor Cotton, 276, 326, 330, 332, 570, 572, 613, 814 Council of Generals, 306 Counsel: keeping virtuous, 111–112, 116, 178–179, 208, 422, 568, 794; of common people, 289, 422, 548 Counties, 610–611, 612, 634, 739–741. See also specific counties Court attire, 631 Court ladies. See Women Court of Interpreters, 315, 452–453 Court of Royal Sacrifices, 547, 610, 613 Crimes: treason, 12, 366; bribery, 76, 478, 703, 746, 808; punishment and, 80–81, 182, 209, 749, 769–771; slander, 112–113, 115, 116, 158–159, 208, 220, 237, 275, 464, 504, 684, 737, 766; criminal code and, 123–124, 129; Criminal Administra­ tion Bureau and, 134–135, 250, 549–552; adultery, 162, 541, 552, 559, 850; murder, 177, 478, 552, 559, 637, 687, 696, 864; doubtful, 193; money as payment for, 209; rape, 396–397, 399, 521, 801; embezzlement, 405, 677, 747; forgery, 512; robberies, 541, 810; sexual harassment, 580, 678; thievery, 632, 752–753, 808; curses, 791, 799 Criminal Administration Bureau, 134–135, 250, 549–552 Criminal code, 123–124 Crops, 408, 477–478, 576, 826; damage to, 182, 186–187, 267, 328, 329, 360, 416, 578; locusts and, 412, 493, 591, 633, 865 Crossing the Yalu River, 648 Crows, 259, 260, 412 Cui Tiermuer, 577 Currency. See Gold; Hemp cloth; Money; Ramie cloth; Silk; Silver Curses. See Crimes Daluhuachi. See Kim Panggwae Dams, 514 Dances, 244, 249, 543, 560 Danzhu (Prince), 424–425 Daoism (the Way), 83, 134, 224, 421; with temples abolished, 199; hermits and, 206; magic, 323 Daoist Temple of Brilliant Rectification, 199, 300, 326, 329, 394, 433, 561, 702 Datashi, 6 Davina, 556 Dead, rites for, 321 Death anniversaries, 180, 248, 288, 317, 361, 394, 416, 828, 872, 888

Death penalty. See Punishments Debts, 209–210, 531 Decrees. See Imperial decree; Royal decrees Deer, 442, 526 Defectors, 476, 554–557, 628–629 Deities, 240, 266, 454–455, 519, 691. See also Spirits Deng Yu, 85 Depositions, 783–784, 786, 790–791, 808 Dezong (Emperor), 422 Dezuobuhuagao, 31 Dharma. See Buddhism Diagram of Troop Dispositions (Chŏng Tojŏn), 484, 699, 804, 805, 819, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 848 Diamond Sutra, 540–541, 579, 612, 715 Diets: fasting and, 281, 528; meat and, 505–506, 553, 774, 861, 888; with Buddhism, 553 Di Jie, 554 Directorate for Adjudication of Slave Lawsuits, 557, 691–696, 699, 714, 720–721, 733, 764, 798, 815–816, 886 Directorate for Armaments, 235, 415, 424, 868 Directorate for Dynasty-Founding Merit Subjects, 230 Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources, 137–138, 204, 341, 384 Directorate for Geomancy, 413 Directorate for Leather and Fur Products, 140 Directorate for Palace Maintenance, 137, 265, 394, 777, 867 Directorate for Shipbuilding and Transportation, 138, 396, 698, 814, 867, 895, 896 Directorate for the Capital City Construction, 527, 755 Directorate for the Royal Palace Construction, 438, 464 Directorate for the Tripitaka, 146 Directorate of Ceremonial Propriety, 141 Directorate of Education, 121, 254, 581 Directorate of Palace Attendants, 143, 423, 601 Directorate of Royal Weddings, 707 Di Renjie. See Duke Liang Disasters. See Natural disasters Discourse on Governance (Chŏng Tojŏn), 502, 848 Dismemberment, 559 Dissoluteness, indolence and, 537 Districts, 443, 600, 610–611, 612, 739–741; merging of, 790, 891–892. See also specific districts Divination, 181, 289, 427, 433 Divorce, 553 Doctors. See Medical practitioner Doctrine of the Mean (Zisi), 890

Index Doshira, 640 “Dreaming of the Golden Ruler,” 321 Dreams, 10, 105–106, 289, 290 Droughts. See Natural disasters Drowning, 389, 390, 510, 617, 621–622 Drunkenness. See Alcohol Du Bingyi, 581 Duke Liang (Di Renjie), 76 Duty, labor. See Labor Duty soldiers, 122, 745–746 Dynasty-founding merit subjects, 188, 230, 522 Earth, 454–455, 456. See also Altars of Earth and Grain; National Altar to the Gods of Soil and Grain Earthquakes. See Natural disasters Eclipses, 282, 285, 619, 673, 767, 887–888 Education, 121, 180, 181, 254, 322, 581 Eihan (monk), 715, 727 Eikaku (monk), 715, 727 Eirin (monk), 575 Elderly, 121, 192, 261, 512, 531, 886 Embezzlement. See Crimes Emissaries: eunuchs as, 60, 64, 73, 93, 511; monks as, 397, 413, 500, 505, 508, 570, 575, 585, 661, 674, 715, 727. See also Envoys Emperors. See specific emperors Emptiness Constellation, 779 Energy, 489, 830, 861, 893 “The Enlightened Virtue of Our King,” 321 Entertainers, 2, 182–183, 333, 559, 731 Envoys, 412, 414, 415, 588, 595, 653, 661, 672; banquets for, 270, 330, 385, 596, 609; memorials about, 506–507, 541–542. See also Eunuchs; specific envoys Eridanus Constellation, 888 Essentials of the Government of the Zhenguan Period, 222, 518, 876 Eunuchs, 116, 143, 154, 278, 355, 356, 379, 397, 482, 544, 577, 588, 618, 632, 858; as emissaries, 60, 64, 73, 93, 511; power of, 114, 307, 491, 641, 679, 682, 769; duties of, 178, 285, 491, 601, 643, 817, 818; as envoys, 385, 392, 393, 395–396, 400, 403, 405, 415, 439, 498, 499, 506–507, 589, 593, 620, 665, 818–819 Examinations, 145, 263, 277, 280, 641; civil service, 51, 120–121, 283, 307, 553, 571–572, 579, 580, 588, 701; military, 384, 457, 497, 673; for Court of Interpreters, 452–453 Executions. See Punishments Exile. See Punishments Extended Meaning of the Great Learning (Zhen Dexiu), 56, 76, 174, 184, 187, 188, 205, 206, 211, 222, 235, 322, 425, 437, 882, 890

1003 Fabric. See Cloth; Cotton; Hemp cloth; Linen; Ramie cloth; Silk Factory, bell, 522, 586 Falcons, 744; prohibition on hunting, 457, 504, 604; farms, 478, 489, 500, 501; hunting with, 527, 659; prohibition on raising, 542 Families: ceremonies, 121, 148, 164, 502; royal, 184, 394, 449, 483; monks with, 777; lawsuits, 824 Famine, 478, 513–514, 515, 566, 704, 761, 793, 886 Fan Wenzi, 616 Fan Xuanling, 811–812 Farms, 179, 567, 569, 594, 697, 798; state-run military, 123; with agriculture, 157, 180, 386–387, 514–515, 532, 866; soldiers and, 175, 419; crops and, 182, 186–187, 267, 328, 329, 360, 408, 412, 416, 477–478, 493, 576, 578, 591, 633, 826, 865; proposals for, 386; falcon, 478, 489, 500, 501; horse, 515, 766; flooding on, 674; salt, 707 Fasting, 281, 528 Female entertainer, 2, 731 Festivals, 146, 823 Fiefs, 72, 173, 217, 223, 224 Filial piety, 186, 519–521, 553, 570, 674, 720, 806, 886 Firearms soldiers, 677 Fires, 248, 257, 346, 348, 356, 424, 515, 564, 567, 642, 735, 775–776, 837 Fish, 659, 671, 707, 732–733, 761, 763, 867. See also Directorate for Fisheries and Natural Resources Five Directions, spirits of, 456, 561 Five-Troop Disposition Diagram, 683 Floggings. See Punishments Floods. See Natural disasters Flower Garland Sutra, 393, 414–415, 643 Foods Office, 139, 140 Forests, survey of, 672 Forgery, 512 Fortresses, 3, 13, 236, 285, 295, 299, 300, 344, 345, 366, 759; construction of, 416, 426, 443, 594, 606, 702, 712, 713, 742–743, 744; capture of, 601, 680, 682–683 Fortunetelling, 37, 40, 62, 243, 339, 362, 364–365, 366–367, 374, 376, 831–832, 837 The Four Books, 120, 452, 869, 889–890. See also The Analects; Doctrine of the Mean; The Great Learning; Mencius Frugality, 113–114, 116, 195 Fuji Korehisa, 494 Fuli, 463 Funeral ceremonies, 637, 752; observances of, 121, 502; attire, 602–603, 605 Fu Yan, 458

Index

1004 Fuyimowuerzhu, 555 Fu Yue, 501 Gai Lin, 275 Gao (Taizu) (Emperor), 160, 787, 849, 892, 893 Gaokuokuochu, 275, 276 Gaozong (Emperor), 501 Gaozu of Han (Emperor), 84, 90, 191, 217, 224, 623, 711 Garden. See Royal garden Garrisons, military, 680, 707, 823 Gate of honor, for women, 496–497, 500, 521 Gemini, 727 Genkai (monk), 701 Genkei (general), 824 Geography, 181, 413 Geomancy, 244–245, 331, 412, 413, 427, 428–432, 429, 433, 442, 650, 658 Ghosts, wandering, 477, 568, 731 Ghoul Star, 254, 476, 479, 658, 697, 721, 734, 756 Gifts, 235, 305, 558, 662, 681, 818. See also Attire; Horses; Rice; Saddles, as gifts; Silk; Wine Gold, 354, 532, 666, 668; rules about use of, 398, 399, 409, 444, 867, 895; sutras and, 415, 440; mining, 742, 789 Golden Light Sutra, 828 Gong Fuda, 267 Gong Gong, 226 Gongyang Gao, 469–470 Government: assistance, 121–122; councils, 129–144; rules for central and local, 261. See also specific directorates Governors, 407–408, 409, 545, 547. See also ­specific governors Grain, 478, 510, 708–709, 808, 862, 896; taxes, 450, 531, 545; ships transporting, 500, 502, 515, 778, 793; cultivation of, 671–672. See also Altars of Earth and Grain; National Altar to the Gods of Soil and Grain; Rice Granaries, 122, 178, 181, 262, 344–345, 348, 438, 676–677, 761, 778 Great Bear Constellation, 788 Great Ming Code, 340 Great Plan with Nine Divisions, 421 The Great Learning (Zengzi), 207, 397, 882, 890 The Great Ming Code (Da Minglü), 123–124 Greed, 113, 194 Guaeryabaersu, 556 Guaeryahuoshi Tiemur, 555 Guaerya Qimuna, 556 Guaeryatuchenggai, 556 Guaeryawunan, 555 Guangwu of Han (Emperor), 84–85, 87, 289, 363, 421

Guang Yi, 5, 22 Guan Xiansheng, 20, 352 Guanzhong, 429–430 Guan Zhong, 87–88 Guardian deities. See Deities Guardian Stars, 630 Guards. See Palace Guards; Righteousness Flour­­ ishing Capital Guard Commands; specific types of guards Gubuere, 555 Guesthouses, 122, 182, 242, 262, 447, 527, 596, 609, 618, 619 Gulun Ahachu, 555 Gulunboli, 555 Guluntuolan Tiemurer, 555 Gunpowder, 487–488 Hadugan, 355 Haeju, 325 Haengni, 312 Hakata, 730 Ha Kyŏng, 837, 846 Halabodou, 31 Hall of Sacred Buddhist Relics, 802, 810, 824 Ham Purim, 102, 148, 155, 388, 516, 564, 567–568, 572, 588, 635, 696 Han (Lady). See Sinŭi Han Ch’ŏn, 295 Han Ch’ŏndong, 876 Han Ch’ung, 51, 65, 185 Han dynasty, 430, 432, 437 Han Gaozu (Liu Bang), 429–430 Hangings. See Punishments Han I, 414, 438 Han Kan, 856, 858 Han Ko, 606 Han Kyebo, 282 Han Kyŏng, 313 Han Kyu, 854, 872 Han Nahae, 54 Han Pangsin, 26 Han Pok. See Bai Zhu Han Sanggyŏng, 102, 184–185, 187, 261, 306, 322, 425, 437; political duties of, 407, 496, 498, 786, 815–816; lawsuits and, 815–816 Han Sanghwan, 482–483, 499 Han Sangjil, 213–214, 243, 245, 246, 305, 357, 546, 627; political duties of, 599, 607–608; impeachment of, 661 Han Sau, 54 Han Sheng, 429 Hansŏng Magistracy jail, 301 Han Tuidang of Gonggao (Marquis), 710–711 Han Ŭlgi, 678

Index Han Xin, 85 Hanyang (Seoul), 151, 167, 325, 428, 437, 446–448, 455, 530 Han Yun, 306, 857 Hara Syousen (monk), 505 Ha Sŏkchu, 54 Ha Sŭnghae, 855 Hawks, 464, 544, 601, 738, 893 Hayashi On, 627 Ha Yun, 331, 350, 351, 361, 382, 615, 620, 681, 708, 825, 869, 873, 885, 893–894; political duties of, 432–433, 434, 629, 823, 881, 889, 896–897; in exile, 684 Heap of Corpses, 254, 440, 658, 697, 756, 761 Heart Constellation, 167, 427, 476, 563, 603, 633 Heart Lodge, 509 Heaven, 454–455, 490, 492 Heavenly Market Enclosure, 641, 748 Hemp cloth, 140, 164, 166, 260, 264, 336, 351, 355, 463, 498, 545, 613, 619, 747 Herbal, medicine, 498 Hermits, 206 Hikyu Tokitomo, 629 Historiographers, 169, 259, 789–790, 811–813 History: as public service field, 634; laws protecting truth and written, 789–790, 811–813 History of Koryŏ (Chŏng Ch’ong and Chŏng Tojŏn), 468–469, 717, 849 Hŏ Chi, 753, 768, 809 Hŏ Chisin, 790 Hŏ Chu, 144–145, 635 Hoe, 315 Hoean Panggan (Prince), 147, 313, 814, 826, 832, 834, 835, 839, 840, 844, 857, 869, 873, 876, 888 Hoeyang, 325 Hŏ Hae, 167, 170–171 Honey, consumption of, 564 Hong (Lady), 521 Hong Ching, 37, 53 Hong Ch’ungŏn, 336 Hong Chungsŏn, 717 Hong Gong, 114 Hong In’gye, 29, 40, 80, 962 Hong Kilmin, 102, 155, 409, 477 Hong Mi, 677 Hong Po, 278, 279 Hong Sŭngyŏn, 539 Hong Wŏn, 336 Hongwu (Emperor), 196, 229, 272, 336 Hongwu (King), 129 Hong Yŏngt’ong, 143, 302, 306, 483, 539–540 Hongyuan (monk), 814 Hong Yuryong, 605, 872 Honmyo. See Pŏmmyŏng

1005 Honors, 55, 65, 69, 72–79, 91, 316, 379, 397, 468– 470, 532, 548, 553, 558, 586, 600; for virtuous people, 121; gate of, 496–497, 500, 521 Horsemanship, 121, 181, 352, 634. See also Kyŏkgu Horse Purchasing Office for Tribute Payments, 385 Horses, 328, 436, 454, 489, 562, 564, 601, 618, 620, 741, 745, 887; for royal messengers, 181, 182, 269–270; as tribute for China, 204, 225, 268, 274, 275–276, 277–278, 298, 300, 304, 326, 356–357, 384, 405, 438, 442, 479, 498, 517, 522, 578, 591, 662–663, 737; as gifts, 244, 412, 446, 469, 470, 510, 511, 517–518, 532, 611, 688, 756, 757, 758, 760, 762, 789, 816, 821, 828; in military, 476, 673, 887; meat, 505–506; farms, 515, 766 Ho Tŏk, 392 Hot springs, 152, 156, 157, 259, 262, 482, 483, 484, 488, 570, 571, 572, 575, 658, 659, 750, 756, 758, 760 Hŏ Ŭng, 126 Households, 123, 137; survey, 417; registers, 420, 559, 637–638 Houses, 681, 715 Hou Zhu, 208 Huan Dou, 226 Huan of Qi (Duke), 543 Hubadu, 46–47, 304 Hu De, 385, 402 Hŭijin, 463 Hujihara Yorihisa, 592 Human sacrifices, 40 Hundred Seat Dharma Assembly, 149, 150 Hŭng’an Yi Che (Prince), 174, 313, 319, 486, 826, 843; political duties of, 154, 254; as merit subject, 173; with conspiracy of crown princes, 831, 832, 834, 841, 844, 845, 846 Hŭngbal, 315 Hŭngdo, 736–737 Hŭngje, 315 Hŭngmi, 315 Hŭngno, 315 Hunting, 443, 479, 567, 572, 891; T’aejo and, 15–18, 33–34, 35, 53, 70, 706; prohibition on falcon, 457, 504, 604; with hawks, 464, 601, 738; with falcons, 527, 659 Huo Guang Chuan, 64, 308 Hu Shunchen, 331 Hwa, 1, 312, 315 Hwan (Chach’un) (King), 118, 202, 262, 309, 312, 314, 315, 352, 393, 530 Hwang, 47 Hwangbo Chŏn, 406, 821 Hwangbo Im, 406

Index

1006 Hwangbo In, 406 Hwang Chaejung, 747–748 Hwang Hŭi, 820, 821 Hwang Hŭisŏk, 53, 95, 98, 144, 173, 189, 196, 210, 416; political duties of, 199, 279; death of, 423– 424 Hwangju, 325 Hwang Kŏjŏng, 102, 144, 157, 160, 850; flogging by, 163; political duties of, 185, 569, 571 Hwang Kunsŏ, 389, 506 Hwang Ŏm, 451 Hwang Pogae, 190 Hwang Sang, 34, 36, 424 Hwang Sŏng, 438, 439, 586 Hwang Sukkyŏng, 24 Hwang Sunsang, 287 Hwang Un’gi, 90 Hwang Yŏnggi, 268, 297, 355, 392, 393, 400, 403, 415, 439, 498, 499, 586 Hwanjo, 9, 11, 12, 13–14; death of, 15, 35, 241; T’aejo and, 16–17, 24 Hwarŭng, 148 Hwaryŏng, 15, 33, 49, 50, 72, 143, 167, 211, 214, 240, 306, 344, 345, 444, 467, 578, 682, 963 Hwasang, 61 Hye Ching, 107 Hyejong (King), 150 Hyo (Lady Yi, Queen), 5–6, 117, 200, 265, 312, 394, 521, 530 Hyŏn (Consort, Queen). See Sindŏk Hyŏn (Lady Yu, Consort), 278, 473, 843 Hyŏnbin (Consort), 789 Hyŏnjong (King), 150 Hyŏn Kwimyŏng, 53 Hyŏn Tasa, 28 Hyoson, 315 Igan Pangŭi (Yi Paeggyŏng) (Prince), 147, 313, 826, 832, 834, 835, 857, 869, 873, 876, 888 Ik (King), 117, 201, 305, 312, 530 Iki, 730 Illiteracy, 205, 576 Im (Lady), 496–497 Im An’gwi, 520 Im Chabu, 19 Im Chibaek, 815 Im Chŏng, 826 Im Ch’ŏngŏn, 336 Imgaryongŭi, 337 Imju, 385 Im Kŏ, 496 Im Kŏryun, 402, 410 Im Ku, 257 Im Kyŏng, 571, 746 Im Kyŏnmi, 37, 56, 57, 353, 404

Immortality, 350 Im Munhwa, 799 Im On. See Rakaon Im Ŏnch’ung, 102, 185 Impeachments, 117, 161, 308, 326, 333, 380, 405, 444, 458, 460, 463–464, 465, 504, 505, 506, 513, 517, 545, 586, 587, 608, 632, 661, 667, 668, 677, 743, 760, 790, 807, 808–809 Imperial decree, 545–547 Im Sik, 614 Im Sŏngmi, 40 Im Su, 438 Im Tŭkbang, 854 Im Tŭkchang, 595, 669 Im Wŏn, 336 In, 1, 312 Incantations, 249 Incense, 322, 508, 516, 641, 778 Indolence, 113, 537 Ingŭpgŭm, 801 Inhŭi Hall, 228 Inscriptions, on bells, 763–764 Inspections, of military system, 464, 483–484, 497 Instruments, musical, 299, 443, 714 Ipchŏn, 1, 312 Iron, 175, 415, 547, 868 Ivory, 216, 528–529, 530 Jade, 398, 399, 409, 460, 529, 654–655, 867 Jailhouse, Street, 123–124 Japan, 6, 14, 33, 204, 379, 462, 698, 746; pirate ships from, 34–35, 261, 264, 280, 320, 328, 349, 359, 377, 445, 508–509, 565, 675; marauders from, 36–43, 53–55, 253, 254, 257, 260, 262, 265, 267, 268, 276, 284, 306, 376, 389, 406, 413, 414, 436, 441, 445, 481, 487–488, 496, 516, 520, 523, 526, 547, 554, 567, 591, 594, 599, 604, 605, 614, 617, 618, 619, 627, 628–629, 631, 635, 637, 639, 640, 659, 660, 674, 675, 677, 678, 679–680, 681, 682, 686, 688, 690, 691, 697, 699, 701, 702, 703, 706, 737, 758, 850, 852; with human sacrifices, 40; gifts from, 305; invasions by, 397, 487–488; warships, 601. See also specific envoys Jian Di, 200 Jiang (Zhou Bo) (Marquis), 76, 78, 85 Jiang Taigong. See Shi Shang Fu Jiawenbuhua, 555 Jiawenchiwuli, 555 Jiawen Menggetiemurer, 555 Jia Yi, 423 Jie of Xia (King), 110, 221, 437 Jin (Duke), 616 Jin Cheng, 392 Jing of Zhongshan (Prince), 363

Index Jintongbuhua, 47 Jizi. See Kija Juewu (monk), 500 Jupiter, 249, 298, 599, 632, 658, 697, 721, 734, 756, 761, 830 Kaesŏng, 133–134, 143. See also Puso; Songdo; Songgyŏng Kang (Consort, Lady). See Sindŏk Kang (son of Prince Sunŭng Wang Sŭng), 109 Kang Ch’ŏnju, 545 Kang Ch’ŏnsu, 295–296 Kang Ch’ung, 612 Kang Chunggyŏng, 872 Kang Chungnim, 619, 688 Kang Hoebaek, 124 Kang Hoejung, 128, 755, 761, 786 Kang Hŭi, 760 Kang Inbo, 128 Kang Inbu, 828 Kang Insin, 637 Kang Kyegwŏn, 438, 715, 854, 855, 872 Kangnŭng, 325, 503 Kang Pojŏng, 382, 410, 411 Kang Sadŏk, 697, 894 Kang Si, 128, 681 Kang T’aek, 854, 872 Kangu, 35 Kangŭm district, 143 Kang Ŭn, 754 Kangwŏn Province, 503 Kang Yang, 686 Kang Yŏ, 127 Kang Yuin, 295 Kang Yunsŏng, 313, 715 Karach’i, 884 Kaŭi (Concubine Yu, Princess), 731, 881 Keerdage, 556 Kenjun (Tŭng Hyŏn), 746 Kentetsu (monk), 277 Ki (Empress), 12, 24 Ki Ch’ŏl, 12–13, 27 Kija (Jizi) (King), 31, 50, 247, 421, 534, 536, 647, 649, 652, 700, 865 Kim (Concubine), 731 Kim (Lady). See Tŏk Kim A, 28 Kim Chagwi, 683, 705 Kim Chasu, 792–793 Kim Chi, 205 Kim Chigyŏng, 90–91 Kim Chil, 517 Kim Chin, 19, 162, 301, 850 Kim Chinyang, 99, 124, 157 Kim Chisu, 515

1007 Kim Chiyŏn, 712, 722 Kim Chŏ, 69 Kim Ch’ŏ, 719 Kim Chobu, 104 Kim Chŏkson, 509, 605, 617, 683, 705 Kim Chŏksŏn, 554 Kim Ch’ŏllyong, 19 Kim Chŏm, 565, 682, 687 Kim Ch’ŏm, 126 Kim Chŏn, 759 Kim Ch’ŏn, 54 Kim Chonggyŏng, 588, 686–687 Kim Ch’ŏngjun, 856 Kim Chongyŏn, 80, 81, 82, 104, 231 Kim Ch’ŏnik, 824 Kim Ch’ŏnjang, 287 Kim Ch’ŏnsin, 507 Kim Ch’ŏnsŏ, 313 Kim Chu, 116, 244, 245, 277, 327, 328, 858, 872; political duties of, 438, 439, 442, 689, 691, 755, 787; military duties of, 686 Kim Ch’u, 759 Kim Chungmyŏng, 552 Kim Chungsŏng, 822, 828 Kimhae, 325 Kim Hŏ, 719 Kim Hŭisŏn, 168, 242, 409–500, 580, 611, 643, 725, 809 Kim Hŭiyu, 384, 498, 507 Kim Hŭnggyŏng, 307 Kim Hwa, 384, 498, 507 Kim Hyodo, 788 Kim Hyogyŏm, 676 Kim Hyoryŏm, 678 Kim I, 125 Kim Ikchŏng, 579 Kim Ilche, 799 Kim Inbo, 330, 350, 351, 401 Kim Inch’an, 51, 102, 143, 145, 173 Kim In’gwi, 841 Kim Ipgyŏn, 189, 277, 281, 284, 455, 544, 563; as envoy, 295, 296, 297, 316, 401, 426, 503; political duties of, 395–396 Kim Kahaeng, 339, 341, 348, 351, 363, 364, 365, 375, 379, 441 Kim Kŏwŏn, 397 Kim Ku, 678 Kim Kudŏk, 337, 580 Kim Kunsil, 758 Kim Kwa, 805–806 Kim Kwangŭi, 337 Kim Kwi, 26 Kim Kwich’ŏn, 507 Kim Kwiryŏn, 94 Kim Kwisaeng, 766

Index

1008 Kim Kwŏn, 284–285 Kim Kyedong, 521 Kim Kyeran, 756 Kim Kyesŏn, 237 Kim Kyesŏng, 828 Kim Kyesu, 464, 474, 477, 660 Kim Kyŏn, 791 Kim Kyŏng, 801 Kim Kyun, 102, 155, 284–285, 320, 759, 827–828 Kim Kyuong, 45 Kim Maengsŏng, 828 Kim Munbal, 379 Kim Myo, 99, 125 Kim Namdŭk, 128 Kim Nan, 539 Kim No, 102, 144, 155, 570, 703, 857, 863, 869, 874, 875 Kim Ŏjin, 563 Kim On, 560 Kim Paegan, 27, 31, 396–397 Kim Paek, 374, 375 Kim Panggwae (Daluhuachi), 25 Kim Pin’gil, 379, 380, 385, 635 Kim Pin’gil, 379, 385, 414, 635, 637, 641, 684, 966 Kim Po, 301 Kim Pogye, 591 Kim Pojŏng, 396 Kim Pono, 3 Kim Pŏphwa, 471 Kim Pu, 821, 822 Kim Pugae, 463, 553, 836, 967 Kim Pulgae, 476 Kim Pun, 606, 607, 708, 821, 822, 823 Kim Sahaeng, 245, 269–270, 275, 285, 294, 335, 855, 858, 873; power and, 307, 641, 682; political duties of, 423, 680, 682, 691, 698, 731, 755, 771; with conspiracy of crown princes, 831, 832 Kim Sahun, 38 Kim Sahyŏng, 99, 102, 143, 154, 428, 482, 540, 558, 640, 754, 772, 800, 802, 857, 873, 876, 881, 894; political duties of, 183–184, 216, 239, 270, 279, 407–408, 437, 454, 456, 486, 528, 529, 570, 603, 625–626, 635, 636, 637, 707, 752, 807, 821, 822, 837–838; with conspiracy of crown princes, 837, 838, 839, 869 Kim Saji, 519 Kim Sang, 288 Kim Saŏn, 336 Kim Siyong, 676 Kim Sŏ, 767–768 Kim Sŏngbu, 884 Kim Sŏnch’i, 681, 758–759 Kim Song, 810–811 Kim Songmyŏng, 75

Kim Su, 886 Kim Suik, 189 Kim Sŭng, 317, 734, 809 Kim Sŭngdŭk, 158 Kim Sŭngju, 547, 563, 799 Kim Sŭngni, 250–251 Kim Tŏksaeng, 540 Kim Tŭkbae, 759 Kim Tŭkche, 681 Kim U, 504, 855 Kim Ŭlbo, 686, 703, 816 Kim Ŭlchin, 564 Kim Ŭlgwi, 190, 255 Kim Ŭlnam, 798–799 Kim Ŭlsang, 257, 405, 476, 499, 506, 544, 859– 860; as envoy, 506, 507, 541–542; as prisoner, 713 Kim Un’gwi, 505 Kim Ŭnŭi, 1, 312 Kim Wan, 60 Kim Wan’gwi, 304, 337, 355, 384, 392, 396 Kim Wi, 513 Kim Wŏn, 588 Kim Wŏn’gye, 680, 682–683, 967 Kim Wŏn’gyŏng, 518, 967 Kim Wŏnho, 643 Kim Yak, 517 Kim Yakhang, 565, 566, 567–568, 576, 664, 783, 791; as envoy, 588, 619, 717–718, 790; political duties of, 597, 598, 725; legacy of, 718–719 Kim Yŏji, 161 Kim Yong, 382, 396, 410, 411, 829 Kim Yonggi, 643 Kim Yonggyun, 681 Kim Yŏnghwa, 340 Kim Yŏngnyŏl, 399, 517–518, 523, 547, 600, 637, 786; political duties of, 599, 635; in exile, 641, 684 Kim Yongsam, 784 Kim Yŏngsu, 504 Kim Yŏnu, 785 Kim Yu, 75 Kim Yuk, 838, 840, 845 Kim Yun’gŏm, 379, 967 Kim Yunsu, 127 Kim Yuŭi, 379 Kings. See specific kings Ki Saiyintiermuer, 27, 30–31 Ko Anwi, 28 Kŏdu, 512 Koenghŏn, 315 Ko Hyejin, 343 Ko Hyu, 708 Ko Inbaek, 564, 566

Index Kojong (King), 14 Kokchu. See Koksanbu Koksanbu (Kokchu), 316 Ko Kyŏm, 614 Kong Guang, 206 Kongju, 325 Kongmin (King), 18, 19, 70, 595, 734, 829, 847; political duties of, 12–13, 85; Hwanjo and, 15; in times of battle, 20, 24–25, 27, 29, 33; with Ki clan deaths, 24; appointments made by, 32; T’aejo and, 33–34, 79; royal decrees of, 50; Ming emperor and, 60, 67, 77, 158; successor to, 71–72, 74, 78, 83, 107, 118, 238, 310 Kong Pu, 784, 785, 786, 790, 807–808, 809, 875 Kong Toji, 519–520 Kongyang (Wang Yo, Chŏngch’ang Yo) (King), 147, 348, 495, 851; reign of, 68; enthronement of, 70, 79–80, 103, 165, 238, 358–359, 584; royal decrees issued by, 71–72, 80–81; royal lectures and, 73; with T’aejo’s resignation, 87–90, 99; appointments made by, 91; with honors for T’aejo, 91; with conspiracy against T’aejo, 92–93, 100, 231–232; abdication of, 101–102, 108, 353, 362–363; legacy of, 104, 108, 118, 272, 273, 297, 310–311, 418; in exile, 379, 386; strangulation of, 390 Konjiro (Tŭng Kon), 635, 637, 746 Ko Ryŏ, 97 Koryŏ dynasty, 119, 178, 247 Koŭmga, 315 Kou Xun, 85 Ko Yŏ, 54, 55, 97, 102, 155 Ko Yŏnsu, 343–344 Kŭmjin, 553 Kŭmman, 719 Kŭnghyu, 1, 312, 352 Kungjin, 1, 312 Kura Tadayoshi, 196 Ku Sŏngno, 189, 326, 617 Ku Sŏngnyang, 464, 605 Kwak Ch’ungbo, 63, 69, 190, 618 Kwak Haeryong, 243–244, 295, 728, 781, 784, 786, 790–791, 807 Kwak Haeryung, 565, 566 Kwak Kyŏngŭi, 517, 613 Kwak Sŏn, 361 Kwan (son of Prince Chŏngyang Wang U), 109 Kwangjong (King), 194 Kwangju (Chŏlla Province), 325 Kwangju (Yanggwang Province), 325 Kwangjumok district, 143 Kwanŭm Cave, 446, 565 Kwŏn Chŏn, 673 Kwŏn Chŏng, 587

1009 Kwŏn Chu, 340 Kwŏn Chunghwa, 80, 163, 166, 216, 235, 236, 294, 540, 586, 802, 857; political duties of, 244, 306, 350, 351, 359, 361, 410, 439, 528, 617, 681, 743, 762; geomancy and, 331, 413; as envoy, 591, 617, 621 Kwŏn Han’gong, 742, 969 Kwŏn Hong, 99, 126, 414 Kwŏn Hŭi, 327, 792 Kwon Hun, 340 Kwŏn Hwa, 189, 611, 620 Kwŏn Hyŏ, 619 Kwŏn Kan, 736 Kwŏn Kŭn, 45–46, 80, 160, 350, 438, 655; political duties of, 456, 502, 528, 596, 598, 619, 719, 768; as envoy, 643, 646, 667–668, 718; memorial from, 723–727 Kwŏn Kyun, 260 Kwŏn Munŭi, 256, 348, 349 Kwŏn Po, 340 Kwŏn Sang, 486 Kwŏn Son, 334 Kwŏn Suk, 878 Kwŏn Ŭlsong, 544, 791 Kwŏn Yŏm (Lord of Hyŏnbok), 340 Kyerim (Kyŏngju), 430, 431, 432 Kyo, 315 Kyoju. See Yaozhu Kyoju-Kangnŭng Province, 325 Kyoju Province, 503 Kyŏkku (ball game on horseback), 18–19, 183, 203, 258, 321, 329, 373, 553, 787 Kyŏng (Lady Pak, Queen), 9, 118, 202, 288, 312, 416, 530, 658, 820 Kyŏngan (Count), 820 Kyŏngbok Palace, 609 Kyŏnggi Province, 301, 332, 417; left and right, 325, 338, 389; division of, 406–407 Kyŏngju. See Kyerim Kyŏng Po, 80, 287, 288 Kyŏng Pokhŭng, 106–107, 642, 752 Kyŏngsan, 325 Kyŏngsin (Princess), 65, 572 Kyŏng Sŭp, 484, 969 Kyŏng Ŭi, 287, 319, 330, 401, 426, 484 Kyŏngyŏng, 1, 312 Kyŏnsŏn (Princess), 65 Kyuroku (Tŭng Yuk), 628–629, 636, 637, 662, 708, 746 Kyusu, 8 Labor: corvée, 122, 219, 365, 416, 553, 568, 637– 638, 642, 866, 867–868, 885; duty, 181, 183, 193, 261; with monks, 474, 519, 570, 802 Laizhou Bay, 649

Index

1010 Land: taxes, 49–50, 328, 441–442, 515, 671, 732, 737, 738, 762; administration, 68, 124, 154, 289, 292, 419, 465–466, 484–486, 548, 551, 802; reforms, 124, 484–486, 551, 709; for merit subjects, 171, 172, 173, 510; for royal family, 184, 394; with private landholdings, 229, 308, 310; laws, 389; military, 485, 885; for Buddhist temples, 499; abuses, 517; as gifts, 681; salary, 737, 762; surveys, 824; confiscation of, 870. See also Agency of Land Management Grants Landslides. See Natural disasters Languages: Chinese, 315, 451–453, 566, 584, 644–645, 655; of geomancy, 429; Uyghur, 452; Mongolian, 452–453; diplomatic correspondence and, 564–565, 574–575 Laws, 195, 443; for hiring public officials, 145, 226–228; military system, 169, 175, 680; mourn­ ­i ng, 182, 896; for slaves, 229, 826; for monks, 241; alcohol prohibition, 336, 337, 408, 477–478, 493–494, 506, 576, 604, 661, 766, 775, 880; trea­son, 361–363; land, 389; tax, 450; Personal Records, 557; administrative, 728; truth and written history protected by, 789–790, 811–813 Lawsuits: slaves and, 229, 250, 550–552, 557, 677, 691–696, 699, 714, 720–721, 733, 764, 798, 815–816, 826, 886; family, 824 Lectures: royal, 73, 133, 207, 421, 522, 887; from Yu Kyŏng, 187, 188, 205, 211; on Extended Meaning of the Great Learning, 211, 222, 322, 425, 437, 882; on Lotus Sutra, 444; on Mencius, 482; by Military Training Agency, 515–516; on Classic of History, 703 Left Army, 58, 60, 319, 330, 336, 337 Leopards, 540 Letters. See Appointments; Memorials; Memorials, from Imperial China; Memorials, to Imperial China Liaodong, China: invasion of, 57–61, 71, 75, 103, 107–108, 164, 198, 218, 272, 287, 297, 353, 583, 609; runaways from, 303, 354–355; poem about, 648–649 Li Baozhen, 384 Li Chun (Yi Ch’un), 5 Li Dujie, 466 Li Fuguo, 114 Li Ji, 344 Li Junbi, 392 Li Linfu, 111 Linen, 209, 276 Lin Julun, 392 Linseed oil, 772 Li Shun, 204 Listening to Music at the Laibin Pavilion for Foreign Envoys, 653 Li Tangxin, 257

Liu (Zhang Liang) (Marquis), 76, 85, 87, 90, 224 Liu Ang of Jiaoxi (Prince), 710–711 Liu Bang. See Han Gaozu Liu Bei, 363 Liu Chouer, 622 Liu Guichi, 685 Liuhelangha, 54 Liu Jing, 430 Liu Wanzi, 617 Li Zengzhi, 392 Loans, 183, 531, 867, 896 Locusts. See Crops; Natural disasters Longevity Hall of Fame, 510, 516 Long-Term Prosperity Warehouse, 139 Looking toward Japan, 650 Lotus Sutra, 440, 444 Loui Jindao, 613 Lowborns, 420 Loyalty, 155, 186, 208–209, 805–806. See also Filial piety Lü Buwei, 74 Lŭ Geer, 5 Ma Ch’ŏnmok, 834, 837, 861, 879 Maengjong, 313 Maeng Sasŏng, 606, 607 Magic, 323 Magistrates: performance evaluation of, 146, 148, 882–883; political duties of, 180, 182 Mahan, 651 Maha Prajna Sutra, 562 Majiro (Chang Mang), 746 Mandate of Heaven, Tan’gun and, 150 Manjusri, 177 Manjusri Buddhist ceremony, 257, 258, 286, 348, 349, 351 Mansamun, 691 Mansu, 62 Mao Yuanshuai, 352 Marauders. See Japan Mars, 167, 207, 254, 440, 476, 479, 619, 630, 633, 634, 667, 669, 828, 830, 856, 859, 872 Mathematics, 634 Mazamon (Chi Mun), 637, 746 Meat: diets and, 505–506, 553, 774, 861, 888; horse, 505–506; with mourning period, 608, 618; swan, 706 Medical arts, 242, 285, 322, 641 Medical practitioner, 327, 570, 701, 712, 722, 745–746. See also Palace Medical Office Medicine, herbal, 498 Meditation, 779 Memorials, 120; Cho Pak and, 150–151; from Office of the Inspector General, 170–171, 174–180, 205, 237–238, 252–253, 399–400,

Index 492–494, 497, 545, 677–678, 682, 819; from Office of Censor General, 203–204, 205–207, 226–228, 359–365, 386, 417–423, 494–496, 501–502, 548–549, 669–672, 673–674, 682– 683, 707–710, 761–762, 870–871, 876; from Privy Council, 208–210, 284, 346–347, 376– 377, 383, 398–399, 402–403, 409, 416, 417, 437, 447–448, 511–512, 637–640, 704–705, 842, 895–896; from Cho Chun, 217–225, 603; of An Kyŏnggŏm, 239, 297; from Board of Rites, 253–254, 283, 285, 373; from Chŏng Tojŏn, 288–294, 367–373, 750–751; prohibitions with, 324; from Board of Punishments, 345, 346–347, 359–365, 383, 386, 549–552, 798–799, 816; from Sŏl Changsu, 451–453; from Pak Kyŏng, 460– 461, 490–492; from Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies, 475–476; from Yi Ko, 494–495; from Pak Sin, 549–552, 713–714, 749, 761–762, 765–766; from Office of Remonstrance, 657, 713–714, 749, 765–766, 776–777; from monks, 779–781; from Pyŏn Chungnyang, 790–791; from Agency of Land Management Grants, 823–824 Memorials, from Imperial China: about bandits, 384–385, 392; on eunuch envoys as liabilities, 507; on insulting memorial, 564–565, 574–575, 576, 589–590, 615–617, 644–645, 721–722; denial for royal seal and formal recognition, 572–574; on eunuchs, 589; with instructions, 617, 655– 656, 662–667, 817–819; on Sindŏk and condolences, 643–644; poems by Ming emperor, 645–646; marriage discussion, 662, 664, 666; reprimands, 685–686; with Zhang Bing, 781– 783 Memorials, to Imperial China, 251–252, 272–275, 338–339, 351–359; about “bandits,” 396–397; in response to imperial instructions, 400–402, 403– 405, 590–591, 620–622; on return of captives, 411; with praise for emperor, 425–426, 457, 590– 591; on eunuch envoys as liabilities, 506–507; on escorts for envoys, 541–542; request for royal seal and formal recognition, 545–547; in response to perceived insult, 566, 591, 596– 598, 728–729; on Sindŏk and condolences, 657; response to Zhang Bing, 807–808 Mencius, 309–310, 429, 890 Mencius (Mencius), 482, 890 Mengshang, 463 Men Kexin, 573, 574, 575, 589 Merchants, 220, 333, 336, 355, 356, 371, 402, 409, 487, 494, 645, 882, 896 Mercury (metal), 895 Merit Recommendation Office, 145, 873–875 Merit subjects, 45, 51, 187, 562; T’aejo as, 55, 65, 72, 73, 79, 92; recognition of, 72, 84–85, 143,

1011 144, 152–153, 154–155, 171–174, 185, 190–191, 210, 228, 243, 287–288, 299, 309, 542–543, 587, 726–727, 826, 873–875, 874, 875, 888; land for, 171, 172, 173, 510; slaves for, 171, 172, 173; titles for, 171–172; stipends for, 172, 173, 230–231; tax collection for, 173, 224; banquets for, 174, 180, 203, 228, 232, 542–543; pledge of, 185– 186; dynasty-founding, 188, 230, 522; with Longevity Hall of Fame, 510 Messengers. See Royal messengers Meteors, 293, 321, 442, 595, 612, 630, 633, 636, 641727, 742, 748, 775, 779, 784, 788, 789, 830, 856, 859, 862, 871, 883, 885, 888 Midong, 315 “Military Achievements of Our King,” 321 Military banners, 440, 614 Military farms, 123 Military Music Section, 318 Military officials, 132, 142–143, 175, 319–320, 369, 391, 421–422, 457, 472. See also specific military officials Military service, as punishment, 810, 854–855, 878 Military Supply Warehouse, 711, 772, 787, 802 Military system, 138; punishments, 46, 640, 690, 826; strategies, 46–50; mobilization of soldiers, 50, 710–711; Weapons Directorate and, 138; laws, 169, 175, 680; recruitment within, 180, 284, 419– 420, 671; census records and, 271–272, 479, 480, 637–638, 772; training, 324, 367, 377–378, 384, 457, 622–624, 683, 721, 804, 805, 826–827; re­­ forms, 367–373, 415–416, 419–420, 796; rules, 391, 421–422, 475–476, 802–803; stipends, 419, 872; inspections, 464, 483–484, 497; horses in, 476, 673, 887; land use for, 485, 885; survey, 545; beheadings within, 680; garrisons, 680, 707, 823; ranks, 801, 879–880. See also Board of War Military Training Agency, 121, 284; hierarchy of, 136; examinations for, 384, 457, 497, 673; lectures by, 515–516 Min (Lady), 832–833, 835, 836 Minamoto Douchin, 729 Minamoto Ryōshun, 413, 444–445, 461, 505, 508–509, 685, 690 Min Anin, 754 Min Che, 313, 350, 410, 444, 479, 540, 545, 861 Min Chungni, 760, 786 Mines, gold, 742, 789 Ming emperor, 27, 57, 68, 69–70, 72, 103, 163, 277, 301; Kongmin and, 60, 67, 77, 158; with naming of Chosŏn dynast, 246–247, 252, 268– 269, 273, 297, 311, 338, 357–358, 401, 546; poems by, 645–646. See also China; Memorials, from Imperial China; Memorials, to Imperial China Ming Sheng, 248

Index

1012 Ming Yi, 248 Min Kae, 102, 109, 305–306, 376, 626 Min Mugu, 832, 833, 835, 869, 874, 875 Min Mujil, 832, 833, 835, 837, 869, 874, 875 Min Pu, 836 Min Pyŏn, 626 Min Sajŏng, 279 Min Simŏn, 606 Min Sŏn, 313 Min Tosaeng, 244 Min Yŏik, 102, 185, 187, 279, 280, 572, 588, 629, 631, 730 Min Yuŭi, 559 Miracles, 450, 513 Mirror of the Tang Dyansty, 470 Mok (King), 117, 200, 312, 530 Mokcho (Yi Ansa), 2–7, 85, 252, 377, 404 Mok Inhae, 855 Moksadong, 448 Monasteries, 235, 240, 248, 249, 286, 322, 335, 351, 411, 412, 450, 511, 513, 518, 540, 567, 624, 635, 641, 669, 685, 691, 702, 715, 735, 792, 815, 823, 827; slaves in, 552, 693; rice as gifts to, 719; tax exemptions for, 732, 737, 738 Money, 183, 209, 415, 510, 709–710, 787, 818, 862 Mongolian language, 452–453 Monks, 49, 114–115, 116, 162, 177, 220, 277, 286, 325–326, 333, 458, 471, 509, 670, 685, 701, 706, 735, 809, 814, 896; as soldiers, 58; requirements for, 183; meals served to, 193, 207, 248, 288, 319, 446, 510, 612; laws for, 241; beheading of, 350, 414, 500; as emissaries, 397, 413, 500, 505, 508, 570, 575, 585, 661, 674, 715, 727; as construction laborers, 474, 519, 570, 802; grades of, 474–475; vagrant, 671; rogue, 689; confession and, 731; rules for, 766; with families, 777; memorials from, 779–781. See also specific monks Moon, 167, 173, 207, 216, 248, 249, 285, 302, 324, 327, 330, 427, 476, 503, 509, 540, 563, 599, 600, 619, 632, 767, 859, 885 Morning audience, 149, 167, 205, 210, 288, 440, 444, 612, 637, 670, 706, 767, 797, 802, 803–804, 810, 819, 868 Mountains, 257, 328, 331, 403, 427, 436, 455–456, 517, 519, 528, 559, 561, 608, 650, 823 Mourning, 47, 94, 173, 196, 215, 308, 325, 504, 519, 602; rites, 164, 801; laws, 182, 896; attire, 603, 620, 665, 716, 718, 738, 739, 760, 790, 828, 893; meat and, 608, 618 Muak, 410, 415, 426, 427–428, 432, 433, 453 Muan Pangbŏn (Prince), 65, 147, 153, 313, 319, 527, 558, 641, 826, 831, 833–835 Mulgŭm, 520

Mun Chip, 302 Mun Ch’ungbo, 510, 511 Mun Chunggye, 815 Mun Chungsil, 815 Mun Chungyong, 815 Mun Ikchŏm, 814–815 Munjong (King), 151 Munjŏng (Duke), 380–381 Mun Keyjong, 580 Mun Kŭkkyŏm, 2, 312, 971 Mun Pin, 835 Mun Suksŏn, 814 Murder. See Crimes Murŭng, 144 Mushrooms, 350 Music, 143, 164, 292, 299, 310, 318, 444, 491, 530, 543, 653 Musical instruments, 299, 443, 714 Naeŭnjang, 315 Nahachu, 20–24, 30, 32, 66, 78, 292–293, 352 Nahai, 9, 11 Naju, 325 Nam Chae, 94, 102, 144, 151, 154, 230–231, 239, 331, 426, 450, 457, 473, 507, 853, 858; as merit subject, 173, 288, 299; political duties of, 272, 275, 304, 306, 316, 382, 400, 500, 509–510, 522, 580, 625, 815–816; lawsuits and, 815–816 Nam Chi, 275, 473, 844 Names: Wang clan with change of, 392–393, 736; of royal palace halls, 533, 534–538; of prefectures, counties and districts, 739–741 Namgyŏng, 428 Nam Kyŏngbok, 851 Nam Kyŏngji, 851 Nam Kyŏngsu, 851 Nam Kyŏngu, 851 Namp’yŏng (Prince), 339, 364–365 Nam Sil, 473, 571, 872 Nam Sŏngni, 287, 735 Nam Ŭlbŏn, 435, 473 Nam Ŭn, 90–91, 93, 99–100, 101, 102, 143, 163, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 215, 221, 228, 240, 243, 244, 254, 271, 279, 281, 306, 341, 350, 382, 399, 413, 435, 448, 450, 459, 473, 507, 584–585, 609, 659, 688, 752, 802, 804, 821, 853, 870, 873, 878– 879; political duties of, 108, 154, 184, 187, 188, 215, 240, 244, 254, 279, 281, 306, 350, 382, 412, 439, 500, 509–510, 572, 594, 626, 629, 631, 637, 707, 711–712, 757, 807, 822, 825; military duties of, 683–684, 826, 827; with conspiracy of crown princes, 831–832, 836, 837, 838, 839, 841, 843, 844, 845, 846, 876; legacy of, 850–851, 863, 876

Index Nan (King), 429 Nanjing, 197, 212, 462 Naong (monk), 177, 585 Na Se, 25, 37, 261, 688, 699, 704 National Academy, 16, 45, 100, 117, 120, 125, 131, 135, 155, 174, 184, 187, 211, 240, 249, 263, 280, 300, 307, 308, 340, 390, 529, 552, 566, 567, 572, 580, 582, 588, 598, 719, 736, 768, 783, 807, 814, 821, 827, 846, 847, 850, 851, 879, 880, 897, 900, 902, 903, 905, 907, 911, 912, 933, 936, 939, 941 National Altar to the Gods of Soil and Grain, 142 National Code (Chŏng Tojŏn), 848 National Shrine of Confucius (National Confucian Shrine), 148, 541, 552, 636, 682, 707, 808, 923 Natural disasters, 113, 215, 365, 512, 531, 599; floods, 160, 161, 493, 511, 515, 594, 674, 697, 701, 704, 709, 776, 819; earthquakes, 241, 456, 642, 715, 749; rites to eliminate, 249, 322, 335, 490, 518, 562, 607–608, 618, 677, 700, 711, 736, 788; droughts, 394, 493, 577, 697, 704, 709, 772, 776, 865; locusts, 412, 493, 591, 633, 865; landslides, 511, 515, 594 Natural phenomena: colored glow in sky, 241, 244, 281, 484, 552, 567, 719, 720, 722, 729, 738; strange, 405, 450, 477, 494, 513, 518, 523, 528, 830; gas clusters in sky, 641; celestial catastrophes, 741, 744, 747; red rain, 794, 817; energy, 830, 861, 893 Navy, 53, 183, 417, 481, 570, 684, 706, 801; seamen, 122, 328, 639–640, 671, 745–746, 796, 865–866; warships, 283, 285, 328, 336, 441, 445, 601, 604, 614, 639, 675, 698, 799 Nayantiemuer, 21 Neo-Confucianism, 160, 309, 582 New Year ceremony, 462, 560, 630 Niu Niu, 589, 592, 596, 597, 600, 601, 609, 618, 620, 667, 703, 853 No (Lady), 521 No Cho, 217, 708 No Chŏng, 29 Noguk (Queen), 582, 829 No Hyŏnsu, 38, 690 No Indo, 596, 597–598, 619, 664, 717–718, 725–726, 784, 790, 791 No Kwan, 217 No Mulli, 628 Northwest Guardian Constellation, 619 No Sang, 259, 278, 280, 475 No Sangŭi, 464, 608 No Sik, 760 No Sŏkchu, 259, 533–538, 672, 832, 838, 840–843, 844 No Sung, 203, 255, 503 No T’anae, 336, 379, 380

1013 No Ŭljun, 295 No Ŭlsaeng, 478 Nuantugulu, 555 Nŭnggwi, 463 Nuns, 114–115, 116, 333 O Che, 613 O Chin, 791 O Chonji, 662 O Ch’ŏnsu, 489 Ochu, 631 O Chunghwa, 613 Office for Institutional Investigation, 131 Office for Legislating Laws and Regulations, 170, 728 Office for the Royal Grange, 141 Office for Palace Administration, 143 Office of Ancestral Rites, 136, 141 Office of Appointments and Royal Seals, 405 Office of Benefitting the People, 141, 472 Office of Buddhist Affairs, 249, 253 Office of Censor General, 121, 187, 188, 717; memorials from, 203–204, 205–207, 226–228, 359–365, 386, 417–423, 494–496, 501–502, 548– 549, 669–672, 673–674, 682–683, 707–710, 761– 762, 870–871, 876 Office of Guest Affairs, 137, 508, 588, 594, 835 Office of Military Officials, 472 Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals, 67, 109, 135, 266, 458, 533 Office of Remonstrance, 152, 339, 415, 594; memorials from, 657, 713–714, 749, 765–766, 776–777 Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, 132, 158, 245, 308, 410, 472 Office of Royal Lectures, 133, 887 Office of Royal Procurement, 140 Office of the Inspector General, 122, 155–156, 804; hierarchy of, 133; memorials from, 170– 171, 174–180, 205, 237–238, 252–253, 399–400, 492–494, 497, 545, 677–678, 682, 819 Office of the Royal Household, 137 Officials, 109, 458, 547, 717; appointment of, 143, 548; hiring laws for public, 145, 226–228; performance evaluations of, 146, 148, 545, 882– 883, 894–895; uniforms for, 216, 234; banquets for, 235, 558, 569, 629, 636, 640, 704, 705, 714, 730, 757, 801–802, 892; stipends for, 236, 340, 762, 797; rules for, 511–512, 587–588; attire for, 590; overstaffing of, 670, 797; punishments for, 704–705; residency of, 712–713; houses for, 715; salaries for, 733, 737; census records of, 740, 772. See also Military officials; Public officials, hiring laws for; specific officials

Index

1014 Ofusato (Prince), 439 Oil, 564, 772 O Il, 42 Ok San’gi, 522 O Kyenyŏn, 682 O Kyŏngu, 712, 722 Omadae, 793 Ŏ Maengyu, 808 O Mongŭl, 102, 154, 228, 571, 854, 855, 872; as merit subject, 173; Wang clan and, 388; political duties of, 746, 751; execution of, 878 Omote Shila, 462 O Mun. See Samongoro On Kŭmgang Mountain, 650 Onset of Spring, 231 Onshadō (King), 744, 767, 802, 878 On T’amna, 652 On the Geomancy of the New Capital, 650 On the Kingdom of Silla, 652 On the Old Royal Capital of Koryŏ, 646 On the State of Chinhan, 651 On the State of Mahan, 651 On the State of Pyŏnhan, 651–652 On the Taedong River, 652–653 On Yi’s Separate Housekeeping, 646–647 O Paek, 622 Opinion. See Public opinion Orphans, 121, 192, 261, 658 O Sach’ung, 102, 155, 409, 744 O Segyŏm, 784, 791 O Sŏn, 613 O Sŭng, 613 Ŏ Sŭngjin, 515 Ouchi Tatara, 557 O Ŭlch’ung, 622 Outline and Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government, 754 Outline and Digest of the General Mirror, 76 Ouyang Xuan, 581 Ŏ Yŏn, 736–737 O Yonggwŏn, 604, 608, 610 Pae Chungnyun, 876 Paegan, 719 Pae Hu, 412, 594 Pae Hyŏn’gyŏng, 72, 73 Paek Ch’ŏnu, 205 Paek Ŏllin, 320 Pae Ku, 741 Pae Kŭngnyŏm, 40, 41, 101, 102–103, 153, 154, 190, 215, 584; as merit subject, 143, 152, 171, 173, 174, 288; political duties of, 166–167, 180–184; legacy of, 211–212, 311 Pae Kyu, 424

Pae Ŏn, 40, 66 Pae Sangch’ung, 245, 604 Pagodas, 235, 257, 319 Pak (Lady). See Kyŏng Pak (wife of Tasibuhua) (Lady), 11 Pak Anŭi, 758 Pak Chaan, 255, 611, 635, 640, 660, 678–679, 681, 684 Pak Chach’ŏng, 697 Pak Charyang, 395 Pak Chŏng, 631 Pak Ch’ŏngang, 788 Pak Ch’ŏnsang, 682 Pak Chŏsaeng, 380, 815 Pak Ch’un, 25 Pak Chungjil, 339, 341, 348, 351, 362, 363, 365, 366, 375, 379, 441, 852 Pak Ha, 808 Pak Hŏn, 504, 708 Pak Hŭngt’aek, 125 Pak Hyŏng, 733 Pak I, 588, 604, 608 Pak Imjong, 40 Pak In’gwi, 642, 658, 675–676 Pak Insu, 496 Pak Inŭl, 460 Pak Ki, 852, 872 Pak Kwang, 9 Pak Kwangch’un, 575 Pak Kyŏng, 444, 448, 462, 484, 587, 588; memorial from, 460–461, 490–492; political duties of, 698, 745–746 Pak Man, 526 Pak Munsung, 660 Pak Nyong, 355 Pak Ŏn, 518, 737 Pak Pin, 855 Pak P’o, 155, 279, 280, 448, 449, 571, 861, 863, 874; with conspiracy of crown princes, 833, 837, 869; as merit subject, 875 Pak Poro, 37 Pak Pu, 249, 264 Pak Pugŭm, 479 Pak Ryŏng, 876 Pak Sagwi, 681 Pak Sahu, 701 Pak Sangch’ung, 158 Pak Sanggyŏng, 736 Pak Sangmun, 677, 678 Pak Sil, 678, 679 Pak Sin, 245, 256, 317, 351, 373, 768; political duties of, 378, 747–748; memorials from, 549–552, 713–714, 749, 761–762, 765–766 Pak Sugi, 820, 821

Index Pak Sugyŏng, 40, 66 Pak Tŏngnyong, 336 Pak Tonji, 727 Pak Tuŏn, 884 Pak Ŭijung, 60 Pak Wi, 70, 78, 254, 271, 283, 339, 340, 342, 361, 366, 374, 379, 380; reinstatement of, 341–342, 373; conspiracy and, 375, 832, 838, 839–840; dismissal of, 382, 441; political duties of, 440, 731, 743; legacy of, 852 Pak Wŏn, 259, 358 Pak Wŏnjŏng, 684 Pak Yong, 303 Pak Yŏngch’ung, 190, 245, 264, 287, 304, 317, 401, 426 Pak Yŏngmun, 819, 823 Pak Yongsu, 701 Pak Yuson, 735 Palace. See Directorate for Palace Maintenance; Directorate of Palace Attendants; Kyŏngbok Palace; Royal palace; Such’anggung Palace Management Office; Supreme Palace Constellation; specific palaces Palace Guards, 12, 123, 183, 472–473 Palace Medical Office, 138–139, 747 Palace Treasury, 137, 179, 207 Pan Cheng, 20, 22 Pang Kunjŏng, 520 Pang’ol, 93 Pangyŏn, 313 Panya, 74 P’ap’yŏng, 79 Pardons. See Prisoners Passing by Western Capital (P’yŏngyang), 647–648 Passing through Liaodong, 648–649 Pavilions, 275, 285, 437, 528, 653–655 Peerage, 470–471 People: honors for virtuous, 121; virtuous, 121, 208, 422, 568, 794; government assistance for, 121–122; Office of Benefitting the People, 141, 472; welfare of, 148, 204, 544, 669; respect for, 206, 418; consulting with common, 289, 422, 548–549 Personal Records Law, 557 Phenomena. See Natural phenomena Pictures of Hunting Scenes, 302, 484, 624, 683, 848 Piety. See Filial piety Pine Hut Dweller, 742. See also T’aejo Ping (King), 429, 845 Pirate ships. See Ships Placentas, 213 Platinum, 743 Pledges, 185–186

1015 Pleiades, 173, 205, 216, 302, 324, 330, 540 Poems, 45–47, 51, 280, 291–292, 451, 483, 535, 643, 645–655, 665, 752, 772–774, 849 Pohŏ, 177 Pok, 8 Pokkŭn (Prince Chinan), 313, 332, 472, 857, 862, 874, 875; crown prince conspiracy and, 869 Pok Tae, 767 Poktong, 315 Polaris, 859 Pŏmmyŏng (Honmyo) (monk), 397, 413, 706 Pongmyŏng, 53 Pong Wŏllyang, 835, 855 Posthumous titles. See Titles Post stations, 122 Po Toupan, 20 Power, 46, 56, 57, 71, 73–74, 75, 76, 107, 353, 381, 545–547; of eunuchs, 114, 307, 491, 641, 679, 682, 769; of capital city, 427, 428, 454; military, 448 Prayers: to guardian deities, 266, 691; for rain, 394, 516, 577, 768, 769, 774, 776; for spirits of mountains, 403, 455–456; for spirits of rivers, 403, 455–456; for spirits of seas, 403; Buddhist, 416, 510, 540–541, 593, 594, 704, 788; for site of new capital city, 454–456; for health, 593, 594; eclipse, 673; for prevention of war, 704; Avatamska Samadhi, 731; for Sindŏk, 827; for eliminating disasters, 249, 518. See also Rites Precincts, 577–578 Precious Secret Scroll (Suborok), 289, 290–291, 321, 848 Prefectures, 634, 739–741. See also specific prefectures Prescriptions of Folk Medicine Beneficial to the People, 242 Prestige titles, 470–471 Prices, of horses and slaves, 816 Priests, 114–115, 116 Princes: titles for, 147; land for, 184; pledge of, 185–186; banquets for, 325; conspiracy of crown, 831–846, 869–870, 876–878. See also specific princes Princesses, 65, 446, 572, 731, 881 Prisoners, 676; pardons for, 129, 161, 235, 240, 241, 251, 261, 334, 339, 427, 440, 443, 445, 477, 483, 495, 548, 612, 700, 786, 788, 789, 821, 858; welfare of, 230, 243, 259, 261, 442; in Capital Constabulary Prison, 250–251, 278–279, 299, 339, 340, 374, 395, 448, 560, 570, 580, 588, 608, 637, 661, 681, 713, 728, 785, 819, 854; in Hansŏng Magistracy jail, 301; release of, 317, 318–319, 394, 503, 510, 576, 612, 683, 714, 736, 759; slaves as, 586, 589

Index

1016 Prisons. See Andong Prison; Bureau of Prisons; Capital Constabulary Prison; Street Jailhouse Privy Council, 121, 130, 141, 144, 146, 150, 234; with military system, 175; naming of, 189–190; memorials from, 208–210, 284, 346–347, 376– 377, 383, 398–399, 402–403, 409, 416, 417, 437, 447–448, 511–512, 637–640, 704–705, 842, 895– 896; political duties of, 270–271, 305, 317, 320, 322, 327, 341, 366, 434–435, 512; on Wang clan, 386–389; royal decrees for, 407–408; reports for, 440–441; on taxes, 441–442; requests from, 464, 497; orders for, 513–514; proposals for, 514–515; with review of officials, 547; with ­conspiracy of crown princes, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844 Prohibitions: with memorials, 324; alcohol, 336, 337, 408, 477–478, 493–494, 506, 576, 604, 661, 766, 775, 880; on falcon hunting, 457, 504, 604; with attire, 460, 589; colors, 460, 463, 589, 819; jade, 460; on raising white animals, 460, 463; on raising falcons, 542; of hawk trading, 544; with ancestral rites, 559; on honey and oil consumption, 564; with horses, 673, 887; on Buddhism, 882 Prose, old-style rhyme, 120 Prosperity Expansion Warehouse, 140, 236 Prostitutes, 564, 592 Provinces, 612; major cities of, 325; merging of, 503, 614. See also specific provinces Provisions Office, 141 Publications Office, 137, 141 Public Dispensary, 700 Public officials, hiring laws for, 145, 226–228 Public opinion: remonstrance as root of, 203; importance of, 204 Public service: examinations, 145; requirements for, 145–146 Public works, 670–671, 698; waterways, 299, 711–712; soldiers and, 733, 825; suspension of, 795, 797, 799–801; recruitment for, 802. See also Capital cities; Fortresses; Walls Pu Kae, 788, 810 Pulno, 881 P’unghae Province, 632–633 P’ungju, 397 Punishment (star), 700 Punishments: executions, 11, 71–72, 237, 238, 552, 687, 718, 791, 831, 878; military, 46, 640, 690, 826; beatings, 57, 92, 99, 129, 160, 161, 163, 209, 229, 238, 241, 251, 256, 264, 285, 301, 302, 318, 328, 333–334, 342, 343, 387, 478, 486, 514, 556, 570, 571, 604, 607, 637, 682, 684, 690, 691, 704– 705, 737, 743, 755, 760, 785, 804, 805, 821, 827, 884; exile as, 70, 87, 94, 124–125, 127, 128,

144–145, 157, 159, 160, 192, 193, 279–280, 364, 379, 386, 449, 504, 579, 607, 640, 641, 684, 700, 712, 760, 820–821, 858; crime and, 80–81, 182, 209, 749, 769–771; beheadings, 99, 278, 317, 318, 319, 334, 349, 350, 359, 379, 394, 414, 463, 471, 478, 489, 500, 504, 512, 523, 541, 576, 680, 702, 703, 710, 719, 736, 793, 814, 821, 844, 846, 858, 873, 884; rewards and, 111; floggings, 125, 127, 163, 260, 301; death penalty, 129, 182, 253, 353, 478, 767, 799; with cloth as penalty payment, 249, 251; posthumous, 308; strangulation, 317, 334, 390, 440, 559, 576, 607, 720, 736, 801; hangings, 319, 394, 552; drowning, 389, 390; dismemberment, 559; whipping, 586, 821, 826; payment of funeral expenses, 637; military service as, 810, 854–855, 878. See also Board of Punishments Pup’yŏng, 325 Purple Forbidden Enclosure, 248, 779, 788 Puso (Kaesŏng), 428, 431, 432 Pyŏn Annyŏl, 37, 40, 46, 64, 69, 80; execution of, 237, 238; as merit subject, 288 Pyŏn Chungnyang, 92–93, 448, 449, 467, 736; memorial from, 790–791; political duties of, 821, 831, 838; with conspiracy of crown princes, 831, 832, 838, 840, 843, 844 P’yŏngwŏn (Prince), 413 P’yŏngyang, 3, 27, 58, 62, 78, 81, 143, 150, 155, 174, 217, 236, 251, 287, 319, 345, 361, 373, 406, 430, 431, 432, 484, 486, 543, 554, 641, 647–648, 680, 686, 691, 731, 737, 755, 758, 819, 857 Pyŏnhan, 651–652 Pyŏn Hon, 405, 414, 415, 553 Pyŏn Kyeryang, 467 Pyŏn Namyong, 553 Pyŏn Ong, 504 Pyŏn Ongnan, 466–467 Pyŏn U, 760 P’yo Si. See Asiro Qi (Prince), 354, 741 Qin dynasty, 429, 432, 623 Qing, 451 Qin Shi Huang, 175 Queen Dowager (Kongmin’s mother), 75 Queen Dowager (Lady An), 101–102, 108, 165 Queens, 139. See also specific queens Rain: prayers for, 394, 516, 577, 768, 769, 774, 776; red, 794, 817 Rainbows, 40, 74, 319, 435, 445, 446, 450 Rakaon (Im On), 635, 637, 659, 660, 669, 672, 691, 746

Index Ramie cloth, 140, 260, 264, 351, 498, 613, 619, 634, 747 Ranks: reforms with official, 129–130, 308; military, 801, 879–880 Rape. See Crimes Rebellions, 554–555, 623, 884. See also Conspiracies “Receiving the Precious Secret Scroll,” 291, 321 Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, 780 Recruitment: in military system, 180, 284, 419–420, 671; for public works, 802 Red, 794, 817 Red Turbans. See Bandits Reforms: civil service examinations, 120–121; Military Training Agency, 121; government assistance, 121–122; government travel, 122; granaries, 122; for seamen and duty soldiers, 122, 745–746; of Palace Guards, 123; of staterun military farms, 123; tax, 123, 124; of criminal code, 123–124, 129; land, 124, 484–486, 551, 709; with official ranks, 129–130, 308; of government councils, 129–144; Privy Council, 130; military system, 367–373, 415–416, 419– 420, 796; of Royal Guards, 408, 671, 882; on current affairs, 882–883 Registers, household, 420, 559, 637–638 Regulations of Six Ministries, 865 Regulus (star), 517, 518, 636, 742, 828, 830 Reichi (monk), 896 Relics. See Buddhism Religions. See specific religions Remonstrance, 112, 116, 323, 657, 794; public opinion and, 203; importance of, 205–206, 424–425; from Office of Censor General, 501–502; about annals of T’aejo, 502–503. See also Office of Remonstrance Respect, 206, 418–419 Returning to My Quarters after Having Drinks at Nanshi Pavilion, 653–654 Reverence, 110–112, 206 Revisiting Heming Pavilion and Listening to the Sound of Jade Pendants, 654–655 Rewards, punishments and, 111 Rice, 513, 515, 523, 576; as gifts, 412, 472, 482, 486, 498, 499, 512, 540, 548, 553, 570, 572, 586, 601, 608, 633, 642, 660, 681, 702, 708, 719, 733, 738, 744, 858, 884, 893; for elderly, 512, 531; crops, 826 Right Army, 58, 107–108, 287, 304, 310, 319 Righteousness Flourishing Capital Guard Commands, 142, 152, 195, 199, 236, 282, 300–301, 306 Righteousness Flourishing Three Armies, 84, 239, 306, 319, 320, 415–416, 471–472, 475–476

1017 Righteous Salt Storehouse, 140 Right Law Administrator, 619 Rites, 209, 324, 325, 492, 547; ceremonies and, 121, 141, 148, 164, 244, 249, 257, 258, 286, 348, 349, 351, 444, 462, 502, 529, 530, 533, 534, 560, 564, 572, 602–603, 605, 630, 637, 662, 664, 666, 707, 752, 801, 883; ancestral, 148, 502, 559; sacrifices and, 148, 149, 518; mourning, 164, 801; Comprehensive Rites Agency, 211; to eliminate natural disasters, 249, 322, 335, 490, 518, 562, 607–608, 618, 677, 700, 711, 736, 788; prayers and, 266, 394, 403, 416, 455–456, 510, 516, 540– 541, 577, 593, 594, 673, 691, 704, 788, 827; for dead, 321; to prevent celestial catastrophes, 741, 744, 747. See also Board of Rites; Book of Rites; Office of Ancestral Rites Rites of Zhou, 708, 710, 761 Rivers: prayers for spirits of, 403, 455–456. See also specific rivers Robberies. See Crimes Robes: prohibitions on yellow, 589; as gifts, 662 Room Lodge, 327, 503 Royal Ancestral Shrine, 73–74, 79, 118,136, 149, 152, 186, 190, 244, 266, 281, 329, 336, 394, 428, 434, 439, 440, 529–530, 572, 590, 624, 756, 769, 774, 847, 854,860, 863, 876, 895; reconstruction of, 195, 196; with lewd sacrifices, 209, 210; diagrams of, 244; sacrifices and, 443, 816; construc­­ tion of, 447–449, 500, 513, 523, 533; rooms in, 523; for Sindŏk, 606, 610 Royal Ancestral Tablets, 526, 528–529, 598 Royal Cuisine Office, 152 Royal decrees: of Kongmin, 50; of Ch’ang, 65– 66; of Kongyang, 71–72, 80–81; of T’aejo, 118– 144, 228–229, 231–232, 272, 286–288, 294–295, 299–300, 407–408, 489–490, 530–532, 625–626; drafting of, 129, 489–490; with Office of Royal Decrees and State Records, 132, 158, 245, 308, 410, 472 Royal family: land for, 184, 394; banquets of, 449, 483 Royal Forest Park, 413 Royal garden, 205, 263, 275, 276, 285, 286, 295, 302 Royal Guard, 90, 250–251, 328, 371, 840; reform of, 408, 671, 882; salaries of, 408; rules for, 415–416, 579; recruitment of, 419, 671; Buddhist scriptures and, 501 Royal Horse Breeding Ranch, 741 Royal lectures, 73, 207, 421, 522; Office of Royal Lectures, 133, 887 Royal messengers, 181, 182, 269–270, 464, 580–581

Index

1018 Royal palace, 115, 179, 559, 562, 752, 760, 761, 772; construction of, 456, 474, 516, 519, 523; rooms in, 523–526; names of halls in, 533, 534–538. See also Directorate for the Royal Palace Construction Royal seal, 258, 545–547, 572–574. See also Office of Appointments and Royal Seals; Office of Personnel Appointments and Royal Seals Royal Stable Court, 413, 414, 601 Royal Stables Administration, 136, 155, 559, 562 Royal tombs, 723; T’aejo, 509–510, 522, 575, 611, 619, 629; Sindŏk, 604–605, 610, 630, 661, 712, 761, 861; Kyŏng, 820 Rules: appointment, 197; Board of Rites and, 209, 210, 436; for sacrifices, 214–215, 888; for central and local government, 261; military system, 391, 421–422, 475–476, 802–803; gold use, 398, 399, 409, 444, 867, 895; silver use, 398, 399, 409, 444, 895; silk use, 398–399, 409, 444; of society, 398–399, 402–403, 409; for royal guard, 415– 416, 579; with slave affairs, 421; horses, 489; of royal society, 497; for family ceremonies, 502; for officials, 511–512, 587–588; civil service examinations, 553, 580; stipends, 739; for monks, 766; of attire, 819; cloth use, 895–896 Rumors, impeachment based on, 505, 506 Runaways, 303, 354–355 Ryukyu Kingdom, 151, 220, 233, 439, 702, 744 Saborohe (Chang Po), 746 Sacrifices: human, 40; to ancestors, 109, 179, 220, 228, 416, 755; rites and, 148, 149, 518; to constellations, 150; to Confucius, 182; lewd, 209, 210; Royal Ancestral Shrine and, 209, 210, 443, 816; rules for, 214–215, 888; animals for, 378; to deities of Heaven and Earth, 454; to Earth spirits, 456; to Five Directions, 456, 561; for wandering ghosts, 477, 568, 731; offering of, 502, 669; with attire, 508; Court of Royal Sacrifices, 547, 610, 613; to Mars, 669 Saddles, as gifts, 661, 662–663, 665–666, 688, 783 Sages, 175, 206, 344 Sagŭn (monk), 808 Sailing Laizhou Bay, 649 Salaries: of Royal Guard, 408; of court ladies, 728; for officials, 733, 737; land, 737, 762 Salary certificate templates, 236, 512, 563 Salt, 123, 140, 341, 547, 548, 671, 707, 732–733, 763 Samch’ŏk, 325 Samgae, 25–26 Samongoro (O Mun), 746 Samsŏn, 25–26

Sangbu, 766 Sangch’ong (monk), 779–781 Sangju, 325 Sanji, 3–4 Sappanwood, 277 Sasi susudo. See Pictures of Hunting Scenes Satto (King), 233, 439, 698 Saturn, 321, 700, 859 Schools, 180, 256, 344, 383. See also Education Scriptures, Buddhist, 498–499, 501 Sea, prayers for, 403 Seal. See Royal seal Seamen. See Navy Seaports, 417 The Secrets of Pulse Diagnosis through Diagrams (Chŏng Tojŏn), 847 Security Council, 130, 132 Seniors. See Elderly Seoul. See Hanyang Sericulture, 532, 866 Servants, 882. See also Slaves Seven Sacred Sites, 150 Sexual harassment. See Crimes Sha Liu, 20, 22 Shaman, 93, 115, 333, 767 Shang Zai, 5 Ships: Japan’s pirate, 34–35, 261, 264, 280, 320, 328, 349, 359, 377, 445, 508–509, 565, 675; strategic deployment of, 417; for grain transport, 500, 502, 515, 778, 793. See also Navy Shi Shang Fu (Jiang Taigong), 234 Shishu, 574 Shi Xian, 114 Shizu (Emperor), 5, 6 Shrines, 119, 541, 861; of Confucius, 148, 149, 541, 552, 636, 682, 707, 808; Royal Ancestral Shrine, 149, 329, 336; of T’aejo, 151; ancestral, 670 Shui Wu, 554 Shun (Emperor), 112–113, 203, 206, 217, 223, 226, 247, 422, 424–425, 501, 884 Shun (Emperor of Yuan), 34 Siam (Thailand), 277, 412, 425, 594, 669, 672 Signs: auspicious, 40, 74, 288, 319, 435, 445, 446; of ancestors in protest, 74; of T’aejo’s enthronment, 105–107; inauspicious, 154, 419, 448, 669; store, 341. See also Astrology; Natural phenomena Silgyŏn, 315 Silk: cloth, 73, 140, 209, 259, 276, 292, 300, 321, 326, 349, 354, 379, 380, 389, 397, 463, 469, 470, 481, 518, 565; rules about use of, 398–399, 409, 444; as gifts, 529, 586, 600, 608, 619, 623, 634, 672, 697, 703, 733, 760, 818 Silla, 352, 404, 652

Index Silver, 354, 379, 385, 397, 469, 470, 506, 867; rules about use of, 398, 399, 409, 444, 895; as gifts, 818 Sim (Lady), 706 Sima Qian, 469, 470 Sim Ching, 608 Sim Chong. See Ch’ŏngwŏn Sim Chong Sim Hyosaeng, 102, 155, 168, 216, 254, 331, 340, 446, 523, 691, 853, 870; Wang clan and, 389; political duties of, 460, 473, 569, 629; military duties of, 683; execution of, 831; with conspiracy of crown princes, 831–832, 836, 841, 845; legacy of, 851–852 Sim Innip, 851 Sim Kwiryŏng, 835 Sim Kwisu, 679 Sim Kyemong, 586 Sim Ŏn, 607 Simplicity, frugality and, 113–114, 116 Sim Tŏkbu, 318, 802, 857, 859; political duties of, 37, 53, 54, 70, 71, 78, 80, 81, 287, 438, 439, 442; as merit subject, 287, 288 Sim Tongno, 380–381 Sim Towŏn, 852, 872 Sin Ch’ang, 358 Sin Chŏng, 478 Sin clan, 77, 78 Sindŏk (Consort Hyŏn, Consort Kang, Lady Kang, Queen), 51, 64, 97, 100, 147, 153, 180, 316, 831, 833, 835, 851; political duties of, 90–91, 232; shaman and, 93; illness of, 242, 243, 510, 592, 593, 594, 601, 602, 752; family lineage, 313; honors for, 316; mourning for, 602, 608, 620, 718; royal tomb of, 604–605, 610, 630, 661, 712, 761, 861; Royal Ancestral Shrine and, 606, 610; posthumous title of, 612; death of, 618, 643–644, 657; memorial service of, 630, 643; royal temple of, 630, 661; spirit tablet of, 640; shrine of, 825, 861; prayer for, 827; death anniversary of, 828 Sinecure posts, for women, 499 Sin Hŭnggi, 498, 507 Sin Hyoch’ang, 464, 631, 734, 820, 822 Sin Ich’ung, 707–708 Sinjo, 38 Sinjong (King), 70 Sin Kae, 811–813 Sin Kŭgon, 872 Sin Kŭkkong, 625, 689, 742, 755, 872 Sin Kŭngnye, 874; crown prince conspiracy and, 833, 835, 869, 870; as merit subject, 875 Sin Kwisaeng, 818–819, 820, 821 Sin O. See Aunbo Sin P’il, 553 Sin Poan, 689

1019 Sin Ton, 539; family lineage of, 74, 103, 107, 154, 164, 238, 310; power seized by, 381 Sin U (King), 24, 69, 237; poems by, 51; with invasion of Liaodong, 57–61, 75, 103, 107–108, 164, 198, 297, 353; abdication of, 64, 86, 108, 154, 164, 310; in exile, 70; enthronement of, 74, 103, 107, 238, 417, 539; family origins of, 74–75; legacy of, 85–86, 103, 107–108, 286–287; as pretender to throne, 118, 286, 404; execution of, 238 Sinŭi (Lady Han, Consort Chŏl, Queen), 64, 325, 831, 893; death anniversary, 180, 317, 872; posthumous title, 313, 881 Sin Wŏn, 588 Sin Wŏnjŏl, 377 Sin Wŏnjwa, 467 Sin Yongmu, 253, 255 Sin Yongmyŏng, 498 Sin Yuhyŏn, 611, 662 Sin Yujŏng, 602, 608, 610, 876 Sin Yun P’il, 128 Six Codes of Governance, 728 Six Ministries, 121 Skull relic, of Buddha, 567 Slander. See Crimes Slaves, 35, 72, 156, 162, 163, 420, 604, 736; for merit subjects, 171, 172, 173; official, 193; private, 193, 333, 571, 713–714, 793; debt and, 209– 210; laws for, 229, 826; lawsuits and, 229, 250, 550–552, 557, 677, 691–696, 699, 714, 720–721, 733, 764, 798, 815–816, 826, 886; with tax collection, 328; rules with, 421; beheading of, 489, 541; filial piety of, 520; monastery, 552, 693; as prisoners, 586, 589; women, 658; children of, 693, 699, 765; transfer of, 701; runaway, 714; prices of horses and, 816; corvée labor and, 867–868 Slings, 181 Smallpox, 257 The Small Learning, 452 Society: rules of, 398–399, 402–403, 409; hierarchy within, 420, 422, 514, 694; rules of royal, 497 Sodo (Prince), 65 Sŏgang River, 689 Sogŭn, 832–833, 835, 836, 839 Sŏhae Province, 325 Sŏ Ik, 835 Sŏ Inbi, 750 Sŏk (Prince), 93, 108 Sŏkkŭn, 313 So Komi, 588 Sŏ Kŭji, 814 Sŏ Kŭmgwang, 42 Sŏ Kyŏn, 99, 125–126

Index

1020 Sŏl Changsu, 70, 78, 163, 235, 241, 601, 667, 726– 727, 729, 743, 859; in exile, 124, 144, 193; memo­­ rial from, 451–453; political duties of, 600, 607, 754; as envoy, 620–621, 662, 664, 885 Soldiers: mobilization of, 50, 710–711; monks as, 58; duty, 122, 745–746; selected, 122; farms and, 175, 419; recruitment of, 180, 284, 419– 420, 671; with military census, 272, 479, 480, 637–638, 772; with reform of royal guard system, 408; firearms, 677; public works and, 733, 825 Sŏllae. See Tojo Sŏlo, 736 Solstice, winter, 324, 543, 880 Song Boluo, 589, 596, 601, 853 Song Bu, 853 Song Chŏn, 734 Song Ch’ŏnu, 854 Songdo (Kaesŏng), 427, 428, 433, 454, 458 Song dynasty, 331 Songgyŏng (Kaesŏng), 430, 434 Song Hŭijŏng, 396, 436, 791 Song Hŭng, 815 Song In, 513 Song Jing, 111 Sŏngjong (King), 150 Song Kaesin, 277, 283 Song Kŏsin, 540 Sŏng Kunmi, 633 Song Kyŏl, 757 Song Moji, 588 Song Munjung, 300, 322, 565 Sŏngnŭng, 348, 351, 364–365, 379 Song of a Beast Running Away, 293 Song of Driving out Nahachu, 292–293 “Song of the Heavenly Mandate,” 529 Song of Maintaining Peace in the Eastern Kingdom, 293–294 “Song of the New Royal Ancestral Shrine,” 530 “Song of the Royal Capital,” 529–530 Song P’adu, 588 Sŏng Po, 351 Songs, 61, 64, 321, 529–530, 547, 558, 848 Songsan, 541 Sŏng Sŏgin, 633 Sŏng Sŏgyŏng, 128, 633, 788, 826 Sŏng Sŏngnin, 78, 128, 294, 306, 350, 716, 749, 857; geomancy and, 413; political duties of, 431, 462, 503, 633, 788, 803; poem by, 451 Song Tŭkkŏ, 628 Song Tŭksa, 384, 508 Sŏng Yŏwan, 483, 633 Son Hŭi, 520

Son Hŭngjong, 102, 144, 155, 157, 161, 163; political duties of, 187, 442, 479, 731; Wang clan and, 389, 390 Sŏnje, 411, 412 Sŏnju Fortress, 680, 682–683 Son Kwangyu, 682 Sŏno, 588 Son Tŭkkwang, 815 Sŏnun, 588 Son Wŏnman, 854 Sŏn Yunji, 785 Sŏ Ŏn, 42 Sorceresses, 115 Sosaeng, 13 Sŏ Sin, 56 Sougu (monk), 508, 509 Southern Bureau, 140 Southern Dipper, 789, 830 Sŏwŏn County, 324 Spica, 321 Spices, 277 Spies, 354, 355–356 Spirits, 835; tablets, 119, 149, 150, 530, 631, 640; deities and, 240, 266, 454–455, 519, 691; mountain, 403, 455–456; river, 403, 455–456; of seas, 403; Earth, 456; Five Directions, 456, 561. See also Alcohol Spring and Autumn Annals, 359, 360, 362, 534 Stars, 173, 205, 216, 326, 327, 736, 885; Capella, 123, 727; Ghoul, 254, 476, 479, 658, 697, 721, 734, 756; in Room Lodge, 503; Regulus, 517, 518, 636, 742, 828, 830; Guardian, 630; Cas­ siopeia, 677, 784; Punishment, 700; Supreme General, 870. See also Constellations; Sun Starvation, 80, 121–122, 176, 478, 513–514, 749 State Finance Commission, 131–142, 181, 285, 428–431, 480–481, 513, 533, 868 State-run military farms, 123 State treasury, 123 Stipends: for merit subjects, 172, 173, 230–231; state, 220; for officials, 236, 340, 762, 797; for women, 285, 400, 797, 807, 809; military, 419, 872; abuse of, 424, 743; limits, 464; rules, 739 Stomach Lodge, 612 Stone fights, 263, 383, 393, 674, 777–778 Stone Throwing Army, 383, 701 Storehouse of Righteous Abundance, 139 Storehouses, 438, 558, 571 Store signs, 341 Strangulation. See Punishments Strategies, military, 46–50 Streams, survey of, 672

Index Street Jailhouse, 123–124 Subdistricts, 443 Such’ang Palace Management Office, 141 Such’ang Palace, 190, 203, 210, 232, 303, 306, 319, 321, 327, 335, 337, 338, 342, 345, 359, 369, 374, 378, 379 Sui, 162, 850 Suicide, 69, 507 Sui dynasty, 430 Sujang, 315 Suk, 315 Sukchong (King), 439 Sullŭng, 148 Sullyŏng Chi (Prince), 826 Sun, 199, 210, 241, 244, 348, 361, 516, 636, 642, 656, 715, 722, 856, 887–888, 893 Sungnŭng, 148 Sŭngsak, 1, 312 Sunhŭng Wang Sŭng (Prince), 109 Sunnyŏng (Yi Chi) (Prince), 690, 748, 854 Sun Wu, 623 Suo Wu, 458 Suoyima, 613 Superintendency for Gunpowder Weapons, 487 Support taxpayers, 122 Supreme Council, 146 Supreme General (star), 870 Supreme Palace Constellation, 619, 636 Supreme Palace Enclosure, 630, 634, 667, 859, 862, 885 Surangama Sutra, 486–487 Surplus Storage Warehouse, 139 Surveys: household, 417; military, 545; of forests and streams, 672; land, 824 Susudo. See Pictures of Hunting Scenes Sutras, 253, 262, 319, 562, 670, 778; Flower Garland, 393, 414–415, 643; Lotus, 440, 444; Surangama, 486–487; Diamond, 540–541, 579, 612, 715; Maha Prajna, 562; Bodhi Tree Leaves, 567; Cloud and Rain, 776; Golden Light Sutra, 828 Suwŏn, 325 Swans, 706 Swords, 95, 305, 558 Tablets: spirit, 119, 149, 150, 530, 631, 640; royal ancestral tablets, 526, 528–529, 598 Taedong River, 652–653 T’aeilsŏng, 326 T’aejo (Yi Sŏnggye) (King): family lineage, 1–4; birth of, 15; archery skill of, 15–17, 29, 33–34, 38, 41, 51–55; hunting prowess of, 15–18, 33–34, 35, 53, 70; tigers and, 16, 35, 39; kyŏkgu, 18–19,

1021 373; in battle, 19–32, 36–43, 47, 53–55, 62–63, 65–67, 488; promotions for, 26, 32; reputation of, 26–27; Kongmin and, 33–34, 79; character of, 34, 44, 46, 51, 75–77, 81–84, 108, 119–120; Yi Turan as aide to, 34, 52, 556; dependents of, 35; fortunetelling and, 37, 62; poems about, 45–47, 291–292; leadership of, 46, 60–61, 75–77; Ch’oe Yŏng and, 52–53, 56, 62–63, 65; honors bestowed upon, 55, 65, 69, 72–79, 91; as merit subject, 55, 65, 72, 73, 79, 92; with invasion of Liaodong, 57–61, 75, 103, 107–108, 609; Right Army and, 58, 107–108; with Office of Personnel Appoint­ ments and Royal Seals, 67; physical strength of, 71; titles bestowed on, 72–73, 92; with Wang clan’s restoration, 76, 77–78; conspiracies against, 81, 92–93, 95, 100, 190, 220–221, 231–232, 274– 275, 356, 360, 363, 375, 404; resignation of, 84–90, 99; enthronement of, 99–109, 221, 609; legacy of, 103–105, 118–144, 218–224, 288–294; dreams of, 105–106, 289, 290; royal decrees of, 118–144, 228–229, 231–232, 272, 286–288, 294–295, 299– 300, 407–408, 489–490, 530–532, 625–626; ap­­ pointments of, 143–144, 189; shrine of, 151; slander against, 237, 275; banquet for, 321, 631, 759; songs dedicated to, 321, 529–530, 558; annals of, 502– 503; tomb of, 509–510, 522, 575, 611, 619, 629; with empowerment through imperial decree, 545–547; health of, 571, 731, 788, 797, 825, 832, 838, 839, 843, 855, 856, 858, 878; birthday of, 612; as Pine Hut Dweller, 742; with work of historiographers, 789–790, 811–813; with conspiracy of crown princes, 840–843, 844, 845, 846 T’aejong (Yi Pangwŏn) (King), 457; family lineage, 1; Confucianism and, 51; political duties of, 64, 67, 87, 89, 90–91, 95, 98–100, 426; in mourning, 94; with T’aejo’s enthronement, 102; Wang clan and, 107, 119–120; as envoy, 457, 506, 583 T’aep’yŏnggwan Guesthouse, 527, 596, 609, 618, 619 Taep’yŏngso, 443 Tairen, 200 Taizong (Yongle, Emperor), 343–344, 368, 451, 501, 502–503, 790, 811–812 Taizu (Emperor). See Gao T’ak Sin, 519 T’ak Togyŏng, 21 Talsŏn, 588 Tam, 315 T’amna, 652 Tamyang, 471 Tang (King), 110, 206, 223, 224, 247, 501, 503, 776–777

Index

1022 Tang dynasty, 111, 114, 384, 419, 430, 437, 470 Tang Sŏng, 886 Tan’gun (King), 150, 437, 645, 649 Tang Yao, 217, 226, 724 Tasibuhua, 10, 11 Tasitiemuer. See Tŏkhŭng Tatara Yoshihiro, 575, 696, 715, 896 Taxes: land, 49–50, 328, 441–442, 515, 671, 732, 737, 738, 762; household cloth, 123; miscellaneous, 123; reforms, 123, 124; tribute, 124; collection of, 173, 224, 328; crop damage and, 182, 186–187; conditions for, 193–195, 441–442, 733; General Directorate for Determining Taxes and, 193–195; grain, 450, 531, 545; laws, 450; reduced, 701, 792–793; exemptions, 732, 737, 738, 885, 887; fish, 761, 763; salt, 763. See also Board of Taxation Taxpayers, support, 122 Tea Bureau, 211 Technical examination, 641 Temples, 119, 702; abolishment of Daoist, 199; Buddhist, 256, 499, 559. See also Royal Ancestral Shrine; specific temples Thailand. See Siam Thievery. See Crimes Thinking, importance of, 536 Thousand Character Classic, 561, 824 Tianbao Rebellion, 111 Tian Dan, 223 Tibet, 814 Tigers, 16, 35, 39, 232, 235, 248, 542 Titles: bestowed upon T’aejo, 72–73, 92; post­ humous, 117–118, 200–202, 212, 253, 265–266, 283, 312–313, 332, 424, 459, 474, 587, 606, 607, 609, 612, 613, 633, 641, 718–719, 721, 735, 829, 881; for military officials, 142–143, 319–320, 369; for princes, 147; for women, 171, 473, 587– 588, 657; for merit subjects, 171–172; of dynastyfounding subjects, 188; for guardian deities, 240; prestige, 470–471; for envoys, 588; for court ladies, 657 To (Ch’un) (King), 118, 202, 288, 312, 416, 530 Togyŏng, 13 To Hŭng, 189, 245, 618, 713, 734, 787 Tojiro, 635, 637, 662, 672, 691 Tojo (Sŏllae), 8–11, 25, 36 Tŏk (Lady Kim, Queen), 15, 32–33, 266, 674, 856, 861, 880, 883–884 Tŏkhŭng (Tasitiemuer) (Prince), 24, 66 To Kilbu, 40, 56 Tombs: ancestral, 198, 312–315, 462, 557, 820; royal, 509–510, 522, 575, 604–605, 610, 611, 619, 629, 630, 661, 712, 723, 761, 820, 861 Tong Duolao, 737 Tonghŏnjip (Yun Sojong), 309

Tongmengge Tiemuer, 527 Tŏngnŭng, 148 Torijang, 570 Torture, 46, 81, 798, 803, 804, 809, 817, 820 Tosŏn, 432 Trade, 228, 326; border crossings and, 399, 658; for personal gain, 463; of hawks, 544 Training. See Military system; Military Training Agency Travel: government, 122; inns for, 182 Traveling on a Diplomatic Mission, 647 Treason, 12, 361–363, 366 Treasuries, 123, 137, 179, 207, 709–710 Trees, 106, 214, 545, 785; caterpillar damage on, 257, 262, 774; frost on, 318, 337–338, 346, 449, 456, 540, 543, 547, 557, 563, 715, 744 Tributes. See Horses Tribute taxes, 124 Tripitaka Koreana, 146, 229, 319, 461, 509, 575, 729, 778, 896 Trust, 115–116 Truth, laws with history and, 789–790, 811–813 Tsushima Ritaikei, 675, 730 Tsuziku (monk), 575 Tŭkhyŏn, 11 Tŭng Hyŏn. See Kenjun Tŭng Kon. See Konjiro Tŭng Yuk. See Kyuroku Tuohuan Buhua, 258, 260, 262, 264, 266, 274, 303, 355 U (brother of Kongyang), 147 Ubong Smithy, 237 U Che, 25 U Hongbu, 127, 789 U Hongdo, 628 U Hongdŭk, 124–125, 157 U Honggang, 125, 789 U Hongmyŏng, 126, 157 U Hongsu, 124, 144, 157 U Hong Su, 161–162 U Hŭibŏm, 161 U Hŭngbŏm, 161 U Hyŏnbo, 80, 87, 90, 93, 161, 163, 809; political duties of, 103, 104, 116; in exile, 124, 144, 193; pardoning of, 235, 612, 789 Ŭi (Lady Ch’oe, Queen), 202, 248, 361, 530; family lineage, 15, 118, 265; posthumous title, 253, 312–313 Ŭian (monk), 661, 809 Ŭian Pangsŏk (Yi Hwa) (Prince), 33, 95, 96, 98, 102, 152, 486, 540, 592, 731, 805, 826, 828, 853, 854, 857, 861, 873; family lineage, 15; as merit subject, 143, 173, 287; political duties of, 143, 154, 228, 244, 254, 260, 268, 287, 313, 424, 448,

Index 636, 678, 707; with Japanese marauders, 268; with crown prince conspiracy, 831, 832–835, 839, 842–845, 869, 876 Ŭigyŏng, 315 Ŭijong (King), 177 Ŭiju, 106, 175, 554 U Innyŏl, 36, 38, 40, 46, 80, 294, 807; political duties of, 217, 225, 260, 447, 503, 599, 629, 788, 818; military duties of, 690, 697 Ŭirŭng. See Ch’ungsuk Ŭiun, 674, 676 U Kyun, 732 Umbilical cords, 213, 235, 236, 820 Ŭnch’ŏn district, 143 Uniforms, 216, 234, 589 “Upon Reading the Life of Li Si,” 280 U Sinch’ung, 42 U Sŏngbŏm, 162 U Sŭngbŏm, 162 Uyghur language, 452 U Yŏn, 162, 850 Venus, 517, 518, 603, 636, 862, 870; Saturn and, 321; visible during daytime, 457, 466, 478, 479, 500, 503, 627, 810, 816, 817, 828, 856; moon and, 600; Jupiter and, 830 Veritable Records, 811–812 Virgins, 587–588 Virtue: with good counsel, 111–112, 116, 178–179, 208, 422, 568, 794; people of, 121, 208, 422, 568, 794 Walls: construction of capital city, 296, 297, 298– 299, 302, 305, 306, 319, 324, 342, 346, 362, 435, 441, 442, 527, 560–561, 562, 563, 568, 588, 595, 599, 601, 604, 608, 610, 611, 743, 779, 825; fortress, 366; along borders, 554; royal palace, 752, 760, 761 Wang Andŏk, 288 Wang Chip, 93 Wang Cho, 641, 698, 854 Wang Chong, 815 Wang clan, 342, 468, 641, 662; pretenders to, 70–71, 76, 77, 118, 154; restoration of, 76, 77–78, 108, 222, 271, 360, 383, 708; T’aejong and, 107, 119– 120; relocation of, 109, 340, 360, 365, 494–495; legacy of, 220, 221, 432; elimination of, 386–389, 390–391, 392–393, 719, 720; with name change, 392–393, 736 Wang Deming, 57 Wang Hwa, 340, 348, 351, 364–365, 366; interrogation of, 373; beheading of, 379 Wang Hwan (Prince), 68–69 Wang Kang, 117, 271, 299, 321, 342, 349; conspiracies of, 360, 363; in exile, 364

1023 Wang Kŏ, 340, 348, 351, 366, 379 Wang Kŏn (Founder of Koryŏ), 72, 73, 103, 432, 651, 865 Wang Kwan, 641, 854 Wang Kyŏk, 163, 167, 360, 363, 364 Wang Li, 589, 618, 620, 853 Wang Mi, 696 Wang Nai, 277 Wang Pang, 79 Wang Pi, 276, 279 Wang Pin, 287 Wang Po, 360 Wang Pongmyŏng, 40 Wang Sŏk, 358–359 Wang Sŭngbo, 271, 342, 349, 363, 364 Wang Sŭnggwi, 189, 342, 349, 360, 363, 364 Wang U, 119–120, 217, 221, 258–259, 313, 329, 349, 643; pardoning of, 379, 495; as liability, 495–496; posthumous title of, 641; lawsuits and, 815 Wang Yo, 79–80, 495. See also Kongyang Wansan (Chŏnju), 1, 148, 325, 397, 430, 431, 496, 879 Wansan (Prince), 288, 378 Wanzhebuhua, 9, 10, 11 War, prayers for prevention of, 704. See also Board of War Warships. See Navy Watching the Performers at Zhongyi Pavilion, 653 Watching the Slopes of the River after Drinking at Zuixian Pavilion, 654 Water clock, 793 Waterways, 299, 711–712 Waterways Transport Agency, 465 the Way, 83, 421. See also Daoism Weapons, 181, 415, 487–488 Weapons Directorate, 138 Weather reports, 186, 188, 203, 207, 261, 266, 275, 286, 318, 319, 323, 326, 330, 337, 365, 375, 383, 389, 393, 394, 416, 425, 438, 442, 449, 450, 482, 483, 489, 490, 506, 511, 517, 529, 540, 544, 547, 548, 558, 563, 564, 571, 579, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 600, 601, 608, 611, 613, 628, 630, 636, 643, 658, 659, 674, 676, 681, 690, 699, 700, 703, 706, 710, 713, 714, 715, 716, 719, 720, 721, 722, 732, 735, 744, 753, 754, 756, 761, 766, 772, 774, 775, 778, 781, 784, 793, 794, 797, 817, 824, 830, 872, 884 Wedding ceremonies, 164; observances of, 121, 502, 883; of Kyŏngsin and Yi Paekgyŏng, 572; marriage between China and Chosŏn, 662, 664, 666; Directorate of Royal Weddings, 707 Wei (Duke), 535 Weight regulations, for post horses, 620 Wei Zheng, 227, 423

Index

1024 Wells, 507, 528 Wen (King), 200, 206, 314, 419, 423, 501 Wen Cheng, 206 Wen Dachun, 5 Wen of Han (Emperor), 113, 114 Western Kiln, 142 Whipping. See Punishments White, 460, 463 Wi Ch’ung, 637 Widows, widowers and, 121, 192, 219, 261 Wine, 139, 140, 327, 336, 349, 380, 385, 493, 553, 608, 640; prohibition on, 408, 766; as gifts, 481– 482, 507, 778; royal, 507, 518, 526, 529, 565, 600, 619, 688–689, 690, 697, 703, 732, 735, 811, 816; ceremonies and, 529, 534. See also Alcohol Wine Bureau, 336 Wine Office, 139, 140 Winter solstice, 324, 543, 880 Wisdom, 422 Woduli tribe, 235, 613 Woduoli, 92, 555 Wolianghe, 92 Wolves, 542 Women: female entertainers, 2, 731; sorceresses, 115; Office for the Women’s Quarters, 143; titles for, 171, 473, 587–588, 657; customs for married, 175; stipends for, 230–231, 285, 797, 807, 809; concubines, 318, 504, 693, 699, 731; gate of honor for, 496–497, 500, 521; sinecure posts for, 499; filial piety of, 521, 553, 570, 674; prostitutes, 564, 592; virgins, 587–588; court ladies, 657, 672, 728, 731, 794, 807; slaves, 658 Wŏn’gye. See Yŏng’an Yangu Wŏnju, 325 Wŏn Sang, 748 Wŏn Yŏngsu, 42 Woodblocks, 778 Wu (Emperor), 176, 289, 391, 495–496, 884 Wu (Zhuge Liang) (Marquis), 76, 208 Wuduli tribe, 472, 527, 662, 730, 737 Wugeng (Prince), 495–496 Wulangha tribe, 267, 324, 332, 466, 730 Wu Li, 206 Wuliangha, 151, 231 Wu of Zhou (King), 110, 221, 223 Wu Qi, 623 Xiang of Qi (King), 222–223 Xiang Yu, 429, 430 Xiao He, 217 Xia Zhi, 510, 617, 621–622 Xitanboya, 555 Xitanguyunu, 555 Xitanhelangha, 555

Xitantasi, 555 Xitanxuelie, 555 Xuanzong (Emperor), 111 Xu Bian, 304 Yaksano (Wang clan), 720 Yalu River, 648, 665 “The Yalu River,” 665 Yamen clerks, 502 Yang, 82 Yangban gentry, 242, 514, 694 Yang Cheng, 227 Yang Ch’ŏmsik, 489, 510, 617, 620, 621, 703 Yang Ch’ŏnsik, 632, 662, 667 Yang Guozhong, 111 Yanggwang Province, 325, 407 Yang Hongdal, 712 Yang Hongwŏn, 511 Yang Hŭihyŏn, 520 Yang Jian, 430 Yangmu, 2, 312 Yang Paegik, 37 Yang Paegyŏn, 39 Yang Tiemuer, 589, 703, 853 Yang U, 791 Yang Wen, 337, 385, 617, 621 Yang Wŏnsik, 434, 435 Yan Zhu, 711 Yan Ziling, 85, 87 Yao (Emperor), 178, 419, 424, 437, 469 Yao Chong, 111 Yao Zhong, 507 Yaozhu (Kyoju), 11, 12 Yejong (King), 554 Yeku, 2–3 Yellow, 589 Yeshanbuhua, 30 Yi (Lady). See Hyo Yi Am, 458, 758 Yi An’guk, 829 Yi Ansa. See Mokcho Yi Chabun, 526 Yi Chach’un, 404 Yi Chae, 395 Yi Ch’ajŏm, 160 Yi Chak, 99, 126 Yi Changsu, 28 Yi Chasong, 57, 58 Yi Chayŏng, 594–595 Yi Che. See Hŭng’an Yi Che Yi Chehyŏn, 307, 581 Yi Chi, 11, 287, 297, 307, 401, 854, 872; as envoy, 426, 498; political duties of, 516, 605, 660, 737, 745, 746, 800, 811; pardoning of, 700

Index Yi Chi (Prince). See Sunnyŏng Yi Ch’i, 279, 458, 587 Yi Chibal, 315 Yi Chich’ŏn, 541 Yi Chidae, 377 Yi Chigang, 279, 280 Yi Chik, 102, 155, 258, 265, 350, 351; political duties of, 260, 270–271, 279, 282, 306, 438, 439, 448, 510, 635, 678, 747, 752, 816; as envoy, 316, 322, 457; geomancy and, 413, 433; with conspiracy of crown princes, 832, 837 Yi Ch’im, 696 Yi Chin, 481, 586 Yi Chiran, 102, 143, 154, 757, 857, 869, 874; as merit subject, 173, 287, 875; political duties of, 254, 296, 300, 723; military duties of, 826 Yi Chisung, 444 Yi Cho, 278, 280, 315, 520–521, 854, 855, 872; political duties of, 378, 752; as rapist, 399 Yi Ch’o, 79, 80, 81, 89, 103, 159; pardoning of, 161; conspiracies and, 274–275, 356, 404 Yi Chŏk, 520, 766 Yi Ch’ŏm, 88, 127, 366, 376, 444–445, 564, 821, 859, 861, 889 Yi Ch’ŏn, 571, 578–579, 612 Yi Chŏngbo, with letter of appointment, 825 Yi Ch’ŏngbo, 823 Yi Chongdŏk, 586 Yi Chŏnggyŏn, 548, 562, 571 Yi Chonghak, 80, 99, 124, 157, 160–161, 586 Yi Ch’ŏn’gi, 42 Yi Chongsŏn, 125, 585, 586 Yi Ch’ŏn’gye [Yaozhu], 35 Yi Ch’ŏnu, 28, 102, 295–296, 302, 315, 438, 690, 755, 826, 855, 857, 874; crown prince conspir­ ­acy and, 837, 839, 869; as merit subject, 875 Yi Ch’ŏnŭi, 618 Yi Ch’un. See Li Chun Yi Ch’unbu, 539 Yi Chungsil, 541 Yi Ch’unsu, 601 Yi clan, 106–107, 311–312, 662 Yi Haea, 588 Yi Haeng, 237, 238, 256, 444, 813–814 Yi Haengni. See Yi Ikcho Yi Han, 1, 311–312, 352, 404 Yi Hang, 814 Yi Hanni, 355 Yi Hoe, 448, 449, 741 Yi Hosaeng, 520 Yi Hŭi, 26 Yi Hŭich’ung, 389, 702–703 Yi Hŭiro, 588 Yi Hŭl, 458

1025 Yi Hŭngmu, 339, 341, 348, 351, 362; fortunetelling and, 364–365, 366–367, 376; beheading of, 379 Yi Hwa. See Ŭian Pangsŏk Yi Hwak, 99, 124, 157 Yi Hwang, 247, 279, 280, 350, 606, 607, 628 Yi Hwasang, 732 Yi Hyŏn, 817 Yi Hyŏn’gyŏng, 54 Yi Hyu, 95 Yi Ikcho (Yi Haengni), 5–9 Yi Im, 64, 69, 76, 80, 103 Yi Inbok, 29,158 Yi Ingil, 374, 375 Yi In’gil, 463 Yi In’gyŏng, 498 Yi Inim, 63, 107; power seized by, 56, 71, 73–74, 75, 107, 353; with pretender to throne, 71, 73–74, 76, 77, 107, 238; family lineage of, 75, 76, 77, 403, 404; impeachment of, 308; pardoning of, 445; legacy of, 446 Yi Inmin, 80 Yi Insu, 152, 189, 734 Yi Inyŏng, 828 Yi Kak, 474 Yi Kam, 99, 126–127 Yi Kangje, 2, 312 Yi Kangsŏk (Prince), 883 Yi Ko, 168, 480, 494–495, 501, 505, 506 Yi Kŏi, 317, 351, 364, 366, 373, 835, 857, 861, 873–874; in battle, 682; with conspiracy of crown princes, 835, 843, 844, 869; political duties of, 883 Yi Kŏin, 166, 236; impeachment of, 458, 463; restoration of, 460; political duties of, 669 Yi Kok, 581 Yi Kongbaek, 728 Yi Kongsu, 814 Yi Kongsuk, 5, 312 Yi Kŭm, 736 Yi Kŭn, 102, 155, 215, 306, 350, 750, 870; alcohol prohibition and, 408; geomancy and, 413; political duties of, 612, 777–778; with conspiracy of crown princes, 832, 836 Yi Kŭnghyu, 404 Yi Kŭnpil, 410 Yi Kwan, 704, 741 Yi Kwang, 294, 753, 769, 778, 817 Yi Kwich’ŏl, 320, 382, 605, 614, 635; as prisoner, 637; in exile, 641, 684; pardoning of, 786 Yi Kwiryŏng, 754 Yi Kwisaeng, 80, 872 Yi Kwisu, 25 Yi Kyo, 486

Index

1026 Yi Kyŏk, 256 Yi Kyŏnsil, 382, 396–397, 410, 411 Yi lineage, of Chŏnju, 1 Yi Manjung, 38 Yi Mich’ung, 661 Yi Min, 458 Yi Mindo, 102, 155, 203, 208, 243, 281; on construction of capital walls, 298; paper currency and, 415; legacy, 481 Yi Mu, 189, 245, 262, 265, 296, 857, 863, 873; as envoy, 425–426, 462; political duties of, 496, 516, 625, 706, 815–816, 825; lawsuits and, 815– 816; dismissal of, 826–827; with conspiracy of crown princes, 832, 833, 837, 840, 869 Yi Mubang, 350, 560, 828–829 Yi Munhwa, 168, 203, 377, 470, 672, 673, 858, 859, 861, 869; lectures and, 703; political duties of, 742, 751, 753, 754, 757, 786–787, 789–790, 797, 799, 800, 802, 822, 838; with conspiracy of crown princes, 838, 840–842, 845 Yin, 82 Yi Nae, 99, 125 Yi Naeŭnsam, 541 Ying (King), 176 Yin Jifu, 625 Yi Ok, 190, 300, 755 Yi Omang, 315 Yi Ŏn, 62 Yi Paegan, 28, 788 Yi Paegon, 315 Yi Paegyu, 102, 155, 854, 872 Yi Paek, 288 Yi Paekkyŏng, 572, 579, 832, 843–844, 857, 869, 873 Yi Pal, 628 Yi Pan, 94, 661 Yi Pangbŏn. See Muan Pangbŏn Yi Panggan. See Hoean Panggan Yi Panggwa. See Chŏngjŏng Yi Pangsŏk. See Ŭian Pangsŏk Yi Pangu. See Chinan Pangu Yi Pangŭi. See Igan Pangŭi Yi Pangwŏn, 67, 426, 457. See also Chŏngan Pangwŏn; T’aejong Yi P’arasil, 23 Yi Pi, 658 Yi Pin, 189, 306, 516, 586 Yi Pogŏm, 854 Yi Pogyang, 736–737 Yi Pongnye, 348 Yi Pu, 97, 102, 155, 167, 170–171; suspension of, 701; with conspiracy of crown princes, 845 Yi Pugae, 580 Yi Pulsu, 336

Yi Pusu, 336 Yi Saek, 53, 99, 103, 116, 160, 162, 216, 544, 558, 668, 840, 849; political duties of, 32, 63, 64, 67–68, 80, 104, 158, 558, 583–584; with poem for T’aejo, 45, 46–47; in exile, 87, 124, 144–145, 193; return from exile, 91; impeachment of, 161; flogging of, 163; pardoning of, 235, 240, 548; honors for, 548, 553; legacy of, 581–586; character of, 583, 585; Buddhism and, 585–586 Yi Sagŭn, 608 Yi Sajing, 606, 607 Yi Sangchwa, 612 Yi Sawi, 604, 608, 610 Yi Sayŏng, 127 Yi Shin, 99 Yi Sil, 128 Yi Sin, 126, 736, 876 Yi Sŏ, 102, 155, 279, 280, 320; geomancy and, 413; political duties of, 439, 443, 444, 603, 828, 889, 891 Yi Sŏn, 233 Yi Song, 553 Yi Sŏnggye. See T’aejo Yi Sŏngjung, 95, 588, 590 Yi Sŏngmin, 56 Yi Su, 278, 279, 872 Yi Sugya, 161 Yi Sukbok, 161 Yi Sukbŏn, 459, 861, 874, 881, 884; crown prince conspiracy and, 832, 833, 835–839, 844, 869; as merit subject, 875 Yi Sukch’i, 161 Yi Sukhyu, 161 Yi Suktang, 161 Yi Sun, 25, 688 Yi Sunbaek, 690 Yi Sung, 458 Yi Sungin (Chaan), 67, 68–69, 80, 99, 124, 162, 582, 849, 850; in exile, 157, 159, 160; political duties of, 158, 159; flogging of, 163; slander against, 237 Yi Sungmyo, 161 Yi Sŭngwŏn, 189, 264, 338, 376, 729 Yi Susan, 12, 74 Yi Taejung, 42 Yi T’ak, 582–583 Yi Talch’ung, 16–17, 95, 578–579 Yi Tang, 128 Yi To, 737 Yi Togyŏng, 54 Yi Tugae, 541 Yi Tŭkbun, 601, 872 Yi Tŭkhang, 785 Yi Tŭkhwan, 42

Index Yi Tŭng, 855 Yi Turan, 61, 96; as T’aejo’s aide, 34, 52, 556; in battle, 42–43, 47, 54–55; in mourning, 47 Yi Ŭi, 190, 296 Yi Ŭljin, 128 Yi Ŭlsu, 204, 596 Yi Ŭn, 619, 631, 635, 637, 642, 737 Yi Ŭng, 703, 784, 785 Yi Wŏn, 278, 279, 587 Yi Wŏngoeng, 755 Yi Wŏn’gu, 158 Yi Wŏn’gye, 33, 40, 147, 239, 276, 288, 315, 319, 658, 826 Yi Wŏn’gyŏng, 28, 29–30, 33 Yi Wŏnŭi, 498, 507 Yi Wulutiermuer, 28 Yi Yangdal, 245, 410, 412, 604 Yi Yangsu, 821 Yi Yangu, 315, 857, 875 Yi Ye, 631 Yi Yin, 86, 217, 224 Yi Yŏm, 92, 151, 231–232, 244, 743, 829, 854, 858; political duties of, 252, 256, 438, 762; beating of, 301, 333–334; impeachment of, 333; as envoy, 358, 546; dismissal of, 489, 729; honors for, 586 Yi Yŏnggi, 520 Yi Yu, 54 Yi Yungoeng, 128 Yŏ Ch’ing, 396, 562, 758 Yŏgyunp’iryŏk, 337, 402 Yŏm Chesin, 829 Yŏm Hŭngbang, 56, 353, 404 Yŏmsun, 1, 312 Yŏnan, 325 Yŏng (Baron), 393 Yŏng (Consort), 63 Yŏng’an Yangu (Wŏn’gye) (Prince), 315, 319, 557, 658, 826, 840, 869, 874 Yongbu, 1, 312 Yong Chi, 191 Yong Hŭisu, 697 Yongle. See Taizong Yongping (King), 114 Yongsan River, 465, 527, 690, 698, 701, 707, 721, 778 Yongsŏk, 559 Yŏn’gŭm (Wang clan), 719 Yŏn Sajong, 750 Yoshihiro, 727–728 Yŏ Ŭison, 608 Yu (Concubine). See Kaŭi Yu (Emperor), 178, 203, 419, 424–425, 724 Yu (Lady). See Hyŏn

1027 Yuan Cheng, 392 Yuan dynasty, 2 Yuan Gen, 784 Yu Ch’ong, 852 Yu Chŏnghyŏn, 128, 637 Yu Ch’ŏnŭn, 687 Yu Chun, 702, 720, 731 Yue Yi, 223 Yuezhe, 613 Yu Hanu, 410, 427, 428, 604, 820 Yu Ho, 185, 700, 721, 783, 790, 807 Yu Hyang, 126 Yu Hyebang, 734 Yu Hyeson, 128 Yu Inu, 13 Yuk Chin, 760 Yuk Hŭiun, 512 Yu Ki, 127 Yu Ku, 148, 518, 539, 575, 576; as detainee in China, 588, 598, 615, 621; political duties of, 590, 594, 597, 617, 635, 669; legacy of, 734–735 Yu Kwan, 211, 720, 738–739, 769, 803–804, 889, 894 Yu Kwangu, 778 Yuk Yŏ, 47, 189 Yu Kyŏm, 735 Yu Kyŏng, 56, 102, 155, 174, 184, 240, 318, 323; lectures from, 187, 188, 205, 211; as examination supervisor, 263; political duties of, 317, 496, 498 Yu Mansu, 37, 91, 189, 203, 217; as merit subject, 228, 287, 826; political duties of, 306, 329, 787, 788, 838–839; with conspiracy of crown princes, 838–839, 844; legacy, 852–853 Yun Anjŏng, 570 Yun Chang, 279 Yun Ch’ang, 348, 768, 809 Yun Ch’im, 571 Yun Chŏ, 627 Yun Chŏng, 277 Yunganggua, 555 Yun Ho, 102, 117, 143, 155, 172; as merit subject, 210, 288; Ming emperor and, 277; legacy of, 280–281; with posthumous title, 283 Yun Hoe, 309, 728 Yun Hoejong, 71, 513 Yun Hyŏng, 591–592, 614 Yun I, 80, 81, 89, 103, 159; pardoning of, 161; conspiracies and, 274–275, 356, 404 Yun Kwan, 92, 757 Yun Kwit’aek, 81 Yun Kyu, 783, 784, 790, 807–808 Yun Panggyŏng, 190, 388, 389, 473, 635, 681; in exile, 684; pardoning of, 708 Yun Poro, 608

Index

1028 Yun Sadŏk, 189, 284, 287, 296, 316; as envoy, 401, 426; death of, 409 Yun Sang, 294, 872 Yun Sangjun, 42 Yun Sangsin, 280 Yun Sasu, 754 Yun Sayŏng, 545 Yun Sillo, 253 Yun Sim, 894 Yun Sindal, 427, 428, 820, 821 Yun Sojong, 64, 94, 237, 288, 296, 307; political duties of, 308, 434; as merit subject, 309 Yun Su, 483, 783, 784, 790, 807–808, 809 Yun Sŭngsun, 69–70, 77 Yun T’aek, 307 Yun Ŭi, 259 Yun Wen (Emperor), 163 Yun Yurin, 80–81 Yü of Xia (King), 114, 223 Yu Pangtaek, 295 Yu Sŏbong, 342 Yu Sŏn, 279, 743 Yu Suk, 381, 734 Yu T’ak, 721, 758 Yu Tua, 402 Yu Tumyŏng, 152, 855, 858 Yu Un, 358, 657, 685, 734, 736, 787, 811, 818–819 Yu Ŭnji, 853, 872 Yu Wŏn, 97 Yu Wŏnji, 444, 479, 838 Yu Wŏnjŏng, 102, 155, 189, 306, 580, 820, 822; as prisoner, 586; as merit subject, 587; slaves of, 589; pardoning of, 821 Yu Yang, 191, 245, 306, 340, 381, 578, 817; in battle, 614, 627, 674; political duties of, 635, 640; impeachment of, 661, 808–809; as prisoner, 676, 683 Yu Yongsaeng, 578 Yu Yŏnji, 853, 872 Yu Yun, 259 Yuzhijie of Luiqing, 799

Zen Buddhism, 193 Zeng Xi, 88 Zengzi, 207, 397, 882, 890 Zhang Bing, 615, 655, 685, 781–783, 807–808, 818 Zhang Fujie, 351 Zhang Ge, 5 Zhang Liang. See Liu Zhang Pu, 53 Zhang Yu, 206 Zhang Zhi, 196, 212, 246 Zhang Zifang, 849 Zhao Ao, 5 Zhao Gao, 114 Zhao Guangqi, 422 Zhao Hu, 625 Zhao of Yan (King), 222 Zhao Wu, 26–27, 82 Zhao Yiguai, 466 Zhen Dexiu. See Extended Meaning of the Great Learning Zheng Yi, 721, 728 Zhiyuan (King), 633 Zhong Hui, 204 Zhongyi of Yun (Lord), 615–616 Zhou Bo. See Jiang Zhou dynasty, 200, 314, 419, 429, 432, 622–623 Zhou of Shang (King), 110–111, 437 Zhou Zhuo, 53 Zhuge Liang. See Wu Zhuhuguidong, 555 Zhuhuwanzhe, 555 Zhuhuyindahu, 555 Zhuo Qing, 5 Zhu Yuanshuai, 20 Zichan, 574, 664 Zisi, 890 Zixia, 469 Ziyou, 469 Ziyu, 574 Zizang, 221